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DESCRIPTION OF FRONTISPIKCE.
The frontispiece represents three specimens of Smyrna Figs matured at Fresno in
the month of August, 1900. All three specimens were grown on the Roeding place
and caprificated by Mr. E. A. Schwarz, of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture. Photograph reproduced by courtesy of Mr. G. P. Rixford.
Fig. 1 , from cuttings imported from Smyrna by Mr. F. Roeding. Skin and pulp
white. Fig. 2, from cuttings imported by the Bulletin Company in 1882. Skin and
pulp brownish yellow or reddish. Fig. 3, from cuttings imported from Smyrna by
the Bulletin Company in 1882. Skin and pulp white. The same variety is repre-
sented in fig. 1. The leaf is from fig. 1.
Bulletin No. 9.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DIVISION OF POMOTXXtY.
GUSTAVUS B. BRACKETT, POMOLOGIST.
THE FIG:
ITS HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CURING
WITH
A DESCRIFFIVE CATALOGUE OF THE KNOWN
. VARIETIES OF FIGS.
GUSTAV EISEN, Ph. D.
WASHINGTON ;
GOVKKNMENT PRINTING OFKICK.
I 90 I .
X"
z^
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Division of Pomology,
Washington^ D, (7., June H^ 1901,
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
publication as a bulletin of this division, the manuscript of an article
on The Fig: Its History, Culture, and Curing, with a descriptive cata-
logue of the known varieties of figs, prepared b}^ Dr. Gustav Eisen, of
San Francisco, Cal.
Dr. Eisen is too well known as an author of high standing to need
any introduction to the horticultural world. His name carries with it
a guaranty of the value of this, his latest work.
The recent successful introduction of the blastophaga into the fig-
growing sections of the United States by the Department of Agricul-
ture almost certainly assures the production of first-class Smyrna figs,
which will doubtless greatly encourage and stimulate the industry,
and thereby create an increase in the demand for reliable literature
on the subject.
This comprehensive treatise contains information of value to the
scientific and practical fruit grower never before published in the form
in which it is here presented.
Very respectfully, G. B. Brackett,
Pomologist
Hon. James Wilson,
* Secretary.
3
98941
PREFACE.
The earliest observations ouwliicli this bulletin is based werebej^un
man}^ years ago, during tlie author's visit to the fig districts of the
Mediterranean countries. Later on investigations were made in Mex-
ico, Central America, and California, principally in the latter.
My researches have been greatly aided by many friends and sympa-
thizer. Among the officials of the United States Department of Agri-
culture I have received much help and encouragement from Dr. L. O.
Howard, Chief of the Division of Entomology, while Col. Gustavus B.
Brackett and Mr. William A. Taylor, the former. Chief and the latter
Assistant Pomologist, have assisted me in every possible manner at
much sacrifice of their own valuable time. Mr. E. A. Schwarz, of the
Division of Entomology, has given me much information about the
Blastophaga, and helped me in regard to the literature, from which he
has made extracts for my use. Mr. Newtx)n B. Pierce, of the Division
of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, has contributed two photo-
graphs taken by him in Sicily. The Paddock & Fowler Compan}^ of
New York, has kindl}'^ given me for publication a number of photo-
graphs illustrating the packing of figs, etc. , taken by them for special
use in this bulletin. From foreign scientists I have received aid from
Graf Solms-Laubach, of Germany, and from Dr. Paul Mayer, of
Naples, both having sent me rare and valuable caprifigs for trial in
this country. In California I have repeatedly had assistance from
Mr. E. W. Maslin, Mr. Felix Gillet, Mr. George O. Mitchell, Mr. John C.
Jones, Mr. G. P. Rixford, and Dr. W. J. V. Osterhout. lam especially
indebted to Mr. John Rock, of Niles, without whose assistance this
bulletin could never have been published in its present form. Besides
his own collection of figs he has also cared for that imported by the
United States Government from the Royal Horticultural Society of
London, both collections having been at my disposal for experiment
and study. Dr. Peder S. Bruguiere, of San Francisco, has taken for
my use a number of photographs illustrating figs and fig trees, some
of which are used in this memoir. To these gentlemen, as well as to
all others who have aided me in my work, I wish here to express my
gratitude.
GUSTAV ElSEN.
5
CONTENTS.
Page.
Chapter I.— Introductory _.. 15
Name and derivation 15
Home and distribntion of the fig industry 16
Botany of the fig 21
Structure of a common flower _ 22
Chapter II.— Fig culture in various foreign countries 24
Fig culture in Smyrna and Asia Minor 24
Fig districts : 25
Climate and soil 25
Varieties of figs -46
Planting lobfigs 27
Caprification 28
Harvest and drying 29
Packing -.. 80
Brands and boxes 31
Bzportations _ 83
Fig culture in Greece 38
General history..* 33
Figs in modem Greece 84
Figs in Northern Africa ..^ 37
Egypt and Kabylia 37
Figs in Italy - 89
Extent and character of the Italian fig districts 39
Climatic conditions . 41
Quality of Italian figs 42
Modes of curing and packing , 42
Packing - 43
Varieties of figs .,_ 45
Caprification _ 46
Figs in Portugal 46
Caprification 49
Fig culture in France 49
Favorable localities '. 49
Curingthefigs _ _ ^ 51
Principal fig varieties grown in southern France ; 51
Northern and central France.. 58
Locality and condition 58
How to start the trees 53
Forming the orchard .53
Pinching the terminal buds 54
Removing the side buds 55
Care during the growing season 55
Pruning bearing fig trees 56
Covering the trees 56
Oiling the figs _ 57
Varieties and crops _ 57
Points of successful cultivation 58
Production 58
Fig culture in England 58
Fig culture in Spain .-- 60
7
» CONTENTS.
Page.
Chapter IL — Fig culture in various foreign countries— Continued.
Fig culture in the Southern States of North America 61
Georgia _.. 61
Fig culture in Mexico 63
Baja California and Sonora _ 62
Chapter III.— Fig culture in California 64
Historical notes 64
The Bulletin importation 67
Importation of fig cuttings _ 67
Importations of figs by the United States Department of Agriculture. . . 70
Fig orchard record _ . _...__ _ 71
Importation of Blastophaga - 72
Chapter IV.— Caprification of the fig 74
Practical caprification in California 75
Short summary of caprification ._ 77
Crops of the figs 78
Pollination _ _„ . 83
Polleniferous and insectiferous caprifigs (i)ollen-bearing and insect-
bearingfigs) 85
The fig and the caprifig '_ 86
The fig _ -._ 88
The male flowers .. 89
Female flowers ... 90
The gall flowers _ - 92
Male flowers 94
Male flowers in edible figs - - - . - 95
The Cordelia fig and the Erinocyce ._ 96
Various kinds of maturity 97
Seeds in Smyrna figs - - . 98
Smyrna tigs in California. ._ 99
Seeds in the common edib!e, not caprificated figs _ 101
Different types of edible figs _ 102
Fig insects _ .. . _ 105
Fig wasps or Blastophagas .._ 105
Life history of the caprifig wasp ( Blastophaga grossorum) 106
Practical caprification _ 110
The effects of caprification 115
The importance of seeds in dried figs 115
Which figs should be caprificated _., 116
Where caprification is practiced 117
Can other insects be substituted for the Blastophaga 118
Different species of Blastophaga in different species of figs. . 119
Summary _ 120
Historical notes on caprification - 120
Chapter v.— Climatic conditions _. 129
General remarks 129
Temperature 130
Rainfall and moisture 131
Winds..:. . 131
Ideal climatic conditions for figs .. — 131
Soils : 132
General remarks 132
Soils in the European fig districts 182
Recapitulation _ 133
Possibilities of fig culture in cold climates — 133
CONTENTS. 9
Page.
Chapter VI.— Propagation of the fig 134
General remarks .._ - 134
Cuttings or rooted trees . . .. .. 134
Fresh and dry cnttings 135
Best time for making cuttings 136
How to make cuttings _ 136
Care of cuttings after they are made 138
Planting cuttings in nursery rows 139
Planting small cuttings in nursery .. 140
Planting single eyes 141
Suckers -. 142
Budding and grafting 142
Greneral remarks 142
Budding ._ 142
Grafting: 143
Scion- 143
Stock ,... 144
Cleft 145
Inserting the graft. 145
Treatment.-- _.. 146
Protection from sunburn ._ _ 146
Shipping cuttings 146
Shipping large fig trees . . 149
How to treat injured fig cuttings - 150
Seedlings 151
Chapter VII. — Planting a fig orchard - 153
Genera] remarks .' 153
Distances for fig trees. 153
Distances for caprifigs _ 155
Care of fig trees before planting -.. 155
Preparing the soil _ _ ,. 156
Staking and squaring the field _ : 157
Digging the holes 160
Planting the trees - 161
Planting cuttings in the orchard - _ _ . 163
Planting to avoid splitting the trunk 163
Care of trees after planting 164
Duration of plantation - . 165
Varieties to plant - 165
Cultivation - 165
The creation of a fig orchard in Calif omia .. . _. 167
Period of vegetation ..- 170
Chapter VIII.— Pruning figs 171
General remarks 171
Pruning 1 ately planted trees 171
Pruning bearing fig trees . 172
High and low standard ._ 174
Chapter IX.— Irrigation in fig culture - 175
Chapter X.— Diseases and insect enemies of the fig 176
Dropping of the fruit 176
Sunburn 177
Frost , _ 177
Fungi - 178
Souring of the figs... 178
10 CONTENTS.
Chapter X.— Diseases and insect enemies of the fig— Continued. Pag©.
Scale __ 179
Beetles _ 180
Worms in dried figs _ 180
Chapter XL— Drying and curing figs _, 181
General remarks.- 181
Signs of maturity 182
Oilingthefig. 182
How to ascertain the sugar percentage or degree in figs - 183
Gathering the fruit 184
Sulphuring 185
Dipping while fresh _ 186
Drying on trays _ _ _ 187
Turning i 187
Covering- _ 188
When sufficiently dried _ 188
Sweating and equalizing : 189
Drying floors. 189
Artificial drying _. _ 190
Dipping 190
Chapter XII.— Packing figs 1 191
General remarks... 191
Dipping the figs _ 192
Assorting the figs 193
Pulling _-- ■ 193
Packing 194
Pressing __ 196
Chapter Xin.—Shipping fresh figs : 199
Chapter XIV.— How to describe figs _ 201
Names.. 1 201
Value of varieties _ 201
Describing the varieties __ 202
Crop 203
Size.. _ 203
Shape 208
Neck . __ 204
Stalk. 204
Ribs _ 204
Eye . 204
Scales - 205
Skin : 205
Color 205
Pulpandmeat 206
Seeds 206
Growth 206
Chapter XV.— Catalogue and description of figs, including Smyrna figs and
caprifigs ,.. 207
Chapter XVI.— Chemical analysis of soils and figs _ _ 283
Chapter XVII.— Statistics of the production and importation of figs, com-
piled by E. W. Maslin 288
Chapter XVIIL— Household recipes .. .. _ 290
Chapter XIX.— Bibliography of figs 295
Chapter XX.— Tables of temperature, precipitation, and humidity in the
principal fig regions 302
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES.
Page.
Ripe Smyrna figs grown A Califomia Frontispiece.
Plate I. Interior of a Smyrna packing establishment _ _ _ 25
11. Three boxes of layer figs from Smyrna _ _ 81
III. Three boxes of Locoum figs 32
rv. Fig. 1 . — Caprificated fig tree in eastern Sicily. Fig. 2. —A caprifig
tree in Syracuse, Sicily.. .. 40
V. A California fig orchard. Roeding orchard, Fresno, Cal .._.:.. 64
VI. Fig. 1.— Mission fig tree on Tejon Ranch, Kern County, Cal.
Fig. 2.— Grafted Smyrna fig tree. Cuttings imported by the
United States Department of Agriculture, and grafted and
grown by John Rock at Niles, Cal _.. 71
VII. Fig. 1.— Brown Turkey fig tree, John Rock orchard, Niles, Cal.
Fig. 2.— Fig orchard of John Rock at Niles, Cal _ 71
VIII. Fig. 1.— Grosse Grise Bifere fig tree, John Rock orchard, Niles,
Cal. Fig. 2.— Caprifig tree, Fresno, Cal . : 78
IX. PoUeniferous caprifigs: a Dalmatian variety grown at Niles, Cal. 85
X. Insectiferous caprifigs: Italian varieties ... 85
XI. Insectiferous and polleniferous caprifigs: Dalmatian and Italian
varieties _.. 85
XII. Polleniferous and insectiferous caprifigs: Italian varieties _ 85
XIII. Caprificated mammoni and mamme, Milco caprifig, June, 1901.. _ 109
XIV. Caprificated first crop Adriatic fig. Niles, Cal. , June, 1901 208
XV. Mission fig tree, California ..' 255
TEXT FIGURES.
Fig. 1. A diagrammatic representation of a common flower 22
2. A seedling fig and fig flowers _^ 23
3. Caprifigs used for caprification, strung on Esparto grass, as used in
Sicily - 29
4. String of figs as packed in Greece , 35
5. WhiteGenoafig 44
6. Gtentile fig . - 45
7. Rpnde Noire fig 52
8. DuRoifig _ : 66
9. Caprifig from Smyrna growing at Niles, John Itock orchard 89
10. Seedling fig raised by the author from caprificated Smyrna figs. . . 90
11. a, Female flower with perfect stigma; 6, gall flower with imperfect
and greatly shortened stigma adapted to the use of the wasp . . 91
12. a, Perfect female flower from second crop, San Pedro: ?>, its recep-
tive stigma - _ 91
13. Seedling from seed of imported Smyrna figs, raised by E. W. Maslin . 93
U
12 ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. 14. Mule flowers from the first crop, SaD Pedro 94
15. Five nndeveloped mnle flowers and two developed male flowers
from the second crop of Adriatic 94
16. Blastophaga grofisornm 105
17. Gall flower of caprifig, after Solms-Laabach 109
18. Caprifigs strnng on reed used for caprification, in a dried state 112
19. Fig cuttings 137
20. Small rooted cuttings . 141
21. Scionsfor grafting, John Bock's method.. 144
22. Scions inserted in a fig branch, John Bock's method 144
28. Two fig branches, showing manner of inserting the scions 145
24. A fig tree just grafted •, 146
25. A fig tree just grafted 147
26. A fig tree, second season from grafting 148
27. A fig tree, second year from grafting 149
28. A grafted fig tree, three years from grafting 150
29. Diagram illustrating a farmer's method of laying out a fig orchard. 158
30. California dried-fruit press .-. 195
31. Calif ornia raisin and fig press 196
32. Green-fruit press in use in United States 197
33. Diagram for comparison of inches and centimeters 203
34. Brunswick fig, illustrating the various parts of a fig : . . . 205
35. Albofig- : 209
36. Angelique Jaune fig 210
37. Barbillonefig . 212
38. Barnissotte Black fig 213
39. Barnissotte White fig. ._ 214
40. Leaf of Barnissotte White fig 214
41. Blanche fig— first crop 216
42. Bondance Precoce figs 1 217
43. Bordeauxfig 218
44. Bourdissotte Noire fig 219
45. Briascafig 220
46. Brown Turkey figs 221
47. Leaf of Brown Turkey fig 221
48. Leaf of Brunswick fig .. 222
49. Capriftg from Italy _.. 223
50. Celeste tigs- -- 224
51. Col deSignora Nigra fig,. 225
52. Constantine figs 226
53. Doree Nobis figs 230
54. Dottatofigs 231
55. Douro Black figs ... 232
56. Leaf of Douro Black fig 232
57. DrapdOrfig 233
58. DuRoifigs 234
59. Early Violet figs 235
60. Ford figs 249
61. Leaf of Ford fig 340
62. Genoa White figs 240
63. Gentile fig, in California 241
64. Gentile tig in California, unripe 242
65. Gentile fig. cross section - - 242
66. Grosse Grise Bifere figs 243
ILLUSTRATIONS. 13
Page.
Fig. 67. Leaf of Groese Grise Bifere fig 244
68. Hirtefigs .245
69. Ischia Black figs 246
70. Ischia Whit© figs'. , 247
71. Lampeirafig 249
72. Magdalen fig. 251
73. Marseillaise Black figs 252
74. Leaf of Marseillaise Black fig ., ,. 252
75. Marseillaise White figs _. 253
76. Monaco Bianco figs — ... 256
77. Monissonna figs 257
78. Pastellierefig 260
79. Pergussatafig 261
80. Leaf of Pergnssata fig . 261
81. Perraqniertig -. 262
82. Pi«salutto Bianco fig _ .-. 263
83. Raby Castlefig. 265
84. Ronde Noire figs 266
85. Leaf of Ronde Noire fig 267
86. Rose Noire fig 267
87. Royal Vineyard figs 268
, 88. Rubadofig 269
89. San Pedro Black figs 271
90. Servantinefig 272
91. Verdai Roundfig 274
92. Verdecciofigs 276
93. Versailles fig 277
THE FIG: ITS HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
NAME AND DERIVATION. U^
V ^
The English word "fig" is of very ancient origin, and is derived -^
from the Latin " ficus^j and the yet older Hebrew name "feg." The\
English word must have originated during the Roman invasion of
England, when probably the first fig trees~were planted in English ^TTTv-^''
soil. As early ag 1250 the word was in general use in a commercial JX^^;;^'
sense, as ' ' figges " or * ' f egges " constituted one of the products tJ. I '\ ^, \3
regularly imported into England, especially from Portugal and Spain. *'^^ i '^^
The wild fig, the ancestor of the edible fig Tace,*ls miKhowfTTn ^ —^ T {.■ -^
English-speaking countries, except, of course, where found as botan- ^X^^"
ical specimens. In the semit ropical Med it erranean districts this wild <^ ^^c.^^ '
fig is met everywhere except in the north of Italy and the Riviera .^-^
and in the south of France. In Italy the wild fig is known as the
"profico," "ft^o^elvaggio," or "caprtfieus," the last name being
derived from capra (goat) and ficus (fig), and indicating th^^wortt^^ C^^y'
lessness of the^fruit for eating purposes. From "caprificus" i^^ :- -- ; . ^
^rived our name "caprifig" and the French "caprifiguier." Iii ^[^ -
Spain it is known, in some districts, at least, as the "caprahigo." In\^^
Greece it is called "erineos," while the edible fig is there known
as "sycon" (ctvkov). In Hebrew the edible fig was "teena," in
Aramaic "t^na," and in Arabic it is ^' tin." It may not be out of
place also to note that the name of another celebrated fig variety, the
" Sycamore, ^fJEgypt, is derived from the Greek "sycon" (fig) and
"moro" (mulberry), meaning mulberry ffg, on^accbunt of the peculiar
arrangement of the fruit. What we in the United States incorrectly
call "sycamore" is really not a sycamore, but a plane tree.
The various crops of the fig, as well as of the caprifig, are also
given different names in different countries. In these pages refer-
ence is made to the wild fig as ''caprifi^jj' meaning thereby only the
male tree of Ficus carica L.^ while the word fig will always refer to
the edible fig, or the cultivated race of the same species.
23740— No. 9—01 2 15
• I-
16
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
/
V
'\
N>^ HOME AND distribution OF THE FIG INDUSTRY.
r^ The probable home of the edible fig ^ is in the fertile part of aonthe^p
Arabia, wliere at present jthe caprifiy is wild^ and where there are no
traditions of its introduction. From south Arabia the Bahra tribe*
is said to liave brought the fig to ancient Id uma ea and to Coelesyria,^
whence it was carried by other tribes and races_to__S£ria and the
A Mediterranean shores. The march of the fig was slow and undoubtedly
^required many centuries to reach the shores^f tTTe Mediterranean
coast. Once there, the facilities for transportation and the extensive
trade and voyages of the maritime nations greatly facilitated its fur-
ther distribution.
But while it is probable that the home of the edible fig is to be
found igj^gabia Felix, it is even more likely that the home of the fig
indu stry is to be looked for elsewhere. Nearly all the southern culti-
;ted fruits which we now possess appear to have originated some-
where inwestern Asia. Almonds, nuts, apricots, peaches, olives,
Asiatic grapes, dates, figs, prunes, etc., all seem to have been brought
to great perfection in a country somewhere in Asia, but now unknown
to us. The bringing to great perfection of so many varieties of fruit
indicates a very high state of_civilization of very: old -date, compared
to which the Republics of Greece and Home must be considered
modern. Through the very latest arclifeqlogjcal discoveries we now
know that such a civilization existed as far back as ten thousand
years ago in western Asia, in the valleysofjhe Euplirates'a nd TigrisT
Nowhere else have archaeologists been able to trace such an ancient
and remarkable civilization; and, as the origin of so many of om-
it fruits, vegetables, cereals, and domestic animals point to a west-
Asiatic origin, it is not too much to presume that in the most ancient
civilization of Nippur dwelt the originators of nearly all those eco-
nomic vegetables, as well as animal products, on which man, in all
temperate regions, is now dependent for his sustenance.
From the motherland, Asia, the fig was carried over tlie Western
World by twojiifferent peoples and by two djstincLJxmt«s. These
two peoples, in ancient times the great colonize rs_oX-tli#-werld, were
the Phoenicians and the Greeks^ and to Toth of these may be traced
the"spread^ing"of thelnilture of the_fig. The older colonizer of the
two was the Phoen ician. At the enTTbf the fourteenth century^
before Christ these thrifty merchants had finished tifie colonization of
the great islanSs"^ the Mediterranean, their colonies and trading
posts being by that time securely planted on Cyprus, Rhodes, Sicily,
Malta, andJCfiraica. The further course of their trading and coloni-
zation enterprise lay along the southern shores of the Mediterranean
' Solms-Laubach (2), pp. 77-78.
— -> 2 Lagarde, 3 c, p. 383. '
3Ibid..p. 377.
^D Linker, 74, c. v, p. 39.
INTEODUCTOBY. 17
' V
^^ over the coast of Africa, while on the opposite side of the great sea
>?/ it stretched along the shores of France^ gtDjd-Spaiu ^ and through the
jv^v. Pillars of Hercules, along the~ coastj )f_ Portugal, and as far nortli as
S to the Channel, with its islands and comparatively favorable climate.
r /
> There can be no doubt that to all these places the fig tree was carried ^^ -^ ,,,
in many varieties at a very early date, even previous to the introduc- ]^^^ .^^^
tion of the fig int o Greece and Italy j yope r. "^ , ^ jl
The r eal history of the fig industry begins after the introduction of .^ Ti.. -
the fig into the Mediterranean region outside of Asia, and particularly ^ '
into Greece. Historical references are few and far between. The tree — ).* \^.]
and its fruit constitutedjit first merely a luxuryjor the ri ch. Later,
mention of th e fig^ become s frequent, and not merely as a luxury
during the ripening period, but as an important article ofjdi^J for th^ ^ ^ ^ .<;
people during th£ winter^months. LU- ^f. ^ -
The time of the first introduction of the fig into Europ e is very
uncertain. In the Homeric songs, the oldest European literature , '
extant, the fig is hardly mentioned. In the Iliad, describing the r\j^A/
Trojan war, the greatest national undertaking of the Greeks, no
reference toj^he fig is found. In the^d^sej^, describing the wanHef-^
ings of Odysseus after this war, the fig is mentioned three times. In
the part descriptive of the agonies of Tantalus in the lower world
we read how in vain he tried to reach the fruits almost within his
grasp, "pomegranates, pears, apples, sweet figs, and dark olives. "^
The composition of the Homeric songs is generally conceded to have ^''^y^^
been accomplished before theninth ce ntury before Christ, but later ^3^ ^
investigations make it probabretfiat'the verses mentioning the fig
in the Od yssey are inte rpolations of much later date. Hesk)d^who ^""^v^
lived in the ninth century and after Homer, has nothing to say about 7^ \r ^ \.
the fig. The earliest menti on of und ou bted g eniiineness is by the poet ' ,- ^ ^."^ ^ A
Archi l ochus, w ho lived about seven hundred years before our era. He ^ '^ % \ \
tells about the fig being cultivated on the Greek island of Paros, and /^\ . ' .
there greatly contributing to thet enjoyment of life. The introduc- ^ A. \^^ -
tion of the fig in Greece must, therefore, have occurred some time in ^-"-^
the eighth centur ^^befprejphrist, and undoubtedly it then came from
the Semitic nations across fro m Palestin e.and Asia Minor. Later on
Attika aiid^_§il£yon~tIie latter place named after *'syke" (fig), had
become famous for their excellent figs, the origin of which was attrib-
uted to the goddessjCeres (DemetiCr), who caused the fig tree to
spring up at I^iykalos as a reward for the hospitality extended to her
by the inhabitants of the place.
The cultivation of the fig soon extended all over Greece, and the
fig gradually became an important article of diet of both poor and
^ Mooers, vol. 11, 512, and Meltzer. i, p. 87. Gades, the present Cadiz, fonnded
ear.ier than 1 100 before Christ.
^Od., 7/. 115, 116; A. 589; 17. 130-121; go, 339-340; go, 245.
p-
r-, .t>( -^ n^ .
18
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
V'^'"
-;
\."
A '
rich. The Athenians were especially chided for their -ioudness for
figs, and nlcknamedT "sykophants" (fig-eaters), a name afterwards
applied with a different meaning jbp_those jpies who informed the
authorities about the unlawful exportation of. ^ gs. f romAttika. So
u:' ^ , famous became the figs of that province that Xerxes, the King of
the Persians, daily procured Attic figs for his table in order that they
might constantly remind him of the desirability of adding to his
domain a country which could produce such fine fruit. ^ From this
time the fig is constantly referred to in the Greek literature, and Theo-
phrastus, Aristotle, and other writers describe the caprification proc-
ess, then extensively practiced.
From Greece the fig tree and its culture spread along the northern
ores of the Mediterranean and the Adriatic until it gradually reached
the southern parts of Italy. There it must have been established at
an early date, aslit figures in the earliest Roman mythology, the
she-wolf having nursed the infants, Romulus and Remus, under the
reading crown of a certain fig tree, which was thought to be in
existence and pointed out as a sacred objfect in the time of Plin y.
^. ^Certain it is that from remotest times fig culture was a cherished pur-
suit among the Romans, who, through seedlings and culture, origi-
nated numerous varieties. So different and characteristic had these
become in the time of Pliny (23-79 A. D.) that they excited the special
^^'aitention of that great naturalist. He wrote: '* We see from this how
the universal law which preserves the types of the species may
vary" — ^a most remarkable exi)ression, which clearly foreshadows the
modern theory of evolution. ^
The mauy varieties described by the ancient writers, siich as Theo-
'^Nphra stus, Cat o, and Pliny, can not now be identified with any certainty.
- Many of these varieties originated from seed, some^ccidentally, others
as the result of efforts made for that purpose.^ Their identification
has been attempted by several modern investigators, such as Porta,
Gasparrini, and Gallesio, and while their efforts have been highly
interesting, they have brought no conclusive results. When we con-
sider how quickly varieties are discarded for others of greater value,
J\ ' '^ it becomes probable that most of these ancient figs became extinct
o N Centuries ago. From the many varieties mentioned by_tlieGreek and
., \ Latin authors * we may, however, conclude that fig culture was exten-
"" sively distributed and considered of great importance. But notwith-
standing the many varieties, the best and^choicest figs were those
imported from Syria, as we are toTd'^that during the reign of the
Emperor Tiberius (B. C. 42-A. D. 37) '^ considerable trade existed in
- Willkomm, pp. 6, 9.
«lbid.,p. 7.
2 Varro, lib. 12, cap. xi, 5.
•*Theophra8t, cap. iii, 6; v., 2, 8; Cato, vol. i, cap. 8, 1; Pliny, lib. xv, cap. 19.
'^ Willkomm, p. 7.
IKTBOBUOTORY. 19
Syrian figs, these figs being generally valued higher than those of
Italy anc^ o ther Medit erranean districts. ^
At the end of the Roman Empire, near the close of the fifth cen tury nV' ' ^
A. D., the fig may be consideredjg jjstribute d along the coast of the ] ^"^,
Atlantic as well as along the shores of the Mediterranean. Toward /^* - ■ -i ( Jj^ '
The south the coast of Africa abounded in fig trees, while on the other
side fig culture stretched over the wild coast region of Portugal,
France, thj^Channel islands, and perhaps over the southern part of
England. M?ut nowhere else had the cultivation and the drying of ^^ -^
figs reached such a height of development as in SyriaTJ a-" ' ' V ^ y^^ '^' r
Nearly seventeen hundred years after the Phoenician colonization^/ ^ S ^^^
the Arabic conquest began to follow that same route. The AMbs in ^ j^ /
their turn carried with Jhem the fig tree, now developed jnto many LjC^"*; ' .
new varieties, and raised f ig cultu rejto a degree of importance which 5* /p ^ ^^
it has never s ince attained outside of its old home, Syria. The Ara- *•; "
bic invasion extended through nort hern A frica to Spain and Portugal, l-^^ ^ - '")"
and in these countries fig culture began to flourish and rapidly became ^y ^ ^ "
of even gre ater importance than inj[taly ^Jid Greece. The Arabs ^"[^
held the fig in the highest esteem and considered it superior to any A ^
other fruit. It is even related b y Zamakhsc hari,^ an Arabian com-/' .. ,
mentator on the Koran, tha t Mohamme d, the prophet, himself, in his — — ^^
enthusiastic_enjoyment of the delicious figs, once exclaimed: "If I o ^ J '
should wish a fruil'ibrought to Paradise it would ce.rtainly.be *^® fig-" / .
The Arabic invasion, du ring the medieval ages, has indelibly stamped '^'^^
its mark on fi g cultu re in the territory it occup ied, and to this day"
the varieties of figs gr own there are to a great extent different from
and superior to those grown in countries colonized by the Greeks and ". ^
Romans. Thus Portugal, the most southern province of Greece out-
side of the Pillars of Hercules, became especially famous for its figs. +"
Algarve^ith an almost perfect climate, produced a most superior
article of dried figs, the commerce in which became of the greatest
importance. Algarve almost exclusively su^plied^jrestei;:^ Europe ^ ^
with dried figs for over one thousand years, and until late in the ,'j
present century Portuguese figs dominated the English markets. It
is only comparatively of recent date that the Smyrna fi^s have sup-
planted all others inEnglish and Am.ericaiTmarketsr Even as regards
nameSj Arabic fig culture has left its_influence to this day in the
various countries of the ancient Arabic caliphate. Thus in Portugal
the caprifig is known as " fico de toca," the Arabic name being
"tokkar," while in Malta the name "tokar" is yet in use and almost
unchanged. 2
If we again turn to the extrenae^ Orient we find that the fig tree
traveled much more slowly toward the east than toward the west. In
the time of Herodotus, when all Greece had for centuries enjoyed the
. ^,'-'' ^ O. Celsius, c. n, 371 , according to Solms-Laubach, p. 82.
-^^ * Solms-Laubach, p. 83.
20 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing;
fig, and where it had long since become a necessity and an important
article of diet, the fig tree and its culture had_not y et reached Bab ylon,
.1 1,*; and neither Media nor Persia was a cquainted with its use. Accord-
u' .'^4'ing to Herodotus, Sandanis warned Kroisos not to make war with
, ^,, *^^^f^ '/'barbarians who knew neither wine nor figs." ^ Still, juliLxaciBties
f ^/^ ^*' of figs, not very different from the caprifig, are foun^d_hi..£firaia-iind
1 India, from which another race of edible figs might have been origi-
. v^. c *v. nated by anj'^ intelligent agricultural race.*
^ \ .^ \^ Gradually the fig tree spread over Asia Minor and Syria, to parts of
^ ' <: O^^^ Mesopo tamia and Pers ia and to the several ^ases in the great Arabian
(/ , / , -i * ^ desert. In the lowlands between the Euphrates an d the T igris fig cul-
J — 'T" TLJ'^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ unknown.* In the mountain districts of Taur us^ Arme-
"^^ ■'^ ^-^i^i^j ^^^ ^^ ^^® Iranian table-lands fig culture long ago reached a high
" (jj^evelopment. Toward the east it has spre ad to Khofaisa n, Herat, and
AfgH^SiSan, as well as to MeriLjaid^liQLjL)^wi.„ But I ndia did not
pos sess 'fig cul ture in the fourteent h century, though native figs of
CJf^A ^ood quality and resembling our edible fig are growing wild in the
hills of the Jiunjab. *
The fig is supposed to have reached j^hina d uring the reign of the
Emp eror Tschang -Kien, who fitted out an expedition to Turan in the
yftg.r 1 S7 A H. The fig is first mentioned by Chinese writers in the
eighth jeentury. Hia-tscheng-Sh i, in his work, "Yu-yang-tsa-tsu,"
treating of the Chinese trade, speaks of a fruit as^ ^Hin-tin" in a
rj l^^com^tr y — ^* Fo-tin '' (Palestine). ''Tin" is the" Arabic name for the
t y-f^fig. This writer mentions that the fruit originated without a blos-
* — som, etc. This early introduction of the fig to China may, however.
be onlya_myth. It seems that in the fo urteenth century figs were
growing in China, but it is not certain if these figs were identical with
our own.~J[n_1550, however, the fig is described by the celebrated
i/ X^^^Chifl^ag-writer, Le-Shi-tschen/ as growing in Chinese gardens, and
\ 0* ^rom that time we may conclude that^ fig culture was properly estab-
, K^*. ' ; lished in the extreme eastern part of Asia. Now many varieties of
, .^. figs are cultivated in China, some being of very good jjuality. In
.^^'^'^ Egypt fig culture never assumed any^romijient glace, undoubtedly^
onlirccount of the dimg-te, which permits no plants to grow without
,^. J^ irrigation, which, if giveji in an ^xcess, is especially injurious to the
quality of ,the figs. In the old toml^s at Benihassan may be seen a
wall painting illustrative of a fig harvest, in which the fig tree is
characteristically and unmistakably pictured. ^ The hieroglyphical
h"
* Herodot, I, cap. 71, according to Hehm.
^ Solms-Lanbach (2), p. 45. From the following pages are taken many of the
remarks on the eastern geographical distribution of the fig.
»Solms-Laubach (2), p. 80.
*The Chinese history of the fig is according to letters and manuscripts of Dr.
Bretischneider in Peking, to Soims-Lanbach.
^Unger, pp. 83, 110.
INTRODUCTORY.
1,'iaiK
balc-c
word for fig was "bak-ou/iaiid Syria was often referred to as a coun-
try rich in wine, oil, and balc-ou.^Q kj^ ^
With the discovery of the New World the edible fig obtained a ( . .\ ^ 'r
foothold in all the countries visited by the Sp anish and Portuguese kJ , c* ^ ^^^
missionari es. Figs of different and distinct species were found by %j^^^\
them growing in the tropical parts of Mexico, Central America, and -""
.^v South America, Dut these nati ve fi^s were inferior to those brought
- tjif '^i> over the Atlantic. It is to thp)Rp> Spanish missionaries that we owe the aa <: c / >»-i
<yP 'introduction of fi gs into California , and the ^^ Mission" black fig is v | ^ \ j<
fj^ yet the most important and most widely distributed variety in all p
C^ J^merican countries Christianized by missionaries from Spain. This 4
Mission" fig is extensively distributed over the n orthern parts o f^^
Mex ico as wel l as over Baja and Alta Californ ia, Peru, and Chile,
while a smaller and slightly differenfVariety is foundln the highlands <-
of Mexjcoand Central America. 7^/
To the^ Southern States of the United States the fig was brought ^^ \^
principallv bv the French in the earliest days of their occupation, i^" ^r ' -
while later many var ieties we re imported from English nurseries. Of — ""*"
late years Californi a has been the great distributing point of fig trees, r ^^" '• j
some enterprising growers having made many direct importations of£ ^^ f.' .
varieties from the Mediterranean districts, and these varieties have^^ ^ ' ''' ^
since found their way to Florida and other States.
It is interesting to note that while Califor nia has progre ssed enor- ^^
mously in fig culture and now possesses over a hund red variet ies of />7/5S/ ?»
figs imported from various parts of the'worlcTTits neighboring States, '^ ^^j ^'■
Sonora and Baja California, which are so preeminently suited to fig 5 o^ *• ' ^^
culture, are yet igno rant of the existence of other figs than the
''Mission." ~~ '
^ "" BOTANY OP THE FIG.
''Genus," "species," and "variety" are words used frequently in
these pages, and must be thoroughly understood bj^ anyone who wishes
to master the principles of horticulture. In order to properly name, . /
know, and classify plants they have been primarily arranged and fjt^' '
grouped together according to their relationships and similarity. ^ r '
Thus all roses, wild ^nd cultivated, are grouped and called by a . ; ". . \
common name — Rosa. This, then, is a genus, and the word iJosa * j^.^^
is called a genus name. Similarly all figs, wild and otherwise, which — - — '
resemble one another in certain respects are grouped together under a
general genus called Ficus, There are a great many different kinds,
originally wild, of roses and figs. Each one of these is called a spe-
cies and is given a separate name. Such as the dogrose is known as
Rosa canina and the edible fig is known as Ficus carica. There are
many different. edible_figs, and these are called varieties or forms.
^ Chabas. p. 105.
u
,'t>^'
22
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Those varieties which differ very much in more important points
ght also be classified as species.
Many genera which resemble each other in several important points
are grouped in a large group called a "family. " Thus the genus Rosa^
together with other genera, are grouped in the general family Rosacece,
The fig and mulberry are placed in the same family, to which is given
the Latin name Morem.
STRUCTURE OF A COMMON FLOWER.
As repeated references are made to the various parts of a fig flower,
a short description of the structure of a flower is given.
By a flower is designated that particular part of a plant which
produces the pol-
^PDLLQi CiLLS St TU8£8
/fNWER
STYU
POLLEN TUBE
CJfPSULES
MHTiPoo^L cat
OWIE
. EMBfmSAC
OUTER COHTim
OF O/UL^
INNER CQffTh
OF OVULE
FUNNEL SHfiPED
OPENmO TO IhE
NUCEILUS
WTHER FILAMENT
NUCLEUS
NUCELLUS
SYNE fiGiO CELLS
STEM or 0¥iM.£
NOftErGL/fmS
noRM. ENVELOPE
len and the seed,
and its various
parts are espe-
cially adapted for
both the produc-
tion of pollen and
seed as well as
for the protection
and benefit of the
generative organs
producing them.
In order that seed
may be generated
the flower pos-
sesses two distinct
parts, which have
different functions
in the process of
generation. These
parts are known as male and female, and both of them must be pres-
ent in order that seed may be produced.
These parts may either be found both in the same flower or one
kind may be found in one flower, the other kind in another flower, or
the two kinds may be found on two individual trees. In other words,
we have flowers which contain both male and female organs, and we
have flowers which are either male or female; or we have trees and
plants of which different individuals carry either male or female flow-
ers only. The female organ of a flower is called pistil; the male
organ is known as stamen. The stamens are generally present in
large number and situated in a ring around the ovary, which is
found generally in the center of the flower. Surrounding both these
organs are one or more rows of petals and sepals, known by a common
name — perianth or floral envelope — but popularly though wrongly
Ftg. 1.— a diagrammatic representation of a common flower.
INTBODUOTOBT.
23
called " leaves." This perianth serves as a protection to the seed and
pollen producing parts, and when colored also serves to attract insects,
without the aid of which comparatively few varieties of flowers would
produce fertile seed.
The accompanying illustration (fig. 1) represents a flower which
has been cut through lengthwise in order to show the generative
organs, the petals having been left out. . The cut does not represent
any certain flower, but a flower in general.
The male organs are represented by two stamens. These consist of
an upper button-like part, the anther, which produces the pollen, and
a lower stock or outer filament,
which supports the anther. The
right-hand anther shows on its sur-
face the pollen grains.
The female organ of the flower
consists of an ovary and an upx)er
part, the stigma, supported by a
style. The ovary contains the
ovules, each of which has two coats
surrounding the central nucellus.
This is the part which directly pro-
duces the future seed. The stigma
is the uppermost part of the female
organ. It is generally kept moist
by a special gum-like fluid, which
causes the grains to adhere to the stigma. The stem supporting the
stigma is called the "style." Through the center of the style down
to the funnel-shaped opening in the ovule there runs a hollow canal,
which gives admission to the nucellus.
In order that a flower may produce seed it is necessary that the
pollen tubes produced by the pollen should penetrate through the
stigma and style into the ovary. This process is called fecundation.
The pollen grain and the cell of the ovule unite, and from their union
the seed and the new plant are formed.
C
Fia. 2.— A seedling tig and fig flowers, u. The
fig cut in half, showing the male flowers sur-
rounding the eye-zone and the gall flowers
at the bottom of the fig receptacle; 6, a gall
flower; c, a degenerate male flower. Qrown
by E. W. Maslin.
K
iff
(>'
CHAPTER II.
r. FIG CTJLTUBE IN YABIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
*^ FIG CULTURE IN SJfYRNA AND ASIA MINOR.
The best and most delicious figs when dried are those from Smyrna,
known in the market as Smyrna figs. They derive their name from
the seaport Smyrna, where they are packed and whence they are
shipped to almost every country on the globe. The figs are, however,
not grown in or very near to Smyrna, but in various places about 80
to 150 miles south and east from that town. Smyrna is to-day one of
the most prosperous towns on the Mediterranean shore and one of the
most important in Asia Minor. This prosperity is due to the trade in
fruit, principal ly rais ins and olive s. The fig trade is smaller, but so
excellent is the fruit that this product more than any other has made
the port known all over the civilized world, and apparently the more
so the farther we go west. In California, more than elsewhere, the
name of Smyrna has become a household word to the horticulturists,
who have been trying for years to produce figs equal to those shipped
from Smyrna.
As is well known, Smyrna is situated in the western part of Asia
Minor, and at the eastern end of the large and well-protected bay
known as the Gulf of Smyrna. The latitude is 38°^ corresponding
approximately to that of San Francisco, but the climatic conditions
of the places where the figs are grown correspond inore properly to
^ ^ those of cent ral an d southern California, northeriT^Ohora, southern
jTexas, etc. -
r ^ In the most ancient times of which we have record a considerable
; fig trade existed in Smyrna, and we are told that in the time of the
' /-^earlier emperors of Rome, in the first centurjjif^^ur era, dried figs
^^ of the best qualitj^ were brought from Smyrna to Rome. This fame
for excellent figs was enjoyed by Smyrna all through the Middle Ages
' and down to our own times. At the time of Henry VIII and Elizabeth
'\ Smyrna figs reached England. It is, however, at a comparatively late
^ 'date that the Smyrna fig trade reached the development it riow'pos-
' sesses. The great competitors with Smyrna figs were those grown in
Algaryfi. in Portugal and. for centuries known as Pharo figs. These
were for a time the most common figs in the European market and
• were almost the only ones consumed. In the beginning of this cen-
tury, however, the Portuguese or Pharo figs began to deteriorate,
while at the same time, principally through Greek influences, a marked
24
Bui 9, Div. of Pomology, U S. Dept. Agriculture.
Plate I.
Interior of a Smyrna packing Establishment.
Photograph by Paddock & Fowler Company.
FIG CULTUBE IN VARIOtTS FO&EIGN C0UNTBIE8. 2S
improvement was noticed in the packing and curing of the Smyrna
figs. To-day the Pharo figs are almost unknown, while the Smyrna figs
have not only secured control of the former markets of the Pharo figs,
but greatly extended them. (PL I.)
PIO DISTRICTS.
As already stated, while Smyrna is the export and packing place
for the figs bearing that name, they are not grown in the immediate
vicinity of the port, but are cultivated farther inland and to the
south, in the valley of the Meander River. The river basin, which
runs due east and west, lies about 80 miles south of Smyrna, from
the vicinity of which it is separated by the Salatin Mountains — a
rather high chain also running east and west. The principal fig
district thus faces the south, being sheltered by the mountains from
* the north. The Meander Valley, situated principally on the north
side of the river, is about 50 miles long by not over 5 miles wide, and
generally less. But the fig district has of late extended even farther
north, and the first orchards which are reached in going from Smyrna
are situated on the north side of the Salatin Mountains, in the foothills
of Ayasalouk, close to the ancient Ephesus. After the summit of
the foothills has been reached at Azizieh, the road rapidly descends,
and at Balachica the western point of the main fig district is reached.
From here it extends about 50 miles due west into the interior. The
most famous part, where the finest figs are grown, is the vicinity of
Euovassi, at an elevation of 210 feet above the sea. Between Aidin
A * (pronounced /-deen) and Nashi the land rises from 217 to 260 feet,
^t^^ ^ and from there to the upper end of the valley there is a rise in all of
\ ^ - "j 600 feet. The valley of the Meander, now traversed by a railroad,
y consists of a rather level plain, crossed by a humber of gulches. The
\^\^ soiljsJKeiy deep andjich, consisting of a vegetable loam, rich in mica
^ and humus, possessing to a very high degree the quality of retaining
moisture, so necessary to the well-being of the fig trees. No irriga-
tion is resorted to or as a rule required.
According to the localities where grown, the Smyrna figs are divided
into several different grades. Thus, proceeding from east to west on
the Aidin railroad are found first the " Nazly figs." These are grown
between Ortoxi and Nazilli or Nasly. Those grown between Aidin
and Erbeghly are known as "Erbelli" figs, and those coming from
^.. points farther west from Dermendjik to Forbaly are known as '*Por-
V baly." Another smaller fig district, about 5 or 6 miles in diameter, is
\ Situated at Demieh, about 50 miles southeast of Smyrna, on the north
side of the Salatin Mountains, in the valley of the river Kaistros.
CLIMATE AND SOIL.
The climate of the Aidin Valley differs somewhat from that of
Smyrna, being warmer and^ drier. Thus, while Smyrna and its
26 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
vicinity are admirably suited for the growing and curing of raisin
grapes, especially the Sultanas, Rosaki, and Black, the interior is
less suited to them, but more to figs and oranges. The maximum
heat in the summer seldom rises above 90° F. in the shade or 130° F.
in the sun, and in the winter rarely falls below 30° F. There is con-
siderable dew throughout the season, even in the summer, and the
air is much more moist than in California and Arizona.
The winter is the rainy season, the summer the dry one, as on the
Pacific coast. The rain falls from November to April, beginning and
ending with scattering showers. The average rainfall is about 25
inches. From April to November practically no rain falls. While
there is but little frost in the winter, there are sometimes frosts in
March heavy enough to cause much injury to the young caprifig,
the lobfigs not having set.
VARIETIES OF PIGS.
Regarding the names of the figs grown in the fig districts much
confusion prevails, as the figs are known by the places where gi'own,
or designated by color, shape, etc., or by quality, or style of packing.
Thus "Leker ingir" means simply layer figs. The Turks, unable to
pronounce ** layer " properly, the name given by the English merchants,
have corrupted it to *'leker." Leker ingir is, therefore, not a variety,
but a style of fig packing. "Hordas" are white figs of inferior
quality which require no caprification. They are dried and shipped
to Austria and Germany for adulterating coffee and for distilling.
The white Hordas are used for the coffee, while the brown Hordas go
to the distillery; ** Budrun Hordas " is a variety which when dried is
preferred by makers of adulterated coffee.
The following are some of the most generally cultivated figs in the
Smyrna districts:
Lob Ingir {lob meaning juicy, and ingir fig), — This is the best fig
for drying. The pulp is white; the form flat; the stalk short; the
ribs prominent before maturity; the eye rather large, not open; skin
whitish yellow; leaves deeply lobed, with the lobes long and narrow
pointed. Of the five to seven lobes some are larger than others,
making the leaf rather lopsided. Lob Ingir is undoubtedly identical
with the variety known as *' Bulletin No. 1,"^ now grown in many
places in California, where, however, it does not produce any crop
, without caprification or pollination, though now and then a fig of the
first crop comes to partial maturity.
Ak Ingir {ak, white; ingir, fig). — Another fig for drying, possibly
identical with "Bulletin No. 3." Fruit has not yet matured in Cali-
fornia. Judging from unripe specimens, the fig is very round; the
^ Varieties of figs introduced by the San Francisco Bulletin several years ago;
hence the name.
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 27
»
eye prominent; the leaves almost entire, with very heavy white veins
on the back.
Ohil Ingir {chil, smallpox; ingir,fig). — This is a white fig of fine "
drying properties, covered, when fresh, with green spots as large as a
dime or less. When drying, this fig becomes white and the green
spots turn even whiter than the rest of the skin.
Hazir Lop {hazir, ready; lop^ to swaMow or bite; also juicy). —
White; large; characterized by the stem remaining on the tree when
the fig is pulled; very fine for eating fresh; not used for drying;
requires caprification.
Sarilob Ingir {sariloby yellow; ingir, fig). — This is another of the
Smyrna figs. Perhaps it is identical with "Bulletin No. 2." In such
case the fig is oblong, pyriform, broadest above the apex; the stalk
is short; the skin yellow and slightly downy; the pulp pink; the
leaves rather entire, with three shallow lobes; the eye large, pro-
truding; requires caprification to mature fruit.
BardaJcjik {from bardak, an Egyptian pitcher). — One of the very
best drying figs. It is possible that this fig is among the " Bulletin"
importations to California, but if so it has not yet been among those
pollinated by the writer. This is a longer fig, having a white skin of
extreme thinness, and an amber pulp. It dries well. It is often eaten
fresh, and as such is considered the finest eating fig known.
The caprifig, which is grown for caprification, and which also grows
wild in the hills, is known as " ilek,? and the process of caprification is
known as "ilek atmak."
Other fruits which grow in the fig region are oranges, olives, and
rosaki and black grapes. No wine is made in the fig region. Raisins
are produced to a limited extent only. Apricots and peaches are
grown in moderate quantity, but only for home use.
PLANTING LOBFIGS.
Before planting the ground is well and deeply plowed several times,
fertilized with camel manure, and freed from weeds.
The planting is frequently done in a peculiar way not found in use
outside of Smyrna. It is generally done in March. Of late the trees
are grown about 60 feet apart in regular rows, though the older
orchards were planted closer and more irregularly. The holes are dug
of good depth, and for every hole two cuttings are used, which are set
crossing each other. The butt ends are from 9 to 12 inches apart
both below and above the soil, the cuttings thus crossing each other
in the middle of the hole. The latter is filled up and stamped tight,
leaving the cuttings protruding about 2 inches, which projecting part
is again covered with loose soil, forming a small mound, in order
to prevent drying out by wind and sun. During the first season
hand watering is resorted to if the winter be a very dry one. After-
28 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
wards no irrigation is used or required. This peculiar way of plant-
ing, which has been considered an heirloom of ancient superstition,
has been much condemned; but the custom is nevertheless a most
excellent one, as it causes the fig tree to branch and spread in a
number of fan-shaped branches, which prevents the very dangerous
breaking of the limbs and branches of the trees. If we wish to pre-
vent the breaking down of our own fig trees we must adopt this very
method. Trees grown in this manner branch close to the soil and
spread out in all directions, forming a number of trunks or stems.
Only enough of the lower branches are cut awaj^ to allow passage for
the pickers, and so low are the branches allowed to remain that the
pickers must bend in order not to strike them, the lowest branches
being 3 to 4 feet from the ground.
This planting also causes the trees to be more open to air and allows
more sunshine in the interior of the crown. The advantage of this is
evident when it is remembered that the best lobfigs are always found
on the outside of the tree and never among the interior branches,
where they are shaded and never come to proper maturity. The con-
trary is the case with the caprifigs, the best for caprification being
found in the interior, among the denser foliage. The pruning of the
fig is not extensively practiced in Smyrna. Trees planted as just
described produce no main standard or central trunk which later
needs to be cut out, but onlj'^ several branches, which bend away from
one another in a goblet-shaped manner. The neciessary pruning is
therefore confined to the cutting away of limbs that cross one another,
and also to the cutting awaj'^ of some of the j'^ear's growth from where
it starts out from 3 or 4 year old wood. Limbs are never cut square off.
An important part of fig cultivation in Smyrna is the watching of
the orchards. This is done by special guardians or watchers, known
as '*beckji." They stay in the orchards day and night, in specially
prepared arbors or camps under some large tree near the drying
ground, and their business is to keep away all intruders — thieves of
humankind as well as beasts and birds.
The bearing qualitj'^ of the fig depends greatlj^ on the age of the ^^
trees. Younger trees will produce 50 pounds of dried fruit, trees in
good condition bearing 150 pounds, while old trees will yield 300 or
more pounds of dried fruit. No fig tree of tlie drying kinds is sup-
posed to produce figs suitable for drying until it is four or more
years old.
CAPRIFICATION.
Caprification, or *'ilek atmak," is practiced yearly, as without it
the crop will fail to set and mature. The time for this operation is
in the lact week of June. The figs have then reached the size of a
hazelnut or larger. Four or six caprifigs are strung on a reed, and
this is thrown over the branches of the edible fig trees. Later, as
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
29
more figs appear on the edible fig trees, the process is repeated, as
the issuing of the wasps will cease in a few days. To a small tree only
a few strings are required, while for a larger tree about 30 strings are
needed to insure pollination. In case the caprifig crop fails, boat loads
of caprifigs are imported from the Grecian islands at a great expense.
In great scarcity the caprifigs sell at from 2^ to 4 cents apiece, which
shows the
value placed
on them by the
cultivator.
HARYKST AND DRYING.
Before the figs begin
to lipen the ground un-
der ilie trees is raked
cloan of leaves, clods,
and weeds, in order that
the figs may drop on
soft soil without injury
from Imrsting.
1>T ying floors or beds
are u j^ed for the final dry-
ing of the figs. These
beds are low — about 6 or
8 inches high^simply
made of loose soil, like
a common garden bed.
Tht^V^ Hi-e long and nar-
row^i > or 8 feet wide and
50 or 100 feet long — sep-
arated by walks about
1 tVet wide. Along the
outside margin of these
beds are driven pegs
wliiclu when in the soil,
protrude but slightly
above the bed. Between
these pegs willow or
other thin branches
or a run do canes are
braided, in order to protect the bed and prevent the soil from fall-
ing out on the walks. The tops of the beds are first stamped hard and
wetted, then covered with mats made of rushes or esparto grass or of
the cpllt canes of the Italian cane {Arundo donax). On these mats
the figs are dried. Many of the poorer growers cover the beds with
the split arundo canes.
Fig. 3.— Caprifigs used for capriflcation, strung on Esparto
grass, as used in Sicily. The figs have become dried and
the wasps have escaped. (Photograph by N. B. Pierce.)
30 THE fig: its history, oultube, and cubing.
At the end of Jul}' the figs begin to mature. The fig is never cut
from the tree, but falls of its own accord when partially cured or
overripe. At first the figs drop a few at a time, and but few laborers
are required, the picker having to glean all over the ground in order
to fill a basket. In August, however, the figs fall thick and fast, and
the whole laboring population is required to pick and dry the crop.
The figs are never picked up while covered with dew, but only when
perfectly dry. The most favorable time for picking is during the
blowing of the north wind, as the figs then dry better and assume a
better color. The figs are picked up into wicker baskets and imme-
diately conveyed to the drying ground near by, where they are care-
fully spread out singly, none being allowed to overlap another, in
order that they may receive the necessary sun and heat.
After three to four days of exposure those figs which are dried suf-
ficiently are taken up, divided roughly into three different grades,
and care taken that they do not dry too much. The skin must feel
dry, but the inside must be soft. The very choicest figs are conveyed
to Smyrna in baskets. The general grade, or "eleme," is dumped in
sacks made of goat hair and camel's hair, while for the third or poorer
grade or *'horda" common, yellow-colored sacks are used. The goat-
hair sacks are very durable, and do not become so sticky from any
exuding juice. They are also impervious to dust. These bags are also
very expensive, and, indeed, are very seldom owned by the growers,
but hired from the '' devegees," or camel men, who carry the figs to the
railroads and to Aidin. These devegees are in reality contractors who
haul the crop away, ship it on th«^ railroads, accompany it to Aidin,
and finally dispose of the figs to the traders there. They constitute a
real corporation of middlemen, known for their honesty and capability.
Their work for the season ends only with turning the sum received
for th© saJe over to the grower. The guild of the devegees is an
important one in Smyrna. The compensation of the devegee is 7 per
cent of the sale.
PACKING.
The fig grower in Smyrna does not pack his own figs. The packing
is done by special firms who employ skilled labor. The packing con-
sists of two distinct operations — the assorting and the packing proper.
The assorting is done by comparatively unskilled labor, women being
always employed for this part of the work. The figs are dumped
from their hair sacks on mats spread directly on the floor, and girls
and women squat down around the piles. Each woman has in front
of her at least three baskets, into which she assorts the fruit, in three
grades, while the refuse remains on the floor to be packed in 50-
pound bags, which are disposed of for home use or shipped to England
and France for distilling, etc. The grade is determined by size, color,
thinness of skin, etc., and is judged by both eye and hand.
/"' r
V
Vr
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept Agriculture.
Plate II.
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 31
These assorted figs are carried away by men to the packing rooms
and are now known as "maccaronia." The packing proper is done
by men in separate rooms and on roiigli tables. This process consists
of two operations — pulling and splitting, and packing. Each packer
has in front of him a jar with salt water for moistening the hands,
which are always kept wet in order that the figs may not stick. Next
the figs which are packed as "eleme" are pulled and drawn between
the fingers and thumb into a flat dish-like form and then the back
paii) is split, which allows still more spreading of the iig. In pulling
the fig the "eye" part is brought into the center of the disk, which
gives to the other part a handsome appearance, tlie coarse and tliick
part of the fig being centered around the aye. All the best figs are
packed in boxes containing from 2i to 50 pounds. They are placed
in regular rows, without any guide, and so skillfully is this done that
the lines between the rows are perfectly straight and even to such a
degree tliat a sheet of paper may be dropped between tliem. The
rows all consist of layers, one on the top of the other, all through the
box. When finally the box is filled it is passed out to women, who
place laurel leaves between the figs of the top layer, after which the
carpenters nail the boxes and trim them off. (PI. II.)
Another and better mode of packing is employed with so-called
locoum figs. These are not pulled and split, but pressed between
the fingers until they become almost sc^uare, and are then packed
closely together. In all this packing no pi^esses • are used. The
"eleme" boxes are simply piled upon the floor, one on the top of the
other, which presses them sufficiently. Tlie poorer grades are packed
in barrels in concentric rows. When such a barrel is full a loose
bottom is put in and the packer gets in and tamps it down in order
to compress the figs solidly. By the middle of Octobier the packing
is generally over and tlie packing establishments are closed for the
year. In some of these large packing houses as many as 500 hands
are employed; 150 of these are women, 50 boys and girls, and 300 men.
BRANDS AND BOXES.
There are two great brands of Smyrna figs — the "eleme" and the
"locoum." The former are always packed flattened out, the latter
like little cubes. The word "eleme" means "select," or better, the
"cream," as it were, skimmed out of a lot of common figs. Through
habit this brand of fig is always first pulled, flattened, split, and
pressed, and on this account it has been repeatedly stated that * ' eleme "
means " pulled," which, however, is not the true meaning of the word.
Locoum indicates a square cube of so-called fig paste, a kind of
sweetmeat made of sugar and starch and a little coloring matter, with-
out any particle of fig in it. This very stuff is also sold in many
American cities under various names, as sugar figs, fig paste, etc. It
generally comes as a square sack, or cube, probably originally
23740— No. li— 01 3
32 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
intended to imitate the fig. The Turkish name for this paste is "Lo-
conm," and the brand ''Locoura" on the box containing real figs indi-
cates the manner of packing, in imitation of the Locoum pastes. The
fig can not be worked in the shape of ''Locoum" unless it is unusu-
ally thick and meaty, and therefore the best figs are always selected
for that style of packing. The figs branded " Erbelli " come from the
country surrounding the smaller village of Erbeghli, which has the
reputation of growing the finest figs. The Erbelli figs are generally
packed as "Locoum," and frequently both names appear on a box,
indicating that the figs come from Erbeghli and are packed Locoum
style. (PI. III.)
Exporters put all kinds of fancy names on the figs which they send
out, and vary them from time to time. Every year sees some
novelties as to name, style of packing, package, etc. But two or three
firms have adopted regular brands and goods which can be relied on
to be uniform and regular one year with another. Messrs. Dutilth
& Co., Smyrna packers, have kindly furnished the following infor-
mation :
The best brands are graded as follows:
Imperials - - Imperial Crown.
London layers..- _ Extra ggblue (4 crowns).
Choice Finest gg red (3 crowns).
Prime - Fine g3 black (2 crowns).
These grades go both to England and America, no grade being packed ezcln-
siyely for England or for America. The only brands which come always in the
same manner of packages are those just referred to; all other package- marks vary
as regards name, brands, sizes of packages, number of figs in each package, etc.,
greatly, of coarse, to the detriment of the trade, but more so to the packers
themselves.
The inside measures, in inches, of the fig package of E. J. L. are as follows:
. Imperial crown, 12,^ by 16^, carrying 5 rows of figs with 11 figs in a row.
Extras differ in size of box, a 9-pound box, measuring 9 by lU, carrying 4 rows
of 8 figs each. Of this grade there are 13, 18, and 5 pound boxes also.
Finest are put up in 8, 10, and 12 pound boxes. The 12-pound box measures 10
by 14 and contains 4 rows of figs each.
Fine are put up in 10-pound boxes only, measuring 9 by 12, containing 5 rows
of figs, with 11 figs in the row.
In these brands one always finds the same size of figs, whether they are in a 12,
10, or 8 pound box of the same grade.
The general run, or what is called the American standard, measures as follows:
Inches.
12-pound box, 5X11 figs 9.5 by 13
10-ponndbox, 5X10 figs _... 8.4 by 12.2
8-pound box, 4X9 figs 7.1 by 11.5
6-pound box, 4x8 figs 7.2 by 9.4
These figs seldom contain the same number of figs in the lower layers as in the
tipper layers. Thus for the ordinary grade of figs— American standard— it is the
general custom to put a smaller fig in the lower rows. Thus a box will have 5 by
11 figs on top, while below them 5 by 13, etc. ; but the standard brands always
eome with the same number of figs all through. The lumber for these boxes all
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agricu'ture.
Plate III.
o 3 c pr^
ir^.rcC 3
s3g'>E
cr*..
=r«? >,
.^5-3x3 g
♦I- a- » ?;• *
•""1 5 I'll
o 3 ft '^s-
'-' 3 as fti
%* ^ s;* 2
«.^e
' r - -
v>r TY
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 33
comes from Anstria. No regular price list is offered from Smyrna. When the
figs arrive in this country they are at once placed in the hands of brokers in the
United States, who draw samples and sell on sample boxes.
The English trade prefers smaller packages, such as 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 pounds, while
the United States have them almost all running 8, 10, and 12 pounds. A small
quantity of 6-pound boxes will sell, but only a very few, A few of 1, 2, and 4 will
also sell.
The price of Smyrna figs varies considerably with the season, as well as with the
quality. The average price, for ten years for the last three grades has been as fol-
lows: Per quintal of 112 pounds, $4.08, $8,75, and $19.22, all in the Smyrna market,
packed.
As may be judged from the foregoing statements, the peculiarities
of the Smyrna fig trade, through which it has attained the height
and prosperity it now enjoys, are as follows:
A peculiar class of figs which require caprification. Of these figs
there are three principal varieties grown for commerce. A favorable
climate — dry, warm, and moderate, both winter and summer; rich
soil, which retains moisture and which does not require irrigation;
extreme care in selecting, assorting, grading, and packing; estab-
J^^hed grades, which can be relied upon year after year.
EXPORTATIONS.
The best grades have always been taken by England, Germany and
the United States coming next. Of late j^ears, however, the United
States has begun to consume much better grades. The production of
figs in California is also reducing the importations to the United States.
The poorest grades are used in France for distillation and are exported
to Austria and eastern Europe generally for distilling, as well as for
the adulteration of roasted coffee. The production of figs has greatly
increased of late years in Smyrna and its vicinity. In 1870 about
6,000 tons of dried figs were brought to Smyrna for packing from the
valleys where they were grown. In 1882 about 10,600 tons were
brought in for packing, while about 7,000 tons, valued at about
$1,600,000, were exported to France, England, Germany, and the
United States. At the present time the production has considerably
increased, and probably about 13,000 tons are now packed yearly.
FIG CULTURE IN GREECE.
^-f\^K ^ ' ^ GENERAL HISTORY.
^ '] The history of the fig in ancient times in Greece has already been
briefly discussed. Originally the fig was introduced from the Orient
^./^6 at a time somewhat later than the Trojan war, or a l ittle before the,
\i ^ '^^ighth century before Christ. The Grecian islands were the first to
receive the fig, and the fruit soon spread throughout Greece and
became highlyj^prociatei by a people who had for ages partly sub-
sisted on acorns from the native trees. The mythological fables relate
o^
34 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
-how the goddess Demeter visited that country and that one night she
was belated and was given a friendly and hospitable reception by Phy-
talos. In return for the hospitality, she bade the fig tree spring from
the ground in the same manner in which Minerva had caused the olive
to appear. In time the fig beca me a sacred tr^e and second only to the ^ 0^
olive in importance. By the time of Theophrast a large number of j^^
fig varieties had been originated and imported. These varieties are,
however, so indefinitely described that they can not be identified with
any now existing, though it is possible that some of them may yet
^survive. The ancient Greeks knew the caprifig well under the names
)lynthos and Tragos, the latter being the name used by the Mes-
seniansT Olh^i' liumes af Lhla tree were Erineos {E^pivEo^) and^^S^che-
agria {2vx^ocypia) — in new Greek Agriosykia {Aypio(rvHid).
The best figs in ancient times were those grown inAttica. They
were so highly valued and considered so necessary for home use that
a law was passed prohibiting their export. Until this law was pro-
mulgated smuggling, it was said, was unknown, but from that
time it became a common and profitable business to secretly export
, .'^) .''and sell figs. To prevent this practice, special guardians were
^ ^' appointed by the Government to watch and accuse those who broke
X the law. These guardians were called sycophants (from sykon, a
fig, and phaineln, to show). These officers of the law soon became
hated on account of the blackmail used by them for their own enrich-
V L . "* ment, and the word sycophant became synonymous with the idea of
N^ \' ' ^ a secret spy. This meaning of the word has survived to this day.
The fig had among the ancient Greeks a sacred, symbolic, and
mystic meaning, an emblem of fertility and propagation. The
flowers of the fig were hiddeiT, wline"~air other "ffowers were open
to the light of the sun! TEe fig soon became a ^ religi ous and
mythical symbol in the festivities and worship of the god Di onysip s,
and an&asket of fresh figs was carried next to the vessel containing
the wine destined as offering to that god.
f ->
^■'
\
FIGS IN MODERN GREECE,
The cultivated and edible fig is known in Greece as "he sykea"
(// crvH€a), and the figs are known as "ta syka" {ra avna). The old
Pelasgic name was "fik," 'plural "fikj," and from this word has
originated the modern word "fig," as well as the ancient Latin word
-'^ficus."
In modern times the fig tree is extensively cultivated all over
Greece, in the mainland as well as on the islands, and many vari-
eties are cultivated. Among these the very early kinds are known
as "proima" (7rp6i/^a), The best and earliest of these come from
uEgina, and are ripe in the month of June. Other famous varieties
are the so-called ^myrna varieties, or the " Smj^rnaia," though we
have no means of knowing whether or not they actually are identical
PIO CULTURE IK VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
35
with those grown in Smyrna in Asia Minor. Other varieties, bearing
only or principally large first-crop figs, are known as "basilika"
(ftacFiXiHa) or "royals." They are generally dark and used only for
the table.
The figs for drying and export come principally from Kalamata, a
Fig. 4.— String of flgs as packed in Greece. (Photograph by Paddock & Fowler Co.)
place also celebrated for its ' ' currant " raisins. The islands of Andros
and Syros are also well known for their figs, though they are inferior
to those of Kalamata. The crop from the latter place is principally
exported to Russia, Austria, and central Europe generally. A few
reach France and the United States. The bulk of all these figs is
36 THE fm: Its histoby, cultuke, and cubing.
used for the manufacture of "coffe" and brandy. The figs from
Andros are of a dark brown color, owing to the mode of curing and
drying in heated ovens. The Kalamata figs, which are now and then
found in the United States, are vastly inferior to the imported Smyrna
figs and are not even equal to uncaprificated California figs, the qual-
ity of which has in late years greatly improved. As regards the culti-
vation of the trees and the curing of the figs in Greece little of value is
to be noted. As the figs are of inferior quality the methods of pro-
ducing them must also be inferior. The gathering of the figs for
drying commences about August 1 to 5. The ripe ones are cut from
the tree by a reed split at one end. Only the ripe ones are gathered,
the others being allowed to hang until ripe. The cut figs are placed
on the ground to dry. In places where more care is taken low beds
of soil are covered with straw and stamped haini. The beds are
divided in sections 39 inches in width. At each side there is a ditch
to receive the occasional rains. On this account the center of the
beds is slightly raised in order that the rain may more readily flow
off. When the figs have been exposed for about four days they are
turned, about eight days being required to finish the drying. The
Grecian mode of packing (fig. 4) is a most primitive one, probably actu-
ated by the want of proper material for boxes. The figs are simply
strung on reeds to the number of from 50 to several hundred. These
strings are then formed into wheels of various shapes and weights and
are then packed in larger boxes. Such wheels are not uncommon in the
markets of the United States. Most of the Grecian figs are caprifi-
cated, as can be readily demonstrated by cutting the figs open and
examining the seeds. The latter mostly possess embryo. Only rarely
have imported Grecian figs been seen which had not been caprificated.
The figs are exported in large quantities from Calames and Andros.
The next largest places from which the Greek figs are exported are
Caryntie, Tenos, Pylia, etc. The export, which is steadily increas-
ing, now reaches some 30,000,000 pounds annually. The poor quality
of the Greek figs is the more remarkable, as the majority of the labor-
ers in the Smyrna packing houses are Greeks.
Caprification, as has been stated, was practiced in Greece in very
ancient times. Whether the caprifig was introduced or was indigenous
can not now be decided with certainty; but it is probable that the fig
and the caprifig were introduced together. It has been stated that
during the eighth century before Christ edible figs were growing in
Greece, and it is certain that caprification was known at the time.
From that time to this caprification has continually been practiced
and is an inseparable process in the cultivation of the fig. The wild
or caprifigs are called opivia or opiviovb, while in ancient times they
were known as spiveos or epivos. The Pelasgic name for the caprifig
was "piri." At present the caprifig grows in great abundance in
waste places and among rocks all over the country. So common is the
^^ 0^\\ EaYPT AND KABYLIA.
C ^Figs have been grown in Egypt since very ancient times, but still
ma CTTLTUBE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN C0tTNTBIE8. 37
caprifig that at times ship loads are exported to Smyrna to serve in
caprification when the native caprifigs fail to yield on account of
unfavorable seasons. The French botanists, Tournefort and Olivier,
who were greatly prejudiced against caprification, tried to prove its
worthlessness by the fact that Greek peasants had been seen to sus-
pend oak galls and excrescences of elms and poplars in the fig trees
instead of caprifigs. Such foreign substances could naturally have
no effect in pollinating the figs, and the figs so practiced on would
have set in any case. This observation of the botanists in question
shows that in Greece varieties are grown which are similar to those
we have in this country and which require no caprification in order to
produce figs.
Among the most interesting of the Greek caprifigs is the variety
known as Erinosyce. This fig, which bears caprifigs as a first crop,
produces a second crop of edible figs. A somewhat similar fig has
been found in Brittany and lately also in California.
, ^\^X y / \\r^* FIGS IN NORTHERN AFRICA.
that country cuts a comparatively small figure in the fig market of
the world. Though some 2,000,000 pounds of dried figs are exported
3verj'' year, they ar e of inferio r quality and are used principally for
^ the productio n of spirit s and the adulteration of coffee or the manu-
v^ ' , f acture of imitation ' ' coffe. " A much more important fig district than
"^ N ' ^ Egypt is found in Kabylij,.^ This district, which is a part of Algeria,
-r;, I '\ is situated east of t he city of Algiers and extends from Dellys
,^^ to Bougie. The princtpaT town in this district, Tizi O uzou^ is sur-
^ rounded by thg^ large st fig dis tric t in_t he world outside of Smyrna.
, , Not unl^ Ufe'^s exported in large quantities, but the whole native
>i . population subsists on figs for many months in the year. The
'\//\ following account of the fig industry in the district is mainly from
, > ^ ' Hanoteau and Letourneux:
? \: ^' ^ <^ V ' Fig culture in Kabylia.
' '^^ ' Localities. — The fig flourishes everywhere and is found not only in the lower
levels, but to an altitude of over 3,000 feet. In the vicinity of Ait Ouaban it
I reaches to the zone of the cedars.
Varieties,— The K&hylea distinguish some t wenty-eig ht Yarifitifi&.of edible figs,
besides a number of caprifigs used exclusively for caprification. Of the latter
there are four distinct kinds. The edible figs are either white,_or l^lagk*—
White varieties, — Abakour amelljtl (early white), Ar'nim, Thar'animt, Tha-
bouhiaboult, Abouh'archa ^Tfaazerat, Thadhefouith, Thamellalt, Thar'elit, Tha-
ameriouth, Th^oellout ', Aberzigzaou, Thaouassifth, Aboulil, Abouzouggar', Tha-
koumennaith (the round).
Violet variehes.— Ab^kourj^bj^kaa. (early black), Aje^j^, Azaich. Thazaicht,
El-Hadj, Abelr'endjour, TvJezzith, Aouhalal, Ar'animaberkan, Thabouhiaboult,
"TEabeikant, Abouremman. Azagour'guiIeT (fioar's back).
38 THE Fia: its history, culture, and curino.
The variety called Thar'animt is the most valued among the white figs, and the
variety known as Ajenjar is considered the finest black kind.
, ; ^' >. Capin^gfs.— There are four named varieties of caprifigs. These are: Thadouk-
r t - karth-en-tifouzal, Thadoukkarth-en-thar'animt, Thadoukkarth-en-thaberkant
(black caprifig), Thadoukkarth-en-t'it-en-tesekkourth (Pheasant's eye caprifig).
The best variety is the Thadoukkart-en-tifouzal. The name gf the caprifig in
general is **douM flL!' These varieties of caprifigs are used indiscriminately. As
regards caprification some kinds are better than others, the difference being in
the time of maturity, in the number of crops, and in the number of wasps.
There is another variety of wild fig known as Thadoukkart guir'zer (Creek
caprifig) , but the fruits of this kind are never used for caprification. This tree is
used for grafting. The tree is inhabited by a Blastophaga wasp not suitable for
caprification.
Propagation of the fig <ree.— There are four different ways in which the fig tree
is propagated. Thesis arejcijAti n gs pi an ted directly in the orchard, cuttings planted
in th e nursery and later on transplanted, suckers taken from the base of the tree
or from its roots, and, finally, layers.^ "" "^ "
Cuttings planted in the orcEarS are known as "thisekkar." They grow well
and rapidly, but are supposed not to bear for several years. Cuttings planted first
in the nursery are called * * thimer'eras. " After two or three years these are trans-
planted into the orchard. These young trees bring a price of from 80 to 50
centimes. The suckers are known as **ouchelikhen." The name for layers is
*'ourk'ilen."
When a fig tree is planted, a trench is dug: not a simple hole, as for other kinds
of trees. Several slits are made in the trunk in order to facilitate the growth of
roots. The time for planting is between October and March. The trees are gen-
erally set in groups of five, though irregularly.
Grafting is also used, but only when it is desired to change one variety into
another, or in order to rejuvenate some old trunks. Grafting with scions is prac-
ticed in February and March, while budding is practiced from March to June.
Cultivation, etc.— In very cold wintera the buds of the more delicate varieties
are covered with a plaster composed of cowdung, in order to prevent injury from
frost. The first work in winter consists in cleaning the trunks of the trees— cut-
ting off the suckers and superfluous surface roots. Sinks are dug around each
tree in order to hold the rainwater. When manure is had, it is placed in these
sinks. Plowing is done with oxen when the proprietor is wealthy enough to pos-
sess them; otherwise the trees are simply dug around. Ancient practice stipulates
that the first plowing should be made from January 10 to 23. The second plowing
should be between February 13 and 19, while the third and last takes place either
between April 10 and 30 or between May 1 and 21. In some places pearl barley
and turnips are planted between the trees after the last plowing, but such crops
are always considered detrimental to the fig trees. No pruning of the trees is
practiced.
Capinfication.— The caprifig is known as the "Doukkar," which signifies
"male." But as the Kabyles are ignorant of the sexual elements of the caprifig or
of plants in general the presumption is that the origin of the name is very ancient,
and we are naturally carried back to a time when the people knew more of the
nature of plants than they now do in those parts. The Blastophaga wasps are of a
black color. Those, however, from the wild caprifig, known as "thadoukkart
guir zer," are brown. These latter insects are not able to caprify the edible figs.
The caprification is practiced in the same general way as elsewhere in the Medi-
terranean countries. Strings of four caprifigs are thrown over the branches of
the edible figs. The number of strings (imalak'en) varies with the tree. If neces-
sary, as many as 100 strings or 400 caprifigs are used on a single tree. On the
plains more strings are used than in the mountains, the average number of
ma OULTtTRE IN VARIOUS FOREIOK COtJNTMES. 39
strings being, perhaps, 20 to 30 on a tree. After a few weeks, when the ** donk-
kar " begin to dry np, the process of caprification is renewed. This is repeated as
many as four to six times during the summer. The expense of caprifying the
trees is considerable. Each string of caprifigs costs about 5 centimes, which brings
the highest cost of caprification for a single tree up to 5 francs a year. Some
tribes forbid the exportation of caprifigs outside of their boundary, but as a rule
the markets are full of caprifigs, offered for sale during the period when caprifi-
cation is considered necessary.
Figs requiring caprification. — Not all fig varieties require caprification. Those
varieties which do not require caprification are Abakour, Ar'anim, Abouh'archaou,
Abouremman, Azagour guilef , Azaich, Aboulil, Abelr'endjour, Thazerat, and Thad-
hefouith. The varieties which it is necessary to caprificate are Thar'animt, El-hadj,
Abouzouggar', Mezzith, and Thazaicht.
The brebas are known as ** Ourgal^n," except those of the variety ** Abakour," the
brebas of which are called "bakour" (early).
Curing and drying. — The figs are dried on trays made of reeds. The latter are
exposed to the full glare of the sun, but are stacked at night, 15 or more trays
being superposed one on the other. When dried, the figs are stored in earthen jars
or in large baskets. In order to keep away vermin, leaves of the sweet bay and of
the * * zater " ( Calaminta nepeta) are interposed among the figs. The modiB of pack-
ing used in Greece is also in vogue in the districts nearest the Mediterranean,
but this more elaborate way of packing is used only for the figs destined for expor-
tation. The quality is generally good, but the packing is always poor and pre-
vents extensive sales and high prices.
From 18 to 25 francs are realized for a kilo of the best dried figs.
FIGS IN ITALY. y^\C" ' \
^ . • ^ Cato, who lived two centuries before Pliny, knew 6 varieties of figs. v>. .
I In the beginning of the Christian e ra Plin y, the well-known naturalist, f^ ^
, v-^enumerated some 27 different varieties The names given them are — --^"'^
'. X either from the places where they Wfii:e ,grov7ing or they were named
p after persons who had introduced them or who cultivated them. Thus
N^ we read of Rhodian figs, of others as African , Hyrcanian, Lydian,
Tivolian, Herculean^ Pompeian, Liviari, 'tfe latter introduced by Livia.
^ ^ As might be expected, these figs are not so minutely described as to
< ^enable us to identify them with kinds now existing in Italy or else-
where. From the time of Pliny to modern times we find no pub-
lished accounts of Italian figs. Still, during the long interva l new
varieties must have been introduced and originated by chance or
otherwise, as the first of the earliest of the modern writers,~'Porta and
Pontedera — the former in the first years of the seventeenth century,
the latter a hundred years later — mention a great number of distinct
and valuable kinds.
EXTENT AND CHARACTER OF THE ITALIAN FIG DISTRICTS.
While fig trees are grown all through the Italian peninsula and its
adjoining islands, the true and principal fig region must be consid-
ered as that situated south of JiOfliiB, and extending from there to Sicily .,
and the Liparian Islands. In northern Italy figs are grown princi-
pally for eatmg fresh, and as such can not be said to constitute an
oj
■Q.
40 THE FIO: ITS HISTORY, OCLTITRE, AN1> CtrRIN(3^.
article of important diet. Few figs are dried, and they entirely for
home consumption, not for export.. In the southern parts of Italy,
however, the fig, fresh and dried, is looked upon as an important and
cheap article of diet, especially during the winter months, and the
failure to secure a large fig crop is looked upon as a calamity, both on
account of the diminished food supply and the pecuniary loss in the
export trade; and the export trade must mean, in this part of Italy,
not only the export to foreign districts, but the much greater export
to Italian districts where figs are not grown, or at least not dried.
While figs are growing almost everywhere in southern Italy, com-
paratively few localities make fig culture an industry. Thus for fig
culture favored spots appear comparatively few and far between, con-
fined to certain valleys or to certain slopes which either through soil,
location, or climate conditions produce figs superior for drying.
The most northern district in which superior dried figs are produced
is Pozzuoli, not far from Naples. The soil in this district appears to
be of volcanic alluvium, especially adapted to producing figs of thin
and white skin, good flavor, and great sweetness. In the Naples mar-
ket these Pozzuoli figs compete successfully with those of more south-
em districts and bring even a better price than the Calabrian figs. In
the same vicinity we find a considerable quantity of dried figs pro-
duced on the island Ischia, at Sora in Terra di Lavoro, at Vico Equense,
peninsula Sorrentina, etc. As a rule these northern figs are small,
averaging about one-third the size of the Smyrna figs, while in sweet-
ness they are hardly equal to the Smymas. As we proceed south we
find the figs slightly increasing in size, and to some degree even in
sweetness. In southern Italy the principal fig centers are found in
the provinces of Terra d' Otranto, Cosenza, Catanzaro, and Reggio,
the latter generally known as the three Calabrias. Other centers
for fig culture are found in the provinces of Lecce, Salerno, and
Basilicata. In Terra d' Otranto, on the Adriatic side, excellent dried
figs are produced at Taranto, Brindisi, and Melpignano. In Lecce, in
1873, the two communes of Cutrofiano and Galatina produced 5,700
quintals or 638,000 pounds of figs, while the three ports, Taranto,
Gallipoli, and Brindisi, exported in 1872 about 70,000 quintals, equal
to 7,840,000 pounds. The whole exx)orts of the province Terra
d' Otranto for three years of 1870 to 1872 reached 132,099 quintals, 1
quintal being about 112 pounds.
The production "of dried figs in the immediate vicinity of Lecce
in 1869 reached 11,000 quintals, and has since that time somewhat
increased. In the province of Catanzaro the exportation of figs, in
1874, amounted to 7,000 quintals, or 780,000 pounds. In the province
of Cosenza the three principal localities for the production of dried
figs are Cosenza, Castrovillari, and Paola, while the following com-
munes also made a specialty of drying figs: Amantea, Belvedere,
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.
Plate IV.
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FIG CtTLTUKE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 41
Belmonte, Longobardi, San Lucido, Scalea, Cleto, Serra di Aiello,
Fiume-Freddo, Santa Domenica, MajerA., Orsomarso, and Verbicaro.
In the province of Reggio the dried figs are produced for export,
principally in the vicinity of Reggio, Palma, and Gerace, the latter
place being especially famous for its dried figs. In Terra di Bari
the fig regions are found in the vicinity of Moropoli and Turi, the figs
from the former locality being among the largest and sweetest in
southern Italy.
As could be expected, the island of Sicily produces good and sweet
figs. Foremost are those from the vicinity of Palermo, amoilg which
may be found the largest figs produced in Italy, almost equaling
those of Smyrna in sizjB, while exceeding them in sweetness. The
principal localities for figs in that province are San Fratello and
PoUina. The Palermo figs do not equal the Smyrna figs in flavor
and thinness of skin. (PI. IV.)
The province of Messina, rich in oranges and lemons, also produces
good figs, though immediately around Messina no fresh figs are pro-
duced, that town importing its supply from the ports of Calabria, on
the other side of the Straits. The principal export port in the prov-
ince of Messina is Milazzo.
In the province of Catania it is especially in the region of Mount
£tna that superior dried figs are found. The volcanic soils favor the
drying quality of the figs as well as their sweetness. Figs are also
prepared for drying in the other parts of Sicily, but nowhere to the
same extent as in the provinces of Palermo, Messina, and Catania.
The figs from the island of Lipari are, however, considered superior to
those grown on the main island. These figs are exported principally
to Naples and Malta.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
In most of the Italian fig districts the best figs for drying are grown
on or near the coast of the Mediterranean. The.infiuence of the
sea, be it through modified heat or through increase in moisture, is
decidedly beneficial. The climatic conditions for the production of
figs in southern Italy are almost perfect, and inferior only to those
of Smyrna in Asia Minor. But for the successful drying of figs, not
to say curing of figs, the climate of Italy is not the very best. At the
time of the fig harvest it not infrequently happens that showers, or
even conanued rains, set in, injuring or even completely- spoiling the
figs. On that account the growers resort to such measures as splitting
the figs or drying them by artificial means in primitive ovens. In
climatic conditions for drying Smyrna is much more favored than
Italy. The natural rainfall in Italy is slightly less than that of
Smyrna, but greater than that of southern and central California.
The irrigation of fig trees is therefore less necessary in Italy than in
California.
42 THE fig: its history, cultuee, and oimiirG.
QUALITY OF ITALIAN FIGS.
But with all these favorable conditions Italy produces only figs
which are inferior to those of Smyrna, though equal to those of Portu-
gal, Spain, or France. It is especially in size and quality of pulp
that the Italian figs are defective, averaging one-third less in weight
than the Smyrna figs. Their flavor is also inferior, while in sweet-
ness they are equal, or in a few instances even superior, to the figs of
Asia Minor, Smyrna included. As regards albuminoids, so important
when the nutritious quality of the figs is taken into consideration, the
Italian figs take a very prominent place, but are still inferior to the
Smyrna figs. In fatty substances the Italian figs are i)erhaps sui)erior
to the Smyrnas, but the percentage of superiority is too small to be
of any economic importance. In thinness of skin and in color the
Italian figs of the best kinds compare unfavorably with Smyrna figs.
To sum up, the Italian figs are inferior in size, aroma, and albumi-
noids, but excel in sweetn ess and in other minor matters. Their meat is
generally coarse.
MODES OF CURING AND PACKING.
As Italy does not in reality produce any first-class figs, it could not
be expected that she would excel in curing and packing. Only where
a very superior product is the outcome of careful horticultural meth-
ods does it pay to spend much labor and skill on attractive packing.
The Italian figs are grown principally for home consumption by the
poorer classes of the people, and the object has therefore been to
cure and pack as cheaply as possible. The exports are considerable,
but the figs, instead of serving as table desserts and delicacies, are
destined principally for distillation or for the adulteration of coffee,
etc. Still, the Italian figs of the better classes, if properly put up and
more carefully and cleanly handled, would command a market and a
price far beyond that at present received. The Italian modes of cur-
ing could be imitated profitably in the United States, especially when
an expensive article is not contemplated. The time will come when
our horticulturists will occupy themselves with the problem of pre-
paring articles of food as well as of luxury, and they may then find
some points of interest in the Italian modes of curing figs. In Italy
there are three principal ways of curing and drying the figs, these meth-
ods being used promiscuously in different parts of the country without
being confined to special localities.
The most common way is, after the figs have been properly picked
as early in the day as possiblCj to split them lengthwise down to the
peduncle or stalk end, where the two halves are allowed to remain con-
nected. This splitting serves a double purpose, enabling the operator
to detect the poor or sour figs and facilitating the drying of the fig.
The splitting also does away with the laborious turning of the figs
while drying. As soon as split, the figs are exposed on wicker trays or
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 48
straw mats for drying. The interior surface is turned upward ; other-
wise the contents would run to waste. The time for drying varies
from six to ten days, according to locality and climate. The "figs are
then taken in and dipped, which is done by placing them in wicker
baskets and immersing them for a minute in boiling water. When
removed the figs are thrown in heaps to drain off and dry and are
then ready for packing. Such figs are in the province of Catania
called figs "a chiappa" (flattened).
Another method nearly related to the former consists in splitting
and drying the figs just as last described. When nearly dry the figs
are flavored. This is done in different ways in different localities —
a quarter of a walnut is pressed into the pulp, or a piece of citron
rind, or the pulp is simply sprinkled with anise seed. Such flavored
figs find ready sale all over Italy, and not a^ few are exported to for-
eign countries.
The third way of drying figs is known as **passuluni" (wrinkled)
in Catania or as **cuzzoli" (drawn out) on the mainland in the Cala-
brias. When perfectly ripe the figs are carefully cut with a knife
from the tree and then distributed on mats made of split cane
(Arundo donax), the mats being spread on low beds of earth. The
figs are turned every day or every two days and exposed to the full
rays of the sun. The more frequently the figs are turned the better,
many persons turning them several times daily. In from ten to
fifteen days the figs have become bleached and dry externally, while
the pulp remains soft, at least in the better specimens. The figs
are then assorted and graded. Dipping in hot water for one minute
comes next and finishes the operation of curing. The most careful
curing is done in Catanzaro and in the district of Palermo, in Sioily.
PACKING.
The packing of Italian figs is quite primitive, owing to the scarcity
and expensiveness of lumber for boxes. Braided mats, made either
of strips of beechwood or of esparto* grass {Stipa ienacissima), hold-
ing from 33 to 44 pounds each, are the most common packages for all
export figs destined for distillation, etc. Table figs are generally
exported in round drums made of wood shavings containing 12 to 15
pounds of figs, there being no uniform packing. For home consump-
tion the better classes of figs are strung on split reeds or esparto straw.
The packing of figs is further advanced in Sicily than elsewhere
in Italy. The packing called "pania" consists of piercing the figs
with split canes, a sixth part of a cane being the proper thickness.
Two and two figs are placed overlapping each other with the stalk ends,
and a sliver of cane is then run through this overlapping part.
Another sliver is run through the thick end of each fig. In this way
more tigs are put on and these slivers of cane are made to hold a loaf
of figs 4 inches wide by 20 inches long.
44
TEE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
This packing is varied almost indefinitely in different places. Figs
are strung on the elastic and tough straws of the esparto and finally
rolled up in the shape of balls or in wheels (scerti di ficu). The
squares are generally known as "tavolieri" (tables) or "pania"
(loaf).
Some of the largest figs are also picked and dried without skin and
known as "ficu senza scorcia" (without skin) in the Catanian dialect.
Fig. 5.— White Genoa fig.
A confiture is made in some districts by dipping the nearly dried
figs in honey, then packing them in jars, and baking in an oven. In
all districts common bake ovens of most primitive construction are
used for drying inferior figs or for finishing the drying of the regular
figs in case of 'rain or continued fogs. But such artificially^ dried figs
are inferior both as regards color and quality and bring much less in
the market.
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
VARIETIES OF FIGS.
45
The varieties of figs grown in Italy are many, in some localities
reaching a hundred or more. A great uncertainty exists in regard to
Fig. 6.— Gentile fig.
Qames. Local names are given everywhere, and as no systematic
descriptions of all the various varieties have ever been published, no
46 THE fig: its histoey, culture, and curing.
efforts have ever been made to identify and classify them. The most
common fig used for drying is the Dottati, Dsitterese, or Dattero, the
"figue datte"of France, the date-fig of the English, so called on
account of its sweetness and the readiness with which it dries. The
Dattero is the drjang fig for the Calabrias and the south of Italj'^ gen-
erally. The size of the fig is below medium; color is light, and so is
the pulp. The color of this fig is equal to that of Smyrna figs. The
Petrogiano is another drying fig used in the province of Catanzaro,
but not equal to the former.
The figs commonly eaten in Italy are legion, but the best is consid-
ered the Trojano, principally grown in the vicinity of Naples. The
"fico di fragola," or strawberry fig, is a favorite in Sicily, while in
the north, in Toscana and Umbria, the '* Verdini," the "Brogiotto
neri" and "Brogiotto bianchi," the '*Fico Gentile," (see fig, 6), and
the "Portoghese" are the varieties mostly cultivated. The San
Piero, Black and White, are among the largest early figs in central
Italy, but are little known in the south. This fig, which produces
only first-crop figs, or "fichi fiori," is replaced in the south by the
" Colombro" and " Paradiso," which also give excellent figs.
CAPRIFICATION.
Caprification is practiced only in southern Italy, and not everj^where
in this locality. Most of the Italian varieties do not require caprifi-
cation, and, so far as I know, none of the true Smyrna figs — with only
perfect fiowers — is grown in Italy. As localities where caprification
is especially practiced there mj^y be mentioned Sicily, Catanzaro, the
old Kingdom of Naples, Ischia, etc. ; also the islands of Lipari and
Malta.
The total annual output of Italy in dried figs shipped to various
countries reaches about 18,000,000 pounds in favorable years, while in
years of smaller crops it may fall to 9,000,000 pounds.
. ..'v. FIGS in PORTUGAL.
/' The country around Lisbon and farther south is well adapted to
the fig industry, and fig trees grow everywhere. The late Dr. John
, Bleasdale, who was familiar with Portugal, considered the country
^ \y surrounding Lisbon for 20 miles as especially favorable for figs, the
^W large white figs being most appreciated. But the figs raised in the
X' vicinity of the capital, though large and sweet, are not the best
^■^ for drying and export; they are consumed principally at home,
^ whether fresh or dry. With the increase in temperature toward the
south the fig improves in quality and the conditions become more
favorable for drying with the least amount of labor. Accordingly
<. we find in the most southern province — Algarve — the real home of
the fig industry on Portuguese soil. Few countries in any part of the
world are as well favored with regard to climatic conditions as this
\ ^ ^ \^ iK / ^^^ CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 47
\ jJiiCmous province, and, with the single exception of Smyrna, or rather
the valley of the Meander River, no locality in the world produces figs
of quality equal to the Algarve figs. The province of Algarve is an
open littoral, gradually rising from the beach toward a high chain of
mountains, which, with an easterly and westerly trend, shut off
the northern winds. The exposure is toward the south alone, the
heat being moderated by the balmy Atlantic breezes. What Anda-
lusia is to Spain, Algarve is to Portugal — the orchard, garden, and
(^ranary)»f that Kingdom. The deep alluvial sgi ljs one that contains
mucTTTime and naturally retentive of moisture. Th e temperat ure of
the province is remarkable for its even distribution, with only slight
variation day and night, spring, summer, and fall. The mean sum-
mer temperature is about 79° F., and this mean lasts from May to
November. The highest is in August and September, with 82° F.;
the lowest in May and November, with 77° F. The moistu re of the
air is considerable, or about 73° for the summer mcmtlis ot May to
November. Compared with California localities, none are exactly
similar; but El Cajon, one of the interior valleys in San Diego County,
comes the nearest. Compared with the large interior valley of Cali-
fornia the moisture in Algarve is much greater, being about 70°,
while in the San Joaquin Valley it is below 50° during the same sum-
mer months.
v-p The fig in Algarve grows to great perfection, and it is found every-
_^ .y.^ \ where from the seashore to an altitude of about 1,100 feet. In fact,
J the principal product of the district, whether we consider quantity
,^ or value, is figs. But besides figs the country produces oranges,
^ ^\ ^.^^^Imonds, oli^^ oi l3_and wine. The country is only partially culti-
' '^' grated, the improvements rarely extending farther inland than 6 miles
"' \ ^'ft'om the coast line.
■ . ' Not many years ago the figs of Portugal were the most famous in
the world, or at least the best known in western Europe. In the early
v/^- part of the last century Portugal supplied England, America, Ger-
^ ^ J many, and the north and west of Europe, generally, with figs, but was
' * ' later on driven from the market by the superior and better-managed
product of Smyrna. The Portuguese figs were known as Faro figs^
because they were exported from Faro, in Algarve. For a long time
Faro was the principal business "place in southern Portugal and, as
such, also the export place for figs. - The figs which were grown in
the vicinity on the rather sandy plains and in the foothills of Sierra
San Miguel were naturally of very good quality or almost of the very
best quality, but they w^ere very badly handled in drying and curing
and only commanded the foreign market until a better article was
offered. The peasants generally carried the figs fresh or partly dried
to the city and sold them as such to the merchants, who again dumped
them out in small heaps on the stone floors in the warehouse. Mal-
treated in this way the figs were usually bruised and a large part of
23740— No. 9—01 4
,, V* 48 THE fig: its history, culture:, and curing.
^ the sirup ran out and collected in narrow gutters and finally fermented
in tanks. After fermentation of the surplus fig juice a kind of brandy
of very good quality was distilled. The figs w^ere again si)read on
stone or cane floors in the open courts and gardens and exposed to
the sun for a longer or shorter time, according to the weather. When
dry the figs were pressed into small baskets made of braided palm
leaves, each basket holding 28 i)oUnds. The number of varieties of
figs grown in Portugal is very great. The fig used for drying in
Algarve is a large, white fig diffei'cnt from the Smyrna figs, so far as
may be judged from descriptions. The best variety in Portugal is
/^ ^^ known as the "figoda Comadre," or Godmother fig, so named because
^s]^ the best is always reserved for the comadre and the compadre, words
hardly to be translated into English, but which play a great part in
the home life of the Latin races.
The next best variety when dried is known as " figo mercante," while
the third and poorest kind goes under the name of "figo chocho."
Of these figs large quantities are yet exported, principally to Bel-
gium, Holland, and France. The annual export averages 8,000 tons,
or about one-half that of Italy.
The first crop, the fiori or the brebas, is known in Portugal as " figos
lampas," while the second crop is called " figos vendimos." For table
use the red-fig varieties are considered the best. In the vicinity of Faro
the '*figo do euchario" and the "do bispo" are the most valued varieties.
The Lampeira is one of the best red tigs, producing only a first crop,
called the lampas. In Italy this fi'^ is known as the Portoghese, and
is considered a very good early fig, somewhat like the San Pedro. As
regards culture and curing little is to be learned from the Portuguese.
For cutting the figs from the trees a long bamboo pole is used, the end
being split or forked. Below the fork a small basket of braided straw
is hung to receive the falling fig, which is easily detached by pushing
the foi'k upwa,rd. Only the best figs — a comparatively small propor-
tion of the crop — are dried. This drying is on mats woven of the esparto
grass {Stipa tenacissmia). As a result of the poor handling of the fig,
this industry has decreased greatly in recent years. Portuguese table
figs, which were once the staple article of figs in the western world,
are now hardly known outside of Portugal, the carefully cured and
beautifully packed Smyrna figs having driven the Portuguese article
almost out of the market.
The glory of Faro, as regards figs at least, is past. The harbor has
become much filled in, and few figs are now sent abroad from this port.
The trade in figs, on a much diminished scale, has been almost com-
pletely transferred to the better and more readily accessible port of
Villa Nova do Portimao. Fig culture and curing have of late pro-
gressed but little in Portugal. Curing and packing, as practiced in
Smyrna, are entirely unknown. When the Portuguese figs were
refused by the foreign trade the cultivators and merchants did not
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 49
inquire into the cause and made no effort toward improvement. The
consequence has been a ruined business, which is not likely to revive
soon. With proper care the Portuguese figs would really be very
good, almost equaling the Smyrna figs.
CAPRIFIGATION.
Caprification is practiced everywhere in Portugal. The caprifig is
known as "figo di toca," the name not being derived from *'tocar,"
to touch, as indicated by Link and other writers, but from the Arabic
word "tokkar" or "dokkar" (the wild fig), showing that caprification
was introduced, or at least reintroduced, by the Arabs or Moors.
This caprifig belongs to the type with broad leaves. The caprifig, or
figo di toca, ripens its first crop in Algarve at the end of «Tune or
beginning of July, and a later crop setting at this time becomes ripe
in August. The process of caprification is the same as in other coun-
tries and deserves no special mention here. The Portuguese fig grow-
ers know that not all fig varieties require caprification, and that in
some varieties the first crop may not require caprification, while the
second crop does require it. The Lampeira, which is grown princi-
pall}^ around Tavira, belongs to the class which requires caprification
for its second crop, but which matures a first crop without it. The first
crop or camada of the Lampeira is also called ' ' figos lampas " and is
never caprificated. The second crop or camada of the Lampeira, known
as " figos vendimos," is said to never set and mature except with capri-
fication, which accordingly is always practiced. ''Figo euchario,"
which also requires caprification, ripens only one crop, in Septem-
ber. The "figo bravo," which is cultivated along the River Guadiana,
gives also only one crop, which does not require the figo di toca^ and
accordingly is never caprificated.
The annual export of Portugal is about 10,000,000 pounds.
^ , 'Mt ■•'--.. ^'
"^^ ^^ 0^ \. ^^-^ FIG CULTURE IN FRANCE.
' V V : »v ' i FAVORABLE LOCALITIES.
In France profitable fig culture extends from the environments of
ParisJiO'the shores of the Mediterranean. While in the north figs are
grown for use only while fresh, in the south they are also dried for
export and home consumption. £cQvence is the center of the fig
industry in France. There the climate is mild and favorable for olisies^
figs, pomegranates, and to some extent also for citrus fruife, but on
the whole the favorable conditions for the fig industry are not equal
to those in southern Italy and Sicily. In winter the frosts are some-
times severe enough to greatly injure the fig trees, but their recupera-
tive nature is such as to readily renew the injured parts. As in all
the Mediterranean region, the rains are frequent in winter, few or
none during the summer months. Irrigation is frequently resorted
50 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
to and is not considered injurious if judiciously applied. Figs des-
tined for drying are irrigated less than those for use in the fresh state.
In the most favored localities the fig trees are planted 18 to 20 feet
apart and smaller crops are grown between; but on account of the
fungus which frequently and fatally attacks the roots of the figs and
rapidly spreads from one tree to another where they are growing so
close that the roots interfere with one another, most fig trees are
alternated^jsitiLAteffids or olives.
The closer to the Mediterranean the taller are the standards or
trunks of the fig trees, and the farther away from those shores the
less the trunks, both in height and circumference, until in the vicinity
of Paris the trunks disappear entirel}" and give way to a cluster of
branches issuing direct from the soil.
The trees with high standards suffer most from heat and dryness;
consequently high-standard fig trees are found only in localities where
irrigation is practiced. After the tree has been planted, generally
from a cutting, it is allowed to grow as it pleases for two years. The
effect is the development of numerous suckers from the base. In
March of the third season the largest of these is selected to form
the future standard, while the others are cut away. On this standard
all side branches are cut until it has reached a height of 2.30 meters,
or about 7 feet. The top bud is then pinched in the spring and side
branches are allowed to form immediately below, constituting the
coming head or crown of the tree. i
Pruning is very little practiced, although in some localities fig trees
are pruned to some extent. Suckers are removed from the base; dry
branches as well as branches which cross one another are cut away,
and branches which bend too close to the ground, interfering with
other crops, are cut off. But the general rule is that the less the fig
tree is cut the better for the tree. Whatever pruning is required is
done in March or April. The cultivation of crops between the trees
also suffices for the figs. Where no irrigation is practiced a hollow
basin of earth is formed around the base of the fig tree early in the
fall in order to catch the winter rains. In exposed localities the trees
are protected in the following manner: In the middle of December or
the beginning of winter the space around the tree is dug up and the
soil heaped around the stem as high as possible in'order to protect
it from cold. In the beginning of April this earth is again leveled
down and the soil dug up anew. The succeeding labors are confined
to irrigating the trees once a month until the end of August, when
the harvest of the figs begins.
It has been found that manuring greatly improves the figs. Light
soils are manured with cow dung every two or three. years, while for
heavier soils sheep, horse, and pigeon dung are used every six or
eight years. But the best manures for figs are offal from factories,
such as wool waste from mills, as well as bone dust.
Fia OUITURE IN VARIOrrS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 51
111 southern France or Provence the following localities are espe-
cially renowned for their figs, fresh or dry, and in their vicinity may
be found large plantations of figs : Aix, Salon, Marseilles, Brignoles,
Toulon, Grasse, Antibes, St. Remi, Entrecasteux, Bandol, Seyene,
Tarascon, Nice, Bordeaux, Treves, Hyeres, St. Tropez, St. Maximin.
CURING THE FIGS.
When the figs are perfectly ripe they are picked early in the morn-
ing, after the dew has dried off. There are at least two ways of curing
the figs in France. In the first method the figs are simply placed on
trays made of wicker willows, exposed to the sun, and turned every
morning and every noon.
The other process consists in dumping the figs into boxes after they
have been exposed for two or three days and then allowing them to
go through a sweat for fortj^-eight hours. After that time they are
again exposed and the drying is finished in the sun. At the approach
of showers the trays are stacked and covered with waterproof canvas.
Every morning the dried figs are taken out. When all are dried they
are separated into three different sizes. Ovens are used for inferior
figs only.
PRINCIPAL FIG VARIETIES GROWN IN SOUTHERN FRANCE.
The following are the principal varieties of figs grown in southern
France :
White varieties,
Napolitain, second crop; ripens in September^ fresh and dry. At Aix and Salon.
-— >Verdale; fresh and dry; ripens in September. At Brignoles and Salon.
Bourdisotte blanche; fresh and dry; ripens in September, At Marseilles.
Aubique blanche; for drying only.
Ragusa; ripens in the middle of September. . At Marseilles.
Hospitaller; for drying; ripens in the beginning of September. At Salon.
Doucette; fresh and dry; end of August. At Salon.
Messongue; fresh and dry. At Saleme.
Boutilete; for drying. At Brignoles.
Marseillaise, figue d'Athenes; for drying only; end of August. At Marseilles
and Toulon.
Seyroles; for drying. At Grasse and Draguignan.
Versailles; fresh; middle of July.
Pissa'utto; fresh and dry. At Grasse.
Peconjudo; fresh and dry. At Grasse and Antibes,
Cougourdane. At Aix and St. Remi.
Tibourenque; fresh and dry; middle of September. At Marseilles and Salon.
Col de Signora; fresh. At Rousillon.
gea ucaire; for drying. At Entrecasteaux.
BlanQ uettQi>onlv for drying in localities where other drying figs will not do well.
Colored varieties,
Quassc blanche; for drying; end of August. At Bandol and La Seyne.
^]igijfi=dattev (Dattero-Italy); fresh and dry; end of August. At Salon and
Eyguieres.
52
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Poulette; fresh or dry; end of August. At Tarascon and Salon.
Cotignano; first crop middle of July; fresh; very extensively cultivat*^J.
Mahounaise; fresh; middle of September. At St. Remi.
Cner; fresh and dry; middle of September.
De Saint- Esprit; first crop fresh; end of June. At Marseilles, Aix, and Salon.
Matarassa; for drying only; end of August. At Grasse.
Rose blanche; for drying only; middle of September.
Saf ranee; fresh and dry; middle of September. At Nice and Salon.
Franche Paillard; first crop only; fresh.
Aubique violetle; fresh only.
Bellona; fresh and dry; very fine. At Grasse, Marseilles, and Draguignan.
Courcourela; for drying only. At Grasse.
Beaucaire: for drying only. At Grasse and Hyeres.
Grosse Beurdoa; fresh and dry. At Grasse and Saint-Tropez.
PlO.
-Rondo Noire iir.
Black varieties.
De Porto; fresh and dry. At Seyne and St. Maximin.
Barnissotte; fresh only; September and October.
Bernissenca; a later form of Bourjasotte noire; fresh only.
Mouissonna; fresh and dry; one of the best figs of southern France.
Sultane^fresh. At Salon.
Piei'riiquier; first crop only good; fresh; end of June.
The best figs for drying in southern France are: Marseilles, Grassenque, and
MouisKonne. Farther north near Orange the varieties mostly used for drying are
the Blanquette and Verdale.
The earliest variety for table use in southern France is the Observ-
antine and the latest are Bourjasotte noire and Mouissonne viohitte.
-i-^ FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 53
; : 1C ^ NORTHERN AND CENTRAL FRANCE.
-"^ In the vieinitj^ of Paris fig culture rises to a prominent horticultural
^y^ industry in at least two localities — at Argenteuil and at Frette.
y^ ^ Through care and ingenuity most excellent figs are raised there in the
t^^^^^^ open ground and under a climate not naturally adapted to the fig.
During three hundred years Argenteuil has supplied Paris with fresh
figs, and fig culture in that locality has reached a scientific development
/ not known elsewhere. The methods followed there are superior to any
employed elsewhere in similar or higher latitudes and produce better
results than figs grown against walls and protected by mattings during
the winter months. If the methods of Argenteuil and Frette were
adopted in the United States fig culture would prove profitable even
in a number of places in the vicinity of many of the large cities east
of the Rocky Mountains, where there is alv^^ays a market for choice
fruit. In the hope that such a culture will soon spring up a minute
description is given of the processes used for perfecting or, as they
call it, for *' educating " the figs in Argenteuil,
LOCALITY AND CONDITION.
The best place for a fig orchard is a w^rm exposure toward the
south, sheltered as far as possible from heavy winds, as the latter
destroy the fruit irreparabty. Locations free from spring frosts are,
of course, to be preferred; in fact they should be the only ones
selected, as late frosts retard the maturing of the figs and may even
entirely spoil the crop. Argenteuil and Frette are favorably situated,
but still they suffer from frosts in February and March almost every
year. The best soil is calcareous loam of great depth and warmth.
HOW TO START THE TREES.
* The fig plantations are generally started from trees. These again
are grown from cuttings about IG inches long, taken in February or
March or as soon as the branches are disinterred. These are planted
in nursery, leaving only two eyes above the ground. In November
these cuttings will have obtained good roots, and as the leaves will
then have fallen with the first frosts, the cuttings may be taken up
and used for immediate planting. In case planting shall be delayed
until the following spring it will be necessary to cover the rooted
cuttings in a way similar to that done by tlie trees, the process of
which will be described presently.
FORMING THE ORCHARD.
The trees are planted either singly or in rows, squares, or quincunx,
about to 10 feet apart. No large plantations exist, as the great
labor and care necessary for success would make supervision of large
orchards impossible. The holes for the trees are dug about 3 feet
square and about 2 feet deep. One or two trees are planted in every
hole. When two trees are set in one hole this is done not only in
54 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
order to quickly get many fruit- bearing brandies, but also to cause
the trunks to bend readily to the ground. If two are set they are
planted 1 foot apart and in the general line of the row. The depth is
regulated according to the size of the trees. All the old wood should
be buried below the surface and only the season's wood exposed
above. The trees are not set perpendicularly, but must be slanting
or oblique with the surface, in order to facilitate the future bending
of the trees. If the ground is level the two trees should form an obtuse
angle with each other and a sharp angle with the surface; in other
words, bend in opposite directions. If the surface is inclined, then
both the trees should be slanting upward, in order that both may be
equally well buried. After planting each tree is cut back to two eyes.
If the planting has been done in November the young trees must be
covered over with 1 or 2 feet of soil. At the end of February or the
beginning of March this soil is removed and the ground worked
over. Around each tree is made a basin about 8 to 12 inches deep
and 2 or 3 feet in diameter, to hold the rain water or the artificial
watering during the season. Thus planted, the trees are left to them-
selves for the season. In the following November, after all the leaves
have fallen, the soil is dug away from the tree to a depth of 10 inches,
especially immediately below the principal branches. These are then
carefully bent down into the trenches and Covered with about 14 inches
of soil, the surface of which must be made convex, in order to shed
the water. It is also important that no leaves, immature figs, grass,
straw, or any other matter which possibly could decay should be left
in the soil near the branches, as it would cause the latter to rot. If the
branches do not readily remain in the ground they may be kept there
with a bent peg similar to the pegs used in rooting layers. In Febru-
ary, as soon as the frosts are over, the soil is taken away. The strong-
est branches are pruned back to two or three eyes, while the weakly
ones are removed entirely. It must be the endeavor to give to each
fig bunch from 14 to 16 branches, but this ma}'^ be done gradually if
good branches are not had the first or second season. The second
season is devoted to forming these branches, the strong ones being
encouraged, while the weak ones are cut away.
The third season after the branches have been disinterred in Feb-
ruary or March, the same pruning back to two or three eyes of last
season's wood is practiced. In fact, all the operations of the preced-
ing season are repeated, the cultivator so selecting his branches that
the tree, or rather bush, will spread evenly in all directions, so that the
branches will not interfere with one another.
PINCHING THE TERMINAL BUDS.
In the fourth season the fig trees or bushes begin to bear. The
branches should not be disinterred until all the frost is over. But
as late disinterring will cause corresponding late maturity, many
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 55
growers disinter half of the trees at the end of February and the
Other half at the end of March, which secures them at least a par-
tial crop. As soon as the branches are out of the soil the terminal
buds on all the side branches which are to bear fruit are removed by
pinching, either by hand or by shears. The fruit-bearing branches
will at this time show^ the young figs alongside the leaf bud. All
branches intended to bear the following season are pruned back to
two or four eyes. The skill and experience of the cultivator is here
exercised in the selection of the proper branches.
REMOVING THE SIDE BUDS.
A few days after the last operation, designed to push the side buds and
the figs, another operation takes place, which consists in suppressing
or removing the side buds. On every side branch about one-half or
more of the leaf buds are removed, but one or two eyes closest to the
base should always be left to form fruit branches for the next year.
One bud is also left higher up on the branch. On the Blanquette
variety this operation is performed as soon as the buds show signs
of starting — on the Dauphine Violette only when they have attained
three small leaves; Care should be taken that the young figs are not
injured or even touched. If they are, they will not come to maturity.
The two lowest buds are preserved to form fruit-bearing branches for
another year, and the upper bud is left to draw sap.
The terminal branches are similarly treated, with the difference,
however, that the terminal bud is left, with two others lower down, to
form future fruit branches, at a distance from each other of about 12
inches. A few days or weeks later, or when the remaining buds have
grown out and formed small branches or spurs 2 or e3 inches in length,
with a few leaves, they are cut from all lateral fruit branches, care
being taken to leave one of the lowest as near the base as possible.
The object in not removing them at once is to prevent the tree from
being shocked and set back. After the last operation the branches
will present this appearance: The terminal branches will have the
terminal bud growing, with two more at equal distances lower down
the stem; the side branches will have on/y one of the low^est buds
growing and one near the top, w^hich latter, however, should never
be allowed to assume more than five leaves, which are sufficient to
draw the sap; but in preserving these buds and branches it is impor-
tant that only those on the outer or lateral surfaces of the branch
be preserved. The interior buds, if allowed to grow out, would be
very difficult to cover with soil in winter.
CARE DURING THE QROWINa SEASON.
After the buds have been removed the branches should be carefully
arranged in such a way that they will touch one another as little as
possible. This is accomplished by the aid of crotches or pegs, which
56 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
are set in the ground to hold the branches apart. All leaves which in
any way touch the figs should be removed, as they bruise the fruit and
spoil its appearance.
At the maturing of the fruit it often happens, especially with the
Dauphine variety, that the fruit is too near the soil. The branches
m ust then be somewhat elevated with studs or the fruit will spoil ; but in
no case must the elevation be such as to raise the branches in an
upright position — merely enough to bring the fruit above the ground.
If raised too high the fruit will not ripen. In order to guard against
spring frost the fig bushes are covered with light mattings early in the
morning or in the evening when danger of frost is apparent. Another
method is to create smoke by burning tar, strawy and damp wood an
hour before and after sunrise.
PRUNING BEARING FIG TREES.
The first ripe figs are picked at the end of July, the last at the end
of August. As soon as the last figs are harvested the fig trees are
pruned. This operation consists in removing the wood which bore
the figs just harvested, while the wood is cut close to the branch
immediately below. The dead wood is then removed, as well as use-
less suckers, and all which are not destined to produce fruit-bearing
branches in coming years. The branches which are to bear the next
season's crop are not pruned, as such proceeding would ruin the crop.
The next season, after the trees are disinterred, the process of pinch-
ing the terminal and secondary buds is again gone through with, after
which time no new treatment is required; but after the branches
have reached a length of G to 10 feet they are too long to be practically
handled and covered and must then be removed, not all at once, but
gradually, a few a year, and new suckers allowed to take their place.
In covering the branches after the trees have begun to bear it will
be best to tie them in small bundles, 4, 6, or 8, according to the
size of the tree. As a result of being covered yearly these branches
never regain their natural vertical direction, but lean more or less
horizontally. This also hastens the maturity of the fruit and is an
element of success in the growing of figs in cold regions. Previous
to covering the branches all leaves and figs should be removedj as
they cause decay.
COVERING THE TREES.
Every year, in November, the fig trees must be interred in the soil,
in a way similar to that already described for the cuttings. This,
of course, is the chief work of the season, and entails as much labor
as almost all other operations combined. If the trees have been
planted slanting properly the difficulty of bending the branches is
not great. On level ground the trenches should run in every direc-
tion from the root, but on sloping ground they should always run up
the hill or somewhat sideways.
KTG OITLTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 57
In covering tlie trees can^ should be taken to make the trenches as
nearly horizontal as possible and. not less than a foot deep, and to raise
the soil sufficiently above to insure against both cold and damp. The
C3 liter of the tree should be covered more deeply, and a small hill,
several inches high, should in winter designate the place where the
roots go down. This is necessary to shed the water and protect the
roots from excess of moisture. In removing the soil the next February
or March a cloudy daj^ should be chosen, the afternoon of a rainy or
cloudy day being best. If disinterred in bright and warm sunshine
the change is too great and the trees may suffer from being scorched
by the sun.
\ ./ OILING THE FIGS.
^. In southern France — in Argenteuil and in Frette — a process is per-
rmed called ' ' appreter les figues " oTJvg^s teTn'n c y the fi g ^ In Argenteuil
and in Frette it is employed on all the figs which are desired to ripen
^^ - ^-^arly, the proper time for this process being of the utmost importance.
If done too early the figs will not ripen at all, but will dry and spoil.
The x>roper time is when the fig b egins to co lor fl,nd the skin begins to
/ / * ,• ^ feel soft, or about seventeen days before it would regularly mature if
^ ^^^.....-^efb alone. Toward evening, if posvsible, a single drop of good olive
oil is placed on the eye of the fig, care being taken not to spread the
oil. The oil is placed on the eye by means of a wheat straw and in
such a way as to touch only the center of the eye. The next day the
fig shows a change and in nine or ten days it may be cut, perfectly
ripe, the operation having hastened the ripening of the fig certainly
from six to eight days. Such treated figs are also better, sweeter; and
with smaller seeds than those which have not been oTled.
VARIETIES AND CROPS.
As before stated, only the first-crop figs come to maturity in that
part of northern France under consideration, and only fig varieties
which produce such figs are grown. The one most generally grown in
Argenteuil is the Blanquette; at Frette the Dauphine Violette, a later
but better variety, is the favorite. The Rouge de la Frette and the
Observantine are also cultivated to a limited extent.
In Argenteuil alone 200 acres are devoted to figs. In Frette very
many less. The value of the crop in Argenteuil, in 1884, was 100,000
francs.
Along the coast of Brittany, principally at Croisic and Cherbourg,
fig culture is quite extensive, the mild coast climate being much more
favorable to the fig tree than that of the interior of central France.
Strangely enough, the varieties most cultivated are one with perfectly
developed male flowers and another with degenerate male flowers.
On the Channel Islands the fig tree assumes the shape and size of a
small tree and requires no prote(*.tion during the winter.
/
58 THE fig: TT8 HISTORY, OULTURK, AND CURING.
POINTS OF SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION.
The following are the essential points in successful fig culture in
the open air in all northern districts where the climate is too rigorous
to allow standards:
( 1 ) In clining the i irees when planting in order to facilitate the yearly viter^
ment of the trees.
(2) Se mi horizo ntal position of the branches, in order that they may catch as
much air and heat as possible; otherwise the fruit will not ripen.
(3) The consequential dwarfing of the trees and total absence of a trunk or
standard above the ground.
(4) The yearly practices of procuring and forcing fruit branches and fruit,
which consists in pinching the "terminal buds, suppressing the lateral buds;
removing the fruiting branches as soon as the crop is harvested; preparin.j^ new
fruit-bearing branches for the next season; these should always be situated as
close to the main stems as possible, etc.
(5) The yearly interment of the branches, which necessitates the previous
removal of all leaves, figs, and dead wood.
(6; The subsequent divsinterment of the branches, which is always to be done in
cloudy or rainy weather, in order that the change may not be too sudden.
(7 ) The r enewal of the main branches every twelve to fifteen years, as by that
time tney begin to beToo old and too stiff to cover in winter.
PRODUCTION.
While France exports considerable quantities of iigs, its imports are
much larger. The following table gives an idea of the trade for five
years:
Exports.
. Year.
Imports.
1887
Kilograms.
18,600.000
1888
12 642 OOO
1889
13, 109, 000
189().
16,503,000
1891 :
14,053,000
Kilograms.
597,800
8:34, ;341
941,893
967,589
413,309
The principal consumers of French dried figs are Belgium and
Switzerland. The countries whicli supply France are Turkey, Italy,
Spain, Portugal, and Greece.
/ . '.' FIG CULTURE IN ENGLAND.
V,-^'' Fig culture in England dates back several hundred years. It is
more than probable that the first figs were introduced by the Romans,
* -• but that the trees died outworn want pf qi\vq and knowledge after
^'^/:^the Romans had left the country. Plantations were confined to the
, / southern countries and were probably never generally cultivated. In
^^^ffie reign of Henry VIII the fig was again introduced, it is said, by
^•■^' Cardinal Pole, wlio broiigKl the trees from Italy. Ilortus Kewensis
tells of fig trees being planted in England in 15-18, and Gerard says
in 1507 that the fruit of the fig tree "never comelTi to maturity with
\^'^f
FIG CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 59
US except the tree be planted under a hot wall." In 1629 Parkin-
son said: "If you plant it not against a brick wall, it will not ripen
so kindly." And later on, in 1640, the same author says, in Thea-
trum Botanicum: "The bleu figge is no doubt of the same opera-
tion with the white to all purposes, but the fruit commeth most to ^ -' /
maturity with us, and is eaten with great pleasure with salt and <-^^, :
pepper." After the middle of tlie^seyen tfieTith centur y we may con-"( S V^ ' '
sider iig culture Avell established in Eng land. As late as 1822 a tree ^
was seen in the bofaiucaTgarden of regius professor of Hebrew in
Oxford University. The tree was planted by Dr. Pocock in 1622,
and must have then been nearly 200 years old. In the eighteenth cen- /^-^^ * '
tury the fig orchards of Tarring, near Worthing, in Sussex, were ^«iv»^ ^ ^"^\.
famous and proved very profitable. These orchards were grown as5<n-^» ^ » ^-^'^
standards, and the crowns of the trees were said to have been 40 feet
in diameter. They seldom ripened more than the first crop. In the \ ^ + ^./nr v
beginning of the last century some of these Farring trees were 40 feet V'
high and ripened two crops a year. In our day fig trees are quite com- '
mon in gardens in the southern countries of England and grown
principally against walls. The first crop is_al wavs the one which is
depended upon, the second crop being generally too late to ripe n.
The trees are not pruned where the culture is properly understood.
By far the greatest number of fig trees are grown in England under
glass, or at least under winter covering, and a large number of varie-
ties has been imported from foreign countries. Under glass both
crops come to maturity. For outdoor cultivation the favorites, as
being the most hardy, are Brown Turkey and Brunswick. Dr. Hogg,
who is the English authority on figs, recommends the following varie-
ties for English gardens :
(1) For standards: Black Ischia, Brown Isehia, Brown Turkey.
(2) For walls: Black Genoa, Black Ischia, Brown Ischia, Brown Turkey, Bruns-
wick, Castle Kennedy, White Marseillaise.
(3) For forcing in pots: Angelique, Black Ischia, Brown Ischia, Early Violet,
Negro Largo, Pregussata, White Ischia, White Marseillaise.
The Frette and Argenteuil methods described elsewhere are not
adopted in England. Of course all figs grown in England, either out-
doors or in pots, are consumed fresh and bring a good price in the
market. In England an immense number of fig trees is grown in
pots in storehouses, and such culture has been most profitable, as well
as insuring a continuous crop -of figs for many months in the year.
The most convenient sizes of pots are those of 12 to 15 inches for
fruiting trees, but smaller pots may also answer. While at rest the
pots are kept in cool houses free from frost. The best soil for pots
consists of three-fourths sandy loam, the balance mortar crushed
fine. Repotting is done in October, just before the leaves fall. The
soil should be moderately rich, liquid manure being applied when
required.-
60
THE FIO: ITS HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
"7c^--
When starting in the sprinir a temperature of 50° should first be
given, later increased to G0°. Give as much sun as possible and
keep the air moist. It is a mistake to keep the air very dry. Fresh
air should be given when the temperature outside reaches 75°, and
the inner temperature should then be brought up to 95° or 100°.
A single standard is best. When the new shoots reach 6 inches
they should be pinched back and checked. By a successive pinching
of respective shoots a successive crop of figs may be had.
Weak growth should be cut off and thinned out close to the stem
to prevent shading. During fruiting the air should be kept much
drier and the temperature should be even. Any check in the
growth of the trees during fruiting time may cause the figs to fall
before maturity. The most favored varieties and those most readily
grown in pots are Brown Turkey, Negro Largo, Violette Sepor, and
St. Johns.
Imi)orts of figs to the United KingcUwi,
Pounds.
1876 _ 16,316,300
1877 9,691,000
1878 .: 6,724,300
1879 . .._ 10,532,700
1880- 8,591,300
1881 13,822,500
Pounds.
1882 7,357,800
1883 13,343,400
1884 13,189,600
18$5 11,316,200
1886 11,425,300
The import of dried figs to Great Britain now averages yearly about
200,000 hundredweight. The greatest quantity, or about 15,000,000
pounds, comes from Italy; Spain furnishes about 5,000 pounds; Portu-
gal, Greece, and Turkey, small quantities.
FIG CULTURE IN SPAIN.
The production of figs in Spain is enormous and large quantities
are exported to France, Austria, etc., principally for distilling. In
1882, 1,100 packages or mats of dried figs were exported from Malaga
to the United States. In 1800 this district produced 1G,000 quintals,
which in 1823 had risen to 20,000 quintals.
Cuttings are planted slanting, and grafting is done in April, while
the eye is yet dormant, but after the sap has started flowing.
The following are some of the most favored varieties in the vicinity
of Valencia:
(1) Gombaya, — Rose to bright rose; stem of tree blackish; requires moist soils.
(2)_ BurJa sot, — One of the best figs in Spain, as well as in the Mediterranean
genera ly. Fruit black, round, and flat at apex. Tree with weeping branchei.
(3) Verdal and Gironnetta. — Small, green figs, round, very sweet. Skin thick
and hard, of bright green color; pulp red.
(4) Palopal and Napolitan, — Fruit very large and fine.
' J'{ f v^'^'^^- CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 61
^t-^^xv^r CULTURE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES OF NORTH AMERICA.
Vffet
While the fig tree grows and bears well in the Southern and Gulf
' (fetates of the United States of America, it is not raised there as a com-
. ^ ^^oV'inercial product, except on a very limited scale. The cause must be
sought in the climate of the region, so unlike that found in the Medi-
terranean districts. While in the latter the, wi nters are m ild, with
f^w iiiPists and rainless summers, the Southern States are frequently-
visited by heavy winter or spring frosts, the su mmers being more or
less rainy. In the wintei'^Bie trees^are often killed or seriously
injured by frost, while in the wet summers the figs rot and mold, and
drying out of doors is made difficult.
In favorable seasons only do the figs attain a certain perfection in
maturity and sweetness and are then very good and palatable. Even
in such season drying and curing out of doors is not attended with suc-
cess. As a consequence no large fig plantations ex ist in these States,
the tree being principally grown for home use. In such capacity it
is found everywhere, especially toward the extreme south, along
the Gulf of Mexico. While the fig may not be profitably grown in the
Southern States, if the object is to prepare them by drying for the
markets, it is nevertheless certain that fig culture may there be made
profitable. For canning, making jams, jellies, fig sauce, and other
fig preserves, the fig of the Southern States may be made available
with little expense or difficulty. Of late years a most delicious pre-
serve is made from the Celeste fig. It is being extensively placed on
the market in the form of canned goods, and is considered by some
persons as superior to any put up for commercial purposes in any of
the Pacific States. In Louisiana and in parts of Texas the fig does well
and requires no especial care in cultivation. In the pine lands of
Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina they
require more attention in the way of fertilizing to produce favorable
crops. Of late years Florida fruit growers have given considerable
attention to fig growing, but the results have not yet been such as to
warrant extended plantations. The rainy summers are the principal
drawback to the perfect ripening of the fruit.
GEORGIA.
In the Gulf region, especially near the coast, many varieties do
exceedingly well and produce very delicious figs, but of a regular fig
industry there is no trace. In time it may come. The following
account is from letters received from Mr. P. J. Berckmans, of Augusta,
Ga._ It plainly shows that very much remains to be done for fig cul-
ture in that vicinity:
Here we cultivate with success Brown Turkey, Celestial, Green Ischia, Black
Ischia, and Brunswick. These are, all things considered, the most desirable kinds
and are usually found uuder cultivation. I have some 20 varieties, of which some
are occasionally successful, but not as reliable as those named above. Of this
class I name: Blue Genoa, good but not prolific; Violette Ronde and Violette
LoDgue, both of fair quality, but unproductive and apt to crack before maturity.
62 THE FI(4 : IT8 HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
Angeliqne or Concoarelle Blanche, small, of poor quality; Marseilles Blanche, not
productive; Nerii, very good but very unproductive, except in the immediate sea-
coast belt; Pregussata, very good, but a shy bearer; Black Havana, very prolific
and of good quality, but tender; San Pedro and White Adriatic are re^lar^y
winter killed here and are undesirable even in Florida; White Four Seasons, very
dry and inferior, but prolific; Madeleine Blanche, unproductive; Jaune Hative is
very similar to Angeliqne; Lemon (probably White Genoa), excellent but unpro-
ductive here; succeeds well on the coast; Rouge Longue de Provence, of second
quality, unproductive; Superfine de la Saussaye; this I believe to be the same as
Violette Longue; White Smyrna— we have three varieties under this name, all
inferior, and we can not arrive at a correct nomenclature.
The following description of the curing of the fig in Georgia is given
by one of the growers there :
Gather the figs when the skin begins to crack (this is a sign of maturity and
the fruit then contains the largest amount of saccharine matter). Make a strong
lye of oak ashes, or take common cooking soda dissolved in hot water. Dip the figs
in the hot liquid, leaving them there for only a few seconcis; expose immediately
to the air for a minute or two and repeat the dipping a second time. If the lye is
hot and strong enough the color of the fig will immediately change, the dark-
skinned varieties to a dark green, and the light-colored varieties to a pale green.
The object of dipping the fresh figs in hot lye or a solution of bicarbonate of soda
is to kill the milky juice and thus hasten the drying. A basket loosely made so as
to allow the liquid to come freely in contact with the fruit is always desirable for
use in dipping. Place the figs upon trays made of wooden slats and expose
fully to the sun, taking the fruit under cover every evening, as it will spoil if the
dews fall upon it. The fruit must be turned in the sun every day, and in three
to four days it will be ready to put away in small wooden boxes, putting a layer
of spice laurel leaves (Laurus nobilis) at the bottom and covering the top with
another layer of these leaves. Place the lid on tightly to keep insects out, and
keep in a dry room. If a brick oven is convenient it will facilitate the work and
hasten the drying, but care must be taken not to give too much heat. If the fruit
secretes sirup it has been put under too high degree of heat, and the result will be
an inferior article. After the fruit is partially dried it should be lightly pressed
by the hand to flatten it. Light -colored varieties are the best for drying, but
the Celestial and Brown Turkey are much richer in quality, althotigh presenting
a darker and less attractive appearance.
The Celestial dries the most readily of all our varieties, but makes
the least valuable article as regards quality. The Brunswick, being
very large, seldom gives good results with ordinary means, but will
doubtless be easily managed with improved drying apparatus.
The figs generally grown in the Southern States are the Celestial,
Brunswick, Ischia, Brown Turkey, and half a dozen more varieties
with local and uncertain names.
FIG CULTURE IN MEXICO.
BAJA CALIFORNIA AND SONORA.
These two States of Mexico are well adapted to fig culture, especially
the former. In Baja California the fig crop not only furnishes con-
siderable food, but a considerable amount is exported to the other
States of Mexico, though as far as known none go elsewhere. The
\^.t .Sv '
CULTURE IN VARIOUS FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
.^
^y^::
y
/
63
gs, which are black and of the Mission variety, are grown princix)ally
in the central portion of the peninsula, from Purisiina and Comondii
to La Paz. Irrigation is required, as rains are seldom of sufficient
quantity to sustain the tree"aiid mature its fruit, excejil" possibly in
the mountain regions in the vicinity of natural springs or creeks.
Nowhere is less care taken in the cultivation of figs aiid in prepar-
ing them for market. The ligs are simpl}^ dried on the smooth ground,
on the top of the flat-roofed houses, on mats, or on anything else con-
venient. When dried and shriveled they are i)acked in 100-pound
^^ackages, the receptacles being made of rawhide of cattle and sewed
Together. These packages are very strong and stand the roughest
handling. The figs are sticky, sirupy, and sweet, but inferior from
want of care in curing and handling. They are sweeter than the
same variety dried in California, and as well flavored as this kind of
figs can be. Considerable quantities of black Mission figs are dried
At Purisima. These figs are split before drying and sprinkled with
ise seed. They are very good. The brebas are here used for dry-
ing in preference to the later crop.
In the mountains of the cape region from La Paz to San Jose del
Cabo wild figs called the " Salate " are not uncommon, especially at a
height of 1,000 to 3,000 feet in the canyons or on the northern slopes.
This fig tree {Ficus palrtieri)^ which carries a small, edible, round fig
of poorest quality, is an evergreen tree.
The climate for producing superior figs is unexcelled on this i>enin-
sula, and there is no doubt that Baja California has a great iuture as
a fig-growing country. In Sonora, on the Mexican mainland, two or
more species of evergreen wild figs are found in the mountains, all
liaving edible fruits, but small and of poor quality. The writer saw no
variety in Sonora except the Mission black i\g (PI. VI, fig. 1 ), the fruit of
which is consumed fresh. The blac k brebas o r iirst-crop figs are large
and really very fine. They ripen in May and have a great local reputa-
tion, the greater as fruits of aTT kinds are comparatively scarce in
Sonora. No dried figs are prepared in Sonora; at least none worth
mentioning. Still it is believed the climate would be suitable. The
brebas or first crop is ended in May, and the second crop matures in.
July. It could be dried and all out of the wa^^ before the rain sets in.
The climate of this part of Mexico and I>aja California is dry, but
the air is damper than in upper California. Rain falls from June or
July to November. The dry season extends from November to June
or longer. Little rain falls, and after a shower the ground dries
quickly. Frost is rare. In summer the thermometer frequently
reaches 115°, especiallj^ around Hermosillo and Guaymas.
23740— No, 0—01-
•//'>" \ V- V. .v> \^ I- ■. o:-$^v-
i^''
CHAPTER III.
FIG CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA.
HISTORICAL NOTES.
The first fig trees in Gklifornia were brought b}^ tlie mission fathers
of the Franciscan order. Where the first trees were planted and
whence they came no one can now tell, but it is known that they
must have come with the first missionaries in the eigliteenthcentu^,
who planted thein with the "olive and the vTneT Unlike the latter
two, there was only one kind of fig, now known as the ''Mission fi^"
indicating that it was raised frojm^j^nttjTi gs ^nd rjot frrtm seed. As
the same Mission fig is the only hg variety extensively distributed in
Mexico, it is safe to presume that the fig came from there, and not
from Spain or Portugal or Chile, as is generally supposed. From
Mexico the Mission fig spread to several of the Southern States,
aRlioiigli it aj^tpears to have thriven less tliere than in California.
The Mission fig must have be en__brought to Mexico centurie s before,
probably with the early missionaries^. frojii Spain after the conquest
of the Mex ican coun try. For a century the Mission fig was the only
fig in California, the only fig cultivated, or rather planted, around
the ''missions," the only one found on the Mexican ranches, and was
sparsely distributed over the country. With the arrival of Ameri-
cans some of the immigrants from foreign^ countries brduglit fig
cuttings from tKeir cherished trees to plant in their new homes, and
this will account for some odd varieties ^-et growing in out-of-the-way
corners, and for others of which we yet hear some early settlers
tell — trees which were long ago cut down or otherwise destroyed.
With the advent of the. oO's some systematic efforts were made to
import other kinds of figs. The first importations came, of course,
from American Eastemnursery men, and the first figs consisted of
varieties cultivated under glass in these Eastern States, which
accounts for the littTe^stnTsequent value of those varieties for out-
door culture. Among such varieties were Brunswick, Ischia,
Brown Turke}-, and a few others. Next came importations from
English nurserymen; later from French nurserymen; but only within
the last decade have efforts been made to import directly from foreign
countries. * .
To give a Jist of all such importations would be of considerable
interest to the student of California figs and tlieir history, but it has
been impossible to collect all the information required, and reference
64
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept Agriculture.
Plate V.
O
>
o
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r
V.
I
>
J)
o
c./X1t^^.'w.»^
G-i
;fe^-
FIG CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 65
^
will only be made to a few of the most prominent of such introduc-
Lj o^ tions. While there has undoubtedly been a number of small importa-
rr tions, there are a few which require special mention.
\^ k^ In the mountainous parts of central California we find Felix Gillet
^v'^'^-^as one importer of French fig varieties. In Stockton, W. B. West
^ imported from various countries. John Rock, of Niles, has at vari-
^ 'lis times brought large collections of figs to this State. G. P.
, Rixford wasthe first to b rin^ tUe true Smyrna figs here direct from
S myrna in 1880, while in southern California the late John Grelck, a
horticulturist of great knowledge and foresight, imported and dis-
tributed many valuable French figs. Another importer who should
not be forgotten — ^his enthusiasm was certainly very great — was the
late G. N. Milco, of Stockton, who brought a number of Dalmatian
figs (Cernica, Zimitza, Kargigna) to California. . Between 1882 and
1885 the authoFiinp6iTO(tT50me""30va^ of figs from France. In
the latter year W. C. West wa^sent byF. Roeding jia Smyrna and sub-
sequently sent here several varieties of Smyrna figs. F. Pohndorff,
then of Niles or vicinit}'', imported the White San Pedro under the name
of Breba from Spain and distributed it in this country in 1883 or 1884.
Dr. J. D. B. Stillman, of Lugonia, visited Smyrna in 1878 and selected
Smyrna cuttings, which were, it is supposed, finally planted in Cali-
fornia. Nothing came of this importation, as the box containing the
cuttings could not be traced with certainty after its arrival here, and
the figs which Dr. Stillman supposed to be Smyrna figs were proven
afterwards to be Brown Turkey, and undoubtedly never came from
Smyrna. Finally, it may be added, a Greek gentleman, Mr. Honche-
renko, lately living somewhere between Niles and San Ramon Valley,
has imported and grown a number of varieties from his native country.
One of the earliest importers w as W. B. We^ t»,than whom none is
more worthy of being remembered. In 1853 he imi)orted from Hovey
& Co., of Boston, White Genoa, White Marseilles, White Ischia,
Brown Ischia, Brunswick, and Brown Turke y, which figs Avere' all
propagatedT and widely distributed over the State. In 1869 Mr.
West imported from France, through English houses, from 28 to 30
varieties of figs for the table and some for drying. They came via
Panama in good order. He saved 16 varieties, but found only a few
of them of any value in Stockton. Among these figs Mr. West
received the Adriatic under another name (Verdoni?), now forgotten
by him, and it is probable that to this importation the large grove
of Adriatics at Knights Ferry, in Calaveras County-, Cal., owes its
origin. A few years later, in 1878, Mr. West went to the Mediterra-
nean to study fruit culture. He selected there several varieties of
figs, of which he has, however, unfortunately destroyed the record;
but among these figs was the famous Neapolitan hg ^' Trojano." This
fig did not prove satisfactory at Stockton and was never distributed.
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
As a rule Mr. West found that the fine varieties which he imported
produced much better figs in tlie foothills of the sierra than in Stock-
\, - ton, and he was the first to recognize this region as superior for fig
"S v:. culture.
. • Among California importers John Rock stands most prominent. He
has imported figs at various times from foreiirn countries, and pos-
sesses now the most extensive collection on the Pacific coast. The
trees are at Niles, Cal., not far from San Francisco. Of the earlier
importations there is no record, but in the spring of 1883 he received
from Thomas Rivers & Son the following figs: Barnissotte Grise,
Angelique, Col di Signora Bianca, De Constantine, Negro Largo,
Early Violet, Lardaro, Black Marseilles, Drap d'Or, Whi teTTeTtb a,
Bondance Precoce, Brown Ischia, Pro-
lific, Monaco Bianco, Brunswick, Bour-
jassotte Grise, Rocardi, Col di Signora
Nera, Grosse Grise Bifere, Royal Vine-
yard, Hirta, Brown Turkey, Ronde
Violette Hative, White Marseilles,
Bourjassotte Blanche, White Ischia,
Du Roi (fig. 8), Agen, Dore Norbus,
Pasteliere, Raby Castle, Bourjassotte
Noire, Grassale, Black Ischia, Ronde
Noire. In 1889 he received the fol-
lowing figs from a house in Provence,
France: Salette, Martale, Rosso di
Mensiglia, Grosse Violette, Des Dames,
Bianca Morcati, Angelique, Avarcugo,
Crovere, De Calabria, A Feuilles Tri-
lobes, Courcourelle, Giallo Verde, Gi-
allo Rotondo, Negrondo, Madalena,
Aubique Leroy, Ronde Rouge de Pro-
vence, Imperial, Rolandina, Turco di
Constantinople, Mascula. In the fall
of 1890 the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, sent to
Mr. Rock the Trojano, Dottato, Brizanzola, and Guigliana; and from
a local nurseryman were received in 1891 the Capri, Smyrna, Verdale
Lontgue, Cernica, Zemitza, etc.
Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, Cal., has at various times imported
from France figs of the following varieties: Pagaudiere, Noir Mou-
tier, Buissonne, Madeleine Blanche, Grosse Marseillaise, Datte, De
Versailles, Franch Paillarde, Napolitaine, Verdale. These were
imported in 1874. The following varieties were sent to Mr. F. Gillet
from tlie United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C,
and are now being tried by him: Dalmatino, Broghetto, Rubaldo
(undoubtedly Rubado), San Piero, Dottato, and San Vito.
Fig. 8.— Du Roi flg.
FIG CULTURE IN CALIFORKIA. 67
THE BULLETIN IMPORTATION.
The importation of the genuine Smyrna figs to California was first
due to G. P. Rixford, at that time connected with the San Francisco
Evening Bulletin, which was then the acknowledged authority on
horticultural matters in California. The following account is taken
from the edition of that paper of October 17, 1888 and is. it is
believed, from the pen of Mr. Rixford himself:
IMPORTATION OF FIG CUTTINGS. '
Believing the soil and climate of California perfectly adapted to the growth of
fruit equal to that imported from Asia Minor, also believing that failure to pro-
duce such fruit in the State was due to the absence of the right variety of trea, in
1880 the business management of this journal determined to make an effort to
introduce a tree which produces the true fig of commerce, with the view of plac-
ing it in the hands of the subscribers of this journal throughout the State. In
furtherance of this object the assistance of the Hon. E. J. Smithers, then United
States consul at Smyrna, was solicited in procuring and shipping to New York,
thence to be forwarded by rail across the continent, a lot of 500 cuttings of the
best variety obtainable in that country. On the 1st of May. 1880, the following
letter was received from Consul Smithers:
CJONSULATK OF THE UNITED STATES,
Smyrna, March 31, 1880
Bulletin Company, San Francisco,
Gentlemen: Yours of January 24, requesting my services in procuring and for-
warding some fig cuttings for distribution among the subscribers of your paper,
was received on the 8d instant, together with a draft on London.
Immediately after the receipt of your letter I sent a trustworthy man to the fig
district, situated about 75 miles from Smyrna. Owing to the severe stormy
weather which prevailed at the time, the cuttings did not reach Smyrna until the
10th instant. I then learned that there would be no steamer for Liverpool before
the end of the montl;i, and deemed it better not to complete the packing until the last
moment. The case was successfully shipped on the 29th, and the steamer left to-
day. As directed, the bill of lading was forwarded to H. K. Thurber & Co., New
York, and Richard Stewart, 11 Manchester Building, Liverpool, has been requested
to look after its transshipment.
The case is 5 feet in length, 3 feet wide, and 2^ feet high. It contains 448 plants,
packed in rich clay loam, such as the fig trees flourish the best in here. The pack-
ing took place under my supervision, and was after the plan of your letter. The
top of the case is fastened down with screws, so that it can be easily opened at New
York, and the plants, if they sh:uld need it, watered.
It is not possible to obtain rooted trees in this country, the fig-orchard men pre-
ferring to plant the cuttings in the field where the tree is to remain. My man
was informed that owing to the warm weather in February it was too late to
remove rooted trees, otherwise I could have sent you a small number. » * *
I inclose herewith a statement of expenses incurred, which, 5'ou will perceive, do
not exceed your remittance. There being no drays in Smyrna, the heavy case
had to be moved by porters and then by lighter to the ship lying some distance in
the bay.
Hoping that your undertaking will be more successful than the others that have
preceded it, I remain, gentlemen, very sincerely, yours,
E. J. Smithers.
^In these cuttings Mr. W. B, West, of Stockton, had a one-fourth interest, and
upon the arrival of the cuttings he took his share to his Stockton nursery and prop-
agated his cuttings there. Governor Leland Stanford was also interested in this
importation, the success of which was mainly due to his aid in facilitating rapid
transit across the continent, and to the fact that he paid most of the expenses.
His share of the cuttings was planted on his Vina Ranch, in Sacramento Valley.
fi8 THE fig: its history, COLTITRE, AND CURING.
Allusion is made in the letter to two unsuccessful attempts to forward ship-
ments of fig trees to this city, one of which was completely dried out and dead
on its arrival, and the other was mislaid somewhere while en route and never
reached its destination at all.
The case of trees forwarded by Mr. Smithers did not reach this city until the
8th of June, 1880. A considerable portion of the wood had rotted, and the season
was so far advanced that the cuttings, when planted, although the greatest care
was taken with them, made but a feeble growth. However, 200 of them had
formed roots during the summer and promised in time to make thrifty trees. To
distribute this small number was altogether out of the question, where each of
several thousands of our applying subscribers was expecting to receive a tree.
About this time Consul Smithers arrived in San Francisco, en route to Chin Kiang,
China, to which consulship he had just been promoted* He informed us that at
the time the shipment was made he had caused to be planted 4,000 cuttings, which
had in the meantime become rooted trees and which we could purchase from the
party who then owned them at from 8 to 10 cents each, the usual price of trees in
Asia Minor. It was then determined, rather than disappoint our subscribers who
were exi)ecting their promised fig trees that season, to import the whole lot.
Funds were therefore forwarded to an agent in Smyrna to purchase the trees
referred to and to ship them at once. About the 1 st of April, instead of the trees, a
letter, dated February 16, came to hand, from which the following paragraph is
taken:
I have had Mr. at my office, who says that the 4,000 cuttings he had planted,
and to which your order refers (on E. J. Smithers "s suggestion), have by this time
grown up into strong young trees from 4 to 6 feet high, and he is offered $1 per
tree at the nursery at Aidin. He says he can not afford now to part with them at
anything under $1.25 each from this port (first cost).
The owner of the trees was an Armenian, a race of notoriously sharp traders, and
put the price up to an exorbitant figure, because he thought he could get it, and
probably has the trees on hand yet, the story of the offer from another purchaser
being most likely a pure invention.
Correspondence with our agent, a prominent merchant in Smyrna, was kept up
during the summer, and in September, 1881, orders were sent to make a large
shipment of cuttings to the Bulletin Company, which we found could be obtained
at a reasonable price. Every precaution had been taken to secure th'e safe arrival
of this consignment, even to shipping moss from New York in which to pack the
cuttings. The cases, on arrival at New York, were repacked by Peter Henderson
& Co. before starting them across the continent.
The shipment consisted of 14,000 good cuttings, and arrived in excellent condi-
tion. A large portion of these cuttings were distributed early in 1882 to Bulletin
subscribers in all parts of the State. It was estimated that about one-third of this
first distribution escaped destruction by gophers, drought, and other casualties.
Many of these were planted in unsuitable soil and unfavorable locations as to
climate, so that but few favorable reports were received regarding them after they
were old enough to commence bearing. In most localities the trees made a ram-
pant growth, but the fruit dropped before ripening. Parties who had visited the
fig orchards of Asia Minor were sure that we had been imposed upon, and had
received some wild and worthless variety which grows along the fences and divid-
ing walls of that country. Much other adverse criticism, principally from busi-
ness rivals, was published, and further information was sought from our agent in
Smyrna. He wrote that it was impossible that wild cuttings were sent, as it was
easier and cheaper to get the best, as that variety was most abundant; and further-
more, that " the cuttings were obtained from one of the most renowned orchards
in the Aidin Province.*' About this time E. J. Smithers, for twenty yearf United
riG CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 69
States consul at Smyrna, was in San Francisco again, and was taken to our nurs-
ery of fig trees. At that time the trees were covered with fruit, and he at once
said that they could not be the wild fig, for the reason that the wild variety never
attained so large a size as the fruit on the trees before him. He was satisfied that
the variety was all right. W. B. West, of Stockton, who has probably imported
more kinds of fig trees, and first brought to notice the Verdone, an Italian variety,
which has been christened *' White Adriatic," in this State than any other man
in California, 'and who had a part of our importation, never for a moment doubted
that he had the right variety. Feeling convinced from reports from a few favored
localities that we had made no mistake, several thousand more cuttings were dis-
tributed in the winter of 1882-83 and again in 1885-86. These further distributions
thoroughly disseminated the variety.
As Mr. Rixf ord says, much adverse criticism was made on the failure
of the Bulletin figs to ripen their fruit, and many who ought to have
known better pronounced the figs wild figs, which had been maliciously
substituted by the Syrians. It is now known that this was an error
and that the varieties were the genuine Smyrna figs. On the other
hand, many reports came in stating that the Bulletin figs had borne
fruit. Among the reports which caused the greatest sensation was
one made by a gentleman at the fruit-growers' meeting in Chico,
November 22, 1888. This long controversy can not now be referred
to in detail. Enough to say, the gentleman submitted dried figs sup-
posed to have come from two Bulletin figs growing on his place
in , Cal. The figs were said to have been cured without sul-
phuring. It is now known that these figs were not the Bulletin figs,
but simply the ''Adriatic," and that the figs had been sulphured before
drying in order to give them a good color. It is now absolutely certain
that no Bulletin figs have come to perfect maturity in California
without artificial pollination, as has been described elsewhere, and
the nature of this fig variety is such that they never can fully mature
without pollinatirfn or caprification, this being a conclusive proof of
their being the genuine Smyrna figs of commerce.
The history of the Gentile fig in California has somewhat the touch
of a romance. In 1851 or 1852 Mr. Robert Farlay, of San Leandro,
Alameda County, found a small package outside of the post-office in
San Francisco. It contained two cuttings, which were planted in his
nursery. The tree was killed by gophers, but a cutting was saved
and grown, and gradually became large. Farlaj^ propagated the fig
tree and sold trees around the country. In 1886 Dr. Ed. Kimball, of
Ilayward, took a cutting from a large tree of this fig growing in the
town of Hayward and planted it on his place near the town. The
original Hayward tree is now cut down, but Dr. Kimball's tree is yet
a fine large tree bearing well. The writer has seen other trees of this
same kind in other places near Niles, at West Oakland, and also
on Central avenue, in the town of Alameda. It is remarkable that
such a fine fig has not been more widely distributed, though it has
been in the State for forty years. This fig is now planted at Knights
Ferry, Cal., where it produces very fine first-crop figs, which dr}^ well.
70 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
The second crop drops always, as might be expected, it having the
same habit in Italy.
The Adriatic fig, of which so much has been said and written, has
probably been growing in California for nearly forty years, as some
large trees at Big Oak Flat, in Calaveras County, were supposed to be
of this variety. Certain it is that it has been scattered over the Sierra
foothills for many years, though not known under any special name.
The first importation of which the writer is fairly certain was made
by W. B. West, of Stockton, Cal., who received this tree, together
with 21 or 22 other varieties of figs, from an English nursery, by way
of Panama, in 1865. He sold trees to several parties, among them
Captain Gray, of Merced County, who planted them on his ranch at
Atwater.
Later another gentleman of Stockton, Dr. Sposati, is also said to have
received the same tree from its native home on the east side of Italy,
under the name of Fico di Fragola, and distributed it here under the
translated name Strawberry fig. The late G. N. Milco, of Stockton,
claimed to have been the first importer of this variety, which, how-
ever, is an error. He found the trees growing on the ranch of Cap-
tain Gray, the trees then being 10 years old, and, recognizing the value
of the fig, named it the Adriatic, after his native home (Ragusa), where,
however, the tree does not grow. His supply of cuttings, however,
came from a tree planted by Mr. Andrew Simpson, in Stockton, who
had bought the tree originally from West.
Mr. Milco did much toward making the variety known, but also
much toward keeping the growers in the dark as regards its true
nature. Since 1884 the variety has been extensively cultivated in
California and distributed to many of the Southern States, especially
Florida. It is a fine variety in some localities, but in others worth-
less. Even at its best it makes only a second-quality dried fig, though
when fresh the figs are delicious when properly grown.
importations .of figs by the united states department of
\ ^ ' :.' agriculture.
By far the most important importations of figs are those made at
various times by the Unrfced States Department of Agriculture. Fig
cuttings have been distributed by tRatT>epartraent almost yearly for
the last twenty- five years or longer. In order to obtain for California
a properly labeled collection of figs the Department of Agriculture,
, under Secretary Rusk's administration (1889-1893), was requested to
.^ import the whole collection of figs grown in the hothouses of JheRoyal
^ Horticultural Society of London, the best kjriown^collection of figs in
V the world. Professors Van Deman and Taylor, of the Department,
favored the project, which, however, was only brought to a successful
issue under the administration of Secretary Morton m^ebruary^894,
and mainly through the good will and efforts of the assistant pomolo-
gist. William A. Taylor.
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.
Plate VI.
Fig. 1.— Mission Fig Tree on Tejon Ranch, Kern County, Cal.
Fig. 2.— Grafted Smyrna Fig Tree. Cuttings Imported by the U. S. Department
OF Agriculture and grafted and grown by John Rock at Niles, Cal.
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.
Plate VII.
^HM
■
HBiPill
f
^' J*^^' 'i^^^^- V ^'^:
Fig. 1.— Brown Turkey Fig Tree, John Rock Orchard, Niles, Cal.
*^
^I's^^.^L ,m^
1
i
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BIBB^Bm
"" ^
/^*-\s.
i"
Fig. 2.— Fig Orchard of John Rock at Niles, Gal.
The eapritigs are seen where the ladder stands.
FIG CULTURE IN OALIFOKNTA.
71
The whole of tlie Jibove'ineiitioiied colleetioii was received by the
Department of Agriculture in February, and forwarded at once to
Mr. John Rock and the writer, who. jointly signed an agreement with
the Department in regard to subsequent disposal of cuttings, etc. In
\all, abo ut 66 nam ed varieties were receiv ed in cuttings , which at once
were grafted by Mr. John Roc k^ at Niles, on ol d fig trees. Great
succ ess was achiev ed, a good growth being had by all the varieties
sent, none being lost. (PI. VI, fig. 2.)
The following is a copy of the memorandum of grafting made by
Mr. John Rock:
FIG ORCHARD RECORD.
List of cuttings received from the United States Department of Agrioultnre
grafted in orchard of California Nursery Company, lot 8, Block B, at Niles, Cal.,
as follows:
Roiv No. 9.
On tree 1, Del'Archipel.
On tree 2, Boutard.
On tree 3, Qrosse Marseilles.
On tree 4, Peau dure.
On tree^5,,NegrQiin©.-.
On tree 6, Bourjassotte Noire.
On tree 7, Poulette.
On tree 8, CEil de Perdrix.
On tree 9^ Du Roi .
On tree 10, This tree is mibsing..
On tree 11, Grosse Violet te de Bordeaux.
On tree 12 ^atte.
On tree 13, Monstrueuse.
On tree 14, Bourjassote Grise.
On tree 15, A Bo's Jaspe.
On tree 16, Royal Vineyard.
On tree 17, De Grasse.
On tree 18, Enscaire Preto.
On tree 19, Trois Recoltes.
On tree 20, Monaco Bianco.
On tree 21, Bondance Precoce.
On tree 22, Trifere.
On tree 23, Green Ischia.
On tree 24, Hirta du Japon.
On tree 25, St. Johns.
.On tree 26, Vebra.
On tree 27, Datte Quotidienne.
On tree 28, Arbal.
On trpe '^9,| „ V>ft .],fi ^ nRa.1pm.
On tree :iO, Nebian.
On tree 31, Vigasotte Bianco.
On tree 32, Grise Savantine Bifere.
On trees 33-39, both inclusive, Missing.
On tree 40, Quarteria.
On tree 41, Reculver.
On tree 42, Douro Vebra.
On tree 43, Gouraud Rouge.
On tree 44, D'Agen.
On tree 45, Lampas.
On tree 46, Large Black Douro,
On tree 47, Adam.
On tree 48, De Constantino.
On tree 49, Biberacao.
On tree 50, Grosse Verte.
On tree 51, Violette Sepor.
On tree 52, Dr. Hoggs Clare.
On tree 53, Hardy Prolific.
On tree 54, Figue d'Or.
On tree 55, Recousse Noire.
On tree 53, Black Douro.
On tree 57, Grassale.
On tree 58, Martinique.
On tree 59, Crave.
On tree 60, White Ischia.
On tree 61, Brown Turkey. (See PI.
VII.) "
Row No. 10,
On tree 45, Pastiliere.
On tree 46, Negro Largo.
On tree 47, Do la Madeleine.
On tree 48, Col di Signora Bianca.
On tree 49, Doree Nobis.
On tree 50, Pingo de Mel.
On tree 51, Black Ischia.
On tree 52j^Tpulousienne.
On tree 53, Gouraud Noire.
On tree 54^Diireej.«.
On tree 55, Grise Savantine.
On tree 5tj, Brunswick.
uO' t ^2 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
y^ ^ As seen from tlie above names and further reference to the cata-
logue, nearly all these figs come from Italy, Spain ^ and Fran ce, and
not a single one from Asia Minor. None, in fact, belongs to the race
of figs which requires caprification to set fruit. This will explain why
the European students of this collection of figs have failed to recog-
nize the nature and necessity of caprification. This collection of figs,
being the one used by Dr. Hogg in his well-known work on fruit cul-
ture in England, will always remain a standard collection for identi-
fication of varieties.
importation of blastophaga.
I The first importation of the live Blastophaga to California was made
j in the spring of 1891. At that time the late Mr. James Shinn received
: from a friend in Smyrna several small boxes with caprifigs contain-
ing live Blastophaga. As Mr. Shinn possessed at his place at Niles
the largest and oldest trees of the Bulletin importation of Smyrna figs,
he had naturally taken interest in the fig question. Having as a friend
a missionary in Smyrna, he had requested his assistance in procuring
the insects. The latter were turned loose among his Smyrna fig trees,
and the insects were seen to hatch and fly about. Later, in July of
the same year, another shipment of Blastophaga was received by Mr.
Shinn from the same gentleman. These were turned out among the
fig trees at the end of July, during a visit to Niles of Mr. E. W. Mas-
lin and the writer. None of these insects succeeded in taking hold.
There were two reasons for this, as the writer pointed out at the
time. One was that the only caprifig then growing on the spot pro-
duced only a single crop a year. When the insects flew out there
were no young caprifigs in which to lay eggs. The other reason was
that the Blastophaga had hatched on the road and had, of course,
been fertilized by the males at the time. As this had taken place
some time previous, it was probable that the eggs had degenerated
and become reabsorbed. All the males were dead upon the arrival
of the figs, and even if they had been alive no new copulation could
have taken place. During the following few years caprifigs contain-
ing Blastophaga were received from Smyrna by Mr. George Roeding
and Mr. Anthony C. Denotovitch, of Fresno, Cal., but the Blastophaga
always failed to take hold, for the reasons stated above. All the cap-
rifigs imported so far had been of the second crop, or mammoni.
So far no mamme had been received. Previous to this, or in 1890,
during the author's visit to Washington, D. C, both Dr. C. V. Riley
and Dr. L. O. Howard had taken a lively interest in the caprifig
question. When Dr. Howard later on became the head of the Division
of Entomology, he decided to introduce the Blastophaga to California,
and, if necessary, send some one to Smyrna to secure them. He was
authorized by the Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, to
make. the attempt, and in 1897 communicated with the author and
FIG CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. 73
asked if he would undertake the journey. In the spring of 1896 Mr.
Walter T. Swingle, then studying at the Zoological Station at Naples,
became interested in the problems of caprification, which had been so
much investigated in that region. In 1898, during a second stay at
the Zoological Station, he made more extended studies, in which he
had the benefit of the advice and help of Count Solms-Laubach and
Dr. Paul Mayer, the recognized authorities on the subject. During
March and April he secured and sent at his own expense the first ship-
ment of mamme caprifigs, which were packed by a new method.
This was the first time the mamme generation of caprifigs had been
sent to America. They reached California in April in good condition,
but although the insects came out by hundreds they failed to become
established. Shortly afterwards Mr. Swingle was appointed an agri-
cultural explorer in the newly established section of Seed and Plant
Introduction. Since he was on the spot and was so well fitted for the
work, it was considered unnecessary to send another investigator
abroad, and Mr. Swingle was instructed to continue on behalf of the
Department his efforts to introduce the fig insect and suitable varie-
ties of the caprifig tree.
Mr. Swingle studied the methods of fig culture and caprification in
Algeria, Sicily, Naples, Greece, and Smyrna, and forwarded a num-
ber of mamme caprifigs from Algiers in the spring of 1899. These
caprifigs arrived in good condition and were sent by the Department
of Agriculture to Mr. George Roeding, of Fresno, whose large and
healthy fig orchard had been selected as the best for the purpose by
Dr. Howard, after a personal examination in the spring of 1898. Mr.
Roeding, by the way, had also repeatedly imported the Blastophaga,
but all had failed to establish themselves in the caprifigs. As a
result of the last Government introduction of Blastophagae to the
Roeding orchard, it is most gratifying to know that at last the fig
wasps have been properly established in California, both at Fresno
and at Niles, and there is now every prospect that, with proper care
and with proper distribution of caprifigs in frost-free localities, these
insects will become so acclimated that no more introductions will be
required. In order to study the intricate problem of the relationship
of the Blastophaga and the caprifig. Dr. L. O. Howard, chief ento-
mologist of the United States Department of Agriculture, directed
Mr. E. A. Schwarz to proceed to California in the spring of 1900.
As a result of the investigations of Dr. Howard and Mr. Schwarz, the
former has contributed to the Yearbook of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture for 1900 a most important account of caprification
in California.*
^The article has also been reprinted in separate form, and copies of the same
may be obtained upon application.
CHAPTER IV.
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG.'
Cappification of figs is a practical process based on scientific princir
pies, which latter are as interesting and have been as badly misun-
derstood as those connected with the practical part of the process.
From ti me imm einorial caprification lias been practiced in certain
countries, and practical results have been claimed for it. As regards
the pr actical va lue of caprification, there are two distinct and oppo-
site views held by different investigators. Some claim that caprifica-
tion is necessary and valuable; others hold that i t is usele ss. As
regards the^ scientific principles involved, there are also various views
put forward, as will be explained further on, some of which are
radically opposite to others. The chief reason why this question was
not solved long ago has been twofold. First, many of the scientific
investigators have not been practical horticulturists; while others
have not been aware that they experimented on figs which really did
hot require caprification, and which would not be benefited by it.
Every investigator began and ended his researches with the errone-
ous idea that all cultivated figs were alike, and he drew his conclusions
accordingly. This alone explains the indifferent results achieved so
far by European investigators.
The many points involved in these interesting questions are both
practical and scientific, and the two groups are so interwoven that the
one can not possibly be understood without a full knowledge of the
other.
I am anxious that this maj^ be understood in. the beginning, as in
the following pages practical details will be found hand in hand with
scientific studies. The practical cultivator who knows but little of
scientific phraseology would not understand the terms unavoidably
used below, unless they were properly explained. Similarly, the sci-
entific investigator, whose interest in this subject lies principally in
the process of caprification and in its supposed value or uselessness,
would not properly understand the practical details connected with
the horticultural crops of the figs, unless they were explained in a way
that may seem too elementary to the horticultural student or practical
botanist.
' A more extended treatise of this subject by the author was published in the
Proceedings of the California Academy of Science in 189G.
74
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 75
PRACTICAL CAPRIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA.
The requisites for caprificatioii as now practiced in the S^ate of
California are genuine Smyrna fig trees, two or three varieties of capri-
fig trees, and colonies of Blastophaga grossorum or fig wasps, occu-
pying the caprifigs. ^
There are two or three desirable varieties of genuine Smj^rna fig
trees to plant, all of which can now be had in California. They are
known in that State either as Bulletin Smyrnas or as Lobfigs, the
former named on account of the corx>oration which made the first
introduction of the cuttings, the second on account of the name used
in Smyrna. In the catalogue several local names of the several
varieties are found and which will in time be used. The trees are
planted from 40 to 50 feet apart. As soon as the figs begin to bear
they may be caprificated. The trees bear the first year, but not profit-
ably for several years. It has been found from experiment that a
fully developed caprifig of the best variety will and can contain on
the average some 600 Blastophaga wasps. With this as a basis for
calculation we find that under favorable circumstances it will require
one caprifig tree for every 50 Smyrna trees. One tree for every 100
Smyrna trees may suffice • in very favorable seasons, but the greater
number is safer. The caprifig trees should not be set among the
Smyrna trees for several reasons. The caprifigs require sheltered
places and shade; the wasps require when hatching figs of proper size
in which to lay their eggs; and finally it is necessary to evenly distrib-
ute the Blastophagas when caprifying the trees, as otherwise some
trees will get too many while others will get too few wasps. For these
reasons the caprifig trees are set by themselves in sheltered places.
It is best to have plantations of caprifig trees in places some dist^tnce
from the fig orchard as well as near it.
The chances of having caprifigs in the necessary stage of develop-
ment are thus enhanced. It is also advisable to plant two, three, or
more varieties of caprifig trees together in a grove, in order that figs
of proper size may never be wanting from one end of the year to the
other. The caprifig trees are set in the form of hedges about 10 by
20 feet. The wasps prefer shade and cool places and such places
must bo provided for. On this account the limbs of the caprifig
trees should be allowed to grow low and shade the ground. The
trees should be pi»uned only when necessary to cut away dead limbs.
In order to introduce the necessary Blastophaga wasps it is only
necessary to procure cai)rifigs containing colonies. These caprifigs
are suspended in the growing caprifig trees at a time when they carry
figs of proper size to receive the wasps. This is during the months of
April to October, according to locality and crop. To start a colony
of Blastophaga wasps in a caprifig tree reiiuires from one to five
good caprifigs. The grower must examine his caprifig trees after the
76 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
winter frosts are over, in February or March, and ascertain if the
Blastophagas in the mamme-figs have stood the winter. If the mamme
have remained plump and heavy the crop of wasps can probably be
depended upon to issue in due time. But if all the mamme of the
eaprifigs have fallen during the winter, then it will be necessary to
procure fresh mamme-figs from some other place and suspend them
on the branches of the caprifig tree in a shaded place. The time
for doing this will be, according to locality, during the latter half of
March or beginning of April. The grower must be constantly exam-
ining his caprifig trees to ascertain if his colonies of wasps are in good
condition. If any of the caprifig crops fail, wasps should be imported
anew. It may thus be necessary to caprificate the profichi, the mam-
moni, and the mamme, as either of these crops may appear too late
to be affected by the wasps. Hence the necessity of having caprifig
trees of different varieties in various localities.
The Smyrna fig trees are caprificated in the months of June and
July, according to locality. When the Smyrna figs reach the size of a
hazelnut or a large filbert they are generally in condition to be cap-
rificated. If as large as a walnut they are probably too old for the
wasps to take hold. When in proper condition eaprifigs are procured
and strung on raphia or esparto grass, one or two figs at each end of
a string. The number of eaprifigs necessary to caprificate a Smyrna
fig tree depends upon two things — the age of the Smyrna fig tree, or
rather upon the quantity of its figs, and upon the number of wasps in
the caprifig. At present there are no Smyrna fig trees in California
over 20 years old. For a tree of that age, and provided it is growing
in good soil and has been well cared for, from 10 to 12 eaprifigs
will suffice. If older, more eaprifigs will be necessary, and probably
in any case 50 figs will suffice. This small number of eaprifigs
required in this country compared to' what is necessary in Asia and
Africa is due either to the fact that we have imported the Blasto-
phaga wasps without their natural parasites, or to the lesser age and
consequent yield of our trees. In Asia, Africa, and Europe the Blas-
tophagas are decimated or even to a greater extent diminished in
number by parasitical wasps also infesting the eaprifigs. When such
is the case it is evident that more eaprifigs are necessary to caprifi-
cate a certain tree. The crop used for caprification of . the Smyrna
figs is the profichi cfop. This crop is the first crop of the caprifig —
the one which appears on the old wood. The crop which the profichi
caprificates is the second crop of the Smyrna fig — the crop which sets
in the spring and matures the same summer.
It is of the greatest importance that no more eaprifigs should be
imported to the United States, as it is almost certain that they would
introduce the natural enemies of the Blastophaga wasps. In caprify-
ing the trees the eaprifigs are most conveniently strung on any soft
and flexible grass. This is best done in the shade under the trees or
CAPRIFIOATION OF THE FIG. 77
under a temporary shed or tent. The strings are hung on horizon-
tally supported rods of cane, and these rods are carried into the field
by the eaprificator. In this way the figs do not become entangled.
In selecting a place on which to hang the strings one that is shaded is
preferable. A string is taken from the rod or cane and suspended on
a branch of the Smyrna tree and given a twist so that it will not fall
off. The process of caprifying the trees should be repeated several
times, or as long as it is desirable to procure ripe Smyrna figs. During
the first caprification one-half of the caprifigs necessary may be sus-
pended. Ten days later the other half may be similarly suspended.
Should more young Smyrna figs appear after a week or two it may be
advisable to suspend a few more caprifigs in order that they too may
, I be caprificated.
SHORT SUMMARY OF CAPRIFICATION.
^ \jy Caprification is a horticultural process which consists in suspend-
^^'^^v^>^fig the profichi or first-crop figs of the caprifig on the branches of the
,^j^y^ edible fig. The object of caprification is to produce seed in the edible
.^^ figs and to cause these latter to set ana mature. Uniy such profichi ^-^^
„ „__ _„.... ...._ _^.__._, _. .^
\.\J^ as contain fig wasps {BlastopEaga grossorum) are of any value inW2^]3-
1^ if ^caprification. Shortly after the profichi have been suspended t^^rrj^.^t
t^^ female Blastophagas hatch out of their galls, and in their efforts to leave $J^^ ^< ^
. ^ \ )f^^ fig become covered with the ripe pollen of the caprifig. Once ^^^^^"^
^^^^.•o^utside of the caprifig the Blastophagas search for other caprifig s va^J<^^'
V^ order to lay their eggs in them. But n ot finding any caprifigs, they
enter the edible fi gs by m istake. The^ffect of this visit is the polli-
na tion of t ne eclible-lig Howlers with the caprifig pollen brought along
by the wasps. The pollination again causes the edible figs of a cer-
u • tain clas s to m ature seed and to set its frui t. In order that pollination
may be p rgpeTly'^iccomplish ed, it^ is necessary that the figs practiced
on should h%ve female flowe rs in a proper state of development with
receptive stigmas, and that the pollen of the caprifigs should be
properly developed and in a good condition. Not all edible figs are
. equally susceptible of caprification. The time for caprification is in
June and July, according to locality. Caprification is nothing else
-than an artificial pollination accomplished partly by man, who sus-
pends the caprifigs, and partly by the wasps, which carry the pollen
from the caprifig to the female flowers of the edible fig.
The same process of pollination accomplished by the wasps on
the edible figs is also necessary in the caprifigs in order that they
may produce ripe and fertile seeds. No caprifigs will produce seed
if the wasps are not present carrying the pollen from one crop to the
other. Also in the case of the caprifigs man's aid is at times required.
The Blastophaga wasps breed and hatch in the wild caprifigs, hence no
human aid is required to bring these figs from one tree to the other, but
all cultivated caprifigs are caprified in order to insure a crop of wasps.
^Ni-^-JkJS THE fig: IT8 HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CUEING.
V'/O^ w If the wasps could breed and live in the edible figs no caprification
ji^ would be required. When through un favorable climatic con ditions
^t^ ,.y the Blastophaga crop fails, when the early spring frosjs kill the young
'^ >>r5^/^ wasps and their eggs and larvae, or in the case of some varieties of
^^- cultivated capriflg trees,, man's aid is required. The grower must
then supply caprifigs with live^ wasps from some distant part and trans-
fer them both to tlie capriflg trees in order to start new broods and to
the edible figs in order to caprificate them. This is done at times in
Asia Minor, when often after heavy frosts whole shiploads of caprifigs
are imported from Greece to supply the necessary wasps. Caprifigs
suitable for caprification are regularly sold in all market places in the
fig-growing countries around the Mediterranean.
After this short summary of the process, caprification will be con-
sidered more in detail. A horticultural and botanical study of the
fig, its flowers and crops, is required in order to fully comprehend the
necessity, importance, and nature of this interesting and complicated
process.
CROPS OF THE FIGS.
General remarks. — The capriflg, as well as the edible fig, bears
several distinct crops every year. So distinct are these crops and so
important does the distinction between them appear to those nations
which depend upon fig culture as -an article of food and commerce
that the various crops have been given separate and characteristic
names.
In order to understand these names a detailed description of the
various fig crops is necessary. We must bear in mind that while the
fig and the caprifig crops in a general way resemble each other, they
still disagree in some important points. This may also be said to be
the case with the principal types of the edible fig. In a general way
it may be stated that we have three distinct crops, each one appearing
at a separate time — spring, summer, and fall — according to the season
in the respective countries. But each one of these crops is character-,
ized in a peculiar way, and without a full knowledge of them a perfect
understanding of caprification is impossible. (PI. VIII.)
The various crops of the fig. — While the edible-fig tree may pos-
sess three distinct crops, we do not always find all these crops fol-
lowing one another on the same tree. This may be and often is the
case, but fig trees and fig varieties exist in which one or more crops
are wanting. The first, second, or third crops may be respectively
suppressed, or one of these crops may be present while the other two
are suppressed.
Shortly before the f\'^ tree begins to leaf out in the spring, small but-
ton figs are seen pushing out from the wood of last year below the
young lejvves of the* present season. The place where these figs
develoji.is the place where during last season existed a leaf , which
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept Agriculture.
Plate VIM.
Fig. 1.— Grosse Grise Bif^re Fig Tree, John Rock Orchard, Niles, Cal.
Fig. 2.— Caprifig Tree, Fresno, Cal.
CAPKIFICATION OF THE FIG. 79
fell off last fall. These figs grow rapidly and mature generally in the
end of May in all southern eountries or in June in more northern
ones. This is the first crop of .figs, also known as early figs or bre-
bas, first figs, or summer figs. This crop of figs has not yet matured,
or, in some varieties, has hardly matui-ed, Vhen other young figs are
seen to push out from the leaf joints of the present year. In the course
of a month or two these figs ripen and constitute the second or main
crop. With most figs this crop ripens in August, later or earlier,
according to variety. This crop is also known, as second figs, autumn
figs, or late figs.
f A third or later crop is found in some varieties, forming in August
I and ripening in winter. This may be called the, third crop,; but
/ this third crop is not greatly distinct from the second crop. Both
I develop f roiii the leaf joints of the same season. In reality, this third
I crop of edible figs can only be considered as the last of the second
crop. . The first crop is, however, entirely distinct from the seconti
crop, as it is produced on the old wood. Sometimes the last figs of the
third crop do not fall in the autumn, but winter over and ripen early
in the next spring, just as the first crop, and are thus hardly distin-
guishable from it.
The crops of the caprifig. — In the caprifig the three crops corre-
spond to those of the edible fig, but, as in that fig, they are not always
all present in the same tree. Thus caprifig trees exist which develop
only one crop„ while others possess two or three crops. The variation
in crops may be confined to individual caprifigs of the same variety,
or it may characterize some special variety, in which all the trees are
exactly alike. The variation may also depend on^ihe seasons.
At Niles, Cal., the crops of the caprifig succeed each other in the
following manner : At the time of frost, in the fall, we find a. large
number of figs as large as walnuts or hazelnuts situated at the very
tips of the branches. These figs began to appear as small buttons
in July (1900) and continued to increase until they became of size
to be caprificated in September. This crop of eud-figs is known as
the third crop (the mamme), and is really only the continuation of the
second crop. But it differs from the second crop in its faculty to pass
the winter unharmed on the trees. The following year in March,
these third-crop figs, or mamme, become fully mature, and the wasp$;
which escape from them enter the first crop (the profichi). r
The first crop (the profichi) began t6 appear as small , buttons
in December. They increased very slowly at first during the winter,
but toward spring they became quickly larger, and in March they
had reached the size in which they were caprificated. They then
varied between the size of a pea and a hazelnut. In June and July,,
according to locality and season, these first-crop figs are fully mature,
and are then used for caprification. These first-crop figs (the profichi)
were situated on the old wood — the wood of the previous year. In
23740— No. 9—01 6
80 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
this they differed from the second, or mammoni, which mature on the
wood of the same year.
The second crop (the mammoni) began to set in June and became
mature in August. It appeared as buttons on the green wood and
matured while this wood was yet green. It was the only crop which
did not pass the winter. The purpose of the second crop is to furnish
wasps for the third crop (or mamme), which passes the winter on the
trees, and to furnish seeds.
To recapitulate, we find that the first crop (or profichi) passes the
winter as very minute buttons on the old wood and matures the fol-
lowing summer. The second crop (or mammoni) begins and matures
the same season, and passes its entire existence during the sum-
mer. The third crop (or the mamme) passes the winter as large figs
(hence the name), fully developed or almost fully developed, and its figs
are the first of the caprifigs to mature in the spring. The third and first
crops are thus both found on the old wood. The second crop alone
begins and matures on the green wood.
A perfect caprifig tree must possess an overlapping of crops. If any
crop should fail, it would be fatal to the wasps living in the figs, unless
they had figs in other trees in which to breed.
In the best Smyrna varieties the various crops of the caprifig are
confined to distinct trees, which again have received distinct names.
The trees which bear the winter crop, boghadhes, are known as '*orgi-
nos boghadhes," while those trees which bear the spring crop, or ash-
madhes, are known as '*orginos ashmadhes."
The winter crop, or the orginos boghadhes, seldom contains any male
flowers and pollen. This tree may, however, have an earlier crop
which bears male flowers.
The orginos ashmadhes, again, which produce the figs used for cap-
rification, which crop is the first crop, or the ashmadhes, do, as a
rule, never possess any other crop. It will therefore be seen that in
order to possess a complete succession of crops of the caprifig we must
either cultivate varieties which bear several crops on the same tree, or,
if we grow the Smyrna * ' orginos," we must have both the boghadhes and
the ashmadhes trees. The former breed the first crop of blastophagas ;
the ashmadhes again breed the second crop of blastophagas from eggs
laid by the wasps hatching from the boghadhes.
As the boghadhes or winter crop and the ashmadnes or spring crop
in Smyrna are often produced on different trees, it will be seen that either
we must have both of these trees in the same orchard, or we must
caprificate the trees bearing only one crop. The latter plan is adopted
in Smyrna, where only orginos ashmadhes are cultivated. The reason
of this is that comparatively few boghadhes or mamme are required
for the caprification of the ashmadhes or profichi, while an enormous
quantity of ashmadhes is necessary for the caprification of the edible
figs. It is easier to bring in the few boghadhes required from the
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG.
81
hills than to cultivate them. Besides, the trees bearing the boghadhes
generally grow in frost-free places in the hills, the frost in the orchards
being apt to kill both the figs and the wasps.
Names of the crops, — In order to avoid misunderstandings, the
various crops are given distinct names in all foreign countries where
fig culture is prominent. The crops of the caprifig, which not always
correspond with the crops of the edible figs, are named differently.
The following table will give a clearer idea of these names. As the
English language has no suitable names for the various crops of the
caprifig and the fig, I propose that we, for the eai*ly first crop of edible
figs, adopt the Spanish name *'brebas," and that we simply call the
second crop of edible figs ''figs," or autumn figs. For the caprifig I
believe we can do no better than adopt the nomenclature of the German
specialists who now use the Neapolitan names profichi, mammoni,
and mamme. Br. L. O. Howard^ questions the existence of three dis-
tinct crops of figs. This question is not yet settled, and while it may
prove botanically correct to refer to the crops as only two — figs which
attain their full size on the old wood, and figs which attain their full
size in the axillaries of the leaves — still it certainly is horticulturally
convenient to speak of the fig crops as if they were three distinct
ones, even if the three crops are not always found on the same tree.
Names of various crops of edible Jigs {Ficus carica L, ) .
First crop ( April-
August) .
Second crop (June-
August).
Late (November).
France .
Italy ...
Spain
Portugal..
Morocco ..
Eabylia...
Algiers
Venice
Greece
California
Latin
Nigoise
Fignes - fleurs or Flo-
rones.
Fiori. Fichi primattici
Fioroni.
Brebas
Figoslampos
Bukor ,
Ourgalen and bakour . . .
Boccore
Bolos
Prodromoi, ornos
Brebas
Qrossi
Figaflou
Figues d'automne; Fignes ordinaire; Figues an-
tomnales.
Pedagnuoli; Forniti.
Higos
Figos vendimos
Karmus
Akerkouch
Eermez or kermouse .
Fornites
Figs, summer figs .
Forniti
Oustinchi
Cimaruoli.
Azoubzeg, inir^m.
Autumn figs.
Names of the caprifig and its various crops (Ficus carica L,)»
Caprifig tree.
First crop
(October-
June).
Second crop
(June- August).
Third crop
France
Capriflguier
Italy
Capriflco
Caprahigo
Profichi
Mammoni .
Mamme.
Spam
Portugal
Arabic Spain
Fico de toca
Obzakar
G reece
Orni
Fornites
Cratitirea.
Kabylia ..
Doukkar
Morocco
Tokkar .. .
Malta
Tokar
Tokar tanoss..
Tokar tayeb . . .
Tokar leoul.
Ancient Greece
Olynthoy.
Asia Minor
Hick, or orginos
Caprifig.
Ashmadhes . .
Boghadhes.
California
Profichi
Mammoni.. —
Mamme.
' Smyua Fig Culture in United States.
v^
82 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
^ N^^ Characteristics of the various crops of the caprifig. — In the foivgo-
'7 ' ing it has already been pointed out that the various crops of the
• i ^ caprifig differ from one another in several respects. Here it is only
'y*^ c*' ^^^^^s^^y ^^ generalize. The profichi form in autumn, remain on
v/ s"^ the trees over winter, and come to maturity in June and July. This
A v.;"V crop contains many male flowers and gall flowers, but no true female
\^w flowers, as seeds have never been found in this crop. The time of
V maturity is June and July.
\y^^ The mammoni appear in June or earlier, and mature in July and
/ ^ r^August, according to climatic conditions. Thej^ contain both male
^\^ >^ flowers and female flowers, and a large number of gall flowers. The
i^vptjCjnamme or wintering figs produce male flowers and numerous gall
^ y^ ^^^flowers, but no female flowers. The female flowers are thus found
^^^^^^^^>^only in the mammoni.
V^ V^ The various crops of the caprifig do not always succeed each other
^^^"V^ continuously. There is frequently a lapse of time between the falling
\f V- Vy^f the profichi and the appearance of the mammoni/ No account has
p y^ here been taken of the female caprifig tree, as yet almost unknown.
Characteristics of the crops of the edible jig. — As to the edible figs
the different crops are different in size, quality, fiavor, sweetness, and
s^ \j. sometimes in color. The first crop, the fiori, figues-fleurs, figos lam-
pas, brebas, etc., are ja rge fi gs, n ot very sw eet, bu t pulpy a nd lus-
sT^ \^j"^ d^io^^sfor eating fresh, and they are highly prized on that account.
. ^ V ^^ The different names given to these large figs indicate the value in
vV-*p^v which they are held. The differgaccLia cpnsidered so important that,
^t\^ for instance, in Spain and Mexico the common people will insist that
S'*'*>^ the *' brebas" are not figs. In California, however, no great distinc-
^ tion is made air to the three crops. When fig culture becomes as
'^^ -^ important here as it now is in Europe and Asia, names may be
required for the first crop of edible figs. We have already proposed
for the first crop the name ''brebas," now used in all Spanish-speak-
ing countries, breba meaning early.
A large number of figs do not produce any first crop or. brebas,
some give very few, and others again, like the San Pedro, produce
only brebas, the second crop only maturing any figs when it is
caprificated.
The second crop, known in France as "figues-ordinaires," in Spain
as ''Jiigos," in Portugal as "vendimos," an3~ln liinglish-speaking
countries oiily as **figs^ " need hereTTcr special reference. It is this
crop alone which is used for drying in Smyrna or in other foreign
fig-growing countries, as well as in Calffoi*nia. These figs are sweet
or very sweet, and, compared with the brebas, mueh^smaller in
size. In Italy a difference is made as to the first or lowest figs of the
second crop, which are called pedagnuoli or low figs, while the later
or upper figs on the same branches are considered less valuable and
are known as cimaruoli or top figs. In the edible figs the third crop
^^'s:-'
^ ^l^y ^ CAPKIFICATION OF THE FIG. 83
can not be said to exist as a separate crop, as the last figs are only
a continuation of the second crop. The fig tree often continues to
^ bear until frost sets in, or until the tree becomes otherwise dormant.
^^ Some fig varieties, like the Natalino, ripen their last figs in midwinter, ^^^^yy '
V^tN\if properly protected. ^^tjP^^^
^ ^^ If we compare the crops of the caprifig tree with those of the edible ^^^^j^^,^^^^,,^^
vJ' fig, we find that the first crop or profichi of the caprifigs correspond yY^^vrvv^
to the brebas of the edible figs, the mammoni of the caprifigs corre-
spond to the second crop of the edible figs, and the mamme of the
caprifigs to the winter figs of some of the edible kinds. The difference
is, however, that while the mamme come to maturity, the following
spring, the third crop or autumn figs mature, if at all, the same year.
The mamme correspond thus to the Italian cimaruoli or end figs, the
location of the figs being characteristic both in the caprifig and in
the edible fig. The mamme are so named on account of their large
size and swollen form — resembling mammaB or breasts.
POLLINATION.
Pollination is the process in which the pollen produced by the
anthers is placed on the stigma of the flowers. This process of
fecundation or pollination is necessary in order that the ovarj^ may
be fertilized and produce seed. The pollen grains, when ripe, appear
to the unaided eye as a fine dust, but under the microscope each
grain maj' be seen to be beautifully and characteristically sculp-
tured. These pollen grains are brought onto the stigma either b}'^
wind, transmitted by insects, or fall bj^ gravity. As soon as the
pollen grains are on the surface of the stigma — provided the lat-
ter is in proper receptive conditio n, neither too-old nor too young —
they begin at once to grow, sending out one or more pollen tubes,
like long roots, which penetrate through the style and, following
its canal, finally through the funnel-shaped opening in the ovule,
reaching the inner nucellus. The fertilization has then taken place,
and immediately afterwards changes take place in the ovule and
nucellus, which in short time lead to the production of a fertile seed.
As a rule we find that in the same flower the pollen grains and the
stigma are not fully developed at one and the same time. It is there-
fore evident that the pollen in a flower can not be useful for fertilizing
the ovary in the same flower. This is nature's remedy against self-
fertilization, requiring that the pollen be brought from some other
flower or from some other tree of the same kind. In the majority of
flowers the pollen can be transported from one flower to another only
by means of insects, and often the flowers are so peculiarly constructed
that only a certain kind of insect can reach the pollen, or, rather, can
reach the honey glands at the base of the anthers, as without the
presence of these glands the insects w^ould have no occasion to visit
the flowers, which in such a case would remain sterile.
84 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Nearly every flower we see in the field, and certainly every bright-
colored flower, requires the visit of some insect in order that its stigma
may be fertilized by the pollen which adhered to the insect when it
left the last flower visited. Thus the insects and the flowers stand in
close intimacy. The honey glands of the flowers furnish food for the
insects, which are attracted to the flowers by their size, color, or scent,
or by the odor of the honey. The insects pay for their visit and for
their meal by unknowingly carrying the pollen from one flower to
another — the insects are fed, the flowers pollinated. Only in very few
instances do the insects live and breed in the flowers. One such
instance is the fig, in which the Blastophaga wasp breeds and passes
nearly its whole life. Caprification is therefore nothing but a similar
pollination — one which, as regards the edible fig, is accomplished not
only by the aid of insects, but also by the help of man.
Among other plants which require help in pollination in order to
bear fruit or berries are certain varieties of strawberries, which pos-
sess only pistillate flowers. Such varieties will bear only when there
are other kinds present to supply the pollen. In order to accomplish
this pollination the horticulturist plants bisexual varieties alter-
nately among rows of the pistillate ones. The wind and insects then
carry the pollen from one variety to another, and pollination is accom-
plished. The flowers of the strawberry are open, and any insect almost
can effect the necessary transmission of pollen. If the strawberry
flowers had been Jiidden in a receptacle it would probably have been
necessary for the horticulturist to breed and supply the proper
insect. In caprification man furnishes these insects, the work con-
sisting in bringing them from the wild figs to the cultivated ones.
Another well-known, process of pollination by the aid of man is the
one practiced by the growers of the date palm. There are male trees
and female trees of the date. The former produce only pollen-bearing
flowers; the latter carry only seed or pistillate flowers. The process
of pollination of the date palm consists in bringing small bunches
of ripe pollen-bearing flowers to the top of the seed-bearing trees
and shaking the pollen over the bunches. The staminate flowers
are thus fertilized and the production of an abundant crop is assured.
If this process is not undertaken by the grower, only a small crop
would result, as insects and wind would fertilize only by chance and
only a few flowers would bring fruit. In caprification of the fig ma^
can not shake out the pollen on the flowers of the hg, because they
are covered up. He can only suspend the pollen-bearing figs in the
trees and let the Blastophaga wasps do the work of carrying the pol-
len through the eye of the fig to the female, or pistillate, figs. In
caprification, therefore, we need not only pollen-bearing figs, but we
require also an immense quantity of wasps to do the work of carrying
the poUeu. This complicates the process considerably, but in reality
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX.
Polleniferous Capri figs from a Caprifig tree from Dalmatia, grown at Niles, Cal.
Three of the Figs (figs. 1,3,6) are cut in order to show the floriferous cavity with
male-flowers and degenerate gall-flowers. (Photograph by Dr. P. S. Bruguiere.)
BUL. NO. 9, DIV. OF POMOLOGY, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE.
PLATE IX.
POLLENIFEROUS CAPRIFIGS: A DALMATIAN VARIETY.
THE MCLIOTYPE PftlNTINO CO., BOSTON.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X:.
Fig. 1, an Insectiferous Caprifig, Italian variety. Fig. 2, PoUeniferous Oaprifig from
the same tree cut in half. Fig. 3, a branch with two PoUeniferous Caprifigs from the
same tree as the tw^o last ones. Fig. 4, Insectiferous Caprifig, Italian variety, different
from last ones. All grown at Niles, Cal. (Photograph by Dr. P. S. Bruguiere.)
BUL. NO. 9, DIV. OF POMOLOGY, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE.
PLATE X.
INSECTIFEROUS CAPRIFIGS: ITALIAN VARIETIES.
THE HELIOTYPE PRINTINO CO., BOeTOW.
{'■-■■
r.- %
. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI.
Figs. 1, 2, Caprifig branch with a cut Insectiferous Fig, Dalmatian variety. Fig. 3,
a small mature Polleniferous Fig from the same tree. Fig. 4, a branch with two
Insectiferous Caprifigs not quite fully developed. Italian variety, grown at Niles,
Cal. (Photograph by Dr. P. S. Bruguiere.)
EUL. NO. 9, DIV. OF POMOLOGY, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE.
PLATE XI.
INSECTIFEROUS AND POLLENIFEROUS CAPRIFIGS:
DALMATIAN AND ITALIAN VARIETIES.
THE HELIOTYPE PRINTING CO., BOSTON.
DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII.
. Fig. 1, a branch with Polleniferous Caprifigs, Italian variety. Fig. 2, Insectiferous
Caprifig, from the same tree, cut in half in order to show the zone of gall-fiowers.
Fig. 3, a branch with one Insectiferous Caprifig and one Polleniferous fig, Italian
variety, grown at Niles, CaJ, (Photograph by Dr. P. S. Bruguiere.)
BUL. NO. 9, DIV. OF POMOLOGY, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE.
PLATE XII.
POLLENIFEROUS AND INSECTIFEROUS CAPRIFIGS: ITALIAN VARIETIES.
THE HFLIOTYFE PRINTING CO.. BOSTON.
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 86
its nature is the same. Every botanist understands fully the impor-
tance and nature of pollination, and we could multiply instances of
its practical necessity in horticulture.
POLLENIFEROUS AND INSECTIFEROUS CAPRIFIGS OR POLLEN-BEARING
AND INSECT-BEARING FIGS.
We have already stated that caprifigs require the presence of the
Blastophaga wasps in order to produce seeds, but in order to pro-
duce ripe pollen-bearing figs it seems that the wasps are not neces-
sary. A caprifig tree which is only partially caprificated possesses two
distinct kinds of figs, which differ both in size and form. Mr. E. A.
Schwarz, of the Division of Entomology of the Department of Agricul-
ture, at Washington, who studied this question at Fresno during the
summer of 1900, has named these respective figs, according to their
nature, poUeniferous and insectiferous — names which, as being emi-
nently suitable, will probably be generally adopted. Before caprifi-
cation has taken place — that is, before the new crop of wasps has
entered the small caprifigs — these two kinds of figs are of the same
size and form, generally the size of a large pea. But after the wasps
have entered certain of the figs a difference begins to appear between
those figs which have received the wasps and those which have not
been entered. This difference extends not only to the figs, but to the
branches bearing them. Thus all branches which bear caprificated
figs start to grow more vigorously than those which do not possess
caprificated figs. The latter remain puny, and even their leaves are
smaller than those of the caprificated branches. (PL X.) A single
caprificated or insectiferous fig will give character to the whole branch
on which it grows. The poUeniferous figs remain smaller and more
oblong, and soon assume a yellow color. They become soft and ap-
pear partly mature, and soon fall off at various stages of growth, not
remaining on the tree as long as the insectiferous figs. When cut
open, it is found that the central fioriferous cavity is comparatively
small, but contains a large number of pollen-bearing flowers, which
may or may not attain maturity. The meat is generally white or
yellowish, and no violet-colored zone surrounds the flowers. The meat
itself is soft and spongy, slightly moist, but rarely juicy. The gall
flowers are shrunken and diminutive.
The twigs bearing insectiferous figs are longer, thicker, and in
every way stronger. (Pis. X, XI, XII.) Each twig may contain
both insectiferous and poUeniferous flowers, a single one of the latter
being sufiRcient to impart an unusual vigor to the twig. This vigor
extends even to the leaves. The insectiferous fig is thicker, harder,
and of a deep green. It is also more round and turbinate and sticks
strongly to the twig. It has to be cut away and does not fall at the
touch as the poUeniferous figs do. The exterior is coarser and the
86 THE fig: its histoby, culture, and cubing.
ribs strongly marked. If such insectiferous fig is cut through it is
found that its meat is hard and peculiarly ^lid and possessed of a
more or less thick but always distinctly violet-colored zone immedi-
ately surrounding the flowers. The flower core is much larger than
in the jwUeniferous figs. The male flowers are strongly developed and
so is the zone bearing the gall flowers, several hundreds of which may
contain Blastophagse in some stage of development. The inhabited
gall flowers are readily recognized by their plumpness and size, and
when in an advanced stage of development the dark shade indicates
that the wasp is near its final size and may be expected soon to issue
from its confinement.
This distinction between the insectiferous and the poUeniferous
caprifigs is of great practical importance to the horticulturist, as it
enables him to readily recognize the one kind from the other. It is
only the insectiferous caprifigs which are used in caprification. The
poUeniferous figs which do not contain BlastophagaB are useless in
caprification, and should accordingly not be suspended in the Smyrna
fig trees.
The above descriptions and notes were made from caprifigs grown
by Mr. John Rock at Nlles, Cal.
THE FIG AND THE CAPRIFIG.
It is now generally conceded that the edible fig is in some way
descended from the caprifig.^ The capriflg is the wild fig of the
Mediterranean region, though its original home must be searched
for in the mountain regions of southern Arabia. From its original
habitat the caprifig tree was spread by cultivation, or at least by trans-
plantation to other districts, and finding suitable conditions, soon
established itself as a wild tree in the forests and mountains of the
respective countries suitable to multiplication through seedlings. It
is now generally known to botanists that the caprifig carries figs which
contain three distinct kinds of flowers — male, female, and gall flowers —
all in- the same fruit, as will be described later on. But, besides, it is also
known^ that there exists also a caprifig tree which bears mammoni
which possess only pistillate and gall flowers, though trees of this kind
are comparatively very rare. Cuttings taken from either one of these
' Both varieties are known as Fitms carica Linnaens, and belong to the same
botanical species.
^ Pontedera, p. 175. This female tree he calls Erinosyce. Qallesio also men-
tions snch tree under the name of Fico semi-mula, bnt it is uncertain if he himself
has seen it. A somewhat similar form of the caprifig is described by Solms-
Laubach, p. 35, as having grown wild in a garden at Chiaja; near Naples. As all,
or at least nearly all, other fig species which have been particularly described pos-
sess such an exclusively female form, it is more than likely that Pontedera*s
description is correct. Miiller and Solms-Laubach assume that the edible fig is the
female tree and the caprifig the male tree, which 1 can only understand to mean
that the edible fig is descended from the female tree.
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 87
trees would produce only its kind, though seedlings might produce
both kinds, but probably the majority of the offspring would be like
the pjarent.tree.
Through cultivation and selection by man numerous types of the
caprifig tree have been originated, though they are not at present
well understood or described. The Italian botanist Pontedera, and
after him Gallesio, were the first to mention this fact, and although
other botanists have neglected to verify and through observations
enlarge upon Pontedera's and Gallesio's reports, we have no good
reason to doubt that their ideas were in the main correct. Gallesio
describes^ the purely female tree of the caprifig as '^Fico semi-mida.^^
In general he recognizes among the caprifig the following types :
Fico selvdggio, or common wild caprifig, with two or three crops a
year.
Fico delta natura, the original wild caprifig, with only one crop a
year, this crop developing during the summer and ripening in the
fall.2
Fico mostro^ all caprifigs which bear no fruit or which drop all their
figs while they are yet young; also trees in which only the male
flowers arrive at development.
Fico rauUiy with female flowers, which do not develop fertile seed,
and which, as he expresses himself, become pomologically but not
botanically ripe.
Fico semi-mula, with no male and with only female flowers, which,
when pollinated, become botanically ripe, and consequently also
I)omologically ripe. This fig is undoubtedly the female tree of the
caprifig. From the descriptions of the other kind we may at least
conclude that there exist numerous races or variations among the
caprifigs.
At present we possess in California about a dozen varieties of capri-
figs, differing from one another very much in the ^ame way as do the
varieties described above, as well as in other minor points, such as
variations in leaves, size and color of fruit, time of maturity, number
of crops, etc. Several of these varieties are necessary in every fig
orchard where caprification must be practiced. The importance of
growing several different varieties of caprifigs in one orchard can not
be overestimated, as it will certainly be found that one variety which
will be suitable in one place will be a failure in another; besides, some
varieties bear only one or two crops of figs, while three crops are nec-
essary. Home-raised seedlings should therefore be resorted to, as they
are likely to produce varieties suitable to the locality where they are
^ Gallesio, p. 46. Solms-Lanbach doubts the correctness of these descriptions
and calls them most artificial, p. 83.
* According to Solms-Laubach, there is absolutely no foundation for this descrip-
tion, p. 33.
23740— No. 9—01 7
88 THK fig: its history, culture, and curing.
to be grown. The principal feature of a good caprifig orchard is
that there should always be figs of a proper size to receive the wasps
whenever they hatch out. If such figs are wanting the wasps will
die, as they can not live for any length of time outside of the fig. There
must be a crop of caprifigs for every crop of Blastophaga wasps. The
female wasps are fertilized before they leave their galls in the figs,
and are immediately ready to lay their eggs in young caprifigs. The
failures experienced in California in establishing Blastophaga colonies
on the caprifig trees growing there were partly due to lack of figs of
proper size. The wasps were brought over from Asia Minor without
any difliculty, but upon their arrival the caprifigs possessed only large
figs, none of the size suitable for the wasps to breed in. The fact that
some caprifigs do not produce any fertile seeds, although they have
both perfect male and female flowers, results from the fact that, as in
the edible fig the male flowers shed their pollen first long after the
female flowers have passed their state of receptivity. Such caprifigs
must be caprificated, just as edible figs, in order to produce seeds.
THE FIG.
The fruit which we call a fig is really not one single fruit, but a large
number of fruits (or flowers) placed on a common receptacle. The
flg itself is this receptacle, and in its interior are seen the small fruits
or the flowers if the ^g is unripe.
If we cut open a fig lengthwise we see first, exteriorly, a fleshy,
homogeneous mass, the receptacle proper, inclosing a central hollow,
which connects with the outside through a narrow passage at the eye.
Lining this central hollow on the inner surface of the receptacle are
seen an almost innumerable quantity of small, apparently similar
flowers, which are fleshy, of even size, and a little deformed, and
which apparently onl}^ slightly resemble flowers with which we are
generally, acquainted. These are, however, the true flowers of the
fig. They fill the whole interior surface of the receptacle, except close
to and at the "eye," where they are replaced by scales or small leaf-
lets, which latter interlock and form a thatched obstruction in the
throat of the fig. This is generally the appearance of the fruit of the
common or edible fig tree.
The wild fig or caprifig is somewhat differently constructed, a dif-
ference, however, which is of the utmost importance and interest.
In the caprifig we find, besides the scales at the eye and in the
throat, not less than three different and distinct flowers covering the
interior of the receptacle — male, female, and gall flowers. The male
flowers occupy the place nearest below the scales of the throat, while
the lower parts of the receptacle are fllled with gall flowers and a few-
female flowers. The proportion of tliese flowers is different in the
different crops of the flgs. The hibernating ''mamme" or third crop
possesses male flowers and many gall flowers, but no female flowers.
CAPRIFTCATION OF THE FIG.
89
The first crop or *'profichi" has both male flowers and gall flowers,
but no female flowers. The second crop or the * ' mammoni " alone
possesses both female flowers and gall flowers. There are, however,
exceptions to this rule, but this proportion is the most common one and
is generally constant. There is also a purely female plant of the wild
caprifig which possesses mammoni with only female flowers, but this
plant is as yet almost unknown. It has already been mentioned that
this form was flrst described by Pontedera.^ The different crops of
the flg will be more minutely described presently.
If we consider the flg pomologicall}^ it will be seen that, as it is
principally the receptacle that is eaten, the various flowers found in
the fig often detract from the value of the ^^, as they are never as
juicy as the receptacle part. Especially is this the case with the male
flowers, which are never edible; and whenever they occur they must
be cut awa}^ before eating.
THE MALE FLOWERS.
The male or staminate flowers of the caprifig are, as just stated,
situated immediately below the throat of the fig, variously occupying
from one-half to two-thirds of the space in the receptacle. (See fig. 9.)
Fig. ».— Caprifig from Smyrna growing at Niles, John Eock orchard: <t, ftg cut through from
stalk to eye; 6, c, male flowers; J, gall flower.
The flowei^s, though small and sometimes somewhat irregular, are
still perfect. They possess four petals, generally shorter than the
anthers, and shorter than those of the female flowers. Inside these
petals are seen four stamens carrying larger pollen-producing or
pollen-bearing anthers.
In the first crop these stamens attain their full development in
the months of June or July, according to locality, or about two months
after the time that the female flowers have reached their perfection
in the same fig/ It is evident, therefore, that in usual cases the pollen
* The female tree of the fig was first scientifically described by Solms-Laubach in*
species from Java. See his Die Gescblechtesdifferenzirnng der Feigenbaumen.
90
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
from the anthers can not fertilize or pollinate the female flowers in
the same fig. Their function is to pollinate the female flowers of the
succeeding crop. Thus the pollen from the first crop or "profichi"
pollinates the '' mammoni" or second crop, the female flowei^s of which
are in their prime and receptive at a time when the pollen of the
profichi is ripe. The pollen in the profichi is very abundant, of a
pale yellow color, resembling a flowery yellow powder, which may
easily be taken out and collected without injury to its vital qualities.
The above refers only to the caprifig, or, if we wish to be more dis-
tinct, to the male tree of the caprifig. The edible fig, as cultivated
in our orchards, does not x>ossess any male flowers,^ except in extremely
rare cases, as will be mentioned- below. (See fig. 10.)
The anthers in the male flowers are not always properly developed.
This is especially the case in seedlings raised from Smyrna ^g seeds,
which originated from a pollination with the caprifig. Such seedlings
do not all possess male flowers; those that do are more or less similar
Fig. 10.— Seedling fig raised by the author from capriflcated Smyrna figs: a, fig cut in half,
showing interior cavity with male and gall flowers; b, male flower; c, gall flower; d, e, stamens
with anthers.
to the caprifig flowers, the anthers frequently being as well developed
as in the real wild ^g,^
FEMALE FLOWERS.
In the caprifig, female flowers have been found with certainty only
in the second crop or mammon i. In this crop alone have fertile seeds
been found, but always in very small quantities, hardly more than
one fertile seed in every fig.^ In the edible figs perfect female flowers
capable of producing developed embryos are more common. Gen-
erally it has been supposed that all flowers found in the edible figs
* As will be seen ia a different place, so far only a very few exceptions have been
noted, among them the Cordelia fig in Solano County. Cal., and the Croisic fig,
growing at the mouth of the Loire River in France. See Solms-Laubach, i, p. 14.
^French authors general y describe the caprifig male flowers as having only
three petals, which is an error, undoubtedly originated by describing the figure in
**De Breuil," where the figure of the male flower is erroneously drawn.
8 Solms-Laubach, i, p. 11, found only twenty fertile seeds in forty caprifigs (mam-
moni). Gasparrini, i, p. 328.
CAPBIFICATION OF THE FIG.
91
stMma.
a h
Fig. 11.— a. Female figr flower with perfect stigma;
6, gall flower with imperfect and greatly shortened
stigma, adapted to the use of the wasp. From cap-
riflg.
were female flowers capable of producing fertile seeds. But this is
undoubtedly not the case.
All flowers of the edible figs
in a general way resemble the
female flowers, but, as will
shortly be demonstrated, they
are not all alike, but differ in
the various crops and in dif-
ferent varieties. (See figs. 11,
12.)
In the second crop of the
genuine Smyrna figs nearly
all flowers are perfectly de-
veloped female flowers, which
only require pollination in
order to bring fertile seed.
This appears also to be the
case in San Pedro and other
figs, which regularly drop their second-crop figs. As far as micro-
scopical structure is concerned their flowers are entirely similar to
those in the genuine Smyrna figs. That- com-
mon edible figs possess at least some female
flowers is clearly demonstrated by the finding
of fertile seed in many such figs in localities
where caprifigs are grown spontaneously. But
the small quantity of seeds found in common
figs indicates that the quantity of perfect female
flowers is small.
In places where caprifigs are not growing
wild — that is, where they are not growing spon-
taneously from seed, it is very difficult to decide
whether a flower is a true female flower or not,
and the only practical way to ascertain it is to
pollinate it and await the results of fertilization.
A wild caprifig always indicates that pollination
is taking place through the agency of wasps, as
even the caprifig will not propagate itself spon-
taneously from seed and become wild without
their agency, as the pollen can not be transferred
by the wind either to the female flowers of the
caprifig or the edible fig.
As regards the structure of the female flowers,
some slight variation is noticeable. The petals
are generally four in number, but sometimes
three or five. According to Solms-Laubach, the number is quite vari-
able within the above limits, but, according to my own observations.
Fio. 12.— a, Perfect female
fig flower from second
crop San Pedro; 6, its re-
ceptive stigma. The sec-
ond crop of San Pedro
matures only after cap-
riflcation.
92 THE fig: its history, cultuee, and curing.
four is the most constant number. In size the petals vary somewhat,
one pair often being a little longer than the other, and all four are
always longer than the petals of the male flowers. All are more or
less fleshy, and sometimes they are furnished with short hairs at the
margin. In the center, between these petals, projects a single pistil,
enlarged at the base, forming the ovary. The central part is elon-
gated two or three times more than the ovary. This part is the
style. The upper part of the style is bent and funnel-shaped, often,
or perhaps generally, divided, one projection of the stigma being
longer than the other. With a high-magnifying lens the margin and
upper surface of the stigma are seen to consist of a layer of minute
glands, of a warty appearance, while from the centner of the stigmatic
funnel there extends downward a narrow canal or lumen, which passes
through the whole length of the style and down through one side of
the ovary, here bending upward and touching the very embryo.
When the female flowers are receptive — that is, when they are in con-
dition to receive the pollen from the male flowers — these glands become
greatly swollen and somewhat glossy, of a green or light-green color,
which, after the receptive stage is passed, changes to a bright brown.
The inner surface of figs in such a stage is seen to be spotted brown
when cut open. The stigma attains its receptivity long before the
male flowers are ripe in the same flg receptacle. This difference in
the maturity of the flowers makes it impossible for the female flowers
to be fertilized or pollinated by the male flowers of the same fig.
Thus the female flowers of the mammoni can be pollinated only by
the male flowers of the preceding crop — the profichi.
The crops of the edible figs correspond in a general way with those
of the caprifig. Thus when the male flowers of the profichi are ripe,
and at a time when the other flowers in this fig had passed their
prime months before, the female flowers of the second-crop Smyrna
figs have just attained the state of receptivity. They can therefore
be pollinated by the male flowers of the profichi of the caprifigs. The
time for this pollination is June or July, according to climatic condi-
tions, in various countries. This rule as to the difference in time of
ripening of the male and female flowers in the capriflg holds also
good in the few instances where male flowers have been found in the
edible figs. Hence the impossibility of the female flowers in our
edible fig being fertilized by the pollen of the male flowers immedi-
ately above them. It is only the female flowers of the following crop
that could thus be impregnated by the pollen. Female flowers occur
in large numbers in the Smyrna varieties and in the first crop of such
figs as the Adriatic, which do not mature this crop without caprification.
THE GALL FLOWERS.
The gall flowers, which occur in abundance in all caprifigs of all
crops, are in reality nothing else than female flowers which have been
transformed in order to accommodate the requirements of a small
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 93
wasp — the Blastophaga grossorum. These gall flowers do not produce
seed, though in general aspect they resemble the female flower.
The petals in the gall flowers are smaller and more unequal in size.
The chief difference, however, between these flowers and the female
flowers is found partly in the style of the pistil, which is not so elon-
gated as in the female flowers, and partly in the stigma, which is very
much smaller and entirely wanting the glands on its upper surface.
The gall flowers can not be pollinated, or, if they are, the pollen does
not develop pollen tubes, nor does the embryo or egg in the lower
parts or ovary become fertile. A comparison of the figures of the gall
flowers and female flowers will show the points of difference and
resemblance. (See figs. 13 and 15.)
While it is true that the gall flowers do not produce seed, it is a
fact that they develop to a certain extent if punctured by the wasp, or,
more correctly, if the egg of the Blastophaga wasp has been properly
deposited. They then develop into galls — that is, the lower part of
the stigma swells up and the
integuments of the embryo
sac harden, forming a glossy
and brittle covering as a pro-
tection for the larv8B of the
wasp.
Those gall flowers which
are not thus wounded by the
Blastophaga egg do not de-
'velop any further, but at once fig. 13.-SeedUng from seed of imported Smyrna
wither and shrink up. Gall *«» raised by E. W. MasUn. cut May 15, 1883: a,
rm xf ^ * 11 *i^ longitudinal section of fig; b, gall flower; c, male
flowers are found m all wild- flower.
fig species, though in some
species their nature is not apparent until the egg of the Blastop*iaga iias
been laid. In the edible fig no gall flowers have been found with cer-
tainty; at least the Blastophaga wasp, for whose special benefit these
gall flowers seem to have originated, has never been found breeding in
the edible figs. It has been supposed that the cause of this was to be
found in the sugary juices of the edible fig, which killed the eggs or
embryo of the wasps, but I am satisfied that this is not exactly true.
Many varieties of wild-fig species produce very sweet fruits, edible
and quite palatable, and still these figs serve as homes for Blastopha-
gas. The cause of the inability of the wasp to breed in common figs
must be sought for elsewhere, and, as I will presently point out, is
due to the fact that the edible figs contain only fiowers modified to such
an extent that they are unsuitable as breeding places for the wasps.
The gall fiowers are characterized by a much shorter style, by an
undeveloped stigma devoid of receptive glands, and by an imperfect
embryo which never develops to more than a certain limited degree.
The discovery of the distinction between gall fiowers and female
flowers is due to Solms-Laubach..
94
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Pig. 14.— Mule flowers from the first crop, San Pedro. This
crop matures without capriflcation.
Until his researches were made known it was supposed that the
female flowers turned into galls when stnng by the wasps. He
again proved that the
distinction existed inde-
pendent of the wasi)8,
which, however, select
the peculiar gall flow-
ers as the onlj^ . ones
suitable to receive their
eggs.
MULE FLOWKRS.
Under this name I ar-
range the majority of
the flowers of that class
of edible-fig varieties
which mature their figs
regularly without the presence of the caprifig and its pollen. These
flowers are, as far as I know, not
found in the caprifig, nor in any
other wild-fig species. They are un-
doubtedly a product of culture and
must be considered either as modi-
fied gall flowers (figs. 14, 15), which,
bereft of the Blastophaga influence,
have partially regained their original
structure, but which, just on that
account, have lost the capability of
producing galls; or they may be con-
sidered as degenerated female flowers
which have lost their fecundity by
inertion — in other words, by not be-
ing pollinated for age^, so to say —
in the same way that many culti-
vated flowers have degenerated. I
am inclined to consider the latter as
the more probable, though at pres-
ent no direct proof can be given.
That the great majority of the flow-
ers in our edible figs (except the
Smyrna race) are diiferent from the
true female fiowers, both in struc-
ture and nature, is undoubted,
whether we assign as a cause one or the other of the above theo-
ries. These mule flowers never reach any botanical maturity, and
Fig. 15.— Five andeveloped mole flowers
and two developed mule flowers from
the second crop of Adriatic flgs. This
crop develops without capriflcation.
OAPBIFIOATION OF THE FIG. 95
are really something halfwaj'^ between the true female flower and the
true gall flower.
The mule flowers are characterized by an imperfect stigma, by a
style in length intermediate between that of the gall flower and the
female flower, by an imperfect embryo, and by the propertj'' of becom-
ing fleshy, sweet, and edible without pollination. I have so far not
found any in the Smyrna figs, comparatively few in the second crop
of the San Pedro class, but almost exclusively occurring in the first
crop of this class. The stigma of the mule flowers has no developed
glands on its upper surface and is not receptive.
MALE FLOWERS IN EDIBLE FIGS.
It has f requentlj^ been stated that male flowers are not found in
edible figs, and this must be considered as a rule. However, there
are some exceptions to this rule, and as they are of great intei*est, if
not to the grower at least to the student, it may be proper to mention
the subject somewhat more in detail.
The male flower of the fig was for a long time un Known to botanists,
and, strangely enough, it was first described from specimens found in
the edible fig. The male flower of the fig was first described by the
prominent botanist La Hire, in the year 1714, from figs grown in Paris
either under glass or in the open ground.* Unfortunately, La Hire
does not give particulars as to the variety from which the flowers
were taken, and it is not even certain that La Hire got his flowers
from the edible fig. Another variety of edible fig which regularly
produces seed is the " Croisic," cultivated in the vicinity of the ocean
bathing place Croisic, on the coast of Brittany, in the department of
Loire Inferieure. This fig has been mentioned by Solms-Laubach,^
and described as being green wlien ripe, with white or pale pulp, very*
juicy and sweet, but with poor aroma. The male flowers occupy the
same place and distribution as in the profichi of the caprifig. The
place they occupy on the receptacle ripens less perfectly than the
balance of the fig, and remains always somewhat hard and dry, gen-
erally to such an extent that it becomes necessary to remove that part
of the fig before eating.
' Another somewhat similar edible fig was observed by the same
author as cultivated at Cherbourg, in France; also on the Atlantic
coast. The male flowers in this fig were, however, degenerated or
improperly developed. The finder of these figs believes them to be
only highly developed caprifigs which have become edible. He is
even tempted to trace their introduction to France to the time when
* La Hire, p. 287. Bnt Colin Milne was the first one to point out that the
cultivated figs contained no male flowers— only what he supposed to be female
flowers. (1770.) See Milne's dictionary, article **Caprification.'
^Solms-Lanbach, i, p. 14.
96 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
the Phoenician traders extended their ocean voyages to the northern
coast of France — a time when supposedly the common edible figs were
yet in a semiwild or undeveloped condition.
THE CORDELIA FIQ AND THE ERINOCYCE.
The only certain instance of male flowers having been found in an
edible fig in California is that which I am about to mention.
In July, 1893, 1 found a box of figs in the market of San Francisco,
marked as having come from Cordelia, in Solano County, containing
very large yellow figs, a size larger than our largest Adriatic. Upon
opening these figs I found every one with a fully developed zone of
male flowers, fully ripe, and with an abundant, perfectly developed
pollen. In other respects the figs resembled very much the Italian
Gentile, which is now also growing in California in various localities.
These figs belonged to a distinct variety and were propagated as table
figs, though the dry zone of male flowers greatly detracted from the
quality of the fig. The fig was juicy and very sweet. It is not
impossible that this fig is identical with the Croisic fig described by
Solms-Laubach, and that it was brought here by settlers from Croisic,
in France.
It may be stated that both myself and Mr. E. W. Maslin, of Cali-
fornia, have raised seedlings of Smyrna figs. Some of those raised
by the latter came to partial maturity at least, and contained male
flowers in greater or lesser abundance. Such figs, however, must be
considered as improved caprifigs — improved by being raised from
seed of Smyrna figs. The Cordelia and Croisic figs are probably
descendants from the male caprifig, having retained the male flowers,
while they also have developed sweetness and juiciness to a greater
degree than their wild parents. It is hardly to be expected that these
figs will develop perfect seeds without the aid of the Blastophaga, as
it is probable that they, as other figs, will bring their male and female
flowers to perfection at widely diiferent times; in other words, that
when their female flowers will be receptive their male flowers will
not yet have developed their pollen.
It must be clearly understood that edible figs possessing male flow-
ers are inferior to those which do not possess any, and the presence
of male flowers is without any value from a horticultural point of
view. The Blastophaga can not live in those figs, because they do
not possess perfect gall flowers; the pollen can not be utilized for
pollination or caprification, because there is no practical way of getting
it out of the fig and onto the flowers of the next crop; and finally, such
figs are inferior for eating, as the male zone is dry and not eatable.
The fig known as Erinocyce is of great scientific interest, though
not horticulturally valuable. Pontedera was the first to describe
and name this rare variety. It is characterized as standing half-
way between the caprifig and the edible fig. Its first crop possesses
CAPRIFIOATION OF THE FIG. 97
male flowers as well as gall flowers with inquilines or wasps. This
crop is not edible. The second crop contains perfect female flowers.
Solms-Laubach, who has had opportunity to observe the mammoni or
second crop of this fig, states that the mammoni possessed both female
flowers with perfect embryos and gall flowers with wasps. This flg
does not seem to be related to the Croisic or Cordelia figs.
In the caprifig we have three kinds of flowers: Male flowers, which,
on account of the time of ripening of the pollen, can pollinate only
female flowers of the succeeding crop; female flowers, which produce
seed, but which, on account of the early time at which they are recep-
tive, can be pollinated only by the pollen of the preceding crop; gall
flowers, which resemble the female flowers, but which are at no time
receptive, and which serve no other purpose than breeding places for
the Blastophaga wasp. .The female flowers of the caprifig are found
only in the second crop or mammoni. The object of this restriction
of nature is due to the fact that it is this crop alone which falls to the
ground at a time when, on account of climatic conditions, seeds could
germinate. The profichi as well as the mamme fall during the dry
season, when no seeds would find the proper moisture to germinate.
VARIOUS KINDS OF MATURITY.
In the fig we can distinguish between botanical and pomological
maturity. Gallesio was the first one to make the distinction, which
is here adopted, somewhat modified, as being of particular use in
demonstrating the nature of the fig. We find that some or most edible-
fig varieties set and mature their figs without pollination, but that,
as a consequence, such figs contain no perfect flowers with fertile
embryos. This state of maturity may be called pomological maturity,
as it does not necessarily require the botanical perfection of the flow-
ers. Pomological maturity is attained by the great majority of edible
flgs, and is probably an inheritance from the caprifig, which becomes
similarly pomologically mature. This pomological maturity is not
necessarily accompanied by any botanical maturity, as, fpr instance,
is proven by our California figs, which never contain any fertile
seed unless caprificated.^
I'he other kind of maturity may be called botanical maturity, as it
requires the flowers to be perfectly developed, with perfect embryos,
in order that the fruit may set and become also pomologically mature.
If the fruit is edible or cultivated as a fruit, the pomological maturity
will always be eifected by the botanical maturity. The Smyrna figs
can only attain pomological maturity by first being botanically
1 The fact that one tree has been fonnd which produces male flowers, and accord-
ing to the finder also seed, does not in the least detract from this theory. The
Cordelia fig, as well as the Croisic fig, must be considered as a modified caprifig
which has not yet lost its male flowers.
► 98 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
vy!V-\mature. But nearly all other figs become pomologically ripe without
^^)C^ necessarily or generally being botanically ripe. Other figs again, like
J^ s.^^xjthe San Pedro, produce a pomologically ripe first crop, but the second
s/' S^ crop, which possesses perfect female flowers, does not become pomo-
'^ jNj\y. V\ogically ripe, and can become botanically ripe only by pollination.
Th e pomological ma turity usually indicate s and implies a long -con-
tinued cultivatio n of the frui t by man, and relates chiefly to culti-
vated fruits. Among other fruits besides the fig which attain pomo-
logical maturity without botanical maturity at the same time we may
mention some varieties of dates, one variety of pomegranate, the seed-
less orange, many apples and pears, the common edible banana, the
pepino solanum of Central and South America, seedless grapes, and
a number of other fruits and vegetables in which the seeds afre
abortive and have become so partly through the continued asexual
propagations of the plant and partly from other causes. Botanical
maturity is attained by all fruits which produce perfect seed, and if
the fruit is edible it is also pomologically mature.
But it must be remembered that the fruits here enumerated as
attaining pomological maturity are in general such as have been
developed from pollinated flowers. Few other fruits than the fig are
known to develop without previous pollination. The development of
the common edible-fig receptacle must therefore be considered some-
what in the same light as the maturity and development reached by
a tuber, or by the stems of the sugar cane, etc. Pomological maturity
merely indicates that the fruit becomes edible, while botanical- matur-
ity means that the fruit has developed fertile seeds.
SEEDS IN SMYRNA FIGS.
We have already several times referred to the fact that all edible
figs may be divided into two distinct classes or types — one which
when ripe does not necessarily contain fertile seeds and one which
can not become ripe without also containing fertile seeds, as otherwise
it would not be ripe or mature. There are also other differences.
The Smyrna figs belong to the latter class, and they always contain
ripe and fertile seeds.
But as the cultivated Smyrna fig never contains any male flowers,
and as caprification with the wild fig is always resorted to in order to
cause the figs to mature, it is evident that the seeds thus produced
must, when growing, give us hybrid plants — plants which more or
less partake of both parents, the wild as well as the Smyrna fig.
Artificial pollination of figs is no new or remarkable discovery.
Gasparrini relates how ^ he repeatedly introduced the pollen of the
* Gasparrini, 1. c, under point No. 8. He says he impregnated artificially thirty
flower heads on a Lardaro fig by introducing into the aperture the pollen of the
caprifig. In California this experiment was first tried in 1890 by Mr. G. C.
Roeding.
CAPBIFICATION OF THE FIO. 99
3aprifig into edible figs, especially of the Lardaro variety. BBt his
pollination produced no decided results. No increase in the num-
ber of fertile seeds was noticed, either because the flowers of the
Lardaro variety were principally mule flowers, on which the pollen
could have no effect, or because the female flowers had all been pre-
viously pollinated. From this Gasparrini draws the illogical con-
clusion, repeatedly quoted by later writers, that the caprifig is of a
species different from the edible fig; that its pollen can not influence or
fecundate the female flowers of the edible fig, and that consequently
the practice of caprification is illusionary and of no value whatever.
Gasparrini did not know of the class of figs which I have designated
as the Smyrna type, and which, unlike any other class, produces
principally receptive female flowers, which do not produce seed with-
out the aid of pollen from the caprifig. Had Gasparrini had oppor-
tunity to extend his interesting and minute investigations to this class
of figs, the conclusions to whtch he came would no doubt have been
greatly modified.
SMYRNA FIGS IN CALIFORNIA.
The history of the Smyrna figs in California is intensely interesting,
and directly bearing upon this point of the production of fertile seeds.
Imported in 1880 (for details see the historical part) and quite exten-
sively propagated and planted in the most dissimilar parts of Cali-
fornia, these figs failed to bear a single ripe fruit during a period of
ten years. The fruit would form in abundance, the flowers would
develop and become apparently receptive, as shown by the glands of
the stigma and the length of the style, but the fruit would invaria-
bly fall when apparently one-third or one-half grown. It was this
fact, together with my observation that imported Smyrna figs always
possessed numerous fertile seeds, while such were never found in our
other edible figs, that made me a strong advocate of caprification,
and which satisfied me that pollination was necessary and not illu-
sionary, as almost everyone else ^ believed, principally on the testi-
mony of Gasparrini and Olivier. It would indeed have been strange
that Smyrna figs should not ripen their fruit in California, if the
maturing depended only on climatic conditions or differences in soil.
These figs, consisting of three distinct varieties, were planted in the
most dissimilar localities and in greatly different soils, and exposed
to varied climatic conditions found in the northern, central, and
southern parts of California, in the interior valleys, in the foothills,
and on the coast. All the Old World fig districts together would
hardly show more variations in climatic and other conditions than
did the various localities in which the Smyrna figs were tried in this
^ As is cnstomary with nnpopular theories, the first remarks on caprification in
California were simply sneered at, and at the best considered illusionary, and
heated discussions were entered into.
100 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
state. Still not one tree properly matured a single fruit. A few of
the first crop became half ripened — that is, became yellow and soft,
but insipid, not sweet, and never attained a proper size or a size at
all approaching that of the imported dried figs.
Acting on the principle that the want of success in producing
Smyrna figs here was due entirely to the absence of Blastophaga
wasps and to want of pollination, the writer began experiments in this
direction in 1882 and was later joined in them by E. W. Maslin, of
San Francisco. Some of these experiments are recorded in the author's
Biological Studies on Figs, Caprifigs, and Caprification, published in
the Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, 1895, and for
particulars reference may be made to that work. It is enough to state
here that there were produced numerous fully mature and perfect
Smyrna figs on the imported Smyrna trees by simply introducing the
pollen into the figs at a time when the pistillate flowers were fully
receptive. Thus, once for all, was settled the question of the neces-
sity and nature of caprification, and it was demonstrated that the
want of success in producing Smyrna figs in California was alone due
to the want of pollination by Blastophaga wasps. The author's
experiments also demonstrated that the varieties of the first importa-
tion of Smyrna figs into California, the genuineness of which had been
doubted, by nearly everyone, were genuine. This collection, consist-
ing of several hundred trees, was brought here by G. P. Rixford in
1880 and 1882, through the aid of Consul E. J. Smithers in Smyrna.
On account of the persistent dropping of the figs the idea originated
by the late Dr. Stillman became prevalent that these figs were not
what they pretended to be, but simply wild figs sent us by the jealous
Smyrna growers, who were afraid that our fig production would come
into competition with their own products. On that account most of
the "Bulletin"^ figs were rooted out.
During the year 1900 the chief of the Entomological Division of the
United States Department of Agriculture, Dr. L. O. Howard, sent one
of his assistants, Mr. E. A. Schwarz, to Fresno and Niles, Cal., to pur-
sue studies in connection with caprification. During his investiga-
tions Mr. Schwarz caprificated several thousand Smyrna fig trees in
the Roeding orchard near Fresno. The result was that some 6 tons
of dried figs of the true Smyrna varieties were produced. These figs
were all of very good quality and possessed the characteristics of the
Smyrna figs. This year I am informed that some 30,000 caprifigs have
been used for caprification on the same place, and a much larger crop
may be expected. The time for caprification in the central part of
the San Joaquin Valley is in the middle of June, while at Niles, near
San Francisco Bay, the time for caprification is in July. There exist
^ So called because they were distributed to the subscribers of the San Francisco
Bulletin, an evening daily paper, which, during Mr. G. P. Rixford's management,
did much for horticulture in California.
CAPRIFICATION OF THE ¥1Q. 101
now in California some five or six different varieties of the genuine
Smyrna figs and some nineteen different kinds of caprifigs. During
the last season many thousand genuine Smyrna figs have been planted
all over the State, and we may expect that in five or six j'ears from
now the harvest of figs of the Smyrna varieties will be considerably
increased. In the meantime improvements are constantly being made
in handling and curing the common figs for market.
The Blastophaga wasps are now apparently well established in this
country. They wintered safely in the mamme figs both at Niles and at
Fresno. At Niles the temperature fell as low as 22^ Fahrenheit, but
no harm was done to the fig insects. At Niles only one variety car-
ried its mamme over winter. The other varieties of caprifigs dropped
their mamme figs after the first fall frost. This may have been due
to the immature age or the nature of the trees. It shows, however,
the necessity of planting a number of different kinds of caprifigs in
order to have a succession of crops and a constant supply of caprifigs
both winter and summer.
SEEDS IN THE COMMON EDIBLE, NOT CAPRIFICATED FIGS.
As common figs I arrange, as has already been stated, all fig
varieties with only or principally mule flowers, which set and mature
their figs without the aid of pollen. If the seeds of such figs are
examined under the microscope it will at once be seen that they are
seeds only in appearance, but not in reality. They are mere glossy
hulls of a yellow or brown color, with no kernel and embryo capable
of development. Even without the aid of a microscope this may be
ascertained by crushing the seeds with the point of a knife. The
shell will then be seen to collapse, the interior being absolutely with-
out any kernel. Although I have examined many thousands of figs
grown in California during the past ten years or more, I have failed
to find a single seed properly developed. I at first attributed this to
the former total absence of caprifigs in this State. I now believe it
to be due in equal degree to the absence, or scarcity, of female recep-
tive flowers in our figs, generally speaking. This observation in regard
to the absence of seeds in common figs has been repeatedly made in
Europe.
The conclusion which I draw from the above and other investiga-
tions in regard to the perfect and fertile seeds found in our common
edible figs, which produce fruit without pollination, are as follows:
Figs with only mule flowers do not generally produce seed with fertile
embryos. Their so-called seeds are mere shells without kernel. When
this class of figs is found to contain seeds with developed embryo,
it is to be explained by the presence of perfect female flowers, which
again have been brought to development by the introduction of pollen,
either by the Blastophaga wasps or by some other means. Some fig
varieties of this class contain many female flowers.
102 THE fig: its history, oultube, and cubing.
Parthenogenesis, or seed development without pollen, has been sup-
posed to exist in at least one tropical fig {Ficus roxburghii) ; here, how-
ever, only by excitement caused by the sting of a Blastophaga, with-
out pollination. That this is not the process of seed production in the
Smyrna tribe of our edible fig is absolutely and conclusively proven
by the experiments of Mr. E. W. Maslin and myself. We produced
seedlings from Smyrna fig seeds which all, when arriving at bearing
age, proved to be hybrids between the edible Smyrna and the wild cap-
rifig. This hybridization could of course not possibly have taken
place except by the introduction of pollen to the female flowers. If
their seeds had developed by parthenogenesis the seedlings would not
have been hybrids, but would have been varieties of the Smyrna fig.
The seeds were taken from imported Smyrna figs, which had been
caprificated in Aidin.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF EDIBLE FIGS.
We can distinguish a number of distinct classes or types of figs
which differ from one another in several very important points. Of
these types there are at least six which are well characterized.
Common figs, Mission figs, or first type, — The common edible figs,
which produce both ripe brebas (first crop) and second-crop figs
(receptacles) without caprification or pollination. This type becomes
pomologically mature, but rarely botanically mature. Its fiowers are
mainly mule fiowers and a few female fiowers, but no perfect gall fiowers
and no male flowers. This class includes nearly all of our common edi-
ble figs in Europe and California and all those propagated in hothouses.
This class of figs bears several crops, but there is no great or impor-
tant difference either in the receptacle or in the fiowers of the respec-
tive crops. Some, or possibly all, of the fig varieties belonging to this
type produce some fertile seeds when pollinated or caprificated. For
this type I propose the name Mission figs as a suitable name, because
the principal and best-known representative of this class is known in
this country as the Mission fig.
Smyrna figs, or second type, — This type or group comprises the
Smyrna figs and is characterized by its flowers, which are female only,
perfectly developed. They produce fruit only when pollinated or
caprificated. They have no mule fiowers, no gall fiowers, and no
male fiowers. The fruit becomes botanically ripe,' and as a conse-
quence of the botanical maturity the receptacle becomes also pomo-
logically ripe. This is a purely female type, all the fiowers being
perfectly developed female fiowers. This type of figs is at present
confined chiefly to the Smyrna district, being there the only fig culti-
vated for commercial purposes. In the other Mediterranean districts
this type of figs is rare or unknown. Introduced to California, it
never produced fruit until pollinated.
San Pedro figs, or third type. — This is the San Pedro type, with
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 103
different flowers in the different crops. The first crop or "fiori"
V contains only mule flowers. This crop becomes consequently pomo-
\ logically ripe without pollination or caprification, and it is question-
[ able if it will ever become botanically ripe or produce seeds, even if
caprificated.
\The second crop contains only fully developed female flowers which
require pollination in order to set fruit or become botanically mature,
the receptacle never becoming pomologically mature as long as the
flowers are not pollinated.
To this class belongs a limited number of figs, which are especially
valuable on account of their '' brebas " or first crop. Among varieties
belonging to this crop are the San Pedro (yellow), the Gentile, the
Bitontoni, the Portuguese, and a few others.
Adriatic figs, or fourth type. — This type contains figs which do not
; mature brebas, or first crop, without caprification or pollination.
Except under the latter condition this first crop always drops. When
pollinated or caprificated again the crop sets and matures. The cer-
lainty of this fact is due to experiments made lately by Mr. John C:
Jones, who caprificated at Niles an Adriatic fig tree in April last.
This tree is the only one out of many which has set a crop of brebas,
all others having dropped theirs. On cutting open these caprificated
brebas we find that they contain perfectly developed seeds. The
second crop of this type of figs does not require caprification in order
to reach pomological maturity. To this class belong a very large
number of figs which have until now been cultivated only for their
second crop. The second crop contains many female flowers.
Cordelia figs, or fifth type. — To this type belong all figs which, like
the Cordelia, Croisic, and others, possess edible figs with male flowers.
Erinocyce figs, or sixth type. — To this type belongs the Erinocyce fig
previously described. It possesses male flowers and gall flowers in
the first crop and female flowers and gall flowers in the second crop.
The flrst crop is not edible. To what extent the Erinocyce and the
Cordelia type combine is not known.
Origin of the types. — The origin of these various types I derive
from the various crops of the caprifig, through artificial or horticul-
tural selection. The first type may have descended from the male
tree of the caprifig, through elimination of the male flowers. The
gall flowers in not being used for galls would naturally endeavor
to regain their female nature, while the female flowers, by now and
then being pollinated, would more or less retain their female or seed-
producing nature. This theory was first suggested by me in a letter to
Professor Solms-Laubach, who, however, thinks that the origin of
this class may be equally well explained by supposing their descent
from the female caprifig, in which case the female flowers, through
nonuse, have become degenerated. But the fact that this class con-
tains both mule flowers and perfect female flowers speaks, I think, in
23740— No. 9—01 8
104 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
favor of my theory that the mule flowers are in reality only degener-
ated gall flowers, or perhaps more correctly gall flowers which through
nonuse are regaining their female nature. If descended from the
female tree of the caprifig there is nothing to explain why some of
the flowers are capable of producing seed while others are not.
The second type, or Smyrna figs, must have descended directly from
the female tree of the caprifig, their flowers having retained their
female nature through constant caprification.
The third and fourth classes are more difficult to explain. Th^y
have probably descended from ti cross between a female Smyrna and
a caprifig.
The fifth class is nothing else than a direct descendant from the
male caprifig. It retains its male flowers, they having not yet been
eliminated, while the pomological maturity is simply an improved
botanical maturity of the caprifig, as it is well known that several
varieties of capritigs are edible, though inferior in quality.
How this cultural evolution and development could have taken
place is not difficult to understand. The efforts of man to cultivate
and propagate only the best or what x)roves most suited to his purposes
have caused him to gradually discard, first all inferior trees, later all
inferior varieties, all which either did not suit his taste or which in
other respects did not prove as profitable as others. This progress in
selecting varieties has been continued to our own day with nearly all
kinds of fruit, progressing more or less rapidly, according to the intel-
ligence and civilization of the cultivators. As the fig is one of the
oldest of fruits mentioned in the history of the human race, the
selection and improvement of varieties must have taken place at an
early date; in fact, at the dawn of higher civilization. No barbarous
people could evolve the luscious edible fig from the insignificant and
worthless caprifig, even if we suppose that some chance seedling of
the female type with superior fruits had been found. The likelihood
that caprification was invented simultaneously with the cultivation of
the first edible fig makes ib more probable that the civilization of the
people in question was considerable. The origin of the edible fig of
the Smyrna kind must be traced to some one of those ancient'nations
of the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris whose history and remains
archseologists are now beginning to unravel.
It is possible that the Smyrna race of figs was first originated and
that later the other class of edible figs was evolved. Or it may be
that both originated simultaneously, or nearly so, in separate coun-
tries. The truth and facts of this we will probably never know, and
our assertions can only have the value of more or less probable
conjectures.
The first figs of either class must have been very inferior to those
now considered our best. The class which descended from seeds of
the male caprifig must, to begin with, have possessed some male flowers
CAPRIFIOATION OF THE.FIG.
105
in at least one of its crops. The first effort in selection must have
been to eliminate these male flowers, as both they and the part of the
receptacle on which they grow are hard, dry, and otherwise not pal-
atable. Thus in the Croisic fig the male flowers, together with their
part of the receptacle, is always removed before eating, and this neces-
sary process must have first stimulated effort to produce a fig without
the objectionable parts. While this selection and improvement of
edible figs was being carried on by the ancient cultivators the wild fig
was not entirely left to itself. It was found necessary in some instances
to propagate even the wild fig in order to procure the figs for caprifi-
cation. What would be more natural than to suppose that those figs
were especially propagated which produced greater abundance of
pollen and a more perfect continuation of crops? This selection in a
small way would in time give rise to several types, even among the
wild figs, similar to those, perhaps, described by Pontedera, Gallesio,
and others.
After the first objectionable features of male flowers were eliminated
other improvements followed as to flavor, taste, sweetness, etc.
FIG INSECTS.
PIG WASPS OR BLASTOPHAGAS.
All known wild fig trees, and there are over 100 distinct species
described ^ by botanists, are inhabited by very minute wasps known
Fig. IG.—Blaatophaga grosaorum: a, adult female; 6, head of same from below; c, head of same
from side; d, Qiale impregnating female; e, female issuing from gall; /, adult male— enlarged
(after Westwood). (From Smyrna Pig Culture in the United States, by Dr. L. O. Howard.)
as "inquilines" or parasites, and scientifically described as Blasto-
phagce, (See fig. 16.) These Blastophagas not only visit the figs, but
they live, breed, and 'develop in them; nay more, if deprived of their
fig hosts, these Blastophagas could not live, breed, and develop any-
where else. The organization of these little wasps is such that while
' According to Willkomm, there are 500 species of figs described.
106 THE fig: its history, culture, AIS^D CURING.
they may possibly feed themselves for a short time (though it is doubt-
ful if they do feed at all), they could not possibly deposit their eggs
elsewhere than in the " gall flower" of their respective fig, not even in
the female flowers of the same fig. Even if they did succeed in doing
so, their eggs would not develop elsewhere and the brood would soon
perish. The species would thus become extinct. But this is not all.
The relation between the fig and the Blastophagas is so intimate that
in order to foster these little wasps nature provides the fig with flowers
especially constructed to their use — the "gall fiowers" elsewhere
described. But if the Blastophaga is dependent upon the fig for its
existence, the fig is hardly the less so upon the Blastophaga. With-
'>ut the Blastophaga no fertile seed would be produced with any regu-
larity (if at all) and the fig species would be in danger of perishing.
The influence of the Blastophaga is somewhat diiferent in different
fig species. It has been shown that in one species at least not only
the female flowers are dependent for their pollination upon the Blasto-
phagas, but that the male flowers actually do not develop their ferti-
lizing pollen without having first been stimulated by the mechanical
action of the Blastophaga. ^ '
Figs are visited by many insects, but a distinction must be made
between "visitors" or "messmates" and "regular boarders." The
former visit the figs in order to feed, either on the fruit and its juices
or upon other insects. The boarders or "inquilines" again breed in
the fig and can not breed anywhere else. The former will injure the
fig in various degrees, while the latter are absolutely necessary for the
material maintenance and multiplication of the fig-tree species they
inhabit.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE CAPRIFIQ WASP (BLASTOPHAGA GROSSORUM).
If we during the month of June or July ^ cut open a "profico" or
first-crop caprifig just when it is full grown we may notice that it
contains a large number of gall fiowers or galls, around which crawl
numerous little insects, some of which resemble minute black wasps,
while othera of the same size are wingless and very differently shaped,
as well as being of a yellow or brown color. A closer inspection will
reveal to us that a number of the galls are perforated by a single
round hole through which may either be seen the hollow of the gall,
or the wasp itself, not having yet escaped. A closer inspection may
even show us how the light-colored insects, which are the male wasps,
are enlarging the holes in order to enable the females or winged wasps
^ The time differs according to the climatic conditions of the locality. In Italy
caprification is practiced in June. At Niles, Cal., the caprifigs mature in the
middle of Jaly. In Lower California, I found the Blastophagas emerging from the
figs of IHcus palmeri in March, from what must have been the first crop of that
fig. A later generation again emerged in September.
CAPRIFIOATION OF THE FIG. 107
to escape. These respective insec^ts are male and female of the same
species known to naturalists variously as Blastophaga psenes, Blasto-
phaga grossorum^ or Cynips psenes. The number of female Blasto-
phagas which may issue from a single profico is often very large.
I have counted as many as two hundred from one fig, and it is known
that some varieties of caprifig profichi may harbor as many as 700
wasps.
The male insects are the first to hatch and escape; with their
powerful mandibles or jaws they easily cut through their galls and
then set to work to liberate the females. Before the latter escape
they are fecundated, while yet in the gall, by the males. £ach gall
contains only one wasp. The male wasps never leave the fig. They
are so constructed that they could not very well live outside, and
even inside the fig they soon perish, their life work having been
accomplished in liberating and fecundating the females. The females
do not tarry long in the fig, but soon find their way out through the
eye of the fig, which has opened sufficiently to let them pass through
without injury to their wings.* In case the fig has been injured and
compressed in such a way as to close the eye the wasps will remain
prisoners until otherwise let out — for instance, by cutting the fig.
With care and aided by a magnifying glass, we maj' further follow
the female Blastophagas as thej^ escape from their old habitation.
Their first work is to look for figs suitable to lay their eggs in, the
only object of the wasps now being to propagate their species, it
being doubtful if tliey feed at all. As soon as outside of the old
caprifig the female Blastophaga halts on the outside of the fig and_
endeavors to free herself of a whitish powder with which she appears
to be literally covered. This powder is the pollen from the anthers of
the male flowers of the caprifig in which she hatched and with which
she came in contact when she escaped from the fig. This process of
cleaning she performs in very much the same way as does a house fly,
stroking herself with her front legs, bending at. the same time the
head, body, and wings. She never succeeds in getting entirely clean,
as a large portion of the pollen will adhere in spite of all her efforts.
But when she considers herself sufficiently clean she flies away and
lights on a less than half -grown caprifig of the same or some other
tree. The mammoni or second crop of the caprifig has by this time
advanced so far in development that its interior flowers are just of
the proper size and age to suit the wasps. ^ If there are no such figs
at hand the wasps will soon perish. Having lit on a mammoni, the
^ In the Baja California species of Blastophaga which inhabits Ficus palmeri
the wasps do not crawl through the eye of the fig, but cut a round hole below the
eye and thus escape in the same way as they did from their galls, except that the
hole made in the fig is larger than the hole in the gall.
^ As has been shown elsewhere, this is not always the case. If there are no caprl-
figs of proper size the wasp can not lay her eggs.
108 THE FIO: IT8 HISTORY, OULTITRE, AND CURING.
Blastophaga finds the fig eye closed by scales. ^ But these scales are
not impossible to penetrate. In order to enter the fig the Blasto-
phaga Saws out a tiny little piece of the outside edge of a top scale,
which opens to her an entrance between two scales. Next she pushes
herself under the scale and then zigzags herself through, until she
reaches the interior hollow of the fig. But her efforts to get through
between the scales have been tremendous, and in so doing she almost
invariably loses her wings. They are always lost in the very begin-
ning of her work and can be seen remaining, wedged in between the
outside scales just like feathers stuck under the band of a hat. In
order to ascertain the presence of the Blastophaga in a green fig it is
not always necessary to cut the fig' open, as the presence of ^the wings
of the wasp sticking between the scales is a sure sign that the wasp
has succeeded in getting in. And even if the wings have fallen off,
the little wound caused by the gnawing of the wasp can be told by
the minute drop of sap that has oozed out and hardened. It is this
drop of sap which was, remarkably enough, for ages considered as
being the real cause of the setting of the figs. If no wings and no
gum are seen on the scale it may be safely assumed that no Blasto-
phaga has entered the fig in question.
As soon as the now wingless Blastophaga has entered the fig she
hurries down to the gall flowers, there to deposit her eggs. Of these
she inserts only one in each flower. The egg is generally placed in the
same way and in the same particular spot in the flower. This partic-
ular place lies between the nucellus of the fig ovary and the integu-
ment surrounding it. Observation shows that if left anywhere else
the egg will not develop. In order to accomplish this the wasp first
alights on the stigma of the gall flower. Then she extends her ovipos-
itor and runs it down through the canal which, from the center of the
stigma, leads through the whole length of the style to the funnel or
entrance to the ovary of the flower. This is penetrated by the ovipos-
itor, and the egg is laid and securely wedged in between the nucellus
of the ovary and the integument surrounding it. (See fig. 17.)
As soon as the egg is deposited the ovipositor of the wasp is with-
drawn. The lower part of the canal is filled by a filiform appendage
of the egg, while the upper part fills with a brown exudation from the
wounded cells. As soon as one egg has been laid the wasp departs
to another flower, there to repeat the process. The egg-depositing
power of a wasp is simply enormous, and one wasp is capable of lay-
ing an egg in each of the many gall flowers of a fig. After the eggs
have all been deposited the Blastophaga endeavors to regain the out-
side of the fig in the same way she entered; but in this she rarely suc-
ceeds. Being by the egg-laying process completely exhausted, she
*The closing of the eye by scales is a necessity. If the eye was open the Blasto-
phaga would find the fig full of other insects, and the function in the fig flowers
would be seriously, if not fatally, interfered with.
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agncukure.
PLATE XIII.
Caprificated Mammoni and Mamme Milco Caprifig, June, 1901.
OAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG.
109
generally succumbs before she regains her liberty, and her dead body
may be found in the opened fig The work of the Blastophaga has
not alone been that of depositing eggs. Involuntarily she has rubbed
against some of the female flowers of the ^g, and the pollen which
adhered to her body when she entered has been deposited on the
stigmas of these flowers. The effect of this pollination is the devel-
opment of seeds in the female flowers. This would not have taken
place without the aid of the wasp, because the pollen from another
fig could not very well have penetrated through the closely thatched
scales of the eye; and the pollen from a male flower in the same fig
would only be ripe from a month to six weeks after the time when
the stigmas of the female flowers will have attained their full
development and receptivity. After the egg has been deposited
the gall flower does not at once cease
to develop. The embryo and kernel of
the seed, keep on growing for a month.
After that the egg of the Blastophaga
begins to develop, and when it passes
into the larva stage it begins to feed on
the embryo of the fig, which thus soon
perishes. The integument of the ovar}-
again grows and assumes the form of a
large, hard, brownish, and glass-like
gall. In two months the young female
Blastophaga wasps have attained their
full development, and after copulation
with the wingless males are ready to
leave the caprifigs; and this they do in
the same way as they left the previous
crop, the profichi. The males die within
the figs in all the crops. They have
performed their function and are of no
more use. It may here be incidentally
stated that even if the wasp's egg is not deposited in a gall flower, the
latter will after a certain lime cease to develop. It will never produce
seed.
At this time the winter figs or the " mamme " destined to mature the
following year are of the proper size and development required by the
Blastophagas, which enter them in the same way as described above
in order to deposit eggs. The mamme hibernate, and next spring, in
March, develop and ripen and the young Blastophagas leave as before.
(PI. XIII.) They immediately afterwards enter the first-crop capri-
figs and their deposited eggs will by the end of June or July have
developed into perfect wasps.
The cycle of the Blastophaga is thus perfected and we have followed
its life history through the various crops of the caprifig through the
Fig. 17. —Gall flower of caprifig, after
Solms-Laubach : 1, canal from stig-
ma to ovary through which the ovi
positor of the Blastophaga pushes
the egg; 2, egg of Blastophaga: 3,
nucellusof the fig ovary; 4, stigma
modified for the use of the Blasto-
phaga.
110 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
year. Each crop of figs has, as we have seen, had its own crop or
brood of wasps, from which it follows that if the profichi or mamme
should fail the wasps would also perish.
To facilitate the understanding of the life histor3' of the wasp, as
observed in Italy, the following diagrammatic table has been prepared.
A. Profichi of the caprifig, October to June:
1. In March or April these figs are less than quarter grown.
2. The Blastophaga females, issuing from the mamme, enter the figs and here
deposit their eggs in the gall fiowers.
3. In June, or two months later, these Blastophaga eggs have become fully
developed, and the perfect wasps emerge to seek other figs.
4. In emerging the wasps are covered with pollen.
B. Mammoni of the caprifig, June to autumn:
1. In June and July the second crop is quarter grown.
2. The Blastophagas emerging from the previous crop penetrate into these
second-crop figs and deposit their eggs in the gall flowers.
3. In doing so they also pollinate the female flowers.
4. In August or September the Blastophaga eggs are fully developed and the
perfect wasps emerge, hunting for the young figs of the mamme.
5. A few seeds fully developed are found in this the second crop of the capri-
fig, none being found in the other two crops.
C. Mamme of the caprifig^ July, through winter, to March.
1. In autumn the mamme are quarter grown.
2. The Blastophaga, hatching from the preceding crop, enter the mamme and
there deposit their eggs in the gall flowers.
. 3. The mamme, with the gall flowers and the eggs of the Blastophaga, hiber-
nate on the tree, slowly increasing in size.
4. With the advent of spring the matnme and the Blastophaga eggs develop
more rapidly.
5. In March and April the Blastophaga eggs have developed into full-grown
wasps, which emerge from the figs seeking the young figs of the first crop,
the profichi, in order to deposit their eggs in them.
PRACTICAL CAPRIFICATION.
Process of caprification, — The process of caprification consists in
bringing the caprifigs, of the proper age and crop, in close proximity
to the edible figs, in order that the wasps, as soon as they leave the
caprifigs, may be lured into the edible figs. Practically, this is
Accomplished in different ways, more or less proper and economical.
Iq Smyrna, Syria, Greece, Italy, and Africa the caprifigs are pulled
at the proper time in June, the profichi being the only crop used for
this purpose. The caprifigs are then becoming soft and the male
flowers ready to shed their pollen. The caprifigs are at once strung
on split reeds or rou^h straws in quantities of four on each straw.
(Fig. 18.) These straws are thrown over and suspended among the
branches of the edible-fig tree. Another method, much inferior to
CAPRIFIOATION OF THE FIG. Ill
the former, consists simply in cutting branches from the caprifig trees
and suspending them in the edible-fig trees. This injures the caprifig
trees and does not enable the cultivator to regulate the number of
caprifigs according to the quantity actually needed. This method is
in use only in certain parts of Portugal and Spain. A third way to
accomplish caprification is to plant a few caprifig trees among the
edible-fig trees, and to simplj^ depend upon the wasps themselves
finding their waj'^ in sufficient number to the edible figs. This
method is the least proper of any for many reasons, one of which
is that the caprifig thrives equally well or even better in poor, rocky,
soil, and it would be more economical to give the good soil over to
the edible-fig trees. This leads us to the necessity of having separate
plantations for the caprifig.
Separate plantations of caprifigs. — In most countries where caprifi-
cation is practiced it is a general saying that it is necessary to go to
the hills for the caprifigs.^ It is not only more economical, as has just
been pointed out, to grow the caprifigs separately, but it is in many
instances necessary. The soil and moisture in the orchard are not
always suitable to the caprifig. It must be remembered that the
caprifig is yet in its comparatively wild state, while the edible fig
is a horticultural product or creation which can only be expected
to attain its proper qualities under the most favorable conditions.
Practically this is true. It frequently happens that when the edible
figs are receptive, or their female flowers ready for pollination through
caprification, the caprifigs growing in the vicinity .of the edible figs
are not properly developed, while other caprifigs grown in different
soil and at a different elevation are just of the proper size and con-
dition to furnish both Blastophagas and pollen. But an even more~
serious objection to having a few caprifigs growing in rich soil its
that their crops are not always following each other in continuous
succession. The Blastophaga, in order to properly propagate her
brood, requires young caprifigs ready to receive her eggs as soon as
she hatches out. Frequently the tree from which she hatches does
not possess these figs, while other caprifig trees do. It is therefore
necessary, in order to procure a constant supply of Blastophagas, to
have a large number of different varieties of caprifig trees growing
together. In a grove of such trees there will always be some that
bear figs of proper size in which the wasps may breed. Such plan-
tations of caprifigs should be made separately and in various locali-
ties, in order that the supply of figs may never fail. Quite frequently
it also happens that the caprifig crop in a certain locality fails, while
in a different one, where the climatic conditions have been dissii^-
ilar, the crop of caprifigs may be abundant. This shows the neces-
' Prof. Newton B. Pierce, of the Department of Agriculture, in Washington, who
has observed caprification in Sicily, informs me that in the vicinity of Palermo
the caprifigs are always brought from the ''hills."
112
THE fig: its HiSTOBY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
sity of having caprifig plantations in various localities, especially in
a country like California, where the caprifig trees are not wild and
where frequent importations of caprifigs with inquilines are difficult
if not impossible. When the caprifig crop fails in Smyrna fresh capri-
figs are imported by the vessel load from the Grecian islands, and in
all countries where caprification is considered necessary in order to
procure a crop of figs a regular and profitable trade is carried on in
caprifigs, which often bring much more than the edible figs.^ Capri-
figs should on no account be pruned, but allowed to grow wild. The
wasps require shade, and the best caprifigs are always found in the
densest shade. All suckers and small twigs on the main trunks of
the caprifig tree should be allowed to remain.
Quantities of caprifigs required, — The quantity of caprifigs needed
to caprificate a fig tree varies with the size of the tree. The number
depends also on the quality of the caprifig and the number of its
wasps. In California from 20 to 50 profichi seem to sufl&ce. If too
Pig. 18.— Caprifigs strnng on reed used for caprification.
escaped.
The figs are dried and the wasps have
few are hung on the tree an insufficient quantity of wasps is had and
the edible figs are not all pollinated. If too many are hung too many
wasps will enter the edible figs, injure their flowers, and, according to
some observers, cause the figs to prematurely drop and decay.
For smaller trees a less quantity of caprifigs is required than for
larger trees, but even the largest in Smyrna are not given more than
30 strings to the tree. The caprifigs are hung on the limbs of the fig
trees before sunrise and when the wind is not blowing. The process
of hanging up the profichi must be repeated several times, as only
those edible figs are pollinated which are of proper size and receptiv-
ity. For the younger figs new profichi must be supplied later on, if
their maturity is required, and the quantity of caprifigs necessary at
any time must be regulated according to the number of figs to be
pollinated.
' Solms-Lanbach, p. 60, relates how a *' Rottolo " of profichi in Ischia frequently
brings half a lira. According to Leclerc, p. 16, c. p. 330, and Hanoteau et Letour-
neaux, pp. 433, etc., the caprifigs sell in Fort Napoleon for 2 sous per dozen.
CAPRIFICATtON. OF THE FIG. 113
Proper time for caprification. — Caprifi cation should always take
place when the female flowers of the fig are receptive. This can be
easily ascertained by cutting open the fig. With a magnifying glass
the stigmas of the female flowers should be seen to be bright and
light greenish, with a peculiar fresh luster, as if they had been lightly
varnished or moistened. Further, the stigmas and styles should be
erect; if bent and brownish they are too old to receive the pollen and
past their receptive state. This occurs in Smyrna and in the Medi-
terranean districts in the middle of June. The second crop, the only
one used, is then in proper state of development to be caprificated.
In California the time for caprification will vary with the locality.
In the Bay district, around San Francisco, the Smyrna figs are recep-
tive by the end of July ; in the interior earlier, in June. The edible figs
when ready for the caprifigs are about one-third grown, hard, and green.
The caprifig, again, should be cut when the pollen is properly devel-
oped and just before it has burst from the anthers. The caprifigs
are then becoming soft, though on opening them it will be found that
the Blastophagas have not yet begun to hatch. The size of the fig
varies with variet}^ — as there are many varieties in caprifigs — but the
average size would be an inch and a half long b}^ three-quarters of an
inch wide. Some caprifigs are much smaller. Thus the caprifigs
received from Smyrna and taken there from the fig trees in which they
had been suspended, were almost twice as large as those brought from
Palermo.^ The profichi and mamme are larger than the mammoni.
The various races of caprifig vary in size and softness, some remain-
ing always hard, while others grow larger and become soft and pulpy.
As regards the Smyrna figs at the time of caprification, it may be
stated that at the moment w^hen their female fiowers are I'cceptive
the scales at the eye loosen, or rather become flexible, allowing the
wasps to ent^r. This softness of the scales may be easily ascertained;
as by pushing a quill or a stick against the fig eye. It easily pene?
trates between the scales, without injury to them and without causirig
any juice to exude, if the fig is of proper size, while, on the con-
trary, if the fig is too young the scales will be found to be hard and
fixed, can not be pushed back, and the least wounding will cause an
abundance of milky juice to exude. If again the fig is too old, the
scales will be equally hard and fixed and the fig will be yellow and
will drop readily.
If the fig is cut open, the stigmas should be fresh and moist, the
styles erect and greenish, not brown.
What takes place in caprification. — We have already followed the
life history of the Blastophaga in the caprifig. Its history in the edi-
ble fig is somewhat different. The wasps can not live in the edible
figs; they can only visit them. Shortly after the profichi have been
' By Prof. N. B. Pierce.
114 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
suspended, or sometimes even before, the Blastophagas begin to hatch.
It even appears that the pulling of the caprifigs hastens the maturity
and escape of the wasp. As soon as these have hatched they crawl
out of the caprifigs in search of j^oung capriflg mammoni, in them to
lay their eggs, as has already been described. But as the caprifigs
are not near, no such mammoni are to be found. In place of them
the wasps encounter only edible figs, and not being aware of the decep-
tion practiced, they enter these edible figs for the purpose of breeding.
The flowers of the edible figs are, however, so constructed that the
intentions of the wasps are completely frustrated. Instead of the
necessary gall flowers, which are especially adapted to the ovipositor
organs of the wasps, only female flowers with long styles are found
and which are otherwise so modified that the wasps find it impossible
to properly lay their eggs. AH their frantic efforts to penetrate the
canal of the style and to reach the fig ovary and its nucellus are in
vain. The Blastophaga can not breed in any edible fig. Still, her
visit has a very great effect on the edible female fig flowers, provided
these are of the proper age and development. The pollen from the
capriflg, with which the wasps were liberally dusted, adheres to the
female stigmas, the effect being pollination and fecundation of the
flowers. The*Blastophaga herself dies and her dead body may be seen
upon opening a fig which has not advanced too far in maturity.
It is here assumed, as is really the case, that the wasp can not prop-
erly place its egg in the female flower, but even if she could do so or
would accidentally do so, the egg would not properly develop, as it is
only the gall flower which is suitable to the growth of the larva of the
wasp. But even if by chance such development would take place the
young wasp would quickly perish by being enveloped in the sugary
liquid of the mature fig. A certainty is, however, that I have never
found any gall in the mature Smyrna figs, which shows that no such
development takes place.
WTiat does not take place in caprification. — Since the most remote
time so many opinions have been expressed as regards the conse-
quences of caprification that it may be proper to here point out what
does not take place. The old opinion that the gnawing of the wasp
relieves the fig of its superfluous juices and thus causes it to mature
is too absurd to be given much thought. The gnawing done by
th^ wasps is so infinitely small that the fig, through the combined
efforts of 20 wasps, would not lose one ordinary drop of sap. Figs
wounded by a needle in such a way that many drops of juice escape
do not show any tendency to set better, as I have repeatedly demon-
strated. The gnawing of a few wasps can, therefore, not have any
effect on the receptacle of the fig. The pollination alone can account
for the maturing of such figs as require caprification. Thus, ofallthe
figs which we have tried in California, some fifty or more varieties, only
some seven or eight kinds do not set their fruit; all others do. To
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 115
caprificate the regular and common kind of edible figs would, there-
fore, be a useless waste of time and work. They would probably pro-
duce some fertile seeds, but it is doubtful if their quantity would be
sufficient to greatly improve the fig. It has been said that the Blas-
tophaga produces a gall in the edible figs, and that this gall formation
would cause the figs to set and mature, in the same way as a worm-
eaten pear or apple ripens sooner than the uninjured fruit. But we
have already seen that no such gall is produced in edible figs, and
experiments in Italj'^ have almost conclusively demonstrated that the
entrance of the wasps does not hasten the maturity of the common fig.
We may, therefore, with a fair degree of certainty, establish the
following facts:
1. The visit of the wasps to the female flowers of the Smyrna figs is
powerless to produce fertility or maturity, except when accompanied
by pollination.
2. The gnawing of the wasps on the scales of the eye, or the mere
irritation of the flowers, does not produce a flow of sap sufficient to
stimulate the fig to set and mature.
THE KPFE0T8 OF CAPRIPICATION.
Caprification can, therefore, only be effective and profitable in
varieties which contain a majority of developed female flowers. If
such figs are not caprificated, they will drop off shortly after the
receptivity of the female flowers is past. On such figs the immediate
effect of caprification is, first, the setting and the coming to full
maturity of the fig receptacle (the fig) ; second, the development and
maturity of the female flowers and their ovaries and seeds. Another
important effect of caprification is the dropping at full maturity of
caprificated figs, or rather of figs in which caprification has been suc-
cessful. All Smyrna figs drop of themselves when ripe, while all
other fig varieties in which caprification is not an absolute necessity,
must be cut or pulled from the tree at harvest time, as they will fall
only when past their prime. The advantage of having figs requiring
caprification is, therefore, evident in all districts where such figs will
grow.
The expense of caprification is much smaller and requires less
labor than the pulling or cutting off of the figs when ripe; provided, of
course, that the figs would set without being caprificated, which they
will not do.
Besides the pomological or horticultural maturity of the receptacle
the caprification produces the botanical maturity of the female flowers,
which, as we will see, is of great importance as determining the
quality of the fig.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SEEDS IN DRIED FIGS.
The greater value of caprificated varieties over those which do not
require the process is to be sought in the development of fertile seed.
116 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
The seeds in onr common figs consist only of empty, glossy shells,
with no trace of kernel. All such seeds have no taste and can in no
way contribute to tlie flavor of the dried fig. Not so, however, with
Smyrna figs which have been caprificated. They all contain seed of
large size, with a full, oily kernel, which, when crushed, is found to
be in the highest degree aromatic and *' nutty." Such seed, when
present in sufficient quantity, greatly contribute to the quality of the
figs, giving them an intensely aromatic flavor. It is only during the
process of drying that the aromatic taste of the seed is permeated
through the pulp of the fig, in very much the same manner as almonds
and other nuts communicate their flavors to puddings, preserves, or
canned fruits generally. Smyrna figs when dried are therefore more
highly flavored than any oth^r figs. To the fresh f\g the seeds do not
communicate this aroma, and fresh caprificated figs are therefore not
superior to other fresh figs; at least the caprification does not produce
the superiority, if there is one.^
WHICH FIGS SHOULD BE CAPRIFICATED?
The shortest answer to this question is, all figs which drop off if not
caprificated. It has not yet been fully ascertained which these figs
are. It is only certain that the great majority of figs will mature their
receptacles without caprification. In California • we have, however,
for some ten years had growing several varieties imported from
Smyrna, and of these none perfected fruit until they were artificially
pollinated. This class, then, requires pollination and caprification,
and must be caprificated if fruit is to be expected. We have also had
other figs in California which have never matured fruit, though 20
years old.
Another class of figs requires caprification for the second crop.
Among such varieties San Pedro is the most prominent one. But
there are other varieties like the white San Pedro, the Portuguese
of Italy, the Gentile, etc., all of which set their first crop, but drop
their second crop^ Microscopic examination shows that the second
crop of these figs possesses fully developed female flowers, while the
first crop which matures has only flowers with abortive ovaries. In
another place in this paper I have related my experiments in capri-
ficating the second crop of San Pedro and Gentile and the success
achieved, undoubtedly proving that caprification is necessary for a
certain crop while it is not necessary for another crop. Another
class or type of figs which requires caprification for one of its crops is
the one to which the Adriatic fig belongs. This class drop^ its first
^I was the first one to call attention to the value of the fig seed as a source of
aroma and flavor in dried figs. This is now almost everywhere accepted as true
and as being one of the chief causes of the superiority of the Smyrna fig over non-
caprificated figs. Leclerc was the first one to point out the superiority of caprifi-
cated figs, in Algiers, but he does not mention the cause (p. 332),
CAPBIFICATION OF THE FIG. 117
crop if it is not caprificated. The second crop is always set and
matured without caprification.
WHERE CAPRIFICATION IS PRACTICED.
Nowhere is caprification practiced more thoroughly, more constantly,
and more successfully than in the home of the fig— Syria and Asia
Minor. In the vicinity of Smyrna, the foremost fig region of the
world, the figs of which are acknowledged superior to any grown else-
where, caprification is a necessity. The fig crop without it would
fail — at least the crops from all varieties which produce the Smyrna
figs of commerce. The fact that some figs may be produced without
caprification even there, must be attributed to the same cause which
produces some fertile seed in the Italian figs without direct fertiliza-
tion by caprification. The real cause of the setting of figs in either
case is the presence of caprifigs in the vicinity, from which the wasps
carry the pollen irregularly and sparingly, but sufficiently to produce
a few figs and a few seed. The importance of caprifigs in Syria and
Smyrna is so great that they often command a higher price than the
edible figs, and in cases of failure of the caprifig crop sailing vessels
• are sent to distant ports, to the Grecian islands, to bring whole cargoes
of the fruit. This bringing of cargoes of caprifigs, at great expense,
by intelligent growers, must point to the value of caprification there,
and is in glaring contrast with the occasional practice of some ignorant
cultivators in Greece and Italy, who, failing to procure caprifigs, sus-
pended galls of elm trees among their figs. As the culture of figs
followed the immigration of the Phtenicians, and later on that of the
Arabs, so do we to this day find caprification practiced in aU countries
formerly occupied by those nations — that is along the north coast of
Africa, in Algiers and Morocco, in the islands of tke Mediterranean,
Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, and the Malta group, and farther west, in the
southern parts of Spain and Portugal.
To this day caprifigs are highly valued and bring a high price in
Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, and parts of the Iberian Pen-
insula, especially when the crop is scarce. Leclerc tells us that in
Algiers the profichi of the caprifig bring 2 sous per dozen (not quite
a half cent). They are regular merchandise in all these markets.
In Greece caprification has been in vogue since very ancient times,
as has been mentioned elsewhere. From that country it spread to
southern Italy first after the time of Pliny, and has there been prac-
ticed ever since, principally in the territory of the old kingdom of
Naples or in southern Italy generally.
To the general rule that caprification is practiced in Greece and
Grecian colonies, one exception is mentioned by Solms-Laubach. In
Marseille (Provence) and vicinity caprification is not practiced. It is
also not practiced in central and northern Italy, or in the territories
occupied anciently by the old Umbrians, Etrurians, and Latins, nor is
118 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
it practiced anywhere in southern France and the Riviera. Solms-
Laubach declares two causes for this to be possible. Either in ancient
times caprification was practiced even there, and later on abandoned,
or it was never introduced, fig culture having been only lately brought
to these regions, and at a time when caprification was no longer nec-
essary, varieties in the meantime having appeared which would ripen
their receptacles without it. But as from the descriptions of Pliny
and Cato it becomes evident that caprification was not known in Italy
in their time, it is almost certain that in countries where caprifica-
tion is not now practiced it has never been introduced. This is the
case in all fig districts of America, as neither in the Southern States,
in California, nor in Brazil, Argentina, Peru, or Chile, had caprifi-
cation ever been even advocated until within the last ten years, or
after the late introduction of the real Smyrna figs from Smyrna.
This has also been the case in Australia and New Zealand. It is
probable that to countries within easy reach of Syria the first varie-
ties introduced were those requiring caprification; later only the self-
ripening kinds followed, or were originated on the spot. The kinds
which require caprification are much more exacting of climate, soils,
and conditions generally than the self-ripening kinds, as we know
that Smyrna figs, if transplanted to less favored localities, lose their
superior qualities, even if caj)rified. As the self-ripening kinds
became more common and more widely distributed the Smyrna varie-
ties were allowed to gradually die out, but the caprification had taken
such hold and had become so deeply rooted that it continued to be
practiced on varieties which did not require it.
The circumstance, again, that caprification was not introduced into
the more northern provinces, such as north Italy, south France,
and north of Spain, must be sought in the unsuitability of those
places for those varieties which required caprification. It is more
than probable that in the above countries fig culture never assumed
any degree of development until the advent of figs which did not
require caprification in order to bear. The variety of caprifig which
carries its mamme over winter is more susceptible to frost than other
figs. At least it is impossible for the fig wasps to survive in countries
where the caprifig crops are interrupted by heavy winter or spring
frosts. This would also make caprification impossible, unless the
caprifigs were yearly imported from more favored districts — a pro-
ceeding that would not prove practical or remunerative.
CAN OTHER INSECTS BE SUBSTITUTED FOR THE BLASTOPHAGA?
It is well known that figs are visited by numerous insects other than
the regular Blastophaga, and the question arises to what degree
could they be depended upon to carry the pollen from the caprifig to
the edible fig, or could they do so at all. Some entomologists not
acquainted with the practical side of the question have claimed that
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 119
the Blastophaga was not required, but that any insect would do the
work. In order to carry the pollen from one fig to another it is by no
means necessary that the insect should breed in the fig. All it has
to do is to crawl into the caprifig at the proper time and then crawl
out and into the edible fig, and the pollination is accomplished;
but in order that any practical result to the crop at large may come
from this visit, several circumstances are imperatively necessary, and
must coincide. The insects must make these visits at the proper
time; they must be of proper size to be able to enter the closed eye
of the fig; they must be present in sufficiently large number to pol-
linate the fig crop, not single figs. As to the first point it will be
seen that no other insect has been found which will have any busi-
ness in the caprifig at the time when required ; and even if the pollen
of the caprifig would serve as its food, it would have no cause to
afterwards visit the edible fig, which at the period when such visit is
required does not produce any food, it being green and hard, with no
trace of sugar. Insects only visit flowers in search of food or to lay
their eggs. No other insect than the Blastophaga has been found to
do the latter properly and at the time when required. The i^econd
point is readily understood. The eye of the edible fig is closed, and
only an insect with a peculiarly developed instinct would know how
to push its way between the closed scales. At this stage of the
development of the fig no insects have been found which visit the
figs, except the Blastophaga and some parasitical wasps which prey
on her brood, and which would not enter the fig unless they knew
the Blastophagas were already there. The most important point,
however, is the quantity of insects required at a given time. Only
an insect which will actually breed ,in the caprifig can be depended
on, and it must breed in countless numbers. A' few visitors would
have no practical influence on the tig crops. They may fertilize or
pollinate a few flowers, but they would be of no practical value to the
grower and would not produce a crop. Taking it all in all no insect
has been known, and no one is likely to ever be known, that can be
substituted for the Blastophaga grossorum,
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF BLASTOPHAGA IN DIFFERENT SPECIES OF FIGS.
As far as is known, different species of figs are, as a rule, inhabited
by distinct and characteristic species of inquilines. Thus Blasto-
phaga grossorum has been found in only one or two nearly related
fig species, and no other Blastophaga species has been found in our
caprifigs. Parasitical wasps are always found together with the Blas-
tophagas, preying on and developing in them just as the Blastophaga
preys on and develops in the embryo of the fig. Even when differ-
ent fig species grow close together do the wasps keep to their respec-
tive fig hosts; accidentally the wasps may visit other figs, but they
do not breed in them. It appears almost certain that every fig
23740— No. 9—01 9
120 THE fig: its HI8TORT, CULTURE, AND CURING.
species is inhabited by Blastophagas. Thas, in the botanical garden
of Java, a row of fig trees, consisting of five different species of figs,
was found to be inhabited by as many different species of Blasto-
phaga, each variety in its own fig host, to which it was strictly con-
fined. The cause of this localization of species must be sought in
the organization of the wasps and their ovipository organs, which
enable the insect to deposit its eggs in a certain kind of flower only,
which again has been changed so as to accommodate the peculiarities
of the wasp, her size and capabilities. Under such circumstances
there is no hope that, for instance, the wasp inhabiting the Baja Cali-
fornia and Sonoi'a fig species can be made to inhabit and breed in our
caprifigs. Even the sycamore fig is inhabited by its species of inqui-
lines, but which have never been found in the caprifigs. It may,
therefore, be assumed with great certainty that only closely allied fig
species are inhabited by the same species of Blastophagas. But in
many species of figs we find more than one species of Blastophaga.
Some figs are inhabited not only by different species, but also by
different genera of true Blastophaga, while the latter again are
preyed on by parasitical wasps often equal to them in size.
SUMMARY.
Caprification, then, is an horticultural process, based on scientific
principles. It has been practiced since very ancient times, and is yet
in vogue in many countries. It is an absolute necessity in places
where Smyrna figs are grown, or in places where it is of importance to
pollinate such figs as possess receptive female flowers. Caprification
causes such figs to set and mature when otherwise they would fall off
immature. This horticultural maturity is caused by and preceded by
the botanical maturity of the female flowers. Again, caprification is
not required for that great class of figs which sets and ripens fruit
without it, unless, indeed, it should be found practical, profitable,
and possible to produce seed in such varieties of this class as possess
^* receptive female flowers in sufficient number. Caprification is neces-
'^ sary also for such caprifigs as do not produce overlapping crops.
HISTORICAL NOTES ON CAPRIFICATION.
V" ^;>' v^ There are very good reasons for supposing that caprification is as
^y'^ y old as the cultivation of the fig by man. That it originated in some
of the oldest agricultural countries is much more probable than that
the practice is of comparatively modem origin — for instance, invented
by the Greeks during the time intervening between the Homeric songs
and the era of Alexander. For this belief speaks the fact that the
caprifig is probably not a native of Greece nor of any other Mediterra-
nean country, but of southern Arabia, and possibly also of other
, countries in the vicinity of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The fig
\
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 121
. was introduced into Greece, as has already been shown, and whether
. we presume that the first introduced fig race required caprification or
not, it follows that this caprification was not and could not have been
invented in Greece nor in any other country where the caprifig was
not originally wild, and wild at the time the first figs requiring caprifi-
cation were grown under cultivation. K the self-setting fig race had
been the one first introduced into Greece, then the Greeks would
' • never have thought of caprification, or if some uncommon genius had
done so, he would have been obliged to go to distant countries in order
to see, find, and bring home the caprifig, of which he could otherwise
have had no possible knowledge. The discovery of caprification in
Greece, as has been held by the majority of investigators except
Solms-Laubach, would be as improbable and as impossible as the dis-
covery of the placer mining of gold in a country where native gold
occurs only in solid veins of ore.
Caprification must have originated in a country where the caprifig
was wild. But particulars about the discovery are not forthcoming,
^ the records having been forever lost. Even in the oldest books of the
^y- Semitic races no mention is made of any process which can with Any
/ j^y certainty be explained as referring to caprification. As is stated else-
^'^'^ where, in the Book of Amos we read of "bdtes schiqmim," which
^ \;''^^-^4nean8 "one who operates on the wild fig." But if this operation
^X^ refers to caprification, or to the oiling of the fig, or to the yet com-
^/ mon and necessary practice of cutting the ** sycamore figs" with a
knife in order to give an opportunity to their inquilines to escape,
will always remain an uncertainty, with some probability that the last
explanation is the correct one. A circumstance which makes it prob-
able that caprification wa.s^ in very a.^fiiftTit timfts^ practiced in Asia
is the fact that Syria is yet the country which grows principally or
* almost exclusivel y figs requ iring caprification in order to set and
mature. In nearly all other countries olHer, though inferior, varieties
have been or are being substituted — varieties which mature without
' Ari^^*Pollination and caprification.
^C^ For the oldest written record of caprification we must go to the
-^^L oldest Greek writers. Aristotle, the teacher of Alexander, and the
^' ^\^^^^,>Best-informed scholar of ancient tiihes, describes caprification in very
qO^much the same way as it is pr^r^fi^AAfi f.n thia flay Aristotle explains
tjie effects of caprification through the bite of the wasp, which causes
^^^y'^YkQ air to enter the fig, etc. He, as well as all writers for a period of
two thousand years, or until the time of Linnaeus, were unable to give
a true explanation of the effects of caprification.
^v^ The most minute description of caprification as practiced and under-
K^ stood by the ancients is given by Theoph rast. Not only does he cor-
-^ rectly describe the process of caprification, but he informs us of
^^rv>^ certain facts of^^reat interest. One of these is that there are two
n - ^ ^ races of figs, one which requires caprification in order to set fruit, and
- <^A ^
9-^
122 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
one which sets fruit without caprification. Theophrast was the first
one to point this out, and he must have learned it through observa-
tion of the various fig varieties grown in his time. Another statement
made by this writer is to the effect that caprificated figs had a lesser
commercial value than figs not thus caprificated. Whatever may
have been the case at this time, it is not so now. If Theophrast's
statement is correct it can be explained by the fact of the Smyrna
tribe not thriving in Greece or by their unimproved state at that
time.
Theophrast also mentions how ignorant cultivators, instead of using
caprifig, suspended other substances in the trees, such as galls from
elm trees, the peasant believing that the wasps emerging from these
elm galls would have the same effect as fig wasps. Of course, if the fig
tree in which they were suspended belonged to a race which did require
caprification, the effect of either variety of wasps (or of any other
foreign substance) would be the same or none. Theophrast's explana-
tion of the effects of caprification is similar to that given by Aristotle.
He rejects the theory that the wasps close the eye of the fig and,
through the prevention of the entrance of the air, cause maturity.
On the contrary, he maintains that the wasps enlarge the eye of the
fig, causing its juices to flow, suck up the superfluous "humors" of the
fig, and that the warm and fermentation-producing air then effects the
maturing of the figs. The differences between the two races of figs,
of which one requires caprification and the other not, is explained by
this author through the influence of soil and climate, as well as by a
different nature of the fig, which enables it to ripen its fruit without
the aid of the wasp. The circumstance that in Italy no caprification
was practiced at his time he explains by the supposed drier soil and
climate of that country, which absorbs the superfluous juices of the
fig. The humid climate of Greece, he contends, makes it necessary
^^ to employ the aid of the wasps in order to relieve the figs of their
^A^v » superfluous moisture.
>i f^ Pliny, the great Roman naturalist and compiler, follows Theophrast
^ ^closely. He classes the caprifig as the wild fig, wanting in the juices
x>^ ^ * necessary for the food of the wasps. The latter, not finding the
^ ' necessary food, fly to the edible flg, and through nibbling enlarge
^ , the mouth of the fig and allow the fertilizing air to enter, which again
transforms the i#llky juices of the fig to sweet honey. Pliny believed
that caprification was practiced only in the Archipelago, from which
it was later introduced into Italy. At the time of Pliny caprification
was unknown in Italy. The account given by the great Latin natu-
ralist is evidently only a compilation from other authors and from
hearsay. He appears not to have made any personal investigations
or examinations.
Through all the mediaeval ages, or for over fifteen hundred years
after Pliny, horticulture and natural science made little progress, and
CAPEIFICATION OF THE FIG. 123
the opinions of the ancient writers were adopted as regards almost all
points of human knowledge. So also their theories about caprifica-
tion. For fifteen hundred years after Pliny this process was prac-
ticed by the cultivators of the soil in the same way as in the time of
ancient Greece; no one was found to inquire into its nature and value,
much less to solve the enigma of this the most interesting of all hor-
ticultural usages of all times.
In 1583 CsBsalpinus discovered the sexual organs of plants and was
able to point out their functions, but his discovery bore no fruit as
regards a better understanding of caprification, and all writers after him
for nearly two hundred years followed the teachings of Theophrast,
Pliny, and Plutarch.
In the early part of the eighteenth century two botanists occupied
themselves with a closer study of the fig. One of them was Giulio
tj^^c Pontedera, who was the first to describe the flowers of the caprifig
1^ w ^i^ their structure, though he did not recognize their sexual nature.
v> >>i^^ ^^ ^^^^ studied the fig wasps and caprification, but little suspected
^ y^he true nature and influence of the wasp. Pontedera ascribes the
\^/^ effects of caprification to the biting of the wasps, which caused the air
/^)^ and light to enter the fig. This is the more remarkable when we con-
/^^^ sider how very minute are the wounds caused by even many wasps.
, y^ - As seldom more than very few wasps enter one fig, it will be seen
' ^ y^ that the extra air that can penetrate on account of the wasp bites is
^ very small indeed, if any at all.
Another investigator, one of the most prominent botanists of the^*^' ^
early part of the eighteenth century, wa s Tou rnefort. JJ^i'H v wl^d T^^ ^vA^^
the Levant and in Greece and made special stuciyST caprification as t\(^\
practiced there. Being well acquainted with fig culture in Provence, ^ I
in France, he was well qualified for his time to take up the study of 1 1 C -*• p'
cagrification. Tournefort had studied "fbeophrast and tried to explain % r^ "
his statement about the lesser value of the caprificated figs, through thoi*-'-**^
necessity of drying such caprificateSTTgsTir ovens, which caused
their aroma to disappear. As Solms-Laubach points out, Tournefort ^ ^ V^'^ L
confounded the wasps with moths which infest dried figs, just as is so \\^^
frequently done in our day. Tournefort describes the three crops of
caprifig and mentions the two races of edible figs, of which one requires
caprification, while the other will set fruit without it. The effects of
» caprification he explains in the same way as everyoite before him, by
the biting of the wasps, which causes the superfluous juices to escape.
Finally ,'Tie mentions^that a fig which in Provence without caprifica-
tion produces 25 pounds of figs, in the island of Zea gives 200 pounds —
a very unsatisfactory statement when we consider the distance of the
two localities and the uncertainty that the two trees were actually
of the same variety, not to speak of climate, soil, age, cultivation, etc.
It was reserved for Linnaeus to discover the true nature of caprifi-
cation. While previous to his time the nature of the sexes in flowers
124 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
had been described and generally accepted, no one had thought of
the possibility of an insect transmitting the pollen from one flower to
another and thus causing fecundation. As Pliny of old had foreshad-
owed the theory of evolution, so did LinnsBus a century before its
rediscovery indicate how, at least in one instance, flowers were depend-
ent on insects for their pollination. LinnsBUS points out how, in order
that the female flowers of the fig may be properly fecundated, it
becomes absolutely necessary for the pollen of the anthers to be dis-
tributed through the cavity of the fig. And this could not be accom-
plished if nature had not supplied the fig with a wasp which could
carry the pollen from the male flowers to the female tree. And this
wasp, he says, is the "psen" of the ancients,' or the fig insect. The
opinion of Linnseus was published in 1749. But LinnsBus was not
aware of the fact that some figs rii)ened their fruit without fecunda-
tion; want of material for investigation caused him to think that the
fig was absolutely dioecious — in other words, that it possessed sexes
distinctly separate, but on different trees.
John Hill, again, who published his great work, "A History of
Plants," in London, 1751, refers only briefly to the fig and its caprifica-
tion. He condemns Toumef ort's theory of puncture and irritation, and
states that pollination is the real effect of caprification; but he does not
refer to Linnaeus, though it is probable that he must have heard of
the latter's views upon the subject.
Later in the century both Milne and Cavolini, independently of
each other, discovered that a difference must be made between the
maturing of the seed and the maturing of the receptacle, and that
the former maturity, at least, must require pollination, even if the
latter (or pomolOgical maturity) could be accomplished without it.
Milne clearly defines this by saying:
The qnestion supposes that the fig trees in this country bring frnit to maturity
without assistance of caprification, and the fact can not be denied. The same
thing, we have seen, obtains in Spain, Provence, and Malta: but the fruit, or more
properly, the fruit vessel, is in all cases to be distinguished from the seed contained
within it. If the male be wanting, the seed will not vegetate when sown; but the
fruit may, nevertheless, swell and come to an appearance of perfection; and so it
is observed to do in the instance in question, and in many others, especially when
the fruit is formed of one of the parts less connected with seed, as the calyx,
receptacle, etc.
Filippo Cavolini published his work on caprification in 1782, or
twelve years later than Milne, whose opinion he had, however, not
read. Cavolini believes the caprifig to be the male tree and the fig
the female of the same species. He further notes the difference
between the fig receptacle and the seed, and how the former can
come to maturity on account of its stronger attachment to the stem of
the tree, while the seed, which is only attached to the pericarp by its
vessels, requires pollination in order to mature. This pollination
causes the juices in the fig to flow more freely, bringing both the
OAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 125
seed and receptacle to maturity. That some fif?s mature their recep-
tacles and other.^; do not depends on a defective structure, bj^ which the
juices from the stem of the tree are more or less obstructed in their
flow into the fig's receptacle. As this obstruction is less or greater
the fig requires more or less pollination to cause more or less sap to
flow, while the seed, in order to attain maturity, always requires polli-
nation. That the same variety of fig can mature in one locality
without caprification, while in a different district it must be caprifl-
cated in order to mature its receptacle, depends upon differences in
locality and soil. Cavolini's ideas are clearly expressed and to the
point.
At the very end of the century a French botanist, Olivier, traveled
in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, Persia, and Greece, making a par-
ticular study of the fig. His descriptive work of his travels was
published in Paris (year 9). Olivier came to the conclusion that
caprification was a useless and ignorant proceeding, which should be
abandoned. He says:
This operation, of which some anthors, both ancient and modern, have spoVen
with adiuiration, appeared to me to be nothing else than a tribute which man
pays to Ignorance and prejudice. Caprification is nnknown in many parts of the
Levant, in Italy, in France, and in Spain, and begins 10 be abandoned in t le Archi-
pelago, where it used to be practiced, and which, nevertheless, still produce excel-
lent figs for eating. If the operation was necessary, whether fecnndation be
effected by the fertilizing polleu dispersed in the air introducing itself into the
mouth of the tig, or whether nature makes use of a little fly to transmit it from
one fig to another, as is commonly believed, it is evident that the first fig in flower
conld not fecundate at the same time those that have already attained a certain
size and those which are only just appearing in order to ripen two months later.
The knowledge which Olivier possessed of caprification was in
reality most superficial and defective, and some of his statements are
even false and misleading and not worthy of quotation, except for
the fact that disbelievers in caprification have pointed to him as an
eminent botanist, who had conclusively proved the delusiveness of
the process in question. Olivier did not even know that it was the
caprifig which was used for caprification, but stated that it was the
common "figues fleurs," the brebas, or first-crop edible figs, which
were hung on the. trees. This also appears again in the last lines of
his statement quoted above, beginning: ** First fig in flower," etc.
His statement that caprification was unknown in Italy and Spain is
also incorrect.
In 1820 Giorgio Gallesio, a prominent' Italian horticulturist, pub-
lished his treatise on the fig. How far Gallesio's statements were based
on investigations in nature are not known. Later writers on figs have
endeavored to show that his theories were founded principally on
book learning, and not on observation. I am not of that opinion, as
his statements show a frankness and fairness entirely indicative of
truthfulness. Gallesio holds that there are two races of figs — one
126 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
which requires caprification in order to mature its fruit, and one
which matures without the aid of this operation . The different require-
ments between the two fig races depend upon a difference in con-
struction of the figs, and each race retains its characteristics, regard-
less of the influences of soil and climate. The difference in construc-
tion lies in the ovary of the fig. Some figs have ovaries without
ovules, and those figs which can not be fertilized can also not feel
the action of the pollen from the caprifig. These are the mule figs.
The other class of figs, with perfect ovules, are sensitive to the pollen,
and under its infiuence develop perfect seeds. These he calls semi-
mules. The fecundation Causes the juices to flow to the fig and
effect its maturity. The caprifig alone containing the pollen is,
therefore, necessary, and the only way to apply it is through
caprification.
Gallesio also describes a caprifig with only female flowers — "the
fico semi-mula." His statement that the original wild caprifig bore
only one crop of figs is shown by Solms-Laubach to be erroneous, or
at least very improbable.
^^ *" In the middle of our century the Italian botanist Guglie lmo Ga s-
parrini published a series of four different treatises upon figs and
Q Jt caprification, extending in time from 1845 to 1862. No one has con-
'^'^ / tributed so much to our knowledge of caprification as Gasparrini, and
\ /\ dss ^^ ^^^ ^^^ made as many original researches as he has. Gas-
y ^^^ ^ parrini, as Olivier before him, takes a decided stand against caprifi-
C/^ *tx c^^i^^j believing himself warranted in so doing by the result of the
V^'* w^'^experiments made by himself. Gasparrini's experiments have been
u >^^ by many considered conclusive and almost final, and his views
V vV"^^ V have been adopted almost unchanged by later writers on the subject of
caprification. While conceding that Gasparrini's experiments were
scientific and^ fairly carefully made, and highly interesting and demon-
V^ strati ve, I hold that the main conclusion_whicJi ha drew was singu-
> ^ ^ it ^ larly illogical, though it may have been warranted by the insufficiency
^ ^ y^ of his experiments. Gasparrini's almost only, but fatal, error was
that he experimented only on a few Italian figs, not even suspecting
that there might be other figs differently constructed. From his
observation he concluded that because *'a few were so," therefore,
" all must be so." Gasparrini's experiments are too elaborate to be
here noticed in detail. Those who wish to further study the subject
are referred to his respective works. A summary of his theories,
experiments, and conclusions is found in Biological Studies on Figs,
Caprifigs, and Caprification. A very short resume must suffice here.
Gasparrini concluded that the caprifig belongs to a different species
from the cultivated fig; that the Blastophaga is not necessary for
pollination; that caprification is useless and injurious and should be
abolished.
It is not intended to condemn Gasparrini's work, which, though
believed by many to have been somewhat defective, has still proven
CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG. 127
of much interest and value. His experiments have shown us that
caprifieation does not hasten the maturity of the common fig, and
that it is not the sting itself of the wasp which influences the set-
ting of the fruit of the edible fig. They also show that niany figs
which are regularly caprificated by the fig growers require no cap-
rifieation, and that, as far as these figs are concerned, caprifieation
could be abandoned. This point is confirmed by the circumstance
that these same figs mature in countries where no caprifigs are grown.
It is not easy to see how any other conclusions of importance can
be drawn from the experiments of Gasparrini. It must always be
regretted that he never thought of the possibility of there being any
other race of figs than that one which he happened to have under his^ (
eye. How different, for instance, would his conclusions have been if7> ^ l*^
he had had the true Smyrna figs to experiment on ! i /^ { t't^ ' • '
In our own times no one has given as much study to the fig ^\^'^' na^ny ^ •
tion as Prof. H. Count Solms-Laubach. His researches were pub- y j (
lished in 1882, and contain a perfect mine of knowledge, partly)''^ ^
compiled, partly his own investigations. While scientifically investi-j^ c / ? .
gating his subject and studying the figs and the fig insects in Italy,y /
Java, and France, it appears that he had no opportunity to make "_ 1 —
direct experiments in caprifieation, but founded his opinions princi- a y
pally on the experiments of Gasparrini. He sifts the knowledge of ^"^^ V
others with rare ability and patience, and adds numerous and inter- ^ 5
eating observations of his own. His researches are of the utmost y ^ ^
importance. As a botanist he rejects, as insufftciently proven. Gas- *" - '
parrini's theory of parthenogenesis, and, showing that Brazilian figs •'
produce no fertile seed, concludes that caprifieation is necessary for ^ ,
that purpose. ' ^ / |
During his investigations in Java he discovered that most figs ^ '^
growing there consisted of female trees as well as of male trees, and /
he found that the male tree possessed a flower especially adapted to I .
foster the Blastophaga, a kind of degenerated or differentiated female .. .-— r-
flower, which he calls the *'gall flower." This gall flower has prob-/» . ^
ably lost its power to produce seed. Returning home and investigat-^
ing the caprifig, he found that even this fig contained this gall flower, '
almost exclusive of any real female flower. He further shows how .^ '
different species of figs are inhabited by different species of Blasto-
phaga. He also unconditionally adheres to the theory of tl\ej3aprifig
and the fig being of the same-Jspecies. Later on he adopts the^EKeory
of Fr. Mtiller, that the edible fig is the female plant and the caprifig
the male plant. But he was entirely unaware of the existence of a race
orngs'constructed differently from the common edible figs which he
had investigated, and he shared the opinion of Gasparrini that all
figs were affected by caprifieation in the same manner, though he
recognized the absolute necessity of pollination and caprifieation in
order chat fertile seeds may be produced. But if caprifieation is not
needed any more, it was once a necessity, ages ago, when the fig was
) / y.'
128 THE fig: its history, cultube, and curing.
first brought into cultivation by man, and before the present race of
figs, which requires no caprification in order' to set and mature, had
^ 1 Hf originated. The class of figs which the Italians considered as requir-
i V ing caprification had been shown to set fruit without this operation;
] , ^the class that once required caprification must, therefore, have been
j^ A < / f lost, and been superseded by a better, more modern class, evolved
• , "'. ^ from the former. He comes to the following conclusion :
r ,-. ' Caprification was once, ages ago, a necessity; it is now no more useful, but only
i^ ' * I /■ & horticu ltural oper ation, transmitted fro m gener a t ion to generation, down to our
j ^-^ '/ ' time, and in its origThal form." Its scientific importance as means for judging the
\ modifications undergone by our economic plants (culturpflanzen) in the course of
' '^^ ' ages can hardly be overestimated.
It is hardly necessary for me to remark that Solms-Laubach's con-
clusions were based on his belief that this race, once requiring capri-
fication, Has been lost, has "died out,'* as no longer of value. Now,
if this race has not died out, but can be proven to be yet extant and
to constitute our best figs, the conclusion arrived at by Solms-Laubach
must fall. Professor Solms-Laubach has since acknowledged the
correctness of this.
^: A late contribution from the author's knowledge of caprification is
^ i found in his Biological Studies of Figs, Caprifigs, and Caprification,
'. ^ ^ ^already referred to several times. These experiments were conducted
* ,^^ , in various places in Calif ornia, and have, in the author's judgment,
' / jepnclusively proven that caprification is a process of pollinati on by
^'^'^ the aid of wasps; that it is a necessity in order to cause the Smyrna
figs to bear f" that the first crop of San Pedro figs does not require
^ , ',* ; . '-^ caprHTcaTIoh, while the second crop oTtEis tribe of figs will not set and
J ^ mature fruit without it. The writer has also shown that there is a
. ' ^ f fourth kind of flower in the fig — the mule flower. He has also pointed
out for the first time that we possess five distinct tribes of edib le figs,
' V '^ the nature of which he has described, and has endeavored"To trace
A^^ phylogenetic origin, showing that while the Smyrna figs have
jcjescended from the female caprifig tree the other trlFes" may^~have
^' descended from the male caprifig tree. From the nature of the seed-
. ' lings grown from imported and caprificated Smyrna seeds he has also
^.>^''" demonstrated that caprification is a process of pollinationjind not one
of irritation, as has been supposed^TTy the majority of investigators
since the time of Aristotle. The latest as well as the best work on
caprification, however, is from the pen of Dr. L. O. Howard, of the
United States Department of Agriculture. Dr. Howard is the only
^entomologist who has attacked this difficult subject with a thorough
knowledge of insect life and its relationship to plants. As a conse-
quence little in the life history of the Blastophaga now remains to be
elucidated,jand the reader who wishes a more detailed account of this
subject is referred to Dr. Howard's work published in the Yearbook
of the Department of Agriculture for 1900. It was published too late
to be quoted in this paper.
CHAPTER V.
CLIKATIC CONDITIONS.
GENERAL REMARKS.
The climatic conditions under whicli the cultivated fig will thrive
and bear fruit a re less I'estrict ed than those which favor or disfavor
many other fruits. What other fruit can be grown out-of-doors with
moderate success through a district ranging from the south ofScot^
land to the Cape of Good Hope, from the shores of_the.. Atlantic
through Europe, and Asia to China, from Chile^JflUCalifornia and
Oregon, and on the eastern "COast"^as far north as Washington?
Nevertheless, there are, necessarily, cer tain conditions which are par-
ticul arly favorable to the cultivation of the fig. Unfortunately, the
information at hand is very unsatisfactory, as the countries where
fig culture has been most successful are those where the horticulturist
has not found it necessary to invoke the aid of the scientist in securing
good results. Aside from our own personal experiences, almost the
only sources of information are consular reports and works of travel
by northern tourists and explorers; 'but they seldom contain the
information desired.
The warm, temp erate climate of the Mediterranean region is the
most favorable to the varieties of the fig that are useful for both dry-
ing and eating fresh. Even in this region some parts are much more
favorable than others, and we look upon Smyrna^ Si?i]y2 Provence,
Andalusia, and Algarve as ideal places and climates for the highest
development of the fig. But even in these localities the areas are
restricted, and in the study of climates and the search for ideal cli-
matic conditions comparison must be made with such places as Aidin,_ . ,^
Palermo, Draguignan, Solon^ etc., in which the climatic conditions
inusTbe the standard with which to compare our own. It will be seen <
that the area of the most perfect fig culture nearly coincides with that ' ''
of the^ve. Taken as a whole, the olive and the .figihxLve-XLDder the 77*^' ., ^
sam e con ditions, but the accommodative powers of the fig are much . , , . '
greater than those of the olive; it quickly repairs injuries from frost g' ' \
■i.:-.
and hurricanes and accommodates itself to almost any environment. ^
But while the famous figs are grown in less than half a dozen locali- yp/\^.< li
ties, a first-class olive cult is spread over an' immense Territory and, ^^^ r « »
remarkably enough, in localities where the finest figs are not found. -
The two cults, therefore, while agreeing in general, do not coincide in
details, for the fig, while less exacting as regards climatic conditions
than the olive, demands peciiTiafitiesIli climate in order to attain per-
fection, which few localities can supply.
129
~^>
130 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
TEMPERATURE.
The proper temperature for the fig varies with different varieties.
While some figs will mature with comparatively little heat, others
require a ^reat deal, a nd can hardly be given enough. Most excel-
^ lent figs for the table may be grown where the heat isjnoderate, while
varieties for dr ying requ ire_much more heat. If we take the figs of
Smyrna, KaBylia, a nd Algarve as standard dried figs, as we must cer-
tainly do, then it is safe To~^ay that the temperature in the shade
V during the drying, or rather during the maturing, of the figs should
never, or seldom at least, exceed^ 100^j\^_oivaboutJ^^ in the sun.*
Figs will, however, stand as much heat as the sun can give them, pro-
vided they are not exposed to the direct rays. However, since the
best figs for dryingare produced near Smyrna, where the heat seldom
V ^i reaches over looi_E^-we must conclude that a higher temperature in
. the^Kade Ts^not desirable. Too strong direct heat and light may
^ burn or scald tTie^figs,' thus bleaching and hardening the skin on the
xposed side. Excessive heat during the season when the figs ripen is
consequently undesirable.
<' . In studying the eflfect of excess of temperature each variety of the
'\[ /' > y^ fig must be considered. Some kinds are very hardy, comparing in
. . ,^ this respect with peaches, and even apricots. The tender southern
varieties of figs should never l56"^^3rpo5fed to a colder temperature
ji than 16° F., even if well matured; and if the branches are immature,
^. •' . 1'8° F. will kill the trees to the ground. A young fig tree^can endure
nTucFlesstlTaii an old one; consequently, it often Iiappensthat trees
during the first two or three years after planting are cut to the ground
and killed by frosts of from .18°J^o 22° F., and very often the variety
is at once condemned as unsuited to the region. As the trees grow
older t hey become hardie r, sliow tegs growth, and are jess injure d by
frost. The first few years are therefore the most important ones,
during which time the trees should be watched and protected in the
winter. If brought safely over that period most varieties will be
found hardy in the valleys of California. The writer has seen young
Adriatic figs cut down to the soil three years in succession during
temperatures of 18° F., and the same trees, after having success-
fully reached four years or over, were not injured by much heavier
freezing. In the grounds of the Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C, may be seen a real Smyrna fig tree which must have
grown there a great many years, as it is 12 to 14 feet high and has
never been protected. Similarly in the streets and yards of Wash-
ington there are quite a number of seedlings 2 or 3 feet and upward
in height, which have sprung up from Smyrna fig seed. In order to
facilitate the proper ripening of the figs it is necessary that the nights
should be warm or moderately warm. Cold and chilly nights, even
if the days are warm, will cause the figs to dry or remain hard, with
little sugar.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
RAINFALL AND MOISTURE.
Few fruit trees enjoy moisture as much as does the fig. In very
moist or even wet soil the fig tree grows most luxuriantly and attains '
a high degree of development; but in such localities the quality of
the fruit i s inferior^ b eing less sweet, insipid, or even^jcjjening to the
taste. Differen t varieties require diffe rent degrees of moisture in the
soil, and in order to produce the best quality of fruit the soil should
never b e more than m oist, not wet, at least not during the fruiting
season. In Smyrna the yeaVly rainfall averages 25 inc hes, and this
must be considered the standard rainfall.rfiquired by or desirable for
the fig designe d for drying , provided the soil is of such a quality as
will retain the moisture. With the proper cultivation of a good soil ^^^^' C 'A
with the above average rainfall, even at the end of ^ fae dry season, M ^i "i^ ^ '>.
moisture will be found a few .inches below the surface sufficient to^^;J i-^*'
cause the soil t o cohere when nressed. If drier than this the treeS" ' , .J^, ,. .
will sufTftr^ both as regards wood and fru it, while if more moist ;
the figs w ill be infpirior^ The rainfall should be all in the rainy or (R'*-'^. /'
winter season and none after the figs have begun to mature. A
shower of rain on j iatur ^ or n early mature figs is very injurious,
causing the figs to break op.e n, turn spur^.and rot, j,nd the crop may
be a total loss. Moisture in the air, such as is caused hy^ and follow-
ing rain and fog, is also injurious to the fruit, although it favors the
development of the tree. The fig requires a dry, but not too dry, air,
in order to produce superior fruit. Still, good and very superior fruit is
grown close to the ocean, but out of reach of fogs. Some of the
Smyrna figs are grown within the sight of the Mediterranean near
Ephesns, and the figs of Algarve and Malaga are similarly not far
from the sea. In California excellent figs are grown around San Fran-
cisco Bay, though not near to the shore. But fogs are always injurious
to figs, preventing the development of sugar and injuring the color
of the skin. Even dew is not desirable, especially when the figs are
ripening, and no figs should be picked before the dew is thoroughly
evaporated.
WINDS.
Winds are suppose d to favor t he maturing of the figs, provided
they are dry_and„not too warm. In Smyrna the finest figs are those
gathered when the dry north wind is blowing. The fig can hardly be
injured by ordinary heavy winds, as there are few trees which grow
as evenly balanced as the fig. This fact makes the fig especially suit-
able for wind-breaks during the summer months, while its deciduous
character unsuits it for this purpose in the winter.
+
IDEAL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS FOR FIGS.
Summarizing the general climatic conditions favorable for the most
perfect development of the fig, we have the following:
(1) Two seasons, one rainy and one dry, the latter during the warm
132
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
,A ^*-'!3
season of the year. The more distinct these seasons the better,
showers during the ripening season being very injurious.
(2) Warm, dr y win ds during the ripening of the figs, accompanied
by sunshliie and absence of clouds and fog; the temperature in the
shade not reg ularly tQ^exceed^ 100° F.
{3) During the winter the thermometer should not faH bekrwlS^JP.
(4) Natural rainfall of not less than j 5 inch es, confined to the
winter and spring months of the year, say from November to May.
(5) Warm nights d.uring the summer also favor the fig, its devel-
opment, and its quality.
SOILS.
GENERAL REMARKS.
The fig will grow in ^ almost any soil, and with an abundant water
it supply will do fairly well even in somewhat poor soils. Lime soi ls
I are more favorable to the fruit than others. Whatever the soil is, it
must, in order to secure the best results, be warm, have the property of
reta ijiing moisture when properly cultivated, and it should be deep^ .
^ ' ^^^ ^ ^ ^I MJ^^^' "and not underlaid by h ardpan or bed rock . Figs will
grow in almost all places, but with rocky ledges or hardpan close to the
.ny
lA^
^ surface the trees will s uffer in times of drought, and in badly drained
^^ ' soils the fruit will be of inferior quality. The most favorable soil is
one which is deep, loamy, so f t, full of hum us^ and wjlj bustn abundanc e
of lime. The latter is inciispensable in producing a superior drjang
j^g. In very dry soils th e fig is small jand woody, most varieties
\y^ ^. t.jiik'equiring continually moist soils. B ottom lands and mesas or table
^ands adjoining rivers are the most suitable plgiees jor fig orc hards.
•^he alluvial soils in such localities generally have the faculty of
retaining moisture so necessary to produce pulpy figs. It is an addi-
v-^"^ tional advantage if these soils are sandy, provided they also are rich
,v in soluble plant food. Not alLflandx soils are suitable for figs; only
;« those are which are really rich in plant food and in lime. Very
.. ' heav^^jclayioL-^M Qbe soil s should be avoided, especially in localities
which are naturally cold and damp. Alkali soils are not suited to
I figs, as the alkali tends to~c6unFeract the necessary formation of
sugar in the fruit. It is well known that both carbonate of sodium
and sulphate of sodium change the crystalline properties^ of such
fruit sugars as those contained in beets and cane, and if present in
too large quantities will prevent the formation of sufficient sugar to
I pay the grower for his work. Figs, as well as raisin grapes and
beets, will grow in alkali lands and produce, but the fruit should be
used for table only and not for drying or for a product where sugar
is the most important part.
SOILS IN THE EUROPEAN PIG DISTRICTS.
No chemical analysis of the best fig soils has ever been made. The
soil in the Meander Valley, near Smyrna, the principal fig district in
the world, is a rich and loose alluvial loam of great depth, containing
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 133
a large percentage of lime and potash. In Sicily, in the Palermo dis-
trict, where the largest and sweetest figs of Italy are grown, the soil
is mostly of an alluvial nature, also containing much lime. The soils
of Algarve, in Portugal, are principally mesa soils of a semialluvial
nature. It will be remembered that until within a comparatively few
years the Algarve figs were considered the best in the market, but
later on Smyrna, through care in selection and curing, took the lead.
Some of the best Italian figs — those from the province of Catania, in
Sicily, and those from Pozzuoli, not far from Naples — are grown on
volcanic soils, and to the lightness and other good qualities of this
soil is attributed the good quality of the figs. The- figs from Pozzuoli
are said to bring a better price in the Naples market than any of
those from southern Italy.
:^RECAPITULATION.
(1) Edible figs, to be eaten fresh, are less exacting as to soil; they
require somewhat more moisture in the soil.
(2) Figs for drying require warm, moderately dry, and quite sandy,
but especially limy, soils.
(3) Heavy wet soils produce coarse figs, and so do heavy clayey
soils generally.
(4) Sandy soils produce sweet figs of light color when dried. *
^v->/^ POSSIBILITIES OF FIG CULTURE IN COLD CLIMATES.
A^ Although fig culture will always be carried on most successfully and
' profitably 2n_semitrogical climates as at present, the fig tree readily .,
accommodates itse lf to^ess favorable reg ions and may be grown ' in ^^^^^
many other localities. It appears t hat t he realbaoxi^SJiPj^^ culture , tr- ^, V'
are sho rt an d col d sum mers. With wa rm days and long summers, g » ^ '^ '
such aTare^found in North America and central parts'of Asia, a sue-/) V"
cessful^cultiirfiLPf figs might be accomplished even with rigorous_win-
ters. In another part of this volume the writer describes how, by ^
c overir^? ; th^ fig trgAs either with mats or^with earth, successful crops c^ ' ' "^
are raised far outside of the favored regions of the fig, and the figs ^^ X' ^''
thus produced are not poor in quality, but are really good, sweet, .^., ('•'
j uicy^ and whol esome. Such fig culture is now practiced in the vicinity
of ^ agi%4n various places in England^ and even in the highlands of
ce ntral Asia, where the winters are extremely rigorous. In the khanates
of^okhara and Samarkand figs, pomegranates, and grapevines are
grown with winter protection; also in the vicinity of Pekin straw pro-
tection is requTfOT: Some varieties of figs require much less heat
and can stand much more cold than others, one of the hardiest varie-
ties being the semidwarf growing Brown Turkey, with its short and
crooked branches and its deeply cut leaves. There is no doubt that
figs producing the first crop for the table could be grown profitably
over a vast area of central North America and Europe in places where
this delicious fruit is now entirely unknown in its fresh state.
CHAPTER VI.
PBOPAGATION OF THE FIG.
GENERAL REMARKS.
The fig tree may be propagated in various ways. Few trees are as
easily grown and few require less skill and previous experience. The
fig tree may be started in the orchard in the very place where it is
destined to remain, or it may be propagated in the nursery and later
on transplanted. The former method can be used only when the
desired number of cuttings is available. Under favorable condi-
tions it is the best way to start a fig orchard, as this method is less
expensive and requires less time. But conditions may make other
modes of propagation necessary, especially when large cuttings of the
varieties required are not to be had or are too expensive to justify
their use.
While with proper care a fig orchard is very easily started, some
little neglect and ignorance of detail frequently cause great loss of
trees during the first season. It may be truly said that the fig is -both
the easiest and the most difficult tree to grow.
CUTTINGS OR ROOTED TREES.
The relative value of cuttings or rooted trees is entirely determined
by circumstances, such as the mode of planting, care given, experi-
ence of the planter, facility with which one or the other may be pi*o-
cured, etc. If cuttings of the desired size, age, form, and structure
can be had, they are sure to prove very much the cheapest. If the
soil can be kept in proper condition and if the cuttings are fresh and
healthy, cuttings will be found preferable to trees in starting a new
plantation. Cuttings, if fresh and of proper quality otherwise, have
this superiority over fig trees, that they can always be depended upon
to grow if given reasonable care. The cutting of the fig tree is remark-
ably hardj^ does not dry out readily, and if once injured can be
readily restored to life without much risk of a greater loss than a few
per cent at most, provided, of course, the drying out has not gone
beyond a certain limit. Rooted fig trees are in our country easy to
get, as they are grown here for sale. They have also the advantage
of being all of a certain size, can make standard trees at once, and,
provided they are fresh, they will bear sooner than cuttings. But
rooted fig trees have some drawbacks not possessed by other fruit
trees, except, perhaps, the olive. The fact is noted that if the trees
134
PROPAGATION OF THE FIG. 135
are allowed to get dry before being reset they are very liable to die
back to the ground and thus become even of less value than cuttings.
Many failures in fig plantations arise from this cause. The fault lies
partly with the sender or the nurseryman; partly, or more frequently,
with the receiver, whose knowledge of caring for the trees has been at
fault. If the trees are cared for properly little or no loss is probable.
A plantation started from trees will be more uniform, will bear
quicker, but will cost more than one started from cuttings. It should
be remembered that cuttings of the proper size for planting in the
open ground must be much larger than cuttings to be first planted in
nursery rows. For the former purpose long cuttings are required;
for the latter even the smallest will pi-ove valuable. Unlike other
nursery-grown trees, fig trees are always started from cuttings. A
cutting started direct in the orchard is therefore likely to make as
good or even a better tree than one that has been transplanted. If long
and proper cuttings can be had the}^ are preferable to trees, but
well-grown trees are preferable to small cuttings.
FRESH AND DRY CUTTINGS.
The main point in planting a ^g orchard from cuttings is that the
cuttings should be perfectly fresh. To be sure of this, each cutting
should be clipped at both its upper and lower ends just before plant-
ing, except in case the top of a cutting ends in a terminal bud. Of
course, the clipping is only to learn the proper state of the cutting.
The cutting is fresh if an abundance of milky juice exudes from the
inner bark or cambium layer immediately when the cut is made. The
freer the juice flows the better the cutting, while if only a few tiny
drops exude here and there the cutting is unfit for planting and must
be revived. If fresh, the cutting should be plump, and the year's
wood should be glossy, bulging, and no sign of shrinkage should be
be seen. The buds of a cutting which is in proper condition should
also be plump and the outside scale of the bud should not be dried.
When this scale is torn off the milky sap should exude from the wound.
Such plump fig cuttings will readily grow, and if each cutting is
examined before planting, and if the planting is done in proper soil
and good care is given, there should be less than 1 per cent loss from
failure to grow.
A dry cutting may be easily detected. Its wood is shriveled, and
when cut transversely little or no milky sap exudes, or the sap will
be thin and watery. When the inner green bark and cambium are
lifted with a sharp knife they appear dry and shrunken or even discol-
ored. The buds on a bad cutting are more or less dry; the outside
scales are shrunken and do not closely cover the interior ones, and
they appear hard when pressed with the fingers. These characteris-
tics of the buds are sure signs as to the quality of the cutting, as they
can be detected at a glance, even at a distance. A dry cutting has a
23740— No. 9—01 10
136 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
different color from a fresh one, the former being grayish and dull,
the latter being blackish or dark and brilliant, reflecting the sun or
light.
BEST TIME FOB MAKING CUTTINGS.
The fig tree is never entirely dormant, as there is always some sap
moving. Even in winter, when all the leaves have fallen, a cut in the
wood will cause the sap to exude. But the fig has periods of greater
or lesser activity, the latter beginning in the fall of the year after
the leaves have fallen. This period should be chosen for propagat-
ing the fig. The flow of sap at that time does not interfere with
the rooting of the cuttings, as it is the downward flow of the sap which
produces the callus from which the roots develop. Later, when the
leaves have started, the fig roots with more difficulty. The proper
time for cuttings is therefore in November and December, and if the
ground is warm and sandy, the sooner they are planted the better. If
the ground is very cool and clayey, the making of cuttings, or at least
their planting, should be postponed until February or March, although
the earliest planted cuttings always prove the best, provided the con-
ditions have been proper. Cuttings which are to be sent away should
always be cut early, as they stand long shipments better than cuttings
which have been made late. The latter contain much more sap, and
on this account are less dormant. For planting out of doors, the ear-
lier the cuttings are made after the frost has caused the leaves to fall
the better.
HOW TO MAKE CUTTINGS.
If a large fig plantation is to be started it is most practical to make
the different sizes of cuttine:s at the same time and to assort them
afterwards. If cuttings ^re required year after year, it is best to
have certain trees set apart for that purpose, as when fruiting trees
are cut back they will cease to bear properly for one or more years,
or they will bear inferior fruit. The branches from which the cut-
tings are to be made should be cut back at once to the main stem of
the tree. After being thrown to the ground the large limbs should
be sawed or cut off immediately and assorted as to size. After being
conveyed to a cool place they should be protected from the sun and
wind. This may be done either by heeling the cuttings in the ground
if they are apt to remain there for some length of time — a week or
ten days — before being cut up. But if they ai*e to be worked up at
once they may be merely covered with straw, wet sacks, or blankets.
If covered at all they must be covered well; and not more than one-
tenth part of their whole length should in any case be exposed t^o.the
sun or winds. This refers also to the heeling in, when nine-tenths of
the cuttings should be below the soil.
The large cuttings should be made up first. The large limbs
should be sawed off square across and cut, as straight as possible, in
PROPAGATION OF THE FIG.
137
lengths of from 3 to 4 feet. These large cuttings may be at once
transferred to the orchard and planted directly where they are to
remain. If this can not be done, these large cuttings may also be
heeled in. This should be done immediately, and if possible the same
day as cut.
The small cuttings may be cut up at leisure in the shade. If they
have been previously heeled in they should first be washed, as the soil
will spoil the shears and retard the work generally. It is the most
profitable to make three different grades of cuttings, all grades being
cut at the same time. Have the men sitting on low boxes or tripod
chairs, each man with a pile of rough branches or large cuttings
before him, and three boxes
of different sizes at his side,
these latter for the recep-
tion of the newly made cut-
tings. As a rule the differ-
ent sizes may be 12 to 14
inches for the largest and
thickest, 6 inches for the
medium size, while the tips
or shortest branches may be
made 1 or 2 inches in lengt.h
and serve as the smallest
grade. The two largest sizes
should be placed in layers
with the butt ends in the
same direction. This is im-
portant, as otherwise many
of the cuttings will be plant-
ed upside down. The small
tips may be thrown promis-
cuously into the box.
In making the cuttings it
is necessary that the shears
should be kept sharp, and a hone should always be handy for that pur-
pose. Care should be taken to cut exactly at the joint, where there is
no pith visible. By splitting a fig-cutting lengthwise it will be seen
that the pith does not extend through the joint, but that there is a
place in the joint where the wood is solid. (See fig. 19.) If the cut is
made exactly in this solid part, both the bottom end of one cutting and
the top end of the one below will be closed by solid, woody matter, and
not exhibit any pith. The advantage gained is that the solid bottom
end will root easier, while the top end will be protected from insect
borers, which often work down through the pith from the point where
it is exposed. The part of the cutting thus injured will dry and die.
If the pith is not exposed, the borer can not make a ready entrance.
Pig. 19.-
-Fig cuttings: a showing the pith and nodes at
. the joints.
J
138 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
It is hardly necessary to add that the proper place for makirifi: cut-
tings is in a large shed, or under the shade of a large tree.
The following are the main points in making cuttings:
(1) The operation must he performed in the shade.
(2) The shears should be very sharp.
(3) Large and small cuttings are best made at the same time.
(4) Grade the cuttings as soon as made.
(5) The cut to be made in the joints where the wood is solid.
(6) The larger cuttings to be placed in boxes, with the butt ends all
in one direction.
CARE OF CUTTINGS AFTER THEY ARE MADE.
Many failures arise from want of care of the cuttings after they
have been made. A cutting should be fresh, or at least full of sap,
before planting in nursery .or orchard. The best method is to plant
the cuttings as soon as they are made. If this be done they should
not be disturbed from the boxes in which they were placed after being
cut; and to transfer the boxes at once to the field will save work, and
the chance of mixing the cuttings will be less. If planting can not
be done immediately, the cuttings should be heeled in. This may be
done by digging a trench as deep as half the size of the cutting, the
soil being thrown up always on the same side, and toward the south
if possible, thus forming an embankment, making the trench twice as
deep. The cuttings are then put in slanting, with their tops leaning
against the loose soil. The soil to be used for covering tlie trench is
dug out of the opposite side and from the next trencli to be dug.
First the lower part of the trench is filled in, then loose soil is heaped
in around the cuttings to within a few inches of their tops. Another
layer of cuttings is then put on against this soil, the original trench
all the time being made wider. The cuttings should not protrude
more than a few inches. Thus heeled in, the cuttings should be kept
slightly moist, but not wet. If too moist the cuttings will make root
quickly. This is to be avoided as much as possible, as these roots
will all die in replanting and rob the cutting of considerable sap and
life force.
If there is danger of the cuttings rooting too soon they may be
taken out and dried in the air for a few hours or longer, accoixling to
the weather, and then afterwards be put back into the trench. Such
drying does not injure the cuttings, provided proper care is taken in
not drying too much. In this manner cuttings may be kept in good
condition for several months and until very late in the spring. The
soil in the trench should be kept firm in order that the drying winds
may not enter or that mold may not form. Aftei' eviuy watering the
holes formed by the settling of the soil should be filled in and tiodden
down. If the cuttings have from any cause become dry they should
at once be revived. This can be done bv placing them in a ditch or
PROPAGATION OF THE FIG. 139
tub filled with water, running water being* best. One night in water
will generally revive most cuttings — that is, if they are not absolutely
dead — and cause them to become plump again. Some cuttings in
every lot are, however, irreparably injured by drying out, and these
should, if the least shriveled, be thrown out at planting and no risk
taken with them. If the varietj^ is very valuable these injured cut-
tings may possibly be saved, and they should be cared for separately.
The very small tips or single-eye fig cuttings should be allowed to
remain in boxes, covered with moist or slightly damp sand in such
a way that no part of them remains exposed. All such tips should be
grown under glass or cover or in separate beds, where they can hfs
given necessary care.
The following are the main points in caring for the cuttings:
(1) Plant, if possible, as soon as made.
(2) Do not expose to the sun.
(3) Heel in a trench, leaving not more than two eyes exposed.
(4) Tamp the soil in the trench so as to exclude the air and prevbiii
drying.
(5) Keep moist, but not wet.
(G) Prevent rooting or callusing by occasional drying.
(7) Examine the cuttings every two days.
(8) Very short cuttings should be entirely covered.
(9) If dried out, revive at once by immersing in water or by covei
ing entirely with wet soil.
(10) Never cover with wet straw.
(11) If callused when planting, cut off the callused part.
PLANTING CUTTINGS IN NURSERY ROWS.
Mark off the field by driving pegs in two parallel rows, the pegs in
each row to be 4 feet apart. The best chain or line that can be used
is five-plj^ twisted wire, generally known as ** cable." After the pegs
are set stretch the cable between two opposite pegs, and while the
cable rests on the ground cut out a V -trench along the cable by means
of the Italian broad hoe. In making the trench the fiat edge of the hoe
is slapped on the ground as close to the cable as possible and parallel
to it. By pulling the hoe toward the workman a small trench is exca-
vated which can be made sufficiently deep by twice repeating the
stroke. Three men can perform this work to the best advantage — one
at each end and one in the center of the cable. As soon as the cable
is stretched all three men begin the digging of the trench. The cut-
tings should be planted by a separate gang of men as soon as each
trench is ready, The i)lanting is simple. The cuttings are placed
vertically against the perpendicular side of the trench, about 10 inches
apart, and sufficiently deep to leave one eye above the soil and one
eye just in the surface line. As soon as a part of a row of cuttings is
set, one man should follow with an Italian hoe and scrape the soil
140 THE fig: its history, oultube, and curing.
toward the cuttings. When he has caught up with the planter he
should return and tamp the soil on both sides of the cuttings, not
only by walking with one foot on each side of the row, but by using
as much force as possible in pressing the soil hard. The soil can
not be pressed too hard, provided it is not wet and soggy. If irri-
gation can not be had at once, or if the weather is very warm and
dry, it is advisable to pull loose soil to the verj'^ top of the cuttings
after the tamping is over.
This leaves only the very tops exposed or just in the soil, and pre-
vents the cuttings from drying out. This entire covering over is also
a most excellent way of leviving cuttings which have been planted,
but which, from some cause or other, have become shriveled. A few
days of shade will revive them, and the soil may be either pulled
away again or be left. The sprouts of the figs will be able to push
through if the covering is not over 2 inches thick.
In the directions above given the following points are to be noted
as of special importance:,
(1) Uniform distance between the rows.
(2) Absolutely straight rows.
(3) The planting of cuttings at once, after the trench is scooped out.
(4) Covering the ti'ench at once after planting.
(5) Tamping the soil very hard.
(6) The shading of the cuttings by loose soil.
(7) Prevention of the exposure of more than one eye.
PLANTING SMALL CUTTINGS IN NURSERY.
The planting of very small cuttings of 4 to 6 inches in length should
be done in low beds in irrigated districts, or, if in moist places, in
elevated beds. The low beds should be absolutely level and surrounded
by a low ridge in order to check the water which is to be conducted by
a small ditch to the bed in such a way that the whole bed may be flooded
at once. After the bed has been prepared the soil should be dug up
and raked loose. A small V-formed trench is then excavated from one
end of the bed to the other and the cuttings placed in this about 3
inches apart. The whole bed is filled with cuttings in this way. Only
one eye of each cutting should be left out of the ground. When
planted the bed should be flooded at once and covered with well-rotted
straw in which all seeds have been destroyed by fermentation. Fresh
straw will bring too many weeds and will, besides, injure the cuttings
by attracting and reflecting intense sun heat. Such beds of cuttings
are apt to dry out very quickly and require a great deal of water. If
properly cared for they will make fine but small trees, suit-ed for plant-
ing in nursery rows the following season. During the growing season
the plants should be suck^red and only one shoot allowed to grow.
The terminal buds of the plants should be kept growing until the latter
PROPAGATION OF THE FIG.
141
part of September, when they should be checked by keeping dry. (See
fig. 20.)
The following points are to be observed in planting small cuttings
out of doors:
(1) Plant in beds absolutely level.
(2) Expose only one eye.
(e3) Keep constantly moist.
(4) Cover with well-rotted straw.
(5) Allow only a single shoot.
(6) Allow no growth after September.
(7) Observe the termi-
nal bud daily, and irrigate
the moment the growth is
checked, which is indicat-
ed by the *' heart leaves"
becoming stunted and
dry.
PLANTING SINGLE EYES.
The fig propagates
readily from single eyes.
Those that are saved in
pruning and in making
cuttings should not be
allowed to be kept cov-
ered more than two days,
as they begin to callus
almost at once, and when
once callused they do not
readily stand moving.
The best place for plant-
ing single eyes is in a
frame covered by glass,
canvas, or laths. Make
the bed very level and
water freely. The soil in the bed should consist of three-fourths pure
sand, but should not contain manure. Plant the eyes about 3 inches
apart each way and cover the eyes about 1^ inches with sharp, pure
sand. Do not water for several days; keep only moist, not wet. The
eye should be placed horizontally. The single-eye cutting is made
either by cutting the wood across on each side of the eye, thus pre-
serving the thickness of the wood intact, or by splitting the wood
lengthwise. In the latter case the whole of the fiat surface will callus
and root. (See fig. 20.)
The object in planting single eyes is simply to procure plants of
rare varieties. For ordinary kinds it Is not worth the trouble to save
Fig. 20.-
6, d. Small rooted cuttingrs of figs; c, a sinfifle-
eye catting.
142 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
the small cuttings or the single eyes. A cutting which is badly dried
should first be soaked or revived, then the eyes cut out as above and
planted separately. This is preferable to planting any of the dry wood.
SUCKERS.
Figs may be propagated readily from suckers or so-called water-
shoots, which spring up in abundance at the base of older trees.
Such trees will bear as much and as good fruit as those grown from
cuttings, but they are supposed by some growers to produce a greater
quantity of objectionable suckers, which must be removed several
times during the year. For cuttings such suckers are not as well
suited, as the wood is very long between joints and generally is less
well matured than the regular branches. Cuttirigs from branches
are therefore to be preferred. When suckers are used they should
be treated exactly like cuttings or rooted trees. When suckers are
planted directly in the orchard care should be taken to set the butt
end containing the few rootlets sufficiently deep in order that it may
not dry out. It should be set just as deep as one would plant a cut-
ting. The top of a sucker need not be cut back, but may be left a
foot or two above the soil, just like a tree, provided, however, that it
has been detached from the mother trunk with at least a few adhering
rootlets.
budding and grafting.
GENERAL REMARKS.
The fig may be either budded or grafted, preferably the latter; but
there is little advantage in doing so, except when it is desirable to
change a tree of one variety into another more desirable, or when
it is found advantageous to give a weak-growing variety a strong
and vigorous root and stock. Nurseymen's fig trees intended for sale
are never grafted or budded, but are always grown from cuttings.
Many people mistake the suckers of growing trees for suckers from
the root below a supposed graft. Such suckers differ always somewhat
in leaf from the older branches, but unless it is known with certaint^^
that the tree is grafted it is safe to assume that the strange- looking
suckers belong to the same kind as the parent fruiting tree.
The time for budding and grafting is in winter, when the sap is com-
paratively dormant. Fig trees, unlike other trees, are never entirely
dormant, and in order to succeed in grafting it is of importance to have
as little flow of sap as possible, else the sap will throw off the bud.
Fig trees are seldom budded, as grafting is much preferable. Still,
if budding is desired as a curiosity it may be done. It is believed,
however, that budded trees will not make as strong trees as those
PROPAGATION OF THE FIG. 143
grafted. Both in grafting and budding the fig the same operation
must be had as in budding and grafting the walnut. A few remarks
regarding budding may suffice. The best form of bud to be used in
budding the fig is the ring bud. The first operation is to girdle the
branch which is to be budded, making the girdle cover the site of an
eye. Then take from the scion a girdle of exactl}'^ the same width
and place this in position on the branch in place of the one removed.
It is always best to place the new bud exactly over the spot where the
old one was located, or, in other words, the ring bud taken from the
stock is replaced by one as similar as possible from the scion. If the
old branch is larger than the new one from which the bud is taken,
enough bark should be left on the stock to allow the new bark to touch
everywhere. The ring bud must fit exactlj^ the f)lace from which the
bark was removed, especially at the upper margin and at the back.
After the bud is inserted, tie firmly with cotton twine and wax well and
do not cutback the top until the new bud has fully taken and grown sev-
eral inches. Then cut back to one bud above the new bud. Destroy
this upper bud by pinching, leaving only one leaf to draw the sap.
After the new bud has grown several feet this old top may be entirely
removed, either at once or during the following winter. In order to
insure success the air should be well excluded by grafting wax from
both buds and grafts.
GRAFTING.
If proper care is taken, the grafting of fig trees is not a difficult
matter. Both scions and stock should be as dormant as possible, the
best time for this being in January, though grafting may be done as
late as in March. Only poor success will be had in grafting after the
leaves begin to show and the sap flows readily. The following account
of grafting the fig is mainly based on the experience of Mr. John Rock,
who has brought the grafting of fig trees to great perfection.
SCION.
The best scion or wood is two years' wood, because it possesses less
pith than one-year-old wood. End grafts or scions with top bud are
the best. The form of the scion must be wedge-shaped, not only from
top to bottom, but from front to back, and only one of the surfaces
cut must show any pith. The side of the scion is placed toward the
center of the stock, while of course the other side of the scion, which
shows no pith, is placed toward the back or outward side of the stock.
In order to have the scion properly cut the pith on the one side must
be situated very low down, near the bottom of the scion. If situated
higher up, the other side is sure to show some pith, too, which will be
greatly detrimental to the future tree. (See i\g. 21.)
Incipient fruit buds must be nipped off from the scions. The scions
figured are of natural size and exact copies of those actually in use.
144
THE fig: its histoey, culture, and curing.
Fig. 21.— Pig scions for grafting— John Bock^s method.
Terminal scions are the best. If other scions are to be used, the top
cut should be made one-half inch above the top bud. This cut
should be somewhat slant-
ing. The front part of the
wedge — that is, the part
or face with the most bark
surface and the one which
when inserted will face
outward — must have a
bud at its upper end.
Thus, in making the scion,
begin by placing the knife
-^ r^ close to a bud and then
draw the knife downward.
This is best seen in the
illustration.
STOCK.
Any limb of an old fig
tree may be grafted, pro-
vided it is healthy and not
sunburnt. The limb is cut squarely off or slightly slanting. The best
size of limbs is probably
about 2 inches in diameter.
The cut should be made at
a joint, as there is less pith
there than anywhere else.
This cut is best made with
a saw. Many cuttings may
be grafted into every tree,
but it is of the utmost im-
portance that, according
to the size of the tree, one
or two branches should be
left entire, in order that
the sap may be drawn into
the old tree. (See fig. 25. )
If all the branches are
grafted and no large
branches left untouched
the old tree will die
through the stagnation of
sap. In old trees one or
two large branches are left.
Fio. 22.— Scions Inserted in a fig branch— John Bock^
method.
In smaller or very small trees it will suf-
fice to leave some twigs or slender yearling branches to draw the sap.
PBOPAGATION OF THE FIG.
145
CLEFT.
Smaller stocks require only one graft, but in the larger ones it is
best to insert two or three grafts. Each graft is inserted in a cleft.
This cleft, or slot, should be made with a knife or wedge and not with
a saw, as the latter will make an uneven surface. The direction of
the cleft should not be exactly parallel with the long axis of the
stock, but should form with it a small angle, pointing toward the
center of the branch, and it should not be so long as to cross the cen-
ter. If pointing straight downward it will cause the stock to split,
and if it crosses the center it may also cause the stock to split off. At
any rate, it will not be prop-
erly kept in place. On the
other hand, the upper part
of the cleft, which crosses
the cut-off surface of the
stock, must not go through
to the bark on the opposite
side of the stock. The cleft
is made on one side of the
center, between the pith and
the bark (see fig. 22), and
must on no account cross
the pith. If this is done the
tree will be ruined.
INSERTING THE GRAFT.
When the scion is prop-
erly inserted in the stock
it will show the following
features: Its lower wedge-
shaped part will point
slightly toward the center
of the stock and the median
longitudinal diameter of the
branch. The upper free
part makes a small angle
with the squarely cut-off surface of the stock. Thus the scion and
stock are not parallel. At the junction of the scion and the stock
is situated, facing outward, the lower bud or eye of the scion.
Of the two planed-off surfaces of the scion, the one with the pith
faces inward toward the pith of the stock. The inner green laj^er,
or cambium, of scion and stock must touch at several points. (See
fig. 23.)
Fto. 23.— Two tig branches, showing manner of insert-
ing the scions.
146
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
TREATMENT.
The scion is lirmly tied witli cotton twine, and the upper surface of
fche stock as well as the lower part of the scion must be well covered
with grafting wax in order to fully exclude air, rain, damp, and wind.
After grow^th has begun, all the eyes of the scions should be allowed
to grow for several months, but when tliey get to be too large and
when there will be danger of the grafts being blown or broken off,
the new, young, green wood must be cut back in such a way as to
steady the graft. The growing branches of the graft must be tied
to stout stakes, two, three, or more of which are required at every
tree. (See fig. 27.) If the growing branches of the grafts are not tied
securely they will with certainty blow off or break off by their own
weight. These stakes must re-
main during the whole first
year. When the scions have
grown and attained one year
the large or small branches of
the original stock which were
left to draw sap may be cut off
or grafted, if necessary. After
the scions have started to grow
well it is necessary to cut open
the strings with which the cleft
was tied, or they will cut into
the wood. Then new strings
are tied and new wax is put on
as before. The cutting back
of green wood and branches
should be done gradually.
PROTECTION FROM SUNBURN.
Fig. 24.— Fig tree just grafted. One branch is left
to draw the sap. The straw covering to pro-
tect the tree has been omitted.
It is of the utmost impor-
tance that the trunk of the old
fig tree or stock should be covered with tule or flag, or otherwise pro-
tected, on the south and west sides, or sun, Avind, and borei-s Avill ruin
the tree. The fig, while a tropical tree, will not stand the exposure
of its bark to the sun or wind, except in winter. It shares this pecul-
iarity with most evergreen trees. (See fig. 2G.)
SHIPPING cuttings.
Fig cuttings are much less susceptible of being damaged in shipping
than tig trees with large, developed roots. If accidentally injured
by drying, the}^ may be revived more readily than t\g trees or most
other kinds of cuttings. In shipping long distances great care should
be taken in proper packing. If properly packed fig cuttings may be
PROPAGATION OF THE FIG.
147
consigned on a voyage of three or four months and arrive at titieir
destination in ^ood condition. The style of x>acking must vary
according to the distance and time of voyage, and also according to
whether the cuttings are to be sent by mail, by freight, or other con-
veyance. In shipping cuttings to localities within one or two days'
journey no special care is required. The cuttings should be tied in
bundles of 50 to 100, as may be most convenient, two stout baling
ropes being required, and
tied one at each end of
the bundle. A sack should
then be slipped outside of
the bundle, and if the
weather is warm and dry,
straw should be packed
tightly between the cut-
tings and the sack, and the
bag then stitched up. Diy-
goods boxes may in some
instances be preferred to
sacks. Damp straw may be
used for a week's ti-ip, in
which case a box should al-
ways be used. For longer
d istances the cutting s
should be packed in dry
charcoal and sealed in tin
or in moss. The former is
a most excellent packing
and safe for a two months'
journey, but has the fault
that when the boxes are
opened at the custom-house
the charcoal will run out
and the cuttings quickly
dry. In all such cases the
use of sphagnum moss must
be substituted for charcoal.
This moss is sold in pressed
bales, is comparatively very cheap, and weighs but little. The moss is
first made quite wet with water and then squeezed dry Avith the hands
or by a press. A tight box is selected, the sides of which should be
braced and bound with light irons. Along the inner sides of the box
nail oiled paper, folding the paper in the corners. Put first a thick
la}' or of sciueezed moss in the bottom of the box, then a layer of cut-
tings, then a less thick layer of moss, another layer of cuttings, and
so on. A thicker layer of moss should be placed on the top similarly
Fks. 25.— a flj? tree just grafted. Two branches are left
to draw sap. There are three stakes for supporting
the growing sciona The straw or flag covering neces-
sary to protect the stem of the main tree has been
omitted.
J
148
THE fig: IT8 HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
to that on the sides, and all should be covered with oiled paper.
Another good way is to tie the cuttings together in small bundles of 8
or 10, and treat these bundles as single cuttings. A more solid pack-
ing is the result. Very large boxes should never be used. A box 1
foot wide and 1 foot deep by 18 inches long is of a good size, is easily
handled, and not readily broken. When the top is screwed on and
the box turned over there should be no shaking inside, but all should
be perfectly solid.
A yet safer wa}' is
to cover each little
bundle with plenty
of moss, then out-
side of the moss
wrap a stout pa-
per, oiled or par-
aflBn paper to be
preferred. The
bundles are to be
kept steady in the
box with plenty of
moss. The points
to be especially
observed are to
squeeze the water
out of the moss well
and to pack so that
the cuttings will
L ''.*i'^'([\ iii not move. If they
\ i-"^'-'!!.' '^ |1\ '' I "^^^^ ^^ ^^® begin-
ill, ' r idnt^if^ ' 'ill ning they will do so
to a greater extent
as the moss grad-
ually dries, and
the cuttings will
dry through the
air admitted to the
box. Cuttings well
packed in very
small boxes or in oiled paper and moss may be safely sent by mail,
and will not dry out for one or two weeks. Such bundles must be
tied very solidly. It is always preferable to dip all cut and exposed
surfaces in melted wax, grafting wax to be preferred. This of course
prevents the cuttings from drying out rapidly and insures greater
safety. If a few cuttings only are sent, each one should be sealed
with wax, and then wrapped first in paraffin paper and then in
tinfoLl.
FiQ. S».— A grafted fig tree second season from grafting. Most of
the scions are 1 year old from the graft and have just been cut
back. Several small scions have just been inserted in the branches
which were left growing to draw sap daring last year . John Rock 's
method.
PROPAGATION OF THE FIG.
149
SHIPPING LARGE FIG TREES.
Large trees suitable for planting are generally sent in bales, cov-
ered with flag, tnle, or straight straw. First, place on the ground or
floor at least five pieces of baling rope, each with an eye knot at one
end and of suflBcient length to go around the bale. These ropes
should be laid parallel and about 12 inches or less apart. Across
these ropes place a thin layer of
straight flag, tule, or long straw.
Upon this heap a lot of common
fresh, damp straw about 2 inches
thick. Upon this straw lay the
trees, with the roots all toward
one end, and if the fig trees are
not very large place some of the
smaller trees with the roots more
toward the center, in order to
make the bundle more cylindrical
and less conical. Cover the trees
with a thick layer of straw, then
bring the straw and flag together
to the top of the« bundle over its
sides and rapidly pass the ends of
the ropes together, so that each
rope forms a slipknot around the
bundle. It takes two men to
make such a tree bundle, though
it may be made by one man if he
is skillful and if the bundle is not
too large. The ropes should be
drawn as tight as possible. Nur-
serymen use several mechanical
appliances for making these bun-
dles. None, however, have im-
pressed the writer as being very
practicable. After all the ropes
have been thoroughly tightened,
two ropes should be run length-
wise, connecting the cross ropes with one another so that they may
not slip off. Finally, the straw and flags protruding unevenly are
trimmed off with a sharp knife. The bundles are dampened by
water if the weather is warm and dry. Such bundles, if solid, will
stand a voyage of a week or two in winter time in moderate climates,
but in cold weather they are liable to be frosted. It is hardly neces-
sary to add that the bundles should be kept shaded as much as pos-
sible and not exposed to wind or sun.
Fig. 27.— a fig tree second year from graf tiDg.
The scions have just been cut back and have
been tied to the supports in order to prevent
breaking from the main stem. The trunk of
the tree is covered with straw.
150
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
For longer distances moss should be used freely between the roots,
or, if the trees are very valuable and the distance long, damp moss
may be tied around the roots oif each tree separately and the trees
either baled or packed in tight boxes. It is a good plan to first dip
or puddle the roots of the trees in a wet mixture of clay and cow dung,
thus covering the roots with a crust, which will add greatly to their
protection and prevent mold or rot from setting in from the outside.
The main point in packing is to exclude air. Pack damp, but not
wet, and so securely that the trees and cuttings can not shake or
change place. Straw is always less valuable than moss for packing,
as it brings mold and rot, while moss keeps fresh and alive, even
under very adverse circumstances.
Fig. 28. -A grafted fig tree, three years from grafting.
HOW TO treat injured FIG CUTTINGS.
Valuable fig cuttings which, through poor packing or by accident,
have become very dry may be saved by extra care. Such cuttings,
even if apparently dead, should not be thrown away. The process
described here for restoring fig cuttings has been tried by the writer
several times with complete success. Slightly modified, it may be
applied also to almost any other variety of cuttings, such as olives,
etc.; but the success is never as great as with figs. Procure a deep
earthenware dish and fill with as hot Avater as the hands can possibly
bear and immerse the cuttings completely. Cover over with sacks or
blankets in order to retain the heat. If in two liouivs the cuttiiiirs
PROPAGATION OF THE FIG. 151
show no marked improvement, renew the water and make it as hot as
before. But if an improvement is seen, renew with somewhat cooler
water. The cuttings should remain immersed for twelve hour's or
overnight, after which drain off the water, rinse the cuttings, and
transfer them to a box. Fill the box and pack as tightly as possible
with moist sand. The box should then be placed in a hole in the
ground and covered at least 2 feet deep with fresh soil. In twenty-
four hours the cuttings may be taken put. If there was any life left in
the cuttings they will now have suflBciently recovered to be planted.
If they yet remain dry there is but little hope, though if very valuable
they may again be transferred to water as before and given another
trial. The writer has in this way revived cuttings which were pro-
nounced dead and which when cut did not show any sign of sap.
Such revived cuttings must be planted and cared for in an entirely
different way from other cuttings. They should never be planted in
the open ground, at least not at once, but must first be started under
glass in a low frame placed directly on the ground. The frame should
be slanting toward the north and covered ^ith thickly whitewashed
glass. The soil should be very sandy, and a layer of pure sand should
be placed over the soil in such a way that when planted the bottom
end of the cuttings will rest in the sand, but immediately over the
soil. Only living wood must be planted. As soon as the cuttings are
planted with only their tips protruding over the sand, the frame may
be well watered once and then covered. After that no more watering
is required, as a single additional watering may prove fatal to all the
cuttings, until they have started and grown several inches. The
glass should not be lifted, and no extra air is required until green
leaves begin to show. The main point is to keep the frame cool and
as dry as possible without allowing the cuttings to suffer. As a rule,
even in very warm and dry weather, the frame will retain its first
moisture for a month or more. The least excess of moisture will
cause the cuttings to rot. Of course the young plants can not be
removed until the next season. It is of very great importance that
no dead wood should be left and planted, and such cuttings only
should be used which show a flow of sap, and even if the sap be faint
and watery the cuttings should be planted. The sap will in a few
days become milky if the cuttings grow. If dead wood is planted it
will draw upon the sap supply and finally rot, even if the eye has
started and made a shoot. Such cuttings should, if possible, be cut
to a joint. In watering such cuttings care should be taken in using
only very pure water from wells or springs, as ditch water is likely to
produce rot or other fungus growth in the bed.
SEEDLINGS.
Figs may be grown readily from perfect seeds; but, as only capri-
ficated figs, or figs which have grown close to caprifigs ox to figs with
23740— No. 9—01 11
152 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
male flowers, have fertile seeds, it is necessary to use seeds of imported
Smyrna figs or seeds from figs caprificated in this country or else-
where. Gut open the figs and remove all the pulp by washing out in
warm water. Seeds which float are empty and worthless, while those
which sink are generally fertile. Sow the fertile seeds in shallow boxes
containing sand and loam mixed and place the boxes in a frame under
glass or canvas. The proper time for this operation is in the spring.
In three weeks the seedlings will appear above the ground, and from
that time on they must be sparingly watered. The next season they
should be set out in nursery rows, the rows 10 inches wide and 4 feet
apart. In three years such plants will be found to bear, but they will
not necessarily mature the fruit. Very few, indeed, of these seedlings
will produce valuable fruit. The majority will give fruits with male
flowers, which are always a drawback to the edible qualities of the
fig, as they and their part of the fig receptacle never soften. The
raising of figs from seed is an interesting process, and by chance some
valuable figs may be produced in this way. But, as there are several
hundred fig varieties known, it is better first to experiment with them
rather than to try to raise new varieties. Unfortunately for the
grower, fig seedlings will mostly revert to the wild fig or caprifig,
which, of course, always is the male parent. It is not proven with cer-
tainty that more than one or two fig varieties of value have been pro-
duced from seed, though it is probable that a majority of our ^g
varieties have originated in this way. According to observations
made in Italy as well as here, it seems that fig seedlings produce
both regular caprifigs and figs with mixed male and other flowers.
Smyrna-fig seedlings raised by the writer produced trees with purely
female flowers and others which contained male flowers in various
proportions and development. The experiments made by other horti-
culturists turned out in the same way. So far no edible variety of the
common fig has been originated in California, and any statements of
valuable varieties having been raised from seed in hothouses in Eng-
land or elsewhere in Europe should be accepted with doubt.
While it may be unnecessary at present to raise seedlings from
edible varieties in order to produce other edible kinds, it is not only
not unnecessary, but highly desirable, that we should raise new varie-
ties of caprifigs from seed of caprifigs. In this way we may procure
new caprifig varieties which will be more suited to local conditions
than any which we can import from abroad. The figs which we have
named, respectively, Mitchell and Maslin are undoubtedly such
chance seedlings which may prove of much value.
CHAPTER VII.
PLANTING A FIG OBCHAKD.
GBNBRAL RBMARKS.
The planting of an orchard includes several different operations,
such as preparing the ground, setting the stakes, digging the holes,
and setting the trees, as well as their care immediately after planting.
As all these processes are of importance and should be intelligently
performed, they will be considered separately.
Opinions differ in regard to these operations more than in any
others pertaining to fig culture, and the respective horticulturists use
different means by which the same object is more or less speedily and
properly attained. Most of these methods employed in planting a. fig
orchard are equally applicable to the planting of any other fruit trees.
Still, the fig tree possesses peculiarities which must be considered and
humored in order to attain success as speedily and practically as
possible. These peculiarities of the fig consist principally in growth
and habit, in mode of bearing, in aptness to break down, in suscepti-
bility to heat and dry winds, etc. In this respect the fig tree stands
almost isolated among fruit trees and shade trees. One theory holds
that the fig tree should be treated very much like a wild tree; and
that, because in many places in the Old World fig trees are allowed to
take care of themselves and to grow as they please in odd corners,
they should receive no serious attention — especially so the caprifig
tree, which should be left to nature as much as possible. Like so
many other trees, the fig tree may be planted almost anywhere and in
any way and still give fruit; but, in order to insure the greatest suc-
cess as much care should be given the fig tree as to any other fine
variety of fruit.
The tree which comes nearest to the fig as regards horticultural
peculiarities and wants is undoubtedly the olive, though it differs
widely from the fig in many respects; but in planting and care these
two trees require very much the same treatment.
DISTANCES FOR FIG TREES.
Of all our fruit trees the edible fig tree requires the greatest amount
of space in the orchard. Much, however, depends upon the variety
grown. Small-growing kinds like the Brunswick, the Ischias, Mar-
153
154 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
seillaise, and a host of others will thrive with 25 to 30 feet between
the trees, while others like the Mission, the Adriatic, and the Smyrnas
require 50 or 60 feet, the latter being the distance now generally
adopted in Smyrna. Where smaller crops are grown between the
trees, the larger distance may be given at once, as it will allow ample
room for intermediate plantations for years. But where no such
crops are contemplated the trees may be set at first 25 feet each way,
with the intention to ultimately remove every other tree in each alter-
nate row, while every other row must be removed entirely. But this
leads of necessity to great waste of trees, as two-thirds of them will
have to be removed in order that the remainder may be 50 feet apart.
In selecting the distance we must be guided by the variety, not alone
in respect to growth and size, but perhaps principally by the quality
of the fruit. It frequently occurs that fig trees while comparativelj'^
young give most excellent and sweet fruit, while a few years later the
fruit sours and spoils as soon as fairly ripe. This to a great extent is
caused by the crowding of the trees, by too much moisture, by want
of air and sunshine and room to breathe. Different varieties act
very differently in this respect. Thus our Black Mission fig will
stand crowding quite well without souring its fruit, while the figs of
the Adriatic will inevitably spoil as soon as the trees begin to shade
one another sufficiently to keep out the wind and the sun. Thus the
Adriatic figs and similar varieties must have plenty of sun and air,
sunshine and air being especially necessarj'^ to the Adriatic figs.
When exposed to constant breezes they can stand some shade without
injur3^ In close plantings with a view to the ultimate removal of the
superfluous trees, it must be remembered that by the time the major-
ity has been removed the remaining trees will not have attained the
size they would if given the proper distance at first. In places, there-
fore, where intermediate crops will prove profitable it will be prefera-
ble to give the trees the benefit of the greater distance at the first
planting. Thus the largest-growing varieties should be given 50 to 60
feet, smaller or medium size 40 feet, and the smallest varieties 25 feet
or even less, the Brunswick and Brown Turkey, for instance, being
varieties which would thrive as long as they last with a distance of
20 feet.
The above refers only to fig plantations in districts where the trees
attain their fullest development, such as in California, Arizona, in
some of the' Southern States, and in northern Mexico, etc. For locali-
ties where the fig tree can be raised only under difficulties no general
rule can be given. For further information reference must be had
to the respective places in this treatise where the various fig districts
are discussed. The relative growth of the different varieties of figs
is mentioned as far as known in the general catalogue of figs, and by
consulting it some ideas can be formed of the distances to be given in
the orchard.
PLANTING A FlG ORCHARD. 155
DISTANCES FOR CAPRIFIGS.
The caprifig should always be planted closer than the edible figs.
Ten or twelve feet apart each way is suitable, or the trees may be
planted in the form of hedges around the main fig orchard. The most
economical way is to crowd the caprifig trees into waste and otherwise
worthless places where no plowing is required or need be done. The
caprifig should be grown " wild." It should never be pruned, and had
best be grown as a "thicket." The caprifig wasps require shade;
CARE OF FIG TREES BEFORE PLANTING.
Perhaps none of the operations pertaining to the planting of a fig
orchard is of so much importance as the handling and care of the fig
trees before they are set. A fig tree after it is dug up and before it is
reset is more tender than almost any other kind of fruit tree, except
the olive and the citrus trees. As a general thing it must be borne in
mind that when once the roots of a fig tree have become injured by
drying or sweating they had better be cut off and the remainder of
the tree treated as a cutting. A cutting will always grow better than
a fig tree with injured roots. *The planter should therefore satisfy
himself when he buys trees that these have had the proper care, and
that they have not been exposed to sun and wind for more than five
minutes. This can be prevented easily by covering the fig trees in the
field with sacking or blankets, which should be kept wet or damp.
As soon as the trees have been received from the nursery they should
be heeled in, and care should be taken that the soil is moist, as dry
soil will quickly kill the trees. It is always advisable to heel in the
trees close to a ditch, or close to water, and if a ditch or reservoir is
handy the tree bundles should be immersed before the ropes are cut
and the bundles opened. The trees can profitably rest in the water
overnight if necessar3\ In heeling in all ropes should be cut and the
trees spread in the trench in such a way that the soil thrown in will
surround all the roots, not leaving passages for the wind, or perhaps
sun, to enter and dry the trees. Even if the intention is to plant in a
few days this mode of heeling in should be followed. Heeled-in trees
should be watered and the soil kept firm. If planting is delayed and
the trees have become somewhat dry, which can best be ascertained
by examining the end buds, the trees should be at once taken out,
immersed in water for six or twelve hours, and heeled in very slanting
and deep and covered with soil to near the tops ; but care should be
taken not to cover the tops entirely, as this may cause the trees to
rot and will prevent examination of the buds.
If fig trees show signs of starting they may be kept back by expos-
ing to the wind for a few minutes in the shade and again heeled in.
This operation, if performed properly, is not dangerous and is quite
effective, but it should not be done except in emergency, as the trees
will of course suffer to some extent.
156 THE b^ig: it8 history, culture, and curing.
PREPARING THE SOIL.
The preparation of the ground for the future fig orchard differs in
nothing from the most approved methods used for ordinary orchard
lands. The more thoroughly the ground is prepared the less will be
the cost of driving stakes, digging holes, and setting the trees, as well
as the final irrigation in dry localities. When irrigation is necessary
the work on the ground begins with leveling the land. - It will greatlj'^
cheapen after-culture if this leveling is carefully done. In order to
ascertain that this has been done there is no better test than to irri-
gate the ground before the trees are planted. The soft places will
then settle and may be filled in again. Even if irrigation in furrows is
contemplated, the surface should be level enough for flooding, in order
to insure an equal quantity of water to every tree and to save water
and economize labor. After the trees are planted no leveling of the
soil can be properly done. Ten dollars more per acre spent in leveling
before planting will save perhaps $10 to $20 yearly afterwards, besides
insuring an even growth to all the trees. In places where no irriga-
tion is nee<led some attention should still be given to the preparation
of the surface, both to prevent stagnant water during the rainy season
and to cheapen and facilitate the yearly working of the soil.
After leveling is done the plowing should begin as soon as the sur-
face is properly dry. On no account attempt to plow when too wet
or when too dry. The dry soil when turned under is liable to come
in direct contact with the roots of the trees and cause them to dry
out. The soil when turned over should break up finely, neither form-
ing dry clods nor wet cakes. The soil when turned up must be moist,
and the soil immediately below the plow should be yet moister, but
not soggy.
In plowing, the team should not be made to go all around the field,
plowing toward the center, as this will leave two streaks of hard soil
diagonally across the field in the shape of a Greek cross. The proper
way is to plow the field in separate lands, from one boundary line to
the other, making the turning always in the road which surrounds the
land or field, and not in the land. In this way no hard soil will be
left unplowed, and when the plowing is over the whole ground will
be found plowed in parallel furrows. The harrowing should be
done in the same way, but in the opposite direction, and the turning
should be made on the land. Two or three harrowings will not be too
much, as the more the surface is harrowed and pulverized the better
will its condition be for receiving the trees and the cheaper will be
the final operations of the planting.
In districts where the fig flourishes most and gives the best fruit
no irrigation Is needed, and consequently the surface of the ground
does not need to be level. Still it is of great importance that It should
be sufficiently level to shed all water that may come by rain or flood.
PLANTING A FIG ORCHARD. 157
There should be no low places in which pools may form. All such
should be filled in and leveled sufficiently to prevent stagnant water
remaining. Such low places will prevent and retard plowing, cause
weeds to grow, delay work generally, or they may even cause the trees
to tip over and rot. Hills and knolls are not objectionable, provided
the trees find sufficient moisture to bear good fruit, but low and
soggy places should be carefully avoided, as they will prove of great
detriment for years and be a constant expense, annoyance, and eye-
sore. .
This, of course, refers only to the planting of regular orchards, where
thorough culture is necessary.
Points to be considered in preparing the soil :
(1) Freedom from low or stagnant water holes.
(2) Even slope, so as to shed water.
(3) Deep plowing and freedom from hard places left unplowed,
accomplished by plowing in parallel lands.
(4) Do not plow under any very dry soil.
(»5) Harrow repeatedly immediately after plowing.
STAKING AND SQUARING THE FIELD.
As soon as the land is in proper condition to receive the trees, the
placing of the stakes is in order. Through experience it is found that
the planting can be done quicker and more cheaply if the stakes are
set previous to digging the holes for the trees. No holes should be
dug nor trees planted until all the stakes are set. In this wb,j any
error can be remedied without redigging and resetting, and perfect
lines may be had throughout the orchard. The extra expense in
marking an orchard in this way is ijot great and will, it is thought, be
more than repaid in better and quicker work and by a larger percent-
age of living trees. If a very large orchard is to be planted it will
pay to have an experienced surveyor set parallel rows of stakes across
the field, about 200 feet apart, between which the farm hands may after-
wards set the remainder of the stakes without error. When no sur-
veyor can be found the following rules will lead to the desired result:
The first work is to square the ground — that is, to mark out the bound-
aries of the field in such a way that the opposite sides become abso-
lutely^ parallel, and, if possible, form a right angle (90 degrees) with
the other two parallel sides. If roads surround the place, and make
right angles with one another, then it is necessary that the rows of
trees should also foim right angles with one another. If no important
roads are found, or will probably be necessary in the future, then it
is only required that the rows running in one direction should be par-
allel, as a small deviation from the right angle will not be seen, or if
noticed will not prove to be a detriment.
The operation begins by first setting a row of lath along one side of
158
THE fig: its HISTOBY, CULTUEE, AND CURING.
the field, on the boundary of the orchard, or at least parallel to the
boundary. By referring to the diagram (fig. 29) we should begin at
A and set the stakes to B. This line should coincide with the first
row of trees nearest the road. Then go back to A and set another
row of stakes to C, this point being the extremity of the field in that
direction. This row A-C should be at right angles with A-B if possi-
ble; if not, it should be parallel to the road at the end of the orchard.
A small level, combined with a compass, is the best and simplest
instrument to aid in laying out an orchard. Even without the level
the correct lines may be laid out, but this requires a little more labor.
After the point C has been found, begin at C and set a line of stakes,
C-D, parallel to A-B. For this purpose the compass on a tripod
should be used in order to get the point D at least approximately cor-
rect. The next work is to go back to B and set the line B-D parallel
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FiQ. 29.— Diagrram illustratiiig a fanner's method of layingr ont a fig: orchard.
to A-C. The point D is the only difficult point to set, and xipon the
correct location of this point depends the lining of the trees. After
the point D is approximately fixed, it is necessary to measure from B
to D in order to ascertain if the distance is the sam^ as from A to C,
and similarly to measure from C to D to see if this distance is the
same as that from A to B. If both the lines B-D and C-D are longer
than parallels A-C and A-B, respectively, then the point D must be
moved toward the center of the field, but if the above lines are shorter
than these respective parallels, then the point D must be moved away
from the center of the field. If B-D is shorter than A-C at the same
time that C-D is longer than A-B, then the point D must be moved
toward C. If, on the contrary, C-D is shorter than A-B at the same
time that B-D is longer than A-C, then the point D is to be moved
toward B. As the whole orchard depends upon this point D, it will
PLANTING A FIG ORCHARD. 159
be profitable even to spend a day or two, if necessary, in order to
locate it correctly. * In all measurements begin at A and measure
toward B or C. Or from C measure toward D, or from B toward
D. If this rule is not followed absolutely the trees can not be
made to line. When at last the point D is correctly located, A-C
should be of the same length as B-D, and A-B of the same length as
C-D. If the trees are to be in exact squares the angles at the
respective corners at A, B, C, and D must be right angles. In fixing
these preliminary points it is not necessary, nor indeed of advantage,
to set many stakes. Three or four stakes in a line will be enough.
Next in order is to set the final stakes, one for each tree. Common
lath is the best and easiest material to handle and procure for stakes.
If the soil is in proper condition it is not necessary to point the laths.
If the ground is hard and the stakes require to be driven, it may be
necessary to sharpen the lath, but the points should be in the center
of the lath, or as close to it as possible. Some, to save time, point
the laths by cutting them diagonally across, but this is not proper, as
in driving a lath thus pointed it will inevitably be shoved out of its
place and get out of line. The sides of the points must be of equal
length in order to insure accuracy. But in proper soil no points are
required. Laths which are not pointed may be more readily used for
other purposes aft^erwards.
Go back to A and stretch the staking cable from A toward C, and,
measuring from A, set a lath perpendicularly every 50 feet (or less)
toward C. A lath will thus be set at each small circle on the diagram.
Similarly set laths from A to B and from B toward D and from C
toward D. If the planting chain does not reach from A to B it will
be necessary to set another base line of stakes between E and F, and
possibly also between J and H. The next step is easily understood.
By stretching the chain or cable between the opposite points and
setting laths every 50 feet, the whole field will be quickly staked out.
In setting the laths two points are to be constantly remembered.
The laths in the same row should all face the same way; all should
be set on the same side of the cable — the side from which the cable is
to 1)0 moved. In the accompanying diagram it will be seen that the
field was not square, nor its sides exactly parallel. The space out-
side of G, K, and L may be filled out, where the room admits, with
trees. On this diagram eight outside trees are possible. This filling
out is done by sighting, as being the simplest way. In setting the
stakes, always set the outside end stakes first and fill in afterwards,
as in no other way can the line be made straight without the aid of a
good surveyor's level.
The laths should be driven down with a hatchet deep enough to be
entirely solid and immovable by wind. Loosely driven laths will be
disarranged with astonishing facility. A small opera glass or field
glass will be of great use while driving the lath. For this operation
160
THE fig: its HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
it takes at least two meu — one to sight and one to drive and carry the
laths. The sighter stands at one end of the line or row while the driver
begins his work at the farther end. The driver holds first the lath
perpendicularly over the mark on the cable, if there is one, and the
sighter makes a sign with his hand indicating whether the lath is to
be moved to the left or to the right, and when in line with the farther
lath the sighter makes a sign of approval. The driver always works
toward the sighter, not from him.
Number of trees or plants on an axire at given distances apart.
Distance.
Square
method.
Equilateral-
triangle
method.
1 foot apart each way.
2 feet apart each way.
. 3 feet apart each way.
4 feet apart each way
5 feet apart each way
6 feet apart each way,
7 feet apart each way.
8 feet apart each way
9 feet apart each way,
10 feet apart each way
12 feet apart each way
14 feet apart each way
16 feet apart each way
16 feet apart each way
18 feet apart each way
20 feet apart each way
22 feet apart each way.
24 feet apart each way.
25 feet apart each way,
30 feet apart each way.
35 feet apart each way ,
40 feet apart each way .
43,560
10,890
4,840
2,722
1,742
1,210
807
680
537
435
302
222
193
170
134
'%
75
69
48
35
27
50,300
12,575
5,889
3,130
2,011
1,397
938
785
620
502
348
256
222
195
154
125
104
86
79
55
40
31
Rule*— Square method.— MvlUpiy the distance in feet between the rows by the
distance the plants are apart in the rows, and the product will be the number of
square feet for each plant or hill, which, divided into the number of feet in an
acre (43,560), will give the number of plants or trees to the acre.
Rule. — Equilateral-triangle method, — Divide the number required to the acre
** square method " by the decimal 0.866. The result will be the number of plants
required to the acre by this method.
DIGGING THE HOLES.
The stakes which have been set with so much care ought not be
disturbed until all the trees in one field have been planted. Before
digging the holes, the field should be gone over carefully in order to
ascertain if all the stakes are in line. When all stakes or laths line
in every direction without deviating an inch anyWhere, the field is
ready for the diggers.
If the orchard is of any considerable size, a digger should be made
to keep his row and put his mark on the end lath, in order that it
may be readily ascertained who dug the row. Whether done by con-
tract or by the day, this is a useful practice, the diggers soon learning
to be careful. The first move is to give the stake a sharp stroke with
PLAl^Tma A ^IG OUCHAl^D. 161
«
a flat face of the spade in order to drive it solidly in the soil. The
hole is next dug on the side of the stake, close to the narrow edge of
the lath. If, for instance, the first hole is dug on the east side of the
lath, every succeeding hole must similarly be dug on the east side of
every lath, otherwise the holes will not line with one another. As to
the size of the holes, no general rule can he followed. The hole
should never be larger than necessary to admit all the roots in their
proper position. As far as the experience of the writer goes, a hole
18 inches deep by 2 feet wide will answer in most cases for all trees,
as few trees from the nursery will have more spreading roots than
this. However, the proper way is to first ascertain the length of the
roots, both horizontally and vertically, and then dig the holes accord-
ingly. A square hole is better than a round hole, as it enables the
planter to so turn the tree that any extra long root may be spread out
in the angles of the hole. In irrigation districts the hole does not
need to be larger than to admit the roots. Actual experiments have
proven that larger holes are not needed. Trees planted in very large
holes, 4 feet square, did not grow better than trees set in holes of just
sufficient size to admit the roots. In fact the shallow hole is better,
because with subsequent irrigation the soil in the larger hole sinks or
settles, causing the tree to stand too low. Irrigation softens the soil
sufficiently to enable even the smallest rootlets to easily penetrate the
soil.
In districts where no irrigation is required the hole may be made
deeper in order to give soft soil to the lower roots, but in no case does
it need to be wider than the spread of the roots. In such localities it
is desirable to cause the roots to go down, but not to spread on the
surface.
In digging, the top soil should be put in a small pile separate from
the bottom soil. The latter had better be scattered at once over the
field, as it is desirable to use only top soil in filling in around the
roots. The bottom of the hole should not be tapering or funnel-
shaped, but square and flat. Few trees indeed have taproots. A
funnel-shaped hole will also cause all the heavy ground or clods to
collect in the center, where it is greatly in the way in planting trees.
The soil in the bottom of the hole should be stirred, in order to pre-
vent it from drying out before the tree is planted.
PLANTING THE TREES.
The sooner planting is done after the holes are dug the better it is
for the trees. The habit of digging holes weeks or months before
planting is to be greatly condemned, as it causes the holes to dry out and
become lined with a crust of dry and hard soil, which must be removed
before the trees are set. The first operation in planting is to examine
the trees in order to ascertain if the buds, wood, or rootlets are shrivel-
ing. Whether this be the case or not it is of great advantage to immerse
162 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
the fig trees in running water, or at least in fresh water, overnight,
previous to planting the following day. If the stem and buds are
plump the trees may, however, be planted at once. Previously to
planting, the roots should be trimmed with a pair of very sharp shears.
The large roots should be cut back until they show the milky sap
freely, all moldy parts should be cut off, and all rootlets which give
the least suspicion of being dry, or which do not show sap freely,
should be taken off entirely. It is better to plant a fig tree without
any roots than to plant it with dry roots, as in the latter case the tree
will die back to the ground. In bringing the trees to the field they
should be wrapped in wet sacking or blankets. One man should carry
the bundles and distribute the trees for about four planters, going but
one or two rows, but better only one row, ahead of them, sticking a
tree in each hole in such a way thr-t as little sun as possible will strike
the roots. If the sun is vory warm and the wind blowing it is nec-
essary to have one distributer for each planter, as the success of
the planting depends absolutely upon planting fig trees with moist
roots. In some cases it mr^y be necessary even to carry a tank of
water in the field and dip the fig roots before planting. In moist and
cloudy weather no cuch extra precautions are necessary. It must be
always remembered that it is cheaper to be extra careful in the first
planting than to replant the following season. Few trees are as ten-
der as fig trees, but with proper care no appreciable loss is necessary.
The mode of planting is to first fill in sufficiently with the top soil
to form a small hill in the center of the hole. When placed upon it
the fig tree should stand as deep in the hole as it stood in the ground
in the nursery. The discoloration of the collar of the tree will show
the former soil surface. The roots are then spread out and the tree
turned so as to allow the Ion jer roots to spread naturally in the angles
of the hole. By means of the guiding lath the trees are all placed the
same distance from the lathe at the edge of the holes, and if this is done
with precision the trees when planted will all be in exact line.
The roots aro t?ien filed r.round with fresh surface soil taken from
the vicinity of the tree. If the ground is in proper condition the soil
will be f OUT! 1 moist an inch or two below the surface. This soil is
used for filling. The soil is not to be shoved down bj'^ the spadeful on
the roots, but gently shaken in by means of light jerks of the shovel
or spade. It requires two men to plant — one to hold the tree in place
and arrange the soil about the roots by means of a short stick, and
one to shovel the soil and do the final tamping. In small plantings
the distributer of the trees may be dispensed with and the trees in
their wraps may be carried by the man who does not carry the shovel.
The soil should be tramped as hard around the roots as possible;
the whole weight of the body as well as force should be applied on
the soil. The hole should be filled in level with the surface, and in
very rainy weather may be heaped, so as to cause the water to run off.
PLANTING A FIG ORCHARD. 163
After the hole is nearly filled some loose soil sEould be thrown on top,
in order to serve as a mulch. In very dry seasons the trees may be
set a little lower than the ground and a small basin left around the
trunk. The advantages of this system are many. It insures correct-
ness in lining the trees, as the positions of the laths indicate the exact
places of the trees before planting; it obviates the filling in and redig-
ging of holes if dug in the wrong place; it makes the pulling out and
resetting of trees unnecessary; it is a quicker and simpler method
than the old one of using the guide board with one peg on each side
of the hole, and, finally, it is a cheaper method than any other in use
which insures absolute accuracy.
PLANTING CUTTINGS IN THE ORCHARD.
The planting of cuttings directly in the orchard differs but little
from planting the trees. The same method should be f-ollowed, but
the holes should be deep enough to suit a very large cutting. Such
cuttings are the best to plant out, as they are more able than small
cuttings to care for themselves. The cuttings should be allowed to
protrude only a few inches above the soil, and in times of very dry
and warm weather even the top may be covered with a small amount
of soil to prevent drying out.
PLANTING TO AVOID SPLITTING THE TRUNK.
The fig tree is more liable to split than any other of our fruit trees.
Pruning may greatlj'^ obviate this evil, but a much better way and,
in the opinion of the writer, the only proper way to prevent fig trees
splitting is to plant two cuttings in the same hole, the cuttings cross-
ing each other in the- center of the hole. This method has been
employed in Smyrna for this reason, and also in France, with a slightly
different object in view. The effect of such planting may be seen at
once, as the only branches that split off from a fig tree are those which
are too heavy for the tenacity of the wood. While the branches never
break off entirely, they split from the main stem and always injure the
tree, and often ruin it.
The more upright the fig trunk, the greater the pressure of the
limbs and the more readily will they split off. The less horizontal and
the more downward sloping the branch, the less it is apt to split away
from the trunk. By setting two trees or two cuttings in one hole,
with the tops a short distance apart, the two trees or trunks resulting
from them will lean outward, away from each other, and so will all
their branches. The effect will be that none of them will ever split
away. In course of time the two trees will grow together at the base
and form one large tree of the same form as that possessed by a wild
fig tree, which is after all the most suitable shape that can be given a
fig tree. In planting in this manner the tree or cuttings should be
/
164 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
mad^ to cross each other in the hole a little below the soil. This will
give a greater inclination to the main trunks, which is just what is
desired. In training such trees after planting very little labor is
required. The trunks will bend out by themselves, and the branches
of each tree will complement one another and form one uniform head
or crown. No pruning is necessary, except to cut out some branches
which grow too closely together. The interior branches will be com-
paratively very few, and the principal limbs will grow outward.
Such trees require less pruning than those planted in the regular or
orthodox way, as they will shape and care for themselves. This
mode of planting should be adopted for all fig orchards. P'ig trees
destined to give shade in avenues and ornamental grounds may, how-
ever, be set singly.
care of trees after planting.
Whether the recently set fig trees should be irrigated or not must
depend upon circumstances. If the soil be moist, irrigation should
be postponed until necessary. The trees should be inspected every
two or three days. When in proper condition the buds and the top
branches should be plump and the outside scales of the buds should
be full of sap if punctured or broken. If any of them show dryness,
water should be applied at once, and if, after irrigation, no improve-
ment is seen within a day, there is no alternative but to cut the trees
back to the point where they will bleed freely. If, after being cut
back, the tree shows signs of continuing to dry, it should be cut back
close to the surface of the soil, in order that a shoot may be encour-
aged to start up and form a new tree. This cutting back to the
ground may prove an heroic measure, but it nearly always has the
desired effect of causing new shoots to form below the soil, whereas if
a drying tree be allowed to remain unpruned it will generally die.
Much complaint is heard from planters about fig trees dying, and
many prefer on this account to set out cuttings instead of trees. But
if this system of heavy pruning back is adopted at the first sign of
drying the loss will be greatly redticed.
If the fig tree has been planted for shade and when it is desirable,
if possible, to save the standard, this can often be done by closely
covering the tree with sacking and excluding as much wind as pos-
sible and all the sun. It is wonderful how a sickly tree will recover
if properly shaded and evaporation prevented. This process is appli-
cable also to citrus tr^es and olives, and indeed to all evergreen trees.
By watering or sprinkling the covering morning and evening the
evaporation of the sap is considerably retarded. The roots should be
kept moist, but not wet, for if too wet they will rot. After every
irrigation the soil should be dug up and pulverized around the roots
in order to admit the necessary air to the roots, as well as for acting
as a mulch. The practice of mulching the trees with fresh yellow
straw is to be condemned, as the reflection from the straw causes the
PLANTING A FIG C>RCHARD. 165
8un to scald the bark of the tree. If straw is used at all it should
be in conjunction with a tree protector of some kind — paper, sacking,
or stakes, in order that the stem may be properly shaded.
DURATION OP PLANTATION.
The edible fig is known to have become several hundred years old,
and it bears full crops for one hundred years or more. It is therefore
hardly worth the while to consider the duration of a fig orchard, as it
will last for two generations or more, and during this time will give
an abundance of fruit. However, after a certain time it may prove
of advantage to renew the trees, much depending on the way the trees
have been treated and upon the soil in which they have grown. Some
varieties wiU last longer than others and some produce their best fruit
before they attain thirty years.
VARIETIES TO PLANT.
As regards varieties little can be said. Too little is known con-
cerning the nature and adaptability of certain varieties to localities.
No one should plant extensively until it has been fully ascertained
that the variety selected is suited to the locality. In places where
there are no experimental orchards it will naturally take some time
to find the proper variety. Among common figs there are, however,
several varieties wliich will probably do well in many localities.
Such varieties are, for instance, **Le Roi" and "Marseillaise White."
Among the true Smyrna varieties none is superior to Lop Ingir, the
true fig of commerce. But even this variety is in places superseded
by other kinds better suited to local conditions Whatever variety
of Smyrna fig is planted it is of great importance to plant onty
a single variety, or at least to have enough of every variety to
produce a large lot of uniform figs. An orchard of mixed fig vari-
eties is troublesome and unprofitable. As the figs must be picked
up all over the orchard from under the trees as soon as they drop
to the ground it is impracticable to keep the varieties apart if
there be more than one kind of fig. Where the varieties are mixed
grafting will be necessary, and this will put back the trees and
the crop from three to four years after the error in planting has been
discovered. Of caprifigs as many varieties as possible should be set
out in order to have a succession of figs. When it has been once
established which variety is best suited to a certain Ibcality, one or
two varieties may suflfice. The caprifig trees should be set by them-
selves in sheltered corners of the orchard. There is needed about
one caprifig tree to every ten Smyrna fig trees.
CULTIVATION.
The cultivation of the fig orchard requires no implements which
are not also useful in any other orchard. On the Pacific coast the
orchards are now almost exclusively worked with horse power. In
166 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
orchard culture riding two-horse sulky plows are generally used.
Such plows have one or two shares or shovels, and are so adjustable
that the shovels may be thrown close to the trunks of th0 trees. This
can only be done while the trees are young, or where they are raised
to medium standard high. In the smaller orchards smaller cultiva-
tors are used, the driver walking behind. Except in a few places so
situated that horses can not be used to advantage, all the work done
in our orchards and nurseries is done with plows and cultivators for
two and four horses.
In the cultivation of the ground we should remember that the better
the soil is cultivated the better will be the fruit. The first plowing
should be done in the fall, immediately after the first rains, or in early
spring. If the plowing is delaj'ed to January, weeds, which by this
time will have started everywhere, can be plowed under to advantage.
Early plowing will facilitate the absorption of the rains. The plowing
begins between the trees, the soil being thrown to the center. It is
important that the bark of the trees should never be the least injured
by running against it with the singletree. In order to avoid this
injury the regular iron couplings may be superseded by couplings
made of leather, which will slide smoothly over the bark without
bruising it. When the trees become too large even to admit this, the
center of the land is plowed with a sulky plow while the outside of
the land nearer the trees is finished with a single plow. One single
plowing is generally enough each year. Still one or more plowings
afterwards may benefit the soil. There is no danger in cutting the
roots of the trees, the cutting of surface roots being beneficial rather
than otherwise, as it causes the roots of the tree to strike downward.
Many orchardists follow the first plowing with a harrow. This is
required only in places where the soil breaks up in clods. Where the
soils turns up soft and mellow it is necessary only to follow the plow-
ing with cultivation. The cultivator should be run both lengthwise
and crosswise through the orchard after every heavy spring rain or
after every irrigation, if such is practiced. The soil should never be
allowed to bake or form a top crust. If the soil in the orchard is
cultivated by a sulky cultivator three times or more during the sum-
mer it will not be necessary to plow against the trees at any time, as
the soil naturally tends to level itself. But if cultivation is neglected,
it is necessary to plow against the trees every other year or every
other plowing. It is of the utmost importance that the soil under the
trees should be loose and mellow. If hard and lumpy, the figs will be
bruised when they fall ripe from the trees. If the soil is loose the
figs are not injured by the fall. It may be necessary to plow furrows in
the orchard for irrigation. Such furrows should always be as far
from the trees as possible, their distance to be regulated according to
the age and size of the trees. It may be necessary to use some hand
work in the orchard when the trees come in bearing. This work is
generally confined to loosening the soil immediately around the trunks
PLANTING A FIG ORCHARD. 167
of the trees aud raking away the large clods so as to leave as smooth
a soil as possible for the figs to drop on.
THE CREATION OF A FIG ORCHARD IN CALIFORNIA.
During the first period of fig raising in California and the other
Pacific States — Arizona, Sonora, and Baja California, the latter two
situated in Mexico — no special attention was given to the care and
creation of a fig orchard. During the second period, when the early
immigrants arrived in California and brought with them cuttings of
figs from their homes in Italy, Greece, and Spain, some little attention
was paid to the cultivation of the fig, especially for the purpose of
supplying the market with the fresh fruit. It is only now, during the
third period of the fig industry, after the introduction of the Blasto-
phaga wasps by the United States Government, that more attention
and care is bestowed on the fig. For the reader who desires to have
a summary of the operations and processes necessary to create a fig
orchard on the Pacific coast the following resume may be of interest:
The first move is to select the site for the orchard, and upon its
proper location depends the future success. The first condition to be
considered is the absence of frosts during the spring, when the trees
are in active growth. The second condition refers to the nature of
the soil, its quality, drainage, facilities for irrigation, etc., points
which have already been referred to more or less. Taking it all in
all, deep mesa or table-lands are the most suitable to produce first-
class figs in quantities that will pay. An atmosphere that is too dry
is almost as bad as one that is too moist. Our river-bottom lands are
ideal places, provided they are not subject to spring frosts. In such
places the mesa lands surrounding the river bottoms are the best. In
some localities it is necessary to go to the second mesas or table-lands
in order to find the most desirable locality. The land should, if pos-
sible, be summer fallowed, in order to take up readily the first rain in
the autumn. After the first rain the land should be plowed as deeply
as possible, and a final cultivation should be made just before the
planting. The deeper the soil is plowed and the more mellow it is,
the cheaper will be the planting. After the last cultivation the land
should be dragged with a wooden drag made of boards and loaded
down with sand bags or stones.
The best time for planting is immediately after the first frost in the
fall, or, if there is no frost, after the leaves of the fig trees have fallen.
This is in December on the Pacific coast, earlier or later according to
the season. The best success is always had from early planting, and
in soils where early planting is not practicable it is advisable not to
plant figs to any great extent. After the land is dragged, the first
step is to stake the ground in the manner described elsewhere. The
stakes may be set from 25 to 50 feet apart, according to the object in
view. If 25 feet is decided on, it will not be advisable to grow any
^ 23740— No. 9—01 12
168 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
intermediate crop, except during the first year or two. If 40 to 50 feet
is adopted as the distance, intermediate crops may be grown for many
years, until the trees are 10 to 12 years old. In places where. the land
is very valuable intermedii^te crops are desirable, otherwise the greater
distance is to be recommended at once. The trees or cuttings should
be entirely fresh; if not, they should be soaked up in water until they
show fresh sap when cut. Generally only one tree is set in each hole,
but we have in another place recommended that two trees or two cut-
tings be planted in the same hole, 6 or more inches apart, in order
to prevent splitting of limbs or trunk. If cuttings are set, they should
be at once covered with soil in such a manner that the upper surface
of the cutting is just below the soil surface, the soil thus forming a
small hill around the cutting, which need not be more than 6 inches
above the general level of the ground. If trees are set, they should at
once be cut back to within a foot of the ground and then covered with
soil in the same manner. If the trees are left higher, they should be
covered entirely with flag, tule, or straw matting, in order to be pro-
tected from sun, wind, or drought generally. If irrigation is prac-
ticed, the trees should be irrigated at once, except in case of heavy rain.
The next" step is to watch the young trees or cuttings and see that
they do not dry out. This watching should be done every three or
four days. Uncover the soil and cut the bark; if sap exudes the cut-
ting is all right; if no sap comes out, irrigation is needed at once. In
case of trees which show dry tops, these latter should be at once and
without hesitation cut back to flowing sap. A pair of shears are just
as useful as a knife. With a certain knack in handling the shears the
bark is not sufficiently bruised to injure the tree.
After the trees have started and sent out shoots several inches long
it is time to take away the soil raised around the tree or cutting. It
is not a good idea to cover the cutting with straw or manure, as it con-
tains seeds which will germinate. It is hardly necessary to state that
at no time should there be anything growing within 4 feet of the
young plant. A space of 6 feet is preferable on each side of the tree.
The number of times the fig should be irrigated varies according to
locality and season. The only guide is to observe the terminal bud. If
this bud shows a stoppage in growth it is a sign that the tree needs
water. After September no more growth is desirable. After heavy
irrigations the land should be cultivated, and in no instance should it
be allowed to bake around the tree. The weeds in the orchard are
kept down either with two-horse cultivators or with underground cut
drags. The latter consist simply of a drag or cultivator, furnished
with a long horizontal knife several inches wide. This knife runs a
few inches below the soil surface and cuts the roots of all weeds in
the most effective manner.
As a rule no pruning is required during the first year or two; the
trees are allowed to branch from the very ground. Trees that are
raised to a standard of 3 or 4 feet, as is generally the rulfe, even in
PLANTING A ma OBCHARD. 169
the best orchards, are always at a disadvantage. The branches
should be low and the trees should be as shady as possible.
After the first year the plowing and cultivation goes on very miich
as during the first year. The first plowing is done when the weeds in
the orchard have attained some little siae. This is generally in Jan-
uary. At that time the orchard is plowed in such a manner that the
soil is thrown from the trees toward the center of the land. Later
on one, two, or three cultivations, with two or four horse teams, are
made crosswise and lengthwise to the first plowing. By the end of the
season the land will generally be found to be quite level. Next year
the first plowing is made crosswise to the plowing of the previous year^
and so on. One plowing and three cultivations are generally suffi-
cient each year. The plowing should be as deep as possible and not
less than 6 or 8 inches, in order to prevent the formation of roots too
near the surface. As regards irrigation the same rule holds good as
the first year. The end buds must be watched and be kept growing
until September, or until the crop is harvested. No pruning is
required except keeping the trees in form, cutting dead wood and
crossing branches, as has been described in its proper place.
The caprifig trees are the first which require the attention of the
orchardist. In the second year they will bear some caprifigs, and these
should then be caprificated. Caprifigs containing Blastophaga wasps
should be procured from the nurseryman who supplied the trees or
from some other grower. The first caprification is done in the spring
(probably in the end of March, when the mamme figs from older trees
are suspended in the caprifigs), provided they have no insectiferous
mamme of their own. The insects soon hatch out and enter the capri-
figs of the young trees. If from that time on there is such a succes-
sion of the three crops of the caprifigs that these crops overlap each
other in a proper manner, no further caprification is necessary, as the
blastophaga wasps will take care of themselves. But in case there is
found to be a considerable lapse between the profichi and the mam-
moni — first and second crops — then a new caprification of the mam-
moni will be necessary, and, similarly, if there is a lapse between the
mammoni and the mamme, then the latter — the third crop — requires
to be caprificated with figs introduced from some other place. In
order to have such a succession of crops of caprifigs it is desirable to
plant many kinds of caprifigs, as has been already pointed out. It is
highly desirable that the cultivator caprify his caprifig trees as soon
as they begin to bear, in order to acquaint himself with the nature of
the process of caprification. It may be possible that he will have to
caprificate his caprifig trees every year as long as he cultivates Smyrna
figs, and not only once a year, but several times a year; in fact, once
for every crop. But this supposition is an extreme one. If he has a
proper number of good varieties of caprifig trees, it is probable that
the wasps will take care of themselves, and that there will always be
figs ready to use in caprificating the Smyrna varieties.
17© THE fig: its history, oultube, and cubing.
When the Smyrna varieties come into bearing they are caprificated
for the first time in June or July by the profichi or first crop of the
caprifigs. The insectif erous figs are suspended among the branches
of the Smyrna figs at an interval of ten days or two weeks. Aft-er
this has been done no more caprification of the edible figs is neces-
sary that year. A month or more later the figs begin to ripen, and
then drop to the ground. The Smyrna figs are never picked from the
trees, because when they are fully ripe they fall of their own accord.
If they do not fall they are not fully ripe. The figs are picked up
every day and placed on traj'^s to drj^ in the sun. They are turned
once or twice and then taken to the warehouse and sheds, where they
are dipped and packed.
As regards fertilizing the soil, this practice is not yet in vogue m
California fig orchards. Manuring the soil will of course be benefi-
cial in the highest degree in places where the soil is poor. Powdered
sheep manure, ground bone, stable manure, and artificial fertilizers
will all be used in time. But before everything else lime is most to
be recommended, as experience has shown that the best figs are grown
on lime soil.
period of vegetation.
The edible fig {Ficuscarica) is a deciduous tree, which drops its leaves
even in tropical countries where no frost exists. It never becomes
an evergreen tree. In temperate climates, where moisture in the soil
is overabundant, a very rank growth will be caused, especially with
young trees under 4 or 5 years old. This growth, which continues
until cool weather, is liable to get frosted, to the great detriment
of the tree. But even if not checked by frost, this growth would
soon stop by itself and the tree would become semidormant or almost
dormant. There are, however, many wild-fig species which are
evergreen, especially in the tropics. Others are semievergreen — ^that
is, they preserve a few evergreen leaves at the top after the majority
of the leaves have fallen. Other tropical species are doubly decidu-
ous — that is, they drop their leaves twice a year, at the end of the
rainy and at the end of the dry season, only to clothe themselves with
new foliage after a rest of two to three weeks. The caprifig tree is a
deciduous tree.
The fig tree begins to bear well at about the fourth year, but
increases its yield rapidly until 12 to 14 years old. After that time
the increase is slower, and after thirty or forty y^ars no great
increase can be expected. However, different varieties act differ-
ently, and there are off years when smaller crops are had. The
variation in this respect relates rather to the first crop, or "brebas,"
than to the second crop, or autumn figs. Undoubtedly the climatic
conditions are more changeable in the spring, and thus the change is
greater in the early crops than in the later ones. The critical period
of the first crop is the time of setting, while of the later crop it is the
time of maturity.
CHAPTER VIII.
PRTTNING FIGS.
GENERAL REMARKS.
The pruning of the fig tree must be regulated according to the age
of the tree, as a j'^oung tree just planted must be pruned radically
different from one which has been grown in the orchard a year or
more. This remark refers only to the fig tree as grown in the semi-
tropical regions and not to trees growing in more northern climates.
The pruning of the latter will be remarked on under the headings of
the districts where they grow. As a general rule the fig tree requires
less pruning than does any other fruit tree grown in temperate cli-
mates, except possibly some species of nut trees. Neglected cutting
back of recently planted trees may be the indirect cause of their
dying, while a cutting back of old trees may cause them to be bar-
ren or to yield inferior crops for years. Still, a proper pruning for
fig trees is necessary, both to young and old trees; but this pruning,
although not less important, must be radically different from that
accorded to other kinds of fruit. This refers especially to old bearing
trees, as young fig trees may be pruned in almost any way without
harm.
PRUNING LATELY PLANTED TREES.
All fig trees should be grown in such a manner that the foliage may
be high enough above the ground to freely admit air and wind. Upon
this depends not only the growth of the fig tree, but also the quality
of the fig crop. Six feet to the lower limbs would be a good height to
give a fig tree grown for fruit. This height may be given at once or
gradually, and the first pruning should be done with the ultimate
form in view. Many growers cut their fig trees back after planting
to within a foot or so of the ground. This is a safe way, as the more
the young trees are pruned back the surer they will grow. But this
cutting back has at least one great disadvantage; it causes the side
stems — the future standards — to come too close together, causing
them to split off from the main trunk when in a few years they shall
become sufficiently heavy. There are two ways to avoid this; one is
to cut the tree at planting close to the ground and allow three differ-
ent shoots to form the new standards. This is really the natural habit
of the growth of the tree. All wild figs branch at the roots, and the
different branches or standards in time grow together at the base,
171
172 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
forming an enormously wide but very short trunk. Trees grown in
this way are not apt to split. When fig trees are planted wide apart
in the orchard, and for fruit alone, this several-standard system is con-
sidered a good one. It differs somewhat from the general custom,
but it agrees perfectly with the nature of the tree. How this is best
accomplished by planting two cuttings in one hole has been explained.
If a single standard from the soil is desired, the trees should if
possible not be cut back at planting lower than 4 feet from the
soil, or better yet, allowed to remain at 6 feet from the soil. Side
branches should be encouraged at least 1 foot or more apart, in order
that the crotches may not come close together. If the planted tree
has several good side branches, cut back the top to the uppermost
of these branches and cut out other branches, except those left for
the main branches for the future head. All the smaller branches
may be left to grow and the thinning out postponed to the next year,
the object in leaving them being to enable the tree to shade itself as
much as possible the first year. The side branches may be cut back
if required, this cutting back doing no injury to the young tree. In
after years, however, it can not be allowed, except under particular
conditions — as, for instance, when it is desirable to balance an ill-
shaped tree. This form is not suitable in the orchard.
pruning bearing fig trees.
As has already been stated, most fig trees suffer if their branches
are cut squarely back. In all old fig-growing countries, even in
England, the sayingtis: "A fig tree cut back will give no good crop."
This has also been the experience in California, especially with heavy-
growing kinds. The writer has known an instance where large
fig trees which were cut back for cuttings did not again bear good
figs, and several similar instances have been reported where for ten
years the trees did not recover their producing power. After the first
year, therefore, the fig trees should only be thinned out. Never cut
back the fruit-bearing branches in such a way that the same branch
can send out side shoots below the cut. If cutting be necessary in
order to shape the tree, cut back to the fork in such a way that the
whole branch will be cut off, either to the main trunk of the tree or to
a main branch, and let it be remembered that the less heavily the fig
tree is pruned the better for the bearing quality of the tree and the
better for the quality of the fruit.
When cut off squarely a branch sends out side branches from a
number of eyes immediately below the cut and the end of the braneli
will look somewhat like a brush. These side branches will interfere
with one another and with other branches of the tree, and most of
them must be cut away the following season in order to shape the
tree and to admit air, light, and heat. But if the branch in question
be cut off further down close to a fork the remaining branch of the
PRUNING FIGS. 173
fork with its terminal bud will lead off the sap and the brush-like
formation will not take place. In other words, after a fig tree has
been necessarily pruned every branchlet as well as every branch
should possess a terminal bud in order that the new branch system
may consist of fairly parallel branches. With this point steadily in
view the next consideration will be that of pruning bearing trees.
Unlike other fruit trees, the quality and size of the fig is not
improved directly bj^ heavy pruning, except in cases where fig trees
are grown in pots or against walls. A fig tree with many branches
will bear as large and as fine fruit as a fig tree with few branches.
Indeed, it will us a rule bear larger and better fruit. The object in
pruning is therefore generallj^ not to increase the size and flavor of
the fruit. Still, it can not be denied that the proper pruning of old
and heavy growing fig trees will improve the quality of the fruit indi-
rectl}^ though not exactly in the same way as in other fruits.
The fig must be pruned in order to admit light, heat, and air, and
to prevent crowding and bad shape and the interference with other
crops grown among the trees. If the fig crop is the principal one the
latter consideration must be secondary only.
Heavy-growing fig trees, such as Adriatics, etc., produce better and
larger figs if pruned; but this pruning must consist in simply cutting
off the young year's wood whenever several branches start out too
close together from the same limb. Thus in the above variety the
young bearing wood should be at least 2 feet long, without side
branches. All other twigs may be cut off close to the main branch,
but never cut off squarelj^ or simply cut back. Only cut them off
close to the mother branch, as the latter will then bear better and
larger figs.
The pruning of the fig when grown in the open should be confined
to three or four distinct points. The sterile twigs generally found at
the base of the main branches should be cut off each year. These
twigs are generally bent downward, are slender, and seldom bear
fruit. Larger as well as smaller branches which cross one another
should be so cut out that no further interference is possible. The
center of the tree in thick-growing varieties should be thinned out
or cut entirely away in order to admit sun, air, and light. Lower
branches too close to the ground should also be cut off close to the
main stem or main branches; and finally, if a tree is unevenly bal-
anced the branches on the larger side may be cut back in order to
properly balance the tree. But in all these operations all cuts should
be made to a fork and the cut branch should never be without a
leader. And finally, in any heavy growing and bearing varieties the
side branches of the. yearling wood may be cut off close to the stem.
As to the time of pruning, the best time is when the leaves have
fallen and the fig tree is most dormant. Some sap will always fiow,
but the more dormant the tree the better.
174 THE Fia: its history, oultube, and cubing.
HIGH AND LOW STANDARD.
The final question, whether high or low standards should be given
to fig trees, must be entirely dependent upon climatic conditions and
other circumstances. In moist ground the figs should have a high
standard, in order to admit the necessary air and light, especially so
in localities where the souring of the figs is a common evil. On the
contrary, in places where moisture is scarce and where the figs may
suffer from drought, the low standard should be adopted, with side
branches sloping closer to the ground and shading the soil. Consid-
eration should also be had for the variety, and as a general rule it
may be said that figs for drying require higher standards than those
grown for table only. The high standard may be considered at once
when the trees are first set out, as has been already remarked, but a
change from low to high standard may be readily accomplished later
and gradually, without any great difficulty or injurj^ to the tree. In
Smyrna the branches reach the ground within 3 or 4 feet, while from
the main root three or more standards start out at sharp angles to the
ground.
CHAPTER IX.
IBBIOATION IN FIO CTTLTTJBE.
In localities where the rainfall is less than 25 inches during the
rainy season irrigation is necessary. The fig tree, unlike most other
trees, does not immediately show when it begins to suffer for want of
water; at least it does not show it like other deciduous trees by the
wilting and drooping of its leaves. In case the grower does not know
when to supply water, the figs will be small and dry and be otherwise
inferior. As soon as the fig tree begins to suffer from want of suffi-
cient moisture in the soil it stops its g rowth. The terminal points of
the branches will then suddenly cease to send out new leaves, and
instead will begin to mature a bud. If this occurs during the grow-
ing season it is a certain sign that the moisture has given out. In all
localities where the figs can not keep on growing until the fruit matures
irrigation must be resorted to. The rig ht amount of irr igation, the
ti me to give it, and the proper way to lead t he water on the land must ^^ ^^^c %
necessarily vary in different localities, and no rules applicable to all ^^a
conditions can here be given. C-^ f^^ ^* 2^^ t^<ja,<^^
It may, however, be stated t hf^t the mo re water that can be given *Jv!Xcce| ^
at once th e dee per it jwill_smkjind the more the natural moisture will * U^
be imitated. Fr equent irrigation will create surface roots and tend ^ ^^ /
to keep th e deeper yround drv. Flo oding is not r ecQginiended, except
in winter, as the winds are liable to overturn the trees; besides, heavy
watering in summer or growing time does not imitate the natural
rainfall and those other conditions under which the fig tree develops
its fruit to the best advantage and greatest perfection. So far as pos
sible all irrigation sh ould be in the winter, when the effect upon the
trees will be that of heavy rains only, provided no more water be ^
given tlian the tree requires. Stagnant water and irrigation ditches ^^ ^^]o u^ ^
do not tend to improve the fruit of the fig, and localities where such J^^^/^^" ^
water prevails are unsuited to all figs. *%< ^ ^ •"' ^
There are, however, a number of varieties which require moist
ground in order to produce good fruit. This is the case especially
with black varieties, which, with few exceptions, require more mois-
ture than white figs. In the catalogue of figs at the end of this book
the writer has noted the preference for moist or dry soil for all varieties
as far as known.
175
Ut J^^^^** cXJ^^i^ e^^^^^tA^ fj:^ ^^ ^P"^^ r«^-*^^— ^ ir^^'
CHAPTER X.
DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FIG.
DROPPING OF THE FRUIT.
Two distinct causes may effect the dropping of the figs before they
are ripe. The most common of these causes is unfavora ble climatic
conditions , either in general or in particular, for a certain variety.
This climatic defect may consist in any condition that will temporarily
f check the flow of sap to the figs. Cold nig hts, cold wind a, and light
f rosts are eg d&lly as eitective in causing the dropping of the fruit as
are excessive dryness and g j reat hea t. Wa nt of moisture frequently
causes the fruit to drop or to develop poorl y and b ecome tas t eless ,
coarse, and unhealthy. In this case moderate irrigation mav be the
remedy. Many varieties will always drop if raised in an unsuitable
climate. In such cases there is no other remedy than to experiment
with other varieties which may be suited to the climate. As numerous
varieties of figs are originated under the most different conditions of
temperature and moisture, there are enough varieties to suit almost
every locality which can be at all favorable for fig culture.
In old Roman times the dropping of the figs was a cause for great
[t^ annoyance, and the practical Cato gave remedies for its prevention,
(oJ^ ^^ advising thorough working of the ground. As he did not mention
I t ^^ * I caprification, it is probable that the fig varieties he cultivated dropped
r^^ ^^ their figs from climatic causes only.
r jjji''^ Another cause for the dropping of the fruit i s a pecul iar' ^Ay^^tTuo-
y<f ,t^ 1 ^^^^ ^^ *^^ flowers of the figs. The Smyrna figs, which require polli-
nation in order to produce ripe fruit, will always drop their fruit if
not pollina ted. Other figs will, for the same cause, drop their second
crop, while their "brebas," which contain differently constructed flow-
ers, will mature. It is hardly necessary to add that the latter class may
also drop from climatic causes, even when properly pollinated. To
ascertain which of these causes effects the dropping an examination of
the flowers is necessary. If the flowers are receptive and have been
properly pollinated, climatic defects must cause their dropping. If
no pollination has taken place, this fact would cause the dropping
even under the most favorable circumstances. Common edible figs
suffer much less in this respect, as they are influenced principally by
climatic conditions, while Smyrna figs are affected by both causes.
Strong-growing varieties drop their fruit as readily as weak-growing
kinds. There is no variety which holds its own better than the weak-
growing Brunswick.
176
.'V^'
DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FIG. 177
SUNBURN.
One of the commonest causes of diseases in fig trees is sunburn.
This happens, however, only with young trees lately planted and
before the new leaves and branches are sufficiently developed to
shade the trunk of the tree. The effect of sun scald appears first at
the collar close to the ground, later higher up, when the whole side
of the trunk facing southwest may be found cracked and with peeling
Jiaxk*. This give s access to bore rs, prevents the proper circul ation of
sap, and greatly injures the tree in many ways. Sunburnt trees never
recover their vigor and will always remain stunted. Sunburn may be
prevented in various ways. One, of course, i s in pruning th e trees
l ow or ev en allowing them to s hoot out directlv from the collar below
the ground. Such trees are never injured by heat and sun. But if a
higher stand ard be de sired some other means are necessary for keep-
ing the trunk shaded and cool. A ne wspaper tied to th e trunk with
common cotton yarn is, according no lae experience of the writer, the
best and cheai)est tree protector. The yarn will never cut the tree as J^*^ i f
heavier rope will and the paper will graduallj' f all off just at the time ^
wlien the leaves of the tree are large enough to shade the trunk, i/^^ J\^
Medicated tree protectors should be experimented with before being ^ fyisif )
generally used, as they sometimes contain chemicals strong enough — ' ■^r*/
to kill the trees, or at least to injure them more than sun and wind ' f^^ 111
combined. ^,r ^
FROST. ^U.4^t^/^Ati<-t, /viv^^t;, C^+1^
Fig trees are easily frosted, especially when caught by the frost )p€^'Lk
with their sap in full circulation, and while in full leaf. <-^ ^'^ *
In northern climates the old trees as well as the young trees are
injured by frost, but in warmer regions like California it is the young
trees only which occasionally suffer. Young trees may, through
unfavorable conditions, be greatly injured by frosts in several succes-
sive years, but when at last successfully raised to the age of 4 or
5 years they will generally be hardy enough to withstand heavier
frosts even than those which injured them while young. It is there-
fore unwise to say that such and such variety is not suited to any
certain locality simply because it was for several years after planting
cut back or down by frosts. This very variety, as has been repeatedly
observed, may in the future be perfectly hardy and profitable. In
San Joaquin Valley, California, for instance, the Adriatics were gen-
erally injured and even killed by frosts when they were first intro-
duced. As the trees grew older no ill effects were visible after equally
heavy frosts.
The injury done by frost shows itself in b lackened and w ;ithering
shoots whic h die back more o_r_le8s. In severe cases the bark of the
tree beco mes black an d rots, especially on the south side, where the
sun strikes the frosted parts first and most. Smaller trees may be
178 THE fig: its history, culture, and OU&IKG.
covered with mats or wrapped in straw permanently for the winter,
while for continued cold the dwarf trees are even buried in the soil.
After the frost has caused damage to the branches there is no other
remedy than to remove all injured parts at once and cut back until
the flow of fresh milky sap indicates that healthy parts are reached.
It might be necessary to cut back to the main trunk or even to cut
the tree to the ground. If this be done in time new suckers will come
up from which a new tree can be raised. If the tree is thus greatly
injured it should be cut below the collar, the cut covered with graft-
ing wax or pitch, and all the suckers allowed to grow the first year.
The next winter these suckers should be covered by mats, straw, etc.,
in order to protect them. If they also are frosted there is very little
hope for the tree. The following spring the strongest sucker is to be
nursed into a tree, while the others should be cut and kept cut back
severely through the season. The tree may even die to the ground
or succumb entirely. The preventive measures are not many and
not very effective. Young trees may be defoliated if they show no
signs of becoming dormant at the time frost is most to be feared.
Defoliation hastens the maturity of the wood, checks the flow of the
sap, and renders the tree less liable to be greatly injured by frost. In
France smoking is commonly used in northern fig orchards, the smoke
being started an hour before sunrise and kept up for an hour after
the sun is up. Tar, straw, and damp chips of wood are used to create
smoke, which should be start/cd on all sides of the orchard.
i^^.»,>'^ FUNGI.
In France the fig plantations suffer greatly from the attacks of a root
Z^ fungus of the genus phizoctonus^ The roots alone are infected and
^ - ^^^ are destroyed in a very short time,
a/^l]^ are destroyed in a very sho rt tim e, the ultim ate effect bein g to destroy
J^ the whole fig tree. This disease spreads rapidly through the orchard
V^^^. and operates before the cultivatoFls "aware eveii of the presence of
^•^'"^^^j5 the disease. Sulphur has been used with small success. In order
VV^' ,^ to prevent the wholesale destruction of the fig trees it is advisable to
^ **.-^ plant them alt ernately w ith other trees which are not attacked by the
' disease, such a s olives , pomegranates, or gr ape vi nes, or to plant the
trees so far apart tTiat the roots can not interla ce. Intermediate
.r-crops are then necessary. Any other remedy than isolation has never
\.*\ been discovered for this fungoid disease.
t^^y \^^ ^ ^;^>k souring of the figs.
\ ^*' v.^'^' '^^^ souring of the figs is directly caused by a fungoid ferment,
^ v^'^'' undoubtedly related to the fungus which causes acute fermentation
« ^ in other sweet substances, such as wine. A more distinct cause of
souring is the want of proper sweetness in the figs, toojajighw^ater in
the soil, or unsuitable soil. Figs which grow in moderately moist
ground sour less than those that grow in wet soils. The drier the soil,
to a certain point, the sweeter the figs. Very sweet, sirupy figs seldom
sour, and certain varieties sour more readily than others under almost
4-
DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES OF THE FIG. l79
any conditions. To counteract this tendency to souring, the soil
should be kept dry, though excessive dryness will also injure the figs.
How increased moisture may gradually ruin a flg orchard has been
observed several times. The writer once knew of several acres of fig
trees which bore excellent and very sweet figs, the variety being the
Marseillaise. These few acres were very profitable to the owner, but
gradually the vicinity was settled; the soil became more saturated,
because of extra irrigation introduced by new settlers, and as the
trees grew older their roots struck deeper and more quickly through
this added moisture. These figs gradually showed the effect of too
much moisture, they became less sweet year after year, and more figs
became sour. After the lapse of three years from the time they were
in the height of profitable bearing the trees did not pay, and finally
all were cut down as useless, except one or two around the house,
which even there had become a nuisance on account of the dropping
figs, which at last become sour, with only seldom a good or fair one.
Small flies are often seen emerging from sour figs. These flies are,
however, not the cause of the souring. They are simply vinegar flies,
which, attracted by the sour juices, flock to the fig to there lay their
eggs and breed. They never visit healthy figs. The souring of the
figs is greatly facilitated by their bursting open. As is well known
in our fig districts, many figs burst open in the fall of the year or at
the end of the summer. A few days after bursting the figs turn sour
and become worthless for drying. The bursting open gives access
to the interior of the fig to acetic bacteria, which cause the acid fer-
mentation. As long as the eye was closed bacteria and fungi were
kept out, and no fermentation could take place. There is no doubt
that the principal function of the eye of the fig is to keep out bac-
teria and insects, and the closed form of the fig receptacle is undoubt-
edly effected by nature in order to prevent parasites from spoiling
the sugary juice of the fig. Adriatics are especially apt to sour, but
so far I have never found a sour fig which had not previously
become cracked or split. The cracking open of the figs is due
principally to moisture in soil and air. Figs will remain healthy on
the trees until the advent of a rain storm or a fog. This increases
the moisture in the air, which, again, causes the figs to swell from
absorption of moisture. It is this swelling up which causes the figs
to burst. Too much irrigation may have the same effect. Against
the bursting on account of moisture in the air there is, so far as I can
see, no remedy.
SCALE.
The fig tree in California has so far been very free from scale insects.
In Euroge, however, as well as in the Southern States, the fig trees are
frequently attacked by scale. In the Mediterranean region the^cale
of the fig is the Chermes caricc^. It was mentioned by Oestoni in
1733, and has been common since that time. It is a large scale, one-
180 THE fig: its history, cultube, and cubing.
third of an inch long bj'^ one-quarter of an inch wide when full grown,
oval, convex, and of an ashy-broWn color. The young hatch in May,
and spread at once over stems, leaves, and even over the fruit. The
^effect is the stunted growth of tlie branches, dark spots on leaves and
branches, the figs fall off, and in extreme cases the branches, and later
the whole tree, succumbs. At the end of August the young scales
gather on the outside of leaves and branches, and become stationary,
where they continue to grow until the following spring, when the
young burst the cover of the old scale and proceed as indicated. Prob-
ably any one of the scale remedies in common use may be successfully
employed as an antidote, but the writer especially recommends the
lime, salt, and sulphur compound, the composition of which is as
follows:
150 pounds of sulphur.
350 pounds of lime.
100 pounds of salt.
TV I 25 gallons of water.
se a kettle 2^ feet higli by 3 feet wide. Put the water first in the
kettle and boil the ingredients for eight hours, adding water as nec-
essary. After boiling the prescribed time a mush-like mess is formed,
which when put into molds hardens, but dissolves readily in water.
Dissolve 5 pounds of this cake in hot water and then add 30 gallons
of water. This is used as a spray on the trees in the spring before
the scale hatches.
If this scale appears in this country it will probably be fought by
the introduction of parasites.
BEETLES.
Small Coleopterous insects or beetles attack the figs in the vicinity
of Paris. These insects of two species bore the figs while they are
yet rudimentary, and cause great damage to the crop. As a remedy
damp moss is placed in the vicinity of the stems of the fig. The
beetles collect under the moss and may be removed early eveiy morn-
ing. Another remedy consists in sifting ashes over the branches in
the early morning while the dew is yet on.
WORMS IN DRIED FIGS.
The small maggots so frequently found in dried figs are not really
worms, but larvae of a small moth. These larva3 feed on the dry figs,
as well as on other dry fruits. The eggs of the moth are laid on the
fruit after it has dried and the maggots develop in a few weeks. Dip-
ping in hot or boiling water is useful as a remedy; close packing and
pressing of the figs will also to some extent prevent the havoc of the
moth. A light sulphuring of the figs for a few minutes will probably
kill the larvae. The sulphuring is effected by burning sulpjiur in a
closecl chamber or room in which the infected figs have been previ-
ously placed. Too long sulphuring would undoubtedly injure the
taste of the figs.
CHAPTER XI.
DRYING AND CUBING FIGS.
GENERAL REMARKS.
The process of curing figs must necessarily be different in different
countries, not only directly on account of climate, but because the
figs are of different qualities, large or small, very sweet or watery,
thin-skinned or tough, of good drying quality or the opposite. What
will be set forth here is the method which has been the most success-
ful in Califomiac==Successful not because these methods are better
than those employed in Smyrna or Portugal, the homes of the best
dried figs, but because so far our figs are decidedly different from
those grown there. The reasons for this are several. In this coun.- ^
try we have tried extensively on ly a few varieties of figs out of a
possible hundred or more. Many more vaneTiesTiave of late been
planted, but the time has been too short to decide which ones have
come to stay. The fig territory of the Pacific coast is so large and
conditions so different in different localities that at least ten or twenty
years must lapse before it will be possible to assign the proper variety
to the locality best suited to it. A great obstacle in the way of
extended fig culture is the tendency of the growers to despise small
or medium-sized figs in their endeavor to imitate 1\\€ product of
Smyrna! It isthe medi um-siz ecLfigs^which are the successful ones in •
all the Mediterranean countries, except in the valley of the Meander.
Neither Italy, Spain, France, nor Greece produces largfe figs for dry-
ing, but only small or medium-sized ones. Our fig growers should •
concentrate their first efforts in producing a merchantable and sweet
fig for common use for the middle classes -"fTieh 'large, sweet, and
showy figs, consumed in limited quantities by the more wealthy peo-
ple, will be the necessary outcome. Not every place in our fig dis-
tricts will be suitable for growing the large varieties, but a thousand
places will be found where /he medium-sized figs may be grown and
cured with profit. The difference in curing different varieties is con-
siderable, but not great. The ^ize does not count as much in this
difference as do the inert qualities of the fig — its sweetness and the
facility with which it dries. It makes a vast difference whether
the figs are picked from the trees or from the ground in perfect con-
dition ; whether they have to be sulphured before drying in order to
prevent fermentation and to secure better color, or whether they can
be dried as soon as gathered.
X81
182 THE fig: its histoby, oultube, and cubing.
xf SIGNS OF MATURITY.
No figs should be picked before perfect and absolute maturity is
attained, if the object is to produce a good dried fig. Figs picked
before maturity will dry, but they will not be sweet and soft, the two
indispensable qualities of a dried fig. It is therefore important that
everyone should know when to pick his figs. Not all figs ripen at the
same time; in fact, this successive ripening is considerable of an
annoyance to the growers, as it necessitates the going over of the
^ T ^ orchard several times. During the height of the season every tree
\ jt>^ ^ \ ^^®^ ^ looked over daily, or if the grower is fortunate enough to
^'^^^^e^^^oBsesB a. vRrifttv whu»h dropa of i|.fiift1f wliftn perfectly mature, these
'^i '^Iri^' ^ ^allenjfi^^must be picked up every day, because they spoil if exposed
«» V \ J^,,-*''''^'^ more than twenty-four hours on the bare and shaded ground.
^^ I *- I A pe rfectly ripe fig: , will not only b e soft , but jvjjjyjiigd, and hang
^^l^Mf ^ Miown per pendicularly from its branch'or twig. Many varieties show
1^ JW j additional little white seams or cracks, which always indicate perfect
\ Jc^ D^aturity. These seams are especially noticeable around the peduncle
lA* ^ ^ ^ft or stalk end, but not all varieties show them. The above general
(f ^^.ili^'signs are common to all figs, and figs suitable for drying should also
be sweet or very sweet.
The best Italian and Smyrna figs when dried show 60 per cent of
sugar, equal to about 35 per cent before drying. Unlike grapes, figs
will not become much sweeter after they have matured. The sugar
will be more concentrated, but the quantity will not materially
increase. A sign of great e xcellence in figs is when a drop of very
thick sirup is seen h gng infr from tlhft ftyft. 'The fig is then in its prime
and can not be improved by hanging any longer. Figs hanging any
longer on the trees are exposed to various ferments, acid or otherwise,
which as soon as they set in will ruin them. Genuine Smyrna figs
when perfectly ripe drop to the ground. They should never be cut
from the tree. -^-^
J OILING THE FIG.
^VXr This operation consists in piercing the eye of the fig with a needle
dipped in oil or by closing the eye of the fig with a drop of olive oil.
This process is of very ancient_origin, and must not be confounded
with caprification.^^While the object of caprification is to cause the
f ruit to set and prod uce fertile seed , the object of the oiling is to
hasten the maJajjuJ^fegf^tli^fiuiii^everal days. For the practical part
of this oiling see article on "France." The physiological effect of the
oiling is not explained, and is probably to be found in something else
than in the mere exclusion of air.
The origin of the practice^is yerjjold^ In the Old Testament the
prophet Amos (chap. VII, v. 14) speaks of "h olfts sr*hi(jj flfm^'^ which
was translated by Luther as "Who take off the mulberries." But the
true translation . according to Solms-Laubach is "Who performs an
DRYING AND CUBING FIGS. 183
operation on the fig." B oles or balas^ ho wever, refers tio wild figs. It
has been suggested that the expression of Amos refers to caprification,
and was so given by De Lagarde. But it is much more probable
that * * boles schiqmim " refers to the process practiced to this day of
^'Ite^Butting or piercing the sycamore fig with a knife, in order to cause
^»^the BlastophagM .to d evelop qui ckly and leave the fig.
J^jd"** In Italy the oiling of the fig is calledj^egliazione." The process
, ^^^^^^i;*Vffcs mentioned by Theophrastus as practiced by tne^ancient Greeks,
> and Pliny mentions it as one of the practices of the Romans. In
"^^._itt«dern times oiling is in vogue in Italy, S yria^ Spain ^ and Pro vence.
^'-i^
^ Even other substances have been or are used, such as alcohol, and
iccording to Professor Solms-Laubach) Dr. Eisig was tolS' m Ischia
at oil caused *'muso chiuso" (mouth shut), but alcohol "muso
^ aperto" (mouth open), indicating that oil would cause the mouth or
eye of the tig to close, while alcohol would cause it to open.
-*' ^ , }jb may be interesting to note that unless the sycamore figs are
pierced by the knife they are said not to reach perfection nor to be
^.ity edible. There is reason to believe that ther e is a twofold obje ct in
^^^...^ piercing the sycamore figs: first, to cause the wasps ISycophaga syco-
mori) to quickly develop aatLifiave; second, to cause the fruit to
develo p or f.o hastc^i its dftyftlopmftnt. If such be the case, the pierc-
ing of this fig is at least partly analogous to the puncturing of the
edible figs as practiced in Provence.
Oiling and puncturing of second-crop San Pedros will not cause
them to develop. The writer has tried it several times without suc-
cess. According to reliable testimony of French growers the oiling
hastens the development and maturity of the fi gs about six days. It
is generally practiced at Argenteuil, near Paris, where the production
of '*figues fleurs," or first-crop figs, for the Paris market is an exten-
sive industry.
HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE SUGAR PERCENTAGE OR DEGREE IN FIGS.
Figs contain much less water than grapes, and while the latter
require only to be squeezed out in order to have their saccharine
measured, figs can not be thus treated. There are several ways by
which the percentage of sugar may be ascertained, but the simplest
one for the fruit grower is as follows: Procure a graduated glass from
some firm dealing in chemical apparatus. The graduate should not
hold less than a quart. Fill this to the upper graduation with figs, not
packed, but loosely shaken in. Then pour on water slowly until this
also reaches the top graduation. Then take out all the figs one by
one, place in a dish to drain, and add this drained-off water to what
is left in the graduate and ascertain to what line this water reaches.
The difference between this line and the top line indicates the volume
of the figs. Suppose that this is 20 per cent. Next cut the figs into
smaller pieces, place in a clean pot, cover well with water, and heat to
23740— No. 9—01 13
184 THE fig: its history, cubture, and cubing.
the boiling point. At least 40 units of water should be added to the
figs if their volume was 20 per cent. After having boiled for a while
ascertain, by tasting, if all the sugar is leached out of the figs. If so,
remove from the fire. Filter the liquid from the figs and then squeeze
the figs in a cloth until as much of the liquid is removed as possible;
then add this liquid to the former liquid. If this liquid in which the
figs have been boiled measures less than 20 units, more water must
be added; but if it measures more than 20 units, or the volume of the
figs, it must be evaporated by boiling until it shows exactly 20 per
cent. Filter through blotting paper and then weigh with a saccha-
rometer. In order to have first-class dried figs the saccharometer
should indicate 35 per cent of sugar. The object of the whole process
is to extract the sugar from the figs and to ascertain correctly its per-
centage in relation to the volume of the figs. This method will only
suffice for a rough estimate and not for a chemical analysis. As the
commercial value of figs depends principally on the quantity of sac-
charine they contain, every grower and dealer should be prepared to
test the saccharine. Fresh figs used for drying should show not less
than 35 per cent, and dried figs not less than 55 per cent of sugar.
GATHERING THE FRUIT.
Figs destined for drying should be carefully handled in order to
preserve a fine appearance when offered for sale and also to prevent
undue fermentation while curing. In localities where caprification is
practiced, little labor is required in i)icking the figs, because caprifi-
— 1' I UJu cated figs, or varieties which require caprification, fall from the trees
4*"i i\ ^^^^ perfectly mature and in prime condition for being dried and
ct '^ ^V-1 cured. The cause of this dropping mu^t be sought for in the perfect
^-""""TT * .\ condition of seeds and consequent perfection of the fruit, the nature
'yi^'^^^^^kof which is to fall from the tree when sufficiently developed to propa-
V t » ^" yjgate its kind. Figs which have not been caprificated fall first from the
^ """^ tree when decay has begun to set in in some form or other. Such figs
are therefore never as perfect as when cut from the tree at the proper
aJ\ time. If carelessly pulled from the branches the figs will be bruised
ffj^ ^^"^ and torn, the skin around the neck is apt to be injured, and quite fre-
^ \ ^^ queiilly the neck itself is torn off, exposing the pulp of the fig to view.
^^^ Bruised figs"will be inferior in many ways. The conten tg will ooze out,
* \r-^"* and pulling and fancy packing can not be resorted to. Figs maybe
^ twisted from the branch by an expert picker, but even with the best of
^*v ' V .^ skill and care many figs will be injured. Besides, the process is too
J. V [ t. slow. The proper waj^ is to cut the figs from the branch as closely to
X . v^ V the tree as possible, leaving no part of th eneck and s talk adh ering
to the branch. A small knife with a fixed blade, such as is used for
picking grapes, may be used, but a size smaller is more convenient.
A knife 6 inches in length — handle and blade — is of proper size. The
knife should be quite sharp, or it will tear the delicate skin of the fig.
^-rt
DBYING AND CURING FIGS. 185
For gathering the higher figs a convenient instrument may be made,
called the '* lig picker." It consists of a forked stick or artificial fork,
across which has been tacked a strip of tin plate. Below this is a bag
kejrt open by a wire. (See elsewhere for further description.) With
this fig picker the highest figs may be cut without being bruised,
but the process is slower than cutting with a knife and should be used
only for figs which otherwise could not be reached.
SULPHURING.
Sulphuring is a process by which fresh fruit, immediately before
drying, is exposed to the fumes of burning sulphiir in a closed cham-
ber called the "sulphur box." The object of sulphuring fruit of any
kind, and especially figs, is twofold: First, to prevent fermentatio n
during the process of curing; second, to bleach the fruit. The action
of the sulphur fumes is deathly to the microorganisms or fungi which,
as is well known, cause the fermentation of various substances con-
taining sugar. The action is also purely chemical, as sulphured fruit
assumes a semitransparent and light-yellowish color, the more intense
the longer exposed to the fumes. Sulphured figs, as well as sulphured
fruit generally, is inferior to fruit which is naturally of light color
^ and unsulphured. Not only is the acid caused by sulphuring easily
/tasted by anyone with a sensitive taste, but the effect of the acid
. is purgative, and the use of sulphured fruit for any length of time is
\ injurious, especially if the fruit has been exposed too long to the
fumes. The writer is not ail advocate of sulphuring generally, and
does not advise the sulphuring of figs unless it be found that other-
wise they will not dry properly nor assume the light color demanded by
. the market or the trade. Many fig varieties do not dry well, but fer-
( ment, puff up, and become acetic during the process of drying, even
when exposed fully to the sun. If sulphured, however, for a few
; minutes, the germs of the ferment are tilled and the curing will pro-
; ceed without difficulty. This is especially the case with large figs of
inferior sweetness. Figs which require no sulphuring are greatly to
be preferred to those which do. The true interest of the fig grower
is to procure varieties which will dry readily and assume a good, pale,
semitransparent color without any chemical manipulation.
Sulphuring, when necessary, should be resorted to as soon as the
figs are picked and placed on the trays. The sulphur box is closed
and made as air-tight as possible. It should not be over 5 feet high,
but wide enough to admit two trays. The trays are placed two deep
in the box, and are made to slide on a rack or on cleats nailed to the
sides. The door must be made to shut very tight, or the fumes of
sulphur will escape. There should be at least 2 feet between the
place where the sulphur fumes are originated and the lowest tray-
This tray should be dampened, but not contain any figs. The figs
are placed on the trays as close as possible, but only one fig deep, and
186 THE FI(^: ITS HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
with the eyes pointing in the same direction. Fill the box with loaded
trays, light the sulphur, and then close the door.
The late B. M. Lelong suggested the following method of creating the
sulphur fumes : Place a small kerosene stove on the floor of the sulphur
house, and on the stove a heavy sheet of iron 1^ inches thick. Light
the stove, and when the iron is hot, but not red-hot, extinguish the
light and throw the sulphur on the plate. The fumes rapidly fill the
house, enter the figs, and kill the ferment, and also act on the skin of
the figs. The amouut of sulphur to be used varies, but a couple of
handf uls are sufficient if the box be tight and th6 figs not too watery.
^ It takes about five minutes to fill the house with sulphur fumes and
• six or seven minutes more are required to sulphur the figs. *If exposed
too long their taste will become too acid and the skin will peel off
when the figs are handled. It is preferable to have a little darker
color than to have the figs sour. All sulphuring should be done in
J the morning or before noon. The sulphured figs should be exposed
to dry air and sunshine in order to get a good color and as clear a
taste as possible. It is unfortunate that the market accepts sulphured
figs and that it requires the figs to be excessively light colored.
Some growers sulphur their figs for six hours, and some even leave
the trays in the sulphuring box over night. It is deplorable that the
market is such as to command the sale of such f rait, which, to the
writer at least, is unpalatable in the extreme.
Genuine Smyrna figs never require sulphuring.
It is hardly necessary to add that only light-colored figs should be
sulphured. Black figs if sulphured assume a very disagreeable color.
A gentleman who was born in the Smyrna district furnished the
writer with the following method of sulphuring, though it is not
thought that he practiced the method while there. He recommended
one-half sulphur and one-half saltpeter mixed, the fresh figs to be
exposed to the fumes of this mixture for fifteen to twenty minutes,
then for three days, and afterwards sweated for several weeks. The
writer has not seen figs treated thus.
DIPPING WHILE FRESH.
Instead of sulphuring, some growers dip the figs while fi:e8h in boil-
ing water. Common salt water is best, but in lack of it ii pounds of
salt to 50 gallons of water will answer. First rinse the fresh figs in
fresh water, then dip the baskets or buckets in which the figs are
placed in the boiling salt water for one second or more, and repeat
once or twice. This will soften their skins.
For dipping, Mr. A. Gartenlaub proceeds as follows: First wash the
figs in pure water, then dip in a solution of 1^ pounds of saltpeter to
50 gallons of water, the water to be boiling hot. Dip once or twice.
This method he claims to be better than the use of salt. The writer
has neither seen nor practiced this method.
DKYlNa AND OUBINa FIGS. *^' /l' \ 187
DRYING ON TRAYS. 0\( ^% , J (/rt Am^^ A«^^V
The California and Arizona method of drying fruit on trays is by
far the most practical as well as the most labor-saving way to handle .
the fruit during the process of curing. For figs the small trays used 'rlA^vw "^
for drying raisins are the best, as thej'^ are a convenient size and
easily handled. In order to save labor in carrying, the drying ground
should be outside the orchard and adjoining the sulphur house. No
drying can be done in the drcTTard, as the trees will shade the trays
at least during part of the day. The figs require all the..siuxJiiey can
get. The drying ground should be as free from dust as possible. As
the figs require re peated turning^ oyer while drying, it is most conven-
ient to have the trays elevated^ above the ground sufficiently tof
enable the work of turning to be carried on without stooping downi
The simplest contrivance is to provide " gawhorsefr," across which are^
laid long strips of lumber, 2 by 4 and 2 by 3 inches wide, and as long as
convenient. The sawhorses should be 4 feet long, which will admit
of two tiers of trays being put across. A man can then easily reach
across from either side. The figs are placed on the trays, with the
eyes all toward one of the long sides of the trays, and this side
should be slightly raised in order to prevent the contents of the figs
from running out by gravity. The raising of one side of the trays is
easiest accomplished by placing the 2 by 4 strips in the center on the
horses, and the 2 by 3 outside. This raises the trays 1 inch, which is
generally sufficient for medium sized and not too pulpy figs. By plac-
ing an inch board above the scantling, the trays may of course be
elevated 1 inch more.
Immediately after sulphuring — whenever sulphuring is absolutely
necessary — the trays should be distributed on the racks and exposed
to the full rays of the sun. This should be finished before noon
every day if it is of importance to have a good color on the figs.
Dark figs may be exposed any time of the day, as they are generally
more easilj^^ handled than the white ones.
TURNING.
In order that the figs may dry evenly, they should at first be turned
t^ifiS^olay, and latexonce a day. Sulphured figs should be turned twice '
the first day, because if left overnight without being turned the color
will be injured. Black figs need to be turned only once a day if not
watery. The turning requires much labor, as it can be done only
by han d and by turning each fig separately. No contrivance has
as yet been invented by which all the figs may be turned at once,
in the same manner as raisins are turned. By placing one tray on
top of the other and turning the two together, the figs will become
badly disarranged and will require more labor to be straightened
than if turned at once by hand separately. Despite sulphuring and
careful selection in picking from the trees, some figs will sour during
the process of drying, especially if the figs are not very sweet. In
188 THE fig: its HISTOBY, culture^ and CtTRINO.
turning, all such figs should be removed and usedr^ f or vinegar or be
thrown away. No pulling or pressing of the figs while turning is
necessary, and no one can afford to put tob much labor on them.
The pulling and flattening is done after dipping and at packing.
The sour or fermenting figs may be easily recognized by their puffed
up appearance and by the fermenting froth issuing from the eye.
While turning, each fig may be given a slight pressure to ascertain its
condition. If fermenting or sour, a wheezing sound is heard or ' * felt,"
the fig being watery and frothy in the center. Such sour figs will
spoil the value of the box, being disagreeable and nauseous to the
taste.
COVERING.
Figs, more than almost any other fruit, are susceptible of being
injured by dampness, either hi the form of rain or dew. Not only
does dampness retard the drjang of figs, but it spoils their color, or
may even cause them to mold and rot. Rain is especially damaging
both to figs on the trees and on the trays. It is therefore neces-
sarjT^ to cover the figs not only when rain and fog are threatening, but
every evening, as a protection against dew. If rain is expected it
is best to stack the trays, placing one tray on top of another in
stacks about 5 feet high. Four empty trays are placed on the ground,
leaning against the stack, in order to keep off splashes of rain and
sand, and the whole stack is then covered with a strip of canv,as. In
places where the fig industry is permanent, monej" and labor will be
saved in having permanent drying beds made of brick and cement or
filled with gravel. As such beds have appliances for quickly running
{ the canvas over the trays, no stacking is necessary. Early at sunrise,
pr, better yet, half an hour afterwards, the covering should be removed.
WHEN sufficiently DRIED.
It is of great importance that the figs should be exposed long enough
to become sufficiently dried, but not so long as to be overdried. A
fig when sufficiently dried and ready to be removed from the tray
should, when slightly pressed between the fingers, be soft and pliable.
The contents should be distinctly pulpy, and when pressed shouM not
resume their former position, but remain as pressed. In other words,
the pulp or meat should be plastic (not elastic), hard, and dry. If nor
sufficiently dried the fig will burst at the stalk end. if pressed even
moderately hard.
Underdried figs will spoil, sour, and mold, and will become useless.
Overdried figs will be hard and leathery and tough; will lose their
flavor and color, the white ones becoming darker and the black ones
turning a dirty brown. The overdried figs may be partly improved
by dipping, but the underdried figs can in no way be improved. In
order to produce only figs which are properly dried and cured, it will
be found absolutely necessary to remove daily all those figs which are
properly dry, allowing the remainder to be exposed to sun and air a
DRYING AND CUBING FIGS. 189
I longer or shorter time. The time required for drying varies consid-
1 erably between four and sixteen days, according to size, quality, and
\ sweetness. To allow all the figs to remain on the trays until all are
dry will produce a very inferior article. Daily removals are necessary.
SWEATING AND EQUALIZING.
It is less necessary for figs to undergo the sweating or equalizing
process than it is for raisins. Still, figs are greatly benefited by being
stored and equalized a few weeks before packing. But regardless of
the desirability, which, however, is not a necessity, it is practical and
labor-saving to house the figs a few days before packing. This is
best done by placing them in sweat boxes of the same size as those
used for raisins. In storing these boxes it is of importance to prevent
fermentation. The boxes should never be placed close together, but
at least 4 inches apart, and each tier of boxes should cover the one
below in the same way as bricks in a wall; but there should be the
space of 4 inches between the boxes. Between the rows of boxes
a gangway of 3 feet is necessary, this being sufficient to allow easy
access to the rows from each side. The boxes should be examined
frequently by running the hand down among the figs, in order to
ascertain if any heating is in progress. Heating figs must be at
once removed and aired. If there appears to be any general danger
that the figs may heat, it is preferable to pile the boxes in stacks, eacli
box being placed crosswise on the one below. In this way the boxes
are more readily removed, as they are not bound up in a whole tier
of boxes. After a few days the figs will have become equalized as to
their moisture, the skin will have softened considerably, and they will
have otherwise improved.
DRYING FLOORS.
In places where manj^ figs are to be dried, drying floors will prove a
great convenience. Floors similar to those used for drying raisins,
or slightly modified to suit the occasion, may be used for figs. On
these floors the figs may be dried either by being placed directly on
the floor or by placing the trays on the floor. The following direc-
tions may prove desirable:
» The drying floors are built o f brick a nd slightly elevated. The
, long sides are as long as required, but the'short sides should be about
! 6 feet 6 inches, interior measure, allowing three trays depth. The
back wall is 2 feet high and the front wall 6 inches high. At the
bottom there should be a row of holes, to allow rain water to escape.
The interior of this bed is filled with pebbles, if they can be had; if
, not, any gravel, if clean, will answer. Cement and asphaltum, how-
1 ever, are probably more desirable when their expense can be incurred.
\ Along the back of the higher part of the floor should be a row of posts
or uprights made of 2 by 4 inch 'lumber, driven securely in the soil.
In the top of each upright is driven an eyelet, through which runs
190 THE fig: its history, CUI/rUBE, AND CURING.
a stout wire the whole length of the frame. A strip of canvas is
used for covering. The canvas must be hemmed and furnished with
small rings, by means of which it is attached bo the wire of the
uprights. In front are similar rings, in order that the canvas may be
securely stretched and fastened to small posts set in front, which,
however, carry hooks instead of a running wire. In order to make
1 the canvas waterproof it should be painted with at least two coats
of linseed oil. (July pure linseed oil should be used, as impure oil
cleared or mixed with certain chemicals will rapidlj'^ rot the canvas.
If the floors are of the above size they will admit of three trays in
depth. A pathway of 2 feet should be left between the rows of trays
to allow the workmen to kneel while turning the figs. When the can-
vas cover is not in use it should be rolled up and fastened by straps
to the back of the higher posts. In case of rain, and every evening,
the canvas is easily unrolled and spread over the figs. Loose strips
of lumber may be laid along the pathways to keep the canvas from
pressing on the figs.
The above suggestions have been adopted and modified according
to the plans of Spanish and Santa Ana raisin floors.
ARTIFICIAL DRYING.
In many districts it is impossible to dry figs in the open air, with
the blaze of the sun as the only drier. In such localities evaporators
or driers which produce artificial heat from fuel are required. The
ideal dryer is not yet invented. There exists a great number of pat-
ented driers in the market, most of which are very good. Very large
driers are expensive, and the writer prefers having a number of smaller
ones, which are easier to manage and which cost less to keep in repair.
DIPPING.
Figs used for artificial drying are generally those grown in moist
districts, where the seasons are less favorable to the full development
of the fruit and where, consequently, the skin is thicker. Such figs
^ should be dipped before being dried. This dipping is best done in a
hot solution of potash or lye made from ashes of grapevine trimmings.
. The figs are first washed in cold water. This is done by placing them
• in perforated buckets holding 10 pounds and immersing the buckets
in a trough of running water. Immediately afterwards the bucket is
transferred to a kettle containing boiling lye, made of 1 pound of pot-
ash to 10 gallons of boiling water. The lye should be boiling and the
figs suspended in it for 1 minute. No rinsing afterwards is required.
The figs are spread on the traj^s in such a way that they do not touch
one another, their eyes all toward the same side and slightly upward.
The heat in the drier should never be allowed to run too high, as the
best figs are produced by a lower heat of about 45° to 50° C, or about
120° F. The drying requires from thirty to forty hours, and when
finished the figs must be pulpy and not rattling. They should be
packed while yet warm, without other dipping or addition of sugar.
CHAPTER XII.
PACKING FIGS.
GENERAL REMARKS.
The packing of figs as practiced in different countries is extremely
varied, and in each district figs are packed in many different ways,
different grades being treated differently. The first grades in Smyrna
are packed with extreme care, and no superior or equal packing
exists anywhere. This skillful packing should.be reserved for the
best grades, and in imitating Smj^rna we should first of all endeavor
to produce quality in the fruit, and later quality in packing. It
neither pays to pack inferior fruit in the best possible way, nor is it
to advantage to neglect packing and place good fruit on the market
in a slovenly way. For medium quality of figs a cheap but attractive
packing should be adopted, reserving the greatest care and skill for
the very best article. It is futile to believe that the consumer will
repeatedly buy a poor article simply because it is packed to imitate
the best foreign grade. The deception may succeed once or twice,
but it will not ci'eate a lasting trade; on the contrary, it will bring
the article into disrepute.
In packing, the grower should be guided by his own judgment and
by the actual value of the figs. It is proper for him to procure the
best imported article in the market, as long as the foreign figs are
better than ours, and compare the homemade with the imported.
Sweetness is the first important point in figs, and without it color
and size do not amount to much. Therefore, if the figs are sweet —
58 to 60 per cent of sugar when dried — consider the advisability
of packing them extra well. If they are not up to the standard in
sweetness it is better to adopt a less expensive method without neg-
lecting taste in arrangement and attractiveness in appearance. A
good article, even, will not sell if sloventy packed; or, if it sells, it
commands an inferior price. Extra labor on packing good figs will
be found very profitable. The Italian and Portuguese figs, though
they may be really good, bring only inferior prices, and on account
of general carelessness in packing and handling go mostly to the fer-
menting tanks and coffee mills. The Portuguese fig trade was not
long ago superior to that of Smyrna, but neglectful packing ruined
the business, or at least helped to ruin it.
There are two distinct modes of packing figs, regardless of the
boxes or bags, mats, or drums they may be packed in. One way is
191
192 THE fig: its history, cultubr, and cubing.
to "pull" the figs and pack them in such a way that the eye of the
fig rests in the center, it having been brought there by pulling and
manipulating the fig. This we may call the *'fiat" way, and the figs
are called " pulled figs." The other method is to pack the figs just as
they grow and come from the tree. This may be called the " square"
or ''bag" way. In Smyrna the flat figs are called ''eleme" (pulled)
and the square figs are called "locoum," provided they are of the best
grade. »
--t DIPPING the figs.
Whether the figs be packed in one way or the other, they should
have previously been dipped. The dipping should be done immedi-
ately — that is, several hours — before packing. The dipping has a
most pronounced effect on the figs, as it makes them soft, and in this
respect affects both pulp and skin as well as improves the color. It
equalizes the sugar in the figs and causes it to permeate to the skin.
Even the poorest figs are improved by dipping, and many figs which,
through careless handling, are not palatable will become so by dip-
ping. The very best Smyrna figs are, however, not strictly dipped in
the same way as the lower grades, but they are nevertheless moist-
ened with salt water while being packed, and so important is this
moi.stening that the figs could not be properly packed without being
thus treated. The dipping should not be undertaken before the figs
are thoroughly dried and cured, and only shortly before packing. If
dipped and allowed to lie any length of time, the moisture will cause
the color to darken. The air must be excluded from dipped figs as
much as possible.
The process of dipping is as follows : Large and deep kettles are
provided for keeping water constantly boiling either by steam or by
direct fire, the size and number of kettles to be regulated according
to the quantity of figs to be dipped. Alongside of the kettles should
be a trough, with continuously^ running fresh water from a tank or
ditch. Perforated buckets, holding about 5 gallons, are suitable for
holding the figs while they are dipped. A long lever resting on a
pivot, at one end furnished with a hook for holding the bucket of figs
and at the other end heavy weights as a balance, makes a simple and
practical contrivance. To every gallon of water in the kettles use
about a quarter of a pound of salt. When sea water is to be had it
is preferable. When salt is used the coarse common salt is better
than the refined salt. The salt water can hardly be too salt; even
a saturated solution would not injure the figs.
First fill the perforated bucket with figs, and by means of the lever
rinse the figs by immersing them for a few seconds in the cold, fresh
running water. Lift the bucket, and immediately after the greater
quantity of water has drained off immerse it again in the boiling water
for a few seconds. Then empty the figs on wire-screen frames placed
a few inches above the fioor and allo-.v them to drain there for several
PACKING FIGS. 193
hours. While draining, the figs should be covered with a cloth or
otherwise be kept dark. Figs dipped in the morning should be packed
the same day. Those dipped in the evening should be packed early
the next morning. Black figs are less apt to be discolored than white
ones. The very finest white figs need dipping only in cold salt water.
The salt in the water should not be rinsed away, as it contributes to
the flavor of the fig and brings out the sweetness. It also tends to
keep the fig moist.
ASSORTING THE FIGS.
As has been indicated, the assorting or grading of the figs should
begin when they are exposed for drying. The spoiled figs are removed
daily. At least three grades and sizes should be made. All the good
figs should be separated into at least two sizes, the poor ones of any size
forming a third grade not suitable for packing. The size of the figs
of each grade can not be stated, as it depends entirely on the variety
of the figs, but in every variety of figs there are at least two sizes, and
among Smyrna figs there are four or more sizes. All figs which are
not sufficiently soft and of good color and attractive in appearance
should be at once consigned to the basket for the lowest grades. Figs
which, on account of being sour, show a peculiar softness in the cen-
ter, and which when pressed causes the pulp to exude, should never
be allowed to go in among good figs. Any buyer who chances on such
a fig is certain to condemn the box and is not likely to invest again.
Softness and color of skin, consistency of pulp, and size are the four
points to be judged in assorting.
The best class of Smyrna figs weigh about 22 to 23 grams each ; the
average Italian and French figs weigh only 7 to 8 grams, or about two-
thirds less. ,
"T PULLING.
As soon as dipped and drained, the figs should be "pulled" or
worked preparatory to being packed. The "pulling" consists in
squeezing and pressing the fig by hand, arid is more or less compli-
cated and expensive. This pulling greatly improves the appearance
and the actual quality of the figs, making them soft and tender.
While pulling the figs, the hands of the worker should always be moist
with salt water. This prevents the sugar sticking to the hand, im-
proves the figs, and makes the work easier. Figs may be either pulled
"flat" or "square." Flat pulling is used for very large figs,^ making
them appear larger than they are and causing them to present their
best part to the buyer. The fig, held with the eye downward and the
stalk inward by the thumb and forefinger of each hand, is gently and
gradually pressed, and by repeatedly moving the forefinger on the
under or eye side of the fig, the upper side is pushed outward and for-
ward. At the same time the fig edges are flattened out and pulled cir-
194 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
cular. When finished, the fig forms a flat disk, the eye being exactly
in the center on the under side and the stalk in the center on the
upper or opposite side. In order to make the fig larger j^et, the part
just between the stalk and the periphery of the fig is split by the
thumb nail, which of course causes the fig to spread out in front.
This, however, should be done only in extra fancy packing, and really
does not improve the fig, though such split figs pack more easily and
appear larger. Figs pulled in this way present their finest surface on
one side, the coarse and hard part around the eye being hidden. The
skin around the stalk end is always the finest and handsomest part of
the fig, presenting a semi transparent and beautifully streaked skin,
contrasting greatly with the opaque zone around the eye. The only
method by which this fine part may be properly presented to view is
by the above-described "flat-' pulling.
The *' square" pulling maybe either very simple or may require
considerable experience and skill. The finest figs in Smyrna are the
"locoum" figs, which are not flattened out, but which are worked
into little cubes or bags, each fig being first squeezed in the hand.
Then the sides are pushed slightly inward, the front being left blunt,
the upper and under surface flat, but the stalk end is slightly pressed
in and the stalk bent down. All this manipulation simply tends to
give to the fig the form of a cube. A less expensive pulling is used for
common grades. It simplj'^ consists of squeezing the figs repeatedly,
both hands being separately occupied. The figs are not shaped, but
only made soft.
PACKING.
The packing should be regulated according to the quality of the
figs. The Smyrna way of packing the best figs in ' * bars " can hardly be
improved. Each box contains three or more such bars, parallel to one
another, and so well packed that each bar may be lifted out separately
without disturbing the other two in the same box. What is accom-
plished with great skill and practice in Smyrna may be performed
here by the aid of a small mechanical contrivance called the ''^ guide."
This guide consists of several parallel strips of tin of the exact length
of the interior of the box and fastened to two other pieces of tin also
parallel, but at right angles to the first one, and one at each end.
These cross pieces are to be of the exact inside width of the fig box.
The height of these four pieces constituting the guide is to be about
one-half inch greater than the box. The use of this guide is easily
understood. When placed in the empty fig box before packing it
divides the box into three (or more if wanted) equal longitudinal com-
partments, each made to hold one bar, consisting of several or many
layers of figs. The width of each compartment must be made to cor-
respond to the width of each fig when prepared, ready to be packed.
For diff'erent sizes of figs diff'erent guides are required, and of course
PACKING FIGS.
195
different guides are also made for different sizes of boxes. The sim-
plicity and convenience of this guide is evident. No matter what size
of box and how many rows of bars are required to fill it, a guide may
be made that will readily fit.
The process of packing "flat" figs is as follows: The guide is
dropped in the box. A flat fig is then placed at the further end of
the left compartment, with the *' eye " face downward and the '' stalk"
end toward the packer. Another fig is placed partly on the top and
partly behind this first fig in such a way that the front margin of the
second fig just covers the center of the first fig, thus hiding the stalk.
In this way the figs are thatched, or packed shingle fashion. The last
fig in the row or bar must be partly folded upon itself, the stalk end
being bent downward in order to fit the straight
face of the box. If any one of the figs is a trifle
too wide, the sides may be pushed together and
made to fit the compartment. Care should be
taken never to place too small a fig in a compart-
ment. The next layer of the bar is packed in the
same way, except that the box is turned around or
the figs are otherwise packed so that their stalk
ends point in the opposite direction from those in
the first row; and so on, layer upon layer, until
the compartment is full. If it is desirable that
the box should be faced similarly on both sides,
so as to present the same appearance if opened at
either top or bottom, a slightly different method is
required. In this case a guide is u^ed which is
about one-half as high as the box. A block or
'' follower " the size of the interior of the box, but
only one-half as deep, is first slipped into the box,
which should in this case be merely a frame, with-
out bottom or top. On this follower is placed the
guide, and the packing proceeds as previously
described. When the last face is made the top
cover is nailed on securely. The box is now turned over, the follower
removed, the guide raised, and the other side packed the same as in
the first in^ance. It is in some respects better to have only one guide,
slightly higher than the box, and instead of one follower for the whole
box, use one small follower for each compartment. The frame of the
box is first placed on a loose drawboard, the guide is slipped down,
then a follower in each compartment of the guide, after which the
packing begins. After the cover is nailed on the box is turned over,
the drawboard removed, each follower lifted out, and the box finished
just like the other side. The followers should be covered with zinc,
in order that they may be readily washed.
In packing square figs guides may be used or not. Guides may be
Fig. 30.— California
dried-fruit press.
196
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
made round or square or any shape required, their object being simply
to keep the layers distinctly separate. For common packing, shallow
guides may be made for simple '* facing." Facing consists of placing
rows of figs in a certain harmonious order at top and bottom of a box
not otherwise packed with bars or rows. Even lower grades of figs
which are simply dumped into the boxes may thus be faced to great
advantage and with small cost.
4
pressing.
The final process in packing figs consists in more or less forcibly
pressing the pack. This should be done with all figs except the best,
which are so thin
skinned, pulpy, and
delicate that the
weight of one box
on top of the other,
to the height of seven
or eight, is sufficient
to press the figs se-
curely in the boxes.
And even with these,
the best figs, a mod-
erate pressure by
means of a press
adapted to the i)ur-
pose secures a quick-
er and more even
work than the old
Asiatic way of sim-
ply allowing the figs
to press themselves.
In order to secure
this steady and regulated pressure there is no better machine made
than the so-called '* raisin " press (fig. 31). With this easily regulated
lever press the slight*est as well as the heaviest desirable pressure can
be brought on the pack, according to the quality of the figs.
The final process is as follows: The guide being in the box, the bot-
tom (or top) is nailed on. The pack reaches slightly above the box,
even or almost even with the top of the guide. A follower is first put
over each compartment of the guide and the box, placed in the press,
is given a slight pressure. This has the effect of compressing each bar
of figs separately. This first pressing should be heavy enough to
bring the figs to a level with the top of the box. After the boxes have
been left under the^press levers for a few minutes they are removed
and the guide is lifted from each box. This is readily done by placing
Pig. 31.— California raisin and fig press.
PACKING FIGS.
197
the fingers on the followers and pressing them gently, while the other
hand loosens the guide and finally lifts it out. The figs will have pre-
served the regularity with which they were packed and the line divi-
sion between the bars kept straight and sharp and so perfect that a
flat table knife may be drawn through the line without cutting the
figs. This whole operation is quickly performed, and requires less
time to be carried out than to be described. The pressing of other
figs, packed with or without guides, in square, oblong, or round boxes,
is accomplished in the same manner, easily modified to suit dif-
ferent requirements. In
the case of round boxes
round followers must of
course be used.
If the pressure brought
on the figs is very great
the boxes may give and
open while in the press.
To avoid this there may
be used a guard of galva-
nized iron of such size as
to snugly fit the box on
the outside, the height of
the guard being, how-
ever, half an inch less
than the box. The guard
should not have a solid
bottom, but one open in
the center, a flange ex-
tending for half an inch
along the sides being suf-
ficient. This is done in
order that the box may be
pushed out if pressed too
tightly into the guard. If the boxes are strong and well made, even
this flange may be dispensed with, the guard then taking the form of
a single band fitting outside the fig box.
After the guide has been lifted a final pressure may or may not be
needed in order to allow the nailing on of the covers. The objects of
[)ressing the figs are several. First, the necessity of having the pack
solid, then to prevent evaporation and the drying out of the figs, etc.
Smyrna figs are packed with pieces of sweet bay or laurel {Laurus
nobilis) stuck here and there among the top layers. The aromatic
smell of these leaves adds to the flavor of the figs and to the appear-
ance of the box. The wild laurel (Oreodaphne calif ornica), which is
yet more aromatic and pungent, answers the purpose equally well.
FiQ. 3i2.— Green-fruit press in use in the United States.
198 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
In California the growers are now packing the figs in 5 and 10
pound boxes. Instead of bars the figs are packed in slightly oblong
blocks of 1 pound each. Each such fig block is wrapped separately
in paraffin paper, and in some instances tied with a colored ribbon.
Five or ten such blocks are placed in one box. This packing, while
now much in use, is not to be recommended, as it hides the figs and
the buyer does not know what he gets. The idea of packing the figs
in blocks of 1 pound each is, however, an excellent one for small figs,
but the largest figs could hardly be accommodated to such small
blocks.
CHAFl ER XIII.
SHIPPING FRESH FIGS.
Fresh figs are hardly known outside of the districts where they are
grown, though few fruics are more relished when once introduced. In
the large centers of population in -England and France fresh figs are
counted among the indispensable luxuries, and many people are
engaged in cultivating them for the market, either in hothouses or in
the open air. Before rapid transportation became possible fresh figs
could not be shipped any distance from the place where grown. Now
figs may be sent 300 or 400 miles if properly packed. When the sys-
tem of packing is better understood, and when special cars are devoted
to transporting fresh figs, it will be possible to send them fresh and
in good condition much greater distances without much risk or loss.
There are two points to be kept in view in sending fresh figs. The
figs must be picked when fully ripe, but before they have begun to
shrivel, and they must not touch one another in the box. The best
time to pick the fruit is an hour or two after sunrise, when all the dew
has dried away. Figs picked when a light dry wind is blowing will
keep longer. Only perfect figs should be used, and as nearly as pos-
sible all should be of the same size, with no small figs mixed in. It
will not pay to ship anything but the largest size of the best varieties.
No uniform grade of boxes is possible, as each grade must depend upon
the size of the figs and their shape and variety. The boxes should
not weigh over 10 pounds, while 5-pound boxes would be even better.
The ends should be of three-fourths, the bottom of one-half, and the
sides and top of one-fourth inch boards. There should be an open
crack between the pieces of the bottom and top, and the sides should
have an open space of one- fourth of an inch at top and l)ottom. The
boxes should be only deep enough to hold one layer of figs if the
variety is tender, but if thick skinned it might hold two layers.
In order to keep the figs from crowding one another long strips of
paper are used. Any stiff white or brown paper will do. These strips
are as long as the box and about twice as wide as the fig. The strip is
folded lengthwise before being placed in the box. When in position,
. half of the folded strip will rest on the bottom of the box, while the
other half will stand up at right angles. In the angle between the two
the figs are placed one by one in a single row, thus resting on the bot-
199
23740— No. 9—01 14
200 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
torn part of the strip, while the upright part separates two rows.
Fresh fig leaves may be used in the same way, but are not quite so
handy, though if properly placed they give a tasteful appearance to
the box.
Salicylic-acid paper and wax paper have also been recommended.
The latter is less useful than the former, as it excludes the air. Sali-
cylic paper aids in preserving the figs, and is cheap and practical. It
may be used instead of common paper, or the common paper may be
turned into salicylic paper by being sprinkled with a solution of sali-
cylic acid in alcohol, in proportion of 1 pound of acid to 10 gallons of
alcohol.
But figs may be successfully shipped long distances by simply being
packed in boxes without paper or leaves, the number of layers always
to depend on the quality of the fig; but it is safe to say that even the
most thick-skinned figs should preferably be placed only two layers
deep, while very delicate figs should be packed in one layer only.
CHAPTER XIV.
HOW TO DESCRIBE FIGS.
NAMES.
In noting the names of figs in the following catalogue the writer has
adopted the plan of first using the name under which he has found
the fig best and most correctly described, or the name given in
the locality where the fig is principallj'^ cultivated. The first name
is thus that under which the fig is best known. All the subsequent
names printed in other type are synonyms or names for the same vari-
ety used elsewhere. The words within parentheses either indicate
the localitj^ where grown or the author of the description. If there
be doubt as to which, a reference to the published list will clear the
doubt. Names have not been translated except in a few instances
where the cultivation of the fig in English-speaking countries war-
rants the use of an English name. Much harm and confusion have
been caused by citations of only translated names, and if this custom,
so often employed by theoretical writers, should be adopted, the final
object of identification of all fig varieties suited to and valuable for
cultivation would be lost. In some instances where the pronuncia-
tion of the foreign name is especially difficult to English readers, the
translated name has been given preference, with the foreign name
following in different type as synonym.
French or other names which begin with the article De la, etc., are
arranged under their principal name. Thus the variety called De
I'Archipel is found under Archipel, etc. As much as possible, such
epithets as white, black, red, round, and long have been discarded,
as they would too widely separate nearly related varieties in the cata-
logue. For instance. White and Long Verdal are placed under the
heading of Verdal, Long, etc., thus enabling the reader to compare
the description of thie respective varieties more readily.
VALUE OF VARIETIES.
The list of names of figs and their descriptions are given for two dis-
tinct reasons. The first reason is that we may learn of the figs
grown in foreign countries, where fig culture has been successfully
carried on for two thousand years or more, while our own fig culture
dates back only forty years. Many growers constantly cry out that
fig culture is not a success in California and that figs do not do as
well here as in the old countries. In answer to this, the writer begs
to point to the long list of fig varieties known, which at least proves
that a large number of varieties is required in order to insure this suc-
201
202 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
cess in foreign countries, and, furthermore, clearly establishes the fact
that a fig which is eminently successful in one locality is as glaringly
a failure in another country not so very far away. How, then, can we
judge as to the suitability of any locality to the culture of the fig,
with hardly a dozen varieties generally distributed and grown to select
from, and with the erroneous idea commonly accepted that this coun-
try already cultivates among that dozen all the best varieties of the
Old World? Among the hundreds of varieties of value grown in the
Mediterranean districts, some will no doubt be found to succeed in
the Pacific States and ijrove valuable. But our true success will in
time be based on our ability to originate new varieties suited to our
conditions, which in many respects are very dissimilar to those of the
fig countries of the Old World. This will not be done until the capri-
fig and the Blastophaga have been well established here, when acci-
dental seedlings will pave the way for more scientific and intelligent
efforts to produce what we so much require — varieties suited to locali-
ties where the figs are to be grown.
Another object of this catalogue is to enable our growers, to some
extent at least, to identify such varieties as they now grow under ficti-
tious or wrong names. For many of these varieties the writer has
been unable to procure descriptions; others are only imperfectly
known — a defect which it is hoped will be corrected in time.
DESCRIBING THE VARIETIES.
Even in the best horticultural books figs have had little attention
and have been insufficiently described. This is especially apparent
in French books on horticulture, which is the more strange, as France
is the country where more care is bestowed on fig culture and fruit
culture generally than anywhere else. All late French authors have
copied descriptions given by the older ones, without critical research
and comparison; the nurserymen in their turn have copied from one
another, and no one has apparently even attempted to describe a fig
so that it could be reasonably well recognized. The great number of
varieties and their distribution in widely separate countries have made
comparisons veiy difficult. In order to remedy this a type collection
of figs has been established at Niles, Cal., where about 130 varieties
are now growing and in bearing. Some seventy-odd and mostly new
varieties have been added lately by courtesy of the Secretary of Agri-
culture. In properly describing a fig it is not sufficient to give size,
shape, and color, as is so generally done, as there are scores of varie-
ties in which these qualities are exactly similar, but which differ essen-
tially in other points. A fig to be properly described must have all
the following points mentioned and the same order of description must
be followed, so that a comparison maybe readily made with other
varieties. The description should begin with the most apparent char-
acteristics and end with those less readily seen. The following are
the principal features of the i\ix, hikI in describing these even the
sow TO DESCRIBE FIGS. 203
experienced horticulturist would do well to use this list as a check
list, taking up one cliaracter at a time in the same order of succession
in which thej^ follow one another here: Crop, size, shape, neck, stalk,
ribs, eye, iris, skin, color, pulp, meat, j^rowth of tree, branches, leaves,
quality, soils.
If any one of these points is not touched upon the description must
be considered defective, though it may still be possible to recognize
the variety, provided it possesses some very predominant character-
istic which readily distinguishes it from other figs. For students or
horticulturists who examine many varieties a blank is recommended
with the above headings, each on a separate line, ready to be filled out.
In order that the descriptions may be fully understood it will be
necessary to consider each heading separately.
Crop. — It is always necessary to mention first how many crops the
fig tree matures, and then describe each crop separately if both are
of importance. If in the following no particular crop is mentioned,
the description always refers to the second crop. In copying descrip-
tions of figs from Northern authors we can be almost certain that the
first crop is referred to, provided the figs have been grown out of
doors, and generally so even if cultivated under glass, as figs suitable
for such purpose are generally, though not always, those which mature
a first crop.
Size. — Roughly estimated, the size might be indicated as '* small,"
' ' medium, " or * ' large. " I would consider all 1 inch or less in diameter
as "small;" those between 1 and 2 inches as "medium," and those
above 2 inches as ' ' large. " An average fig should be taken, one neither
too large nor too small. The measurement should be made from the
neck to the eye, or, to be more accurate, from the junction of the stalk
and neck to the eye. For ' ' width " the greatest diameter at right angles
to the former should always be given, and in order to indicate the
exact shape it is necessary to state whether the greatest width is at
the center, below the center, or at the apex. To English readers the
English inch is the most common measure, continental writers using
the centimeter only. A scale of reference showing the relation between
these two measures is appended (fig. 33).
INCHEIS-^O
CEINTI—
MLTEBS-M)
8 9
Fio. 33.— Diasrram for comiMrison of inches and centimeters. (1 inch»8.54+ centimeters; 1 cen-
timeter =0.39+ inch.)
Shape. — If the greatest width is at the center, the shape is called
* ' ovoid " or " egg-shaped ; " if between the center and the apex (or eye).
204 THE fig: its history, culture, and OtTRIKG.
the fig is "pear-shaped" or ''turbinate," with rounded top; if at the
apex, the fig is *' bell-shaped," and if the apex or surface around the
eye is flattened out, the fig may be called "obtuse," or flattened at
apex like an onion. The shape of figs maj'^ be classified under two
heads, round or oblong. " Round " figs are those in which both diame-
ters are of the same length or in which the width is greater than the
length from stalk to eye. ' ' Oblong " or " turbinate " figs are all whose
length is decidedly greater than the width. The length of the respec-
tive diameters enables the fig to be divided into two general classes,
the characteristics of which are fairly constant. A better expression
for a round fig would be globular, but as the word "round" has been
generally adopted by other writers, no change has been made.
Neck. — The neck of the fig is the part situated nearest to the stalk.
The neck may be ' ' none " or * ' absent ; " " no neck " if the fig is entirely
globular; or it may be " short " if about one-fourth the long diameter
of the fig; "medium" is above that, but not reaching one-half the
length of the long diameter of the fig, and "long" if above half the
length of the fig. The neck must not be confounded with the stalk, as
is often done. The neck is part of the main body of the fig; the stalk
is the part outside of the fig proper, which connects the fig with the
branch on which it is suspended. The neck may be " well set" if it is
considerably narrower than the body of the fig, or it may be " gradu-
ally tapering " to the stalk; or it may be "very thin," " slender," or
"compressed sideways," all of these expressions being readily under-
stood. (See fig. 34.)
Stalk, — The stalk connects the neck or body of the fig with the
branch upon which it is suspended, and should never be considered
in the measurement of the fig. It is of greatest importance to know
the average length of the stalk, as it varies much with different varie-
ties, being "short," "medium," "long," or "very long." The same
expression is used in regard to the neck. The stalk may be " rounded,"
"flat," "three-cornered," etc., all points which should be noted in
describing a fig. The length of the stalk varies to some extent in the
same variety, and care must be taken to give a true average or to note
any unusual.variatiou in length, thickness, etc. It is also of impor-
tance to note whether the stalk breaks off readily from the branch or
must be cut off when the fig is ripe. (See fig. 34.)
iJifts.— The ribs are longitudinal ridges running from stalk to eye.
They may be confined to the neck, to the body of the fig, or may
extend to the eye. They are higher or lower, or take the shape of
mere lines, generally colored darker. They may branch, or higher
ribs may alternate with lower ones, or they may partly dissolve them-
selves into warts. Some figs possess no trace of ribs; in others the
ribs fade out or fuse at eye or neck. (See fig. 34.)
Eye. — The eye is the opening in the broad end or apex of the fig.
It may be "closed" or "open," and there are various degrees of
HOW TO DESCRIBE FIGS.
205
openness. The eye maybe "sunk" if below the surface of the fig; it
may be on a level with that surface, or it may be ''protruding." In
such cases it is generally surrounded by an elevated ridge, like a
crater. The "iris" is a colored zone surrounding the scales of the
eye, situated between them and the elevated ridge. It is not iden-
tical with the ridge itself. Some writers refer to the eye as the
' * mouth " of the fig or the * ' ostiolum. " (See fig. 34. )
Scales. — The scales closing the eye are either "few" or "many,"
"broad" or "narrow," "colored" or "pale," "margined" or "uni-
form" in color. They are "flat," or they may stand out upright, or
may even greatly protrude.
Sifem.— The skin is "smooth," "warty," "rough," "hairy" or
"downy," "glossy," "waxy," etc., all these expressions being readily
-StaTk
Cheeks
'Bje
Fig. 34.— Brunswick fig. ninstrating the various parts of a fig.
understood. It may be dotted over with light specks or large spots.
It may be "thick" or "thin," adhering to the meat or readily sepa-
rated. The skin may also be "tough" or "tender," and finally it
may crack at maturity in longitudinal or in transverse lines, deep
enough to show the meat underneath. This cracking of the skin
must, of course, not be confounded with the cracking or splitting open
of the fig under unfavorable conditions.
Color, — The color should be given, separately, if necessary, both
for neck, body, and apex, eye, iris, scales, for shaded side or for the
side exposed to the sun. The fig varies considerably in color. For
instance, the Adriatics grown in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay
always retain a green or bluish-green color, while in the interior they
206 THE ^ig: its history, culture, and curikg.
often turn bright golden yellow, etc. This variation in color is the
greatest obstacle to a proper description of the fig, and it is therefore
of importance to ^Iways state where the description was made.
Pidjp and meat — The pulp is the inner soft part of the fig surround-
ing the seeds. Between the pulp and the skin is found the meat.
While the pulp is often red, the meat is rarely so, though it is often
streaked red or violet. The pulp may be *' white," "yellow," "red,"
"purple," "opaline," "rose," "streaked," etc., and maybe "coarse"
or "fine." The pulp and the meat should never be confounded, but
mentioned separately.
Seeds. — The seeds are either ' ' large " or " small, " * ' few " or " many " —
relative terms, of course, but terms which may be used to great advan-
tage. The size of the seeds of the imported Smyrna figs may be con-
sidered as a standard with which to compare others.
Qrowth, — The growth of the tree may be "strong" or "weak,"
"upright," with many or few branches, or with drooping branches,
etc. The leaves are either "large" or "small," "entire" or "deeply
lobed," "dark" or "light," "glossy" or "hairy," "regular" or "lop-
sided." The lobes are either 3, 5, or 9 in number, or the margin may
be "entire." They may be "acute," " pointed," "rounded," "obtuse,"
"cuneate," "wavy," or "smooth." As the leaves vary on each tree,
an average leaf adjoining a fig should always be taken as a model for
description. Finally, it should be stated whether the stalk of the
leaf is unusually "short" or "long," "dark" or "light. "
CHAPTER XV.
CATAIiOaXJE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS, INCLUDING SMTBNA
FIGS AND CAPBIFIGS.
In the following catalogue the names of figs printed in black-face
type are those which stand as distinct varieties. Those printed in
italics are synonymous with others, and should be looked for under
the respective names given immediately following. Where more
than one name is known the most desirable name is that given at
the beginning of the line, while the names in italics following are
less-known ones. Names within parentheses indicate the locality
where grown. For instance, Brayasque (Provence) indicates that
the name is used in Provence, France. Ficus sylvestris var. festina-
tissima, Geny, indicates that Geny is the author who named the
variety. The word ''variety" is abbreviat'Cd to "var."
Most of the descriptions are based upon examination of figs grown
in California, especially at Niles, where are found the United States
Government collection and the private collection of Mr. John Rock.
Some descriptions have been taken from foreign works on figs, but
only in cases when the variety has not been seen by the author.
Abakour amellal. — A white fig, the name meaning early white; extensively grown
in Eabylia. Two crops.
Abakour aberkan. — A black fig from Eabylia. Bears many and very good first-
crop figs called '*bakonr." The word means early black.
Abelr'endjour.— A black fig from Kabylia which does not require caprification.
Aberzigzaou. — A white fig from Kabylia.
A bois et fruit Jasp^ — Jasper.
A hois Jospe— Jasper.
Abondance—FRANCUE Paillard.
Abondance,— Said to be another name for Versailles.
Abouh'archaou.— A white fig from Kabylia. Is not caprified.
Aboulil.— A white fig from Kabylia. Produces two crops.
Abouremman.— A black fig from Kabylia. Does not require caprification.
Abouzouggar.— A white fig from Kabylia. Requires caprification.
Adam.— Size medium, roundish turbinate, or flattened at apex, with short or no
neck, which when present is distinct. Eye rough, with distinct iris. Scales
rosy amber. Skin with distinct, shallow ribs, yellowish, with dingy brown
flesh, dull, not waxy. Pulp dull amber to red. Meat thick, slightly rosy.
Quality medium, bat a very handsome fig when grown well. Leaves small,
five-lobed, shallow, crenated, 6 inches long by 7 inches wide. Two crops.
First crop above medium, turbinate, about 3 inches long by 2 inches wide.
Neck medium to large. Stalk small. Eye large, with brown, protruding
scales. Color of skin dull green, witn a violet flush along the ribs and on the
sunny side. Meat yellow. Pulp amber- white, with brown streaks.
A very handsome as well as good fig, desirable on account of its brebas.
The second crop is less desirable. The first crop is excellent around Niles, Cal.
207
208 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Adriatic— (rrosse Verte; Netnan; Nvbian (?); FicodiFragola; Strawberry Fig; Ver-
done (Rome); White Adriatic; Parker^s Smyrna; Delamater^s (California). —
Size above medium ; shape v ari able, more or less rounded turbinate ; the first crop
more round than the second crop. Neck medium, stalk short. Ribs obscure.
Eye open, with red iris. Skin very thin, greenish in shade, in sunlight bright
greenish-yellow or yellow, according to locality where grown. Pulp bright
strawberry red or in some localities violet-dark red with violet streaks in the
whitish meat. A good and strong grower with large, shady, round head.
Leaves deeply 5-lobed, oblong, bright, glossy green. Two crops. The first
crop drops or if it stays is small and of x>oor quality, and ripens frequently
with the second crop. If caprificated the first crop matures and becomes of
very good quality. (PI. XIV.) Extensively' planted in California. Should
never be planted extensively except where it is known to do weU.
A fig of varying qualities, according to the locality where grown. Prefers
rich, alluvial soil, not too moist. Most excellent at At water and in the vicin-
ity of Niles, and in many other localities in California. Better in the foot-
hills than on the interior plains. In wet places the fig bursts and sours badly.
In localities where the fig does well it must be considered as one of our very
best figs. It is not identical with the fig known as Adriatic in Italy. The
three names under which it nas been known in California were given by
growers who desired to sell young trees or cuttiugs. It was introduced into
California from Italy by very early settlers in the fifties, one of the first trees
being planted at Big Oak Flat, in the Sierra Nevada foothills. In most local-
ities this variety will be superseded by better kinds.
Agen — Grosse du Draguignan. — Medium, rounded turbinate, fiattened at apex;
skin thin, green with a brownish tint; a deep brown chocolate with mixed
green around the apex. Eye open, iris reddish brown. Pulp dark red, very
sirupy and sweet. One of the beet figs, where it does well. Should be tried
everywhere. Ripens very late. Requires caprification at Niles.
Ajenjar. — A black fig from Kabylia. Bears two crops.
Albi primaticci — Albo.
AUncello — Albo.
Alhicougris — Bordeaux.
Albo — Bianchetta; Biancoletta (Porta) ; AUnprimaticd; Ficus carica var. luteus
Aldr.; Albicdlo (Toscana); Mattaro (Lunigiana); Fieo Dorato (Altrepo
Pavese); Biancolini (Milan); Fichid' Oro (Piacentino); Moscadello (Como);
Ficozentil (Verona) ; Gentile (Bologna).— Size 2i by 2} inches or over. Shape
round-obtuse, and flattened at apex. Largest diameter at apex or below cen-
ter, no neck, stalk medium. Rios in mature fruit indistinct. Eye medium,
open, scales large, amber-rose. Meat white, pulp amber with a few large
seeds. Skin bright yellow, more so than in most jther figs, not excluding the
Gentile. Leaves large, 3 to 5 lobed, much longer than wide, the end lobe
being pointed, margins wavy, surface quite hairy or pubescent, more so than
most other varieties. Growth of tree medium. Two crops, the brebas being
larger and more flattened than t h e BB y ! ?0ii ff'6rop./ One of the best Italian 'figs,
generally cultivated all over that country, and only inferior in quality to
PissALUTTO and Dottato. Prefers moist and rich soils, and especially si^dy
loams. It is the cherished fig in the markets of Pavia and Milaiio, where it is
sold under name of Biancolini or Moscadello, (Fig. 35.)
Albo Master.— A white Italian fig.
Amarouna — Amaroun; Ficus aniara (Risso); Fictis dylo var. amanda, Geny;
Bitter skin.— Medium, 2 inches long, pyriform; skin reddish brown mixed
with green. Very bitter when cracked. Pulp red. (Sept. to Oct.) Nice
and Provence.
Amaroun — Amarouna.
Ang^lique—Courcourelle blanche; Angelique blanche; Melette; La Melette (Roz.)
according to Dnhamel.— Medium, If by 1 inch, pyriform, longer than wide, ribs
prominent; color yellowish white with long greenish spots. Pulp white, in
center fairly rose. Leaves 5-lobed, crenate, lobes pointed. A good fig of fine
fiavor. Paris and Provence.
^wgreZigue— ANotLiQUE Jaune.
Angelique blanche — Angelique.
Angitlique J &uji^— Yellow A7igelique; Angeliqv£ (Thomaa RiveTB & Soa) ; Ven-
dome. — Two crops resembling each other. Fruit large, pyriform, about 3
inches long by 1 i inches to 2^ inches wide, variable in size and form. Neck
distinct, with small or no stalk. Eye small or medium, open, with amber
scales and no iris. Skin smooth, of a greenish-yellow to deep sea-green color,
with scattered lighter specks. Many distinct but shallow ribs. A faint gray
'Bui. 9, Div, of Pomology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.
Plate XIV.
Caprificated first Crop Adriatic Fig, Niles, Cal., June, 1901.
/^o^'-^^X
■i-y
CATALOGUE AND BESCRll^TlON OF FIGS.
209
bloom bet\\een the ribs at ths stalk end. Pulp varying from deep brownish
amber to deep violet-brown amber, sometimes distinctly rosy. Meat greenish
white. Pulp line, juicy, sugary, and sirapy, but with little flavor. Leaves
large, entire or trilobate, in which case the lobes are ahfillow. Tree a strong,
handsome grower, with a dense crown and upright limbs. A most valuable
fig and one of the best at Niles. The description is made from figs ripe Octo-
ber 8. This variety is distinct from Angelique, from which it differs in the
size and form of the fruit, its deeper flesh or pulp, its larger and more entire
leaves. This will probably prove a tine table fig , superior to the Adriatic. Hogg
does not mention this fig, his description referring to the Angelique proper.
These two figs can not be considered as nearly related varieties, but are quite
distinct. The ^g described above was originally received from Thomas Riv-
ers & Son under the name of Angelique. The identification is made from
descriptions of Angelique Jaune by French nurserymen. (Fig. 36.)
Angelique Noire.— Size below medium, roundish or oblate, skin dark, flesh bright
red, rich. Strong grower and moderate cropper. (Barron.)
Anouhalal.— A black fig from Kabylia.
ilppZe^gr— San Pedro, White.
Ar^anim. — A white fig from Kabylia. Does not re<iuire caprification.
Ar'anim aberkan.— A black fig from Kabylia.
Pio. a5.— Albo fig.
Arbal. — Fruit medium pyriform, about 2 inches long by 1^ wide, tapering from
the equator. Ribs many, indistinct, and irregular. Stalk very short, or none.
Eye small , open , with small violet scales. Skin rather rough and downy. Color
of skin olive green, mottled, and flushed with violet brown. Pulp dean amber
with brown flnsh , fine and j uicy . Meat white. Inner scales of ey e rosy red. A
fine, highly-flavored fig of insignificant appearance. Tree medium grower.
Leaves medium or below, 5-lobed.
Arhauda — Rubado.
^rbicowe— San Pedro, Black.
Archipel — De VArchipeL — Large obovate, variable in size and shape, 2| by If
inches or 2^ by 2i inches; neck short, but sharply set off. Ribs indistinct or
indicated by lines. Eye flat, small, closed by pink amber scales surrounded by
a rough iris. Skin smooth, especially around the eye. < olor, olive green to
reddish purple, mottled all over with minute, round, and larger oblong gray
spots; near the stalk end the color is light olive green. Pulp tender, very pale
or white opaline- amber: very fine, with small seeds. Meat white. Now and
then there is a rosy fiber ivjjthe pulp. A very tender fig. but not h ghly flavored.
Leaves medium to small; 8-lobed, deep green, rather glossy. According to
English authors the color is more chestnut brown. First crop: Large, obo-
vate, 3^ inches long by. 2 inches wide. Ribs indistinct, outlined by violet
streaks. Ntpk short and gradual. Stalk very short. Eye smalt with white,
small scales closing the opening; a lighter co'ored iris. Pulp and meat whit-
ish amber. A sweet and juicy fig, without much distinct flavor, but of good
y- •••
210
THK FIC4: TTrt HISTORY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
taste. The skin is thin and cracks open readily at maturity. The first crop
is a valuable and desirable one at Niles, Cal. One of the figs imported through
the United States Department of Agriculture. Second crop.
JLrgf^'niewiZ— Dauphine.
Argusela—DovquEiRA Negra.
Ashridge Forcing— Browv Turkey.
Ftg. 36.— Anfi:61ique Jaune fig.
Athhnea—Figue d'Athenes; D'Athenes; Blanche d'AtMnes; Marseillaise; Mar-
seillasa; Burnham's Smyrna; Ficus marsiliensis Garidel. — Small, roundish,
or turbinate, If inches in diameter, with indistinct ribs at the stalk, depressed
at apex. Skin rou^h, color whitish, flushed with yellow and green, no bloom.
Pulp pale-red, opaline toward the stal : ; very sweet but not highly flavored.
One of the best drying figs of good drying and keeping qualities. This fig is
distinct from the White Marseillaise, which possesses white or amber -colored
pulp, and which is also an equally fine fig for drying. Cultivated in
Provence around Marseilles, Nice, etc.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 211
A Tree rccoZ^e— Possibly the same as Trifebo.
Atwater.— Length abont 2^ inches, width abont 2| inches, of average large fruit.
Stalk and neck very short; fruit flattened or sometimes slight y turbinate, with
broad and indistinct ribs from stalk end, which in the zone of the eye become
more numerous, narrower, and quite distinct to very distinct. Cheeks uneFen,
swollen, and somewhat angular. Slight bluish bloom. Skin very waxy,, of a
yellowish-green color, somewhat streaked yellow and green, the yellow pre-
dominating around stalk and eye; few white specks. Eye large, or very
large, open scales protruding, of a brown color edged dingy white. Eye,
except scales, rather flat or even sunk. Meat yellowish white, very thick or
wider— indeed, in some figs thicker— than the pulp. Pulp, just before real
maturity, pinkish, but at full maturity amber white, transparent; in some figs
here and there flushed pink. First crop ripe by July 1, It is a very delicious
fig, resembling Peters White, but has less pink in the pulp, while the latter
has less vinous acid and is less flavored. Peters White is the superior ot* the
two varieties growing side by side in Merced County, Cal. Atwater ripens
about one week before Peters White. Second crop is much smaller, but sweet.
The true name is not known, the present one bemg provisional only.
Aubico Blanco — Tapa Cartin.
Avbiqu£—SAi!f Pedro, Black.
Aubi^y^ Blanche—T AFA Cartin.
Aubique Leroy — France.
Atibique iVbtre— San Pedro, Black.
Aubique VioletteSAN Pedro, Black.
Aubiquon—SAm Pedro, Black.
Aubran Blanc— France.
AuligtLo—SA^ Pedro, Black.
Avarcugo — France.
Azagour guilef. — A black fig from Kabylia. Does not require caprification.
The words mean hog's back.
Azaicht.— A black fig from Kabylia. Bears two crops of figs. Does not require
caprification.
5agras«a— MouRENAO.
Barbillanne—CoTiQ^ATHA,
BarbUlonne.— Size medium, rounded, 1^ by 1^ inches, no neck, stalk short; ribs
narrow, distinct wavy, especially on the cheeks; skin thin, rather wavy. E> e
small, open, but not elevated nor prominent. Scales small, black. Skin very
dark black, with violet reddish flesh and thin, violet bloom near the stalk.
Pulp coarse, amber-white; seeds rather large, but few. Meat white. A very
juicy fig grown at Argenteuil for Paris market. Leaves rather small, 5-
lobed. First crop: Large to medium, round turbinate to pyriform, variable
in size and form. About 3 inches long by 2^ inches wide. Ribs distinct. Eye
very large, with many large, protruding scales. Neck distinct to nose. Color
green, with a violet flush on the sunny side and on the apical part around the
eye. Pulp sweet and juicy, as well as highly flavored; of a pale amber, with
rosy streaks. Meat white, with rosy violet spots. Very fine brebas which can
be highly recommended. A good bearing fig. which should be grown for its
brebas, as the second crop is much inferior to the first crop. (Fig. 37.)
Bardakjik — White BardaJ^k; White Baltadjik; Bartadjic, — Large, oblong pyri-
form, with long stem and neck. Color beautiful sea green. One of the very
best of all figs. Grown extensively in the Smyrna district, where it is valued
higher than any other for eating fresh. Soft and flabby. Meat and pulp
blot)d red; when dried the ptilp becomes very dark. Skin is very thin and
delicate. It is one of the leading varieties for drying in the Aidin district.
(See Smyrna figs. p. 278.)
Bardakjik, Black— Barto/yifc; Black Bardakjik,— harge, oblong, pyriform, black.
A very fine table fig from Smyrna. Asia Minor, where, with the White Bardak-
jik, it is considered one of the very finest table figs. It will alsodry well. (See
Smyrna figs, p. 278.)
Bargenron.— About U by 1^ inches. Oblong or subrotund. Color pale violet
on yellow ground. Pulp red. A very late fig. Good flesh, as well as dry.
Requires dry soils.
Bamique.— South of France.
5ami8»ewca— Bernissenca.
Bamt8«engtie— Bernissenca.
5ami8«o^o— Barn issoTTE, Black.
^amissoffc— B A RNissoTTE, Black.
Bamissotte, Black. — Black Bamissotte: Barnisaoto; Bamissotte; Black Bovr-
gassotte; Bourjaasotte Noire: Broqiotto Nero: Brogiottofiorentino; Oroasoflqo:
Bellegrade; De Bellegarde (according to Hogg); Ficus bamissote, Tournefort
212 THE fig: its HISTaRY, CULTURE, AND CURING.
and Risso; FHcuserin. var, juctmda, Gteny; Ficus polymorpha Gusparini var.
ctepressa.— Medium, 1 1 to If inches by U long; broader than long, flattened at
apex, with no neck or very slight neck and rather uneven cheeks. Ribs distinct
and even, well protruding, but not as ranch so as in R aby Castle, but quite dis-
tinct from stalk to apex. Eye sunk, closed, with slightly protruding iris and
with a few large brown scales. Skin waxy, dull, not downy, of an even black
color with a violet flush and reddish hue in the shade. Bloom clear blue extend-
PiG. 37.~Barbillonne fig.
ing in a zone from the stalk halfway down to the apex, but sometimes contined
to the vicinity of the stalk. Meat pink, the interior of the stalk and neck bright
yellow. Pulp deep blood red. A very late fipr; September until frost. First
crop somewhat larger, skin rougher and pulp more yellowish. Rare. Leaves
3-lobed, almost entire with undulating margins of medium size densely cover-
ing the branches. A most excellent fier and one of the very finest for table.
Italy, southern France, Spain, etc. (Fig. 38.)
Barnissotte 5mric/ie— Babnissotte, White.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
213
Barnissotte Orise. ^Mediam to small. Rounded tnrbinate withont neck and witli
very short stalk. Ribs narrow and shallow. Skin waxy, of a sea-green color
mottled dark gray, with some bloom. Bye closed with rough iris. Pulp violet
red. Meat whitish, juicy, and sweet. Tree a strong grower, with rounded
head. Leaves small, 3-lobed.
Barnissotte, White—White Barnissotte; Bamissou Blanc; Bourjassotte Blanche
(France); Barnissotte Blanche; Brogiotto Bianco; Brogiotto Oenovese {Italy) ;
Bourgassotte; Bourgeassotte; Fums grandis Sanvaigo.— Second crop medium,
roundish turbinate, a little longer than the Black Barnissotte: ribs distinct
but few, neck very short, no stalk, obtuse at apex, with swollen cheeks; 2^
inches in diameter at the base; skin waxy, but not glossy, easily detaching
from the pulp: color green, evenly diffused. Eye large, sunk and closed; scales
large, unequal, of bright rose color, standing out. No iris. Pulp bright red,
very sweet and honey-like, refreshing. First crop very rare, observed and
described a few times only by Gallesio in 1816 and 1836. Earlier than the
Black Barnissotte. Leaves 3-lobed, almost entire. One of the largest fig trees,
said to have been introduced into Europe from Syria by the G^enoese during the
crusades. A most excellent fig for the table. France, Spain, and Italy, or
generally distributed along the Mediterranean. There appear to be two forms
of the fig, one much longer than the other. The variety described by Bernard
is given a length of U by If inches. The name may be applied properly only
to the short variety, which is only slightly longer than the Black Barnissotte.
First crop requires caprifir« ti on . ( Fies. 39. 40. )
Pio. 38.— Barnissotte, Black flg.
Bamissou BZanc— Barnissotte, White.
5arfa&;i&— Bardakjik, Black.
J5ar*flk^— Bardakjik.
Baysvxiter—BiiVNSVriCK.
Beaucaire — Figue Orise; Grisette: Celestine; OrisetteH&tive; Orayfig. — Two crops.
First crop: Fruit large, pyriform; color of skin violet gray; pulp rose: quality
good. Second crop: Smaller, of medium size, more oblong; color of skin
ashy gray; pulp deep red; fine flavor. A fig valued in France for its earli-
ness and fine flavor. It is different from Celeste, which is a small fig and of
a deeper bluish color. Entrecasteaux, France.
Bee de Perdrix. —Below medium, pyriform, with long neck. Ribs longitudinal,.
Slain; stalk short, about one eighth of an inch. Color of skin dark purple,
arkest around the eye of crown, shading toward the stalk. Fine blue bloom
on shaded side. Pulp sirupy, stiff, very dark rose. A good drying fig.
Southern France and Spain. (Hogg. )
Be/feflrarde— Barnissotte, Black.
BeUona. — Two crops. First crop is very light, large, 3^ inches long by 2^ wide;
pyriform, violet gray or yellowish mixed with green; pulp pale red, very
sweet. Second crop: Smaller, 2^ to 3 inches by 2^ inches, oblong-rounded
but variable in form; widest at apex, which is flattened. Skin thin, cracking
at maturity; eye elevated, of reddish color. Color of skin blackish violet
mixed with green and red. Pulp red, very sweet; not very thick, but very
fine. August to Oc to ber . Tree wider than high, with large, drooping branches
touching the soil, where they frequently take root. Leaves very large, 3 to 7
214
THE fig: its HI8T0BY, CULTUBE, AND CUBING.
lobed, pointed, deeply crenated. Requires moist and rich soil: in dry soil the
pnlp becomes pale. Extensively grown in Provence, especially in the Alpea-
Maritimes, where it is valned as the
** Qneen of figs." It is nnsorpassed as
a fresh fig, and is also of good quality
when dry. A most valuable fig which
can not be too highly recommended.
In the vicinity of Nice Bellona plays
the same part as the Mabsbillaise m
Provence, as the Dottato in Toscana,
as the Verdone at Rome, as the Tro-
JANO at Naples, or as tiie Lampeira
in Algarve, Portugal.
Berdaiida— Grosse Beurdoua.
Bemade.— France and Italy.
Bemissenca — Bamissenca (Nice); Baim-
issenque (Provence); Ficua garideli
Risso. — Below medium, about 1^ by H
inches. Almost round, with a idender
neck, lopsided. Skin thin, milky, ad-
hering to the pulp. Color violet brown ;
pulp red,watery, slightly bitter; quality
medium to fair; but valuable as a late
fig. Leaves 3-lobed, with undulating
margins, lobes rounded. Moist soils.
One of the latest figs, sometimes ripen-
ing all through winter or early spring before the brebas. Nice and Provence.
5emt««engit€— Vernissenque.
BertoUna—CAiANA,
Fig. 39.— Barnissotte, White fig.
Fig. 40.— Leaf of Barniasotte, White fig.
Betada. — Small, rounded, inclining to oblate; skin black, shading off to paler
toward the stalk, where it is decidedly greener. Eye closed, flat stalk short;
pulp sirupy, pale rose. Rich and exceilent. (Hogg.)
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 215
Bianca Morcati— Italy.
Bianchetta — Albo.
Biancoletta—AhBO,
Biancolini — Albo.
Biancotondo Grossissimo.— Largest size; white, for table. 'Possibly identical
with Gentile. Italy.
Biberaeao.— Size 3 by li inches, oblong. Neck tapering, short; stalk short; skin
smooth, rather waxy; few and indistinct ribs: eye closed. Scales reddish
pink, small; meat white; pulp brown with a reddish flush; seeds small. Color
dark bluish-black, with a dull bloom. Leaves medium, 3 to 5 lobed, lobes
rather deep, with wavy margins; stalk long. Provence. Tree strong, with
rounded head. Not identical with DouRO vebra, which is a much smaller fig.
Bif^re Blanche.— Small, white table fig; good bearer, but medium quality.
France.
Bif^re de TArchipel. — France. Not identical with De l'Archipel.
Bifere de la Malmaison. — Size below medinm; round, sometimes oblong, lopsided,
one side of apex hanging down below the other; no ribs; stalks stout; skin
pale brown streaked with purple, with thick gray bloom; eye closed; pulp
tender, juicy, but not finely flavored, pale rose to red. A very rich fig.
Binelli—lyoTTA.TO.
Biiiellino—DoTTATO,
Bitter 5A;m— Amarouna.
Black and TFAife— Blanche et Noire.
Black Bardakjik— Bard AKJiK, Black.
Black Bamisso^fe— Barnissotte, Black.
^ack Bourgassotte — Barnissotte, Black.
Black California— MissiOff.
Black Ooi*cowreZ/e— Coucourelle Gavotte.
Black Douro—DouRO, Black.
Black Ischia — Ischia, Black.
Black Marseillaise— MarseiiAjAIse, Black.
Black Jlfar^imgtfe— Martinique.
Black ilfeancan— Mission.
Black Mission— Missioin.
Black Mussega—^vssEGA negra.
Black Naples— Giyen by Hogg as synonym of Brunswick, which is probably not
correct,
Bla^k Pissalutto—PissAiAJTTO negro.
Black Provence— Marseillaise, Black.
Black Rondella—RonDELLA negra.
Black San Pedro— San Pedro, Black.
Black Spanish— Qei^o A. Black.
Blancassa — Ficus albida Risso; Ficus carica var. fodereana Geny. — Two crops.
First crop: Subglobular; skin rough; color greenish white, flushed with yellow,
If to 2^ inches; pulp pale rose, shading to white. Second crop: Subpyriform,
rounded, greenish yellow; larger than the firstcrop, 2^ by If inches. Pulp red.
Blanche — Blanche d'Argenteuil; Blanche Hdtive; d'Argenteuil; Grosse Blanche
Ronde; Blanquo (Provence).— Two crops. First crop: 2i by 2^ inches long,
round, slightly turbinate, flattened at apex;^stalk short, no neck; ribs promi-
nent; eye medium, open; color of skin greenish yellow; pulp amber white, with
a few large seeds. Second crop: Fruit small, turbinate, flattened at apex,
about 1 i inches diameter. Skin rough, with shallow, indistinct ri bs. No neck
and very short stalk. Eye small, flat, open or closed. Color of skin yellowish
green, with white seams when ripe. Pulp amber white, with small seeds,
very juicy, finely grained and sweet. No trace of pink. Tree moderately
small. Leaves small, 3-lobed. Even the second crop, though smaller, is of
a very fine quality. This fig does not seem to belong to the Marseillaise class.
Extensively cultivated at Argenteull for the Paris market. This fig is the
oldest fig introduced to Argenteuil near Paris. It is said to have been brought
there during the time of Julianus Apostata, the Roman Emperor. (Fig. 41.)
Blanche d' Argenteuil — Blanche.
Blanche d'Athenes — Ath^nes.
Blanche de Toulouse— T^/i?fe Toulouse. — Large, oblong; very good.' A white
variety common around Toulouse, in France.
Blanche de Versailles— VT/itf^j Versailles.—YmH small, white, and early.
Grown in northern central France for the Paris market.
Blanche et Noire — Black and white. — A mottled fig, interesting on account of
its color, but otherwise of no great importance.
23740— No. 9—01 15
216
THE fig: its histoey, culture, and curing.
Blanche Hdtive — Blanche.
Blanche Bonde — Round white, — Most varieties with such names as '* Round
White," *' Long Black," "Long White," etc., refer in different localities to
entirely distinct varieties. Such names should be discarded, as they serve to
Fig. 41. — Blanche fig — first crop.
confound the nomenclature without precisely indicating the variety and with-
out the possibility of identifying the variety except by careful comparison or
transplanting. Such varieties as a rule are also less valuable, as valuable figs
are generally given different and distinct names.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
217
Blanche Jaune.— Above medium, oblong, skin yellow, dotted white. France.
Blanchette—RoijANDiSA,
Blanquette — Lipari.
Blanquetto—LiFARi,
Blanqv£tte Orosse—A large variety of Lipabl
BZangwo— Blanche.
Blavette — Cotignana.
Blowers. (See Smyrna figs, p. 278.)
Blower*8 Smyrna — Blowers.
Bltte—Bnowin Turkey.
Bltie Burgundy— Brown Turkey.
Blue Oefesfe— Celeste.
Blue /scTiia— IscHiA, Black.
Bocarde. — Medium size; blackish brown; pulp, deep rose; very good. France.
Bodoni.— Large; two crops. France.
Bonaf oux. —France.
Bondance Pr6coce.— Size below medium; 1\ by li inches; round, uneven; neck
distinct, but short; stalk none, or very short; ribs distinct, few, slightly ele-
vated; eye small, sunk, with a very small but distinct opening, and a slightly
raised iris; scales few, medium size, color rose; skin rough, hairy, color
muddy amber brown, with a darker flush in the sun and yellowish-red in the
shade; light bloom around stalk. Pulp rose, very sweet and juicy; meat,
amber white, very fine quality. A darker fig than the Brunswick; leaves
oblong, medium, about 8i by 5^ inches, 3 to 5 lobed. (Fig. 42.)
Bonisotte Blanche— Bovrdisotte, Blanche.
Bonne Dame,— A very early French fig.
Ptg. 42. —Bondance Precoce figs.
Bontard.— Size below medium; H l>y If inches long; neck short, tapering; stalk
short; ribs few, but rather elevated, wavy, reaching the eye. Eyes small,
depressed, open; scales few, large, amber; skin rather rough, yellowish-green
with pale bloom. Pulp not fine, rosy pink; leaves above medium, 5-lobed,
with only short spurs. Surface rough and coarse. Leaves longer than wide,
the end lobe being the longest. The variety received from the Royal Horticul-
tural Society diflfers a little from the above, and may be described as follows:
Size medium, turbinate, about 2i^ inches long by If inches wide, but with short,
distinct neck, or none; stalk very short; ribs few and indistinct; skin downy,
light yellow and green, with faint bloom; eye small, open or closed, with
amber scales; no iris, flat. Pulp rose to amber, usually coarse and uneven,
but sometimes fine amber, fine-grained; meat thin, white, juicy, and sweet,
vinous but not rich; light green, without shade of other colors. Leaves
small, wider than long, light green, 3-lobed, with short spurs. A good fig.
"Bontalette—Bontillettc—A white drying fig. Brignoles, France.
Bontillette—BoNTAiaETTE.
Bordeaux— Pe^i^e Avhique; Petite Auhique Violette; Petite Figue Violette, Albi-
cougris; Ficus erin, var. dnerescensQeuy; Figue Poire; FiquoAubiguon, — Two
crops: Second crop best; above medium, about 3i by 2 inches. Pyriform, with
very narrow neck and medium long stalk. Eye medium, raised, with red iris;
skin not smooth, of a velvet brown color shading to ashy gray, spotted clear
green on the neck, which is well set. Leaves 5 or 7 lobed, with long, narrow
lobes, crenate, pointed. Requires moist ground, as it suffers from coulure
(dropping) in dry soils. The Bordeaux is a very good fig, with two crops. Com-
218
THE fig: its history, cultube, and cubing.
mon aronnd Bordeaux and Nagronne in southern France; generally con-
founded with Aubique, which is a much larger fig and synonymous with San
Pedro. A distinction must te made between the Petite Avbique and the
Aubique, the former being identical with our Bordeaux, the latter with Black
San Pedro, which is synonymous with Orosse Violette de Bordeaux. (Fig. 43.)
Pig. 43.— Bordeaux fig.
Bordeatiic—SAN Pedro, Black.
Bouche Barrique—TA.FA. Cartin.
CATALOGUE AND BESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 219
BoMgrTi^on,— Synonym of Brunswick, according to Barron.
BouiBr—Bovin; Figa Bovin; Ficus hovina Risso.— Above medinm, 3i by If inches.
Shape oblong, twice as long as broad; broadest at apex. Skin adhering to the
pnlp, greenish yellow with a raised red eye, surrounded by a red star-shaped
iris. Fulp bright red. A good fig. Nice and Provence.
Bowzsson we— MouissouNA .
Bourdisotte Bla,nche—Boni8otteBlanehe.-^SmaXlyTOxmdf Inclining to turbinate;
stalk very short; ribs prominent; eye large and open; color of skin green or
yellow when fully mature, with a delicate white bloom. Pulp pale rose, rich,
and sweet A good French drying fis:.
Pig. 44.— Bourdis«otte Noire fig.
Bourdisotte Noire.— Medium, shape roundish turbinate; very short neck; stalk
very short; ribs prominent, very even and regular; eye open, small, round;
skin purple, with a thick, gray bloom. Pulp deep flesh-colored, with a thick
vein of white nearest the skin. A sweet t)ut not flavored fig (Hog^). The
Bourdisotte must not be confounded with the Barnissottes or Bouryassottes,
(Fig. 44.)
220
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Bourdou-^ouRJLUD Noire.
Bourgassotte—BAViTifissoTTEy White.
BourgecLssotte—BARNis&cyrTE, White.
Bouryassotte Blanche— Bxrnissotte, White.
Bouijassotte Grise. — Size medium; rotmdish, flattened, almost oblate; skin dnll
brown or tawny, with patches of purple. Pulp deep red; very rich and lus-
cious. The most constantly good fig grown in English hothouses, and a
good cropper, according to Barron, who gives this fig as a different one from
Barnissotte Orise,
Bourjassote JVbire— Barnissotte, Black.
BowrraiZZese—QouRAUD Noire.
Boutana. — Size medium or above medium; pyriform to oblate, with an oblique
axis. Stalk short, one-eighth inch long: ribs extending to apex; skin dull or
tawny green, with no bloom, but downy.
Pulp deep rose, but not dark. (Barron
and Hogg.)
Boutilete.— For drying. At Brignoles.
Bouton du Ou^tre — Lipari.
Bovin—BoviN,
Brayaaque — Briasca.
Brayasque—BVLiA&CA Doussa.
Brebas. — Brebas is a Spanish name for any first
crop of figs and is applied to figs of any size
and color. It corresponds to **nore,"
"figues fleures," etc., and does not refer to
any certain variety, meaning early. The
variety imported by Professor Pohndorff
from Spain to California, under the name
of ** Breba," is the San Pedro White, which,
as is well known, matures only the first
crop. From Prof. E. W. Hilgard the author
has learned that another fig is also sold in
Malaga as Brebas, but the fig is very much
larger, oblong, and exceedingly handsome,
and yellow. In Mexico the popular idea is
generally that the **Breba" is a special
kind of fig.
Breba Negra—SAJif Pedro, Black.
J5r€6a (erroneously)— San Pedro, White.
Brianchetta — Albo.
Briancoletta (Porta) — Albo.
Briasca (Nice)— Brayasque (Provence);
Fi(m8 aylvestris var. festinatissima Geny. —
First crop 2^ inches long by If inches
wide; pyriform, rounded, eye reddish,
protruding; skin reddish-brown; pulp red.
Briasca— ROLANDINA.
Bri&acA'DovLaaa,— Sweet Briasca; Brayasque; Ficusdulcissima Bisao; Stveet Bray-
asque. — Above medium; 2^ inches long by H inches wide, with very short
neck and short stalks; skin shining, blackish purple, shaded red; pulp red-
dish but pale. The figs, known as '* buffros,*' are very early and sweet, but
poor in taste. Leaves 3-lobed. Draguignan and Provence, France.
Brizanzola.— Italian fig.
Brocket HaZZ— Ischia, White.
Brogiotto Bianco— Barnissotte, White.
Brogiotto Gewavese— Barnissotte, White.
Brogiotto ^oreniino— Barnissotte, Black.
Brogiotto JVero— Barnissotte, Black.
Brown Cowcot*reZ— Coucourele Brune.
Brown Hamburgh— BRvmswiCK,
Brown /ZaZtan— Brown Turkey.
Brown Naples — Brown Turkey,
Brown TurlLey-Ashridge i orcing; Blue; Common Blue; Blue Burgundy; Broum
Italian; Broum Naples; Long Naples; Early Howick; Italian; Large Blv^;
Lee's Perpetual; Murrey; Purple; Fleur Rouge; Walton; Turkey y Brown (all
synonyms according to Hogg).— Large size. Turbinate-pyriform with small
but hardy distinct neck; stalks short or variable; fig flattened toward apex;
ribs few, slightly elevated; eye medium, slightly open; scales large, rosy brown,
all depressed; raised iris. Skin smooth, greenish in shade, violet brown in
the sun, with darker ribs. Pulp dark rosy red, seed small, good quality. A
Fig. 45.— Briasca fig.
Nice and Provence. (Fig. 45.)
CATALOGUE AND DESCEIPTIOK OF FIGS.
221
good bearer. The fig generally known as Broivn Turkey in California, and
elsewhere in America as the Brunswick. (Figs. 46, 47.)
Fig. 46.— Brown Turkey figs.
BrxinswiclL'-'Bayswater; Baiigh ton; Brovm Harnbargh; Clementine; De St. Jean;
Hanover; Madonna; Red; Large White Turkey; Black Naples (?). —All these
synonyms and some others
are given by Dr. H ogg. Two
crops. First crop very large,
pjrrif or m, rather cylindricfd,
with swollen cheeks, one of
which is the larger; apex
very obtuse, neck and stalk
very short; ribs distinct, but
not much elevated, few and
broad. Eye medium , hardly
elevated, open; iris slightly
darker, with am her -rose
seal es. Skin ' pale amber
with a violet tint; ribs darker
violet, shading reddish; the
shady side paler amber, to-
ward stalk and neck green-
ish yellow; skin smooth, but
not waxy ; pulp amber. Sec-
ond crop medium or below,
otherwise not much differ-
ent from, the brebas. Tree
is quite small, with strag-
gling branches, deeply cut
leaves, which on account of
their small number as well
as size give little shade. A
very hardy fig, with large
crops of medium quality.
This fig, which is variously
and erroneously known in
California and in the United
States generally as Brown Turkey, Smyrna, etc., was, until the introduction
of the Adriatic, the most common white fig in the first-mentioned State.
The very large dingy white and brown Brebas are the first figs in the San
Francisco market, but they are watery, not sweet, and otherwise poor in
quality, although very juicy. (Fig. 48.)
Fig. 47.— Leaf of Brown Turkey ii^.
222
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Bucuelle— France.
Bulletin B/acA:— Purple Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs. p. 279. )
Bulletin Smyrna— hOB Inqir.— Under this name four distinct varieties imported
from Smyrna have been distributed by G. P. Rixford, of the San Fraacisco
Evening Bnlletin. For a history of these figs see ** Early fig culture in Cali-
fornia. " It was soon found that the figs dropped regularly before maturity,
and up to the year 1891 not a single fig had matured. That year some 30 figs
were pollinated by Mr. E. W. Maslin and the author, all apparently arriving at
full and perfect maturity,
thus proving the value of
the figs and their genuine-
ness. Previous to this,
however, most of the fig
trees distributed had been
destroyed as unproductive.
(See Smyrna figs, p. 278.)
BurnhanVs Smyrna— ATHksES.
Cabroliana — La Douqueiretta :
Ficus carica var. flomanti-
ana Qeny. — Second crop
pyriform. greenish yellow,
2^ inches long by If inches
wide. Pulp red. Nice and
Provence.
Caiana — Bertolina, Eze; Ficua
caiana Risso; Ficus broinii
Risso; Ficus sylvestrisYar.
africana Geny; Red Cai-
ana. — Small, 1| inches di-
ameter ; turbin a te ; skin
thin, downy, reddish vio-
let, or violet red with a blue
bloom. Pulp pale red,
watery, somewhat bitter.
Nice and Provence.
Caiana Blanca — Ficus cando-
leana Risso. — Similar to
the preceding, but* with
greenish-yellow skin. Nice
and Provence.
Calabresa — Ficus sylvestris
var. calahra Geny. — First
crop above medium or
large, about I] inches long
by 2 A wide; pyriform; of a bright green, mixed with brown,
pulp red. Nice and its vicinity.
Calabria — Dottato.
California — Mission .
CapriO-g—Cariflguier; Doukkar (Kabylia) ; Wild Fig.— The wild fig of the Med-
iterranean region, with male, gall, and female flowers in the same fig, for all
of which see special chapter (p. 74) . There are a great number of varieties of
this fig, differing in shape, size, and color of the fruit, as well as in the shape of
the leaves, which in some are almost entire, in others very deeply lobed. Some
varieties bear three crops a year, others two, and some only one crop. The
varieties are suited to different localities. The caprifig is indigenous to south-
ern Arabia, but has become wild in all Mediterranean districts, even in southern
France. (Fig. 49. ) For description of named varieties of caprifigs see p. 279.
Caravanchina Bianca— C arav anchin a.
Caravanchina 5Zanca— Caravanchina.
Caravanchina — Caravanchina Bianca; Caravanchina Blanca; Ficus sylvestris vax,
sublittoralis Geny; Ficus collina Risso. — Two crops: First crop above medium;
3i inches long by 2 wide: pyriform, with long neck, heartshaped at apex. Eye
prominent, reddish; skin greenish yellow; pulp red, white, and violet, with
a violet inner skin. Second crop l.[, inches in diameter, turbinate, almost
rounded; of a greenish yellow mixed with red. A good table fig. Nice and
Provence.
Caravanchina Negra— Cararaii(/iu'n Negre; Fico ovata; Ovato; Ficus dbovata
Risso; Fictis sylvestris yax.ohovalis (ieny.— Second crop; oval- oblong, li to 2
inches diameter; skin rough, shiny, blackish violet; pulp red. Italy and
Provence.
Fig. 48.— Leaf of Brunswick fie:.
Meat violet;
CATALOGUK AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
223
Caravanc[uin Aegrre— Caravanchina Negra.
Carbiani.— Table fig. Italy.
Cart^gfm'er— Caprifig. (Seep. 279.)
• Castagnola — La Castagnola; Castagnolo (Italy); Ficus carica var. fucosa
Geny. — Globular; bright green; l^- to If inches diameter. Savoy, at Nice.
Castagnolo — Castagnola.
Fig. 49.— CaprifisT from Italy.
Castle Kennedy.— Fruit very large, obovate or long pyriform; skin thin, very ten-
der, greenish yellow on the neck and toward the stalk, but pale dingy brown,
mottled with dull, dingy gray on the widest part and toward the eye; pulp pale,
opaline, with slight stains of red around some of the seeds nearest the eye; ten-
der, but not richly flavored. A large and handsome early fig. remarkable for its
earliness, which is nearly three weeks ahead of the Marseillaise. The fruit
greatly resembles Brunswick, but is entirely distinct in habit and growth of
plant; abundant bearer; has been grown for more than a century at Castle
Kennedy, N. B., England. (Hogg.)
224
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Cassaba— -Kassaba.— (See Smyrna figs, p. 278).
Catalan — Ficus gallica Risso.— Rounded, flat, bright violet; pulp red. Nice and
the Riviera.
Cavajolo.— Italy.
Cavaliere. — Italy.
Celeste. — Blue Celeste; Celestial: Celeste Violette.—Smsiil, 1| by IJ inches. Ovate-
turbinate, with long and distinct neck; ribs few but distinct on body and
around the apex, but not on neck; stalk variable, but always long— sometimes
half as long as the body of the fig; eye raised, rough, closed with very small
scales and elevated iris of the same color as the skin of the fig; color dark violet
brownish amber, without any reddish flush, slightly paler toward the apex.
The bloom, which is confined to the neck and upper part of the body, is bounded
by a distinct and sharp line, and is thick and pale blue: skin very thin; pulp
dark rose, fine grained; meat amber; sweet, but of poor flavor; tre e a strong
grower, erect, leaves ms4ilUaJaiifiS?*''^^» ^ *o ^ lobed. (Fig. 50.) — — — —
Celeste Violette — Celeste.
CeZesfiaZ— Celeste.
CeZe«^me— Beaucaire.
Cernica. — Medium, roundish turbinate; ribs shallow, but distinct; neck and stalk
combined one-third the length of the fie:: skin blackish violet, with blue bloom,
Fig. r)0.— Celeste figs.
not very thin; eye closed, with exuding honey when ripe; pulp deep red, oily,
and sweet, but lacking in flavor; a black Dalmatian fig, Cernica meaning black;
first introduced into California by Q. N. Milco. Resembles Black Barnissotte.
Charagine.— Medium, round, white. France.
Cheameghouar.— Very large, long and turbinate; skin red, pulp white. Algiers.
Chearlick — Asia Minor.
Chestnut-colored Jsc/iia— Ischia, Brown.
Chiajese.— Italy.
Chiattolatte— Italy.
Christmas ^gr— Nat alino.
Cierotat— France.
Cimeirenca — Figa verdara; Ficus cemenelea, Risso; Verdara; Ficus erin. var.
cemenelea Geny.— About 2 to 2^ inches diameter, turbinate; skin thick, violet
black; eye red; pulp purple; good, very productive. Originated near Cimiez
in France according to Dr. Sauvaigo. There is said to be a Cimeirenca blanca
at Nice, France.
Clare— Doctor Hogg's Clare,— Said to be a synonym of Brunswick. The fig sent
in by the Royal Horticultural Society of London is a different fig. It is small,
roundish, with no neck. Eye very large, splitting wide open. Skin smooth
yellowish green, working in every direction. No ribs; pulp rosy, very pale,
juicy; seeds very small; sweet, but no flavor. Leaves 8 inches long by 7 wide .
* 3-lobed, medium deep, sometimes two additional uppei? lob(J9.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF PIGS.
225
Claveu — Clou; Figa clou; Ficus clavicularis Risso: Fieus erin. var. longicaulis
Gteny, — Two crops. First crop, large, 3^ to 4 inches by 1^ to li wide, pyri-
form, but very oblonuf. eye protruding, skin thin, of a uniform brownish
black, pulp carmine red mixed with violet. Second crop: Turbinate, of about
2^ inches diameter. Nice and Provence.
CZott— Claveu.
Clementine — Brunswick.
Cloverdale.— Small, about 1| to If inches: round pyriform, with a thin and dis-
tinct neck, broadest below the center towards the apex. Stalk medium, with
large leaflets; ribs few, but well marked from and on the stalk, gradually dis-
appearing on the body of the fig. Eye smooth, not sunk; scales large, rosv
red, iris small or none; skin very smooth, greenish yellow, color evenly dif-
fused. Pulp fine grained, red; meat white. The real name is unknown.
Received from Mr. Truett of Cloverdale, Cal.
COCMCO— ROLANDINA.
Oogttr— CUERS.
Cceur des Dames — Cuers.
Col de Senora Negra—Coh Di Sionora Nigra,
Col de Signora—Coij di Sionora Bianca.
Col de S^'gnora Bianca Panachee — Col di Signora Panach^e.
Col des Dames— Coi, di Signora Bianca.
Col di Signora Bianca— CoZd6sI>am(?s; CoulldeDama; Col de Signora; Lucrezia;
Ficus domina Risso; Ficus carica var. carmosa Qeny. — Two crops. First
crop: Rare, glaucous green-shaded ;^ellow.
Second crop: Medium, about li by 3 inches,
widest diameter near the apex. Shape
oblong, pyriform, with a very long, well-
set, and narrow neck, rather twisted and
bent; stalk very short and stout; apex
obtuse; ribs longitudinal, regular, and
very prominent; eye closed, with red scales;
color, greenish yellow, changing to green-
ish white, with a fine gray bloom. Skin
thin, but hard, detaching itself from the
pulp, which is very dark red, thick, and
sirupy. Ripens very late— September to
frost. The bearing qualities of this fig tree
are poor, but the quality of the fig is very
superior, it being one of the finest of figs,
both fresh and dry, worthy of cultivation
in any country. Widely distributed along
the Mediterranean.
Col di Sig^nora Nigrra— CoZ de Senora Negra,—
Medium size, 2| inches by 1 1 inches. Shape
ovate pyriform, obtuse at apex; neck very
narrow and long, curved and swollen to-
wards the stalk end. Stalk very short,
almost none, but thick . Ribs of two kinds ;
some are very large and prominent, others
are much lower, and shorter, but distinct
even on the neck and on the stalk. Eye
small, slightly raised, open; scales dark
with pale margins, no iris. Color, dark
violet chocolate, with a slight greenish
flush in the shade, the swollen part of the
neck close to the stalk being bluish-green.
Apex dark violet brown, with here and
there a flush of bright bluish green. Bloom thick, bluish white. Pulp very
dark blood red, of exquisite flavor and sweetness, a perfect conserve; meat
greenish yellow. Tree large, spreading; bark of tree dark, rough, not shiny;
leaves lars<e, 3 to 5 lobed, glossy, entire, but somewhat variable. Extensively
cultivated near Roussillon, in France, and is there one of the latest figs. First
crop very small, second crop larger; ripens from September to frost. One of
the best figs, even superior to the white Col di Signora, but, like all figs, it
thrives and comes to perfection only in certain localities. (Fig. 51.)
Col di Signora Panach^ — Col de Signora Bianca Panachee; Panachie; Striped
Signora.— Fruit above medium, shape roundish turbinate, even, regula»in
form, and very handsome in appearance. Neck shorter than the typical variety;
Fig. 51.— Col di Sigrnora Nigra fig.
226
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
stalk aboTtt one-fourth inch long; color of skin , straw yellow, beantifully striped
with longitudinal bands of bi-ight, lively green, some of which are broad, others
narrow. Eye closed, snrrounded by a narrow iris; pnlp bright rose, very sweet
and delicions. This fig is similar in quality to the white Col, but with shorter
neck and a distinct variegated skin and paler-colored pulp. It is not an exten-
sively cultivated fig, on account of inferior hearing qualities, but for a garden
fig it is much to be recommended, as it would sell well in any market. This
fig is, however, inferior to the black Signora.
Colombro — Italy.
Comadre. — Fico da Comadre. — The best white-drying fig in Portugal, grown in
Algarve, on the north shore of the Mediterranean.
Commercial Smyrna — Lob Ingir.
Common Blue— BROwji Turkey.
Concordana. — Possibly identical with Congourdave — Musseoa.
Constant Dafe— Datte Quotidienne.
Constantine — De Constantine, — From the Chiswick Garden, Royal Horticultural
Society. Medium to small. Turbinate, 2 inches long by 1^ inches wide. Neck
short and thin. Stalk very short. Many irregular ribs. Flat at a^ex. Eye
small: open, with a brown iris. Color of skin, deep olive green, with violet
ribs. Pulp deufe. but with hollow center, of deep rose color. Tree straggling
and spreading. Leaves medium, 3-lobed. (Fig. 52.)
Fig. 53.— Constantine figs.
Corbo— San Pedro, Black.
Cordelia.— Large, ^out 2i inches long by 2 inches wide; pjrriform, with the great-
est diameter near the eye, where the tig is slightly flattened. Neck very short.
Stalk short. Ribs coarse, but few, fading out towards the stalk. Eye very
prominent, with large scales, all sunk below the cheeks. Skin yellowish, with
green shade. Eye pinkish or yellow, with a darker zone around the seeds;
variable. M eat and pulp amber. A large zone below the eye contains numer-
ous male flowers of perfect development, with much pollen when ripe. The
lower zone contains only mule or gall flowers. This fig was found in the San
Francisco market in August, 1893, where it had been brought from Cordelia.
Cal. Exact location unknown to the author. The fig is very juicy, sweet,
and pulpy; but the male zone is, as usual, very dry. The fig is one of the
sweeter kinds, but devoid of flavor. The characteristic male flowers of this
flg place it close to the Croisic fig, as described by Professor Solms-Laubach.
Corde/terc— Cotignana.
Corde/Ziere— Servantine.
Cor^e.se— RoLANDiNA.
Cortice Crasso — Peloua.
Cotignana — Observantine: OlyservantiereOrise; Cordeliere; FigtieOrise; Ficuscoti-
gnana RisHo; Ficun sylveHtriswdiT, praecoxQteny\ Blavette; BarbUlanne, — Two
crops. Brebas above medium, 3 to 3^ inches by 2^. Pyriform, flattened.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 227
and larger at apex, suddenly contracted at the base, with a long neck
with prominent veins. Color gray, tinted lilac. Skin thick, but tender.
Cracking eye, large, reddish, surrounded by a bluish iris. Pulp pale red and
yellow, very sweet, and fine (June and July). These brebas are of the very
best quali ty , and the highest-priced early fig in southern France. Second crop,
in September and October, is very inferior in quality as fresh, but superior for
drying. Size smaller, and of pale color. Leaves, 5-lobed. The tree requires
moist, deep, and rich soil.
Cotignacenque.— About 2 inches long by 1 inch wide; oblong, with long neck,
flattened at apex. Skin greenish white. Eye red. Pulp red. Leaves 3-lobed;
lobes pointed. Requires dry soils, and is not aflfected by rain. A good fig,
fresh and dry, and it di-ies well on the branches of the tree. Provence and
Cotignac and other places in southern France. Not the same as Cotignana.
Cottcouletta—CovcouRKhA.
Coucourela — Coucouletta; Coucourelle de Orasse; Ficus toiirnefortiaiia Risso;
Ficas erinacea var. asperima Geny. — Two crops. Second crop: Medium, 2^
inches long, oblong pyriform; skin thin; color greenish yellow, mixed with
reddish; pulp red, sweet, with almost no seed. For drying almost as good as
the Rolandina. Leaves very deeply lobed, the middle lobe, being very long.
Common around Grasse, in Provence, France.
Coucourele Brune — Brown Coucourel; Coucourelle Brune (Melette); Ficvs fusca
Bisso; Courcourellos Brunos (Provence).— Two crops. First crop largest,
H by li inches; very early. Second crop: Small or medium, roundish; color
of skin deep brown, with a thic\ blue bloom; stalk variable in size; pulp
tender, without flavor, of deep red color, shading to rose. Except for want of
flavor it is a rich ftg. Requires dry soils. Common in Provence.
Coucourelle Brune— Coucourele Brune.
C<mc(mrelle de 6?ra«se— Coucourela.
Coucourelle Gavotte — Coucourelle Noire; Black Coucourelle; Ficus lahillardiera
Risso. Two crops. Medium to small, round, with dark longitudinal lines
which are hardly elevated. No neck; eye open; skin deep purplish black over
the apex and where fully exposed to sun, shading to paler, or even to greenish
bronze in shade; blue bloom; pulp dark blood red, richly flavored. A first-
rate fig.
Coucourelle JVbire— Coucourelle Gavotte.
Cou de Muelo — Rose Noire.
Cougourdana — Musseqa.
Cougourdane.-— Aix and Saint Remi.
Cou{fourdane — Mussega,
Coull de Dama—Coij Di Signora Bianca.
Courcourdle Blanche — AngIilique.
Courcourellos Brunos — Coucourele Brune.
Crav6. — Size medium to small, 2^ by li inches; oblong; neck long; stalk short,
tapering; skin rough, with close, distinct ribs; neck is bent; e^e closed, ele-
vated, with sunk scales; cheeks protruding; widest diameter 3ust above the
eye or near apex; color violet black, with gray bloom; pulp fine, deep violet
red. A sweet, juicy fig, without flavor or aroma. Leaves large, broad, lop-
sided (deeply), the lobes spreading and serrated, 5-lobed, average diameter.
Italy and France.
Crov^re— Provence.
Cuers — DesDames; Verte; Troinpe-Cassair^; Tronipe-Cha^seur (Froyence); Cceur
des Dames; Lady Heart; Caeur, — About 1 finches wide by 2 inches long; neck
small, distinct; stalk long; eye prominent, elevated, open; ribs low; skin green,
turning violet; pulp red; leaves 5-lobed, crenated, lobes pointed. Requires
moist soils. ^ One of the best figs of Provence. On account of its color this fig
appears unripe when perfectly ripe, hence the name Trompe-Chasseur— hun^
ers* deception. There is another fig known also in France as Trompe Chasseur
on account of its deceptive color.
Cttore— RuBADO.
D'Abondance— Franche Paillard.
Dalmatia — Figuede Dalmatia (Paul); De Dalmatie. — Very large, long, pyriform;
skin pale green, covered with soft pubescence: flesh dull red, sweet and rich.
(AH according to Barron. ) Is different from the fig known as " White Dal-
matian " in California, which latter name was invented in this country, though
the fig itself was introduced from Dalmatia.
DaZwa^ia/i— Ragusa.
Dalmatian iJagft^saine— Raousa.
Danina— Italy.
Daf6— Datte Quotidienne.
Date'Quotidienne—DA.TTE (Quotidienne.
228 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Datte. — Medinm or above; 2f inches long by IJ inches wide, generally lopsided,
tapering. Neck distinct, slightly bent. Stalk very short. The longest diam-
eter seldom passes through the eye. Skin waxy, smooth, with indistinct nar-
row ribs. Eye very small, closed with yellowish scales; skin very thin, pale
green, with small oblong lighter dots. Pulp very fine, thick sirnpyand rich,
of a deep brownish salmon, perfectly solid. A most delicious, sweet fig. Tree
medium; leaves small to medium, the larger ones about 7 inches long, with
distinct lobes, the central one generally being the longest. This fig differs
from DoTTATO and from Datte Quotidienne. It is a much finer, though
smaller, fig than the latter.
Datte duotidienne — Date; Dattesf; Figue Datte? Date-Quotidienne; Quotidienne;
Constant Dafe.— Medium to large, 2^ inches long by If inches wide; pyriform;
no neck, or one very short and thick. Stalk very short; a few shallow, longi-
tudinal ribs; eye closed, depressed, small; skin smooth, except for the ri>s.
Color violet brown on the ribs and on the sunny side, otherwise changing to
green, especially around the stalk end. A rich violet bloom around the stalk
end, which ends in the equatorial line. Pulp thick, oily, dark brownish rose.
Tree moderate grower. Leaves medium to large, 5 lobed, A very fine fig
for drying, especially at Salon and Eyqtfieres, France.
Dattaresi — Dottato,
Dattero — Dottato.
Dattesf — Datte Quotidienne.
Dattrali—poTTATO.
"DAMphine—Dauphine Violette; d'Argenteuil; Argenteuil; Grosse Violette, — First
crop: Very large; round turbinate; stalk very short; color of skin purple, with
thick blue bloom; pulp amber. Second crop: Smaller; about 2 inches long by
1| inches wide. Grown extensively around Argenteuil for the Paris market.
The most successfully cultivated dark fig for out-of-door culture in northern
latitudes. It keeps long and transports more readily to distant lociities than
almost any other fig. Tree strong grower; leaves small, 3-lobed.
Dauphine Violette — Dauphine.
Baurada — Ficus lutea Risso; Ficus carica var. chrysocarpa Geny. — Below medium,
li to If inches long; globular, flattened at apex, color bright greenish yellow,
pulp red. Savoy, around Nice. This fig differs from the Figue d'or or Doree
of Provence and also from the Italian Dorato, for which see Albo.
D'-4.6ondawce— Franche Poillard.
D' Argenteuil— BIjANCHE,
D' Argenteuil— Davfbin^.
D'Athenes — ATHi:NES.
De BeZZegrarde— Barnissotte, Black.
De Constantine. — Small, about 1^ inches each way; turbinate; small, straight
neck; very short stalk, distinct, regular, but few ribs from stalk to apex. Eye
medium, closed, with large scales, violet-brown iris, not elevated; skin rugose,
of a dingy green color, dingy violet on sunny side and near stalk end. Bloom
distinct, confined to a narrow zone around the stalk and occupying about
one-fourth of the fig. Pulp dingy salmon, fine grained, rich and high fla-
vored. Leaves medium, about 7 inches, 3 to 5 lobed, glossy, with small spurs,
crenate. The fig from which this description is taken was received from the
Royal Horticultural Society of London through Rev. Dr. Wilkes. The fig
dift'ers from a variety received from English nui-serymen under the same name,
and which is referred to in another place as Constantine.
De Constantine— Co^&TAi!iTi^E.
De Dalmatie— D AIM ATI A,
D' Espagne— "KsTAGNOhA .
D'Eyrogue—EYROQVE,
De Orasse — Matarassa.
De Gerusalem — Jerusalem.
De VArchipel — Archipel.
De la Frette — Violette de la Frette.
De la Madeleine — Madeleine.
De la Madeleine — Magdalen.
Delamater^s — Adriatic.
Del Giappono — Hirta.
De Lipari—hiFARi,
Delia Cava — Natalino.
Delia Goccia cZ'Oro— Dottato.
Bella Toccia — Italy.
De Nibran — Nibran.
DePorfo— 'Porto.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 229
De Saint Esprit. —First crop fresh; end of June. At Marseilles, Aix, and Salon.
Dc <Sam^ Jca?i— Brunswick.
De Saint Jean— Saint Jean.
Des Dames^CuERS.
Di (reru«aZewie— Jerusalem.
Doctor Hogg Black.— Medium; oblong, obovate; neck very short or wanting;
stalk very short and thick; eye small, closed: skin slightly hairy and of dark
mulberry color, covered with thick bine bloom and numerous little white
specks on the surface, which is furrowed by longitudinal lines. Pulp dull
red, thick, and sirapy, very richly flavored. First found by Dr. Hogg near
Toulouse, in France. The native name is not known. (Hogg. )
Doctor Hogg'8 CZare— Clare.
Doctor KimbalVs WTiiYe- Gentile.
Domestica— Mga domestica (Provence); Ficus sylvestris var. tragus Gteny.—
Pyriform; greenish yellow, pulp bright red. Nice and Provence.
Dominique — Saint Doniiniqv£, — A violet-colored French fig.
D'Or Bif^re. — Small, or below medium, long ovate; color dull brown and greenish
yellow; flesh blood red; very rich and juicy. (Barron.)
D'Or de Beaum.— Medium; oblong; distinct ribs; stalk short, very stout; eye
open; skin x)ale hazel brown, on shaded side green, yellowish at full maturity.
Pulp rosy toward eye, opaline toward stalk end; quality good or excellent.
(Hogg.)
D'Or de Laura. — Below medium; oblong, with obscure ribs; eye closed; skin
green, turning yellowish or dirty white when fully ripe. Pulp opaline, very
sweet and tender. An excellent fig.
Doree—i^gfi*ed'0.— Two crops. Medium; oblong; color bright yellow; pulp sal-
mon rose. The first crop is infwior, but very abundant. Fruit very large,
irregular, clear yellowish brown. Second crop: Medium or below medium;
turbinate, with flattened apex; about 2 inches long by 1| inches wide. Ribs
many, narrow, and shallow, but still distinct. Neck tapering from near the
apex. Stalk very short. Color of skin pale, yellowish green, with fine gray
bloom extending down to the widest part of the fig. Color very transparent
and waxy. Not shining, but slightly downy. Eye small, depressed, open,
with large scales. Pulp clear amber, with rosy flush, and large seeds. Meat
greenish white. A fine, juicy fig of good quality. Small, but handsome.
Tree moderately large, erect. Leaves small, 3-lobed.
Dor^e Nobis— f spelling doubtful); Dor^e Norhus (spelling doubtful.)— Fruit
medium or aoove about 2 Inches long by If wide: pyriform, the widest part
above the eye. Ribs many, close, and shallow. No distinct neck, but with
slight shoulders at the stalk, which latter is short. Skin waxy and beauti-
fully transparent, of a light greenish- yellow color, more green around the
apex. Eye small, closed frequently, with large raised iris. Pulp clear amber
white; very fine grain. Meat thick ; white. Seed small. Center often hollow.
Tree strong, erect, with leaves large, drooping, with shallow 3 to 5 lobes. A
very handsome fig, of good quality. Does not belong to the Marseillaise class.
This fig is very similar to Dor6e, out differs slightly in the color of the pnlp.
(Fig. 53.)
Doree Norbus — DoRf:E Nobis.
Dottati—DoTT ATO.
Dottato — Calabria; Dattaresi; Dattero; Dottati (Sarg&iiSL) ; BineZZino (Spezia and
Chiavari) ; Btnelli and Fichi di Napoli (at Genoa) ; Gentile; Oentili (at Voltri) ;
Napolitani (at Finali); Fichi de Calabria and Dattrali (in western Liguria);
Oentiledi Napoli (Novi in Appeiinino, Liguria) ; Ooccia; Fico Delia Ooccia&nd
Delia Gocda d'Oro (in Lombardy).— Size medium or above medium, 2i by 3
inches or less. Shape ovate , pyriform , with the greatest diameter through the
center. Neck medium, very well set and shouldered (especially in the first
crop). Stalk very short or none; ribslow; skin smooth when fully ripe; shaded
ribs; eye medium, closed or semiopen; scales small, pink colored. Skin thin,
bursting, yellowish green amber, sometimes with violet flush. First crop very
few figs, 1 or 2 dozen to the tree. Second crop abundant; leaves broad, round,
3 lobed. Tree a heavy grower and fine bearer. One of the very best tigs, suit-
able for drying. The Dottato is the best-known fig in Toscana, and from there
extends to southern Italy, and is the most valuable fig for drying there. The
largest part of Italian exported dried figs is of this variety, and better than the
Bourgasotte. The Dottato loves rich and moist soils and is not suitable for
dry lands. - Gallesio supposes the Dottato to be identical with the Smyrna
varieties, which is a mistake; neither is it identical with the Datte as grown
around Salon and Eyrique, in Provence. This latter fig has a dark, rosy pulp,
but is otherwise similar to the Dottato, and is probably a variety of that Italian
230
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
fig. What the Dottato is for Toscana, Verdone is for Rome, Trojano for
Naples, and Marseillaise for Provence. (Fig. 54.)
Doucette, White.— Good, fresh, and dry, France, at Salon.
Doukkar,— The general name of the caprifig in Kabylia.
Douqueira 'BlsLUca,— White Douqueira; Fieus carica var. goupiliana Geny. —
First crop: Large, Si to 4 inches long by If to 2 inches wide. Shape oblong.
pyriform; very slender neck; skin thick, slightly downy, with prominent
ridges, adhering to the pulp, which is lively red; color of skin yellowish white.
Second crop: Smaller, 3^ by tj inches. Skin rongh, eye large, red. A very
good fig.
Pig. 53.— Doree Nobis flgs.
Douqueira "NegTSk—Argusela; Peroquina; Monginence (Grasse); Perpiquier;
Fieus nicoe'ensis Risso; Fieus erin. va.T.fertili8 Geny. — Two crops. First crop
very large, 3i to 4 inches long by 4^ to 2 inches wide. Oblong, pyriform, with
a thin neck. Skin thick, slightly downy, with prominent ribs, adhering to
the pulp. Color blackish violet. Pulp lively red, sweet, and agreeable. Sec-
ond crop much smaller, not good as fresh, but excellent dried. A fig valuable
for its first crop or brebas. Ex tensively cultivated near Nice, in France, where
it originated and where it becomes characteristic of the district
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
231
Douro, Black— J5Zac7j Do^uo.—Size medinm or below medium, pyriform or onion-
like, about If inches in both diameters. Stalk very short; neck very narrow
and short, well set, but bent. Numerous narrow ribs, especially distinct on
the cheeks. Apex flat; eye open, rather lari^e; scales small, upright. Color
dark blue, with a fine and dense gray bloom that can not be rubbed off; pulp
• medium fine, very pale rose, shading to amber, very sweet, but not highly
flavored. Tree a moderate grower with close head; leaves medium to large;
about 8 inches diameter, rounded, almost entire. Under side very coarse.
(Figs. 55, 56.)
Douro — Large Black Dotiro,— First crop: Very large, about 4 inches long by 2^
wide. Ovoid, with short neck, gradually tapering. Stalk very short. Skin
• smooth, with thin down. Ribs numerous, very shallow. Color brown, mot-
tled violet, with green on the neck. Eye small, with small scales of a rosy
brown color. Leaves medium, broad, 5-lobed, with somewhat serrated edges.
Leaves pointed, with pointed lobes, with sinuses of medium depth. Pulp
Pio. 54.— Dottato flgs.
rosy, brownish red, surrounded by a thick zone of violet flesh of a dark shade.
A very superior breba of fine appearance and attractive (luality. One of the
largest of all figs. Brebas ripe at Niles August 1. (See Portugal, Black.)
Douro Vebra.— Size small, l.V inches long by 1^ wide; pyriform, tapering, with a
short, straight neck; a few ribs near the neck, none on cheeks. Stalk medium
to short, one-third the length of the fig; eye prominent, but closed; scales
prominent; no iris; skin rather waxy, with faint bloom; color dark violet
black, with a little greenish shading around the stalk. Pulp amber, brownish,
with a rosy margin; meat white; pulp dense and fine; seeds small. A fair
fig, but not highly flavored, at Niles. Tree strong, with a dense head. Leaves
variable, large to small, 8 to 5 lobed, with shallow lobes about 5 inches wide
by 5.i to long; glossy: lopsided.
Drap d'Or.— Large, 81 inches long by 1} inches wide; pyriform, with very long
and distinct neck and a long stalk. Ribs elevated, distinct, waxy, but few in
number; apex obtuse and concave at the eye, which is sunk between swollen
23740— No. 9—01-
-16
232
THE fig: its history, culture, and cubing.
cheeks. Eye small, with distinct violet iris; scales rosy amber. Color of skin
light violet to reddish amber, not very dark. Ribs darVer; between them the
Fig. 56.— Douro, Black flgs.
color shades to reddish yellow,
darker; neck is of the same
color, bnt the stalk is bright
yellowish green. Bloom thin
and pale; pulp rosy red; meat
yellow amber, of very fine qual-
ity; regarded by the French
confectioners as one of the best
figs for crystallized and glao6
fruit. Hogg gives as synonym
Brunswick, which is erroneous,
this being a different fig. ( Fig.
57.)
Drap d*Or (Barron).— B^ow me-
dium; almost round; no neck;
skin pale greenish yellow
shaded with brown; flesh deli-
cate amber, thick juicy, and
well flavored. This description
given by Barron indicates a
very different fig from the pre-
ceding, which the author be-
lieves is the true Drap d'Or.
Dii JcCpon—ILiRTA.
Du "Roi—Dtt Boy. Size above me-
dium, 2i by If inches; larger
than the Marseillaise. Shape
rounded, pyriform, uneven,
with swollen cheeks. Ribs
few, slightly elevated and
irregular in outline. Neck d i s-
tinct, always short, but vari-
able; stalk very short. Eye large
The side exposed to the light only slightly
Fig. .V).— Leaf of Douro, Black flg.
to very large, without elevated iris;
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
233
scales large, standing oat, of a pale amber color. Skin smooth, but not
waxy, of a pale bluish-green with a darker green on the exx)osed side. Pnlp
amber, with rosy streaks and with many exceedingly minnte seeds, and of
a fine texture. This fig does not belong to the Marseillaise class. It has
smaller seeds and a finer meat and palp, and is also more oblong than that
ti^. It is a most excellent fig and one of the very beat figs grown in Califor-
nia. Is suitable for drying as well as fresh. In some localities it is prefera-
ble to the Marseillaise. This fig can not be too highly recommended and
will no doubt become one of the most extensively grown figs in California
and Arizona. (Fig. 58.)
Du Roy—Dv Roi.
Early Hovnck— -Brown Turkey.
Early Violet.— Very small to small. Bound, turbinate, with swollen and pro-
truding cheeks; neck distinct, but short; stalk medium to long; ribs distinct,
somewhat elevated, sometimes much elevated. Eve large, sunk, closed; scales
large, rosy red, with small iris. Skin rough and uneven, violet brown with
red flush and a thin peach-
colored bloom, which does
not quite reach the eye.
Pulp red, fine, and sweet.
This fig, though small,
bears' continuously and is
valuable on that account.
Preferable to the Ischias
and Celeste. (Fig. 59.)
Early White— Early Yellow;
Small Early White; Jaune
Hdtive.— Small, roundish
turbinate, somewhat flat-
tened at apex; color of
skin pale jellowish white,
verj'^ thm skin; pulp
white, sweet, but want-
ing flavor.
Early Yelloiv— Early White,
Ecousse iVbire.— Probably the
same as Recousse^ noire. .
El-hadi.— A black fig from
Eabylia which requires
caprification.
Bndrich.— Two crops; me-
dium size, oblate or pyri-
form; neck very long;
stalk short; ribs shallow;
eye very large, open;
skin greenish-yellow, no
bloom, quite thick; pulp
of first crop dingy opaline
in center, surrounded by
a broad band of muddy
but distinctly violet pulp,
rather coarse, but sweet.
Second crop has the pulp white, with occasionally a trace of violet around
the margin. In drying the pulp turns violet-black. Tree ispfmedium size,
leaves woolly, lobes shallow and rounded. Introduced Tfom Itaiy by "W. B.
West, but sold to Mr. Endrich, of Stockton, Cal. , who lost the original name.
Again propagated, and distributed by Mr. W. B. West and others under
the name of Endrich. Generally a poor fig, but said in some localities
to be very excellent; especially so around Stockton, according to Mr. West,
Farther inland, in the San Joaquin Valley, this fig is very poor and almost
worthless. Some trees sent out under this name are identical with Bubado.
Erbeili—hoB Ingir.
Erbeghli—liOB Ingir.
Erbelli—liOB Ingir.
Espagnola—D'^spagne.— White. Late. Aix, France.
EsquiUarello—LiPARi.
Euscaire Preto.
Eyrogue—i)'^2/rogrMe.— Below medium, oblate; skin pale; yellow, tinted green.
Pulp pale rose, juicy, but not rich. France.
Fabre.— Two crops. Large. France.
Fifl. 57.-Drap d'Or fig.
234 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Fallagiana—SAin Pedro, Black.
Fichi de Calabria— Doit ato.
Fichi di iVopoZi— Dottato.
Fichi Dori— Gentile.
Fichi d* Oro— Albo.
Fico Arhicone—Sxi^ Pedro, Black.
Pig. 58.— Du Roi figs.
Fico da Comadre— Com adre.
Fico dair Omo— Merioun.
Fico Da^fero— RoLANDiNA.
Fico ddla Goccia —Dottato.
Fico di Fragola— Adriatic.
Fico Dorato — Albo.
Fico d' Oro— Gentile.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
235
Fico di Saint Piero— San Pedro, White.
Fico di San Piero or Saint Piero — San Pedro, White.
Fico di San Pietro — San Pedro, White.
Fico de Saint Piere— San Pedro, White.
Fio. 59.— Early Violet figs.
Fico di Spagrna— Franciscan A.
Fico /ef i/«?ro— Merioun.
Fico iVero— San Pedro, Black.
Fico (wato— Caravanchina Negra.
Fico San Piero— San Pedro, Black.
236 THE fig: its history, culture, and CfURING.
Fico unico — Franciscan a.
Fico violacea—^K^ Pedro, Black.
Fico zentU—ALBO,
Ficua acttfa— -Pounchuda.
Ficus aZ&ida— Blanc ASSA.
Ficus amara— Amarouna.
Ficiis bamissofe— Barnissotte, Black.
Ficu8 boin'na— Bouin.
Ficushrawni—CJLiANA,
Ficus caiana — Caiana.
Ficus candoZeana— Caiana blanca.
Funis carica var. carmosa — Col di Signora Bianca.
Ficus carica var. chrysocarpa — ^Daurada.
Ficus carica var. deceptans Geny — ^Verte Brune.
Ficus carica var. flomantiana — Cabroliana.
Ficus carica var. florentina — Toscana.
Ficus carica var. fodereana — Blancassa.
Fums carica var. formosa — Sucrada.
Fictis carica var. fucosa — Castagnola.
Ficus carica var. goupiliana — Douqueira blanca,
Ficus carica var. leiocarpa — Sbirola.
Fums carica var. ligurica — Pissalutto Bianco.
Ficus carica var. lunata — Princessa.
Fieus carica var. luteus — Albo.
Mcus carica var. mwWt/eroa?— Verdal, Long.
Ficus carica var. prolifera—TAFA Cartin.
Ficus carica var. robusta—RvBAJyo,
Ficus carica var. rotundvla — Rondeletta.
Ficus carica var. sero^ina— =-Grosse Beurdoua.
Ficus cc»itewe?^a— Cimeirenca,
Ficus clavicularis—CULyBV.
Ficus coHina— Caravanchina.
Ficus cotignana — Cotignana.
FUsus domina—Coij di Signora Bianca.
Fi&us dulcissiwa—BRiASCA Doussa.
Ficus dylo var. amarwZa— Amarouna.
Ficus erinocea var. asperima — Coucourela.
FUms erinoced\a.T, cemenelea — Cimeirenca.
Ficus erinocea var. cinerescens — Bordeaux.
Ficus erinocea var. eriocarpa — Peloua.
IHcus erinocea var. erodens — Saraina.
Fi<ms erinocea var. fertilis — Douqueira Negra.
Ficus erinocea var. foetifera — ^Merioun.
Ficus erinocea var. gemina — Merlin g a.
Ficus erinocea var. jucunda — Barnissotte, Black,
IHais erinocea var. longicaulis — Claveu.
Ficus erinocea var. melongena — Merengiana.
Ficus erinocea var. mentonensis — Mentonasca,
Mcus erinocea var. salsula — Mouissouna.
Ficus erinocea var. saxetana — Negrktta.
Ficus erinocea var. uberrima — San Pedro, Black.
Ficus /ra?ictscawa— Fran ciscANA.
^iciis/M«ca— CoucouRELE Brune.
Ficus gallica — Catalan.
Ficus gfaWdeZi— Bernissenca.
Ficus grrandis— Barnissotte, White.
Ficus grassensis— Mat ARAS& A,
Ficus /i^Zena— Rondella Blanca.
Ficus hirta — Hirta,
Ficus imperialis — Imperial.
jFYcti«/a5t7/ardiera— Coucourelle Gavotte.
Ficus Ztnw^ana —MussEGA.
Ficus longicaudata — Peconjudo.
Ficus lutea — Daurada.
Ficus marsiliensis — AthIines.
Ficus w^trawa— Meirana.
Ficus inelitensis—MEKESQiANA,
Ficus meZh/era— Meou.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 237
Ficus monstniosa — Tapa Cartin.
Ficus mouissona — Mouissoun a .
Ficus mourenao — Mourenao.
Ficus m*caQ?ensis— DouQUEiRA Negra.
Ficus nigra — Negretta.
Ficus nticZeafa— Merioun.
Ficus obovafa— Caravanchina Negra.
i^^cwsjp/ioceana— Marseillaise, Black. .
Ficus pilosa — Peloua.
Ficus polymorpha var. depressa — Barnissotte, Black. ,
Ficus polymorpha var. /i^Tmi^ocarpa— Franciscana.
Ficus pulchella—Om^'niaK,
Ficu^ punctulata—MxjssEQA Negra.
Ficus pwrpwreo-woZacea— Salada.
Fictis radta^a— Princess A.
FHcv^ ric/iardi— RuBADO.
Ficv^s richeta — Ome.
Ficus rolandina — Rolandina.
Ficus rosa nigra — Rolandina Negra.
Ficus saccharata — Sucrada.
Ficus saffrenia—PissASjJTTO Negro.
Ficus saracenica — Saraina.
Ficus seirola — Seirola.
Ficu^ serotina — Rubado Negro.
Ficus siciliana — Siciliana,
Ficus smi^/iM— Levenssana.
Ficus sylijestris var. africana — Caiana.
Ficu^ sylvestris var. a?p6sfris— Levenssana.
Ficus sylvestris var. bruttia — Siciliana.
Ficus sylvestris var. calabra — Calabresa.
Ficus sylvestris var, ceresana — Rondella Negra,
Ficus sylvestris var. festinatissima — Briasca.
Ficus sylvestris var. hybema — Rubado Negro.
Ficus sylvestris var. mawri^anica— Moresca,
Ficus sylvestris var. monstruosa — Fourrassa.
Ficus sylvestris var. obovaZis— Caravanchina Negra.
Ficus sylvestris var. olivula — Mourenao.
Ficus sylvestris var. praecox — Cotignana.
Ficu^ sylvestris var. praedulcis — Rolandina.
Ficus sylvestris var. praeZo?i(/a— Pounchuda.
Ficus sylvestris var. nibeZZa— Roussana,
Ficus sylvestris var. rubricaulis — Rolandina Negra.
Ficus sylvestris var. rufescens — Negrau.
Ficus sylvestris var. Smyrna — Meou,
Ficus sylvestris var. sitbZiZZoraZis— Caravanchina.
Ficus sylvestris var. Zragrt*s— Domestica,
Ficus sylvestris var. turgenia — Franciscana.
Ficus sylvestris var. veniWcosa— Matelassa.
Ficus tournefortiana— Gov covKEi, A..
Ficus variabilis— Yerdal., White.
Ficus ve^^sfoso— Rolandina.
Ficu^ virescens— Verdal, Long.
Figa a Merioun — Merioun.
Figa Bovin—Boum,
Figa cZow— Claveu.
Figa de Meou— Meou.
Figa d'Ome— Ome,
Figa doniestica— Domestic a,
FigaJlorentina—ToscAJiA,
Figa fourrassa — Fourrassa.
Figa maravilla — Princessa.
Figa mielleuse — Meou.
Figa negrau— "Negrau.
Figa princessa— Princessa.
jPYgra r246ado— Franciscana.
Figa rwbacZo— Rubado.
Figa siciZiana— Siciliana.
238 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Figa ^itrca— Princess A.
Figa verdara— Cimeirenca.
Figo melograno — Franciscana.
Figue (TAtMnes—ATHtNKS,
Figue de DaZmafia — Dalmatia.
Figue datte(9)—DxTTE Quotidienne.
Figue de Grasse— Matarassa.
Figue de Jtfen^owe— Mentonasca.
Figue Mielleuse — Meou.
Figv^ de JVopZes— Marseillaise, White.
• Figue d'Or — DoRtE.
Figue /r«7imcatw— Franciscan a.
Figue d'Or,— It is doubtful if this is a synonym of Brunswick, as stated by several
continental writers. Students of hothouse figs are too ready to lump figs,
received under different names, together as synonyms, relying principally upon
resemblances of the first crop, the second crop seldom maturing under glass,
or at least not maturing to perfection. Thus it has come to pass that many
of the synonyms given by Dr. Hogg are in reality distinct figs, but which show
only their true characteristics when growing in suitable localities out of doors
and in climates favorable to the full development of the figs.
Fiflue Grtse— Beaucaire.
Figue GHse— Cotiqnana.
Figue Gme— Matarassa,
Figue Potre— Bordeaux.
Figue Poire— San Pedro, Black,
Figue Reine—MvssKQA,
Figue tnoZe^^e— Mouissouna.
Figuier i^oi^gre— Violette de la Frette.
Fiquo Autnquon — Bordeaux.
Florentina — Toscana.
Fleur Rouge— Brown Turkey.
i^Zoman^mna— Cabroliana.
Ford — Ford Seedling.— harge or above medium; shape, tnrbinate-p3rriform, rather
uneven, with swollen cheeks, hanging and protruding above the eye. Neck
very short, but distinct, like a stalk; stalk none; ribs not elevated, but colored
darker; eye open, medium size, sunk below the cheeks, but slightly elevated
at the scales; scales, many in the row (9 or 10), irregular, red; skin, smooth,
dark, violet in sun, greenish in shade, sometimes greenish with violet flesh.
Light-gray bloom; pulp rosy red, coarse; meat, rosy white. A very large fig,
heavy crops and strong growth, coarse quality. The above fig is a different
fig from the fig described under that name by Dr. Hogg, who regards it
identical with Marseillaise. (Figs. 60, 61.)
Ford Seedling— Ford,
Fourrassa — Figafourrassa (Nice); Ficus sylvestris yar. monstruosa, Greny. — Sec-
ond crop very large, 4f by Scinches; oblong, rounded at apex; skin thick, of a gray
or greenish-yellow color, marked with small dots; pulp, red, juicy; medium
quality. One of the largest figs, but of doubtful value. Nice and its vicinity.
Franche Paillard — Ahondanee; D'Abondance; Franque Pagarde. — Two crops.
First crop: Medium, oblong; skin light brown; pulp salmon-red. Second
crop: Medium, pear-shaped, violet-brown color, green in shade; pnlp red,
vinous, and juicy, but not always sweet. An enormous bearer, of value only
in few favored localities in France, where it is extensively cultivated, or at
least distributed.
i^awciscaw— Franciscana.
Franciscana — San France; Franciscan; Figv^ franciscain; Figo melograno
(Italy); Fico unico (Port Maurice); Fico,di Spagna; Figa ruhado (western
Riviera); Ficus franciscana Risso; Ficus sylvestris vox, turgenia Geny; Ficus
polymorpha var. hematocarpa Gasparrini; St. Francis.— One crop; medium;
2 to. 2^ inches diameter, turbinate, flattened at apex; skin cracking; color
bright greenish- violet; pulp juicy, honey like, blood-red or of the color of the
red pomegranate. A fig good for drying, but it cracks and splits wide open
like a flower after having been exposed to a rain storm. Not uncommon in
the Riviera around Nice, France.
Franque Pagarde— Franche Paillard.
Frette— UovQE de la Frette.
Genoa, Black — Negro d'Espana, Noire d'Espayne, Nigra; Black Spanish, — Large,
oblong, broad toward tne apex, very slender toward the stalk; skin dark pur-
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
239
pie, almost black, with a thick blue bloom; pulp yellowish nearly to the meat,
reddish or red toward center; juicy, sweet, and rich. Said by Hogg to be the
most c^mmon black tig in Languedoc and Provence. This is not now the case.
Genoa, White — White Genoa.— Size above medium, 2| by H inches; shape pyri-^
form; neck small, not set off; stalk very short; ribs very shallow, merely ele-'
vated lines. Skin downy; eye very small, not elevated, open, pale pink-amber.
Skin pale olive-green with yellow cheek, drawing to pale yellow-amber, mot-
tled with russet around the eye; color of neck the same. Pulp varying from
amber to pale rose and darker red; under the skin pale greenish- white. Tree a
strong grower, with, open head; branches brittle, breaking readily; leaves very
large, deep green, 5-lobed. One of the best tigs, entirely distinct from the
Marseillaise, which is given as a synonym by Dr. Hogg— not even belonging
Ftg. 60.— Ford figs.
to the same class. It is undoubtedly one of the best figs grown in California.
The identity of this tig is, however, not fully established, and it may be possi-
ble that it is identical with some of the many Italian figs not yet introduced
to this country or even adequately described. The origin of the name under
which this fig came to California is not known. (Fig. 62. )
Gentile — Tiburtina, Pliny; Gentile sub-lutei; Gentile Bianchi; Fichi Dori; Fico
UOro; La Gentile; Ficus pulchella, Bisso; Dr, KimhalVs White (Hay wards,
Cal.).— First crop: Very large, 2^ by 3 inches; shape ovate-pyriform, widest
below the center; neck swollen, very distinct, well set, but not long; stalk
very short; skin uneven, with ridges, which become less at perfect maturity:
skin adheres to pulp; eye very large, open, with the scales protruding. Color
green, shaded to canary or yellow, spotted white, darker green in the shade.
Pulp amber, translucent, very sweet and highly flavored, streaked with rose;
seed few, but very large. Leaves 3-lobed, very large, of dark-green color
similar to that of Brogiotto-Genovese and Sanguinello Pisa. Large tree
with the lower branches very long and weeping; the upper branches tall
240 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
and upright; a very pretty growth. Only the first crop ripens well. Second
Fio. 61.— Leaf of Ford flg.
crop, when it is partially mature, is of rounder form, but always drops. One
of the very best Italian figs, and especially valued as a table fig. Extensively
Fi(}. G2.— Genoa, White figs.
grown from Naples to Toscana and Riviera, but docs well also farther north.
The Gentile (pronounced genteele) is one of the most luscious, pulpy, and
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 241
highly flavored of all figs, and should be generally cultivated. It grows best
in deep, rich bottom lands with moist ground, and does not take well to dry
hills. So far only a few figs of this variety are grown in California. The old-
est tree in the State is found on Dr. Kimball's place, near Hay wards (Alameda
County). Other trees, now 8 years old, are grown at Knights Ferry. The
second crop drops there, as it does in Italy and elsewhere. The climate of
Knights Ferry is very warm and dry, while that of Niles and Hay wards is
Fig. 63.— Gentilo fig in California.
moist and comparatively cool. It was supposed for years that all that this fig
required was a warm and dry air in order to ripen the second crop. But its
failure to do so, even in the hottest place, satisfies the author that it belongs
to the San Pedro ^class, which requires caprification for the second crop, the
flowers of which are apparently perfect female flowers. It appears that in
Italy several figs are known as Gentile, but the one described above is the
true Gentile, and no other varieties should bear that name. (Figs. 63, 64, 65.)
242
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Gentile— DoTTATO,
Gentile ( Bologna) — Albo.
Gentile di Napoli — Dottato.
Gentile sub- Ztefei— Gentile.
Pig. 64.— Gentile fig in (California, unripe.
Gentile Bianchi—GtENTiiJE.
Gentili— Dottato,
Gentilla iJoussa— Moresca.
Giallo Rotondo.— Italy. Probably identical with some other variety.
Giallo Verde.— Italy.
Gironetta — Verdal, LoN(i.
GoGcia — Dottato. ^
Gombaya. — Medinm, ronnded; bright
rose; stem of tree blackish; re-
quires moist soils. A fig of value
grown in the vicinity of Valencia,
Spain, where it is much esteemed.
Gouraud Noire — Gourreau noire;
Gourreau du Languedoc; Bourdon;
Bourraillese; Maris No, 2, — Two
crops. First crop; Large, pyri-
form, oblong, skin very bright vio-
let black, passing to vinous red to-
ward the stem, cracking when ripe;
pulp red, very good. Second crop:
Medium, pyritorm, oblong, skin
dark violet purple; pulp red, sweet,
but dry. A very vigorous-growing
tree, and a good fig to recommend.
Gouraud Rouge.— Medium, pyriform,
rounded, with flattened apex about
H inches long by 2 inches wide.
No neck and very short stalk; eye
small but rough and open, depres-
sions around the iris; scales dark
violet; ribs many, narrow, and
shallow: skinrough, dull yellowish
red to reddish violet, not at all hand-
some, but with a violet pale bloom.
Pulp reddish brown, hollow center,
juicy and firm and flavored. Leaves very small, 4^ inches long by 4 inches
wide, almost entire, with 3 to 5 very shallow lobes.
Gourreau du Languedoc— GtouRAVD Noire.
Gourreau Noire— GovRAUjy Noire.
Graissane.- Round, f^tened, color white, taste poor. Provence.
Fia. 65.— Gentile fig, cross section.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIQ8.
243
Grassale.— From the Garden of the Royal Horticultural Society at Chiswick.
Small, about U inches long by 1 inch wide, turbinate. Neck short and slen-
der; stalk short; ribs indistinct; eye very small, open; skin waxy, yellow: pulp
pale violet amber, finely grained; meat white; tree moderate, spreading; leaves
medium to small, 51obed and rounded. It is doubtful if this tree is the true
Grassale. I take the one described under Matarassa as the true variety of this
name.
Grassale — Matarassa.
Grasse — Matarassa.
Grassenque — Matarassa.
Gray /Servaw^iwe— Servantine grise.
Gray i^Yflr— Beaucaire.
Green /»c/wa— Ischia, White.
Grise Servantine ^t/i^re— Servantine BifIire.
Grise^te—BEAUCAiRE.
Grisette fld^ive— Beaucaire.
Grosse Banoie. — France.
Fig. 66.— Grosse Grise Bif6re figs.
Grosse Beurdoua — Berdauda; Ficus carica var. serotina Geny; Verdaou,— Size
large, 2^^ to 3 inches, distinctly turbinate; color greenish yellow; pulp red.
Provence, at Grasse and St. Tropez, France.
Grosse Blanche Z/ongwe— Marseillaise, Long.
Grosse Blanche flowde— Blanche.
Grosse Capucine.— France.
Grosse du Draguignan — Agen.
Grosse Grise Bifere— Crosse Servantine Bifire,—Medixnxi or above, 2f inches long
by H inches wide. Ovate pyriform; neck very short, but distinct, stalk short to
medium, about one-fourth inch. Ribs distinct, but narrow, andhardly elevated;
colored darker than the skin, of a violet brown. Eye small, open, slightly ele-
vated, amber violet, with a dark iris. Skin downy, of a dark violet amber in the
sun, turning to a pale olive green with yellow flush, with darker violet ribs in the
shade. Bloom a very fine violet-pearl gray extending to the cheek, but not to
the apex zone from which it is separated by a distinct line, between which and
the apex there is no trace of the bloom. This is the most characteristic feature
of this fig. Pulp deep red or dark rose; meatpale, greenish white. A very ten-
der, good fig. This fig has been disseminated in California under the erroneous
name of Gray Bourgasotte^ but is distinctly different from that fig. which is
rotmd and fiattened. (Figs. 66, 67. )
Grosse du Langtiedoc — Gouraud Noire.
244
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Orosse Jaune—TxFX Cartin.
Orosse Marseillaise — Marseillaise, Long.
Orosse Marseilles— Marseillaise, Long.
G-rosse Marseilles.— Fruit medium, long, pyriform; skin greenish yellow, shaded
brown; pulp dull red, second quality. (AH according to Barron.)
Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari.— First crop: Fruit very large, 3 inches wide and
nearly as high; turbinate, broad and flattened at apex; skin pale chestnut
brown, darker on the side exposed to the sun, and marked with dark longi-
tudinal ribs down to the sides, and with occasional dark spots, the whole sur-
face covered with thick bloom. Stalk short and thick; eye large and closed;
flesh dull red, thick, juicy, and well flavored. (Hogg. ) Found by Hogg in an
orchard at Bouches des Rhone, France.
Orosse Rouge de Bordeaux— ^ath Pedro, Black.— It is doubtful if this is synonym
of Black San Pedro. It is not a synonym of Bordeaux, which is a smaller fig.
Orosse Savantine Bif^re — Grosse Grise Bif^re. — Under this name the author has
received from the Royal Horticultural Society of London a fig in every respect
identical with Grosse Grise
Bifero, characterized by the
peculiar arrangement of the
bloom of that fig. The bloom
is absent from the apex near
the eye, and there is a strong
line of domnrcation between
the two zones.
Orosse Verdale — Verdal, Long.
Orosse Fer^e— Adriatic.
Orosse FioZe^^e— Dauphine.
Orosse Violette de Bordeaux— ^Am
Pedro, Black.— This fig is
not identical with Bordeaux,
which is a smaller fig.
Chrosse Violette Longue — San Pe-
dro, Black.
Orosso Figo — B arnissotte.
Black.
Ouilijliana—GvihOANA,
, Guiliana — Guijliana, — Small,
round, turbinate, about li
inches; no neck; no stalk.
Ribs few, distinct; eye small,
open, scales large, violet am-
ber. Large violet iris. Color
dingy violet gray, greenish in
shade, with blue bloom on
stalk end, not reaching the
equatorial. Pulp brownish
salmon; inner scales rosy red.
A sweet fig, but of very poor
appearance. Leaves small, 3-lobed, very shallow lobes, almost entire,
spelling is somewhat in doubt. It was received under the synonym.
Hanover — Brunswick. ,
Hardy Prolific— Large to medium; pyriform; about 2| to 2^ inches long by 2^
inches wide; generally very flat at apex, lopsided and variable, very much in
the shape of Brunswick fig, to which this variety stands very near; neck
generally well set, but very short; ribs few, rough, wavy, but shallow, dis-
appearing, and irregular; eye medium, flat, with low iris, scales pale amber;
skin smooth, except for ribs, rather waxy, greenish on one side, violet olive
on the other. Pulp amber white; meat white, very juicy and good, but not
highly flavored. Second crop mora turbinate and resembles Brunswick less
than first crop. Tree a very strong grower with a fine head. Leaves medium
to large, 5 lobed, about lit inches long by 7^ inches wide. A large, good fig.
Hirta — Del Giappono; Ficiis hirta; HiHa du Japon; Du Japon; Japanese fig. —
Size, 2i by If inches; medium; round, with distinct neck and very short stalk;
ribs indistinct ; cheeks swollen and uneven ; eye very open, scales small, rosy red,
iris small, but rough; skin smooth, but not waxy, not downy even when mag-
nified. Color bluish brown, with red and green flush in the shade; pnlp fine,
pale amber; meat fine, white; seeds small; leaves small, 8-lobed. thick, almost
entire. Tree a very poor grower. A Japanese fig of medium quality. There
is said to exist another Hirta with downy fruit, also from Japan. (Fig. 68. )
Pig. 67.— Leaf of Grosse Grise Bifdre fig.
The
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
245
Hirta du Japon — Hirta.
Hospitaller.— A white drying fig from Salon, France.
Honey Mg—MiEOV,
Hottnck— Brown Turkey.
Imperial — Imperiau (Nice); Imperiala (Italy); FUyus imperialis Risso.— Two
crops. First crop medium ana of poor quality. Second crop: 3^ by 2^ inches,
Pig. 68.— Hirta figs.
turbinate, lopsided and cracked, with a long neck which is quite hard. Color
greenish gray, tinted violet red, with a bright red eye. Pulp pale red; quality
medium. Common around Grrasse, in ProvencQ.
Imperiala— Imperial.
Imperiau — Imperial.
Ischia, Black — Blue Ischia, Black Ischia, — Small, about 1^ by 1^ inches; neck short;
stalk short to medium; skin smooth, with few ribs, of which only one here
and there is distinct. Color dark violet black, lighter and somewhat greenish
around the apex. Neck as dark as the body; shaded and flushed green. Eye
246
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
medium, open, scales rosy violet; no iris. Bloom thin, verj' dark bine. Pulp
red; meat greenish amber. A fair fig of small size, sweet, but poor flavor.
Second crop is larger, sometimes 2^ inches long by If wide. Skin with
numerous very small golden specks; ribs more distinct and numerous. Eye
flat, open; pulp violet red; better quality than first crop. Leaves 3-lobed,
almost entire. A handsome rounded tree, giving much shade. A common
variety, but one which could easily be dispensed with. The two Ischias are
undoubtedly only color varieties of the same form. The leaves, habit of trees,
shape of trees, etc. , are the same. The form of the figs in the two varieties is
almost the same, though in the black form the fig is slightly longer. (Fig. 69. )
The spot on the leaf (a) illustrate? the appearance of the iris of the eye.
Fig.
Ischia, Black figs.
Ischia, Brown — Chestnut-colored Ischia. — Medium, roundish turbinate; eye ver
large, color light brown; skin thin, bursting easily after rain. A color var
ety of the Black Ischia.
CATALOGUE AND DESOBIPTION OF FIGS.
247
Ischia, White— (rrcen Ischia; Singleton , Hogg; Brocket Hall, Hogg.— Size small
or very small, abont If by If inches; shape round, with a smsJl, narrow, dis-
tinct neck; stalk very short or variable, always very thin and weak. Ribs
distinct on the cheeks, less prononnced toward the stalk, and entirely disap-
pearing on the apex. Eye open, scales amber rose, large, no iris and the
region aronnd the eye not in the least elevated. Skin smooth, blnish green,
Fig. 70.— Ischia, White ftgs-
with a light-brown flush and violet-brown ribs. Pulp rosy red; meat white.
A sweet fig, but very small and with no flavor. Requires moist, rich soil.
The crown is large, round, dense, and compact. Leaves shallow, 8-lobed,
with rounded lobes. A very common fig in California, but one which hardly
deserves cultivation when so many superior varieties are to be had. (Fig. 70. )
JtoZian— Brown Turkey.
Japanese .FVgr— Hirta.
23740— No. 9—01 17
248 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Jasper — A boia Jaspe; A hois et fruit Jaspe (France).— Fruit medinm to large, 3
by 2 inches, pyriform; neck short and only its apex well set: stalk short or
none; slightly tapering; apex flat; ribs distinct, irregnlar, confluent. Eye
small, closed: scales upright; color, green and bronze, with pale and scant
bloom. Pulp fine; seeds few and small: color of pulp pale rosy amber. Sweet
and juicy, not highly flavored, but good. Leayes coarse, medium size, deeply
5-lobed, rough both above and below; stalk bent. Not identical with either
Panachee or Col de Signora Panach^e.
Jaune de Toulouse.— Large, oblong; yellow skin and pulp. A very handsome
fig. Medium early.
Jaune Hdfive— Early White.
Jerusalem — De Gerusalem; Di Gerusaleme. — Medium, roundish; stalk stout and
short. Eye quite closed; skin black, with reddish mahogany toward the stalk;
blue bloom. Pulp dark blood red, rich, sweet, and finely flavored. A very
. Koodflg.
Jorest. — Medium, oblong turbinate; red skin; pulp white. A very productive
and handsome French fig of exquisite quality.
Kargigna—Xarflfmga.— Medium or below medium, turbinate; skin thin, white;
pulp amber. ' A rather early Dalmatian fig, of medium quality, good on^ for
table, and hardly worthy of cultivation. Introduced into California by G. N.
Milco. Possibly identical with Natalino.
Karginga — Kargigna.
Kassaba.— A Smyrna fig requiring caprification. Skin yellowish green. The
shape is that of a somewhat flattened onion— transversely ovate. Pulp blood
red. (See Smyrna figs, p. 278.)
La CasfagnoZa— Castagnola.
La Douqueiretta—CxBROiAATiJA.
La GewftZe— Gentile. See also Dottato.
La Melette—A^otLKiVii,
Lady Heart— Cu^RS.
Lampas — Lampeira.
Lampeira (Algarve) — Portoghese (Italy); Lampas (Portugal).— Size, 4^ by 2^
inches; shape roundish- pyriform, with long, slender neck, well set and shoul-
dered. Stalk very short; shape rather irregular, lopsided, largest diameter
at center. Eye medium, raised; scales pink. Skin thin or medium, greenish
brown, green in shade, brownish violet in the sun; pulp coarse, rose colored,
very sweet, juicy, but lacking flavor. Leaves small, 3 to 5 lobed, but lobe«
very shallow. Tree of medfum growth; first crop of brebas abundant.
Second crop drops. A fig common in northern Italy, and cultivated for its
first-crop figs. Also common in Algarve, Portugal. Link says that in Por-
tugal the first crop of this variety is called "figos Lampas," and Is especially
cultivated around Tiavira, in Algarve. The second crop he designates as
" figos vendimos,'' which is probably an error, the author having good ground
to believe that the '* figos vendimos " ome from a different variety. This fig
belongs to the San Pedro class, the trees sent to Niles through the Department
of Agriculture having matured splendid second-crop figs after having been
caprificated. It is certain, however, that the Lampeira is one of the finest of
all first-crop figs, and that it should be widely distributed. What the White
San Pedro is for Andalusia in. producing the luscious brebas the Lampeira is
for southern Portugal. (Fig. 71.)
Lardaro. — Size large to medium, often 3 inches long by If wide. Neck long, taper-
ing from the center of the fig. Stalk very short. Numerous ribs, which are
warty and irregular. Eye flat, small, but open. Color of skin olive-yellow,
with dingy violet brown ribs. Stalk and neck green without the brown. Eye
with a violet iris, the scales being small and not prominent. No prominent
bloom. Pulp rosy violet, rather pale. Inside hollow. Meat thick, white or
yellow. The pulp is very coarse, but pleasant. Tree is a medium grower, with
large 3-lobed leaves. Branches straggling spreading. An abundant crop-
per. In form this fig resembles Pied du Boeuf . The most common tig around
Naples, Italy. Valued on account of its abundant crop.
Large Black Dowro- DouRO.
Large jBZwe— Brown Turkey.
Large White jTwr/cejy- Brunswick.
La -Roiisse— Rose Blanche.
La Sucrada—SvcRADA.
La Toscana— Toscana.
Lee*8 Perpetual— Brown Turkey.
, CATALOGUE AND DESCBIPTION OF FIGS. 249
Leker Ing^ir. —A Smyrna fig roq airing caprification . Color of skin greenish-ochre.
Not handsome. Skin with dark specks. Stem and neck very short or
aheent. Imported by Roeding. (See Smyrna figs, p. 278.)
Levant— Ti/rf^rwi.— Very large, oblong; skin white; leaves laciniate. (All accord-
ing to Dnhamel.)
Levenssana— i^ci4« smithii Risso; Ficus sylvestria var. alpestris Qeny. — Size
mediam; 2i inches diameter, globnlar, flattened; skin hard, glossy, adhering to
the pulp; color of skin pistachio green on the stalk end, brownish violet on the
apex side. Eye red, surrounded by a violet iris; pulp bright red. Very agree-
able taste. Common at Levens, near Nice, France.
Fig. 71.— Lampeira flg.
"LipAri— Petite BlancJieRonde; DeLipari; Blanquette; BlanquettoandEaquillarello
(Provence) ; Verte Petite; ftouton du Gu4tre,— Size very small , the smallest of all
figs of the Ficus carica species— about three-fourths inch to 1 inch long. Glob-
ular, with longitudinal ridges; stak one-eighth inch long. Color green, turning
yellow or whitish at maturity, with a thin bloom. Pulp pale ix)8e, opaline, or
pale coppery. In a warm climate a sweet and good fig. (According to Hogg. )
X/ivia Witt— Piss ALUTTO Bianco.
TiOb Ingir— Bulletin Smyrna; Commercial Smyrna; Erbeghli; Erhelli; Erbeili,—
Fruit sulphur yellow when ripe, this color lasting only two days. Pulp pale
honey colored without red. Form of fig decidedly flattened, as an onion.
250 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Before full matnrity the pulp is streaked red. Requires caprification. The
figs of the caprificated Smyrna fig should never be cut from the tree, but be
allowed to fall naturally to the ground. The dropping of the ripe figs always
occurs at the proper time— that is, when the figs are fully ripe and ready for
drying. If the figs are cut from the tree before they are ready to drop they
will remain hard and inferior. In order to insure a perfect dried fig the groand
under trees should be soft and mellow and there should be no large clods. As
soon as the figs have dropped they are at once picked up and examined.
Many of them are ready for packing without further drying. In case they
are too moist or pulpy one or two days' exposure to the sun should suffice to
bring them to the proper state of desiccation for packing. This is the true
Smyrna fig of commerce, grown and extensively cultivated in the valley of
the Meander near Smyrna. It is a distinct hg, and this and no other fig should
be known as Smyrna, if this name is to be used at all. The promiscuous use of
the name Smyrna figs can not be too much condemned. (See Smyrna figs,
p. 278.)
Long Marseillaise — Marseillaise, Long.
Long Naples— BnowN Turkey.
, l/owgr FerdaZ— Verdal, Long.
Long Yellow— Longue Jaune,Skm reddish yellow. A long, turbinate fig.
Longue Jaune—hONQ Yellow.
Longue ikf arseiZZaise— Marseillaise, Long.
LTicrezia— Col, di Siqnora Bianca.
Lusitanica. — France. Possibly identical with Lampeira.
Madame Trille — Trille.
MadeZetri€— Magdalen.
Madonna— Brunswick.
JULsLgdalen— 'Madeleine; De la Madeleine,— Size below medium to small, about li
by 1^ inches, quite round, or slightly pyriform and obtuse. Bibs distinctly
prominent and rough, especially toward the stalk, while diminishing in prom-
inence toward the eye, but entirely disappearing immediately around it.
Stalk longer than one-half the fig eye open, comparatively large, but depressed;
scales very small and few ol a pale whitish amber. Skin greenish-yellow or
yellow on cheek, greenish in the shade; pulp amber white; meat white. A
very delicious little fig, far superior to the Ischias and the Celestes. (Fig. 72. )
The above description is taken from fig trees imported from France by Mr.
Qillet to California and grown in Santa Clara Valley. They differ from those
received by the Royal Horticultural Society of London, as seen below. Dr.
Hogg gives Madeleine as synonymous with Angelique, which is erroneous,
Angelique is a distinct fig of larger size, much more flattened, and^ of the
shape of a flat onion.
Madeleine— De la Madeleine.Size medium; 2^ inches long by If inches wide;
pyriform; lopsided. Ko distinct neck and very small stalk. Bibs shallow,
numerous, confluent; eye medium, open; scales large. Skin waxy, cracking,
of a yellowish-green color; pulp coarse, rosy amber and pure amber toward
stalk end. Vinous and juicy, but not highly flavored. Tree strong grower,
with large, coarse, shallow, 3-lobed leaves, about 9 inches long by 8 wide,
woolly underneath. This fig was received thus named from the Boyal Horti-
cultural Society of London. It is a distinct fig from the true Magdalen.
Mahounaise. — Color red. Salon and St. Bemi, France.
Malta— iSmaZZ Protim.— Small, roundish turbinate, compressed at apex; pale brown
when fully ripe; pulp pale brown. Dries well and becomes a perfect sweet-
meat. (Hogg. J
Maple-leaved Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 278.)
JlfaramZZa— Princess A .
Maris No, ;^— Oouraud Noire.
Marseillaise — Athenes.
Marseillaise— Marseillaise, White.
Marseillaise, Black — Black Marseillaise; Black Provence; Noire de Provence;
Reculverf Hogg; Ficus phoceana Bisso; Marseillaise Negra (Provence). —
Size medium; shape oblong-pyriform, with a distinct neck; body not flattened
at apex; stalk long, about one third the length of the fig. Ribs distinct, espe-
cially toward the neck, gradually disappearing toward the eye. Eye closed,
medium size; scales large, red, slightly standing out. Skin waxy and slightly
downy, finr, of a dark bluish black, with very thin bloom. Pulp rosy red;
meat white, not very finely grained, but good. No large seed. Provence and
Nice. This fig is not related to the Marseillaise, White, nor to the Athenes and
does not bear a few large seeds, as do all figs related to Marseillaise, Whit^.
(Figs. 73,74.)
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
251
Marseillaise, Long— Lowgr Marseillaise; Orosse Blanche Longue; Longue Mar-
seillaise; Or osse Marseilles; Orosse Marseillaise. — Large, about 2| by 1 finches;
longer than wide; skin thick, white or greenish with brown shade; pulp dull
red; leaves o-lobed, margins crenate, lobes sharp, pointed. Requires moist
soils. A fair fig which dries well. South of France. This fig must not be
Fig. 72.— Magdalen tig.
confounded with either the Black or the White Marseillaise, as it is not related
to either of these figs. The common name '' Marseillaise'' to all these varie-
ties does not indicate that they are closely related or resemble one another,
but simply that they are, or were once, principally cultivated near Marseilles
or perhaps originated there.
Marseillaise iV^egrra— Marseillaise, Black.
252
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Marseillaise, White — Marseillaise; Figue de Naples; Naples; White Naples; White
Standard; Orosse Marseillaise (all according to Hogg); White Marseillaise. —
Pig. 73.— Marseillaise, Black figs.
Medium or below medium ; ovate, pyrif orm, or even quite round; 2 by 1^ inches to
If inches: neck very short, sometimes smaller; stalk medium. Bibs numerous
and distinct, but not greatly ele-
vated, more like very distinct
veins. Apex flattened, or slightly
rounded at the eye. Eye large,
open, but not elevated; scales
small, amber green, flat, not
standing out. Skin slightly
downy, not waxy, mottled, with
smaller or larger specks of pale
white on a ground color of pale
yellowish green, evenly diffused;
pale yellow around the apex;
when not fully ripe bluish -green.
Very light pale bloom. Meat
white; pulp amber, transparent,
with a few very large seed, very
sweet, juicy, and pulpy. One of
the best drying figs, though small
in size. Extensively cultivated
in Provence, France. The
Athenes, Marseillaise, White,
Baby Castle, and some other figs
form a natural group character-
ized by possessing a few very
large seeds, etc. These varieties
have been confounded by most
writers, one copying the errone-
ous description of the other with-
out further investigation . H ogg
gives as synonyms a number of
figs, such as Baby Castle, White
Genoa, etc. which are distinct,
and some of which do not even belong to the Marseillaise group. The figs
belonging to this group are useful lor drying, but of medium quality as table
figs. (Fig. 75.)
Fio. 74.— Leaf of Marseillaise, Black figs.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 253
MarseiUasa^Amtvivs,
Martale. — ^Provence.
Martinique — Black Martinique, — Below medinm; ronnd, with short neck; ribs
prominent; eye open; stalk very short; color deep blackish purple; pulp dark
red, stiff , and oily. Very good. This is all according to English authors.
There is also a white Martinique.
3farf tntgit^— Martinique, White.
FiQ. 75.— Marseillaise, Wliite figs.
Martinique, Whit»-^Mariinique, — White Martinique, small, If inches long by
li wide, pyriform; neck short, but very distinct and well set; stalk short or
none; cheeks prominent, swollen; ribs very distinct, few, and broad from
base of neck to eye; eye open, large, with elevated iris: scales rosy; skin
rather rough, yellowish-green; ribs pale violet-reddish, and a reddish or violet
flush, which is faint on the sunny side. Violet pale bloom on neck. Pulp
rosy red, with few seeds; meat pink. Very sirupy and juicy, and well fla:
vored. Leaves medium, very deeply lobed, lopsided, margins crenated, wavy,
254 THE fig: its fllSTOBY, CULTURE, ATitr) cuitiNa.
lobes five. This fig is supposed by Rev. W. Wilks to be synonymous with
Angelique, but this the author considers incorrect. A very heavy bearer. A
most excellent fig for canning.
Marzelli.— Violet purple; pulp white opaline. Italy.
Matarassa— Figtie de Orasae; Grasse; Oraasenque; Fipue Oriae; De Oraase;
Oraasale; Ficus graaaenaia Risso.— Very large, 8 to 9 inches in circumference
by 3 inches long; very flattened at apex, else turbinate; neck short; ribs dis-
tinct, longitudinal; stalks very short, scarcely perceptible; eye open; skin
thin, yellowish white, covered with blue bloom; pulp very dark red; good
for drying; leaves 8-lobed, with undulating margins and obtuse lobes. An
extremely handsome fig of medium quality when fresh, but better when dried.
The tree is a very vigorous grower and requires moist and rich soils. Greatly
to be recommended for rich bottom lands.
Matelassa — Matelaaaiera, Ficua aylveatria var. ventricosa (G^eny). — First crop
large, 4 by 2^ inches; lopsided, one side' protruding; skin blackish red; pulp
yellow. One of the few figs with dark skin and white or yellow pulp. Nice
and Provence.
-Ma^etossiera— Matelassa.
Mattaro — Albo.
Hecque.— A French* fig for drying and table.
ULeirsLJia,— Ficua meirana Risso. — First crop very large, brownish black; pulp
red. Second crop heartshaped, violet black; pulp rose-colored. Levens on
the Riviera, France.
3fefof fe— AnqAlique.
Mentone—MENTONASCX,
IBLentonaacA—Figue de Mentone, Mentone; Ficua erin. var. mentonenaia G^eny. —
Above medium, 2f by 2 inches; pyriform; with a long neck; skin thin, tender,
of a dark violet color; violet meat below the skin; pulp reddish, very sweet.
Nice, Mentone, and their vicinity, France.
Afewfowen»is— Mentonasca.
Meou — Figa de Meou (Provence); Figue Mielleuae; Ficua mellifera Risso; Ficua
aylveatria var. smyrna Qeny; Honey fig,— -Two crops: First crop large, tur-
binate, 2 to 2i inches diameter; skin thin, cracking, greeUish-yellow, vio-
let below the skin; eye projecting; pulp red; very good. Second crop glob-
ular, smaller, about If to 2 inches diameter; pulp red. paler than first crop;
good for drying, but inferior when fresh. This fig was considered by Geny
as identical with the true Smyrna fig, which is erroneous. It is cultivated in
Savoy, at Nice, and other places.
Merengiana — Ficus melitensis Risso; Ficua erin, var. melongena Geny. — First
crop oblong-ovate, largest at the apex; skin thin, cracking, of a blackish- violet
purple; meat violet streaked; rather sweet. Nice and the Riviera.
Merioun — Figa a Merioun (Nice); Fico fetifero; Fico ddlV Oaao (Italy); Ficua
erin, var. fcetifera Geny; Ficms nucleata Risso.— Two crops: First crop
2\ to 3 inches, in diameter, sometimes bell-shaped, flattened; dark violet color,
or greenish yellow, striated violet; sometimes contracted at the middle like a
gourd, the apex part being dark violet, the stalk part being greenish yellow;
eye very large, open, emitting one or more small figs similar to the mother fig;
pulp red. sweet, agreeable, but dry and hard around the eye. Second crop
smaller, but with similar characteristics. The monstrosity of this fig is simi-
lar to the one found, for instance, in roses, where the axis is prolonged, forming
a new rose; or as in cei*tain citrus fruits, such as the navel orange, etc. A
curious, but not a valuable fig. Rare. Nice and Provence.
Merlinga — Ficiis erin, var. gernina Geny; Twin fig, — Below medium; If inches
diameter, turbinate; color brownish black, fine violet at the stalk and neck;
neck long and very slender; pulp red. Nice and Provence.
Messongue.— Very large. At Salerno, France.
Mezzith.— A black fig from Kabylia which requires caprification.
Migliavolo. —Italy.
Minna— S\N Pedro, Black.
Minna di Schiavo — San Pedro, Black.
TiLiasion— Black Mission, Black California, California^ Black Mexican,— Two
crops: First crop or brebas large to medium; long turbinate with the
greatest diameter between the center and the ape?r. which is rounded, some-
times even pointed, causing the shape of the fig to become ovoid. Neck long,
gradually set; stalk medium to short; ribs distinct, well marked. Eye promi-
nent, raised, open, but not very large; scales rosy. Skin rough, slightly hairy
or downy, deep mahogany violet with reddish flush in shade and on stalk
covered with a thin bloom. Pulp not fine, red, but not blooded, rather
brownish-amber red, shaded dark amber; sweet, but not flavored. The tree
Bui. 9, Div. of Pomology, U. S Dept. Agriculture.
Plate XV.
Mission Fig Tree, California.
CATALOGUE AKD DESCRIPTIOK OF FIGS. 255
IS a good grower, with the lower branches drooping, and light bark. Leaves
5-lobed, glossy, longer than broad and lighter green than most other figs, and
most characteristically mottled with lighter, yellowish green. A coarse fig,
which, however, thrives and bears well almost everywhere. It dries well and
when dry is rather of pleasant quality and seems especially adapted to Cali-
fornia and Arizona, where it is extensively distributed. Also common in
Sonora and Baja California, and probably in other of the Pacific States.
Introduced by the Franciscan missionaries in the eighteenth century. There
is only one variety of Mission fig. The general belief that the Mission is a
distinct California fi^ is erroneous. We can no more lay exclusive claim to
this fig than can Mexico and Chile. It was undoubtedly brought from Spain or
Portugal at a very early date after the conquest. The early padres and mis-
sionaries in the Pacific coast States cultivated no other variety of fig. (PI. XV. )
Jtfbissoa— MouissouNA.
Moissonne iVbire— Mouissouna.
Monaco Bianco — White Monaco, — Large, 2i by 2 inches; shape rounded, turbi-
nate, flattened. Neck small, but very distinct and well set; ribs numerous,
slightlv elevated, narrow, but very distinct down to the apex, but not so
marked on neck. Eye very open, scales large, dark amber, iris slightly
elevated from a surrounding depression, with faint color of dark green; skin
dark bluish-green, even all around, or the shaded side only slightly paler in
snn, mottled with dark amber. Thin bloom; pulp dark rose; meat amber
yellow. A very good, juicy fig, splendid for table; does well at Niles, Cal.
(Fig. 76.)
Monaie. — Second crop above medium, globular, but compressed; color ashy vio-
let, somewhat bronzy; skin thick; pulp brown. Good.
Monege blanche— France.
Monginence—Dovqv^iRA Negra.
Monnoire.— Medium; rounded; green. France.
Monstreuse.— Medium, about 2^ by If inches wide; turbinate, with a short, thin
neck, bent and well set; no stalk. Skin smooth, with faint, irregular, and
crenated ridges; apex flat; eye medium to small, open, with erect scales.
Skin waxy, covered with a fine bloom around the stalk and ending sharply
before the equator i^ reached. Color uniform pale green; pulp brownish
salmon, dense, vinous, but not highly flavored. Leaves large, aoout 10 inches,
Slobed, without spurs, very coarse underneath. This fig is said by Rev. Dr.
W. Wilks, secretary- Royal Horticultural Society of London, to be identical
with Grosse Monstreuse de Lipari, but the fig sent by him and from which
the above description is taken is not identical with that fig, which is said by
Hogg to be brown in color.
Monteg^aa*— Above medium. A drying fig.
Moresca— (?enh7Za Roussa (Nice) ; Ficus sylvestria var. maunritanica Geny. — Two
crops: First crop very large, 3^ to 4 inches by 2^ inches; pyriform, lopsided,
with a very long neck. Color bright gray: eye star shaped, raised, red; pulp
pale red or yellowish. Grown around Nice, France, and supposed to have
been introduced from Algiers.
Morlaise.— Very large. France.
Moscadello — Albo.
HLoMiaaounA—Moissonne Noire; Bouissonne; Mouiaaonne; Moissoa (Nice) ; Mouia-
8one (Italy); Mouissonne Noire (Provence); FHcus mouissona Risso; Ficu8
erin, var. salsula G^ny; Figue violette N. Duhamel. — Two crops: Second
crop almost globular, turbinate. If inches long by 2 to 2^ inches wide; broader
than long, flattened at apex. Skin thin, fine, tender, of a blackish violet color,
with blue bloom. Eye reddish; pulp red, soft, very isweet and like a date in
taste. Best of all the early figs, but inferior to Bamissotto Black, which, how-
ever, is later. Leaves 5-16bed, crenate, lobes acute. First crop longer, very
few. Requires a soil neither too dry nor too wet; in the former the figs would
drop and in the latter they would become of poor taste. (Fig. 77.)
MoWWSOne— MOUISSOUNA.
Mouissonne— MomssouN A,
Mouissonne Fugia.—A variety of Mouissouna.
Mouissonne iVbtre— Mouissouna.
Mourenao — Bagassa (Villa Franca); Ficus mourenao Risso; Ficus sylvestris
var. olivula Geny.— Small. If inches diameter; almost globular; skin thick,
cracking, blackish violet; pulp red, medium quality. Nice and Provence.
According to Duhamel there is a Mourenao with oblong fruit and white pulp;
leaves 8-lobed, obtuse, undulating, though I believe an error was maae in
describing the pulp and that both descriptions refer to the same variety.
256
THE fig: its history, culture, and cubing.
Jtfurrey— Brown Turkey.
TKuaaegei^Cougourdana; Ficus linneana Risso; Figv£ Eeine Dnhamel; Cou-
gourdane Geny; Mussega Bianca: White Munsega, — Second crop medium,
about 2^ by H inches; shape pyriform, largest at apex and with a narrow
neck, but less so than Tapa Cartin. Skin thin, greenish white, spotted: red
star-shaped eye ; pulp livelyred, of agreeable taste. ( September to December. )
Nice, Aix, and St. Remy, France,
Pig. 76.— Monaco Bianco flgs.
Mussega j^tanca— Musskga.
Mussega Negra — Ficys punctulata Risso; BUick Mti88ega.—A variety of the
preceding with skin first a bright green, dotted with white, later turning to a
dark blackish violet. Provence, France.
iViap/es— Marseillaise, White.
iVopoMtoin—NAPOLiTAN.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
257
Napolitan—iVopoZttono; Napolitain,—Two crops: First crop large, egg-shaped,
oblong« with deep longitndina ribs; skin pale yellow, thin: pnlp coarse, bnt
juicy, white. Second crop one-half smaller, turbinate; color brilliant green
at base, violet toward the crown or apex; skin thin; pnlp very fine, oily, sweet,
red. A very good fig, suited to drying. Is much dependent on the locality
where grown and vaiies from very good to poor.
Fig. 77-.— Moaissoana figs.
iVopoKfani— DOTTATO.
Napolitano—H^ apolitan.
Natalino — Delia Cava; Tre Volte; Pasquale; Christmas Fig; Winter Fig,— -A fig
which ripens very late all through the winter, withstanding the frost, at Naples,
and ripening after the leaves of the fig tree have fallen. Probably identical
with Kargigna.
25? THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
iVeb/aw—ADRiATic. — There seems now to be no doubt but that the Nebiati and
Orosse Verte are identical with the Adriatic of the California growers. The
description given by Dr. Hogg tallies exactly with our Adriatic. Trees
received from the Royal Horticultural Society in London under the name of
Nehian and Orosse Verte and grown on the place of John Rock at Niles, Cal.,
resemble exactly our Adriatic figs. Our Adriatic fig, however, is now so well
known that a change of name can not be desirable. This vaiiety is, among
other things, characterized by a peculiar, and not always desirable, ** burnt '
taste, especially prominent in the dried fig. This taste was also found in the
Ifebian and Grosse Vertex and the author considers it absolutely beyond any
question that these three varieties are identical. If a change should be made
in name, the word Nehian should be preferred.
Negrau— Figfa Negrau (Nice); Ficus sylvesiris var. rufeacens Gteny. — Second crop:
Two inches by five-eighths inch; pyriform, reddish brown; meat violet; pulp
red. Nice and Provence, France.
Negretta— i^icits nigra Risso; Ficu8 erin, var. sa^xetana Gteny; Rock Fig, — Two
crops. Second crop medium ; 8 bout 2 inches long by 1^ inch wide; ess shaped,
rounded, similar to a small Douqueira. Color shining black, with blue bloom;
skin thick, firm, adhering to the pulp, which is pale yellow and of good quality
when fully ripe. Many seeds. Thrives well in the rockiest places, where no
cultivation is possible and where no other tree except the olive would thrive.
Nice and Provence. Is recommended for places in Arizona and southern Cali-
fornia where irrigation is impossible.
Negro d'Espafla—QENOAy Black.
Negro Zxirgfo— San Pedro, Black.
Negrone— Aegrronne.— Size medium to below, 2 by If inches, pyriform, tapering
with a distinct, slender, variable neck. Stalk distinct, long; stalk and part of
neck bent over and rising in a curve upward, where the fig hangs down.
Ribs few, distinct, disappearing on apex, which is rounded; eye small, closed;
scales few, large; small iris. Skin smooth, except for the ribs; color deep
violet-black; pulp fine, dense, with small seed; meat violet- white, pulp brown-
ish red to amber with violet flush; inner scales ocher yellow. Tree a strong
grower. Leaves long, about 9 by 6 inches, very deeply lobed, the middle lobe
being much the longest: three deep large lobes and two shorter ones near the
base of the leaf. Under side rough. A very good little fig. It is not identical
with the Violette de Bordeaux, as suggested by Barron. This latter fig has
small leaves, otherwise the fruit is very similar.
iVegfro?i?ie— Negrone.
Nero ObZwngo— San Pedro, Black.
NiBRAN— De Nibran.
Nigra.— Small, pyriform: skin dull yellow, shaded purple; flesh bright red, juicy,
not rich (Barron). This is undoubtedly a variety brought to England under
a wrong name, as it is difficult to understand how a **dull yellow" flg could
be called Nigra. It is only another instance of the mixing of names. The
variety is entirely distinct from A'tgrra— Ghenoa, Black.
Mgra— Genoa, Black.
Nigrette.— Very small, oblate, with short neck; stalk one-eighth inch long; eye
open; skin dark blackish purple over the apex and halfway toward the stalk,
where it shades off to reddish purple. Pulp rose colored, juicy, and sweet
Not identical with Negretta.
Noire d'Espagne.— Extremely early, small, round, and regular, stalk short; eye
closed; red ribs; skin quite black, with thick blue bloom, cracking when ripe;
pulp tender, deep rose. A handsome fig of fair quality (Hogg). A different
fig from Negro d'^spana— Genoa, Black.
Noire d'^sjpagrne— Genoa, Black.
Noire de Languedoc — San Pedro, Black.
Noire de JVovewce— Marseillaise, Black.
Noiremoutier.— Two crops; medium, oval; color yellow with red stripes. A very
rich table fig from the valley of the Loire, France. Introduced into California
by Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, Cal.
Nubian,— Prob-dbly another spelling for iVebiaw— Adriatic.
Observantine — Cotiqnana.
Observant iue—SERVANTiNE.
Ohsei*vantiere Orise — Cotignana.
iEil de Perdriic— Pheasant Eye.
Ome—Figa d'Onie: Ficus richeta Risso.— Medium or below; li to 2 inches diam-
eter; eye red, with green iris; skin violet-black; pulp bright purple-red. Nice
and the Riviera.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 259
Osbom Prolific. — Very large; abont 4 inches long; ronnded turbinate; tapering
into a very long neck. Skin dark mahogany, gradually shading off to i)ale
brown toward the neck, which is bright pea-green, with the surface thiekly
spotted with gray and white. Pulp opaline with no trace of red. A rich,
sweet, and highly flavored tig. According to Hogg this fig was introduced to
England by Mr. Osbom, of Fulham, in 1879. The original name is not known,
as the fig has not been identified with any foreign variety,
Ovato — Caravanchina Neora.
Pacific White.— Local name, given by Messrs. W. B. Strong & Co., of California.
Medium or small; rounded turbinate: stalk very short; no neck; many shal-
low ribs. Skin greenish yellow, somewhat downy. Pulp coarse, amber white,
with large seeds. Sweet, but poor flavop,. Tree a poor grower; rounded head.
Leaves smaU, stiff, 3-lobed, brig:ht green', with fitwdown. JIbis fig belongs to
the Marseillaise class, characterized by its large seeds, but is smaller than and
inferior to the true Marseillaise, which it otherwise resembles.
Pagaudi^re. — Two crops. Bound, reddish yellow, with red streaks. A very
sweet French fig for table, extensively grown in the valley of the Loire, in
France, according to F. Gillet, who introduced it to this country.
Palopal.— Very large fig of white color, grown in the vicinity of Valencia, Spain.
Panach6e—iSWped.— Medium; round; skin bright, dark green, striped yellow.
Pulp white. A very handsome striped fig, probably the same as Jasper, with
the description of which it agrees. Leaves and stems of these figs are dis-
tinctly striped.
Panachee— Col, di Siqnora Panach^e.
Paradise Fig—FARADiso,
Paradiso — Paradise Fig.— Only first crop said to be valuable.
Parker^s Smyrna — Adriatic.
Pasquale— Nat AiANO,
Pastelli^re— Pos^tdt^re.— Size, about 3 inches long by 1^ inches wide; shape,
elongated pyriform, with long, gradually tapering neck; cheeks swollen and
Protruding; stalk short or medium; ribs hardly elevated, and in ripe figs not
istinct. Eye closed, but rather prominent, with an elevated iris, rough;
scales few, but comparatively large, dark violet, with rosy margins. Bloom
can not be rubbed off. Skin rather rough, hairy, covered with a thick, fine,
pearl-blue bloom, extending to the eye. Color dark violet-blue all over; pulp
dark red, sweet and good; meat white. A good fig for preserves. Does well
at Niles, Cal. Tree erect, with stiff limbs. Leaves very large, almost circu-
lar, coarse and flat, shallow. 3-lobed or entire. If the writer could plant only
one blue variety it would certainljr be this fig. The fine form of the tree, its
abundant cropping, and the superior quality of the fruit should make this fig
a favorite all over the Pacific coast. (Fig. 78.)
Pastidi^re—P ASTEiuhitRE,
Peau d^Ane—PEAV Dure.
Peau d' Ane Noire. — A variety of the following, with blackish-violet skin. Very
fertile.
Peau Dure — Peldure; VerteBrune; Peau d' Ane, — Medium or above medium; 3 by
If inches; pyriform, with short neck, well set; tapering; stalk short; ribs very
distinct, rough, uneven; cheeks lopsided^ swollen; skin green, with brown tint,
turning obscure. Palp bright rose, coarse, but good. Leaves small, 3-lobed,
with very slender stalks.
Peconjude (?ri«e— Peconjudo.
Peconjudo — Peconjano; Pedonculee; Ficus longicaudata Bisso (Histoire deFiguei-
^res); Peconjvde Orise. — Oblong, rounded; very narrow but long neck; color
glaucous, shaded yellow -green; pulp red. Good fresh and dry. Grasse and
Antibes. Provence.
Peconjano— Peco^jvdo.
Pedonculee— P^CONJVIX),
Peldure— Feav Dure.
Peloua — PeZowa-s (Provence); Cortice Crasso; Setosa; Velvet Fig; Ficus erin, var.
eriocarpa Geny; Ficus pilosa Bisso; Veliie: Perouas N. Duhamel (prob-
ably an error for Pelouas).— Above medium; 1^ to li inches by 2 to 2^ inches;
rounded, but longer than wide; of a violet-brown color, rather intense, and
with reidish shade. Skin tender, but thick, bright green, covered with a
thick, whitish fuzz. Fig strongly adherent to the stem. Pulp pale yellow
to pale rose: Does not suffer from coulure; produces well, and thrives equally
well on dry and moist soil. Leaves 5-lobed, pointed, and crenate. This is a
vf^luable fi|j^, as it is a good and regular bearer,
260
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
PeZotww— Peloua.
Perg^iissata— fVegtMsato.— Frnit small, round, compressed at the apex; skin pur-
plish brown in the shade, dark brown, covered with pale spots on the side
exposed to the sun; pulp deep red, rich, and luscious. August to October.
(Elogg.) This is probably the true Pergussata, received from England under
that name, in which case the fig introduced by J. Rock should l^ar another
name. (Figs. 79, 80.)
Fig. 78.— Pastellu>re fig.
Pergrussata.— SizeS^bylf inches; pyriform; lopsided; neck long, but narrow; stalk
rather long, one-half inch. Ribs broad, distinct, wavy, but not branched: eye
flat, small, pale biown, with slightly elevated iris. Skin smooth or somewhat
warty along the ribs, apex flat or concave. Skin pale violet-brown on cheek,
lighter-shaded yellow in the shade, darker around the eye; stalk and neck
greenish yellow; pulp red or roee, shaded amber. Meat under the skin green-
ish yellow. The name is doubtful.
Peroquina—DouQvmRA Neora.
Perroquine — Perruquier.
Perrugrwier— DouQUEiRA Negra.
CATALOGUE AND DESOEIPTION OP PIGS.
261
Pemiquier — Perroquine; Violette Perrvquier.—^tledium, oblong; stalk short; eye
open; ribs obscure; skin very dark black, with white bloom; pulp deep red,
stiff, and sweet, but not highly flavored. First crop 2 by 1^ inches; leaves
5-lobed, crenate, acute. Requires dry soils. Valuable on account of its brebas,
which are very fine. ( Fi g. 8 1 . )
Pe rot*as— Pelou A.
Peters White.— Size medium; flattened or turbinate; about 2| inches each way.
No neck and stalk as a rule, though some figs have a slight neck; ribs low,
bent quite distinctly around the stalk end and the eye, though nearest the latter
there is a smooth zone. Skin waxy, mottled with omall whitish specks,
^ound color green with yellowish ribs; eye large, open; scales rough, stand-
ing out, amber, tipped brown; eye flat or sunk. Cheeks rather uneven, pro-
truding. Bloom bluish, thin; meat yellowish white, especially under the
skin, but no*; thick. Pulp dingy pink, fine, sweet, and delicious, with a fine
acid. One of the very best white figs as far as regards the first crop. Second
Fig. 79.— Pergussata fig.
Pig. 80.— Leaf of Pergussata fig.
crop, medium, pulp less pink, more amber, smaller than Adriatic, but sweeter,
and never becomes sour, at least not at Atwater, Cal. A delicious fig, which
the author has not been able to identify with any of the foreign kinds, though
it undoubtedly comes verjr near to Verdone. Fully ripe fruit sent from San
Joaquin Valley, California, June 26. It is probable that this, as well as
**Atwater," belongs to the importations of fig varieties by the late G. N. Milco.
The Peters White ripens about one week later than Atwater. Named for
J. D. Peters, in whose orchard the trees were found.
Petite Atfbique— Bordeaux.
Petite Avinque FioZe^fe— Bordeaux.
Petite Blanche Sonde— Lip ari.
Petite Figue FioZe^^e— Bordeaux.
Petite TerdaZe— Verdal, Round.
Petite Violette — Petite Violette des tngwes.— Small, oblong; dark violet; leaves
3-lobed. Similar to Rose noire, but smaller. May prove identical with
Black Ischia, France.
Petite Violette dea Vignea^PwiiTE Violette.
262
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Pheasant Bye — (Eil de Perdrix. — Medium, variable turbinate or pjrriform, 2^
inches long by If wide. Short but set neck; short or no stalk; lopsided.
Eye small, closed; skin faintly ribbed, rather waxy; color deep brown, green-
ish on neck; pulp dull coppery amber, with a tint of salmon. A well-tilled
fig. Leaves below medium, coarse, 3 or 5 lobed, about 7 A by 7i inches. This
fig was received from the Royal Horticultural Society of London. It neither
agrees fully with the description given by Dr. Hogg, nor does it correspond
with the description given by French nurserymen.
Pichotte-Bamissotto — Sareione.
Pied de Boeuf.— Size medium to large, 2^ by 1^ inches to If inches; shape oblong
pyriform, with long, narrow, curved neck; stalk medium to long; slan rough,
warty, with warty ribs, distinct both at apex and on neck; eye closed, small,
surrounded by a rough, warty, elevated iris, of the same color as the skin, but
surrounded by a lighter zone; scales
large, violet; skin violet, chocolate
brown, in some greenish olive iu
shade, with more yellow between the
ribs. Thin blue bloom near the stalk.
Color is diffused, apex and neck are
not lighter colored; pulp amber yel-
low, slightly rosy; meat greenish yel-
low. A^ftrv^nodfig. remarkable on
account of the color of its pulp, which
is amber, while the skin is dark. The
pulp, however, is quite coarse, though
3nicy. Tree au irrrnuailtf iiiypflfiinff
grower ; leaves 3-lobed. Fruit ripens
late." ■
Pignette.— A small Italian fig.
Pingo de Mel.— First crop: Above me-
dium; largest figs are 2^ inches wide
by 3 inches long, pvriform, with a
short and very thin but still distinct
neck. The neck Is narrow ; about one-
fourth inch wide and even throughout;
about three-fourths inch long. G reat-
est transverse diameter is below the
center of the fig; stem short; skin
smooth, waxy, pale grden. Ribs in-
distinct, consisting of numerous lines;
eye small, with large scales of amber
color, margined white. Male zone
distinct, but small; pulp whitish am-
ber; male flowers around the throat
and also scattered in the cavity of
the receptacle, but few in number.
Growth of tree sturdy , dense. Leaves
medium to large, 5-lobed, rounded.
Lobes rounded, deeply cut; but, as
the lobes are wide and overlap each
other, the sinuses between them are
not very distinct. Stem of leaves as
long as the leaves. This is a very
good and juicy fig and one of the best
green brebas. This fig variety belongs either to the class of the Cordelia fig,
having male flowers with pollen, or to the class of edible caprifigs. It possesses
numerous gall flowers in the cavity of the receptacle, but at this writing I
have not yet found out if these galls are capable of sustaining waaps. At
Niles this fig has never matured a second crop. As soon as it sets this year it
will be caprificated, and it can then be determined with certainty to which class
this fig belongs. At present I am inclined to consider it as an edible caprifig.
(See description of this variety under Caprifig, p. 281.)
Piomhinese—^AN Pedro, Black.
Pissalutta—PissAhVTTO Bianco.
Pissalutta iVegrm— Pissalutto Negro.
Pissalutto—PissAiaVTTO Bianco.
Pissalutto BiAuco—Piasalutta; Pittaluasa; Poussouluda; Pitaluffe; Pissalutto
(Italy); Fi^ms carica var. ligurica Geny; Liviana, Pliny?.— Size \\ by 2
inches or over; medium; about one-half the weight of Dottato. Shape ovate-
pyriform, the greatest width at the center. Neck medium, but very slender;
Fig. 81.— Perruquier fig.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
263
ribs very low or indistinct; eye small, scales open, bright red. Skin smooth,
thin, waxy, greenish yellow in the shade, with a brownish-amber flush quite
similar to that of White Bourgasotte. Meat white; pulp very lively rosy red,
of the finest quality. Leaves large, 5-lobed, longer than broad, points sharp,
and cuts are medium deep. The end lobe considerably longer than the other.
Growth vigorous; branches quite slender and not much branched. Most
leaves are 5-lobed, but some also 3-lobed; the leaf stalk is rather long. Very
few, if any, brebas; second crop fair. A very fine drying fig, the best Italian
fig for table, according to Gallesio, and the best next after Dottato for drying.
Fig. 82.— Pissalutto Bianco fig (second crop).
Common in Lignria and around Genoa, and especially fine at Sarzanese; also
in Corsicaand Sardinia. At Grasse, in Provence, known as Pitahiffe, Its period
of maturity is short. It ripens after Albicello and Bineletto, and is succeeded
by Dottato, Rubado, and Bourgasotte. One of the best of all figs. It is sup-
posed to be identical with the Liviana of Pliny, which identification must be
considered highly doubtful. ( Fig. 82. )
Pissalutto Negro—Black Pissalutto; Ficus saffrenia Risso; Pissalutta Negra.—
Size medium; less oblong than Pissalutto Bianco; skin shiny, violet ribbed;
pulp fine and sweet. A fine black fig grown around Genoa (according to
Gallesio) . Inferior to Pissalutto Blanco.
23740— No. 9—01 18
264 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing,
Pitaluffe—'PissxJAJTTO Bianco.
Pittalussa—FissAL.VTTO Bianco.
Pittilonga — San Pedro, Black.
Porto — De Porto.— A black fig, tree dwarf. For table and drying. Sejme, St.
Maximin, etc. , France.
Portoghese — Lampeira.
Portugal, Black (provisional name).— Largest fig known. About 4 inches wide
by 5 inches long ; pjnrif orm . Short neck an d very short stalk. Eye small, open,
. with very small black scales. Ribs narrow, indistinct. Skin otherwise
smooth. Color deep violet black, greenish around the stalk end. Pujp violet
strawberry red. Meat white with violet streaks. Pulp not finely grained, .
but very sweet and highly flavored. One of the handsomest figs grown and
one to be recommended for market. Bearing quality very good from early to
late. Tree a straggling grower and not dense, the limbs spreading in all
directions, 'allowing piSlity of air and sun among the branches. Leaves
medium to small, oblong, with 8-pointed lobes and sjometimes with 2 addi-
tional small basal lobes. This fig was brought from Portugal by emigrants
to Niles, Cal. , where it is now growing. The true name of the variety is
unknown to me. Possibly the same as Douro,
Poulette.— First crop small; fruit medium or above medium; ovate or rounded,
with short neck: stalk short; skin ashy green; pulp bright rose. Grood.
Second crop one-half smaller; eye closed, ashy green with gray bloom. Pulp
dark red, quite juicy, and sweet. Tree me di u m: leavesmedmm, deeply
3-lobed. Good for drying; stands the ram well. Tarascon and Siiluii; Pl'ance.
Pounchuda— Ficws acuta Risso; Ficus sylvestris var. proilonga Geny.— Two
crops; second crop medium; 2 by If inches; oblong, gradually tapering to the
stalk; neck long; skin pistachio green to yellowish; pulp reddish yellow,
sweet, and honeylike in taste. Nice, France.
PowssowZwda— PissALUTTO Bianco.
Precoce d'Espagiie — Trifero.
P!regrt*s8ato— Pergussata.
Princessa — Figa Turca; Figa MaraviUa; Figa Princessa; Ficus radiata Risso;
Ficus carica var. lunata Geny; Turca; Princess Fig; MaraviUa, — Second crop:
Turbinate, rounded at apex; skin longitudinally divided in regular bands
alternating green and bright yellow; eye large, raised, red; pulp bright red:
good. A very handsome and fine fig. Provence and Savoy, France.
Princess i'Xc;— Princessa.
Pi^rpZe— Brown Turkey.
Purple Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 279.)
Cluarteria.— Size medium, about 1| inches long by 2^ inches wide, though some-
times not wider than long; turbinate or flattened like an onien. Few distinct
ribs; no neck and stalk; eye small, but open; scales few and short; skin waxy,
shades of green, with a fine gray bloom around the neck end, but which does
not extend to the cheek, the bloom ending with a sharp margin. Eye rosy
amber, with rosy iris; pulp coarse, bright but j)ale rose; meat amber. A
good, highly flavored, and juicy fig. Fine for drying. Tree strong: round
head with very dense leaves closely set on limbs. Leaves oblong, ab out. 9^
inches long by 7 inches wide, rather deeply 3-lobed, sometimes entire. ^
Cluasse Blanche.— A reddish-gray fig, cultivated at Baudal and Seyne, France.
Quotidienne—D ATTK Quotidienne.
Babbit Blood— Sanq de Lievre.
Baby Castle.— Fruit about medium or below medium; rounded, obtuse and flat-
tened at apex; no neck, but long stalk: eye small; skin coarse, with very
prominent ribs which are rather irregular; color greenish white; no bloom;
pulp coarse with a few very large seed; color, white amber; sweet, but no
flavor. A poor ^o wer. Lgaves^^jmall,^thick, 3 to 5 lobes, and rough, with
very lofl^lStaiks, wliicff are o1fFeTi"'consrdefably larger than the leaf. Belongs
to the Marseillaise group, but is much inferior. Dr. Hogg is in error in class-
ing this fig as a synonym of the Marseillaise. It is much coarser, with heav-
ier ribs and with a white pulp, and the tree is less densely covered with leaves.
In the interior of California Raby Castle is an inferior fig. In the vicinity of
San Francisco Bay it is sweeter, but still always very coarse, and the author
thinks it is not worthy of cultivation in this country, where so many better
figs are grown. (Fig. 83.)
Baby Castle. — Below medium, turbinate, about 1| inches wide by 1| inches long.
No neck and short stalk. Flattened at apex. Many shallow ribs. Tree mod-
erate grower with rounded head. Leaves deeply 3-lobed. This fig resembles
greatly the Pacific White and may be identical with that fig. Name doubtful.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS.
265
Rag^sa — Dalmatian; Dalmatian Ragusaine; Ragusaine. — A white fig of fair qual-
ity, introdnoed from Dalmatia to France. Probably the same fig as intro-
duced by G. N. Milco to California under the name Dalmatian.
Ragusaine— RaqjjSa,
Becousse 'Noire— Econsse ATmy^g'— Tiitrgg f^^nndifth-nhlfl.tfl with long neck, and
with lopsided swollen cheek on one side. Kibs obscure; stalk very short; eye
closed ; skin violet-dark mahogany or chestnut, pale toward the neck and green-
ish toward the stalk end; pulp opaline with a shade of rose in center. Tender
and juicy, but not flavored. Medium quality (Hogg). A very good late fig.
Becousse Violette.— Similar to Recousse Noire, but with deep red pulp.
Beculver.— Is said to be different from Grosse Violette de Bordeaux, San Pedro,
Black , from which it differs by being smaller and more round. It also resem-
bles Black Provence.— Marseillaise, Black. It was originally found grow-
ing wild on an old wall in the village of Recnlver, in Kent, England. Fruit
small, roundish; skin black; pulp red, thick, but not rich (Barron).
JEteculver. — Medium; about 2^ inches long by H inches wide; pyriform, tapering;
lopsided cheeks; short narrow neck; no stalk. Low, branching ribs, distinct
from stalk to the eye. Eye small , closed or open , with small , rosy-colored scales. .
Skin slightly hairy, of a brownish violet, covered with a faint gray bloom. *
Pulp thick, amber-salmon, lightest at eye, turning salmon towards the stalk end.
A good fig. Leaves about 9 ift ^ri^es by 3, deep, broad lobes and two shallow
?)urs. Not identical with BlacK Marseillaise, as suggested by Dr. Hogg,
here are two distinct figs known as
Reculver. The author has not seen the
variety mentioned by Barron.
BccwZrer?— Marseilaise, Black.
i2ed— Brunswick.
ited-Btocfc— Rose Noire.
Red Caiana^—CAiJiSA.
Red Frette—B.ovo^ de la Frette.
Bocardi. — ^^^^all ; ft^"^ ^ ^ i|]r»iiftg inner htr 1^
inches wide; pyriform, with small neck;
stalk very short. Eye small, sunk;
scales large, with rough iris. Skin
smooth, with indistinct ribs. Color of
skin violet-purple, with fine, gray bloom
extending all over the fig, or with dark
violet flush. 'Pulp sweet, amber or red-
dish amber, with different shades. Meat
thin, wliite. Pulp solid. Tree a mod-
erate grower. Leaves 3-lobed.
Rock i^*§r— Negretta.
Bolandina— BHasca (Grasse); Rolandine;
Blanchette; Fico Dattero; Ficvs vezzoao;
Cortese (eastern Riviera) ; Coasco (west-
em Riviera); Ficus rolandina Risso;
Ficus sylvestris var. praedulcis Geny. —
One crop. Size medium; 2i inches long
by If inches wide; short, pyriform or bell-shaped; skin yellowish green mixed
with red and violet. Eye reddish; pulp yellowish white, tinted rose, very
sweet and thick, with small seed, highly flavored. Tree medium, witn
deenly-cut and pointed lobes. Together with Bellona, the Rolandina is one
of tbe very best figs cultivated in the south of France for drying. It is exten-
sively grown there and the object of much trade. Fresh it is of medium
quality only. Principally grown in the south of Provence.
Rolandina "NegrA— Rolandine Noire; Ficus rosa nigra Risso; Fi(ms sylvestris
var. rvbricaulis Geny.— A variety of the reddish-gray Rolandina, more oblong
turbinate, dark violet reddish, with red pulp. Provence, France.
iJotowdine— Rolandina.
Rolandine iVbire— Rolandina Negra.
Bondella "BlAnca,— White Rondella; Ficus lielena Risso.— Similar to the Black
Rondella, but with thinner skin and of a yellowish green color. Mentone-on-
the-Riviera, France.
Bondella Negra— Btocfc Rondella; Ficus sylvestris var. ceresana Gteny (San-
vaigo). — Below medium; H to 2 inches diameter; turbinate; suddenly con-
tracted at the neck, which is long; eye red, with violet iris; skin blackish violet;
pulp red. Around Men tone-on-the- Riviera.
Bondeletta— l^'cw« carica var. rotundula Geny, S. — Globular: bright green
shaded brown; li to If inches diameter. Pulp red. Savoy at Nice.
Fio.83.— Raby Castle fig.
266
THE fig: its HI8T0BY, CULTUBE, AND CUBING.
Bonde ISfoire— Round Black.— Size large, abont 2^ by 3 inches; qnite round,
irregnlar ; neck distinct but very short, well set; ribs distinct, running together
and hardly elevated; e^e small; scales very small, reddish; iris large, paler,
not elevated, but still distinct, with a margin around the scales. Skin smooth,
waxy, color dark violet- brown, very evenly diffused, and in the shade hardly
paler, only near the stalk more greenish. Bloom thick, bluish white; pulp
amber, meat amber. A very fine fig, which can not be too highly recommended
as a table fig. Entirely distinct from Osbom Prolific. (Figs. 84, 85. )
Pia. 84.— Ronde Noire flga
Konde Itouge. — Medium; color of skin dull, tawny red; pulp dull red* Second
crop of good quality. (Barron. )
Bonde Violette H&tive.— First crop: Large, 2^ inches long by 2^ wide; almost
globular, with no neck and no stalk; ribs large and prominent; skin smooth.
CATALOGUE AND DESOBIPTION OF FIGS.
267
glossy; color green, the ribs shaded violet brown, numerous very small white
specks all over the skin: eye large, but not protruding, wide open with
small scales of an amber-rosy color; pulp amber, shaded rose in center;
meat whitish. A magnid-
cent looking breba of first
quality. Brebas ripe at
]Niles August 1.
Rose Blanche-rVTAife Rose;
Tm Mousse, — Very large,
round, depressed or flat-
tened at the apex. Stalk
long; color brownish on
white ground; pulp lively
red: leaves crenate, 7-lobea,
with pointed lobes. Re-
quires dry soils. South of
France.
Rose Noire — Red-Black; Cou de
JlfueZo.— Size medium, pyri-
* form , contracted at the mid-
dle; skin reddish violet; pulp
white am ber ; leaves crenate,
7-lobed, with pointed lobes.
Requires dry soils. One of
the better figs in Provence.
Hogg erroneously gives as
synonym Black Ischia,
which is a much smaller
fig. (Fig.86.)
Rose Peyronne. — Medium;
roundish oval; obscure ribs;
stalk one-fourth inch long;
skin pale brown with fine
gray bloom; pulp pale sal-
mon of good quality.
Rose White--RosE Blanche.
Bosine.— ^Said to be a white,
round tig from Syria. Good for drying.
Bosso di Mensiglia.— Italy.
Rotondo Levigate— Italy,
Bound, White Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 279.)
Bouge de la Yrette^Freite; Red Frette,—
Large; oblong; pyriform; skin red. Late.
Grown around Frette, near Paris, France.
Bougette.— Small; obovate; without ribs;
stalk short; eye closed; skin red, coppery
yellow in shade, shading to yellow toward
stalk end. Pulp coppery red, of indif-
ferent quality. (Hogg.)
Round Black— RonDE Noire.
Round FerdaZ— Verdal, Round.
Round White— Blanche Ronde.
Boussana— Mc2/s sylvestris var. rubella
Geny.— Second crop: medium, If to 2
inches diameter; color pale reddish- violet
with red pulp. Nice and its vicinity.
Bo2/aZ— Versailles.
Royal de Versailles — Versailles.
Boyal Vineyard.— Fruit above medium or
medium long; pyriform, with long slender
neck and long slender stalk; ribs mere
longitudinal lines. Eye large, open: skin
thin, hairy, reddish brown or purple, with
thick blue bloom; pulp bright reddish,
hollow in center, but otherwise juicy and
good and highly flavored. The true name
was not known when the variety was introduced into England. (Fig. 87. )
Bubado — Cuore; Rvbaldo; Figa Ruhado (Genoa) ; Arbauda; Roubauda Blanca
(Nice); IfHcus richardi Risso; Ficua carica var. rdtmata Gteny.— Above
Fig. 85.— Leaf of Bonde Noire flflr-
Pig. 86.— Rose Noire tig.
268
THE fig: its histoby, cultuee, and curing.
meditim. about 2^ by If inches, bell-shaped to turbinate or hear^8haped;
greatest diameter at center, gradually tapering toward the stalk, which is of
medium size. Skin thick, smooth, of green color, shaded reddish brown and
yellow in the sun, and with iuhy gray in the shade, adhering strongly to the
meat. Pulp intensely red, very sweet and flavored, with a drop of honey exud-
ing at the eye, rather sharp in taste; eye reddish; leaves small, 3-lobed, and
not deeply cut; branches few and slender and tree of small growth to medium.
The first crop very small or none. The second crop larger; ripe in September
and November. One of the best Italian figs for the table. Extensively culti-
vated in northern Italy and Provence, but especially so in the Marche, Umbria,
Sabina, Piedmont, Appenines. Lombardy, and Bomagna. In many places
known as Fico Cuore, on account of its heart-like shape. Is to be highly
recommended. ( Fig. 88. )
Fig. 87.— Royal Vineyard figs.
Bubado Negro — Ficus serotina Risso; Fieus sylvestris var. hyhema Qeny;
Raubauda Negra (Nice).— Size 2 to 2^ inches diameter; turbinate; violet red
or fine black; eye red with a large reddish-brown iris; skin hard; pulp bright
red, thick, agreeable. November. One of the latest figs. Nice, Italy, etc
Rovbauda BZanca— Rubado.
Ronbauda iVegrra— Rubado Negro.
Rvbaldo—'RiiBADO,
Rvbicone—SAN Pedro, Black.
Safran6e.— Reddish gray. Nice and Salon, France.
Saint Dommigwe— Dominique.
Saint Esprit.— Large, oblong; color dark violet. Besembles Aubique Noire but
is inferior in taste. Provence and near Ponte St. Esprit in Languedoc, as well
as at Aix and Salon. A good early crop; second crop poor.
Saint JPVanciS— Franciscana.
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF PIGS.
269
Saint Jean— De Saint Jean. — Very large; two crops. France.
Saint John. — First crop; above medium, 2^ inches long by 2 inches wide; pyri-
form; stalk medium, longer than the neck, which is not well set; skin smooth,
waxy; ribs few, irregular; skin yellowish green, with numerous light specks
of unequal size; eye email, closed, with warty iris of the same color as the
fig; scales about six, large, pale dingy white: pulp and flesh white with small
seed. Leaves medium, 5-16bed; end lobe the largest; lobes rounded, deeply
cut; stalks long. A very sweet and juicy breba, ripe at Niles August 1.
Saint Johns. — Possibly the same as Saint Jean.
Saint Peter — San Pedro, White.
Saint Ursula d'Avignon.— Below medium; oblong, without neck; stalk short;
eye open; ribs very obscure; skin pale brown or copper, paler on the stalk,
where it is tinged green; pulp tender, pale rose in center, opaline toward the
meat and skin. A small but very delicious fig. (Hogg.)
Pig. 88— Rubado fig.
SaladA^Ficus purpureO'Violacea Bisso (S).— Two crops; second crop pyriform:
2^ inches long by If inches wide, quickly contracted at the neck; color purple
violet or pale purple; pulp reddish brown. Nice and the Riviera.
Salerne. — Above medium to large; 2^ inches diameter; globular; stalk and neck
short; eye very open; skin whitish yellow. A hardy fig, not subject to drop-
ping or injury by rain. A very early variety, requiring dry and high ground.
Provence.
Salette— Provence.
San France— Franciscana.
San Pedro— San Pedro, White.
San Pedro, BlsLCk—Aubique; Black San Pedro; Corho (Pescia); Piomhinese (Pisa
andCollina); Rubicone (Carrara and Sarzana); Arbicone (Genoa); Fico Nero
(Sardegna); PittUonga; Minna (Sicily): Minna di Schiavo; Fallagiana
(Abruzzo) ; Aubique Noire (Provence) ; Breba Negra (Spain); Aubi^ue Violette
(Provence) ; Violette Longvel^ (France) ; Aubiquon (Provence) ; Auliguo; Grosse
Violette Longiie; Figue Poire; Fico Arbicone (Genoa); Fico San Piero (Tos-
270 THE fig: its history, cultube, and curing.
cana); Fico violacea Bisso; Fieus erin. var. uberrima Qeny; Negro Largo;
Noire de Languedoc: Grosse Rouge de Bordeaux; Orosse Violette de Bordeaux;
Nero Oblungo, — Dr. Hogg, in his catalogue, confounds this fig with Violette
DE Bordeaux and Petite Aubique, Bordeaux, which are different figs of
smaller size and of pale-grayish color, for description of which see ''Bor-
deaux." On the other hand, the author is satisfied that Dr. Hogg's Negro
Largo and Noire de Languedoc are identical with the Black San Pedro,
although this is not quite clear from his description of the variety.
Two crops. First crop very large, from 3^ by 2 inches or 4 by 2 inches.
Shape elongated, ovate ; no ribs; with prominent and well-set neck. No, or very
short, stalk, flattened laterally and rather lopsided, one side of apex hanging
down more than the other. Eye open, reddish; skin smooth, violet black,
with a rosy flush in the shade and green on the neck; fine blue bloom; pulp
coppery red, tinted with violet; very sweet, but with a light disagreeable
smell and bitterness. Second crop smaller, oblong, 2^ by H inches; ribs manv
and prominent; color deep sea green, with violet-black ribs; eye medium, with
many spreading yellow scales; pulp reddish violet, rather coarse; meat thick,
greenish white. Tree very strong grower, requires mcist and rich soil . Leaves
large, 3-lobed, forming a very dense foliage. The first crop is a table fig of
unsurpassed size and fair quality. The second crop dries well, but is small in
quantity and inferior in quality compared to the first crop.
The Black San Pedro is one of the most excellent of the black figs. It is culti-
vated extensively in northern Italy, Provence, and Spain. It tiirives also in
the vicinity of Paris. The author has seen figs of large size and fair qualitv
near Santa Ana, Cal. In size it is probably unsurpassed by any other black
fig known. Though the fig is callea San Pedro, Black, it must not be under-
stood that it is a variety of the San Pedro, White, or vice versa. The two figs
do not resemble each other in the least, and are, in fact, not related, and the
only thing they have in common is the name. Under the name of Qrosse Vio-
lette de Bordeaux the author received from Rev. Dr. Wilks a fig distinct from
either Bordeaux or San Pedro, Black. It resembles somewhat Negrone, but
has smaller leaves. (See Violette de Bordeaux.) (Fig. 89.)
San Pedro, White — Fico di San Piero; Fico di San Pietro; Apple Fig; Breba
(erroneously); Saint Peter; White Saint Peter; Fico di Saint Piere; San
Pedro.— Two crops, the first only maturing without caprification. Large,
rounded; 3 to 4 inches diameter, somewhat flattened at apex; stalk and neck
very short; eye large, open, but not protruding. Skin ribli^d. not waxy, thick,
but tender, of a bright yellow color in sun, shading to greener in shade, with
no bloom, but showing off like a lemon on the tree. Color of scales yellow,
with violet iris; pulp light amber, opaline, with here and there a trace of red;
rather coarse but sweet, and somewhat deficient in fiavor. A remarkably
handsome fig, but difficult to ship any distance. Large growing tree, with
upright branches; leaves waxy and not deeply lobed, with obtuse ];>oints.
Requires deep, rich, moist, but not wet, river-bottom soil. Only the first crop
comes to maturity without caprification. Is not related to Black San Pedro.
Second crop: Fig as large or larger than the first crop; about 2f inches wide
by 2 inches long, being decidedly flattened, like an onion. The eye is large
and wide open, with amber scales of small size, of a spreading nature. No
stalk and no neck. Many ribs from eye to stalk distinct all around. Color of
skin deep sea green, without any flush of yellow in the sun. Flesh, deep and
bright strawberry red, without any violet tint. Meat, yellowish white. Seed,
many, but very small. Pulp, fine, juicy, and highly flavored and distinctly
acid. A most exquisite fig and much superior to the first crop, which often
is insipid. This crop was produced at Niles on a properly caprificated San
Pedro fig tree standing next to a capri Milco. It bears a full second crop,
while all other San Pedros, which had not been caprificated, dropped^ all their
second crop, just as they had done for ten or more years past. It is'interest-
ing to note that the second crop differs from the first crop in shape and qual-
ity. Caprificated, I consider San Pedro, White as one of the most delicious figs
I have seen. It may possibly prove to be a valuable fig not only for the mar-
ket but also for drying.
San Pedro, White, is rather extensively distributed in Califomia, especially in
San Joaquin Valley. When well grown it is a very good fig, which, when near
a market, sells well. It was introduced to California at various times, once
under the name of Breba, from Spain.
Bang de Li6vre—-Ra66iYBZood.— Large, rounded; skin bright brown; pulp blood
red. Good bearer and fair quality for table.
jSarac^ne— Saraina.
CATALOGUE AND DESCBIPTION OE" FIGS.
271
Saraina — Sarasina, Sarac^ive; Ficus saracenica Risso: Ficus erin. var. erodens
Qeny.— Medium, about 2 to 2^ inchea diameter; oblong turbinate; skin thick
and hard, cracking, bitter, adhering to the pnlp, which is red. Color of skin
blackish violet: stalk of the fig easily detached from the branch upon which it
grows. Nice and Provence.
Pig. 89.— San Pedro, Black figs.
5arcwtna— SaraIna.
Sareigne— Fcr(ia/e; Pichotte'Barnissoto.—Abont 2 inches diameter; round,
neck very short, strongly adhering to the branch and not separating even
when ripe. Skin thick, of a very dark, violet black, greenish at the neck.
272
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Pulp red. Good, but requires great heat and moist and rich soils. Leaves
3-Iobed, undulating margins with obtuse lobes. Common in Provence.
Recommended for the warm valleys of California and Arizona.
Samese. —France.
Savantine— Servantine, CoRDELLii:BE.
Seirola— iSeyroZe; Seirolles, Duhamel?; Ficus seirola Risso; Ficvs carica var.
leiocarpay Qeny.— Medium or small; second crop turbinate; If to 2 inches;
skin greenish-yellow; eye prominent, green; pulp yellow, very sweet, dries
well. Savoy and Provence around Nice, Grasse, and Dragnignan.
iStetroWea— Seirola.
SeTV2Lntis^e--ServenUne; Observantine; Cordelliere; Savanfirte.— First crop, large,
round, with prominent ribs; second crop, half size. Color pale yellow; pulp
red. A good fig, which requires moist, rich soil. (Fig. 90.)
Servantine d'Arg^nteuil— A va-
riety of Servantine, with
greenish red skin. Very large,
round. Fertile and early.
Grown around Argenteuil.
Servantine Grise— Gray Servan-
tine,— -K variety of the Servan-
tine, but not identical with the
Servantine Bifdre.
Servantine Biffere— Gme Servan-
tine Bif^re; Toulotmenne, —
Probably the same as Toulou-
sienne, but not the same as
Servantine. Below ^medium,
short, piriform; skin dull
brown, ribbed, with a thick,
gray bloom; flesh dull red,
thick, sirupy, and luscious.
Servantine Bouge.— A variety of
the preceding with red skin.
Large, round. Said to be fer-
tile and good.
iSerwnfme— Servantine.
Setosa—PEhovA.
Sextius.— A white fig of good
quality from Aix, France.
8eyrole—SEiB,OL.A.
Seyroles.— For drying. At Grasse
and Draguignan.
Siciliana— A'^a Siciliana (Nice);
Ficua siciliana Risso; Ficus
sylvestris var. bruttia Geny, —
First crop above medium; 3i
inches long by 2^ wide; oblong,
rounded at apex; color green-
ish-yellow, with grayish spots.
Eye very large, raised, reddish; meat violet; pulp yellowish and pale red.
Nice and vicinity.
Singleton— l&CRiA, White.
Small Black.
Small firoMJn— Malta.
Small Early White— ^kKLY White.
Small Purple Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 279.)
Small FerdaZ— Verdal, Round.
Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 279.)
Smyrna, BZacA:— Purple Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 279.)
Smyrna, JtfopZe-Zeared— Maple-leaved Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 879.)
Smyrna, Round WVii^e— Round, White Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 279.)
Smyrna, Small PwrpZe— Small Purple Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs, p. 279.)
Strawberry Figr— Adriatic.
^^Hped— Panach^e.
Striped Signora— Col. di Signora Panach^e.
Sucrada— La Sucrada; Sugar Fig, Ficus saccharata Risso; Ficus carica var.
formosa Geny. — Two crops. First crop, pyriform; greenish-yellow, flushed
brown on the ribs. Second crop, turbinate; 2 to 2i inches; rounded, ribbed.;
color greenish, bright yellow toward apex; pulp, pale red, very sweet. A
very distinct fig.
Fig. 90.— Servantine flg.
CATALOGUE AND DESCEIPTION OF FIGS. 273
Stigar i?Ygr— Sucrada.
Sulane. —Oblong, white. France.
Sweet Briasca— Briasca Doussa.
Sweet Brayasque—BRiA&CA Doussa.
Tapa Cantin—TkVK Oartin.
Tapa Cartin— -<4u6ico Blanco; Aubique Blanche; Orossp, Jaune; Tapa Cantin;
Bouche Barrigue; Ficus monstruosa Bisso: Ficus carica var. prolifera Qeny.—
A very large fig, and one of the largest white figs known. Size, 3 to 4 inches
long by 2 and 2^ inches wide. Shape oblong, often contracted at the middle,
and rather irregular as to outline: neck thin, long; skin very thin, yellow;
eye large, open; pulp bright blood red. with numerous seeds. This fig fre-
quently develops a monstrosity— another receptacle cropping out of the apex
of the first one, just as a rose is often found protruding from the center of
another rose. Leaves, 5-lobed, with undulating margins and obtuse lobes.
Requires moist soils. Cultivated around Nice, Provence, France, and in
other places. (See also Merioun.)
Tapa Cartin Negre.— A black variety of the preceding, with lustrous black skin.
Thftmeriouth.— A white fig from Kabylia.
Thabellout. — A white fig from Kabylia.
Thaberkant.— A black fig from Kabylia.
Th.abouhiaboult.~-A black fig from Kabylia which dries with difSculty.
Thabouhiaboult.— A white fig from Kabylia. Is dried and cured with some dif-
ficulty. *
Thadhefouith.— A white fig from Kabylia. Does not require caprification.
Thadoukkarth-en-thara'animt.— A variety of capritig from Kabylia.
Thadoukkarth-en-tifouzal.— A variety of caprifig from Kabylia. The best vari-
ety.
Thadoukkart-en-t'it-en-tesekkourth. — ^A variety of caprifig from Kabylia. The
name means '' pheasant's eye."
Thadoukkart g^uir'zer.— A wild caprifig from Kabylia. It is not used for capri-
fication, but only as stock for grafting. The word means ** the caprifig of the
river bottoms."
Thadoukkarth Thaberkant.— A variety of caprifig from Kabylia. Color black.
Thakoumennaith.— A white fig from Kabylia, the name meaning ** round."
Thamellalt.— A white fig from Kabylia.
Thaoussifth.— A white fig from Kabylia.
Thar'elit.--A white fig from Kabylia.
Thar'animt.— The most esteemed white fig grown in Kabylia. Requires caprifi-
cation in order to produce mature fruits.
Thazerart. — A white fig from Kabylia Does not require caprification.
Thazaicht.— A black fig from Kabylia which requires caprification.
Tibourenque. — Fresh and dry; middle of September. Marseilles and Salon.
Tifewrhna.— Gentile.
Toscana— Xa Toscana; Florentina; Figa Florentina: Ficus carica var. florentina
Qeny.— Two crops. First crop pyrifoiin. lopsided, of large size, 3^ inches
long by 2 wide. Eye promment ; skin rough, dotted, of greenish yellow, shaded
gray; pulp pale yellow, streaked violet, sweet, highly flavored. Better than
the G-entile. A variety of this fig with brown skin is found near Bordighera,
Nice, and Provence.
Toulousienne.— Medium; about If inches wide by 2 inches long; pyriform, with
flattened apex. Neck distinct. Stalk small, almost none. Ribs many, shal-
low, and almost imperceptible. Color of skin dingy olive-green with violet-
brown flush. Pulp bright strawberry red. Meat greenish- white. Eye small,
with rough iris of the same color as skin. Tree medium. Leaves small, shal-
low, 8-lobed. almost entire, and of rounded outline. Quality of fig good, but
appearance is insignificant.
Toulousienne— SERYAiiTlNE BiFilRE.
Tres Fer— Trifero.
Tre FoZfe— Natalino.
7V?/(ere— Trifero .
Trifero — Tres Fer; Precoce d^Kspagne; Trif^re; A Tres recoltef, — ^Three crops.
Small, rounded turbinate or pyriform, about If to 2 inches long by U inches
wide, with obscure ribs: stalk about one fourth to three-fourths inch long; no
neck. Color dark green, transparent, shaded brown around the crown, paler
toward the stalk; eye small, closed; pulp opaline nearest the meat, rosy toward
the center. Fig is well filled. A very small, early and constantly bearing fig,
rich, juicy, and of very good quality, recommended where only one tree can be
grown. Leaves very small, about 5i inches, with 3 large lobes and 2 small
spurs.
274 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Trille — Madame 3Vi7Ze.— Large, white skin. Two crops. Originated in France,
or at least named there.
Trois Bi^oltes. — Small, ovate, skin dark, tawny copper colored; pulp dull red,
with but little flavor. Early and free bearer. (Barron. )
Trojano. —A green Italian fig from the vicinity of Naples. The best table fig grown
there. Has not yet matured in California.
Trompe-Chasseur—Gumts .
!/Vc>wipe-Cas«a/r^—CuKRS.— Probably the same as Natalino.
Truett. — ^Below medium, about li inches by seven-eighths inch; shape elongated
oval.
Tulpick.— Said to be a Syrian drying fig of superior quality.
rw? ca— Pbincess A.
Turkey, J5roti?n— Brown Turkey.
Turqui — Levant.
Twin jFYgr— Merltnga.
WaZfon— Brown Turkey.
Varina— Italy.
Vebra. — ^Size medium to small, rounded turbinate, no neck and short stalk, many
indistinct ribs. Eye small and closed, skin waxy, transparent, of a fine
greenish-yellow color. Pulp almost pure white, faintly ambered, with small
seed. A fine, juicy, refreshing fig, but not highly flavored. Tree moderate,
upright. Leaves small, 3-lobed, about 4^ inches in diameter, rough, with
shallow lobes. The stalk of the leaf is unusually long, sometimes twice as
long as the leaf.
FeZwe— Peloua.
Velvet -Ftgr— Peloua.
Fewdome— AngIilique Jaune.— Local name given by Messrs. Strong & Co. (Cali-
fornia). This fig is undoubtedly the same as Ang£liqu£ Jaune.
Verdal — ^Verdal, Long.
Verdala — Verdal, Long.
Verdala Blanca — Verdal, White.
Verdal de Valence. — Below medium, roundish, turbinate, slightly ribbed, skin
dull tawny red, with a fine bloom; flesh thick, dull red. Second quality,
very prolific. (Barron.) Name doubtful.
Verdal, Jjong— Verdala (Nice); Verdale (Provence) Ficus virescens Bisso; Ficus
caricayar.miUtiferoxGeny; Oironetta; Orosse Verdale; Verdal Lorupie; Long
Verdal; Verdal. — One crop, September. Size medium, about 2i by \\ inches,
shape oblong-turbinate; stalk and neck short, woody
and hard. Eye large, closed, bright red, skin thick,
with ribs of a yellowish-green color, with the ribs
flushed brown, base of fig violet, no bloouL Pulp
pale strawberry red, of fair or good quality. A
very large spreading tree with deeply lobed leaves.
Common in south of France, and also growing in a
few localities in California, where it, however, has
not been thoroughly tried.
Verdal Longue — ^Verdal, Long.
Verdal jRonde— Verdal, Round.
Verdal, Bound — Petite Verdale; Verdal Ronde; Round
Verdal; Small Verdal,— One of the earliest of figs,
ripe in June and July. Below medium or medium,
about li by If inches or larger; shape round, or
slightly pyriform, without stalk or neck and with
low and distinct ribs. Skin smooth and waxy, of
a uniform bluish-green at the apex, gradually ^lo. 91.— Verdal, Round flg.
lighter toward the stalk end. No bloom; eye
closed, small, but large in proportion to the size of the fig, with few but
comparatively large scales of amber color at the point, darker rose at the
base. Pulp dark blood red, very fine, sweet and highly flavored in some
localities. A small but fine variety. This fig is highly praised in Santa
Clara Valley, California, and around Nevada City, Cal., but is inferior in the
San Joaquin Valley, California. Extensively distributed in the south of
France, where it loves dry and mountainous regions. This variety is very
useful for conserves and preserves, as the fig is small, very sweet, and the skin
is waxy-all points favorable for the preparation of a good article of conserve
and g:'ac6 fruit. (Fig. 91.)
Verdal, White — Verdala Blanca; Ficus variabilis Bisso; White Verdal. — Almost
pyriform, with a long neck, color green, changing to whitish. Size small,
about 1^ inches diameter; pulp blood red, very sweet. A variety of Verdal
mentioned by Risso as grown in Provence, France.
CATALOGUE AND DE8CBIPTI0N OF FIGS. 275
FcrcfeiZe— Sarkione.
Ferdate— Verdal, Long.
Verdaou—QnossE Beurdoua.
Verdara — Cimeipenc a .
Verdecchij—V EB.DECCIO,
Verdeccio — Verdechio (Tanara); VerdecchiJ (AXdron); Verdichio (Bologna); Ver-
dolino (Piacentino).— Below medium, about 1^ by H inches; shape round,
swollen, uneven, depressed at apex, with no neck; stalk short; eye small, red;
ribs distinct and regular; skin tender, bright green, turning yellow in sun;
pulp amber white, very sweet and very fine. (Fig. 92.)
Verdeccio di Brian^a— Verdino di Brianza.
Ferd6?c/ito— Verdeccio.
Ferdtc/iio— Verdeccio.
Verdino di Brianza— Vmteccio di Brianza,— A. green fig of good quality; Italy.
Verdolino — Verdeccio.
Verdone. — Medium, or above medium; round; skin green; pulp red. The famous
fig grown in the vicinity of Rome, claimed by W. B. West to be identical with
the Adriatic, which, however, is by no means certain. As far as I know there
are no trees of Mr. West's importation now alive in California.
Verdone ( Rome ) —Adriatic.
Vemissenque — Bemissenqiie, — Large, turbinate, regular; neck long; stalk short;
longitudinal ribs, most distinct on the neck; eye open; skin perfectly deep
black, without trace of lighter color, with a fine bloom like that of a dark
plum. Pulp dark blood red, sweet, but flat. A very showy, second-rate fig
with small seeds, flavored and of good quality. Leaves, 5-lobed,much serrated
and crumpled, longer than broad. Only second crop; matures late in Septem-
ber. This fig is not identical with either Verdone of Verona and Rome, Verdini
of Milan, Verdolino of Piacentio, but resembles greatly Zigerino Verde (Enga-
nei) (G) . Cultivated in Lombardy in the district of the Po. Nor is it identical
with any of the Verdals, but seems to be a distinct and well-characterized
fig, superior in flavor to the small round Verdal, which it somewhat resembles.
The Verdal is a handsomer but not as fine a fig.
Versailles— ^6owdance; Royal; Royal de Versailles.— Two crops; first crop
medium, about 2^ inches wide by 2f long. Longer than broad, bell-shaped,
flattened at apex, with a distinct neck; stalk medium; ribs few, well marked;
color pale greenish white; pulp rose. Second crop: small with longer stalk;
leaves 5-lobed, undulating with obtuse lobes. Similar to Blanche Commune,
but is loDger and with a more contracted neck. A coarse and poor fig when
grown in English hothouses or when in an unsuitable climate. Highly rec-
ommended by French growers as one of the best figs for the table, at least in
certain districts. Mr. Felix Gillet. of Nevada City, Cal., who has grown this
fig extensively, writes that the skin peels off like that of an orange and that
it is a very sweet fig, which stands shipment well, the first crop ripening with
him about July 1, and the second crop in September. (Fig. 98. )
Verte—CvEBS.
Verte Brune — Ficus carica var. deceptans Qeny ; Hunter's Deception,— Two crops;
second crop, medium or small, l| to 2 inches diameter; globular, compressed
at the stalk and with unequal cheeks; skin cracking, bright or blackish-green,
with a violet flush in the sun. Eye, reddish; pulp, blood- red, of good or fine
quality. Leaves 5-lobed, crenate, with pointed lobes. Savoy and Provence,
around Grasse and Toulon. There is another fig with this name. ( See Cuers. )
The name of the fig is derived from the fact that the fig appears unripe while
in reality it is perfectly ripe.
Verte Brune — Cuers.
Verte Brune— Peav Dure.
Verte Petite— JjIP Am,
Vigasotte Bianco.— Size small, about li inches round, turbinate. No neck; stalk
one-half to three- fourthR inch; skin rough, uneven; coarse but shallow ribs;
eye small, closed; pulp white, faintly amber: seeds small, but numerous; color
pale green, without fine bloom. Leaves medium to small, about 6 inches,
rough, coarse, esiwcially underneath: margins wavy.
Vigasotte Bianco— P^igra-Ho^^c— Small, roundish, turbinate, H inches wide by If
long; neck very short or none; stalk medium or none; ribs indistinct; eye very
small, closed or open, scales small amber; skin smooth, cracking, very thin,
transparent, with very thin bloom; pulp amber, with few seeds; meat white.
A juicy and good little fig. but it is not highly flavored. Tree a moderate
grower. Leaves small, with long stalks, 3 to 5 lobed, the two upper lobes
being very small. Under this name there are two distinct figs sent out.
Vigasotte—YiQASOTTE Bianco.
276 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Violette de Bordeaux. — Small, 2 inches long by H inch, pyriform, tapering; no
distinct neck, but with long stalk, which is bent over. A few shallow ribs,
Fig. 92.--Verdeccio figs.
especially distinct on neck above cheeks; eye very small, closed; scales yellow;
skin rugose, slightly downy, of a violet-black color, with a distinct and fine
CATALOGUE AND DBSCKIPTION OF FIGS.
277
bine bloom, confined to the neck, ending sharply halfway to the equatorial.
Pnlp fine, dense, brownish salmon; meat violet- white, not rich: leaves from 5
to 7 inches long, 3 deep, narrow lobes ontside of spnrs. ,Very similar to
Kegrone, bnt has smaller leaves.
Violette de laFrette— De la Frette; Figuier JBougfe,— Medium, oblong, somewhat
flattened; skin reddish brown, with violet flesh; color of pulp rose. Grown
at Frette for the Paris market.
Violette Longuef—^kn Pedro, Black.
Violette Pfemt^ier— Perruquier,
Violette Sepor.
Walton— BROwiij Turkey.
Warren's Brown Turkey — Warren.
Waxren— Warren's Broum Turkey,— First crop; very large, turbinate, about 5
inches long by 2i inches wide. Neck long, tapering; stalk very short; ribs
narrow, numerous, and shallow. Eye large," with many prominent and
expanding scales of a brownish yellow color. Pulp coarse but sweet and
juicy, solid; meat narrow and thin. Color of skin greenish on neck, violet
at apex and along the sides. . Color of pulp and meat rosy amber, with violet
streaks and spots. One of the best brebas known in California. Leaves large,
with three shallow lobes.
This fig is different from the true Brown Turkey and quite distinct from
the Brunswick, which it also resembles. In fact it resembles more the Bruns-
wick than the former. The true name of this fi^ is not known. Intro-
duced or at least distributed by Colonel Warren in the early days of fruit
culture in California. Possibly identical with San Pedro, Black. Tree a
strong grower and heavy bearer.
Grown in Vacaville, Cal., under
the name of Brown Turkey.
White Adriatic— ADBIA.T1C,
White Bardafcnfc— Bardakjik.
White Baltadjik—BJLRDAKJIK.
White Bami««o^/e— Barnissotte,
White.
White Dowgwetra — DouQUBiRA
Blanca.
WhitejQenoa—QENOA, White.
White Marseillaise — Marseillaise,^
White.
White Monaco— Monaco Bianco.
White Mussega—l/LvssBQA,
W hite Naples— 'M.AKSEii.L.AiQK, White.
White i^ondeZ/a— RONDELLA Blanca.
White -Rose— Rose Blanche.
White Saint Peter— Sav Pedro,
White.
White iStoTidard- Marseillaise,
White.
White jTowZowse— Blanche de Tou-
louse.
White VerdaZ— Verdal, White.
White Versailles— Bi,AVCHE de Ver-
sailles.
Wild Fig— CAFB.1F1Q.
Williamson. — Below medium; about
If by li inches; shape round,
slightly flattened at apex; no neck; stalk short to medium; ribs numerous,
not greatly elevated, but still quite distinct from stalk to near the eye. Eye
open, large, scales not protrudinj^, but flat and level with the apex. Skin
greenish yellow, evenly diffused, semitransyarent, slightly downy; pulp and
meat amber white around the eye; seeds very large. A very good fig— in the
author's opinion identical with the White Marseillaise, which it resembles in
every respect. Distributed by Mr. Williamson, of Sacramento. The above
name is proposed until the true name be found, although the author Is
almost positive that it is fdenlical with the Marseillaise White.
WUbotl— Smyrna. (See Smyrna figs p. 279.)
Winter Figr— Natalino.
Yellow AngHique—AsQtiAquE.
Fig. 93.— Versailles fig.
278 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Zimitza. — Medinm or below, longer than broad, turbinate; stalk large, about one-
fourth as long as the fig; no neck; skin slightly downy, of a greenish olive
color, mottled and dotted white or light yellow, lighter at the stalk end. Eye
closed, scales greenish, shaded brown, iris light brown; pulp amber, with a
slightly reddish center; leaves deeply but narrowly lobed. Good bearer and
grower, and one of the latest of all figs. Dalmatia— possibly identical with
Natalino. Specimens described were from trees imported from Dalmatia.
Ziza Kheden. --Large, oblong, color blackish violet; pulp red. Algiers.
-^ '^^'f W'-^^-'^/ ^ • V^^ J SMYRNA FIGS.
AA^' Linder the name of Smyrna figs we should include only such varieties as actu-
ally glow in Smyrna and which require caprification in order to set fruit The
practice to indiscriminately name varieties Smyrna figs should now be discarded,
and the buyer of fig trees should insist upon having the pedigree of the trees sold.
J^tt^re are now fruiting in California some ten different varieties of these figs, some
having proved to belong to the best types of Smyrna fig, grown in Smyrna for com-
mercial purposes and distributed from that place all over the world. Most of the
^ ^ following varieties have fruited in California. The descriptions are based, for the
' r\V// *^S ^^* part, on observations during the season of 1901, after the preceding pages
{ X '>^^^ *^were in type and are inserted here because of the commercial importance of these
.^^^^""^ varieties:
\ Bardakjik— TV^/it^e Bardakjik; White Baltadjik; Bartadjic. — F ruit large
[j^ I — to very large, ovate, pyriform, with long neck and stalk. Skin very tmn,
^ greeniSn gray. Ribs dist inct; light gray , covered with small gray dots. Eyes
,, 4 y . t^ yj ' deep red. Pulp rich, de^Ji iifllll90ll. Tree a compact grower, spreading.
I /^^ 'i Leaves Jarpfe* 5 -lobed. A farst-class table fig, also used for drying. The form
' ^f fflfl Bf resembles an Egyptian pitcher for holding water— bardak meaning
pitcher— hence the name.
Bardakjik, Black— Bar ^afc/ifc; Black Bardakjik, — Large, oblong, pyriform.
black. A very fine table fig from Smyrna, Asia Minor, wnere with the white
Bardakjik it is considered one of the very finest table figs. It will also dry
well.
Blowers — Blowers's Smyrna, — F ruit medium , about If inches long by If
inches wide. Ribs heavy. Neck crboKea, witn short stalk. Skin yellowish
green, with graj; bloom. Ribs darker than the other parts of the skin, which
is spotted over with gray dots. Eye ojjen, dark green. Flesh blood red, tender,
and sugary, with a rich sirup. Seeds* small, yellow. Tree mfigm2(^2£J2Ppg^bt
growth, with heavy branches. Leaf 9 inches wide by 10 inches long, i^-iobed,
and a few 5-lobed. Both surfaces greeii,' upper surf acefCtigh and glossy; veins
yellowish green^ Stalk of leaf about 3^ inches long. Edgesof leaves indentated.
This very distinct variety was one of the Bulletin importation, and first planted
on the place of R. B. Blowers, from which the tree at Niles is an offspring. The
Turkish name is not known. Description partly from notes of Mr. J. C. Jones.
Kassaba — Cassdba, — Fruit me dium to lar^ e. almost globular, somewhat
flattened at apex. Neck short; starK snort. Eye large, open. Sk in pale green.
Pulp reddish pink. Seeds small. Ver y sweet. Tree an upright grower. ( Koed-
ing's description.) **
Leker Ingir.— Fruit roundish, oblate, with short neck. Pulp reddish pink,
^eeds small. Skin greenish ocher, very thin, wit h dark specks. Ribs distinct;
ligirr greenish. Tree a .very strong gr ower, witli heavy and closely jointed
branches. Growth upngnt. Leaves very large, deeply cut, and slightly
indentated. Description after Schwarz. Imported by Roeding.
Lob Ingir — Bulletin Smyrna; Commercial Smyrna (California); Erbeghli;
Erhelli; Erheili,—Frmt la,rge to ver^laEgfi, about 2f inches wide by 2i inches
long; decidedly flattened lite an onion, being compressed in the diameter of
stem to eye. Neck thin , distinct but short, generally straight. No stalk or one
very short. Ribs heavy, uneven, knotted and branching. Eye large, with
numerous scales of arciber tint, open and about three-sixteenths inch wide, so
that the pulp can be seen through the opening. Skin the col or of beeswax,
smooth and waxy, shaded greenish. Pulp pale to dark amber; WllUU Ulifl[iy,
shaded red. No distinct iris. Seerls large, flattened. Tree a strong, spread-
ing, but rather straggling grower, with heavy branches, easily broken off
through splitting. Leaves large, about 8 inches broad by 8i^ inches long,
with 5 thin, deep lobes, Wth derTtiferous edges. Leafstalks heavy, about 8i
inches long. Color of leaves dark green on upper side, light green on under
side. This fig is the best type of Smyrna fig, and the majority of figs imported
from Smyrna to this country belong to this variety. This tree should be
encouraged to branch close to the ground. It is now widely disseminated in
California, and trees 20 years old are growing in many places, showing that
f\\
^^
\~
/V
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 279
the variety thrives in various parts of that State. First imported by the Bnl-
letin Company, later by Boeding.
Maple-leaved SmymA^Smyma, Maple'leaved.— Fmi t pie^jp m. turbinate,
rounded at apex, with short stalk and neck. No ribs. lEye wide open, dark
yellow in color. Skinpale*. yellowish greeijjQj: g^^eenish ocher, without any
dark specks, in this dififoffiignum Lfeker lugir. Pulp paler than that of Leker
Ingir, honey colored, with red streaks. Tr^ft of fl preading h abit, branches
short jointed. Ij g gges-iar^^ ^ ^plv lobea, ana serrated^ Standing upright.
Description afWfSchwiarz andJones. Imported by Boealng.
Purple Smyrna— Bt^We^m Black; Smyrna BlacJc.—Frmt niedju|j[^Jg|j
A very i
pyriform, flattened, about 2^ inches wide by 2i inches long. A very snort,
curved neck characteristic of the variety. Stalk very short, about one-eighth,
inch long. Many ribs of ^ven^ize. Eye flat, with 5 scales, surrounded by a
dark and flat iris.'Xotbr'ofsKn brownish purple shaded greenish. Pulp red-
dish brown. Flowers and seed smalL Flesh violet white. Sirup sweet and
highly flavored. When dried it makes a fine black fig, better than the Mis-
sion. Tr ee large, spr eading, gtrong grower, %nd heavy branches. Leaves 9|
inches Img tjy W liichds b r i w i d^ (Tl e ijifeO, llit r^'gnd lobe the largest. TwooftBe
sinuses are very deep. Stalk medium, about 8^ inches. Imported first by the
Bulletin Company, later by Roeding.
\ Bound White Smyrna.— Fruit. l a rge, about 2# inches long by 2i inches
J-n^ide, almost globular, with a shctmlSSIfTaPSnninetimes flattened; ribs plain.
Skin tender, yellowish green with gray bloom, and with long, grayish spots.
Eye grayish when ripe, pinkish when unripe, open. Pulp strawberry red,
surrounded by a white flesh. A rich, white sirup, fig sweet an d highly fla-
vored. Seeds jellow, small. Tree a strong CTower. spreading, heavv branches.
Leaf ve ^ y I tf f g e. ab<Stit lU Inches long bvTIhjgTTes wide, 3-lobed, a few 5-lobed,
ff^^bintor tne^ middle lobe making an angle of 90 degrees. Leaves dark
green, upper surface rough, but glossy, under surface with yellowish-green
veins. Edges of the 3-lobed leaves indeittatod. Stalks about 3^ inches long.
A very fine variety. Also sent out as West's Smyrna, because it was first
planted on Wests place when imported by the Bulletin. The Turkish name
not known. Description from notes by Mr. J. C. Jones, of Niles.
5 Small Purple Qmyma,— Smyrna, Small Piirvle.—F rmt small , globular,
with short stalk and no neck. Skin purple-olive, very tnin, witn light-gray
ribs, dotted over with round Jjrownish dots. Pulp a dark amber or rose amber.
Eye never opens widely. Tre e small a nd dense, growing in the form of an
um brella. Turkish name not Known, "imported "by Roeding. Description after
notes by Schwarz and J. C. Jones. Mr. Schwarz noted that the leaves of this
tree are very large and that they drop from the tree earlier than those of any
other Smyrna variety.
f Wilson— /Swj^ma.-Fruit ab out 2 inches wide bv 2 ^ inches long; pjrrilorm, .
/-^ with almost no neck or one tTOR^ my Bhurt; wnen present it is slightly V
bent. Stalk short, seldom more than one-fourth inch long. Ribs few, plain, J--*
large. Skin thin, green, c overed with gray bloom and dotted over with
numerous 6bI5Bg, white specks. Eye medium, with five large scales edged
with pink. Pulp very full, rosy red. Seeds sma ll an^ ber in color and very
hard. Flesh white and very narrow. TreelC strqaftScaSSSLajftd of spreading
habit. Leaves shallow, 3-lobed, about .7i inches .1 o ng by 7 inches wide; under
surface woolly; upper surface smooth and g!ossy\*^AvaiuaBle variety sent out
by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1891 and labeled ' * Smyrna. " It fruits
only with caprification. The variety is named for the honorable Secretary of
Agriculture, James Wilson, under whose administration as Secretary of
Agriculture the Blastophaga wasps have been successfully introduced to
California, and the culture of Smyrna figs been made a perfect and unqualified
success.
CAPRIFIGS.
Most of the following caprifig varieties, twenty in number, are now growing in
California in the experimental nursery at Niles. As far as is known, no caprifigs
have previously been described, and it is to start an investigation of these varie-
ties that the following descriptions are offered. The imperfections in some of the
descriptions are due to the fact that some of the varieties have not yet come into
i till bearing in this country. The value of caprifigs is fully eq ual to ^h afc of the
Smjrma varieties. The caprifigs, when first received, were simply labelea ^o. 1,
2, 3, etc., and much confusion has been the result. In order to help straighten
out this difficulty I have here proposed new names for such varieties as were not
properly named before.
28740— No. 9—01 19
280 THE fig: its history, culture, and cubing.
Algiers No. 1. —Stronff grower, with thick, upright branches. This variety
was received by Mr. John Rock from the Department of Agriculture as
being imported through Dr. Swingle from Algiers. No name was given. It
has not yet fruited.
Algiers No. 2. — Medium growth, with slender, upright branches. Sent to
Mr. John Rock from the Department of Agricultnre as being import^
through Dr. Swingle from Algiers. Has not ^et fruited.
Brackett — Paul Meyer No. i?.— Profi chi U in ches wi de by 24 lon g. Color
3rs aounc
green or yellowish-green. Male flowers aoundant, y^TflPlflSBt^ot pollen.
Gall flowers numerous. Tree a strong grower; main branches grow straight
upward and side branches grow straight outward at an angle of 20° from the
main branches, haying a great tendency to spread. ^..^gL^gditto ^^® ^^ ^^^
best caprifigs, according to Mr. John C. Jones, wKonas^umed this fig at
Niles. The tree was ori^nally imported from Italy, having been sent me
by Dr. Paul Meyer. As it has no Italian name I have named it for Col.
Qustavus B. Brackett, Chief Pomologist, Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, to whom the fig growers of the United States are greatly indebted
for his interest in this branch of horticultural science,
I
)-
bulletin — Capri Smyrna No, 4. — Profict|Llarg;gjJ;urbinate, with distinct
neck. Color greenish-yellow. Numerous male flowers and pollen. MamniQn i
verv rare. Js o mamme have ever set. Leaves large, rather entire. Tree a
sturdy grower. lUlH Vai'lBI^ was t^^© original caprifig imported to California
by the Bulletin Company. The ori^al tree is now dead, but younger trees
have been started from cuttings. Dijffers from other caprifigs imx)oi:^ted from
Smyrna.
H.ow8LTd—8olm8-Lavbach No, «?.— I nsectiferous pro fichi. about 2^ inches
long by li wide, with distinctly set afRT^fUHHSBned neck, the nSfW^Fpart
being tbree-fourths inch long. Fig ovoid-turbinate, with indistinct ribs. Eye
large to medium in size, with very large scaleB of yellow color. Exterior male
zone smooth. Color of skin b rowniab i-YJftl*^^ ^snth ^aon nm the neck. Meat
with thin rim of violet. Male flowers confined to eye zone. Gall flowers are
not closely set. Abundant pollen. Profichi all fallen in the beginning of
August. PoUeniferous flowers much smaller, about U inches long by three-
fourths inch wide. Meat without any violet. Mammoni numerous August
24, some being about 1 inch in diameter, though the majority are smaller, as
large as peas. All are situated in the top of the tree. Tre^jjj^jf/a^ and
robus t gr pw t^. Leaves 3-lobed, abo ut G inche s lonflMa^^ncfies wiae. This
vaiuaDiecapnfig was received from P IVf il4!i(ii flWBHBTaurlBHrTraples. Named
for Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Entomological Division of the United
States Department of Agriculture, who has done much to unravel the difficult
question of caprification.
Larg^e Wild.— Under this name Barron refers to a wild caprifig somewhat
larger m size than Small Wild.
Maslin. — Lea ves very layge . entire, strongly hairy, on both upper and under
i- sides; the under side being very rough, the upper side smooth. Profichi with
many male flowers. Mammoni with few male flowers, but with many gall
flowers. Many mamme setting about October 15, at San Francisco. EigSLlUtt*
turbinate, with long stalk and distinct neck. Scales of eye, pink or red; Strong
grower. A seedling accidentally raised in a garden in San Francisco. A very
remarkable and undoubtedly valuable variety. One of the most promising,
not only on account of its growth, but from the fact that being raised in
California it is likely to be adapted to the climate of that State. Named for
Mr. E. W. Maslin, of San Francisco, one of the first horticulturists in Cali-
fornia to interest himself in Smyrna fig culture.
C. Meyer— PawZ Meyer No, i.— Profichi, 1^ inches wide by U inc hes long.
•^ Color jre llo wish-green^ Male flowers aSuUdaUf. (IlfttU flowers Numerous.
The tree^TB U BLfUlig' "Igrower, and the branches have a tendency to gfrow
upright. Mr. John C. Jones, who has given me this description taken Irom
tile tree at Niles, Cal., considers this variety one of the best. The fig is not
edible. This variety was sent to Mr. Rock and myself by Dr. Paul Meyer, of
the Zoological Station at Naples, as a most valuable variety.
Milco—^ndrtcfe.—Insectiferous profichi, large, about 2 by 2 inches or lees,
globular or slightly lopsided. Skin puregreen , smooth, and waxy, without any
prominent ribs. Eye small , with pink-colored sc^Je^, and without any conspic-
uous iris. Figs are firm and rather liartf^v^n when ready for caprification.
Male flowers confined to zone arounc! the throat. Gall flowers are larger than
on any other variety known so far, and very numerous, filling the whole of the
cavity of the receptacle, the latter being shallow and not pointed at the bot-
tom. Meat green with f^.l^ro^d violet zone. Not a trace of violet on the skin.
The blastophaga from the pro&chi hatch from July to September, an anusnal
\
\
CATALOGUE AND DESCRIPTION OF FIGS. 281
length of time. The mammoni are more rounded and somewhat smaller than
the profichi, beginning to set long before the wasps from the profichi have
ceased to hatch. Tree a very stpiifiL^g ro wer a pd to^. Leaves large t o
medium, 5-lobed. Of all the capriTigs tried VLt Bllies Inis is the flBMffWmiSTSg
variety, being of remarkable growth and fertility, there being no cessation of
crops the year around. This fig has also been pent out as End rich. Originally
imported by Q. N. Milco from Dalmatia. It is the best variety that I have
seen for holding and breeding the wasps.
Mitchell.— Leaves small to medium, the smaller leaves generally being 5 and
3 lobed, while the larger leaves are almost entire: surface rough and deep gray-
green. The leafstalks are bright red, and in this respect differ from any other
caprifig known to us in California. The profichi are turbinate, with long and
distinct neck and stalk. As far as can be seen from uncaprificated trees the
figs are j gus[h._l oDsided. and when matured will prob ably be red^ The pro-
ffchi iiave more male flowers than any other variety seen ByW^. Tte profichi
and mamm oni crops overlap each oth er. This very interesting and probably
very valuable variety was origmaied in a garden in San Francisco, probably
from seed. The fig is named after Mr. George O. Mitchell, who has kindly
donated the trees for further propagation.
J Pingo de, IHel—Italiaji jSo. .y.— In sectiferous profichi are very large to
ty JL medium. Form turbinate, with a verJT feh6rl, distinct', and thin neck, ttkin
^* smooth and waxy, pale green, with indistinct ribs. Eye small, scales large,
amber. Male zone distinct but small. Pulp and flesh white amber. Tree is
sturdy and dense, of very good habit. Leaves medi um to large. 5 -lobed,
rounded, with rounded lobes, deeply cut. The*TobeB tire wiae and overlap
each other, so that the sinuses do not show well. Stems of leaves very long.
The profichi are remarkable on account of their juicy pulp, which makes them
desirable as a fine table fig. This fig was received through the Department of
Agriculture from the Royal Horticultural Society of London under the name
of Pingo di Mel. As this variety is a fine edible fig, no doubt the name is cor-
rect. As a caprifig its qualities have not yet been proven, the fig not having
been caprificated in time.
Rivers — Italian No. ^.— Insectiferpj^gUfillOfifilli medi um , turbinate, with a
very short neck and several Wstinct ribs. Color greeriisli without violet or
brown. Growtl ^ dense ^nd_bran ches sturdv. Leaves thick, grayish-green,
5-lobed. This tree was importeiamany years ago by Mr. John Rock from
Thomas Rivers & Son, London. The variety promises to be of great value on
account of its strong growth. It is supposed to be of Italian origin.
"Rock—Solvifi-Lavbach Nu. 2, — Insect lfero^p^ pro fichi. about 3j^ JS^l^os long
by If inches wide, oblong, pyriform, withTongnecK^BBe narro^ pafToflIhe neck
being about 1 inch long. About one dozen dis tinct ribs of darker color , the
ribs being less dark than those in capri Schwarz. "Eysfiiedium, WltftySlift'^sb-
brown scales. Exterior zone of male flowers sunk and not prominent. Male
flowers confined to zone around the eye. Pollen not abundant. Galls small and
grayish- white. Meat whitish, streaked violet. Color of skin vi olet-mahogany,
with numerous small oblong pits, generally of whitish cSlorT SRWl yflJlUfld
greenish on the shady side. Polleniferons profichi: smaller, about 2^ inches
by 1^ Inches, rounded-turbinate. Neck shorter, narrowest part about one-
fourth inch. Color of fig yellow- CTeen with bro wnish fiush. Male flowers
confined to eye zone. Gall nowers all d^^&neratea and shrunk. Little pollen.
Meat yellowish-green with only very little or no violet around the male zone.
Cavity of the receptable rather shallow and rounded at the bottom. In the
insectiferous profichi the receptacle is long and pointed in the bottom. Mam-
moni begin to set at Niles after August 24, none being visible at that date, most
of the insectiferous profichi having then fallen. Tree of medium an d spread-^
ing growth. Leaves of two sizes, some 3 by 3 .iact^s, othersJTJr^^jncKes,
3-lobed. The smaller leaves are serrate, wHile the larger leaves are smooTJir and
almost entire. A few leaves are 6 inches broad by 5 inches long. Received
from Professor Solms-Laubach, Naples. It is named for Mr. John Rock, now
owner of the largest assortnlent of fig varieties collected in one place.
^ Boeding— /Smyrna No, 1; Roeding No, i.— Profichi about l| inches wide
/ / by 2ir long. Neck well 8et» xibg 4istofitUxat few. Skin smooth, waxy, of a
pale yellowish white, shaded slightly rosy on the sunny side. Eye very small,
amber. Cavity of receptacle small and rounded in the bottom. Gall flowers
comparatively few. Many male flowers with plenty of pollen. Po'leniferous
profichi very small, with a minute centra cavity. Tree not dense, limbs
spreading and slender; leaves 5-lobed, a few 7-lobed: lobes pointed, deep, the
sinuses running to or below the center of the leaf. The profichi on this fig
are early, and of the three Smyrna caprifigs it is the best for carrying
.1-
282 THE fig: its histoby, cultube, and cubing.
wasps in the profichi ^according to observation of Mr. John C. Jones). The
fig was first imported oy Mr. Fred. Roeding from Smyrna.
^*x) 3chwa.rz—Solm8'Layhack No. ^.— Insectiferous protichi, about 2^ inches
/ /W lonff by H inches wide Neck distinct and well set, the narrow part one-half
inch or so long. Skin smooth, bat not waxy, slightly wrinkled and with many
indistinct and naiTow ribs. Th e ribs are darker than the skin and the fig
appears striped. Color of skin deep mi^b nganv-hrnwn violet, shading to lighter
on the side and neck. Eye large, somewbat protruding, with small red scales
and a distinct dark iris, outside of which is a hard and light-colored zone, indi-
cating the extent of the male-flower zone. Male-flowers fill not only the zone
around the eye, but extend far down the sides of the receptacle in streaks.
Pollen not abundant. Meat is yellow, streaked violet and red. Tree is robust,
with strong branches. Leaves below medium, 5-lobed as a rule, but some are
also 8-lobed, rather entire in outline. Average leaf ^v^f^nf^ <t |^f|fitif*° teM ^^Y '^
inches wide. Many profichi left on August 24. Many mammoni or inesize
of a pea at that date, the largest being 1 inch in diameter. They commenced
setting about August 1. This fine caprifig was also received from Professor
Solms-Laubach, Naples, Italy. Now named for E. A. Schwarz, of the United
States Department of Agriculture, whose investigations on caprification and
the blastophasa are of the greatest value.
Small wild.— Un^er this name, Barron mentions a small, white caprifig,
native of Spain. Another caprifig of larger size he calls Large Wild.
Smyrna No. 2— Tuaftct fer<)UH nrnfinhi- tnrhiTHfct.A ahnnt 24- inches long by
.N \1^ inches wide. Neck tnm, aistmct, and well set., Ribs many, indistinct.
' '/Eye medium, amber color. Skin smooth, gl oss^p ale gre ep- Cavity of recep-
tacle shallow, rounded. A deep violet m Srgm ard'unoTBe cavity. Excellent
for carrying wasps in the mamnifi. ( Mr. TJohn C. Jones. ) Top dense, growth
strong and upright. Leaves smaller than in Smyrna No. 1, with rough sur-
face, 5-Iobed, the end lobe the longest. Leaf is longer than wide and with
long stalks, i^ irst imported by F. Roeding.
Smyrna No. 3— Profichi in size and color as Milco, rounded turbinate and
n nish yellow. Male flowers abundant. Gall flowers numerous. Color of
i whiie wiin purp'e tin t; not edible. Tree a strong, upright grower, with
slender branches and smai ngSyg S. "Wife best of the Smyrna varieties, accord-
ing to Dr. Schwarz and Mr. J. ^."Jones.
Solms-Laubach — Sidnii-Lavbach No, J, —Jjaagfitlf erous p rofichi about 3
\ inches lony b y 2 | inches wide. Form lopsided, turbinate, with about 10 double
iy V i - ribs, especiaily aistiii'ct on**the neck. Skin somewhat waxy and not downy.
Neck distinct but short, the narrow part being about one-half inch long.
Color du^l mahogan y brown, with violet flush in sun, the shaded side being
green. 'Bytt' !h^cntlTtiu'"witK* brownish black scales. No distinct iris. Pol-
leniferous exterior zone not prominent. Male flowers numerous and full of
pollen, situated mostly around the throat, though jingle male flowers are
scattered all through the cavity of the receptacle. Meat yellowish white, with
a fe w violet sl^r^aj^ . Mammoni begin to set at Niles about August ;^4. A
number of insectiferous profichi left at that date. JTree slendQf, growth
weak but dense. Leaves small, green, 5-lobed, deeply cufTana about 5 inches
in diameter. ReceivedT^mtf'PfoTdssor Solms-Laubach, Naples.
\ Swingle — Algiers No, o; Capri Snufraa No. A. — M amine larg e- greenish-
) _^ yellow, with an abundance ot gall flowers. This tree wastmported by the
'' ~ Department of Agriculture from Algiers and was the original tree from which
the blastophaga on the Roeding place emerged in the spring of 1899, and from
which all blastophaga in California have descended. The true name is not
known by the writer. This tree does well at Niles. It is now named for Dr.
Walter T. Swingle, of the Department of Agriculture, through whose agency
the blastophagaB were first successfully established in California.
Taylor— Troano; Italian No. i.— Insectiferous profichi medium, of a light-
green cglux^sBith^A purple tint. Mammoni Tiirge, round, and very early, the
\
earliest of any variety so far under examination. Leaves ^ftr^§,«^ shallow.
"^ ^ owtu ine ~"
3-lobed or entire, about 8 by, 9 inches long, very stiB r 'f^hromninedium,
spreading. This variety was received from tne Lybpartment of Agriculture,
Washington, several years ago under the name of Trouno. It is presumably
an Italian variety, having been received by the Department under a wrong
name. On account of its very early mammoni this caprifig will prove very
desirable. As it is entirely hopeless to ever expect any identification of the
Italian caprifigs which even in their native country do not possess special
names, I have named this variety after Mr. William A. Taylor, Assistant
Pomologist, United States Department of Agriculture, who has done mach to
promote the oultivation of the fig in the United States.
CHAPTER XVI.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS AND FiaS.
The following analysis of soils from Smyrna fig districts was made
at the agricultural department of the University of California, under
the direction of Prof. E. W. Hilgard, and published in a bulletin of
the California State Experiment Station :
Soil ingredients.
Coarse materials >0.5»«»
Pine earth 1
Analysis of fine earth.
Insoluble matter
Solnble silica
Potash (K2O)
SodaCNaaP)
Lime(CaO)
Maprnesia (MgO) !
Red oxide of manganese ( Mn304)
Peroxide of iron (PeaOs)
Alumina (AI2O3)
Phosphoric acid (PsOs)
Sulphuric acid (SO3)
Carbonic acid (CO2) ,
Water and organic matter
Total
Humus
Ash
Soluble phosphoric acid
Silica :
Hygroscopic moisture, absorbed at 15° C
Asia Minor.
A.-Soil,
Smyrna^
sent from
Depart-
ment of Ag-
riculture,
Washington.
Per cent.
35.00
65.00
67.19
7.23
74.42
.55
.12
4.44
2.29
.01
5.22
4.21
.37
.04
2.65
5.46
99.78
.74
.33
.05
.19
4.14
B.— Soil,
Erbeyli dis-
trict.
Per cent.
1.00
99.00
81.68
1.09
.19
1.96
1.56
.01
6.49
3.25
.29
.06
1.00
99.87
.27
.24
.08
.21
1.93
C— Soil,
Erbeyli,
Aidin dis-
trict.
Per cent.
40.00
60.00
84.29
2.46
86.85
.43
.07
1.40
1.17
.06
3.42
3.18
.30
.03
3.00
99.91
.40
.40
.04
.24
2.09
The soil B is the only one which with a certainty was taken from a
fig orchard. It consisted of a fine gray alluvial loam, with a great
quantity of very fine mica, and with no large or coarse grit or rocks,
almost as light as dust. This soil is remarkable for its quality of
preserving moisture — a soil very similar to that found in many of
the California and Arizona bottom lands along rivers and creeks, as,
for instance, in Kern County in the Weed Patch, along Kern River,
along Kings and Sacramento rivers, Gila River, etc. The soil of the
Meander Valley^does not bake, but remains light even after wetting.
It is, however, to be noted that the soil in that valley varies somewhat
as to texture and capability of preserving moisture, and this more than
its chemical constituents determines the quality of the figs, atmos-
pheric conditions being equal. The above reference to the Meander
284
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Valley soil should not be understood to mean that figs may not do as
well in other varieties of soil, nor that the Pacific coast localities
mentioned are preeminently suited for fig culture.
The following analysis of figs and other fruit was made at the
agricultural laboratory of the California State Experiment Station at
Berkeley, under direction of Prof. E. W. Hilgard:
The table below makes it evident that among California f mits the figs hold no
mean place in sugar contents.
Percentages of sugar and add.
Fraita.
Num-
ber of
analy-
Piffs, White Adriatic
Other figs, from Tulare .
Apricots
French prunes
Plums...
Peaches
Grapes
Oranges
80
Juice.
Sugars.
Acid.
Sugars.
Flesh.
Whole fruit
Per cent.
0.15
.10 to. 30
.68
.31
.48
.24
.50
1.28
Per cent.
23.90
10.00 to 29. 00
13.31
23.69
17.97
17.00
24.00
10.68
Per cent.
11.93
19.70
13.25
13.40
23.00
7.12
Per cent.
19.20
8.0 to 19.20
11.10
18.53
12.80
12.50
20.70
5.40
The acid of the figs, expressed in terms of sulphuric (SO3) for the sake of com-
parison, seems thus to be very much lower than that found in any of our other
fruits.
NUTRITIVE VALUES— NITROGEN CONTENTS.
Without repeating what has already been published by this station in its fruit
bulletins relative to the importance of the flesh-forming ingredients (albuminoids)
of our fruits, we give below, in tabular view, the average amounts of these mate-
rials contained in some of the fruits we have examined and considered. Added
to this are such data from European sources as are at hand.
Avera^ge percentage of aUyuminoid^.
Fruits.
California:
White Adriatic .
Others
Europe
Figs.
Oranges.
California
Europe (Sicilian)
Apricots.
CJalifomia .
Europe
California
Europe
Apples and f tears.
Earoi>e .
Num-
ber of
analy-
Total in
whole
fruit
30
1.50
i.aa
1.4a
L14
1.78
1.26
.49
1.012
.780
.375
Calculated to
whole fresh fruit.
In the
fresh
flesh, or
edible
portion.
In fresh
pits or
rind.
(1.50)
(i.ao)
(1.42)
.76
0.38
1.088
.162
.837
.175
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS AND FIGS.
285
As heretofore pointed out in Bulletin 101, the fig rates first in flesh-forming
materials among our fruits; apricots and plums second; prunes and oranges third.
It is interesting to reproduce, at this point, a summary of the food constituents
of some of our dried fruits as compared with the dried fig. In addition, the
analysis of a sample of California raisin is here reported.
Percentage composition of dried fruits.
Dried edible portion.
(Muscat).
Figs
(White
Adriatic).
Figs
(imx>orted
8myrna).a
pean).
Contents.
French
prunes.
Apricots.
Water
Per cent.
25.20
1.50
2.80
Per cent.
32.44
1.38
2.00
Per cent.
18.05
1.55
4.00
Per cent.
25.00
2.24
4.50
Per cent.
21.06
1.80
4.06
Per cent
33.00
Ash
1.40
Albuminoids (crnde pro-
tein)
1.70
Crude fiber
8.80
Nitrogen-free extract
Fat.V.
20.77
32.18
2.80
id. ii
10.18
21.60
Sugar
40.53
.40
20.60
1.51
72.50
.70
57.eo
.45
62.60
.40
82.00
Free acid, calcalated as
snlphnrio (SOa)
2.00
Total
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
a Analyzed at this station.
As stated in previous fruit bulletins, these results are too meager to serve as the
basis for a general discussion of the relative food values of the fruits examined.
However, we note some wide differences among the nutrients. For instance, the
sugars and albuminoids, or crude protein, show considerable variation; the apri-
cots, like the apples, yielding less than one-half as much sugar as the Muscat
raisin, which, contains nearly twit» as much sugar as the prunes, and one and one-
fourth times as much of that substance as the fig. European analyses of raisins
show figures for sugar contents which differ but little from those we give here.
Both raisins and figs, with respectively 4 and 4.5 per cent albuminoids (flesh-
forming materials) , stand from one and one-half to two times above the other
fruits in this respect. The fig yields nearly twice as much ash as the other fruits
here reported.
ASH COMPOSITION AND NITBOGBN CONTENTS.
The fig stands second in amount of mineral matter withdrawn from the soil for
equal weights of the various fruits. From European data we place grapes first in
this respect, and from our own findings the orange third, and the prune, apricot,
and plum fourth. We report an ash analysis of the White Adriatic fig from Kern
County, and as the figures there represent a considerable district we can take them
as a fair guide, the analysis of the ashes of other fruits from different localities in
California having shown that the variations will not be great enough to vitiate
the conclusions. But few European analyses of fig ashes are at hand, and their
great discrepancies necessitate an analysis by us of the ash of an imported fig.
The results obtained are given in the accompanying tables, and it will be noted
that the figures agree, within the limits to be expected, with those we report for
our figs.
286
THE pig: its history, culture, akd oubikg.
The following table gives the amonnts, in ponnds, of vital soil ingredients ex-
tracted by the different frnit crops (for fruit alone) that will have to be replaced
by fertilization:
Soil ingredients extracted by different fruit crops.
Fruits.
Total
aah.
Potash.
Phos-
phoric
add.
Nitro.
gen.
HHgs.
Europe: a
In each l^OOOpounds
Crop of 15,000 pounds
California (White Adriatic):
In each l,000pounds
Crop of 15,000 pounds
Orapes,
Europe:
In each 1,000 pounds ,
California apricots.
In each l,000pounds
Crop of 30,000 pounds
California prunes.
In each 1,000 pounds '..
Crop of 90,000 pounds
California oranges.
In each 1,000 pounds
Crop of 20,000 pounds
Pounds.
8.00
120.00
7.81
117.15
8.8
4.91
147.90
4.86
146.80
4.32
86.40
Pounds.
3.89
4.60
70.45
5.00
2.90
87.00
3.10
93.00
2.11
42.20
Pounds.
0.89
13.35
12.90
1.52
.64
19.20
.68
20.40
.63
10.60
Pounds.
2.27
34.05
2.38
36.70
LTD
1.94
52.20
1.62
48.60
1.88
36.60
a Imported ; analyzed at this station.
With the exception of the grape, it seems that the fig draws rather more heavily
upon the mineral ingredients that will need to be replaced by fertilization than
do any of the other fruits we have examined, following closely the amounts taken
up by the grape and fig of foreign growth. As compared with the fig, apricots
and prunes, like oranges, do not in any case draw nearly so heavily upon the min-
eral matters. Lemons and plums, however, very nearly approach it. And among
the figs we note that the White Adriatic stands somewhat above the other figs in
this respect. As to nitrogen, it is readily seen that a,mong our fruits the figs, on
the whole, draw decidedly the highest amount and are quite like those of foreign
production in this regard. Here again the White Adriatic appears to lead.
PotosA.— In the ashes of the fig, as in the prune, apricot, orange, and lemon, we
find potash to be the leading ingredient, amounting to about three-fifths of the
whole ash. From the partial ash analysis, given above, of the imported Smyrna
fig, we find the potash to be four-fifths as much as is contained in the ashes of figs
of California growth.
TABLE OF SOIL ANALYSES.
The comparison of the analyses of the Asia Minor soils with those from this
State shows very strikingly the richness in phosphoric acid of the former over the
latter. The lowest percentage of this ingredient in the Asia Minor soils, 0.29
found in soil B, is more than one and one-third times as much as the highest, 0.22
shown in soil No. 1466, of the California soils, and the average, 0.32 per cent, of
the three Smyrna soils is almost exactly four times the average for all California
soils examined (about 200 in number) and nearly three times the figure 0.113,
denoting the average of phosphoric acid for 466 soils of the humid region (east
of the Rocky Mountains) of the United States.
With reference to lime, the average for the Asia Minor soils is 2.60 as against 1.08
for California. The figures 0.690 for Asia Minor and 0.644 for California, repre-
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS AND FIGS.
287
senting the averages for potash, show that both sets of soils are abont equally well
supplied with this element of plant food.
Below is a tabular view of the averages just discussed:
Average percentages of the important ingredients in soils of arid and humid
regions.
Arid.
Humid.
Soil ingrredients.
California
(averaare of
198 8^8).
Asia Minor
United States
east of Rocky
Mountains
(average of
466 soils).
Potash
0.644
1.078
.083
1.040
0.680
2.600
.390
.470
0.216
Lime
.106
Phosphoric acid
.113
HTimtlS- iT-T ... .,r
2.390
The above little table conveys a forcible illustration of an arid region showing
far greater amounts of potash and lime in its soils than does a humid one.
Chemical analysis of the ashes of a Smyrna fig {Eleme) — after Wohltman.
Per cent.
CaO 18.9
MgO 9.3
PaO, _ 1.3
KO 28.4
NaO 26.3
Fe,o,... 1.5
a 2.7
so, 6.7
KO, t 5.9
Total ,- 100.9
Analytical table of figs from various localities,
[The second numerals are from samples absolutely dry.]
CHAPTER XVTI.
STATISTICS OF THE PRODUCTION AND IMPORTATION OF FIOS.
Compiled by K W. Maslin, San Francisco^ Cah
The production of dried figs in California can only be approximately
estimated, as there are no statistics in the possession of the various
railroads in the State which make a distinction between figs and
other dried fruits. • Of the many small lots of dried figs which are pro-
duced everywhere all over the State of California no account is taken.
Dried figs are used for cooking and pickling in almost every family
on the Pacific coast, and the total amount thus produced and con-
sumed must be very large. Thus figs are constantly brought in from
the country farms to the smaller towns and consumed there. Our
only detailed statistics are had from the special packers of figs, the
most prominent of which are found in the San Joaquin Valley in Cali-
fornia. These packers estimate the output of dried figs shipped out-
side of the valley at 300 carloads, at 10 tons each. This makes for
the whole valley of the San Joaquin 3,000 tons, or 6,000,000 pounds.
If we presume that the total output ')f dried figs from all of California
is at least 350 carloads, or 7,000,000 pounds, it will be seen that Cali-
fornia alone produces now at least one-half of the quantity of dried
figs consumed in the United States. But this estimate is entirely too
low. The true figures are undoubtedly at least 1,000,000 pounds
higher.
The following tables show for ten fiscal years the quantity and value
of figs imported from Turkey in Asia and from all foreign countries:
Quantity and valtie of figs imported into the United States during the ten years
1890-1899, and the proportion furnished by Turkey in Asia,
Fiscal years ending June 30—
Total imports.
Imports from Tur-
key in Asia of the
amounts in pre-
ceding columns.
Quantity.
Value.
Quantity.
Valua
1890 •-
1891
Pounds.
9,966,993
9,063,663
8,324,861
10,503,928
7.985,959
11,855.890
11,900,710
8,940,762
9,628.426
7,284.058
$442,924
672,141
610,591
548,995
392,040
587.420
639,512
5a5,380
509,002
356,762
Pounds.
6,!XWJn6
6. imi. 124
4.aM.l>«
8.4:S>.723
10 ■-■■•. m
7 »0
6. ^.:' S67
ljHi'.j.797
$301,112
486,767
1892
314,699
1893
356.643
1894
234.174
18B5
378,679
1896 . ^ .
563,851
1897
449.844
1898
406,213
1899
189,728
Total
95,455,250
5,194,767
64,548,664
8,680,710
288
PEODIJCTION AND IMPORTATION OF FIGS.
289
The per cent of the importation from Turkey of the whole importa-
tion is as follows: Of quantity, 67.6 per cent, and of value, 70.8 per
cent. The average value at the port of export from all countries is
5.4 cents per pound; the average value of figs from Turkey in Asia
is 5.7 cents per pound. Add to this cost the present tariff of 2 cents
per pound and the freight to the United States, and the result is a
substantial basis upon which to estimate the profitable production of
figs in the sections of this country adapted to their culture.
It must be remembered that the value on invoice values at this port
of export average 5.7 cents, but the sales in New York at auction
show that figs bring at auction all the way from 9 cents to 28 and 30
cents per pound.
The small quantity of figs imported in 1899, as shown by the follow-
ing table, is probably due to their shipment to England and thence
to the United States :
Table showing countries from which figs were ea^^xyrted to the United States^ with
quantity and value, in the fiscal year 1898-99,
Countries.
Quantity.
- Value.
Bolsinin ....... .-' ,.*, ^- . ^ . , , -, ^,, ,, _ _ ^ _
Pounds.
553, W5
34,774
161,254
635,026
43,327
91,343
4,123,238
24,7»5
757
8(10
20
1,609,797
5,852
$13,195
4,149
Prances .-- - -_..„-
Greece
4,089
Italy . . -
22,139
Portugal
1,083
Spain. ....
2,471
Iniited EiBgdom ..
118,411
Dominion of Canada
Mexico
849
49
West Indies
27
Honf^kong^ _. .' .
1
Turkey in Asia
189,728
Turkey in Africa
571
Total
7,284,068
356,762
The imports of figs from the TJnited Kingdom for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1899, were 4,123,238 pounds; value, $118,411. The
imports for 1898 were 2,242,231 pounds; value, $86,684. For 1897,
1,182,246 pounds; value, $75,451.
It will be seen, however, that the amount of figs imported show a
varying decrease since 1896, probably due to the progress of fig cul-
ture in California, from which State were exported to the East by rail
in 1899 over 500 carloads.
CHAPTER XVIII.
HOUSEHOLD RECIPES.
Few fruits have been so neglected in this country as the fig, and,
except in some of the Southern States and in southern California, the
practical value of figs is almost unknown. What dried figs are
sold at the fruit stands and in the grocery stores go principally to the
tables of the wealthj'^ merely as a luxury. In the Mediterranean coun-
tries the use of the fig is a verj'^ different one. There the fig is a staple
article of food for the common people, and hundreds of thousands of
tons are yearly consumed, as we do- wheat and corn. The failure of
the fig crop would be a serious matter, indeed, as a large part of the
population depends upon the fig as a winter food. Without expect-
ing or desiring any similar conditions to find place in this country,
the author believes that, if the true value of the fig and the many
uses to which it could be put were known, fig culture would be greatly
extended, and a very large trade would spring up, beneficial to the
grower, the carrier, the consumer, and the whole country.
The fig is one of the most nourishing of all fruits, and if properly
prepared would be considered a most delicious one. Canned figs,
stewed figs, fig sauce, etc., are in many places, even in this country,
eaten daily in many families and highly valued. Canned figs espe-
cially are very fine, and if properly put up by our canneries would
soon find a market in northern and eastern countries, where the figs
are as yet almost counted among fabled fruits. For the benefit of
those who wish to try figs in different ways, the following recipes have
been collected, and nearly all of these have been tried by the writer:
Steaming figs, — Thi6 should be done always in closed but not tightened jars.
Families may best use a common wash boiler, fnrqished with a loose inner per-
forated bottom of tin or galvanized iron, kept from the bottom by four stout legs
soldered to the loose bottom. The space below the bottom is nearly filled with
water. The jars, with fresh figs, are placed above, and finally over the boiler is
put its regular cover. This is a much better way than boiling the figs in kettles
of any kind over direct fire, as it prevents burning or mashing of the figs, saves
handling, preserves the flavor, etc.
Preserved /gs.— Gather the figs with the stems on just before they are ripe
enough to be eaten. Scrape off the skin carefully and drop the figs into a kettle
of clear, boiling water, and leave half an hour. Then take out and allow to cool
with the stems up. Make a sirup of a pound and a half of sugar and a half pint
of water to each pound of fruit. Boil the sirup till nearly roping; put in the figs
carefully and keep them under the water while cooking. If other than the natural
flavor is desired, put a clove in the blossom end of each flg or cook them with a
sliced lemon from which the seeds have been removed, adding a little ginger.
The preserves keep well if made with an equal weight of sugar and figs.
290
HOUSEHOLD RECIPES. 291
Preserved figs wifh "ginger, — Ten pounds of fresh ripe figs, not shriveled, are
peeled of the thick outside skin. As not all figs are peeled readily, a variety which
peels must be selected. Take the peel of one orange or lemon, pare well, and use
none of the inner white part or rag. Take one ginger root and shave very thinly
with a sharp knife. Boil the peel and ginger until very tender in a separate kettle.
In another kettle make a sirup of 6 pounds of best white sugar, enough water to
dissolve; add the juice of four oranges and one lemon or four lemons. When
ready, add the decoction of the orange peel and ginger, but take care to first strain.
Bring the sirup to a simmer, drop in the peeled figs and simmer under cover until
clear and tender, which requires more or less time, according to the variety of figs
used and their state of ripeness.
Pick before quite ripe, peel and put in shallow dishes, with sugar, for twelve
hours, usually overnight; drain oflf juice into preserving kettle, and aft«r coming
to a boil put in figs for a short time; take up in dishes again and expose to sun
while sirup is boiling down; then return figs, and when they begin to look clear
take up and expose to sun again while reducing sirup to desired thickness; then
return figs to sirup and let simmer gently for an hour, being careful not to have
too hot a fire and thus burst the figs; use a pound of sugar for each pound of fruit.
Pick figs fully ripe, but not shriveled. Scald first in hot water, chr.nge water
several times in order to draw out the milky juice. Pack figs in glass jars in rows
and handsomely. Make a sirup of one cup sugar to two of water. Pour over
figs, and steam for twenty minutes, without rubber band. Then place on the
rubber bands; steam for twenty-five minutes more with the cover lightly pressed
down. A very superior article is made if the figs are first steamed in a colander
until tender, then packed in glass and steamed with the sirup. An apricot kernel
or a bitter almond may be added to each jar, or, better, grated and boiled with
the sirup before pouring over the figs. No more than one kernel is needed for
each jar.
Fig preserves. — Gather the fruit when fully ripe, but not cracked op^i; place in
a perforated tin bucket or wire basket and dip for one moment into a deep kettle
of hot and moderately strong lye (some prefer letting them lie an hour in lime-
water, and afterwards drain) ; make a sirup in proportion of 1 pound of sugar
to 1 of fruit, and when the figs are well drained put them in the sirup and boil
them until well cooked; removing, boil the sirup down until there is just enough
to cover the fruit; put the fruit back in the sirup, let all boil, and seal while hot
in glass or porcelain jars.
Canned figs.— To 3 quarts boiling water add 2 heaping tablespoonfuls soaa;
now dip your figs in the water for one minute and skim them out; then wash
them thoroughly in two or three waters, or until there is no color left in the water.
To 10 pounds of figs allow 8 pounds of sugar; add just enough water to dissolve
the sugar; when boiling hot, drop in the figs, having first selected them with care
so as to avoid any that are broken or overripe; let them simmer slowly two hours;
now remove the figs and boil down the sirup until quite thick; replace the figs;
bring all to a boiling heat, after which they are ready for canning after the usual
method. A few slices of lemon with its juice will improve its flavor.
White-fig marmalade. — A delicious marmalade is made from white figs. Take
perfectly ripe and fresh figs, peel off the thin, soft skin, and to every 2 pounds of
figs use 1^ pounds of sugar and the grated peel of a large orange or lemon; cut
up the figs and mash them with the sugar, adding th(B grated yellow rind apd
juice of the orange or lemon; boil all together until the whole is reduced to a
thick, clear, smooth mass, stirring frequently from the bottom. When dcme, put
into jars while hot and cover closely.
Those who like less sugar can use one-half pound of sugar to a pound of fruit,
and it will keep perfectly, provided it be boiled very clear and smooth.
292 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Fig pudding.^Two ponndB of dried figs, 1 pound of saet, one-half pound of
flour, one-half pound of bread crumbs, 2 eggs, spices to taste, one-fourth pound
of candied lemon peel, one-fourth pound of brown sugar, milk.
Mode: Cut the figs into small pieces, also the lemon peel; grate the bread finely
and chop the snet very small; mix these well together; add the sugar, apice, and
flour; the eggs should be well beaten, and sufficient milk to form the whole into a
stiff paste; butter a mold, press the pudding into it very closely and tie it down
with a cloth, and boil four hours or rather longer; turn it out of the mold and
serve with lemon sauce, wine sauce, or cream. Sufficient for seven or eight per-
sons. Suitable for a winter pudding, as it should be made with the dried white fig.
Beat one-half pound of sugar and one fourth pound of butter to a foam. Add yolk
of 3 eggs, one-half pound of finely chopped figs, one-half pound of grated bread
crumbs, one-half cup of milk, pinch of salt, white of 3 eggs beaten stiff. Boil all
for three hours. Serve with white wine or hard sauce.
Chop one half pound of figs very fine. Mix with 3 tablespoonfuls of butter and
add one-third cup of powdered sugar, 2 eggs beaten lightly without separating
yolks from the whites, 1 cup of milk, one-fourth cup of cake crumbs. Mix well
and turn into a well- pressed mold and boil for three hours.
Stuffed figs.— XJse •' bag figs ' which have not been pressed. Cut a small slit in
the stem end of each fig and work in 2 or more blanched almonds.
Another mixture which is very palatable is a paste made from almonds, walnuts,
and hickory nuts, to which are added a few drops of sherry. A portion of the soft
meat of the figs is first taken out, using a knife or a small pointed spoon. The fig
is now filled with the paste. When filled, press the opening and roll in granulated
sugar.
Fig tart^Select a dozen choice dried figs and stew them in enough water to cover
them. Add 2 cloves, a small piece of stick cinnamon, and a piece of preserved gin-
ger, chopped fine. When tender, take out the figs and remove the spices. Add
enough sugar to the water to make a good sirup and a couple of spoonfuls of ginger
sirup. Then boil for five minutes, and add a little hot water if it gets too thick.
Next add a teaspoonful of lemon juice and a spoonful of brandy. Return the figs
to the sirup and set aside to cool. Put 1 or 2 figs and a spoonful of the sirup in
each tart shell before serving.
Whip one- half cup of rich cream until stiff, and sweeten slightly. Add one-half
cup of dried figs, cut fine, preferably into minute dices, by aid of a sharp knife.
Stir these very lightly into the cream and sugar a few at a time. Fill puff-paste
shells with the mixture and sprinkle with maple sirup or dust with cinnamon,
according to taste.
Fig marmalade, — Use only fully ripe figs. When they are considerably wilted
they are cut. Cut in halves and scrape out the inside pulp ; mash and strain through
a very coarse sieve. Put into a glazed dish and place the latter in boiling water.
Boil constantly for one-half hour and then preserve in sealed glass jars, like canned
fruit. This marmalade is very fine; can be eaten with meat or alone with cream.
It is a fine relish if made from good, sweet figs.
Fig jam, — Boil sweet dried figs with some sirup till all the juice is thick and
sirupy, then run figs, sirup and all, through some kind of a mill that will grind it
into a paste. A small sausage grinder is best— one that grinds fine. This paste
is fine for use wherever a jam can be used, and can be made more easily than any
jam or jelly.
Fig paste,— {\) Pick the figs fully ripe, split and scrape off the pulp, mash and
strain and let come to a boil, constantly stirring. To 10 pounds of fig pulp add
1 pound grated cocoanut and the juice of one lemon. After boiling a half hour
spread on plates and dry in the sun. When fully dried keep in air-tight place
if possible. When ready to use soak in warm water overnight and boil in the
same water.
HOUSEHOLD BEOIPES. 293
(2) Figs must be very ripe. Wash in water, steam in colander for a few minutes,
then mb through a sieve, using best rubber gloves on the hands. The rubber gloves
must have been previously washed several times in hot water in order to remove
the taste of the rubber. The mushy pulp is then placed in jars and steamed for
forty-five minutes or more. If not sweet, add sugar to taste, spread the mush on
glass or marble to dry in the sun or in heated air. Fig sauce is made in the same
manner, except that it is preserved in jars while yet mushy instead of drying in
the sun.
(3) Pick the figs when well ripened, but not so soft as to be difficult to handle
Peel them, weigh, and allow three-fourths of a pound of best granulated sugar to
1 pound of fruit. Mix sugar and fruit thoroughly with your hands, or by mashing
together with a large potato masher, and let the mixture stand overnight. Pre-
pare the afternocm before if the weather is very hot, but if it is not they can stand
from one forenoon to the next. In the morning put them on the back of the stove
and let the paste heat slowly, stirring occasionally. Then when ready to give it
your whole attention pull forward and *' cook down " over a rather slow fire, stir-
ring and mashing almost constantly. There must not be a single lump left in the
mass. If wished, some of the seeds which rise and accumulate on the sides of the
preserving kettle may be skimmed out. The amount of '* cooking down " done is
according to taste. The paste is nicer when cooked down a good deal, but if one
does this great care must be taken not to bum the paste at the last, when it is quite
thick. It is so rich that for small families it had perhaps better be put into pint
or half-pint jars.
Figs and grapes preserved together. — White figs and Muscat grapes are sometimes
preserved together, the second crop of figs coming in season to can with the grapes.
Pick the figs when their skins begin to crack; peel, weigh, and allow one-half
pound of best granulated sugar to 1 pound of the fruit. Mix the fruit and sugar
carefully (not breaking the figs), and let stand overnight. In the morning cook
slowly on the back of your stove, stirring carefully at intervals. In the morning
also prepare your Muscat grapes by picking them from their stems, washing,
weighing, and allowing one- fourth pound of sugar to 1 pound of fruit (and as
many grapes by weight as figs). Cook in another kettle, using only a very little
water — just enough to keep them from burning. They will cook, after starting
to boil, in about ten minutes. The figs will need cooking nearly an hour. When
both fruits are done, mix carefully together, let come to a boil, and can.
Pickled figs,— Seven pounds of figs picked just before shriveling, 3 pounds of
white sugar, 1 quart of vinegar, 1 teaspoonf ul of salt, 1 teaspoonful of allspice,
1 teaspoonful of ginger, 1 tablespoonful of cloves, 2 tablespoonfuls of cassia buds.
Boil together for four hours, put spices in a thin bag to keep pickles clear, and
more vinegar if too much evaporates, and add the sugar when nearly ready.
When the sugar is dissolved, add the figs. Simmer until tender.
To 10 pounds of figs take 4 pounds brown sugar, 1 quart strong vinegar, 1 large
cup of whole spices of the following kinds: Cloves, cinnamon, allspice, and cas-
sia buds. Boil vinegar, sugar, and spices first, and when sugar is well dissolved
add the figs and boil until tender. The figs should have been picked before being
shriveled. Put all in jars; pour out the liquid for three mornings, and let come
. to a boil and return to the figs; then close the jars.
-Spiced ^8. —Peel ripe white figs, and to 10 pounds of the figs add 5 pounds of
brown sugar, 1 quart of vinegar, 1 ounce of cinnamon, one-half ounce allspice,
one-half ounce cloves, the spices to be tied in bags and boiled with the sugar and
vinegar. When the vinegar and spices have come to a boil add the figs, a few at a
time, to prevent mashing, and boil until they look clear. When all -are done put
into jars and pour the vinegar over them hot.
Sweet pickled figs, — The figs are picked when ripe, but must not be soft. Steam
first until slightly soft, then place in a liquor made as follows: A sirup is made of
29i THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
a cup of sngar; to every cup of water add a teaspoojifnl of cider vinegar, one stick
of cinnamon, crashed in small pieces. Boil the liqnor. Insert a clove in the eye
of each fig and pack in a glass jar. Pour the filtered liquor over the figs. Steam
the jars first with the cover on loosely for twenty-five minutes. Then place on
the rubber bands, screw down cover lightly, and steam for twenty minutes more.
Crystallized figs, — The figs must be picked when fully ripe, but before they are
shriveled. Take figs of as even a size as possible in order to save assorting after-
wards. Simmer in a kettle for twenty to thirty minutes, but do not allow to boil.
When ready the figs will have become clear and semitransparent. Drain off the
water. Prepare a strong sirup of best white sugar and drop the figs in. Keep
this in a cool place. In from twenty-four to thirty-six hours the figs will have
absorbed most of the sugar and the sirup become very weak. Draw off the sirup,
add more white sugar, and thus make the sirup stronger. Simmer, but do not
boil. Drop the figs in and test again in twenty-four hours. If the sirup is weak
renew the process. When the sirup retains its strength, the process is discon-
tinued. Prepare a very strong sirup of best white sugar; simmer, but do not boil«
Previous to this the figs are dried In the sun or in drier until they slightly ring
when dropped on a stone floor. The figs should, however, not be so dry that they
can not be readily indented when pressed between the fingers. Now immerse
these dried figs for a few seconds in the strong, hot sirup, then drain off and
place on wire trays in a hot-air drier or in the hot sun, if on a warm day. The
sirup dries quickly and leaves the figs glaced. If crystallized figs are wanted, the
figs are slowly dried in the shade, in which case the sirup crystallizes instead of
producing a glac6.
Candied fl^s,— Are made only from young green figs not yet fully ripe. Place
in glass jars, pour on salt water, and steam until soft. Pour off the salt water
and pour over a sirup made of one cup of sugar to three of water. After a day
take out, place On wire screens, and allow to drip for one or two days in a warm
place. Place again in jars or earthenware; cover with a sirup made of one cup of
sugar to one and one-half cups of water. After a day take out and allow to drip.
The third soaking should be in a sirup made of one cup of sugar to one-half cup
of water. Iii this sirup the figs are allowed to remain as long as possible, or until
required. Take out, drip, and roll in confectioners' powdered white sugar in a pan
made lukewarm. When the figs have absorbed all the sugar they can they are
taken out and packed in large boxes with powdered sugar. The preserved irnit
is afterwards repacked in small boxes for the market.
CHAPTER XIX.
BIBLIOORAPHT OF FIGS.
Annali delMinist. d'Agricolt., Ind/e commercio, Quinquennio, 1870-1874, Vol. I,
Roma, 1876, p. 696. Contains reports from various fig districts in Italy.
Arcangkli, G. Snlla caprificazione e sopra uno caso de svilnppo anormale nei
fiori del Ficus stipulata Thunberg. Societe Toscana de Scienze Natorali,
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^ Aristotle. Historia animalinm, Lib. V, Cap. XVI, 3, Caprification.
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d. Gesellschaft f. Erdktinde, Berlin, 1880. Bd. 15, ch. 3, p. 2301.
Basiner, T. F. Natarw. Reise durch die Kirgisen Steppe nach Khiva, in von
Baer u. Helmerseu, Beitr. zur Kentn. der russisch. Reichs, Vol. IV, St. Peters-
burg, 1848, p. 237.
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servir a I'Histoire Naturelle de la Provence, Vol. I, Paris, 1782.
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1877, p. 14.
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of Agriculture. The letter was written by Mr. E. W. Maslin in 1897.
VCato. Scri. reirustici, Ed. Schneider, Vol. I, p. 19, cap. 8, 1.
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296 THE fig: its history, culture, and ourikg.
Oronan. p. L. et H. M. Florule d. Pinist^re. Paris, 1867, p. 210.
Davy, John. Notes and Observations on Ionian Islands and Malta. London,
1842. He experimented with caprification, and states that when caprification
by his order was discontinued the crop failed, only few figs ripening, and
these of inferior quality. He says that the statement of De Cando'le (Physi-
ologie Vegetale, Tome ll, p. 580) that caprificated figs are inferior, is entirely
erroneous, De CandoUe having made the statement from hearsay, and not
from personal experience.
Dklpino, Federico. Note critiche suir opera la distribuzione del sessi nelle piante,
etc., del Prof. F. Hildebrand. Atti Soc. Ital. Sc. Nat., Vol. X, Milano, 1867,
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Denotovich, Anthony C. Caprification of the Smyrna Fig. The Pacific Rural
Press. May 18, 1895. Mr. Denotovich tells of the orginos boghadhes and the
ashmadhes. He mentions that also the male or caprifig there are caprificated.
From Mr. Denotovich I learn that it was from his father's place in Aidin that
th Bulletin cuttings were secured.
Du Breuil, M. a. Culture des Arbres et Arbrisseaux a fruits du table. Paris,
1876, p. 602.
Duhamel DU Monceau, Henri Louis. (1) Traite des Arbes Fruitiers. Paris,
1768, 2 vol. 4; 1762 ed. is inferior and of no value.
Duhamel du Monceau, Henri Louis, (2) Traits des Arbes et Arbustes que Ton
cult, en France. Paris, 1809.
DuvEYRiER, H. Exploration du Sahara, Vol. Les Touareg du Nord. Paris, 1864,
p. 193.
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ment of Agriculture, Division Pomology. Washington, D. C, 1897, pp. 23-32.
Eisen, Gust a v. ( 1 ) The Fig of Commerce, its Culture and Curing; and a descrip-
tive catalogue of all its known varieties. Los Angeles, Cal., 1887.
Eisen, Gustav. (3) Caprification of the Fig. Citograph, Redlands, Cal. , 1887.
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California. Fresno, Cal. , 1885.
Eisen , Gustav . ( 4 ) Biological Studies of Figs, Caprifigs, and Caprification. Proc.
Cal. Acad. Sci., Sec. 2, Vol. V, pp. 897-1003. San Francisco, Cal., Jan. 11, 1896.
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Lief., pp. 552-568.
Gallesio, G. Pomona Italiana. Pisa, 1817, 3 vol. This is the standard work on
Italian fig varieties.
Gallo, Agostino. Venti gionate d' agricoltura. Bergamo, 1757, p; 112. Fent.
Ed., 1588.
Gardeners' Chronicle, London, contains a large number of articles on figs,
caprification, etc., but as their enumeration would make this Jist too bulky it
is here omitted. None of the articles are of any special value as regards
caprification.
Garidel, Pierre. Histoire des plantes (lue croissent aux environs d'Aix, etc.
Aix, 1715, fol. 100 plane hes.
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/
BIBLIOGBAPHY. 297
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compilation.
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CHAPITER XX.
TABLES OF TEMPERATURE, PRECIPITATION, AND HUlAlDITT IN
THE PRINCIPAL FIG REGIONS.
The following tables have been compiled for this bulletin by the
Weather Bureau of the United States Department of Agriculture.
As the temperatures are given in degrees centigrade and Fahrenheit,
a table is appended showing the relative value and corresponding
degrees of the three principal thermometers in use. Precipitation is
expressed in inches or millimeters. In order to reduce inches to mil-
limeters multiply the given number of inches by 25, or, to be more
accurate, divide the given number of inches by 4 and then multiply
by 99. On the contrary, in reducing millimeters to inches divide the
given number of inches by 25, or, to be more accurate, divide by 99 and
multiply the quotient by 4. As 4 inches equal about 99 millimeters, the
difference between the first method and the second is so slight as to
be of little importance, making a difference of but three-fourths inch
in 25 inches. The localities in the Old World have been selected as
being representative places where figs are successfully grown. From
Portugal no records have been obtainable. The localities in tlie
United States have been selected, not because they are actually prom-
inent fig districts, but in order to give a general idea of the conditions
under which fig culture is practiced in this country. It is safe to
say that the ideal fig districts in America have not yet been deter-
mined. Localities which as much as possible resemble the climato-
logical conditions of the southern Mediterranean countries will prob-
ably be found to be the most suitable for the fig industry.
Table for comparison, of thermometers.
Fahren-
heit.
Centi-
grade.
Reaumur.
Fahren-
heit.
168
Centi-
grrade.
75.6
Reaumur.
213
100.0
80.0
60.4
210
98.9
79.1
166
74.4
59.6
308
97.8
78.3
164
?3.3
58.7
306
96.7
77.3
163
72.2
57.8
304
95.6
76.4
160
71.1
56.9
303
94.4
75.6
158
70.0
56.0
200
93.3
74.7
156
68.9
55.1
198
93.3
73.8
154
67.8
54.3
196
91.1
73.9
152
66.7
53.3
194
90.0
73.0
150
65.6
52.4
193
88.9
71.1
148
64.4
51.6
190
87.8
70.3
146
63.3
50.7
188
86.7
69.3
144
62.2
49.8
186
85.6
68.4
143
61.1
48.9
184
84.4
67.6
140
60.0
48.0
183
83.3
66.7
138
58.9
47.1
180
83.3
&5.8
136
57.8
46.3
178
81.1
64.9
134
56.7
45.3
176
80.0
64.0
133
55.6
44.4
174
78.9
63.1
130
54.4
43.6
173
77.8
63.3
128
53.3
42.7
170
76.7
61.3
126
52.2
41.8
METEOBOLO0ICAL TABLES.
303
Table for comparison of thermometers — Ccmtinaed.
Fahren-
heit.
Centi-
grade.
Reanmnr.
1 Fahren-
heit
Centi-
grade.
Reanmnr.
124
61.1
40.9
32
0.0
0.0
12S
60.0
40.0
30
- 1.1
-0.9
120
48.9
80.1
28
- 2.2
- 1.8
118
47.8
88.2
26
- 3.3
- 2.7
116
46.7
37.3
24
- 4.4
- 3.6
114-
46.6
36.4
22
- 5.6
- 4.4
112
44.4
36.6
20
- 6.7
- 6.3
110
43.3 .
34.7
18
- 7.8
- 6.2
108
42.2
33.8
16
- 8.9
- 7.1
106
41.1
32.9
14
-10.0
- 8.0
104
40.0
32.0
12
-11.1
- 8.9
102
38.9
31.1
10
-12.2
- 9.8
100
37.8
30.2
8
-13.3
-10.7
96
36.7
29.3
6
-14.4
- 11.6
96
36.6
28.4
4
-15.6
-12.4
94
34.4
27.6
2
-16.7
-13.3
92
33.3
26.7
-17.8
-14.2
90
32.2
26.8
- 2
-18.9
-15.1
88
31.1
24.9
- 4
-20.0
-16.0
86
30.0
24.0
- 6
-21.1
-16.9
84
28.9
23.1
- 8
-22.2
-17.8
82
27.8
22.2
-10
-23.3
-18.7
80
26.7
21.3
-12
-24.4
-19.6
78
25.6
20.4
-14
-25.6
-20.4
76
24.4
19.6
-16
-2t;.7
-21.3
74
23.3
18.7
-18
-27.8
-22.2
72
22.2
17.8
-20
-28.9
-23.1
70
21.1
16.9
-22
-30.0
-34.0
68
20.0
15.0
-24
-31.1
-24.9
66
18.9
15.1
-26
-32.2
-25.8
64
17.8
14.2
-28
-3;J.3
-26.7
62
16.7
13.3
-30
-34.4
-27.6
60
16.6
12.4
-32
-35.6
-28.4
58
14.4
11.6
-34
-36.7
-20.3
66
13.3
10.7
-36
-37.8
-30.2
54
12.2
9.8
-;J8
-38.9
-31.1
52
11.1
8.9
-40
-40.0
-32.0
SO
10.0
8.0
-42
-41.1
-33.9
48
8.9
7.1
-44
-42.2
-33.8
46
7.8
6.2
-46
-43.3
-34.7
44
6.7
6.3
-48
-44.4
-dh.Q
42
6.6
4.4
-50
-46.6
-36.4
40
4.4
3.6
-52
-46.7
-37.3
38
3.3
2.7
-54
-47.8
-38.2
36
2.»
1.8
-56
-48.9
-39.1
34
1.1
0.9
Temperature and precipitation in fig districts,
SMYRNA, TURKEY. >
[Latitude 380 26' N.; longitnde 27« 10' E.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).'
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
Jane.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
19.6
20.1
24.7
27.8
32.8
35.3
38.1
38.0
33.7
31.4
24.4
20.3
39.6
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).*
-2.3
—2.8
1.0
4.2
9.5
14.4
15.8
15.6
11.4
7.8
3.0
-1.1
—4.4
MEAN MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).*
13.4
15.0
18.7
20.1
27.7
30.9
33.3 j 32.8
29.2
25.4 19.0 14.8
1 Zeitachrif t der CEsterreichischen Geeellschaft f ttr Meteorologie, VIII. Band, 1873.
« Record for nine years.
* Record for seven years.
804
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Temperature and precipitation in fig districts— Continxxed,
SMYRNA, TURKBY-Continued.
MEAN MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).'
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
Jane.
Jnly.
19.9
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec. Annual
3.7
3.7
7.8
7.7
13.7
17.7
19.6
16.2
12.7
7.9
5.1
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).'
7.8
8.9
12.6
14.1
20.2
23.6
26.7
25.6
21.9
18.8
13.2
8.9
16.86
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).«
77
71
09
63
60 57
53
58
63
74
76
76
66.4
PRECIPITATION (MILLIMETERS).^
115
66
107
20
21
23
106
72
612
» Record for seven years.
* Record for eleven years.
* Record for four years.
* Record for nine years. One millimeter (mm.) =0.09937 inch, or approximately 0.04 or ^ inch.
The individual values are not obtainable. The record is from the city of
Smyrna and not from the fig districts, which are situated farther inland and
where the temperature and rainfall must differ somewhat. From the fig districts
no records are obtainable.
ATHENS, GREECE.
[Latitude 37° 58' N.; longritude 23° 44' E ; elevation 337 feet.]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
46.76
48.00
62.39
50.07
67.91
76.01
80.60
80.15
74.16
65.75
57.24
49.77
63.14
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
09.44
73.58
83.12
91.40
100.58
104.54
105.26
105.06
108.74
95.00
80.60
71.42
105.26
ABSOLUTE MINIMUM (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
21.74
20.84
20.12
86.14
43.16
55.94
61.16
57.20
47.66
38.48
34.52
26.96
•26.96
MEAN PRECIPITATION (INCHES).
2.07
1.49
1.44
0.75
0.96
0.42
0.20
0.42
0.61
2.00
2.77
2.73
16.06
1 14 was recorded in 1860, month not stated.
The data recorded are the means of the 23- year period 1859-1882, and in their
appropriate places the extremes of temperature recorded in that period. Indi-
vidnal monthly valnes not obtainable.
METEOBOLOOIOAL TABLES.
305
Temperature arid precipitation in fig districts— Continued,
ALGER (Li'EMPEREUR), AFRICA.^
[Latitude 36° 47' N.; longitude 3° 4' E.; elevation 223.2 m.]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
Year.
Jan.
9.2
9.9
9.7
10.3
11.0
Feb.
Mar. . Apr.
May.
Jane.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1885
1886
9.8
8.8
12.1
12.8
13.4
12.7
12.2
13.0
12.8
14.9
13.8
15.2
15.2
17.9
17.9
17.2
17.1
18.3
19.6
19.4
21.5
21.0
21.2
23.0
22.8
24.6
23.8
24.5
26.0
22.6
24.7
22.0
24.3
23.3
22.5
22.9
"22.'7
17.1
18.7
15.3
18.4
17.6
13.6
13.9
14.6
14.8
15.6
12.3
11.8
10.7
13.2
11.4
16.77
16.48
1887
16.46
1888
1889
16.44
17.24
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
1886
19.0
20.0
18.8
19.2
19.2
18.6
17.8
20.0
22.0
28.0
23.0
25.6
28.0
26.5
25.0
26.2
31.8
32.6
29.0
27.6
33.8
31.0
32.6
29.5
29.8
31.7
36.6
32.4
30.0
35.0
41.2
42.0
36.6
37.8
37.0
36.8
36.4
36.0
34.5
37.6
32.2
34.0
"32:5
27.0
33.0
30.2
37.2
32.0
23.6
24.2
27.5
23.8
24.7
22.8
23.2
18.2
37.6
41.2
1887
1888
42.0
1889
19.2
37.8
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
2.8
4.6
2.0
4.4
2.5
2.2
2.4
0.6
2.0
3.2
T.h'
6.0
6.4
6.8
9.6
10.4
12.0
11.6
11.4
13.8
13.8
13.8
""i4.'2'
16.2
17.7
17.0
•13.8
18.5
18.8
16.8
18.8
13.2
18.3
14.0
14.4
14.8
10.4
15.8
7.6
10.4
5.0
8.6
12.0
6.8
7.8
6.8
2.8
1.6
1.6
6.5
8.6
4.8
6.4
2.0
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1886
81
75
74
83
70
'"78'
81
77
62
75
78
80
74
61
78
75
75
76
. 61
73
71
71
80
66
78
74
75
78
61
78
75
70
73
64
70
• 78
74
74
72
60
75
73
""73"
71
77
74
67
63
81
76
73
74
69
76
73
84
80
67
1886
75.4
1887
75.3
1888
76.0
1889
65.8
PRECIPITATION (MILLIMETERS).
1885...
1886
101.0
280.6
113.9
116.1
207.3
18.0
180.5
164.6
145.9
81.5
127.5
93.9
101.5
87.9
145.0
179.0
95.7
87.6
64.6
85.1
7.0
48.0
8.9
59.0
92.2
10.9
0.0
26.4
14.1
3.0
4.3
1.7
2.1
0.4
1.6
0.2
0.0
0.0
6.6
1.2
22.8
29.1
75.5
"u'h'
90.5
336.1
68.8
91.6
75.5
127.9
126.3
153.1
149.7
112.1
44.2
241.5
176.1
733.3
1,433.6
978.6
1887
1888
1889
159.9
978.9
PALERMO, SICILY.2
[Latitude 38° 7' N.; longitude 13° 21' E.; elevation 71.3 m.]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1881
14.4
10.6
10.6
10.1
8.8
11.7
10.0
11.1
11.2
11.9
14.6
13.6
11.3
11.9
13.4
17.0
14.6
13.5
15.6
14.4
17.2
18.5
17.5
18.3
17.6
20.6
22.2
20.8
19.5
21.5
25.8
23.9
23.7
23.7
24.5
26.4
24.3
23.6
24.2
27.8
23.8
22.7
21.6
21.9
23.4
19.5
20.2
17.8
18.0
19.2
14.4
15.3
15.0
13.6
15.2
12.6
13.1
10.6
11.4
10.9
18 2
1882
17.4
1883
16 4
1884
16.6
IK85
17 4
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
26.3
34.5
32.5
29.0
32.4
33.4
35.8
31.4
30.0
33.0
41.3
38.1
^.2
39.0
33.8
33.9
35.4
45.5
1 Authority: Annales du Bureau Central M6t6orologique de France, Vol. II, Observations.
* Authority: Annali del Ufficio Centrale Meteorologico Italiano, vols. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
306
THE fig: its history, cultube, akd curing.
Temperature and precipitation in fig distrtcts—Caatinaed,
PAIiEBMO, SICILY— Continned.
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
, Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual
1881
5.5
3.7
-0.9
2.1
0.3
3.0
-0.2
3.1
0.8
0.8
3.4
4.5
-0.4
3.4
1.8
7.6
6.2
4.4
5.2
4.3
6.4
6.8
6.2
7.0
5.7
11.0
12.0
11.0
0.8
10.8
16.0
15.4
12.3
12.9
13.9
17.2
14.8
13.0
15.2
17.7
14.0
11.7
10.3
12.6
13.9
8.2
10.7
8.8
9.7
8.7
5.4
4.5
6.3
4.3
7.2
4.2
4.4
2.1
3.7
-0.5
3.0
1882
—0.2
1883
— D.9
1884
0.8
1885
—0.5
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1881
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
62
52
58
61
72
74
71
67
PRECIPITATION (MILLIMETERS).
1881
63.9
26.7
143.3
84.3
131.9
133.0
39.4
45.9
20.4
63.1
41.9
123.9
179.5
43.3
34.8
75.0
64.2
77.1
73.6
76.5
26.6
7.9
17.5
57.9
5.0
51.0
16.1
3.7
38.9
0.5
0.0
0.8
1.4
24.0
4.6
0.0
0.7
83.8
0.7
6.7
27.3
33.0
115.8
9.7
39.2
67.1
87.7
85.1
87.6
127.7
176.2
50.0
64.1
118.2
117.3
121.8
67.7
138.4
79.8
103.1
773.8
1882 '..
516.1
1883
955.6
1884
1885
588.4
709.4
VALENCIA, SPAIN.!
[Latitude 39'> 28' N.; longitude 0° 22' W.l
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec
Annual
1885
6.6
8.9
8.8
10.0
8.5
13.6
0.3
7.1
7.8
10.6
11.7
13.7
13.5
U.7
11.4
13.0
13.5
11.8
14.6
14.0
17.4
15.0
15.3
18.5
17.3
10.4
18.3
20.2
22.0
21.2
22.9
21.0
22.8
23.7
24.1
24.3
21.6
25.2
23.6
24.7
20.6
18.6
22.6
20.8
24.1
16.0
18.1
15.9
17.7
18.6
14.3
12.3
13.9
14.0
14.7
10.6
11.1
10.2
10.0
8.1
15.9
1886
15.2
1887
15.6
1888
16.3
1880
16.4
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
18.0
10.0
21.6
21.0
10.0
25.6
10.0
18.0
19.0
28.0
26.5
25.5
26.0
25.0
21.0
27.0
24.5
25.5
31.0
24.0
32.0
32.0
27.0
27.0
28.0
30.5
30.0
33.0
32.0
33.0
33.0
37.0
32.0
33.0
34.0
37.0
30.0
38.0
36.0
40.0
33.0
35.0
33.0
34.0
a5.3
37.0
31.0
36.5
34.0
30.0
22.0
23.0
25.0
25.0
25.6
20.0
24.0
27.0
19.0
17.2
37.0
1886
37.0
1887
38.0
1888
36.0
1880
40.0
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
-7.0
0.0
-6.0
-5.0
-1.0
6.0
0.0
-«0
-2.0
-2.0
2.0
4.0
1.0
0.0
1.0
3.0
4.0
1.0'
5.0
4.0
6.0
6.0
5.0
10.0
8.0
11.0
7.0
9.0
13.0
11.0
13.0
7.0
9.0
15.0
15.0
14.0
13.0
14.0
16.0
13.0
9.0
5.0?
11.0
13.0
14.0
8.0
6.0
3.0
8.0
9.0
7.0
2.0
4.0
2.0
—1.1
2.0
-3.0
-1.0
3.0
—0.8
—7.0
1886
-3.0
1887
—6.0
1888
—3.0
1889
—2.0
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1886
71
62
69
74
72
67
63
70
69
63
71
71
72
67
60
66
70
60
71
62
63
64
66
66
60
68
64
64
60
63
63
60
64
63
63
64
63
64
60
64
58
64
70
76
68
58
66
66
73
68
65
70
70
70
74
72
66
72
76
60
66
1886
66
1887
68
1888
68
1889
66
PRECIPITATION (IMILLIMETERS).
66
17
11
25
51
10
5
74
3
30
125
76
41
25
3
00
13
106
81
3
3.
31
36
3
32
183
8
17
35
37
2
30
57
3
8
3
8
17
1
107
40
133
160
45
39
65
33
63
30
3
106
62
80
60
2
89
74
30
687
1886
400
1887
676
1888
478
1880
3S8
> Resumen de las Observaciones Meteorol6gicas de Provincias.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLES.
307
Temperature and precipitation in Jig districts — Continned.
MALlAGA, SPAIN.
[Latitude 36«» 43' N.; longitude 4«» 26' W.]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1885
11.1
10.8
11.9
12.1
11.0
15.2
13.5
11.2
11.1
13.1
14.7
17.3
14.5
13.6
13.1
15.5
17.1
15.0
15.2
15.4
21.3
20.2
18.3
18.8
18.2
2:3.1
23.7
22.7
22.8
20.5
25.1
26.2
26.2"
24.3
25.5
26.7
26.4
25.8
23.8
25.8
23.5
24.9
22.6
22.3
23.0
18.5
19.6
17.3
19.5
18.3
15.9
14.6
15; 4
15.7
16.2
13.4
13.5
12.4
13.9
11.6
18.7
1886
18.9
1887
1888
17.7
17.7
1889
17.6
MAXIMUM TEMPERATUliE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
18.4
18.8
20.2
19.5
18.2
23.6
22.8
20.1
20.1
26.4
22.8
26.2
28.4
23.1
24.9
26.0
28.0
24.4
23.9
25.0
33.1
31.9
28.9
36.9
28.4
33.1
38.0
35.8
36.2
26.5
33.2
39.0
35.7
35.9
36.2
37.2
38.0
35.0
37.5
36.0
33.7
34.8
28.8
30.0
29.9
29.6
32.0
25.1
29.1
28.0
25.8
25.9
23.6
21.1
21.1
23.4
22.1
18.1
19.8
17.8
37.2
1886
39.0
1887
35.8
1888
37.5
1889
36.2
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
0.0
2.9
4.2
2.8
3.4
8.2
3.3
3.9
3.0
4.9
7.3
8.8
5.5
5.8
5.4
6.7
8.5
6.9
9.3
8.5
11.3
12.0
11.9
13.4
11.9
16.1
14.9
16.4
16.0
13.6
15.0
17.1
20.4
18.2
19.4
16.4
19.4
20.9
19.0
20.0
13.2
16.1
14.5
16.6
16.9
8.4
10.8
8.7
13.0
11.0
6.8
8.0
7.6
8.9
5.1
6.1
5.0
2.5
7.7
5.4
0.0
1886
2.9
1887
2.5
1888
2.8
1889
3.4
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1885
70
67
68
78
74
74
66
65
62
68
66
66
72
70
71
62
66
66
70
68
66
66
67
66
71
60
54
58
59
66
60
60
63
60
61
62
66
66
60
63
64
66
64
72
71
65
73
64
71
67
72
72
74
74
68
81
68
74
82
70
66
1886
65
1887
67
1888
68
188fc
68
PRECIPITATION (MILLIMETERS).
1885
44
88
33
67
109
66
22
3
21
40
141
19
64
80
77
61
77
92
163
48
2
41
4
34
61
42
6
3
25
1
8
14
5
67
31
79
20
42
8
26
102
91
112
154
115
249
24
175
119
64
775
1886
398
1887
605
1888
629
1880
695
SEVIL.LA, SPAIN.*
[Latitude, 37'> ZV N.; longitude, 6° 1' W.; elevation, — feet. ]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1885
10.7
12.2
13.0
11.5
9.9
15.9
14.1
14.1
9.7
12.6
15.0
17.9
15.9
13.8
13.8
16.4
17.9
16.0
16.1
15.9
22.2
21.7
22.1
22.5
20.1
23.1
25.9
25.3
25.5
22.9
25.4
30.2
29.4
28.1
28.5
28.1
30.4
31.4
28.6
29.2
26.8
26.6
25.6
25.7
26.2
20.3
20.3
20.4
20.3
18.5
17.3
15.8
16.8
15.1
16.0
14.4
12.7
11.4
12.6
9.2
19.5
1886
20.4
1884 a
20.1
1888
19.1
1889
18.6
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
22.6
26.0
25.6
20.0
19.0
27.0
26.8
26.0
21.0
28.0
29.0
28.0
29.8
23.4
26.0
26.0
28.8
29.8
28.0
28.0
37.8
38.6
36.6
37.0
33.0
37.6
42.0
42.0
40.0
39.6
42.0
40.8
44.4
42.0
42.0
46.8
45.0
47.0
42.2
43.0
44.8
43.8
43.0
39.0
40.4
37.0
35.8
39.0
32.0
29.0
30.0
31.0
30.0
25.0
26.0
26.4
23.6
22.0
20.6
21.0
46.8
188(5
18842
46.8
47
1888 ,....
1889
42.2
43.0
> Authority: Resumen de las Observaciones Meteoroldgficas de Provincias.
s Data for 1884 used Instead of 1887.
308
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Temperature and prexiipitation in fig districts — Continued.
SEVIJLJLA, SPAIN-Continued.
minimum temperature (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
M.r
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1885
-4.2
5.6
4.4
5.8
8.4
14.4
12.0
15.0
10.2
5.8
4.4
8.4
—4.2
1886
0.0
0.0
5.8
4.0
8.6
11.8
16.4
16.6
13.0
7.0
3.8 -0.8
-0.8
1884»—
1.0
3.0
4.6
4.0
6.8
12.0
16.0
15.0
13.6
8.0
0.4
-0.8
-0.8
1888
-1.0
-1.2
3.0
6.0
10.0
13.2
15.4
15.6
14.6
9.0
5.2
8.0
-1.2
1889
-0.2
0.0
3.6
5.4
9.0
9.0
16.0
16 6
14.6
7.4
0.0
-1.4
-1.4
MEAN R
ELA
rivE
HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1885
83
84
81
82
84
82
84
84
76
79
74
80
80
81
77
78
68
78
78
76
68
55
58
70
70
64
56
58
66
60
56
58
50
50
50
56
47
56
66
51
63
50
64
66
62
77
72
67
72
74
84
76
75
78
70
88
81
78
84
72
70
1886
68
1884' - .
09
1888
72
1889
68
PRECIPITATION (MILLIMETERS).
1886
1886
1884
1888
1880
180
18
36
26
61
31
HI
145
123
103
43
90
147
60
01
42
24
37
186
3
26
29
76
14
23
36
30
5
16
67
79
16
1
57
22
5
42
113
141
9
817
408
336
738
473
1 Data for 1884 U8ed instead of 1887.
COSENZA, ITALY. >
[Latitude, 39<» 19' N.; longitude, 16« 17' E.; elevation, 255 meters.]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE.)
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June. iJuly.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1881
1882
8.9
6.1
6.2
4.7
4.7
6.8
5.7
7.7
6.3
8.9
10.6
11.2
8.3
9.2
11.9
13.7
11.4
11.9
12.7
12.6
15.7
17.6
18.9
17.6
17.2
20.1
22.2
22.7
17.6
20.5
26.9
24.3
25.4
23.6
24.9
25.8
23.6
22.6
23.5
27,1
20.2
20.8
19.9
18.6
21.0
15.1
17.0
14.5
13.8
16.3
9.9
11.9
11.0
7.0
11.9
8.0
8.4
5.9
7.1
6.9
15.1
15.0
1883
14.4
1«84
1885
13.3
15.3
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE)
1881
18.0
14.2
14.0
13.6
12.8
13.8
17.0
15.0
15.4
21.7
28.0
22.4
19.8
19.0
26.0
24.8
24.0
21.2
23.2
22.6
27.0
30.2
30.0
28.0
27.0
33.0
33.0
33.0
27.5
32.4
36.5
37.4
37.8
36.2
35.2
32.0
31.0
31.0
32.0
39.4
32.5
31.5
31.0
32.0
33.0
23.0
27.0
24.8
25.0
27.0
18.0
19.8
20.4
17.0
18.8
16.0
17.5
15.2
15.2
17.4
36.5
1882
37.4
1883
37.8
1884
36.2
1885
39.4
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE.)
1881
1882
1883.
1884
1886.
0.2
-1.7
-o.«
3.0
5.0
8.3
15.0
14.2
9.8
5.0
3.2
0.8
0.0
-1.6
5.0
2
8.3
11.8
14.0
15.0
12.0
9.8
3.8
0.8
-6.0
-0.2
-2.1
3.2
7.0
12.0
14.0
12.6
11.0
6.0
4.2
-1.6
-1.8
-0.6
3.0
5.0
8.0
10.6
11.0
12.2
9.3
4.0
-1.6
1.0
-3.8
-1.0
3.0
5.0
8.6
12.4
15.6
18.0
11.0
5.4
4.4
-5.6
-1.7
-1.6
-6.0
-L8
-5.6
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT.)
1881
72
73
75
76
79
74
72
75
73
76
75
73
73
75
72
74
72
73
76
72
73
76
73
74
71
71
71
71
72
69
64
71
71
70
67
63
71
68
68
63
62
72
67
68
62
68
74
64
70
65
73
73
70
73
72
74
75
72
79
72
70
1882
73
1883
71
1884
73
1885
70
PRECIPITATION (MILLIMETERS).
1881
479.7
174.9
59.1
112.6
104.6
89.3
29.6
40.0
86.8
219.3
91.8
186.6
1,674.2
1882
29.1
60.0
51.6
99.8
19.6
6.2
5.1
10.8
105.4
117.3
166.9
264.6
936.4
1883
68.8
61.6
156.8
203.4
70.6
6.8
0.4
102.6
82.5
162.8
85.6
190.4
1,182.3
1884
58.4
49.2
49.4
122.6
14.0
69.9
21.5
66.0
18.6
100.3
150.1
112.8
841.8
1886
233.1
76.3
118.0
152.8
42.6
82.9
13.0
11.0
138.2
210.6
167.2
60.6
1,304.2
1 Authority: Annali del Ufflcio Centrale Meteorologico Itaiiano, vols. 8,4,6,6,7.
METEOBOLOGICAL TABLES.
309
Temperature and precipitation in fig districts — Continued.
MABSX:iL.L.£S, FBANCE.i
[Latitude 43° 17'; longitude 5«» 22' E.; elevation 75 m.]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
AnnuaL
1885
5.4
5.7
4.5
5.4
6.0
10.0
6.7
6.2
4.1
5.1
10.2
9.0
8.9
8.1
7.6
11.8
13.0
11.4
11.7
11.3
15.6
16.9
15.0
17.3
16.2
20.0
19.1
20.7
19.8
21.0
23.5
22.6
23.9
20.2
22.0
22.7
21.6
22.4
19.6
20.8
18.0
20.2
17.8
19.1
18.0
12.3
16.4
10.2
12.2
14.2
10.9
10.1
9.4
11.0
9.6
7.4
6.6
5.8
8.9
4.7
13.96
1886
13.98
1887
1888
13.02
13.12
1889
13.04
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
14.6
16! 6
15.3
15.7
17.6
16.1
16.8
"18^7
20.1
21.0
21.0
19.5
18.6
23.7
24.8
24.0
24.1
21.1
29.8
29.0
28.5
27.3
28.0
29.1
28.0
31.2
35.3
33.5
34.1
30.0
33.0
34.8
31.4
33.7
31.2
30.6
3U.1
31.7
29.2
28.5
30.9
24.1
27.1
22.7
21.2
211.9
16.8
20.0
20.9
19.8
18.1
16.6
17.3
16.0
35.3
1886
1887 .... .
33.5
34.1
1888
1889
31.2
33.0
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
1886
1887
-2.1
-5.2
-6.0
-8.0
-3.0
0.1
-S.2
-4.2
-4.8
-6.0
-0.7
-1
-2.8
-4.0
-3.2
11.0
12.4
9.2
8.6
10.6
7.4
8.1
6.0
10.0
7.0
2.6
7.6
-1.5
2.0
3.5
1.8
-1.0
0.6
0.0
-2.0
-ao
-4.2
-9.4
-1.0
-6.2
-5.0
-6.2
-9.4
-8.0
-6.0
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
76
74
69
70
65
68
67
66
70
72
77
70
60
71
70
69
65
61
63
65
77
74
79
73
74
73
70
66
58
60
68
6(]
72
69
78
66
71
n
66
64
6a
68
68
64
76
72
80
79
73
61
64
68
75
67
63
61
65
74
71
71
70.3
79.7
67.8
60.8
67.6
PRECIPITATION (MILLIMETERS).
1885
1886
1887
61.0
27.9
15.6
89.1
60.0
54.6
66.0
110.1
25.8
9.0
71.5
22.1
51.2
15.7
32.5
122.2
26. 4|
61.2
24. «
73.6
25.5
8.7
21.9
46.0
70.0
79.1
15.4
7.
43.6
15.1
1.7
6.4
62.0
32.1
20.3
11.6
16.9
34.6
46.1
0.0
53.8
136.1
62.4
22.6
0.3
143.5
183.6
60.0
5.7
133.3
83.6
204.3
101.2
90.3
12.2
1.4
19.1
27.5
237.7
26.2
621.9
818.6
648.9
660.3
460 3
PARIS, FRANCE.i
[Latitude 48° 48' 28''; longitude 2° 20' K Greenwich: elevation 49.3 m.]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
18.50
18.30
19.35
15.70
17.84
■
Aug.
16.16
17.95
17.30
16.40
16.80
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1885
-0.24
2.21
-0.22
0.93
1.07
7.10
1.18
2.16
-0.09
2.37
5.15
5.27
3.43
3.84
4.48
10.09
10.47
8.23
7.47
8.59
11.21
14.17
11.38
13.34
14.65
18.07
15.18
17.32
16.35
18.54
14.10
16.82
12.73
14.56
13.70
8.55
12.38
6.67
7.50
9.51
6.21
6.85
6.08
8.12
6.86
2.18
2.96
2.33
3.18
0.27
9.76
1886
1887
1888
10.31
8.81
8 95
1880
9.47
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE).
1885
13.3
10.8
9.1
8 4
10.3
17.7
11.0
13.0
8.5
13.5
15.4
21.3
15.6
16.3
16.2
25.1
26.3
20.3
19.6
30.6
30.4
28.6
23.4
27.9
27.0
31.4
27.3
30.8
34.5
30.3
30.6
33.0
33.2
26.5
30.2
31.5
31.4
32.3
30.5
28.2
20.1
31.6
23.0
26.7
30.1
16.7
25.6
16.7
20.3
17.0
16,4
16.5
18.0
16.5
U.0
13.5
13.2
13.3
11.0
11.0
31 5
1886
3;{
1887
1888
1880
31.2
34.5
31 3
1 Authority: Annales du Bureau Central Meteorologique de France; Vol. II, Observations.
810
THE fig: its history, oultdbk, and curing.
Temperature and precipitation in Jig dugtrictn — Contintied.
PARIS, FRANCE-Contimied.
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES CENTIGRADE;.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
- 1.6
-7.0
— 9.7
-16.0
-10.5
Mar. ; Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
AtinTm.!.
1885
1886
1887
1888
-10.9
-8.6
— 6.9
-11.8
-8.6
-8.7
-6.6
0.8 -0.3
--0.3 1.8
-2.0 2.2
-2.2 1.6
0.0^ 3.8
5.5
6.2
6.9
6.0
8.2
9.0
5.9
7.8
6.5
7.6
6.3
8.0
6.8
7.6
6.9
0.7 0.0 -2.7
4.2 4.1 -1.3
2.1 —4.8 -7.6
8.9 -3.0 -0.3
1.0 0.8 -3.1
-6.4
-7.3
-8.8
—6.0
-7.5
-10.9
— 8.6
-9.7
—15.0
1889
—10.5
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER GENT).
1885
1886
1X87
18H8
1889
90.1
86.8
91.1
88.0
88.6
80.9
84.4
81.5
87.1
81.2
T3.2
72.8
77.0
80.8
76.7
69.0
70.2
68.2
73.9
74.0
70.1
66?6
77.7
66.1
74.0
67.4
79.4
70.8
74.9
74.5
67.3
78.1
70.1
80.1
72.2
67.7
79.2
68.9
78.3
74.6
81.6
81.0
80.0
80.7
76.6
84.6
85.4
84.7
83.1
86.9
86.5
87.5
86.6
86.2
88.0
89.d
87.1
87.9
90.1
90.3
77.2
79.4
78.8
80.7
80.0
23.1
43. i
15.5
26.2
29.3
PRECIPITATION (MILLIMETERS).
1885
41.9 36.0
22.7 55.2
3.1 20.3
36.3 90.5
67.2 28.4
35.3! 38.5
68.9
98.5
44.2
66.5
46.5
14.1 65.9
39.6 00.0
62.2 89.0
81.6 42.7
31.6 .^.9
56.8
48.8
30.2
25.8
25.1
105.5
75.9
36.4
34.2
81.6
44.0
53.7
47.4
41.6
29.5
58.8
05.4
48.2
23.4
38.8
588.8
1886
1887
1888
1889
56.1
34.9
63.4
56.2
66.1
76.8
20.1
65.4
680.1
497.2
542.3
532.4
MELBOURNE, AUSTRAXJA.i
[Latitude 37o 49' 53^ S.; lon^tude 144o 58' 45" E.; elevation 91 feet.]
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
61.5
61.2
65.0
60.0
64.4
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
AnnuaL
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
64.2
68.0
09.2
64.9
67.7
64.3
62.7
67.9
64.9
65.9
67.2
69.1
59.5
58.1
60.5
54.6
52.7
62.6
53.6
55.6
48.1
49.2
49.3
52.0
52.5
46.2
47.JI
49.6
48.4
47.8
51.9
49.8
50.4
48.6
50.1
63.9
55.5
51.8
54.2
52.3
58.0
64.6
56.8
56.1
58.9
50.9
61.9
58.8
62.7
61.8
65.5
63.4
66.6
66.7
64.0
—
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
101.6!
104.11
99.6
97.2
98.0
95.2
83.6
76.0
62.1
01.2
77.0
75.0
96.1
90.5
95.1
98.1
90.2
76.(1
63.3
65.1
68.1
78.0
75.5
96.4
96.8
98.0
90.6
66. Q
65.0
50.9
72.1
73.1
82.1
80.3
94.5
94. (]
88.9
78.1
66.9
64.2
67.1
80.1
86.0
102.0
90.4
96. U
87.9
78.1
66.0
62.1
68.0
74.5
84.5
93.2
99.8
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1885
42.0
46.1
42.5
40.0
41.2
30.2
29.9
31.7
40.0
36.5
42.1
47.4
1886
48.3
45.9
43.3
37.6
;fi5.7
33.0
28.1
32.9
36.6
38.6
43.8
46.7
1887
47.9
46.7
42.0
41.3
36.8
33. C
34.9
33.6
35.2
38.1
41.5
46.1
1888
48.8
43.1
42.0
34.8 40.0
36.2
28.3
80. C
34.4
36.1
38.1
47.2
1889
49.7
45.5
43.0
37.2 39.4
37.6
31.3
32.1
32.1
37.8
41.3
47.0
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1885
64
68
65
71
68
67
68
66
64
67
66
68
66
71
63
74
70
76
66
72
73
72
84
80
77
81
78
87
76
77
82
80
80
76
81
65
74
80
75
75
75
65
74
75
69
69
70
73
64
70
67
65
71
64
70
69
68
67
66
61
1886
1887
1888
1889
PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
1885
1886
0.75
4.54
1.11
2.58
4.22
2.74
1.54
2.67
0.42
1.50
2.39
1.72
0.78
2.16
0.24
2.62
0.95
4.84
0.83
3.60
1.23
0.80
1.98
3.77
0.94
3.63
0.81
3.04
1.19
2.78
1.13
0.84
2.68
1.51
1.64
1.56
2.45
0.96
0.99
2.06
3.93
1.30
2.71
1.28
1.51
1.99
2.84
2.83
1.35
2.86
3.54
2.67
3.66
0.62
4.27
1.53
3.54
5.13
2.72
1.52
1887
1888
1889
> Authority: Monthly record of observations at Melbourne Observatory (Ellery).
METEOROLOGICAL TABLES.
311
Temperature and precipitation in fig districts — Continued.
UPPER SACRAMENTO VALINE Y, CALIFORNIA. »
[Latitude, 40^ 10' N.; longitude, 12.2° 15' W.; elevation, 342 feet.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb. Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1884
67
67
64
71
60
79
73
77
69
82
72
86
75
80
78
j
77 i 91
94
97
103
105
99
99
107
109
112
109
107
108
104
107
108
95
100
106
101
106
87
93
93
96
92
79
71
78
80
73
70
68
66
68
61
1885
84
85
90
93
100
95
110
96
1886
1887
1888
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
30
33
30
30
18
32
34
37
1
32
39
35
39
32
42
34
37
38
41
50
44
46
40
48
52
.48
56
47
49
56
57
55
56
54
55
58
57
55
55
46
52
52
48
55
42
46
38
47
44
36
38
33
27
36
25
33
37
32
35
1885
1886 . . .
1887
1888
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
46.3
47.5
46.2
48.7
40.9
45.9
53.5
64.5
43.4
53.9
51.6
61.0
52.8
58.9
54.5
56.8
62.1
57.7
60.2
67.0
68.0
70.4
66.9
68.8
68.1
69.6
71.6
79.1
77.1
70.7
78.4
80.7
82.6
83.9
81.2
81.5 67.3
83.8 74.8
81.5 75.6
81.3 76.4
82.4 80.2
62.1
65.6
60.7
71.1
67.0
54.7
52.7
51.3
55.2
54.0
47.5
49.3
50.0
48.2
48.0
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).^
1884
73
82
83
64
70
71
69
72
72
58
73
56
63
68
54
73
61
67
48
54
58
45
57
44
51
59
47
35
34
53
39
36
32
36
34
38
30
33
36
31
46
39
34
32
35
63
53
53
27
38
62
87
54
46
63
66
86
81
67
88
1885
1886
1887
1888..*
PREC
IPITi
\.TION (INCHES).
1884
3.55
L84
4.85
0.57
4.08
2.21
1.19
0.18
5.21
2.17
7.81
T.
1.31
1.13
3.47
4.31
0.62
4.12
1.76
0.53
0.18
0.64
0.73
0.77
0.51
0.97 fi«)
T.
0.00
T.
T.
0.00
0.36
2.91
.0.00
0.06
0.38
0.90
0.10
L76
0.00
T.
0.04
17.05
0.34
1.52
4.32
7.73
3.86
3.92
2.32
6.85
28.06
29.63
17.21
13.60
24.94
1885
1.37
T.
0.26
2.61
0.05
T.
T.
0.07
1886 - ..
1887
1888
1 Maximum and minimum temperatures at stations in the United States are from self-
registering maximum and minimum thermometers. The means have been deduced from
observations three times daily— 7 a. m., 3 and 11 p. m., seventy -fifth meridian time. Precipita-
tion Includes rain and melted snow.
a Mean of observations three times daily except from July to December, 1888, inclusive, when
but two observations were made each day.
T. = Trace of precipitation.
23740— No. 9—01-
-21
312 THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Temperature and precipitation in fig districts — Continued.
CENTRAL. SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA.
[Latitude, 36° 43' W. ; longritude, n^ 49' W. ; elevation, 313 feet.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1888
68
63
58
66
69
83
75
70
68-
70
77
84
77
78
78
98
93
92
91
80
96
101
108
95
104
104
106
104
112
106
109
112
111
114
110
Ill
110
105
112
112
Ill
105
103
104
104
94
98
88
94
94
78
72
82
81
66
65
70
66
1889
1890
■ .
1891
i^:;::.:::::::
1
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1888
20
28
24
26
30
30
27
28
27
34
28
38
33
32
36
41
41
36
37
36
46
44
42
47
41
50
65
46
50
48
54
55
56
51
55
56
54
56
56
55
54
50
53
51
52
41
42
42
40
36
35
. 36
87
34
35
31
28
27
1889
1890 -
1891
1892 .
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1888
1889
44.1*
43.8
42.2
45.4
48.5
53.2
50.2
47.2
48.5
53.2
54.1
58.4
54.6
64.4
65.6
67.1
63.5
61.2
60.0
57.6
68.6
69.6
69.4
67.1
67.2
74.1
79.5
73.4
73.0
72.8
81.7
82.6
82.5
83.6
79.4
83.0
82.2
80.8
83.6
81.4
80.7
75; 6
74.6
74.6
73.6
66.5
62.8
64.6
67.0
63.9
54.3
54.1
56.9
56.2
48.2
40.1
43.8
43.9
1890
1891
1892
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
(Observations at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m., seven ty-fifth meridian time).
1888
81
86
82
79
76
74
71
ra
69
72
75
72
68
69
69
57
62
60
62
60
58
53
55
52
56
52
43
42
42
40
45
34
30
30
33
41
29
38
31
34
49
35
48
41
44
50
67
51
46
55
79
76
65
59
93
86
93
76
1889
1890
1891
189^.
PRECIPITATION (INCHES).
1889-
1890.
1891.
1892.
1.75
0.13
1.95
0.22
0.66
T.
T.
T.
0.06
0.00
2.38
1.71
0.34
0.32
2.07
0.54
0.57
0.00
0.00
T.
0.00
3.17
i.39
3.1*7
2.12
0.80
L04
0.17
0.45
0.00
0.00
T.
1.28
0.00
0.22
2.30
0.88
2.24
0.81
0.49
0.03
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.27
0.00
0.21
3.99
0.48
1.00
1.69
0.79
1.44
0.06
0.00
0.00
T.
0.34
8.76
12.27
8.36
8.94
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, NORTHERN COAST OF.'
[Latitude, :^« 58' N.; longitude, 120° 29'; elevation, 20 feet.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1883
72
68
65
80
72
77
77
73
76
68
69
78
68
76
82
70
76
74
77
92
77
72
76
80
92
80
74
77
90
79
80
82
83
85
84
84
87
82
74
98
78
92
77
75
76
77
84
75
82
80
69
73
76
74
70
72
74
76
70
1884
1885
1886
1887
1 Authority, Mr. Hugh D. Vail; observations at 7 a. m., 2.09 p. m., local time.
METEOROLOGICAL TABLES.
318
Temperature and precipitation in fig districts — Continned.
SOUTHERN CAXIFORXIA, NORTHERN COAST OF— Contlnaed.
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July. Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec
Annual.
1883
33
31
47
42
48
40
49
44
48
51
47
48
50
50
62
52
52
55
58
55
58
56
58
55
54
58
53
59
54
59
47
49
55
47
58
41
45
46
40
46
40
36
45
44
43
1884
41 37
41 43
41 40
42 43
1885
58 58
57 , 51
55 58
1886
1887
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1887
1889
54.7
49.0
53.0
48.4
54.4
50.4
53.8
55.4
52.6
52.6
57.0
53.0
58.0
55.6
56.6
58.4
59.9
59.9
56.6
56.3
60.1
57.6
60.0
60.0
50.0
63.7
64.4
62.5
62.4
62.4
64.6
67.0
62.2
67.3
67.2
64.8
66.3
67.3
67.9
69.1
66.0
67.9
68.8
66.5
69.3
65.0
63.5
63.9
64.0
63.8
58.9
59.1
59.6
63.3
58.8
62.8
55.8
54.2
58.4
51.9
1889
1890
1891
PRECIPITATION (INCHES.)
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
0.31
10.15
0.29
5.32
0.45
8.64
1.30
1.29
2.96
7.92
0.13 ' 1.43 0.33
3.88,0.16 0.02
7.31 ' 0.49 0.76
1.10 0.31 ' 0.18
1.56 1.57 0.30
0.03 0.00
T. T.
0.13 0.00
0.06 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00
T.
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.38
0.03
0.00
1.50
0.15
0.81
0.07
8.65
0.06
0.00
1.10
5.62
3.21
0.48
0.00
4.43
5.59
10.64
3.53
2.43
17.09
26.80
32.77
15.49
14.38
1
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, SOUTHERN COAST OF.
[Latitude, 83<» 43^ N.; longitude, 117° 10' W.; elevation, 66 feet.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan. j Feb.
Mar. Apr.
May.
June. July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec. lAnnual.
■ 1
1884
78
68
74
74
79
76
80
7ft
68 ' 69
81 ' 83
68 • 71
82 80
72 93
72
73
73
79
70
81 84
74 82
75 81
78 79
76 ! 77
92
89
82
77
82
78
90
78
79
82
87
88
75
85
80
74
76
77
82
75
68
79
76
74
73
1885
1886
1887
1888
64 67
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
39 38 43
45
47
45
44
47
52
50
48
50
52
54
54
54
54
58
57
60
55
54
62
61
54
57
51
56
60
58
58
47
47
47
50
53
42
42
40
44
46
36
40
40
36
44
1885
38 40
35 1 44
38 , 38
33 ; 42
1
42
41
44
41
1886
1887
1888
47 52
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
1885
1886
1887
55.0 55.9 56.5
54.0 I 55.4 59.6
55.9 I 58.5 55.0
54.3 j 52.9 I 57.2
51.6 54.9 I 55.8
57.6
61.4
W.4
68.4
69.5
65.1
61.3
58.6
54.4
62.0
63.3
W.3
67.6 1 71.8
68.0
63.9
59.6
57.1
57.2
60.4
63.1 67.1
70.5
66.6
59.7
56.0
56.0
59.0
62.1
64.6 . 66.5
66.2
65.7
64.5
59.2
54.6
60.8
61. :i
66.0 68.4
69.2
69.7
65.0
59.9
58.2
60.7
62.2
60.5
60.6
61.7
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1884
63 1
76
74 1
70 1
76
72 '
78 I
71
75 1
77 ,
76 !
73 ,
77 '
79
81 1
80
76
76
76
80
s
77
79
74
77
I?'
75
81
80
78
76 1
78 '
81
82
78
76
79
80
84
75
81
84
84
89
77
85
82
72
91
77
82
70
77
86
78
1885
74 . -
1886
1887
82
71
1888
86
PRECIPITATION (INCHES).
0.35
0.11
5.12
0.31
1.56
0.71
0.05
0.95
0.10
T.
2.08
1.14
0.26
1.83
2.84
27.50
5.73
15.35
10.45
11.57
314
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
T^emperature and precipitation in fig districts — ContiutiecL
YUMA, ARIZ.
[Latitude 32^ 45'; longitude li4o 36' W.; elevation 141 feet.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1884
73
78
80
76
. 79
84
84
83
83
85
81
95
104
110
106
104
102
118
104
110
116
107
112
110
112
114
112
114
112
112
104
107
104
105
111
100
106
«3
106
105
87
86
81
91
82
78
78
79
72
75
1886
87 96
1886
88
92
87
93
97
102
1887
1888
114 { 110
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
87
36
80
30
27
34
38
44
35
39
43
43
38
43
37
45
51
45
44
47
48
67
54
44
54
58
60
64
69
60
68
67
69
66
63
68
70
75
60
70
66
62
62
62
67
60
51
47
48
49
43
41
as
88
88
36
40
34
27
40
1886
1886
1887
1888
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
64.6
62.6
55.0
56.6
51.6
57.3
59.8
62.7
56.1
60.5
60.9
67.2
60.5
69.9
62.5
C7.4
70.7
67.4
60.8
76.8
78.3
78.2
80.1
77.2
76.9
81.7 90.6
81.2 89.1
84.0 90.8
85.9 92.0
85.6 91.4
88.9
90.5
89.6
90.9
91.0
80.0
84.7
84.2
84.7
89.2
71.7
74.7
67.4
75.8
74.9
63.3
63.3
67.8
63.9
61.9
53.0
67.6
59.3
63.1
67.0
70 4
1886
72.5
1886
71.6
1887
72.9
1888
73.2
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1884
41
67
62
47
66
66
65
46
67
65
50
65
50
60
48
45
53
49
64
. 37
41
49
42
69
38
42
50
50
43
30
43
60
47
46
41
49
65
62
49
43
46
66
49
56
48
64
61
63
48
56
60
68
43
67
68
72
67
48
66
68
1885
1886
1887
1888
PRECIPITATION (INCHES).
1884
1885
1886
1887.
1888
T.
1.58
1.48
0.07
0.44
T.
0.01
0.32
T.
T.
T.
T.
0.02
T.
0.07
T.
0.00
0.05
0.86
0.00
0.00
1.71
1.06
0.08
0.33
0.31
0.00
0.00
T.
2.23
0.00
1.11
0.23
0.00
T.
0.00
0.20
T.
0.01
T.
T.
1.00
0.02
2.43
0.18
0.05
0.05
T.
0.00
0.00
0.04
T.
0.01
0.99
0.68
1.96 6.86
0.01 ' 2.72
0.00 I 6.35
0.16 8.90
0.95 2.95
PHOENIX, ARIZ.
[Latitude 33° 28' N.; longitude 112« 0' W.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
•
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.j June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1881
73
74
87
79
82
84
72
80
88
86
91
90
97
99 104
102 1 109
107 ! 119
104 114
113 110
106
114
112
115
113
104
97
93
99
96
77
92
90
77
95
87
83
89
1882
114 108
116 , 114
115 I 105
11A 113
1883
92 99
1884
79
91
96
99
100 97
105 96
]885
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1881
22
19
13
20
22
25 1 28
23 32
23 38
19 30
22 2ft
42
36
30
33
30
47
50
41
36
35
52
54
55
48
38
65
69
65
56
46
59
65
68
52
49
48
45
51
39
44
34
41
34
42
40
26
25
24
20
25
20
1882
1888
1884
1886
METEOROLOaiOAL TABLES.
315
Temperature and precipitation in fig districts— Conimaed*
PHOENIX, ARIZ.— Continued.
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
1881
1882
1884
Jan. I Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual
45.5
44.1
47.0
50.6
50.2
55.4
51.0
52.1
52.5
54.8
58.4
62.0
64.5
54.5
59.9
69.3
67.1
62.1
63.0
65.0
75.6
77.2
71.3
71.2
68.9
82.9
83.6
85.4
79.6
71.6
87.7
91.6
89.0
87.7
82.3
85.1
88.6
88.0
83.7
83.1
77.1
81.7
81.3
73,6
79.3
66.5
69.8
67.2
72.1
70.6
51.7
59.7
58.5
61.6
56.8
51.5
57.9
55.5
51.9
53.5
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1878.,
1879
1880.
1881,
43
62
44
51
32
39
48
PRECIPITATION (INCHES),
1881
0.00
1.62
0.83
0.16
0.00
0.20
0.17
1.27
2.46
0.47
1.46
0.00
1.16
2.U
0.33
1.10
0.00
T.
0.40
0.00
0.12
0.00
0.44
0.01
0.65
0.00 2.03
0.37 0.32
0.00 , 0.07
0.15 ; 0.07
0.04 0.18
2.19
1.81.
0.07
1.84
0.71
1.04
1.25
0.00
L50
0.07
0.25
0.10
0.20
1.12
0.09
0.36
1.30
0.00
0.24
0.91
0.16
0.00
3.36
2.74
0.82
6.91
1882...... ««•••.
1883 ...
6.94
7.40
1884
12.83
a 77
NEW ORLEANS, LA.
[Latitude 29° 58'; longitude 90« 4' W.; elevation 52 feet.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
1
Aug.j Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1884
72
75
72
78
80
77
75
74
82
79
80
77
81
81
78
82
83
86
87
85
86
87
91
91
88
91
92
92
91
92
95
92
93
96
96
93 1 92
93 92
90
80
87
86
87
76
85
82
80
85
76
74
72
77*
72
1885
1886
95
94
94
92
94
91
1887
1888
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
22
28
15
21
29
33
30
25
44
35
41
36
40
44
41
50
62
41
48
56
62
60
57
62
60
68
72
70
66
66
71
74
71
70
72
66
70
68
71
70
70
66
62
60
56
49
49
45
42
55
42
40
34
34
41
29
30
27
29
31
1885
1886
1887
1888
1
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
47.1
52.1
46.5
51.4
55.6
60.7
53.1
53.2
65.2
58.6
64.8
58.4
58.6
62.1
60.3
68.2
70.5
65.6
67.9
69.9
76.4
73.9
72.6
75.2
72.8
79.4
82.2
78.7
78.3
77.3
85.4
82.9
79.8
80.5
83.6
82.3
80.4
81.4
81.0
81.0
80.9
77.1
77.8
77.3
77.6
74.4
65.7
69.5
68.1
70.8
59.7
59.7
59.1
61.1
61.8
58.7
53.1
51.6
52.9
53.8
69 8
1886
67.4
1886
66 1
1887
68.4
1888
68.6
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
•
1884
71
72
80
74
80
70
66
68
81
80
?2
68
76
70
72
69
75
76
71
77
72
73
74
74
77
72
72
82
79
79
70 : 69
74 1 84
80 ! 77
81 1 80
77 87
74
86
81
77
79
72
74'
72
74
79
67
75
74
74
79
77
78
. 74
81
79
1885
1886
1887
1888
PRECIPITATION (INCHES).
1884
485
9. TO
7.53
4.26
3.20
a 16
2.39
1.96
5.58
11.21
8.24
6.99
8.41
a 37
6.45
6.48 4.38
a67 5.77
5.60 ! ao7
1.87 a 99
1.89 9.75
a 60
a 30
9.30
11.33
9.09
4.12
6.15
4.35
7.85
2.02
0.87
4.25
2.40
7.42
22.74
a 12
ia55
4.09
6.51
4.15
5.60
0.56
0.22
4.71
7.36
a 13
a 47
5.33
0.52
L50
a 01
4.38
2.67
7.56
a 68
60 01
1885
64.18
1886
1887
1888
54.83
64.97
83.13
316
THE fig: its history, culture, and curing.
Temperature and precipitation in fig districts — Continued.
JACKSONVILLE, FLA.
[Latitude, 30° 20^ N. ; longitude, 81« 33' W. ; elevation, 43 feet.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct
Nov.
Dec.
AnnuaL
1884
72
78
. 73
76
81
79
73
73
84
82
85
79
84
80
84
88
88
86
89
88
91
89
92
91
93
92
96
94
95
96
96
95
94
100
96
94
94
94
97
96
89
92
92
96
92
92
86
87
88
86
79
81
82
78
83
75
76
76
76
74
1885
1886
1887
1888
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT)).
1884
21
32
15
22
28
37
32
24
38
32
42
38
87
36
35
47
47
44
38
49
62
56
56
55
56
62
68
67
64
64
69
71
70
69
68
70
70
65
68
67
64
68
66
55
55
49
49
44
40
60
39
36
36
26
38
33
32
27
31
28
1885
1886
1887 ---....
1888
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
1885
1886
51.7
56.2
50.7
49.8
57.2
62.1 1 66.3
54.5 1 67.6
53.5 59.9
68.7
67.8
66.5
67.0
70.1
76.5
73.7
75.8
73.6
74.2
76.9 ; 82.9
80.1 I 82.4
80.7 80.9
77.9 81.8
79.2 81.9
79.8
80.7
80.4
80.8
82.5
77.8
78.3
78.6
76.1
77.0
72.8
67.6
68.9
70.1
69.9
61.7
60.3
59.1
60.9
6L6
58.4
53.8
62.8
55.6
53.6
69.6
67.7
67.3
1887
64.4
60.2
59.5
60.3
68.1
1888
69.0
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1884
77
79
79
83
79
75
73
78
84
82
73
74
78
74
73
66
74
74
73
73
73
77
69
74
74
79
81
77
76
72
76
75
80
76
75
80
79
82
79
79
82
85
82
80
85
78
77
80
80
83
80
75
76
T9
86
86
74
83
85
83
1885
1886
1887 •
1888
PRECIPITATION (INCHES).
1884
4.78
7.18
2.81
4.34
0.49
2.45
5.23
1.87
0.34
4.88
2.63 2.32
5.45
7.74
2.81
7.15
5.46
6.89
8.98
4.78
9.68
2.92
6.02
7.16
14.97
8.90
8.30
5.21
7.66
6.26
6.76
4.89
5.68
19.63
4.91
9.40
U.16
4.12
3.36
2.47
1.57
6.00
5.43
0.50
0.97
0.10
4.16
4.04
7.76
3.20
3.70
2.88
56.02
1885
1886
5.66
6.74
3.51
1.57
1.24
3.08
4.15
0.93
82.00
54.86
1887
68.00
1888
63.13
GALVESTON, TEX.
[Latitude, 29° 18' N.; longitude, 94« 47' W.; elevation, 40 feet.]
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1884
. 70
73
69
75
68
75
70
71
75
72
77
74
71
75
81
84
80
81
78
84
88
87
87
86
91
92
90
88
90
95
94
92
93
91
93
92
94
91
94
90
91
89
88
87
87
82
83
84
85
76
80
86
76
82
72
72
72
74
71
1885
1886
1887
1888
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
22
33
11
24
23
28
28
32
47
40
41
43
38
46
42
48
60
43
51
66
60
58
60
57
62
66
73
67
68
69
76
75
68
67
74
71
72
71
71
71
74
68
61
57
65
57
49
60
48
64
44
46
34
37
42
29
34
25
39
40
1886
1886
1887
1888
METEOROLOGICAL TABLES.
311
Temperature and x>recipitation in fig districts — Continued.
GALVESTON, TEX Continued.
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan. ' Feb.
Mar. Apr. May. June. July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
46.7
50.6
47.3
51.2
40.8
60.4
52.6
53.5
62.9
64.8
60.7
59.0
65.2
Ml. 1
67.2
71.9
68.5
69.4
71.2
75.9 81.4 85.2
76.2 84.1 84.9
74.6 80.3 82.8
75.9 79.9 82.9
74.8 80.2 83.0
83.8
84.2
83.2
83.1
82.6
83.5
79.9
80.1
79.7
78.2
74.8
69.7
71.6
69.4
73.1
61.9
64.9
62.0
64.0
61.6
57.6
67.6
56.2
53.3
67.4
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1884
78
82
86
78
89
79
80
78
84
82
78
79
80
75
78
78
83
81
76
86
78
76
78
78
78
74 76
73
75
76
74
78
74
82
79
73
77
75
71
73
72
79
76
76
75
71
85
84
78
81
82
78
1885
71
80
76
79
73
75
74
76
1886
1887
1888
PRECIPITATION (INCHES).
1884
1885
5.11
6.07
8.45
1.19
2.70
0.80 4.84
2.04 3.17
5.85
4.12
2.15
0.01
3.13
8.42
6.41
0.08
4.84
5.18
6.84
3.28
6.19
8.28
9.77
1.16
2.20
1.20
1.62
1.54
1.77
1.74
2.46
6.43
14.46
7.04
26.01
13.81
2.52
3.32
7.87
2.20
1.93
4.87
5.67
4.25
2.32
2.65
0.05
6.73
9.44
2.10
2.10
10.28
3.00
62.68
62.56
1886
2.3]
1.86
7.54
8.19
1.98
2.84
40.07
1887
48.43
1888
66.88
ATLANTA, GA.
[Latitude, 33° 45' N.; longitude, 84» 23' W.; elevation, 1,129 feet.j
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Annual.
1884
64
64
60
60
71
73
60
66
74
68
76
70
78
75
77
82
83
82
88
84
85
83
90
89
88
89
90
90
97
98
00
01
03
100
94
89
90
94
91
96
88
87
90
05
87
91
74
84
82
79
70
73
76
72
77
66
60
66
66
63
1886
1886
1887
1888
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
-1
14
-2
9
15
11
8
8
29
13
24
20
27
25
24
35
86
82
36
40
65
46
44
67
44
57
57
60
57
55
65
59
58
59
65
60
69
62
65
62
52
53
53
46
43
84
87
84
30
40
80
20
28
16
28
11
21
15
16
21
1885
1886
1887
1888.
MEAN TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT).
1884
1886
1886
36.7
80.9
86.1
89.6
45.0
51.0
89.5
41.9
52.7
49.0
54.2
47.0
50.1
50.7
60.6
58.1
61.1
60.4
62.7
64.1
70.9
66.1
68.1
72.0
68.6
70.8
76.4
72.3
75.0
74.8
78.0
78.2
75.8
77.6
79.2
75.1
76.6
76.1
76.2
78.6
74.0 ' 67.8
60.5 1 56.5
72.0 ! 62.3
72.1 59.6
68.8 58.2
61.6
50.2
50.6
52.5
52.4
46.1
42.7
40.7
42.3
43.6
1887
1888
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY (PER CENT).
1884
71
66
74
73
74
63
62
68
86
76
66
56
64
77
68
59
55
65
60
53
89
69
66
65
60
75
71
80
63
70
71
74
76
77
74
71
76
79
73
75
61
81
75
62
82
63
76
61
65
77
57
70
62
60
76
73
61
75
73
70
1886
1886
1887
1888
PRECIPITATION (INCHES).
1884
1885
1886
6.20
8.44
7.38
3.52
8.89
5.84
4.14
1.53
3.74
5.91
9.70
4.26
11.16
1.99
8.16
5.86
1.31
2.52
1.38
1.34
1.33
6.12
6.21
1.76
6.86
10.73
4.83
8.68
2.82
4.71
2.42
4.02
2.08
14.11
1.85
2.06
6.92
2.36
7.61
8.89
0.08
6.51
0.58
4.20
14.26
0.70
3.04
0.03
8.28
3.00
2.84
3.08
6.82
0.80
4.70
6.00
2.64
8.03
6.70
6.42
1887
1888
fl'-'
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