FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN
January 1988
"Mothers and Daughters"
Exhibition of 128 Photographs
Opens January 27
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor /Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Richard M. Jones,
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
Wiliard L. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Henry T. Chandler
Worley H. Clark
Frank W. Considine
Stanton R. Cook
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
John James Kinsella
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo F. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
Robert A. Pritzker
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. RobertS. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
J. Howard Wood
CONTENTS
January 1988
Volume 59, Number 1
JANUARY EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3
UNEARTHING ANCIENT AMPHIBIANS
The oldest known tetrapods in North America
find a home in the collections of Field Museum,
by Robert McKay 6
PARADISE BEING LOST
A bittersweet expedition to the Brazilian Amazon,
by John W. Fitzpatrick, Chairman of the Department of
Zoology
10
A CELEBRATION OF PHILIP HERSHKOVITZ,
Emeritus Curator of Mammals,
by Bruce D. Patterson, Associate Curator of Mammals
and Head, Division of Mammals
24
STUDIES IN NEOTROPICAL MAMMALOGY,
Essays in Honor of Philip Hershkovitz, a list of contents ,
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS.
30
31
COVER PHOTO
"Mothers and Daughters": exhibit of 128 photographs opening
in Gallery 9 on January 2 7 and closing March 1 3 . Photo by
Roland L. Freeman of Nellie G. Morgan and Tammie Pruitt
Morgan at the Bicentennial, July 4, 1986, in Philadelphia, Miss.
From a 20 x 16 silver gelatin print on view in the exhibition.
Field Museum o/ Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/ August issue, hy Field Museum of Natural History. Rtxisevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, IL 60605-24%.
Copyright © 1983 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $).00 tor schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subsctiption. Opinions expressed hy authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manusciipts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 1579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-070 L Second class postage paid at Chicago, Illinois
Kodo:
Drummers of Japan
Friday, January 22, 8:00pm
Saturday, January 23, 2:00pm
Since Ancient Times the beaten drum has served as a
means of communication among people. In times ot joy,
grief, fun, and in boiling rage, people have sung and
danced to the beat of the drum.
Kodo — the word has two meanings — heartbeat and
"children of the drum." In Japan, a group of young people
call themselves Kodo and are dedicated to a spartan life-
style and the art of Japanese drumming. Founded in
1971 byTagayasu Den, a Japanese scholar, this twelve-
person group has enthralled audiences the world over
with this spectacular drumming tradition.
Kodo live and work on the small island of Sado, 200
miles northwest of Tokyo, in the Sea of Japan. They have
gained worldwide recognition for their dedication to a
rigorous and austere lifestyle and for their mastery of
ancient Japanese instruments — most notably the
o-daiko, a huge drum (taiko) that can weigh close to
1 ,000 pounds and is played with sticks the size of small
logs. According to Japanese legend, gods and god-
desses reside within the o-daiko, and the drummers "fight
the drum" until they come out. The 1 5-year-old Kodo en-
semble is considered among the very best in a country
famous for its drummers.
Kodo's music has been described as having the
"natural strength and violence of a hurricane." Kodo
came to be in 1971 , when Tagayasu Den, a scholar of the
traditional Japanese arts, gathered a handful of young
men and women on Sado and taught them how to play
the o-daiko. Within four years the group, then known as
Ondekoza, or "demon drummers," was performing in
public. Their American debut occurred in 1975, im-
mediately after each member had completed the Boston
marathon. Join us now for their first Chicago visit.
Tickets: $14.00 ($1 2.00 members)
P88101 Friday, January 22, 8:00pm
P881 02 Saturday, January 23, 2:00pm
Tickets are limited and advance ticket purchase is
necessary. Seating is general admission. Theatre doors
open one hour prior to performance.
Continued (>
Kodo: Drummers of Japan
January 22 and 23
Registration
Be sure to complete all requested information on this ticket
application. If your request is received less than one week
before the program, tickets will be held in your name at the
West Entrance box office. Please make checks payble to
Field Museum. Tickets will be mailed upon receipt of check.
Refunds will be made only if the program is sold out.
□ Member □ Nonmember
American ExpressA/isa/MasterCard
Card Number
Signature
Return complete ticket application with a self-
addressed stamped envelope to:
Field Museum of Natural History
Public Programs: Department of Education
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2497
Name
Address
City
State
Zip
Expiration Date Telephone: Daytime
Evening
Program
#Member
Tickets
($12.00 ea.)
#Nonmember
Tickets
($14.00 ea.)
Total
Tickets
Amount
Enclosed
"Drummers of Japan"
P88101, Jan. 22
"Drummers of Japan"
P88102, Jan. 23
3 Scholarship requested
Total
World music Program
Weekends in January
1:00pm and 3:00pm
Join Us for live musical demonstrations and informal dis-
cussion with the artists.
January 2 1 :00pm and 3:00pm-fla/ces delAnde,
playing lively folk music of the Andes.
January 3 1 :00pm and 3.00pm-LJbradO Salazar,
plays classical guitar.
January 9,10 1 :00-Gideon Alorwoyie, presents the
dance and drums of Ghana.
3:00pm-Ch/casio Beaux, and his blues
harmonica.
January 16, 17 1:00pm-S/iante tells delightful African
folktales and stories.
3:00pm-L/oW Henry Huff plays the
harp.
January 23, 24 1 :00pm and 3:00pm-Don Pate plays
jazz bass.
January 30, 31 1 :00pm-the Alas Poets present new
poems.
3:0Opm-Keith Eric presents the sights
and sounds of Jamaica with songs and
folktales.
Winter Fun 1988
Drive Away Winter Doldrums! Treat a child to weekend
workshops at Field Museum. Workshops begin February
6-March 19. Children ages 4-13 can enjoy workshops that
range in topics from Animal Humor to Fantastic Fish, Vol-
canoes, Medicine Wheels, and Afterlife in Acient Egypt.
A host of talented instructors bring their creative
energies and expertise to this winter's workshops.
Advance registration is required. See the Winter Fun
brochure for a complete schedule or call (31 2)322-8854,
Monday-Friday, 9:00am-4:00pm for further information.
Adult Programs
Register Now
Many Adult Courses begin the week of February 1 7.
Field Museum's curators are featured in a series of lec-
tures on the South American tropics which begin on
Wednesday, March 2. Another course, "Africa: A Mis-
understood Continent," brings together Chicago's finest
African scholars in a six-week lecture series starting
Thursday, February 25. Register now for these and other
adult courses. Phone registrations accepted Monday-
Friday, 9:00am-4:00pm at (312)322-8855.
Patricia J. Wynne
Unearthing Ancient Amphibians
By Robert McKay
Occasionally during a geologist's routine activity, un-
usual or rare discoveries are made. Such was the
case in the spring of 1985 when another geologist, Pat
McAdams, and I visited a small, inactive limestone
quarry near the town of Delta in western Keokuk
County, Iowa. We discovered a layer of rock con-
taining abundant fossil amphibian bones.
Fossils are the remains of ancient organisms, or
traces of the activity of such organisms. The
sedimentary rock sequence in Iowa is rich in fossils,
containing literally trillions, and encountering them in
the course of geologic work is quite common. The
majority of these fossils are the shelly remains of in-
vertebrates which inhabited ancient seas. Less fre-
quently found, although not uncommon, are fossil
teeth, scales, and bone from marine and terrestrial ver-
tebrates such as fish, reptiles, and mammals. Geolo-
gists study fossils and use their findings to interpret evo-
lutionary relationships through time, aid in correlation
of rock units from place to place, and to improve our
understanding of the ancient environments in which
the rocks were deposited. Occasionally, geologists or
amateur rock hounds discover exceedingly rare fossils
which are previously unknown or which are known
from only a few locations worldwide. These discoveries
can greatly increase the scientific knowledge con-
cerning the origin and evolution of certain animal
groups and the environments in which they lived.
The discovery of fossil amphibian bone in Keokuk
County ranks as one of the very rare fossil finds.
Amphibians are the most primitive and earliest known
tetrapods (four-footed animals). They represent the
earliest successful attempt by vertebrate animals to mi-
grate from the aquatic realm and colonize the land.
They are also the basal stock from which all other land
vertebrates, including reptiles, birds, and mammals
have evolved. But the transition from fish to tetrapod,
as well as the early history and subsequest diversifica-
tion of early tetrapods, is poorly represented in the fos-
sil record and thus poorly understood.
The earliest tetrapods are known from a few speci-
mens found in Upper Devonian-age rocks (about 370
million years old) in eastern Greenland. Within the
next youngest rock series, the Mississippian (360 to
320 million years old), only about 20 fossil amphibian
localities are known worldwide. Most of these are in
Scotland, while only six are in North America. The
fossil amphibian material from the Keokuk County site
is of this age and is unique because the bones are abun-
dant and well preserved, and also because they
represent the oldest known tetrapods in North Amer-
ica and some of the oldest known in the world.
Soon after the discovery, plans were initiated to
unearth the bone bed and collect fossil specimens. The
state of Iowa leased a portion of the inactive quarry, and
a team of scientists was assembled for the planned ex-
cavation. John Bolt, curator of fossil amphibians and
reptiles and chairman of the Department of Geology at
the Field Museum, was enlisted to lead the project.
With partial funding from the National Geographic
Society, excavation of the bone bed began on June 10,
1986, and continued throughout the summer, ending
on September 5.
The bone bed, 20 inches thick, was partially exposed
in the quarry wall in the middle of a bowl-shaped lime-
stone and shale-filled depression. A backhoe was em-
ployed early in the excavation to strip off approximate-
ly 10 feet of rock covering the bone-rich layer. Once
down to the bone bed, a crew of six geologists using
rock hammers, trowels, knives, brushes, and dental
picks carefully uncovered and removed hundreds of
specimens during the summer-long excavation. The
bones were embedded in limestone conglomerate and
Robert McKay is a geologist for the Geological Survey of the
Iowa Department of Natural Resources.
"Unearthing Ancient Amphibians" is reprinted from Iowa
Conservationist courtesy of the Iowa Department of Natural
Resources.
shale; many were fractured and needed to be coated
with glue before removal.
The collection, which is undergoing further labora-
tory preparation and study at the Field Museum, in-
cludes head and body remains of extinct amphibians of
the subclass Labyrinthodontia and various fossil fish
remains. At least two groups of labyrinthodonts, col-
osteids, and anthracosaurs are represented. These early
amphibians superficially resembled salamanders in
shape and body form, except that they were much larg-
er, attaining lengths of three feet or more. They pos-
sessed large, toothed jaws and were voracious predators
whose diet probably consisted mainly offish. Geologic
study of the enclosing and surrounding rock strata has
demonstrated that the amphibians lived in shallow,
fresh-to-brackish water ponds or lakes occupying low-
lands in a subtropical climate. These nonmarine en-
vironments of deposition were apparently widespread
through western Keokuk County 335 million years ago.
Lakes and waterways on the landscape at the time
served as habitat for the giant amphibians and the fish
upon which they fed. Scattered depressions within this
landscape, such as that preserved at the Delta Site,
served as sites where skeletons and bones were depos-
ited, concentrated, buried, and preserved from the de-
structive effects of weathering and decay.
The 1986 excavation was a great success and re-
moved approximately half of the main bone bed.
Further excavation is anticipated during the summer of
1988. The Delta Fossil Amphibian Site has become
one of the premier fossil localities in Iowa and North
America, and has the potential to fill significant gaps
in our knowledge of early land- living vertebrates and
their evolution. It truly promises to be an unusually
revealing "window to the past."
— I1
i
.....'.Till
f.i;!;\nfMhnw-:i::.T
//
MOTHERS AND DAUGHTERS
Photographic Exhibit Opens January 27
Closes March 13
//
Photo by Laura McPhee
Untitled, 1984
Ringoes, New Jersey
8x10 silver gelatin print
This unprecedented exhibition of 128 photographs of
American mothers and daughters chronicles the first,
most lasting, and most crucial bond in every woman's
life. Eighty-nine photographers — among them Eudora
Welty — have contributed remarkable images that
combine to form a varied and deeply insightful vision of
the mother/daughter relationship. Large color prints,
images combined with text, and mixed-media work are
shown side-by-side with more straightforward docu-
mentary investigations.
This exhibit was organized by the Aperture
Foundation in New York and is free with regular
Museum admission.
TIFFANY
150 Years of Gems and Jewelry
Continues through Februai-y 6
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Paradise Being Lost
A Bittersweet Expedition to the Brazilian Amazon
by John W. Fitzpatrick
Chairman of the Department of Zoology and
Curator of Birds
Photos courtesy the Division of Birds
In 1985 Brazilian zoologists contacted scientists at
Field Museum with a research opportunity that
could not be passed up. As part of a far-reaching plan
for development of its vast Amazonian interior, the
Brazilian government had laid plans to construct up to
70 hydroelectric power plants by damming the waters
of its mightiest Amazon tributaries. Several dams
already were- being surveyed by Brazilian technicians
living in remote engineering camps. Two such camps
had recently been carved out of the virgin Amazonian
rain forest along the banks of the Xingu and the Jipar-
ana rivers (see map).
Difficult access has long prohibited scientists from
thoroughly exploring many sections of the interior
Amazon basin. Among the least explored of these areas
have always been the upland forests between the two
great southern tributaries, the Madeira and the Tapa-
joz. Access to the dam site on the Jiparana, therefore,
provided a historic opportunity. Moreover, the aggres-
sive construction of highway systems crisscrossing the
Brazilian Amazon has opened the entire region, creat-
ing a classic race against time. Can scientists get into
these pristine areas and survey their staggering biolo-
gical diversity before the forests are destroyed by the
relentless advance of loggers, farmers, and cattle-
ranchers ? More important, can scientists, conserva-
tionists, government agencies, and local communities
join forces to preserve some of these important natural
Jaru's "Broadway." This site was undisturbed forest about 10 years ago.
10
communities before they are lost forever?
The well-known Brazilian herpetologist Dr. Paulo
Vanzolini (director of the Museum of Zoology in Sao
Paulo) obtained funds from the Brazilian government
to survey certain of these remote dam sites in their na-
tive condition before construction and inundation
change them forever. In effect, environmental im-
pact statements would be produced for these construc-
tion projects. Besides numerous Brazilian scientists,
Vanzolini contacted zoologists at two American insti-
tutions, the U.S. National Museum of Natural His-
tory (Smithsonian) and the Field Museum. The deal:
Smithsonian personnel would study the Rio Xingu site,
while Field Museum would explore the more diverse
and less well-known site on the Rio Jiparana, in the
state of Rondonia. Both teams would be responsible for
making faunal inventories, collections, and environ-
mental recommendations at the respective sites in ex-
change for the rare opportunity to gather data and
specimens relevant to their own on-going research
projects and to the understanding of the Amazonian
ecosystem.
Field Museum ornithologist Scott Lanyon acted
quickly, acquiring a grant from the Eppley Foundation
in New York to pay for international travel by museum
scientists to and from Brazil. Field expenses in Brazil
were covered by the Brazilian government. Five bird
experts and three mammalogists committed them-
selves to two months in Rondonia. I was able to squeeze
in only three weeks with them, in between other
obligations, but was thrilled at the prospect of meeting
them at the end of October 1986, in this mysterious,
long-hidden region of the Amazon basin.
I was stunned by what I found. The images I
11
"We progressed toward the wilderness via roads that had been plot-
ted by draftsmen in air-conditioned labs in Brasilia — long, ruler-
straight stretches of red clay laid out in huge grids of parallel lines,
each about 20 kilometers apart."
Logging activities along the road from Jaru to camp. Terra firme
forests in the Amazon basin contain up to 400 species of trees.
Trunks with commercial value as lumber are hauled to sawmills, the
rest are felled and burned in place to fertilize the nearly sterile clay soil.
brought home struck me as a complex, still unfolding
story of two "countries": Brazil, the land of immeasur-
able natural wealth and beauty, of biological diversity
as rich as any place on earth, still filled with uncharted
surprises and rewards to the naturalist explorer; and
Brazil, the land of "explosive deforestation," where the
world's most enormous reservoir of organic diversity is
being methodically destroyed through an orchestrated
onslaught into the forest frontiers.
Initiation to the Amazon of the 80s
Since 1974, my principal field research on the birds of
South America has taken place in Peru, a third world
country that is rich in natural and cultural beauty, but
oppressively poor economically. The eastern half of
Peru is carpeted by a spectacularly diverse Amazonian
rainforest and the wet subtropical forests of the eastern
slopes of the Andes. Our research has taken us to some
of the most remote headwater areas in the Amazon
basin, where human populations consist of uncon-
tacted Indian tribes and a few hardy families of subsist-
ence farmers. The Peruvian Amazon is being settled
and developed in places, but economic poverty, low
population densities and absence of roads (combined
with the physical hardships imposed by excessive rain-
fall) limit the rate at which the forest can be cut down.
As a result, scientists like me have been flocking to
Peru for a chance to study the Amazon basin of old, the
rich and diverse equatorial rainforest in its native
splendor, where monkeys literally scrambled down the
trees to catch a closer look at the strange bipedal pri-
mates gawking at them through binoculars. Through
scientific and conservation efforts both national and
international, Peru has become a leader within South
America in the protection of its tropical resources. In
Peru, for now, one can forget what is happening to the
great rainforests of the world.
I was unprepared, therefore, for the scenes I ex-
perienced by flying "cold turkey" into the very heart of
Brazil's onslaught upon the Amazon. My colleagues
had been ensconced at the engineering camp for nearly
a month, when on Halloween Day 1986, I flew from
Sao Paulo to Porto Velho, the capital of Rondonia.
From there, a five-hour bus ride along the paved high-
way between Porto Velho and Cuiaba brought me to
the bustling town of Jaru, where I arrived just after
nightfall as the ghosts and goblins of the Amazon past
began to haunt me deeply. Saturday morning I spent
waiting for the engineers to rescue me, to whisk me
away from the 1980s and carry me five hours and two
decades back into the still pristine rainforest, where my
toiling colleagues waited. That morning I scribbled the
following comments and impressions into my field
notebook:
1 Nov. 1986:
Driving out of P. Velho is my first major introduction to the,
devastation of the Brazilian Amazon. The Amazonian
highway system is in full regalia here, with 1-2 mile wide
swaths cleared along each of myriad crisscrossing roads.
Rugged, abysmal pioneer towns dot the landscape and
everywhere there is clearing, sawing, burning, and elimina-
tion of the forest. Logging trucks rumble by periodically,
dragging 2, 3, or 4 enormous trunks to the sawmills of each
town in turn.
In Jaru, trucks outnumber cars 5 to 1 , while horse-drawn
carts amble alongside both. The Hotel Parana is an "upper-
class" place by local standards, with unit air conditioning in
each room, primitive toilets and showers, and two beds that
aren't bad for rural South America. The proprietor, a good-
looking unshaven fellow in a tank-top and flip-flops, han-
dles each minute, each meaningless crisis, each day as it
comes. There is a bustle to this town unfamiliar to me from
Peru. Every limping passer-by, every grizzled old bike rider
and brawny, bearded young stud seems to have a destina-
tion; some "negocio" to accomplish. These are transplanted
Brazilians, shipped in from the hopeless, seething crowds of
the overpopulated south and northeast, imported to the
once-green Rondonia land to turn it a productive ubi-
quitous red-brown, to tame the impenetrable, fearsome for-
est into habitable streets of dust and debris, to fabricate yet
another maze of whitewashed walls harboring the hardware
stores, tire shops, supermarkets, gas stations, bars and
whore-houses that bring human life together where only
monkeys and macaws once lived. Little trucks cruise slowly
by with treble loudspeakers blaring forth a continuous gib-
berish of political Portuguese. It is ignored by everyone, as
is the continuous, deep din of diesel engines hauling dead
skeletons of mammoth trees out to be carved to pieces, and
hauling progress in.
Now available, where once only fruits and insects could
be garnered, are glass and plastic bottles with which the
landscape may be decorated; newspapers declaring the
latest winners of local soccer and volleyball games; bicycles
of every color, size, age and condition; blankets, doormats,
motorcycle parts and always, lottery tickets hawked as "the
only real way to succeed." But in the eyes of a people hun-
gry for industrial development, all these peddlers, hotel
owners, and truck drivers are succeeding. This explains the
bustle, the cheerful activity, the smiles, the hard-drinking
groups of laughing men with arms tightly around each
other, the old barefoot women rushing up the street and
down with laundry atop their heads, everywhere the infants
and naked toddlers running alongside teenage mamas, won-
dering where papa has gone. The sounds of horses' hooves
and motorcycles, the smells of diesel exhaust and dry clay,
the sights of bulldozers and radio towers, and the momen-
tous herds of enormous flatbed trucks represent the promise
of the Amazon to come, a promise that is arriving and ex-
Base camp near the Rio Jiparana. Temperatures at the clearing
reached 38 degrees Celsius nearly every day, but were much cooler
inside the forest. Titi monkeys and mixed flocks of birds often moved
through these treetops in the morning sun.
13
ploding faster and more finally than this bird-man ever
could have imagined.
In the heart of one of the least explored and richest areas
of the Amazon basin, where biological diversity has pro-
liferated through eons and become the earth's most pre-
cious reservoir of life, none of these thousands of people
will ever hear a Howler Monkey. And they won't care.
Part II
Excitement at a Jungle Camp
Mercifully, the driver from the engineering camp ar-
rived after lunch, finding me dozing in the sultry mid-
We progressed toward the wilderness via roads
that had been plotted by draftsmen in air-conditioned
labs in Brasilia — long, ruler-straight stretches of red
clay laid out in huge grids of parallel lines, each about
20 kilometers apart. From the plane I had seen these
cross-hatched scars horizon to horizon as we ap-
proached Porto Velho, and now I was on one of them.
Near Jaru the forest was cleared for miles on each side of
the road, now mostly cattle pasture. As we moved
deeper in, the road became newer and the clear-cut
swath became narrower. The driver identified the spot
beyond which the road was only one year old. For the
Our team (I. tor., crouched): John Fitzpatrick, Mary Anne Rogers, Bruce Patterson, Town Peterson; (standing) Scott Lanyon, Al Gardner, Tom
Schulenberg, Doug Stotz, Dave Willard.
14
day heat. Riding in the back of a dusty Toyota land-
cruiser, I was whisked back into the South American
time and environment I've grown to love, the giant
green expanse of pristine lowland rainforest. The drive
northeast from Jaru took the whole afternoon.
second half of this four-hour drive, we travelled a road
that had slammed through untouched forest only 12
months earlier. Already it had become flanked by half a
kilometer of blackened, fallen trunks strewn amidst
newly planted seedlings of corn or manioc. Every kilo-
meter or so, a pioneer family paused to rest their backs
and watch us speed by. Except for such momentary di-
versions, these hardy transplants spend all their days
felling trees, burning the rubble to fertilize the other-
wise sterile clay soil, and planting the crops they will
live on.
I arrived at the camp near last light — always
around 6:00 p.m. in the equatorial tropics. I was
greeted by bearded and happy faces of my friends and
colleagues from Chicago, who had been there nearly a
month already. They were full of queries about "folks
back home," and tales of the forest they were studying.
This was a truly remarkable land we had been invited to
explore. The eight scientists had made an impressive
beginning and eagerly showed me their tent full of
voucher specimens to prove it. One specimen in partic-
ular had focused the attention of the five ornithologists
for the past week, ever since its capture. I would be
number six, and it captured my attention instantly.
More on it presently; however, the scene must first be
set.
The interior Amazon basin consists mainly of two
broad habitat types having to do with the presence or
absence of seasonal flooding by rivers. Varzea, or "iga-
po" forest, sits in water several meters deep for over half
the year, inundated by the annual flooding of the major
rivers. This is a unique forest type, holding a peculiar
flora and fauna. These habitats are relatively well ex-
plored around the Amazon basin, because historically
the scientists entering the region could do so only by
the rivers. Surrounded by the richness of river-bottom,,
flood-plain forest types, explorers for a hundred years
found little reason or incentive to trek overland be-
tween the rivers. Therefore, the second habitat type
was less well inventoried even though it is much the
dominant biome in total area represented.
The land between the rivers rises into gentle hills,
underlain by laterite, a characteristic red clay soil. Hills
are interlaced by myriad small streams, eroding and
draining the forest, flowing down toward the rivers and
their floodplain shorelines. The forest that grows on
these clay soils — rarely or never flooded — is generally
called terra firme. In many areas the terra firme forest
appears less majestic than the annually fertilized forests
of the river bottoms. Yet, this land between the rivers
can in places be just as diverse as the lower, wetter
habitats. For many terrestrial animals, these upland
forests are even more diverse. Certainly, from a North
American's viewpoint, a terra firme forest looks every
bit like a towering green cathedral as one walks be-
neath it.
Take an Inventory
Storekeepers take inventory so that supplies,
equipment, and merchandise that is actually on
hand can be compared to what should be on
hand.
Homeowners take inventory when their insur-
ance is to be increased.
Yet, persons with wills often forget to keep
inventories current. When that happens, their
families may be left with the same unnecessary
problems that the persons who originally made
wills intended to avoid.
Don't take chances with your will being out of
balance with your family's needs and your
assets. Schedule a meeting with your attorney to
take an inventory of what you think your will
contains and what it may now actually contain.
An out-of-date will is often as ineffective as no
will at all, so don't neglect one of the most
important inventories you will ever make.
For suggestions on preparing or revising your
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15
Red-necked woodpecker (Campephilus rubricollis). This is a com-
mon, tropical relative of the nearly extinct ivory-billed woodpecker of
North America. The forests at Cachoera Nazare support 13 species
of woodpeckers. Only one is larger than this crow-sized species.
The Field Museum base camp I drove into that
evening had been carved out of a beautiful, tall terra
firme forest, up along a gradual hill about a kilometer
from the bank of the Rio Jiparana. The place was
known as Cachoeira Nazare, named after the rapids in
the river nearby. The camp was located at one corner of
a small network of clearings forming the center of oper-
ations for the engineering consortium surveying the
dam site. We had been given full use of three huge can-
vas field tents at the edge of the forest. These plus work
tables and a makeshift "pantry" were covered with a
jury-rigged roof of plastic tarps. Thirty-five-meter trees
spread overhead a few steps away on three sides. A few
electric light bulbs illuminated the camp each night
until the distant generator was shut off. These lights
had just come on as I arrived. I had a few minutes to
look around as evening set in, but mostly, I drank in
the stories of my friends. By now, they had learned
more about the birds and mammals of the region than
anyone had ever known.
Almost instantly, Scott Lanyon and Tom Schu-
lenberg (a free-lance ornithologist based in Lou-
isiana) were giving me clues that a major discovery had
been made. They enjoyed "holding out" briefly, while I
passed a few quizzes, then they brought out their prize.
It was a single female specimen of a species I had never
seen before. One glimpse and I exclaimed, "That looks
like. . .Clytoctantesl" (an extremely rare and bi-
zarre species of antbird, known only from a few speci-
mens from northern Colombia.) "It gets better," they
said at once, and indeed it did.
They led me through the same process they had fol-
lowed a week earlier when the bird was first brought in,
checking several reference books that represent our bi-
bles for South American ornithology. The new speci-
men did resemble the Colombian rarity in having a
huge, upturned bill, but differed in numerous details. I
learned that Dave Willard (collection manager in the
Field Museum's Bird Division) had brought the speci-
men in from the forest nets (where he was when I ar-
rived), and had said flatly, "I think I just collected the
best bird of my life!" Doug Stotz, an expert birder and
doctoral student at the University of Chicago, sub-
sequently saw a black male of the species on two differ-
ent mornings, but a second specimen was never
obtained despite considerable effort. The single female
specimen is almost certainly an undescribed species, a
bird entirely unknown to science until Dave found it in
the mist nets on Wednesday afternoon the 22nd of
October, 1986.
16
Part III
Cachoeira Nazare, Dam Site #14
It's hard to describe the deep, inner thrill many of us
feel while living and working amidst a tropical forest as
diverse and little-known as this one. My colleagues
already had been in camp four weeks, yet each morning
they climbed out of bed in pre-dawn light with the
which had never before been recorded. In an activity
only slightly more venerable, Dave Willard also left
camp at first light to trek the mile walk through the
forest to a long trail of 12-meter nylon mesh nets, set up
end to end in the forest understory a few days before.
The nets were in place at the site where Doug had spot-
ted the male of the new species. Besides providing our
Doug Stotz with great potoo (Nyc-
tibeus grandis) found ill along a
forest trail. This is a huge, noctur-
nal relative of nighthawks and
nightjars. Its loud, gutteral
screams on moonlift nights can
wake up the soundest sleeper.
same excitement and anticipation as I had my first
morning there.
The tropical dawn starts early with a few scattered
bird calls well before light. Often, the distant roars of
howler monkeys accompany the first glimpses of giant
trees silhouetted against the dawn sky. The bird songs
become a chorus as the dim light abruptly gives way to
morning. As the treetops gleam with the first sparkles
of sunlight, duetting pairs of titi monkeys begin to
cackle loudly. Chips and whistles signal the morning
activity of bird flocks in the forest canopy.
Schulenberg had slipped out of camp well before
dawn to make tape recordings of bird species, many of
best hope of capturing that bird, the nets serve as our
principal means of measuring the bird densities and di-
versities in tropical forests. By keeping track of every
bird that hits the nets and the number of nets and days
in the sample, we are comparing the understory bird
fauna among all the tropical forest sites we have work-
ed. The nets also serve as our principal means of inven-
torying the bat fauna in a tropical forest.
I walked with Dave that first morning, and he
introduced me to the trail system and this unknown
land between the rivers. Dave and I have worked
together for 13 years, including many trips into remote
sites in the American tropics. He excitedly pointed out 1 7
things about this forest that we had never encountered
before. A raucous, staccato call of a bird overhead stop-
ped us in our tracks. "That's Phoenicercus nigricollis —
darn hard to see but it's right here every day." The
"black-necked red cotinga" is a jay-sized bird with bril-
liant red-orange plumage. It is rare over much of its
camp, where the mystery bird had been captured. At
the river, as the day began to heat up, we watched hum-
mingbirds and a large group of red-bellied conures (Pyr-
rhura rhodogaster) foraging in a flowering tree. These
parrots, again little known by scientists, were seen dia-
ly in noisy flocks of thirty or more individuals through-
White-breasted antbird
(Rhegmatorhina hoffmansi).
Although rare in the world's
scientific collections, this
was among the commonest
species at our camp.
18
Amazonian range, and was new to Dave and me. It was
common in this forest. So were dozens of other birds,
little known by scientists and poorly represented in the
world's scientific collections. In the process of helping
Brazil assess the fauna of a doomed forest, we were fill-
ing in a huge void in the world's knowledge of Amazo-
nian diversity.
To ornithologists familiar with the known dis-
tributions and abundances of South American birds,
we had stumbled upon a gold mine. This tall forest be-
tween the Rio Madeira and the Rio Tapajoz harbored a
community of birds numbering over 460 species! No-
body in the history of Brazilian ornithology had ever
encountered and surveyed a community this rich. The
bat fauna was equally stunning: 47 species, nearly a rec-
ord for a single lowland forest locality.
Later that first morning I walked to the river with
Town Peterson, another student at the University of
Chicago, enjoying his first bewildering taste of the
tropics. Town pointed out trails where previous netting
samples had been taken before my arrival. He showed
me the spot, amidst dense vine tangles not far from
out the forest.
The Rio Jiparana is about 200 meters wide where
we studied it, a deep and fast-flowing channel flanked
by rocky banks and the ever-present, evergreen tropi-
cal forest. In 1909, Colonel Rondon of the Brazilian
army had descended past this point while charting the
river for the first time. In 1914 Rondon (after whom
this Brazilian state of Rondonia was named), together
with Theodore Roosevelt and his son Kermit would
navigate the mysterious "River of Doubt" only fifty
miles to the east, in a harrowing 60-day adventure
filled with tragedy and narrow escapes. That river is
now called Rio Roosevelt, and its 1914 exploration by
the ex-president resulted in the only significant scien-
tific collections from these Brazilian forests, until now.
It was painful for us to know, while gazing at the
river, that the entire scene before us would be under
hundreds of feet of water within several years. The site
at which the huge cement dam would be constructed
was clearly visible, marked by white flags and marker-
posts along the opposite bank. We would be among the
last humans ever to sit on the banks of the Jiparana as
Rondon knew it and as it had been for millennia before
him. All these rare birds, little-known mammals, un-
described insects and plants thriving and evolving
around us would be destroyed without a trace by the
rising waters behind Dam Site #14.
When tropical forest is inundated to treetop
heights, the plants, of course, can go nowhere.
Adapted to dry footing, they quickly die and slowly rot
away as the water table overtakes them. Animals meet
a slower but no less certain fate as they struggle toward
higher ground. Their deadly dilemma: drown in the
artificial lake or migrate into new forest already teem-
ing with vigorous, territorial representatives of their
own species (or closely related ones where the forest
type is different). In a typical tropical forest, thousands
of separate species of animals and plants exist at or near
their ecological "carrying capacity, " the whole commu-
nity persisting in a delicate equilibrium of numbers.
Massive perturbations in adjacent areas, whether
caused by bulldozer or rising water, cannot change the
numbers of animals a given piece of forest patch can
hold. Animals try to invade new ground, but they fail,
living for a time as hungry nomads before perishing
White-fronted nunbird (Monosa morphoeus). This species lives in
family groups, which sing together in noisy duets or trios in the
treetops.
Snow-capped manakin (Pipra nattereri), a fruit-eating bird of the
forest undergrowth.
without a home. As humans alter or destroy habitats
the world over, many of us seem to have trouble
acknowledging that this action annihilates all the in-
habitats with the same thoroughness and finality as
if we had killed each of them individually with fire
or gun.
This was the bittersweet conscience we bore
throughout our study at Cachoeira Nazare. Hour by
hour, day by day, we grew to know the forest intimately.
Invariably, one grows to love a tropical forest as one
begins to understand it. Each site has a slightly differ-
ent character from every other. This one, diverse as it
was, struck many of us as unusually dry. The red clay
soil gave way to loose sand in places, supporting
pineapple-like terrestrial bromeliads. Few arboreal air-
plants or mosses clung to the trunks, indicating that
daily moisture levels in the air were rarely saturated.
Indeed, the midday heat was scorching and oppressive.
At our clearing the temperature neared 38 C. ( 100 F. )
almost every day. Although the dark forest interior re-
mains considerably cooler even in mid-afternoon, a
period of inactivity routinely engulfs the forest during
each day's hottest hours.
Around noon, profusely perspiring biologists
tended to return to camp as the forest grew quiet.
Parched throats quenched, each person set about the
tasks of specimen preparation. Bruce Patterson (head
of the Division of Mammals at Field Museum) and Al
Gardner (mammalogist at the U.S. National
19
Museum), skinned mammals from several lines of
traps. Field Museum technical assistant Mary Anne
Rogers would usually be preparing microscope slides of
chromosomes from some of these mammals, laborious-
ly extracted from their blood cells. Many species of ro-
Specimens being sun-
dried at base camp. We
often collect a few rep-
resentatives of each
species in order to
document for all time
the fauna of such little-
studied areas. These
specimens will join
others in Brazilian and
U.S. museums, where
they are preserved for
comparison and study
by the international sci-
entific community.
heard over the forest. Several times they migrated
overhead, drenching us for an hour or two of blinding,
tropical rain, in a welcome relief from the sun and heat
of most afternoons. Once, a huge squall line hit the
camp with such sudden force that it blew apart our
20
dents can be distinguished from one another only by
this method. Scott Lanyon, after each bird skinned,
would extract tissue from the carcass and freeze it in a
portable freezer filled with liquid nitrogen. These tis-
sues would be analyzed in the laboratories back in Chi-
cago so that their molecular and genetic properties can
be compared. Doug Stotz was in charge of preparing
skeletal specimens while his fellow student Town
Peterson skinned birds and extracted their chromo-
somes. Dave Willard, master of the mist-netting pro-
gram, skinned birds when not installing or checking
nets. Tom Schulenberg, in between bird skins, would
catalog his extensive tape recordings each day, occa-
sionally pausing to play us a song or two of birds whose
voices we were still learning. My own "niche" mostly
involved censusing and collecting birds from high in
the forest canopy, using a 20-gauge shotgun and very
fine lead shot.
Often, distant thunderheads could be seen and
makeshift plastic roof. With passionate dedication to
protecting the specimens, we frantically relashed the
tarps, feeling a bit like crew members high in the masts
of a clipper ship, pulling in the sails as the gale soaked
us to the skin.
Late afternoon net checks and forest walks pro-
duce new flurries of information and specimens each
day. And, suddenly, it is night. The headlamps come
out, and the mammalogists take their turn stalking the
trails. Their subjects, of course, are largely nocturnal —
and so must be mammalogists. For ornithologists, skin-
ning and note-writing would take us to the end of the
lights (and sometimes well beyond). As each finishes
his day, the respective headlamp and consciousness
flick off. The dawn comes early.
Part IV
Results and Postscripts
Time flew by at Cachoeira Nazare. We packed out of
Dam Site #14 toward the end of November, having
documented that an unexpectedly high diversity of
birds and mammals would be affected by the flooding.
As requested by Brazil, we prepared a thorough, 110-
page report on our findings and submitted it by mid-
January. Published articles will follow for several years
hence. Our species lists, quantitative measurements,
and collections already stand as major contributions to
Brazilian biology and conservation. We hope they will
have lasting influence on the planning and execution
of future hydroelectric projects in the Amazon basin.
In addition, we hope they can be used by Brazilian sci-
entists and students in their increasing efforts to inven-
tory and understand their country's resources.
Our most important conclusions involve the ex-
istence and need for protection of a previously unsus-
pected pocket of biotic diversity in the forests between
the Madeira and the Tapajos. Much of this land re-
mains unexplored, and its flora and fauna still are large-
ly unknown, save for the birds and mammals we stu-
died. Dam construction and associated flooding can be
accomplished without permanent damage to this di-
versity, but only with proper attention to conservation
around the lake's perimeter. Present rates of settlement
in the state of Rondonia are so high that public access
to the water's edge would result in denuding the forest
around its banks. Consequences of this would be dis-
astrous, both in terms of soil runoff (clogging the lake
and dam) and in loss of species diversity. Preservation
of native life and water quality within the lake also de-
pends upon the persistence of intact forest around the
shoreline. We recommend that a wide "buffer zone" of
untouched forest be preserved around the entire per-
imeter of the reservoir, providing a corridor for move-
ment of forest-adapted animals and a genetic reservoir
of plant species endemic to the region. This buffer zone
should include a connection to a nearby biotic reserve
of considerable size. Most important, the area should
be intensively studied periodically, during and after the
dam construction. Only with this kind of monitoring
can we ever hope to know in detail the scope of the
environmental changes we bring about by damming
the waters of the Amazon basin.
The great, uncharted tropical forests of Rondon
and Roosevelt's day are disappearing. Those that re-
main are being altered irrevocably by man. It is im-
possible to travel and work in Rondonia without facing
this merciless fact head-on. The global consequences
of these changes are just now beginning to receive the
attention they warrant. Fortunately, governments such
as Brazil's are beginning to become aware of the
Yellow-shouldered grosbeak (Caryothmustes humeralis), a rare in-
habitant ot the highest treetops.
Collared puffbird (Bucco capensis), a distant relative of wood-
peckers and very difficult to see as it sits motionless for minutes on
end in search of insects.
monumental biotic resources they harbor in their na-
tive forests. In our small way, museum scientists en-
gaged in inventorying these resources contribute to this
awareness. Only by studying, bit by bit, the individual
pieces of the gigantic puzzle of tropical diversity can we
hope to understand how it arose and how it is main-
tained. Only with this understanding can we humans,
in turn, hope to predict and measure how our activities
and developments upon our planet will affect its future,
and our own. FM
21
Flew Permanent Exhibit
Japanese Lacquer Wares
The gift of Carl and Jeanette Kroch
22
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The Stuff of dreams
native American Dolls
Continues through January 15
23
A Celebration of
Philip hershkovitz
Emeritus Curator of Mammals
by Bruce d. Patterson
Associate Curator of Mammals and Head, Division of Mammals
24
The distinguished career of Emeritus Curator Philip
Hershkovitz is celebrated at this time with Field
Museum's publication of a landmark volume on South
American mammals, Studies in Neotropical Mammal-
ogy: Essays in Honor of Philip Hershkovitz- Hershkovitz,
now 78, has devoted most of his 40 years at Field
Museum to the study of South America's diverse and
poorly known mammal fauna. In the course of five dec-
ades of expeditions and museum studies, Hershkovitz
has published definitive treatments of most groups of
mammals of that continent.
Studies in Neotropical Mammalogy is a collection of
25 original articles written expressly for this occasion
and published in Fieldiana, the Museum's continuing
scientific serial publication (for complete contents see
page 30). Contributed by 42 authors, many of them
South Americans, and edited by Bruce D. Patterson
and Robert M. Timm of Field Museum's Division of
Mammals, the papers focus on the origins, rela-
tionships, natural history, and present status of many
groups of Neotropical mammals. Because this fauna is
increasingly imperiled by human encroachments on
natural ecosystems, the volume is a timely contribution
that may aid national and international efforts for con-
servation.
The following article is adapted from the volume's
opening article, "A biographical sketch of Philip
Hershkovitz, with a complete scientific bibliography,"
by Bruce D. Patterson.
Philip Hershkovitz was born October 12, 1909, in
Pittsburgh to Aba and Bertha Halpern Hershkovitz,
the second of four children and their only son. He
attended Pittsburgh public schools, graduating from
Schenley High School in February, 1927. In 1929, he
enrolled at the University of Pittsburgh, where he ma-
jored in zoology, serving as an undergraduate assistant in
that department during 1930-31. Having exhausted
Pittsburgh's course offerings in zoology after two years
and seeking to pursue a career in mammalogy, he was
advised to transfer to Harvard, the University of
Michigan, or the University of California, Berkeley.
Proximity won out and in his junior year he transferred
to the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. There he
became an undergraduate assistant in the Museum of
Zoology, working under Lee R. Dice, professor and
curator, during 1931 and 1932. He supplemented the
meager earnings of this position with taxidermy jobs,
which supported him during the early years of the
Great Depression. His first fieldwork, during the sum-
mer of 1932, carried him to Texas' San Marcos region
to collect blind cave salamanders (Typhlomolge rath-
buni) for Professor Uhlenhuth of the University of
Maryland Medical School. Mainly interested in mam-
mals, Hershkovitz wanted also to collect these in areas
near the caves, but Dice could spare no traps and
advised him to purchase some in Texas.
While hitchhiking from Ann Arbor to Texas,
Hershkovitz stopped to visit friends in Chicago. There,
a chance visit to the Field Museum secured him the
traps and supplies he needed and seemingly set the
course of his later career. Colin Sanborn, then curator
of Mammals during Wilfred Osgood's tenure as chief
curator of Zoology (1921-41), befriended Hershkovitz
and loaned him the necessary supplies. As a con-
sequence, the mammals he collected in Texas during
that first of many field seasons were deposited in the
Field Museum collections. He now maintains that his
chance visit to the Field Museum in 1932 indelibly
fixed that institution as the place at which to pursue his
career goals.
Hershkovitz's formal education was postponed in
1933 by the worsening economic situation. No longer
able to afford tuition, he sought advice on subsistence
during the Depression, and was told that Ecuador and
Paraguay were undoubtedly the least expensive coun-
tries in this hemisphere in which to live. Transporta-
tion costs decided the issue, and in 1933 he set sail via
the Grace Line from New York to Guayaquil, Ecuador
for the whopping sum of $600, one-way.
He stayed in Ecuador until 1937. During this
period, he mastered Spanish and learned how to live off
the land in the Neotropics. His boots disintegrated
after six months' time and thereafter he went barefoot.
He assembled a fine collection of Ecuadorian mammals
for the University of Michigan's Museum of Zoology,
supporting his fieldwork in part by selling horses
bought on the Peruvian frontier.
He then returned to the University of Michigan,
graduating in 1938 with a B.S. degree. By this time,
Professor Dice had transferred from the Museum of
Zoology to the Laboratory of Vertebrate Genetics, and
William H. Burt had assumed the museum curatorship.
Hershkovitz spent the period 1938-41 enrolled in the
university's graduate school, working on his Ecuador-
ian collection under Burt's direction. From 1939 to
1941, he was supported in this work by a graduate
assistantship. In 1940 he received his M.S. degree and
entered the doctoral program.
Two years before the expected completion of this
program, the curator of reptiles and amphibians at
UMMZ, Helen Gage, told Hershkovitz about the Walter
Rathbone Bacon Travelling Scholarship of the United
States National Museum. This program was customari-
ly reserved for postdoctoral support, but Mrs. Gage
strongly urged him to apply immediately. Thus per-
suaded, Hershkovitz submitted a brief proposal for
work in the Santa Marta region of northern Colombia;
his compliance with Mrs. Gage's wishes in this matter
was so perfunctory that he failed to include a map of the
proposed itinerary. But Remington Kellogg at the
National Museum had long wished to obtain a Bacon
Scholar for the Mammal Division and wrote Hershko-
vitz for the omitted itinerary. Much to his surprise,
Hershkovitz was awarded the scholarship. He went im-
mediately to Washington, where he spent two months
studying the then very poor collection of Neotropical
mammals before going to Colombia. There, he spent
two years (1941-43) collecting mammals, other ver-
tebrates, and external parasites. The resulting collec-
tion was the National Museum's first large and repre-
sentative Neotropical mammal accession.
In 1943, Hershkovitz's work was interrupted by
World War II, and he returned to Ann Arbor to enlist
in the Armed Services. He was assigned to the Office of
Strategic Services (OSS) and served from 1943 to 1946
in the European Theater. While serving in France he
met Anne Marie Pierrette, whom he married in 1946.
He returned with her to the United States, where in
1946 and 1947 he continued his Bacon Scholarship
studies of Colombian mammals in Washington. The
first of three children (Francine, Michael, and Mark)
was born in 1947.
About this time, he was contacted regarding the
opening of a curatorial position at the Field Museum,
an opportunity he eagerly hailed for several reasons: 1)
the comprehensive collections of Neotropical mam-
mals at Field Museum would be a tremendous resource
for what he had already decided would be his life's 25
26
Philip Hershkovitz and friend (Micoureus cinereus demerarae, a
mouse opossum) in the Sierra Negra of northernmost Colombia.
work; 2) he had the highest regard for W. H. Osgood,
who as a principal authority on South American mam-
mals would he a great personal resource on which to
draw; 3) the press of family responsibilities was making
continuation of his graduate studies increasingly diffi-
cult; and 4) aspirations to a curatorial position had
been the sole incentive for his graduate program; a
curatorial position would make the graduate degree
superfluous. Thus, when Field Museum offered him the
job, he eagerly accepted, knowing full well that it
marked the end of his graduate program at Michigan.
Osgood's death in June, 1947, ended his hopes for
what might have been a remarkable apprenticeship.
Nevertheless, the sacrifice of the doctoral degree still
seemed a miniscule loss, not without precedent at Field
Museum and other institutions at that time. Osgood
himself had received his doctorate from the University
of Chicago some nine years after becoming curator,
well after completing some of his most significant work
(e.g., revisions of pocket mice and deer mice).
Another stellar example was Karl P. Schmidt, chief
curator of Zoology after Osgood, a most distinguished
herpetologist-ecologist, and member of the National
Academy of Sciences, who never entered a doctoral
program.
Upon his arrival at Field Museum, Hershkovitz
found an uncurated backlog of some four or five years.
Nevertheless, he wasted little time in returning to the
field, prompted in part by postwar housing shortages in
Chicago. (One can almost hear him now, telling for-
mer Museum Director Clifford C. Gregg that the near-
est affordable housing was in Bogota!) In 1948, the
Hershkovitz family moved to Colombia, where he re-
sumed his inventory of that country's mammals. He
remained in Colombia until the press of curatorial du-
ties and a gently delivered ultimatum from Sanborn
finally recalled him to Chicago in 1952.
The collections he made in Colombia, first for the
National Museum, then for the Field Museum, were to
be the heart of all his subsequent research. But unlike
others studying the mammal faunas of specific geo-
graphical regions, Hershkovitz found it unsatisfying to
assess the systematics of Colombian mammals without
crossing national boundaries. Studies of a species or
species group in Colombia led him to evaluate its con-
text within genera, families, and even orders; and the
remarkable diversity of Colombia's mammal fauna led
him into most major groups and most Neotropical re-
gions. In the course of his career, he has published
dozens of generic, tribal, and familial revisions, cover-
ing all twelve orders of Neotropical mammals. Few
boundaries of space and time have withstood the
onslaught of his studies of Neotropical mammals. As
examples one can point to the cosmopolitan Catalog of
Living Whales (1966) — after all, most cetaceans do
occur in South American waters — and studies of Oli-
gocene and later fossils of South American monkeys,
published during the 1970s and 80s.
One senses that the Department of Zoology dur-
ing Hershkovitz's early years was a stimulating, har-
monious one. Chief Curator K. P. Schmidt took an
almost paternal interest in junior staff and served as a
confidant on the most personal of matters. In addition
to Colin Sanborn, who was most considerate of his
junior colleague's interests and talents, Hershkovitz
shared mammalogical problems and topics with D.
Dwight Davis, curator of Vertebrate Anatomy, and
Bryan Patterson, curator of Vertebrate Paleontology.
_
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Hershkovitz studying geographic and nongeographic variation in mouse skulls as a prelude to his 524-page tome Evolution of neotropical
chcetine rodents (Muridae), with special reference to the phyllotine group, published in Fieldiana: Zoology in 1 962. 86651
During the early and mid-1950s, Hershkovitz estab-
lished a vigorous and productive research program and
participated in all aspects of departmental affairs.
However, upon Schmidt's retirement in 1957,
Austin S. Rand, an ornithologist, became chief curator
of Zoology, and neither Rand nor Hershkovitz did
much to disguise his antipathy for the other. Over the
ensuing years, Hershkovitz increasingly detached him-
self from museum operations, culminating with Joseph
Moore's appointment as curator of Mammals in 1961,
and Hershkovitz's appointment that year to research
curator. No one before or since has held this title at
Field Museum. Hershkovitz formally retired in 1974,
although his work continues unabated as emeritus
curator. During his career, he has assisted countless
students in mammal projects but served on only a single
graduate committee, that of Jack Fooden, now a re-
nowned biologist and primate specialist in his own
right and a research associate of Mammals at Field
Museum.
Few scientists can claim the independence in
research that is indicated in Hershkovitz's bibliog-
raphy. Of his approximately 300 scientific, popular,
and encyclopedia articles, only three are collabora-
tions. The first (1938), with William P. Harris, an
important benefactor of the Museum of Zoology,
Michigan, was suggested by Burt in recognition of Har-
ris's interests in squirrels and in token repayment for his
patronage of the museum. The second (1945), with
Paul Rode, came about one afternoon in the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris when Hershko-
vitz offhandedly offered a solution to a nomenclatural
problem that Rode faced in his research. Rode insisted
that Hershkovitz share authorship on the resulting
paper. Later, after further study in the United States,
Hershkovitz arrived at a contrary opinion and wrote a
paper, with Rode as co-author (1947), correcting their
earlier article.
For almost 50 years, Hershkovitz has focused his
research on Neotropical mammals — their origin,
evolution, dispersal, classification, nomenclature, and
systematics. Specialists in these fields are well aware of
his tremendous impact. However, he is perhaps most
widely known for his work on three general topics of
Neotropical mammalogy: faunal origins, metachrom-
ism (the evolution of hair color via pigment loss) and
New World monkeys. It would be folly to attempt to
review all of his research, and more definitive ap-
praisals on selected topics can be found throughout the
newly published volume in his honor. However, some
27
comments on these general issues seem in order.
As late as his taxonomic revision of leaf-eared ro-
dents (1962), Hershkovitz adhered to traditional no-
tions of the derivation of certain South American
groups, notably the sigmodontine rodents, from North
and Middle American stocks. This hypothesis of ori-
gins has been advocated by G. G. Simpson, B. Patter-
son, R. Pascual, L. G. Marshall, and S. D. Webb.
However, in the early 1960s, Hershkovitz was ap-
proached by Rupert Wenzel, then curator of Insects at
Field Museum, who questioned him on the evidence
for Pliocene-Pleistocene origins of the sigmodontines.
Wenzel's studies of external parasites of Panamanian
mammals suggested much earlier, South American ori-
gins. His interest piqued, Hershkovitz reviewed avail-
able evidence, synthesizing continental drift (which
was then becoming established in geological circles)
and various studies of recent mammals. He concluded
that continental drift permitted a much greater role for
paleotropical stocks in the origin of the South Amer-
ican fauna than was allowed by the Simpsonian school,
which in turn suggested a much greater time-period for
independent evolution. Interestingly, and perhaps
even characteristically, Hershkovitz concluded that
South American rodents were not only not derived
from North American stocks but instead gave rise to
them. These views were published in 1966, 1969, and
1972.
Hershkovitz developed singlehandedly the theory
of metachromism, first published in 1968. Since then
he has used it repeatedly in describing geographic var-
iation in New World monkeys. However, the origins of
this concept stem from his earlier work on certain
squirrels (Sciurus granatensis group) in northern Col-
ombia. Here, populations of squirrels thoroughly iso-
lated from one another show similar progressions of
pelage patterns. Few workers other than Neotropical
primatologists (and not all of these) have accepted his
interpretations, although the theory is potentially
applicable to a variety of other groups (mostly diurnal
ones) showing pelage pattern variations.
Finally, some explanation seems warranted for
Hershkovitz's current devotion to primates. Indeed,
many recent workers unschooled in mammalian sys-
tematics think of him as a primatologist. Nothing
could be further from the truth, as he hastens to point
Hershkovitz and staff artist E. John Pfiffner preparing scientific illustrations for Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini), vol. I, published by the
University of Chicago Press in 1 977. This lavishly illustrated opus of 1 , 1 1 7 large-format pages was the first of a three- or four-part series covering
all New World monkeys, awso
28
1948
1960
1965
1968 1976
Forty years of distinguished service to Field Museum and Zoology.
1984
84165. 87363. 89299. 90174, 92453, 83631
out. He had published several articles on primates in
the course of working up his Colombian collections,
but gave these taxa no special attention until the
1960s. Then government funding for primate studies
soared, in large part because of interest in biomedical
applications, especially for the complex and tax-
onomically confused family Callitrichidae (tamarins
and marmosets). For almost twenty years, Hershkovitz
has focused first on the Callitrichidae, now the Cebi-
dae (larger New World monkeys, including capuchin,
spider, and woolly monkeys). His slower progress
through these groups is attributable to the vast body of
current knowledge about them. His 1977 opus on cal-
litrichids, Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini), Vol.
1 , serves as a model synthesis of data from skin and skull
anatomy with data concerning biochemistry, chromo-
somes, blood proteins, epidemiology, ecology, and be-
havior. In a 1982 article, mammalogist Ronald Pine
(also a research associate of Field Museum) referred to
this work as "the most heroically monumental revision-
ary monograph ever devoted to a Neotropical group."
(Vol. 6, Spec. Publ. Ser. , Pymatuning Lab. Ecol.) By
Hershkovitz's own estimation, monkeys do not
culminate his studies on Neotropical mammals, but
rather represent a large and complex group to be cov-
ered in his attempt to treat all South American mam-
mals. After a decade of work on volume two, he has
recently completed generic revisions of cebids lacking
prehensile tails, including night and squirrel monkeys,
sakis, and titis, and is beginning comparative studies
of organ systems.
In October, 1987, Hershkovitz turned 78 years
old. The 14 years he spent in the field in South Amer-
ica have served him well, for he seems younger than
many men 15 years his junior. Indeed, he has just re-
turned from a lengthy trip to Brazil, where he has been
studying monkeys in museums and mice in the field
with Barbara E. Brown, his technical assistant for 13
years and a longtime friend and supporter of the
Museum. While in Chicago, his tireless energy is best
indicated by his habitual use of stairs rather than eleva-
tors (even his two offices in the Museum are three
floors apart) and a museum workday that extends from
9 am to 6 pm, uninterrupted by coffee breaks or even
lunch. Visitors to his home, now within walking dis-
tance of the Museum, know of his office there which
relieves the chronic insomnia of advancing years. He
is an outstanding cook, a genial host, a trusted and
valued friend, as well as an awesomely productive
scientist. FM
29
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2499
HISS MARITA MAXEY
7411 MORTH greenview
CHICASO IL 6fJ626
4
Fll ;ld museum of natural
BULLETIN
.JW*"-
y*
*
February 1988
m
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor /Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
Willard L. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H.Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considtne
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
LeoF. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
J. Howard Wood
CONTENTS
February 1988
Volume 59, Number 2
FEBRUARY EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM .
EXHIBITION CONSERVATION
by Catherine Sease, Associate Conservator, Anthropology ... 5
JOHN A. KAKARUK: PAINTER OF INLAND ESKIMO LIFE
by Charles V. Lucier and James W. VanStone,
Curator of North American Archaeology and Ethnology. ... 14
WELWITSCHIA THE WONDERFUL:
Life as a Survivor in the Desert of Southwestern Africa,
by Peter R. Crane, Associate Curator of Paleobotany,
and Catherine D. Hult, Laboratory Assistant, Geology 22
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS 30
COVER
Welwitschia mirabilis, one of the most extraordinary members
of the plant kingdom, shown here in a diorama in Hall 29:
"Plants of the World." This bizarre inhabitant of African desert
regions is the subject of an article by Associate Curator Peter R.
Crane and Laboratory Assistant Catherine D. Hult , pages
22-29. B80266
Seen the Tiffany exhibit yet?
Hurry!
"Tiffany: 150 Years of Gems and Jewelry"
remains on view only through
Saturday, February 6
"Mothers and Daughters"
Unprecedented exhibition of 128 photos of
American mothers and daughters remains on
view through March 13
Field Museum o/ Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. IL 60605-2496.
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions exptessed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscriprs are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership
Department. Postmaster Please send form 3579 ro Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago. IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703.
Black Traditions
The beauty and excellence of traditional African crafts are be-
ing perpetuated by some of Chicago's most skilled artisans
and performers. Experience the rich atmosphere of an African
bazaar. Tour a drum maker's yard and see the transformation of
a simple log to a powerful musical instrument. Try your hand at
playing the finished product. Enjoy the legends of Africa's past
and performances by some of Chicago's most exciting theatre
groups. Join with Field Museum in celebrating the richness
and vitality of Black American Traditions.
Saturday and Sunday, Feb. 6, 7
1:00 to 3:00pm
Folk Art — demonstration
Derek Webster creates fantastic and colorful caricatures of the
life around us using found objects and wood scraps.
2:00pm
African Bazaar
Garments, dancers, musicians, and merchants illustrate the
beauty of African American culture.
Saturday and Sunday, Feb. 20, 21
1:00 to 3:00pm
Shakere — demonstration
Shakere are African percussion instruments made from gourds
and covered with a fine slightly loose netting of glass or wood-
en beads. Watch as Amira demonstrates how these beautiful
instruments are made and played.
2:00pm
Stories and Folktales with Shanta
Shanta enchants you with traditional African, African American,
and original tales enhanced with a variety of African musical
instruments.
Saturday and Sunday, Feb. 27, 28
1:00 to 3:00pm
The Drummer's Craft — demonstration
Visit with Musa Mosely, local drum maker, as he creates a
drum for you to play.
2:00pm
Stories and Folktales with Nora Blakely
Nora Blakely captivates you with exciting legends of Africa's
heroes and scary stories of the wonders of the world.
All Black Traditions family activities are free with Museum
admission. Tickets are not required.
World Music Program
Weekends in February
1:00pm and 3:00pm
Music communicates in many ways. It is something that can
be shared by all of us, whether or not we have common life-
styles, beliefs, or even languages. From the gentle harp of
Light Henry Huff to the lively and spirited stories and songs
of Shanta, February is a musical celebration at Field
Museum.
Feb. 6 1:00pm: □ Chinese Music Society of North
America
□ Amira — African Shakere
3:00pm: □ Chicago Beau —Blues Harmonica
Feb. 7 1 :00pm: □ Chinese Music Society of North
America
□ Amira — African Shakere
3:00pm: □ Chicago Beau —Blues Harmonica
Feb. 13 1:00pm: □ Chinese Music Society of North
America
3:00pm: □ Chinese Music Society of North
America
Feb. 14
Feb. 20
Feb. 21
Feb. 27
Feb. 28
1:00pm: □ Raices del Ande-
Folk Music
□ Raices del Ande-
Folk Music
3:00pm
1:00pm
3:00pm
1:00pm
3;00pm
1:00pm
3:00pm
1:00pm
3:00pm
-Latin American
-Latin American
□ Alas Poets
□ Light Henry Huff— Harp
□ Fan Wei-Tsu — Chinese Zither
□ Sheri Scott— Vocals
□ Alas Poets
□ Light Henry Huff— Harp
□ Fan Wei-Tsu — Chinese Zither
□ Sheri Scott— Vocals
□ Shanta— Storyteller
□ Keith Eric — Music of the Caribbean
□ Shanta— Storyteller
□ Keith Eric — Music of the Caribbean
The World Music Program is supported by the Kenneth and
Harle Montgomery Fund and a City Art IV grant from the Chi-
cago Office of Fine Arts, Department of Cultural Affairs.
Adult Programs
Courses for adults begin the week of February 15. "Africa: A
Continent Misunderstood" begins Thursday, February 25.
This series features some of Chicago's finest scholars dis-
cussing African culture and history. Other courses beginning
in February include "Conquest of the Incas," "Conversational
Chinese," and "Mandar Silkweavers."
"MOTHERS AND DAUGHTERS"
Photographic Exhibit
Closes March 13
Photo by Laura McPhee
Untitled, 1984
Ringoes, New Jersey
8 x 10 silver gelatin print
This unprecedented exhibition of 128 photographs of
American mothers and daughters chronicles the first,
most lasting, and most crucial bond in every woman's
life. Eighty-nine photographers — among them Eudora
Welty — have contributed remarkable images that
combine to form a varied and deeply insightful vision of
the mother/daughter relationship. Large color prints,
images combined with text, and mixed-media work are
shown side-by-side with more straightforward docu-
mentary investigations.
This exhibit was organized by the Aperture
Foundation in New York and is free with regular
Museum admission.
Exhibition Conservation
by Catherine Sease,
Associate Conservator, Department of Anthropology
W
hat is the job of an exhibition conservator? To
this question, most visitors would reply, "restore ob-
jects in a lab." They would be surprised to learn that
much of a conservator's work occurs in the public areas
of their museum. After objects have been placed in dis-
play cases, conservators do not simply forget about
them. These objects on exhibition must be looked after
just as carefully and conscientiously as those specimens
in storage, those that go out on loan, and those studied
in work areas.
Conservators can be thought of as doctors for arti-
facts. Like physicians, we are concerned with main-
taining the physical well-being of all the objects in the
collections under our care. When necessary, of course,
we do treat objects by cleaning them, repairing them,
and the like. More often, however, we practice pre-
ventive conservation. Again, the medical analogy is
perfectly apt, as the theory behind preventive con-
servation is similar to that of preventive medicine: if
objects are handled and cared for properly, the possibil-
ity of damage and deterioration is minimized.
Indications that preventive conservation is taking
place in an exhibition hall are generally there for one to
see, but museum visitors are not always aware that this
is what they are seeing. Have you ever wondered about
those curious little dials to be seen in the corners of
some museum cases? What about the shoe box-size
machines with pens continuously drawing lines on a
cylinder covered with graph paper? Have you always
thought that low light levels in an exhibition area are
just an economy measure or perhaps are intended to
create a dramatic effect? Each of these, however, is evi-
dence of preventive conservation.
Before looking more carefully at some of these
aspects of preventive conservation, it is important to
briefly consider the nature of the materials in our
anthropological collections. Most of the specimens in a
museum such as Field Museum consist of organic mate-
rials— that is, substances derived from plants or ani-
mals. This includes a wide range of materials: wood,
bark, leather, skin, fur, hide, hair, bone, ivory, grass,
seeds, and fibers of all kinds, to mention only the most
obvious.
Most anthropological objects are impermanent.
By their very nature, organic materials are not durable.
The moment a tree or plant is cut down or an animal is
killed, the natural processes of decomposition begin.
While a plant or animal is living, dead tissue is con-
stantly being replaced by new cells. This natural re-
placement of cells and tissue, however, ceases with
death, and the wood, fiber, or skin immediately begins
to deteriorate. This is all part of nature's great recycling
scheme. Even if the wood is carved into a sculpture or
the fiber is spun and woven into a blanket, this de-
terioration will take place. It may occur so slowly that it
will not be readily visible, but it does occur.
For anthropological objects, there is the added
problem that the people who made many objects never
intended them to be permanent. Created for a specific
ritual or function, these objects were later set aside or
discarded. Since the mask maker, for example, was not
concerned about his mask lasting beyond a specific
ceremony, he felt free to use all manner of perishable
materials, such as grasses, seeds, and skins, to create his
mask. It is most unlikely that he was concerned about
the problems he might be creating for some conservator
in a far-off time and place. Once the mask becomes part
of a museum collection, however, it is the conservator's
job to make sure that the highly perishable materials
contained in the mask endure for future generations to
study and appreciate. Unfortunately, the conservator
cannot completely arrest natural deterioration pro-
cesses, but certain measures can be taken to slow down
the inevitable.
With these considerations in mind, we can now
look at some of the most important causes of deteriora-
tion found within a museum's exhibition areas: relative
humidity, light, mounting and handling. (Deteriora-
tion of exhibited objects due to mold, insects, and
other pests is also a concern for conservators. Since it is
also a major concern in storage areas, this subject will
be treated in a future article. )
Relative Humidity
Probably the most pervasive cause of deterioration to
objects on display is the relative humidity within the
building. Relative humidity is the percentage of mois-
ture present in a given volume of air at a given tempera-
ture. Relative humidity, therefore, is closely inter-
related with the temperature. For example, hot air can
contain more water vapor than cold air. If the tempera-
different direction, thus restricting the movement of
adjacent pieces. Repairs sometimes contribute to this
type of damage; areas of hard, dried glue can act as a
restraint.
Abrupt fluctuations in the relative humidity,
especially over a long period, can be even more damag-
ing. At such times damage is the result of this same
mechanical action on the object, but on a larger, more
1. Water-soluble salt crys-
tals growing on surface of
a Greek lamp.
ture goes up, but the moisture in that air remains con-
stant, the relative humidity will go down; conversely, if
the temperature goes down, the relative humidity will
go up.
All organic materials contain a certain amount of
water, some chemically bound, that is, chemically part
of the material, and some loose within the cells. When
an object made of organic materials is placed in a room,
it immediately tries to reach equilibrium with the
ambient environment by absorbing or releasing mois-
ture. Once in equilibrium with its environment, the
object will continue to absorb moisture and swell if the
relative humidity increases and give back moisture to
the air and contract if the relative humidity drops. This
is a phenomenon familiar to anyone who has tried to
raise or lower a stuck window in damp weather — it had
been so easy during dry spells. In the museum, such
seasonal changes in relative humidity can also cause
damage to objects on display. In a basket, for example,
many small breaks can occur as each element in the
weave responds individually to changes in the relative
humidity. In an object made of different materials or of
joined pieces, free movement of individual pieces can
be restrained, and cracking, warping, or breakage can
result. Even objects made of pieces of the same material
can be damaged in this way, as each piece can swell in a
drastic scale. Once this damage occurs, it can never be
undone.
More serious damage occurs when the relative
humidity levels are not appropriate for organic mate-
rials. If the relative humidity is consistently very low,
the object will first give off its loose, then its bound
water, until equilibrium is reached. When this water
loss takes place slowly and gradually, the object be-
comes desiccated, and consequently brittle. It will con-
tract slowly, possibly warp and almost certainly split.
Leather and natural fibers will become more rigid and
lose their cohesion, thereby increasing the risk of
breakage. Ivory and bone will crack, and ivory, if sub-
ject to enough stress, will eventually separate along its
concentric laminations. Thin materials such as fibers
and paper will become so brittle that the least amount
of handling may cause them to break or disintegrate.
Once an object's bound water is gone, it cannot be re-
placed and the resulting damage cannot be reversed.
Objects made of organic materials are not the only
ones adversely affected by changes in relative humidity.
Seemingly robust materials such as pottery and stone
can be badly damaged indirectly by relative humidity
changes. Archaeological objects frequently contain
water-soluble salts from having been buried in the
ground for long periods. These salts, mainly chlorides,
nitrates, and sulphates, are readily dissolved in ground-
water and are then absorbed by any porous material
buried in the ground. Pottery, stone, bone, and ivory
are the archaeological materials which are most often
contaminated with soluble salts. As soon as an artifact
is excavated, these salts can begin to work their
damage.
It is the job of the field conservator to deal with
salt problems. If, for some reason, these objects do not
get treated in the field, they will still contain soluble
salts when they come into a museum. If they are kept in
an environment where the relative humidity level is
stable, they will remain in good condition. If the rela-
tive humidity fluctuates, however, considerable dam-
age can occur. If the relative humidity level gets high
enough, moisture in the air can cause the salts within
the pot, for example, to go into solution. Later, if the
relative humidity level drops, the moisture in the pot
will evaporate, and the salts dissolved in it will crystal-
lize out at or just below the surface. In badly con-
taminated material, a white bloom will first appear on
the surface and slowly salt crystals will grow (fig. 1). In
the solid, crystalline form, these salts have a larger
volume than when in solution, so crystallization can
exert great physical pressure against the object's under-
surface. If the relative humidity fluctuates, the salts
will go in and out of solution, changing in volume each
time. In due course, this cyclic action will literally push
off the surface of the object (fig. 2).
The problem of soluble salts can often be treated
by soaking the object in successive baths of distilled
water until the salts are removed. Some objects,
however, cannot be treated in this way. Wood objects,
for example, will not tolerate immersion in water.
When removing the salts is impossible, the only re-
maining option is to control the environmental con-
ditions.
Solving environmental humidity problems starts
with monitoring the conditions in exhibition halls and
cases. This is conveniently done with a recording hy-
grothermograph, a device for detecting and recording
the relative humidity and temperature on a continuous
graph (fig. 3). Such instruments are standard in
museums throughout the world. In Field Museum, they
can be seen in the exhibit cases in Webber Hall. Small
dials are also used to indicate the relative humidity and
temperature within a case, but these do not make a
written record (fig. 5). You may also see in some cases
small pink and blue paper cards; these contain
moisture-sensitive dyes that indicate the relative
humidity (fig. 4).
Once the relative humidity is known, there are
various ways to adjust it to the desired levels, depend-
ing on the building structure, configuration of the
exhibition halls, costs, and so forth. Air-conditioning
systems can be installed to control the relative humid-
ity and, on a smaller scale, humidifiers and/or de-
humidifiers can be utilized to control individual halls or
2. Detail of a
Peruvian ceram-
ic figure. The
surface on the
top of the head
has been
pushed off by
the action of
water-soluble
salts.
3. Recording hy-
grothermograph for
monitoring tempera-
ture and relative
humidity. This
machine produces
a written record;
each chart records
a week of readings.
C Sease
discrete areas. It is also possible to place the controlling
mechanism within a case. Silica gel, a synthetic crys-
talline material that readily absorbs or releases mois-
ture, is often concealed in museum cases to maintain
the relative humidity within that case at a specific
level. (Silica gel is the same material that manu-
facturers frequently pack in tiny containers along
with moisture-sensitive consumer products, such as
cameras. )
More often than not, a combination of the above
methods is used to control the relative humidity within
a museum. At Field Museum the entire building is air
conditioned. Although air-conditioning helps to con-
trol the relative humidity, it still fluctuates con-
siderably in the exhibition areas over the course of the
year. This is not remarkable considering the size and
configuration of Stanley Field Hall — an enormous
space (more than 1.5 million cubic feet) that is almost
impossible to control within strict limits, certainly the
limits we are talking about for the proper care of organ-
ic materials. As well, many of our exhibition halls are
themselves large spaces that open onto Stanley Field
Hall. Since these are not self-contained spaces, they
are difficult to control. The newly reconstructed
exhibition hall where Gods, Spirits and People is on dis-
play, however, is a self-contained area with its own air-
conditioning system capable of maintaining a set level
of relative humidity. Since most objects in the exhibit
are made of organic materials, the relative humidity is
kept at 50 percent for the current exhibition. Visitors
HUMIDITY %
READ TOP OF BLUE
BETWEEN BLUE SPINK
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MULTIFORM DESICCANT
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4. Paper card using pink and blue moisture-sensitive dyes to indi-
cate relative humidity.
5. Dial thermohygrometer for monitoring temperature and relative
humidity.
to this hall frequently comment on the area's high
humidity level. In the past, room humidifiers have
been used to control relative humidity in exhibition
areas — in 1984, for example, for the Treasures of the
Shanghai Museum show. We are now in the process of
developing a new exhibit, Rearing Young (scheduled to
open mid-1988), that will utilize silica gel within the
cases to protect the objects on view.
In addition to all of these relative humidity con-
trols in use at Field Museum, an exciting new develop-
ment is currently underway in Webber Hall. We are in
the process of developing a relative humidity module
that promises to be an important contribution to the
technology available to the entire museum community.
In essence, the module is a small-scale mechanical con-
trol system that provides low cost relative humidity
control for enclosed spaces (fig. 6). The Webber Hall
module, which visitors can view through a window, is
set to produce a level of relative humidity between 40
and 60 percent. A single module can control several
cases, the deciding factor being the total volume of air
in the cases. A large plastic tube extends from the out-
put of the module; smaller tubes branch off it to enter
each individual case. We continue to refine the module
and will use several in the new Egyptian and Pacific
halls, now being reinstalled.
Light
Light is also a major cause of deterioration of organic
materials. Light is actually a form of radiation, a form
that we can see; other forms of radiation are not visible
to the human eye. We are all familiar with the way a
prism will break up daylight — or white light emitted by
tungsten and fluorescent lamps — into all the colors of
the rainbow. Each of these colors has a different fre-
quency, or wavelength. The wavelength of light is
6. Relative humidity module currently visible in Webber Resource
Center.
ultravioletf
cosmic rays
-* —
X-rays
- visible -
01
0)
infrared
radio waves
300 400 500 600 700 760
nanometers
7. The Wavelengths of Visible and Invisible Radiation
10
shortest at the purple end and longest at the red (fig.
7). Beyond visible light at the short-wavelength end
lies ultraviolet radiation, while beyond the red at the
long-wavelength end lies infrared radiation. All of
these are emitted to various degrees by daylight and
white-light sources.
Damage caused by light to organic materials is re-
lated to wavelength. Ultraviolet radiation, that is,
short wavelength radiation, is very potent. It will cause
more damage to museum objects than the same amount
of blue radiation (light) which, in turn, will cause more
damage than orange radiation (light). Even though
ultraviolet radiation is more potent, there is more visi-
ble radiation emitted by all white-light sources. There-
fore, the greater quantity of visible radiation can be as
destructive as ultraviolet. For this reason, it is difficult
to say conclusively that one is more damaging than the
other. We must take measures, then, to control both
visible and invisible light in a museum exhibit.
Since light can damage only what it reaches, its
major effect is surface deterioration, most objects being
opaque. The most obvious effect of light damage is fad-
ing. We are all familiar with fading that occurs in cur-
tains, upholstery fabrics, or brightly colored rugs placed
by windows. The same effect is seen in textiles and cos-
tumes in museum collections if they are exposed to
strong light. The woven mat shown in figure 8 was on
display in the African Hall for over 25 years. It was
attached to the wall of a case with one side exposed to
light from the case and hall. The other side, tight
against the wall of the case, was shielded from all light.
Recently removed from display, the side exposed to the
light is now all one light color. Originally, it was deco-
rated with an elaborate purple design still visible on the
back of the mat overlying the faded side on the left of
the photograph. Pigments on painted objects will also
fade in strong light, as will feathers, with some colors
more likely to fade than others.
The tensile strength of organic materials can also
be damaged by light, and such damage is not always
immediately visible. Light can cause the molecular
chains of the components of organic materials to break
into shorter units. When this happens in wood, for ex-
ample, the structural damage will be limited to exposed
surfaces, resulting in discoloration and bleaching. In
thinner, more delicate materials, such as fibers, fur, or
hair, more radical change, discoloration, embrittle-
ment, and disintegration, can result.
The important thing to remember about damage
from light is that it is cumulative. Exposure to small
amounts of light over a long period can be just as
damaging in the long run as short periods of intense
exposure; damage caused by light, then, is directly pro-
portional to intensity and duration of exposure. As
well, damage due to light is not reversible. Once a tex-
tile has faded, a piece of wood has become bleached, or
a fiber embrittled, it cannot be restored to its original
color, luster, or strength.
To protect objects from such effects, the light
levels within an exhibition hall must be carefully con-
trolled. Obviously, controlling light levels is far simpler
than controlling relative humidity levels. It remains a
complex task, however, since exhibition lighting in-
volves visual and aesthetic considerations, as well as
technical expertise.
The first step in controlling light levels in a
museum is to eliminate all daylight. This is done both
for design and conservation reasons. The amount and
quality of available daylight changes greatly during the
course of a day and over the year, making it unreliable
for exhibition purposes. More important, however, is
the fact that daylight can be very harmful to a wide
range of museum objects. There is a higher proportion
of ultraviolet light in daylight, something on the order
of six times more than that emitted by incandescent
light, so daylight must go.
Once the daylight is removed, it is then necessary
to control the artificial light used in lighting an exhibi-
tion. Ideally, objects made of organic materials should
be kept in the dark, so we must try to achieve a com-
promise between the level of light necessary to display
an object adequately and the level needed for its pres-
ervation.
quires both space and time.
Most often, light levels are worked out by the
exhibit designer to achieve an overall effect, with con-
sideration being given to specific light levels for organ-
ic materials. Field Museum's Hall 10 (Maritime Peoples
of the Arctic and Northwest Coast) provides a good ex-
ample of this approach. Virtually every object in every
.
8. Woven mat from Madagascar showing fading (right side of photograph) from light. Cat. No. 185113.
Artificial light can be controlled in various ways.
When an exhibit contains only a few light-sensitive
objects, a common practice — especially for books and
manuscripts — is to cover the vitrines, or panes, of their
cases with cloth, much as bird cages are covered at
night. When one wishes to see into the case, the cov-
er's front panel is rolled up. For a group of light-
sensitive objects, a more expedient protection method
might be to isolate them in an exhibition area where
the light levels are kept low. This is more difficult than
it may at first seem. If the difference in light levels is too
great between adjacent areas, allowance must be made
for the visitors' eyes to adjust to the change. This re-
case in Hall 10 is sensitive to light; therefore, the light
levels are kept quite low. In addition, a mechanical
device is used that is, to my knowledge, unique to Field
Museum. The case lights are activated by pressure
sensitive pads concealed underneath the carpet. As a
visitor approaches a case, its lights grow brighter; they
become dim again as soon as he steps away. In this way,
the overall light levels are kept very low at all times
except when viewers are actually present.
The kind of artificial light used is also a concern of
the conservator. The most common artificial light used
in museums is incandescent, also called tungsten, and
fluorescent. Modifications of these and new types are
11
9. Hopewell stone pipe shown with its brass mount. Note that all but the end of the brass (on the right) has been covered with plastic tubing.
Cat. No. 56750. Sophia Anastasiou-Wasik A1 10535
12
being developed, but at the moment these two are the
most cost efficient. Tungsten bulbs — the type of light
in most common general use — come in a myriad of sizes
and shapes, from the conventional domestic light bulb
to floodlights. Such lamps emit a small amount of ultra-
violet light; but, since this invisible light is of very
short wavelength, it is extremely harmful. Tungsten
lamps, however, are covered in a glass bulb which suc-
cessfully blocks out this ultraviolet light. Tungsten
lights, therefore, are safe to use in exhibition areas with
only a glass filter in front of them to filter out all ultra-
violet light.
Fluorescent tubes, on the other hand, emit large
amounts of ultraviolet light. In order to use such a light
source safely with light-sensitive organic materials, it is
necessary to use it in conjunction with ultraviolet-
absorbing filters. These filters have no effect on the
amount or quality of visible light passing through
them, but do prevent the transmission of all ultraviolet
light. Made of various kinds of plastic, these filters
come in many different forms, the most common being
1) acrylic sheets that can be used in place of glass for
windows or the vitrines of cases; 2) acrylic sleeves that
fit over fluorescent tubes; 3) thin foil that can be cut to
shape and adhered to glass; and 4) varnish. At Field
Museum, we use the acrylic sleeves extensively as most
of our cases are illuminated with fluorescent tubes. The
thin foil is also used to block out the ultraviolet light
from the windows in the Grainger Gallery (South
Lounge). Future installations will incorporate these
and newer methods of lighting.
Handling
Most museum visitors are well aware that objects in an
exhibit should not be touched, but they seldom realize
why. There are two main reasons why handling is bad
for objects.
The skin on our hands naturally secretes salts,
oils, and acids that are harmful to objects. The surfaces
of objects that are continually touched will rapidly be-
come dirty and greasy from the oils and dirt on one's
hands. Sometimes, these surfaces are difficult or impos-
sible to clean, and such soiling will necessitate risky
cleaning procedures. As well as soiling objects, these
salts, oils, and acids can promote the deterioration of
objects. Acids, for example, on fingers will leave fin-
gerprints on objects that can etch the surfaces of
polished metals or remove the patina from oxidized sur-
faces. Extensive handling over time can result in the
active corrosion of metal objects. When it is necessary
to handle specimens, museum staff take precautions
such as wearing cotton or plastic gloves.
In addition to damage caused by the secretions of
our skin, handling can also damage objects by simple
wear and tear. Just as the upholstery on the arms of
chairs in one's home can be worn thin over a period of
many years, so can museum specimens be damaged by
casual touching. The cumulative effect of touching
over long periods can be devastating. The crispness of
sculptural detail may be gradually lost as it becomes
rounded; textiles may be rubbed thin; gilded, painted,
or patinated surfaces may be lost forever. Generally, ob-
jects are placed inside cases to safeguard them from
touching, as well as to keep them clean. Enclosing ob-
jects also enables us to use the enclosed space to control
the environment around the object, if necessary, to
protect it from relative humidity and light.
Mounting
Within exhibit cases, further protection for museum
objects is provided by the mounts — custom-made sup-
ports that position objects for viewing. The mount also
serves an important protective function: it supports the
object securely so that it cannot fall or break if the case
is jostled (fig. 9). It also prevents stresses from being
focused on thin, weak areas and inhibits any possible
distortion of the object that could lead to deteriora-
tion. In order to accomplish these objectives, a mount
must be carefully designed. The weak areas of the ob-
ject must be identified and its general condition
assessed before a mount can be made. A fragile textile,
for example, may be unable to support its own weight
when hung vertically, so a special mount will be needed
to display it horizontally or slightly inclined in order to
evenly distribute the textile's weight. Making mounts
is a time-consuming job that requires great patience
and skill; the resulting mounts can frequently be works
of art in themselves.
Mounts are made out of a wide variety of mate-
rials, depending on the object to be mounted. Most
anthropological objects at Field Museum are mounted
with rods, clips, and brackets made of plastic or brass.
Other useful materials for mounts are cloth, acid-free
tissue, and certain kinds of plastic foams. Mounts that
are in direct contact with an object must be made of
inert materials that will not interact with the materials
of the object to cause deterioration. Wherever brass
mounts come in contact with an object, the brass is
covered with felt or tubing made of inert plastic (fig.
9). This tubing insulates the brass from any other metal
on the object, preventing corrosion that would occur if
the two metals were in contact. This tubing also serves
to cushion the brass against the surface of the object.
Special acid-free tissue is used to stuff hollow three-
dimensional objects while mannikins and dress forms
are fashioned out of plastic foams. Only a few kinds of
plastic and plastic foams are suitable for mount making:
those that do not give off harmful vapors.
Mounts must be carefully constructed so that they
will hold the object firmly; but they must not scratch,
abrade, dent, or otherwise deface an object. Neither
must they exert any undue stress or tension on the ob-
ject. For example, small, but wide plastic clips are used
to attach large, flat objects vertically to a wall. Gentle
tension at numerous points around the perimeter of the
object holds it firmly in place. Such a mounting tech-
nique prevents any stretching and ripping of the object
that might be caused by its own weight.
Mounts for organic materials are especially tricky.
In discussing the ways in which organic materials re-
spond to fluctuations in relative humidity, it was noted
how such materials change in size and shape over the
course of time while absorbing or giving off moisture.
Such movement must not be inhibited by any mount or
warping, cracking, and breaking can easily result. For
this reason, some objects are cradled on a plastic mount
with small brass pins loosely holding them in position.
These and other mounting devices are particularly evi-
dent in Hall 10.
These are the major issues that concern an exhibi-
tion conservator. Other aspects of conservation are
concerned with these and additional issues and will
be explored in future articles. FH
Anthropology Symposium for Collectors
Very often private collectors approach Field Museum for
information and help with objects in their possession. Our
staff can help with some problems and not with others, and
we thought that collectors might find it useful and informative
to participate in a symposium with Museum Staff about
collector's problems.
On Saturday, March 26, from 9 to 12 am, in Lecture Hall I
at Field Museum, the Collector's Committee of the Capital
Campaign and the Department of Anthropology will present a
panel discussion of assistance for collectors. Members of the
Anthropology staff will talk about conservation, cataloguing,
documentation, collection storage, and display, ethical and
legal problems.
Field Museum staff is qualified to speak only about its
kind of collections, ethnographic, archaeological, and
Oriental art objects, but obviously not about European fine
art, historical antiques, European musical instruments, and
similar material. These are all matters which are dealt with
every day at Field Museum, and perhaps experience gained
by the Museum staff in dealing with its collections may
be helpful to collectors in dealing with their collections.
The duration and format of the meeting will not lend itself
to bringing specific objects in for discussion. Phone inquir-
ies and reservations should be made to 322-8862.
13
John A. Kakaruk
Painter of Inland Eskimo Life
by Charles V. Lucier and James W. VanStone
Although there are no words for "art" or "artist"
in the Eskimo language, art has always been an
important part of Alaskan Eskimo life. The graphic
tradition, as opposed to carving in the round, has been
almost exclusively a characteristic of the Inupiat'Eski-
mos who live north of Norton Sound, some of whom
moved south to the Yupik-speaking region of St.
Michael in the mid- 19th century (fig. 2).
The earliest Eskimo graphic art consisted of incis-
ing or engraving on small objects of walrus ivory or cari-
bou antler. Prehistorically this engraving was usually
done by men on harpoon heads, tools, and personal
1. John Azialuk Kakaruk in 1970 (photo by Charles V. Lucier, muse).
14
ornaments. Engraving in ancient times were of a dec-
orative or perhaps magical kind, or were marks of own-
ership. In the early 19th century, fine realistic engrav-
ings were done typically on tobacco pipe stems, drill
bows, and bag handles. These engravings sometimes
commemorated special events, such as the killing of
walrus or whales, but many were the creation of artists
for esthetic effect. Also among Inupiat, who lived in a
kind of meritocracy, demonstration of superior skill
was an important ingredient of leadership and evidence
of higher social status: the more an individual could do
well, including "art," the better for himself and his
family. In the middle to late 19th century, engravings
were made less for use at home and more for eth-
nographic collectors or as souvenirs to be sold or traded
to commercial whalers, government officials, gold
miners, and missionaries, who came to Alaska in
large numbers after 1850.
European explorers in northwest Alaska were
impressed with the ability of Eskimos to recognize ob-
jects in two-dimensional illustrations, but exposure to
western illustrations became common only after the
first commercial whaling ship sailed through Bering
Strait in 1848. Eskimos were frequently given pencil
and paper to draw pictures and maps. With the estab-
lishment of schools in northwest Alaska, non-ivory
graphic art by Eskimos increased. Drawing classes were
frequently part of the curriculum in the early schools,
since pupils and teachers could not speak each other's
languages. The Rev. Sheldon Jackson, a Presbyterian
'Inupiat is the name of this Eskimo group. Inupiaq, used later in
this text, is the adjectival form.
Charles V. Lucier is a retired biologist, formerly with the
Alaska Department of Fish and Game; James W. VanStone
is curator of North American archaeology and ethnology at
the Field Museum.
missionary and the first agent of education in Alaska,
published a number of pencil and ink drawings by un-
identified Eskimo artists in official government reports.
Two of these drawings are reproduced here. In the first
(fig. 3) hunters are shown hunting ducks or geese with
a bolas (rope with weights attached for throwing). The
hunter at the left has just released the weapon toward a
flock of low-flying birds. On the right a hunter runs
toward a bird entangled in the cluster of bolas weights.
The second drawing (fig. 4) depicts the use of reindeer
as draft animals (for additional 19th-century Eskimo
drawings, see Field Museum Bulletin, vol. 53, no. 6,
June, 1982).
One of the earliest identified Eskimo graphic
artists was Guy Kakarook from St. Michael, who drew
and painted 64 pictures of scenes and activities around
his home village and on the Yukon River. Very little is
known about Kakarook. He was born east of Nome in
the mid-1800s and later moved to St. Michael, where
he worked as a deckhand on river boats ascending the
Yukon River with gold miners headed for the Klondike.
He is believed to have died in Nome sometime after
1905. Kakarook used watercolor for buildings, boats,
and people, and crayon for sea and sky, often com-
bining the two media for hills, grass, trees, and other
natural features. He signed his name to his paintings,
2. Seward Peninsula and Adjacent Areas
but did not date or identify them. These paintings,
which provide a valuable pictorial history of St.
Michael and the Yukon River in the 1890s, were col-
lected by Sheldon Jackson and are now in the National
Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution.
■
15
3. Hunters hunting ducks or geese with a bolas (Jackson, S. Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into
Alaska, . . , 1884, Washington, 1895),
4. Reindeer hauling freight (Jackson, S. Report on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, . . . 1884,
Washington, 1895).
16
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5. Eskimo duck hunter (Smithsonian Institution, photo™ mnh 1713c).
Typical of Guy Kakarook's style and subject mat-
ter is a painting that depicts an Eskimo duck hunter
seated by a tundra pond, pulling on a pair of sealskin
waterproof boots. He has already killed two ducks with
his spear and two more are struggling in baleen snares
set between two points at a narrow area of the pond. A
pair of swans are flying overhead. The pale colors are
brown for the hunter, brown and green for the tundra,
and blue for the sky and water (fig. 5).
A modern Eskimo graphic artist whose name and
style of painting is similar to that of Guy Kakarook and
who was born on Seward Peninsula at the time Kaka-
rook was producing his art, is John Azialuk Kakaruk,
born near Deering in 1892 (fig. 1). Despite the sim-
ilarity in their names, there is no definite evidence that
the two artists were related.
John A. Kakaruk spent his early years at Mary's
Igloo and Council in interior Seward Peninsula, where
his father hunted, fished and trapped, and worked for
gold miners. As a youth and young adult, John worked
as a reindeer herder, these animals having been intro-
duced from Siberia in 1892, the year of his birth. Later,
in the 1930s, Kakaruk worked summers as a member of
gold dredge crews on Seward Peninsula. In the early
postwar years he was employed as a handyman and
watchman at the Lost River tin mine on the coast west
of Teller, where he associated with other older Eskimos
from Kotzebue and elsewhere who shared his interest in
traditional Eskimo culture, especially music, dancing,
and storytelling.
One of the most memorable events of John Kaka-
ruk's middle years, which he recalled with enthusiasm,
was his employment by an MGM movie crew which
over-wintered aboard a schooner in Grantley Harbor
on Seward Peninsula while filming sequences of the
movie "The Eskimo" in the early 1930s. John provided
and controlled a herd of reindeer that formed a back-
drop for a scene showing two supposed shamans in a
drumming duel. John often mentioned the Danish
explorer Peter Freuchen, who served as a technical
advisor for the filming.
Sometime in the 1950s John moved with his ex-
tended family to the Red Devil mercury mine on the
Kuskokwim River and later, in 1959, to Anchorage
where Lucier first met him in the fall of that year. In the
early to mid-1960s he and his wife Alice danced reg-
ularly for visiting tourists at "The Gilded Cage," an
Alaska Crippled Children's Association gift shop and
tourist center in downtown Anchorage. He also
attended meetings of the Cook Inlet Native Associa-
6. Inupiaq youth hunting snowshoe hares 110362
17
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7. Two boys hunting snowshoe hares 110361
18
tion, a multi-cultural native organization headquar-
tered in Anchorage, and later participated in dancing
and other social activities of Urban Natives United,
another native organization in the city. He died in
Anchorage in 1981.
Although resident in a large city during his later
years, John Kakaruk's inner life was linked to his grand-
father's and father's caribou hunting and fishing exis-
tence. In 1960, at the age of 68 and at the request of
Lucier, he produced a series of ink and watercolor
sketches on drawing paper that illustrate the subsis-
tence life-ways of traditional Inupiat on inland Seward
Peninsula, specifically the Kuzitrin River drainage, in
the late 19th century. Seven of his sketches are repro-
duced here to illustrate his realistic style and the range
of his subject matter.
Figure 6. A winter or fall scene showing an Inup-
iaq youth pushing a light inland sled on which are
dead, snared snowshoe hares he has collected from
snare sets. At the left, two dead hares are hanging by
their hind legs from willow branches. In the center is a
dead, snared hare in a tripped counterbalanced set. Be-
hind the sled a ptarmigan or hare snare is shown in a
constructed cut willow "fence." The hunter's parka is
brown, his pants reddish brown, the hares off-white,
and the sky blue-green.
Figure 7. Two boys are driving snowshoe hares
into a set net in willows or cottonwoods. One boy has a
bow and arrows, while the other holds a stick for club-
bing the hares caught in the net. Both parkas are fawn-
colored. The older boy at left wears light tan pants and
grey boots; boots of the boy at right are yellowish. The
hares are white and the sky blue-green and yellow.
Figure 8. A summer or fall scene showing a kayak
hunter on an inland lake using a throwing board with a
multi-pronged spear to hunt ducks. One speared duck
is in the water. Note that the hunter has both single-
and double-bladed paddles. The lake is pale green, the
hunter's parka light tan, and the kayak a darker tan.
The mountain sides are various shades of brown, with
white snow banks, and the sky tan-streaked.
Figure 9. In this mid-winter scene a hunter on
snowshoes is shown visiting his hare and ptarmigan
snare sets. At the left, a snared snowshoe hare hangs
from a counterbalanced snare set in a hare trail. To the
right is an untripped hare or fox snare. In the fore-
ground are snared ptarmigans caught in small snares
baited with willow branches. In the background are the
Sawtooth Mountains in the Kuzitrin River drainage.
The hunter's clothes are tan and boots yellow-ocher;
ptarmigans and hare off-white, and sky streaked green-
yellow.
Figure 10. An inland village scene showing a
fisherman beside cut fishing holes on the frozen Kuzi-
trin River. The Sawtooth Mountains are in the back-
ground. In his right hand the fisherman holds an ice
8. Kayak hunter on an inland lake 110354
9. Inupiaq hunter visiting his hare and ptarmigan snare sets 110356
19
j a \< o-M. <" "A
10. Inland village scene 110353
1 1 . Inupiaq bear hunter 110352
20
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1 2. Inupiaq reindeer herder with sled and deer hmm-w
scoop for removing slush ice from the holes. A fish line
and lure are at his left. The two fish on the ice are
probably trout or grayling. Behind the fisherman on
the bank is a sod-covered winter dwelling with a small
storm shed and central roof skylight and smoke hole.
To the left of the house is a raised storage cache and a
sled. Small cottonwoods or willows, typical river bank
vegetation, are also shown. The fisherman's parka is
amber, pants yellow-brown, and boots whitish. The
two fishing holes are blue-green, the sky streaked
green; cache contents cover and door and rooftop of
house are tan.
Figure 11. An Inupiaq hunter with a spear, bow,
and arrows is about to attack a female brown bear with
her half-grown cub. The Sawtooth or Bendeleben
Mountains are in the background and small cotton-
wood trees are shown in the foreground. The sky is
streaked blue-green, the mountains outlined in black.
The hunter's parka is streaked yellow-pink, probably to
represent ground squirrel pelts. The mother bear is dark
brown, the cub black-brown.
Figure 12. An inland Inupiaq reindeer herder with
a sled pulled by a single deer. The sled is the typical
Inupiaq variety rather than the Siberian type, with
curved antler stanchions and narrow runners curved in
front, usually used with reindeer; unfortunately the
colors used in this sketch are unavailable. Two Sibe-
rian style sleds are shown in figure 4. (For more detailed
information concerning the harnessing and driving of
reindeer, see the Bulletin, vol. 53, no. 6, June, 1982.)
Like his late 19th-century predecessors, John
Kakaruk was an untrained artist. Although not as good
a draughtsman as Guy Kakarook and the unknown
artists whose work is shown in figures 3 and 4 , his land-
scapes show the same accurate perspective that con-
veys the vast depth of space characteristic of the west-
ern Alaska tundra. Unlike Kakarook, however, his
human and animal figures are not often drawn to scale
nor is he as sophisticated in his use of colors.
John Kakaruk's early life as a reindeer herder was,
in many ways, a continuation of the life- ways of previ-
ous generations of caribou-hunting inland Inupiat.
Although he later worked for wages and World War II
broke his attachment to inland life, he retained his
sense of traditional values. John Kakaruk's art reflects a
concentration on his homeland and on the subsistence
life-ways of Inupiat culture even though, at the time
these drawings were made, he had lived for a long time
in a modern urban setting. FN
Ray, D.J.
1969
1971
Suggested Readings
Graphic Arts of the Alaskan Eskimo. U.S. De-
partment of the Interior, Indian Arts and Crafts
Board, Native American Arts 2. Washington.
Kakarook, Eskimo Artist. The Alaska Journal,
vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 8-15.
21
*t
--».-.
A .
1. The diorama in "Plants of the World" (Hall 29) at Field Museum showing Welwitschia mirabilis in its natural habitat. The plant in the
left foreground shows the female reproductive structures while that on the right shows the small clusters of male "flowers" (compare figs.
8 and 10). 80265
Welwitschia the Wonderful
Life as a Survivor
In the Desert of Southwestern Africa
by Peter R. Crane and Catherine D. Hult
22
In the Age of Genetic Engineering and satellite
surveys of the earth's vegetation, it is easy to forget the
appalling incompleteness of basic knowledge about
plants and their ecology in so many parts of the world.
Even today, the discovery of new plant species either of
exceptional scientific interest or potential utilitarian
value is not a rare event as collectors and specialists
from major museums and universities pursue their field-
work in the tropical regions of the world.
In the late nineteenth century, however, botani-
cal discovery was proceeding even more rapidly — in
fact at an extraordinary rate, as an upsurge in man's
scientific inquisitiveness coincided with the geograph-
ical exploration of the remote areas of old colonial
empires. As the vast extent of the world's hotanical
richness gradually became known, it did much to
stimulate Darwin and others who were striving to
account for the origin of biological diversity, hut it also
fascinated a broader botanical and general audience by
bringing forth some of the most bizarre and unusual
plants known to science.
Such discoveries included Victmia amazonica, a
tropical water-lily from South America with giant
floating traylike leaves more than six feet across, and
Rafflesiaarnoldii, astemless, rootless parasite with mon-
strous red-purple, fly-pollinated flowers over three feet
in diameter and with the visual and olfactory impact of
a rotting carcass. Equally bizarre, and botanically still
more remarkable is Welwitschia mirabilis, a keystone in
our understanding of plant evolution which first be-
came known to science in the same year that Darwin's
Origin of Species changed forever our perception of the
natural world.
In 1859 the Austrian botanist and physician, Dr.
Friedrich Martin Joseph Welwitsch (1806-72), was ex-
ploring the vegetation and plants of Angola, in south-
western Africa. Welwitsch (fig. 2) had already estab-
lished a reputation as one of the foremost collectors of
African plants and was in contact with some of the
most eminent European botanists of his time. As a re-
sult of his travels, large numbers of new species were
discovered and specimens were sent back to Europe for
study at major botanical institutions. Like many col-
lectors before and since, he taxed his health to the
limits, and "still suffering from the effects of fever,"' he
left his base in Louanda (Luanda) at the end of June
1859 to explore the vegetation along the coast of
southwestern Africa in the vicinity of Mossamedes
(now Namibe). As he later recorded, "The magnifi-
cent climate of Mossamedes was so delightful, and so
speedily restored my shattered health, that after a stay
of five weeks I had quite recovered and felt myself a new
man. I therefore extended my excursions further and
further — first northward, and southward along the
coast to beyond Cape Negro and Port Alexander. . . . "'
It was south of Mossamedes that Welwitsch first
encountered the remarkable plant which now bears his
name. On returning to Louanda, he described his dis-
Peter R. Crane is associate curator of Paleobotany and Catherine
D. Hult is a laboratory assistant in the Department of Geology.
2. Dr. Friedrich Martin Joseph Welwitsch, from a photograph taken
in August 1865.8 Welwitsch was born on February 5, 1806 in Maria-
Saal near Klagenfurt, Austria but for most of his professional life
worked for the Portuguese government. Such was the importance of
his collections from southwestern Africa that after Welwitsch's death
(Oct. 20, 1872) the government of Portugal filed suit (Dom Luis the
First, King of Portugal, versus Carruthers and Justen) in a con-
troversial and unsuccessful attempt to recover the Welwitsch speci-
mens from the British Museum (Natural History), gnssou
covery in a letter to Sir William J. Hooker, then
director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in Eng-
land. "Several miles before reaching Cape Negro the
coast rises to a height of about 300-400 feet, forming a
continuous plateau, extending over six miles inland, as
Hat as a table. This tabular elevation. . . is. . .clothed
with a vegetation which, though scanty, consists of
plants of the highest interest; among them a dwarf tree
was particularly remarkable which, with a diameter of
stem often of 4 feet, never rose higher above the surface
than 1 foot, and which, throughout its entire duration,
that not unfrequently might exceed a century, always
retained the two woody leaves which it threw up at the
time of germination, and besides these it never puts
forward another. The entire plant looks like a round
table, a foot high, projecting over the tolerably hard
23
24
3. Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker F.R.S. (1817-1911). J.D. Hooker was
one of the foremost scientists of the Victorian era and served as
director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England from 1 866 to
1 885. He prepared the first detailed scientific description of Welwits-
chia and named the plant after its discoverer. nieBettmann Archive
sandy soil; the two opposite leaves (often a fathom [6
feet] long by 2 to 2Vz feet broad) extend on the soil to
its margin, each of them split up into numerous ribbon-
like segments."1
At the Field Museum we are uniquely fortunate to
be able to personally experience something of Wel-
witsch's surprise and fascination at his discovery with-
out having to endure the hardships of the southwest
African desert. The accurate and dramatic reconstruc-
tion of Welwitschia in "Plants of the World" (Hall 29)
shows several plants in their native habitat looking as
one author expressed it "like stranded octopuses"2 on
the bare desert surface (fig- 1 ).
Welwitsch continued his letter to Hooker with a
few more details and half a page of description in Latin.
His reputation as an accomplished botanist combined
with his seemingly fantastic description was sufficient
to set the European botanical world buzzing when Wel-
witsch's letter was read before the Linnean Society in
London on January 17th 1861, and subsequently pub-
lished. As Hooker's son later described, "... since the
discovery otRafflesia Amoldi, no vegetable production
has excited so great an interest. . . . '"
In the autumn of 1861, even before specimens
from Welwitsch arrived in London, further informa-
tion was forthcoming about this extraordinary plant.
By a remarkable coincidence, a box arrived at Kew
from Damaraland (now part of Namibia) containing
several plants collected by an English botanical artist,
Thomas Baines. Quite independently the material had
been collected in an area about 500 miles south of that
visited by Welwitsch, and among the specimens were a
few Welwitschia cones along with the first drawings of
complete plants. Transport of the specimens from the
Namibian Desert to London had taken almost six
months and although they were largely rotten on arri-
val, they were studied by Dr. Joseph Dalton Hooker
shortly before he succeeded his father, William, as
director of the botanical gardens at Kew (fig. 3). In
spite of their poor condition, Hooker quickly estab-
lished that the seeds of Welwitschia were more like those
of cycads than flowering plants and thus that the plant
was of exceptional botanical interest. This was suf-
ficient to start J. D. Hooker upon a year of intensive
work, which still stands as one of the classic studies of
this bizarre plant. Rapidly he procured more speci-
mens, not only from Welwitsch, but also from other
correspondents in southwestern Africa, and began his
investigations in earnest.
Judging from his prodigious work in many areas of
botany as well as from insights into his personality pro-
vided by his correspondence,4 Hooker must have been
a man of extraordinary energy. In letters to his friend
Charles Darwin, Hooker mentions several long five-
hour sessions at the microscope studying the finer de-
tails of Welwitschia. With an eye to his own meticulous
labors on an equally peculiar group of organisms, Dar-
win commented, "I see plainly that Welwitschia will be
a case of barnacles."' Hooker was evidently fascinated
and excited by the intricacy and botanical implications
of Welwitschia's structure. Describing his work to Tho-
mas Henry Huxley, another of his illustrious con-
temporaries in Victorian biology, he bubbled with
enthusiasm asking Huxley to imagine an embryo, "ex-
panding like a dream into a huge broad woody brown
disc. . .of texture and surface like an overdone
loaf. ... It is without question the most wonderful
plant ever brought to this country — and the very
ugliest."4
4. The natural distribution of Welwitschia mirabilis in southwestern
Africa (redrawn by Clara Richardson from a map compiled by Kers9).
Yet, as his work neared completion, Hooker ex-
perienced the inevitable frustration and stateness that
comes in the final stages of any long project. Writing to
Darwin in October, 1862, "My wife went to Cambridge
and enjoyed it; I stayed at home! (and enjoyed it),
working away at Welwitschia every day and almost every
night. I entirely agree with you by the way, that after
long working at a subject, and after making something
of it, one invariably finds that it all seems dull, flat,
stale and unprofitable — this feeling, however, you will
observe only comes (most mercifully) after you really
have made out something worth knowing. "4 Hooker's
account of Welwitschia was eventually published in the
Transactions of the Linnean Society for 1863 and it was in
this paper that the plant was formally named after its
Austrian discoverer. The specific epithet mirabilis liter-
ally translated from Latin appropriately means "won-
derful" or "extraordinary."
Botanically what Hooker had managed to estab-
lish was the strong similarities of Welwitschia to the
equally strange genera Ephedra and Gnetum (see next
month's Bulletin) as well as all of the basic facts of its
structure. Hooker demonstrated that Welwitschia was
in many ways much less specialized than flowering
plants (angiosperms) and he thus placed it in a loose
assemblage of more or less unspecialized seed plants
called the gymnosperms. Since Hooker's work a great
deal more has also been learned, but even after 120
years there is much about Welwitschia that botanists
still find strange, and even more, particularly about its
biology, that we do not understand.
Populations of Welwitschia plants are scattered
through a restricted zone extending for about 1 ,200 km
(745 miles) down the coast of southwestern Africa
from about 10 to 150 km inland (fig. 4). Geographical-
ly this area is comparable to the Atacame Desert of
Chile and Peru or the Baja Desert of California and
Mexico, all three of these great barren areas being on
the western edge of a large continental mass with their
shores bathed by cold water currents. Throughout most
of its geographical range, Welwitschia experiences no
more than 100 mm of rain per year and sometimes none
at all,6 and this raises the obvious question of how does
a structurally unique plant such as this survive in these
arid and seemingly inhospitable conditions?
Most plants living in such habitats (collectively
termed xerophytes — literally "dry plants") appear to be
adapted in some way to the adverse conditions of their
environment. Typically they have small leaves in
which the reduced surface area minimizes the dangers
of overheating and excessive water loss. Other
xerophytes shed their leaves in the dry season or store
water in fleshy stems (as in cacti) for use during the
most arid parts of the year. Other desert plants literally
seem to avoid drought, growing rapidly when water is
available but surviving as dry fruits or seeds in the soil
when conditions become arid again.
Some xerophytes have specialized physiological
mechanisms to allow them to carry out photosynthesis
(make their own carbohydrates from carbon dioxide
and water) in these harsh environments. In most plants
the breathing pores in the leaves (stomata) open during
the day to permit the entry of carbon dioxide, which
supplies their raw source of carbon. In the desert, when
the stomata open to let carbon dioxide in, they are
25
5. Professor H. Humbert (Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Pans) with a living Welwitschia plant in Angola. Note the contrast between the large
leaves of Welwitschia and the small leaves and spines of the vegetation in the background. Humbert collected the Welwitschia specimens now
housed at Field Museum in 1937. b?9564
26
equally efficient at letting ptecious water out. Some
xerophytes cleverly sidestep this difficulty by opening
the stomata only at night when temperatures, and
therefore the problems of dehydration, are minimized.
They have evolved a means of fixing and "storing" the
carbon dioxide taken up during the night as a weak
acid, making the carbon available again internally dur-
ing the day for the production of sugars and other car-
bohydrates, thus saving valuable water.
Welwitschia resolutely provides exceptions to all of
these generalizations about xerophytes. It directly con-
fronts its harsh environment by having persistent
leaves with a large surface area and it stores very little
water in the leaves, stem, or root (figs. 5 and 6). Still
worse, it appears to commit physiological suicide by
opening its stomata during the day, albeit in the early
morning and evening when temperatures are relatively
low. Even at these times, however, temperatures may
be as high as 30°C (about 86° F) and clearly result in
huge losses of water." As one plant physiologist recently
put it, "If botanists should construct a plant best
adapted to desert environment, they would never
come up with a monster like Welwitschia mirabilis.'*'
What then are the secrets to Welwitschia's survival
success? Its large leaves and inhospitable habitat place
it immediately in a double bind. The large leaves need
to lose water to prevent overheating (just as sweating is
a necessary human response to heat stress) but the
plant grows in a desert, where water is an extremely
scarce commodity. Part of the answer to this seeming
paradox is provided by the remarkable Welwitschia leaf:
not only does its tough fibrous construction resist inces-
sant sand blasting in the desert winds but it is also high-
ly reflective, working in a way analogous to that of the
tinted reflective glass of some modern buildings and
reflecting almost half the solar radiation with which it
is bombarded.6 This in itself is a significant improve-
ment over the leaves of many of our common trees, in
which only about 25 percent of the radiation is re-
flected— the remaining 75 percent being absorbed and
contributing to the problem of overheating. A second
and still more surprising element of the "solution" is
that water loss, through evaporation from the leaves,
cancels out about an additional 14 percent of the total
energy input.6 This is a common phenomenon among
plants that grow in habitats where water is plentiful,
but in a desert plant it makes little sense to consistently
waste such a valuable resource and raises the obvious
question of where does Welwitschia get its water?
J.D. Hooker himself obliquely addressed this
question, implying that plants may have obtained
water from the fogs and heavy dews that commonly
occur over much of the Weluiitschia area. As in the Ata-
came and Baja deserts this condensation of water vapor
sometimes occurs on a massive scale when hot con-
tinental air mixes with cool air associated with the cold
coastal water currents. Unfortunately the idea that
Weluiitschia plants may use this condensed water raises
as many problems as it solves. Weluiitschia leaves have
no obvious structures to absorb such free water.
Although it is possible that the breathing pores (stoma-
ta) could play some role in absorbing water from the air,
there is only a very short period when this might be
possible: in the early morning before temperatures rise
too high or before the stomata close. Rough calcula-
tions show that water absorption by the leaves is un-
likely to account for more than about 2 percent of a
plant's annual water needs.6
If Weluiitschia doesn't get its water through the
leaves, the only other possibility is that it is somehow
obtained by the roots. Even for botanists, roots are one
of the most neglected parts of all plants. Usually they
are "out of sight and out of mind" and it is difficult to
study how they work except in cultivation, where it is
almost impossible to duplicate precisely the conditions
they encounter in their natural habitat. This is particu-
larly true of Weluiitschia, and although we know it has a
huge taproot resembling a giant woody carrot (figs. 6
7. The massive apex of a Welwitschia taproot (approximately 4 feet
in diameter) showing the gnarled, tangled mass of roots and the fib-
rous leaves shredded into numerous strands (compare fig. 6). 360395
6. Model of a young Welwitschia plant showing the stout woody tap
root and the two leathery leaves that are retained by the plant
throughout its entire life (compare fig. 7). aisoi
and 7), we have no idea how far down or how exten-
sively the much finer roots penetrate. Clearly however,
an extensive root system is critical to the survival of the
plant. Cultivated Weluiitschia plants are usually grown
in long pipes to accommodate the taproot, and even a
10-week-old seedling of Weluiitschia only an inch or two
high has already developed a main root well over a foot
long (fig. 9). It seems that this extensive root system,
perhaps in conjunction with a highly specialized and
efficient system of water-conducting cells which occur
in Welwitschia and related plants, is the key to survival.
The roots of Welwitschia apparently provide access to
water sources unavailable to other plants and are ca-
pable of maintaining the essential water supply to the
leaves to compensate for water lost into the air. It is a
wasteful system which verges on the ridiculous for a
desert plant, but its effectiveness here cannot be dis-
puted. In a recent drought lasting over two years, the
timeless Welwitschia plants survived while the few
plants growing with them died off completely.6
27
28
8. Sections through the hermaphrodite (bisexual) "flowers" produced by three different groups of plants. Each "flower" shows the seed-
producing (female) organs in the center, surrounded both by the pollen-producing organs (male), and structures resembling petals. This
arrangement is frequently thought to be linked to the operation of insect pollination systems. Williamsoniella coronata (left) (approximately 1 80
million years before present), is one of the bisexual "flowers" produced by an extinct group of fossil plants known as the Bennettitales. The
female organs in this group consist of a central mass of small seeds and scales and the flower may have been pollinated by beetles.
Welwitschia mirabilis (center) has functionally unisexual "flowers" in which the single central female organ (ovule) never develops into a seed.
However, the funnellike apex of the ovule secretes a large nectarlike pollination drop which may be important in attracting insect pollinators.
Berberis vulgaris (right) has bisexual insect-pollinated flowers typical of living flowering plants (angiosperms). In angiosperm flowers the
ovule, or ovules, are contained within a central carpel or ovary. Drawings by Clara Richardson.
A further aspect of the biology of Welwitschia
almost as intriguing as its physiology concerns its repro-
duction. One of the facts that Hooker was able to infer
even from the limited material available to him was
that there were distinct male and female Welwitschia
plants. This is not a particularly unusual situation in
the botanical world, but what he also noted was that
male plants also produce a female sex organ (tech-
nically an ovule) which seems to be nonfunctional and
never develops into a mature seed. Curiously the repro-
ductive parts of a male Welwitschia plant resemble a tiny
flower with a single ovule (female) surrounded by a
fused ring of six structures (male) which produce the
pollen (fig. 8). This hermaphrodite (bisexual)
flowerlike arrangement is particularly intriguing
because the same basic kind of floral organization has
also evolved independently in at least two other plant
groups: the Bennettitales, which mainly became ex-
tinct about 100 million years ago; and the flowering
plants, which include most of the plants with which we
are familiar today (including all our major crop plants)
(fig. 8). In most flowering plants and the Bennettitales
both the male and female organs in each flower are
functional, but just as with its physiology, Welwitschia
defies generalizations based on more familiar plants.
What then is the function (if any) of the ovule in
the center of the male "flower" if it is unable to develop
into a mature seed? Although we still cannot answer
9. Silhouette drawing of a Welwitschia seedling showing the exten-
sive root system formed very early in the development of the plant
(redrawn from Von Willert6).
this question with any certainty, we do have a few scat-
tered observations which hint at a possible solution.
First, the apex of the ovule is unusually expanded into a
prominent funnel, which secretes a large drop of fluid
precisely at the time the pollen is being shed (fig. 8).
Second, many male flowers are tightly clustered
together in an erect and visually prominent group (fig.
10), and third, the flowers have a yellow-brown color
and distinctive odor that is often associated with pol-
lination by flies in living flowering plants. 7 All the signs
are that pollination in Welwitschia is achieved with the
aid of insects, the secretion from the tip of the ovule
acting as an attractant encouraging visits by flies and
thus promoting the transfer of pollen to female plants.
Although the fieldwork necessary to test these ideas
has still not been carried out, the possibility of insect
pollination seems strong and an almost identical pol-
lination system occurs in one of Welwitschia's closest
relatives, the genus Ephedra (next month's Bulletin).
Darwin once referred to Welwitschia as the "platy-
pus" of the plant kingdom.' The metaphor was well
chosen. Like the platypus, Welwitschia is a fortunate
and biologically remarkable survivor of an ancient and
unusual group of organisms. However, the evolution-
ary interest in this bizarre plant does not reside solely in
its unique and critical position in the plant kingdom; it
is also a classic example of the important evolutionary
process known as "neoteny" (or more strictly "paedo-
morphosis"): the expression of juvenile characteristics
in the adult as a result of either acceleration of re-
productive maturity or truncation of vegetative de-
velopment. Neoteny has attracted great interest in
evolutionary biology because it provides a potential
mechanism whereby only a minor developmental mod-
ification (relating to the timing of developmental pro-
cesses) could result in a major effect on the form of the
mature organism. This class of phenomena (col-
lectively subsumed under the term heterochrony) is
thought to have played an important role in the evolu-
tion of numerous organisms ranging from man to
flowering plants, but there is no better example of these
phenomena in the botanical world than Welwitschia.
Even in the first technical descriptions Hooker
described the plant as "a seedling arrested in develop-
ment." Hooker was referring mainly to the production
of only two leaves throughout the life of the plant, but
other features of Welwitschia show similar "juvenile"
characteristics. It must surely be one of the most bizarre
paradoxes of botany that these gnarled, slow-growing,
and frequently ancient plants seem in a sense to have
discovered the secret of eternal youth. FM
10. A model of a Welwitschia pollen-producing (male) inflores-
cence showing numerous small "flowers" borne in conelike struc-
tures. The model is currently on display in "Plants of the World" (Hall
29). 81795
References
1. Welwitsch, F. 1861. Extract from a Letter, addressed to Sir Wil-
liam J. Hooker, on the Botany of Benguela, Mossamedes Etc., in
Western Africa, journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society,
Botany, 5:182-187.
2. Bornmann, C. H. 1978. Welwitschia Paradox of a Parched Para-
dise. C. Struik Publishers, Capetown 6k Johannesburg. 71 pp.
3. Hooker, J. D. 1864. On Welwitschia, a new genus of Gnetaceae.
Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, 24: 1 -48.
4. Huxley, L. 1918. Life and Letters of Sir J. D. Hooker, vols. 1 6k
2. John Murray, London. 546 pp. 6k 569 pp.
5. Darwin, F. 1903. More letters of Charles Darwin. John Murray,
London. 508 pp.
6. Von Willert, D.J. 1985. Welwitschia mirabilis — new aspects in
the biology of an old plant. Advances in Botanical Research,
1985:157-191.
7. P. K. Endress, personal communication.
8. Hiern, W. P. 1896. Catalogue of the African plants collected by
Dr. Friedrich Welwitsch in 1853-61: Dicotyledons Part 1. British
Museum (Natural History). 336 pp.
9. Kers, L. E. 1967. The distribution of Welwitschia mirabilis Hook,
f. SvenskBot. Tidskrift, 61:97-125.
29
r
* ,
FIELD
MUSEUM %
»
m
FIELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
Dear Field Museum Member,
We are working toward organizing domestic Field Tours next year and would
like to share with you some of the destinations being considered.
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center in Denver, offers an oppotunity for a
hands-on introduction to the actual business of being an archaeologist with
digging and lab work at the side of the archaeologists themselves.
We are excited about exploring the Southwest, especially Anasazi sites.
Other plans are to visit Museums featuring a special exhibit and organizing a
program to enjoy the points of interest in the area.
In 1988 we will repeat our China Tour, with Katharine Lee as leader, and
the Kenya/Tanzania Safari (early 1989) led by Audrey Faden.
If any of these destinations particularly appeals to you, just send an advance
deposit of $50 per person to Field Museum's Tours office, to ensure your
place. You will be notified about all upcoming activities related to the tour,
and the deposit is completely refundable should you change your mind prior
to the first installment payment.
When you travel with Field Museum you travel with a purpose. Your Tour
Leader is a constant source of information about the flora, fauna, and cultural
heritage. Please watch for future announcements. We hope to hear from you.
Sincerely,
(2<$^^2^r <zf* A?^
Dorothy S. Roder
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
31
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2499
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN
March 1988
Birds in Art
Opens Saturday, March 26
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Arm- r
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Biock III
WillardL Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H.Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
RonaldJ. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo F. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
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Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
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Life Trustees
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Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
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Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Suliivan
J . Howard Wood
CONTENTS
March 1988
Volume 59, Number 3
MARCH EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM .
BIRDS IN ART AT FIELD MUSEUM
bvjohn W. Fitzpatrick, Chairman, Department of Zoology . . 7
CHINESE PEWTER TEAPOTS AND TEA WARES
by Ho Chuimei, Research Associate in Anthropology, and
Bennet Bronson, Associate Curator of Asian Archaeology and
Ethnology 9
THE GNETALES
Botanical Remnants from the Age of Dinosaurs.
by Catherine D. Hult, Laboratory Assistant, Geology
and Peter R. Crane, Associate Curator ot Paleobotany 21
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS
Featuringjuly Voyage to the Gulf of St. Lawrence
and Canada's Maritime Provinces 30
COVER
Teapot in bucket shape. Pewter with applied brass and bronze.
The depressed panels bear various auspicious motifs in appli-
que. Wooden buckets ot this form are still used in China for
cooked rice, bean curd, and similar foodstuffs. Although real
buckets have removable tops, this one is integral with the body;
a small sliding lid allows the pot to be filled and gives access to
a removable tea basket. Overall height 2 1 cm. Chinese, 19th
century. Gift of E. E. Ayer, 1927. FM 1 10477. For more on
Chinese pewter teapots and tea wares, see pages 9-19. Photo by
Ron Testa. \uo«»
"Mothers and Daughters"
Unprecedented exhibition of 128 photos of
American mothers and daughters remains on
view through March 1 3
Volunteer Opportunities
Share your interest- in American Indian cultures with
school groups and the general public: volunteer
training for American Indian hall progams will begin
Saturday, March 26. Challenging and rewarding
opportunities are available for weekday and weekend
volunteers. For more information, please contact the
Volunteer Coordinator at (312) 922-9410, ext. 360.
Field Museum of Natural History BwJlertn (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum ot Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, IL 60605-24%-
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: ( 312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago. IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second class postage paid ar Chicago, Illinois and
additional mailing office.
Field Museum's Tropical Connection
Many of Field Museum's biological research programs are
focused on the tropics. The richness of species and com-
plexity of biological interactions in the tropics are the primary
reasons for this research emphasis. Four of the Museum's
outstanding scientists discuss their tropical research efforts
and Field Museum's critical link in the study of the quickly
vanishing New World tropics.
March 2
"Birds of Tropical South America"
John Fitzpatrick, Chairman,
Department of Zoology, Field Museum
The Birds of the Amazon Basin are heavily impacted by the
rapid destruction of the tropical rain forests. Focusing on the
mountains that form the west edge of the Amazon basin, Dr.
Fitzpatrick has identified ecological "island" refuges. Here,
the birds are able to breed, diverge, create new species,
and reestablish outside the "island" refuges.
March 9
"Fishes of the Orinoco"
Barry Chernoff , Associate Curator and Head,
Division of Fishes, Field Museum
The Orinoco River Basin is the second largest in South Amer-
ica, draining almost all of Venezuela and much of Colombia,
east of the Andes. The fishes of the Orinoco — more than 600
identified species — live in a variety of habitats. Dr. Chernoff's
research includes the piranha, electric fishes, head stand-
ers, hatchet fishes, and others.
March 16
"The International Link"
Bruce Patterson, Associate Curator and Head,
Division of Mammals, Field Museum
Fieldwork in the Tropics can require great expense and tre-
mendous logistical coordination. On location, the resources
from developed nations are blended with local expertise,
producing mutually beneficial results. Learn how Field
Museum scientists work closely with researchers from Latin
America on such projects as compiling a biological inventory
at a future dam site, studying geographic variation in Andean
bats, and other scientific research programs.
March 23
"Flora of Peru — A New Tropical Treasure Trove"
Michael Dillon, Associate Curator,
Department of Botany, Field Museum
More than 65 Years Ago, Field Museum scientists began col-
lecting and studying the flora of Peru. Dr. Michael Dillon con-
tinues this research commitment to the rich and exciting Pe-
ruvian landscape. From relict forests to desert coastline, the
magnificence of Peruvian plant life and the Museum's active
programs of plant exploration and research in Peru are dis-
cussed.
AC88101 Wednesdays, 7:00-9:00pm
March 2-23
(4 sessions)
$50 ($40 members) Continued r>
Wildlife Images in Art
Saturday, March 26, 2:00pm
Kent Ullberg, Master Wildlife Artist
Padre Island, Texas
The 1 987 Master Wildlife Artist is Swedish-born sculptor
Kent Ullberg. His "Whooping Cranes" is included in Field
Museum's exhibit, "Birds in Art," opening March 26.
Ullberg's highly realistic animal imagery, his commitment to
nature, and his involvement with conservation have made
him one of the best loved contemporary wildlife artists. His
work has been shown worldwide, including exhibits in the
United States, China, Great Britain, France, and Botswana.
From his studio on Padre Island, off the coast of Corpus
Christi, Texas, Ullberg creates the forms that serve both art
and natural science. "I feel an enormous hunger for knowl-
edge about my subject matter," he says. "To feel it, feel the
firmness of the flesh, those muscles, the beautiful forms. I
sketch them. I take measurements, everything to drain as
much knowledge as possible, and only then do I feel I have
the background and the freedom to create the shapes I
need, that I want."
Growing up in a coastal Swedish town of artist parents,
Ullberg's interest in art and natural science began early. He
studied art in Stockholm and at museums in Germany, the
Netherlands, and France. He lived for seven years in Bots-
wana, Africa, studying its wildlife and people.
Ullberg believes his wildlife sculpture is very much a
contemporary expression and art form. As art often reflects
cultural and political concern of the time, Ullberg's work re-
flects his deep concern with the state of the global environ-
ment. It is, he says, "a logical form of a personal expression.'
Join Kent Ullberg as he discusses wildlife as an inspiration
for artists. He looks at how the wilderness has specifically
influenced his work and how his art, in turn, is a part of con-
temporary aesthetics and a socio-political statement.
LL88101 Wildlife Images in Art
Tickets: $6.00 ($4.00 members)
Kent Ullberg
Registration
Be sure to complete all requested information on this ticket
application. If your request is received less than one week
before the program, tickets will be held in your name at the
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Return complete ticket application with a self-
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Edward E. Ayer
Lecture Series
Thursdays in March and April
(no lecture March 3 1 )
1 :30pm, James Simpson Theater.
Lectures are free and refreshments are served.
March 3
"Madagascar: The Forgotten Island"
John Fitzpatrick, Chairman,
Department of Zoology, Field Museum
Home to Some of the world's most unusual species of plant
and animal life, Madagascar is rapidly becoming a biological
wasteland due to deforestation.
March 10
"Machu Picchu and the Inca Empire"
Charles Stanish, Assistant Curator,
Department of Anthropology, Field Museum
Learn How this Ancient City was located by archaeologists in
1911 , and how it has affected our understanding of the Inca
Empire.
March 17
"Images of the Buddha"
Charles Hallisey, Instructor,
Department of Theology, Loyola University
This Lecture Focuses on many different representations of
the Buddha found in the art of various cultures. Learn to read
this sacred art for its symbolism and teaching.
March 24
"Searching for the Earliest Life"
Matthew Nitecki, Curator,
Department of Geology, Field Museum
Learn How Paleontologists are examining the fossil record to
understand the evolutionary history of life on Earth.
family Activities
Black Traditions Theatre
Young people take African folktales and blend them with
contemporary urban experiences.
"Tandika Tales"
Chocolate Chips Children's Theatre
Saturday and Sunday, March 5 and 6, 2:00pm
Based on stories written by children, these myths and scary
stories about thunder, lightning, and stars are blended with
dance, humorous "commercials," and toe-tapping tunes.
"Kids From Cabrini"
Free Street Theatre
Saturday and Sunday, March 19 and 20, 2:00pm
"Kids From Cabrini," a theatre workshop for children 7 to 14
years old, presents African folktales linking their African heri-
tage with their everyday life in the city. The group developed
from a Free Street Theatre program involving children from
Cabrini-Green.
World Music Program
Weekends in March
1:00pm and 3:00pm
Music Communicates in Many Ways. It is something that can
be shared by all of us, whether or not we have common life-
styles, beliefs, or even languages. From the gentle harp of
Light Henry Huff and the lively and spirited stories and songs
of Shanta, March is a musical celebration at the Field
Museum. The World Music Program is supported by the Ken-
neth and Harle Montgomery Fund and a City Arts IV grant
from the Chicago Office of Fine Arts, Department of Cultural
Affairs.
March Weekend Programs
Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and
films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous
activities each weekend. Check the activity listing upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are
partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council.
March
5 2:00pm Traditional China (tour). Delight in the timeless
imagery and superb craftsmanship of Chinese master-
works in our collection.
13
12
2:00pm A Walk with China's Animals (tour). Meet some
of China's real and imaginary beasts through Field
Museum's exhibits.
1 :30pm Tibet Today and Tour of Tibet (slide lecture).
Tour through the Tibet exhibit after looking at Lhasa
and other towns now open to the public.
2:00pm Malvina Hoffman: Portraits in Bronze (slide
lecture). A look at the life and works of Malvina Hoff-
man, concentrates on the Portraits of Mankind col-
lection.
26 1 :30pm Tibet Today and A Faith in Exile (slide lecture).
Investigate Lhasa and refugees in Dharmsala (home
of the Dalai Lama), Darjeeling, and Sikkim.
These programs are free with museum admission and tickets
are not required.
„•■•»-•*-».
"Birds in Art" Exhibit Opens March 26
BIRDS IN ART AT THE FIELD MUSEUM
The Union of Art and Science
by John W. Fitzpatrick
Chairman, Department of Zoology
and Curator of Birds
I he Field Museum is privileged to host for the first
time a traveling exhibit of immense popular appeal and
growing international importance. The Twelfth
Annual "Birds in Art" exhibition makes its final stop
here, from March 26 through May 22. The collection
of 50 original paintings and 10 sculptures was organized
by the Leigh Yawkey Woodson Art Museum in Wausau,
Wisconsin, and has become widely recognized as the
best annual show of bird art in the western world.
Artists from all over the United States and numerous
foreign countries compete each year to have their work
included in this prestigious exhibit. Original sub-
missions for this year's exhibit numbered over 750. A
panel of judges selected 126 pieces for the original
opening at Wausau, which showed during September
and October of last year. Sixty of these were selected to
comprise the touring exhibit that will hang at the
Rochester Museum and Science Center and the Natu-
ral History Museum of Los Angeles County before
coming to the Field Museum of Natural History.
"Birds in Art" is a unique assemblage indeed,
featuring works by some of the finest wildlife artists in
America and abroad. Because so many fine artists are
represented together, sharing birds as their common
element, the show becomes a very personal one to the
viewer. It offers us a rare chance to compare first hand
the artistic effects of style and medium, as well as to
enjoy the birds and the individual captured moments
in their own right. Included are oils, watercolors,
gouaches, acrylics, and printed graphics as well as
sculptures in wood, stone, brass, and steel. Some pieces
are large, some are small. Represented in this year's
show are everyday songbirds such as cardinals and
"Whooping Cranes, " polished stainless steel sculpture by Kent
Ullberg; 69 x 53 x 46 cm. One of ten sculptures to be seen in
the exhibit "Birds in Art, " opening March 26. Mr. Ullberg was
chosen as the Leigh Yawkey Woodson Art Museum Master
Wildlife Artist for 1 987, only the second sculptor to be selected
during the twelve-year history of the prestigious award.
chickadees, as well as dramatic depictions of eagles,
hawks, and owls. A huge and breathtaking canvas enti-
tled The End depicts a stately male California condor,
the most critically endangered bird species in the
world. The show is a potpourri of natural and beautiful
moments.
Why is an art show such as this exhibited in a great
natural history museum? Ours is a temple of science,
after all, and many visitors imagine a "great divide"
that separates science from art. I, for one, imagine no
such divide, and "Birds in Art" presents a wonderful
example of the union between these two great features
of the human endeavor. As pointed out by the noted
philosopher of science, the late Jacob Bronowski in The
Ascent of Man, art and science share at their deepest
level an inspirational genius that is the same, and un-
iquely human. Both are creative manifestations of the
mind. In their great moments, science and art bring
together the observations, personal histories, and skills
of the creator into an expression never before
achieved, providing new meaning to past experiences.
Inspiration in its truest sense, scientific or artistic, is
neither wholly rational nor irrational. Neither do these
endeavors have meaning in a vacuum. Art without
viewers is selfish indulgence, science without readers is
self-education. These observations emphasize the so-
cial nature of both endeavors, even as we recognize
that the inspirations themselves are among the most
intensely personal of human experiences. Science and
art belong together, as the two great pillars of human
accomplishment.
Field Museum of Natural History is among the
foremost institutions in the world for the scientific
study of birds, their origins, evolution, ecology, and
behavior. Leigh Yawkey Woodson Art Museum has
emerged among the foremost institutions where the
artistic study of birds is emphasized. By bringing to-
gether these two institutions, "Birds in Art" allows us
to glimpse the scientist in each artist, and to ponder the
artist within each of us scientists. It is a natural union.
"Morning — Oatka Creek," welded corten steel sculpture of green-backed heron by Craig Wilson. On view in "Birds in Art" exhibit opening
March 26.
Chinese
Pewter Teapots
and Tea Wares
by HO CHUIMEI and BENNET BRONSON
Photos by RON TESTA
I
m **.
Introduction
Nowadays, Serious Chinese Tea Drinkers are
unanimous in thinking that the best possible material
for teapots and many of the other containers used in
making tea is the red or brown earthenware of Yixing in
eastern China. But this was not always so. Tea lovers of
earlier periods often preferred porcelain, precious met-
als, or even pewter.
The idea that pewter could be used in this way
may come as a surprise. After all, it is an alloy of tin and
lead, and thus is poisonous. Yet it was extensively em-
ployed in China for many centuries not only for tea
storage containers — a role in which its toxic qualities
might be less important — but also for teapots, kettles,
and cups, where heat and tannic acid would be bound
to extract a certain amount of lead into the prepared
tea. We will not discuss the issue of lead toxicity fur-
ther here except to say that Chinese tea experts of the
past never discussed it either. Few of them seem to have
Ho Chuimei is a Research Associate in Anthropology; Ben-
net Bronson is Associate Curator of Asian Archaeology and
Ethnology.
1 . Tea caddy with octagonal body and single-walled lid. Pewter; ap-
plied brass. The large size and elaborate decoration are unusual. The
characters on the neck form a proverb: "The family that accumulates
virtue will have ample fortune." The panels on the upper body depict
amusements of the literati. Those near the base depict foreigners —
Central Asians, one probable European — in comic poses. Two in-
cised characters on the bottom read "Liang Ji," probably the name of
a shop. Overall height 45 cm. Chinese, perhaps 17th-18th century.
Gift of E.E. Ayer, 1924. FM 1 10008 A-110595
been aware that the lead in pewter might pose health
problems. Lest we conclude that those experts were
strangely ignorant, we should recall that wine fanciers
in the United States still often prefer "crystal" glasses
and — worse — decanters, apparently unaware that
these contain as much lead as any pewter. Con-
noisseurship and technical sophistication do not go
hand-in-hand, either in China or the West.
Pewter and the History of Tea
Pewter first appears in connection with tea in about
A.D. 1240 — during the late Song period — when Zhao
Xigu, a member of the imperial family and noted
antique collector, comments: "The nature of tea leaves
is not in harmony with that of ceramic or bronze jars.
They only go well with pewter. But be careful not to use
10
2. Earthenware teapot. Pumpkin-shaped body and lion as lid finial.
The bottom bears an impressed seal, "Yixing purple sand (ware)."
The objects described here all come from the col-
lection of Field Museum, which probably has more
Chinese pewter (about 200 pieces) than any other
museum in the country. The bulk of the collection was
donated by E. E. Ayer, one of the founders of the
Museum and the first chairman of its Board of Trustees.
Ayer acquired his pewter in the 1920s from Yamanaka,
a well-known art dealer, with the advice of the then-
curator of Asian Anthropology, Berthold Laufer. Lauf-
er himself purchased about 70 pieces while in China (in
Xian, Chengdu, and Shanghai) in 1908-10 and 1922.
The remaining pieces were given by other individuals,
among them the late Commander and Mrs. G. H.
Boone.
Body diameter 1 2 cm. Made at Yixing, early 20th century. Purchased
by B. Laufer in Shanghai, 1921 . FM 264842 a-hoski
jars with holes that can leak air. The containers should
be repeatedly tested before use." All of Zhao's con-
temporaries might not have agreed. But it is clear that
pewter containers were already widely used for storing
dry tea leaves.
By the middle Ming period (the 16th century),
pewter was also used for teapots. Experts such as Qian
Chunnian (1540s) and Xu Ciyu (1597) preferred it in
that role to porcelain. Other experts disagreed, how-
ever. Tu Long (also 1590s), for instance, claimed that
teapots made of any metal — including pewter, as well as
bronze, iron, and tin — imparted a bitter, fishy smell to
the brewed tea. It is interesting to note that Xu Ciyu
preferred pewter teapots precisely because, unlike
those of earthenware, they did not add an objection-
able smell.
In the late 16th and early 17th centuries pewter
became quite popular as a material for tea wares. If used
together, the kinds of pewter utensils recommended by
various contemporary experts would make up a com-
prehensive set: large storage caddies, dippers for draw-
ing water from jars, kettles for boiling water, small serv-
ing or presentation caddies, and water pots for holding
boiling water, as well as the pots in which the tea was
actually brewed.
We do not know what any of these looked like.
Western museums contain very few pewter objects of
any kind that can be firmly dated to the Ming period
(1368-1644). Several caddies in Field Museum were
attributed by Laufer to the 1 7th century on the basis of
style (fig. 1). While this date seems plausible, solid
proof will have to wait until the contents of the many
recent excavations of Ming tombs become available for
study.
3. Teapot with side handle. Pewter exterior, earthenware lining, and
jade fittings. Engraved with plum blossom motifs on one side and an
inscription about tea on the other, with the signature of Shimei. A clay
seal on the lining reads "Made by Yang Pengnian." The fact that both
the calligrapher and the potter are well known figures in the history of
Yixing ware makes this an important piece. Body height 6 cm. Made
at Yixing, ca. 1820-30. Gift of E. E. Ayer, 1927. FM 125834 a-hosbs
Yixing and Pewter Wares
The red earthenware vessels of Yixing in Jiangsu Prov-
ince, not far from the city of Suzhou, first began to be
noticed by tea fanciers in about A.D. 1250. By about
1500, the Yixing potters had developed types of teapots
that came to be widely admired for artistry as well as
their almost unique suitability for brewing tea (fig. 2).
And yet pewter became a serious competitor later in
the same century. Xu Ciyu, writing in 1597, definitely
preferred pewter to Yixing earthenware. He com-
plained that good Yixing pots were expensive, hard to
get and easily broken, while inferior Yixing pots had an
undesirable clayey smell that made them useless for
brewing or serving tea. Pewter, Xu felt, has none of
these disagreeable traits.
The debate over the relative merits of pewter and
Yixing tea wares continued for the next hundred years.
As far as brewing tea went, the issue was eventually
settled in favor of the latter. A glance through the con-
tents of a modern tea shop will show that, while con-
noisseurs still often prefer pewter containers as tea
caddies, they acknowledge Yixing ware as the queen of
teapots.
At one point, however, a compromise was
attempted. In the early 19th century, teapots began to
be made with pewter exteriors and linings of Yixing
11
4. Teapot with overhead handle. Pewter exterior, earthenware lin-
ing, and jade fittings. Engraved with orchid leaves on one side and on
the other a poem in praise of tea signed by the calligrapher, Boya[ju].
The lining bears the seal of Shimei. Body diameter 1 1 .5 cm. Made at
Yixing, ca. 1820-30. Gift of E. E. Ayer, 1926. FM 110764 a-hom?
12
earthenware. Field Museum has 36 hybrid pots of this
kind, two bearing reign marks of the Daoguang Emper-
or (1821-50) and several others with cyclical dates of
the same period (fig. 3). The majority have knobs, side
handles, and spouts made of jade. Although teapots
made entirely of Yixing ware often have overhead
handles, these seem to be rare among hybrid examples;
Field Museum has only one (fig. 4).
Many clay-lined pewter teapots were actually
made at Yixing. Their shapes are close to those of all-'
earthenware Yixing types, especially those assigned by
Terese Tse Bartholomew, a leading modern authority,
to the third (19th century) phase of Yixing teapot
development. Moreover, the hybrid pots usually bear
seals of known Yixing potters — like Yang Pengnian,
Huchi, and Shimei — in their interiors. Yang Pengnian
was among the most celebrated of all Yixing craftsmen,
having been involved with important reforms in the
style and decoration of all-earthenware teapots. His
hybrid teapots are sealed with his full name, "Yang
Pengnian." The custom of adding one's name to one's
work, incidentally, was unusual among Chinese crafts-
men of the period. Whereas Japanese craftsman had
long been accustomed to personalizing their products,
in China the potters of Yixing were almost alone in
doing so. Calligraphers and painters signed their names
proudly; artists in virtually all other media worked in
anonymity.
The potter Shimei, alsoknownasZhuJian, is said
to have invented the hybrid teapot in about 1810. One
example in Field Museum is signed by him and two
others bear his seal (fig. 4). It is not certain, however,
that Shimei himself actually did the pewter work as
well as the potting — after all, shaping the two materials
would require very different skills. His motives for en-
casing an earthenware pot in pewter are also uncertain.
The charm of pewter was evidently still appreciated,
but it is possible that tea drinkers of the period either
were worried about the poisonous effect of lead or were
not entirely convinced that the special pewter smell
actually enhanced the fragrance of tea.
The outer surfaces of hybrid pewter teapots, like
those of many all-earthenware teapots from Yixing, al-
ways carry engraved pictures and inscriptions in
Chinese characters. While the potters who made the
clay linings put their seals inside, the engraver/
calligraphers usually added their signatures to the in-
scriptions. These calligraphers were often artists of the
first rank. Some signatures are those of talented
5. Teapot with fitted detachable heater. Pewter with bronze handles.
The heater forms the lower part of the vessel, with coin-shaped open-
ings at the sides and a removable container for the fuel and wick. A
slanting internal chimney allows smoke and heat to escape from a
hole in the top. An impressed seal on the bottom reads "Heng Tai
Pewter Shop, guaranteed." Overall height 25.5 cm. Made in Cheng-
du, Sichuan province, late 19th century. Purchased by B. Laufer in
Chengdu, 1910. FM 117754 a-ho578
amateurs: scholars or officials who were skilled with the
brush and graving tool, and presumably fanciers of tea.
Occasionally the signatures are those of potters. One of
the pieces in Field Museum's collection has an inscrip-
tion signed by Shimei himself, who was known for his
fine calligraphy as well his potting ability (fig. 3).
Readers familiar with conventional Yixing tea-
pots may be interested to know that the hybrid teapots
do not conform to the widely accepted rule that all Yix-
ing pots made before the late 19th century have spouts
connected to the body by single holes. None of the
hybrid examples in Field Museum's collection is later
than about 1850. Yet all except two have "late"
strainer-like spout connections with multiple holes.
Other Pewter Teapots
A number of kinds of pewter teapots exist that do not
have earthenware linings. These are usually larger in
capacity than the hybrid pewter-earthenware type and
rarely have parts made of jade. The examples in the
Museum's collection come from Hunan, Guangdong,
and Shanghai. One large type (shown on front cover)
is bucket-shaped with a small spout and lid, plus a
removable pewter tea basket inside the mouth to sim-
plify the removal of used tea leaves. Ceramic teapots of
similar form are still used in China, in restaurants and
in the homes and offices of people who often have
many guests. Such people are not likely to be con-
noisseurs of tea. Those serious about the brew almost
always insist on teapots of a size that can be emptied in
a single round.
Other teapots combine pewter with materials like
basketry, coconut shell, and porcelain. Many such pots
were made during the late 19th and early 20th centu-
ries. Still other teapots have bodies of red or black clay
that is partly covered with pewter cut into openwork
designs. The bodies of the red variety seem to be actual
Yixing work, decorated by pewterers in Shanghai and
Shandong. In design and workmanship these tend to
be inferior to the clay-lined pewter pieces made at
Yixing.
An interesting group of pewter teapots have heat-
ers built into the base; the idea is like that of an electric
kettle except that here the same device is used for
warming the water and brewing the tea. Field Museum
possesses several examples. All were heated with
kerosene, alcohol, or vegetable oil and have concealed
chimneys as well as openings for draught (fig. 5). The
fact that two of these have fitted tea baskets show that
13
they are indeed teapots rather than kettles or wine
warmers. They would have to be watched carefully;
otherwise the tea might boil and thus be ruined. But
they were undoubtedly convenient for country outings
of the sort that are so often depicted in Chinese paint-
ings and described in literature.
Tea Caddies and Storage Jars
Pewter tea caddies — covered jars for storing tea leaves
— go back to at least the 13th century in China. As
Feng Kebin noted in 1642, they were as odor-free as
caddies made of porcelain and were much more airtight
6. Japanese tea caddy. Pewter with raised red and gold lacquer.
The decoration of the lid and shoulder imitates a wrapping of gold
brocade tied with a red cord. The body bears the two imperial crests:
the sixteen-petaled chrysanthemum and the kiri, or paulownia flower.
An impressed seal on the bottom reads "Imperial Pewter House, first
quality, made by Izumo." Overall height 26.5 cm. 19th century. Gift of
E. E. Ayer, 1925. FM 1 10088. a-ho576
14
if fitted with double-walled lids. In 1842 an amateur
scientist named Zheng Fuguang published a description
and drawings of pewter caddy manufacture. To make
sure that caddies are air- and waterproof, he suggests
that their lids be double-walled, that soldered joints be
meticulously tested, and that the interior be lined with
paper. Zheng also describes a "base tray" filled with in-
cense ash and paper onto which an inverted caddy can
be placed to ensure that the interior stays completely
dry. Other writers say that a caddy filled with tea should
have layers of ash or lime on the bottom and of dry
straw on top. This constant emphasis on the dangers
posed by moisture and thus by mold — understandable
enough in view of the very high prices paid for the
finest teas — suggests another reason why pewter cad-
dies worked especially well. They were not only mois-
ture proof but, through the antibiotic properties of
lead, would have discouraged the growth of micro-
organisms.
Large pewter containers were also used for storing
tea in bulk. Shen Changqing recommended in 1632
that new tea should be kept in jars made from fine vir-
gin pewter, large enough to hold about thirteen
pounds. The mouths of these jars should be filled with a
layer of dry grass and several layers of paper before the
pewter lid is pressed on. A hundred and fifty years later,
however, the poet and artist Wu Qian ( 1 787) expresses
a clear preference for porcelain tea storage jars. He
states that pewter jars should not be used to hold more
than a few days' supply. Whether this opinion was
generally shared among serious tea fanciers is uncer-
tain, but large caddy-like storage jars made of pewter
certainly continued to be used down through the 20th
century. In 1833, Sun Tongyuan had a distressing en-
counter with such jars while traveling in Sichuan:
"The people at Yongjia prefer year-old tea, think-
ing that new tea has too much 'fire.' They re-roast the
newly bought tea and then store it in pewter jars, tight-
ly sealed but without adding lime cubes (as a desiccant)
at the bottom. Thus the tea readily becomes damp and
when brewed has a burned smell that irritates the nose.
The color is almost red and it has no taste. To force
myself to pretend to appreciate it was really as difficult
as taking medicine."
Several of Field Museum's pewter tea jars seem too
large for use during the actual making and serving of tea
(fig. 1 ) . They may have served as bulk storage contain-
ers, perhaps for the shelves of tea shops. Most have lids
with double walls of the kind that Feng Kebin and
Zheng Fuguang recommended.
The Museum has a number of Japanese pewter
caddies in its collection. These differ from Chinese
caddies in having two separate lids: an inner one that
fits tightly inside the mouth and an outer one that cov-
ers the top and sides of the neck. Some are handsomely
decorated with red and gold lacquer, which forms an
effective contrast with the grayish color of the unlac-
quered areas (fig. 6). They also differ from Chinese
caddies in the way they were made. Whereas Chinese
pewterers preferred to form caddies by shaping and
soldering sheet metal, their Japanese counterparts
either made an initial casting which was then finished
on a lathe or formed their caddies by "metal-spinning"
— forcing a pewter plate against a form while turning
both at high speeds on a lathe-like apparatus. The
interiors of Japanese caddies show many concentric
ridges and grooves; the interiors of Chinese caddies
tend to be quite smooth.
Kettles and Water Pots
The Chinese also once used pewter tea kettles. In
1597, Xu Ciyu states that pewter is best for making
kettles because water boiled in it does not become salty
or bitten In 1632, Shen Changqing grants that silver is
at least as good for kettles but recommends pewter for
use by tea lovers of modest means. He says that ceramic
7. Kettle in pumpkin shape. Age-darkened pewter. The
overhead handle has tiger-like animals in relief and dra-
gon's heads at either end. Two other pairs of dragons, also
in relief, have been applied to the upper body. The twelve
segments of the lower body bear shou ("long life") charac-
ters. The impressed seal on the bottom is now illegible.
Body diameter 24 cm. Chinese, 18th-19th century. Gift of
E. E. Ayer, 1924. FM 1 10007 A-noan
8. Teapot with gate-shaped handle. Pewter; applied bronze and
brass; partial cane wrapping on handle. Each facet of the body is
decorated with a different Taoist folk deity Indentations in the deities'
costumes show they were once inset with glass or stone. Body diam-
eter 1 1 cm. Chinese, 1 9th century. Gift of E. E. Ayer, 1 925. FM 1 1 0055
A-110584
15
9. Tray, perhaps for tea utensils. Pewter with brass inlay depicting
plum blossoms and bamboo. True inlay, with designs in a contrasting
material set into the surface, is rare on Chinese pewterwork. An
impressed seal on the base reads "Made by Liu Hongda." Length 34
cm. Chinese, 19th century Gift of E. E. Ayer, 1926. FM 1 10100 A-110575
16
kettles are too easily broken. He also is emphatically
opposed to bronze and — interestingly — iron, which
Japanese tea lovers have long regarded as an ideal kettle
material. Shen's opposition to iron kettles was shared
by many other early Chinese authorities, who often
commented on the bad taste that iron imparts to water. '
Quite apart from their potential toxicity, pewter
kettles would seem to have another grave dis-
advantage. Pewter melts at a temperature of only sever-
al hundred degrees centigrade. This means that a kettle
made out of pewter would probably be ruined if allowed
to boil dry over a moderately hot stove. Yet pewter
teapots did exist and were indeed used. Field Museum
possesses several examples. One of these has an inter-
nal chimney and a miniature firebox in which charcoal
was burned. Another, an exceptionally handsome
piece, would have been heated conventionally on top
of a separate stove. That this is indeed a kettle is virtu-
ally proved by its shape and size (fig. 7); one finds it
hard to imagine any other function. How old it is and
where it was made is currently unclear. Its pumpkin-
shaped body suggests a connection with the Yixing
tradition of tea ware design, and its dark, eroded sur-
face suggests considerable age. However, that is as far as
we dare to go for now. Neither we nor anyone else we
have shown it to have seen another kettle like it.
The Museum possesses a number of tall, long-
spouted ewers that resemble surviving illustrations of
the water pots that were used in the Tang through early
Ming periods {ca. 700-1500) as an intermediate con-
tainer for hot water: boiling water was poured into
them from the kettle and then poured from them into
teacups or teapots. Several sources recommend the use
of pewter vessels in this role, which makes it tempting
to identify some of the pewter ewers in the Museum's
collection as water pots. We believe that the tempta-
tion should be resisted, however. Water pots ceased to
be used in Chinese tea making by the mid- 16th cen-
tury, and few if any pewter examples have survived. It
seems safest to conclude that all of the ewers in ques-
tion are wine pots, used for serving rice or sorghum
liquor in homes and restaurants.
Decorations
Plain pewter is an attractive material, with a dark sil-
very color when new and a unique, softly mottled
gunmetal color after long use. Many pewter caddies
and certain other tea wares have unmodified surfaces,
depending solely on the play of light over curves and
sharp edges for decorative effect. Although high-tin
pewter can be buffed to a hard shine, Chinese pewter-
ers seem to have preferred a moderately glossy, light-
diffusing surface. The only example of a mirror-like fin-
ish seeVi by the present writers is on an Yixing pewter
teapot acquired in Japan; in this instance the shine
seems to be due to a thin coat of lacquer.
The alloy lends itself well to surface decoration. It
is soft, easily worked, and readily bonded by heating to
various other materials — after all, pewter is quite sim-
ilar in composition to solder. Chinese pewter altar
pieces and household items in pewter were sometimes
decorated with colored lacquer or inset enamel and
porcelain. Pewter tea wares, however, show a more
restricted range of decorative techniques. The most
important are engraving and soldered applique.
Engraving was the main technique used on Yixing
hybrid pewter teapots. These invariably have floral
motifs on one side, and inscriptions written in cursive
or official characters on the other. Many such inscrip-
tions represent calligraphy of a high order, seemingly as
fluid as actual brushwork: the softness and lack of grain
of the pewter surface made it an almost ideal medium
for the graving tool. This no doubt helps to explain the
willingness of well-known calligraphers to engage in
such work, not to mention the appeal of the teapots
themselves to those who were at once lovers of tea and
of the literary arts.
Pewter tea vessels of other kinds are also often en-
graved, but generally in a less elegant fashion. Motifs
include simple floral designs and figures of religious or
legendary origin. Often the engraved designs were sup-
plemented by applying paper-thin sheets of brass or
copper, cut in more or less the same shape as a figure
outlined by engraving and then soldered onto the pew-
ter surface within the outlined area. The effect can be
highly decorative, offering an attractive contrast be-
tween the red or yellow metal designs and the grey met-
al background (fig. 8). However, the effect tends to be
10. Teapot with overhead handle. The pewter body is covered with
fine, tight-fitting basketry and rests on four small feet; the lid has an
ivory knob. This is one of the few pieces in the collection that has been
previously published, once as a wine pot instead of a teapot.
Impressed seal: "Workshop of Zhang Lihui." Body height 10 cm. Pur-
chased by B. Laufer in Anhui Province and probably made there.
19th century. Gift of E. E. Ayer, 1923. FM 131983 a-hosc
marred by the poor fit between the applique and the
engraved outlines. One is often reminded of a badly
registered color print.
Incidentally, one sometimes sees this
sheet-applique method referred to as "inlaying" in
books on Chinese decorative arts. In most cases the
term is incorrect, although true inlay is known on
17
Chinese pewter. Field Museum has several trays with
inlaid brass designs (fig. 9), and the British Museum
has an extraordinary pewter teapot covered with deli-
cate mother-of-pearl inlay.
We have already seen that jade handles, lid knobs
and spouts were usually mounted on the hybrid clay-
pewter teapots of Yixing. The pale green or white stone
not only formed a pretty contrast with the silvery-grey
body, but had a practical function as well. Jade is an
already been made of teapots with coconut shell and
porcelain bodies. Other teapots have lid knobs made of
glass, wood, or carnelian. One exceptional teapot — or
possibly wine pot — in the Field Museum collection is
beautifully wrapped in finely woven basketry, shrink-
fitted over the pewter body (fig. 10). While the insulat-
ing qualities of the pot may have been somewhat
improved by this basketry, one cannot help worrying
that repeated wetting would soon have ruined it.
11. Teapot with bucket handles and removable tea basket inside
mouth. Pewter. Decorated with engraved floral motifs on a ground of
punched circles. An impressed seal on the base reads, "Shantou
[Swatow] Branch, Long|i, Yanyihe Workshop, Chaoyang
[Chaozhou]." Body height 10.5 cm. Early 20th century. Gift of E. E.
Ayer. 1924. FM 110000 a-homo
18
excellent insulator. A handle and lid knob of jade
therefore kept one's fingers cool when the pot was filled
with boiling water. A carefully drilled and sharply cut
jade spout must also have made it easier to pour without
dripping and may — although no direct evidence on the
matter exists — have reassured tea drinkers worried
about the toxic effects of contact between hot tea and
lead.
A variety of other materials were sometimes used
in conjunction with pewter in tea wares. Mention has
Chinese Pewter Making Centers
Many references to pewter in pre- 18th century records
direct us to the craftsmen of Mudu in the suburbs of
Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province, just across the lake from
Yixing. Mudu was also renowned for its artistry in sil-
ver, bronze, and wood. No doubt there would have
been many exchanges of decorative ideas and tech-
niques. The pewter-working methods used at Yixing
may well have come from Mudu. And the Yixing pott-
ers may sometimes have sent clay vessels over to Mudu
to be cased in pewter, bringing them back afterward to
Yixing for engraving.
The only other Chinese pewter objects in the
Museum's collection that have an identifiable place of
origin come from somewhere in Anhui, Hunan, and
Sichuan Provinces, and from Chaozhou and Canton
(Guangzhou) in Guangdong Province. Although little
is known about pewter workers in the first three pro-
vinces, those of Guangdong, in the Deep South of Chi-
na, are less obscure. First mentioned in records of the
18th century, they remained leading producers down
through World War II because of their access to export
markets and to the tin mined in Yunnan and Southeast
Asia. They manufactured a wide range of objects,
including food warmers, tea caddies, wine ewers, tiered
boxes, altar sets, and religious statues.
Pewterers in Chaozhou, some of whom had
branch workshops in Shantou (Swatow), often placed
their studio marks on their products; recent examples
of Chaozhou work (fig. 11) tend also to be identifiable
through their very shiny surfaces and rather casual
workmanship, which seems much inferior to that of
older pieces made in other centers. Some pewter ob-
jects made in or near Canton bear the names either of
manufacturers or shops, most of them clustered along
Denglong Street in Canton city.
The rest of the Museum's pewter is still unprov-
enanced. Historical records indicate that the alloy was
worked at a number of other centers within China: at
Ningbo and Shaoxing in Zhejiang Province, at Xiamen
(Amoy) in Fujian Province, at Jiaozhou in Shandong
Province, and in the city of Shanghai. Craftsmen of
Chinese origin also made pewter wares in Southeast
Asia, especially in Malaysia and Singapore. And there
were undoubtedly still more centers we do not know
about. Some of these must be responsible for many of
the pewter objects, including those with brass appli-
que and basketry decoration, that we have described
here.FH
Bibliographic Notes
On Chinese Tea Literature
Blofeld, John. 1985, The Chinese Art of Tea. Boston.
Chen Zujian & Zhu Zizhen. 1981 , Zhongguo chaye lishizhiliao
xuanji [Collections of Chinese writings on tea history]. Beijing.
On Chinese Pewter Wares
Chung, Margaret. 1981, Chinese Pewter: A Research on its His-
tory and Development (unpublished manuscript). Department of
Art History, University of Chicago.
Hommel, Rudolf P. 1937, China at Work. New York.
Jenyns, Soames & Watson, W 1980, Chinese Art II: Gold, Later
Bronzes, Cloisonne, Cantonese Enamel, Lacquer, Furniture,
Wood. New York.
Strachan, Diane S. 1975, "Pewter," Arts of Asia, May-June: 42-
46. Hong Kong.
On Yixing Wares
Bartholomew, Terese Tse. 1978, I-Hsing Ware. China Institute of
America, New York.
Bartholomew, Terese Tse. 1981 , "A Study on the Shapes and Dec-
orations of Yixing Teapots," in Yixing Pottery, pp 13-33. Hong
Kong Museum of Art.
Flagstaff Museum. 1984, K.S. Lo Collection in the Flagstaff
House Museum of Tea Ware, Part 2. Hong Kong Museum of Art.
Hedley, G. 1937, "Yi-hsing ware," Transactions of the Oriental
Ceramic Society: 70-86. London.
Li, Jingkang & Zhang, Hong. 1937, Yangxian shahu tukao
[Pictorial study of the teapots of Yangxian], vol. 1. Hong Kong.
Lo, K.S. 1986, The Stoneware of Yixing from the Ming Period to
the Present Day. Hong Kong.
Anthropology Symposium for Collectors
Very often private collectors approach Field Museum for
information and help with objects in their possession. Our
staff can help with some problems and not with others, and
we thought that collectors might find it useful and informative
to participate in a symposium with Museum Staff about
collector's problems.
On Saturday, March 26, from 9 to 1 2 am, in Lecture Hall I
at Field Museum, the Collector's Committee of the Capital
Campaign and the Department of Anthropology will present a
panel discussion of assistance for collectors. Members of the
Anthropology staff will talk about conservation, cataloguing,
documentation, collection storage, and display, ethical and
legal problems.
Field Museum staff is qualified to speak only about its
kind of collections, ethnographic, archaeological, and
Oriental art objects, but obviously not about European fine
art, historical antiques, European musical instruments, and
similar material. These are all matters which are dealt with
every day at Field Museum, and perhaps experience gained
by the Museum staff in dealing with its collections may
be helpful to collectors in dealing with their collections.
The duration and format of the meeting will not lend itself
to bringing specific objects in for discussion. Phone inquir-
ies and reservations should be made to 322-8862.
19
"MOTHERS AND DAUGHTERS
//
Photographic Exhibit
Closes March 13
Photo by Laura McF
Untitled, 1984
Ringoes, New Jerse
8 x 10 silver gelatin
20
This unprecedented exhibition of 128 photographs of
American mothers and daughters chronicles- the first,
most lasting, and most crucial bond in every woman's
life. Eighty-nine photographers — among them Eudora
Welty — have contributed remarkable images that
combine to form a varied and deeply insightful vision of
the mother/daughter relationship. Large color prints,
images combined with text, and mixed-media work are
shown side-by-side with more straightforward docu-
mentary investigations.
This exhibit was organized by the Aperture
Foundation in New York and is free with regular
Museum admission.
THE GNETALES
Botanical Remnants From the Age
of Dinosaurs
By Catherine D. Hult and Peter R. Crane
For anyone trying to come to grips with the
daunting diversity of plant and animal life there
is little more disheartening than to discover that
organisms as superficially similar as palms and cycads
are actually very distantly related, while others as su-
perficially different from one another as cabbages,
broccoli, and brussels sprouts are merely variants of a
single species. In elementary botany classes a particu-
larly alarming case is presented by a small, peculiar, and
somewhat obscure group of plants known as the Gne-
tales. Although they are currently of little significance
in the earth's vegetation, the Gnetales constitute one
of only five major groups of living seed plants (the
others being cycads, Ginkgo, conifers, and flowering
plants). As such, they have attracted considerable
interest and it is now clear that these unusual outliers in
the botanical world are of critical importance for inter-
preting the evolution of plant life over the last 200 mil-
lion years.
Today the Gnetales are represented by three living
genera which are superficially so different from one
another that their close relationship seems almost in-
comprehensible. The genus Gnetum (fig. 1), after
which the group is named, mainly includes tropical
vinelike climbers that are characterized by large ex-
panded leaves closely resembling those of flowering
plants. The similarity of these leaves is so striking (fig.
2) that specimens of Gnetum without reproductive
parts are regularly misidentified as flowering plants,
Catherine D. Hult is a laboratory assistant in the Depart-
ment of Geology and Peter R. Crane is associate curator of
Paleobotany.
even by specialists in tropical vegetation. The second
genus, Ephedra (fig. 3), could hardly be more different,
and includes shrubs which typically occur in dry, often
more or less arid, situations such as the Mediterranean,
Middle East, and southwestern North America.
Ephedra plants are rarely more than about 15 feet tall,
and consist of a mass of spindly stems with minute
leaves that are arranged either in pairs or in groups of
three. Welwitschia (fig. 4), the third member of this
peculiar triumvirate, includes a single species which is
restricted to a narrow strip of desert in southwestern
Africa (see February 1988 Bulletin). It is one of the most
bizarre plants known and resembles a giant woody car-
rot with just two thick, leathery leaves which persist
throughout the life of the plant.
Neither Gnetum nor Welwitschia have any very
significant utilitarian value, although the flexible fib-
rous stems of Gnetum are used locally in tropical regions
for making rope, and young leaves and seeds are occa-
sionally eaten as a vegetable. In contrast, Ephedra is
widely used in a variety of folk-medicinal applications
in many different parts of the world. In western North
America during the nineteenth century the stems of
Ephedra were steeped in water by Indians and frontiers-
men to make a stimulant — the so-called "Desert," or
"Mormon," tea. In North Africa and Asia preparations
of Ephedra are used as antiperspirants, antiasthmatics,
and also in several gynecological applications. The
active principle common to most of these folk-
medicinal uses is the alkaloid ephedrine or related com-
pounds, which have the ability to constrict swollen or
inflamed blood vessels. Not surprisingly, there is con-
siderable pharmacological interest in these com-
21
pounds, and the Natural Products Data Base (NAP-
RALERT) of the College of Pharmacy, University of
Illinois at Chicago, lists over 150 tests in which the
pharmacological effects of Ephedra extracts have been
scientifically assessed. Based on the information gained
from folk-medicinal applications and its natural
occurrences, ephedrine has now been synthesized arti-
all share important common similarities such as the
presence of hair and mammary glands producing milk.
Based on the presence of these distinctive features we
conclude that these animals are closely related.
Exactly the same principles apply in the botanical
world. In fact, with Gnetales — if one ignores the ob-
vious features unique to each of three genera — there
1 . Model of part of a Gnetum
plant showing a shoot with leaves,
aborted female "flowers." and
about 20 large seeds. The model
is currently on display in "Plants of
the World" (Hall 29).
22
ficially and it is one of the common ingredients in var-
ious allergy, cold, and asthma medications.
The evolutionary and botanical interest in the
Gnetales mainly centers on their relationships to each
other and to other plant groups. To begin with, one
might reasonably ask why these three strange plants are
regarded as closely related, given the enormous and ob-
vious differences in form and ecology. The answer is
not mysterious, and nicely illustrates both the impor-
tance of looking beyond "first impressions" and the
normal practice of biological classification (systema-
tics), which classifies plants and animals into groups
based on similarities rather than on differences. Quite
simply, it would be nonsense, and completely imprac-
ticable, to construct groups which were not circum-
scribed in some way by similar characteristics. Thus,
we classify seals, cows, and humans together as mam-
mals in spite of their obvious differences because they
are many distinctive characteristics which all members
of the group have in common. These include their leaf
arrangement, certain chemical features, the con-
struction of their reproductive parts, and details of
their life cycle. When the complete list is assembled it
becomes obvious that the Gnetales share so many un-
usual— and fundamental — similarities that their close
relationship to each other could hardly be in doubt.
One characteristic feature of all Gnetales that has
attracted considerable attention is the remarkable spe-
cialization of those cells which conduct water from the
roots to the aerial parts of the plant. In conifers and
Ginkgo the long thin cells that perform this function
(technically termed tracheids, fig. 5) are also responsi-
ble for structural support: literally for holding the tree
up. Almost all of the tree trunk in conifers and Ginkgo
is comprised of tracheids. However, as is often the case
in biology, different functional requirements directly
conflict and some kind of compromise appears to have
been "worked out" in the course of evolution. In the
cellular construction of tree trunks there is a direct con-
flict between the two equally important requirements
of structural support and water conduction. If one were
to design the ideal kind of wood for conducting water it
would be composed of thin-walled cells, with large
internal diameters linked together to form long tubes.
In contrast, the ideal wood for structural support would
be composed of cells with narrow internal diameters
and very thick walls that would fit together as a strong
interlocking mass. Thus, an ideal conducting cell
would be physically weak and almost useless for structu-
ral support, while the ideal, strong, structural cell
would have almost no ability to conduct water.
The tracheids of conifers and Ginkgo, which are
used both for support and water conduction, therefore
represent a compromise which balances these con-
flicting requirements (fig. 5). However, in the Ghe-
tales (and also in flowering plants) the conflict has
been neatly avoided, and the two roles of conduction
and support are mainly carried out by two different
kinds of cells, each specialized for their own function
(fig. 5). Tracheids or even thicker-walled cells (fibers)
remain the principal source of stem support, but the
role of conduction is taken on by specialized cells with
perforated end walls (termed vessel elements, fig. 5),
which often have a large diameter and are linked
together to form long continuous tubes. This remark-
able specialization is part of the evidence which indi-
cates that the three living genera of Gnetales are close-
ly related to each other, and that clearly separates the
Gnetales (and flowering plants) from all conifers,
cycads, and Ginkgo.
In terms of evolution, the occurrence of the same
specialized features in Ephedra, Gnetum, and Welwits-
chia has led most botanists to conclude that they
probably all evolved from a single common ancestor.
Subsequently, each genus seems to have followed a dif-
ferent evolutionary pathway, each becoming uniquely
specialized in its own way. The structure and operation
of the reproductive system provides a good illustration
of how different specializations have apparently been
superimposed on a basically uniform "ground plan." In
all three genera the structure of the immature develop-
ing seed (ovule) is quite similar, and it is surrounded
2. Leaves of Gnetum gnemon (left) compared with those of coffee (Coffea arabica,
right), a representative flowering plant. Note the similar pattern of veins and expanded
leaf blade. It has been suggested that the physiological capability to support such
leaves may have been enhanced in the course of evolution by the development of effi-
cient water-conducting cells (vessels) in both flowering plants and Gnetales.
23
and protected by pairs of small leaflike structures (tech-
nically termed bracts and bracteoles). However, as the
seed matures this basic pattern of organization is mod-
ified in various ways as part of different methods of seed
dispersal.
In Welwitschia the leaflike structures become dry
and remain attached to the seed to form a papery wing
(fig. 6), and this probably enhances the possibilities for
wind dispersal in the barren, open habitats that these
plants occupy (fig. 4). In Ephedra some of the bracts
mals. However, a few species of Gnetum stand out as
having dull grey seeds and perhaps a quite different dis-
persal system. Recent studies have shown that species
with seeds of this type are often confined to areas which
are flooded annually (for example parts of the Amazon
Basin). ' At these times of the year the flood water may
rise well over 30 feet, and fish — in a bizarre quirk of
nature — become the most widespread animals of the
forest. In the process of feeding on floating and sub-
merged fruits and seeds, the fish play an important role
3. Shoots of Ephedra showing the spindly, jointed stems, small leaves, and the
swollen bracts associated with mature seeds.
24
become swollen (fig. 3), fleshy, and colored (usually
bright red). This seems to be important in attracting
birds, which inadvertently swallow and distribute the
relatively small seeds. Gnetum also appears to be ani-
mal dispersed, although the seeds are much larger (fig.
1). As in Ephedra, the surrounding bracts are usually
orange or red and this coloration is apparently associ-
ated with dispersal by birds and perhaps some mam-
in the dispersal of many plants. Based on the most re-
cent observations, at least some ot the Gnetum species
that grow in regularly flooded areas may be among the
large group of lowland tropical plants in which dis-
persal is aided by fish. '
Although many aspects of the biology of the Gne-
tales are rather poorly understood, another area in
which there is some information concerns the way in
4. Part of the diorama in "Plants of the World" (Hall 29) at Field Museum showing Welwitschia mirabilis in its natural habitat (see February 1 988
Bulletin).
which these plants are pollinated. It is generally
assumed that the Gnetales — along with cycads, con-
ifers, and Ginkgo — are all wind pollinated and that
unlike the typical situation in flowering plants, transfer
of pollen takes place without the assistance of insects or
other animals. However, it has recently been shown
that certain cycads are insect pollinated and this also
appears to be true of the Gnetales. Some particularly
fascinating studies on Ephedra have demonstrated at
least two kinds of insect pollination systems.2 ' In some
species male and female reproductive organs are pro-
duced on separate individuals, and the bracteoles (and
even leaves) associated with both the male and female
parts (pollen organs and ovules, respectively) produce
a sweet nectarlike secretion which is collected by in-
sects (fig. 7).
Other species have female plants, which produce
only ovules, and male plants which produce pollen
organs as well as "nonfunctional" ovules. In both male
and female plants of these species the "nectar" is pro-
duced at the tip of a tube which is at the apex of each
ovule. Interestingly however the ovules on the male
plants never develop into mature seeds and the mainte-
nance of both sex organs in these individuals seems to
be tied to the operation of the pollination system. The
nonfunctional ovules apparently play a role in attract-
ing insects to the male plants (fig. 7). In both cases the
droplet of "nectar" produced resembles honey in hav-
ing a high sugar and nitrogen content and is collected
mainly by hoverflies (syrphids) and other Diptera (true
flies).
A basically similar kind of insect pollination
mechanism appears to operate in Welwitschia (see Feb-
ruary 1988 Bulletin) and at least some species of Gne-
tum. In Gnetum gnemon there are also separate male
and female plants, but once again associated with the
male reproductive structures are female sex organs
(ovules) which never mature into seeds. These ovules
also produce a large droplet of liquid at their apex, and
again this secretion may be associated with the attrac-
25
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5. Diagrams illustrating the different kinds of structural and water-
conducting cells in the stems of conifers, Gnetales, and flowering
plants. The long tracheids (folded — left, bottom, right) which make up
most of the wood in the trunk of a pine tree (Pinus) are important in
both physical support and water conduction and thus represent a
compromise between these two functions. In the stem of Ephedra
support is provided principally by long thick-walled, fiberlike
tracheids (left of scale, top), while water is mainly conducted through
shorter cells with a larger internal diameter and perforated end walls
(vessels — left of scale, bottom). Similar differentiation into structural
fibers (above scale, right) and water-conducting vessels (above
scale, left) occurs in the wood of flowering plants (e.g., Liriodendron
— tulip tree). Redrawn from diagrams in Esau.8 Drawings by Clara
Richardson.
tion of pollinators to male plants (fig. 8). Although
there are no detailed studies of pollination in Gnetum
there are scattered observations that large bees and
other insects visit the flowers of some Gnetum species.4
The small amount of evidence available therefore
seems to indicate that at least some Gnetales are insect
pollinated. In all three of the living representatives
there seems to be evidence that insects are enticed to
visit male plants by "nonfunctional" female parts
(ovules), which produce a nectarlike substance at their
tip. This is especially interesting because in conifers,
Ginkgo, and probably some cycads a similar secretion
produced by the ovule is important in trapping pollen
floating in the air currents. This so-called "pollination
droplet" is then reabsorbed, "sucking" the pollen back
into the ovule. In the Gnetales the function of this
secretion seems to have been subtly altered, perhaps as
part of an evolutionary shift from wind to insect pol-
lination. In effect, the "pollination droplet" seems to
have been coopted, and slightly modified to play a role
in attracting insects to the plant. According to recent
studies2,3 this functional shift may also have been
accompanied by a change in the chemical composition
of the droplet. In Ephedra the nectar drop has a higher
sugar content than is typical of the pollination droplet
in at least some wind-pollinated conifers.
The interest attaching to the existence of insect
pollination in the Gnetales is twofold. First, it demon-
6. A mature seed of Welwitschia mirabilis with a pair of attached dry
leaflike structures (bracteoles), which form the two papery wings.
Drawing by Clara Richardson.
26
7. A fly (Lucilia sp.) feeding on the nectarlike pollination droplet produced at the apex of Ephedra ovules. The fly is attracted to pollen
producing "flowers" (left) by "nonfunctional" ovules that produce a pollination droplet but never mature into seeds. Fully functional ovules on
different plants (right) do not have associated pollen-producing organs. Redrawn from sketches by Seger in Bino et al. ■' Drawings by Clara
Richardson.
strates that although there are no large or visually spec-
tacular flowers in the living gymnosperms, at least
some of these plants do have relatively sophisticated
insect pollination systems. Along with the recently dis-
covered role of insects in the pollination of certain
cycads,5 this realization begins to redress the common
(but wrong) view that among living plants only angio-
sperms (flowering plants) are insect pollinated.
Second, it demonstrates an intriguing point of sim-
ilarity between the Gnetales and angiosperms to be
added to the already impressive list of features shared
between the two groups. To return to our earlier point,
the existence of such similarities raises the obvious
question of how the Gnetales and angiosperms might
be related in terms of evolution.
The Gnetales have sometimes been called "the
lure and the despair" of the plant morphologist, a view
alluding both to their unusual structure and the pola-
rized opinions of many botanists who interpret them
either as some kind of "missing link" between flowering
plants and gymnosperms or as completely irrelevant to
the question of angiosperm origins. Early in this cen-
tury E. A. N. Arber and J. Parkin, working at Cam-
8. Several whorls of reproductive structures in a male plant of Gne-
tum gnemon showing several male (pollen producing) "flowers" be-
low and three nonfunctional female "flowers" (ovule and associated
bracteoles) above. Note the large drop of liquid at the apex of one of
the ovules. This pollination droplet may function as nectar and play an
important role in the attraction of insect pollinators. Photograph by
Prof. P. K. Endress.
27
bridge University, presented several important and
highly influential ideas on flowering plant evolution
and strongly advocated the view that the Gnetales and
angiosperms are closely related. While many of Arber
and Parkin's ideas have been widely accepted, their
hypothesis of the position of the Gnetales steadily be-
came less popular until the work of I. W. Bailey and his
colleagues at Harvard University appeared to deliver
the "coup de grace" to this long-standing idea.
Bailey and others presented evidence that the spe-
cialized water-conducting elements (vessels) of Gne-
tales and angiosperms were much less similar than once
thought. Because this removed an important point of
similarity between the two groups many botanists
quickly dismissed the idea of a close relationship be-
tween Gnetales and flowering plants. However, other
significant similarities still remained and in the last few
years the Arber and Parkin idea has been revived. Not
only is their view supported by the bulk of accumulated
evidence from plant structure and anatomy, but it is
also supported by very recent chemical analyses of sim-
ilarities in their genetic material. Taken together, all of
the recent work suggests that the Gnetales are more
closely related to angiosperms than to any other living,
group of seed plants, but it also shows that the Gne-
tales, at least as they are currently defined, were not the
direct ancestors of flowering plants.
10. A fossil shoot of Drewria potomacensis, an extinct member of the
Gnetales from the Early Cretaceous of Virginia.7 The specimen is
about 7 mm long and poorly preserved, but shows a stem with a pair
of attached leaves and the remains of three terminal inflorescences.
The oval structures at the top left of the specimen are probably the
fossilized remains of seeds (compare fig. 1 1 ).
9. Three fossil gnetalean pollen grains from the Early Cretaceous of
Virginia.' The pollen grains have numerous longitudinal ridges on
their surface and closely resemble the pollen of extant Welwitschia
mirabilis. Each of the two smaller grains is about 20um (20
thousandths of a millimeter) long. These specimens are from the
same thin bed of clay as the fossil gnetalean shoot illustrated in fig.
10. Photograph by Dr. G. R. Upchurch.
28
One puzzling and slightly worrying aspect of this
conclusion is that if Gnetales and flowering plants are
indeed sister branches on the phylogenetic tree then
they might be expected to have similarly long fossil his-
tories. Flowering plants have an excellent fossil record
which extends back at least 120 million years, but frus-
tratingly the fossil history of the Gnetales has always
been something of an enigma. In the early part of this
century, nothing was known of the fossil record of the
Gnetales, but Arber and Parkin were quick to recog-
nize the possibility of confusing fossil Gnetales (partic-
ularly leaves like those of Gnetum) with angiosperms.
Other workers6 have suggested that the Gnetales may
have been confined to dry perhaps desert environ-
ments, such as those inhabited by Ephedra and Welwits-
chia, where the chances of preservation as fossils would
have been small. Since Arber and Parkin's work there
have been extensive studies of fossil pollen and spores,
principally in association with geological exploration
for coal, oil, and gas reserves. Such studies have greatly
enhanced our understanding of the history of many
plant groups, and based on fossil pollen grains (fig. 9) it
is now thought probable that the Gnetales may indeed
have a fossil record extending as far back as the Per-
mian" (about 250 million years before present).
All other evidence of the Gnetales had eluded
paleobotanists until a complete fossil gnetalean plant
was recently described from rocks about 120 million
years old close to Richmond, Virginia.' One of the
most striking features of these fossils is their minute
size, and that they were ever collected at all is a tribute
to the perspicacity of Dr. G. R. Upchurch of the Uni-
versity of Colorado who discovered them (fig. 10).
These Cretaceous Gnetales are thought to have been
small herbaceous plants (fig. 11) which along with
ferns and perhaps a few small flowering plants probably
colonized the kinds of open, often disturbed areas that
many grasses and other common weeds occupy today. '
As any gardener knows, it is the trees not the grass
which provide most of the work in the fall when huge
quantities of fallen leaves need to be gathered up. In
contrast, herbaceous plants usually die back and wither
where they grow: because they do not shed large quan-
tities of leaves their vegetative parts stand little chance
of being washed into lakes, ponds, or the sea and thus
being preserved in the fossil record. If most of the ex-
tinct Gnetales were herbaceous like the fossil material
from Virginia, it may provide part of the explanation
for why the fossil record of the Gnetales has remained
so sketchy for so long.
Although the fossil record of the Gnetales is still
poor it seems certain to be expanded as paleobotanical
work continues. Already the evidence from fossil pol-
len clearly shows that the Gnetales were once much
more diverse than their three remaining living repre-
sentatives would lead us to suspect, particularly in the
vegetation of eastern South America and western Afri-
ca about 120- 100 million years ago. As is often the case
with ancient groups, the living representatives are just
the tip of the evolutionary iceberg. In this case the
three living genera are merely the surviving remnants
of a group that reached its zenith well before the demise
of the dinosaurs. It is now clear that the Gnetales were
once much richer in species and it is in these situations
that paleontology makes its special contribution of
placing our living, but perhaps biased, sample of plants
in an appropriate historical perspective. FH
11. Reconstruction of a fossil gnetalean (Drewria potomacensis)
from the Early Cretaceous of Virginia7 based on about 1 00 specimens
similar to that in fig. 1 0. The reconstruction shows pairs of leaves and
the terminal aggregations of reproductive structures (compare fig.
1 0). Drawing by Clara Richardson.
References
1. Kubitzki, K. 1985. Ichthyochory inGnetum venosum.
An. Acad. Brasil. Gene, 57(4):513-516.
2. Bino, R. J., A. Dafni and A. D. J. Meeuse. 1984. En-
tomophily in the dioecious gymnosperm Ephedra aphylla
Forsk. ( E. alteC.A. Mey.), with some notes on E. campy-
lopodaC.A. Mey. I. Aspects of the entomophi bus syn-
drome. Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akad. van
Wetenschappen, (C)87(1):M3.
3. Bino, R. J.,N. DeventeandA. D.J. Meeuse. 1984. En-
tomophily in the dioecious gymnosperm Ephedra aphylla
Forsk. ( E. alte C. A. Mey. ), with some notes on E. campy-
lopodaC.A. Mey. II. Pollination droplets, nectaries, and
nectarial secretion in Ephedra. Proceedings of the Koninklijke
Nederlandse Akad. van Wetenschappen, (C)87(l): 15-24.
4- Van der Pijl, L. 1953. On the flower biology of some
plants from Java, with general remarks on fly-traps (species
ofAnnona, Artocarpus, Typhonium, Gnetum, Arisaema and
Abroma). Ann. Bogor, 1:77-99.
5. Norstog, K. 1987. Cycads and the origin of insect pol-
lination. American Scientist, 75:270-279.
6. Wilson, L. R. 1959. Geological history of the Gnetales.
Oklahoma Geology Notes, 19(2):35-40.
7. Crane, P. R. andG. R. Upchurch Jr. 1987. Drewria poto-
macensis gen. et sp. nov. , an early Cretaceous member of
Gnetales from the Potomac Group of Virginia. American
Journal of Botany, 74(1 1): 1722- 1736.
8. Esau, K. 1965. Plant Anatomy. 2nd ed. John Wiley &.
Sons, Inc., U.S.A. 767 pp.
29
FIELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
Dear Field Museum Member:
Whale-watching and observing the varied bird life along the St. Lawrence are just
some of the pleasures that await members of our July tour to Canada's Maritime Prov-
inces. These rare experiences will be particularly worthwhile since your group will
be accompanied by Dr. David Willard, manager of Field Museum's bird collection
and a seasoned tour leader. He most recently led a tour to Alaska.
Our special voyage aboard the magnificent M.V. Illiria highlights the incredible
natural history and untouched beauty of the Maritime Provinces. In addition to Dr.
Willard, a marine biologist on board will discuss the region's remarkable wildlife,
while an expert on the history and diversity of our ports-of-call will prepare us for
on-shore excursions.
This tour promises to be one of our finest ever, and the fact that we will be cruis-
ing on the elegant Illiria ensures that this will be a memorable voyage. With its ratio of
90 crew members serving only 135 passengers, the Illiria guarantees a high level of
personalized service at all times. The superbly furnished ship has gleaming bright-
work, broad teakwood decks, a large dining room that accommodates all passengers at
a single sitting, and museum-quality artwork. The unique nature of this program,
which combines the pleasures of the great outdoors with the luxury and convenience
of cruise travel, makes for an ideal summer family vacation. With all sightseeing tours
included in the rates and all meals included during the cruise, this program presents
an excellent travel value. And, our special "third person sharing rates" enable three or
four persons to occupy a single cabin at significant savings — a wonderful opportunity
for inviting your children or grandchildren.
Most of all, this tour will afford you the opportunity to view the area's great
variety of bird life with the guidance and expertise of a Field Museum specialist.
We have indications that this program will sell out quickly. To avoid dis-
appointment, we encourage you to book your reservation soon.
Sincerely,
M^Sty
Willard L. Boyd
President
30
M.V. Illiria
Voyage to
The Gulf of
St. Lawrence and
Canada's
Maritime Provinces
Aboard the Illiria
July 1-9, 1988
Accompanied by Dr. David Willard,
Field Museum Zoologist
ITINERARY
July 1
Fly to Montreal. Transfer to Delta Montreal
Hotel.
July 2
Morning drive to Quebec City; sightsee in the
afternoon. Illiria sails at 4:00 pm. Evening
cruise along the St. Lawrence River shore.
Captain's welcome dinner.
July 3
Cruise St. Lawrence River this morning.
Whale-watching by Mingan Islands this after-
noon. Evening cruise to Newfoundland. Gros
Morne National Park.
July 4
Morning arrival at Gros Morne National Park
for day of shore excursions. Evening cruise
past Bay of Islands and along Newfound-
land's south shore.
July 5
Morning arrival at St. Pierre Miquelon for
shore excursions. Evening cruise past Grand
Miquelon to Magdalen Islands.
July 6
Morning arrival at Magdalen Islands. After-
noon shore excursions. Evening cruise to
Gaspe Peninsula.
July 7
Morning visit to Bonaventure Island Bird
Sanctuary. Afternoon visit to Perce at tip of the
peninsula. Evening cruise up St. Lawrence
River shore.
July 8
Whale-watching this morning. Cruise
Saguenay River Fjord in the afternoon. Eve-
ning cruise to Montreal. Captain's farewell
dinner.
July 9
Disembark Montreal after breakfast. Transfer
to airport for flight home.
Rates: $2,090-$2,450 per person (double
occupancy); third person $430-5550. These
rates do not include air fare, but do include a
$200 tax-deductible contribution to the Field
Museum. Estimated round trip air fare be-
tween Chicago and Montreal: $195. To
reserve tour space, send $200.00 per person
deposit to Field Museum Tours. A brochure
will be mailed upon request. Please phone
322-8862 for further information.
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
31
17 -
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN
April 1988
"Birds in Art"
March 26 - May 22
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor /Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
WillardL. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H.Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo F. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
J . Howard Wood
CONTENTS
April 1988
Volume 59, Number 4
APRIL EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3
BIRDS IN ART
March 26-May 11
TRADITIONAL SILK SARONGS
Of Mandar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia,
by Robert L. Welsch
13
HYDE PARK'S PARAKEETS
by David M. Walsten .
23
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS
Featuring July Voyage to the Gulf of St. Lawrence
and Canada's Maritime Provinces
30
COVER
"Winter Song" — acrylic painting of black-capped chickadees
by Jerry Gadamus, of Green Bay, Wisconsin: 97 x 36cm. Gada-
mus's painting is one of 60 artworks on view from March 26
through May 22. The exhibit, "Birds in Art," was organized
and is being circulated by the Leigh Yawkey Woodson Art
Museum, Wausau, Wisconsin. For more on the exhibit, see
pages 8-12.
Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/ August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and c
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts ate welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Memb
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, lllino
additional mailing office.
'#»•*»•> vjj w*v. • •:'* • «\ma.v. vv.*/,i..A\v»7/A»A\v»« rAWV.-"*wi:i •'**•:
.%%.«.#
.»» . .
Edward E. Ayer Series
Thursdays in April, Beginning April 7
1:30 p.m., James Simpson Theatre
Lectures are free and refreshments are served.
April 7
'The Gardens of Japan"
Taimi Anderson, Landscape Architect
The Japanese garden is a garden for all seasons in which
serenity, harmony, and beauty combine to express an elo-
quent abstraction ot nature. See how weathered rocks,
gnarled pines, waterfalls, and Japanese flora are delicately
balanced to symbolize the mountain and island landscape
of Japan.
April Weekend Programs
Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the
world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demon-
strations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the
Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below
is one of the numerous activities each weekend. Check the
activity listing upon arrival for the complete schedule and
program locations. The programs are partially supported by
a grant from the Illinois Art Council.
April 10
2:00pm Malvina Hoffman: Portraits in Bronze (slide lecture).
A look at the life and works of Malvina Hoffman, concentrates
on the "Portraits of Mankind" collection.
These programs are free with Museum admission and tickets
are not required.
April 14
"Animal Courtship"
Paul Verrell, Research Fellow,
Department of Biology, University of Chicago
Animals court and mate in hundreds of thousands of ways,
from the violent praying mantis, who devours her mate after
mating, to the romantic lifetime bonding of the Canada
geese. Sexual reproduction appears to be an obvious fact of
nature, but why and how have animals evolved such diverse
means to ensure their survival?
April 21
"A Botanical Sojourn in Switzerland"
Peter Crane, Associate Curator,
Department of Geology, Field Museum
From the gardens of Zurich to the alpine meadows, the visual
beauty of Switzerland astounds the visitor. Botanists delight
in its diverse and colorful native flora.
April 28
"The Queen Charlotte Islands"
Roy Taylor, Director, Chicago Botanic Garden
Off the coast of British Columbia in the north Pacific lies the
homelands of the Haida people, one of the many artistically
rich Indian cultures of the Northwest. The Queen Charlottes
also support unusual plant life. Explore the vast human and
natural beauty of these remote islands.
Adult Programs
Classes
Learn about Chinese Cultures, capture nature in watercolors
or become an expert birder. Adult courses continue through
April and May with exciting new six-week, three-week, and
one-day classes. Check the April/May Adult and Family Pro-
grams brochure or call (312) 322-8855 for program details.
Eilm Series
Art and Artisans:
A Celebration of the
Margaret Mead Film Festival
Saturdays, April 9 through 30
To Celebrate the tenth anniversary of the Margaret Mead
Ethnographic Film Festival, a collection of some of the finest
films shown in the festival is on tour. The collection focuses
on films depicting the lives and works of traditional artists.
The eleven films in the series are arranged into four thematic
programs. Each program features a guest speaker address-
ing the program's theme.
■Saturday, April 9
Women and Cultural Continuity
"Sabina Sanchez — The Art of Embroidery"
Judith Bronowski and Robert Grant
1976, Color, 22 minutes
This film records the peaceful world of a Zapotec woman in
San Antonio Castillo, Velasco, Mexico. Sabina embroiders
the colorful blouses of her traditional village costume.
Continued f>
Saturday, April 23
Reviving Ancient Traditions
"Stilt Dancers of Long Bow Village" (above)
Carma Hinton and Richard Gordon
1980, Color, 28 minutes
Saturday, April 9
"Munni: Childhood and Art in Mithila"
Ray Owens, Ron Hess, and Cheryl Graff
1983, Color, 28 minutes
Follow the life of Munni, an 1 1-year-old girl growing up in the
Indian village of Jitwarpur, as she apprentices to become a
Mithila artist.
"Quilts in Women's Lives: Six Portraits"
Pat Ferrero
1980, Color, 28 minutes
In "Quilts In Women's Lives," seven women — among them a
California Mennonite, a black Mississippian, and a Bulgarian
immigrant— demonstrate their art and describe the inspira-
tions for their work: family, tradition, the joy of the creative
process, the challenge of design.
Guest Speaker: Elizabeth Fernea, senior lecturer,
Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Department of English
and University of Texas — Austin.
BSaturday, April 16
Music and Dance in Society
"Learning to Dance in Bali"
Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead
Filmed 1936-39, edited and completed 1978,
black and white, 7 minutes
This brief film, edited and completed in 1978, uses fieldwork
footage taken in Bali 50 years ago by pioneer anthropologist-
filmmakers Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead.
"Songs of the Badius"
Gei Zantzinger
1986, Color, 33 minutes
This film documents the post-independence resurgence of
the explosive music and dance practiced on the Cape Verde
island of Santiago by the "Badius," descendants of runaway
African slaves.
"Mountain Music of Peru"
John Cohen
1984, Color, 60 minutes
Sensual, sometimes hallucinatory cinematography charac-
terizes this breathtaking documentary portrait of the centu-
ries-old musical culture of the Andes.
Guest Speaker: Emilie DeBrigard, director, FilmResearch,
Higganum, CT.
■Saturday, April 23
Reviving Ancient Traditions
"Stilt Dancers of Long Bow Village"
Carma Hinton and Richard Gordon
1980, Color, 28 minutes
"Stilt Dancers of Long Bow Village" focuses on a vibrant
dance performance at a country fair in provincial China.
"Our God the Condor"
Andy Harries and Paul Yule
1987, Color, 30 minutes
This extraordinary film, shot in and around the remote village
of Cotabamas in the southern Andes of Peru, documents the
annual reenactment of the "Yawar Fiesta," an elemental rep-
resentation of the Indians' triumph over the Spaniards de-
picted in dance and song.
"Joe David: Spirit of the Mask"
Jennifer Hodge and Robert Lund
1982, Color, 24 minutes
Told in his own words, "Joe David: Spirit of the Mask" offers
articulate commentary on the life and work of this Native
American sculptor.
Guest Speaker: Dwight Conquergood, assistant professor,
Department of Performance Studies and Communication
Studies, Northwestern University.
■Saturday, April 30
Portraits of the Individual Artist
"Steady as She Goes"
Robert Fresco
1981, Color, 26 minutes
George Fulfit has built 136 miniature ships in bottles since
1970. "Steady as She Goes" documents the building of the
137th, his largest ship to date.
"Imaginero"
Jorge Preloran
1971, Color, 52 minutes
A religious-image maker living on the high Argentine plateau,
Preloran works in self-imposed isolation, driven to keep alive
forms of traditional religious art he feels the world has for-
gotten.
Guest Speaker: Tom Palazzolo, documentary filmmaker and
professor, Film Department, Art Institute of Chicago.
This film series is organized and circulated by the American
Federation of Arts and is supported by funds from the
National Endowment for the Humanities and the New York
State Council on the Arts.
Saturdays, l:00pm-4:00pm
April 9-30, (4 sessions)
AC88215 Entire Series - $25 ($15 members)
AC88216 Single Session - $7 ($5 members)
For further ticket and schedule information, call (312) 322-
8855 or check the April/May Adult and Family Program
brochure.
Registration
Be sure to complete all requested information on this ticket
application. If your request is received less than one week
before the program, tickets will be held in your name at the
West Entrance box office. Please make checks payable to
Field Museum. Tickets will be mailed upon receipt of check.
Refunds will be made only if the program is sold out.
Name
Address
City
State
Zip
Telephone: Daytime
□ Member □ Nonmember
American ExpressA/isa/MasterCard
Evening
Card Number
Signature
Expiration Date
Return complete ticket application with a self-
addressed stamped envelope to:
Field Museum of Natural History
Public Programs: Department of Education
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2497
Program
#Member
Tickets
#Nonmember
Tickets
Total
Tickets
Amount
Enclosed
Art and Artisans Film
Series (entire series)
AC88215
Art and Artisans Film
Series (single session)
AC88216
H Scholarship requested
Total
Films
Saturday, April 16
Music and Dance in Society
"Mountain Music of Peru"
John Cohen
1984, Color, 60 minutes
Sensual, sometimes hallucinatory cinematography charac-
terizes this breathtaking documentary portrait of the centu-
ries-old musical culture of the Andes.
Please use coupon
Now available from the Division of Publications-
Studies in Neotropical Mammalogy
Essays in Honor of Philip Hershkovitz
Edited by
Bruce D. Patterson and Robert M. Timm
CONTENTS
A Biographical Sketch of Philip Hershkovitz, with a Com-
plete Scientific Bibliography, by Bruce D. Patterson
History of the Recent Mammalogy of the Neotropical
Region from 1492 to 1850, by Philip Hershkovitz
A New Superfamily in the Extensive Radiation of South
American Paleogene Marsupials, by Rosendo Pascual
and Alfredo A. Carlini
An Additional 14-Chromosome Karyotype and Sex-
Chromosome Mosaicism in South American Marsu-
pials, by Milton H. Gallardo and Bruce D. Patterson
Notes on the Black-Shouldered Opossum, Caluromysiops
irrupta, by Robert J. lzor and Ronald H . Pine
Feeding Habits of the Opossum (Didelphis marsupialis) in
Northern Venezuela, by GerardoA. CorderoR. and
Ruben A. Nicolas B.
Notes on Distribution of Some Bats from Southwestern
Colombia, by Michael S. Alberico
Distributional Records of Bats from the Caribbean Low-
lands of Belize and Adjacent Guatemala and Mexico, by
Timothy J. McCarthy
New Species of Mammals from Northern South America:
Fruit-Eating Bats, Genus Artibeus Leach, by Charles O.
Handley, Jr.
Seasonality of Reproduction in Peruvian Bats, by GaryL.
Graham
Tent Construction by Bats of the Genera Artibeus and
Uroderma, by Robert M. Timm
Comparative Infrastructure and Evolutionary Patterns of
Acinar Secretory Product of Parotid Salivary Glands in
Neotropical Bats, by Carleton J. Phillips, Toshikazu
Nagato, and Bernard Tandler
Distribution of the Species and Subspecies of Cebids in
Venezuela, by Roberta Bodini and Roger Perez-
Hernandez
Host Associations and Coevolutionary Relationships of
Astigmatid Mite Parasites of New World Primates. I.
Families Psoroptidae and Audycoptidae, by Barry M.
OConnor
Notes on Bolivian Mammals. 2. Taxonomy and Distribution
of Rice Rats of the Subgenus Oligoryzomys, by Nancy
Olds and Sydney Anderson
New Records and Current Status of Euneomys (Cricetidae)
in Southern South America, by Jose L. Ydnez, Juan C.
Torres-Mura, Jaime R. Rau, and Luis C. Contreras
Morphological Variation, Karyology, and Systematic Rela-
tionships of Heteromys gaumeri (Rodentia: Hetero-
myidae), by Mark D. Engstrom, Hugh H. Genoways,
and Priscilla K. Tucker
Species Groups of Spiny Rats, Genus Proechimys (Roden-
tia: Echimyidae), by James L. Patton
An Assessment of the Systematics and Evolution of the
Akodontini, with the Description of New Fossil Species
of Akodon (Cricetidae: Sigmodontinae), by Osvaldo A.
Reig
Biogeography of Octodontid Rodents: An Eco-Evolutionary
Hypothesis, by Luis C. Contreras, Juan C. Torres-
Mura, and Jose L. Ydnez
Population Dynamics and Ecology of Small Mammals in
the Northern Chilean Semiarid Region, by Peter L.
Meserve and Eric Le Boulenge
Demography and Reproduction of the Silky Desert Mouse
(Eligmodontia) in Argentina, by Oliver Pearson, Susana
Martin, and Javier Bellati
Baculum of the Lesser Andean Coati, Nasuella olivacea
(Gray), and of the Larger Grison, Galictis vittata (Schre-
ber), by Edgardo Mondolfi
Origin, Diversification, and Zoogeography of the South
American Canidae, by Annalisa Berta
Comparative Cytogenetics of South American Deer, by
Angel E. Spotorno, Nadir Brum, and Mariela Di
Tomaso
Faunal Representation in Museum Collections of Mammals:
Osgood's Mammals of Chile, by Bruce D. Patterson
and Clare E. Feigl
Fieldiana: Zoology
New Series, No. 39
Publication No. 1382
496 pages + Taxonomic and Subject Indices
$35.00 + appropriate tax and/or shipping charges
BIRDS IN ART
March 26 to May 22
"The Best Annual Bird Art Exhibit in the West-
ern Hemisphere" consisting of 60 pieces, includes
works by Roger Tory Peterson, Owen Gromme, and
the 1987 Master Wildlife Artist, sculptor Kent
Ullberg.
"Birds in Art" is a juried show, organized and
circulated by the Leigh Yawkey Woodson Art Museum
of Wausau, Wisconsin. The exhibit at Field Museum
is made possible through the generosity of The Rice
Foundation. Each year hundreds of artists from the
United States and other countries compete to have
their work accepted for the prestigious exhibit. This
year's traveling show includes oils, watercolors,
gouaches, acrylics, printed graphics, and sculptures in
wood, stone, brass, and steel, all depicting birds and
their habitats.
The show not only presents a range of techniques
and media, but touches on concerns of naturalists,
scientists, and conservationists. A number of the
artists have worked for natural history museums or
other nature organizations. Their artwork reflects a
deep-rooted interest and commitment to nature.
"Birds in Art" is accompanied by a 125-page
catalog that includes color photos of most pieces in
the show. The catalog and a handsome exhibit poster
are available at the Museum Store, as well as a selec-
tion of bird-motif merchandise. "Birds in Art" is free
with regular Museum admission.
"In the Rainy Season — Toco Toucan"
Acrylic, 1987, 43 x 56cm
by Richard Sloan
"Malachite Kingfisher — Kenya"
Serigraph, 1986, 36 x 51cm
by Anne Senechal Faust
BIRDS IN ART
Vr ■'
Si
MR
■ i'^HS
fir, " , "/Sl /Vo
"Tundra Watch" — Snowy Owl
Oil, 1986, 51 x9lcm
by Rod Frederick
10
■wm-mm
"Great Egret and Purple Gallinule"
Tempera, 1984, 75 x 32cm
by Arthur B. Singer
11
BIRDS IN ART
"Scarlet-and white Tanager"
Watercolor, 1986, 43 x 28cm
by Dana Gardner
12
Traditional Silk Sarongs
Of Mandar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
by Robert L. Welsch
Married noble women attending a royal wedding wearing blue baju bocfo' and red sarongs that mark their noble birth. Ma|ene, 1
A,
Llthough nearly everyone has heard about Indone-
sian batik, few have ever heard about an even older
textile tradition found among the Mandar people of
Sulawesi, the large spider-armed island in eastern In-
donesia formerly called the Celebes. Nearly one-half
million Mandar live on the west coast of South
Sulawesi. Together with their more numerous neigh-
bors, the Bugis, Mandar people are known throughout
Indonesia and Malaysia for their hand-woven textiles,
especially their cotton and silk sarongs.
The English word "sarong" is derived from the In-
donesian or Malay word sarung, which refers to a single
piece of cloth sewn into a tube and worn as a kind of
skirt. Wrapped around the waist, it is fastened without
pins or belt by rolling a few inches of fabric under at the
top or with a neat tuck at the side. This simple, loose-
fitting garment has been the traditional clothing of
both men and women throughout Indonesia and much
of Southeast Asia for centuries, and probably came to
Robert L. Welsch is a research associate in the Department of
Anthropology and conducted 16 months of field research in Man-
dar (1985-87) on a Fulbright Southeast Asian Research Fellowship.
While in South Sulawesi, Dr. Welsch made a collection of Mandar
material culture numbering over 450 specimens, including the
largest collection of Mandar textiles in the United States.
13
Indonesia from Hindu India early in the Christian era.
In the public side of daily life, sarongs have now
largely given way to trousers for men and dresses for
women. But comfortable cotton sarongs are still the
most popular kind of casual clothing around the house
and as sleep wear. For Muslims (90 per cent of all In-
donesians are Muslim) cotton sarongs are the garment
of choice for daily prayers. They are the preferred
clothing at a kenduri, or selamatan, a ritual meal with
friends and neighbors to thank God for good fortune or
black cloth with a high collar, long sleeves, and but-
tons down the front. Jacket, sarong, songko] and san-
dals continue to be mandatory formal wear in Mandar
as it has for centuries.
To complement their silk sarongs, most Mandar
women prefer to wear a traditional style of blouse,
either the loose-fitting baju bodo' of gauze or the tight-
fitting baju poko' of velvet with a high collar. To finish
the formal costume, they put their hair up in a tight
bun and wear gold jewelry, particularly a distinctive
Muslim men praying during services for Lebaran, the major religious holiday, wearing formal attire that includes
a variety of different sarong motifs. Majene, 1986.
to pray for the dead. And on Fridays, Muslim men
nearly always wear a white or light-colored cotton
sarong and a black cap, a songko', to attend sabbath
exercises at the mosque.
On festive occasions, such as weddings and Islam-
ic holidays, Mandar people like Muslims everywhere in
south Sulawesi put on their finest attire, which inevit-
ably means their best silk sarong. These hand-woven
silks may be bold plaids; small, discrete checks; vibrant
stripes; or solids with geometric or floral designs.
Whether the colors are brilliant or subdued, silk
sarongs add luster and a daring array of hues to an
already spectacular display of color.
In spite of the tropical climate, the well-dressed
Mandar man wears a jacket or blazer over his silk sarong
at any of these formal occasions. Nowadays such jack-
ets usually follow Western styles, but this is simply a
14 modern adaptation on the traditional Mandar jacket of
kind of earring or heavy gold post, called dali in Man-
darese, which is usually set off with honeysuckle
flowers.
Traditional Mandar silks are finely woven taffetas.
The most typical motifs are simple plaids on a black,
dark reddish-brown, or red background. Mandar plaid
motifs (called sure') are symmetrical and spaced at reg-
ular intervals on the solid background. Some designs
incorporate an additional design element (the tole')
that is usually simpler than the sure' and serves as a
counterpoint to the main motif. The spacing and
arrangement of the motif in the body of the sarong is
the same along both the warp and the weft, which pro-
duces the plaid.
One distinctive feature of every sarong is its back
panel ("head," or pucca'), which contrasts with the
body of the sarong. This panel preserves the sure' along
the warp, but substitutes alternating thick and thin
white lines along the weft. Sometimes, depending
upon the motif, the background color of this panel dif-
fers from the main background as well. The presence of
the pucca' panel is the distinctive feature that dis-
tinguishes fabric woven for a sarong from ordinary
cloth.
The subdued traditional colors of the background
were formerly obtained from vegetable dyes, especially
indigo (from which black, dark blue, light blue, and
grey were obtained) and several tree resins which pro-
vided reddish hues. Although imported aniline, or
chemical, dyes have been available since at least the
early 19th century, Mandar weavers preferred natural
dyes, which unlike many of the aniline dyes were col-
orfast and tended not to fade even after many years.
To the casual Western observer, Mandar plaids
may resemble Scottish tartans, but Mandar motifs have
no historical connection with their European woolen
counterparts and represent an independent local de-
velopment.
The numerous motifs available are not associated
with particular families as Scottish tartans are, but
mark rank, privilege, and social position. Each of the
nine or ten oldest motifs have dark or subdued color
schemes that Mandar associate with respect and au-
thority. More recently introduced pastels, tiny checks,
and brilliant solids suggest less authority and a youthful
lack of responsibility. Thus, they are preferred by young
people, especially unmarried men and women who are
trying to attract the attentions of the opposite sex.
Older people tend to wear somber colors, befitting the
authority and social position that comes with age.
Several motifs are reserved exclusively for men
and women of the nobility. This noble privilege was
jealously guarded in the highly stratified and status-
conscious Mandar society. In the past if a noble saw a
commoner wearing one of these designs he could, with
impunity, rip the sarong off the offender in the middle
of the road or wherever he happened to be.
Nobles were not limited to these aristocratic
motifs, but could wear any design they desired, depend-
ing upon their mood and the self-image they wanted to
project. A middle-ranking noble might choose to wear
bright and flamboyant colors at a commoner's wedding,
but prefer a more respectful sarong at a wedding in his
own family where he was one of the hosts. Similarly, he
might wear festive colors to attend a malolang (a kind of
bachelor party at the bride's home the night before a
noble's wedding), while the groom, as guest of honor,
would be expected to wear a more somber motif.
In a similar way, the blouses women wear with
Two young men in ordinary formal attire: silk sarong, jacket, songko',
and sandals. Majene, 1986.
15
their sarongs indicate their marital status and position
within the community. Only unmarried women should
wear the velvet or velveteen baju poko' , though if they
prefer they may wear a bright red baju bodo'. Red is
considered the most alluring color for women, and any
young woman wanting to attract the attention of
young suitors will always choose to wear red. By the
same token, married women should wear a blue gauze
baju bodo', while widows should wear white, and di-
vorced women deep green. Each of these blouses
should be worn with a sarong appropriate to the
woman's rank and social position.
For men, the way the sarong is tied indicates
marital status and social rank. Ordinarily, the sarong
extends from the waist to the ankles. Single men
should wear the pucca' panel on their right side. Older
and married men should wear it centered at the back.
Office holders in the government of the traditional
Mandar kingdoms (or their representatives) wore long
black trousers and tied their sarongs so they covered
only their midsection. Different ranks within the gov-
ernment were entitled to tie their sarongs in slightly
different ways as a prerogative of their status. To further
indicate their official role they carried a large kris
(sword or knife) tucked in their sarong, and wore a
special gold-rimmed cap (songko' hiring). These styles
of dress were forbidden to commoners with one excep-
Sarong vendors in the open-air market (pasar) at Tinambung, the
major silk-weaving center in Mandar. Tinambung, 1986.
16
Mara'dia (prince) arriving at a royal wedding wearing traditional high-
collared jacket and songko' of high office, with sarong around his
midsection. He is holding his kris (wrapped in his sarong). Majene,
1986.
tion: when a man marries. As the groom, even a com-
moner is entitled to wear the gold-rimmed songko' and
tie his sarong around his midsection. This is because on
his wedding day the groom is said to be "raja, or prince,
for the day. "
Since the formal abolition of traditional kingdoms
by the Indonesian government in the 1960s, these
codes of dress are less strictly observed than before.
Nowadays commoners even wear the motifs of nobility,
usually in an attempt to give the impression of a some-
what higher status than they might be entitled to,
Women in a royal
wedding procession.
Majene, 1986.
though it would still be considered presumptuous and
in poor taste for any commoner to do so at a noble's
wedding. Nevertheless, while there is somewhat more
flexibility in formal attire than previously, the careful
observer can still see what impressions people are
trying to make with the sarongs they wear and how they
wear them.
Mandar silk sarongs achieved their excellent
reputation throughout Indonesia because of several ex-
traordinary qualities. Their dark colors do not run and
can be washed. In addition, well-made Mandar silks
were so fine that a finished sarong could be pulled
through a diameter as small as a wedding ring and after-
wards folded up into a small bundle that could fit into a
pocket. The best of these, nearly always made for the
local nobility rather than for export, were so tightly
woven that they could even hold water.
Mandar sarongs are hand-woven at home on
back-tension looms, whose basic design has changed
very little in over two centuries. The design includes a
wooden back brace that rests on the weaver's hips and
allows her to apply tension to the warp threads that are
strung between a breast beam (in her lap) and a warp
beam (near her feet). By leaning backward or forward
she can apply just the right amount of pressure to the
fabric and thus control loom tension.
The loom relies upon a "comb" to keep the warp
threads at regular intervals and in the proper order. For
cotton sarongs these combs usually have 30 to 40 open-
ings per inch, but for fine silk they may have more than
Young noble women
dancing at a royal
wedding, wearing
traditional sarongs,
bajubodo', and
gold jewelry.
Majene, 1986.
17
Kindo Buki prepares a skein of silk yarn for dying. Manjopai village,
1986.
Young woman twists three filaments of silk (right) to make a single
strand of 3-ply yarn (on the bobbin in front of her). Other bobbins of
silk yarn are soaking in the bowl. Camba-camba village, 1986.
70. Using a bamboo bobbin case as a shuttle, the weav-
er passes the weft thread through the warp and taps it
tightly into place by striking the sword or beater against
the comb. After shifting the warp, the process is re-
peated, with the weft shot through from the other side
to produce an extremely tight weave.
These combs are hand-crafted exclusively in
Napo, a Mandar village that has long specialized in
producing combs for weavers throughout Mandar. The
teeth in the comb are made from a wild-growing cane
that is very finely split. The split cane is cut into two-
inch lengths and tied into place with fine cotton thread
to give the desired spacing between the teeth.
Although similar combs are made elsewhere in South
Sulawesi, Mandar weavers insist that only combs made
in Napo have the high quality they require for their
weaving.
Mandar import raw silk from overseas, but process
the silk yarns themselves, using several simple hand-
crank machines that resemble spinning wheels. This
five-step process does not actually spin the silk but
twists the silk filaments together to make a serviceable
yarn. From two to five filaments are wound and lightly
twisted together onto small bamboo bobbins and
soaked in water overnight. Then the silk is transferred
onto a large bamboo spool and wound into neat skeins,
which are then boiled to produce a soft, lustrous, white
yarn. After drying, the yarn is ready to be dyed.
The thickness of silk fabric is determined by the
number of silk filaments that are twisted together to
make the yarn. A two-ply yarn produces a very fine,
wispy fabric, while a three-ply yarn yields a heavier but
more durable silk. Because the three-ply yarn requires
more raw silk, it has a soft but crisp feel and makes a
gentle rustle as one walks. These heavier silks, the most
popular in Mandar today, are the more expensive.
The warp, which is about five yards long and two
feet wide, is strung by hand. Each strand of yarn must
be threaded through the comb and around the various
separator rods. Taking 8 to 12 hours to complete, this
task is usually done by teenage girls or young women,
because it demands a good eye to insert the thread
through the fine openings of the comb. If the motif is a
complex one, the weaver changes colors frequently,
paying extremely close attention to the exact number
of threads of each color so as not to introduce an error
in the design. The warp is a fixed arrangement of
threads that are attached to both the comb and the
separator rods; thus, mistakes in the design cannot be
corrected once the warp is complete.
Four yards of the warp are wound carefully around
Above: Kanne Nauri, one of the last surviving Mandar dyers, using
indigo to dye silk. To obtain a true black color, the silk must be dipped
in the ceramic vat ot indigo and dried each day for at least ten days.
Camba-camba village, 1986.
Above, right: Young girl making the warp. Here she threads the silk
yarn through the comb. Pambusuang, 1986.
Right, center: Kindo Buki weaving a silk sarong with a traditional Man-
dar motif. Manjopai village, 1986.
Below: Amma'na Ika weaving a silk sarong with a brightly colored
modern motif. Luaor village, 1986.
the warp beam and placed in a frame on the floor at the
weaver's feet, while the other end of the warp is
attached to the breast beam that sits on her lap. Seated
on the floor with her feet stretched out in front of her,
the weaver shoots the weft thread first from right to
left, taps it into place with her comb and sword, adjusts
the heddle (which guides the warp threads) and repeats
the process from left to right. Here she sits for hours at a
time to weave just a few inches of the fine shiny fabric
that has delighted princes and been the hallmark of
Mandar weavers for centuries.
ten days are required for even the most skilled weaver
to complete a single silk sarong.
As tedious and difficult as weaving may seem, skill
with the loom still represents for Mandar people the
most delicate of all feminine arts. Moreover, since
weaving is done in the home, using looms that can be
rolled up and set aside when other matters beckon, it
continues to be an extremely suitable economic activ-
ity for women with children and husbands to cook and
care for. Indeed, women who can cook and weave with
skill are still thought to make the most desirable wives.
Mandar back-tension loom (cat. no. 265700). Sketch by Elizabeth Enck.
Weaving is monotonous work but demands con-
siderable precision, both to maintain the proper ten-
sion necessary for a consistent fabric and to ensure that
the motif is reproduced again and again with the cor-
rect colors and spacing. As she works, the weaver stops
periodically to moisten the warp, using a mixture of
citrus oil and water, and to roll up the finished fabric
onto her breast beam and unwind more warp from the
warp beam. Although Mandar women weave with
20 lightning speed and extraordinary dexterity, seven to
It is said that in the old days, the "tick-tick-tick" of a
girlfriend tapping the thread into place on her loom,
even if only heard from across the village, was enough
to gladden any young man's heart.
In the past, virtually all Mandar women were
weavers. They made cotton sarongs for their families'
daily wear as well as silk sarongs for festive occasions.
But by far the majority of their weaving was sold to
merchants who exported them throughout the
archipelago. Indeed, Mandar sarongs, together with
copra, rattan mats, and fish nets (also woven by Man-
dar women) provided the capital needed for inter-
island trade.
For centuries, Mandar silk and cotton sarongs
have played a vital role in the local economy, being
sold by Mandar merchants and sailors by the hundreds
of thousands to other Indonesian traders, who sold
them in the pasars, or open air markets, in nearly every
part of the country. More than a dozen Mandar sarong
merchants even had agents stationed permanently in
West Sumatra — where Mandar textiles were especially
popular — to handle the lively and lucrative sarong
trade.
to dozens of different ethnic groups in the archipelago.
This active trade provided a market that could absorb
every sarong that Mandar weavers might produce.
Each ethnic group, however, had its own preferred de-
signs, colors, and styles, which meant that Mandar
weavers always had to weave the motifs and patterns
that could satisfy their overseas consumers. Over the
years, this has meant the introduction of many new
motifs and a rich repertoire of designs, only a small por-
tion of which can be thought of as traditionally Man-
dar.
Ironically, although Mandar people are best
known in Indonesia for their high quality silk sarongs,
Author (right) at the wedding of Muh. Yamin Albar and Rahmania M. (center). Karama village, 1986.
Mandar merchants and sailors also took sarongs
with them on their annual trading voyages that
covered thousands of sea miles, from Singapore in the
west to the Moluccas (or Spice Islands) in the east.
This inter-island peddling trade brought sarongs and
other Mandar products to local consumers, where they
were exchanged for spices, beche-de-mer (sea cucum-
ber), pearls, and other local products in great demand
in Singapore and overseas markets. These products,
together with sarongs, were sold in Singapore to buy
Chinese, Indian, and European goods.
Mandar textiles have always been closely linked
to the inter-island trade of the Indies, being exported
these were formerly made in relatively small numbers.
The raw silk Mandar use has always been imported
from China via Singapore, Jakarta, and Ujung Pan-
dang. During the colonial era, production of silk
sarongs was small because the raw silk was difficult to
obtain in large quantities and too expensive for most
consumers. Within the last twenty years, silkworms
have been introduced to Sulawesi, but Mandar weavers
insist that the quality of local silk is inferior. Thus, the
entire Mandar silk-weaving industry continues to rely
entirely on an imported raw material.
The Indonesian economy has changed con-
siderably in the 20th century, but weaving with tradi-
21
Women attending a noble wedding. The umbrellas in the background are emblems of royal blood. They are carried in the wedding procession to
shade the wives of ruling princes (not shown). Karama village, 1986.
tional looms is still an important cottage industry that
provides a small but much-needed income for about
25,000 Mandar women. Until the mid-1960s, cotton
sarongs were the major product of this home-based in-
dustry. But under competition from cheaper factory-
made sarongs, hand-woven cottons have all but dis-
appeared. Local weavers, however, have rapidly
adapted to this new commercial environment by in-
creasing their production of silk sarongs to meet an
ever-growing demand from all over the country. Silk
weaving used to make up only a small part of the Man-
dar sarong industry (probably fewer than 10,000
sarongs per year); now it comprises virtually the entire
production, totaling more than a quarter million
sarongs each year.
Despite many changes in the lives of Mandar peo-
ple, weaving continues to play an important part in
Mandar society. There are, perhaps, fewer weavers
than a century ago, but if you walk down the back
streets and alleyways of Karama, Pambusuang, or
dozens of other Mandar villages, from nearly every
house you will hear the distinctive "tick-tick-tick" of
women busy at their looms and you can still see young
girls threading warp, much as they have done for gen-
erations. FM
22
The largest nest in Hyde Park's green ash tree is about six feet long and contains several individual nesting compartments, each occupied by a
pair of monk parakeets. The nest was first built about eight years ago, but is being constantly reshaped and modified.
Hyde Park's Parakeets
These Green-Winged Arrivals from the Argentine
Appear to Be Settling in
by David M. Walsten
photos by the author
F
ive miles south of Field Museum, in the Chicago
neighborhood known as Hyde Park, stands a green ash
tree which, in every respect, seems to be an average
specimen of full-grown Fraxinus pennsylvanica — except
for four conspicuous features: gigantic masses of twigs
clutched in the tree's upper branches. These masses, of
various shapes, are the colonial nests of the monk para-
keet (Myiopsitta monachus), an exotic species from
"In the early 1970s monk parakeets were reliably reported in the
city's southeast suburbs.
Argentina and other South American countries which
took up residence in Hyde Park in 1980*.
Because these brightly colored birds had already
attracted considerable local attention and managed to
survive the harsh Chicago winters, a feature piece on
the birds was published in the May 1985 Bulletin. Here 1
will again review the status of the parakeet colony and
provide an up-date:
Known in the pet trade variously as the quaker,
gray-headed, or gray-breasted parakeet, the species is
native to the subtropical and temperate zones of Boli-
via, Uruguay, Paraguay, southern Brazil, and Argenti-
23
na as far south as 40° S latitude (the Southern Hemi-
sphere equivalent of Philadelphia, Denver, and
Champagne-Urbana). In the United States it is fa-
vored as a cage bird, despite its noisy chatter, and about
10,000 are imported every year from South America to
serve that market. Its occurrence in Chicago and other
North American locations may be explained by the
occasional release of these birds, accidental and other-
wise, from homes where they have been kept as pets or
while in transport.
Since first being reported in the wild in the
United States more than 20 years ago, the monk para-
keet has given the impression in some locales that it
would settle into a permanent, breeding status, only to
disappear after a season or two. In a very few other
areas, it seems to be establishing itself, barring human
intervention. Some observers believe it is filling that
ecological void left by the closely related Carolina pa-
rakeet, which became extinct in the early years of this
century and occurred solely in the United States.
Another competitor for the Carolina's niche may be
the evening grosbeak (Coccothraustes vespertinus) ,
according to Norman L. Brunswig, Stephen G. Win-
ton, and Paul B. Hamel in the Wilson Bulletin.
The green ash tree
on 53rd Street,
showing its four
monk parakeet
nests. The original,
larger nest is at the
right. The smaller
nests are rather well
concealed by
foliage during
the summer.
24
The monk parakeet is about 1 1 Vi inches long,
nearly half of this being tail. The back is bright green or
gray-green, the tail green and blue. The upper belly is a
soft yellow, the head and breast grayish. (It is for this
grayish pattern, presumably, that the sobriquet "monk"
was applied. ) The wings are mostly blue. The mature
bird weighs about five ounces; coloration and size
appear identical for both sexes.
Among all the known species in the parrot family,
numbering well over 300, the monk parakeet is the
only builder of such a nest: an irregular-shaped stack of
twigs which may be as large as 15 to 20 cubic feet in
mass and weigh several hundred pounds. In South
America the birds seem to favor thorny trees (particu-
larly the tala, Cekis spinosa) for the nest, but they are
commonly constructed on manmade structures such as
telephone or utility poles, under eaves, or on window
ledges. Eight of the nests have been found in a single
tree. Some huge parakeet nests in Argentina have been
used by continuing communities for decades. A dozen
pairs may breed in a single nest, each with its own com-
partment. The nest is used all year round and damaged
sections are repaired at the approach of the breeding
season. Other species that make this unusual type of
nest are the palm chat of Haiti and Santo Domingo,
the buffalo weaver of subsaharan Africa, and the soci-
able weaver of southwestern Africa.
The individual nesting compartment is about 18
cm (about 7 inches) in diameter and the entire tunnel
34 to 40 cm (about 14 to 16 inches) long. From five to
nine glossy white eggs (relatively small for the bird's
size) are customarily laid once or twice a year and hatch
in 31 days.
In its native countries, the monk parakeet favors
areas of low rainfall in savannah, thorn scrub, palm
groves, open forest, fruit orchards, and crop lands,
most commonly in lowlands, but ranging to altitudes of
3,000 feet in the foothills of the Andes. Here the tem-
perature may drop to as low as 20°F. This is a far warmer
clime than Chicago's, where the bird has survived bit-
terly cold spells — as low as - 27° F. in January of 1985.
The species feeds on a variety of seeds and fruits,
including apples, cherries, grapes, and citrus. In South
America, where it has been described by a U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service publication as "one of the worst
pests of agricultural crops," the monk parakeet re-
portedly destroys from 2 to 45 percent of those crops
within its range, notably millet, sorghum, corn, sun-
flower, and a variety of fruit crops. The incentive of a
bounty for the birds has not succeeded in alleviating
the problem.
Two of the smaller nests in the green ash tree.
The bird is gregarious as a rule, and in South
America flocks of up to 50 birds have been observed. In
Hyde Park a top count of 42 birds was seen at one time
around a group of backyard feeders. The bird flies swift-
ly, with rapid wing beats, usually not far above treetop
height, screeching loudly as it goes.
Having first appeared in the New York area in
1967, the monk parakeet became a not uncommon
sight there within several years, and its greater New
York population was then estimated at around 2,500.
In the Wilson Bulletin*, Dr. John Bull of the Depart-
•85:3 1973, p. 504
25
merit of Ornithology, American Museum of Natural
History, wrote that "Multiple releases by design and by
accident have resulted in a sizeable resident population
in southeastern New York, and the adjacent portions of
Connecticut and New Jersey. These releases, that is
escaped birds, came from broken crates at Kennedy
Airport, accidental escapes from pet shops, aviaries,
and private owners, as well as intentional releases by
persons tired of caring for these parrots." Bull also
noted that the bird has bred in the outdoors in the Lon-
don and Paris zoos and in the parks of Amsterdam
(52.4° N latitude — further north than Saskatoon, Sas-
katchewan!)
At about the same time that the monk was trying
to accommodate itself to the greater New York area,
others of this species were reported to be taking up resi-
dence at various sites along the Atlantic Seaboard and
as far west as Pittsburgh. In the late seventies, Federal
and state officials, disturbed by the parakeet's apparent
success in the Northeast and New York City, in partic-
ular, effectively eliminated them. This was accom-
plished in a relatively short time. If the nest of the spe-
cies were not so elaborately constructed and large, it is
questionable whether their elimination could have
been achieved. They never have made a comeback,
and at this time only a single breeding pair is known to
be nesting in Brooklyn. In Florida, notably the Greater
Miami area, the monk parakeet has established breed-
ing populations which, according to Dr. Oscar Owre,
professor emeritus of Ornithology at the University of
Miami, have increased in the past few years. Eleven
A small nest, with a single compartment, in a poplar some 80 yards
north of the green ash tree.
The real nests in the Jackson Park floodlight standard (south of the
Museum of Science and Industry) are in the hollow crossbars, whose
diameter size is much like that of a typical compartment in an all-stick
nest. Only the birds can tell you what purpose the twig masses serve,
but they may be the beginnings of an attempt to create a "con-
ventional" nest. Another light standard, next to this one, also contains
at least one nest.
other parrot or parakeet species are also reported to be
nesting in that area and six additional species have
been sighted.
The Hyde Park colony apparently got its start with
a nest on the fire escape of an apartment building two
or three blocks south of the green ash tree (which is on
53rd Street near Lake Shore Drive), but the birds'
noise, so close to human habitation, quickly earned
them an eviction. Their next step, it appears, was to
construct the nest in the green ash. On Memorial Day
of 1984 the nest, already huge (e.g. , several cubic feet
in mass), was partly destroyed by gale-force winds.
Among the nest debris, shattered eggs with embryos
were found by ornithologist Doug Anderson, estab-
lishing for the first time that this was a breeding pop-
ulation.
26
Skins of the monk parakeet in the Field Museum collection. These specimens were obtained in Argentina in the 1920s— long before the bird
was seen in the wild in the United States. The specimen at top is about 1 1 inches in length. The sexes are outwardly alike.
Skins of the thick-billed parrot, Rhyncopsitta pachyrhyncha, in the Field Museum collection (top specimen about 15 inches long). These were
collected in Mexico in 1918. Now rare, and apparently confined to the forests of the Sierra Madre, the bird formerly ranged across the Rio
Grande into Arizona and New Mexico, where the last confirmed sighting occurred in 1936. Other than the Carolina parakeet (now extinct), it is
the only member of the parrot family known to have occurred in the United States naturally.
27
This nest, about the size of a beach ball, is high up in a Carolina
poplar on Jackson Park's Wooded Island. It probably contains only
one nesting compartment, though flocks of a dozen birds often con-
gregate about it.
During that same period, another nest was being
constructed behind the smokestack of another apart-
ment building several blocks to the south — a nest
which remains in use in 1988. By the summer of 1987,
the single large nest in the green ash tree (about six feet
long, constructed largely along a single bough) had
been joined by six or seven others in the same tree.
After the autumn leaves were shed, however, only four
nests remained. Other nests have appeared from time
to time in the neighborhood: in a Carolina poplar on
Jackson Park's Wooded Island, on floodlight standards
by the Jackson Park golf driving range, in a poplar some
80 yards north of the green ash, under the air-
conditioner of an apartment on 55th Street. Some of
these, however, do not seem to have been used on a
regular basis during the winter of 1987-88, and others
are only partially complete — seemingly abandoned in
mid-construction — and now await destruction by the
wind. Other small nests have come and gone over the
past several years — apparent victims of the same nat-
ural destructive forces.
While the Hyde Park parakeet population has
steadily increased in size, the birds do not seem to be
any more widespread in the greater Chicago area as a
whole than three years ago. One nest is reported in the
city's far northwest side, another near Montrose
28 Beach, in the north. An active nest with breeding birds
in DuPage County has been under scrutiny by a pro-
fessional biologist. Almost certainly there are other
nests, but it is equally certain that these are few and far
between.
The survival of the monk parakeet through winters
of a severity unknown in its native South American
homeland has been attributed by specialists to a ready
food supply at private feeders. Without these, it has
been conjectured, the birds couldn't make it. In this
regard, it may be significant that most, if not all, monk
parakeet populations reported in the northern states
have been in urban or suburban areas, where such feed-
ing stations are never far distant.
The success of the Hyde Park parakeet colony may
prove to be its own undoing. The Animal Damage
Control office (USDA), in Springfield Illinois, has been
tracking the colony's progress and, according to the
control program director for the Illinois area, Ronald
D. Ogden, a cooperative move with Illinois state agen-
cies to eliminate the birds may be in the offing. The
monk parakeet, he suggests, may pose an even more
serious threat to the environment than has been real-
ized by the European starling (introduced to the United
States in 1890 and now found throughout the country) .
Field Museum ornithologists are also concerned
about the monk's potential threat, having seen first-
hand the bird's depredations in South America. Others
take a more moderate view. Chicago Academy of Sci-
ences ornithologist Mark Spreyer, an occasional lectur-
er on midwestern birds at Field Museum, thinks it most
unlikely that the monk parakeet could become a pest
here, basing his view on the monk's breeding biology,
on fundamental differences between its native en-
vironment and that of the Midwest, and other con-
siderations. He also points out that caution should be
used in comparing the parakeet with the starling,
which is singularly well adapted to succeed in a wide
variety of habitats.
There is uniform agreement among biologists and
environmentalists, however, that any recently intro-
duced exotic species must be carefully monitored. "No
one," says Dr. Herbert W. Levi of Harvard's Museum of
Comparative Zoology, "can introduce exotic animals
and forecast their biological effect. These intro-
ductions can never be made on a scientific plane." We
have seen too many accidental or innocent intro-
ductions of exotic species explode into costly environ-
mental problems. If the monk parakeet were to gain a
foothold in New York's vineyard areas, suggests the
American Museum's Dr. Bull, the consequences might
be catastrophic to that state's grape-growing industry.
The Carolina
Some believe
cal niche.
parakeet, which became extinct in the early 1900s.
that the monk parakeet is filling the Carolina's ecologi-
But we have also seen instances of deliberate intro-
ductions that failed. Several attempts to introduce
Europe's giant grouse, the capercaillie, met with fail-
ure, including the release of 471 birds in Michigan, the
Adirondacks, and British Columbia. The introduction
of 1 ,400 Indian sand grouse also was a complete failure.
Why these introductions failed is not completely
understood, demonstrating once again the complexity
of environmental controls.
Finally, we are left with many unanswered questions.
How much do we know about the diseases and parasites
that monk parakeets are particularly vulnerable to?
Which avian competitors are most threatening to
them? How effective are predators in reducing their
numbers? What other environmental influences may
affect their success? How much have we taken the trou-
ble to learn, in scientifically controlled circumstances,
about the dietary proclivities of this bird? What inves-
tigative programs have been put forth by Federal or
state agencies to determine the monk's potential as a
threat in this northern environment? FH
Field Museum
Members
are cordially
invited
Feb. 6 - April 24
FREE Tour Book with admission,
plus 10% off all Milwaukee
Museum Gift Shop
purchases over $5,
when you present
Field Museum
Membership
Card.
Local exhibition sponsored
by Friends of the Museum, Inc.
MAGfoMCEkT WtfCERS
U.S. Exploring Expedition
1838-1842
In 1838 six ships set out to explore the high seas.
The treasures brought back by sailors and
scientists from their voyage amazed the world.
Don't miss this spectacular Smithsonian exhibit.
X
¥
Milwaukee Public Museum
Downtown, 8th &. Wells
Open daily 9-5
(414) 278-2702
29
FIELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
Dear Field Museum Member:
Whale-watching and observing the varied bird life along the St. Lawrence are just
some of the pleasures that await members of our July tour to Canada's Maritime Prov-
inces. These rare experiences will be particularly worthwhile since your group will
be accompanied by Dr. David Willard, manager of Field Museum's bird collection
and a seasoned tour leader. He most recently led a tour to Alaska.
Our special voyage aboard the magnificent M.V. Illiria highlights the incredible
natural history and untouched beauty of the Maritime Provinces. In addition to Dr.
Willard, a marine biologist on board will discuss the region's remarkable wildlife,
while an expert on the history and diversity of our ports-of-call will prepare us for
on-shore excursions.
This tour promises to be one of our finest ever, and the fact that we will be cruis-
ing on the elegant Illiria ensures that this will be a memorable voyage. With its ratio of
90 crew members serving onlv 1 35 passengers, the Illiria guarantees a high level of
personalized service at all times. The superbly furnished ship has gleaming bright-
work, broad teakwood decks, a large dining room that accommodates all passengers at
a single sitting, and museum-quality artwork. The unique nature of this program,
which combines the pleasures of the great outdoors with the luxury and convenience
of cruise travel, makes for an ideal summer family vacation. With all sightseeing tours
included in the rates and all meals included during the cruise, this program presents
an excellent travel value. And, our special "third person sharing rates" enable three or
four persons to occupv a single cabin at significant savings — a wonderful opportunity
for inviting your children or grandchildren.
Most of all, this tour will afford you the opportunity to view the area's great
variety of bird life with the guidance and expertise of a Field Museum specialist.
We have indications that this program will sell out quickly. To avoid dis-
appointment, we encourage you to book your reservation soon.
Sincerely,
/&^/^
Willard L. Boyd
President
30
M.V. Illiria
Voyage to
The Gulf of
St. Lawrence and
Canada's
Maritime Provinces
Aboard the Illiria
July 1-9, 1988
Accompanied by Dr. David Willard,
Field Museum Zoologist
ITINERARY
Julyl
Fly to Montreal. Transfer to Delta Montreal
Hotel.
July 2
Morning drive to Quebec City; sightsee in the
afternoon. Illiria sails at 4:00 pm. Evening
cruise along the St. Lawrence River shore.
Captain's welcome dinner.
July 3
Cruise St. Lawrence River this morning.
Whale-watching by Mingan Islands this after-
noon. Evening cruise to Newfoundland. Gros
Morne National Park.
July 4
Morning arrival at Gros Morne National Park
for day of shore excursions. Evening cruise
past Bay of Islands and along Newfound-
land's south shore.
July 5
Morning arrival at St. Pierre Miquelon for
shore excursions. Evening cruise past Grand
Miquelon to Magdalen Islands.
July 6
Morning arrival at Magdalen Islands. After-
noon shore excursions. Evening cruise to
Gaspe Peninsula.
July 7
Morning visit to Bonaventure Island Bird
Sanctuary. Afternoon visit to Perce at tip of the
peninsula. Evening cruise up St. Lawrence
River shore.
July 8
Whale-watching this morning. Cruise
Saguenay River Fjord in the afternoon. Eve-
ning cruise to Montreal. Captain's farewell
dinner.
July 9
Disembark Montreal after breakfast. Transfer
to airport for flight home.
Rates: $2,090-32,450 per person (double
occupancy); third person $430-$550. These
rates do not include air fare, but do include a
$200 tax-deductible contribution to the Field
Museum. Estimated round trip air fare be-
tween Chicago and Montreal: $195. To
reserve tour space, send $200.00 per person
deposit to Field Museum Tours. A brochure
will be mailed upon request. Please phone
322-8862 for further information.
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr. , Chicago, II 60605
31
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicaso.lL 60605-2499
MISS HARITA MAXEY
7411 NORTH GREENVIEU
CHICAGO IL 60626
MUS
~'s^*.
># r-
^'-
"->- '
l^k
/
O
BS
-
Members' Night Friday, May 6
.Celebration! see P. 3
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
WillardL. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H.Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
RonaldJ. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo F. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
J. Howard Wood
CONTENTS
May 1988
Volume 59, Number 5
MAY EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3
TEACH THE MIND, TOUCH THE SPIRIT
by Carolyn Blackmon,
Chairman, Department of Education.
HOATZINS AT HOME
by William Beebe
IS
COSTA RICA, TROPICAL BIOLOGY,
AND A VISIT WITH OTON JIMENEZ
by William C. Burger, Curator of Vascular Plants 20
FROM BUSHMAN TO TUT
—EXHIBIT BLOCKBUSTERS OF THE PAST
by Alan Solem, Curator of Invertebrates,
and W. Peyton Fawcett, Librarian
25
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS
Featuring a trip to Boston and a special viewing of "Ramesses
the Great" exhibit at the Boston Museum of Science 30
COVER
A walk through wonderful Warren Woods in May. Warren
Woods, Michigan, is about an hour's drive east of Chicago.
Photo by Chicago nature photographer Laszlo Nagy.
Volunteer at Field Museum
Field Museum currently has a wide variety of projects
and programs for weekday and weekend volunteers.
During the week, volunteers can work either with the
public or behind-the-scenes in the scientific and ad-
ministrative areas. On weekends, volunteers staff our
participatory exhibits or Webber Resource Center, or
lead hall programs for the visitors. For more informa-
tion, please contact the Volunteer Coordinator at (312)
922-9410, extension 360.
FieldMuseum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496.
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703.
Raicesdel Ande
I
Celeb racion!
Weekends in May
Join us for weekends in May in a celebration of Latin Amer-
ican cultures — with music, dance, art demonstrations,
stories, and poetry.
Saturday and Sunday, May 7 and 8
1.00-3 :00pm Mexican Murals
Join artist and muralist Jose Guerrero as he
demonstrates this vital and vibrant art form.
/ :00-3:00pm How the Birds Changed Their Feathers
Listen to this delightful South American tale that
explains why birds are different colors, then
look at some adaptations and habits of South
American birds.
2.00pm Raices del Ande
The magical sounds of Andean music derive
from the mingling of the ancient Incan and
Spanish cultures. Raices del Ande express,
through music, the spirit of people united by
common roots, geography, and a shared his-
tory. Enjoy this lively performance of original
and traditional South American folk music.
Saturday and Sunday, May H and 15
J:00-3.00pm Woodcuts
Carving into wood produces pattern as well as
shape. Rene Arceo's woodcut prints range from
abstract lines to expressive portraits.
l:00-3:00pm Sculpture in Clay
Push the clay here, carve it there. Help sculptor
Roman Villareal create a new work in clay.
2:00pm David Hernandez and Street Sounds
The cunning urban poetry of David Hernandez
is colored by the Latin American jazz of Street
Sounds. David, Chicago's unofficial poet lau-
reate, has an expressive voice, a quiet sense
Continued i>
of showmanship, a sharp ear, and rare bits of
bluster that are attuned to the urban rhythms of
daily life. His poetry is about always hearing the
cadence and cacophony of the street life
symphony.
Saturday and Sunday, May 21 and 22
1 :00-3:00pm Tiny Dancers
Help Michael Montenegro of Zapato Puppet
Theatre carve and sculpt marionettes, rod, and
hand puppets.
l:00'3:00pm ;01e!-;01e!
Join in the fun of bolero (a cup and ball game),
or spin a Mexican trompo (top), canquas (mar-
bles), or lotteria (bingo).
2:00pm Los Pleneros de Yucayeque
Enjoy a lively and exciting program of Puerto
Rican folk music.
Saturday and Sunday, May 28 and 29
2:00pm Brechita
Carmen Aguilar guides Brechita, a young peo-
ple's theatre group, in a series of Latin American
myths and legends.
World Music Program
Weekends in May
1:00pm and 3:00pm
April 30 and May 1
1 :00pm Eli Hoenai — African percussion.
3:00pm Librado Salazar — Classical guitar.
May 7 and May 8
1 :00pm Chinese Music Society of North America
— Classical instruments of the Chinese
orchestra.
3:00pm
Ari Brown — Saxophone.
May 14 and 15
1 :00pm Chinese Music Society of North America
— Classical instruments of the Chinese
orchestra.
3:00pm
Alas Poets — Urban poetry.
"Tundra Watch, " oil painting of snowy owl by Rod Frederick. On view in "Birds in Art " In Gallery 9.
World Music Program
May 21 and 22
1:00pm Jamila-Ra — Poetry.
3:00pm Margarita Lopez-Castro — Poetry.
May 28 and 29
1 :00pm Librado Salazar — Classical guitar.
3:00pm Alas Poets — Urban poetry.
The World Music Program is supported by the Kenneth and
Harle Montgomery Fund and a City Arts lll/IV grant from
the Chicago Office of Fine Arts, Department of Cultural Affairs.
Spring at the Field
Hall Interpretive Program
Thursdays through Sundays in May
Hall Interpreters, located throughout the exhibit halls, help
young and old experience the wonders of Field Museum. Dis-
cover the formation and uses of gemstones, play a Native Amer-
ican ring and pin game, explore the many dinosaur extinction
theories, learn the ancient Egyptian way of making paper, and
more.
Take a sensory journey to discover a variety of fragrant
plants, explore the many sizes, shapes, and uses of teeth; learn
the diet of owls through the dissection of their pellets; and learn
Maori myths, crafts, and games. These exciting activities are
available to all Museum visitors Thursday through Sunday.
Please consult the television monitors throughout the Museum
for activity locations.
The Hall Interpretive Program is supported by grants from
the Joyce Foundation and the Lloyd A. Fry Foundation.
Weekend Programs in May
Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore
the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours,
demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the
Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below
are some of the numerous activities each weekend. Check
the activity listing upon arrival for the complete schedule and
program locations. The programs are partially supported by
a grant from the Illinois Art Council.
May 14, 1 1 :00 am
11:30 am
May 21, 11:00 am
May 28, 11:00 am
11:30 am
American Indian Stories
Myths, legends, and daily life of Amer-
ican Indian cultures.
China's Dragon Tales
The evolution of theatre from early Han to
the cultural revolution.
Ancient Egypt
The traditions of ancient Egypt, from
everyday life to myths and mummies.
American Indian Stories
Myths, legends, and daily life of Amer-
ican Indian cultures.
Tibet Today and Tour of Collection
See Lhasa and other towns now open to
tourists, then take a tour of our Tibetan
exhibit (slide lecture and tour).
These programs are free with Museum admission and
tickets are not required.
Teach the Mind
Touch the Spirit
The Museum's Mission of Exploration and Discovery
A presentation to the Women's Board of Field Museum March 9, 1988
b/Carolyn Blackmon
Chairman of the Department of Education
I am pleased to have this opportunity to share some
ideas with you about museum education. As I prepared
this paper to present to our Women's Board, it gave me
a chance to reflect on and think about several issues —
to look at the present from the past and the past from
the present. Join me in this reflection.
You are a fourth grade teacher with 41 kids and the
4 required parent or neighborhood chaperones coming
to Field Museum from Chicago's near west side. You
have been on a bus for one hour. It is the first time that
your children have ever left their neighborhood sur-
roundings, so this adventure is exciting and maybe a bit
scary. They are so excited to be going someplace that
they may not "see" anything in the visual sense. But,
what they will see in their hearts is an "experience" and
that something, that object or person will give them a
new vision beyond the small world that they live in, a
horizon for exploration and discovery.
A teacher expresses it best: "It's very hard to teach
language arts when the kids' lives are so limited and
their experiences so dreary; most of them have never
been in a big yellow bus or even seen Lake Michigan.
When we come to the Museum a whole new window to
the world opens up for them. " Or the Chicago Board of
Education Social Studies Bureau Director who re-
marked, "museums bring our books to life, they don't
supplement school curricula, they augment it.
Museums can offer the concrete rather than the ab-
stract level of learning. " This understanding of the edu-
cational strengths of the Museum on the part of
teachers and administrators has taken years of con-
centrated effort to develop.
Taking a step back in time, Field Museum rose
from the international collections and the peoples who
came together to share in a cultural, artistic, and tech-
nological extravaganza. Chicago in 1893 was the Cal-
gary of America. After a successful competition with
New York to be the site for the World's Columbian
Exposition, we accomplished the unexpected. Chicago
created a venue for the vast range of every art form,
from sculpture to music and dance; replications of vil-
lage life and dramatic performances with all the
accoutrements from the far corners of the world; the
Congress of Ideas as the forum for special interest group
conferences and conventions. It was all here, even Mr.
Ferris's famous wheel.
Something else, however, was significant to the
organization of this event: the efforts of leading women
in the Chicago community. For example, Mrs. Potter
Palmer convinced the fair commission to institute the
Board of Lady Managers which, in turn, developed the
Women's Building. Thirteen women architects com-
peted and 23-year-old Ms. Hayden at MIT won the
competition. Bertha Palmer was convinced that the
fair was so large that a special building for children
needed to be built. When the fair commission declined
support for it, she raised funds from every state to build
the Children's Building so that visitors to the fair would
have a special educational place for their children to go
and enjoy the day. Twenty-seven million people came
to Chicago's fair of fairs that summer; this world of
wonders gave birth to exceptional support from Chica-
go's leaders during a very arduous time in the cities' and
nations' economic crisis.
The Columbian Museum was installed in the
Palace of Fine Arts, the white knight of the Midway. It
was not too weather-resistant, I am told. In fact, the
curators worked with their feet in baskets of straw to
keep warm in the winter! And most important for us,
a new museum was born — the Field Columbian
Museum, now our own Field Museum of Natural His-
tory.
The Children's Building, World's Columbian Exposition
The result of this original effort and nearly a cen-
tury of continuing community support is a major
museum that shares its prestige with only three others,
the British Museum of Natural History, the Smithso-
nian, and the American Museum of Natural History in
New York. Field Museum has become an international
center for learning and an institution of service to the
scholarly and public communities.
The true grit, in a sense, and determination of
Chicago's community leaders to ensure equal educa-
tion in the natural and human sciences for Chicago's
schoolchildren is exemplified by their generous support
in planning time and dollars. For example, significant
endowments from the Norman Wait Harris and Anna
Louise Raymond Foundations were some of the seeds
that helped to establish the Department of Education
that we know today. The Harris Extension Loan pro-
gram, initiated in 1911, produced miniature dioramas
for teachers and their students that are on a par with
the Thome rooms at the Art Institute of Chicago.
These slices of natural habitats were first exhibited at
the Sesqui-Centennial International Exposition, Phil-
adelphia, 1926. Today more than 1,000 miniature
dioramas and 750 additional free-standing materials
are available for free loan to teachers and community
leaders in Chicago's metropolitan area. New topics and
related materials, based on the Museum's strengths, are
in various stages of development. Harris Extension be-
came the first museum outreach program in Chicago
and continues to be an important resource for commu-
nity group leaders to use in their on-site programs.
Anna Raymond's endowment in 1925 was to establish
a school group lecture program in the Museum to be
presented by museum teachers in order to free the
curator-scientists to attend to their taxonomic duties
among the collections. Up to this time the curators had
been responsible for school tours. In 1921, Edward E.
Ayer endowed free public programming by establishing
the public lecture fund. This series continues today.
These Chicago pioneers, the creators of the indus-
trial revolution, the risk-takers who were doing busi-
ness west of the Hudson River in the earliest part of the
20th century, directed the Field Museum and provided
million-dollar endowments to enrich the world of the
child and the public at large with an understanding of
and appreciation for the collections of objects and their
role in both natural and human contexts. This human-
ness continues to drive the Museum's educational en-
deavors.
In 1943, at Field Museum's fiftieth anniversary,
Robert Maynard Hutchins, then president of the Uni-
versity of Chicago, stated in his address: "As an educa-
tional institution, Field Museum possesses certain
special advantages. It has no football team. It gives no
course credits or course examinations and awards no
degrees. The students of the Museum come here to
learn. They do not ask it to help them make friends, get
a better job or give them a leg up the social ladder.
Formal education, moreover in schools, colleges and
universities is something you finish. It is like the
mumps, measles, or chickenpox. Having had educa-
tion once, you need not, indeed you cannot have it
again. You put it behind you with your other juvenile
troubles, praise the Lord that it is over at last, and pro-
ceed to the really important tasks of life. The Museum
is free from this regrettable tradition. It operates on a
cradle-to-the-grave principle."
He quoted Director Clifford C. Gregg, who had
stated in 1939 "Whether its collections are used for the
study of industrial scientists who seek to make a profit,
by scholars who seek to solve some problem of research,
or by casual visitors who seek recreation and enjoyment
is not of primary concern to a museum. The only real
concern is that the collections be available and that
they be used." It has become a professional practice
that collections be continually reinterpreted as new in-
formation emerges.
Hutchins continued, "The pedagogical signifi-
cance of the collections is as obvious as it is great. The
chief difficulty of any classroom teaching is the absence
of three-dimensional reality. It may shortly be as hard
to make an American city-dweller understand agricul-
ture and its significance as it would be to discuss the Fiji
Islanders with the Eskimos."
Hutchins's speech was powerful and insightful.
He called for museum-school collaboration from
The Women's Building, World's Columbian Exposition
elementary to higher education, museum understand-
ing of the impacts of increased leisure time, the
museum's responsibilities, and the opportunities for
adult education. He concluded that the museum must
change from a curio cabinet into an integrated part of
an educational system dedicated to teaching people
how to live human lives, and how to live them together
on a worldwide basis. Hutchins understood well the
power of the "reality" and "meaning" of real objects; he
also understood the portents of a technological future
and sociological change.
We have taken a quick look at the beginning of
Chicago's philanthropy, the high regard for museum
learning, high hopes, and diligent efforts in col-
laboration. Running parallel to this strong community
support were developments in American society at
large. Let's take a quick look down the road that we've
travelled and see some of the impacts on museums:
D 1930-40: Economic depression; WPA support for
museum artists and preparators provides necessary
manpower; television was in its infancy ... a mini-
vision at the Century of Progress, Chicago; radio came
into its own; world news was introduced at the movies;
Movietone News "The Eyes and Ears of the World" was
followed by the roar of MGM's lion, and Gone With the
Wind.
} 1940s: The War Years. . . at home, museums were in
flux — curators were conscripted and served in remote
areas of the world; volunteers with special talents kept
many kinds of programs functioning; Ellen Thome
Smith became the surrogate curator of Field Museum's
Bird Division in Zoology.
□ 1950-60: Post War — Pre- War: museums institute
admission charges; schools are high users; black and
white television is widely available; the Mickey Mouse
Club stars Annette Funicello and Disneyland is born;
there is world foment and an era of frantic comic relief
. . . and new game shows; Neil Armstrong walks on the
moon.
□ The 1970s: Desegregation-integration; Head start
pre-school programs enter the picture; color television
is a hit, screens get bigger and media marketing ex-
plodes; game shows grow in popularity; museums falter
and struggle with flat interest rates on endowment;
museums begin to look at programming and other
opportunities for support; the National Endowments
for the Arts and the Humanities are born; museums
begin to pay attention to who comes and why; . . . and
then came the so-called blockbusters with the boy King
Tut leading the way. Have we been fearful of the com-
petition and seduced by the objects of our affection,
and if so, wherefore have they taken us?
They have taken us to understand the true im-
plications of interpretation and the ethics involved in
the unique charge of the Museum's mission. We under-
stand better that a single vase on a shelf in an exhibit
without a label speaks volumes to our visitors about the
attitude of the Museum towards its visitors, and its role
in interpretation. Bertha Palmer knew what it was
about when she included storytellers and lectures and
entertainment and play space in her Children's Build-
ing in 1893. The audience has become a major focus of
thinking about museum education. As museums
attempt to serve a growing, more diverse public, they
are considering more carefully what their visitors want
from them.
At the same time, museums have become more
sensitive to what shapes the way people experience the
world from their personal histories to the nature of the
society they inhabit. The emergence of new kinds of
family units, and the ever-accelerating pace of modern
life are among the societal conditions that influence
people's perceptions and thinking. We understand that
perception involves personal decision from a point of
view or base of knowledge. The visitor asks: Why
didn't the Indians have any dishes that weren't glued
together? Why did people trade shells and beads when
they could have gone to the currency exchange? Why
do those big bears lay such tiny eggs? Field Museum is
among many museums that have responded by de-
veloping exhibits and programs that better accommo-
date "where people are."
We feel that education might better be described as
"visitor experience." The 1984 report Museums for a
New Century introduced a change in the museum ver-
nacular by referring to learning rather than education
and instruction. Studies have shown repeatedly that
people do not learn in museums in the same pseudo-
quantifiable way that they learn in other more struc-
tured education environments. While lectures or
school tours do aim to pass on specific information, the
typical unstructured museum visit achieves something
quite different. It has been variously described as a
sense of wonder, the flow experience, theOoh! Ah! expe-
rience, and landmark learning. Reaching this personal
level of experience is Field Museum's ultimate goal.
With this in mind, let's look at who we are in
education and what we do, who we serve and what
constitutes our short- and long-term goals: Field
Museum has taken a leadership role in informal educa- 9
tion through collaboration with institutions of ele-
mentary, secondary, and higher education and through
our energetic efforts to provide innovative and per-
sonalized interpretation of concepts, at varying levels
of audience understanding through various media. To
meet the Museum's mission "to enhance in individuals
the knowledge of and delight in natural history," our
charge is to provide experiences for our visitors which
include information to enhance personal attitudes and
abilities. To influence attitudes we must generate inter-
ests which may lead to involvement with exhibits and
other museum resources and create situations that
spark curiosity and motivate the visitor to continue
exploration and discovery. To enhance the visitors'
abilities we must develop their competence to use the
Museum and its resources independently; to develop
their ability to differentiate between objects; describe
objects accurately; recognize concepts inherent in an
object's characteristics; to arrive at conclusions in-
directly through study and thought about objects and
information; and to use visual thinking or simply to
develop and fine-tune their observational skills.
Comfort and familiarity with a place and its con-
tents encourages enjoyment and delight which, in
turn, may encourage learning and that return visit. We
must make the visitors first encounter with us a suc-
cessful venture. What are these encounters or programs
that lead to involvement.7 Let's look at a few:
A new way to play pin the tail on!
Will they ever forget this moment?
*♦ «».«.». ~ . . . »*.«#.
Do it yourself dinos . . . what did they look like? . . . putting on the
flesh...
Finding out what makes up our land . . 2.000 kids in 107 workshops
Phil Mathews standing below his picture . . . A member of the
Museum's Pawnee Advisory Committee
u
r
i
Well, it's sort of like this.
Pawnee 10th anniversary— 106,000 in 1987
How many ways can you use a buffalo?
Over 1 ,200 adults explore the world in adult courses
Mary Louise and her great aunt, Mrs. May Wabaunsee, Pawnee
0*(*
,
■ ', v*
-;^
J^
#
4
■ i - i
"#* ' ^
^&k
^ j
r
4|
. . ^3jL, * |
***V
On ecological field trips
African Heritage Week for schools in February
2,300 went to local ecological niches during the spring, fa
Dance Shakere. a beaded gourd that swishes
Dance
Create
Enjoy. . . and over 630,000 visitors participated in a program during 1987.
I conclude with a favorite quote: "The Museum is
seductive, it woos me the learner with artful wiles, it
continues to deceive me into educating myself as long
as I live." Dear Mr. Hutchins: I couldn't agree with you
more and thanks for your help.
And to our most important Board of Lady Man-
agers, the Women's Board, thanks so much for your
involvement and support. FH
HOATZINS AT HOME
by William Beebe
THE FLIGHT OF THE HOATZIN resembles that of an
over-fed hen. The hoatzin's voice is no more melodious
than the cry of a peacock, and less sonorous than an
alligator's roar. The bird's grace is batrachian rather
than avian, while the odor of its body resembles that of
no bird untouched by dissolution. Still, zoologically
considered, the hoatzin is probably the most remark-
able and interesting bird living on the earth today.
It has successfully defied time and space. For it,
the dial of the ages has moved more slowly than for the
rest of organic life, and although living and breathing
with us today, yet its world is an affair of two dimen-
sions— a line of thorny saplings threaded along the
muddy banks of a few tropical waters.
A bird in a cage cannot escape, and may be found
month after month wherever the cage is placed. A
stuffed bird in a case may resist disintegration for a cen-
tury. But when we go to look for the bluebirds which
nest in the orchard, they may have flown a half mile
away in their search for food. The plover which scurries
before us today on the beach may tonight be far away
on the first lap of his seven thousand mile flight to the
southward.
The hoatzin's status lies rather with the caged
bird. In November in New York City an Englishman
from British Guiana said to me, "Go to the Berbice
River, and at the north end of the town of New Amster-
dam, in front of Mr. Beckett's house, you will find hoat-
zins." Six months later as I drove along a tropical river
road I saw three hoatzins perched on a low thorn bush
at the river's edge in front of a house. And the river was
the Berbice, and the house that of Mr. Beckett.
Thus are the hoatzins independent of space, as all
other flying birds know it, and in their classic reptilian
affinities, — voice, actions, arms, fingers, habits, —
they bring close the dim epochs of past time, and renew
"Hoatzins at Home" is horn Jungle Peace, by William Beebe, former
curator of birds, New York Zoological Park, and former director of
Tropical Research Station, in British Guiana, where Beebe
observed the hoatzin. Jungle Peace was first published in 1918 by
Henry Holt and Co.
for our inspection the youth of bird-life on the earth. It
is discouraging ever to attempt to translate habits
fraught with so profound a significance into words, or
to make them realistic even with the aid of photo-
graphs.
We took a boat opposite Mr. Beckett's house, and
paddled slowly with nearly-flood tide up the Berbice
River. It was two o'clock, the hottest time of the day.
For three miles we drifted past the chosen haunts of the
hoatzins. All were perched in the shade, quiet in the
intense heat, squatting prostrate or sleepily preening
their plumage. Now and then we saw a bird on her nest,
always over the water. If she was sitting on eggs she sat
close. If young birds were in the nest she half-crouched,
or perched on the rim, so that her body cast a shadow
over the young.
The vegetation was not varied. Muckamucka was
here and thete in the foreground, with an almost solid
line of bunduri pimpler or thorn tree. This was the real
home of the birds, and this plant forms the background
whenever the hoatzin comes to mind. It is a growth
which loves the water, and crowds down so that the
rising of the tide, whether fresh or brackish, covers the
mud in which it stands, so that it appears to be quite as
aquatic as the mangrove which, hece and there, creeps
out alongside it.
The pimpler bears thorns of the first magnitude,
often double, recurved and at such diabolically unex-
pected places, that like barbed wire, it is impossible to
grasp anywhere without drawing blood. Such a
chevaux-de-frise would defend a trench against the
most courageous regiment. The stems were light gray,
greening toward the younger shoots, and the foliage
was pleasantly divided into double lines of locust-like
leaflets.
The plants were in full flower, — dainty, upright
panicles of wisteria-like pea-blooms, pale violet and
white with tiny buds of magenta. A faint, subdued per-
fume drifted from them through the tangle of branches.
The fruit was ripening on many plants, in clusters of
green, semi-circular, flat, kidney pods. The low bran-
ches stretched gracefully waterwards in long sweeping 15
curves. On these at a fork or at the crossing of two
distinct branches, the hoatzins placed their nests, and
with the soft-tissued leaflets they packed their capa-
cious crops and fed their young.
Besides these two plants, which alone may be con-
sidered as forming the principal environment, two
blooms were conspicuous at this season; a deep-
calyxed, round blossom of rich yellow, — an hibiscus,
which the Indians called makoe, and from the bark of
which they made most excellent rope. The other flow-
er was a vine which crept commonly up over the pim-
pler trees, regardless of water and thorns, and hung out
twin blossoms in profusion, pink and pinkish-white,
trumpet-shaped, with flaring lips.
The mid-day life about this haunt of hoatzins was
full of interest. Tody-flycatchers of two species, yellow-
breasted and streaked, were the commonest birds, and
their little homes, like bits of tide-hung drift, swayed
from the tips of the pimpler branches. They dashed
to and fro regardless of the heat, and whenever we
stopped they came within a foot or two, curiously
watching our every motion. Kiskadees hopped along
the water's edge in the shade, snatching insects and
occasionally splashing into the water after small fish.
Awkward Guinea green herons, not long out of the
nest, crept like shadow silhouettes of birds close to the
dark water. High overhead, like flecks of jet against the
blue sky, the vultures soared. Green dragonflies whirled
here and there, and great blue-black bees fumbled in
and out of the hibiscus, yellowed with pollen and too
busy to stop a second in their day-long labor.
This little area held very strange creatures as well,
some of which we saw even in our few hours' search.
Four-eyed fish skittered over the water, pale as the
ghosts offish, and when quiet, showing only as a pair of
bubbly eyes. Still more weird hairy caterpillars wriggled
their way through the muddy, brackish current — aqua-
tic larvae of a small moth which I had not seen since I
found them in the trenches of Para.
The only sound at this time of day was a drowsy
but penetrating fr-r-r-f-r-p/ made by a green-bodied,
green-legged grasshopper of good size, whose joy in life
seemed to be to lie lengthwise upon a pimpler branch,
and skreek violently at frequent intervals, giving
his wings a frantic flutter at each utterance, and slowly
encircling the stem.
In such environment the hoatzin lives and
thrives, and, thanks to its strong body odor, has existed
from time immemorial in the face of terrific handicaps.
The odor is a strong musky one, not particularly dis-
16 agreeable. I searched my memory at every whiff for
mM
The hoatzin, Opisthocomis hoazin
something of which it vividly reminded me, and at last
the recollection came to me — the smell, delectable and
fearfully exciting in former years — of elephants at a
circus, and not altogether elephants either, but a com-
pound of one-sixth sawdust, another part peanuts,
another of strange animals and three-sixths swaying
elephant. That, to my mind, exactly describes the
odor of hoatzins as I sensed it among these alien
surroundings.
As I have mentioned, the nest of the hoatzin was
invariably built over the water, and we shall later dis-
cover the reason for this. The nests were sometimes
only four feet above high water, or equally rarely, at a
height of forty to fifty feet. From six to fifteen feet in-
cluded the zone of four-fifths of the nests of these birds.
They varied much in solidity, some being frail and
loosely together, the dry, dead sticks which composed
them dropping apart almost at a touch. Usually they
were as well knitted as a heron's, and in about half the
cases consisted of a recent nest built upon the founda-
tions of an old one. There was hardly any cavity at
the top, and the coarse network of sticks looked like a
precarious resting place for eggs and an exceedingly
uncomfortable one for young birds.
When we approached a nest, the occupant paid
no attention until we actually came close to a branch,
or shook it. She then rose, protesting hoarsely, and lift-
ing wings and tail as she croaked. At the last moment,
often when only a yard away, she flew off and away to a
distance of fifty feet or more. Watching closely, when
she realized that we really had intentions on her nest,
she returned and perched fifteen or twenty feet away,
croaking continually, her mate a little farther off, and
all the hoatzins within sight or hearing joining in sym-
pathetic disharmony, all with synchronous lifting of
tail and wings at each utterance.
The voice of the female is appreciably deeper than
that of the male, having more of a gurgling character,
like one of the notes of a curassow. The usual note of
both sexes is an unwritable, hoarse, creaking sound,
quite cicada or frog-like.
Their tameness was astounding, and they would
often sit unmoved, while we were walking noisily
about, or focusing the camera within two yards. If
several were sitting on a branch and one was shot, the
others would often show no symptoms of concern or
alarm, either at the noise of the gun or the fall of their
companion. A hoatzin which may have been crouched
close to the slain bird would continue to preen its plum-
age without a glance downward. When the young had
attained their full plumage it was almost impossible to
distinguish them from the older members of the flock
except by their generally smaller size.
But the heart of our interest in the hoatzins cen-
tered in the nestlings. Some kind Providence directed
the time of our visit, which I chose against the advice of
some of the very inhabitants of New Amsterdam. It
turned out that we were on the scene exactly at the
right time. A week either way would have yielded
much poorer results. The nestlings, in seven occupied
nests, observed as we drifted along shore, or landed and
climbed among the thorns, were in an almost identical
stage of development. In fact, the greatest difference in
size occurred between two nestlings of the same brood.
Their down was a thin, scanty, fuzzy covering, and the
flight feathers were less than a half-inch in length. No
age would have showed to better advantage every
movement of wings or head.
When a mother hoatzin took reluctant flight from
her nest, the young bird at once stood up-right and
looked curiously in every direction. No slacker he,
crouching flat or awaiting his mother's directing cries.
From the moment he was left alone he began to depend
upon the warnings and signs which his great beady eyes
and skinny ears conveyed to him. Hawks and vultures
had swept low over his nest and mother unheeded.
Coolies in their boats had paddled underneath with no
more than a glance upward. Throughout his week of
life, as through his parents' and their parents' parents'
lives, no danger had disturbed their peaceful existence.
Only for a sudden windstorm such as that which the
week before had upset nests and blown out eggs, it
might be said that for the little hoatzin chicks life held
nothing but siestas and munchings of pimpler leaves.
But one little hoatzin, if he had any thoughts such
as these, failed to count on the invariable exceptions to
every rule, for this day the totally unexpected hap-
pened. Fate, in the shape of enthusiastic scientists, de-
scended upon him. He was not for a second non-
If we had concentrated upon him a thousand strong, by
boats and by land, he would have fought the good fight
for freedom and life as calmly as he waged it against
us. And we found him no mean antagonist, and far
from reptilian in his ability to meet new and unforeseen
conditions.
His mother, who a moment before had been pack-
ing his capacious little crop with predigested pimpler
leaves, had now flown off to an adjoining group of man-
groves, where she and his father croaked to him hoarse
encouragement. His flight feathers hardly reached
beyond his finger-tips, and his body was covered with a
sparse coating of sooty black down. So there could be
no resort to flight. He must defend himself, bound to
earth like his assailants.
Hardly had his mother left when his comical
head, with thick, blunt beak and large intelligent eyes,
appeared over the rim of the nest. His alert expression
was increased by the suspicion of a crest on his crown
where the down was slightly longer. Higher and higher
rose his head, supported on a neck of extraordinary
length and thinness. No more than this was needed to
mark his absurd resemblance to some strange, extinct
reptile. A young dinosaur must have looked much like
this, while for all that my glance revealed, I might have
been looking at a diminutive Galapagos tortoise. In-
deed this simile came to mind often when I became
more intimate with nestling hoatzins.
Sam, my black tree-climber, kicked off his shoes
and began creeping along the horizontal limbs of the
pimplers. At every step he felt carefully with a cal-
loused sole in order to avoid the longer of the cruel
thorns, and punctuated every yard with some gasp of
pain or muttered personal prayer, "Pleas' doan' stick
me, Thorns!"
At last his hand touched the branch, and it shook
slightly. The young bird stretched his mittened hands
high above his head and waved them a moment. With 17
18
similar intent a boxer or wrestler flexes his muscles and
bends his body. One or two uncertain, forward steps
brought the bird to the edge of the nest at the base of a
small branch. There he stood, and raising one wing
leaned heavily against the stem, bracing himself. My
man climbed higher and the nest swayed violently.
Now the brave little hoatzin reached up to some
tiny side twigs and aided by the projecting ends of dead
sticks from the nest, he climbed with facility, his
thumbs and forefingers apparently being of more aid
than his feet. It was fascinating to see him ascend, stop-
ping now and then to crane his head and neck far out,
turtlewise. He met every difficulty with some new con-
tortion of body or limbs, often with so quick or so subtle
a shifting as to escape my scrutiny. The branch ended in
a tiny crotch and here perforce, ended his attempt at
escape by climbing. He stood on the swaying twig, one
wing clutched tight, and braced himself with both feet.
Nearer and nearer crept Sam. Not a quiver on the
part of the little hoatzin. We did not know it, but inside
that ridiculous head there was definite decision as to a
deadline. He watched the approach to this great,
strange creature — this Danger, this thing so wholly new
and foreign to the experience, and doubtless to all the
generations of his forbears. A black hand grasped the
thorny branch six feet from his perch, and like a flash
he played his next trick — the only remaining one he
knew, one that set him apart from all modern land
birds, as the frog is set apart from the swallow.
The young hoatzin stood erect for an instant, and
then both wings of the little bird were stretched
straight back, not folded, bird-wise, but dangling
loosely and reaching well beyond the body. For a con-
siderable fraction of time he leaned forward. Then
without effort, without apparent leap or jump he dived
straight downward, as beautifully as a seal, direct as a
plummet and very swiftly. There was a scarcely-no-
ticeable splash, and as I gazed with real awe, I watched
the widening ripples which undulated over the mud-
dy water — the only trace of the whereabouts of the
young bird.
It seemed as if no one, whether ornithologist, evo-
lutionist, poet or philosopher could fail to be pro-
foundly impressed at the sight we had seen. Here I was
in a very real, a very modern boat, with the honk of
motor horns sounding from the river road a few yards
away through the bushes, in the shade of this tropical
vegetation in the year nineteen hundred and sixteen;
and yet the curtain of the past had been lifted and I had
been permitted a glimpse of what must have been com-
mon in the millions of years ago. It was a tremendous
thing, a wonderful thing to have seen, and it seemed to
dwarf all the strange sights which had come to me in all
other parts of the earth's wilderness. I had read of these
habits and had expected them, but like one's first sight
of a volcano in eruption, no reading or description pre-
pares one for the actual phenomenon.
I sat silently watching for the re-appearance of the
young bird. We tallied five pairs of eyes and yet many
minutes passed before I saw the same little head and
emaciated neck sticking out of the water alongside a bit
of drift rubbish. The only visible thing was the pro-
truding spikes of the bedraggled tail feathers. I worked
the boat in toward the bird, half-heartedly, for I had
made up my mind that this particular brave little bit of
atavism deserved his freedom, so splendidly had he
fought for it among the pimplers. Soon he ducked for-
ward, dived out of sight and came up twenty feet away
among an inextricable tangle of vines. I sent a little
cheer of well wishing after him and we salvaged Sam.
Then we shoved out the boat and watched from a
distance. Five or six minutes passed and a skinny,
crooked, two-fingered mitten of an arm reared upward
out of the muddy flood and the nestling, black and
glistening, hauled itself out of water.
Thus must the first amphibian have climbed into
the thin air. But the young hoatzin neither gasped nor
shivered, and seemed as self-possessed as if this was a
common occurrence in its life. There was not the
slightest doubt however, that this was its first intro-
duction to water. Yet it had dived from a height of fif-
teen feet, about fifty times its own length, as cleanly as
a seal leaps from a berg. It was as if a human child
should dive two hundred feet!
In fifteen minutes more it had climbed high above
the water, and with unerring accuracy directly toward
its natal bundle of sticks overhead. The mother now
came close, and with hoarse rasping notes and frantic
heaves of tail and wings lent encouragement. Just be-
fore we paddled from sight, when the little fellow had
reached his last rung, he partly opened his beak and
gave a little falsetto cry, — a clear, high tone, tailing off
into a guttural rasp. His splendid courage had broken at
last; he had nearly reached the nest and he was aching
to put aside all this terrible responsibility, this pitting of
his tiny might against such tearful odds. He wanted to
be a helpless nestling again, to crouch on the springy
bed of twigs with a feather comforter over him and be
stuffed at will with delectable pimpler pap. Such is the
normal right destiny of a hoatzin chick, and the whee-
ogl wrung from him by the reaction of safety seemed to
voice all this. FH
"Morning-
May 22.
-Oatka Creek, " welded corten steel sculpture of green-backed heron by Craig Wilson. On view in "Birds in Art" exhibit closing
19
Costa Rica,
Tropical Biology,
And a Visit with Oton Jimenez
by William C. Burger
Curator of Vascular Plants
COSTA RICA, one of half a dozen small republics in
Central America, has played a special role in the sci-
ence of tropical biology. With mountains over 3,000
meters (10,000 feet) high, areas with more than 3
meters ( 10 feet) of rainfall a year, other areas with little
or no rain for five months, and rich volcanic soils, little
Costa Rica supports an extraordinary variety of plants
and animals. Though less than half the size of Ohio,
Costa Rica has over 1,200 species of orchids, and twice
as many ferns as all of North America north of Mexico.
This rich fauna and flora has provided many opportuni-
ties for biological research. In addition, the country has
played an important role in the education of a new gen-
eration of tropical biologists.
About twenty years ago, the Organization for
. Tropical Studies (OTS), a consortium of colleges and
universities, decided to base its educational program in
Costa Rica. The OTS field stations, and especially its
program of intensive field courses for graduate stu-
dents, have been a great success. Many of North Amer-
ica's academic biologists, now concentrating their
research efforts on problems in tropical biology and
ecology, had their introduction to the tropics through
the OTS program.
Costa Rica was a logical choice for such an educa-
tional effort. Within a two- or three-hour drive from
San Jose, the capital, one can experience the seasonal-
ly dry deciduous forests of the lowland Pacific, the rain
forests of the Caribbean coastal plain, the cooler cloud
forests of the central highlands, or the treeless alpine
formations on the highest mountaintops. This great
variety of life-zones, and the wealth of plants and ani-
mals they support, have made the OTS courses an espe-
cially rich experience for hundreds of young biologists.
20 But there are other reasons why Costa Rica has played a
special role in the growth of our knowledge of tropical
nature.
A long tradition of scholarly activity, an excellent
university system, a highly literate and talented pop-
ulace, and the very friendly nature of the people have
made Costa Rica especially hospitable to visiting scien-
tists. A stable political climate and accessibility to
many kinds of natural habitats have been important
factors. In addition, there has been a long tradition of
collecting and research by the Costa Ricans them-
selves. For example, the herbarium of the Museo
Nacional de Costa Rica holds more than 150,000 plant
specimens, comprising a major resource for studying
and understanding the country's flora. These col-
lections have been gathered for nearly a century, and
largely account for the fact that we know much more
about the flora of Costa Rica than we do of most other
tropical regions. Likewise, important collections of in-
sects, birds, and mammals are housed in the National
Museum and at the National University. Much of this
heritage has come from the work of resident biologists,
who know the local flora and fauna intimately. Some,
like the ornithologist Alexander Skutch, have become
world famous for their research. Originally from the
United States, Dr. Skutch has lived in Costa Rica for
more than fifty years. This tradition of scholarship is
continuing with young Costa Rican biologists who are
becoming expert in the fauna and flora of their
country.
The Botany Department of Field Museum has
been active in research on Costa Rica's flora tor more
than half a century. The Museum published former
Botany curator Paul Standley's Flora of Costa Rica in
1937-38. This 4-volume, 1,570-page compendium is
still a major source of information about Costa Rica's
plant life. A program to develop a modern detailed
flora was begun here at the Museum in 1965 and con-
tinues to the present. Active fieldwork, in col-
laboration with our Costa Rican colleagues, com-
plements research on collections and literature. The
plant specimens housed at Field Museum and in Costa
Rica are a primary data base for our study of that coun-
try's flora. The diversity of habitats in Costa Rica re-
quire that we continue to collect actively; many areas
are still poorly known and new species continue to be
discovered. However, on our last trip in February, we
took time out from ventures into rain forests and cloud
forests for a very different kind of visit.
Our destination was a stately old home near the
center of the capital city. Five of us (the director of the
National Museum, her assistant, and three botanists)
paid a visit to Don Oton Jimenez. While Don Oton had
been a pharmacist for most of his life, he had also done
botanical collecting over many years and knew most of
the biologists who were active in Costa Rica in the ear-
lier decades of this century. Though now confined to a
wheelchair, Don Oton greeted us cheerfully. He
answered many questions about the early collectors he
had known and reminisced about his youth and family.
He spoke slowly, but forcefully and often with humor,
recalling people and episodes from many years ago. He
clarified details regarding the early history of the Na-
tional Museum, and commented on the personal-
ities of the biologists he had known.
For our visit, we had brought along a very special
plant specimen from the National Museum: the type
specimen of Ficus jimenezii- This is the specimen which
was used to establish the new name for a species of tree
in the fig genus. It had been named in honor of Oton
Jimenez, who was still a teenager at the time he col-
lected it. The reason for bringing the specimen, and for
photographing Don Oton with his early collection, was
as a remembrance of his contributions to our knowl-
edge of Costa Rica's flora. What made the occasion
remarkable is that he had collected the type of Ficus
jimenezii in 1910! Now, 78 years later, he was still able
to share with us his memories of more than 90 years.
The clarity of his mind, his vigorous speech and good
humor made our visit especially memorable.
After more than two hours of animated con-
versation, we said farewell to Don Oton and the mem-
bers of his family who care for him. Our visit had given
us new insights into the earlier days of biological activi-
ties in Costa Rica, and we couldn't help but admire
Don Oton's warm personality and sprightly recollec-
tions. His recorded reminiscences will become part of
Don Oton Jimenez
Bill Burger
the archives of the National Museum, and his type
specimen will continue to serve as the basis for the
name of one of Central America's distinctive highland
trees. This specimen and the other 150,000 specimens
at the National Museum are the physical basis on
which our inventory of Costa Rica's plant life is based.
Through the acquisition and exchange of duplicated
specimens, Field Museum and other major institutions
share the responsibility of caring for these important
research resources. Like libraries, museums cherish
their older collections as well as the latest additions.
How fortunate it is, then, to have someone still with us
who has witnessed the growth and development of
these collections through most of this century.
With active ongoing programs of research by Cos-
ta Rican and visiting scientists, this democratic repub-
lic continues to play a major role in tropical biology. A
large system of national parks and active programs of
nature preservation by government, as well as by pri-
vate groups, should ensure the future of biological re-
search in Costa Rica for many years to come. Tourists,
also, are increasing in numbers as they hear of Costa
Rica's natural beauty and efforts to preserve it. FH
21
37th Annual Members' Night
Friday, May 6
5:00-10:00 pm
We're so excited about May 6 that we're cleaning
the elephants, polishing the marble, and opening
all the usual off-limit areas in preparation for your
arrival. Join us on Members' Night to visit with our
curators, researchers, and entire Museum staff and
find out what they know about working with
18,000,000 specimens.
There will be special exhibits, activities, and
entertainment all evening, including children from
the Indian Classical Dance School, musicians from
the Chinese Music Society, and members of Ars
Subtilior Ensemble performing music from the
Middle Ages and Renaissance.
If you are coming by car, you may park free of
charge in the Museum's parking lots or Soldier Field
lot. Simply show your Member card or invitation.
Free bus service will be operating between
the Loop and our south door. These Willett buses,
marked "Field Museum," will originate at the Canal
Street entrance of Union Station (Canal at Jack-
son) and stop at the Canal Street entrance of
Northwestern Station (Canal at Washington);
Washington and State; Washington and Michigan;
Adams and Michigan; Balbo and Michigan. Buses
will begin running at 4:45 p.m. and continue at
approximately 20-minute intervals until the
Museum closes at 10:00 p.m. You may board the
free "Field Museum" Willett bus by showing your
Member card or invitation.
Members are invited to bring family and up to
four guests. Special arrangements for handicapped
persons can be made by calling 922-9410, ext. 453,
beginning April 25. "Behind-the-Scenes" activities
will end at 9:00 p.m.
Don't miss Members' Night — we'll be expect-
ing you
Cleaning the Elephants, August 1952
23
3HMAN
BUSHMAN
7.
24
by Alan Solem, Curator of Invertebrates
and W. Peyton Fawcett, Librarian
IT WAS MIDAFTERNOON on a museum free day. The
school huses had departed, leaving mainly family
groups in circulation. As one of us (A.S.) waited for
the elevator, a family wandered up. The two children
were starting to whine, and all clearly were suffering
from "museum feet." But the father's sharp sentences
— "No!!! We're not leaving until we see Bushman.
My parents took me to Lincoln Park Zoo many times
to see him when I was your age, and I'm going to visit
him again today! ! !" — loosed a flood of memories con-
cerning my own childhood visits: of seeing Harwa,
the Egyptian mummy, x-rayed; of peering around
adults to catch a glimpse of the giant panda, Su-lin,
first seen alive at Brookfield Zoo and now stuffed and
mounted in a glass case; of hearing my grandmother
////// talk of her visit years before to see the man-eating
lions of Tsavo.
In addition to "museum feet," one often comes
away from a museum visit with a kaleidoscopic mix-
ture of images and impressions, sensory overload,
even a headache. What we remember of these visits
depends on our interests, backgrounds, and a degree
of happenstance. But there are exhibits or objects that
have nearly universal appeal. They are remembered
long after the visit, and may survive as the only last-
ing memory. Bushman, the gentle giant, is perhaps
our current star; but there have been others over the
years, and what follows is a brief, selective, very per-
sonal, and roughly chronological guide to them.
Still poised in combat, the "trademark" fighting
elephants, centerpiece of Stanley Field Hall, are one
of the great triumphs of taxidermy. As with many of
our mounted animals, they are the legacy of Carl
Akeley, who revolutionized the art of taxidermy, first
at Field Museum and later at the American Museum
of Natural History. Collected by Akeley during July
and August 1906 in Kenya as part of a Field Museum
expedition, they were the first large mammals
mounted using his new techniques. The weeks of
observing elephants in Africa and the use of photo-
graphs taken in the field aided him in recreating the
feeling of "life in motion," and in successfully posing
them in a dramatic and lifelike manner. Placed on dis-
play in 1909, they introduced a new era in museum
exhibition. The elephants successfully survived "mov-
ing day" in 1921 , when shifted by rail from the orig-
inal building — now the site of the Museum of Science
and Industry — to the present one, and a mid-1970s
shift up onto their current pedestal. How many visi-
tors, or even staff members, are aware that they are
seeing perhaps the first example of modern taxidermy,
a true wonder of its time?
Our next superstars also were from Kenya —
actually they lived there in 1898, eight years before
Akeley's elephant hunt. As related by Col. J. H. Pat-
terson in his 1914 book The Man-Eaters ofTsavo, and
again in the Museum's Zoology Leaflet No. 7, The
Man-eating Lions ofTsavo, two lions "killed and de-
voured, under the most appalling circumstances, one
hundred and thirty-five Indian and African artisans
and laborers employed in the construction of the
Uganda Railway." For over nine months, their reign
of terror continued, ended by their death from the
rifle of Col. Patterson. A quarter-century later,
in 1924, Col. Patterson gave a public lecture at
Field Museum. Upon learning that the lion skins
— reportedly used essentially as decorator rugs
— were still in Col. Patterson's possession, Field
Close-up of Carl Akeley's fighting elephants in Stanley Field Hall me*
The Tsavo lions 49983
26
Museum President Stanley Field purchased the skins.
"With considerable difficulty, owing to the age of the
skins (and poor preservation techniques of the time!),
they were mounted and are now permanently pre-
served in the spirited group" located near the African
water hole group in the African Mammals hall (Hall
22). For perhaps 15 years they retained their primary
appeal.
The giant panda, emblem of the World Wildlife
Fund, today is a symbol of endangered species every-
where. In the 1920s, this rare animal of western Chi-
na was eagerly sought for museum collections. Only a
few specimens had been collected, and they were
somewhat imperfect and badly preserved. Field
Museum's two giant pandas on display in the Asian
Mammal Hall were collected by the William V.
Kelley-Roosevelt's Expedition in 1929. After the skins
arrived in Chicago, they were mounted, placed on ex-
hibit, but achieved little notice initially. On February
8, 1937 "panda-mania" began with the arrival at
Brookfield Zoo of the first living giant panda seen
in the United States, Su-lin. Only then did our
mounted examples become popular. Su-lin, believed
to be a female, was a most popular attraction at
Brookfield Zoo. When "she" died in April 1938, "her"
body was brought to Field Museum, where it was dis-
covered that "she" was a "he." The skin was mounted,
and can be seen today in the Mammals of the World
exhibit (Hall 15). The body became the object of two
decades of study (interrupted, from time to time, by
military service and other projects) by D. Dwight
Davis, curator of Comparative Anatomy. While visi-
tors came to see Su-lin and, more often than not,
thought one of the pandas in the habitat group was
their "friend," meticulous dissection, study, illustra-
tion, and writing took place on upper floors. Davis's
resulting 327-page monograph, "The Giant Panda,"
published by Field Museum Press as volume 3 of
Fieldiana: Zoology Memoirs in 1964, was the culmina-
tion of his research career. Judged by famed Harvard
paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould as "probably the
greatest work of modern evolutionary comparative
anatomy, " this set a standard that has not been met,
much less exceeded, subsequently. Few readers of this
article will have heard of Davis and his monograph,
but its fame among scientists will last generations after
the last viewer of Su-lin has ceased telling great-
grandchildren of the excitement he caused.
During the 1940s, shortly after Su-lin appeared
on display, the pandas had major competition at Field
Museum. Egyptian mummies, their tombs and con-
tents, have long inspired both fear and fascination.
Field Museum's Egyptian Hall (Hall J) continues to be
one of the most popular exhibits. Visitors stand silent-
ly in front of the mummies or joke edgily, in the man-
ner of one whistling past the graveyard late at night,
or with mental visions of Boris Karlov as "The Mum-
my" seen on late night TV. In 1941 the mummy of
Harwa, an Egyptian agricultural official who lived
2,800 years ago, was placed on display. Visitors to the
"Chamber of Harwa" observed "Harwa in his ancient
wrappings. His head, still covered with its dried orig-
inal skin, is exposed. . . The chamber gradually dark-
ens, the screen shifts silently in front of the mummy,
then lights up, and there, in life-size, appears the im-
age of Harwa 's skeleton." We can both attest that this
was a spectacle not to be forgotten. Field Museum was
a pioneer in developing and successfully applying x-
ray photography to the study of mummies and other
museum specimens.
D. Dwight Davis, late curator of Comparative Anatomy and author of
the historic monograph "The Giant Panda. "s7iw
■ St' 27
Giant panda habitat groups
The redouDtable Harwa. Egyptian agricultural official who lived 2,800 years ago. ■
And who can forget the gold mask of Tutankha-
mun and the other treasures exhibited in 1977 or the
smaller exhibition of 1959? Since its rediscovery many
years ago, "King Tut's Tomb" has captured the im-
agination of several generations. These two opportu-
nities for Chicagoland residents to see some of the
legend-laden treasures produced near-stampedes. Be-
tween April 15 and August 15, 1977, approximately
1,500,000 visitors swarmed through the Museum.
Lines of visitors snaked around the Museum and there
was usually some confusion as to where the lines en-
ded. Staff members were well advised to let everybody
know as they were entering the building that "We
work here!" and were not trying to crash the line!
For one of us (A.S.), the exhibit produced a ma-
jor culture shock. From August 1976 to June 1977 I
had been in Australia, much of the time living out of
the back of a Landrover, in the middle of nowhere, at
most with two other people. Return to Chicago via
Sydney, Honolulu, and San Francisco involved only
28 change of planes, some unease at crowds, and arrival
in Chicago late on a Sunday. A Monday morning bus
ride to Field Museum — and the 5,000 to 7,000 people
lined up to get "Tut Tickets" for that day, resulted in
immediate wish for miraculous instant return to the
Australian Outback!
Harwa is no longer on display, and the trea-
sures of Tutankhamun have returned to Cairo. The
elephants, the man-eating lions, and Su-lin are still
on display. But our most popular feature at present re-
mains Bushman. For over 20 years he delighted visi-
tors to Lincoln Park Zoo (an estimated 3,000,000 per
year). Upon his death at an estimated age of 23, on
January 1, 1951, his body came to Field Museum, and
was mounted by the last of our great taxidermists,
Leon L. Walters, with the assistance of Frank C.
Wonder and Joseph B. Krstolich. Today, 36 years after
being put on display, he still has his fans and frequent
visitors. One of us (W.P.F. ) recently met by chance a
friend from Army days. We had not seen each other
for 28 years. When I told him that I worked at Field
Museum, he exclaimed: "Is Bushman still there?" In-
Waiting for King Tut
deed he still is, in a new location on the ground floor
near the children's shop.
But what will take his place in AD 2000? Will
Bushman be as nearly forgotten as are the man-eating
lions today? — since time will continue to thin the
ranks of those who saw Bushman alive. Bits of moon
rock, invaluable gems, fascinating special exhibits
have come and gone, but nothing seems to have
reached our public to compare with the fame chroni-
cled above. Have times changed? Is the kind of inter-
est and fascination that made these stars in our first
century still possible? Have television wildlife docu-
mentaries and the ease of travel to far corners of the
world jaded our interest in the static displays of nature
— however cunningly contrived?
We have discussed and argued this between us —
which led us to write this article.
What do you think could (or should) be the ex-
hibit stars in the year 2000? Probably we do not yet
have them on display. But we would like your ideas for
future hits. Please write to us. If the response war-
rants, we'll report back to you on the suggestions —
and perhaps include one or two ideas of our own.
You represent the core of our supportive audi-
ence, and we need your ideas. FM
The awesome gold mummy mask of Egyptian king Tutankhamun
being installed at Field Museum in 1977 by representative of the
Cairo Museum 82537
29
"Ramesses The Great" Tour
Saturday, July 2 to Tuesday, July 5
Boston Museum of Science
The Exhibition of Ramesses The Great, on loan from Cairo's world-famous Egyptian
Museum, is the largest assemblage of Egypt's national treasures to ever visit the
United States (artifacts outnumber the Tutankhamun exhibition). The exhibit will be
shown at the Boston Museum of Science April 30 through August 30, 1988. We invite
you to take advantage of the opportunity to see this spectacular exhibit while it is in
our country, and to celebrate the Fourth of July in Boston at Harborfest '87. The
schedule of special events for this five-day festival is extensive, with many of the
activities being free. A highlight will be the Boston Pops concert on the Esplanade,
and the Fourth of July fireworks display.
FIELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
Our Itinerary:
Saturday Depart Chicago O'Hare airport on United Airlines breakfast flight #684 at
July 2 8:30 a.m. Flight is nonstop to Boston Logan Airport. Upon arrival at 11:45
we'll be met by our guide, and we'll enjoy a tour of some of Boston's high-
lights by deluxe motorcoach. (Your luggage will be taken directly to the
Park Plaza Hotel.) Mid-afternoon we'll check into the Park Plaza Hotel for a
period of relaxation before dinner. This evening we board "The Spirit of
Boston" for a harbor dinner cruise, which will include festive entertainment
and dancing.
Sunday Day at leisure to give you the opportunity to enjoy some of the special
July 3 events of Harborfest. This evening we'll go to the Museum of Science to
tour the Ramesses exhibit with Del Nord, Egyptologist, as our guide.
Many of you will remember Ms. Nord from the Tutankhamun era at Field
Museum. She led many Egypt tours from 1976 to 1984 for Field Museum/
Oriental Institute. According to a number of tour members, Del is a pro-
fessional of the highest calibre, and an asset to Egyptology. She truly loves
Egypt and the history and culture of this fabulous land. Dinner on your
own. There is a choice of three restaurants in the Museum.
Monday This morning we'll take a motorcoach tour to Cambridge, Lexington, and
July 4 Concord, including stops at several historic sites, one being the "Old
Manse" home of author Nathaniel Hawthorne. We'll enjoy lunch at the his-
toric Colonial Inn, built in 1772. The afternoon will be at leisure. The high-
light of the evening will be the famous Boston Pops esplanade concert,
with a box dinner provided.
Tuesday We'll depart Logan Airport on United Airlines flight #393 at 9:30 a.m.,
July 5 flying nonstop to Chicago O'Hare and arriving at 11:15 a.m.
We hope you will join Field Museum's tour group for this trip to Boston. The cost is
$895.00 per person (double occupancy), single supplement $330.00. Early reserva-
tions will ensure your enrollment at this price, which is based on 30-day advance
purchase of air tickets. A deposit of $200.00 per person, payable to Field Museum
Tours, will hold space in the order reservations are received. Our group will be limited
to 30 participants. For further information please call 322-8862.
Spaces still available for . . .
Voyage to
The Gulf of
St. Lawrence and
Canada's
Maritime Provinces
Aboard the Miria
July 1-9, 1988
Accompanied by Dr. David Willard,
Field Museum Zoologist
<- Colossus of Ramesses the Great. Lost for centuries, this magnificent colossus was uncovered in 1 962 and restored for the
"Ramesses The Great" exhibit. The massive, 57-ton, 25-foot statue is the largest ever restored and shipped out of Egypt. On
view at the Boston Museum of Science April 30-August 30.
31
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2499
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chamnan
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
Willard L. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H.Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Ko\>en D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo F. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
Mrs. James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S- Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
J . Howard Wood
CONTENTS
June 1988
Volume 59, Number 6
JUNE EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM
TRADITIONS IN JAPANESE ART: THE BOONE COLLECTION
Exhibit opens June 22, closes October 2
by Suzanne Arata and Caroline Moore, consultants in Japanese
art, Department of Anthropology; photography by Ron Testa
and Diane Alexander White, Division of Photography 6
TWENTY YEARS OF VOLUNTEERS
by Ellen Zebrun, Volunteer Coordinator .
27
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS
Featuring a trip to Boston and a special viewing of "Ramesses
the Great" exhibit at the Boston Museum of Science 31
COVER (front and back)
"Happiness Unlimited," painting by Japanese artist Doho Koji
(Taisho period, dated 1917), ink and color on silk, 77V£ x 27 in.
The entire painting is reproduced on the back cover; detail is on
the front cover. This painting and about 130 other works of
Japanese art will be on view in Gallery 9A beginningjune 22,
comprising the exhibit "Traditions in Japanese Art: The Boone
Collection." They have been selected from about 3,500 paintings
and other works of art donated to Field Museum by Katherine
Phelps Boone and the late Commander Gilbert E. Boone. See
pages 6-26.
"Happiness Unlimited" exudes just that. It depicts Ebisu, a
laughing, happy god, in great multitude and engaged in a myriad
of activities for amusement and leisure: writing poems or prac-
ticing calligraphy, singing, dancing, and making merry with his
fellows, playing musical instruments, playing a game of go or en-
gaged in a tug-of-war, participating in tea ceremony, tallying re-
ceipts on the abacus, and so forth. All of these activities are
associated with the New Year and with Ebisu Matsuri, a festival
honoring Ebisu held in western Japan either on the fifth or tenth
of January. The little-known artist Doho Koji ("the Laymonk
Doho") displays a certain deliberate awkwardness and yet uninhi-
bited style of brushwork, which contributes to the fresh, light-
hearted tone of the painting.
Ebisu wears a soft cloth cap and is usually shown seated with
a fat tai (sea bream), seen in the lower right, and sometimes with
a fishing pole. As one of the Seven Gods of Fortune, he is often
depicted with the god Daikoku; both have been adopted as famil-
iar household gods of good luck and plenty. Ebisu's origins are
unknown, but legends describe him as making an arrival by sea as
a stranger. He is worshipped all over Japan but particularly in
fishing villages where he is believed to bring bountiful catches
from the sea. Ebisu has also been adopted by farming com-
munities, where he is revered as an agricultural god and by mer-
chants for whom he represents honest dealing. Cat. 265982, negs. i 10820
(from), 110817 (back).
Field Museum ofNcuural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural Histoty, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496.
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of addtess change should include address label and be sent to Membetship
Department. Postmastet: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, !L 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, Illinois and
additional mailing office.
Kanda Myojin Masakado Taiko — Japanese Drumming
Saturday and Sunday
June 25 and 26, 2:00pm
In Celebration of Japan Festival Field Museum presents Kanda
Myojin Masakado Taiko, an all-female group performing on the
taiko, or Japanese drum, from the Kanda Myojin Shinto shrine in
Tokyo. This six-member group was established 15 years ago.
They are dedicated to preserving the traditional performance of
taiko and to making the centuries-old taiko music more appeal-
ing to contemporary society. Their performance features five
pieces: "The Lion Dance," performed by all six members,
"Torches," based on the tragic life of Taira no Masakado, to ,
whom the Kanda Myojin shrine is dedicated, "Bando Arashi"
("Windstorm of Bando"), "Celebration," and "Kanda Taiko,"
a more contemporary piece reminiscent of Jazz. Each per-
formance is free with Museum admission. Tickets are not
required.
World Music
Weekends in June
1:00pm and 3:00pm
Music Communicates in many ways. It is something that can be
shared by all of us, whether or not we have common lifestyles,
beliefs, or even languages. June is a musical celebration
month at Field Museum.
June 4, 5
1 :00pm Chinese Music Society of North America, demon-
strates instruments from the Chinese orchestra
3:00pm Ari Brown, composer and performer, plays the
saxophone
June 11, 12
1 :00pm and 3:00pm Don Moye demonstrates African per-
cussion instruments
June 18, 19
1 :00pm Jamila-Ra presents poetry
3:00pm Eli Hoenai, African percussion
3:00pm Fan Wei-Tsu demonstrates the zheng, the Chinese
zither
June 25, 26
1 :00pm and 3:00pm Don Pate plays some exciting bass
rhythms
The World Music Program is supported by the Kenneth and
Harle Montgomery Fund and a City Arts 1 1 l/l V grant from the Chi-
cago Office of Fine Arts, Department of Cultural Affairs.
Continued i>
Hall Interpreters Program
Thursdays through Sundays in June
The "Dog Days" of Summer are a great time to learn a few new
tricks at Field Museum. In exciting hands-on programs, you
make Egyptian papyrus paper, heft the ingenious drills and
adzes of Native America, and play with the Chinese seven-
piece puzzles that Lewis Carroll loved.
Hall Interpreters, dressed in blue aprons and located
throughout the exhibits, help you and your friends experience
the wonders of the world. Cool off with the hottest new theories
about dinosaur extinction. Learn to weave without a loom. And
see just what earthworms are up to under your lawn this
summer.
These exciting programs, partially sponsored by the Joyce
Foundation and the Lloyd A. Fry Foundation, are available to all
Museum visitors Thursday through Sunday. Please consult the
television monitors throughout the Museum for activity locations.
June Weekend Programs
Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world
of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations,
and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are
designed for families and adults. Listed below is one of the
numerous activities each weekend. Check the activity listing
upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations.
The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois
Art Council.
June 11,1 :30pm: Tibet Today and A Faith in Exile (slide
lecture)
Investigate Lhasa and refugees in Dharmsala
(home of the Dalai Lama), Darjeeling, and
Sikkim.
These programs are free with Museum admis-
sion and tickets are not required.
Summer Fun 1988
Summer workshops for 4-13 year-olds begin June 18. Workshop
topics are as diverse as Field Museum's collections and offered
Wednesday through Sunday until July 31 . Advance registration
is required. For a brochure and registration form call (312) 322-8854.
After Hours
Films at the Held
FREE!
Fridays in June
After Hours Cafe opens at 4:30pm
Films begin at 6:00pm
Field Museum continues its program of free contemporary fea-
ture films from around the world. Friday evenings in June offer
films from Canada. After Hours Cafe opens at 4:30pm, serving
light fare and beverages. Films begin at 6:00pm. Be sure to use
the West Entrance. For more information call (312) 322-8855.
June 4
□ "The Decline of the American Empire"
1987. 101 minutes. Color. Canada.
Director: Denys Arcand. French with English subtitles.
The Decline of the American Empire, a comedy about love and
sex, focuses on eight French Canadian intellectuals gathered at
a lakefront cottage for the weekend. As they discuss their lives
with amusing candor, the characters begin to reveal their hid-
den, darker sides. With compassion and affection, the film
exposes the psyches of its middle-aged subjects and their
search for personal happiness.
□ "Crac"
National Film Board of Canada
1982. 15 minutes. Color. Animated.
Director: Frederic Back.
A 1982 Oscar winner, this animated film portrays the experience
of an old-fashioned rocking chair and its years with a French
Canadian family. It is an affectionate visit to a happy past and
a gentle commentary on the rapid pace of modern life.
June 10
□ "Les Bons Debarras" ("Good Riddance")
1980. 112 minutes. Color. Canada.
Director: Francis Mankiewicz. French with English subtitles.
Manon is a thirteen-year-old with a terrific intelligence and a will
to dominate everyone around her. Living with her single mother
and slow-witted brother in rural Quebec, Manon willfully and ex-
actingly turns the weaknesses of a child's position to her own
advantage. As her mother struggles to maintain her happiness
and dignity, a situation which seemed merely threatening be-
comes explosive and destructive.
□ "The National Scream"
1980. 28 minutes. Color. Canada.
Director: Robert Awad and David Verrall.
A tongue-in-cheek look at Canada and the Canadians, this film
explains how and why the beaver became the country's symbol.
This lively satire uses animation and a pseudo-documentary
style to depict Canada's search for a national identity.
Scene from "The Decline of the American Empire, " a comedy to be shown on June 4
©1986 Cineplex Odeon Films, Inc
June 17
□ "Joshua Then and Now"
1985. 118 minutes. Color. Canada.
Director: Ted Kotcheff.
As his world collapses around him — his best friend dies, his
brother-in-law commits suicide, and his wife leaves him —
Joshua, a free-spirited, Jewish Canadian journalist, spends one
day looking back on the events of his tumultuous life. In a series
of colorful flashbacks, he reviews his childhood in Montreal,
his years as a radical young political writer, and his courtship
and marriage to a socially prominent daughter of a Protestant
senator.
□ "Propaganda Message"
1974. 13 minutes. Color. Canada.
Director: Barrie Nelson. French and English.
An animated look at the heterogeneous mixture of Canada
and the invisible adhesive that holds them together. Dissenting
voices are many, in English and French, but the message is also
that Canadians can laugh at themselves and work out their
problems.
June 24
□ "Mon Oncle Antoine" ("My Uncle Antoine")
1971. 110 minutes. Color. Canada.
Director: Claude Jutra. French with English subtitles.
The story of a 14-year-old boy and his Christmas visit to a small
Quebec mining town. He stays with his Uncle Antoine, who is
the village store proprietor and community undertaker. It is a
quiet film about coming of age, a memorable study in the simple
universal experiences of love and fear, doubt, and death.
□ "The Sweater"
1980. 10 minutes. Color. Animated. Canada.
Director: Sheldon Cohen.
Canadian author Roch Carrier narrates this funny, poignant
story of his boyhood. In a style that evokes the period of the late
1940s, he recalls his passion for playing hockey and the great
hockey star Rocket Richard.
Traditions in
Japanese Art
The Boone Collection
by Suzanne Arata and Carolyn Moore
Consultants in Japanese Art, Department of Anthropology
photos by Ron Testa and Diane Alexander White
Katharine Phelps Boone and the late Commander
Gilbert E. Boone formed the corpus of their rich
and extensive collection of East Asian art during the
late 1950s. Commander Boone was on a tour of duty
in Japan in Naval Intelligence at that time. Katherine
Boone, a civilian employee of Army Intelligence
(1943-55), had become chairman of the Red Cross
Gray Ladies at the Naval hospital in Yokosuka, Japan.
The collecting of East Asian art had begun earlier for
Commander Boone when he was stationed in Wash-
ington, D.C., from 1940 to 1951. It was the crafts-
manship that had attracted him. Commander Boone's
background in architecture heavily influenced his
approach as a collector; it was his belief that true
appreciation of a collected piece was largely deter-
mined by analysis of how it had been made.
While in Japan, the Boones began to organize
their materials with the idea of creating a teaching
collection. They decided to study with E. Y. Muraka-
mi, one of Japan's leading dealer-consultants in East
Asian art, with whom they met for six hours each
weekend for three years. After returning to the
United States, Commander Boone retired from the
service. Shortly afterward they began teaching at
Monmouth College in Monmouth, Illinois and uti-
lized their collection in courses dealing with various
aspects of East Asian art.
The Boones' collection of more than 3,500 artifacts
encompassing fine art, minor arts, and folk arts and
crafts, has been donated to the Field Museum, adding
significant dimension to the Museum's holdings in
this area. It will provide an invaluable resource in en-
hancing our appreciation and understanding of Asian
arts and cultures.
On view in Gallery 9A June 22 through October 2
Some 130 pieces will be shown, including those reproduced here
Returning from
a Spring Outing
by OdaKaisen (1785-1862)
Edo period, 19th century
Ink and color on silk
44 x 19 in.
Cat. 266019, Neg. 110807
Oda Kaisen was born into a family
of dyers in Nagato (present-day
Yamaguchi prefecture) and at the
age of 22 moved to Kyoto. There he
studied painting of the Shijo school,
where realism was combined with
the idealism of Nanga '"southern
painting"). Nanga was practiced by
the Japanese literati, who followed
the lead of the Chinese scholar-
painters without being totally bound
by Chinese traditional rules or
methods. Later, Kaisen went to
Kyushu, where he studied Con-
fucianism and Chinese painting,
specializing in landscape, figure,
and bird and flower subjects and
was recognized as an expert
colorist.
Landscapes depicting a scholar's
house in a valley by a stream, with
the owner and his two servants re-
turning home after a day's journey,
are typical of those found in
Chinese Ming dynasty paintings
(1368-1644). Old trees with
exposed claw-like roots and the
waterfall and rock formation in the
center of the painting are reminis-
cent of earlier Chinese landscape
traditions. However, rather than a
harsh, foreboding mood, due at
times to the political conditions that
often affected the Chinese scholar-
painter, this painting has a light,
airy quality. The soft, warm, col-
oring of the peach trees and light
tints and washes give the painting a
clarity, appeal, and accessibility not
seen in Chinese paintings. Perhaps
this is attributable to Kaisen's sen-
sitivity to color developed through
his early training as a dyer.
Shoki,
the Demon Oueller
by Kano Sukenobu (1730-90)
Edo period, 18th century
Color on silk
44 x 24 in.
Cat. 266106. Neg. 110809
Shoki, the queller of demons, is
a mythological figure who origi-
nated in Chinese legend but
was adopted into Japanese rep-
ertoire as a popular subject,
particularly during the Edo
period (1615-1867). He is por-
trayed as an imposing, robust
figure in military attire, wearing
heavy boots and a cap with flop-
py "ears" and often chasing or
subduing demons. During the
Edo period it was not unusual to
find satirizations of traditionally
respected subjects, whether in
the theater, in poetry and litera-
ture, or in the visual arts. While
Shoki is often depicted in a
somewhat unconventional and
humorous light, here is a rare
and most unusual view. He is
portrayed standing behind his
spirited horse with his back
to us!
Kano Sukenobu, better known
as Eisenin II, was born and lived
in Edo (Tokyo), becoming the
fifth head of the Kano school of
artists at the Kobikicho atelier,
the most predominant of three
Kano studios in Edo. The Kano
school, active since the 15th
century, had come under the
patronage of the military gov-
ernment and virtually dominated
the art world, monopolizing the
teaching of painting throughout
the Edo period. Sukenobu was
especially favored by the sho-
gunate and was made a vassal
directly under the shogun and
official artist to the government
in 1763. This painting is repre-
sentative of the highly colorful
academic style of the Kano
school, which had remained
consistent throughout the years:
a combination of intense color
and decorative sense derived
from Yamato-e traditions, with a
reliance on linear elements,
such as strong, vigorous ink out-
lines, brought together in a
grand and large-scale vision.
Frolicking Animals
by Tosa Aimi (act. 1830-40)
Inscribed: "Following the style of Toba Sojo"
Edo period, early 19th century
Ink and color on silk
37 x 12 in.
Cat. 266044, Neg. 110805
Aimi, a little known painter of the Tosa school, the latter-day inheritors of
the courtly traditions of Japanese painting, has done what every painter for
generations practiced. As the inscription reads, he has "copied" the
famous 12th-century picture scroll Choju jimbutsu giga ("Scroll of Frolick-
ing Animals and People"), attributed to the monk Toba Sojo, a painting to-
day classified as a National Treasure. Aimi's reinterpretation of the earlier
scroll, however, differs from the original in two major respects. First, Aimi
has very skillfully adapted the horizontal handscroll format into a vertical
hanging one. Second and more importantly, he has transformed the earlier
scroll into an elegant and precious evocation of classical traditions by
downplaying brushwork — the predominant stylistic feature of the earlier
work — and by emphasizing shapes and subtlety of color.
Aimi has very broadly divided his vertical composition into three areas: an
archery exhibit at the top; a frog and hare with a pet boar, stopping to
observe the archery contest in the middle; and a hare and a frog mis-
chievously chasing a monkey at the bottom. All of this seems to be casual-
ly portrayed, but is carefully integrated, using the interaction of the ani-
mals, the placement of flowers and grasses, and the color with touches of
gold to highlight the surface. In short, Aimi's painting, while it captures the
wit and humor of the earlier masterpiece, reveals, rather, attitudes and
sensibilities of the Tosa school painters in the Edo period (1615-1867) in
their attempts to recapture earlier art traditions.
fs
Flowers and Grasses of Autumn
by Matsumura Keibun (1779-1843)
Edo period, early 19th century
Ink and color on silk
82.5 x 26 in.
Cat. 265993, Neg. 110806
/
Seasonal themes are common in Japanese art. This
painting seems to take as its subject autumn flowers and
grasses (akigusa), one that dates to the courtly traditions
of the Heian period (794-1 1 85) and continued as a dec-
orative motif throughout the centuries. Against a full
autumn moon is depicted Japanese pampas grass, a
delicate long-stemmed grass arching over and providing
the backdrop for white chrysanthemums, the smaller
blue Chinese balloon flowers and, oddly enough, in the
middle of these, several beautiful pink peonies, a flower
usually associated with spring. Insects crawl on the
lower branches. All the elements are beautifully coordi-
nated and composed into a conventional depiction of
seasonal flowers, suggesting the special ambience of
autumn in the moonlight.
Keibun, whose signature and seal can be seen in the
lower left corner, was a member of the Shijo school of
painting and was known for his paintings of birds and
flowers. He studied with his elder brother, Matsumura
Goshun, who was founder of the school, and with
Maruyama Okyo, known for his more realistic style. Dur-
ing the last two decades of his life, Keibun became one
of Kyoto's leading artists; he secured the position of
the Shijo school as one of the most influential in the
19th century.
Ghost
by Kawanabe Gyosai (1831-89)
Edo period, 19th century
Ink on paper
35 x 12 in.
Cat. 266070, Neg. 110811
Gyosai was one of the most vigorous, creative, and well-known artists of his time. His
life spanned from the late Edo period through the great changes brought on by the Meiji
restoration. Born of samurai background, he was from an early age artistically pre-
cocious. He began studying with the popular ukiyo-e artist Utagawa Kuniyoshi and later
with the Kano school, until he decided to become independent. Gyosai's character was,
like Hokusai's, notorious; he was emotional, self-willed, extremely eccentric, and given
to drink. And for the same artistic qualities that Hokusai became popular — strong com-
position, skilled draughtsmanship, and a penchant for the grotesque and humorous —
Gyosai, too, was admired. His work included paintings, prints, sketches, and illustrated
books. This painting, exhibiting the best of those qualities, is an example of his most
accomplished work.
In Japan's richly developed tradition of the supernatural, it is when the spirit of a de-
ceased person traveling from this world to the nether world resides in the world between
these two, that he can become angry or spiteful and therefore reappear as a ghost to
haunt others. A great many of these ghosts were female, depicted during the Edo
period with long straight hair and waving or beckoning hands. Most wore clothing with
long flowing sleeves loosely draped around a fragile figure; the head and upper part of
the body were strongly delineated and from the waist down the form disappeared into a
mist. This ghost, rendered in a monochrome ink technique, has dessicated almost com-
pletely into a skeletal specter, clearly defined from head to toe. Its arms are bent at the
elbows, with the hands brought together in front of the chest. Its hair and teeth are still
intact and the visage presents a suffering, mournful expression. Even more unusual,
however, is the unique mounting, also painted in ink, suggesting a specific place by a
stream with willows, eerily lit by the light of an obscured moon. The ghost may well be
associated with a specific story, but which one is not identifiable at this time.
i
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Scroll of Demons and Courtier
Signed: "Takemura"
Taisho period, dated 1918
Color on silk
Five illustrations, H. 16 in., L. 60 in. (each)
Cat. 266010, Negs. 110799-110803
As this scroll is unrolled from right to left, five scenes of rich color
and remarkable detail reveal a night of terror. (Follow numbers to
the lower left of each panel.) Goblins and demons haunt an
entrance gate in ruins. Still other horrifying beings race across a
landscape of sparse grasses, passing a dilapidated roadside
shrine. The tension mounts as we see these creatures in pursuit
of a courtier's carriage, attacking it with violence and fury. Finally,
as night passes into dawn we find the courtier, a serene figure
with his eyes closed in dream or contemplation, holding his ros-
ary and seated in a grassy plain as the rising sun burns the early
morning dew.
It seems possible that the subject of this untitled handscroll
alludes to a well-known story from the 10th-century classic of
poem-tales, Tales of Ise. The setting is Musashi Plain, where an
12 amorous young man runs off with a young girl but is about to be
apprehended by a group of provincial officials. He hides the girl
in a clump of bushes and flees; but the officials, thinking he must
be nearby, decide to set fire to the surrounding plain in order to
flush him out. The young girl cries out for her lover, thus alerting
the officials who capture the two.
While the artist has drawn inspiration from ghost and goblin de-
pictions that became popularized in the 18th and 19th centuries,
particularly by artists like Gyosai (see p. 11), the overall style of
the painting in its use of intense colors and continuous action lies
in the Yamato-e picture scroll traditions of the medieval period.
i
13
Monkey in the Rain
Signed: "Mori Sosen" (1747-1821)
Edo period, 19th century
Ink and color on silk
8.5x10.5 in.
Cat. 226015, Neg. 110812
This painting was probably executed by a follower of Mori Sosen,
an artist who began his studies with the academic Kano school
but later favored the more realistic approach of the Maruyama
and Shijo schools. He was a painter of animals but was famed for
his extraordinary talent in depicting monkeys.
The example here, although lacking the strength of a true Sosen
painting, is typical of the manner for which Sosen was famous.
His monkeys are characterized by finely, softly delineated furry
bodies with more strongly highlighted features in the face, hands,
and feet, while suggesting the animal's underlying structure and
form. This monkey relaxes on the edge of a grassy knoll in the
midst of a light spring rain. More typical of Sosen's work would
be capturing the monkey in the midst of activity or mischief.
Nonetheless, this monkey expresses a certain curiosity, reg-
istered in his eager, open-mouthed expression. The size of this
painting suggests that it may have been part of what was orig-
inally a much larger painting and that the Sosen signature and
seal were added later.
14
The Archer, Nasu no Yoichi
by Yokoi Hosai
Early 20th century
Color on silk
50.5x16.5 in.
Cat. 266077, Neg. 110807
An arrow, shot by a mounted archer, has just struck a
fan which is seen flying through the air. The fan has broken
loose from the ship. This is an allusion to a famous inci-
dent from the medieval tragedy 7a/e ofHeike, which de-
scribes the battle between the Minamoto and Taira clans
during the late 12th century.
The fan, which bears the design of hi no maru, the
sun disc, was presented to the child emperor of the Taira,
the ruling family, after they were driven from the capital,
Kyoto, by the Minamoto in 1 182. The fan was said to be
symbolic of the spirit of the dead emperor and magically
empowered to deflect arrows back upon the enemy. Thus,
with the fan attached to the mast of the Taira ship, a chal-
lenge was sent to the Minamoto clan. Nasu no Yoichi, a
skilled archer, responded to the challenge, rode on horse-
back into the waves and struck the fan with his arrow,
achieving a signal victory for the Minamoto.
This painting is carefully controlled in both composi-
tion and style. The logically receding size of objects, lead-
ing the viewer's eye back into the far distance, and the fine
rendering of each element with historical accuracy sug-
gests Western influence.
Little is known of Hosai except that he was a Tokyo
painter specializing in historical subjects, who studied with
the popular Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-92), one of the last
of the great printmakers. Yoshitoshi himself worked in a
mixture of ukiyo-e and Yamato-e, and his work reflects an
increasing Western influence with historical and heroic
subjects. In these respects it would appear that Hosai fol-
lowed the master.
Deer
Inscribed: "Hong Shou, called 'Old Lotus,'
writes this at the Shen Liu Studio on a wintry
day in the year 1645."
Edo period, 18th century
Ink and color on silk
61 x22in.
Cat. 266040, Neg. 110804
Although the inscription indicates that this paint-
ing was executed in China during the mid-17th
century and its style and composition appears to
have a Chinese origin, it is more likely that this is
a Japanese painting of the 18th century. Deer as
a painting subject was simply not popular in Chi-
na during that time and few paintings of deer by
well-known Chinese painters of the period are
documented. Furthermore, several features of
the deer in this painting indicate that they are na-
tive to Japan.
The shika, or the deer of Japan and Manchuria,
are medium-sized animals related to the "true
deer" (the red deer or fallow deer), of Britain.
However, Japanese deer have antlers that are
smaller, with fewer points, as well as a coat that
is spotted yellowish-white in summer with a
black-bordered white area near the tail. It is clear
that the deer portrayed are native to Japan and
that they are shown here with their summer coat
of yellowish-white spots.
Deer paintings were executed in the 18th and
19th centuries by Mori Sosen, Kishi Ganku, and
others. This was in part due to the influence of
the Chinese artist Shen Nanpin, who worked
in Nagasaki from 1731 to 1733 and introduced
Western methods of painting to Japan. He had
developed a following among Japanese
painters; moreover, many of his works, mostly of
deer, have survived. Thus, it seems most likely
that the artist of this painting was inspired either
directly or indirectly by the Chinese artist's work.
1h»
Warn ■ '
Gold Mining on Sado Island
Artist Unknown
Edo period, 19th century
Ink and color on paper
Two handscrolls, H. 10.5 in., L. 30ft. (each)
Cat. 266123, Negs. 110815, 110816
Matsuo Basho (1644-94), one of Japan's leading poets of the
Edo period, wrote of Sado Island: "From the place called Izumo-
zaki in the province of Echigo, Sado Island, it's said, is eighteen //'
away on the sea. With the cragginess of its valleys and peaks
distinctly in sight, it lies on its side in the sea, thirty-odd //from
east to west. Light mists of early fall not rising yet, and the waves
not high, I feel as if I could touch it with my hands as I look at it.
On the island great quantities of gold well up and in that regard
it's a most auspicious island. But from past to present as a place
of exile for felons and traitors, it has become a distressing name."
The island of Sado, lying off the eastern coast of central Honshu
in the Sea of Japan, was used until the 17th century as a place of
exile for political dissidents. At the beginning of the 17th century,
gold was discovered in the Aikawa area. The scenes of town
streets pictured in the scrolls are those of Aikawa, which had
become a boom town, its population at one time approaching
200,000. Although the mines are now virtually exhausted, some
gold is still being extracted.
This detailed set of two scrolls of mining and processing is
almost identical to sets owned by the Local History Archives of
the Ministry of Education in Japan and the Spencer Collection at
the New York City Public Library.
i.
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18
Fukusa (Gift Cover)
Edo period, 18th century
Silk
H.35xW. 37.5 in.
Cat. 255749, Neg. 110828
Fukusa are lined pieces of fabric that can range in size from
about one foot to a yard or more square. They are simply laid
over a gift, not wrapped around it like a furoshiki. This custom
developed in the early 18th century and was practiced by an
exclusive minority.
The designs were subtle and often had religious or literary refer-
ences. Consequently, they were only understood by members of
the educated classes. The custom of using ornamental fukusaXo
cover a gift was established in and around large urban centers
such as Edo (present-day Tokyo) and Kyoto where the wealthy
ruling class was concentrated. The richness of the decoration
attested to the wealth of the giver, while the design, selected to
suit the occasion, reflected one's cultural sensibility.
This elegant fukusa has been dyed, handpainted, and embroi-
dered with bamboo, pine, plum blossoms, tortoise, and crane
and enriched with gold thread. It may have been used at New
Year's or to help celebrate some other event of special signifi-
cance to the recipient.
19
Three Sake Containers
Left: Bottle in shape of "Hotei," Kyoto ware 255483
Edo period, 18th century, H.8in.
Center: Bottle in "Hasami" style 255539
Edo period, 18-19th century, h. 10 in.
Right: Hexagonal pot, Imari ware 255473
Edo period, 18th century, h. 6.5 in.
Neg. 110826
Sake, rice wine, has been produced in Japan since ancient
times. However, viewed as more than just an alcoholic beverage,
producing a pleasant state of intoxication, it has many social,
ceremonial, and ritual functions. These functions have resulted
not only in an intricate etiquette governing its use, but in the pro-
duction of vessels of great beauty in a variety of materials. Since
sake is properly served hot or heated to just below the boiling
point, sake containers are most commonly made of porcelain or
pottery, a material able to withstand heat. Here are three differ-
ent porcelain containers: one in a more traditional bottle shape
with an underglaze floral design in the "Hasami" style; a second,
somewhat whimsical container with overglaze enamels and gold
in the shape of the mythological figure Hotei, probably from the
Kyoto area; and a third, shaped more like a teapot but hexagonal
20 in shape, with overglaze enamels, from the Imari kilns.
Tea Ceremony Kettle
Edo period, early 17th century
Gold on copper
H. 10 in., Diam. 9.5 in.
Cat. 255514, Neg. 110822
Cha noyu (tea ceremony using powdered tea) became
popularized in the Edo period (1615-1867), due to the patron-
age of political and military leaders of the late 15th and early
16th centuries. Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa and the warlord
Toyotomi Hideyoshi used tea masters, who dictated much of the
art of tea ceremony. The display of tea implements became part
of the ritualization of cha no yu and promoted a desire to acquire
beautiful interesting objects. Hideyoshi was known for his col-
lection and would often present an article from it as a token of
gratitude to a favored general or loyal samurai retainer.
This handsome teakettle bears the kin no mon (paulownia crest),
which suggests that it was in the possession of the Toyotomi
family. The mon is positioned on an overall ground of a scrolling
vine motif. In design as well as workmanship this piece exem-
plifies the highest quality of the metal craft.
21
Bowl with Cover
Design of Dutch Figures
Edo period, ca. 1800
Imari ware
H. 3.5 in., Diam.5in.
Cat. 255190, Neg. 110823
Porcelain was first produced in the early 17th century in the
Arita district of Hizen province (present-day Saga prefecture) in
Kyushu. In time a great number of kilns flourished there, and the
Arita district became the center for Imari ware ("Arita") as well as
Kakeimon and Nabeshima wares. The Dutch were the only for-
eigners besides the Chinese who were allowed to stay in Japan
after 1637, and although confined to the island of Dejima in
Nagasaki harbor, they managed for over a century to carry on
trade with the Japanese. They ordered large quantities of porce-
lain, which was shipped by Japanese traders through the port of
Imari, 25 miles north of Arita, and brought down by water to De-
jima for export to the West. The Japanese, fascinated by the
foreigners, depicted the Dutch merchantmen and their black
ships on their wares, as is seen on this covered porcelain rice
bowl. It was produced at an Imari kiln and is executed in under-
glaze blue with overglaze enamels and gold.
22
Hina Dolls
Edo period, early 19th century
Cardboard and padded silk
8.5x5.5 in.
Cat 255441, Neg. 110827
As early as the 10th century, dolls called hina ningyo were used
by members of the aristocracy, who regarded them not as play-
things but rather as substitutes for human beings to which defile-
ments and evil spirits could be transferred. Offerings were made
to these dolls, which were set adrift in a river or the ocean. How
or when a transformation occurred is not clear, but customs of
this nature gradually evolved into the Girls' Festival, held on
the third day of the third lunar month to pray for the happiness
and growth to maturation of female children. By the Edo period
(1615-1867) the celebration was also held at the time of a young
woman's marriage and, as a part of the accouterments of Girls'
Day, a set of 15 dolls in full court dress with miniature household
furnishings was displayed. The emperor and empress from the
Boone set of 15 dolls are elegant and unusual two-dimensional
figures — more like paper dolls. The body is cardboard covered
with a luxurious padded silk costume. It must have been very dif-
ficult for little girls not to play with these lovely miniature dolls.
f r r r
i
ft&
Sumitsubo (Carpenter's Snapline)
Edo period (1615-1867)
Wood
L. 4-10 in.
Cat. 255446-255450, 255460, 255461 , Neg. 1 10831
Sumitsubo ("ink well") is a wooden tool consisting of a wheel
with a long line of string or cord and a bowl for ink. It is used
by Japanese carpenters in much the same way as western
carpenters use a chalkline (snapline). The string comes off the
wheel, passes through the ink-soaked flax through a small hole
at the end of the frame, then is pulled taut and snapped to mark a
straight line for sawing or alignment of materials.
The Boone collection has a small group of sumitsubo in various
sizes. Each one has a rustic but distinctive design which might
qualify the tool as a work of folk art.
24
Printed Books
Left: Yamato jimbutsu gafu ("Album of Japanese Figures")
By Yamaguchi Soken (1759-1818)
2 Vols., 1804
H. 10 in., W. 7 in.
Cat. 223094, Neg. 110829
Right: Kachogafu ("Album of Birds and Flowers")
By Watanabe Seitei (1851-1918)
1903
H. 10 in., W. 6.75 in.
Cat. 223057
Early Japanese books were printed entirely from woodblocks.
Printing was done on a highly absorbent paper on one side only,
then folded to form pages and were bound. Although Korean and
European movable type was known and used at the beginning of
the 17th century, woodblock printing continued to be the pre-
ferred method throughout the Edo period (1615-1867), during
which books were first printed for mass distribution, and re-
mained in general use until the Meiji period (1868-1912).
The two books shown here are both artists' albums, published
about a century apart. One is done strictly in ink and the other
with color printing. Yamaguchi Soken's album of figures have
the immediate appeal and feeling of intimacy that lively and
seemingly artless brush sketches give. With humor and wit he
allows us a peek into various scenes of everyday life. Different in
tone is the album by Watanabe Seitei, one of the most refined of
the Meiji bird and flower painters. His study of European art led
him toward a tendency to express natural forms in fragile, reti-
cent lines and colors in delicate nuances. These characteristics,
while seeming to deny the woodcut medium, are exquisitely
captured.
25
Tansu (Small Chest)
Meiji period, (1868-1912)
Wood with iron fittings
H. 13 in., W. 14 in., D. 10.5 in.
Cat. 255367, Neg. 110825
The most readily recognizable form of traditional Japanese furni-
ture for Westerners is the tansu, a chest of drawers with metal
fittings. Long admired by collectors for their simplicity, beauty of
design, craftsmanship, and functional value, they are made in
varying sizes and shapes, and fashioned of costly woods. Tansu
have been used since the 17th century in homes, shops, and
ships to hold personal belongings, merchandise, and valuables.
This small chest appears to be one used in the home for per-
sonal belongings, with the larger bottom drawer and side door
provided with locks; it is elaborately decorated with metalwork of
a peony motif.
26
Twenty Years of Volunteers
by Ellen Zebrun
Volunteer Coordinator
1988 marks the twentieth anniversary for the volun-
teer program at Field Museum. Beginning in 1968 with
approximately 30 volunteers, there are now close to
300 who serve in a great variety of ways throughout the
Museum. Many departments have volunteers, includ-
ing the scientific and administrative areas as well as the
public areas such as the Education Department and
Membership. Volunteers catalog, label, prepare speci-
mens, do research, edit, type, file, prepare charts,
maps, and scientific illustrations, care for plants, and
translate. They also lead school tours, give programs to
the public, and assist with special events.
On Thursday, April 2 1 , Field Museum celebrated
the twentieth year of the volunteer program; at the
same time it honored its 1987 volunteers with a buffet
supper held in Stanley Field Hall. Pastel decorations
and spring flowers created a festive, relaxed atmos-
phere where volunteers and their guests were able to
visit with staff members away from the labs, offices, and
exhibit halls.
As volunteer coordinator, it was my pleasure to
welcome the volunteers and to speak of my own pride
in being associated with the volunteer program. It has
been a matter of great personal satisfaction to see how
the teamwork of volunteers and supervisors has con-
tributed so much to Field Museum's being recognized as
one of the great natural history museums in the world.
Robert A. Pritzker, chairman of the Board,
thanked the volunteers for their dedication and
observed that the volunteers are essential to the
Museum's operation. Mr. Pritzker also congratulated
the volunteers on the program's twentieth year, which
"makes quite a landmark. "
During the presentation of awards, Willard L.
Boyd, president of Field Museum, expressed apprecia-
tion for the volunteers' contributions last year, saying
"You make this Museum possible; on behalf of the many
publics served, I want to thank you all especially." In
1987, 281 volunteers gave a total of 41,391 hours of
service, which is the equivalent of 23.7 additional full-
time paid staff members. Commenting that the
volunteers' commitment is enduring, Mr. Boyd pre-
sented twenty-year service awards of appreciation to
Ellen Hyndman, Dorothy Karall, and Anne Ross.
Twenty-year volunteer Stan Dvorak, who was unable
to attend the ceremony, also received the award. The
awards were engraved crystal boxes from Tiffany's and
endowed by William L. Searle, a trustee of the
Museum. Mr. Boyd urged the other volunteers to stay
for twenty years so that they, too, could receive this
special honor. He then gave special recognition to the
eight volunteers with 500 or more hours of service in
1987.
Volunteers with 20 or More Years of Service
Stan Dvorak
Although the volunteer program at Field Museum be-
gan officially in 1968, Stan Dvorak has been involved
with the Invertebrate Division of the Zoology Depart-
ment since 1953, when he began to help process two
million marine shells that had been acquired for the
collection during the previous ten years. Stan helped to
identify material, offered specimens to add to the
collection, and advised staff on purchasing new speci-
mens. Stan has also worked in a similar manner on our
collections of freshwater clams from local lakes and
Streams, and also on the Florida tree snails collection.
In the past year, Stan also began volunteering in the
Geology Department, assisting with the Schrammen
fossil sponge collection acquired from Princeton
University and with the Mazon Creek invertebrate
fossil collection.
Ellen Hyndman
During her first three years of volunteer service, Ellen
was in the Anthropology Department. Under the
supervision of Conservator Christine Danziger, Ellen
worked in the textile conservation lab preparing and
restoring rare Tibetan textiles. Ellen then moved to the
Education Department, providing educational hall
programs to visiting school groups. As the department's
27
28
school programming expanded, so did Ellen's reper-
toire of hall programs, covering the four areas of natu-
ral history. In 1983, Ellen transferred for two years to
the Geology Department, where she worked with
Collection Manager Clay Bruner on cataloging fossil
teeth and researching references for scientific papers.
In 1985, Ellen returned to the Education Department,
where she is again sharing information with school
groups.
Dorothy Karall
Dorothy began her association with Field Museum in
1965; just like Stan Dvorak, Dorothy was here before
records were kept on the volunteer program. For the
past 22 years, Dorothy has been a volunteer in the
Invertebrate Division of the Zoology Department. As a
volunteer, Dorothy has readied a wide variety of mate-
rials for publication — drawings, maps, charts, photo-
graphs, and scientific illustrations. Her duties include
mounting and labelling these materials to be pub-
lished. There have been approximately 100 research
papers, some of which are book-length, which Dorothy
has helped prepare for the publishers since 1965 and
has thus extended the reputation of this institution
internationally.
Anne Ross
Although for a time Anne led a double life at Field
Museum — volunteering in both the Zoology and
Education Departments— most of her twenty years of
service has been in the Education Department. Anne
was one of the first volunteers to give educational
programs to school groups. She, like Ellen Hyndman,
trained for a wide variety of hall tours, adding new
programs as the number of tours offered to visiting
school groups grew. Since she is trained in eighteen
separate programs, on a typical day Anne can switch
from "Dinosaurs" to "Ancient Egypt" to "Animal Habi-
tats," depending on what the particular school group
has requested. A few years back, Anne reorganized the
reprint library for the Amphibians and Reptiles Divi-
sion of Zoology.
Volunteers with 500 or More Hours in 1987
Sophie Anne Brunner
Ingrid Fauci
Lillian Kreitman
John Phelps, Jr.
William Roder
Bruce Saipe
Llois Stein
Edward Yastrow
for Amphibians and Reptiles:
Hymen Marx, supervisor
for Amphibians and Reptiles:
Hymen Marx, supervisor
for Membership: Gregory K.
Porter, supervisor
for Mammals: Greg Guliuzza,
supervisor
for Tours: Dorothy Roder,
supervisor
for Public Relations: Sherry
DeVries and Lisa Elkuss,
supervisors
for Anthropology: Phillip Lewis,
supervisor
for Anthropology: Glen Cole,
supervisor
Sol Century
Rosemary Kalin
Margaret Martling
Sam Mayo
400 or More Hours
for Anthropology: Bennet
Bronson, supervisor
for Education: Mary Ann Bloom
and Ingrid Melief,
supervisors
for Botarvy: William Burger,
supervisor
for Public Programs: Phyllis
Rabineau, supervisor
Mary Nelson
Gary Ossewaarde
Stephen Robinet
for Anthropology: Glen Cole,
supervisor; Education: Mary
Ann Bloom and Ingrid
Melief, supervisors
for Education: Marcia MacRae,
supervisor
for Insects: Steve Ashe and Daniel
Summers, supervisors;
Mammals: Greg Guliuzza,
supervisor
Dennis Bara
Robert Gowland
Deborah Green
MelbaMayo
John Nelson
Worthington Smith
Maxine Walter
Sims Wayt
300 Hours or More
for Membership: Gregory K.
Porter, supervisor
for Anthropology: Christine Gross,
supervisor
for Anthropology: Glen Cole,
supervisor
for Education: Philip Hanson,
supervisor
for Education: Mary Ann Bloom
and Ingrid Melief,
supervisors
for Library: Benjamin Williams,
supervisor
for Zoology: Anita Del Genio,
supervisor
for Anthropology: Robert Welsch,
supervisor
29
Volunteers with 50 or More Hours
Neal Abarbanell
Lisa Adler
Paul Adler
Dee Arbanas
Joyce Altman
Jackie Arnold
Terry Asher
Margaret Axelrod
Beverly Baxter
Paul Baker
Jean Baldwin-Herbert
Dennis Bara
Lucia Barba
Nancy Barco
Gwen Barnett
Dodie Baumgarten
Barbara Beardsley
Carol Benzing
Larry Berman
Elaine Bernstein
Frieda Bernstein
Jennifer Blitz
Fran Braverman
Carol Briscoe
Carolyn Brna
Irene Broede
Garland Brown
Sophie Ann Brunner
Brenda Buckley-Kuhn
James Burd
Joseph Cab Ik
Rick Capitulo
Robert Gary
Colleen Casey
Linda Celesia
Sol Century
Irene Chong
Byron Collins
James Coplan
Artemis Cosentino
John Cox
Connie Crane
Ellie De Koven
Jeannette DeLaney
Violet Diacou
Patricia Dodson
'Clarice Dorner
'Deceased
Millie Drawer
Stan Dvorak
Reginald Echols
Linda Egebrecht
Anne Ekman
Elizabeth Enck
Bonnie Engel
Lena Fagnani
Elisabeth Farwell
Ingrid Fauci
Joseph Fisher
Amy Franke
Arden Frederick
Carlene Friedman
Debra Jean Frels
Alta Mae Frobish
Kirk Frye
Mimi Futransky
Barbara Gardner
Bernice Gardner
Peter Gayford
Pat Georgouses
Phyllis Ginardi
Delores Glasbrenner
Tom Gnoske
Halina Goldsmith
Evelyn Gottlieb
Robert Gowland
Vladimir Grabas
Deborah Green
Loretta Green
Frank Greene, Jr.
Henry Greenwald
Ann Grimes
Yvonne Haen
Dennis Hall
Meg Halsey- Perez
Kristine Hammerstrand
Anna Hammond
Judith Hannah
Nancy Harlan
Curtis Harrell
Mattie Harris
Shirley Hattis
Audrey Hiller
Clarissa Hinton
Tina Fung Holder
Harold Honor
Zelda Honor
Scott Houtteman
Ruth Howard
Ellen Hyndman
Connie Jacobs
Sheila James
Bettejarz
Cynthia Johnson
Mabel Johnson
Malcom Jones
Carol Kacin
Rosemary Kalin
Dorothy Karall
Susan Kennedy
Dennis Kinzig
Alida Klaud
Susan Knoll
Lillian Kreitman
Gretchen Kubasiak
Sally Kurth
Carol Landow
Michelle Lazar
Sandra Lee
Frank Leslie
Jane Levin
Joseph Levin
Ruth Lew
Betty Lewis
Valerie Lewis
Victor Lieberman
Tory Light
Catherine Lindroth
Mary Jo Lucas-Healy
Stella Maquiraya
Gabby Margo
Phyllis Marta
Jeanne Martineau
Margaret Martling
Cliff Massoth
M. Dulce Matanguihan
Britta Mather
Sel Mather
David Matusik
Marita Maxey
Melba Mayo
Sam Mayo
Louise McEachran
Withrow Meeker
Beverly Meyer
Sandra Milne
Barbara Milott
Larry Misialek
Sharon Mitchiner
Carolyn Moore
Gail Munden
George Murray
Carolyn Mylander
John Nelson
Mary Nelson
Louise Neuert
Natalie Newberger
Donald Newton
Ernest Newton
Herta Newton
Virginia Newton
Doris Nitecki
Connie Noel
Josie Nyirenda
Dennis O'Donnell
Dorothy Oliver
Joan Opila
Gary Ossewaarde
China Oughton
Marcella Owens
Anita Padnos
Susan Parker
Phil Parrillo
Martha Pedroza
John Phelps
Dorothea Phipps-Cruz
Jackie Prine
Naomi Pruchnik
Elizabeth Rada
Julie Realmuto
Ernest Reed
Daniel Reilly
Sheila Reynolds
Elly Ripp
Steve Robinet
Earl Robinson
Nancy Robinson
Pam Robinson
William Roder
Barbara Roob
Susan Roop
Sharon Rose
Sarah Rosenbloom
Anne Ross
Ann Rubeck
Lenore Ruehr
Gladys Ruzich
Bruce Saipe
Joseph Salzer
Lucile Salzer
Terry Sanders
Marian Saska
Everett Schellpfeffer
Marianne Schenker
Carol Schneider
Florence Seiko
Patricia Sershon
Adam Seward
Danny Shelton
Judith Sherry
Lisa Shogren
Sharon Simmons
James Skorcz
Worthington Smith
Daniel Snydacker
Beth Spencer
Carrie Stahl
Llois Stein
Frances Stromquist
Ruby Suzuki
Beatrice Swartchild
Dana Temple
Jane Thain
Patricia Thomas
Kathleen North Tomczyk
Karen Urnezis
Lillian Vanek
Jeffrey Vaughn
Barbara Vear
David Walker
Cassandra Walsh
Maxine Walter
Sims Wayt
Dorothea Wechselberger
Mary Wenzel
Fred Werner
Claudia Whitaker
Reeva Wolfson
Zinette Yacker
Edward Yastrow
Laura Zaidenberg
Ben Zajac
30
"Ramesses The Great" Tour
Saturday, July 2 to Tuesday, July 5
Boston Museum of Science
The Exhibition of Ramesses The Great, on loan from Cairo's world-famous Egyptian
Museum, is the largest assemblage of Egypt's national treasures to ever visit the
United States (artifacts outnumber the Tutankhamun exhibition). The exhibit will be
shown at the Boston Museum of Science April 30 through August 30, 1988. We invite
you to take advantage of the opportunity to see this spectacular exhibit while it is in
our country, and to celebrate the Fourth of July in Boston at Harborfest '87. The
schedule of special events for this five-day festival is extensive, with many of the
activities being free. A highlight will be the Boston Pops concert on the Esplanade,
and the Fourth of July fireworks display.
FIELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
Our Itinerary:
Saturday Depart Chicago O'Hare airport on United Airlines breakfast flight #684 at
July 2 8:30 a.m. Flight is nonstop to Boston Logan Airport. Upon arrival at 11:45
we'll be met by our guide, and we'll enjoy a tour of some of Boston's high-
lights by deluxe motorcoach. (Your luggage will be taken directly to the
Park Plaza Hotel.) Mid-afternoon we'll check into the Park Plaza Hotel for a
period of relaxation before dinner. This evening we board "The Spirit of
Boston" for a harbor dinner cruise, which will include festive entertainment
and dancing.
Sunday Day at leisure to give you the opportunity to enjoy some of the special
July 3 events of Harborfest. This evening we'll go to the Museum of Science to
tour the Ramesses exhibit with Del Nord, Egyptologist, as our guide.
Many of you will remember Ms. Nord from the Tutankhamun era at Field
Museum. She led many Egypt tours from 1976 to 1984 for Field Museum/
Oriental Institute. According to a number of tour members, Del is a pro-
fessional of the highest calibre, and an asset to Egyptology. She truly loves
Egypt and the history and culture of this fabulous land. Dinner on your
own. There is a choice of three restaurants in the Museum.
Monday This morning we'll take a motorcoach tour to Cambridge, Lexington, and
July 4 Concord, including stops at several historic sites, one being the "Old
Manse" home of author Nathaniel Hawthorne. We'll enjoy lunch at the his-
toric Colonial Inn, built in 1772. The afternoon will be at leisure. The high-
light of the evening will be the famous Boston Pops esplanade concert,
with a box dinner provided.
Tuesday We'll depart Logan Airport on United Airlines flight #393 at 9:30 a.m.,
July 5 flying nonstop to Chicago O'Hare and arriving at 11:15 a.m.
We hope you will join Field Museum's tour group for this trip to Boston. The cost is
$895.00 per person (double occupancy), single supplement $330.00. Early reserva-
tions will ensure your enrollment at this price, which is based on 30-day advance
purchase of air tickets. A deposit of $200.00 per person, payable to Field Museum
Tours, will hold space in the order reservations are received. Our group will be limited
to 30 participants. For further information please call 322-8862.
Spaces still available for . . .
Voyage to
The Gulf of
St. Lawrence and
Canada's
Maritime Provinces
Aboard the IIHria
July 1-9, 1988
Accompanied by Dr. David Willard,
Field Museum Zoologist
31
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2499
MISS MARITA MAXEY
7411 NORTH GREENVIEW
CHICAGO IL 60626
/'
ELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULL!
July/August 1
4
r»
*
:■■&
t**
<~V-
3
fc
J
World Music Programs
Weekends in July and August
See "EveYits" section^- '
Field Museum
of Natural Histo* y
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Steams
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
Willard L. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H.Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo F. Mul h 1 1
James J. O'Connor
Mrs. James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
J. Howard Wood
CONTENTS
July/ August 1988
Volume 59, Number 7
JULY and AUGUST EVENTS AT HELD MUSEUM 3
MEXICAN TEXTILES COME TO FIELD MUSEUM JULY 8
MOUNTAINS in the SEA, MOUNTAINS in the SKY
The Field Museum Founders' Council visits the Galapagos
Islands, the Ecuador mainland and Peru, gaining insights into
the work of the museum curator.
By Valerie Searle Lewis and Louise K. Smith 8
BEGINNING AS A COLLECTOR
ByA.S.Meek
19
GENSBURG-MARKHAM, a gem of a prairie, saved for future
generations.
By Jerry Sullivan
22
HELD MUSEUM TOURS 31
COVER
The Galapagos giant tortoise can weigh up to 550 pounds and
may live more than 100 years. They are vegetarian but can sur-
vive for up to a year without food or water. The name Galapagos
originates from the Spanish word galapago which means "tor-
toise." This fellow was photographed by Dr. Michael Lewis in
the Galapagos during the Founders' Council recent trip to
Ecuador. See page 8.
Volunteer at Field Museum
Learn something new or share your expertise —
a wide variety of challenging and rewarding
volunteer opportunities for either weekdays or
weekends are currently available. Please call the
Volunteer Coordinator at (312) 922-9410, exten-
sion 360, for more information.
Field MwrfNawl Htatory Maw (I ISPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496.
Copyright ©1968 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are theii own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts arc welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-24%. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, Illinois and
additional mailing office.
After Hours
Films at the Field
FREE!
Fridays in July
No film Friday, July 1
After Hours Cafe opens at 4:30pm
Films begin at 6:00pm
Field Museum continues its program of free contemporary
feature films from around the world. Friday evenings in July
highlight films from Africa.
After Hours Cafe opens at 4:30pm serving light fare and
beverages. Films begin at 6:00pm. Be sure to use the West
Entrance. For more information call (312) 322-8855.
AFRICAN FILMS
□ July 8
"Kukurantumi: The Road to Accra "
1983. 86 minutes. Color. Ghana. Director: King Ampaw. English
subtitles.
When an African lorry driver loses his job, he decides to get his
own bus: a decision that begins the gradual chipping away of a
traditional lifestyle he once knew.
"Camara dAfrique: 20 Years of African Cinema"
1983. 85 minutes. Color. Tunisia. Director: Ferid Boughedir.
Documentary. French with English subtitles.
This anthology surveys filmmaking in Africa and includes
interviews with African filmmakers on the various dimensions of
their craft.
□ July 22
Ceddo
1977. 120 minutes. Color. Senegal. Director: Ousmane
Sembene. Wolof with English subtitles.
Sembene's classic epic chronicles the events of the struggle for
power between colonialists and Senegalese nobility as Islam
spreads through Senegal in the 19th century.
Wend Kuuni
1982. 75 minutes. Color. Burkina Faso. Gaston Kobore. English
subtitles.
Told in the style similar to the African griot, this is the tale of a
mute boy who is found and renamed "Wend Kuuni" ("God's
Gift") by his new family.
□ July 15
"Harvest 3000"
1976. 138 minutes. Black and White. Ethiopia. Director: Haile
Gerima. Amharic with English subtitles.
The tragic story of an Ethiopian peasant family in the 1970s who
must live under the feudal domain of a wealthy landowner.
"Lorang's Way"
1978. 66 minutes. Color. Kenya. Director: David and Judith
MacDougall. Ethnographic. Turkana with English subtitles.
This classic ethnographic film profiles a wise elder of the
Turkana people, who has come to see his society as vulnerable
in the changing world around it.
□ July 29
Xala
1977. 123 minutes. Color. Senegal. Director: Ousmane
Sembene. Wolof with English subtitles.
In this satire of modern Africa, a politician, determined to
possess a third wife, is struck down by "xala," a curse rendering
him impotent.
Borom Sarret
1963. 20 minutes. Black and White. Director: Ousmane
Sembene. French with English subtitles.
A pointed, poignant view of the struggle for existence in the
streets of Dakar, Senegal's capital.
Continued i>
World Music Programs
Weekend Programs
Weekends in July
1:00pm and 3:00pm
Program highlights include:
□ July 2— 1:00pm and 3:00pm: Fan Wei-tsu— zheng, the
Chinese zither
□ July 9, 10— 1:00pm: Eli Hoenai — African percussion; 3:00pm:
Rita Warford — vocals
□ July 16, 17— 1:00pm: Shanta— African folktales; 3:00pm:
Brenda Jones — vocals
□ July 23, 24— 1:00pm: Douglas Ewart— Shakuhachi flute;
3:00pm: Kwasi Adounum — Ghanan percussion
Weekends in August
1:00pm and 3:00pm
Program highlights include:
□ August 6, 7— 1:00pm: Shanta— African folktales
□ August 13, 14 — 1:00pm: Douglas Ewart — Shakuhachi flute
□ August 20, 21— 1:00pm and 3:00pm: Don Pate— bass
□ August 27, 28 — 1:00pm: Brenda Jones — vocals and reed
instruments; 3:00pm: Kwasi Adounum — Ghanan percussion
The World Music Program is supported by the Kenneth and
Harle Montgomery Fund and a City Arts IV grant from the Chi-
cago Office of Fine Arts, Department of Cultural Affairs.
Summer Fun 1988
Summer workshops for 4-13-year-olds continue in July. Work-
shop topics as diverse as Field Museum's collections are
offered Wednesday through Sunday until July 31. Advance
registration is required. For a descriptive brochure and class
availability call (312) 332-8854.
Each Saturday and Sunday You Are Invited to explore the world of
natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and
films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for
families and adults. Listed below are a few of the numerous
activities each weekend. Check the activity listing upon arrival
for the complete schedule and program locations. The pro-
grams are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts
Council.
July
3
30
2:00pm. Malvina Hoffman (slide lecture)
1 :30pm. Tibet Today and Bhutan (slide lecture)
August
6 1:30pm. Tibet Today (slide lecture and tour of collection)
27 1 :30pm. Tibet Today and a Faith in Exile (slide lecture)
Hall Interpreters Program
Thursday through Sunday
July and August
The "Dog Days" of Summer are a great time to learn a few new
tricks at Field Museum. In exciting hands-on programs, you
make Egyptian papyrus paper, heft the ingenious drills and
adzes of Native America, and play with the Chinese seven-
piece puzzles that Lewis Carroll loved.
Hall interpreters, dressed in blue aprons and located
throughout the exhibits, help you and your friends experience
the wonders of the world. Cool off with the hottest new theories
about dinosaur extinction. Learn to weave without a loom, and
see just what earthworms are up to under your lawn this
summer.
These exciting programs, partially sponsored by the Joyce
Foundation and the Lloyd A. Fry Foundation, are available to all
Museum visitors Thursday through Sunday. Please consult the
TV monitors throughout the Museum for activity locations.
Traditions in
Japanese Art:
The Boone Collection
Hina Dolls
Edo period, early 19th century
Cardboard and padded silk
8.5x5.5 in.
Cat. 255441 , Neg. 110827
closes October 2
Mexican Textiles: Color, Texture, Tradition
July 8 through September 5
FIELD MUSEUM WILL OFFER an unusual, brilliantly
hued exhibit titled "Mexican Textiles: Color, Texture,
Tradition, " on July 8, continuing through September 5.
This stunning assemblage of 125 textile pieces reveals
how Mexican weavers, mostly Indian women, have
turned traditional work into artistic expression. Items
on display include huipiles (blouse-like garments),
sarapes and rebozos (shawls), quexquemitls (shoulder
coverings), wraparound skirts, sashes, shoulder bags,
and tortilla cloths.
The exhibit is organized and guest-curated by
cultural anthropologist Jill Vexler, Ph.D., whose stu-
dies and extensive museum work have focused strongly
on Latin American countries. "Traditionally, museums
have exhibited Mexican textiles as cultural expres-
sions, stressing anthropology rather than art," says
Vexler. "Mexico has some 86 indigenous cultures with
individual customs, lifestyles, and languages. The tex-
tiles and garments produced by each group are distinct,
bearing social, economic, and idealogical implica-
tions. While the exhibit at Field Museum is naturally
concerned with cultural significance, it also empha-
sizes aesthetics. Through this exhibit I've discovered
that the aesthetic approach, coupled with cultural in-
formation, opens visitors' eyes to the diverse peoples
who create these beautiful textiles."
Elements such as color, design, technique, and cut
of traditional Mexican garments, identify the villages
where they were created. An individual's language and
lifestyle can often be determined by the clothing he or
she wears. By highlighting the beauty of Mexican tex-
tiles, this exhibit demonstrates how artistic expression
can transcend the hardships common to life in remote
villages.
Featured items in the exhibit include a colorful
quexquemitl made by the Totanic Indians in the village
of Pantepc, Puebla. A quexquemitl is a pre-Hispanic,
triangular garment for women, worn cape-like around
the shoulders. It incorporates brocade, intricate
embroidery, needlework, and curved weaving — a com-
plicated form of loom weaving. The exhibit includes a
wedding huipil, a blouse-like garment based on very
ancient brocade design. Light feathers woven into the
velvet-like brocade distinguish this garment, made in
the village of Zinacantan, Chiapas.
Festival wraparound skirts, also featured, are still
worn in the village of Citlala, Guerrero. Each skirt
consists of a three-foot- wide, twelve-foot-long piece of
fabric that drapes many times around the body. These
unusual skirts are embroidered with synthetic silk and
sparkling sequins in bird and floral motifs. In addition
to garments, the exhibit also displays shoulder bags and
tortilla cloths. Tortilla cloths are found in every Mex-
ican home and can range from simple coverings to
those of elaborately decorated silk.
Field Museum is hosting "Mexican Textiles: Color,
Texture, Tradition" in conjunction with "Convergence
'88," the national convention of the Weavers' Guild of
America. The convention will be held in Chicago July
8 through 10. "Mexican Textiles: Line, Color, Tradition"
is free with regular Museum admission.
Mazatec woman's huipil, a type of blouse (detail). Cotton embroidery on cotton ground. From Ayataula, Oaxaca, Mexico. Collection of Luz
Elena Cervantes, collected in the 1960s. Photo by E. Ladron de Guevara.
MOUNTAINS
in the SEA,
MOUNTAINS
inlheSKY
Field Museum's Founders' Council
members see natural science firsthand and
gain insights into the field research of
Museum curators
by Valerie Searle Lewis
and Louise K. Smith
photography by Jean K. Carton
and Dr. Michael S. Lewis
Field Museum Founders' Council exists to support the
many facets of the Museum, particularly collections
and scientific research. Thus, in March this year, when
Ecuador and Peru became peerless outdoor classrooms,
members of the Council were able to see firsthand how
vital is that research. Lectures, seminars, and instruc-
tion in the field, as well as accounts of current research
projects, deepened the group's natural science and
archaeological knowledge. In Ecuador our tutor was
Or. John Fitzpatrick, chairman of the Department of
Zoology and curator of Birds. In Peru we benefited from
the scholarship of Dr. Charles Stanish, assistant cura-
tor of Middle and South American Archaeology and
Ethnology.
Charles Darwin on HMS Beagle came upon the
magical world of the Galapagos Islands slowly and
peacefully, under sail. Today's travelers fly in by jet. But
once on board the cruise ship, which was to be home
and classroom for the next eight days, our group was
soon overtaken by the utter tranquillity of what Darwin
called these "enchanted islands."
In the Pacific Ocean 600 miles off the coast of
Ecuador and right on the equator, the archipelago con-
Valerie Searle Lewis, Louise K. Smith, Jean K. Carton, and Dr.
Michael S. Lewis are members of the Field Museum Founders'
8 Council.
sists of about 13 major islands and many smaller ones.
In 1959 the Ecuadorian government established the
area as a national park. Today, the park administration
and its wardens, aided by stringent rules governing
tourism, are attempting to rectify the disastrous depre-
dations wrought by man and to conserve this fragile
ecosystem.
Geologically the Galapagos are young. A mere
four to five million years old, they are the peaks of vol-
canoes which have built up vast accumulations of lava
from the floor of the ocean. The westernmost islands
are the most recently formed and still have a number of
active volcanoes. To the visitor the lava on several of
the islands seems like black mud which has just set hard
after flowing in sticky swirls and folds. Plant life is often
only just beginning to take hold. Huge calderas, or col-
lapsed craters, are to be seen. Some islands have
beaches of red or black lava. Bartolome Island offered a
lunar-like landscape in every direction: cones of all
sizes, frozen lava rivers, lava tunnels, jagged rocks, and
Our cruise ship is anchored near Bartolome Island. To the left is
an eroded tuff cone, known as a pinnacle rock, and in the back-
ground, several cones of cinder and lava. Michael Lewis
almost no vegetation. In this silent, rugged landscape a
solitary Galapagos hawk and a small lava lizard were
the only signs of life.
Darwin's theory of evolution and subsequent, sup-
plementary theories were elucidated for us by Dr. Fitz-
patrick, our superb guide and teacher. Darwin pos-
Land iguanas, yellowish orange and reddish brown, feed mainly
on prickly pear cactus. They grow to more than three feet in
length and may live more than sixty years. MKhaeiLewis
Marine iguanas, the world's only seagoing lizard, sun them-
selves by the shore. From salt glands connected to their nostrils,
they excrete salt which becomes encrusted on their heads.
Their claws are sharp for clinging to rocks. MichaeiLewis
tulated that organisms change over many generations
in adaptation to new or changing environments. This
conclusion was based in part on his famous observation
that Galapagos finches became different species as a
result of adapting to the distinct conditions of separate
islands. Thus, from a single common ancestor evolved
a seed-crushing large ground finch, an insectivorous
warbler finch, a tool-using finch, and a leaf-eating
vegetarian finch, each with its beak adapted to its spe-
cialized feeding habits.
The famed Galapagos giant tortoises also played
an important part in the development of Darwin's
theory of evolution. On islands where the vegetation is
sparse and high off the ground, tortoises of the saddle-
backed type, with a carapace that is raised in front, are
able to stretch their necks to reach food. On islands
with lusher vegetation, those of the dome-shaped type,
with a carapace that is thick in front, are able to push
through the dense undergrowth. Visitors now can see
these slow-moving, drowsy looking creatures at the
Charles Darwin Research Station on Santa Cruz Is-
land. During the past two centuries they were prey to
pirates, whalers, and sealers who took them aboard as a
meat supply. As many as 200,000 tortoises are esti-
mated to have perished in this way. Today tortoise eggs
and hatchlings are food for the wild dogs, pigs, and cats
which are the descendants of domesticated animals
introduced by sailors and settlers to some islands. Thus,
tortoise eggs are brought to the research station by staff
who watch over the early growth of the young reptiles.
At about five years of age they are released back into
the wild. The eggs of other endangered species, such as
the land iguanas, are similarly hatched at the research
station.
Remarkable creatures such as the marine iguanas
have managed to survive by evolving new ways of life in
the frequently inhospitable conditions of the islands.
These reptiles arrived on rafts of floating vegetation
washed out to sea after violent storms on the mainland.
Over hundreds of thousands of years they have adapted
to the very different life of the archipelago. They are
the only sea-going lizards in the world, diving beneath
the surface to feed on algae. When they settle back on
the rocks they frequently appear to be sneezing, though
they are, in fact, excreting excess salt that has been
ingested in their high-salt diet. They huddle in groups
— small black monsters on black lava rocks, immobile
and menacing. When Museum President Sandy Boyd
lay down on the rocks to confront them, his eyes only
two feet from theirs, they were unmoved, like a brigade
of indignant Victorian matrons.
Since it was spring, the air on islands with large
bird populations was heavy with passion and ardor.
Male great frigatebirds, with their extraordinary scarlet
gular sacs puffed up like a soccer ball between bill and
breast, sat in the bushes with their enormous wings
widespread, fluttering and undulating to attract the
females who cruised overhead. From her decidedly su-
The male great frigatebird is seen showing off his gular pouch.
This is inflated during the mating season to attract females.
Michael Lewis
Male and female blue footed boobies with chick. One to three
eggs are laid on the bare ground and incubated by both parents
Under their feet. Michael Lewis
Sea lion pups are inquisitive and playful. Ms. Louise Smith
seems pleased with the attention. Michael Lews
sand diminutive Galapagos penguins are evidence of
successful adaptation to living on hot land and feeding
in the cold waters of the Humboldt Current. The
flightless cormorant seems to have developed a more
streamlined body for swimming, at the expense of
flight. This example of natural selection probably came
about because of the close proximity of its feeding
grounds and because of the lack of indigenous terres-
trial predators. This latter fact is the reason the Galapa-
gos fauna — sea lions in particular — have little fear and
perior vantage point, the female might eventually
select an alluring fellow, fly down beside him and be
entranced by his physical and vocal prowess. The ele-
gant swallowtailed gulls were also engaged in much
courting and mating. But it was the bluefooted boobies'
wooing which was most engaging. We found it hard to
take these creatures seriously, with their large, bright
blue feet, dancing in ponderous slow-motion as if
caught in a puddle of glue. But they, like all other
courting birds, were simply showing off their own
important assets to one another.
The birds and reptiles of the Galapagos enchant
the visitor with their strangeness, their striking appear-
ance, and their closeness to the viewer. Penguins seem
12 very out of place on a tropical island, yet several thou-
An endearing sea lion pup preparing to nurse from his mother.
Female sea lions have a nine-month gestation period and give,
birth to a single pup, which is suckled from one to three years.
Michael Lewis
do not shy away from humans. These mammals, the
largest animals on the islands, would lie like cumber-
some mounds on the beaches of many of the islands
which we visited, regarding us with large, baleful eyes
as we photographed and stared at them from a few feet
away. But once in the water they were lithe, graceful,
and playful. We watched them body-surfing in the big
Pacific waves and could not doubt that they were hav-
ing fun. One of the most memorable and exciting times
of the whole trip was the afternoon we snorkled on
James Island. The sea lions wanted to play and made
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Above: Masked boobies are the largest and heaviest boobies in
the Galapagos Islands. Therefore, they often nest in colonies
near cliffs, so that upward air currents make it easier for them to
launch themselves in flight. Below: Male and female red footed
boobies are seen resting in a tree, a most unusual habit for a
seabird. They are able to do this because they have prehensile
'eet. Michael Lewis
this clear by cavorting around us. They would swim so
close that we could touch them; before swooping past
us they would look right into our eyes with curiosity
and, it seemed, a desire to communicate.
Since visitors come to the islands by way of main-
land Ecuador, our journey in fact began in Quito, a city
which is noteworthy for a number of reasons. At 9,000
feet above sea level it is the third highest capital city in
the world and is only fifteen miles from the equator. Set
within a bowl in the Andes Mountains, the city boasts
views of snowy peaks, including the majestic volcano
Cotopaxi. In the old part of the city more colonial
buildings remain than in most other South American
cities, thus offering picturesque sights of narrow streets
and whitewashed buildings with balconies.
From Quito we visited the spectacular Indian mar-
ket at Otavalo. The women are eye-catching in their
white embroidered blouses, navy skirts, and many rows
of gilded beads around their necks. The men have strik-
ing profiles under homburg hats and a single, long braid
down their backs over their ponchos. The market was
alive with the colors of their weavings. The vegetables,
fruits, and meats added other hues to the spectrum. On
the wall of the surrounding buildings were splashed
posters and slogans for the forthcoming presidential
election in Ecuador.
An exhilarating day of bird watching followed in
the Pasachoa Nature Preserve under the skillful guid-
ance of Dr. Fitzpatrick. In this green valley near Quito
we were able to see some of Ecuador's immensely rich
birdlife while delighting in their equally ornate names:
streak- throated bush-tyrant, scarlet-bellied mountain
tanager, red-crested cotinga and hummingbirds called
sapphire-vented puff-leg, amethyst-throated woodstar,
and collared Inca.
When our Field Museum group left Ecuador our
comprehension of the major conservation measures
undertaken by the Ecuadorian government in the
Galapagos National Park was greatly enhanced, as was
our sensitivity to the fragility of the environment and
the need for its protection in the future. Each one of us
certainly will always have an intense appreciation of
nature's most spectacular laboratory of evolution — the
incalculably valuable treasure that is Galapagos.
— Valerie Searle Lewis
The Tour Regrouped in Lima, Peru, the colonial
Spanish city built on the Pacific coast of South Amer-
ica in the midst of one of the great temperate deserts of
the world. Despite its lack of rain, however, the boule-
vards bloom from irrigation waters flowing down from
the Andes, just to the east. The group was accom-
panied during this phase of the trip by Field Museum's
assistant curator of Middle/South American archaeolo-
gy and ethnology, Charles "Chip" Stanish, who is in
the process of starting a new project, a dig in Peru near
the Bolivian border on Lake Titicaca, where he will be
continuing his research on the Aymara Indians, closely
related to the Incas.
Lima's central square, Plaza de Armas, strongly
reflects the city's Spanish heritage. Enormous public
buildings, all terra cotta pink with white trim, shelter 13
active entrepreneurial markets in the promenades
under graceful arches. Other old buildings are fes-
tooned with magnificent carved mahogany balconies,
one of the architectural hallmarks of Lima. These
structures, dating from the sixteenth-century Spanish
tradition, serve as elaborate window screens which
allow the (ventilated) tenant to look out while not
being seen. Our visit to Lima was necessarily short, as it
was merely a stopover on the way to Cuzco.
and developed a network of roads and bridges which
ran the length of the empire, up and down the Andes.
Communication was effected by a system of runners
who jogged at a steady pace, despite the altitude, suf-
ficient in numbers and strength to keep the various
ends of the empire in touch with each other. Legend
has it that the roads and the runners were efficient
enough to bring fresh fish from the seashore to the Inca
kings in Cuzco.
An Otavalo Indian
woman with gilded
necklace and embroi-
dered blouse. Every-
one wears some pro-
tection on their head,
however makeshift,
against the strong
equatorial sun.
14
Cuzco was for centuries the capital of the Incas,
until Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas and cap-
tured the city in 1553. Itsits 11,000 feet above sea level
in a valley between two spurs of the Andes. (When we
arrived at Cuzco we all drank the special tea made from
coca leaves to alleviate dizziness from the altitude, and
were cautioned to rest for an hour or so.) The Incas
were master builders, superb civil engineers and
architects, and must have had a bureaucracy which
rivalled those at Memphis and Rome. They planned
The city of Cuzco is a curious mixture of Spanish
on top of Incan — literally. The ancient narrow cob-
blestone streets of Cuzco are lined on both sides by
walls of the houses of these two cultures. Magnificent
huge dark grey boulders, each weighing as much as ten
tons, were quarried and then moved to the building
site. There, each facing surface was painstakingly
ground to abut its four neighbors so exactly that not
only was no mortar required but one even now cannot
insert a slender blade between them. The walls rise
Founders' Council members who are also members of the Field
Museum Women's Board shown in the volcanic landscape near
the summit of Bartolome Island. Standing (I. to r.): Mrs. Robert
W. Carton, Mrs. Willard L. Boyd, Mrs. Malcolm N. Smith, Mrs.
Henry T. Chandler, Mrs. John C. Meeker. Seated: Mrs. Robert D.
Kolarand Mrs. Michael S. Lewis. Michael Lewis
seven feet, and current thinking is that the houses were
then thatched. The Spanish built their houses on top
of the Incan walls, But these were clearly cruder, cling-
ing together by mortar rather than by skill.
Politics are uncertain these days. One afternoon
we stepped out into one of the narrow streets to dis-
cover a rather long, peaceful Communist protest march
snaking along. The marchers were representatives from
local farming communes who were protesting for more
electricity and better roads. Women in modern skirts
and sweaters but with a variety of traditional head-
dresses — often a piece of magenta cloth folded several
times and draped on the head, and men with tall felt
hats, marched by, chanting slogans, under the watch-
ful yet perhaps sympathetic eye of the local army/police
representatives in their buses.
The remarkable building skills of the Incas found
expression in several other marvelous sites around Cuz-
co, in particular at the fortress of Sacsayhuaman, built
probably between the fourteenth and fifteenth centu-
ries. Although the boulder building technique is the
same as in the city of Cuzco, the scale is expanded fifty-
fold: here some boulders weigh as much as 500 tons.
The fortress offers a magnificent view of the clay tile
roofs and white stucco walls of the houses of Cuzco,
now a town of over a quarter million. Yet, standing on
the ancient stone wall and listening to a small boy,
wrapped in colorful and intricately woven alpaca pon-
cho and playing a piercing, haunting tune to his pet
llama on pan-pipes, certainly evoked the mood of by-
gone centuries.
We visited the royal baths at Tambo Machay and
the tombs at Q'enko, also on the outskirts of Cuzco,
both locations used for cermonies by the ancient Inca
kings. The sacred baths feature icy, sparkling waterfalls
cascading through a system of stone terraces. At
Q'enko there are a series of some 19 niches which were
used to "sun" mummified royal ancestors and certain
loyal retainers who were sacrificed, we think, when
their masters died. Dr. Stanish explained that as with
so much of what we visited, however, archaeologists
can only hypothesize the details of usage, since the In-
15
The fagade of La Compania is part of a 17th-century Jesuit
cathedral, the most ornate of Quitos' churches. The six Solo-
monic columns on either side of the main entrance are modeled
on those of Bernini in the Vatican. Mchasiimta
cas had no written language and thus left no record.
Rather, a complicated but obviously effective scheme
of knotted cords (kipu), carried by the aforementioned
runners, sufficed to transmit information over long dis-
tances. Fortunately, Dr. Stanish gave several impromp-
tu lectures on Incan history and culture by drawing on
current archaeological research, which in and of itself
was fascinating.
We drove along the white-water Urubamba river
to reach Piscar. Dr. Stanish took advantage of an
important regional market to acquire several antique
weavings for Field Museum from an ad-hoc fund gotten
up by the Founders' Council group. These textiles are
highly symbolic and convey considerable information
regarding community, occupation, status, etc. of the
16 wearer. Not only beautiful, they are of anthropological
interest and also are relatively easy to store and gain
access to in the Museum, so we hope these five pieces
will be just the beginning of a good new collection to be
augumented by subsequent expeditions and other con-
tributors. As we strolled through the colorful market,
munching on roasted giant corn kernels, we admired
the many handicrafts, especially the hand-knitted
alpaca sweaters and sweaters which often bore a picture
of the llama itself.
The Andes range is, simply put, spectacular. The
mountains rise ten, twelve, twenty thousand feet
above sea level, some almost vertically. And yet on
virtually every mountainside are brilliant green farm-
ing terraces which may be ancient Incan, contempo-
rary, or both, used to farm potatoes, corn, or beans or to
accommodate an occasional grazing goat or cow. These
terraces often appeared to be completely inaccessible
and remote, yet were clearly a part of the community
agricultural activities.
At Ollantaytambo we climbed several hundred
feet up some of these terraces, which were apparently
used for ceremonial purposes, not farming. This for-
tress guards the Urubamba Sacred Valley, was an
important settlement during the expansion of the In-
can Empire, and probably was home to several hundred
people. Today's visitor can stroll around an inhabited
village that has remained mostly unchanged from In-
can days and imagine what life was like then, up in
these high, rugged, magnificent mountains.
Incas came to Machu Picchu to escape and hide
from Pizarro and his Conquistadors; they were com-
pletely successful. However, they mysteriously aban-
doned the settlement in the 1570s, and Machu Picchu
remained unknown to the outside world until 1911
when Hiram Bingham, having heard stories of its exist-
ence, explored the region determined to find it. Even
now, Machu Picchu is remote, accessible only by train
or, for the ambitious, by foot along the Inca Trail. High
on the mountainside, the ruins are completely hidden
from the valley. When finally at the site, the view is
breathtakingly gorgeous: the extensive ruins of this
final outpost of Inca civilization, encircled by even
higher mountains on the other side of the crashing
Urubamba River, which can be heard these hundreds of
feet above it.
The settlement appears to be a complete micro-
cosm of the civilization, accommodating royalty, en-
gineers, farmers, workers who were all necessary for liv-
ing in this place. First were the royal areas for altars,
chambers, thrones, and public squares where food and
drink were ceremonially divided. These buildings were
all crafted from particularly fine and enormous boulders
View of the long-lost city of the Incans: Machu Picchu. The spirit is still there. Jwncanon
In the sleepy valley of Ollantaytambo, an inn— Alahambra I
painstakingly brought up here and fitted together. The
buildings for mere mortals (runners, farmers, etc. ) were
clustered on terraces close together.
As we walked in the brilliant sunshine, suddenly
we were enshrouded by mist and clouds as the rains
came for an afternoon's downpour complete with a
dramatic show of lightning. Were the gods angry at the
intrusion of modern touristadors into the confines of
the Incan?
Muddy, exhilarated, tired, and happy, the Found-
ers' Council members reacclimated from Machu Picchu
through Cuzco and Lima and back to Chicago.
The voyage would have been special under any
circumstances, but the contributions made by Drs.
Fitzpatrick and Stanish enabled us to start to under-
stand ornithology, natural history, archaeology and
anthropology and to acquire a respectful realization of
the research methodology used by experts to explore
the mysteries of their fields. — Louise K. Smith
"Flowers, flowers — who wants to buy my flowers?"-
MaChu PiCChu. Jean Carton
-on the road to
Beginning as a Collector
by A. S. Meek
I HAVE never regretted that first year I spent in Austra-
lia on cattle and sheep stations, tramping the bush,
kangaroo-shooting. It was a jolly, irresponsible time,
full of adventure and excitement; and it hardened me
off finely for the sterner work that was ahead.
Mr. W. B. Barnard, a son of my friend, joined
forces with me for the first expedition which I made
purely for purposes of collecting. We went to Rock-
hampton, bought an outfit and then took a camp up in
the ranges near Coomooboolaroo, staying there for
three months. For the first time I had a regular collect-
ing outfit, insect boxes, and arsenic for skins. Nowa-
days I do not trouble to use arsenic for preserving skins,
but rely on alum, and on the use of plenty of naphtha-
line in packing up the skins. On this expedition we
were out after all kinds of specimens — mammals, birds,
and insects. I had secured through my father an order
from the Hon. Walter Rothschild for three pairs of
every kind of animal, whether mammal, bird, or insect
that we collected. I had been collecting in a desultory
kind of way all the time I had been in Australia, but on
this trip I made for the first time collecting the only
object of life. Unfortunately my mate suffered a good
deal from rheumatism, and had to abandon the camp
once for quite a long spell, leaving me alone there.
That was an experience which at first I found a little
unpleasant. But it fell to me so often afterwards that I
think nothing now of being the only white man in a
camp among savages six weeks' march away from the
next white neighbour.
On this, my first collecting trip, I made not many
new discoveries. I do not think it was possible to have
done so, as from a Natural History point of view that
part of Australia had been very well explored, at least as
regards birds and butterflies. We collected, however,
some interesting specimens, especially of the flying
squirrels. Then, in search of something new, we went
up the Johnson River, Queensland, making a camp
about ten miles from the mouth of the river. Again we
collected everything in the way of Natural History
specimens — mammals, birds, and insects. I think I
must except crocodiles, which were very plentiful
there, but which we did not trouble to collect. I recol-
lect once, when out shooting ducks in a swamp which
kept us up to our waists in water, I came upon a croco-
dile's nest with fifty-seven eggs in it. This nest was
made of swamp grass and the eggs in it were all together
higgledy-piggledy. The eggs of the crocodile are
hatched out by the heat from the fermentation of the
vegetable heap in which they are laid. The Australian
scrub hen also lays her eggs in a vegetable heap, relying
on fermentation to bring the young out, but in the case
of the scrub hen all the eggs are separated from one
another by layers of vegetation. There are several var-
iations in the method of depositing eggs among those
creatures which trust to natural agencies and not to
brooding for the hatching out. The crocodile, as I have
said, makes a vegetable mound and lays the eggs in a
heap, and covers them over with more vegetable mat-
ter. The female turtle lays her eggs in a heap in the
sand. The black iguana (the carrion iguana) deposits
her eggs in a white-ants' mound, and leaves them there
to be hatched out. The sand iguana, which does not
live on carrion, lays its eggs in the sand. The crocodile,
by the way, is very fond of the eggs of the scrub hen, and
will often travel far inland searching for the nests.
I never thought of danger in connection with the
crocodile in Northern Australia, but there is no doubt
that they occasionally get a human victim. In the warm
weather the crocodiles sleep in the scrub a little away
from the water during the day. In the winter they sleep
on the mud flats of the swamps. They usually feed in
the evening, and that is the dangerous time for those
who go near their haunts.
Perhaps some notes on the habits of the mound-
building birds encountered in Australia and the South
Sea Islands will be of popular interest, though of course
scientifically they are not new. The two families of
mound-building birds in Australia are the scrub turkey
and the scrub hen. Several varieties of each are found
in Australia and in some of the South Sea Islands. The
scrub hen makes a very large nest, returning year after
year to the same mound and building it to a great size.
In the Solomon Islands these birds have been almost
"Beginning as a Collector" is from A Naturalist in Cannibal Land,
by A. S. Meek, published in London in 1913 by T. Fisher Unwin. 19
domesticated, and their mounds are counted in the
property of a tribe. The fermentation of the mound
hatches out the eggs, and when the chicken breaks the
shell it lies on its back and scratches its way out of the
mound. It may be of interest to observe that there is no
difference in the plumage of the male and female in the
scrub hen.
Regarding the crocodiles (sometimes wrongly
called alligators) of North Queensland, there are some
curious popular misconceptions. One is that the
armour plating on the skin will protect the animal
almost completely from rifle-bullets. As a matter of fact
a crocodile skin is vulnerable at any point if the bullet
strikes it directly, but the skin on the back of the crea-
ture is certainly strong enough to turn aside a glancing
blow. Crocodiles are very common in the nothern riv-
ers of Australia and in most of the South Sea Islands.
I recollect at Rossel Island in the Louisiade group
off the coast of New Guinea, hearing of and seeing a
huge crocodile which the natives seemed to hold in a
kind of veneration. They told the story that this croco-
dile used to bring supplies of turtle and fish for the villa-
gers, and put these stores as food for them on a large
ledge of rock. Certainly the crocodile did deposit these
things as stated, but I suspect that it was not out of any
love for the villagers. Possibly it might have had some
connection with a habit which crocodiles are said to
have, of keeping any prey they capture until it is in an
advanced state of decomposition. I have heard that
when the crocodile captures a calf or a human being, or
any other prey of the kind, it is usual for it to hide the
body away for some days before devouring it. Certainly
the crocodile is a carrion feeder, and the effect of its
bite, even when no actual serious wound has been in-
flicted, seems to be dangerous. Once at Fergusson Is-
land, New Guinea, I was called to see a native who had
been seized by a crocodile whilst fishing with nets from
the shore. The man when he was seized by the croco-
dile cried out, and the other natives went to his assist-
ance and managed to rescue him from the creature.
When I was asked to see him two or three days had
passed since he was wounded. The natives had the sick
man on a platform with a fire smouldering underneath
him so that the smoke should circle round him. All the
wounds which he had received from the crocodile were
suppurating badly and running with pus; this could be
attributed to the infection of the crocodile's bite. I gave
the natives some permanganate of potash to cleanse
the sick man's wounds. He was all right afterwards.
After we had exhausted the resources of the John-
20 son River, we decided to make a move on the Bloom-
field River. We chartered a small cutter to take us along
the coast. The party at the time consisted of Barnard,
myself, and an aboriginal boy named Tommy, who was
very faithful to me and who turned out to be a very
skilful collector.
On arrival at the Bloomfield River we found our-
selves in country where the white man was almost un-
known. The aboriginals were very numerous. We made
a camp in a pocket of grass close to a jungle scrub seven
miles to the north of the Bloomfield River. By this time
I abandoned the collection of mammals and confined
my attention to lepidoptera and birds. One of the finest
birds found there was the Pitta, of which I secured
many specimens. The aboriginals of the district were
very clever with their spears, and could usually bring
down a bird that was put up out of the scrub by a dog. I
have seen one of the blacks get five or six scrub turkeys
in succession whilst going through the scrub.
After staying on the Bloomfield River about three
months we moved our camp to Cedar Bay, where we
were the only white people and where I had the oppor-
tunity of observing the Australian aboriginal practic-
ally free from white interference. He is in my opinion a
very good type of native, manly, plucky, honest, and
truthful, though very lazy, except for work in which he
happens to be interested. I have found Grey's observa-
tions on the Australian aborigines generally correct in
my experience. The natives at Cedar Bay had exactly
the equipment he decribes as characteristic: "Round
the man's middle is wound, in many folds, a cord spun
from the fur of the opossum, forming a warm, soft and
elastic belt of an inch in thickness, in which are stuck
his stone hatchet, his boomerang, and a short heavy
stick to throw at small animals. His hatchet is so
placed, that the head of it rests exactly on the centre of
his back, whilst its thin, short handle descends along
the backbone. In his hand he carries his throwing stick,
and several spears, headed in two or three different
manners so that they are equally adapted to war or the
chase. . . .The contents of the native woman's bag: A
flat stone to pound roots with; earth to mix with the
pounded roots; quartz for the purpose of making spears
and knives; stones for hatchets; prepared cakes of gum,
to make and mend weapons and implements; kangaroo
sinews to make spears and to sew with; needles made of
the shin bones of kangaroos, with which they sew
cloaks, bags, etc.; opossum hair to be spun into waist-
belts; shaving of kangaroo skins to polish spears, etc.;
the shell of a species of mussel to cut hair, etc. with;
native knives; a native hatchet; pipe clay; red ochre, or
burnt clay; yellow ochre; a piece of paper bark to carry
water in; waist-bands and spare ornaments; banksia
cones (small ones), or pieces of a dry white species of
fungus, to kindle fire with rapidly, and to convey it
from place to place; grease; the spare weapons of their
husbands, or the pieces of wood from which these are to
be manufactured; the roots, etc. which they have col-
lected during the day. Skins not yet prepared for cloaks
are generally carried between the bags and the back, so
as to form a sort of cushion for the bag to rest on. In
general each woman carries a lighted fire-stick, or
brand, under her cloak and in her hand."
At this camp I managed to secure two clutches of
the eggs of the rifle bird. A curious thing about the nest
of the rifle bird is that the hen always seems to get a
snake skin — the sloughed skin of a snake — to entwine
in the fabric of the nest. I have encountered many nests
of the rifle bird, and have always found a snake skin to
be part of its fabric. The nests were usually built in the
heads of the umbrella palms and were woven out of old
vines. The eggs are of a pale pink with dark red and
brown marks, striped longitudinally, as is the case with
most eggs of Birds of Paradise.
At Cedar Bay I discovered a male specimen of
Charagia mirabilis, a new species of moth described by
Mr. Rothschild. The male of this species has a strong,
musk -like perfume. Another discovery made by me
here was of a very beautiful moth, the hind-wings rose-
pink in colour, the fore-wings fawn-coloured with
crimson spots bordered with white.
We had some very good pig-shooting at this camp,
and also some good sport hunting for sharks and for the
dugong, that curious sea mammal which is said to have
given rise to the story of the mermaid, because the
female has breasts of a human type and has the habit of
raising the fore-part of her body out of the water. But I
have always failed to mistake a dugong for a mermaid.
In 1894 I returned to Australia, having with me a
man named Mr. Gulliver, whom I had known as a
collector in the New Forest. At Rockhampton I picked
up my old mate Mr. W. B. Barnard and also Mr. Harry
Barnard, and we all went up to Cooktown. After full
inquiry I had decided that New Guinea and the South
Sea Islands offered better chances to the collector than
West Australia. Cooktown was the best Australian sea-
port from which to set out for the islands. Thenceforth
Cooktown was the only point of the civilised world
with which I kept in close touch.
This collecting expedition was my venture solely,
and the others were engaged by me as assistants. We
outfitted at Cooktown and went on from there to
Samarai, New Guinea, in the barquentine Myrtle. On
the voyage across we met an Italian collector named
Amido, who had been for a spell of six years in New
Guinea, and I recollect many of the people on board
thinking it a singular thing that he should still be alive.
The reputation of the climate was very bad. The
reputation of the natives was worse. I have new been in
all some eighteen years in New Guinea and the Solo-
mons, and do not consider it impossible to live there
fifty years if one is reasonably careful. The average idea
about New Guinea and other tropical places is that the
climate is worse and the natives more savage than they
really are. But one must have some rules of life.
Apart from caution in regard to alcohol I think that
the most necessary thing in the tropics is to take a great
deal of exercise. The chance of a lazy life of course
never came my way, so that I was never tempted to loaf.
But I have seen enough to conclude that it is the man
who is afraid to sweat whose liver hardens or who falls
ill in a tropical climate. An exaggerated fear of the sun
causes more illness than it wards off.
On my first voyage to New Guinea I had still prac-
tically everything to learn in regard to the customs of
the country and the precautions which it was necessary
to take against disease. But now after many years'
experience I find that no very elaborate preparations
are necessary for a six months' dive into the New
Guinea forest. I take ordinary stores of food, quinine as
a remedy against fever, a little brandy for medical use if
that is feasible, and my drug-case contains Epsom Salts,
permanganate of potash, and chlorodyne. The most
serious part of my outfitting equipment is that which is
needed for the collections which I make. The butterfly
hunter who contemplates a six months' plunge into
virgin forest must carry a collecting outfit not differing
much in character from that of a naturalist putting in a
week-end in the New Forest. But he must enormously
increase the quantity of his gear, and if his work is to be,
as mine was, in a damp, tropical climate some special
precautions are needed against mildew. On the expedi-
tion in which I am to be engaged this year ( 1913) I shall
take a good supply of butterfly nets — sufficient for the
use of the collecting boys I directly employ, and of
friendly natives who can be enlisted temporarily as col-
lectors; a supply of non-rusting pins for setting; killing-
bottles with cyanide of potassium for killing small
insects and syringes with acetic acid for killing large
insects; pill-boxes for small insects; japanned tin air-
tight and cork-lined collecting cases. It is simple
enough on paper; not so simple when it has to be car-
ried strung on poles by bearers through the mountain
jungles. FM 21
Gensburg- Markham
This 100-acre gem of original prairie offers a rare
view of Chicagoland as it must have been centuries
ago. Thanks to concerned citizens, it has been saved
from commercial development.
by Jerry Sullivan
22
The Indian Boundary Prairies are scattered over
parts of four sections of land in Markham, a sub-
urb about 25 miles southwest of the Chicago Loop.
The fragments form an archipelago, a chain of island
refuges poking up through the expressways and sub-
divisions like the last remnants of a lost continent.
1-294 marks their eastern border, and 1-57 cuts right
through them, separating the western prairies from
the rest.
The main island in this chain is the 100-acre
Gensburg- Markham Preserve, a patch of Illinois
tall-grass prairie that somehow came through the past
150 years almost unscathed. It may have been lightly
grazed. A few acres were plowed, but the prairie has
reclaimed the old fields so thoroughly that this plow-
ing might have remained undiscovered if aerial photo-
graphs had not revealed the furrows.
The flowery meadows surrounding the raw
frontier town of Chicago in 1837 must have looked
a lot like Gensburg-Markham. The imported Irish-
men who dug the Illinois-Michigan canal cut their
ditch through fields like these, fields thick with fiery
lilies, white wild quinine, purple leadplant, and blaz-
ing star, cream false indigo, golden prairie dock, and
royal-blue fringed gentians — hundreds, thousands of
plants extending to tiny dots of color in the distance.
In June and July, the bobolinks at Gensburg-
Markham sing their tinkling flight song above the lit-
tle bluestem and flowering spurge. This is the only
prairie in Cook County large enough to support bobo-
links, meadowlarks, and Henslow's sparrows, the only
Chicago writer Jerry Sullivan writes frequently on natural history for the Bulle-
tin. He does a column, "Field and Street, " for the Chicago Reader and has
done features on birds for Audubon magazine and other national publications.
He was also editor 0/ Chicago Area Birds, published in 1985 by Chicago
Review Press.
East6m meadOWlark Copyright © Ron Austing, The National Audobon Society Collection/PR
Henslow's sparrow
place where these animals and these plants, the
halves of the old ecosystem, still survive together.
The Gensburg-Markham Preserve passed into
the public trust in 1973, when the Gensburg brothers
donated about half of the land to the Nature Con-
servancy, the Conservancy acquired the rest, one lot
at a time, and passed the whole package along to
Northeastern Illinois University, which manages it.
Three more islands in this archipelago are now being
added to the protected list, more than doubling the
size of the preserve. One of the new parcels borders
Gensburg on the north. The other two, called Paint-
brush Prairie and Sundrop Prairie, lie to the west
across 1-57.
The protection of these prairie lands will con-
clude a process that began nearly 30 years ago, a pro-
cess whose history reveals some of the changes the
past three decades have made in the things we see
when we look at the world.
The Indian Boundary Prairies have managed to
survive this long through a series of historical acci-
dents. They could have been plowed from edge to
edge, but they weren't. They could have been grazed
so heavily that the cows' favorite food plants were ex-
tirpated and replaced with Eurasian weeds, but they
weren't. They could have become rows of houses or
shopping malls, but they didn't.
A very large historical accident called the Great
Depression kept the houses off the land. The prairies
had been platted in the late 1920s and sold off as indi-
vidual building lots, but the crash came before con-
struction began. It wasn't until the end of World War
II that building again became possible; but somehow,
this didn't happen. Owners died and willed their lots
to their children, who found no market for them.
Many lots became tax delinquent.
Bobolink nest with young
23
Copyright © 1 983 Virginia Wemland. The National Audobon Society Colleciion/PR
Gensburg-Markham Prairie in late summer, blazing star in bloom RooPanz«
24
Meanwhile, a few knowledgeable people were
aware that there was something special growing on
these obscure acres in a modest southern suburb.
Floyd Swink, now chief taxonomist of the Morton
Arboretum, visited a few times. Karl Bartel, a birder
and botanizer from nearby Blue Island, knew of the
place. But the process that has culminated in the pres-
ervation of the land began about 1960 when Robert
Betz, on a visit to his wife's cousin in Markham, de-
cided to take a walk through some nearby fields.
Dr. Robert Betz is a biologist, a professor at
Northeastern Illinois University and a Field Museum
research associate. His schooling at IIT was in bio-
chemistry. In 1957, he was on the faculty at Chicago
Teachers College, the predecessor of Northeastern
Illinois. He was one of several teachers cooperatively
conducting an intensive summer course in field biolo-
gy. Just by accident, Betz replaced another teacher on
a field trip led by Floyd Swink. Swink took Betz and
his students to the Sante Fe Prairie, a remnant along
the Des Plaines River owned by the railroad. With
Swink leading him, reeling off the scientific names of
plants, Robert Betz was introduced to the dominant
landscape of his native state. The experience changed
his life. Ever since, he has devoted himself almost ex-
clusively to the study of prairies and to the effort to
preserve and restore our native grasslands.
His was a lonely cause in the early days. The
public awareness of prairie had sunk to zero. Nobody
but a few botanists knew what a prairie was. No con-
servation agency thought it worth spending money to
protect prairie lands. The biggest and best of the re-
maining Chicago-area prairies were being over-
whelmed by the post-war boom in suburbia with
almost no one to protest their passing or mourn their
loss.
On that fateful walk, Betz, his eye trained by
experience, knew immediately that he was on to
something special. Soon after, Swink confirmed his
judgement by conducting a plant survey of the land.
This was very high quality prairie, with many species
present in considerable numbers. But could anything
be done to protect it?
In the summer of 1967, Betz invited scientists
from local universities and leading conservationists to
meet on the prairie to see what was there and to talk
of how to save it. Some of those who took part in that
meeting thought that saving the prairie would be
impossible. The land was too valuable; some kind of
development was inevitable.
But at least one person visiting the prairie that 25
day, Gunnar Peterson of the Open Lands Project, dis-
agreed with that pessimistic judgement. He decided
that if the land was worth saving then it was worth
trying to save, and he and Betz began to work
together to arrange a deal.
They got a break from an unlikely quarter. Those
same fortuitous relatives of Mrs. Betz were members of
the Markham Garden Club, and they asked Betz to
state unit. The acquisitions in question were the hun-
dreds of lots on the Gensburg-Markham Prairie.
By 1975, the whole 100-acre block was safely in
the hands of Northeastern Illinois, and as sole prop-
erty owner, the university could ask the city of Mark-
ham to vacate the rights-of-way it held for streets,
sidewalks, and alleys.
Ecological management had already begun with
Four-week-old gray fox near den
in Gensburg-Markham Prairie.
talk to the group about the local prairie. The presi-
dent of that Garden Club was a chemical engineer
named Thorpe Dresser, who also happened to be a
member of the Markham Planning Commission. He
was so impressed by Betz that he invited him, Peter-
son, and Ray Shulenberg of the Morton Arboretum to
testify before the commission. Their testimony so
impressed the commissioners that they voted in favor
of establishing a preserve and put Dresser in charge of
a committee to see to the matter.
This was a big step and the cause of much jubila-
tion, but at that point none of the prairie supporters
even knew who owned the land on their would-be
preserve, so a few details still had to be ironed out.
Miraculously, everything worked. Northeastern
Illinois University agreed to accept the land. The
Gensburg brothers, who owned about half the prop-
erty, agreed, after discussions with Gunnar Peterson,
to donate their holdings. The federal Land and Water
Conservation Fund provided the money to buy the
rest. The Nature Conservancy did the dog work,
arranging closings on 300 separate building lots whose
owners were scattered all over the country. The paper-
work got so deep that the Illinois Chapter of the Na-
ture Conservancy was cited by the national organiza-
26 tion for initiating more acquisitions than any other
the first controlled burns in 1972. The tall-grass
prairie of Illinois is a fire-dependent ecosystem. In the
pre-settlement landscape, Nature set many of these
blazes, but the Indians also burned the prairies to keep
the hunting good. The odds against natural fires —
caused by lightning, for example — are very long on
small parcels of land. Small boys sometimes take on
the ecological role of Indians, and prairies are so
flammable that a couple of kids with a book of match-
es can have one blazing merrily in a few minutes. At
Markham, the occasional fire caused by nature or set
by boys had not completely stopped the invasion of
the prairie shrubs and trees; but the controlled burn-
ing program combined with a bit of sawing has turned
the preserve into a pure grassland, where the only
woody plants are the prairie willows and leadplants —
native species adapted to fire.
Under Betz's direction, a chain-link fence was
built around the preserve and a public education pro-
cess begun to let the neighbors know the significance
of this patch of native grassland. Karl Bartel became
the first custodian of the prairie. After four years on
the job, he retired. Ron Panzer, the current site man-
ager, replaced him.
Panzer had been an insurance company engineer
rating the fire safety of factories when a life-long
interest in wildlife took him back to school. Enrolled
as a graduate student in biology at Northeastern, he
became one of Betz's students and caught the prairie
fever from him. Panzer's major interest is the animals
of the prairie, especially the insects, and with a job
that brings him to Gensburg-Markham seven days a
week, he was in a perfect position to begin catalog-
ing the diversity of animal life on this rich prairie
remnant.
Ask him what he found, and you'll get a litany, a
list that goes on and on of rare butterflies and moths,
obscure leafhoppers, grasshoppers, and katydids found
nowhere else in Illinois, endangered snakes, and foxes
seldom seen.
In midsummer, clouds of aphrodite fritillaries —
rich orange butterflies spotted with black and silver —
dance attendance on the prairie lilies, and the prairie
shimmers with Acadian hairstreaks — soft gray butter-
flies marked with red and gold. "It's a window into the
past," Panzer says, a look at a time when these beauti-
ful insects were "as common as mosquitoes."
A quick, experienced eye like Panzer's will also
notice the tiny gold and brown byssus skippers — but-
terflies whose caterpillars feed on big bluestem, a
dominant prairie grass. They are known from only
about 15 sites in Illinois. Markham also supports a sub-
stantial population of even rarer two-spotted skipper
— a sedge-feeder known from less than 10 sites in
Illinois.
Sliding through the grass is a rare smooth green
snake, another indicator of high quality prairie, and
Smooth green snake
Soapwort gentian, a rare prairie species in the Chicago area.
for the past three years Panzer has been hearing the
clicking call of the yellow rail, a bird so elusive we can
only guess at its numbers.
At the right season, you might also hear the
chirping call of the Franklin's ground squirrel, a tall-
grass prairie native that had vanished from Markham
until Betz and Panzer reintroduced it. Most of the
ground squirrels in Illinois these days are the thirteen-
lined species, a short-grass animal that has adapted
quite well to golf course and lawns. Franklin's is a big-
ger animal — about 15 inches long, compared to the 7-
to 11-inch thirteen-lined — and its back is unstriped.
Introductions are always a tricky business. Fail-
ure is much more common than success. But Betz
and Panzer collected some animals from unprotected
prairie sites and turned them loose at Gensburg. They
waited three years and then set out some traps. The
first six animals they caught were lactating females —
mothers in the process of rearing young. They quickly
released the animals and went off to celebrate. 27
Sand cherry, a very uncommon species in Illinois RonPanzer
The gray foxes were on the prairie all the time,
although the first time Betz and Panzer saw them they
did not know what they were. They caught a glimpse
of a canid they suspected might be a coydog, a cross
between a dog and coyote. It took a second sighting
for them to realize they had a gray fox, a scarce animal
in these parts, much rarer than the red fox. Contin-
ued investigation revealed that the prairie shelters
two or three active dens.
The rarest creatures Panzer has discovered so far
are certain moths of the genus Papaipema. These are
borers, insects that lay their eggs in the stems and
roots of plants, and each species is dependent on a
particular host plant. The fortunes of the moths rise
and fall with the plants.
On the 100 acres of Gensburg-Markham, Panzer
has found nine species of Papaipema, each dependent
on a prairie plant, each rare because prairies are rare.
"This is almost unrivaled as far as our knowledge ex-
28 tends," he says, although he emphasizes that not
much work has been done with the genus.
Capturing moths means staying up most of the
night, so moth hunters need an occasional nap during
the day, which is why Panzer was asleep in the cab of
his pick-up on the September morning in 1984 when
Cal Barber drove up with news of what he thought
might be a previously undiscovered prairie west
of 1-57.
Barber had grown up in Markham. He attended
high school there and since graduation had been
working as a carpenter. He had no formal training in
botany beyond high school biology class, but he had a
good mind and a sharp eye. One day he noticed a
beautiful blue flower blooming in the field next to his
mother's house. He had never seen anything like it
before, so he called the Morton Aboretum, where he
was referred to Floyd Swink.
From Barber's description, Swink realized that
the plant was a fringed gentian, a flower that you are
unlikely to find in your average weedy vacant lot. He
Papaipema beeriana. This rare midwestern prairie moth feeds on
blazing Star. Ron Panzer
came out and looked over the land and realized that
Barber had discovered a prairie that had completely
escaped the notice of all the authorities up until then.
Panzer knew nothing of this when Barber woke
him from his nap. Panzer had encountered such peo-
ple before, people who wanted him to come see their
prairies. He preferred to turn them down because
their prairies usually turned out to be fields full of
introduced plants such as Queen Anne's lace and he
didn't relish the job of telling them that their prairies
were actually just weedy meadows.
"I'm busy," he told Barber.
"No you're not," Barber responded. "You're just
sleeping in your truck."
So Panzer followed Cal Barber to his find and,
like Swink, immediately realized that the field was in-
deed a previously unknown bit of prairie.
The discovery came at a critical time in the life
of Cal Barber. He had been drifting. Married and the
father of two children, he was recently divorced. He
had come home to his mother's house because his doc-
tor had told him he had cancer and could no longer
work. At a moment when he could have given up and
just waited for death, he had found something to give
his life a focus. He had a cause that could harness
energies he may not have known he had. He resolved
to save all the remaining prairie lands in Markham.
The obstacles were formidable. The board of
directors of the Illinois chapter of the Nature Con-
servancy had formally declared that its Markham
prairie project was over. The long, complex, frustrat-
ing, expensive process of acquiring 300 lots on the
Gensburg preserve had been so difficult that the orga-
nization didn't want more of the same. The Con-
servancy was also unwilling to buy land if there was
nobody available to manage it properly.
And then there was the city of Markham itself.
Markham is not one of the richer suburbs, and the
idea of removing a couple of hundred more acres from
the tax rolls might meet with some opposition.
Barber went to work on both fronts. Tooling
around town in a pick-up truck bearing a bumper
sticker that read "Ask me about my prairie," he be-
came the functional equivalent of a precinct captain,
ringing doorbells on behalf of an ecosystem instead of
a candidate. He sat in living rooms all over town,
talking to people one or two at a time, telling anyone
who would listen about the treasure hidden in these
vacant lots.
He began to get support. Many people who had
grown up in Markham had played in those prairies. As
adults, they still enjoyed the flowers. They may not
have known of the significance of this land, but they
were prepared to hear about it and respond positively.
Byssus skipper on purple prairie clover. This butterfly is rare in
Illinois prairies. Ron Panzer
29
The Friends of the Indian Boundary Prairies —
they adopted the name because the boundary line set
down in an old treaty between the U.S. and the Pota-
watomi Indians runs right through the archipelago —
became fixtures at public meetings, lobbying the
politicians, convincing the community that the high-
est and best use of this land was as a nature preserve, a
preserve that would enhance the quality of life for the
residents and, incidentally, attract outsiders who
might spend a few bucks during their visit.
The Friends also began the job of stewardship on
the prairies. Vacant land in urban areas attracts junk
as surely as flowers attract bees, so the first job was to
gather the old roofing shingles, broken-up pieces of
concrete, and just plain garbage that littered the
prairies. City trucks from Markham and the neigh-
boring city of Midlothian carried off the collected
garbage.
The Friends were effective enough to gain the
support of city government. Evans Miller, the mayor
of Markham, became one of their most enthusiastic
backers. The city council voted in favor of setting the
prairies aside as nature preserves.
They also swayed the Nature Conservancy,
which decided to reopen its Markham file after the
Friends demonstrated their ability to care for the land.
The Conservancy, the City of Markham, and the
county worked out a three-way arrangement for the
acquisition of the new lands. Almost all the property
was tax delinquent, so the county agreed to buy it for
the cost of the unpaid taxes. The land would then be
deeded to the city of Markham, which would sell it to
the highest bidder, provided that the bidder agreed to
dedicate it as an Illinois Nature Preserve, a stipulation
that pretty well eliminated any bidders but the Nature
Conservancy.
So once again, the Conservancy found itself
neck-deep in paper, but this time there was a major
difference. The Friends of the Indian Boundary
Prairies rounded up volunteers to spend days in the
offices of the Conservancy's law firm tracking down
the last known owners of the more than 750 lots in-
volved in the transaction. The volunteers compiled
tax histories and also recorded the legal description of
each property. Paralegal work of this kind is usually
billed at $50 an hour. At that rate, the volunteers do-
nated the equivalent of $20,000 to the task. Things
have indeed changed since Robert Betz caught the
prairie fever 30 years ago.
And now on May 23, the National Park Service
recognized the extraordinary quality of these lands
and dedicated the Markham Prairies as a National
Natural Landmark.
The one sad note in this is that Cal Barber did
not live to see his hard work come to success. He died
of cancer in 1986 at the age of 35. He spent the last
painful months of his life surveying populations of rare
plants on his prairies. Fli
Aphrodite fritillary on butterfly weed. RonPanze-
30
FIELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
An Extraordinary
Exploration of China
September 14-October 5, 1988
Antarctica — Discovering the Antarctic
Peninsula, Strait of
Magellan, Tierra del Fuego, and Cape Horn
aboard the "llliria "
February 17-23, 1989
Kenya/Tanzania Safari
February 11 -Marcn 3, 1989
Egypt
Includes 5-day Nile Cruise
January 25-February 1 1 , 1989
Galapagos Islands
March 3-14, 1989
31
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2499
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FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BUL
September 1988
*./
ER HOURS: FILMS AT THE FIELD
Featuring Japanese and Chinese Films
In September and October
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Boardof Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
WillardL. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Gadieux
Worley H.Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley 11
Thomas]. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kotar
Hugo J. Melvoin
LeoF. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
Mrs. James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Gxik
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
J . Howard Wood
CONTENTS
September 1988
Volume 59, Number 8
SEPTEMBER EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3
ON THE TRAIL OF ERIK THE RED IN ICELAND
By Wendell H. Oswalt 6
THE A. B. LEWIS COLLECTION FROM MELANESIA:
75 YEARS LATER
By Robert L. Welsch, Research Associate in Anthropology . . 10
NEW BRITAIN NOTEBOOK
By A. B. Lewis 16
DISTILLING THE TRUTH ABOUT ETHANOL
By Larry Dombrowski 29
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS 31
COVER
The camera lens of Chicago nature photographer Laszlo Nagy
observed this familiar summer scene: a bumblebee visiting one of
his favorite wildflowers, the thistle.
VOLUNTEER AT FIELD MUSEUM
Learn something new or share your expertise —
a wide variety of challenging and rewarding
volunteer opportunities for either weekdays or
weekends are currently available. Please call
the Volunteer Coordinator at (312) 922-9410,
extension 360, for more information.
Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-24%.
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily retlect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: ( 3 1 2 > 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, Illinois and
additional mailing office.
ADULT COURSES
Adult courses begin again in late September, offering an exciting selection of programs featuring Chinese popular art, scientific
illustration. Indian beadwork, and much more! To register, use coupon below. For further information, please call (312)322-8854.
Indian History of the Western Great Lakes
Compared to other aspects of American history, little is known of
the history of the Great Lakes Indians. Historians and scholars
are now paying closer attention to the Indian perspectives of
their own history. Explore these perspectives in a special six-
week series on the Indian history of the western Great Lakes.
September 27
□ An Overview of Indian History in the Western Great Lakes
Helen Hornbeck Tanner, Historian, D'Arcy McNickle Center for
the Study of the American Indian. Newberry Library
October 4
EH Frontier In Transition
Helen Hornbeck Tanner. Historian, D'Arcy McNickle Center for
the Study of the American Indian, Newberry Library
October 1 1
□ The Black Hawk War and the Removal Period
Nancy O. Lurie, Curator of Anthropology. Milwaukee Public
Museum
October 18
□ Distilled Knowledge in Indian Legends
Keewaydinoquay. Elder of the Anishnabeg. Ph.D. Candidate,
Department of Botany, University of Michigan
October 25
□ Chicago's Indian Community
Dorene Wiese, Dean of Administration, Truman College
November 1
□ Politics and the Future of Western Great Lakes Indians
George Cornell, Associate Professor, Native American Institute.
Michigan State University
Tuesdays, 7:00-9:00 p.m.: September 27-November 1
(6 sessions): $45 ($35 members) entire series. Single session
registration: $10 ($8 members).
Traditions in Japanese Art:
The Boone Collection
Focusing on selected objects on display in the Boone Exhibit,
explore issues, problems, ideas, and traditions in Japanese art.
Wednesday. 7:00-9:00 p.m.: September 28 (1 session):
$15 ($10 members).
Folktales from around the World
The drama and history of human life is preserved and retold
in language and culture. Each week, a different speaker looks
at varying themes of world folklore and oral tradition. Topics
include "The Female Hero in Folktales," "African and African-
American Folktales," and "Chicago Legends and the Modern
Urban Folktale."
Wednesdays. 7:00-9:00 p.m.: September 28-November 2
(6 sessions): $60 ($50 members).
Continued 0
ADULT COURSES
Registration
Be sure to complete all requested information on this
registration application. Adult course advance registrations
are confirmed by mail. For registrations received less than
two weeks before the class begins, confirmations are held at
the West Door on the first night of class. Phone registrations
are accepted for adult courses using Visa/MasterCard/Amx/
Discover. Please call (312) 322-8854 to register. For further
registration information, consult the September/October
Adult and Family Program Brochure.
Return complete registration with a self-
addressed stamped envelope to:
Field Museum of Natural History
Department of Education, Adult Programs
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2497
Name
Address
City
State
Zip
Telephone: Daytime Evening
□ Member □ Nonmember
American ExpressA/isa/MasterCard/Discover
Card Number
Signature
Expiration Date
Program
#Member
Tickets
#Nonmember
Tickets
Total
Tickets
Amount
Enclosed
Indian History Series
AC88301
Indian History (please
Single Session specify
AC88302 date)
Folktales
AC88309
Japanese Art
AC88306
□ Scholarship requested
Total
EDWARD E. AYER SERIES
Thursdays in September; beginning September 8; 1:30 p.m.
are served.
James Simpson Theatre. Lectures are free and refreshments
September 8
□ The Galapagos Islands
John Fitzpatrick, Chairman and Curator,
Department of Zoology, Field Museum
The Galapagos Islands hold a unique place in the history of biol-
ogy They are as important to scientific study today as they were
to Darwin in the 1850s. Examine what makes the Galapagos
such an important site to observe and study evolution in action.
September 15
L~3 The World of Gems
Tedd Payne, Graduate Gemologist
Gems have captured our hearts and minds for centuries. Look
at a wide variety of gem stones from around the world. Learn
where they come from, why stones vary in quality and how to
spot a good buy!
September 22
□ Wall Painting of Ancient Mexico
Donald McVicker, Associate Professor,
Department of Sociology and Anthropology,
North Central College
Teotihuacan was Mexico's greatest pre-Hispanic city. Its painted
walls remain one of the highest expressions of pre-Columbian
art. Teotihuacan's murals communicated royal and priestly mes-
sages to its vast population. Today these messages reveal the
social structure and values of a vanished civilization.
September 29
LJ Science in Soviet Museums
Matthew Nitecki, Curator, Department of
Geology, Field Museum
The nature of scientific research in Soviet museums is similar to
that in the great museums of the West. The structure of the sci-
entific community and the intellectual atmosphere are quite dif-
ferent. Dr. Nitecki looks at Soviet curators and their work at some
of the Soviet Union's major museums.
AFTER HOURS: FILMS AT THE FIELD
Fridays, September 9-October 14
West Entrance
Free!
Field Museum continues its series of films from around the world. Films from Japan are featured September 9-23, Chinese films
are highlighted September 30-October 1 4. Light fare and beverages are available before the films at the After Hours Cafe. Films
begin at 6:00 p.m. For more information call (312)322-8855.
JAPAN
□ September 9
Tampopo"
1987. 1 14 minutes. Color Director: Juzo Itami.
Japanese with English subtitles.
Tampopo is a zesty concoction of three themes: movies, sex,
and food — especially food. A tall, dark, cowboy-hatted stranger,
Goro, transforms an ordinary noodle shop owner, Tampopo, into
the queen of her noble profession. The film's "pot-luck" structure
continually spins off into parodies, vignettes, digressions, and
assorted tasty situations, all related to food and always returning
to the amusing tale of Goro and Tampopo.
□ September 16
"The Ballad of Narayama "
1983. 128 minutes. Color. Japan.
Director: Shohei Imanura.
Japanese with English subtitles.
Set in northern Japan a century ago, The Ballad of Narayama
depicts one of the most astonishing of Japanese legends. The
laws of an isolated and impoverished village require that upon
reaching the age of 70, its residents must climb to the top of
Narayama Mountain and wait to die. The film depicts Orin, an
aging matriarch, whose time to meet the gods is approaching.
With courage, intelligence, and a youthful vitality, she prepares
for her death by assuring her family will survive.
D September 23
"Demon Pond"
1980. 123 minutes. Color. Japan.
Director: Masahiro Shinoda
Japanese with English subtitles.
In a remote region of Japan in 1933, three people's lives inter-
sect around an ancient legend: that Demon Pond is inhabited by
a trapped spirit, and that if certain rituals are not carried out, the
spirit will break loose. Shinoda's fable is based on the Kwaidan
tradition of exquisite Japanese ghost stories, with its own auda-
cious mix of offbeat elements. Hyper-intense colors, fairy tale
sets, and a ghostly atmosphere all lead to a sensational climax.
CHINA
□ September 30
"In The Wild Mountains"
1986. 105 minutes. Color. China.
Director: Yan Xueshu.
Mandarin Chinese with English subtitles.
This comedy set in the remote Qinling mountains is about two
couples trying to cope with China's economic reform. Huihui is
content with his simple life as a farmer; but his brother, Hehe,
who has served in the army, wants to change his fate and strike
it rich. Their wives, equally disgruntled with their chosen mates,
find solace in their brothers-in-law. In the end there are two new
couples.
□ October 14
"Black Cannon Incident"
1985. 107 minutes. Color. China.
Director: Huang Jianxin
Mandarin Chinese with English subtitles.
Typical of the new direction in Chinese filmmaking, Black
Cannon deals with subjects and issues heretofore not present in
Chinese films. This farce is about a misplaced chess piece. And
when its owner, a well-educated engineer, attempts to find it by
sending a telegram, the operator suspects it is a secret code,
and here the farce begins.
Scene from "Tampopo," showing Friday, Sept. 9.
Scene from "Demon Pond," showing Friday, Sept. 23.
□ October 7
"Yellow Earth"
1984. 94 minutes. Color. China.
Director: Chen Kaige.
Mandarin Chinese with English subtitles.
Set in the steppes of China's northern provinces in the late thir-
ties, a young soldier in Mao's army visits a remote village as he
collects folksongs. In the village he is put in with one of the poor-
est families, a taciturn widower and his teenage daughter and
son. The daughter is sold into marriage with a much older man
and the soldier's talk of breaking with feudal tradition fills her
with unrealistic hopes of escape. Yellow Earth is the first film
of a new Chinese cinema with its roots in Chinese painting
and music, and not the formula propaganda of the last
three decades.
On the Trail
Of Erik the Red
In Iceland
by Wendell H.Oswalt
photos by the author
As a modern nation, Iceland is distinguished in
many ways apart from its less-than-inviting
name. Geologically, the only place the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge rises to the earth's surface is in Iceland,
and here too is the geyser that was so named before any
others. Politically, the country had the world's first
commonwealth government and, economically, it was
the only European nation to become modern without
the pangs of industrialization. In literature, Icelandic
poetry and sagas are the most substantial extant writ-
ings in an old Germanic language. Yet, Iceland is little
known among most Americans except in one respect:
Americans generally are familiar with the adventures
of Erik the Red and his son, Leif Eriksson, through
reading either history books or sagas. Both are known
because of their participation in the earliest European
explorations in North America.
In outline, the discoveries of Erik and his son have
been well recorded. They sailed from Iceland, possibly
in the year A.D. 982, and explored southwestern
Greenland, where they remained for three years. After
returning to Iceland for one winter, they sailed back,
this time with other ships, to settle the newfound land.
From Greenland, Leif sailed to the eastern shores of
Canada, where he founded at least one settlement, and
in subsequent years other parties ventured from Green-
land to the same region. These bold voyages and their
aftermath are well known compared with earlier
aspects of the life of Erik the Red, those that led to his
departure from Iceland. Here I will focus on Erik's
background, the sites in Iceland associated with him,
and the reasons for his voyages.
Reports about events and the locale in which they
are thought to have occurred are based primarily on
two books written originally in Old Icelandic. The
accuracy of both is marred by the mingling of historical
particulars with fabrications and errors in frustrating
combination. Yet, some specifics in these books have
been verified, and modern scholars continue to strive
to distinguish fact from error and fancy. The first per-
tinent work is the Book of Icelanders, by Ari Thorgils-
son the Learned (1068-1148). This short study, written
between 1122 and 1133, is primarily a synopsis of early
Icelandic history and institutions. The Book of Iceland-
ers generally is considered a trustworthy source because
the author states that he obtained the information from
those persons described or from their immediate and
reliable descendants. The same Ari is thought to be the
author, or one of several authors, of the second source,
the Book of Settlements, which in its original form also
dates from the early twelfth century. This volume is the
only detailed account about the founding of any Euro-
pean nation. The biographical sketches, genealogies,
and geographical place names provide a wealth of de-
tails for the period of settlement. Some information
Wendell H. Oswalt is a professor of anthropology at the Univer-
sity of California, Los Angeles.
BSHHPHHMBHHnHranBBHnSHHMn
-.._-. .■^•.,j-« .
Erik the Red may have been born at Drangar on Snaefellsness Penin- his later life. A modern farm and the Drangar rocks in the background
sula in western Iceland; he clearly was identified with the locality in mark the locale today.
— "St*
An imaginative illustration of Erik the Red appears in a book about
Greenland published in 1688.
Field Museum Library possesses a facsimile edition of
the largest and best preserved of the Icelandic man-
uscripts, the Flatey (Flat Island) Book (London,
1908). This codex, dating from the last two decades of
the fourteenth century, is a compilaton from various
sagas and includes, in the saga of Olaf Tryggvason, the
tale of Erik the Red (in three chapters) and the tale of
the Greenlanders (in seven chapters). This copy, the
gift of Archives of American Art (1987), includes the
manuscript facsimile, the text in Icelandic, and Dan-
ish and English translations. It may be consulted in the
Library's Reading Room.
In the foreground to the right of a modern "summer house" are the
reported ruins of Eriksstead in Haukadale. Across the river is the farm
of Saurstadir, and in the draw to the left Eyjolf Saur is said to have
been killed by Erik, which led to his banishment from Haukadale. <*<
In the foreground, where the people are standing, are the reported
ruins of the original farmhouse at Valthjolfsstead. It was from the
mountains behind this flat land that Erik's slaves caused a landslide,
which was the first episode in the events leading to Erik's banishment
from Haukadale. ■»•
ICELAND
0 K) 20 30 <0 50 SO 70 60 90
clearly is valid, some is imaginative, and other portions
are erroneous. The original text probably was more
accurate, but it has not survived. Although a few pages
of early copies have been identified, most versions were
written many hundreds of years after the original book
had been completed. We must depend on copies made
from one of the later versions, and because they were
copied and recopied, sometimes with the text
intentionally modified or expanded, there was ample
opportunity for mistakes to become part of the final
text. The sagas do not figure prominently in this analy-
sis because information in them about Erik the Red's
life in Iceland seems to have been based largely on the
Book of Settlements, and thus they perpetuate the truths
or errors found in this source book.
According to the sources used, the first Norse set-
tlers, who landed in Iceland in the 870s, met men
identified as "Papar," who clearly were Irish
monks; the Irish long had known about the island and
had sailed there repeatedly over many years. With the
Norse arrival the Papar left, reportedly "because they
did not wish to live together with heathen men." Most
of the early Norse settlers came from Norway and were
drawn by the availability of free land, but a large num-
ber came to escape the tyranny of Harald Finehair. He
ruled for a time as a lesser king in southern Norway, but
by the 870s he was succeeding in subjugating the rest of
the country. Those who refused to accept his domi-
nance and felt that resistance was futile left to begin life
anew on the British Isles, with which they already were
familiar, or on the recently discovered island called Ice-
land. The ambition and expanding power of Harald
Finehair thus provided the motivation for many Norse
to leave their homeland within a comparatively short
period and to relocate in Iceland with others of similar
persuasion. This period, called the Age of Settlement,
lasted from ca. 870 to 930, and it was during the latter
years that the father of Erik the Red arrived and sought
land.
As the life of Erik the Red is reconstructed, pub-
lished interpretations by the Icelandic historian Olafur
Halldorsson, are especially valuable. The birthplace of
Erik the Red is the first critical issue. The Book of Settle-
Continued on p. 24
The A.B. Lewis Collection from Melanesia
- 75 Years Later
by Robert L. Welsch
Dr. A. B. Lewis in German New Guinea, 1910. 33645
10
The notion that Museum Collections are little more
than odd assortments of exotic curios remains, un-
fortunately, a common one. For those who continue to
see museums in this way, artifacts may be pretty to look
at, possibly even interesting, but these objects are
nonetheless just the odds-and-ends relics of nearly for-
gotten cultures.
Such a view, however, is out of sync with the new
look in museums, and it is certainly not the case with
Field Museum's outstanding anthropology holdings.
During a year and a half of research on Field
Museum's South Pacific collections, the value of this
material for understanding traditional Melanesian
societies has been repeatedly brought home to me
while poring over more than a thousand pages of field
diaries, expedition photographs, field sketches, and
the expedition correspondence of Albert Buell Lewis
(1867-1940), who served Field Museum as an anthro-
pology curator from 1908 until his death.
Now yellowed from the 75 years they have sat in
the Anthropology Department Archives, these docu-
ments were made during a Field Museum expedition to
Melanesia (which includes New Guinea, New Britain,
the Admiralty Islands, the Solomon Islands, New
Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Fiji). Lewis's notes chronicle
the day-by-day experiences of an anthropologist con-
ducting field research in a region that was little known
and poorly explored. They tell how and why he made
his remarkable collection and provide a wealth of back-
ground information about the 12,000 artifacts he col-
lected and the nearly 2,000 photographs he took (and
Robert L. Welsch is a research associate in the Department
of Anthropology and has studied the A. B. Lewis Collection
for the past 18 months in an effort to update documentation
of the collection and to assess the collection's potential for
further systematic study. Research support from the Thomas
J. Dee Fund and the Walgreen Company is gratefully
acknowledged. Together with anthropology curators John E.
Terrell and Phillip H. Lewis, Dr. Welsch's work with the
collection is intended to lay the groundwork for new field
studies in Papua New Guinea — "In the Footsteps of A. B.
Lewis."
developed) during the Joseph N. Field South Pacific
Expedition of 190943.
A casual look at this inconspicuous stack of
pocket-sized notebooks, with their faint, scribbled
notes, gives no hint of the treasure of detailed informa-
tion these pages contain.
But sorting through these notes, expedition diar-
ies, and letters is like discovering a Rosetta Stone for
interpreting and studying the thousands of objects A.
B. Lewis collected. They are truly unique — the only
documents by an American describing many parts of
Melanesia as they were before World War I.
The A. B. Lewis Collection contains thousands of
masks, carvings, and ornamented objects that have
extraordinary aesthetic value as fine examples of primi-
tive art. But the value of this collection for understand-
ing Melanesian peoples and the societies in which they
lived is immeasurably increased by Lewis's observations
preserved in his notebooks and letters.
Without these notes, the research value of his
collection would be minimal — they would be little
more than curiosities made of bark, grass, wood, bone,
and shell. It is this combination of artifacts, photo-
graphs, and documentation that makes Field Museum's
collection one of the world's two great Melanesian col-
lections (the other being at the Museum fur Volker-
kunde in Berlin).
The Joseph N. Field South Pacific Expedition
In the spring of 1909, Albert B. Lewis, then assistant
curator of African and Melanesian ethnology at Field
Museum, set off from Chicago on the Joseph N. Field
South Pacific Expedition. This enterprise would keep
him overseas for nearly four years on a research odyssey
to virtually every accessible corner of Melanesia and
several parts of Polynesia. It was an epic journey
through a region which was one of the least known and
most poorly explored parts of the world. It was also a
journey that would make Lewis the first American
anthropologist ever to conduct extensive, long-term
field research in New Guinea — nearly twenty years be-
fore Margaret Mead's more famous sojourn to the
Admiralty Islands.
When he returned to Chicago in the spring of
1913, Lewis had acquired what is still the largest collec-
tion of Melanesian art and material culture ever made
by a single collector. It is also one of the most systema-
tic Melanesian collections in existence.
Like many other Field Museum expeditions before
World War I, the Joseph N. Field Expedition was
mounted to collect material for the Museum's rapidly
growing ethnological collections. When founded in
1893, Field Museum fell heir to many of the objects
exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition. But
then, to establish a "great museum" on par with older
museums in New York and Washington required much
more extensive collections, with better documenta-
tion.
Man of Ross Island.
11
Men of Ruoto Island. 31906
12
Toward this end, Chief Curator of Anthropology
George A. Dorsey organized a vigorous program of
Museum expeditions, sending his assistant curators to
the far corners of the globe to build collections that
would rival those of better known museums. Other
Chicagoans shared Dorsey 's vision and when he sought
financial support for these expeditions Chicago's lead-
ing citizens were ready to assist. Within less than twen-
ty years, Field Museum's anthropology holdings had
achieved world-class status, the Pacific collections be-
ing one of the most outstanding.
When Dorsey nominated A. B. Lewis, his newest
assistant curator, to lead an expedition to New Guinea
and the Melanesian islands, Lewis had never before
conducted any extended field research. Nevertheless,
Lewis proved to be a remarkably able and successful
field researcher. He sent back more than 300 crates of
specimens that took nearly five years to catalog, more
than doubling the Museum's already sizable holdings
from Melanesia.
Besides the carvings, masks, and other highly de-
corated objects once used in the elaborate rituals of
Melanesian peoples, the A. B. Lewis Collection also
contains many thousands of more mundane objects in
daily use: wooden bowls, knives, bags, arrows, spears,
clubs, headrests, pots, clothing, ornaments, and the
like — objects representing a way of life that has now
largely vanished after two world wars and three quar-
ters of a century of economic, political, and social
development.
Lewis's primary objective during the expedition
was to collect ethnological material that could be used
in the Museum's exhibit halls. But as an anthropologist
trained by Franz Boas at Columbia University, he had
much broader goals for his field research. He became
fascinated with indigenous Melanesian technology, the
ways material culture was made and used, the unex-
pected volume of trade between villages, and the many
variations in styles and designs from one area to
another.
Men from Kamangaro. 31969
Lewis knew these societies would face many
changes in the future and he made a concerted effort to
document their art and material culture as completely
as possible in his collection, his photographs, and his
field notes. He attempted to obtain a representative
sample of the local material culture in each of the hun-
dreds of villages he visited. He acquired many examples
of the same kinds of objects in order to show the many
variations in design and form, especially regional
variations.
His research strategy was surprisingly modern, and
his letters and diaries make it clear that he intended his
collection (together with his notes and photographs)
to be a long-lasting resource for future researchers.
Using the A. B. Lewis Collection for Modern Research
But despite the unique importance of the A. B. Lewis
materials, they are known in depth by only a handful of
scholars. In part, this reflects a number of changes in
anthropological research that began in the 1920s and
1930s. In the years between the wars, anthropologists
shifted their interests from comparative studies of
material culture to intensive field work in particular
communities. These field studies examined the social,
economic, and religious lives of tribal peoples through
what has been called participant observation, a
research method that blends direct observation, inter-
views, and participation in the daily lives of the people
whose society and culture are being investigated.
These ethnographic studies are the hallmark of
modern anthropology and have undeniably enriched
our understanding of how these societies function and
the ways individuals maneuver within the social con-
ventions prescribed by their culture.
But such studies have tended to concentrate on
individual communities, ignoring the regional systems
of which these communities are a part. At the same
time, the emphasis on ethnographic field studies has
led anthropologists to disregard museum research as
only narrowly concerned with primitive technology,
art styles, and decorative motifs.
Our current research with the A. B. Lewis Collec-
13
14
Kaman, Lewis's field assistant, wearing cloth lap-lap and belt. 31978
Mother with child. Kamangaro. 31968
tion is an attempt to bridge the gap between these two
kinds of research by combining museum-based research
with intensive field studies. We are planning a new
expedition to New Guinea — "In the Footsteps of A. B.
Lewis" — to gather new information from many of the
same communities he visited more than 75 years ago.
This research literally picks up where Lewis left off by
refocusing our attention on regional trade networks
and the cultural variation they generated.
This innovative program will use the artifacts
Lewis collected (along with the information he
gathered) to guide our investigation of modern
research problems about the regional trade networks
that linked small, autonomous communities speaking
dozens of different languages. The challenge of this
research is to show how Field Museum's collections can
provide new insights into old problems using modern
research strategies.
House where A. B. Lewis slept, Ross Island. 31909
An Example from A. B. Lewis's Field Notes
During the course of deciphering and identifying the
contents of Lewis's diaries, notes, and letters, I came
across a handwritten manuscript in a tiny blue note-
book, published here for the first time as "New Britain
Notebook." Several times earlier I had opened it and
read scattered passages to confirm how its contents re-
lated to Lewis's travels in New Britain. But I had
wrongly assumed that these were drafts of rough notes
later copied into his expedition diaries.
Only after I had transcribed and typed several
pages of the text did I recognize that far from being
rough notes, the text was a short essay describing an
encounter of first contact with several of the scattered
groups living in the interior along New Britain's south
coast.
The manuscript was written in the spring or sum-
mer of 1910, while Lewis was in German New Guinea
(now part of Papua New Guinea). Although its origi-
nal purpose is not certain, it was probably the first draft
of a report sent to Museum Director F. J. V. Skiff. The
editorial changes, scratched out lines, and words in-
serted into the text on the original make it clear that A.
B. Lewis had intended this essay — unlike his field diar-
ies— to be a finished piece of prose in its own right.
It 'describes the first of several experiences with
Melanesians who had never before seen a white man,
and it offers a feel for the difficulties Lewis encountered
throughout his long years of field research. Lewis had
not come to Melanesia as an explorer, but he was de-
lighted to make contact with previously unknown
groups. And as he shows us, he was pleased to be the
first to discover a native blow-gun east of Indonesia.
With remarkable foresight, Lewis captured and
preserved a large piece of the history of Melanesian
societies, much of it preserved nowhere else. His work
passes on a responsibility to those of us who follow to
continue the research he began nearly 80 year? jgo.
New Britain Notebook
by A.B. Lewis
photos by the author
The Beginning of the Year found me at Arawe, a
remote station and plantation belonging to E. E. For-
sayth situated at Cape Merkus, on the south coast of
New Britain, about 100 miles from its western extrem-
ity. Here lived the only white man on the entire south
coast of New Britain. On the Liebliche Inseln (Lovely
Islands) lying just off Cape Merkus were the most
important and largest native villages for many miles
along the coast, and the chief of one of these, Pelilo,
claimed jurisdiction over about 100 miles of coast line.
With Arawe as a center many trips were made to the
native villages, and the following gives some incidents
of an 8 day boat trip along the coast to the east for about
30 miles.
The nephew of the chief had been secured as
interpreter, and with a crew of 5 native "boys" and my
two personal attendants we left Arawe on the morning
of January 3, 1910. We had a 4 oared boat, also supplied
with mast and sail, which the crew, of course, much
preferred as a means of progress, only taking to the oars
when absolutely necessary. After a sail of about 3 hours
we arrived at the first settlement we wished
to visit.
The coast here consisted of an almost per-
16 mmmt^mm
Boys at Pelilo. 31962
Canoe with outrigger. Ruoto Island. 31904
pendicular cliff of coarse rock, from 200 to 300 feet
high, with at places a narrow strip of sandy beach. On
one of these, somewhat wider than usual, were a few
houses or huts, and here we landed. We received a cor-
dial welcome, as our interpreter was well known, and
the natives were quite anxious to exchange their
possessions for the European articles which we had
with us. As it was near noon, a plentiful supply of taro
was purchased for the boys, and dinner was soon ready.
This settlement was very small, consisting of three
family houses, and one men's house, where the boys
and unmarried men sleep. There were other settle-
ments on top of the cliffs, however, where the country
was fairly level, and the natives had extensive taro
fields, so we decided to stop a while, and go on top and
have a look around. We had to follow the beach for
some way before we came to a place where we could
ascend. On the way we passed a place where the cliff
overhung somewhat, and in this rock shelter, with only
the additional protection of a slight palm-leaf wind
break, a couple of families had taken up their adobe,
the women being engaged in cooking as we passed by.
The path to the top of the cliff was in places
almost perpendicular and required the use of hands as
well as feet. The country on top was covered with the
dense tropical forest, through which our path wound
for a mile or more before reaching a clearing with two
or three houses.
There was little of interest here, so we passed on,
and in the next 3 or 4 miles found 3 more small settle-
ments, the last of which we reached just in time to
avoid a thorough soaking from a heavy tropical shower.
The shower was over in about an hour, but it was now
time to go back, as I had no desire to descend that cliff
after dark. We reached the beach safely about sun-
down, and made arrangements to stay here for the
night. As it is liable to rain here most anytime, a roof is
a good thing to have over one and so the natives were
induced to vacate the best of their houses where my cot
was set up, while the "boys" slept on the floor. In this
house the floor was raised about 3 foot from the ground,
while in all the others the ground was the sole floor.
The roofs, of palm leaf thatch, are perfectly water tight
when in good repair. It is perhaps needless to say that
they are not always in good repair, as I found out to my
sorrow on more than one occasion. Our sleep this
night, however, was undisturbed — luckily there were
no mosquitos — and shortly after sun-rise our things
17
Dancers, New Year's Day 1910. Arawe. 31920
18
were all in the boat and we were again on our way.
Here occurred an incident which may be regarded
as illustrating either native honesty, or fear of the white
man's power, for the government makes itself felt even
in this out of the way place. The day before, while wait-
ing at the furtherest settlement, I had had occasion to
use my pocket knife, and had very carelessly stuck it in
the center post of the building, thinking I would use it
again and had finally gone away and forgotten all about
it. The evening before I had discovered my loss, and
sent word with one of the natives who had come to the
beach to carry some of my purchases, that they should
bring the knife to me at the beach, early next morning,
as it was then nearly dark. The next morning shortly
before we were ready to leave a native from the further
settlement came with the knife, reporting that it had
been found on the ground at the foot of the post, and
had not been noticed till I sent word to return it. As I
had no other pocket knife with me, I was glad to get it,
tho I had hardly expected to see it again, and the native
was duly rewarded.
For 3 hours we sailed along the high rocky shore,
occasionally we could see the tops of a few cocoanut
trees on the heights above, indicating human habita-
Warrior with shield and spear. Cape Merkus. 3190
tion. Once the settlement was so close to the edge of
the cliff that no trees intervened, and we could see the
natives, who were busy building a new house. In a few
places the beach below was wide enough for a few trees
and some vegetation, and in such places one or two
native huts were frequently seen.
About 10 A.M. we reached a larger settlement
than usual, and here landed and stayed till after noon,
when we continued on our journey. It was not long till a
heavy shower came up, and the rain poured. The wind
was luckily from behind, and so hurried us on our
course, so that by the time the storm was over we had
reached another settlement of considerable size. Here
the language was quite different from that at Cape Mer-
kus, and I found many things of interest. We decided to
stop for the night at a village we could see a short dis-
tance further on, but it proved to be further than it
looked, as to avoid the reefs we had to make a wide
circuit. There are dangerous reefs all along this coast,
but my interpreter was familiar with them, so we got
along very well.
Here we stayed that night, as well as the following
day and night. During the day we visited some other
settlement near by, and inspected their taro fields on
the heights above, when we also shot some pigeons to
replenish our larder. We found the people here living in
constant dread of an attack by the interior or "bush"
people, with whom they were at war, if the state of
perpetual hostility in which many of these people live
can be called war. Our "boys" were so frightened that
several sat up most of the night, one at least keeping
watch the whole time with loaded rifle.
From this place to Moewe Hafen, about 15 miles,
there were no settlements on the coast, the bush people
making that part of the coast untenable. We arrived at
the chief village in Moewe Hafen on the afternoon of
19
20
January 6th, just in time to escape another downpour.
In this vicinity we remained for three days, visiting the
different coast villages, and also making two trips to
two settlements of an interior tribe, which here main-
tained friendly relations with the coast villages. This
"hush" people was different, both in language and cus-
toms, from the hostile tribe to the west. This was
apparently the first time these people had seen a white
man.
I always made it a point to inquire at every place
what villages existed in the neighborhood, and what
places I might be able to visit. After several inquiries
I at last found out from one of the chief men of one of
the villages near Moewe Hafen, where we had first
stopped that there did exist a small settlement of bush
people with whom they had intercourse, and which it
was possible to visit, as it could be reached in two or
three hours from his place; so I prevailed upon him to
go with us, both as guide and interpreter, and especially
to assure the people of our friendliness, for otherwise
even if we could find the place, they would all run
away.
The following day we set out early, and after row-
ing across to the mainland, for the village was on an
island, we left some of the men with the boat; and set
out with our guide and a few followers, along a rather
poor trail, for the place we were seeking. After over an
hour's steady marching, during which we ascended to
the high plateau along the coast, our guide cautioned
us to be very quiet, as we were nearing the place. Short-
ly after, we stopped on the trail and waited in silence
while he went forward to warn the people of our pres-
ence and prevent them from running away. After
about 10 minutes he returned, and told us we could
proceed. We soon reached a clearing, and after crossing
a field of taro, were led to a house where we found four
men waiting for us. They received us in a very friendly
manner, and I was soon looking round the house,
which was similar to those on the coast. I soon found an
object which attracted my attention. It was a slender
stick of hard wood nearly 3 feet long, pointed at one
end, and with a bunch of feathers at the other. It
looked very much like the arrow of a blow-gun, but I
had never heard of a blow-gun in this region. The blow-
gun, however, was soon discovered, and one of the na-
tives kindly illustrated its use, so there could he no
doubt about it. The tube was about 15 feet long, made
of 6 pieces of a light bamboo about an inch in diameter.
I succeeded in obtaining one, and as it was so long as to
be unwieldy, took it apart in the middle. The joint was
very carefully made. The end of one piece was inserted
in the other, which had first been carefully split into a
number of narrow strips, a tightly wrapped rattan band
Wrapping mashed taro in leaves for cooking.
PelilO. 31958
Making a coconut water bottle. Pelilo. 31963
preventing the splits from extending more than about 2
inches. The joint was then wrapped with leaves which
were covered and held in place with a sticky gum. This
made the joint perfectly air tight, and over the whole
was a close wrapping of fine rattan completely covering
and hiding the leaves, and giving the whole quite a
neat appearance. All the pieces were evidently joined
together in the same manner.
Most of the other things seen about the house
were much the same as those I had seen before. This
was the men's house, and as I had seen no other, I asked
if I could see the family or woman's house. They replied
that these were a "long way," too far for me to go. I had
a strong suspicion that this was not the case, but after
going out and looking around I could see nothing of
them. One of my boys, however, who had also been
keeping a look out, told me there was a house just be-
hind some bushes near by. The chief man of the place
was close to me, and I asked that he go with me to look
at the house, as I did not wish to offend them by going
by myself, when they might imagine I was into mis-
chief. So we went toward the house, which had a
covered space in front, where there were several piles of
taro and a good fire on which a number of taro were
cooking.
After looking around here a little, I turned to look
for my companion, but found that he had suddenly dis-
appeared. I went around to the other side of the house,
where there was a door and met one of my boys who
told me that he had just seen him disappearing into the
bush, with a number of things which he had taken from
the house. The boy also showed me a nice ornament
which the man had just given him, apparently as a
bribe to let him get away. By this time all the other local
natives had disappeared too, so the place was deserted
except for ourselves. Our guide called out to them and
tried to induce some to return, but in vain. As nothing
more could be done, we started to return, when two of
the natives joined us, and said they would accompany
us to the boats.
21
Family house at Amklok. 31933
22
On the way one of the natives disappeared for a
short time, but soon returned with a cockatoo, which
he said he had shot with his blow-gun. We reached the
boats in safety, and the 2 natives saw us off. The chief,
however, was not again seen, tho he had promised to
come to the boat to get payment for an ornament,
which I wished to buy, as I did not have with me the
articles which he wished in exchange.
I continued to inquire of the coast native if there
was not another settlement of bush people which I
could visit, but could hear of none till the next day, in
another village. I was told of one which I might be able
to reach, tho it lay at a greater distance, and in an en-
tirely different direction. I finally found a couple of
men who said they knew the trail.
One of them could speak the languages and they
were willing to accompany me, so the following day we
set out. We had a long row to reach the place where we
left the boat, and then a 3 hour march through the
forest, where in most places my eye could not discover a
sign of a trail, and even my guides lost it two or three
times.
At last we came near to the place, and then came
the same suspense as before, while our guide went for-
ward to announce our coming. The wait was longer
than before, for we were on the edge of extensive taro
fields, and it took some time to find any one, but at last
we were told to come on. We crossed one large taro
field, climbing a very substantial fence on each side,
erected to keep out the wild pigs. We then crossed a
small stream, and climbed over a fence into another
taro field, on the far side of which soon saw a peculiar
structure. The fence was everywhere else about 5 feet
high, strongly made of poles laid horizontally on top of
each other, held in place by upright posts on each side,
bound to each other with rattan. In front of us, how-
ever, appeared a peculiar barricade like structure, con-
tinuous with the fence on each side, at least 10 feet
Men of Kumbum. 31946
Men's house at Kauutumate. 31953
high and 20 feet long, with a small opening or door in
the center. On passing through this door, the front of
the house appeared about 20 foot away. The house was
the same as we had seen before.
Here also blow-gun and arrows were seen. The
men were friendly, but I did not inquire for the family
houses, and they were not to be seen. We were in no
way prepared to stay over night, even if we had been
allowed to do so. We had a long journey before us and
dangerous reefs to pass before we could reach the vil-
lage where we were stopping, so our visit could not be
of long duration. We soon were hastening back
through a pouring rain, and finally reached our stop-
ping place, just as night closed down. We found that
the villagers had done their best to prepare us a bounti-
ful repast, even if in native style, and we were quite
ready to appreciate it.
Unfortunately my time was limited as I had to be
back before the time arrived, so I was unable to see
more of these interesting and practically unknown
people.
23
Ornamental tree and young coconuts in an enclosure to keep pigs
OUt. PelilO. 31957
ERIK con 't from p. 9
ments states that a man named Thorvald Asvaldsson
left Norway "along with Erik the Red, his son, because
of killings they were involved in, and they took posses-
sion of land in the Hornstrands. They made their home
at Drangar, where Thorvald died." According to this
text Erik would have been youthful when he and his
father migrated to the northwestern sector of Iceland.
The same source reports that after his father's death,
Erik married Thjodhild, whose family lived at Hauka-
dale, a valley at the eastern end of Breidafjord. Erik
settled near the home of his father-in-law at a locale
called Eriksstead. These particulars are straightforward
in this report and are repeated in all of the standard
accounts about the life of Erik. Notwithstanding, Hall-
dorsson suggests an alternative as more reasonable.
Perhaps the father of Erik the Red arrived from Norway
alone and settled at Breidafjord, where he married and
where Erik may have been born and reared. Halldors-
son's reasons for proposing this position are summarized
in the following paragraph.
"Erik the Red was the name of a man from Breida-
fjord," wrote Ari the Learned in his only reference to
Erik in the Book of Icelanders. For Ari to describe Erik as
"a man from Breidafjord" is critical evidence about his
birthplace, according to Halldorsson. The preposition
"from" suggests that Erik was born at Breidafjord, not in
Norway. In other instances Ari refers to some persons
as being from particular regions, and they are known to
have been born in the localities mentioned. Further-
more, Ari lived in western Iceland and was well ac-
quainted with the history of Breidafjord. Another
point made by Halldorsson is that if Erik had been from
Norway, as reported in the Book of Settlements, he
would have been identified by Icelanders as a "Norse
man" throughout his life.
A second reason to associate Erik with Breidafjord
throughout his life is his placement in the
sequence of information presented in the Book of
Settlements. The accounts about settlers follow a clock-
wise pattern around the island beginning in the
southwest. The entry about Erik the Red is placed with
those from the Breidafjord area, not with entries for the
Hornstrands, considerably farther north.
The third reason is the most compelling one.
When Erik fought against a descendant of a settler at
Breidafjord, he had as staunch allies men from other
families in the area. Since family ties were of over-
whelming importance among Icelanders at the time,
this suggests that Erik was born locally and had close
24 relatives in the region.
A fourth reason is the possible misidentification of
Erik with the northwest because of confusion
concerning the name of his father and his father's
farm. The man named Thorvald who is associated with
Drangar in the north may not have been the father of
Erik. In the Book of Settlements there is mention of
another Thorvald, one connected with Ingolf the
Strong, who settled at Breidafjord, and it may have
been this Thorvald who was Erik's father. Furthermore,
like numerous place names in Iceland, Drangar is ap-
plied to more than one locality. There is a Drangar on
the Hornstrands and also one at Breidafjord. As Erik
became increasingly famous because of the success of
the Greenland colony, the text about him in the Book
of Settlements may have been expanded, and possibly it
was then that Erik's name was added to the reference
concerning Thorvald and Drangar in the north. De-
spite the confusion of the record, Ari's statement in the
Book of Icelanders that Erik was "a man from Breida-
fjord" and Halldorsson's arguments supporting this
interpretation are accepted in the following recon-
struction of the early years of Erik's life.
The identification of sites associated with Erik is
based on verbal tradition as well as on written sources.
The veracity of this information is impossible to prove
without extensive archaeological excavations, but it
can be defended in two ways. First, the record of events
occurring during Erik's life in Iceland after his marriage
is considered accurate by historians. Second, con-
temporary Icelanders have a profound appreciation of
their past and a keen interest in recounting local tradi-
tions. This seems especially true of people living on
isolated farmsteads associated with memorable histor-
ical events. Farmers at localities identified with Erik
the Red speak in detail about the significance of partic-
ular spots associated with him. These people also are
intimately familiar with published descriptions apply-
ing to their locality, indicating an interest in history
that probably has existed since the Middle Ages. The
following account about Erik's life in Iceland and the
sites associated with him includes written information
combined with verbal folk history in what seems to be a
resonable synthesis.
During the Age of Settlement a Norse man named
Thorvald settled in western Iceland on the northern
coast of Snaefellsness Peninsula, claiming Drangar and
the adjacent islands, which were especially valued as
pasture for stock in the summer. His brother Ingolf the
Strong had claimed and settled the land directly to the
east. Erik, born about 950, was reared at Drangar and
about 970 married Thjodhild, the daughter of Thor-
bjorg Ship-Breast, whose husband at the time was
In retaliation for the landslide on Valthjof's farm, a relative of Valthjof's
Eyjolf Saur, killed Erik's slaves, who were responsible for the slide
These killings occurred at Skeidsbrekkur, near the abandoned sheep
shed in the foreground.
Thorbjorn of Haukadale, a valley about twenty miles
east of Drangar. Erik received land in Haukadale from
his father-in-law and lived there, at Eriksstead, for
about five years; Leif presumably was born during this
time. The ruin identified as Eriksstead, a com-
paratively small, rectangular remains of a dwelling, was
excavated repeatedly, but no artifacts were recovered
in association with the structure.
While living at Haukadale, Erik became em-
broiled in a series of conflicts that led ulti-
mately to the Greenland voyages. The partic-
ulars are so detailed in the Book of Settlements that it
seems the writer was intimately familiar with the
events described. According to his account, the con-
flict began when Erik's slaves launched a landslide onto
the farm of a man named Valthjof. Located across the
valley from Eriksstead, the site of the original farm-
house at Valthjofsstead still could be identified in 1987
by the residents of an adjacent farm. The landslide is
described in the Book 0/ Settlements as being launched
"onto the farm," which has been interpreted to mean
onto the farmhouse. However, this source does not
state that the dwelling itself was struck by the land-
slide. If the identification of the house site is correct,
the landslide could not have reached it, since it is far
from the hills behind. If there was a little actual dam-
age, Erik may have been angered justifiably by what
happened next.
In retaliation for the damage to the farm, Eyjolf
Saur, a kinsman of Valthjof's, killed Erik's slaves at
Skeidsbrekkur, near Eriksstead. Erik retaliated by kill-
ing Saur at his farm, Saurstadir. According to the
present-day residents of this farm, Erik and Saur fought
at a grassy spot east of the modern farmhouse. In
another fight Erik killed Dueller-Hrafn, who lived at
Leikskalar, another farm in the valley. As a result of
these killings Erik was banished, apparently at a meet-
ing of the local assembly.
Leaving Haukadale, Erik returned to the Drangar
area in which he had grown up, but with his enemies so
near at hand he prudently settled on an island, South
Island, about two miles northwest of Drangar. For a
year he lived on this island at Tradir, which means a
25
After Eyjolf Saur killed Erik's slaves, Erik fought and killed Eyjolf at
Saurstadir. The killings reportedly took place on the area in the fore-
ground. This was one of two murders that led to the banishment of It was at Leikskalar, the site of this modern farm, that Erik kill-
Erik from Haukadale and the first major step in the sequence of ed Dueller-Hrafn. This second killing led to Erik's expulsion from
events leading to his discovery of Greenland. Haukadale. ■»
26
After Erik took his bench-boards back from Thorgest, Thorgest pur-
sued him, and they fought near Drangar, which takes its name from
the monolithic rocks in the background. Here two of the sons of
"path" or "trail, " and in this sector commonly refers to a
passage through a hayfield. While living there, Erik
lent his bench-boards to Thorgest, who lived at Breida-
bolstead, the farm directly east of Drangar. Bench-
boards seem to have been parts of benches or sleeping
compartment dividers; in either case they were elabo-
rately carved and valuable family possessions. This
loan soon would lead to further conflict.
It may have been about this time, when Erik was
friendly with Thorgest, that he built a smithy near the
eastern boundary of the Drangar farm and within sight
of Thorgest's home at Breidabolstead. In Iceland, as in
southern Norway and later in Greenland, iron was
smelted from the bog iron found on many farms. Bog
iron is a form of iron ore found in swampy areas where
rocks containing iron minerals have been exposed to
long-term weathering. Once smelted the iron could be
used for tools, weapons, nails, and rivets. The ruin of
what is reported to have been Erik's smithy is still dis-
tinctly visible, presumably because the solid ground be-
neath the foundation has prevented the walls from
sinking.
The following year Erik moved to a larger island to
Thorgest and some other men were killed, which led to Erik's sen-
tence as an outlaw and his departure from Iceland.
the north, Oxney, and founded a secord farm called
Eriksstead. The ruin that long has been identified as
the remains of Erik's home on this island is on a prom-
inent rise that overlooks an inlet to the north, the sur-
rounding islands, the passages between the islands, and
an expanse of low land on Oxney itself. It is thought by
local people, as recounted by Johann Jonasson, who
was born on Oxney, that Erik selected this site because
of the commanding view of incoming vessels as well as
overland intruders. The ruins of three boathouses or
fishermen's shacks belonging to Erik were reported vis-
ible on the shores of the adjacent inlet, Eriksvogur,
in 1817, but they could not be found in 1987.
When living on Oxney, Erik asked Thorgest to
return the borrowed bench-boards, but to no avail.
Erik, accompanied by his supporters, went to Breida-
bolstead and retrieved the boards. Thorgest, his sons,
and others formed a party that pursued Erik's group,
and they fought near the farm at Drangar, where two of
Thorgest's sons and other men were killed. After this
skirmish Erik and Thorgest kept their allies near at
hand, but no further fighting is reported. The next epi-
sode occurred when Thorgest took his grievance to the
27
28
Modern Breidafjord, at the end of a long day in spring, probably
appeared much the same when Erik the Red left Iceland after being
banished from there for three years.
local Thorsness Assembly; here Erik and his men were
judged outlaws, probably at the level called "lesser out-
law." In the Icelandic legal system at this time, declar-
ing a person a lesser outlaw meant he must forfeit his
property and be banished from Iceland for three years.
Aided by friends, Erik hid on the island of Dimunar-
klakkar in northwest Breidafjord until he was ade-
quately prepared to leave. Of all the islands of Breida-
fjord this one is the most prominent. Its two striking
cliffs, or klakkar, are the highest points on any islands in
the fjord and could have screened Erik's ship as well. As
Thorgest and his allies searched for him, Erik made
hasty preparations to sail in the direction of small is-
lands called the Gunnbjorn Skerries. On a voyage from
Scandinavia to Iceland about 900, Gunnbjorn re-
portedly had been driven off course and had sighted
skerries, or rocky islands, west of Iceland. Whether
these were islands off the eastern coast of Greenland, a
mirage, or floating ice is not known. Irrespective of
what the sightings may have been, lore about them per-
sisted, and Erik hoped to find them when he sailed out
of Breidafjord and to the west.
Erik coursed westward until he sighted the east
coast of Greenland. He considered the region uninvit-
ing and sailed on, rounding Cape Farewell and explor-
ing the fjords in the southwestern sector. Continuing to
explore during the summers, he wintered at three dif-
ferent localities before returning to Breidafjord, where
he stayed with a friend the following winter. Again Erik
had problems with his old adversary Thorgest, but after
battling once more, they reconciled their differences.
Nonetheless, Erik resolved to return to the land he had
explored and now named "Greenland," hoping to
induce others to settle there with him. During the sum-
mer of 985 or 986, according to the traditional
chronology, numerous settlers sailed off with Erik and
Leif to colonize Greenland. So ends Erik the Red's life
in Iceland. For the next thirty years he lived in Green-
land, where he died about 1015.
Erik's bloody conflicts in Iceland were compared to
those of many of his contentious contemporaries,
but his first sailing was a daring, even a desperate,
response to the sentence of outlawry. More impor-
tantly, he explored and settled what was a new world,
not only to this bold Icelander but to all Europeans at
that time. It is little wonder that he became the subject
of a memorable literary work, the Saga of Erik the Red,
written by Icelanders in medieval times and still pop-
ular today. FM
Suggested Readings
Erik the Red and other Icelandic Sagas, by Gwyn Jones. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1980.
Northern Sphinx, Iceland and the Icelanders from the Settlement to the
Present, by Sigurdur Magnusson. McGill-Queen's University
Press, 1977.
Distilling the Truth
About Ethanol
by Larry Dombrowski
Ethanol has been used as a fuel since the invention of the
internal combustion engine. Ethanol-blended fuel, which
consists of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gasoline, has
been used by Americans to travel many billions of miles
since the fuel was introduced about a decade ago. Despite its
long history, ethanol remains one of the most controversial
of all transportation fuels in terms of consumer acceptance,
economics, and energy security.
Even though the market share for ethanol blends in
Iowa is more than 30 percent, there is a substantial number
of motorists in that state who believe that ethanol blends are
inferior to straight gasoline. The most common complaints
include starting problems and engine pinging and knocking.
In most cases, these problems can be attributed to the clog-
ging of the fuel filter, which may occur in older vehicles.
Ethanol is a solvent, cleaning dirt and grime that normally
accumulates in vehicles using straight gasoline. When these
residues break loose, they are captured in the vehicle's fuel
filter. Clogging of the filter prevents the normal flow of fuel
from being supplied to the engine; thus, problems with start-
ing or engine pinging may occur. Once the dirty filter has
been changed, the vehicle may actually experience improve-
ment in performance, due to a cleaner engine and fuel
system.
The Colorado Department of Health recently com-
pleted a "blind" study on the performance characteristics of
ethanol blends and gasoline. The study used data collected
from approximately 2,500 vehicles covering 3.6 million
miles. The vehicle model years ranged from 1960 to 1987.
The drivers participating in the study did not know if an
ethanol blend or straight gasoline was being used in their
vehicles. The fuels were rotated so that each driver drove
with both ethanol blends and gasoline in their tanks. Drivers
were asked to rate driveability, cold starting, engine pinging,
and general driver satisfaction. Results of the study showed
that no drivers reported any type of engine damage and 90
percent of the drivers rated ethanol blends and gasoline as
equally "satisfactory."
Consumers are slowly beginning to view ethanol blends
as a superior fuel. Ethanol has traditionally competed in the
transportation fuels market as a gasoline extender. Ethanol is
now being marketed for its value as an octane enhancer. By
blending 10 percent ethanol with 90 percent gasoline, the
octane rating of the fuel will be approximately three octane
points higher than straight gasoline. With many automobile
manufacturers producing high performance vehicles that
recommend using higher octane mid-grade or premium
gasoline, ethanol's demand as an octane booster is
expanding.
Ethanol is also gaining support as a fuel which reduces
air pollution. Ethanol use can help meet certain require-
ments of the Clean Air Act. The use of ethanol blends sig-
nificantly reduces carbon monoxide emissions. Carbon
monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and poisonous
gas. More carbon monoxide is emitted into the atmosphere
each year than any other pollutant. Currently, more than 70
urban areas in the U.S. fail to meet the Clean Air Act stan-
dards for carbon monoxide levels established by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA).
A growing number of state and local government agen-
cies are considering the mandated use of fuels such as ethanol
to meet EPA's standard for carbon monoxide levels. Tests con-
ducted by the EPA have shown that ethanol blends reduce
carbon monoxide emissions in a vehicle by 10 to 30 percent,
depending on the fuel combustion technology of the vehi-
cle. The Front Range Area in Colorado, which includes
Denver, has successfully mandated a program to limit emis-
sions of carbon monoxide. Ethanol blends play a prominent
role in Colorado's strategy to improve the environment.
The benefits achieved by reducing carbon monoxide
levels with ethanol blends may be somewhat offset by in-
creases in nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbon emissions. The
reaction of nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons in the presence
of sunlight yields ozone. Use of ethanol blends tends to in-
crease ozone concentrations, which are also limited by the
Clean Air Act. Ethanol increases the volatility, or the ease
of which a liquid is converted into a gaseous state, of the base
gasoline, potentially releasing gases into the atmosphere
"Distilling the Truth about Ethanol" is reproduced from Iowa Con-
servationist, with minor emendations. Courtesy Iowa Department
of Natural Resources. Larry Dombrowski is a research analyst for
the department's energy bureau. 29
that increase ozone concentrations. Ozone, however, is a
summer problem, whereas carbon monoxide is a winter
problem, allowing seasonal blending of ethanol to reduce
carbon monoxide emissions without increasing ozone
problems.
The ethanol fuel industry was created by a mix of feder-
al and state subsidies, loan programs, and incentives in re-
sponse to our desire to become more energy-secure after the
"energy crisis" of the 1970s. Ethanol production accounts
only for less than one-tenth of one percent of U.S. energy,
but ethanol production still has value as one component of a
total alternative energy package to reduce our dependency
on imported energy.
The ethanol industry has been able to grow and com-
pete with gasoline because ethanol blends are exempt from
six cents of the federal gasoline excise tax, and in Iowa, for
example, from one cent of the state gasoline excise tax.
Since 10 gallons of an ethanol blend has one gallon of etha-
nol and nine gallons of gasoline, this translates into a direct
subsidy of 70 cents for every gallon of ethanol sold in Iowa.
The economic interplay of gasoline and ethanol prices is of
paramount importance. For example, with today's wholesale
price of gasoline at 35 cents per gallon ethanol will be a com-
petitive product up to a price of $1.25 per gallon. Without
tax exemptions for ethanol, crude oil prices would have to
increase to at least $40 per barrel, with corn prices below $2
per bushel, for ethanol producers to survive. Currently, a
barrel of crude oil is selling for around $16.
Federal and state gasoline tax exemptions for ethanol-
blended fuel directly reduce highway trust fund revenues.
For every gallon of ethanol sold in the U.S., federal highway-
funds decline by six cents. In 1987, 8.5 billion gallons of
ethanol blends were sold in the U.S., reducing federal
revenues by $510 million.
Since ethanol production reduces both federal and state
highway funds and has a limited role in energy security, why
do many national and state policy makers continue to sup-
port the ethanol industry? As previously discussed, ethanol
has positive social benefits by helping to reduce certain pol-
lutants in urban areas. But ethanol production also has posi-
tive economic benefits. Ethanol production affects both the
supply and demand for corn. The demand for corn increases
because ethanol production creates additional markets for
corn. Increases in demand lead to higher corn prices.
According to a Purdue University study, the 1985 price of
corn was 10 cents per bushel higher than it would have been
without domestic ethanol production. The production of
ethanol increased the value of Iowa's 1 986 corn crop by $ 1 60
million.
Increases in ethanol production decrease federal farm
program costs by raising corn prices. Expanded corn markets
created by the ethanol industry can partially substitute for
more traditional agricultural programs which have relied on
price supports, supply controls, and grain reserve programs
to reduce excess domestic supplies.
Technical and public policy developments will con-
tinue to strenghten ethanol's role as a fuel in the future. The
U.S. House of Representatives recently passed a bill which
contains incentives designed to promote the production and
use of vehicles that run on alternative fuels.
The main provision of the bill relaxes the federal gov-
ernment's Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) stan-
dards. The standards require that the average fuel efficiency
of all the automobiles produced by a single automaker meet a
certain level. The current standard is 26 miles per gallon.
Cars designed to run primarily on methanol, ethanol, or
compressed natural gas would have CAFE ratings based on the
amount of gasoline they use. This would mean that a vehicle
getting 40 miles per gallon on an ethanol blend with a 15
percent gasoline content would get a CAFE rating of 133
miles per gallon.
Another provision of the bill requires that the federal
government buy as many alternative fuel vehicles as possi-
ble. Federal agencies would be offered incentives to purchase
these vehicles.
The bill would also require that the public be able to
purchase alternative fuels at selected government facilities.
This helps to eliminate the "chicken and egg" problem that
has slowed the introduction of alternative fuel vehicles.
Consumers are reluctant to buy alternative fuel vehicles
because it's hard to find fuel for them. Service stations are
reluctant to stock alternative fuels because there is little de-
mand for those fuels.
New applications for ethanol fuels are promising. U.S.
automakers are now beginning to produce flexible-fuel vehi-
cles. Flexible-fuel vehicles are capable of running under any
combination of ethanol or gasoline. These vehicles have an
optical fuel sensor which determines the percentage of
ethanol in the fuel and signals a control computer which
automatically adjusts the fuel injection system and ignition
timing to compensate for different blends of ethanol and
gasoline without driver interaction. The flexible-fuel con-
cept is valuable because it allows for the growth of ethanol-
capable fleets without imposing unacceptable limits in usa-
bility or range of the vehicles when ethanol refueling facili-
ties are not widely available. Thus, if a flexible-fuel vehicle
were traveling across the state of Iowa, the driver could fill
up the tank with ethanol in Waterloo and then refill the tank
with gasoline in Ames without ever having to adjust or mod-
ify any part of the vehicle.
The production of ethanol may never reach the ex-
pectations bestowed upon the industry at its inception in the
1970s. However, ethanol will continue to be a part of the
nation's energy picture as we strive to implement renewable
domestic energy alternatives to replace unstable foreign
supplies.
30
FIELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
Kenya/Tanzania
Safari
March 3-23, 1989
Leader: Audrey Joy Faden
Price: $6,350
ITINERARY
March 3
Fly from Chicago to London via British Airways.
March 4
Fly from London to Nairobi, Kenya. Day rooms
in London. Evening flight to Nairobi.
March 5
Nairobi. City tour. Welcome cocktail party and
dinner.
March 6
Nairobi/Amboseli National Park, justly famous
for its big game and superb views of Mt. Kil-
imanjaro. Afternoon lecture by local researcher.
Late afternoon game drive.
March 7
Amboseli National Park. Morning and afternoon
game drives. Mid-day at leisure to relax at the
lodge or swim in the pool.
March 8
Amboseli National Park/Namanga/Gibb's Farm,
Tanzania. Cross the border, where we clear
customs before proceeding into Tanzania to
Gibb's Farm, where the remainder of day is at
leisure.
March 9
Gibb's Farm/Serengeti National Park. Game
drives in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
and theSerengeti.
March 10
Serengeti National Park. Full day exploring this
vast area.
March 1 1
Serengeti National Park/Olduvai/Ngorongoro
Crater. Visit Olduvai Gorge and the site of Louis
and Mary Leakey's discovery of Zinjanthropus
bosei. Continue on to the spectacular Ngoron-
goro Crater.
March 12
Ngorongoro Crater. Full day down in the crater,
tracking and photographing the animals.
March 13
Ngorongoro Crater/Lake Manyara National
Park. Depart to Lake Manyara Hotel, set in love-
ly gardens with a swimming pool overlooking
the park. Optional activities.
March 14
Lake Manyara National Park. Morning and
afternoon game drives, exploring the diversity
of this park.
March 15
Lake Manyara National Park/Namanga, Kenya/
Nairobi. Drive back to Arusha for lunch and
continue on to the Namanga border, clear
customs and return to Nairobi.
March 16
Nairobi/Aberdare National Park/The Ark. This
morning you proceed into deep forested area
alive with some of the finest game viewing in
Kenya. After lunch at Aberdare Country Club
transfer to The Ark, "berthed" over a waterhole
where the animals come to drink. From a
ground-level lounge with large picture win-
dows, you have an eye-to-eye view of this
constantly changing scenario.
March 17
Aberdare National Park/Samburu Game
Reserve. This reserve is home to several
species found only in these northern areas.
March 18
Samburu Game Reserve. Your game viewing
takes you through a variety of landscapes. Bird
enthusiasts will be well rewarded with over 300
species, including the martial eagle, in this
reserve.
March 19
Samburu Game Reserve/Mount Kenya
Nanyuki. Drive to the famous Mt. Kenya Safari
Club. The grounds cover 1 00 acres of blooming
flower beds, ponds with water lilies and stands
of shade trees — a litoral oasis in the middle of
the African bush.
March 20
Mount Kenya Nanyuki/Nairobi/Masai Mara
Game Reserve. Drive back to Nairobi and after
lunch depart on the afternoon flight to the
Masai Mara Game Reserve, where we'll stay
in a luxury safari camp.
March 21
Masai Mara Game Reserve. Enjoy a day
of game viewing in the Mara, one of the last
strongholds of the great herds.
March 22
Masai Mara Game Reserve/Nairobi. After one
last game run in the Mara, return to Nairobi by
air. Remainder of day at leisure.
March 23
Nairobi/London/Chicago. Midnight flight to
London on British Airways. Connect to British
Airways to Chicago, arriving later the same
day.
Antarctica
Discovering Antarctica, the Strait of Magellan.
Tierra del Fuego, and Cape Horn aboard the
llliria under the leadership of Dr. Bruce D.
Patterson, associate curator and head of the
Division of Mammals at the Field Museum of
Natural History.
February 20-March 7, 1989
Pre-Cruise Extension
to Patagonia
and the Lake District
February 15-23. 1989
The Galapagos
Aboard the m. v. Santa Cruz
March 3- 14, 1989
Optional Extension to Peru March 14-20
Price: $3,550-$3,840
March 3: Chicago/Miami/Quito. Welcome party and orientation.
March 4: A full day excursion to the colorful Indian fair of Otavalo.
March 5: All-day birding excursion up into the mountains outside
Quito.
March 6: Fly to Guayaquil and on to Baltra where we board the
Santa Cruz.
March 7: Cruising — Bartolome and Tower Islands.
March 8: Cruising — Isabela and Fernandina Islands.
March 9: Cruising — North Seymour Island.
March 10. Cruising — Hood and Floreana Islands.
March 11: Cruising— Santa Cruz and Plaza Islands.
March 12: Cruising — James Island.
March 73: This morning we cruise to Baltra, disembarking to board
our flight to Guayaquil. Farewell dinner.
March 14: Return flight to Chicago.
Join us as we explore one of the world's greatest living laboratories
of natural history under the leadership of Dr. David E. Willard, col-
lection manager of the Bird Division of the Field Museum of Natural
History. The Galapagos Islands — birthplace of Darwin's "Origin
of Species" — situated 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador, remain
remote and out of the elements of nature where an abundance of
strange creatures known nowhere else on earth reside. An optional
trip to Peru at a cost of $1 ,450 includes visits to the world-famous
site of Machu Picchu, Lima, and Cuzco.
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
31
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2499
MISS MARITA MAXEY
7411 NORTH GREENVIEV
CHICAGO IL 60&26
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN
October 1988
'
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■
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Plan Now for Grand Opening <
"INSIDE ANCIENT EGYPT"
Coming November 11
Mi
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
CONTENTS
October 1988
Volume 59, Number 9
OCTOBER EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3
UFE AND TIMES OF THE DINOSAURS
By Dale A. Russell 8
f
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS 30
COVER
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armout
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
Willard L. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H. Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley 11
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo F. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
Mrs. James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarringron
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hattman
Edward Byron Smirh
John W. Sullivan
J. Howard Wood
Amateur paleontologist Watie White seems daunted by the two
bones looming over him. Perhaps he has been told that they
come from an animal's backbone and he hasn't yet come to terms
with that idea. The bones are in fact vertebrae from the dinosaur
Brachiosaunts altithorax, found by Field Museum curator Elmer S.
Riggs near Grand Junction, Colorado, in 1900. At that time,
Brachiosaurus, at an estimated 85 tons, was king of the dinosaurs —
far larger than its better known, 3 5-ton cousin, Apatosaurus
(a.k.a. Brontosaurus), whose skeleton is the centerpiece of Field
Museum's Dinosaur Hall. Young Watie had access to the bones
in a special storage area as son of staff member John White (then
coordinator of Field Museum's Native American Program).
Though Watie has grown some since the photo was taken in
1974, it is unlikely that he is big enough to heft these gigantic
bones, now turned to stone. For more on dinosaurs see Dr. Rus-
sell's discussion of them, "Life and Times of the Dinosaurs," be-
ginning on page 8. Photo by D. Walsten.
VOLUNTEER AT FIELD MUSEUM
Learn something new or share your expertise —
a wide variety of challenging and rewarding
volunteer opportunities for either weekdays or
weekends are currently available. Please call
the Volunteer Coordinator at (312) 922-9410,
extension 360, for more information.
Fieid Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496.
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone; (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent ro Membership
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703.
ADULT COURSES
Indian History of the Western Great Lakes
Tuesdays, 7:00pm-9:00pm
October 4, 11, 18,25
The Indian History of the Western Great Lakes series continues through October. Each weekly session may be registered for
individually. $10/session ($8 members). To register, use the coupon
□ October 4
Frontier In Transition (AC88302-B)
Helen Hombeck Tanner, Historian,
D'Arcy McNickle Center for the Study
of the American Indian, Newberry Library
European Settlement had a powerful influence on the social,
economic, and political structures of Indian societies. As Euro-
peans moved down the Ohio River and then northward through
Ohio and Indiana, they pushed the frontier northward disrupting
the inner-tribal balance among the Indian communities. The im-
pact on Indians of the French and Indian War, the American
Revolutionary War, and the War of 1812 is also discussed.
□ October 11
The Black Hawk War and the Removal Period (AC88302-C)
Nancy O Lurie, Curator of Anthropology,
Milwaukee Public Museum
Black Hawks Surrender to American soldiers marked the end
of Indian-held land in Illinois. It also increased the forced remov-
al of Indians from the Western Great Lakes territories. Discuss
the events surrounding the Black Hawk War and its impact as a
turning point in the political struggles of Indian people.
□ October 18
Distilled Knowledge in Indian Legends (AC88302-D)
Keewaydinoquay, Elder of the Anishnabeg,
Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Botany,
University of Michigan
For Years, scholars have dismissed oral history as an unimpor-
tant and unreliable source for use in the study of history. But to-
day, historians, ethnohistorians, and anthropologists are be-
coming more aware of how oral traditions function as a valuable
depository of information for the history, culture, and ethics of a
given society. Once seen as juvenile folktales, the oral history of
Western Great Lakes Indians is now being recorded and evalu-
ated for its historical accuracy, literary merit, and most impor-
tantly, for its spiritual and philosophical meaning for both Indian
and non-Indian people.
□ October 25
Chicago's Indian Community — 1950 to the Present (AC88302-E)
Dorene Wiese, Dean of Administration, Truman College
Chicago's Indian Community is one of the largest and most influ-
ential Indian communities in the United States. Its history and
growth is typical of what occurred in other large urban centers in
the midwest. Due to economic factors and to the dubious Re-
location Program instituted by the Federal Government in the
1950s, many Indians came to the cities for employment and
educational opportunities. Discussion focuses on the recent his-
tory and issues that face Chicago's diverse Indian community.
Continued £>
ADULT COURSES
Registration
Be sure to complete all requested information on this
registration application. Adult course advance registrations
are confirmed by mail. For registrations received less than
two weeks before the class begins, confirmations are held at
the West Door on the first night of class. Phone registrations
are accepted for adult courses using Visa/MasterCard/Amx/
Discover. Please call (312) 322-8854 to register. For further
registration information, consult the September/October
Adult and Family Program Brochure.
Return complete registration with a self-
addressed stamped envelope to:
Field Museum of Natural History
Department of Education, Adult Programs
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2497
Name
Address
City
State
Zip
Telephone: Daytime Evening
□ Member □ Nonmember
American ExpressA/isa/MasterCard/Discover
Card Number
Program
#Member
Tickets
#Nonmember
Tickets
Total
Tickets
Amount
Enclosed
Indian History
AC88302-B
Indian History
AC88302-C
Indian History
AC88302-D
Indian History
AC88302-E
3 Scholarship reques
ted
Total
Signature
Expiration Date
AFTER HOURS: FILMS AT THE FIELD
Fridays, October 7- 14
West Entrance
Free!
Two Chinese films are featured in October as Field Museum continues its series of films from around the world. Light fare
and beverages are available beginning at 4:30pm at the After Hours Cafe. Films begin at 6:00pm. For more information call
(312)322-8854.
□ October 7
"Yellow Earth"
1984. 94 minutes. Color. China.
Director: Chen Kaige
Mandarin Chinese with English subtitles.
Set in the Steppes of China's northern provinces in the late
thirties, a young soldier in Mao's army visits a remote village
as he collects folksongs. In the village he is put in with one of
the poorest families, a taciturn widower and his teenage
daughter and son. The daughter is to be sold into marriage
with a much older man and the soldier's talk of breaking with
feudal tradition fills her with unrealistic hopes of escape. Yel-
low Earth is the first film of a new Chinese cinema with its
roots in Chinese painting and music, and not the formula pro-
paganda of the last three decades.
□ October 14
"Black Cannon Incident"
1985. 107 minutes. Color. China.
Director: Huang Jianxin
Mandarin Chinese with English subtitles.
Typical of the new direction in Chinese filmmaking, Black
Cannon deals with subjects and issues not seen before in
Chinese films. This farce is about a misplaced chess piece.
And when its owner, a well-educated engineer, attempts to
find it by sending a telegram, the operator suspects it is a
secret code, and here the farce begins.
Yellow Earth
coming October 7
EDWARD E. AYER SERIES
The Edward E. Ayer Lecture Series continues Thursdays through October beginning October 6. 1 :30pm, James Simpson Theatre.
Lectures are free and refreshments are served.
□ October 6
"Chinese Gardens"
Taimi Anderson, Landscape Architect
From the Earliest Hunting Parks of the Han Dynasty emperors to
the elegant Ming Dynasty city gardens, rocks and water are
essential ingredients in Chinese gardens. Red lacquered col-
umns, towering rockeries, still pools, and flowers combine to make
gardens of tranquil beauty.
□ October 13
"Inca Myth and History"
Brian Bauer, Ph.D. Candidate, Anthropology
Department, University of Chicago
Inca Myth holds that the first mythical ruler of the Incas, Manco
Capac, came from a region south of Cuzco, Peru. Recent
archaeological investigations in the area have uncovered a temple
and cave complex dedicated to this sacred figure. Look at the
Inca origin myth and the area's archaeological ruins where myth
meets history.
□ October 20
"Ancient Egypt"
Frank Yurco, Ph.D. Candidate in Egyptology,
Department of Near Eastern Languages and
Civilizations, University of Chicago
Travel Back to the land of pharaohs and pyramids. Delve into
Egypt's mysterious and glorious past with a look at ancient reli-
gion, economy, and politics. Prepare yourself for a visit to Field
Museum's new exhibit on Ancient Egypt, opening November 1 1 .
□ October 27
'Traditional Art of Africa"
Ramona Austin, Assistant Curator for African Art,
Department of Africa, Oceania and the Americas,
The Art Institute of Chicago
Traditional African Art speaks a rich and varied language. In-
crease your appreciation by examining representative works.
Learn to identify recurring symbols and understand the place of
art in traditional African society.
WEEKEND PROGRAMS
Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and
films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are some of the numerous activi-
ties offered each weekend. Check the activity listing upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs
are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Art Council.
October
15 12:30pm Surprise Safari
Trek through the four corners of the Museum to see the seven con-
tinents. See antiquities from the Amazon, big game from Africa
and seals from the Arctic.
22 1 :30pm Tibet Today and Tour of Collection
See Lhasa and other towns now open to tourist, then take a tour of
our Tibetan exhibit (slide lecture and tour).
29 12:30pm Surprise Safari
Trek through the four corners of the Museum to see the seven con-
tinents. See antiquities from the Amazon, big game from Africa
and seals from the Arctic.
These programs are free with Museum admission and tickets are
not required.
No Easy Roses
A Look at the Lives of
City Teenagers
Opens Saturday, Oct. 22
Closes Sunday, Nov. 27
"NO EASY ROSES: A Look at the Lives of City Teenagers" features photography and
video by Olive Pierce, a high school teacher in Cambridge, Massachusetts during the
late 1970s. Pierce set out with a camera and tape recorder, roaming the hallways, locker
rooms, and social events that constitute the "world of school." Her photography captures
the "hidden places" that exist in all schools and reflects many of the emotional dramas
that characterize adolescence. The exhibit was developed in conjunction with Pierce's
book, also titled "No Easy Roses." She hopes her work will carry adult viewers back to
their own adolescence and provide additional understanding of this age group.
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"Glynis and Natasha"
by Olive Pierce
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from "No Easy Roses"
Dark Lady Dreaming
"The Power of Women"
Quilt by Amy Cordova
QUILTS and DRAWINGS by AMY CORDOVA
Closes Sunday, Nov. 13
MODERN "quilt paintings" and oil pastel drawings are featured in this unusual, vibrant
collection of work by Amy Cordova. While some of Ms. Cordova's quilts represent tradi-
tional Amish patterns and designs, others incorporate original images that confront
important human issues. The drawings depict some of life's ironies with explosive energy
and a witty, abstract quality. Both the quilts and drawings flaunt a spectrum of brilliant
colors such as magenta, peacock blue, and deep, rich green. Ms. Cordova views herself as
a visionary and dreamer, committed to telling the truth and celebrating life all along the way.
Life and Times of the
Dinosaurs
How did they live?
Why did they disappear?
by Dale A. Russell
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Painting of the dinosaur Stegosaurus as it may have ap-
peared in its natural habitat, by Charles R. Knight. This
painting and 27 others by Knight are on view as murals in
Hall 38 (Hall of Dinosaurs). They were executed between
1 927 and 1 931 . See pages 1 2 and 20 for other Knight
murals. CK&3225
4f
1
The Age of Reptiles Began with the Triassic
period, about 250 million years ago, when a great
variety of reptiles that resembled bizarre croco-
diles or reptiles possessing a peculiar mixture of rep-
tilian and mammalian characteristics were abundant
on all of the continents. We call the former "false croco-
diles" and the latter "mammal-like reptiles." Even
where dinosaurs are known to occur in Triassic strata
their remains are usually very rare. Dinosaurs became
extinct at the end of the Cretaceous Period 65 million
years ago. But their extinction didn't quite bring the
age of reptiles to a close. Crocodiles, turtles, and the
extinct gavial-like champsosaurs were the largest ani-
mals on land for several millions of years more, before
some of the surviving mammals became large.
What did an ancestral dinosaur look like? They
were small crocodile- like animals which differed from
other so-called "false crocodiles" in having a bird-like
ankle joint, in having more than two elements, or ver-
tebrae, in their backbone supporting their hips, and in
their manner of walking upright on their two hind
limbs. The two basic types of dinosaurs, those with
bird-like hips and those with lizard-like hips, appeared
at about the same time. Although the earliest known
dinosaurs weighed no more than a kilogram, within a
few million years relatively large dinosaurs had
evolved.
The dinosaurs, became dominant animals on land
more or less accidentally about 210 million years ago,
after a major extinction even wiped out the false croco-
diles and mammal-like reptiles. Lizard-hipped dino-
saurs rapidly gave rise to two major evolutionary
streams, one becoming the brontosaurs and the other
the carnivorous dinosaurs and perhaps later the birds.
Bird-hipped dinosaurs also diversified, then underwent
a second major diversification when flowering plants
spread over the planet in early Cretaceous time. During
the dinosaurian era a gigantic super continent ruptured
and the separate continental blocks slowly drifted
apart. A globally uniform dinosaurian fauna was also
separated into more or less distinct continental units
"Life and Times of the Dinosaurs" is adapted from "The Dinosaur
and the Pollen Grain: A Case for Parallel Evolution," a paper deliv-
ered by Dale A. Russell at the Sixth International Palynological
Conference in Calgary, Alberta, August 1984. Dr. Russell is curator
of fossil vertebrates at the Museum of Natural Sciences, National
Museums of Canada, Ottawa. At the time of this publication he
was on an expedition to Mongolia. He has a book on the dinosaurs
10 of North America in preparation.
which were inhabited by special dinosaurian faunas,
just as when the dinosaurs were gone mammals sepa-
rated into the distinctive faunas of Africa, South
America, and Australia.
There is quite a bit of mystery in this history. For
example, the false crocodiles seem to have disappeared
in a brief, worldwide mass extinction similar to the one
that later eliminated the dinosaurs. How was it that
mass extinctions could first bring dinosaurs to world-
wide dominance, then to worldwide destruction?
The Triassic fauna of the "false crocodiles" was
dominated by four-legged animals. So is the modern
mammalian fauna. It would have been easier to predict
the body shapes of modern land animals from the
shapes of Triassic land animals than from those of dino-
saurs. And most of the work on ancestor-descendant
relationships in vertebrates is based on Triassic and
Cenozoic animals, with the funny-looking dinosaurs
more or less locked in the closet. Or their skeletons are
placed on display as something like freaks of nature.
Was the dinosaurian era really an odd period in the
history of land animals?
Why were dinosaurs so large? Being large cer-
tainly provides protection from hostile
neighbors. It also provides protection from
rapid changes in temperature. So far as we know all
dinosaurs had naked skins. But in spite of this, the
buildup of heat in the bodies of a big animal, even a
giant turtle, effectively makes it warm-blooded. A big
animal can retain its body heat during cool nights or
rainy days. The colossal size of brontosaurs may have
allowed them to feed on low-quality plant food. Rel-
atively little heat would be given off in the process of
digestion. It might have been dangerous for them to
feed on rich or finely chopped-up food. Bacteria in
their intestines would have shed heat and gas more
rapidly in the process of digestion. Just imagine a bron-
tosaur with gas problems. It would bloat the way that
cows do when they feed on rich, young alfalfa shoots in
the spring. Plant-eating dinosaurs with well-developed
grinding teeth, such as duckbilled dinosaurs and
horned dinosaurs, were smaller than the brontosaurs.
Perhaps they had to be smaller so that they could get rid
of the heat generated by the finely chopped-up food.
The chewing dinosaurs were seldom larger than mod-
ern elephants and were never as large as some giant
extinct rhinos. The rich food of the flesh-eating dino-
saurs may have also prevented them from ever being
much larger than elephants. You can see that size and
William F. Simpson, chief preparator of fossil vertebrates, shown in 1980 with Antarctosaurus femur. Simpson was reassembling the
740-lb. bone, discovered in Argentina in 1924 in four pieces. On wall behind Simpson may be seen similar photo of earlier preparator,
John B. Abbott, as he worked on same bone in 1926. Antarctosaurus lived some 70 million years ago.
11
Charles R. Knight mural (in Hall 38) showing (I. to r.) corythosaurs. ankylosaur (with spikes), and anatosaurs. ck?4806
12
heat-retention problems are related. Big people suffer
more when it's hot. Most dinosaurs were larger than
most mammals because their metabolic rates were
lower, and they didn't have to shed so much body heat.
The time of origin of flowering plants coincides
with a major dinosaurian faunal change in the North-
ern Hemisphere. The most ancient flowering plants
were evidently branching bushes that could easily re-
pair damage caused by browsing animals. Did browsing
dinosaurs destroy the saplings of trees so that the
flowering bushes could spread into the old conifer
forests? Or did the flowering bushes provide food for
the browsing dinosaurs, thereby allowing the dinosaurs
to flourish and diversify? Which came first, the bush-
browsing dinosaurs or the plants on which they fed?
Dinosaurs have not been carefully studied for evi-
dence of evolution. This may be partly because the
dinosaurian era was a rather unusual period in the his-
tory of life on earth, and partly because it's hard work to
collect, store, and study the skeletons. Usually dino-
saurs are considered to have been a somewhat con-
servative group of organisms, and dinosaurs from a
variety of different times have a tendency to be seen
together in painted reconstructions of landscapes and
in science fiction novels. If dinosaurs did inhabit the
earth for 150 million years and really showed no evi-
dence of evolution, they would have been very peculiar
animals.
Dinosaurs were able to attain a respectable degree
of what we might call skeletal finesse during the time
they were on earth. Skeletal finesse means perfection
of skeletal design from an engineering point of view.
The combinations of skeletal parts often seem a bit
odd. This is partly because primitive dinosaurs ran on
their hind legs and only some of the later dinosaurs
habitually walked on all fours. If you can imagine birds
becoming flightless and re-adapting their wings for use
on the ground, it might give you some idea of the evo-
lutionary problems early dinosaurs had to solve. In
spite of their bipedal ancestors, however, many dino-
**f
saurs put their parts together in ways that rather closely
resembled some living or recently extinct mammals.
Resemblances also occur between unrelated dinosaurs
living on different continents. The differences and
similarities were probably comparable to differences
and similarities between mammals living on different
continents today. These phenomena are called mosaic
and convergent evolution by paleontologists. They
suggest that adaptive finesse does not happen by acci-
dent. It is selected for because finesse is more than ordi-
narily useful in the struggle for existence. In this sense
evolution is a deterministic, not a random process.
About 140 million years ago, during late Jurassic
time, relatively well-studied dinosaur faunas from Chi-
na, Tanzania, and the United States resembled each
other rather closely, both in the basic kinds of dinosaurs
present and in the relative abundance of each kind.
During the following Cretaceous Period the effects of
continental drift and a cooling of the poles become ob-
vious. This is very well documented in the pollen and
spore record. What is known of the dinosaurian record
seems to show the same kind of continental and latitu-
dinal effects. It might be interesting to explore how
dinosaurs and plants were affected by geography during
late Cretaceous time, about 75 million years ago.
In Dinosaur Park, some 200 kilometers east of
Calgary, Alberta, more skeletons of more different
kinds of dinosaurs have been excavated than in any
other place on earth. It is a very productive site and
very scenic. Those of us who have worked in the park
are spoiled by the wealth of fossil material that weath-
ers out in the badlands. From a study of the distribution
of the dinosaur skeletons, we have detected a large,
east-west change in the abundance of different kinds of
dinosaurs. Small dinosaurs that probably preferred
dense plant growth for cover are more abundant in the
west, and large dinosaurs that probably preferred more
open, park-like environments are more abundant in
the east. The change takes place within a distance of
about 20 kilometers. We sampled the sediments in
13
Apatosaurus excelsus skeleton as it appeared in Field Museum in 1908 (Jackson Park building). The skeleton has long since been
completed, using bones from several individuals, and is now the centerpiece of Hall 38. Formerly known as Brontosaurus. 26576
14
which the dinosaur skeletons were buried to see if the
fossil pollen and spores showed a similar change in the
kinds of plants that were living with the dinosaurs. We
found instead that there was no east-west change in the
wind-blown pollen and spores. We suspected that this
was because it was easier to mix the microfossils by
wind and water than it was to mix dinosaur skeletons.
The skeletons were much, much heavier and resisted
transport. All things being equal, then, small-scale
ecological changes might be easier to detect by study-
ing dinosaur skeletons than by studying pollen grains.
Over greater distances the general scarceness of
dinosaur skeletons and economics of collecting them
give vastly greater significance to data based on the
study of fossil pollen grains. We suspect, for example,
that horned dinosaurs were either absent or rare in east-
ern North America. We know that they were abundant
and represented by many different varieties in the west.
The fossil pollens clearly show that eastern and western
North America at that time belonged to two distinct
floral provinces — known to specialists as the Aquila-
pollenites and the Normapolles provinces. Climates
along the east coast might have been drier than in the
west.
Elmer S. Riggs, distinguished paleontologist who served Field Museum from 1898 until 1942. Riggs and his assistants were respons-
ible for collecting a major portion of the Museums paleontological material, a collection which ranks with the largest and most
important in the world. Among his finds was Brachiosaurus, discovered in Colorado in 1900. 0132
15
16
Everyone knows what the giant horned dinosaur
triceratops looked like — it's one of the most popular of
dinosaurs, and a life-sized model has been placed in
front of the U.S. Natural History Museum in Washing-
ton, D.C. for kids to climb on. Not everyone knows
that the biggest, meanest specimens of triceratops lived
in Alberta. The farther south you go the smaller the
triceratops specimens become, and none occur south of
Denver. A brontosaur called Alamosaurus begins to
occur at about this latitude and it remains the domi-
nant large dinosaur south to at least the Rio Grande.
Pollen data show a similar change in the north-to-
south distribution of ancient plants.
It is interesting that we seem to be finding some
evidence of a late Cretaceous Rocky Mountain Prov-
ince. In the past there were some indications that
armored dinosaurs, of the kind with tail clubs, and
small parrot-pig- like dinosaurs related to the horned
dinosaurs might be more abundant west of the high
plains — or west of what was then a coastal plain be-
tween the interior sea and the mountains. An inland
ecology is also suggested by a peculiar duckbilled dino-
saur and spectacular dinosaur nesting sites which were
Shown here are two of the most formidable sea-going reptiles
that were contemporary with their terrestrial cousins, the dino-
saurs. Both specimens are to be seen in Hall 38. The mosasaur
(above) was abundant in inland seas of North America during the
latter part of the Cretaceous Period (about 80 to 65 million years
ago). A particularly interesting feature of the mosasaur was the
mid-length joint in the lower jaw. enabling it to eat very large prey.
Some specimens of the species shown here, Tylosaurus dyspe-
lor, exceeded 30 feet in length. Collected in Kansas in 1928. 79e?8
recently discovered in western Montana. At other
localities isolated bones can tentatively be identified as
belonging to iguanodonts- — the upright, slothlike
dinosaurs that are so well represented in the Wealden
of England and Belgium.
The dinosaurs of eastern Asia were special too.
Some were virtually identical to dinosaurs from Alber-
ta. These include small raptorial carnivores with eagle-
like claws: ostrich dinosaurs, tyrannosaurs, duckbilled
dinosaurs, and armored dinosaurs with tail clubs. Then
there are others — giant ostrich dinosaurs with huge
claws, archaic lizard-hipped bipeds that look like they
belonged to a dim, dinosaurian past of 100 million years
earlier, and highly evolved, fancy high-tailed bronto-
saurs. They look like a Cretaceous Star Wars delega-
tion to us. Because of the mixture of familiar and
strange faces, it's likely that the dinosaurs from eastern
Asia belonged to the same general faunal province, but
were typical of a drier, more continental environment.
There is abundant evidence of seasonal aridity and
wind-blown sand in eastern Asia at that time. Further
to the west, in the lands bordering the Caspian and
Aral seas, the few remains of dinosaurs that have been
collected usually belong to duckbilled dinosaurs, which
look pretty much like skeletons from Alberta. How-
ever, a warning flag is up; the fossil pollen grains indi-
The ichthyosaur (below) lived about 225 million to 65 million
years ago and, like the mosasaur, sometimes grew to more than
30 feet. Both reptiles appear to have become extinct at about the
same time as the dinosaurs. This specimen, Ichthyosaurus com-
munis, was collected near Lyme regis, England. iei?i
18
cate that the dinosaurs occur in a plant province differ-
ent from the one in eastern Asia and western North
America. Unusual dinosaurs may yet turn up. Finally,
there are the dwarf dinosaurs from the late Cretaceous
islands of Europe. We need to know more about them.
The islands were then a part of the Normapolles pollen
province, which extended beyond a narrower Atlantic
Ocean all the way to the arid east coast of North
America.
We have already commented on the fact that
during Cretaceous time the dinosaurs of the
Southern Hemisphere may not have been
closely related to those in the Northern Hemisphere.
Some of the skeletal similarities we saw are probably
the result of convergent evolution, and not a close rela-
tionship or mixing of northern and southern faunas.
Dinosaurs may have decreased in body size as the Cre-
taceous equator was approached. Not very many speci-
mens of tropical dinosaurs have been collected, not all
of them belong to small animals, and statistical analy-
ses have not yet been carried out. However, I am
impressed with the relatively small size of most of the
bones I have seen, and how often the bigger dinosaurs
that did live in the tropics had long, sail-like fins on
their backs. It looks like they had surface-volume
problems in hot climates and had to evolve some way of
getting rid of excess heat. Interestingly, some of the
equatorial crocodiles were giants. They may have been
protected by the thermal inertia of lakes and streams
they inhabited. Students of fossil pollen tell us that
equatorial floras were distinct, and dominated by palms
and by plants that were able to withstand dry con-
ditions.
On the other side of the equator the palms merge
into southern floras dominated by flat-needled, non-
flowering trees and primitive southern beech trees.
The northern world of bird-hipped dinosaurs also gave
way to a southern world dominated by lizard-hipped
dinosaurs. Southern Cretaceous dinosaurs have an
archaic, Jurassic flavor. Giant brontosaurs dominated
southern temperate zone faunas from Argentina, South
Africa, and India. Stegosaurs, or the plated dinosaurs,
so typical of late Jurassic fuanas of the Northern Hem-
isphere, survived until the middle Cretaceous of South
Africa and the late Cretaceous of India.
If dinosaurs were not terribly unlike mammals in
their body shapes and in their biogeography, what hap-
pened to the "lost world" of the Mesozoic? In the first
place, I think everyone would agree that dinosaurs
were not identical to mammals, and we'll look at the
implications of this later. In the second place, there
may have been some funny things about the earth
as it used to be when the dinosaurs were alive. We
should look at how dinosaurs interfaced with their
environments.
In many dinosaurs the pupil of the eye was sur-
•rounded by a bony ring. Tiny muscles were attached to
this ring. They changed the shape of the lens so that
the dinosaur could focus on objects which were either
close or far away. This bony ring has often been pre-
served in the fossil record. The diameter of outer edge
of the bony ring gives a minimum diameter of the eye-
ball of the dinosaur.
Dinosaur eyes come in a variety of sizes, which in
itself is food for thought. For example, one dinosaur
with relatively small eyes has been found in fossil desert
sand dunes. Maybe it preferred to be active in the
desert during the daytime. Duckbilled dinosaurs had
relatively enormous eyes — did they like to feed in the
moonlight? Be that as it may, the diameter of the aver-
age dinosaur eye was one and one-half times the aver-
age diameter of the eye in living mammals. The size of
the eye was also relatively enormous in marine reptiles
living during the dinosaurian era. Animals generally
increase the size of their eyes in order to increase the
sharpness of their vision during the daytime or to in-
crease the amount of light that can pass through their
pupils at nighttime. Was the dinosaur eye somehow in-
ferior to that of mammals, or were they normally active
under what for us would be less than fully illuminated
conditions?
People who study fossil pollen and spores also
look at diameters. Just for fun, I plotted the
diameter for 1,116 species of wind-dispersed
pollen and spores belonging to three different basic
shapes against geologic time. In all three cases there
was a statistically significant decrease in the diameter
of the pollen and spores toward the present. In other
words, the mean diameter of the pollen and spore
grains has decreased to about 40 percent of the mean
diameter as it was some 400 million years ago. Of
course, smaller grains are carried further by the wind
than larger grains. This data can be interpreted in at
least two ways. One: selection for smaller grain size has
Protoceratops andrewsi, the earliest and most primitive of the
ceratopsians. or horned dinosaurs. On view in Hall 38. ei449->
Charles R. Knight mural depicting how Protoceratops andrewsi may have appeared in life (skeleton shown on previous page).cK5905o
20
produced relatively tiny grains that compete better
with large, clumsy grains in the struggle for existence.
We can call this theory the genetic theory. Or two: the
density of the atmosphere has slowly declined over the
last 400 million years and in order for a grain to main-
tain its aerodynamic fitness its diameter had to de-
crease. We can call this theory the environmental
theory. Which was more important, genetics or
environment? If it was genetics, we have evidence of a
long-term trend that is eminently predictable. This is
deterministic evolution. If environment was more
important, here is evidence of a gradual but major
change in the nature of the planetary atmosphere.
Dinosaurs can get you into trouble too. Over the
last few years several of us have assembled data which
relates the circumference of limb bones, or more speci-
fically the circumference of the upper arm and upper
leg bones, to body weight in living mammals. We did
this in order to estimate quantitatively the weights of
extinct creatures such as dinosaurs. We calculated a
precise mathematical relationship which worked very
well with North American bison and African giraffes
and even with Australian lizards, and lots of other
animals as well. We used our formula to calculate a live
weight — about 40 metric tons — of a brontosaur whose
skeleton is on view at Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum.
To confirm the calculated weight we carefully sculpted
a scale model of the brontosaur based on the Carnegie
skeleton. We took it to a hydraulics laboratory, and
after a series of repeated immersions to measure the
model's volume, we found that the weight of the living
animal was about 20 metric tons — half as heavy as the
bones indicated it should be. Again, the data can be
interpreted in at least two ways. One: there are many
uncertainties in the equation and in the model. We can
call this theory the theory of minimum astonishment.
Or two: maybe the force of gravity at the surface of the
earth was a bit stronger 140 million years ago.
The nearest to a compromise between a pollen
grain and a dinosaur skeleton might be the
skeleton of a flying reptile. Like all compromises,
it could jar the sensibilities of some. However, flying
reptiles did float in the air and they did look something
like a dinosaur. An engineer at the National Research
Council in Ottawa, Canada and I spent more than a
year trying to calculate the density of the atmosphere
during the dinosaurian era, based on the estimated
flight characteristics of birds, bats, and flying reptiles.
The effects of various uncertainties prevented us from
coming to any conclusions — animals can change their
shapes at will and pollen grains cannot. Out of our in-
vestigation we were able to salvage only one fact. Rela-
tive to body weight, which was very carefully estimated
by two independent researchers, the hind leg in one
flying reptile with a wingspan of 7 meters (23 feet) was
built as strongly as it is in small living hawks that dive
on their prey. Technically speaking, the cantilever
strength of the femur in the flying reptile was about one
and one-half times the strength it would be in a modern
flying bird with the same body weight. It's hard to
understand why such a lightly constructed animal
would have landing gear that were so strong.
If the density of the atmosphere at ground level
during the latter part of the dinosaurian era (some 70 to
100 million years ago) is not known with precision,
neither is the composition of the atmosphere. Studies
of fossil carbon residues may indicate a larger amount of
oxygen in the atmosphere, and from four to ten times as
much carbon dioxide. We have all read about the
warming effect of carbon dioxide, and this may be a
very important factor in warming the polar regions dur-
ing the dinosaurian era. We know that carbon dioxide
was depleted in the atmosphere during the recent ice
ages. These lower concentrations of carbon dioxide
may have caused some plants, such as various photo-
synthetically efficient grasses, to spread at the expense
of less photosynthetically efficient forests. Would in-
creased concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide
during the dinosaurian era have stimulated more rapid
plant growth? Or were the dinosaurian age plants, on
the whole, less efficient than modern plants? The
amount of food that plants could produce would have
directly controlled the density of dinosaur populations.
How much richer the world would be if our wild-
life reserves and zoos still had dinosaurs in them! But
consider the glory that once was this ancient saurian
empire. Surely its gradual disintegration through a
million years or more must have been a saddening,
mellowing, but somehow gloriously gratifying saga.
Consider what rewards would await the explorer
paleontologist in late Cretaceous time. A few great
clumsy stragglers plow on toward a new world that has
no place for them. Around the old and outmoded
giants swarm lean and aggressive mammals and birds,
stealing the food from their very mouths. Dinosaurian
age pollen grains slowly settle to the ground, their ela-
ters broken, their bladders punctured. High overhead
soar the small, new, and smooth grains, on toward the
new frontier.
U
nfortunately, I have besmirched my credentials
by supporting theories that the dinosaurs were
suddenly exterminated in an extraterrestrially
provoked, planetary-wide disaster of stupendous pro-
portions. I have thereby dabbled in the witches' brew
of unrestrained catastrophism. Fortunately, with these
views, I am nearly alone among my colleagues who
study dinosaurs. Of the thirty-odd researchers so
engaged in North America, fully half of them have
battled in print on the side of a gradual decline of the
dinosaurs before their extinction. Most of the rest are
non-combatants. About three have recently shown an
unhealthy interest in theories about catastrophism,
and one I suspect has egged me on in a supportive way
for several years. Let me first explain why I am a here-
tic. Then, because of the offense I have thereby com-
mitted against symmetry and integrity, let me try to
replace the noble edifice with a new one. And in expia-
tion for some of my sins, I admit that perhaps a quasi-
dinosaurian era has indeed been gradually replaced by a
more modern quasi-mammalian era on some other
planet in the galaxy.
How does one dare to think that dinosaurs might
not have gradually become extinct? From an evolu-
tionary point of view we have seen that dinosaurs were
dynamic, not static creatures. They did evolve. Their
skeletons became more complicated through time.
Because of general trends in size from giant brontosaurs
to smaller-sized chewing dinosaurs to the small carni-
vores that gave rise to the birds, it seems likely that on
the average, metabolic rates increased in dinosaurs
through time. They were becoming warm-blooded. By
late in the dinosaurian era, in several lines of small car-
nivorous dinosaurs the brain was approaching the size
of the brain in some living mammals. Anatomically,
dinosaurs were not archaic, overspecialized anomalies
clumping about during the closing years of the dino-
saurian era. They were plastic, progressive animals
near the cutting edge of evolution.
21
Skull of the dinosaur Albertosaurus (formerly named Gorgosaurus), on view in Stanley Field Hall since 1956.81592
22
It isn't easy to find dinosaur remains more or less
on demand, and it is difficult to precisely date strata
which were deposited about 65 million years ago, when
dinosaurs vanished from the earth. For example, the
final subdivision of Cretaceous time, known to special-
ists as the Maastrichtian Age, lasted from 73 to 65 mil-
lion years ago, or for about 8 million years. Dinosaurs
are known to have inhabited North and South Amer-
ica, Europe, Asia, and the African and Australasian
regions during this time. We cannot demonstrate, for
example, that they became extinct first in Asia, then
in Europe, and so on. It is not possible to see a geo-
graphic pattern in the extinction of the dinosaurs.
However, no dinosaur was known to have been alive
during the next interval of 5 million years, known to
specialists as the Danian age.
The best record of the number of different kinds of
dinosaurs that were alive throughout the dinosaurian
era is from North America. This record suggests that
the number increased up to the very end. A fossil field
near Montana's Fort Peck Reservoir is becoming a bat-
tlefield in the debate on the extinction of the dino-
saurs. The debate concerns whether or not dinosaur
bones are gradually decreasing in abundance in sedi-
ments that were accumulating during the final few tens
of thousands of years of the dinosaurian era. Evidently
Mother Nature played a trick on us so that the last sedi-
ments to be deposited at the very end of the age of
dinosaurs are often covered with grass and sagebrush.
We can't find the dinosaur bones in them because we
can't see them. And in the places where these sedi-
ments are exposed they have often been mixed by
ancient rivers with sediments deposited immediately
after the dinosaurs died. No convincing case for a grad-
ual extinction of the dinosaurs has been made here
either.
Other paleontologists who study different kinds of
fossils have also come to a variety of conclusions about
what happened to various groups of organisms when
the dinosaurs died. A few years ago I estimated, per-
haps incorrectly, that as many as three-quarters of all of
the species living on our planet disappeared with the
dinosaurs. The plants growing on the land also
changed in interesting ways. Fossil pollen and spores
have been extremely useful guides to finding the level
in the strata where the great extinction occurred. Ex-
actly at this level in many localities in the high plains of
the United States and Canada a very peculiar clay has
been found. The same clay has also been found in sedi-
ments which were laid down beneath the seas around
the world. For me, the clay is a vital clue to the mystery
of the extinction of the dinosaurs. This clay is made of
extraterrestrial material, and provides strong evidence
that the dinosaurs died in a disaster that came to us
from space.
The asteroid theory, widely reported in the press
and widely debated in scientific circles, proposes that
an asteroid struck the earth, creating a blast equal to
the force of half a million gigantic nuclear explosions.
Vaporized rock would be blown around the world, and
condense as fine particles of dust high in the atmos-
phere. Computer models suggest that light from the
sun would not reach the surface of the earth for several
months. Ground temperatures would fall all over the
world to near the freezing point or below, and the rain
would be polluted with acid. The dust would finally fall
out of the atmosphere and form the clay layer that is
found around the world.
There are some odd things about the extinction.
It's hard to understand why the small dinosaurs with
large brains became extinct, while many different
kinds of mammals survived. There were very few ex-
tinctions among the animals and plants that lived in
freshwater streams and lakes. As already noted, water-
dwelling reptiles continued to be the largest animals in
23
continental environments for many years. Some birds
evolved into large, vicious-looking ground predators.
However, small mouselike mammals rapidly became
more numerous and within a few million years some of
them grew to fairly respectable sizes.
Several other great or "mass" extinctions have
occurred during the history of life on earth. Some re-
searchers think that the mass extinctions may have
greatly accelerated evolution by breaking up stable eco-
Right, and on facing
page, stages in
assembling the
skeleton ot Alberto-
saurus, a task which
required two years
(1954-56) and the in-
volvement of several
staff members. Orville
"Gilly" Gilpin, then
chief preparator of
fossils, is shown posi-
tioning the pelvic
bones. William D.
Turnbull, who recently
retired as curator of
fossil mammals
(standing), is shown
with assistant as they
position the 200-lb.
Skull. 81565(lelt) 81569(nghl)
the world at the same time.
There is a tendency for evolution to speed up
through time. The rate of the speed-up seems to be
about proportional to the evolutionary level already
achieved. It works like compound interest rates.
Things are slow in the beginning but they really perk up
later on. Think of how in the dim past carbon and
hydrogen atoms- combined to form the genetic code,
and how this made inheritance possible in the first
24
logical formations and allowing new animals and plants
to become dominant. In other words, the more numer-
ous the extinctions, the more rapid the evolution. I
doubt that this is so. Evolution is classically thought to
be the result of a struggle for existence between organ-
isms living in a relatively stable physical environment.
A mass extinction, like the one that took place when
the dinosaurs died, occurs when the set of physical con-
ditions is rapidly and very dramatically altered all over
place. Students of biology can appreciate the enormous
possibilities that opened up when primitive cells fused
together to form advanced, neucleated cells, or when
long ago fungi combined with marine algae to form
plants that could live on land.
Most of us would agree that life has made some
progress on our planet since the age of the jellyfish
more than half a billion years ago. It might be difficult
to describe what progress is, either with words or with
numbers, but intuitively it is not difficult to suspect
that progress has been made. In this sense, then, evolu-
tion can be thought of as a fairly positive process. It
seems to me there has also been a pattern of change
from relative simplicity to greater complexity. Many
examples can be cited. That patterns might exist in
evolution shouldn't seem astonishing. It might have
been suspected from the presence of patterns that have
been discovered in other branches of science. Why
ary philosophy that deplores directionism, determin-
ism, gradualism, and adaptationism as valid biological
concepts. You are right. I do think these concepts have
some validity. And I want to encourage you to consider
them in your thinking as well.
If we were to abandon these concepts altogether,
then all of the history of life appears as if it were a desert
of evolutionary noise — a kind of random walk devoid
of any real meaning for human existence. This view of
should evolution be different? Must it be random or
arbitrary? The story of the upward struggle of dinosaurs
and other living things to higher levels of complexity
might be the story of life anywhere in the cosmos. This
I offer to you to replace the integrity and symmetry that
was lost when we barbarously kill dinosaurs with an
asteroid.
Other paleontologists may by now strongly sus-
pect that I have strayed a bit from a popular evolution-
life would make paleontology sterile. How can we
imagine organisms that adapt only to their physical
environment and show no effects of the complexity in
the biological world in which they must successfully
compete to survive? Must we presume that any have
not come to an end of their development in the
human-dominated world of the recent. Maybe we can
think about the future evolution of plants. Will pollen
grains become more complicated and beautiful? Can
25
26
Gilly Gilpin sponges the Albertosaurus skull as the project nears completion. It became the world's first self-supporting dinosaur
skeleton. (As seen today in Stanley Field Hall, Albertosaurus rises above the skeleton of Lambeosaurus, an herbivorous dinosaur. )ei669
we dare to think a bit positively about ourselves? We
are after all at the end of a very long evolutionary his-
tory. There were failures — the big australopithicenes
didn't make it. Neither did the neandertals. But mon-
keys, parrots, elephants, and dolphins have relatively
large brains. Might there not be grounds for optimism
about the future of life? And would there not be the
freedom to think again, without worrying about being
branded as pariahs of directionism, determinism, gra-
dualism, and adaptationism? Now, let's return to the
messy business of the extinction of the dinosaurs.
If the extinction was the result of an asteroid's im-
pact, the fatal stresses had absolutely nothing to do
with the adaptive finesse which had accumulated
through evolutionary processes prior to the end of the
dinosaurian era. Because of the great number of spe-
cies, not to speak of individuals that were lost, a great
deal of organic complexity that had slowly evolved up
to that time was also lost. This would not be an evolu-
tionarily neutral event. It would be a very bad show for
the advancement of life on earth. Imagine if one mass
extinction would occur through a collision with an
asteroid, followed five million years later by another
mass extinction resulting from the explosion of a near-
by supernova, then five million years later yet another
mass extinction occurring as the solar system passes
through a giant molecular cloud, and so on. The net
result of a closely spaced series of nonbiological extinc-
tions might well be something like a random evolution-
ary wandering unmarked by any trends. Like a dazed
boxer staggering from blow to blow.
Fortunately the dinosaurs were eliminated in one
clean, quick blow and there have been no equally dis-
asterous mass extinctions since. The net result of their
extinction was the replacement of one set of evolution-
ary actors by the second string. We are the descendants
of the second string. But the great drama of life has
remained the same.
Sometimes our colleagues who study physics
engage in cerebral exercises they call thought
experiments. As far as I'm concerned, exercise is
not something one should be too compulsive about.
And I suspect this natural and civilized reluctance is
not uniquely limited to me. But it has been said that
the benefits of thought experiments far outweigh the
costs — no equipment or facilities are needed except for
those which occur between the ears. Let us then
embark on a mild sort of paleontological thought ex-
periment. Consider what might have happened, evolu-
tionarily speaking, had the mass extinction that
marked the end of the dinosaurian era not occurred.
There are many things that we could think about.
Apparently the plant world was not greatly affected,
over the long term, by the extinctions. The world of
marine fishes is so strongly marked by parallel evolu-
tion that the end products of a no-extinction scenario
might not have been very different from those of an
extinction scenario. But what about the dinosaurs
themselves?
The most interesting trend for me is the trend de-
scribing the maximum size of brain on earth through
geologic time. On the average, organisms need more
complicated brains to react to increasingly complicated
environments. For example, we know that the number
of different species of multicellular organisms has great-
ly increased through geologic time. There are two im-
portant things to note. One is the stability of the trend.
Data from the last 65 million years predict that crea-
tures with human-sized brains or larger would have
appeared on earth by another 25 million years at the
latest, with a probability greater than 99 percent. The
other important thing to note is that by the end of the
dinosaurian era some dinosaurs had brains as large as
those of the mammals that were alive at that time, after
correcting for body size effects. Dinosaurs were on the
curve of maximum brain size through geologic time.
For our thought experiment, then, let us project the
evolutionary increase in the dinosaurian brain forward
into the future they never had. We know that human-
sized brain proportions are possible; after all, they do
exist. What would the anatomical consequences be of a
human-sized brain in a dinosaur? Remember, we have
to make something that might work, and random
evolution probably wouldn't make anything that would
be very useful in the struggle for existence.
I think it might be a good idea to divide the ana-
tomical consequences of our hypothetical highly
evolved dinosaur, or what we can call a "dinosauroid,"
into three kinds. Natural selection isn't perfect, even
when it has been acting over many tens of millions of
years. There are always many little details, like my
appendix, that are due to accidents of ancestry, and not
perfection of adaptation. We use these leftovers from
ancestry to classify our fossils, and indeed all living
organisms, into natural systems of ancestor-descendant
family trees. Our dinosauroid would show the effects of
his ancestry. So what we might call its primary charac-
teristics are those which would seem to be firmly linked
to having a large brain irrespective of ancestry. Secon-
dary characteristics might be those that would be left
over from the fact that its ancestor was a small theropod
dinosaur. This is because the large-brained dinosaurs of
late Cretaceous time were all small theropods, to the
best of our knowledge. Tertiary characteristics would
be those stemming from a general dinosaurian or rep-
tilian ancestry.
Among the primary characteristics would be
warm-bloodedness. Our dinosauroid would be nice and
warm to touch. This is because 20 percent of our resting
metabolism, or basal metabolism, goes to fuel the
brain. The brain is a very expensive organ to maintain,
and a crocodile with a human brain-transplant would
be utterly exhausted without moving. There would be
no energy left over for activity.
Our dinosauroid would have to eat a lot to main-
tain his energy balance. Here a separation between the
mouth and nasal passages would be useful in order to
eat and breathe at the same time. This is called a secon-
dary palate: we have one and so did ostrich dinosaurs
many millions of years ago.
One consequence of a relatively large brain is that
the rest of the skull would seem relatively small. This is
obvious in embryonic lizards, so we can use the
braincase-facial proportions in embryonic lizards as a
guide.
Another consequence of a big brain is a relatively
large head on a relatively small body. This is particular-
ly true of animals in the 30-70 kg (66-154 lb.) range. A
large head is most easily supported by a vertical neck
centered beneath it. This adaptation is apparent in
apes, and also in bone-headed dinosaurs, which had
small brains but large heads and lived many millions of
years ago.
Then there is the problem of the backbone. A
horizontal backbone provides a good framework for the
attachment of strong running muscles. A vertical
Triceratops calicomis, on view in Hall 38. This was the largest of all horned dinosaurs. The head, shown here, was about 7 feet in length.
This specimen was discovered near Chalk Buttes. Montana, in 1904. 17454
28
backbone provides an energy-efficient posture for car-
rying the upper part of the body and a heavy head.
Ostriches are bipedal, like the small theropod dino-
saurs of long ago, and carry their backbones in a hori-
zontal position. My guess is that a big head on an
ostrich would be tiresome to carry around, and get
bashed on branches and trees in making sharp turns.'
The dinosauroids' immediate ancestor might be termed
Dinosauroides horizontals, but the large-brained descen-
dant might better be called Dinosauroides erectus.
The human leg has been the target of very strong
selective forces and is an extremely efficient locomo-
tive organ. The proportions of the human leg have to
go into an upright dinosauroid.
We can next consider what structures might have
been the result of a small theropod ancestry. These will
be the secondary characteristics.
The teeth were reduced in some small theropods
and in at least two families they were lost entirely.
Teeth have been lost in birds, which were also de-
scended from small theropod dinosaurs. The jaws of the
dinosauroid are thus toothless and provided with kera-
tinous surfaces — the same substance that nails, horns,
and hooves are made of.
The proportions of the arms are taken from
ostrich dinosaurs. The hands had three fingers in most
small theropods.
The pelvic canal is very large in some small ther-
opods, and we suspect that they may have given birth
to living young. The need to pass large eggs, with
embryonic tissues encased in a more or less rigid shell,
through the pelvic canal would be avoided. This would
allow the hips to be narrower and enhance the effi-
ciency of walking. The dinosauroid thus has a tenta-
tive, none-too-courageous navel.
There is no kneecap in small theropods. The mus-
cles of the upper leg are attached to a blade on the
upper part of the shaft of the tibia.
The foot is a compromise between the foot in a
small theropod and the foot in a tree kangaroo. In both
animals the small toes are on the inside, not the outside
of the foot.
The tertiary characteristics are further removed
from the dinosauroids' immediate ancestry, and can be
found in dinosaurs and other reptiles in general. These
include the large eyes, absence of ears, presence of a
dewlap as a secondary sexual characteristic, the con-
tainment of the external genitalia in a pelvic pouch,
and the absence of breasts. There are other details we
could consider, but these are the major ones.
There are several hypotheses that I would like to
leave with you. I suspect that there is some truth in
them. The first would be that just as in the rest of na-
ture there is structure in the history of life. It is not a
random process; there are preferred evolutionary path-
ways and the evidence of these is parallel and/or con-
vergent evolution. We should study preferred evolu-
tionary pathways more carefully because they will help
us to understand the evolution of complex life no mat-
ter where it occurs in the galaxy or even the cosmos.
A second hypothesis is that the dinosaurian
world was special. It was an experiment in the
evolution of sophisticated organisms that was
brought to an end by an abiotic, external force. The
dinosaurian world then can give us some feeling for
how much variation there can be around preferred evo-
lutionary pathways. Thus, a study of the dinosaurian
world helps us to anticipate the kind of differences
mankind one day can expect to find in the biospheres
of planets that circle faraway stars. Those biospheres
probably exist. Our colleagues in astronomy assure us
that sunlike stars are common. There is good evidence
that planets are abundant also, and the organic com-
pounds that are the building blocks of life are broadly
spread through nearby space.
A third hypothesis is that the human form is not
an evolutionarily surprising form. It may represent a
target that is easy for natural selection to hit. If evolu-
tion is a generally positive process, and I think it prob-
ably is, it could be expected that some biospheres could
produce something like what we have called a dino-
sauroid. The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, or
SETI, is a project supported largely by astronomers to
use radio telescopes to search for intelligence-carrying
electromagnetic signals. Many articles have been writ-
ten about SETI in scientific journals, in popular scien-
tific journals, and in the newspapers as well. An evolu-
tionary biologist might suggest to his astronomer
friends not to be too astonished if, when exotic radio
signals are detected, the extraterrestrial intelligence
that transmits them has a familiar look.
It would be grossly unfair of me to suggest that this
discussion represents a summary of what is solidly
known about dinosaurs or the evolution of life on
earth. It is simply how I, as one human being, see the
natural world that I live in. Probably it's a real period
piece, and full of mistakes. But whether it's completely
wrong or not, it does somehow say what I feel at night
when I look up into the boundless vault of a soft, star-
filled prairie sky.
29
KenyaTanzania Safari
March 3-23. 1989
HELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
Kenya/Tanzania
Safari
March 3-23, 1989
Leader: Audrey Joy Faden
Price: $6,350
ITINERARY
March 3
Fly from Chicago to London via British Airways.
March 4
Fly from London to Nairobi, Kenya. Day rooms
in London. Evening flight to Nairobi.
March 5
Nairobi. City tour. Welcome cocktail party and
dinner.
March 6
Nairobi/Amboseli National Park, justly famous
for its big game and superb views of Mt. Kil-
imanjaro. Afternoon lecture by local researcher.
Late afternoon game drive.
March 7
Amboseli National Park. Morning and afternoon
game drives. Mid-day at leisure to relax at the
lodge or swim in the pool.
March 8
Amboseli National Park/Namanga/Gibb's Farm,
Tanzania. Cross the border, where we clear
customs before proceeding into Tanzania to
Gibb's Farm, where the remainder of day is at
leisure.
March 9
Gibb's Farm/Serengeti National Park. Game
drives in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
and the Serengeti.
March 10
Serengeti National Park. Full day exploring this
vast area.
March 1 1
Serengeti National Park/Olduvai/Ngorongoro
Crater. Visit Olduvai Gorge and the site of Louis
and Mary Leakey's discovery of Zinjanthropus
bosei. Continue on to the spectacular Ngoron-
goro Crater.
March 12
Ngorongoro Crater. Full day down in the crater,
tracking and photographing the animals.
March 13
Ngorongoro Crater/Lake Manyara National
Park. Depart to Lake Manyara Hotel, set in love-
ly gardens with a swimming pool overlooking
the park. Optional activities.
March 14
Lake Manyara National Park. Morning and
afternoon game drives, exploring the diversify
of this park.
March 15
Lake Manyara National Park/Namanga, Kenya/
Nairobi. Drive back to Arusha for lunch and
continue on to the Namanga border, clear
customs and return to Nairobi.
March 16
Nairobi/Aberdare National Park/The Ark. This
morning you proceed into deep forested area
alive with some of the finest game viewing in
Kenya. After lunch at Aberdare Country Club
transfer to The Ark, "berthed" over a waterhole
where the animals come to drink. From a
ground-level lounge with large picture win-
dows, you have an eye-to-eye view of this
constantly changing scenario.
March 1 7
Aberdare National Park/Samburu Game
Reserve. This reserve is home to several
species found only in these northern areas.
March 18
Samburu Game Reserve. Your game viewing
takes you through a variety of landscapes. Bird
enthusiasts will be well rewarded with over 300
species, including the martial eagle, in this
reserve.
March 19
Samburu Game Reserve/Mount Kenya
Nanyuki. Drive to the famous Mt. Kenya Safari
Club. The grounds cover 1 00 acres of blooming
flower beds, ponds with water lilies and stands
of shade trees — a litoral oasis in the middle of
the African bush.
March 20
Mount Kenya Nanyuki/Nairobi/Masai Mara
Game Reserve. Drive back to Nairobi and after
lunch depart on the afternoon flight to the
Masai Mara Game Reserve, where we'll stay
in a luxury safari camp.
March 21
Masai Mara Game Reserve. Enioy a day
of game viewing in the Mara, one of the last
strongholds of the great herds.
March 22
Masai Mara Game Reserve/Nairobi. After one
last game run in the Mara, return to Nairobi by
air. Remainder of day at leisure.
March 23
Nairobi/London/Chicago. Midnight flight to
London on British Airways. Connect to British
Airways to Chicago, arriving later the same
day.
Antarctica
Discovering Antarctica, the Strait of Magellan,
Tierra del Fuego, and Cape Horn aboard the
llliria under the leadership of Dr. Bruce D.
Patterson, associate curator and head of the
Division of Mammals at the Field Museum of
Natural History.
February 20-March 7, 1989
Pre-Cruise Extension
to Patagonia
and the Lake District
February 15-23, 1989
The Galapagos
Aboard the m. v. Santa Cruz
March 3-14, 1989
Optional Extension to Peru March 14-20
Price: $3,550-$3,840
March 3: Chicago/Miami/Quito. Welcome party and orientation.
March 4: A full day excursion to the colorful Indian fair of Otavalo.
March 5: All-day birding excursion up into the mountains outside
Quito.
March 6: Fly to Guayaquil and on to Baltra where we board the
Santa Cruz.
March 7: Cruising — Bartolome and Tower Islands.
March 8: Cruising — Isabela and Fernandina Islands.
March 9: Cruising — North Seymour Island.
March 10: Cruising — Hood and Floreana Islands.
March 1 1: Cruising — Santa Cruz and Plaza Islands.
March 12: Cruising — James Island.
March 73: This morning we cruise to Baltra, disembarking to board
our flight to Guayaquil. Farewell dinner.
March 14: Return flight to Chicago.
Join us as we explore one of the world's greatest living laboratories
of natural history under the leadership of Dr. David E. Willard, col-
lection manager of the Bird Division of the Field Museum of Natural
History. The Galapagos Islands — birthplace of Darwin's "Origin
of Species" — situated 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador, remain
remote and out of the elements of nature where an abundance of
strange creatures known nowhere else on earth reside. An optional
trip to Peru at a cost of $1 ,450 includes visits to the world-famous
site of Machu Picchu, Lima, and Cuzco.
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
31
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, I L 60605-2499
INSIDE ANCIENT
EGYPT
The most dramatic exhibit ever created to tell the story
of the mysterious world of the ancient Egyptians opens
Friday, November 1 1 .
The new exhibit, on two floors of the Field Museum,
includes a fully reconstructed royal tomb with 35-foot burial
shaft (for you to walk through), 23 authentic mummies, a
working canal and living marsh (with growing papyrus), the
rare, 3,847-year-old royal boat of a pharaoh, an Egyptian marketplace,
and more than 1,400 rare artifacts and priceless treasures.
Ancient Egypt awaits you!
Field Museum of natural History bulletin
November 1988
INSIDE ANCIENT EGYPT
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor/Designer: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
Willard L. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H. Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo F. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
Mrs. JamesJ. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bo wen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
J . Howard Wood
CONTENTS
November 1988
Volume 59, Number 10
NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER EVENTS AT FIELD MUSEUM 3
WELCOME TO ANCIENT EGYPT
By Susan Nelson
THE EGYPTIAN COLLECTION AND THE LEGACY OF EDWARD E. AYER
By FrankJ. Yurco, Consultant to "Inside Ancient Egypt" ... 20
BEHIND THE SCENES: THE UNSEEN SIDE OF "INSIDE ANCIENT EGYPT"
By Susan Nelson 23
MOVING THE TOMB
By Robin Faulkner, Design and Production; and Nina Cum-
mings, Photography 28
DIORAMAS: A JOURNEY THROUGH THE MIND'S EYE
By Susan Nelson 29
FIELD MUSEUM TOURS 30
COVER
Papyrus Book of the Dead of Isty, on view in the burial groups
section of "Inside Ancient Egypt." This scene shows Isty, a chan-
tress of Amun, venerating Osiris and Isis. From the XXIst Dynas-
ty. Excavated at Deir el-Bahri, Egypt in 1891. Ron Testa 110708
Members' Preview Evenings
for "Inside Ancient Egypt"
You are invited to attend the Members' Preview of "Inside
Ancient Egypt" at Field Museum of Natural History, Monday,
November 7 through Thursday, November 10, 5:00 P.M. until
10:00 P.M.
Because the capacity of the new exhibit area is limited,
our members are asked to attend the preview evenings
alphabetically by last name. Last name: A-F November 7,
G-L November 8, M-R November 9, S-Z November 10.
The Museum's store will be open until 9:45 P.M.
Beverages will be available for purchase from the cash
bar. A ticketing system to regulate admission to the exhibit
will be implemented that evening. Tickets will be distributed
at the central booth in Stanley Field Hall. Questions, please
call the Membership Department at 922-941 0, ext. 453.
Sherry L. DeVries, manager of Public Relations, coordinated the
editorial, design, and production activities in the preparation of this
special issue on "Inside Ancient Egypt."
City Musick
Chicago's highly acclaimed 1 8th-century orchestra, is hold-
ing monthly performances in Field Museum's Stanley Field
Hall through April. Ten percent discount on tickets for Field
Museum members. Performances include Beethoven on
November 18 and Handel's "Messiah" on December 21 . Call
City Musick at 642-1766 for more information.
Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496.
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schtx>ls. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago. Illinois and
additional mailing office.
A Special Invitation to Museum Members to
A FAMILY CHRISTMAS TEA AT FIELD MUSEUM
Thursday, December 8, 1988
OUl ll IS nu|_"\n 10 ui nvci ouy
LL88201 "Inside Ancient Egypt"
Tickets: $20 ($15 Members)
Heart scarab (lower side) with inscription from Book of the Dead. For more on heart
scarabs see glossary, p. 8 -»
Continued r>
ADULT PROGRAMS
Registration
Be sure to complete all requested information on this
registration application. Adult program advance registra-
tions are confirmed by mail. For registrations received less
than two weeks before the program begins, confirmations
are held at the West Door one hour before the program be-
gins. Phone registrations are accepted for adult programs
using Visa/MasterCard/Amx/Discover. There is a $15 mini-
Name
Address
mum charge for credit card registrations. Please call (312)
322-8854 to register. For further registration information,
consult the November/December Adult and Family Program
Brochure.
Return complete registration with a self-
addressed stamped envelope to:
Field Museum of Natural History
Department of Education, Adult Programs
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, IL 60605-2497
City
State
Zip
Telephone: Daytime Evening
□ Member □ Nonmember
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ADULT COURSES
Egypt: The New Kingdom
Frank J. Yurco, Ph.D. Candidate,
Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations,
University of Chicago
The New Kingdom marked a period of Egyptian imperial expan-
sion. There was an influx of much foreign influence creating a
fresh, cosmopolitan atmosphere expressed in new art forms
and cultural expressions. Pharaohs built enduring stone monu-
ments that still evoke awe in the modern visitor. The New King-
dom included a female pharaoh who ruled successfully for over
20 years, an attempt at massive religious reform, and the short,
tragic reign of Tut-ankh-Amun.
AC88401 Tuesdays, 7:00 p.m. -9:00 p.m.
November 8-December 13 (6 sessions)
$60 ($50 members)
Art and Architecture in Ancient Egypt
Lorelei H. Corcoran, Egyptologist
The art and architecture of pharaonic Egypt is rich in iconogra-
phy. Learn to decipher the symbolism and representation of this
era using examples of royal and non-royal portraiture, pyramids,
Also in November/December
Studying the Mountain Gorilla: Into the Third Decade
David Watts, Assistant Research Scientist, Department of
Anthropology, University of Michigan
Saturday November 19, 1 :30 p.m.
The Mountain Gorillas of Africa are an endangered species:
only some 500 remain in the world today Their plight and the
destruction of their tropical forest habitat has caused great con-
cern throughout the world. Dr. Watts discusses the importance
of studying the behavior of mountain gorillas, especially their
social relationships. The behavior of these intelligent animals
seems to have much in common with that of humans.
Join Dr. Watts as he brings us up to date on the lives of Effie,
Pablo. Titus, Simba. and others. These gorillas were introduced
to the world through the work of Dian Fossey and her associ-
ates. Hear what is being done in the areas of public education,
habitat protection, and economic development, to help or harm
the mountain gorillas. Dr. Watts conducted field research at Kari-
soke Research Centre in Rwanda, Africa, serving as director of
the Centre in 1 986 and 1 987. He has returned to the University
of Michigan for a year to share his research findings with the
scientific community and the public who are fascinated by
these gorillas.
LL88202 Studying the Mountain Gorilla
Tickets $6 ($4 members)
temples, and mummification and the funerary arts. Discuss the
social and religious requirements of temples and tombs.
AC88402 Wednesdays, 7:00 p.m. -9:00 p.m.
November 9-November 30 (4 sessions)
$50 ($40 members)
"Inside Ancient Egypt": A Walk-Through
Frank J. Yurco, Ph.D. Candidate
Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations,
University of Chicago
The program begins with an introduction to ancient Egyptian
civilization and suggestions for viewing the different sections
of the new exhibit. Then participants are free to explore "Inside
Ancient Egypt" on their own. Egyptologist and exhibit consultant
Frank Yurco is available throughout this time in the exhibit for the
opportunity to answer subject matter and exhibit related ques-
tions. Please indicate if you have a second choice of date for
this class.
AC88403 Monday, Nov. 21 (1 session) 7:00-9:00 p.m.
AC88404 Wednesday, Dec. 14(1 session) 7:00-9:00 p.m.
$10 ($8 members)
The Making of a Bestiary
Rosamond Wolff Purcell, Photographer
Saturday, December 10, 1:30 p.m.
Rosamond Wolff Purcell is an artist/photographer who en-
tered the scientific world of museum collections to photograph
objects. She did this not for the scientific record, but rather as an
artist and interpreter. Her goal was to make visual sense of the
collections and to capture the strange and haunting beauty of
the specimens.
Using her photographs featured in the Museum's special
exhibit "Illuminations: A Bestiary," Ms. Purcell discusses her pur-
suit of these hidden objects contained within the world's great
museums. She traveled from back rooms of the University of
Copenhagen to the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har-
vard University. She was, in her own words, "a bull in a china
shop," examining scientific specimens from an artist's point of
view.
Share the extraordinary world of the artist working with
the scientist to explore the hidden masterpieces of museum
collections. Join Rosamond Wolff Purcell as she describes
her unique photographic collection and the process of
"making a bestiary."
LL88203 The Making of a Bestiary
Tickets $6 ($4 members)
WEEKEND PROGRAMS
Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations,
and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are some of the numerous
activities offered each weekend. Check the activity listing upon arrival for the complete schedule, and program locations. The
programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Art Council.
November
22 1 :30pm Surprise Safari
Trek through the four corners of the Museum to see the seven
continents. See antiquities from the Amazon, big game from
Africa, and seals from the Arctic.
December
10 12:30pm Surprise Safari
Trek through the four corners of the Museum to see the seven
continents. See antiquities from the Amazon, big game from
Africa, and seals from the Arctic.
1 0 1 :30pm "Tibet Today" and "Bhutan, Land of the
Thunder Dragon"
See Lhasa and other towns now open to tourists, and examine
important Buddhist sites during this slide lecture and tour.
4 These programs are free with Museum admission and tickets are not required.
Klaus Baer
1930-1987
This special issue on the new Egypt exhibit is dedicated to Klaus Baer
(June 22, 1930-May 14, 1987), a great Egyptologist and a truly wonder-
ful person who, in one of his final activities before a most untimely death ,
served as adviser for the project "Inside Ancient Egypt." His assistance
and counsel were seminal for the development of the mastaha of Unis-
ankh, especially in the early stages of the project, when it passed from the
drawing hoards to actuality. It was with his approval and encouragement
that we decided to install windows and a serdab, or statue chamber.
Klaus Baer was born in Halle, Germany. Fleeing the emerging Nazi
movement, his parents emigrated to the U.S. in 1933. After receiving his
BA in Greek from the University of Illinois (1948), Klaus Baer entered
the graduate Egyptology program at the University of Chicago, receivin
his Ph.D. in 1958. For six years, he taught at the University of California
at Berkeley, before returning to the University of Chicago in 1965 as
associate professor. Named full professor in 1970, he served as chairman
of the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations 1972-76
and later as president of the American Research Center in Egypt in
1981-84. He earlier conducted research in Egypt as a Fulbright Scholar
( 1952-54) and again at Hierakonpolis ( 1969-70).
All stages of ancient Egypt fascinated him, from Early Dynastic to
Coptic, and he had mastery over all. He performed valuable chronologi-
cal research and wrote a basic study of the Old Kingdom, Rank and Title
in the Old Kingdom. In addition, he wrote a work on Coptic, a study of
the final phase of pharaonic culture and language. He also taught during
this time, and it is in his students that a true appreciation of his greatness
rests. Another measure of Klaus Baer's scope was his community involve-
ment. When he spent summers in Colorado he served as a board member
of the Rocky Ridge Music Camp in Estes Park. In 1985 he married
Miriam Reitz, who survives him.
The exhibit developer, Janet Kamien, and 1 will long have a clear
image of our last meeting with Dr. Baer, in April 1987, as we joined him
at Edwardo's restaurant in Hyde Park to discuss the mastaha design. A
little more than a month later, Klaus Baer had joined Unis-ankh and a
host of others as a venerable spirit.
— Frank /. Yurco
AT
•'
■ ^;???? •'■"■-■ "
•rmi
Left: Coffin and mummy of Chenet-aa. Dynasty XXII Right: Coffin ol
Nes-Pa-Sobek. Dynasty XXI-XXII. Ron Tesla and Diane Alexander Whi«C
Welcome
to Ancient Egypt
by Susan Nelson
And welcome to the Field Museum's new exhibit,
"Inside Ancient Egypt." By 1993, when the
Museum celebrates the beginning of its second 100
years, there will be a series of these major, theme
exhibits that present the Museum's collections in
new, challenging contexts. Each, like this one, will
use a variety of innovative approaches to show
the diversity of the collection as well as to appeal
to the diversity of Museum visitors.
"Inside Ancient Egypt" is a dramatic display of
the Field Museum's priceless collection of Egyptian
artifacts. Some, like the mummies, you may already
know. Others have not been seen for years. Even the
best-known of the items will take on new significance
Susan Nelson is a freelance writer and editor with a special interest
in ancient cultures. For this issue on ancient Egypt she prepared the
tables and sidebars on pages 8 (dynasty dates, glossary), 9 (words
with Egyptian roots, personal names), 10 (quiz, gods and goddes-
ses), 27 (Egyptian firsts), and 29 (dioramas). She also wrote the
basic text for the time line, pp. 16-17.
in their new settings, which were researched and
created by Janet Kamien, chair of Design and
Production, and her staff.
"Inside Ancient Egypt" presents Egypt in two
specific, newly defined ways: as a country that showed
remarkable continuity as it evolved over more than
3,000 years of pharaohs, and as a place whose day-to-
day activities had more than a passing resemblance to
our own. Familiar treasures are again on display — but
they are shown to tell parts of a story, rather than as
unrelated specimens.
As you walk through Stanley Field Hall from
the north entrance of the Field Museum toward the
beginning of the new Egyptian exhibit, you may
notice a slight change in the way the hall itself feels.
The change is intentional: It is hoped that the vast,
skylighted, two-story courtyard will begin to assume
the role of a town square, an open area for gathering
and meeting before moving on to the activities that
take place off the square, in the arcade-like areas
beneath the arches.
Field Museum Members and Friends —
"Inside Ancient Egypt" takes us back to the beginnings of the
Field Museum, when Edward Ayer, the Museum's first trus-
tee president, had the vision to acquire our Egyptian collec-
tion. He began collecting Egyptian materials in 1894, relying
on his generous friends in Chicago for the funds to buy the
extraordinary things, in the field and in marketplaces. You
will learn more about the important collection Ayer ac-
quired as you read the following pages.
But you will learn the most about ancient Egypt when
you come to visit "Inside Ancient Egypt," which tells the
story of the complex world of the Egyptians from 5,000 B.C.
to A. D. 300. "Inside Ancient Egypt" is a thematic exhibition,
which presents an exceptional collection in the context of a
cultural and physical environment.
"Inside Ancient Egypt" results from the extraordinary
contemporary vision of Michael Spock, vice president for
Public Programs. It has been brought to life by the imagina-
6 tive and tireless efforts of an exceptional exhibit team
headed by Janet Kamien, chairman of the Design and Pro-
duction Department. It is made possible by the generosity of
the many donors of unrestricted gifts to the Field Museum's
capital campaign for Centennial Directions, directed by
Thomas R. Sanders, vice president, Development, and by
the Field Foundation of Illinois, Inc. , which helped fund the
Egyptian marketplace; the Sara Lee Foundation, which
funded the Bastet shrine; and the Helen Brach Foundation,
which contributed to the animal niche cemetery. These
generous gifts were magnanimously matched by the people of
Chicago through their Chicago Park District.
/M^/^y
Willard L.Boyd
President
egyptian dynasty dates
period
dynasties
dates
Early dynastic
1 st and 2nd
31 00-2755 8 c
Old Kingdom
3rd-8th
2755-2230 bc
First Intermediate
9th-10th
2230-2040 BC
Middle Kingdom
11th-12th
2040-1 786 BC
Second Intermediate
13th-17th
1786-1567 BC
New Kingdom
18th-20th
1567-1085 BC
Third Intermediate
21st-24th
1085- 712BC
Late Period
25th-30th
712- 332 ac
Those arcade areas are the sites for such
informal exhibits as "Sizes" on the first floor and
"Rearing Young" on the second floor. These exhibits
are planned to be changed and updated relatively
often; their purpose is to engage visitors quickly in
hands-on, topical exhibits and programs in brightly
lighted, playful, even noisy settings.
Deeper within the Museum will continue to be
the more comprehensive exhibits. These, following
the lead of "Inside Ancient Egypt," will draw heavily
on Field Museum's outstanding collections and will be
arranged as carefully designed environments that in-
clude controlled lighting, sound, and climate. Like
the Egyptian exhibit, they, too, will make use of mod-
els, dioramas, interactive experiences and activities,
specially written label copy (or captions), and habitat
groups.
Each will be planned to appeal to a number of
different levels of interest of visitors. And again, as
with the Egyptian exhibit, each will offer visitors a
chance to explore the topic in more detail. In this
way, it is possible to edit collections to keep an exhibit
lively and yet make more detailed information avail-
able in nearby resource centers that contain in-depth
information and up-to-date announcements about
a specific area.
In the past four years, the Field Museum has re-
defined its mission. It has divided its emphasis into a
research institute, with continuing work by curators
in such areas as Central and South America, and
a glossary to ancient egypt
amulets. Good-luck charms or talismans, worn singly or in
groups, believed to have magical qualities that could protect
against physical and mystical events.
ba. The wandering part of the spirit, which at death could
leave the body and move from the tomb to the living world as
it wished.
ka. The part of the spirit of the deceased that remained with
the owner's body, or in the serdab statue, in case the owner's
mummy should be destroyed.
Book of the Dead. The name for the collection of hieroglyphic
texts that were written on a papyrus roll and buried with the
deceased in order to function as a guide for the journey in the
afterlife.
canopicjar. A pottery or stone urn, one of a set of 4, with lids
shaped either in human form, or like a jackal, baboon, or falcon,
that held the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines of a deceased
person and was buried in a chest beside his or her mummy.
cartouche. An oblong enclosure with rounded ends and a tie
that surrounds and protects the name in hieroglyphs of a ruler.
Used today in gold or silver jewelry, with the wearer's name
cubit. Commonly used measure of length; about 20 inches
(from the tip of a pharaoh's longest finger to his/her elbow).
deben. Commonly used measure of weight used in trade; about
three ounces (90 grams). Divides into 10 kite.
faience. A paste made of ground quartz or sand, with mineral
additive; baked like clay, to produce multi-colored glazes.
false door. The painted or carved representation of an elaborate
door in a tomb chapel through which the deceased's ba could
enter and leave; in Unis-ankh's tomb, the false door weighs
12,000 lbs. The ka could receive offerings placed before
the false door.
heart scarab. The Egyptians left the heart in the body because
they believed it was the seat of intelligence. In the pharaonic
period it was accompanied by a heart scarab, a large repre-
sentation of a scarab beetle, usually of stone, that frequently
was inscribed with chapter 30A of the Book of the Dead. This
chapter is the text prayer, asking that the heart not testify
against its owner in the great judgment of the deceased before
the 42 assessors, and later, before Osiris himself.
hieroglyphs. The pictographic and phonogrammic script that
was used to write ancient Egyptian; 24 hieroglyphs comprise
the basic alphabet.
kite. Unit of weight. One-tenth of a deben. used in silver and
gold units for evaluation, but not in copper
mastaba. Rectangular tombs clustered around royal pyramids,
where family members, nobility, and court attendants of the Old
and Middle Kingdoms were buried. Mastaba means "bench"
in Arabic because these ancient structures resemble modern
Egyptian benches
oracles. Statues of deities generally carried in boat-shaped
shrines, which the bearers moved to indicate "yes" or "no"
in response to questions. Some were stationary and were
fashioned with a movable tongue, manipulated by a concealed
priest.
papyrus. Nile River swamp reed whose pith, when sliced into
strips and laid into sheets in overlapped, crossed layers, and,
pressed and dried, formed a strong writing material for hiero-
glyphs. Sheets were often pasted together to form a roll, or
scroll.
sarcophagus. Outer container usually of stone within which
a coffin or coffins and mummy were placed for burial. Often
decorated with images of the sky goddess or of Osiris (or his
totem), it functioned as a regenerator for the resurrection of the
deceased person within.
serdab. A small room with a small, slit-like "window" in a tomb
to safely hold a statue of the deceased, which would ensure
that the ka and ba would not have to die a second, permanent
death, should the mummy perish.
stela. Inscribed stone slab that served to memorialize the dead
or commemorate an event or a decree.
"cippus" stelae. Sculpted and inscribed stones, with prayers
and an image of Horus as a child standing on crocodiles; they
were carried for protection by travelers and children. Larger
ones were placed so they could have water poured over them.
ushabti. A statuette often inscribed with chapter 6 from the
Book of the Dead (spell 472 of Coffin Texts) and placed in the
tomb to perform work on behalf of the deceased in the afterlife.
The name means literally "I am one who answers."
common english words whose roots
go back to ancient egyptian
Egyptian
English
hbny
ebony
djba
adobe
komyet
gum
sak
sack
hrere
lily
hlbey
ibis
boinu
phoenix
Hi-ku-Ptah
Egypt
kemet
alchemy
amon
ammonia
a public museum. (The Natural History Museum
in London follows the same division of focus. ) This
approach, as guided by Museum president Willard L.
Boyd, who is president emeritus of the University of
Iowa, makes the Field Museum itself a place to enjoy
and also to learn.
Michael Spock, vice president for Public Pro-
grams, has divided the public museum into three
tiers — informal exhibits, thematic exhibits, and re-
source centers — in order to make the Museum more
approachable. Following such a plan also allows the
Museum to present its collections, which are its most
valuable aspect, so that they do the one thing public
television cannot do: give those who see them the
authenticity that only face-to-face viewing of an
object can give. Text continued on P. 14
personal names from egypt
Some of the names given to people living in ancient
Egypt, particularly during the New Kingdom's 18th and
19th Dynasties (1500-1200 B.C.), found their way into
neighboring territories controlled by Egypt. Some also
found their way into the Bible. Those that follow are still
recognized today
Egyptian
Pronunciation English
Other cultures
Meaning
name
name
variations
Msw
"Moje"
Moses
Moishe
(Hebrew)
"to be born"
Pz-Nhsy
"Panehsy"
Phineas
Phineas
(Hebrew)
"the Nubian"
Ssnw
"Seshenu"
Susan
Shoshana
(Hebrew)
"lotus flower"
Sth
"Sutekh"
Seth
(a divine name)
Wnn-Nfr
"Wennefar"
Humphrey Onnophrios
"The good
(Greek)
being" (the
Onnofre
epithet of
(Italian,
Osiris)
Spanish)
Mediterranean Sea
Ancient Egypt
'Saqqara — Site of Unis-ankh's mastaba tomb. This tomb is
the centerpiece of Field Museum's "Inside Ancient Egypt"
exhibit.
2Dahshur— Excavation site of King Sen-Wosret Ill's pharaonic
boat featured in "Inside Ancient Egypt."
3Cairo — Modem capital of Egypt.
"Memphis — Ancient capital of Egypt.
test yourself about ancient egypt
Are the following statements true or false? Circle your
choices and then look at the answers, which follow. The
answers may surprise you.
1 . Ancient Egyptian police trained cats or dogs to help
them apprehend criminals. TorF?
2. The ancient Egyptians traded wood, oils, spices,
and incense for the products they didn't have in Egypt.
TorF?
3. Gold, silver, and copper were widely used, but the
Egyptians did not use them for coins. T or F?
4. Burial rituals and mummification prove that the
ancient Egyptians considered death the highest honor
possible. TorF?
5. Tomb reliefs in ancient Egypt were generally painted
in bright colors. TorF?
6. Only royalty were mummified in ancient Egypt.
TorF?
7. Cleopatra was a sex goddess who ruled ancient
Egypt by distracting people with her looks. T or F?
8. The pyramids of ancient Egypt were built by slaves.
.TorF?
9. Beer was the beverage of the ordinary people in
ancient Egypt. T or F?
10. The Rosetta Stone is famous as a giant, rose-carved
pendant of jade that was worn by Nefertiti. T or F?
ANSWERS
1 . False. Ancient Egyptian police used baboons to help
them catch criminals. Baboons are easy to train because
they are so intelligent. They have a good sense of smell and
see very well, they can run fast, and they are strong, whether
they hang on with their human-like hands or with their very
sharp teeth.
2. False. The usually dependable floods of the Nile made
it possible for the ancient Egyptians to plant and cultivate
wheat and barley, flax for fabrics, and vegetables and fruits;
often there was a crop surplus. These agricultural products,
along with gold and gems in later periods, were traded for
such foreign products as woods, oils, and incense.
3. True. While metals were indeed mined in ancient Egypt,
copper, gold, and silver were carefully monitored by both
government and temple supervisors. Coins were not minted.
Produce, and manufactured products, as well as raw metals
and metal objects were commonly bartered, but were evalu-
ated in terms of bronze, silver, or gold.
4. False. The ancient Egyptians, believing they had to take
their wealth with them, created increasingly elaborate burial
rituals in order to prepare themselves for life after death — in
the style to which they had become accustomed during their
lives on earth. They enjoyed life so much that they wanted it
to continue forever.
5. True. The passage of time and the erosion of the bright
colors suggest — incorrectly — that tombs were only sculpted,
and not painted as well. The same is true of temples.
6. False. While kings, queens, and their immediate families
and trusted servants were mummified at first, the practice of
mummification passed onto noblemen and their families and
gradually to the general population — including the Greeks
and Romans who came to conquer ancient Egypt.
7. False. In fact, there was not one Cleopatra but seven,
each married to the Pharaoh Ptolemy of her generation. The
seventh and last Cleopatra was an extremely ambitious
politician — she even dressed as Isis to woo the populace.
She was engaged to marry Julius Caesar and bore him a son;
in 34 b c she married Mark Antony; then, rather than face
humiliation, took her life when they were defeated by Octa-
vian in 31 b.c
8. False. The pyramids of ancient Egypt were built by
skilled construction workers who followed instructions of
master architects. The men who hauled the blocks were
farmers, out of work during the inundation season, organized
into work gangs and paid by the government.
9. True. Beer was the most common beverage for everyone
in Egypt. Barley, from which it was made, was plentiful for
breads and cakes, as well. Wine was used mainly by the
upper classes.
10. False. The Rosetta Stone, a large tablet of black volcanic
basalt, made it feasible for the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt
to be translated. The stone, found in 1799 in the western delta
city of Rosetta by an officer in Napoleon's army, contained
priestly tribute to one of the pharaohs of the Ptolemaic-
Roman Period. The inscription was in two languages and
three scripts; Egyptian, in hieroglyphs and the cursive Demo-
tic, and in Greek. By cross-translating from Greek and the
Demotic characters, the French scholar Jean Francois
Champollion, who was fluent in Coptic, broke the secret of
the hieroglyphs.
egyptian gods and goddesses
The deities of ancient Egypt were many. They could man-
ifest themselves in any form they chose and were fre-
quently interchangeable: seventy-six different forms of
the sun god are known. The following list is a guide to
some of the major deities represented in "Inside Ancient
Egypt." They are grouped, where possible, into family
triads.
Amun (also Amen). God of the air, great god of Thebes, de-
fender of the oppressed; husband of Mut, father of Khonsu.
In New Kingdom Period, all deities were believed to be
aspects of him, expressed also in the trinity: Amun, Re, and
Ptah; he was believed also to be universal god.
Mut. Goddess of heaven, sorceress, mother of all living
things; mother of Khonsu.
10
Khonsu. God of the moon, a great healer.
Atum. Creator god, who created earth from the inundation
and all other deities as well as mankind, in male and co-equal
female form.
Nut. Sky goddess whose curved body formed the arch of
heaven. It was believed that daily she gave birth to the sun
and nightly to the moon.
Geb. God of earth, brother and husband of Nut.
Osiris. God and ruler of the dead, god of the resurrection, of
harvests, and bringer of civilization; husband of Isis, father of
Horus.
Isis. Mother goddess; mother of Horus and great worker
of magic who resurrected Osiris after he was murdered.
Patroness and protectress of women. . .
list continued on p. 13
FROM OUR GIFT CATALOG
THE STORE
CHICAGO
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
Show your support of the Museum by
giving gift certificates that may be used
toward purchases in the Museum's gift
stores, for educational programs or
museum memberships. Available in the
following denominations: S5, SIO. SI 5.
S20. S25. S50. Each certificate is en-
closed in a handsome gift card.
To order by telephone call
3 1 2/922-94 1 Oext. 236
Mon.-Fri. from 10-4
Custom Cartouches
Personalize a cartouche with your name in
hieroglyphics. Allow 6-8 weeks for delivery.
Christmas order deadline: November 1 0th.
Sterling Silver Cartouche
S4S.00 (Member $40.50)
14 kt. Gold Cartouche
$175.00 (Member SI 57.50)
Cats, Cats, Cats I
Cats were sacred to the people of the Delta
from predynastic days. Our collection
captures the grace and elegance of the
Egyptian cat.
Brass Egyptian Cat
Height 1516"
$55.00 (Member $49.50)
Our Own Cat With Kittens
Height 3 '//-Base metal with antique
gold finish
$32.00 (Member $28.80)
Cat Bast
Height 5 '//-Solid cold cast bronze and
richly patinated
$30.00 (Member S27.00)
Museum Shirts
Commemorate the opening of the tomb
of Unis-ankh and the re-opening of the
permanent Egyptian collections with our
colorful shirts .
Unis-ankh T-Shirt
Adult sizes (S-M-L-XL)
$10.00 (Member $9.00)
Children sizes
|6-B. 10-12. 14-16)
$8.00 (Member S7.20)
Gem Hall Sweat Shirt
Adult sizes only
(S-M-L-XL)
$25.00 IMember $22.50)
Souvenir Sweat Shirt
Adult sizes (S-M-L-XL)
$18.00 (Member $16.20)
Unis-ankh Mirror
Adapted from the stones of the false door
located in our newly installed mastaba of
Unis-ankh, this mirror frame has been cast
in rose limestone finish. <
Unis-ankh Mirror
6<A"xl3'A"
$45.00 (Member $40.50)
Nefertitl
Nefertiti means "the beautiful one is
come. " Wife of King Ankhenaton. King
Tutankhamen's father, ours is reproduced
in polymer and hand detailed like the
original in Berlin.
Nefertitl
I Thigh
$85.00 (Member $76.50)
12
Coffin and mummy Of Child, from COffin 30019. Ron Testa and Diane Alexander While 110661
(continued)
egyptian gods and goddesses
Horus. (Hor-pa-khered as a child), protector of pharaoh, god
of light and the sky; protector against poisons, dangerous
creatures, and the evil eye; avenger of his father; was blinded
temporarily by his uncle, Seth.
Seth. Elder brother of Osiris, husband of Nephthys; jealous
of Osiris, Seth murdered him and fought with Horus for the
kingship; god of the desert, wasteland, and the trickster
figure.
Nephthys. Sister of Osiris, Isis, and Seth; married to Seth. In
revulsion, she left Seth and joined Isis to help raise the young
Horus and to help bury Osiris.
Ptah. Principal god of Memphis, patron of craftsmen; hus-
band of Sekhmet.
Sekhmet. Savage lioness and the hostile aspect of Bastet;
could protect doctors and healing but enjoyed her bloody
mission, defined by Re: punish humanity by causing fevers,
plagues, sandstorms.
Anubis. Jackal-headed god of the dead and of embalmers,
who oversaw mummification and performed the "weighing of
the heart" that judged a person's soul; husband of Ma'at.
Ma'at. Goddess of truth, justice, and order, who wore an
ostrich feather on her head. In judgment of the dead, the
deceased's heart was weighed against her feather.
Aten. Manifestation of the sun god in the aspect of the
sun disk.
Bastet. Cat goddess of the city of Bubastis in the Nile Delta;
strong, fertile, agile as a cat, she also represented the warm,
life-giving sun and was the alter-aspect of Sekhmet.
Bes. Protected women, children, and the household. He is a
grotesque, dwarf-shaped figure with lion's ears and wearing
the lion's pelt.
Heqat. Goddess of fertility and birth. Shaped like a frog.
Min. God of fertility. Depicted as a male in mummy wrap-
pings, with phallus erect and one arm raised, holding a flail.
Re (Ra). Sun god of Heliopolis; most commonly invoked of
the many forms of the sun god. In his daily voyage across
heaven, he was Khepri in the morning, Re at mid-day, and
Hor-akhty at sunset.
Thoth. Ibis-headed god of writing and writers; scribe of the
gods. Could also be manifested as a baboon or as the moon.
To Those Who Made "Inside Ancient Egypt" Possible
The Field Museum is deeply indebted to the following persons and organizations responsible for the funding, the plan-
ning, the construction, and the myriad of creative activities that collectively produced this extraordinary exhibit.
Funding. This project was funded in part by a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts, a Federal agency. Funding was also
provided by Sara Lee Foundation, Helen B. Brach Foundation, and the Field Foundation of Illinois, Inc.
Exhibit Production. Mark Staff Brandl, Peter Crabbe, Neil Keliher, Randolph Olive, Gerald Struck, Daniel Weinstock.
Daniel Brinkmeier, Mary Brogger, Paul Brunsvold, George Chavez, Edward Correll. Robin Faulkner, James Komar, Ray Leo, Harvey
Matthe, Scott Mattera, Brian Sauve, Gary Schirmer, Vincent Shine, William Skodje, Jeffry Wrona, Jameil Al-Oboudi, Howard Bezin,
Brian Cavanaugh, Lawrence Degand, Joseph Doherty, Pamela Gaible, Daniel Geary Terry Gibson, Matthew Groshek, Patricia
Guizzetti, Jessica Haynes. Mary Jo Huck, Wendy Jacob, Douglas Jewell, Dennis Kowalski, Mary Maxon, Dion Miller, George Monley,
Michael Paha, David Potter, Michael Rudlich, Mykl Ruffino, John Russick, Librado Salazar, Beverly Scott, Joseph Searcy, Bruce
Scherting, M. Nicolas Silva, Michael Slaski, Rodney Stockment, Henry Tucker, Jack Voris, Robin Whatley, Gregory Williams, Cameron
Zebrun.
Exhibit Design. Lisa McKernin, Uriel Schlair.
Michael Brehm, Jane Cuthbertson, Donald Emery, Dianne Hanau-Strain, Lynn Hobbs, Raj Louisnathan, Paul Martin, Sandra Quinn,
William Skodje, Robert Zimmerman.
Exhibit Development. Calvin Gray, Janet Kamien, Frank Yurco.
Eileen Campbell, Carrie Hageman, John Paterson, Judith Rand, Michael Rigsby, Marvin Ronning, Judith Spock, Michael Spock.
Exhibit Advisers. Klaus Baer, Bennet Bronson, William Burger, John Foster, Mark Lehner, Thomas Logan, Robert Rittner, Robert
Steinbach, Edward Wente.
Conservation and Collections Management. Christine Gross, Catherine Sease.
Christine Del Re, William Grewe-Mullins, Sheryl Heidenreich, Lanet Jarrett, Jeanne Mandel, Karen Poulson, Janet Miller, Beth
Scheckman.
Photography. June Bartlett, Nina Cummings, Margaret Sears, Ron Testa, Thomas Van Ende, Sophia Anastasiou Wasik, Diane
Alexander White.
Contractors. Belding Corp., Builders Architectural Products, Inc., Aquilla Cohran, Cost of Wisconsin, Inc., Harry Weese& Assoc.,
Hayes-Gallardo, Jamerson Electrical Contractors, Inc., Laura Lundeen, Inigo Manglano-Ovalle, Mohawk Electric Construction Co.,
Stevens Exhibits, Wahlburg Construction Co., Ron Wing.
Special Thanks to Glen Cole, Zorica Dabich, The Epigraphic Survey, Chicago House, Egypt, The Egyptian Antiquities Organization,
Dr. Ahmed A. Fareed, Hugh Hamill and the Security Staff of Field Museum, Ron Hall, Janet Johnson, Ursula Kaplony-Heckel, Walley
Keifer, Phillip Lewis, Charles Ortloff, Bruce Patterson, Phyto Farms of DeKalb, Inc., Lisa Plotkin, Norman Radtke, David Reese, Fattah
Mohammed Sabbahy, Cindy Salvino, David Schultz, Daniel Summers, David Willard, Edward Yastrow, Mohammed Zayed, and
Thomas R. Sanders who directed fund-raising activities.
Contributors. Fritz Bishop, Greg Brinkmeier, Harold Brinkmeier, Cargill Corporation.
13
Continued from p. 9
Unis-ankh's Tomb
"Inside Ancient Egypt" begins with exactly this
sense of immediacy. Just past the introduction to the
exhibition, off Stanley Field Hall, is the entrance to
the tomb of Unis-ankh, the first of eight major sec-
tions of the exhibit. Unis-ankh was a nobleman who
was buried in Saqqara, in the area of Egypt where
sands and dry climate helped to preserve tombs and
pyramids. Although his age and cause of death are not
given, Unis-ankh is assumed to be the son of King
Unis, last pharaoh of the 5th Dynasty, or ruling fami-
ly, of Egypt (2428-2407 B.C.). In hieroglyphs, Unis-
ankh is described as "King's son, unique courtier,
overseer of Upper Egypt, first one under the King,
priest of Truth, Unis-ankh." The glyph-carved lime-
stone chapel rooms and the false door were purchased
by the Field Museum in 1908. As they are now
installed, they exactly replicate the tomb as it was
discovered in the desert.
The series of rooms illustrates the lengths to
which the Egyptians went to prepare for life after
death, a practice that began with the pharaohs and,
over the next three thousand years, spread to anyone
who could pay the price for mummification and a
special burial spot. Unis-ankh's mastaba — the word
is Arabic for "bench," which such tombs were said
to resemble when they began to be excavated in the
1800s — contains the sorts of objects a king's son
might have wanted in the afterlife, rooms where
priests could make offerings, and a serdab statue to
give a home to his ka spirit, in the event that his
mummy was destroyed.
A stairway leads to the roof of the tomb, from
which the sunlit courtyard may be seen. A circular
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jnerary boat of King Sen-Wosret III, Xllth Dynasty, excavated at
14 iDahShur Egypt in 1894. Ron TesiaandDianeA- ■ '0745
staircase (or an elevator) leads down 35 feet to a
reconstruction of the burial chamber, the second ma-
jor area of the exhibit. The carved-stone sarcophagus
is of the type that could have held Unis-ankh's
mummy — if his mummy had been found.
Past the burial chamber are placed the sorts of
objects that would have lured tomb robbers 4,500
years ago — and the confession extracted by torture of
one of eight tomb robbers from ancient Egypt. It was
riches the robbers had not been able to find that made
the 1922 discovery of the tomb of King Tut-ankh-
Amen (King Tut) in 1922 so incredibly valuable.
Burial Scenes
A group of burial scenes shows the careful plan-
ning that Egyptians followed during 3,000 years and
31 different ruling family lines, or dynasties, in order
to prepare for an afterlife that would continue the
pleasures of mortal life. Objects are arranged in
chronological order.
These scenes reveal how great a role magic
played in the religion of the ancient Egyptians. Many
of the personal beliefs of the Egyptians were founded
in spells and good-luck charms and supernatural pow-
ers. Ushabtis were miniature figures buried with a per-
son that were believed to work for the deceased in the
afterlife. Amulets were not only worn by the living,
but they also were placed over the heart and over the
entire body of a mummy. Mummies are shown in the
exhibit's burial scenes, and so is a diorama illustrating
the 70-day mummification process. Engraved stelae
and even coffins were chosen to ensure a happy next
life for the deceased.
Much Egyptian art was created to honor the
dead or to paint the way from real life into the after-
Statue of the scribe Amenhotep, painted limestone,
Dynasty XVIII. Cat. 88906. Pholo by Ron Tesla 110626
15
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Replica painting by Inigo Manglano-Ovalle of marketplace scene from tomb of Ny-ankh-Khnum and Khnum-hotep at Saqqara. pnoto by Ron Testa mrao
life. One of the Museum's rarest art objects is a statue
of Sen-Mut, an architect and perhaps the lover of
Queen Hat-shep-sut, who became pharaoh in place of
her 10-year-old stepson, Thutmose III. In the statue,
Sen-Mut cradles Hatshepsut's infant daughter,
Neferu-Re.
Nile River Marsh
A brightly lighted recreation of a Nile River
marsh appears at the end of the funereal exhibits
and art. To the right is a stream with running water;
positioned in and near it are fish, birds, plants, and
animals that tomb reliefs tell us would have lived in
ancient Egypt. A mural backdrop shows "the green
and the brown" of Egypt — the lush floodplain where
crops were abundant and the bone-dry desert. A sha-
duf, a simple lever device to lift water that is still in
18 use in some parts of Egypt, is meant to be tried out.
The massive funerary boat on display opposite
the Nile marsh was buried beneath a mud-brick arch
and many feet of sand in the desert at Dahshur. It is
one of four such boats that were excavated from the
pyramid complex of King Sen-Wosret III in 1894. Two
of the boats are in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and
the other is in the Carnegie Museum of Natural His-
tory in Pittsburgh. Behind the royal boat, opposite its
burial arch, is a mud brick taken from the remains of
Sen-Wosret Ill's pyramid.
Visitor Activity Area
An activity area invites visitors to learn a num-
ber of things firsthand about ancient Egypt. Members
of the Museum's Hall Interpreters program, directed
by Philip Courington, were trained about Egypt. They
will help visitors try to move an enormous slab of rock
on a sledge, as was done in constructing the pyramids;
polish a large limestone slab; calculate heights and
weights in cubits and debens, respectively; figure out
names in hieroglyphs; and make papyrus paper.
Animal Niche
One of the most eerie sections of the exhibit
is the animal niche cemetery. Here, in individual
crevices, are mummies of cats, falcons, and even
a crocodile. Animal mummies, which were most
common during the Late Period (712 to 322 B.C. ),
were used by worshippers as offerings to the specific,
corresponding god or goddess.
Shrine to Bastet
Cats played a significant role in the lives of the
ancient Egyptians. The cat goddess, Bastet, repre-
sented the kindly, life-giving side of cat nature.
"Inside Ancient Egypt" includes a shrine to Bastet as
such a shrine might exist in an ancient town. Fresh
flowers, incense, statues of Bastet and her savage
counterpart, Sekhmet the lioness, and stelae dedi-
cated to the gods are displayed; small benches of rock
allow weary worshippers (or visitors) to rest.
Marketplace
Opposite the Bastet shrine is a large, lively
marketplace. The market scenes are reconstructed
from scenes on the walls of a tomb of two barbers,
buried together about 4,500 years ago in Saqqara,
near the tomb of Unis-ankh. In the marketplace are
many examples of everyday life in ancient Egypt: the
important role of scribes; the makeup and wigs and
oils; razors; jewelry; and clothing (the lower classes
and the very young wore little, if any). Vignettes
further illustrate more about how these people of
northern Africa lived, between 5,000 and 2,000 years
ago. Included in the vignettes are children (they were
obedient), crime and punishment (a hand for a thief;
a tongue for "treachery"), the making of everyday
foods (bread and beer), trading, and weaving.
Life for the peasants of Egypt was not easy. For
the wealthy, life was quite easy and good. Yet, all
Egyptians, rich and poor alike, loved life and wished
to continue living forever. Hence the practice of
preparing for the afterlife, which meant taking along
objects prized in everyday life. A large collection of
such objects concludes "Inside Ancient Egypt."
Just past this last section of the marketplace is
the Museum's new Egyptian store, in which you may
wish to purchase Egypt-related objects for your own
everyday life.
Bronze statue of Bastet in the aspect ot Sekhmet the Lioness.
Dynasty XXVI (653-525 B.C.). Ron Testa 110530
19
The Egyptian Collection and
By Frank J. Yurco
From the day I first set foot in Egypt in 1974, the wonders of that
ancient culture left a lasting impression on me, influencing the
course of my life and leading in time to my own participation in
Field Museum's historic new exhibit, "Inside Ancient Egypt."
This exhibit had been envisioned in 1981 during the partial
renovation of the Egyptian Hall by then Assistant Curator of
Anthropology Donald Whitcomb, who wrote in the November
1981 Bulletin that the goal of the project was "a reorganization of
the artifacts of the Predynastic period and the Old Kingdom'
centered around the tombs." He added, "It is our hope that this
will eventually be followed by the reorganization of the entire
Egyptian Hall with a progression of chronological sections and
predominant cultural themes such as religion and politics." Six
years later, this hope of Whitcomb and then Director (now
Trustee) E. Leland Webber materialized, as Michael Spock,
vice president of Public Programs; Janet Kamien, chair of De-
sign and Production; and I began to develop "Inside Ancient
Egypt."
To an Egyptologist, the quality of the Museum's Egyptian
collection is readily apparent. Yet, the material is only now,
with this stunning innovative exhibit, receiving the showcase it
so richly deserves. The cornerstone of the collection was laid by
Chicago industrialist Edward E. Ayer, whose initiative had also
been crucial to the very founding of the Museum.* In 1894,
Ayer, an avid, conscientious collector who had earlier brought
together one of the finest assemblages of American Indian arti-
facts, saw Egypt for the first time, and there began his historic
acquisitions from the land of the pharaohs. He developed an
abiding interest in the culture, making several more visits dur-
ing his lifetime.
From Cairo, on March 26, 1894, Ayer wrote Field Museum
Director Frederick J. Skiff: "I have purchased about 20 mum-
mies, all the mummy shoes, 25 canopic jars', a lot of wooden
and stone images. . .and the best lot of Greek and Roman
Bronzes that I believe ever left Egypt."
Ayer's assessment of the bronzes was not far off the mark;
they are exceptional pieces indeed, including three that rank as
undisputed masterworks: the seated leonine goddess Bastet-
Sekhmet, a seated cat, and a large standing figure of the god
Osiris. The last object is certainly a work of the XXVIth Dynas-
ty, as the divinity's features resemble those of Pharaoh Apries.
The seated Bastet-Sekhmet has its closest parallel in another
bronze lioness, Wadjet, in the Cairo Museum, dated Dynasty
XXVI. The seated cat is truly a majestic bronze sculpture, with
richly detailed inlays of copper, gold, and silver.
Ayer's prominence in Chicago's business and social circles
brought him in close touch with others of like persuasions,
which further redounded to the advantage of the Egyptian col-
lection. Among these friends was Martin A. Ryerson (1856-
1932), a trustee from 1893 to 1932. Ryerson was a generous
donor to the Field Museum collections as well as to those of the
Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Ayer's associa-
tion with the Cyrus McCormicks eventuated in the Museum's
acquiring in 1900 one of its principal treasures, the funerary
boat of King Sen-Wosret III, a Xllth Dynasty pharaoh. The
boat had been excavated at Dahshur, Egypt, six years earlier,
and is one of only six presently known full-size royal boats from
ancient Egypt.
Ayer demonstrated remarkable foresight in his collecting
style — eclectic yet purposeful; his acquisitions make it possible
now to construct exhibits in a contextual arrangement,
although in his day typological exhibits (i.e., arranged accord-
ing to type) were the vogue. In the case of the Dahshur boat, for
example, Ayer also collected a mud brick and a set of pottery
cups from the same pyramid complex. These seemingly mun-
dane objects contribute invaluably toward establishing authen-
tic context for the boat, and the brick has been useful in the
creation of replica bricks of the vault representing where the
boat was discovered. The boat has already served science no-
tably: in the testing of radiocarbon dating. In 1950, Dr. Willard
F. Libby of the University of Chicago's Institute for Nuclear Studies
used a sample of planking from the boat to test his new carbon-14
dating method. The plank's age, according to Libby 's test, closely
agreed with the astronomically ascertained date of Sen-Wosret Ill's
death in 1843 B.C. The boat's construction is of particular interest
to Egyptologists as a prime example of fitting and joining technique
developed in the Middle Kingdom period, as timber shortages re-
flected earlier overcutting and changes in climate.
In collecting mummies, Ayer also demonstrated a sense for
exhibition value. The mummies, coffins, canopic jars, Books of
the Dead, and ushabtis he collected are of different ages and per-
iods, from Middle Kingdom through the Roman period. These
materials have enabled us to create a chronological sequence of
burial situations and to see how customs evolved. Thus, the ex-
hibit's burial scenes are a continuation of the mastaba concepts,
and also have a chronological framework, as envisioned by Whit-
comb in 1981. Thanks to the acquisitions of Ayer and other
donors, the Museum has some 30 complete coffins and/or mumm-
ies, and sufficient Ptolemaic-Roman mummies to permit replicat-
ing a segment of the catacomb-like cemeteries in Alexandria.
On a trip to Luxor, Ayer met the Oriental Institute's
founder, James Henry Breasted (1865-1935), and on Breasted's
advice acquired the Museum's statue of Sen-Mut holding
Queen Hat-shep-sut's young daughter, Princess Neferu-Re.
This statue, one of 28 known statues of this official, is the most
perfect of all, with no damage beyond the ancient erasure of
Sen-Mut's name by his political foes — a defect, which adds
historic interest!
Among Ayer's earlier acquisitions are fragments of reliefs.
Such fragments were commonly cut by dealers from monuments
and sold piece-meal. One such fragment in the collection (cat.
31309), from the tomb of the IVth Dynasty overseer of the trea-
sury, Mery, is a typical example. Contiguous segments of this
same relief are scattered among four other museums in the
' For fuller treatment of Ayer's life see "Books, Business, and Buckskin,
20 by E. Leland Webber, July/August 1984 Bulletin, p. 5.
1 . For dates of historic periods see p. 8
2. For definition of special terms see glossary, p. 8
the Legacy of Edward E. Ayer
United States and Europe. In the process of this dispersal, seg-
ments were damaged, context was lost, and future Egyptologists
had extra work cut out for them (as it were) in reestablishing
continuities.
So in 1907-08, when Egypt's Antiquities Service decided
to sell complete rooms of ancient chapels, Ayer seized the
chance to acquire complete chapel rooms from two tombs —
Unis-ankh's chapel from the pyramid complex of Pharaoh Un-
is, Vth Dynasty, and an earlier Vth Dynasty tomb chapel, that
ofNetcher-user. The Field Museum's space (then in the Jackson
Park building) couldn't accommodate full display of these
rooms, and later, in the present building, city fire department
codes prohibited public access when they were installed (1928-
32). In 1981, when the Egypt Hall (J) was partially renovated, a
secondary access to Unis-ankh was created, within the city
codes, but at the cost of access to the most intimate part of the
chapel — the space in front of the false door. The basement
location of Hall J also necessitated that the chapel be installed
one foot too low. With the innovative design of "Inside Ancient
Egypt," however, not only have these problems been sur-
mounted, but the entire mastaba complex has been gloriously
recreated.
Ayer's interest and dedication helped the Museum in yet
another way. The assembling of a comprehensive Egyptian col-
lection at the Field Museum attracted the interest of Sir Wil-
liam M. Flinders Petrie (1853-1942), founder of modern
scientific Egyptian archaeology. At the turn of the century, Pet-
rie was not only shedding new light on Predynastic Egypt
through his excavations; he was also laying groundwork for
scientific archaeology, which stresses the importance of com-
plete documentation in preserving the context of a scientifical-
ly controlled archaeological find.
Petrie gave the Field Museum a basic set of Predynastic
objects from both Naqada I (Amratian) and Naqada II (Ger-
zean). This included a Predynastic burial of a Naqada I period
woman's body naturally mummified. Other objects included
pottery, stone vases, and flint tools. This further demonstrated
the scope of Petrie's vision — he wanted the results of his ex-
cavations to be exhibited so as to instruct the general public
about the context in which the objects were found. In this re-
spect, Petrie's philosophy also provided guidelines in planning
"Inside Ancient Egypt." Our intention was to show objects in
contextual displays rather than as assemblages of objects grouped
by category.
Petrie's successors also donated valuable collections to the
Field Museum. Dr. Elizabeth Seton-Karr gave a fine series of
paleolithic to Predynastic flints; Dr. Gertrude Caton Thomp-
son gave flints from her excavations in the Fayum A and B sites.
Thus, the Museum's holdings on Predynastic Egypt now range
from earliest times through the late Predynastic. Particular im-
portance is now attached to these early materials as we recog-
nize that a proper view of Predynastic Egypt is essential to un-
derstanding all subsequent Egyptian history.
Interestingly, Ayer's approach to collecting reflected in
important ways Petrie's philosophy: in assembling a collection
for the Museum, he did not go just for show pieces; he also
Edward E. Ayer
sought unprepossessing pottery fragments that were of interest
because they bore inscriptions. These inscribed sherds, or
ostraca, now shared between the Oriental Institute and Field
Museum, provide records of everyday life around the city of
Thebes in the Ptolemaic and Roman eras.
Just as we were installing the new exhibit, we were visited
by a scholar of Demotic, Dr. Ursula Kaplony-Heckel, of Mar-
burg, West Germany, who has found several of the Ayer ostraca
to be documents reflecting a variety of commercial and legal
transactions by Thebes citizens, including tax receipts, con-
tracts for land and livestock, authorizations to cultivate land,
even personal letters.
Ayer collected a fine Coptic collection as well — textiles,
stone, bronzes, and pottery. This wide range of Coptic objects is
one of the strengths of the Egyptian collection, with representa-
tion in virtually all periods and all types of objects — choice
artworks down to simple holy water flasks in which Christian
pilgrims carried water blessed by the Coptic monastery fathers.
A major, more recent addition to the collection was made
in 1944 in memory of Helen Gurley. The Gurley family's exten-
sive Egyptian collection, included scarabs, rings, and statu-
ettes, as well as canopic jars and ushabtis. Most collectors deal-
ing directly with antiquities dealers risked a hazard especially
prevalent in Egypt — the danger of being sold fake or altered
specimens. Ayer was able to avoid this problem in large part
because he readily consulted with recognized scholars before
buying; but he was also gifted with a keen eye, despite no formal
training in Egyptology.
The Field Museum's Egyptian collection owes Edward E.
Ayer a debt that is beyond measure. Without his foresight, his
dedication, his generosity, "Inside Ancient Egypt" would never
have come to pass.
Frank J. Yurco, consultant for "Inside Ancient Egypt," is a doctoral
candidate in Egyptology in the Department of Near Eastern Languages
and Civilizations of the University of Chicago. 21
Basalt head of unknown man. Early Roman Period (50-100 A. D.) Ron
22 Testa 110712
Behind the Scenes:
The Unseen Side of
"Inside Ancient Egypt"
by Susan Nelson
Planning and assembling an exhibition as large as
"Inside Ancient Egypt" takes money and time — in
this case, some $2.2 million and nearly two years of
planning. But two years is formal time, on paper. The
detailed work that created "Inside Ancient Egypt"
also began to take over the workdays and after-hours
thoughts of involved Field Museum staff members
many months before the exhibition opened. By early
fall of this year the anticipation and the extra hours
had begun to create a crackle of excitement that
Conservators Cap Sease and Christine Del Re with Egyptology
consultant Frank Yurco examining coffin and mummy in
Conservation lab. Ron Testa and Diane Alexander White 111068 23
24
Janet Kamien, chair of Design and Production, with Egyptology
consulting adviser Mark Lehner, near site at Saqqara, Egypt in 1988,
where Unis-ankh tomb chapel was excavated in 1908.
Copyright • Margaret Sears.
everyone who worked in the Museum, as well as
curious visitors, could notice.
On page 28, Robin Faulkner and Nina Cum-
mings describe the tedious planning — and latter-day
considerations for an irreplaceable marble floor — that
resulted in the decision to move the six-ton false door
to Unis-ankh's tomb the same way it had been moved
4,000 years ago: with logs that would be rolled slowly
forward.
But, while a pre-wheel technique was the best
way to move the door, state-of-the-art advances were
needed to protect mummies and other antiquities
while they are displayed in settings that will let people
see them more clearly than ever before.
Specifically, the new burial niches and many of
the exhibit artifacts are illuminated by a remarkable
rigging of "pipe lights," a unique lighting system that
directs and bends light through PVC pipe from the
light source to the exact location where light is
wanted. The pipe is lined with a newly developed film
from 3M Corporation which bounces the light down
Cap Sease and Robin Faulkner examine block from Unis-ankh
Chapel. Nina Cummings 110601
Robin Faulkner paints replica
relief in Unis-ankh tomb
Chamber. Ron Testa and Diane Alexander
While 11 1062
Preparators Mary Maxon and John Russik preparing mount for a
Stela. Diane Alexander While 111061
the pipe, without diffusion, to the point where the
light is finally focused and aimed with a mirror onto
the artifact. Designer Paul Martin devised the system
which piqued the interest of representatives from 3M
who came to the Museum to see it. "What we have,
in a sense, is a plumbing system for light. This system
will allow us to do maintenance on the light from
accessible centralized locations," said Martin.
Other pipes are used to channel humidified air to
fragile artifacts. This innovation was originally de-
veloped by Ralph Trimnel of Oak Park, Illinois, then
further refined and adapted for artifact installations by
26 Catherine "Cap" Sease, head of the Anthropology
Department's Division of Conservation.
The design and accuracy of the Nile River marsh
was helped along by the Museum's Botany Depart-
ment. Birds in the marsh area were approved for
accuracy by curators in the Bird Division; the real-
looking scorpions there were cast from specimens the
Museum's entomologists provided.
Unseen workers burn the incense and place the
fresh-flower offerings at the Bastet shrine from time to
time in order to enhance the reality of that exhibit. A
sculptor has created the miniature dioramas that allow
viewers to project themselves into seeing mummies
made — or the gods deciding a human's fate in the
afterlife (see p. 29). Artisans created "limestone"
that blends so well with original pieces visitors may
find it difficult to tell the new construction from the
ancient. Painters have interpreted the marketplace
and a life-sized diorama of the Nile River, with its
brown desert/green marsh demarcation. Graphic
designers have worked with a typeface that creates an
identity for the exhibit, from the billboard-size "Inside
Ancient Egypt" sign on Lake Shore Drive, north of
the Museum, to the smallest sign beside an exhibit.
Even those text blocks— "label copy," museum people
call them — that describe each step of the exhibit were
specially written in order that they might anticipate
your questions and answer them, just as a knowledge-
able friend would do.
For all its many facets, though, "Inside Ancient
Egypt" is not yet complete. A part of its budget has yet
to be spent. How that money will be used is not yet
known. The reason is simple: The planners of this
ambitious new exhibit will themselves be visiting
"Inside Ancient Egypt." They will be looking and
listening for comments of members and visitors that
will let them know which parts of this exhibit hit the
mark — and which ones may miss.
It is part of the Field Museum's commitment
to make its treasures even more approachable and
meaningful to Chicagoans and its many, varied visi-
tors. "Inside Ancient Egypt" is the Museum's first
large-scale exhibit that sets out to provide a broad
overview of the history, the joys and concerns, the
mystical practices and the mundane daily details of
people in a specific place, using one of the Field
Museum's magnificent collections as the starting
point.
The way you see "Inside Ancient Egypt" the
first time will very likely be different from the way
you see it the second or the third time. And that, the
Museum believes, is exactly as it ought to be.
Assistant developer Calvin Gray and exhibit designer Lisa McKernm inspect Bastet shrine. Ron Testa and Dane Alexander white 1
ARTS
Canon of Proportion. How human and animal figures are
drawn.
Architecture. Design; quarrying of stone.
Carpentry & Woodworking. Veneering, fitting/joining of wood.
Writing. Papyrus and paper; hieroglyphs.
Crafts. Glaze work, glazing of stone, and glazed faience.
SCIENCES
Astronomy. Developed for timing religious festivals in temple
and sighting the reappearance of the star Sirius, which sig-
nalled the start of inundation by the Nile.
Chemistry. Development of glazes, glassware.
Metalworking. Jewelry, casting of tools.
Navigation. Voyages on Red Sea to Punt (Somalia or
Ethiopia).
Geometry. Calculating areas of fields, volume of pyramids.
Time Measurement. Solar calendar, later adopted by Julius
Caesar; division of year into 12 months, with three seasons
related to agricultural activity. Year, 365 days divided into 12
months, 30 days each, with 5 intercalary days.
Medicine. Diagnosis based on examination of the patient;
surgery; natural drugs to treat specific maladies.
DAILY LIFE
Agriculture. Irrigation techniques.
Personal Products. Kohl eye makeup, oils, perfumes, wigs,
mirrors.
Fabrics. Weaving flax into linen; special board for laundering
clothes.
ancient egypt 'firsts'
Sports. Wrestling, archery, boating.
Games. Dice, ring-around-the-rosy, Maypole dance, leap-
frog, serpent game, senet game, possibly backgammon.
GOVERNMENT, SOCIAL and ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
Laws and Courts. Justice grounded in pharaoh's law and in
pharaoh as custodian of Ma'at. Courts and trial procedures
using evidence and testimony, witnesses, commissions of
inquiry. Village and central (vizier's) courts.
Women's Role. Equality with men, grounded in pharaoh's
law. Women could (and did) become pharaoh, function as
scribes and administrators. Before and after marriage,
women retained legal title to possess property and receive
1/3 share of property acquired jointly in marriage. Passed on
property to chosen heirs. In daily life, women often functioned
as shopkeepers, estate managers, and managed the house-
hold. In temples they served as priestesses, chantresses,
and dancers. Isis was the goddess who protected and
championed women and their rights.
Census-Taking. Cattle census attested in 1st Dynasty;
taxation based on increase in the herd or on agricultural
harvest, not on basic herd or on crop area planted.
Bureaucracy. Land and tax registration by central govern-
ment. Archival records kept. Prison registers. Vizier's office
supervised the bureaucracy.
Balance Scale and Measures. Included units for linear and
weight measure, solid and liquid. Possibly originated metric
and decimal systems (1 deben equals 10 kite).
27
Moving the Tomb
FOR SEVERAL MONTHS, beginning November 23, 1987,
Museum staff members Robin Faulkner and Catherine
"Cap" Sease, together with a three-man crew from Belding
Corporation, machinery-movers, worked daily to take
apart, move, and reassemble the two chambers from Unis-
ankh's tomb. During the 75-day project, the 122 huge lime-
stone blocks comprising the tomb were moved from the
ground floor to the first floor, into the new exhibit area.
The task was completed on March 9, 1988.
Robin kept a daily record of the project (excerpts be-
low). Nina shot more than 1,000 black-and-white nega-
tives and several hundred color slides during the move; this
documentation served as a reference in the reinstallation.
Nov. 23, 1987: Each block has been numbered, using the
same numbers on the same blocks as in the move from the
original site in Egypt nearly 80 years ago. Work begins with
the top row of blocks. Each block is slid onto a padded fork-
lift, then lowered to a wooden pallet. At day's end the
accumulated blocks are transferred to a storage and con-
servation area.
Dec. 18, 1987: The move has gone smoothly; more than
half the blocks are now in the conservation area, where
they are being cleaned of several decades' dust and dirt.
Jan. 15, 1988: All the blocks except the false door have
been removed from Hall J. The 1908 photographs taken at
the excavation site in Egypt and the photo taken at Field
Museum in the mid-'20s when the tomb was first installed
show that the false door was the last block to be taken down
and the Hrst to be reinstalled. The photos confirm that our
dismantling is on the right track. A gantry, installed by the
false door, looks like two large tripods connected by a cross
beam. Pulleys and chains attached to the cross beam are
used to lay the block on its side so it can be more easily
moved. We wonder if the false door will fit through a set of
double doors as it proceeds to the freight elevator; to make
the move more suspenseful, the elevator's capacity is
12,000 pounds — the estimated weight of the door.
Jan. 19, 1988: The width of the doorway is measured at
5 '9", that of the false door 5 '8". The pallet bearing the door
is hooked to a forklift and pulled through the passageway
with Vi" clearance on each side. The freight elevator, with
plenty of room to spare, easily lifts its load to the first floor.
The next step is formidable: Moving the false door
across the marble floor of Stanley Field Hall into the new
exhibit area without damage to the floor or to the 4,000-
year-old door. To better distribute the door's six tons, mod-
ern moving techniques are abandoned in favor of that em-
ployed by the ancient Egyptians — using log rollers. Logs are
laid in front of the false door, a chain is hooked to the fork-
lift (in lieu of 70 ancient Egyptian workers), and the false
door is pulled cautiously forward. Logs already passed over
are picked up and placed continuously in front as the door
rolls ahead. Gracefully, the precious cargo pulls into its new
exhibit area — without a scratch.
March 9, 1988: The last block is in place. The crew makes
a final inspection to make sure everything is in alignment.
This afternoon we toast our success at an informal "capping
off" ceremony. The Belding crew will go onto another job;
we will start arriving at work at 8:30 in the morning,
instead of at 7.
— Robin Faulkner, Design and Production Department; and
Nina Cummings, Photography Department.
28
Offering chapel, view into antechamber, mastaba of Unis-ankh, limestone, Dynasty V, Cat, 24448, PhaobyRonTeaai
Mummification diorama (detail), created by exhibit preparator Jeff Wrona. Ron Testa and Diane Alexander white 111056
dioramas: a journey through the mind's eye
One of the most fascinating elements of "Inside Ancient
Egypt" is the pair of miniaturized, remarkably detailed
dioramas that are in the burial groups area. The smaller of
the two illustrates four scenes in the afterlife rituals, con-
ducted by the gods, as they were shown in a Book of the
Dead from the Field Museum's collection of ancient
Egyptian artifacts.
The larger of the two dioramas shows how the
mummification process worked during the late New King-
dom period, when people other than just royalty and nobil-
ity were choosing to be mummified. It does this by present-
ing a workshop with indoor rooms and outdoor areas where
embalmers could prepare each body for its reappearance in
the afterworld; the final section is a solemn procession of
the family of the deceased as they take his mummy, inside a
coffin in his funeral boat.
The dioramas were created by Field Museum exhibit
preparator Jeff Wrona. His work as a sculptor, with degrees
from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, had taught
him about translating ideas and concepts into three-
dimensional objects. Nothing, however, had prepared him
for the incredibly tedious task — the mummification diora-
ma alone took more than six months to construct — of
adjusting every detail to a scale that works out to be 10 mm
(approximately V« of an inch) to 1 foot, or 33:1.
The 24 human figures measure close to 2Vi inches tall,
rather than the approximate 5Vi feet that mummies indi-
cate the average adult male stood in ancient Egypt. Facial
expressions as well as positions and coverings allow each
figure to emerge as an individual human, whether male,
female, or child.
The hundreds of pieces in these settings that appear
more than one time — canopic jars, bottles for oils, and
mud bricks, for instance — were made following the casting
processes Wrona learned in school. The difference, of
course, was adjusting to size. For example, to make the cof-
fins, which stand three inches tall, meant first carving the
coffin from clay and then making tiny rubber molds. Into
the molds Wrona poured polyester resin. After removing
the hardened material, he painted each to achieve its un-
canny detail.
On shelves and in niches in the walls are stacks of the
white linen shrouds and bandages that were painstakingly
wrapped around each body. Tiny baskets and other con-
tainers are arranged in ancient Egyptian style, as Egyptol-
ogy consultant Frank Yurco suggested they could have
been. The progression from the first scene to the funeral
procession invites us to imagine ourselves watching these
events in real life.
It is this ability of miniaturized dioramas — to create
ideas in context — that makes them so valuable, suggests
Michael Spock, the Field Museum's vice president for Pub-
lic Programs. While there are also full-sized dioramas,
Spock explains that "the miniature ones have a certain
magical quality of taking you into the scene, an ability
to allow the setting to speak directly to you." — S.N. 29
Kenya/Tanzania Safari
March 3-23, 1989
^
V
MSB
***
A FAMILY CHRISTMAS TEA AT FIELD MUSEUM
Please send me
for nonmembers) and
under, $5).
. adult tickets ($10 for members, $15
children's tickets (age 13 and
Total amount enclosed: $ .
Please make checks payable to Field Museum and enclose
a self-addressed, stamped envelope for your tickets, which
will be mailed upon receipt of check. For further information
call the Women's Board Office, 322-8870.
Send this form with your check to:
A FAMILY CHRISTMAS TEA
AT FIELD MUSEUM
Field Museum of Natural History
Women's Board Office
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicago, Illinois 60605-2496
Name
Street
City
State
Zip
Telephone
iui lib uiy yen i ie di iu t>u(jtri u views ui ivn. r\n-
imanjaro. Afternoon lecture by local researcher.
Late afternoon game drive.
March 7
Amboseli National Park. Morning and afternoon
game drives. Mid-day at leisure to relax at the
lodge or swim in the pool.
March 8
Amboseli National Park/Namanga/Gibb's Farm,
Tanzania. Cross the border, where we clear
customs before proceeding into Tanzania to
Gibb's Farm, where the remainder of day is at
leisure.
rengeti National Park. Game
lorongoro Conservation Area
eti.
nal Park. Full day exploring this
nal Park/Olduvai/Ngorongoro
uvai Gorge and the site of Louis
3y's discovery of Zinjanthropus
i on to the spectacular Ngoron-
ater. Full day down in the crater,
idtographing the animals.
ater/Lake Manyara National
Lake Manyara Hotel, set in love-
a swimming pool overlooking
lal activities.
National Park. Morning and
i drives, exploring the diversify
Jational Park/Namanga, Kenya/
ack to Arusha for lunch and
ie Namanga border, clear
turn to Nairobi.
re National Park/The Ark. This
nceed into deep forested area
of the finest game viewing in
rsenya. Muer lunch at Aberdare Country Club
transfer to The Ark, "berthed" over a waterhole
where the animals come to drink. From a
ground-level lounge with large picture win-
dows, you have an eye-to-eye view of this
constantly changing scenario.
March 1 7
Aberdare National Park/Samburu Game
Reserve. This reserve is home to several
species found only in these northern areas.
March 18
Samburu Game Reserve. Your game viewing
takes you through a variety of landscapes. Bird
enthusiasts will be well rewarded with over 300
species, including the martial eagle, in this
reserve.
March 19
Samburu Game Reserve/Mount Kenya
Nanyuki. Drive to the famous Mt. Kenya Safari
Club. The grounds cover 1 00 acres of blooming
flower beds, ponds with water lilies and stands
of shade trees — a litoral oasis in the middle of
the African bush.
March 20
Mount Kenya Nanyuki/Nairobi/Masai Mara
Game Reserve. Drive back to Nairobi and after
lunch depart on the afternoon flight to the
Masai Mara Game Reserve, where we'll stay
in a luxury safari camp.
March 21
Masai Mara Game Reserve. Enjoy a day
of game viewing in the Mara, one of the last
strongholds of the great herds.
March 22
Masai Mara Game Reserve/Nairobi. After one
last game run in the Mara, return to Nairobi by
air. Remainder of day at leisure.
March 23
Nairobi/London/Chicago. Midnight flight to
London on British Airways. Connect to British
Airways to Chicago, arriving later the same
day.
Antarctica
Discovering Antarctica, the Strait of Magellan,
Tierra del Fuego, and Cape Horn aboard the
llliria under the leadership of Dr. Bruce D.
Patterson, associate curator and head of the
Division of Mammals at the Field Museum of
Natural History.
February 20-March 7, 1989
Pre-Cruise Extension
to Patagonia
and the Lake District
February 15-23, 1989
The Galapagos
Aboard the m. v. Santa Cruz
March 3-14, 1989
Optional Extension to Peru March 14-20
Price: $3,550-$3,840
March 3: Chicago/Miami/Quito. Welcome party and orientation.
March 4: A full day excursion to the colorful Indian fair of Otavalo.
March 5: All-day birding excursion up into the mountains outside
Quito.
March 6: Fly to Guayaquil and on to Baltra where we board the
Santa Cruz.
March 7: Cruising — Bartolome and Tower Islands.
March 8: Cruising — Isabela and Fernandina Islands.
March 9: Cruising — North Seymour Island.
March 10: Cruising — Hood and Floreana Islands.
March 11: Cruising — Santa Cruz and Plaza Islands.
March 12: Cruising — James Island.
March 13: This morning we cruise to Baltra, disembarking to board
our flight to Guayaquil. Farewell dinner.
March 14: Return flight to Chicago.
Join us as we explore one of the world's greatest living laboratories
of natural history under the leadership of Dr. David E. Willard, col-
lection manager of the Bird Division of the Field Museum of Natural
History. The Galapagos Islands — birthplace of Darwin's "Origin
of Species" — situated 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador, remain
remote and out of the elements of nature where an abundance of
strange creatures known nowhere else on earth reside. An optio. lal
trip to Peru at a cost of $1 ,450 includes visits to the world-famous
site of Machu Picchu, Lima, and Cuzco.
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
31
FIELD
MUSEUM
TOURS1
Kenya/Tanzania
Safari
March 3-23, 1989
Leader: Audrey Joy Faden
Price: $6,350
ITINERARY
March 3
Fly from Chicago to London via British Airways.
March 4
Fly from London to Nairobi, Kenya. Day rooms
in London. Evening flight to Nairobi.
March 5
Nairobi. City tour. Welcome cocktail party and
dinner.
March 6
Nairobi/Amboseli National Park, justly famous
for its big game and superb views of Mt. Kil-
imanjaro. Afternoon lecture by local researcher.
Late afternoon game drive.
March 7
Amboseli National Park. Morning and afternoon
game drives. Mid-day at leisure to relax at the
lodge or swim in the pool.
March 8
Amboseli National Park/Namanga/Gibb's Farm,
Tanzania. Cross the border, where we clear
customs before proceeding into Tanzania to
Gibb's Farm, where the remainder of day is at
leisure.
March 9
Gibb's Farm/Serengeti National Park. Game
drives in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
andtheSerengeti.
March 10
Serengeti National Park. Full day exploring this
vast area.
March 1 1
Serengeti National Park/Olduvai/Ngorongoro
Crater. Visit Olduvai Gorge and the site of Louis
and Mary Leakey's discovery of Zinjanthropus
bosei. Continue on to the spectacular Ngoron-
goro Crater.
March 12
Ngorongoro Crater. Full day down in the crater,
tracking and photographing the animals.
March 13
Ngorongoro Crater/Lake Manyara National
Park. Depart to Lake Manyara Hotel, set in love-
ly gardens with a swimming pool overlooking
the park. Optional activities.
March 14
Lake Manyara National Park. Morning and
afternoon game drives, exploring the diversify
of this park.
March 15
Lake Manyara National Park/Namanga, Kenya/
Nairobi. Drive back to Arusha for lunch and
continue on to the Namanga border, clear
customs and return to Nairobi.
March 16
Nairobi/Aberdare National Park/The Ark. This
morning you proceed into deep forested area
alive with some of the finest game viewing in
Kenya. After lunch at Aberdare Country Club
transfer to The Ark, "berthed" over a waterhole
where the animals come to drink. From a
ground-level lounge with large picture win-
dows, you have an eye-to-eye view of this
constantly changing scenario.
March 17
Aberdare National Park/Samburu Game
Reserve. This reserve is home to several
species found only in these northern areas.
March 18
Samburu Game Reserve. Your game viewing
takes you through a variety of landscapes. Bird
enthusiasts will be well rewarded with over 300
species, including the martial eagle, in this
reserve.
March 19
Samburu Game Reserve/Mount Kenya
Nanyuki. Drive to the famous Mt. Kenya Safari
Club. The grounds cover 100 acres of blooming
flower beds, ponds with water lilies and stands
of shade trees — a litoral oasis in the middle of
the African bush.
March 20
Mount Kenya Nanyuki/Nairobi/Masai Mara
Game Reserve. Drive back to Nairobi and after
lunch depart on the afternoon flight to the
Masai Mara Game Reserve, where we'll stay
in a luxury safari camp.
March 21
Masai Mara Game Reserve. Enjoy a day
of game viewing in the Mara, one of the last
strongholds of the great herds.
March 22
Masai Mara Game Reserve/Nairobi. After one
last game run in the Mara, return to Nairobi by
air. Remainder of day at leisure.
March 23
Nairobi/London/Chicago. Midnight flight to
London on British Airways. Connect to British
Airways to Chicago, arriving later the same
day.
Antarctica
Discovering Antarctica, the Strait of Magellan,
Tierra del Fuego, and Cape Horn aboard the
llliria under the leadership of Dr. Bruce D.
Patterson, associate curator and head of the
Division of Mammals at the Field Museum of
Natural History.
February 20-March 7, 1989
Pre-Cruise Extension
to Patagonia
and the Lake District
February 15-23, 1989
The Galapagos
Aboard the m. v. Santa Cruz
March 3-14, 1989
Optional Extension to Peru March 14-20
Price: $3,550-$3,840
March 3: Chicago/Miami/Quito. Welcome party and orientation.
March 4: A full day excursion to the colorful Indian fair of Otavalo.
March 5: All-day birding excursion up into the mountains outside
Quito.
March 6: Fly to Guayaquil and on to Baltra where we board the
Santa Cruz.
March 7: Cruising — Bartolome and Tower Islands.
March 8: Cruising — Isabela and Fernandina Islands.
March 9: Cruising— North Seymour Island.
March 10: Cruising— Hood and Floreana Islands.
March 1 1: Cruising — Santa Cruz and Plaza Islands.
March 12: Cruising— James Island.
March 13: This morning we cruise to Baltra, disembarking to board
our flight to Guayaquil. Farewell dinner.
March 14: Return flight to Chicago.
Join us as we explore one of the world's greatest living laboratories
of natural history under the leadership of Dr. David E. Willard, col-
lection manager of the Bird Division of the Field Museum of Natural
History. The Galapagos Islands — birthplace of Darwin's "Origin
of Species" — situated 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador, remain
remote and out of the elements of nature where an abundance of
strange creatures known nowhere else on earth resiae. An opiio. ial
trip to Peru at a cost of $1 ,450 includes visits to the world-famous
site of Machu Picchu, Lima, and Cuzco.
31
For reservations, call or write Dorothy Roder (322-8862), Tours Manager, Field Museum,
Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, II 60605
Field Museum of Natural History
Membership Department
Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive
Chicaso, IL 60605-2499
CR RONALD H P,,^^
1221 62ND ST
DOWNERS GROVE IL feV
FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN
December 1988
*
1989 Calendar
Field Museum
of Natural History
Bulletin
Published since 1930 by
Field Museum of Natural History
Founded 1893
Editor: David M. Walsten
Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns
Staff Photographer: Ron Testa
Board of Trustees
Robert A. Pritzker
Chairman
Mrs. T. Stanton Armour
George R. Baker
Robert O. Bass
Gordon Bent
Mrs. Philip D. Block III
Willard L. Boyd,
President
Robert D. Cadieux
Worley H.Clark
James W. Compton
Frank W. Considine
William R. Dickinson, Jr.
Thomas E. Donnelley II
Thomas J. Eyerman
Marshall Field
Ronald J. Gidwitz
Clarence E. Johnson
Richard M. Jones
John James Kinsella
Robert D. Kolar
Hugo J. Melvoin
Leo. F. Mullin
James J. O'Connor
Mrs. James J. O'Connor
James H. Ransom
John S. Runnells
Patrick G. Ryan
William L. Searle
Robert H. Strotz
Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken
E. Leland Webber
Blaine J. Yarrington
Life Trustees
Harry O. Bercher
Bowen Blair
Stanton R. Cook
Mrs. Edwin J. DeCosta
Mrs. David W. Grainger
Clifford C. Gregg
Mrs. Robert S. Hartman
Edward Byron Smith
John W. Sullivan
CONTENTS
December 1988
Volume 59, Number 1 1
Calendar for 1989, featuring artifacts from the newly opened
exhibit "Inside Ancient Egypt." Photos by Ron Testa and Diane
Alexander White.
COVER
Bronze cat from Egypt, probably Saqqara; Late Period, ca. 600 B.C.
One of the finest Egyptian cats in existence. Acquired by Edward E.
Ayer in 1895 and given to Field Museum by Watson F. Blair. Cat.
30286. Behind the cat is the false door from the tomb of Unis-ankh,
also in the Field Museum's collection. Photo by Ron Testa and
Diane Alexander White. 109936.
Typography by Tele/Typography
Ownership Management and Circulation
Filing date: Sept. 26. 1988. Title: Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin. Publication no.
898940. Frequency of publication: Monthly except for combined July/August issue. Number
of issues published annually: 11. Annual subscription price: $6.00. Office: Roosevelt Rd. at
Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605.
Publisher: Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Rd., at Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL
60605. Editor: David M. Walsten, Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake
Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605. Owner; Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake
Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605. Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders:
none. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status
for Federal income tax purposes has not changed during the preceding 12 months.
A verage number Actual number
of copies each of copies single
issue preceding issue nearest
12 months to filing date
Total copies printed 27,200 27,500
Paid circulation (sales through dealers, vendors, carriers) none none
Paid circulation (mail subscriptions) 24,088 25,366
Total paid circulation 24,088 25.366
Free distribution 614 616
Total distribution 24,702 25,982
Office use, left over 2,498 1 ,518
Return from news agent none none
Total 27,200 27,500
I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete. Jimmie W. Croft,
vice president for Finance and Museum Services.
VOLUNTEER AT FIELD MUSEUM
Learn something new or share your expertise —
a wide variety of challenging and rewarding
volunteer opportunities for either weekdays or
weekends are currently available. Please call
the Volunteer Coordinator at (312) 922-9410,
extension 360, for more information.
Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496.
Copyright ©1988 Field Museum of Natural History. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually. $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not
necessarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership
Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605-2496. ISSN: 0015-0703.
Index to Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Volume 59 (1988)
Articles
A.B. Lewis Collection from Melanesia.
The: 75 Years Later, by Robert L.
Welsch: Sept. 10
Beginning as a Collector, by A. S. Meek:
J/A19
Behind the Scenes: The Unseen Side of
"Inside Ancient Egypt." by Susan
Nelson: Nov. 23
Birds in Art at Field Museum, by John W.
Fitzpatrick: March 7
Celebration of Philip Hershkovitz, A by
Bruce D. Patterson: Jan. 24
Chinese Pewter Teapots and Tea Wares.
by Ho Chuimei and Bennet Bronson:
March 9
Costa Rica. Tropical Biology, and a Visit
with Oton Jimenez, by William C.
Burger: May 20
Dioramas: A Journey through the Mind's
Eye. by Susan Nelson: Nov. 29
Distilling the Truth about Ethanol, by
Larry Dombrowski: Sept. 29
Egyptian Collection, The. and the Legacy
of Edward E. Aver, by Frank J. Yurco:
Nov 20
Exhibition Conservation, by Catherine
Sease: Feb. 5
From Bushman to Tut — Exhibit Blockbust-
ers of the Past, by Alan Solem and
W. Peyton Fawcett; May 25
Gensburg-Markham. by Jerry Sullivan:
J/A22
Gnetales. The, by Peter R. Crane:
March 21
Hoatzins at Home, by William Beebe:
May 15
Hyde Park's Parakeets, by David M.
Walsten: April 23
John A. Kakaruk: Painter of Inland Eskimo
Life, by James W. VanStone: Feb. 14
Life and Times of the Dinosaurs, by Dale
A. Russell: Oct. 8
Mountains in the Sea, Mountains in the
Sk\, by Valerie Searle Lewis and Louise
K.' Smith: J/A 8
Moving the Tomb, by Robin Faulkner and
Nina Cummings: Nov. 28
New Britain Notebook, by A.B. Lewis:
Sept. 16
On the Trail of Erik the Red in Iceland, by
Wendell H.Oswalt: Sept. 6
Paradise Being Lost, by John W. Fitz-
patrick: Jan. 10
Studies in Neotropical Mammalogy:
Jan. 30
Teach the Mind. Touch the Spirit, by
Carolyn Blackmon: May 6
Traditional Silk Sarongs, by Robert L.
Welsch: April 13
Traditions in Japanese Art: The Boone
Collection, by Suzanne Arata and
Caroline Moore: June 6
Twenty Years of Volunteers, by Ellen
Zebrun: June 27
Unearthing Ancient Amphibians, by
Robert McKay: Jan. 6
Welcome to Ancient Egypt, by Susan
Nelson: Nov. 6
Welwitschia the Wonderful, by Peter R.
Crane: Feb. 22
Authors
Arata. Suzanne (co-author): Traditions in
Japanese Art: The Boone Collection:
June 6
Beebe. William: Hoatzins at Home:
May 15
Blackmon. Carolyn: Teach the Mind,
Touch the Spirit: May 6
Bronson. Bennet (co-author): Chinese
Pewter Teapots and Tea Wares: March 9
Burger. William C: Costa Rica. Tropical
Biology, and a Visit with Oton Jimenez:
May 20
Chuimei. Ho (co-author): Chinese Pewter
Teapots and Tea Wares: March 9
Crane. Peter R.: The Gnetales: March 21
: Welwitschia'the Wonderful:
Feb. 22
Cummings. Nina (co-author): Moving the
Tomb: Nov. 28
Dombrowski. Larry: Distilling the Truth
about Ethanol: Sept. 29
Fawcett. W. Peyton (co-author): From
Bushman to Tut — Exhibit Blockbusters
of the Past: May 25
Faulkner. Robin (co-author): Moving the
Tomb: Nov. 28
Fitzpatrick. John W.: Birds in Art at Field
Museum: March 7
: Paradise Being Lost:
Jan. 10
Lewis, A.B.: New Britain Notebook:
Sept. 16
Lewis. Valerie Searle (co-author): Moun-
tains in the Sea. Mountains in the Sky:
J/A8
McKay, Robert: Unearthing Ancient
Amphibians: Jan. 6
Meek, AS.: Beginning as a Collector:
J/A19
Moore, Caroline (co-author): Traditions in
Japanese Art: The Boone Collection:
June 6
Nelson, Susan: Behind the Scenes: The
Unseen Side of "Inside Ancient Egypt" :
Nov. 23
: Dioramas: A Journey
through the Mind's Eye: Nov. 29
Welcome to Ancient Egypt:
Nov. 6
Oswalt, Wendell H.: On the Trail of Erik
the Red in Iceland: Sept. 6
Patterson. Bruce D.: A Celebration of
Philip Hershkovitz: Jan. 24
Russell. Dale A.: Life and Times of the
Dinosaurs: Oct. 8
Sease. Catherine: Exhibition Conservation:
Feb. 5
Solem. Alan (co-author): From Bushman
to Tut— Exhibit Blockbusters of the Past:
May 25
Smith, Louise K. (co-author): Mountains
in the Sea. Mountains in the Sky: J/A 8
Sullivan. Jerry: Gensburg-Markham:
J/A 22
VanStone. James W.: John A. Kakaruk:
Painter of Inland Eskimo Life: Feb. 14
Walsten. David M . : Hyde Park's Para-
keets: April 23
Welsch. Robert L.: The A.B. Lewis Collec-
tion from Melanesia: 75 Years Later:
Sept. 10
: Traditional Silk Sarongs:
April 13
Yurco. Frank J.: The Egyptian Collection
and the Legacy of Edward E. Aver:
Nov. 20
Zebrun. Ellen: Twenty Years of Volunteers:
June 27
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