THE FILM INDUSTRY
PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES
AND INDUSTRIES
'THE I
FILM INDUSTRY-
BY
DAVIDSON BOUGHEY
LONDON
SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD.
PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2
BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK
1921
COMMON COMMODITIES
AND INDUSTRIES SERIES
Each book in crown 8vo, illustrated, 3/- net
TEA. By A. IBBETSON
COFFEE. By B. B. KEABLE
SUGAR. By GEO. MARTINEAU, C.B.
OILS. By C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL,
B.A., F.I.C.
WHEAT. By ANDREW MILLAR
RUBBER. By C. BEADLE and H. P.
STEVENS, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C.
IRON AND STEEL. By C. HOOD
COPPER. By H. K. PICARD
COAL. By FRANCIS H. WILSON,
M.InstM.E.
TIMBER. By W. BULLOCK
COTTON. By R. J. PEAKE
SILK. By LUTHER HOOPER
WOOL. By J. A. HUNTER
LINEN. By ALFRED S. MOORE
TOBACCO. By A. E. TANNER
LEATHER. By K. J. ADCOCK
KNITTED FABRICS. By J. CHAM-
BERLAIN and J. H. QUILTER
CLAYS. By ALFRED B. SEARLE
PAPER. By HARRY A. MADDOX
SOAP. By WILLIAM A. SIMMONS,
B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.
THE MOTOR INDUSTRY. By
HORACE WYATT, B.A.
GLASS AND GLASS MAKING. By
PERCIVAL MARSON
GUMS AND RESINS. By E. J.
PARRY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.
THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY.
By J. S. HARDING
GAS AND GAS MAKING. By
W. H. Y. WEBBER
FURNITURE. By H. E. BINSTEAD
COAL TAR. By A. R. WARNES
PETROLEUM. By A. LIDGETT
SALT. By A. F. CALVERT
ZINC. By T. E. LONES, M. A., LL.D. ,
B.Sc.
PHOTOGRAPHY. By WM. GAMBLE
ASBESTOS. By A. LEONARD
SUMMERS
SILVER. By BENJAMIN WHITE
CARPETS. By REGINALD S. BRINTON
PAINTS AND VARNISHES. By
A. S. JENNINGS
CORD\GE AND CORDAGE HEMP
AND FD3RES. By T. WOODHOUSE
and P. KILGOUR
ACIDS AND ALKALIS. By G. H. J.
AD LAM
ELECTRICITY. By R. E. NEALE,
B.Sc., Hons.
ALUMINIUM. By Captain G.
MORTIMER
GOLD. By BENJAMIN WHITE
BUTTER AND CHEESE. By C.
W. WALKER-TISDALE and JEAN
JONES
THE BRITISH CORN TRADE. By
A. BARKER
LEAD. By J. A. SMYTHE, D.Sc.
ENGRAVING. By T. W. LASCELLES
STONES AND QUARRIES. By J.
ALLEN HOWE, O.B.E., B.Sc.,
M.I.M.M.
EXPLOSIVES. By S. I. LEVY, B.A.,
B.Sc., F.I.C.
THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. By
B. W. POOLE, M.U.K.A.
TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, AND
WIRELESS. By J. POOLE,
A.M.I.E.E.
PERFUMERY. By E. J. PARRY
THE ELECTRIC LAMP INDUSTRY.
By G. ARNCT,TFFF. PEKCIV.AT,
COLD STORAGE AND ICE MAKING.
Bv B. H. SPRINGETT
GLOVES AND THE GLOVE TRADE.
By B. E. ELLIS.
JUTE. By T. WOODHOUSE and
P. KILGOUR.
DRUGS IN COMMERCE. By J.
HUMPHREY.
THE FILM INDUSTRY. By
DAVIDSON BOUGHEY.
CYCLE INDUSTRY. By W. GREW.
SULPHUR. By HAROLD A. AUDEN.
TEXTILE BLEACHING. By
ALEC B. STEVEN.
PLAYER PIANO. By D. MILLER
WILSON.
WINE AND THE WINE TRADE.
By ANDRE L. SIMON.
IRONFOUNDING. By B. WHITELEY.
COTTON SPINNING. By A. S. WADE.
MALTING AND BREWING. By
J. Ross MACKENZIE.
ALCOHOL. By C. SIMMON DS.
CONCRETE. By W. NOBLE
TWELVETREES.
PREFACE
THIS book is neither a critical analysis nor a complete
technical treatise, but just a brief and, it is hoped,
clearly written survey of the youngest of the world's
great industries one which provides both education
and amusement for many millions of people every week
in the year, and one which is, to the average man and
woman, veiled in mystery and romance.
The success of this series has proved conclusively
that there are many people who desire knowledge of
the kind given without wishing for a lengthy scientific
treatise of a professional character, and it is to this
growing section of the public that it is hoped this book
will especially appeal.
To Mr. Charles Domville-Fife, the well-known author,
I wish to express my obligations for the great literary
help so readily given me throughout the work. My
thanks are also due to Mr. Colin M. Williamson, of
London, the recognized scientific expert on things
cinematographic ; Mr. Ellison Kayle, of San Francisco,
California, an authority on the artistic side of the
industry ; and to Messrs. W. Butcher and Sons, Ltd. ;
the Williamson Kinematograph Co., Ltd. ; Famous
Players-Lasky British Producers, Ltd. ; the British
Thomson-Houston Co., Ltd. ; Mr. George Palmer ; the
Watkins' Meter Co., of Hereford ; and many others for
the assistance they have so kindly rendered, and for the
loan of illustrations.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE V
INTRODUCTION
YOUTH AND GROWTH OF THE FILM INDUSTRY . xiii
Rapid rate of development Edison's Kinetoscope
first celluloid film in England first producing studio
the Derby filmed Paul's Theatrograph Lumiere's
Kinematograph the Animatograph filming the
festivities of Queen Victoria's Jubilee first theatre in
London to show moving-pictures rapid development
central and local legislative restrictions the lead
obtained by foreign countries methods of American
producers the first cinematograph act statistics of
industry, past and present the " Capitol " N.Y.
divisions of the modern industry.
CHAPTER I
THE CINEMATOGRAPH FILM .... 1
Made films negatives and positives film base
celluloid photographic emulsion orthochromatic film
film making lengths of film perforation methods
of handling static markings film boxes loading
camera with film- -threading-up.
CHAPTER II
THE CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA .... 7
Principles of the cine-camera a simple apparatus
but a difficult process where the cine-camera differs
from the ordinary mechanism of the " Topical "
camera described professional cine-cameras lenses
description of the mechanism of a super-cinema camera
French cameras American cameras telephoto lens
ultra-rapid cine-camera tripods revolving heads
tilting tables.
VU1 CONTENTS
CHAPTER III
PERFORATING, DEVELOPING AND DRYING . 23
Perforating cinematograph film use of perforations
the English standard perforating machines speed
and output developing devices and drying drums
difficulties of developing pin frames flat frames
stands developing and washing tanks revolving
drying drums hot air chambers.
CHAPTER IV
PRINTING, TINTING, TONING AND TITLING . . 33
Making prints mechanism of step-by-step printing
machine how it is operated the printer-measurer
the detector the film cleaner film mender tinting
for scenic effect screen storms moonlight sunshine
candle-light early morning fire ! toning a film
methods of titling card titling use of the reversing
lens plate titling.
CHAPTER V
A MOTION-PICTURE STUDIO ... 44
The building size awnings ventilation heating
artificial lighting violet arcs and mercury vapour tubes
motion-picture scenery and furniture facial make-up
for screen work erection of a set arrangement of mer-
cury vapour lights motor-driven cameras depart-
ments attached to studios " Ready ! Lights !
Camera ! "
CHAPTER VI
FILMS AND FILM-MAKERS ... .49
Absence of uniformity in film production preparations
necessary before filming commences different types of
films fiction films difficult combination of genius
producers and their work film finance the
scenario editor and his work the art-director and his
W0 rk art titles location man the cinematographer
studio manager chemical laboratories cutting-
rooms departments of a cinema city salaries earned
future of film production.
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER VII
FICTION FILM PRODUCTION . . . .60
Scenarios scenario editor at work division of photo-
play into " plots " or parts filming scenes not
taken consecutively retakes film editor and his work
cutting the part played by art -titles psychological
cuts and their importance collateral action difficulties
of cutting screen punctuation the " close up " the
" Iris " the " fade out " lapse of time.
CHAPTER VIII
TRAVEL, TOPICAL AND SCIENTIFIC FILMS . . 70
Records of exploration pictures taken beneath the
waves, above the clouds and in the bowels of the earth
the essentials of a travel picture interesting travel
pictures of modern times submarine views in the
crater of Vesuvius Stromboli Canadian Rockies in
winter difficulties of out-door cinematography the
Watkins Exposure Meter trick films topical films
screen newspapers methods of collecting and distri-
buting screen news screen magazines unpopularity
of educational subjects and why scientific films
colour cinematography cinestereoscopy cinemicro-
graphy talking animated pictures difference between
scientific cinematography and the filming of scientific
subjects!
CHAPTER IX
FILM DISTRIBUTION AND PUBLICITY ... 79
The film of commerce film renters private views
trade shows exclusives open market films Release
dates first run railways and the film methods of
marketing depend on pay-box attraction British
Board of Film Censors and its work systems of
publicity the motion-picture press.
CHAPTER X
THE PROJECTOR AND THE SCREEN ... 85
Wholesale and retail of cinematograph industry
projectors the illusion of motion persistence of vision
X CONTENTS
principles of the projector mechanism of the pro-
jector arc-lamps film blemishes the motor drive
the " Silent Empire Projector " the American
" Simplex " other projectors screens, white and
silver.
CHAPTER XI
FILM EXHIBITION . . . . , .96
Estimated number of cinemas in the world 1,500
million feet of film per week cinemas in U.S.A.
cinemas in British Isles laws and by-laws in England
fire appliances the operating box storage of
films re-winding room inspection bench film men-
ders the change-over method with projectors length
of a reel electric supply importance of theatre
lighting vaporizers and purification of air seating
capacity cinematograph trade associations capital
invested in cinemas in Great Britain.
INDEX 107
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
FILMING A SET .... Frontispiece
1. FILM BOX WITH SPOOL OF NEGATIVE FILM . 5
2. MECHANISM OF " TOPICAL " CINE-CAMERA . 5
3. A WILLIAMSON "TOPICAL" CINE-CAMERA . . 8
4. LENS IN FOCUSING MOUNT .... 10
1 5. INDICATOR REGISTERING LENGTH OF FILM EXPOSED 1 1
6. A MODERN CINE-CAMERA .... 14
7. TRIPOD WITH REVOLVING HEAD AND TILTING
TABLE . . . . . . .21
8. MECHANISM OF TILTING HEAD .... 21
9. A FILM PERFORATING MACHINE ... 25
10. PIN FRAME FOR DEVELOPING FILM ... 26
11. FLAT WOOD DEVELOPING FRAME ... 27
12. WINDING STAND FOR DEVELOPING FRAMES . 27
13. DEVELOPING TRAY WITH CARGO OF FILM . . 29
14. DEVELOPING TANK ...... 29
15. WASHING TANK 30
16. FILM DRYING DRUM IN HOT-AIR CHAMBER . .31
17. MECHANISM OF A STEP-BY-STEP PRINTING MACHINE 35
18. A SMALL STEP-BY-STEP FILM PRINTER . . 37
19. A SIMPLE CONTINUOUS PRINTER ... 38
20. FILM MEASURER ATTACHED TO PRINTING MACHINE 38
21. "DETECTOR" FITTED TO PRINTING MACHINE . 39
22. A FILM CLEANER ...... 40
23. A FILM MENDER . . . . . .41
' MOTOR GENERATOR ROOM IN MODERN STUDIO . 47
24. A MODERN PROJECTOR ..... 89
25. AN ARC-LAMP FOR PROJECTORS . . .91
26. THE "SILENT EMPIRE" PROJECTOR . . 93
A WELL-LIGHTED CINEMA . . . .100
27. HAND OPERATED DISINFECTANT SPRAY . .102
28. SUPERIOR TYPE OF AUTOMATIC SPRAY . .102
xi
INTRODUCTION
THE YOUTH AND GROWTH OF THE FILM INDUSTRY
THE meteoric rise of the cinematograph industry from
scientific experiment to world-wide industrial and
commercial importance is of such recent occurrence
that it will be more or less familiar even to the younger
generation. To attempt to record here each historic
step forward, every improvement in the apparatus
employed, the artistic elevation of the films themselves,
and the evolution of the electric theatre from a show-
man's tent to a palace of educational amusement equal,
and in many cases superior, to the finest theatre or
opera-house, would occupy more pages of print than
can legitimately be spared here for the description of
the whole of this gigantic industry at the present time.
Moreover, a great deal of doubt exists in regard to many
of the earlier incidents. So rapid was the rate of
development in so many lands, and so extraordinary
the present process of evolution that only a mass of
conflicting dates and patent specifications confront the
would-be historian of this youngest competitor in the
World of Art, Literature, Science and Industry.
Between the years 1890-3, Edison produced his
famous Kinetoscope in the United States, and a year
later Mr. Robert W. Paul began making similar instru-
ments in Great Britain. Both of these pioneers were
compelled to produce their own films, which were then
only 40 ft. in length.
In America one invention followed another with
astonishing rapidity, and in England a Mr. Blair produced
the first celluloid film coated with emulsion in 1895.
In the same year Mr. Paul joined forces with another
investigator in the cinematograph field, Mr. Birt Acres,
xiv * . >; V INTRODUCTION
and the first producing studio in England was opened
at Barnet. The Derby was one of the first subjects
to be filmed, with the aid of a camera constructed by
Mr. Paul, and several copies of this film were sold for
projection in the Kinetoscope ; one being shown with
great success at Earls' Court Exhibition.
In the following year Mr. Paul designed his first
projector, which he called a " Theatrograph," and
about the same time Messrs. Lumiere et Fils, of Paris,
produced the Kinematograph. In America, Mr. Thomas
A. Edison was rapidly perfecting various machines,
and a new industry was being born. The Theatrograph
was succeeded by the Animatograph in 1896, which
was demonstrated at the Alhambra Theatre, London ;
and simultaneously with this new projector Mr. Paul
designed the cine-camera with which films of the
festivities of Queen Victoria's Jubilee were taken in 1897.
The Empire, London, was actually the first theatre
in England to show moving pictures, and the Lumiere
Kinematograph was the projector used, but the Alham-
bra, with Mr. Paul's Animatograph, was a good second,
and Olympia, with the same instrument, came third.
It is interesting to note that a Mr. Cecil Hep worth
supplied the hand-fed arc-lamps for use in Mr. Paul's
earliest apparatus ; and that a hand-coloured film of
about 40 ft. was shown about this time.
The animatograph was steadily improved until, in
1902, other theatres showed a desire to include motion
pictures in their programme. Among these must be
mentioned the Canterbury Music Hall and the Britannia
Theatre. From this date onward to the present day
the development of cameras, projectors, films and
cinematograph machinery generally has been extra-
ordinarily rapid, especially in the United States and
in France. Messrs. Pathe Freres figure among the list
INTRODUCTION XV
of purchasers of the first Derby film taken by Mr. Paul,
and from that date onwards this famous firm has been
in the forefront of the industry in this country and
elsewhere. In America, the" Edison Company, The
American Biograph, and other even earlier concerns
had succeeded in advancing the whole industry from the
experimental to the commercial stage, thereby giving
to our cousins across the Atlantic a wonderful lead
which they are still able to maintain, although in both
England and France many powerful firms are yearly
securing a larger share in the general prosperity of the
film industry.
The course of central and local legislation affords
some idea of the rise to popularity of cinematograph
theatres in Great Britain, and is also indicative of the
extreme youth of the whole industry so far as that
country is concerned. It was not until long after
success had been assured to the exhibition side that the
actual production of films was commenced. Had the
two sides of this industry advanced in unison, the
importation of foreign films would never have reached
the present gigantic totals. The long delay in recog-
nizing the great future of film production a future
pregnant with psychological and political importance
as well as artistic and commercial was in part respon-
sible for the lead obtained by foreign nations, and the
place which American films in particular have won in
the hearts of appreciative British audiences. It should
be remembered in this connection that the psychology
of the American film is so much more in keeping with
English ideas and customs than that of French and
Italian productions that, although the competition
offered by the latter can be more or less disregarded by
British producers, the former cannot be treated lightly.
With its Anglo-Saxon psychology and setting, combined
Xvi INTRODUCTION
with wide range and novelty of scenery, to say nothing
of the excellence of the acting and production, it has
won a strong and legitimate hold. To meet this com-
petition on fair ground, the aid of Colonial scenery,
stirring incidents in quite modern history, and healthy
British psychology must be called to the aid of the vast
literary stores and manufacturing powers of the United
Kingdom.
American producers do not take all their stories from
life in the East side of New York City nor in the abattoir
of Chicago ; they go far afield into the desert tracts
of Arizona and California, the Rocky Mountains, the
pine forests of Oregon, the woods and lakes of Maine,
snowy Alaska, and palm-fringed Florida. They do not
attempt to ingraft a liking for the psychology of long
past ages, which have ceased to be either intelligible
or inspiring to the average man, woman or child.
But this is a digression. To return to the subject
of this introductory chapter, the first cinematograph
act relating to the licensing of film exhibitions in Great
Britain was passed as recently as 1909. This was
followed by various regulations as to safety made by
the Home Secretary and by the Secretaries for Scotland
and Ireland, in 1910-13. A veritable host of local
ordinances were passed between these dates and the
year 1915, including the Celluloid Acts. The original
Cinematograph Act was repealed and a new Statute
passed in 1910, which was amended in 1913. In 1914-15
came the clauses affecting the export of films in the
Defence of the Realm Regulations. The Entertainment
Taxes of 1916-17, and the privately arranged film
censorship in 1913.
From these few facts relating to the position of
cinematography in the eyes of the law, some idea will
be obtained of the quite modern development of this
INTRODUCTION XV11
industry ; which, in 1908, employed under 1,500 people
in the British Isles, and in 1919 over 200,000. The
number of electric theatres in operation at the present
time exceeds 4,000, and it is estimated that at least
another 2,000 are required to comfortably accommodate
the 7,000,000 to 9,000,000 weekly patrons. The capital
invested in the whole industry reaches the colossal
figure of 168,000,000 sterling.
It is interesting to note that whereas in 1908-10
the cost of erecting a building which was then considered
suitable for an electric theatre seldom exceeded 1,500
to 2,000, the cost of a modern picture palace varies
from 80,000 -to 300,000. A five-reel picture in the
earlier years was produced for as little as 4,000 to
5,000, whereas to-day anything from 15,000 to 50,000
is required for a. really good production.
The average annual importation of films into the
United Kingdom is approximately 160,000,000ft.; of
which between 60 and 70 per cent comes from the United
States. One large American firm has for several years
shown a profit of nearly 3,000,000 dollars per annum.
Statistics of the cinematograph industry, so far as
many foreign countries are concerned, are difficult to
obtain. The number of cinemas in the United States
has been given as 16,900 (exclusive of travelling shows),
and the premier theatre is the " Capitol," in New York
City, which has a seating capacity of over 5,000. Reliable
estimates place the number of cinemas in the world
at 87,000 and the film requirements at about
1,500,000,000 ft. per week, of which at least 50,000,000 ft.
must be entirely new subject matter.
This brings us to the four-fold nature of film production.
First comes the manufacturing of the celluloid film,
and the coating of this transparent base with photo-
graphic emulsion; then there is the optical and engineering
2 (1463?)
XV111 INTRODUCTION
work in the making of cinematograph cameras,
projectors, perforators, dynamo-lighting sets, printers,
mercury-vapour lamps, and other machinery and optical
instruments used in the various branches of the industry ;
next comes the combined literary, artistic, dramatic,
and photographic operations known by the generic
name of film-production, with the necessary studios,
scenery, lighting and technical staffs ; and finally,
there is what may be termed the retail side of this
great industry, the distribution, and the exhibition of
the films in the electric theatres.
In order to further complicate any attempt at adequate
description, each of these natural divisions of the industry
has several distinct branches. The making of the film
material is divided between (1) the production of the
thin sheet celluloid, and (2) the cutting of this into
suitable lengths for coating with photographic emulsion,
the cutting of the standard size ribbon, and the perfora-
tion of the edges for use in subsequent processes. The
engineering side of the industry has many branches
which it is unnecessary to enumerate here, as 'this will
be treated in extenso in later pages, and the same applies
to film production and exhibition, only, between these
two latter there is the wholesale middle-man, or film
renter, which is an important business distinct from
either the production or the exhibition. The studio
work is so complicated and relies for success upon such
close co-operation between author, actor, artist, director,
and photographer, to say nothing of the financial side,
that several long chapters must be devoted entirely to it.
The first of these divisions, the manufacture of the
celluloid film, which does not form a legitimate part
of the film industry as it is generally understood, will only
t>e treated briefly, in order to have sufficient space for a
full description of modern film production and exhibition.
THE FILM INDUSTRY
CHAPTER I
THE CINEMATOGRAPH FILM
Ix the description of a great industry perhaps the
most difficult thing is to decide at what point to begin.
From the raw material to the finished product is the
best plan of action for a general treatise such as this,
but, when the raw material used in the industry under
review is, itself, but a manufactured article, no natural
' basis or finality could be obtained that way.
These considerations would seem to make it advisable
to take the "made film" as the true point of departure
for a tour of inspection through the youngest of all the
great industries of the world. Here comes the first
difficulty occasioned by the choice of a starting point.
What is " made film " ? To the average individual
it is the celluloid ribbon upon which there is a complete
series of pictures ready for showing, with the aid of a
projector, on the screen of a cinema hall. This, however,
is really the finished product !
There are two distinct types of cinematograph film,
known as " positive " and " negative." The latter
is first used to record the pictures with the aid of a
special camera, and the former is the completed article
which is passed through the projector in the cinema
halls. Both are transparent and have a celluloid base.
The raw material of the industry is therefore the emul-
sioned and highly-sensitive negative film in its unexposed
1
2 THE FILM INDUSTRY
condition, and the finished product is the developed
positive film with the series of pictures on its surface.
Between the receipt of the one and the release to the
trade of the other lie all the complicated processes of
film-production.
The base or transparent foundation of both positive
and negative film is celluloid, a highly inflammable
substance made from camphor and tetra-nitro-cellulose,
mixed and compressed. The positive film is, however,
specially toughened to enable it to stand being passed
through many projectors during its travels round the
electric theatres.
Before being coated with sensitive photographic
emulsion both the positive and negative bases are
known as raw-film stock, which consists of long rolls
of very thin celluloid, about a yard wide. In order to
make the negative, a roll of this is coated on one side
with silver-bromide emulsion, and to make the positive
a roll of the specially toughened celluloid is coated on
one side with a much less sensitive, or slower photo-
graphic emulsion. The negative is orthochromatic, or
sensitive to green, yellow, blue and violet light, but
the positive is not orthochromatic, and can therefore
be handled in yellow or orange light.
After coating with the more or the less sensitive
emulsion, as the case may be, the long rolls of celluloid
are cut into strips or ribbon If ins. wide and 400 ft. long.
The average thickness is about six-thousandths of an
inch. The long strips are then perforated, rolled on
bobbins, enclosed in light-tight cases and sent to the
film-producing studios or factories. The negative to
be used in the cinematograph camera for taking the
pictures and the positive for obtaining " prints " from
the negative and for use in the projecto s of the exhibiting
theatres.
THE CINEMATOGRAPH FILM 3
It is at this point that the film industry really takes
up the work. The making of the emulsion-coated
celluloid is entirely within the province of the manu-
facturer of photographic materials, such as the Eastman
Kodak Company of Rochester, U.S.A., and the
Birmingham Photographic Company (Criterion), of
Stetchford, Birmingham, England.
The rolls of both negative and positive film, as supplied
by the makers, vary in length from 200ft. to 400ft.,
but they can be easily cut with a pair of scissors or
joined with film cement. In this way any required
length can be made up.
Before being used both kinds of film must be passed
through a machine which cuts small oblong holes, at.
regular distances from each other, along both edges
of the celluloid. These perforations enable the teeth
of sprockett wheels to engage and move the film along,
which is the universal way of passing negative and
positive through camera, printer and projector. More
will be said upon this subject, however, in a later chapter.
In addition to the ordinary and almost explosively
inflammable celluloid film-base there is a special kind
called " Non-flam," w r hich is as nearly fire-proof as
appears to be possible. This base is sometimes em-
ployed for making the positive films which are sent
round to the "cinema theatres. It would be even more
used if the transparency and toughness could be still
further improved.
The positive film, being the base used for the finished
product of the industry, can now be left for future
reference. It has much in common with the print
taken from an ordinary photographic negative, and is
not employed until the original, which in this case is
a series of pictures, has actually been made.
The first of the two kinds of film to be considered is,
4 THE FILM INDUSTRY
therefore, the negative, which is supplied to the industry
in rolls ready to be taken to the dark-room and there
unpacked from its light-proof wrapping and placed in
the film-boxes ready for the cameras. A certain amount
of care is necessary when doing this because it frequently
happens that the end of the roll of film is stuck down,
and if pulled apart suddenly will cause an almost
imperceptible discharge of static electricity. Should
this occur the highly sensitive emulsion will become
marked and the whole roll rendered useless. The stuck-
down end of the film must be very gently pulled free.
Every cinematograph camera is fitted with two film-
boxes ; the one to hold the roll of new, or unexposed
negative, and the other to take-up this film after ex-
posure. In some cameras these boxes are fitted on the
outside of the case, but in the principal British makes
they are contained within the camera. They can, of
course, be removed in the daylight, but must be filled
and emptied in the dark-room.
The box itself is a very simple affair, as will be seen
from Fig. 1, and may hold anything from 100 to 330 ft.
of film. There are, however, some very large studio
cameras which have boxes capable of containing up
to 1,000ft. of film, but they are far too heavy and
cumbersome for general out-door use.
The film-box consists of a thin metal or wood outer
case with a hinged door, which is opened in the dark-
room and the roll of negative film placed over the
central bobbin. The loose end of the film is then passed
under the roller and out through the velvet-lined slot
in the bottom corner of the box, and is left hanging.
The door is then firmly closed, and the box may be taken
out of the dark-room and either fitted immediately
into the camera or carried as a spare.
The arrangement, when inside the camera, of the
FILM BOX
FIG. 2
WILLIAMSON TOPICAL CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA
6 THE FILM INDUSTRY
loaded film-box, holding the roll of unexposed negative,
and the take-up box for receiving the film after exposure,
can be seen in Fig. . 2, which shows the interior of a
Williamson topical cinematograph camera.
In order to thread-up ready for operating the loose
end of the film left hanging outside the velvet-lined
slot of the supply-box is passed under the fixed roller,
beneath the spring-finger, which presses the film so that
the teeth of the sprockett wheel engage in the perfora-
tions in both sides of the film, and is then slipped
sideways under the gate, which holds it close to the
lens aperture. Finally, it is carried under the sprockett
wheel, over the two rollers, and into the velvet-lined
slot of the lower, or take-up film-box.
When this has been done all that remains is to fix
the film end to the bobbin in the centre of the take-up
box, give the camera handle a half-turn to ensure that
the take-up is winding properly, and that the film is
travelling evenly past the gate.
The door of the supply-box has, of course, been kept
closed since leaving the dark-room, otherwise not "merely
the short lead of film left hanging outside the slot but
the whole roll on the bobbin would have become fogged
by the daylight. The take-up box door can now also
be carefully closed, together with that of the camera,
and everything is ready to make an exposure.
Before describing the actual taking, or filming as
it is called, of motion pictures, several succeeding
chapters must be devoted to the cinematograph camera
.and other essential mechanical appliances of the industry.
For, without a working knowledge of these, many of
the processes and difficulties to be described would be
quite unintelligible to the lay reader.
CHAPTER II
THE CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA
CONTRARY to the general belief, there is nothing very
complicated in the general design or mechanical details
of the up-to-date cine-camera, which is little more than
an ordinary roll-film camera arranged 'so that, by the
turning of a handle on the outside of the case, a number
of pictures, amounting to about sixteen a second, may be
taken in succession instead of from one to six, as in the
ordinary snap-shot apparatus.
In order to convey the appearance of motion when
thrown on the screen it is necessary that the pictures
should be taken from the same point of view in rapid
succession, at the rate of about sixteen a second, and that
each individual picture should have an exposure of
from one-thirtieth to one-hundredth of a second. Thus,
if it were possible to take the photographs and effect
the necessary changes of film by hand in such quick
time something approaching a cinematograph film could
be obtained with the ordinary film-camera, but as this
is quite impracticable, mechanical devices are employed
to carry out the necessary movements within the camera
case.
This comparative simplicity ends, however, with the
camera itself. Almost any intelligent boy or girl is
able to focus and " snap " with an ordinary camera,
but the practical and artistic operation of a cine-camera
calls for considerable skill and artistic conception
combined with experience. To realize this an amateur
has only to consider what average result he would obtain
if on every occasion he took several hundred pictures
7
THE FILM INDUSTRY
in a few seconds instead of one or possibly two, and of
rapidly moving objects, perhaps in rain, or under the
glare of sunlight on snow, sea or wet sand, after travelling
many miles for the sole purpose of obtaining a picture.
A spoilt cine-film is a costly failure.
FIG. 3
WILLIAMSON TOPICAL CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA,
TYPE 7
The three main points in which a cinematograph
camera differs from the ordinary optical apparatus
employed for taking photographs are : (1) the provision
of a shutter, operated by the handle, which automatically
opens and closes the lens aperture so as to give a rapid
succession of definite exposures on to the film which
is passing through ; (2) a spring-gate, which holds the
THE CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA 9
film close to the lens aperture ; (3) one or more sprockett
wheels, which are also operated by the handle, and the
teeth of which engage in the perforations in the sides
of the film and draw it evenly from (4) the loaded, or
supply box, and, after exposure, pass it on to be rewound
in (5) the unloaded, or take-up film-box.
The details of these essentials, as well as of the
subsidiary mechanism, will be more easily understood
by taking, first, the Williamson British-made " Topical "
cinematograph camera shown in Figs. 2 and 3, which
is more simple in design and mechanism than the
expensive instruments used in the great film-producing
studios of Europe and America, and which can be more
easily described when the essential features have been
grasped.
The main idea of the manufacturers when producing
this thoroughly practical little camera was to supply
an inexpensive apparatus suitable for filming local
events, and for out-of-door work generally. No essential
feature was sacrificed to cheapness, the main differences
between this and more elaborate apparatus being in
the amount of film carried and in the extra conveniences
and attachments necessary for fine studio work.
The camera, itself, consists of a polished mahogany
case, brass-bound, with leather carrying handle, and
measures 9J ins. by 4f ins., by 9J ins. in height. The
lens and mount project another If ins., and the whole,
when loaded with film, weighs only 1\ Ibs. It is provided
with two film-boxes, holding 100 ft. of standard sized film.
The general arrangement of the mechanism in the
mahogany case, and the path taken by the film, will be
clearly seen in Fig. 2. The eight-picture sprockett A
is turned direct by the handle. The loaded film -box B
is placed on the top of the receiving box C. The path
the film takes after leaving the top box is, under the
10
THE FILM INDUSTRY
fixed roller D, and, after engaging with the teeth of the
sprockett, under the spring roller E, lifted by the
finger clip F, and after forming the free loop G, through
the spring gate H, then forming another free loop 7 ;
under the sprockett again and held in position by the
FIG. 4
COOKE ANASTIGMAT LENS IN FOCUSING MOUNI
FOR " TOPICAL " CAMERA
spring roller / and fixed roller K, then under the fixed
roller L, and finally through the velvet-lined slot into
the receiving box, the end being fixed to the centre
bobbin M. The claw N is shown in the " out "
position, in which position it must be placed by turning
the eccentric disc when threading up the film. The
Shutter P is recessed in the case, and the whole of the
THE CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA I'l
mechanism is built on 2. skeleton casting, so that by the
removal of four screws it can easily be detached from
the case in one piece.
The lens (see Fig. 4) is a 2-in. Cooke anastigmat,
working at Fj 3- 1 . The focusing mount is a simple
2-tube sliding arrangement, easily operated by the
milled ring R, and graduated for infinity, 20ft., 15ft.
FIG. 5
INDICATOR FOR REGISTERING LENGTH OF FILM
EXPOSED
10ft., and 5ft., by the spiral slot Q. The iris dia-
phragm is operated by the milled ring 5 ; and on the
lens mount is a detachable sun shield T, which screws
into the front of the lens.
An indicator for measuring the number of feet of
film exposed at any moment during operation is fitted.
Fig. 5 shows the indicator window, which is in a
convenient position on the handle side, and near by is
a knob for resetting to zero when charging the camera.
A more recent model of this type of camera is now
being made (Williamson, Type 7) and will have the
following improvements : (1) greatly strengthened
mechanism, by the fitting of double bearings to the
main shafts ; (2) increased film-carrying capacity
(200 ft.) ; (3) a film measurer ; (4) a new focusing
12 THE FILM INDUSTRY
mount with a 2-in. F/3'l Aldis-Butcher anastigmat
lens ; and a finder fitted into the body. This camera
will be capable of the highest class work, and at the
same time be light and portable (Fig. 3).
So far we have dealt with the simplest form of cine-
matograph camera the topical which, as its name
implies, is more suitable for straightforward outdoor
work, in which weight is an important factor, than for
the more complicated studio or trick photography.
The Williamson cinematograph cameras, types 3, 4, 5,
6, 7 and 8, are, however, for use by professional cine-
matographers for both indoor and outdoor work, and in
general design are similar to those in use by nearly
all British and foreign film producers.
The professional camera consists of a mahogany box
measuring 14 ins. in length, by 5 J ins. in width, and
15 ins. in height, with brass protecting corners and leather
carrying strap. The supply and take-up boxes, which
are enclosed in the mahogany case, each hold 330 ft.
of film. There is a focusing tube from the exposure
window to an aperture in the back of the case ; and
by means of a four-picture continuous movement
sprockett, for both feed and take-up, with free loop
on either side of pressure gate, a steady passing of the
film is assured.
This type of camera is fitted with every refinement,
such as a film-punch, with which to mark the beginning
and end of different subjects by punching a hole in the
film ; a measurer, showing at a glance the length of
film exposed ; a two-speed device, for eight pictures and
one picture per turn of handle ; a patent claw movement,
insuring smooth and quiet running even when the
handle is turned at the rate of thirty-two pictures per
second ; a method whereby the film can be reversed
and re-wound into the top or supply box for trick
THE CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA 13
photography (such as the reversing of traffic in a street
scene) ; a speed indicator, showing the feet per second at
which the film is being exposed, a detachable box view-
finder, two interchangeable film masks for trick work
(such as a view through binoculars or key-hole) ; and a
variety of tools and spare parts.
The lens generally used is a Cooke anastigmat of
50 m/m, focus F/3-l, in a rack mount ; but Dallmeyer
and Ross Xpress lenses are also very frequently fitted.
The price of these cameras complete varies according
to type from 70 to 100.
We now come to what may be termed a British
made super-cinema-camera, the Williamson " Paragon,"
which should certainly satisfy the requirements of the
most exacting studio photographer, and is yet so light,
compact and durable as to be eminently suitable for
the topical camera man and the traveller or explorer
in torrid zones or regions of perpetual snow.
It is an acknowledged fact that sooner or later all
cinematographers need to use their cameras for almost
every conceivable purpose, and it was with this com-
prehensive object in view that the " Paragon " was
designed. Although exceedingly simple in form it
incorporates innumerable devices and movements for
every possible requirement. The main features may
be summarized under four headings : (1) all the controls
are placed at the back of the camera immediately in
front of the operator ; (2) three lenses are provided,
and are fitted on a detachable turret, each of these
lenses can be focused without disturbing the film ;
(3) the case is made of seasoned teak wood inlaid with
brass to prevent warping and lined with sheet alu-
minium as an additional precaution ; and (4) auto-
matic dissolving can be accomplished by shutter or
iris-diaphragm, or by both simultaneously.
14
THE FILM INDUSTRY
The brief enumeration of these improvements on
previous models is, however, not sufficient to enable a
true understanding to be obtained by the non-technical
reader of the completeness and yet mechanical simplicity
of this up-to-date apparatus, and a more detailed
FIG. 6
THE " PARAGON " SUPER-CINEMA CAMERA
description together with an illustration seems therefore
to be warranted here, notwithstanding the necessity for
rigid economy of space.
Fig. 6 shows the front and handle side of this fine
camera. At the back are nearly all the dials and
controls used when operating, as well as a magnified
image, seen through an opening in the case, of the
THE CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA 15
actual view being photographed. First among these
handily-placed controls comes a speed indicator giving
the number of pictures being exposed per second.
The next dial is a measurer, the large hand making
one complete revolution for each 100 ft. of film exposed,
and the small hand indicating the number of hundreds.
These hands may be set to zero by a small centre knob.
The bottom dial indicates the actual exposure of each
picture at the normal speed of sixteen pictures per
second ; the hand revolves when dissolving by means
of the automatic attachment, and this shows the speed
of dissolving and when the picture has been " blacked
out." Immediately below the exposure dial is a knob
for setting the opening of the iris diaphragm or vignetting
device. The actual position and diameter of the iris
may be seen in the view finder, and adjusted if required
to dissolve in any part of the picture by the knobs on
the top and side of the camera. To the right of the
iris knob is a small lever for throwing the automatic
gear into mesh for operating the vignetting device,
whilst to the left is a similar lever for actuating the
automatic shutter-dissolving. These levers may be
operated either separately or together, the length of
time taken to dissolve being pre-determined by the
setting of the lowest knob. By this means the period
may be varied so that the dissolves occupy 18 ins. of
film, 3 ft., 4J ft., or 6 ft. of film.
All essential parts of this camera, including the film
boxes, lenses, etc., are mounted entirely independent
of the case, which is therefore used as a covering only.
The carrying handle is attached direct to the mechanism
plate, as is also the tripod socket. This method of
construction enables the retention of a polished wood
case, with its advantages of smart appearance, durability
and weather-proof ness, without the necessity of relying
3 (1463?)
16 THE FILM INDUSTRY
on it in any way for supporting the mechanism or lens.
The inside of the case is, however, lined throughout
with thin sheet aluminium as an additional precaution
against light-leaking under abnormal conditions.
All the moving parts are mounted on a flat alu-
minium plate which slides in grooves down the centre of
the wooden case, thus dividing the case into two separate
light-tight compartments. These moving parts are
reduced to a minimum by correctly disposing the
intermittent movement and sprocketts. By removing
the handle, tripod socket, and half-a dozen screws in
the front of the camera, the mechanism may be with-
drawn intact for cleaning, adjustments and inspection.
The film -boxes are placed vertically one over the
other and have hinged doors and interlocking mouth-
pieces. They hold 400 ft. of film on large diameter
centre bobbins without the necessity of tight winding.
An important feature is that both sides are flat with
absolutely no projections. A centre hollow trunnion
supports the film, but is quite independent of the drive,
which is carried in the camera mechanism, and projects
through the box direct to the film bobbin. The box
itself is not clamped in position, but registers on the
driving boss. In this way strength, combined with
easy running, is obtained in a similar manner to the
live axle of a motor car.
For rewinding and reversing, the power is transmitted
from the main gearing through a triangular chain-drive
to the two film-box centres. Ten degrees movement of
the turning handle in either direction is sufficient to
actuate the automatic clutches in the top or bottom
drive. In this way the film can be rewound in either
box by merely reversing the direction of the turning
handle, without any slack in the film. The tension of
the take-up is easily adjusted by a single brass knob
THE CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA 17
which varies the pressure on large fibre washers, and
is so designed as to eliminate end thrust, and to transmit
the drive with a minimum amount of " slip." Accurate
adjustment of the chain is provided for by swivelling
the lower chain wheel, without disturbing the film-box
drive.
The gate and intermittent movement is similar to
that described in previous pages, and is a characteristic
feature of all the Williamson cameras. The film is held
central with the exposure aperture by a spring side
runner in the focal plane. The claw movement is
devoid of springs of any kind, and the teeth are shaped
to enter the perforations in the side of the film without
friction. An unusually large diameter fly-wheel,
running on ball-bearings, assists the even turning
movement.
Three different lenses have been mounted in a
revolving turret (see Fig. 6). A separate aperture is
provided so that the lenses may be focused direct on
an optical screen by means of a magnifying lens fitted
in the right-hand door, without disturbing or fogging
the film. Either of the lenses may be quickly turned
into position and locked by a spring bolt. The turret
itself is detachable by a single spring catch in the
centre.
The shutter is driven through spiral gearing provided
with double adjustable ball thrust washers. The
shutter spindle carries separate leaves for varying the
aperture. This variation can be accomplished, while
the camera is being operated, by a conveniently situated
lever. The exposure is indicated on a dial at the back
of the camera.
For what is techncially known as " spot " dissolving
and vignetting two iris mounts are fitted ; one immedi-
ately in front of the exposure aperture, and a larger
18 THE FILM INDUSTRY
one for the view finder. These mounts are coupled
together and fitted on a universal frame movement,
which can be operated by two knobs on the front of
the camera. Both irises are operated together by a
small lever on the back of the camera, which auto-
matically connects a ratchet and crank to a cam on
the shutter spindle. The speed of dissolving is varied
by the position of the operating lever. By this means
the picture may be dissolved to any desired size in any
part of the mask, and viewed at the same time.
Among other refinements may be mentioned the
fitting of the turning handle to the mechanism inside
the camera case by a bayonet joint, which enables
turning in either direction ; the interchangeability of
the masks in the view-finder and exposure aperture ;
the fitting of the lens for the view finder in a focusing
mount on a slide with an indicator plate ; the supply
of two hands to the measurer, thus showing accurate
footage ; and the provision of two speeds, (eight pictures
and one picture) for every turn of the handle.
There are, in addition to the British made .varieties
just enumerated, many other makes even more exten-
sively used in the studios of the United States, France,
Italy, and other foreign countries, but the essential
characteristics of all are similar, and lack of space
prevents more than a passing mention of these being
given in this little book, which is intended more as
a guide to the industry than as a text book on
cinematography.
Foreign makers of cine-cameras had a long start,
owing to the more rapid development of the whole
industry in countries like France and the United States,
and they now produce some very fine but costly appara-
tus. Messrs. Pathe Freres' cameras are of world-wide
repute, as also are those of another French firm, Debrie
THE CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA 19
(" Parvo "). The United States has various types,
several of which are as near to perfection as the present
position of science will permit.
There are also several designs specially adapted for
scientific and other purposes. During the Great
European War aeroplanes used for scouting purposes
were fitted with a special type of cinematograph camera
for filming enemy positions, and the screen was largely
used for the intensive training of both officers and men.
In the realm of natural history effective use is being
made of cine-cameras fitted with telephoto lenses, by
means of which wonderful films of birds and animals
in their natural surroundings are being obtained. The
telephoto lens is also used for filming scenes on moun-
tains, glaciers, and for photographing far-distant objects.
In this way the cine-camera has been provided with a
telescope, enabling scenes to be afterwards depicted
on the screen which actually occurred at a considerable
distance from the eye of the camera.
With the aid of an Ultra- Rapid cine-camera all
movement is slowed down ten times, and films taken
with this apparatus showing a stampede of wild cattle,
charging cavalry, athletes running, jumping and swim-
ming, clearly depict, when thrown on the screen, the
graceful movements of the body of both man and beast,
and the play of each muscle much of which is quite
invisible to the slow- working human eye.
Tripods, Revolving Heads and Tilting-Tables. It
will be apparent to the thoughtful reader that a camera
making exposures at the rate of about 960 separate
pictures a minute by the turning of a handle on the
outside of the case requires a very firm stand or tripod
to hold it steady while being operated. The study of
almost any film when projected on the screen will also
reveal the fact that the cine-camera must possess a
20 THE FILM INDUSTRY
revolving head, to enable the lens, or eye of the camera,
to be turned to right or left while the picture is actually
being taken in order to follow the movements of, for
example, a horseman or train passing at right angles
to the camera ; and, furthermore, a tilting-table has also
to be provided, by means of which the eye of the camera
can be elevated or depressed to catch a rising or dropping
object, such as an aeroplane leaving the ground or a
man falling over a cliff.
These two movements, the horizontal and the vertical,
are provided for, not in the camera itself, but on the
tripod or stand upon which it must be mounted for all
practical purposes.
The tripod or stand often varies considerably. What
is practicable in a studio is often far too clumsy and
heavy for field work. The essential is, however, always
the same, viz., to provide a rigid stand upon which to
operate the camera. When a whole outfit has to be
carried to the top of a mountain, into the crater of a
volcano, across hundreds of miles of frozen sea, through
tropical jungles and over swamps, it will be readily
understood that extreme lightness, combined with
rigidity, is the dominating factor to be considered.
Hence, for topical or field work the legs of the tripod
are usually detachable and provided with a telescopic
adjustment, whereas for studio work, either a very
substantial stand running on wheels, or a tripod of
polished ash, adjustable in height from 3 ft. 6 ins. to
6 ft. 6 ins. is used.
Upon the top of the tripod or stand is fitted the re-
volving head, generally composed of an aluminium
base-plate with steel working parts. A handle with
gears and spindles enables the operator to swing the
camera steadily round on the horizontal plane, and so
keep the " eye " directed on to the object being filmed.
FIG. 7
" EMPIRE " TRIPOD WITH REVOLVING HEAD AND
TILTING TABLE
FIG. 8
GIBRALTAR " TILTING HEAD, SHOWING MECHANISM
22 THE FILM INDUSTRY
The gear can be thrown out entirely if desired, thus
allowing the camera to be instantly turned on to another
object. A clamping screw and winged nut is also
fitted to hold the camera in one particular position when
necessary.
The tilting-table is an entirely separate device which
can be fixed between the camera and the revolving
head of the tripod in a few seconds. Whereas the
revolving head, which usually forms part of the tripod,
allows the operator to follow an object in a lateral
direction, the tilting-table, as its name implies, allows
him to direct the camera at an ascending or descending
object. It consists of a base-plate and support, made
of aluminium, with gears and spindles for tilting the
table on to which the camera is fixed by means of a
central screw operated from the side.
The comparatively simple mechanism of the revolving
head and the tilting-table will, perhaps, be more readily
understood with the aid of Figs. 7 and 8, showing
the apparatus made by the Williamson Cinematograph
Company, of London.
CHAPTER III
PERFORATING, DEVELOPING AND DRYING
BEFORE the negative film can be used in any camera
it must be perforated along both edges by a continuous
series of very accurately punched holes. These holes
cut in the film enable the teeth of the sprockett wheel
(part of the camera mechanism) to engage and draw
the film steadily from the supply-box, past the lens
aperture (for the exposure) and re-engage to pass it
equally as steadily back to the receiving box. This
action will be clearly understood from the description
of the camera mechanism given in the last chapter.
It must be pointed out here that this system of moving
the film by teeth engaging in holes on both sides is
practically universal, and applies not only to the
negatives used in the camera, but also to the printed
film used in the projector which throws the pictures
on to the screen. In fact it is by the perforated edges
that almost every film is passed through many of the
different processes of manufacture and finally through
the projectors in the cinemas.
Thus, before the negative film is placed in the camera
it must have perforated edges, and when exposed,
developed and printed, each copy made from the original
must also be perforated. The machine which actually
punches the holes in the thousands of feet of film copy
which result from the production of one good original
is, therefore, not only an important piece of industrial
mechanism, but is also a very hard-worked unit in almost
every film-making factory.
23
24 THE FILM INDUSTRY
The mere punching of holes in a comparatively soft
substance such as film-stock may sound an easy mechani-
cal proposition, and it can be said with truth that
the actual work is by no means difficult, but upon the
accuracy of these holes depends in large measure the
steadiness of the picture when finally thrown on to the
screen. It has been said that the most perfect film
in the world is more or less unsteady, according to the
quality of the projector, but even the most perfect
projector will not show a steady picture if the machine
employed for perforating the film has not done its work
properly. It is therefore of the utmost importance
that the perforator should be as accurate in its work
as is mechanically possible. The ideal machine should
work so truly that when a film which has been passed
through it once is reversed and re-perforated there is
no enlargement of the holes in any direction.
It is obvious that if a film is to be used in hundreds
of different projectors during its full life, and that its
successful passage through each of these depends upon
the accuracy of the perforations, there must be a standard
for all machines, cameras, projectors, printing machines,
and films, regardless of the maker. The English
standard is sixty-four holes to the foot.
There are several different types of perforating
machines on the market. Some punch only two holes
at a time and others as many as eight. The latter
type are made by the Williamson Company and per-
forate the eight holes required for each little picture
at one time (see Fig. 9). This four-fold increase in
speed is an important factor in production owing to
the phenomenal growth of the cinematograph industry
during recent years and the consequent strain on all
classes of machinery. The average output of these
perforators when running at the normal speed of 300
26
THE FILM INDUSTRY
revolutions per minute (^ H.P. motor) is 2,000 ft. of
film per hour.
Developing Devices and Drying Drums. When a
roll of negative film has been exposed in a cinemato-
graph camera it must be developed in the ordinary
FIG. 10
PIN FRAME FOR DEVELOPING CINEMATOGRAPH FILM
way. Instead of a few inches of film having to be
passed through handy-sized developing dishes there is,
however, a continuous length of about 330 ft. with
approximately 3,900 little photographs to be dealt
with. Although each of these minute pictures little
FIG. 11
FLAT TEAK WOOD FRAME FOR DEVELOPING
CINEMATOGRAPH FILM
FlG. 12
WINDING STAND FOR DEVELOPING FRAMES
28 THE FILM INDUSTRY
larger than a postage stamp cannot be developed
separately, they must be very evenly developed en
masse, so as to bring out the enormous amount of
microscopic detail on their tiny surfaces. All that is
afterwards seen greatly enlarged on the screen must
have its origin on the negative.
Although the process of developing a cinematograph
film is similar to that employed for all other kinds of
photographic work certain special devices are used to
deal more expeditiously with the greater length of
film presented.
When the roll of film is removed from the receiving-
box in the camera it is either wound spirally on a metal
pin-frame (see Fig. 10), or else wound over and over on
a flat teak wood frame (see Fig. 11). Of these two
methods, both of which take place in the dark-room,
the pin-frame, being constructed entirely of brass, has
certain advantages, as it occupies much less room and
uses less developing solution, but the time taken to
wind the film round the pins projecting from the tubular
brass frame is much longer, and great care has to be
exercised in order to prevent damaging the emulsion
on the pins. For these latter reasons the wooden
frames, although they require larger chemical sinks and
more room for winding, are usually employed in the
developing rooms of big factories.
To facilitate winding on the frames, a stand, into
which the frames can be fitted and afterwards turned
over and over, is used (see Fig. 12). The top and bottom
bars of each frame are fluted to allow a free passage of
air beneath the film when the frame is used for drying.
Brass staples prevent any possibility of damage to the
emulsion or fear of overlapping. The size of the frames
necessarily varies according to the dimensions of the
chemical sinks into which they must conveniently fit.
FIG. 13
DEVELOPING TRAY WITH CARGO OF FILM ON FRAME
FIG. 14
DEVELOPING TANK, SHOWING POSITION OF
FILM-FRAME
30
THE FILM INDUSTRY
The standard sizes accommodate from 100 ft. to 200 ft.
of film, and are a little over 3 ft. square.
Nothing need be said here about the developing,
fixing and tinting trays or sinks for containing the
FIG. 15
WASHING TANK, SHOWING POSITION OF FRAME
chemical solutions into which the frames and their
cargoes of film are placed for the ordinary processes
of development. Fig. 13 shows one of these trays with
its frame and film ready for immersion, and Figs. 14
and 15, a developing and a washing-tank.
FIG. 16
M-DRYING DRUM. ELECTRICALLY ROTATED IN HOT-AIR CHAMBER
(1463P)
32 THE FILM INDUSTRY
When it comes to the drying of the film, large wooden
drums have been found most convenient. They are
usually about 5 ft. in length, 4ft. in diameter, and are
strongly made of deal with two spring-bars to accom-
modate shrinkage (see Fig. 16) As they are required to
rotate at a speed of about 150 revolutions per minute,
being driven by an electric motor, they must be
accurately balanced, supported on a steel shaft, and
mounted on ball-bearings.
Each drum holds about 500 ft. of film wound round
its circumference, and in order to dry its load in about
15 minutes it is revolved in a special drying-room, the
atmospheric temperature of which is raised, usually
by electric radiators, to about 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
CHAPTER IV
PRINTING, TINTING, TONING AND TITLING
WHEN the negative film has been dried on the revolving
drums in the hot-air chamber it is a finished product,
but not the finished product that is projected on to the
screen, which is a print made from the negative. In
order to obtain a print, or positive, ready for exhibition,
the negative is placed in contact with another length
of sensitized film and the two are then passed through
a printing machine. Afterwards the final product is
developed, fixed, and washed in the same manner and
by the same devices as the negative film.
The printing machine is a very complete form of
apparatus, and is contained in a cabinet of quite moder-
ate size (see Fig 17). It is divided into two compart-
ments. The lower one contains a small electric motor
( T VH.P.), and a system of cone pulleys, by means of
which four speeds may be obtained. Each of these
four speeds is further controlled by a regulating switch
giving six speeds. The upper compartment is lined
with asbestos, and contains an electric lamp fitted on
a slide, controlled on a quadrant of the front of the
machine, by which the lamp may be moved any distance,
from 2 ins. to 10 ins., from the printing window. This
lamp is further controlled by a regulating switch, giving
six variations of the light, from sixteen to fifty candle-
power. This compartment is perfectly light-tight, and
at the same time is efficiently ventilated. The mechan-
ism is mounted on a brass plate, fitting a mahogany
frame hinged to the front of the cabinet, and held by
a spring catch. In this way the principal working
33
34 THE FILM INDUSTRY
parts are protected from dust, and, at the same time,
are out of the way of the travel of the film, but are
easily accessible. A reference to Fig. 17, will make the
details of this wonderfully complete machine quite
clear even to the non-technical reader.
It may be of interest to briefly describe here the
method of starting and working one of these machines.
In order to thread-up the film the lever H must be
moved so that the white light is cut off, then the negative
film is placed on the top spool-holder and the positive
on the lower spool, so that the two emulsioned surfaces
are together. The top sprockett is fitted with a ratchet
drive so that the two films may now be placed together
over the teeth, and a sufficient length of film pulled down
to reach the bottom sprockett. The gate is opened
and the two films placed over the mask, care being
taken that the teeth of the intermittent claw movement
enter the perforations in the sides of the films. The gate
is closed, loops of film being left above and below it.
Attention is then given to the lamp, which is moved into
the correct position by the lever P. The belt is shifted
on the cone-pulleys in the compartment 0, so as to give
the required speed, and the levers are set on the elec-
trical resistance L. These positions are determined
by trial and experience. The light is uncovered by
moving the lever H ; and by holding the pulley R in
the right hand and switching on the current at N with
the left hand, the machine is put in motion. All that
has now to. be done is to release the pulley and guide
the two ends of film on to the rewind spools.
The actual printing is carried on automatically, but
when a varying density is required (1) the speed of
the motor, (2) the intensity of the light, and (3) the
position of the lamp, may be varied without
stopping the machine. Any of these operations
('
H
N
D
FIG. 17
WILLIAMSON STEP-BY-STEP PRINTING MACHINE
legat ve film. B = Positive film. C = Positive film rewind. D = Negative film rewind,
'anting gate. F = Top sprockett feeding film to gate. G = Bottom sprockett maintaining
f film below the gate against the action of rewind. H = Lever to more red glass to
light from film. J = Printing light (60-w. metal filament lamp) in asbestos lined
rtment. K = Button actuating masking arrangement. K 1 = Locking lever for mask,
.esistance to give 6 speeds to motor. N Switch controlling electric supply. O = Com-
:nt containing electric motor and cone-pulleys to give 4 different speeds. P = Lever
to move light. R = Driving pulley.
36 THE FILM INDUSTRY
can be very rapidly carried out after a certain
amount of practice.
When the positive film has been printed by the action
of the light passing through the negative on to the
sensitive emulsion of the positive, by what is known as
the step-by-step method, the printed film is taken to the
developing and fixing-rooms, and goes through the same
treatment as that described in the previous chapter,
after which, unless tinting or toning is required, it is
ready for exhibition.
In addition to the very complete British machine
just described there is a smaller edition, which has only
one compartment (see Fig. 18). The electric motor
is mounted on the top of the cabinet, and no rewinding
spools are provided, the films being allowed to run
into a divided receptacle placed below the machine.
There is also a very simple device known as a " con-
tinuous printer," which is operated by turning a handle
(Fig. 19).
In the United States several very elaborate printing
machines are on the market, and other countries also
are commencing the manufacture of similar pieces of
cinematograph machinery ; nearly all of which are,
however, more or less similar in their main characteristics.
Among the many time and labour saving devices
used in film factories may be mentioned the printer-
measurer (Fig. 20) which can be attached to the printing
machine, and duly records the number of feet of positive
film printed ; the detector (Fig. 21), by means of which
the operator of a printing machine is immediately
informed by the ringing of a bell or " buzzer " of the
approach of a change in the printing density of the
negative ; the film-cleaner (Fig. 22), which although
primarily intended for removing developing marks, and
the like, from new films, is often used to give old films
FIG. 18
FILM-PRINTING MACHINE WITH ONLY ONE COMPARTMENT
(WILLIAMSON)
FIG. 20
WILLIAMSON'S PRINTER MEASURER
ATTACHED TO FRONT OF PRINTING
MACHINE
FIG. 19
THE CONTINUOUS PRINTER
PRINTING, TINTING AND TITLING 39
a new lease of life ; and the film-mender (Fig. 23), quite
a simple little piece of mechanism for holding and
joining the two ends of a broken film.
It is perhaps advisable to point out here that many
FIG. 21
THE " DETECTOR " FITTED ON SIDE OF
PRINTING MACHINE
large film-producing factories have machines for special
purposes which have been suggested by individual
experience, and which do not form part of the recognized
machinery of the industry. Film production in all its
<N S
CM n
PRINTING, TINTING AND TITLING 41
branches is relatively a new industry, and one of such
phenomenal growth that inventors would do well to
turn their attention to its many and diverse needs.
Tinting, Titling and Toning. Many films include
scenes which, in order to obtain realistic effects upon
the screen, need tinting with special water-soluble
aniline dyes of varying shades. This occurs, for example,
when a storm at sea has to be depicted. But this
FIG. 23
" EMPIRE " FILM MENDER
process must not be confused with colour-cinemato-
graphy. It is merely the artificial colouring of the
gelatine on the surface of the celluloid film with
one shade only, and has nothing in common with
photography in natural colours.
Now, real storms are very difficult to photograph
effectively, owing to the bad light which usually obtains
during such atmospheric disturbances ; and even should
the light be sufficiently bright to get a good negative
which might perchance happen once in an average year
the result, when projected on to the screen would not
appear either wild or tempestuous if there were no
heavy clouds. In order to remedy these shortcomings
42 THE FILM INDUSTRY
of the camera and screen, a rough sea is photographed
and a positive film is duly printed and developed,
then it is immersed in a dye bath of blue-green, and the
result when seen in the theatre is dank, wild and windy.
In order to give such a scene the proper atmosphere
for its appreciation an art title is introduced, showing
the words standing out clear from a painted back-
ground of threatening cloud and wind-lashed sea,
stabbed by fork lightning.
This may be followed by a scene showing the calm
which usually succeeds a storm a derelict, abandoned,
and floating idly on a moonlit sea again the film must
be dipped in a bath of dye, but this time no green is
used, only a patent blue solution.
Changing to the collateral action in the succeeding
scenes we see a sailor's wife playing with her children
on a big, thick, and woolly rug in the cheery lamp-light.
This time it is a pale orange-brown dye. If, in a later
episode, the same children should see an apparition of
their father during the night of storm, then a napthol
green bath will produce the requisite weird effect.
As screen plays should, as a general rule, end happily
we will continue our story and get back to the open
sea. The survivors on a raft catch a glimpse of a sail
in the light of early morning a crystal violet solution
then as the sun rises to its zenith, flooding the sea with
its golden light brilliant yellow bath the exhausted
seamen are hauled aboard a glistening white liner, but
late the following night disaster again overtakes them.
The dreaded cry of " Fire ! " is followed by the crowding
of passengers and crew into boats. The night is turned
into a blood-red dawn by the burning ship brilliant
yellow and rose bengal but again a rescuing ship comes
with the morning, and the sailor returns to the bosom
of his family.
PRINTING, TINTING AND TITLING 43
It may be remarked here for the guidance of scenario
aspirants that such a scene-plot would probably produce
blasphemous-hysteria in the soul of any sane producer,
and the effect might be even worse in the chemical
laboratory.
The toning of a film is a totally different process, the
aim of which is not to stain the gelatine coating, but
to tone the photographic images on the film a certain
shade, such as sepia, blue-grey, or brownish-red. This
is carried out by immersing the parts of the film to be
toned in various chemical baths, then washing them
in water. The chemical composition of the baths for
the various shades is a matter entirely beyond a general
treatise such as this, and the process is one which can
only be done satisfactorily after considerable experience.
Titling a film may be done in several different ways.
The most usual method, and perhaps ultimately the
simplest, is to have the words printed in block letters on
a card, which is then photographed with a cine-camera
fitted with a reversing lens. If the ordinary lens was
used the title would be unreadable owing to the letters
being the wrong way round when projected on to the
screen. Another method, known as plate-titling, consists
of making, by ordinary photography, a transparent
plate with the words of the title in black letters. This
plate is then placed in a specially made optical apparatus
somewhat resembling a magic lantern, and the letters
on the plate, acting in the same way as a lantern slide,
are projected in miniature direct on to positive film being
passed through the gate of an ordinary film -printing
machine (q.v.).
These methods give film titles with white lettering
on a dark ground, and thus avoid the glare which would
result from a white screen with just the black letters
thereon.
CHAPTER V
A MOTION-PICTURE STUDIO
A MOTION-PICTURE studio, to be deserving of the name,
is a large and lofty structure of glazed glass. The size
may be anything up to, or even beyond 100 sq. ft. of
floor space, and the height is seldom less than 25 to 30 ft.
The sides, up to about 4 ft. from the floor, are frequently
constructed of brickwork, and one end of the whole
building, where the cameras stand, may or may not be
completely covered in. The remainder of both sides
and roof is of glazed glass suitably shielded from the
direct rays of the sun by a number of carefully arranged
awnings, fitted inside the studio, which can be easily
pulled across to diffuse the light.
In summer the interior should be well ventilated by
electric fans, because of the heat generated from the
sun shining through glass, and in winter it requires to
be warmed by electric radiators, if the geographical
situation or altitude makes the atmosphere cold. With-
out this attention to comfort film actresses and actors
could not be expected to reach the high standard of
dramatic art required for good motion-pictures.
The artificial lighting, which plays such an important
part in the taking, or filming as it is called, of motion-
pictures when the natural light of day is unsuitable,
is sometimes accomplished by means of a number of
enclosed long, or violet electric arcs, but in the large
American studios Cooper-Hewitt mercury vapour tubes
are generally used. As many as 300 of these being
employed in banked formation to illuminate one large
stage.
44
A MOTION-PICTURE STUDIO 45
The glow from electrified mercury vapour is much
cooler, softer, and more evenly diffused, than the light
from arc-craters, which is often so glaring that studio-
workers become temporarily blind. There are, however,
special photographic arc-lights which almost equal the
mercury vapour tubes. The amount of electricity
consumed in order to effectively light one large stage
setting may at times amount to as much as 50 H.P.
converted into current.
A combination of mercury vapour tubes for the
ordinary illumination with violet arcs to give con-
centrated beams or " spot " lights when it is desired
to reproduce the effects of the sun's or moon's rays
(afterwards tinted) shining through or upon an object,
is, however, the usual installation in large studios (see
Frontispiece).
Nearly all scenery for motion-picture work is painted
in varying shades of brown for dark effects and grey or
stone colour for the lighter shades. This destroys much
of the artistic appearance of a setting when seen with
the human eye, but is far more simple and satisfactory
for the purposes of photography. The same applies
to certain stage effects, such as fireplaces, window-
frames, curtains, carpets, etc. Objects which appeal-
genuine and solid when shown on the screen may be
only shells, or half-shells, constructed of cardboard
or papier-mache. On the other hand, the more solid
kinds of furniture are usually genuine, and many studios
have special store-rooms filled with antiques, Oriental
weapons and curios, and objects of art.
It may be incidentally mentioned here that the facial
make-up of artistes for screen work is also entirely
different from that required for the ordinary stage.
It is much more subtle, because of the absence of colour
in the photographic result : experience alone can
46 THE FILM INDUSTRY
teach its intricacies. A creamy screen-complexion is
generally obtained by a coating of yellow grease paint !
Deep-set, sorrowful eyes by heavy blue-black shadows !
Tears are frequently the result of an application of oil
or glycerine, and volumes of black smoke may be
produced by the white steam from boiling water !
The erection of an average set, or complete scene
may take from two to twenty days, because of tjie
careful way in which the flats, or different parts of the
scenery have to be joined together in order to appear
realistic when viewed through the critical eye of the
camera. The actual filming of the same set is, however,
generally accomplished in, from thirty seconds to two
minutes, after which, if there are to be no re-takes, the
elaborate scene upon which so much artistic skill, care
and labour have been bestowed, from the embryo
sketch of the Art-Director to the final touches of car-
penters and scene-painters, is ready for rapid demolition,
because its sphere of usefulness has ended and the studio
is, in all probability, required for another building
with a life of utility equally as short.
The frames for holding the mercury vapour lights are
arranged, whenever possible, over the top of the scene
to be photographed, in the form of a glowing roof, but
a few portable ones are placed in front, and also, when
suitably shielded from view, at the sides. The glare,
although softer than when arc-lights are used, is very
trying to the eyes.
For studio work the camera handle is turned by a
small electric motor, of about one-sixth or one-eighth of
a horse-power, possessing facilities for a very fine
adjustment of the speed ; and the film-boxes are larger
than those used for scenic or topical cinematography.
Attached to the studio are dark-rooms for developing,
drying-rooms, printing-rooms, chemical laboratories.
5 (1463P)
48 THE FILM INDUSTRY
scenery lofts, stage furniture depositories, scene-painting
studios, carpenters' shops, dressing-rooms, engine-rooms
for the electric supply, extensive grounds for outdoor
sets, gardeners' sheds, offices, and many other depart-
ments of a modern motion-picture city.
When a scene, or set as it is called, -has been finally
completed, and the artistes are ready, the Director
gives the word of command, " Ready ! Lights !
Camera ! " and in a few brief seconds hundreds of
feet of negative film have been run through the electric-
ally-driven cameras. One out of a probable hundred
scenes, if the picture being taken is a five -reel drama,
is then finished so far as studio work is concerned.
CHAPTER VI
FILMS AND FILM-MAKERS
UNIFORMITY is a technical impossibility in cinemato-
graph film production. Every motion -picture could tell
its own story of difficulties overcome by individual
effort and resource ; and no 'two films have ever been
produced exactly alike. Method, time, place, light,
space, subject, and a host of other varying factors must
all be so dove-tailed, each with the other, and suited
in general plan to the subject being filmed, that weeks
of work and much foresight and power of conception
on the part: of the producer, or director, and his staff
of expertsJie between the writing of the scenario and the
turning o/the camera handle.
The taking of a really important cinematograph film,
such as Mr. D. W. Griffiths' masterpiece, The Birth of
a Natio% can be likened to the organization and prepara-
tion required before even a small army can, with any
degree of safety or possibility of success, advance into
hostile territory. The whole plan of action, with its
countless intricacies, must be original, complete, and
have the maximum number of chances in its favour
before the enormous financial cost is entailed.
It is not possible in this small book to do more than
give a brief outline of the different types of motion-
pictures seen in the electric theatres and lecture-rooms
together with a synopsis of the methods employed in
the making of them.
Before beginning the description of the actual work
of production let us pause for a moment to consider
the different types, or principal subjects, of the general
run of films. First and foremost there is the drama,
49
50 THE FILM INDUSTRY
the comedy and the farce, with the variations of each.
These may be termed studio-films, because, although
some of the scenes may be photographed in the open,
they require studio settings for several acts, reels or
episodes, and actors for all the principal characters.
In other words they are fiction- films. Then comes the
travel film, which may be placed in a class by itself,
because, as a general rule, it requires neither studio nor
trained actors, but relies on the beauties of nature
combined with strange customs, dangerous feats of
exploration, little-known peoples and places, or historic
sites, for its subjects and its interest. Next comes the
film gazette, which depicts actual and important public
events of almost daily occurrence in one or other part
of the world. It is the weekly newspaper of the screen,
and relies more on central organization and its staff of
cinematographers in the capitals of the world than on
either scenery or acting. A variation of this type is
the film magazine, which may be described as a screen
monthly, and depicts, not just topical events in the
great world of affairs, but interesting scenes and' experi-
ments, such as ski-ing in Switzerland, fishing with
explosives in Borneo, and birds and beasts in their
native haunts. Then there is the trick film, which
may be an animated cartoon, traffic in a street moving
at the speed of an express train, human beings running
up the perpendicular walls of houses, or other result of
trick photography. This type of film is, more often
than not, of the studio variety, because actors and
artificial scenery are usually required.
In the fourth category comes the purely scientific
film, which may or may not be of interest to the general
public. Here we have technical subjects of all kinds,
naval, military, medical, chemical, astronomical, electri-
cal, engineering, shipbuilding, and a host of others.
FILMS AND FILM MAKING 51
These films are seldom seen in their full length on the
screens of the cinema halls, but their importance is
considerable to the world of science, and they fill the
seats of the hundreds of lecture-rooms of civilized
countries.
So closely allied to the scientific film as to be, at times,
almost indistinguishable from it, comes the purely
educational picture. This branch of cinematography
has, as yet, been but little exploited in Great Britain,
because of the curious prejudice of educational authori-
ties generally ; although films of this character were
very largely and very successfully used for the intensive
training of the great armies of England and America
during the recent titanic struggle in Europe.
Finally, there is the propaganda and advertisement
film. The former is, or should be, confined to national
emergencies, and the latter usually depicts the making
of an important universal or proprietory article, the
busy scene in a great factory, or an interesting branch
of applied science or art. This type of motion-picture
has for its primary requirements ; (1) a nice judgment
of what will, for a few brief moments, arouse the interest
of an average cinema audience and yet not interrupt
the ordinary programme sufficiently long to cause
annoyance.
There are, of course, various other types of films,
such as kinemacolour , but on careful examination they
will, in all probability, be found to readily group
themselves under one or other of these natural headings.
Fiction Films. This class of film, which is by far the
most popular with almost every type of audience and in
almost every part of the world, depends for its successful
production upon a difficult combination of literary,
artistic and dramatic talent, combined with organization
and finance.
52 THE FILM INDUSTRY
In order to obtain this combination of human ability
without the chaos which so frequently results from
divided counsels and authority there must be a " com-
mander-in-chief," whose authority is supreme over all
during the various stages of production. In the United
States this " Admirable Crichton," whose power rests far
more on tact than on force, is called the " Director/ 5
and in England the " Producer."
The financial side of film production is similar to that
of any other large industry, with the possible difference
that sometimes the " stars " working under the
director are themselves the financiers, but recognize
the absolute necessity of obeying the master creative
mind while under the " arcs " and the fire of the
relentless camera. At other times the director is the
chief financier ; and in perhaps the majority of cases
the money is supplied by a group of business men, in
the form of a permanent millionaire corporation, who
are content to leave the actual work of selection and
production in the hands of their chosen " general "
and his staff.
The director must be a man of very considerable
experience, talent for organization, knowledge of human
nature especially semi-neurotic feminine human nature
critic of acting, artistic yet businesslike, and possess
alongside a super-abundant vitality the god-given power
to command without becoming a mere bully. To this
list of talents and virtues many others, such as patience,
quickness of perception, memory, creative ability,
resource, and strong will-power, might well be added
without over-stating what is absolutely indispensable
for the finest results in face of the world-wide
competition.
The work of the director consists of chosing the
scenario from those submitted to him by. the scenario
FILMS AND FILM MAKING 53
editor, choosing his staff, actors and actresses, co-
ordinating the work of the staff, watching rehearsals,
approving and altering the setting of scenes, deciding
finally the best locations for out-door scenes, giving the
number and types of supers required sometimes
amounting to hundreds and saying when and where
their services will be needed. In fact preparing before-
hand for every contingency probable and even remotely
possible. All this may be termed his spade-work,
which must be finished long before the cameras take up
their allotted positions, the arc-lights are struck, or the
mercury vapour glows with almost daylight-like intensity,
and the orchestra for inspiring the actors begins its
heart-stirring repertoire. For then he stands beside
the battery of lenses, and, with the aid of a megaphone,
orders, exhorts, beseeches, and inspires the actors, moves
crowds of supers, watches the changing lights and
shades, receives reports from the camera men, alters
the tunes of the inspiring orchestra, and hushes the whole
studio for some great climax so that in the death-like
stillness, broken only by the whirr ! of the cameras
and the hiss ! of the arcs the little figures on the big
stage may feel the tragedy of the moment and respond
with every movement of their limbs and every line of
their faces to the call of their art.
At other times the same director will be flying over
a cactus-covered desert on horseback shouting orders
to a bunch of cattle-thieves being chased by cow-boys ;
and a few months later directing an artificial avalanche
in the Rockies, the dynamiting of a railway train,
a dog-sleigh race within the Arctic Circle, a shipwreck,
a Royal Court, a ball, a murder, a Parliamentary
election, a dormitory scene in a girls' school, or the
landing of the Pilgrim Fathers.
Then in the quiet seclusion of his study he will be
54 THE FILM INDUSTRY
reading scenarios, novels, plots, studying the features
of portraits, imbibing the " atmosphere " of a long
past period, or foreign land, noting the most minute
details with an eye to the possibility of exact reproduction.
The director's task would, indeed, be a difficult, if
not impossible one, were it not for the assistance he
receives from his staff of experts. Foremost among
these comes the scenario editor, who reads the manu-
scripts sent in by playwrights, converts novels into
picture plays, alters, makes additions to, or cuts out
material from those accepted for production, elaborates
a rough plot, and often prepares the description of the
play for the publicity department. He must understand
the type of play best suited to the particular " star "
or " stars " available ; have a thorough knowledge
of screen technique, so as to cut -out or alter scenes
impossible to depict in a life-like manner with the
apparatus or scenery available, modify those which
would appear grotesque, and sharpen those which will
stage effectively. Above all he must know what is
novel in dramatic and humorous situations, what is
" good-form," non-libellous, technically correct, copy-
right, and must himself be something of an author and
playwright.
The art-director may be a well-known artist and he
may not, but he must know all about stage scenery,
interior and exterior decoration, period, art -photography,
dress, light, shade, furniture, statuary, and how to
obtain artificial effects. He must be able to design a
scene from a few lines in the manuscript, such as
" Morning Room, Lochlevin Castle, Winter, 1747."
The art-titles are another speciality, and require
something between a poet and a poster editor. It is
comparatively easy to find a few words to describe a
scene, but much more difficult to find the right words
FILMS AND FILM MAKING 55
to express an " atmosphere," and the difficulty would,
to the average man or woman, become an impossibility
when twenty or thirty such titles were required for one
or more films every week.
It is quite possible for the author of a play to conjure
a truly wonderful scene of tropical beauty, arctic
grandeur, or temperate freshness, in which the creatures
of his fertile imagination perform their heroic deeds of
self-sacrifice, and such scenes may receive the blessing
of the most exacting art-director, but it is the poor
location man who, either from personal knowledge,
photographs, or else rapid and intelligent search, must
find some spot, not too far removed from the studio,
or at least from civilization, which, with artificial aid,
will resemble as near as may be the glowing description
of an earthly paradise. As an instance of this the loca-
tion man of a London firm was once asked at what
point nearest to the metropolis could the following
natural scene be found available for a company of
actors " A tropical garden, palm -bordered, through the
feathery-fronds of which the sand-rimmed desert gleamed
like burnished gold." The scene was required for the
production of an Eastern play, and although artificial
scenery could have been used, so important to the whole
production was the true desert atmosphere that the
whole company was transported for a few days acting
to the interior of Algeria. On another occasion an old
English bridge scene was required, and when at last the
right spot had been found it was discovered that a
telegraph pole and wires appeared in the picture when
viewed from every available angle, so a scenic-cottage
of the period was erected to hide the evidence of
modernity.
Last, but by no means least, there is the cinemato-
grapher, whose work is, perhaps, the most scientific
56 THE FILM INDUSTRY
and exacting of them all, for he cannot be sure until
some time after the scene has been filmed whether or
not he has secured a presentable picture. In the latter
event the whole scene must be re-acted. As a guard
against this, however, several cameras are frequently
working at once, minimizing the risk of failure. It
will be easily realized that the wasting of a few hundred
feet of film is a matter of little consequence compared
with the expense involved by the necessity of producing
a scene twice over perhaps one in which some hundreds
of people and horses are engaged.
Another important position in the film-producing
industry is that of studio manager. In all large studios
there are store-rooms, filled with furniture of the artificial,
or scenic variety as well as of the solid household type.
Sometimes there is also a special fire-proof repository,
filled with costly antiques and modern works of art.
Then there are scenery lofts, with stacks of canvas wings,
back-pieces, doors, windows, battens, curtains, etc.,
and studios for the scenic artists to carry on their work
of altering existing scenes and supplying new ones.
Next come the carpenters' shops, where staircases,
scenery-frames, doors, tanks, scenic-houses, log-cabins,
and a host of other temporary but very real looking
erections are stored or made. The electricians depart-
ment includes the dynamos and their driving engines,
the transformers, the storage batteries, the tools for
erection and repair, the frames for the mercury vapour
tubes, the arc-lamps and carbons, together with miles
of insulated wire. The civil engineers have the huge
glass studios with their steel frame-works to keep in
repair, the erections on which the actors may have to
perform to test for safety, the drainage systems, light-
ning conductors, heating and cooling appliances, forges,
water-supplies, and a veritable host of other things,
FILMS AND FILM MAKING 57
including the motor transport services, gas-engines,
oil-engines, and fire appliances, to attend to. The dark-
rooms, developing, drying, printing, and tinting rooms,
all have their own staff of chemists and expert photo-
graphers. The cutting-rooms, .the film editor and his
cutters (about which more anon).
The publicity department is responsible for the
" booming " of the stars and the systematic advertising
of the films produced. Accountants carry on the
financial side of these immense organizations, and the
administrative work is done by the secretariat. Attached
to such gigantic studios as those forming that great
film-producing centre, " Universal City," there are
houses for members of the stock companies and studio
officials, garages for the cars, water and electricity
supplies, schools and playgrounds, guest-houses, and,
in fact, all the conveniences of a modern town. In
this respect they can be likened to other industrial
garden cities, such as " Kennilworth," which is the
diamond suburb of Kimberley, founded by Cecil J.
Rhodes ; " Port Sunlight," Cheshire, of soap fame ;
and " Bourneville," the cocoa town.
Over a large section of these cinema cities which at
present exist only in the United States the studio
managers exercise the same control as the works
managers of other industrial concerns. Their duties
include the maintenance of order and cleanliness, the
superintendence of the erection of scenic-streets, houses,
palaces, gardens, fires, and other requirements of the
director and his staff, as well as the care and disposition
of the stage effects. Many studio managers say that
theirs is a " dog's life," but very few retire early
or die young, notwithstanding the high rates of
remuneration paid to all engaged in film -production.
Little can be said here regarding the salaries and wages
58 THE FILM INDUSTRY
paid to the different classes of workers in the film
industry. They necessarily vary very considerably not
only in the different studios (large and small) but also
according to the country in which they are situated,
and the degree of eminence to which the individual, in
his respective sphere, has attained. It is, however, no
exaggeration to say that a really well-known director
or producer, can, at least in the United States, command
a far higher salary than any Prime Minister in the world ;
that an experienced and highly artistic cinematographer
often receives far more in a year than an English
Barrister with a good practice. That scenario editors
and art-directors get salaries quite out of proportion to
the receipts of the average journalist or artist ; and
that those lower in the scale receive salaries or wages
which make a startling comparison with those paid in
similar professions and trades outside the cinematograph
world.
As to the salaries earned by stars in the film firmament
it is quite impossible to give any reliable statistics ;
sufficient to say that more than one poor man and one
poor girl have become the possessors of millions of
dollars and princely incomes.
It should, however, be pointed out that success in
the film world is far more difficult to attain than in
almost any other great industry, owing to the keen
competition, the somewhat " close " nature of each
branch of film production, and the reluctance of directors
to take the great risks consequent upon the employment
of inexperienced people in any branch. Experience is
often very dearly bought, and for every one that succeeds,
especially on the acting side, hundreds and even thou-
sands either fail absolutely or succeed only in making
a bare living.
Much that has been said here regarding the high rates
FILMS AND FILM MAKING 59
of remuneration and the giant studios or cinema cities,
refers to the industry in the United States, where it
had made vast strides long before it was even regarded
seriously in England. Furthermore, the climate of
California, where many of the largest studios are situated,
enables pictures to be taken out of doors and without
artificial light, nearly all the year round ; and there
is a wonderful combination of natural scenery, ranging
from sun-scorched and cactus-covered deserts, palm
beaches, and forests to modern cities and snow-clad
peaks. Whether or not the film-producing industry
will attain the same degree of development in Great
Britain is problematical though quite possible. What
appears to be far more likely is a levelling process in
which several countries, including at least one or two
of the British colonies, will become large producers,
instead of a monopoly being held by the one nation
which early in the history of the industry recognized
its great future.
CHAPTER VII
FICTION-FILM PRODUCTION
UNDER the above heading may be included a very
large number of operations which, however, are separate
and distinct from the actual work of cinematography.
They pertain, not to the actual taking of the pictures,
nor to the development and printing of the films, but
to the methods of arranging the cast and the setting
of the scenes.
At this point in the description of the film industry
it is necessary, for the sake of lucidity, to survey the
ground already covered. It has been shown how the
industry began and its recent phenomenal growth, the
working of the camera and other apparatus used for
producing the films, how the films, when taken, are
developed, dried, printed, tinted, toned and titled, the
general aspect and appliances of an up-to-date studio,
the personnel of a film company, and the division of
work and responsibility.
We now come to the choosing of the photo-plays or
stories, the caste, the methods employed in the setting
of the scenes, and the actual filming.
A scenario is neither a complete story nor a stage-play
as these are understood in the literary world. It is the
elaboration of a plot or theme written in such a manner
as to be the foundation of a photo-play.
Dialogue is not often used when writing the first
scenario of a screen play, although it is frequently
afterwards employed where it is intended that the
movement of the lips of the actor or actress shall be
photographed so that when the picture is thrown on
60
FICTION-FILM PRODUCTION 61
the screen the few words actually spoken can be more
or less gauged from the situation combined with the
inherent ability to lip-read by the audience.
When setting down a screen-play the title is written
first, then the caste and a brief synopsis of about two
or three hundred words, which contains the essentials of
the entire play. Then comes the list of scenes, with
exteriors distinct from interiors, so that the editor or
producer may see at a glance which scenes must be set
in a studio, and the type of scenery required for the
out-door locations. Each scene contains only one
main incident having a direct bearing on the story, for
it must be remembered that every time the camera
is moved there is a fresh scene. This makes a com-
paratively large number of scenes in a long play, such
as a five-reel drama, unavoidable and vitally necessary,
as the eyes of the audience cannot remain for long
fixed on the screen without the momentary rest produced
by a change of scene, but it also makes a scenario very
scrappy reading. There are seldom any sub-plots in a
screen-play. There may be unexpected developments
of the main story but no wandering from the theme,
as is so often the case in novels. The scenario of a
screen-play reads something like the following
SCENE III
Interior of Study
Allan Rivers walks in crosses room to bureau takes out
bundle of letters glances at them hesitates as if troubled
by conscience places them resolutely in breast pocket looks
round cautiously exits nonchalantly.
In the writing of a screen -play the limitations of the
camera are taken carefully into consideration, together
with the " style " of the principal actor, actress, or
film company. The scenery required for the outdoor
62 THE FILM INDUSTRY
locations must also be thought out with due regard to
convenience and possibility. It would be manifestly
absurd to expect a London company to find in one scene
a tropical beach with native canoes gliding up palm-coves
and a few scenes later an Alaskan pine-forest in mid-
winter. Yet these two scenes would not be difficult
for a Californian producer, with a semi-tropical seashore
and a range of lofty pine-clad mountains, snow-covered
in winter, within a day's journey of the studio.
Many of the large producing companies employ a
staff of playwrights, but so rapid is the rate of film-
production that even these look for outside contributions
to obtain new ideas and plots.
A scenario editor in the course of a year wades through
a sea of novels, manuscripts, ideas, plots, and fully-
fledged scenarios, in order to obtain from the mass of
material presented from twelve to twenty-four themes
capable and worthy of being produced by his company.
He keeps the characteristics of the principal " Leads "
employed by his firm strictly in mind, and when some-
thing, possibly only the germ of an idea, has been
found it is acquired, and he sets to work to elaborate
it into a full scenario.
In order to do this he must study the type of characters,
the period, dress, place, time and atmosphere, so that
by a few deft touches he can convey, during the ordinary
working out of the plot, the requisite appearance of
heat, cold, wealth, disguised poverty, criminal instinct,
inherent truth, honesty, innocence, or some other
condition, emotion, virtue or vice. Not by dialogue,
but by the small actions of his characters. It is this
governing factor that by actions alone can character
be portrayed on the screen which makes the work of
the scenario writer and editor so difficult.
When this has been done and the play is complete,
FICTION-FILM PRODUCTION 63
it is divided up into " actors' parts," " scene-plots,"
" lighting-plots," " locations," " camera-plots," and
other detailed sets of instructions for the guidance
of the different departments concerned in the production.
The art-director gets busy with the designs for the
scenery, the furniture, the setting of the scenes, the
dresses, and the general artistic effects. The location-
man journeys forth to survey chosen areas of country
for the outdoor scenes. The electrician commences work
on the lighting-plot for the studio, and may possibly
have to prepare a portable light for some out-door scene.
The cinematographers view the rehearsals and decide
the exact positions for their cameras to be placed in
order to take each scene from the best point of view,
bearing in mind the time of day and consequent position
of the sun for out-door locations. The carpenters
erect the necessary scenery, which has been prepared
by the scenic artists. Supers are engaged for " crowd
work." The scenes are set. Furniture is moved into
position; and all is ready for the actual taking of the
picture.
While this has been going on the director has been
carefully coaching and rehearsing the actors. It may
happen that the last or middle scene of the play is
actually taken first. There are various reasons for this.
It may be a question of time of day or year, the loan
of some particular garden, house, or public building,
ordinary convenience, or one of a hundred contingencies
which makes it easier, advisable, or time-saving. Then
comes a wait for suitable weather for some outdoor
location, or possibly a long motor journey to a suitable
spot, followed by a night in sheds for the whole
company.
In warm countries, such as California, an early start
is usually made, perhaps at four or five in the morning >
6 (1463?)
64 THE FILM INDUSTRY
and the work is all over -before mid-day, when the sun
is hot and almost directly overhead. It is no unusual
thing for the scenes of two or even three plays to be
taken in between each other, and for the whole company
to be transported many hundreds of miles for the purpose
of taking two or three scenes which are afterwards
used in different plays. Many of the Californian
companies have travelled several times up and down
the thousands of miles of coast-line to the snows of
Alaska. London castes have been taken to Italy,
South of France, Algeria, the United States, Canada,
Belgium, and Egypt.
It frequently happens that a scene which has taken
weeks to prepare or is situated several days' journey
from the studio, is actually filmed in a few minutes.
For certain out-door effects the permission of some local
authority, the police, or a private individual, has first
to be obtained, and this forms yet another of the diverse
duties of the location man.
The actual taking of each scene by the camera is
a question of photography, and calls for the -exercise
of considerable knowledge and skill on the part of the
operator. Many hundreds of feet of negative film are
frequently spoiled, and scenes often have to be re-acted
two or even more times before a perfect negative is
obtained.
When all the scenes have been filmed with the neces-
sary re-takes, the whole mass of, perhaps, 10,000 to
15,000 ft. of negative is passed through the developing
and printing-rooms, and is handed over to the film
editor, who cuts, arranges, transposes, deletes, and
finally re-assembles into the continuity of a complete
screen-play, ready for release to the thousands of
electric theatres.
It may appear a comparatively easy task to join up
FICTION-FILM PRODUCTION 65
the different scenes and so make the complete film-story,
and it would be if this was all that a film editor had
to do. In order to gauge the difficulties of this branch
of the industry, however, it is necessary to first under-
stand the condition of the material sent to the editorial,
or cutting and titling department. So interwoven are
the functions of the editor, or cutter, and the title editor
that the two must work in perfect harmony in order to
produce good pictures.
It is true that the first requisite of a screen-play is
a good written scenario, but owing to the necessity of
focusing so many minds on the production of the story
in pictures the finished article can never be absolutely
identical with the author's conception. When each
action of a play has been photographed, a slate is held
up before the camera upon which is written the scene
number and certain signs informing the developing and
printing staff of the light conditions at the time of taking,
and giving any other information affecting the developing
and printing of the film. The number and signs
are then photographed and serve to identify the
action with the scenes in the written continuity or
scenario.
These numbered actions may be in any order, owing
(1) to the custom of taking scenes without reference to
their true sequence, and (2) to the re-taking of certain
parts. Thus, there may be a hundred or more different
scenes in chaotic order, with a number of retakes, all
of which are identifiable only by the number marked
at the end of each.
This mass of film lengths, amounting to perhaps
15,000ft., or three miles of celluloid ribbon, when
developed and printed, is taken to the editorial or
cutting-room. The whole is then projected on to the
screen, and cutting commences, for one scene may
66 THE FILM INDUSTRY
have been acted four or five times over, and the editor
must select the best .action .and cut out the remainder.
In order to get a good scene it is, however, very
often necessary to take a few feet of film from each
of the re-takes and paste the sections together in
their proper sequence. A very difficult and trying
operation.
When this has been done the length of film may have
been reduced to 6,000 ft., and every scene is then
carefully scrutinized in order to discover if any of them
can be improved by shortening, what episodes, not
essential to the story, can be left out, and finally, if
the film-length still exceeds the 4,000 to 5,000 ft. which
is most popular, what part can be cut and its action
covered by a short descriptive title.
One of the many differences between stage and screen
plays is that in the case of the former the action is
accompanied by the spoken word, and the interest
of the audience is divided between eye and ear, so that
one scene may run continuously for as long as thirty
minutes. Tests have proved conclusively that' in the
case of the screen the human eye tires after about
three or four minutes, which compels a change of scene
in, at least, every 150 to 200ft. of film. When an
action runs over this length it must be broken either by
titles or by collateral scenes (i.e. those which carry on
the collateral action).
There is, in addition to all this more or less straight-
forward editorial work, a large number of what are
known as " psychological cuts." No actor can compete
on the screen with a baby (or animal pet) and command
the attention necessary for the continuance of the story.
The entire attention of the audience would be focused
on the infant, and any movement by the actor, however
important to the story, would be lost. A situation
FICTION-FILM PRODUCTION 67
such as this necessitates the film being cut and " close-
ups " introduced ; first of the baby and then of the
actor, thus registering the essential action of the latter
without the diversion of the former.
Many other similar psychological problems have
to be faced and overcome by the cutter in conjunction
with the title editor, for when cutting cannot be done
a title must be resorted to.
In order to realize the amazing work of the film editor
in a big studio it is necessary to visit the cutting-room
and see for oneself the miles of film lying on the shelves
in spools, filling baskets, coiling and twisting on tables
and desks, all in apparent inextricable confusion. Then,
with the aid of a magnifying glass, just try to find a
given little picture in a roll of film. It will probably
take hours, whereas an expert cutter can pull the cellu-
loid off the spools with wonderful rapidity and stop
suddenly on the exact little picture required.
Before leaving the subject of fiction film making
something must be said regarding the punctuation of
screen-plays. It will be obvious that where pictures
are used instead of words to convey a story to the human
brain, the comma, semi-colon, and full-stop cannot
be used. In their place there are, what are technically
known as the " close-up," the " iris," and the " fade-
out." These forms of pictorial punctuation cannot be
used, however, in the lavish and often reckless manner
of the literary punctuation marks. They are far more
emphatic and must therefore be used sparingly.
The " close-up," as its name implies, is the enlarging
of one small but important portion of an animated
picture at the expense of the background, or, in simpler
vein, the focusing of the camera so that a face or object
is made to appear, when thrown on to the screen, quite
close-up to the audience. In this way the beauty and
68 THE FILM INDUSTRY
innocence of the heroine, the cunning expression of the
villain, the determined features of a leader of men, are
emphasized without words or literary signs. By this
means also attention is focused on the " stars," and
interest aroused by the close view afforded of their
faces, which usually form an index to the parts they are
destined to take in the play. Physiognomy and
psychology are well-known sciences to the efficient
director.
The " iris," which is named after the iris-shutter
of the camera, causes the picture on the screen to gradu-
ally contract in a circle from the outer edges, the focal
point getting smaller and smaller until it rests on the
face of the heroine, the spire and cross of a church,
the broken safe from which documents have been stolen,
or some other point in a picture upon which it is desired
to momentarily focus the entire attention of the audience.
It takes the place of italics, and may occasionally be
used to impart an atmosphere, as, for instance, when,
in the small circle of light in the centre of the screen,
only a church spire is visible, then a bell chimes, the
circle grows larger, the church is seen, still the circle
increases and the whole view becomes visible with a
peaceful village street, the people wending their way
towards the House of God. It is Sunday morning.
The " fade-out " is the full-stop of the screen-play.
As its name implies, it is the gradual fading out of the
picture, which is mentally suggestive that the action
is finished, and therefore is very frequently used when
the play is over, like the drop curtain in a theatre. It
has, however, other uses even more important in screen-
technique than an artistic finish. It is employed to give
the mental impression of a lapse of time. By fading-out
on one scene, such as the hero stepping across the
gangway of a liner lying alongside the docks at Liverpool,
FICTION-FILM PRODUCTION 69
and then fading-in with a view of the Statue of Liberty
from the deck of the ship, the voyage across the Atlantic
is accounted for. Similarly by fading-out on a log
cabin amid the snows and fading-in on the same cabin
bathed in sunlight and surrounded by foliage, the passing
of a season is mentally suggested without the use of
words.
CHAPTER VIII
TRAVEL, TOPICAL, AND SCIENTIFIC FILMS
IN addition to the wonderful pictorial records of the
expeditions led by Scott, Shackleton, and other daring
explorers there are films of travel and adventure in
many lands, curious customs of living races, little-known
industries, moments in the natural lives of birds and
beasts, and episodes which include the taking of motion
pictures beneath the waves, above the clouds, and in
the craters of volcanoes.
It has been said that many travel films are so dull
and uninteresting that exhibitors and the public generally
have fought shy of them. The reasons for this are not
difficult to understand. The essential difference be-
tween an optical lantern slide and a cinematograph
film is that whereas the former presents a still view the
latter is animated. If, however, the object depicted is
a mountain, a vast stretch of beautiful country, an
iceberg, a castle, or other motionless object, it matters
not whether it is photographed by an ordinary camera
or by one of the cinematograph variety, the result,
when thrown on the screen, will be a still view. It
is true that in one case the picture will be steady and
free from flicker and in the other it will have a certain
amount of false movement.
For this primary reason travel subjects need to be
very carefully chosen before they are filmed. It is
not sufficient to impart animation to an essentially
still view by photographing the movements of a guide
conducting a party of tourists over an old chateau, or
filming an Alpine guide leaving the valley and then to
70
TRAVEL, TOPICAL, AND SCIENTIFIC FILMS 71
show the peak which he climbed. In both cases the
main objective is essentially a still view, and could be
covered by a lantern slide.
To introduce sufficient movement into a picture of
tranquil beauty or grandeur as to warrant its being
taken with a cinematograph camera for subsequent
public exhibition, it is necessary to organize a scene
or act which must have a definite purpose, making use
of the natural background in the same way as a stage
setting. This is what actually happens in the case of
an expedition into the unknown. Animation is lent
quite naturally to what would otherwise be a series
of still views by the exploring parties, sledges, dogs,
reindeer, hunters, carriers, esquimaux, indians, negroes,
cannibals, camps, wild beasts, birds of prey, curious
native customs and modes of life and warfare all
legitimate subjects for the film. At the same time
that great compelling force, curiosity, is aroused in an
audience by the element of mystery which surrounds
the semi-explored and unknown lands. The whole
series of pictures have a continuity or purpose in the
object of the expedition.
The same considerations apply to a well thought out
travel film which cannot be called the record of an
expedition. It must portray the actual life of the
people of one land to those in another, and it must be
life, bare, brutal, pulsating, domestic, industrial,
nomadic, or warlike, with the scenery beautiful, grand
or monotonous, as the natural environment, and the
object of the journey clearly stated and of sufficient
importance to form a continuity. If it is Mont Blanc
that is to be conquered it is better to state the object,
show all the difficulties and dangers of the actual
ascent, and fail on the Grand Mulcts in a blizzard, than
to reach the summit without showing in detail how the
72 THE FILM INDUSTRY
climb was accomplished and the magnitude of the
final triumph. If it is a land of curious native tribes
which is to be entered, then the people and their mode
of life will be of more interest to an average audience
than the land in which they live, though this forms the
natural scenery for the story. If it is a great engineering
feat, such as the Panama Canal, then the Canal as an
accomplished fact will be of less interest, from the
motion-picture point of view, than the means adopted
and which brought success combined with an adequate
but not elongated presentation of the great benefit
bestowed.
There is one great economic advantage which a really
good travel picture possesses over a fiction film, it is as
intelligible and interesting to the people of one country
as it is to those of another, and its scope is therefore not
limited by the literary likes and dislikes of different
nationalities. It has, however, to be a very first-class
product to command the same market value as an
exclusive drama or comedy by one of the well-known
star companies.
Among the many really interesting travel films of
recent years, leaving out the world-famous records of
Arctic and Antarctic exploration, and the historic war
films, may be mentioned the picturized voyages of Mr.
and Mrs. Martin Johnson among the cannibals of the
South Sea Islands, which gave to the world what, in
all probability, will be the very last glimpse of a native
race and its terrible customs fast passing into the realm
of history. In the neighbourhood of the Bahama
Islands some remarkable films were taken beneath the
surface of the sea of submarine flora and of a fight
between a negro and a man-eating shark. Good views
were obtained up to a depth of 60 ft. by means of a
tube lowered from a boat. At the bottom of the tube
TRAVEL, TOPICAL, AND SCIENTIFIC FILMS 73
was a chamber accommodating the operator and the
camera. The actual photography being accomplished
through a glass panel in the side of the chamber, and
by the aid of exterior artificial lighting ; 2,400 candle
power Hewitt quartz-tubes being used.
Among other interesting episodes with the cinemato-
graph camera may be mentioned the descent of Mr.
F. Burlingham, who had previously conquered both
Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn for the film, into the
crater of Vesuvius, when a wonderful series of pictures
were obtained of the sea of smoking lava in the heart
of the volcano at a depth of 1,200 ft. 1 The filming by an
Austrian engineer of the crater of Stromboli. The ride
of a cinematographer on the cow-catcher of a locomotive
through the Canadian Rockies in winter. The Cherry
Kearton studies of wild animals. Many wonderful
films taken from aeroplanes, and really exciting scenes
of Alpine adventure.
The taking of a good and artistic travel film requires
a sound knowledge of what is and what is not of general
public interest, combined with considerable experience
of cinematography. Contrary to the belief expressed
by many amateurs, field operating, as outdoor cinemato-
graphy is called, requires quite as much knowledge
of the tricks and limitations of the camera as studio
work, because the all important factor of light cannot
be controlled at will, and it is usually the unforeseen
which occurs directly a commencement is made. Out-
door cinematography is a separate study and is far too
complicated to be even briefly touched upon here.
There are, however, various mechanical helps, such as
the Watkins Kinematograph Exposure Meter, which
tests the actinic value of the light, making the allowances
necessary for different countries and altitudes. This
1 Granger's Marvels of the Universe
74 THE FILM INDUSTRY
wonderful little instrument was successfully used by
the well-known cinematographer, Mr. Ponting, both
in India and during Captain Scott's Antarctic
Expedition.
In moving picture work the camera handle is usually revolved
at a uniform speed (120 to the minute) and as the aperture
of the revolving sector shutter usually remains unaltered (although
the best cine-cameras have an adjustment for altering this)
the convenient way of attaining correct exposure is to test
the light with a meter, and vary the aperture of the lens in accord-
ance with the test. It has been found best to devise a special
meter for this, in which the diaphragm values read against the
shutter speeds. The use of a meter is most important in such
work in order to get different parts of a long film (exposed,
perhaps, in different lights) to approximately the same density
for printing. 1
It is interesting to note here, in relation to trick
films, that turning the camera handle too slowly causes
the movement of objects photographed, t when shown
on the screen, to appear too rapid, and if the handle
is turned quickly the picture when exhibited will have
a slow movement.
Topical Films. About these films little need be said
here, for they will be familiar to every picture-goer,
and they adequately explain themselves. They are
pictorial records of the important topical events taking
place in all parts of the world. Among the principal
screen newspapers should be mentioned, the Pathe
Gazette, the Pathe Weekly Pictorial, the Topical Budget,
and the Gaumont Graphic.
In order to show the class of news-pictures given in
each weekly and bi-weekly edition it may not be out
of place to give here the " List of Contents " of the
London editions of three of the principal publications
for that epoch-making period in 1919, which brought
the Great European War to a fitting close.
1 Extract from The Watkins Manual.
TRAVEL, TOPICAL, AND SCIENTIFIC FILMS 75
Pathe Gazette, No. 577. Released Thursday, 3rd July.
PEACE DAY : Huge crowds throng Trafalgar Square at 3 p.m.
Mrs. Lloyd George announces " Peace is signed." Thousands
flock to acclaim the King at Buckingham Palace. The King
and Queen and Royal Family appear. The King meets and
drives back with Mr. Lloyd George, who brought us " Peace
with Honour. " THE HISTORIC SCENE AT VERSAILLES : The
German delegates arrive and are conducted to the Hall of
Mirrors. The Big Four are seen to the left of the picture.
The signing. The Prime Minister and Mrs. Lloyd George home
again at Downing Street.
Pathe Gazette, No. 578. Released Monday, 1th July.
ANOTHER AIR TRIUMPH FOR BRITAIN : The R 34 the first
Transatlantic Air Liner. (Approved for publication by the
Air Ministry.) SIXTEEN AMERICAN OFFICERS decorated by
Sir Douglas Haig on the Horse Guards Parade. THE PRO-
CLAIMING OF PEACE : the old-world ceremony at Temple Bar.
A fanfare announces arrival of Bluemantle, who demands
" admission " to the City. The City Marshal conducts Blue-
mantle to the Lord Mayor, who gives permission for the cavalcade
to enter. Reading the Proclamation at the Royal Exchange.
CHILLY HENLEY : Bad weather mars opening day's racing.
SCUTTLED : All that is now visible of the once proud German
" High Seas " Fleet at Scapa Flow.
Pathe Weekly Pictorial, No. 66. Released 1th July. AN
AEROPLANE STARTER : A wonderful French device for starting
aeroplane engines which will obviate many fatal accidents
is shown. BAMBOO AND ITS USES : An interesting film showing
how this universally used material is grown, cut, transported
and used. RATS : The menace of the rat the carrier of many
frightful plagues is clearly explained, and several methods of
dealing with these pests are shown. THE UPPER REACHES
OF THE THAMES : A charming coloured film illustrative of some
delightful spots, merry picnics and shady nooks on England's
greatest river. (Pathecolor.)
There are, of course, editions and separate publications
in the principal capitals of the world, and the inter-
change of topical films between one country and another
forms the special feature of all screen-newspapers. The
rapidity with which the world's events are translated
into moving pictures is certainly remarkable, but this
does not mean that every cinema theatre is able to show
the most up-to-date happenings. The time of exhibition
76 THE FILM INDUSTRY
depends upon two primary factors ; (1) the country
in which the event occurred compared with the distance
and means of transport to the distributing centre for
the theatre in question ; and (2) the price the theatre
is prepared to pay for its animated newspaper. There
is a graduated series of charges for each edition or
number ; the price of hire decreasing each fourth day
after the edition is released for exhibition. Certain
theatres pay the higher price in order to show the
pictures first, others wait a few days and obtain the
reduction.
The short topical pictures included in each edition
of these screen-newspapers are obtained by a staff of
cinematographers in the principal cities of the world
and by contributions from outside sources. The
editing, printing and distributing is usually carried on
in the capital of each important country or area. It
is estimated that the English edition of the Pathe
Gazette is seen by seven millions of people every week.
There are, in addition to the animated news-pictorials,
several different forms of screen-magazines, such as that
issued by the Trans- Atlantic Company, in which
interest films are the predominant feature. By interest
films is meant a variety of subjects which cannot be
classified under such recognized headings as fiction,
travel, or topical. They include wonderful inventions,
little known industries, applied art, feats of engineering,
and other events capable of effective illustration. When
carefully chosen and well photographed they are cer-
tainly very interesting to the average person who
desires to know something of what is being accomplished
in different parts of the world.
These travel, topical, and interest films tend to raise
the level of moving pictures from the purely recreative,
albeit artistic sphere, to the semi-educational. But, to
TRAVEL, TOPICAL, AND SCIENTIFIC FILMS 77
refer to them publicly as " educational " is to do them
a disservice, for there are many who object to being
lectured out of school. The reason for this has hitherto
been that education in whatever form disguised was
usually " made-to-measure " by a pedagogue whose
chief qualification appeared to be that he knew better
than most how to make a subject so thoroughly dry
and uninteresting that the average human brain posi-
tively revolted from its proper duty of mastication.
Whereas almost everything we see, even when at play,
is adding to our stock of common knowledge, and
almost every educational subject is capable of such
lively description and such interesting methods of
exposition, as, for example, by the use of films, lantern
slides, lectures, etc., that its digestion becomes both
healthy and pleasurable.
Scientific Films. This class of cinematography may
be roughly divided into two sections : (1) that which
is scientific ; and (2) the mere filming of scientific subjects.
The principal branches of the former are, colour-cinemato-
graphy, which is the filming and subsequent projection
on to the screen of pictures in natural colours not
obtained by tinting or artificial colouring ; cinestereo-
scopy, which is the application of stereoscopic principles
to cinematography in order to obtain an appearance
of solidity (relief) for objects thrown on to the screen ;
cinemicrography, or the filming of microscopic move-
ment in plant and animal life, etc., with the aid of a
cinematograph camera and a microscope ; and talking
animated pictures, which aims at the addition r-f human
voices and spoken-words to what is at present dumb-show.
Very elaborate apparatus is at present ^quired for
all these different classes of work, and scientific cine-
matography is quite beyond the scope of this short
treatise.
78 THE FILM INDUSTRY
The filming of scientific subjects is little more than
ordinary cinematography, although much ingenuity is
often necessary in order to obtain good results. An
example of this class of work which will probably be
familiar to most readers is the illustration on the screen
of a plant growing at a remarkable rate. A variation
in the taking speed of a cinematograph camera gives
the effect on the screen of a shortening or lengthening
of the natural period of time. In order to show the
growth of a plant a camera is fitted with a gearing-
down device, so that, instead of 60 ft. of film being
exposed in a minute a whole week elapses before this
amount of negative has passed the' lens aperture. The
result, when projected on to the screen, shows a reversal
of the order, and depicts in about a minute the actual
growth of the plant in a week.
There is often a distinct connection between so-called
popular scientific films and trick cinematography,
although for making theoretic lectures practical there
can scarcely be a better method devised than the
cinematograph film. It has already been used in almost
every branch of science, industry, commerce, and
warfare.
CHAPTER IX
FILM DISTRIBUTION AND PUBLICITY
WHEN a negative film has been made with the aid of
a cinematograph camera and positive copies printed
from it, the resulting film -providing the subject is of
sufficient public interest becomes a copyright and
marketable commodity. Although in some cases the
producer and proprietor of films prints all the necessary
copies himself, employs travellers, advertises, and lets
his films out on hire direct to the cinema halls, the more
usual method is for the actual work of distribution to
be carried on by speculative buying agencies, known as
" renters/' These are the^^^jmiddlejmen " of the
film industry. They buy or rent from the producing,
studios and let them out to the exhibitors, doing alii
the work incidental to a great selling and distributing-
agency.
When a positive film has been printed, titled, tinted,
and toned, and is, from the producer's point of view,
a completed article, it is usually thrown on the screen
in the studio for what is known as a " private view."
All the departmental heads responsible for the production
and the principal actors and actresses, are present, and
form a body of expert critics. In this way minor
defects are remedied before the film is shown in public.
This takes place at what is called a " Trade Show,"
usually held in the private electric theatre in the head
offices of the producing firm.
At this important exhibition, film reviewers, viewers,
buyers, renters, large exhibitors, and others financially
79
7 (1463p)
80 THE FILM INDUSTRY
and commercially interested in the industry are present
in numbers varying with the importance of the film as
a " pay-box attraction." It has now passed out of the
producing stage and has begun its life as an earner of
royalties.
A film may have been sold outright by private treaty
or arrangement before the trade show, or more likely
during or after this first semi-public exhibition. On
the other hand, it may be issued by the producers as
an " exclusive " or " open market " film. One or
other of these latter methods is most usual.
The producer or owner of the copyright of an exclusive
film generally offers for sale what is called the " ter-
ritorial rights." By this is meant the exclusive right
to exhibit the film in a defined county or area. These
guaranteed territorial rights are bought by English
provincial, Scottish, Irish, and Foreign renters, who
then give trade shows in their own " preserves " at
which local exhibitors are present, and they send around
travellers to the cinema theatres, issue posters, advertise,
"and generally do their best to "boom" the film in
their own area. The local exhibitors hire the film from
the renters also with the exclusive right to show the
picture in their respective towns, or at least under a
guarantee that the same film will not be shown at a
competing cinema within a certain local area before or
during the exhibition at their own theatre.
In the case of an open market film the copies are offered,
with only one restriction, to anyone who cares to buy
them, either for the purpose of exhibition in one or more
theatres of their own, or, to renters, for letting out on
hire to local cinema proprietors. The single restriction
being that the film shall not be publicly exhibited before
a given release date. This system of distribution causes
the actual day of release and the two succeeding days
FILM DISTRIBUTION AND PUBLICITY 81
to be the most valuable in the life of each copy of the
film, and is called its first-run. A higher rental is
charged for this period than for each succeeding three
days, which are called the second, third, fourth, fifth,
and sixth run ; and the price decreases every fourth
day when the majority of cinematograph theatres
change their programmes.
The life of an open-market film seldom exceeds a few
months after which it becomes " junk," and is sold
at a very cheap rate to second-hand film dealers who
ship their wares to remote foreign countries.
The way in which a film is marketed greatly depends
upon the value of the subject as a pay-box attraction.
A good play, whether drama or comedy ; featuring one
or other of the well-known stars of the screen, will,
more often than not, be issued as an exclusive, although
many of the large American producers now favour the
open-market system. Only in the case of some unique
experience or feat of exploration, which has been widely
commented upon in the newspapers, does a travel
film warrant release as an exclusive, although its value
may be far more abiding than a play. An interest
film is always an open market release, and topicals,
if of more than local interest, are usually sold outright
to one or other of the film gazettes.
Regarding the market value of films it is quite im-
possible to give any figures here. Some big American
productions have brought their owners millions of
dollars, others have earned but little more than they
cost to produce. Considered generally, however, if a
film is a good one a profitable market will easily be
found, if it is a very good one, its value may equal that
of a gold mine.
Before being released for public exhibition in the
United Kingdom, all films, except topical subjects,
82 THE FILM INDUSTRY
are voluntarily submitted by the producers, importers,
or renters, to the British Board of Film Censors, London,
which is, however, not a Government Department, but
an independent body with such wide powers that it
is now looked upon as a national institution. The
Board undertakes the examination of any film for a
small fee, and if satisfied that it contains nothing of an
injurious character it grants a certificate which must
be thrown on the screen. Both producers and exhibitors
enter into a firm agreement not to publish or exhibit
anything which is objected to by the Board, and many
local licensing authorities make this a condition when
granting a license to an electric theatre.
Cinematograph films, when placed for distribution
on the English railways, must be encased in special
boxes made to the specification of the Railway Clearing
House. These boxes must be made of galvanized iron,
lined with wood, and locked and labelled in a special
way. Over a million of these film-boxes are carried
by the English railways every year.
Almost everyone will have noticed the enormous
amount of publicity obtained by film stars and by
producers for their films. In addition to the natural
advertisement secured by the projection of artistes'
names on the thousands of screens, there is a fourfold
combination of publicity experts engaged in making
known the attractions, charms, and artistic merits of
both actors and films. In the first place there is the
publicity agent who loses no opportunity of bringing
the name of his employer before the public in the form
of paragraphs in the daily and weekly journals, inter-
views, and photographs ; next comes the publicity
manager of the studio producing the films, who takes
advantage of the fame acquired by the artiste to couple
it with the particular film in which he or she is appearing
FILM DISTRIBUTION AND PUBLICITY 83
at the moment, by the aid of posters, attractive illus-
trated booklets, newspaper reports, and clippings of the
actual film enlarged into striking photographs for
exhibition outside the cinema halls ; then, when the
film is released and exhibited at trade shows, repre-
sentatives of the general as well as the cinematograph
press are invited to attend, and a further flood of
newspaper criticism is obtained. Next come paid-for
advertisements in all the trade journals and in certain
dailies and weeklies, and finally, when the film is exhibited
in the cinema halls it is again advertised by posters,
and by reviews and advertisements in the local
press.
It is but natural that all this concerted effort to
obtain the requisite publicity should result in the creation
of wide public interest in films and film favourites,
especially when it is remembered that cinema halls
provide amusement for millions of people every night
of every week in the year, and that certain actors and
actresses become, by repeated appearances in different
roles so familiar to regular picture-goers that the post-
bags of these artistes are filled with letters from admirers
living in different parts of the world.
This widespread public interest has brought into being
new journalistic productions, which are neither trade
papers nor technical journals, but just popular screen
reviews, often elaborately illustrated and enjoying
extensive circulations. In England these are repre-
sented by such publications as The Picture Show,
Pictures and Picture Goer, Cinema Chat, Picture Plays,
etc. ; and in the United States by even larger publica-
tions. These weekly reviews are in addition to such
old-established trade journals as The Kinematograph
and Lantern Weekly and the Cinema.
Even the great dailies and weeklies, with the serious
84 THE FILM INDUSTRY
affairs of a troubled world to record within their strictly
limited space, have felt the pressure of public interest
and devote columns to the description of plays and
players for the silver screen.
All this is proof, if such is now necessary, of the part
the cinema has come to play in the everyday life of
nations.
CHAPTER X
THE PROJECTOR AND THE SCREEN
So far we have dealt mainly with the different phases
of film-production and distribution, reserving for the
present and succeeding chapters the equally as important
exhibiting side of this new and rapidly developing
industry. These two branches may be looked upon
as the wholesale and retail of the cinematograph industry,
which, as a whole, is, however, much more akin to
applied art than to either trade or commerce ; embracing,
in the first, or productive stage, the combined work of
authors, artists, actors, and photographers, and in the
latter, or exhibiting stage, the acumen of the film-buyer
and renter combined with the commercial, as well as,
in a minor degree, the artistic attributes of the local
exhibitor.
In exactly the same way as the camera forms the
chief apparatus employed in the production of cinemato-
graph films so is the projector the primary appliance used
for their exhibition. In fact it was the invention and
ultimate perfection of these two optical and mechanical
devices which made moving pictures possible ; all else
is auxiliary to, and has grown up around, these two
revolutionizing inventions. The former has already
been dealt with, and it is the purpose of this chapter to
describe the essential features of the somewhat com-
plicated little pieces of mechanism known to the trade
as "Projectors" and to the man in the street as
cinematographs.
Although there are a large number of different types
85
86 THE FILM INDUSTRY
of projectors in use at the present time in the 87,000
electric theatres of the civilized world, each of which has
its own peculiarity, a general survey of the essential
features common to nearly all types of machines will
enable even the non-technical reader to quickly grasp,
at a subsequent period, the salient points of any
particular design.
At the risk of being considered absurdly elementary
it must be stated that the object of a projector is to
project, and simultaneously enlarge, the tiny photo-
graphs upon the transparent celluloid film, on to a
screen by the aid of lenses and a powerful light in
exactly the same way that slides are exhibited by an
ordinary optical lantern. The essential difference
between the modern instrument used for motion
pictures and the older apparatus used for still views
is that the former must create the illusion of natural
movement by projecting the pictures on to the screen
in very rapid succession.
In order to accomplish this the film is drawn past the
back of the objective lens by a mechanical device which
imparts an intermittent motion. Each little picture
remains stationary between the lens and the light for
one-sixteenth of a second, and is then replaced by the
next picture. This movement is merely a reproduction
of that which took place in the cinematograph camera
when the pictures were actually being taken. Thus,
when we are looking at a moving picture in a cinema,
hall what we really see is sixteen different pictures
thrown on the screen every second, but owing to what
is known as persistence of vision, combined with a
mechanical device called a rotary shutter, which is
fitted to every projector, and serves to momentarily
cut off the light from the screen during each change of
picture i.e. sixteen times a second instead of being
THE PROJECTOR AND THE SCREEN 87
able to observe each distinct view the pictures blend
and the illusion of motion is created.
All of this is made possible by two factors, one of
which is the transparency of the film, which allows light
from the electric arcs in the back of the projector to
show through the celluloid, in the same way as it does
through the glass of a magic lantern slide, and so throw
the shadow image, made by the film-photograph, on
to the screen with the aid of the objective lens.
In order to concentrate as much light as possible
on to the tiny picture as it rests momentarily behind
the objective, or focusing lens, another combination
of lenses, known as " the condenser " is introduced
between the arc-lights and the film. These catch the
divergent rays of the powerful electric flame and con-
centrate them, like the beams of a searchlight, on the
small aperture called the gate, past which the film is
being fed by means of the escapement.
Here it is advisable to pause for a moment to consider
what has been accomplished. The film, bearing its
minute photographs, is being passed between two lenses,
one concentrates the light from electric arcs in a steady
beam through a small aperture, in front of which the
film is passing, and the other focuses the pictures on
the screen which must be situated at a fixed distance
from the projector. The film is being passed through,
or fed, in a series of intermittent movements which
allows sixteen little pictures to rest momentarily between
the lenses every second. When one picture is replaced
by the next the light, passing from the arcs, through the
concentrating lens, film, and focusing lens, out in to the
cinema hall and on to the screen, is momentarily cut
off by a rotary shutter. This causes the " flicker "
which is ever present in a major or minor degree when
motion pictures are being shown.
88 THE FILM INDUSTRY
This completes the optical side of projection and brings
us to the purely mechanical means by which (1) the
film is intermittently moved past the gate ; (2) the
rotary shutter is made to cut off the light at the psy-
chological moment sixteen times a second when each
little picture is being substituted for the next on the
thousands of feet of film, and (3) the very powerful
and continuous light is obtained.
The intermittent movement of the film past the gate,
or light aperture, is caused by what is known as the
escapement. There are several different devices which
encompass this object, and they are called claw, maltese
cross, and dog escapements. In each case the nun is
moved forward about three-quarters of an inch (one
picture) every sixteenth of a second by " claws," or
teeth, engaging in the perforations on each side of the
celluloid. This is usually accomplished by an eccentric
wheel.
The rotary shutter is, in principle, a very complicated
affair, although in actual practice it is quite simple.
It consists of a three-bladed wheel revolving .in front
of the objective, or focusing lens (see Fig. 24). One
blade is larger than the other two, which are known as
dummies, and it is while this large blade is obscuring
the light coming through the lens that each little film-
picture is substituted for its successor. The dummy
blades merely increase the number of dark intervals,
and so make each one less observable to the human eye.
Without these dummies the single dark interval, during
which the picture is being changed, would be too pro-
nounced, but, by multiplying their number they become
too fast for the human eye and brain to properly register.
Although the powerful light necessary for motion
picture projection can be obtained in a variety of ways,
such as by electricity, limelight, and oxy-acetylene ,
BUTCHER'S " SILENT EMPIRE " PROJECTOR, SHOWING
MECHANISM AND ROTARY SHUTTER
90 THE FILM INDUSTRY
the means employed in almost every theatre of impor-
tance, except those far removed from civilization, is the
electric-arc, by means of which it is quite easy to obtain
from four to five thousand candle-power from a flame
barely half an inch in length. The intensity of the light
is, furthermore, directed and concentrated by means of
reflectors and the condenser lenses of the projectors.
About arc-lamps little need be said here, because of
their undoubted familiarity to every reader. The
system employed is to interpose two carbon pencils
in an electric current, then, when the current is turned
on, to " strike " the carbon points by allowing them
to touch each other, and afterwards to move them
slowly apart. The flame occurs between the pencil
points, and as the carbon burns away in the intense
heat the pencils are kept about a quarter to half an inch
apart by controls (see Fig. 25).
It is quite beyond the scope of this little work to enter
into lengthy descriptions of the different electric lighting
systems, upon which there are many good text-books.
Questions of supply direct or alternating play an
important part, and many electric theatres are now
equipped with engines, dynamos, transformers, and
other complicated electrical apparatus for making
their own current. In such cases they are quite
independent of town electrical systems.
The size of a picture on the screen and its clearness
are more or less determined by the power of the illumin-
ant in the projector, and the correct centring of the
beam of light on the screen by the operator. There are,
however, certain marks that frequently appear on
moving pictures, known as gate or electrical markings,
which have nothing to do with the lighting, being
blemishes on the film itself.
The essential features of a projector having now been
FIG. 25
" EMPIRE " ARC LAMP WHICH FITS INSIDE LAMP-HOUSE
OF PROJECTOR
92 THE FILM INDUSTRY
described, there remains only to show ; (1) what motive
power, and by what means, all this mechanism is
operated simultaneously, and (2) how the different
devices are assembled into a complete instrument.
The old method of turning the mechanism by hand
has long since given place to a power-driven projector
in all places where electric current is available. The
hand-drive is still used, however, as a stand-by in case
of sudden breakdown. A small electric motor of from
one-sixteenth to one-eighth horse-power is usually
employed. It is controlled by a regulator, preferably
of the sliding-contact type, giving considerable variation
of speed. The driving-wheel of the motor is connected
by a chain or belt to the pulley of the projector. The
mechanism connecting the pulley with the intermittent
movement, the rotary shutter, and the re-winding
gear on the lower film-spool, is of quite simple design
and consists of spindles and gears.
The assembly of these essential devices into a complete
instrument, with the addition of various refinements,
is entirely a matter of individual design . In the- making
of projectors accuracy of workmanship, producing
smooth running, is the primary factor ; and there are
many types, of both English and foreign manufacture,
which fulfil all reasonable requirements.
In Fig. 26 will be seen a Williamson " Silent Empire/'
which consists of a single pillar pedestal stand with
tilting head, on which is mounted the mechanism.
This head can be moved over a wide angle and locked
steady when the beam of light is accurately directed
on to the screen. The stand also carries the take-up
spool, which is provided with a chain-drive from the
motor fitted on a bracket half-way up the pedestal.
The supply-spool is supported by the mechanism of
the projector itself, which is fitted on to the tilting
r~
$?jn^
V?^
j$, N o|g
FIG. 26
THE "SILENT EMPIRE"
PROJECTOR COMPLETE
WITH DRIVING MOTOR
AND STAND.
94 THE FILM INDUSTRY
head. The lamp-house, forming the back of the
instrument, encloses the arc-lamp (Fig. 25), and is
scientifically ventilated. It has a sight-hole in the side
door for observing the adjustment of the carbons, and
is provided with an asbestos back-curtain. The light-
funnel with the condenser lens projects from the front of
the lamp-house towards the gate mechanism. Here
is the maltese cross intermittent movement, which
runs in an oil bath, with a glass port-hole for inspection.
Beneath this is an automatic safety-shutter, controlled
by a pair of heavy governors. It is extremely sensitive
and responds instantly the machine is started or
stopped. Next comes the objective or focusing lens
with the rotary shutter operating in front of it. The
path taken by the film will be clearly seen in Fig. 24.
For showing ordinary optical lantern slides there is a'
flange for the objective lens fitted to the left side of the
mechanism, with adjustable centring. The lamp-house
being moved over on transverse rails.
The number of different types of projectors in use
make even brief mention of the characteristics of each
quite impossible here. The British " Silent Empire,"
and the American " Simplex " are both very fine
machines, and so also are those of Messrs. Pathe Freres,
Gaumont, Ruffles, and Walturdaw. In addition to
these well-known types, however, there are several
excellent machines made by smaller English and foreign
firms, who have not always received the encouragement
they deserved.
It may not be out of place to say something here of
the screens on to which the projectors throw the shadow
images. One of the best forms of screen for this purpose
is a very fine white plaster wall. Its chief drawback
is that unless great care is taken when making and
mixing the ingredients there will be a tendency for the
THE PROJECTOR AND THE SCREEN 95
wall to condense the atmospheric moisture, and when
this takes place water will trickle down the surface
and cause lines to appear on the pictures. A plaster
wall is usually coated over with white oil flatting.
Screens made of tightly stretched canvas are usually
painted with distemper. In theatres which are very
long and narrow, necessitating great brilliance to enable
the audience at the back to see properly, screens coated
with bright aluminium paint are frequently used.
The German " Perlantino " screen is coated with
white, but has small transparent glass beads sprinkled
thickly and evenly over its surface. In the United
States there is a variety of patent preparations, several
of which give either a ground-glass appearance or else
a very glaring silver-like reflection. The former being
artistic and restful and the latter very brilliant and
sharp. In England, also, there are quite a number of
special coatings for cinematograph screens, but it
would appear that the ideal has yet to be devised.
Before leaving this subject there is a very ingenious
little apparatus which calls for mention. It is the
" De Vry Portable Projector," which weighs only
20 Ibs., and is simple, safe, and self-contained. The
De Vry is not a toy, as it takes standard gauge films,
thus giving a very wide range of existing subjects,
and throws on to the screen pictures up to 8 ft. wide.
Its particular merit lies in the fact that it can be carried
about like a suit-case, has only to be connected by a
flexible lead to any ordinary electric lighting system, and
so becomes available for showing motion pictures in
universities, schools, factories, offices, and lecture-
rooms. It has been termed the silent salesman because
of its suitability for use by commercial travellers when
explaining the actual making and distribution of the
wares they are endeavouring to sell.
CHAPTER XI
FILM EXHIBITION
RELIABLE estimates place the number of cinematograph
theatres in the world at about 87,000. These exhibitions
require for their programmes approximately 1 ,500,000,000
ft. of film per week, of which at least 50,000,000 ft.
should be new subject matter.
In the United States there are 16,900 cinemas and in
Great Britain only just over 4,000, but in the latter
country there have been but very few theatres erected
since the beginning of the Great War, in 1914, and it is
considered that at least 2,000 more are required in order
to comfortably accommodate the rapidly growing
audiences. Half the continent of Europe is in the same
plight, and the demand is. strong for both cinemas and
films. The Far East, with its countless millions of
people, is awakening to the lure of the screen. South
America possesses thousands of cinemas, some of which
are among the finest in the world. In the British
Colonial Empire the electric theatres range from palaces
to prairie-shows ; and whether it be under the light of
the aurora or in the rays of the mellow tropical moon
there will be found every night in the year millions of
devotees at the shrine of this new goddess of romance.
With these facts in mind we can approach the final
stage of this survey with some knowledge of its relative
importance.
About the actual construction of an electric theatre
little need be said here beyond the fact that it must
almost everywhere conform to certain laws and bye-
laws framed to secure the safety, comfort and health
96
FILM EXHIBITION 97
of patrons. Foremost among these regulations, so far
as Great Britain is concerned, are those aimed at the
prevention of fire and panic. There must be an adequate
number of clearly indicated exits, so placed as to afford
the audience a ready means of egress from the building,
and the passages and staircases leading to these exits
must be kept free of obstruction. The latter part of
this regulation is so often flagrantly disregarded that it
becomes the duty of the public, for the sake of health
as well as safety, to at once report to the police or
local licensing authority any persistent overcrowding
of a cinema which causes patrons to stand in, and thereby
obstruct the gangways or in front of recognized exits.
The actual fire-extinguishing appliances considered
necessary include buckets of water, dry sand, a damp
blanket, and a certain number of portable chemical
fire extinguishers. The sand and the damp blanket are
intended for smothering the flames in the event of
spools of film catching fire in the operating box. Fires
produced by the short-circuiting of electric leads can
best be extinguished with dry sand.
The operating box in which the projectors are housed
must be completely fire-proof, and situated away from
the auditorium. The door leading into the box must
be self closing and smoke-tight, any pipes used for the
purposes of ventilation should lead direct to the outside
of the building, and only two openings or windows for
each projector installed are allowed. One of these
windows is intended for projection and the other for
observation ; both must have fire-proof safety shutters
which can quickly be closed from either inside or outside
the box. No smoking is allowed while an exhibition
is taking place and none but authorized persons are
allowed in this box.
There are also stringent regulations relating to the
98 THE FILM INDUSTRY
storing of spools of film, projectors, electric cables,
lime-light, acetylene, gas-engines and dynamos.
Many of the larger electric theatres also have a fire-
proof re-winding room which connects with the operating
box. In this apartment is situated the gear used for
re-winding the spools of firm after they have passed
through the projector. Before a film can be used a
second time it must be re-wound, otherwise the picture
action would be reversed, the last scene being shown on
the screen first. Here also is the inspection bench,
which is merely a fire-proof table with a plate glass
window capable of being lighted from beneath by an
electric lamp, over this the film is passed by the re-winder,
before exhibition, in order that minor defects may be
observed and remedied.
A film-mender is also a necessary appliance for either
the re-winding room or the operating box. This simple
little device holds the broken ends while the join is
made by cleaning the gelatine coating from the celluloid
base and sticking the two clean ends together with
specially prepared film-cement (see Fig. 23). The
temporary joining of a film which breaks during projec-
tion is accomplished by holding the two ends together
either with a special film clip or else with an ordinary
paper fastener of the kind which does not pierce the
material held. These emergency joins can be made
permanent with cement after the exhibition of the
broken film is over.
Owing to the possibility of one machine breaking
down during an exhibition nearly all electric theatres
have at least two projectors installed in the operating
box. These are worked on what is called the " change
over " principle. If the subject is a two-reeler then
No. 1 projector opens with the first reel or spool and
when this is nearing its end the arc light in No. 2 projector
FILM EXHIBITION 99
is struck, the light is dimmed in No. 1, brightened in
No. 2, and the second reel is thrown on the screen by
No. 2. This enables a multi-reeled film to be shown
without a break, unless one of the projectors breaks
down, in which event a wait while the first reel is taken
off the projector and the second threaded up, is absolutely
unavoidable.
The reason why long films are not rolled in one is
that a standard sized spool, made to fit all types of
projectors, can take only from 900 to 1,200ft. of film.
A subject over this length must therefore be divided into
parts, which are called " reels," but refer to the
standard sized spools on to which the film itself is
wound for storage, transport, and projection.
The supply of electric current for the projectors as
well as for lighting and possibly heating a theatre may
be derived from a town supply, or may be made on the
premises by gas or oil engines coupled to dynamos.
The latter method is far the most satisfactory as it
supplies a plentiful, comparatively cheap, and steady
supply of current which is essential for good projection,
but a complete duplicate set of machinery is necessary
as a precaution against breakdown, and a special fire-proof
room must be built to house the engines and dynamos.
About the complicated electrical gear necessary for
the supply of current to, and control of the arcs in the
projectors, the theatre lighting, heating and ventilating
(fans), and the motors for turning the projector mechan-
ism, nothing will be said here because they are matters
for the electrician and do not form a legitimate part
of the film industry, although operators should have a
good knowledge of lighting and power generally, and
theatre managers would do well to acquire such a
knowledge, even if they are not called upon to exercise
it as a general rule.
i
FILM EXHIBITION 101
Far too little attention has been given in the past,
so far as Great Britain is concerned, to the ordinary
lighting system of picture theatres. Even to-day it
is by no means uncommon to find the auditorium
suddenly flooded with the dazzling rays of unshaded
lights directly a picture has been shown. This sudden
transition from darkness to light occurring several times
in the hour is not only exceedingly trying to the eyes
of patrons but is positively injurious to those of the
attendants. The ideal system is one which gives a
sufficiency of illumination without glare, and is switched
on and off in three stages.
Almost everyone who may chance to read this little
book will have noticed the unpleasant shock not only
to the retina of the eye but also to the nerves when the
full glare of light is suddenly turned on after a long
and possibly engrossing picture. At many theatres
during the early part of the evening the lights are
switched on by stages ; this sensible way gives place ,
however, to a positive frenzy of light flashing and
increased projection speed towards the close of the
exhibition, causing an unpleasant and quite unnecessary
amount of eye-strain.
The " Eye Rest " system of throwing the light upwards
on to the ceiling, instead of downwards in full glare on
the audience has much to recommend it.
Yet another annoyance due entirely to ill-conceived
lighting is the presence in gang-ways of single unshaded
white lights which, although dim, are quite sufficient
to spoil the effect of a picture and at the same time be
exceedingly irritating to patrons sitting in the near-by
seats. Deep ruby lamps are all that is necessary and
even these are better shaded from the rows of seats,
so that the light they emit is confined to the gangway
only.
FIG. 28
SUPERIOR TYPE OF AUTOMATIC SPRAY
A = Vessel holding 6 pints of disinfectant,
B = Air pump for generating pressure
C = Swivel-arm and spray
D = Handle
E = Filler
FIG. 27
" EMPIRE " PNEUMATIC
DISINFECTANT SPRAY
FOR THEATRES
FILM EXHIBITION 103
The purification of the air in electric theatres by
means of vaporizers or sprays is a decidedly good
practice, but it not infrequently happens that the
liquid employed is more odoriferous than germicidal.
It might be beneficial to health if some competent
body or authority gave out publicly what medical
opinion considered the best disinfectant for such a
purpose.
With regard to the sprays themselves little need be
said. The " Empire " hand type consists of a pneu-
matic pump by the aid of which a finely divided spray
of hygienic fluid can be projected into the air (Fig. 27).
These sprayers hold about a quart of liquid which is
sufficient for 1,000 puffs. The automatic type of the
same make is, however, far superior. One pumping is
sufficient to supply power to give a continuous spray
for about an hour. It emits a fine dew-like spray
which immediately refreshes and purifies the atmosphere
(Fig. 28).
It may be interesting to note with regard to the seating
capacity of theatres that at least 22 ins. to 24 ins. should
be allowed between the centre of one seat and the centre
of the next, and from 30 to 34 ins. spacing between the
rows. Gangways should never be less than 4 ft. 6 ins.
to 5 ft. in breadth. From these figures a very simple
calculation will give the seating capacity of any given
floor space without uncomfortable overcrowding.
Although it is no part of this work to refer to the
relations between capital and labour in the film industry,
something must be said here regarding the various
trade associations, many of which are more protective
than aggressive.
In addition to the various literary, dramatic, and
advertising associations, which, by the nature of the
professions they represent, have certain interests in
104 THE FILM INDUSTRY
the film industry, there are the Cine-Camera-men's
Society, an organization for those engaged in the photo-
graphic branch of the industry, similar to the New
York and San Francisco Kinema Clubs and the
Incorporated Association of Cinematograph Manufac-
turers, founded to promote the welfare of members
and the industry generally. In the case of this
Association the " trade " is held to mean manufacturers,
publishers, and sellers of cinematograph films, as well
as all allied trades, whether carried on in England or
elsewhere. It is, however, more an organization of the
technical and professional branches than of the whole
industry.
The Incorporated Association of Film Renters has
a membership limited to individuals or firms actively
engaged in the renting of cinematograph films, and its
objects include the protection of trade interests, the
suppression of piracy and the duplication of films ; the
collection of information regarding trade status, and
safeguarding of the interests of members in regard
to any proposed restrictive legislation.
The association with the largest membership is the
Cinematograph Exhibitors Association of Great Britain
and Ireland, which is an organization of retail traders,
if such a term is applicable to the actual exhibitors
of moving pictures. It has for its objects the main-
tenance of the rights, the furtherance of the interests,
and the protection, in their relations with Parliament
and local authorities, of the Cinematograph Exhibitors
of the British Isles.
In this powerful association there are three classes
of membership ; (a) for those who own one or more
cinematograph theatres, but do not carry on the
business of film manufacturers or renters ; (b) those
who own one or more theatres and also carry on the
FILM EXHIBITION 105
business of film manufacturers or renters ; and (c) any
person interested either financially or practically in
the cinematograph industry. This association has
many distinct branches and is steadily increasing its
already large membership.
The employees of electric theatres have organizations
devoted to their interests, one of which is of a semi-
technical character and is called the National Association
of Cinematograph Operators, another is the National
Association of Theatrical Employees, membership of
which is open to all who are employed on the staff
of picture theatres or are engaged in the amusement
world ; and the musicians have their union, which
embraces the orchestras of theatres generally.
The approximate number of persons employed in
the cinematograph industry in the United Kingdom
has increased from just over 1,000 in the year 1904-05
to 170,000 in 1916-17, and 209,000 in 1919-20. The
number of patrons visiting the 4,000 odd electric
theatres each week has been estimated at from 7,000,000
to 9,000,000, and the capital invested in these buildings
at considerably over 90,000,000 sterling.
INDEX
ALDIS-BUTCHER anastigmat
lenses, 12
Animatograph, Paul's (xiv of
Introduction)
Aniline dyes, use of, for tinting
films, 41
Antarctic exploration, film re-
cords of, 70
Arc lamps in projectors, 90
Art director, work of an, 54
Artificial lighting of studios,
44-45
Art titles and their uses, 34-55
BIRMINGHAM Photographic Co,,
Ltd., 3
Blair's celluloid film (xiii of
introduction)
CALIFORNIA, suitability of for
film production, 63-64
Cameras, American, 19
, British super-cinema, 13
, Debrie's (French), 18-19
, English, 12-22
, Motor driven, 46
, Pathe Freres, 18
, professional, 12-22
, threading-up film in, 6,
9, 10
Capital invested in cinemas,
105
- film industry (xvii)
Capitol Cinema, New York, 17
Celluloid Acts, England, 17
, composition of, 20
Censorship of films, 82
Change-over system with pro-
jectors, 98, 99
Cine-camera-men's Society, 104
Cinema cities, 48, 56-57
Cinemas in England, number
of (xvii)
United States (xvii)
, lighting of, 101
, number in the World, 96
Cinematograph Acts (Great
Britain) (xvi)
- camera, 7-22
Cinematographer, difficult
work of, 56
Cinematograph Exhibitors'
Association, 104
Manufacturers' Associa-
tion, 104
Cinemicrography, 77
Cinestereoscopy, 77
Claw movement, 12
" Close-up," the, 67
Collateral action, 66
Colour cinematography, 77
Condenser lens, 87
Cooper-Hewitt tubes, 44
Crowd-work, 63
Cutters, work of, 65
DALLMEYER lenses, 13
Detector, mechanism and use
of a, 36
Developing frames, 26, 32
- trays, 28, 32
De Vry portable projector, 95
Difference between cine and
ordinary camera, 8
Director, qualifications and
work of a film, 52-54
Disinfectant sprays, 102-103
Division of film industry (xviii)
Drying drums, 31-32
107
108
INDEX
EASTMAN Kodak Co., U.S.A., 3
Edison, Thomas A. (xiii and
xiv)
Educational films, 51, 77
Electric arcs, violet, 44
current supplies, 90
Empire Theatre, London (xiv)
English Standard film per-
foration, 24
Erecting a set, 46
Escapement mechanism of pro-
jector, 88
Exclusive films, 80
Eye-rest lighting system, 101
FACIAL make-up for screen
work, 46
Fade-out, the, 67
Fiction film production, 60-69
Fiction films, 50, 59
Film boxes, 4, 16
cement, 98
cleansing machine, 36
- developing, 26-32
, dimensions of, 2
distribution and public-
ity, 79-84
drying, 26, 30
rooms, 32
editor, work of a, 65
- exhibition, 95-104
, lengths of, 3
magazines, 50
masks, 13
measurer, 12
- mender, 39, 41
newspapers, 70
- perforating, 23
- printing machines, 33-41
production, 49
psychology (xv)
- punch, use of, 12
renters, 79
renters, Association of
104
Films and film makers, 49-59
, subject division of, 49-51
Film trade journals, 83
Financial side of film produc-
tion, 52
Fire, extinguishing appliances
in cinemas, 97
regulations in cinemas,
97
, disregard of, 97
, tinting films to produce
effect of, 42
First-run of a film, 81
Flat developing frames, 27
GATE markings on films, 90
Gaumont Film Graphic, 74-75
Great Britain, local legislation
in (xvi)
Growth of film industry, 1
HEPWORTH, Cecil, (xiv)
How to print a film, 34
IMPORTATION of films into
U.K. (xvii of Introduction)
Inspection bench for films, 98
Iris diaphragm, 11, 15
" Iris," use of the, 67
JOURNALS of the English film
trade, 83
Junk film, 81
KlNEMATOGRAPH, Messrs.
Lumieres (xiv)
Kinetoscope, Edison's (xiii)
LAMPLIGHT, tinting films to
produce effect of, 42
Lapse of time, method of por-
traying, 68
Lenses in cinema camera, 11,12
, telephoto, 19
Lighting plots, 63
Location man, duties of, 55
Locations, finding suitable, 55,
63
MADE-FILM, 1
Marvels of the
Granger's, 73
Universe,
INDEX
109
Mercury vapour light, 44
Meters, exposure, 73
Method of developing film,
28-32
Moonlight, tinting to produce
effect of, 42
Motor-drive for cameras, 46
Motion, conveying appearance
of, 7
Movement analysed by Ultra-
Rapid camera, 19
NATIONAL Association of
Theatrical Employees, 105
Negative film, 1
New York and San Francisco
Kinema clubs, 104
Non-flam film, 3
Numbered actions, 65
OBJECTIVE lens, 86
Open market films, 80
Operating boxes in cinemas, 97
Operators, cinematograph, 105
Organization, importance of in
film industry, 49
Output of a perforating
machine, 26
PARAGON super-cinema
camera, 13
Pathe Freres projector, 94
- Gazette, 74-75
- Weekly Pictorial,
74-75
People employed in film indus-
try, 105
Perforating cinematograph film,
23
- machines, 24-25
Persistence of vision, 86
Photo-play, division into parts,
63
Pin frames, 26
Plate titling, 43
Popular screen reviews, 83
Positive film, 1
Printer-measurer, the, 36
Printing films, 33-44
Printing machines, 33-41
Private views, 79
Producers, work of, 52
Projectors, 85-95
Propaganda films, 51
Psychological cuts, 66
Psychology of films (xv)
Punctuation of screen plays, 67
QUEEN Victoria's Jubilee, films
of (xiv)
RAILWAYS and carriage of
films, 82
Raw material of film industry,
2
Release dates, 80
Renters, the middle-men of
film industry, 79
Retakes, 64
Reversing lens, use of, 43
Revolving heads, 20
Rewinding of films in cinemas,
98
Ross Xpress lenses, 13
Rotary shutters, 88
SALARIES in film industry, 58
Scenario, a, 60-62
- Editor, 54, 62-69
Scene plots, 63
Scenery for motion picture
work, 45
Scientific films, 50, 77
Screen magazines, 77
Screens for cinemas, 95
Seating capacity of cinemas,
103
Shutter dissolving, 15
" Silent Empire " projector,
93-94
Silver-bromide emulsion, 2
Simplex American projector,
94
Speed indicator for cameras,
13, 15
Spot dissolving, 17
110
INDEX
Static markings on films, 4
Statistics of film industry, 105
Step-by-step printing, 34
Storms, tinting to produce
effect of, 41
Studio, a motion-picture, 42-48
manager, duties of, 56
Submarine films, 72-73
Sunlight, tinting to produce
effect of, 42
TALKING motion-pictures, 77
Taxes, entertainment (xvi)
Telephoto lenses, 19
Theatrograph, Paul's (xiv)
Tilting tables, 21
Tinting films, 33-43
Tinting trays, 30
Titling films, 43
Toning films, 33-43
Topical films, 74-78
camera, a, 9-10
Trade shows, 79
Travel films, 50, 70, 78
Tripods, 19
Two-speed cameras, 12
ULTRA- RAPID cine-camera, 19
VALUE, commercial, of films,
81
Vesuvius, filming the crater of,
73
View finders, 17
Vignetting device in cameras,
15
Violet arc-lights, 44
WASHING tanks, 30
Watkins kinematograph ex-
posure meter, 74
Weird effects on screen, 42
Wild animals, filming of, 73
Williamson cameras, charac-
teristics of, 17
- printing machines, 35
World's film requirements, 95
Writing a photo-play, 60-62
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