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FIRST BOOK

INDIAN BOTANY.

FIRST, BOOK

BPN DIAN BOTANY

PAE OLIVER LED:

EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON, AND
LATE KEEPER OF THE HERBARIUM AND LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL GARDENS, KEW

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS

Hondon
MACMILLAN AND CO.,, LimITED
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1907

RicHARD CLay AND Sons, LIMITED,
BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND
BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.

First Edition, 1869. Reprinted (with corrections) 1881, 1885. Wzth
alterations 1889, 1892, 1897, 1901, 1997

PREFACE

Tuis little book is, in substance, my “Lessons in
Elementary Botany” adapted for use in India.

But in preparing it, I have had in view the want, often
felt, of some handy vésumé of Indian Botany, which might
be serviceable not only to residents in India, but also to
any one about to proceed thither, desirous of getting some
preliminary idea of the Botany of that country.

I might have entitled the book “ Illustrations of Indian
Natural Orders of Plants;” but as the same chapters,
with necessary alterations, on the Elements of Structural
and Physiological Botany are prefixed to the systematic
part which I originaliy drew up for my previous work,
the whole thing seems to me tolerably suited to serve
as a “First Book of Indian Botany.”

My chief difficulty has been in the selection of suitable
Types to illustrate the Natural Orders on the plan of the

late Professor Henslow. In a book for use in Britain

vi PREFACE.

there is no difficulty on this head, for so many plants
are pretty uniformly dispersed over our limited area, that
nearly every Type-species is within reach throughout our
islands. But in India the case is very different. Few
easily recognisable species have a sufficiently general
distribution, or, if they have. it often happens that some
exceptional peculiarity of structure unfits them for service
as typical examples of any group. One consequence of
this difficulty is, that I have been obliged to use, in some
cases, garden plants which are widely cultivated in India,
although not actually indigenous there, in preference to
native species. For example, in the large Order Com-
posite I have preferred the Mexican Zizuia, so generally
grown in Indian gardens, to any native species; and
the Chinese Dendrobium nobile to any Indian species of
the great Orchid Family. This latter is perhaps un-
fortunate. There are a few wild Indian Orchids with a
wide distribution, but they are either difficult of recognition
by those not accustomed to botanical pursuits, or unfitted
in some other way to serve my purpose. However, in
such cases as these I have nearly always introduced cuts,
drawn by Mr. Fitch, which I trust may partially substitute
the actual specimens, if these be not obtainable.

In writing out this little work, I have been greatly

indebted to Dr. Hooker, and to the late Dr. T. Thomson,

PREFACE. vii
of Kew, for many useful hints, especially concerning the
selection of illustrative Type-species. Dr. Thomson and

‘Mr. Edgeworth have also very kindly given me much help

‘in introducing some local or native names of commoner
“species; a matter upon which I have no _ personal

knowledge.

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CONTENTS.

Pete LT;

THE ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

CHAPTER I.

§ PAGE
RETIRE ROOT, STEM, AND LEAVES (). 660 206 8 ob eat te k
CHAPTER IT.

WHAT ‘tHE ROOT, STEM, AND LEAVES HAVE TO DO... . . [7

CHAPTER III.

FURTHER DETAIL AS TO THE LEAVES OF THE FLOWER . . . 23
CHAPTER IV.
COMMON FLOWERS TO COMPARE WITH THE FLOWER OF THE
SMUT Rene (aie ewe Ps A lke a dy eae
CHAPTER V.
; EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS CONTINUED AS BEFORE . 47

)

x CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VI.

PAGE
HOW TO FILL UP THE SCHEDULES ee ee ee 62

CHAPTER VII.

THE VARIOUS ORGANS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS mitted 66

CHAPTER VIITL

rTHE MINUTE STRUCTURE AND VITAL PROCESSES OF PLANTS . 106

PART If

FIRST BOOK OF INDIAN BOTANY.

CHAPTER I.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS». « « “« (3) sae) ie eee aes

CHAPTER IL.

SYNOPSIS OF THE MORE IMPORTANT NATURAL ORDERS OF
INDIAN FLOWERING PLANTS” 9s 55

CHAPTER Ii.

EXAMINATION OF TYPICAL SPECIES OF THE PRINCIPAL NATURAL
ORDERS OF INDIAN FLOWERING PLANTS . . . +. « e« 146

CONTENTS. ; y)

CHAPTER IV.

a PAGE
FLOWERLESS OR CRYPTOGAMIC PLANTS . . . . «. « + + 342
CHAPTER V.

Meee DEY PLANTS . 2 5 6 et 4 6 tee = ay 908
APPENDIX,

I.—HOW TO DESCRIBE PLANTS, WITH EXAMPLES . . . . 369

I.—LIST OF SOME WORKS ON INDIAN BOTANY, TO WHICH
REFERENCE MAY BE MADE FOR DETAILED INFORMATION 377

A ee een wl) 3° a ee

oS On nM

Piel.

THE ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

CHAPTER _1.

OF THE ROOT, STEM, AND LEAVES.

. The Root.—lIts form and general structure : it penetrates the soil;
is colourless ; irregularly branched ; destitute of leaves; and its
extremities are sheathed.

. The Stem.—It ascends ; is coloured ; bears leaves and branches at
definite points; the extremities are not sheathed, but give off,
successively, rudiments of leaves.

. Foliage-leaves—They are borne by the stem only. ‘‘ Radical”
and ‘‘cauline” leaves: thin, coloured green, consisting of a
horizontally expanded blade with, or without, a petiole.

. Flowers consist of leaves. The peduncle. Suppression of inter-
nodes in flowers. The receptacle of the flower.

. The Sepals ; forming the calyx.

. The Petals ; forming the corolla.

. The Stamens ; bearing anthers which contain pollen-grains.

. The Carpels. Ovary and ovules ; style ; stigma.

. The ovary persists after the other parts of the flower fall away.
The Fruit ; seed ; embryo and its parts.

. A summary of the parts examined.

GATHER, first of all, a specimen of any common annual

weed. It does not signify for our present purpose which
you gather, provided it have a branching root, a distinct
stem, and stalked leaves. Never mind the flower just at

2 THE ROOT. [CHAP.

present. In gathering the specimen take it up carefully, so
that the root may be uninjured.
Proceed to examine your plant.

. Observe the Root, noting in what respects it differs
fae the parts which grow above ground. It consists of
numerous fibres, or of a principal central root tapering
downwards and giving off irregularly many thread-like fibrils.
It is destitute of the green colouring of the stem and foliage,
being pale, or nearly white: it bears neither buds nor leaves,
and from its direction it appears to have avoided the light.

If you can find the tip of one of the root-fibres uninjured,
cut it off and examine it minutely with
your magnifying glass. In case you
have not the means of examining it with
a high magnifier, you will find Fig. 1 a

Be\\\\) sufficiently correct representation of it,
t : divided through the middle and magni-
AN fi : fied many times.
| The point which I want you particu-
larly to note is this:—The extremity of
the fibre is covered by a closely-fitting
sheath, protecting the actual growing
Pic. t, Longitudinalsec- Hoint, which is hidden immediately with-

tion through the ex
tremity of a Root-fibre, in the end of the sheath, to which it is

magnified. —2Z, grow-
gh aie sheath; directly joined. This protecting sheath
is being constantly renewed at its inner
side by the ‘“‘ growing point ;” so that as the outer layers
become worn or withered by forcing a way through the
soil and pebbles, they are constantly replaced by inner
layers which take their turn, replace them, and then die, to
be in like manner replaced by fresh inner layers derived
from the “ growing point” so long as the root continues to

live and to lengthen.

tJ THE STEM. 3

You will find then that the root avoids the light ; that it
is pale or nearly white ; that its fibres give off irregularly
numerous delicate thread-like branches (fibrils) ; that it is
destitute of buds and leaves, and that the tips of the root
are protected by cellular sheaths.

2. Now examine the STEM.

You observe, at once, that the stem rises above the
ground, seeking rather than avoiding the light. It may
either be firm and erect, or weak and trailing. Unlike the
root, it is coloured more or less green, and not being
usually woody, we may speak of it as herbaceous. It bears
several foliage-leaves arranged on different sides of the
stem, the lower ones usually springing in a tuft from its
base—at least while the plant is young. The upper foliage-
leaves are nearly always arranged singly or in pairs on the
stem, although sometimes the only foliage-leaves of annual
plants spring in a tuft apparently from the root.

If we examine the growing point of a young stem under a
magnifying glass, carefuily dissecting away the leaves which
surround it, we shall find that to the very apex it continues
to give off successively minute lateral prominences, which
are the rudiments of leaves, either of foliage-leaves or of
flower-leaves, for they both originate upon the stem in the
same way, though they soon become different, both in their
arrangement, form, texture, and colour. In no case does
the stem terminate in a cellular sheath like that which
protects the tips of the root.

At the extremity of the principal stem of your plant,
if fully grown, or upon certain of its branches, you find a
tuft of coloured leaves forming a flower.

The branches spring from points where foliage-leaves are
given off from the stem ; each branch occupying the angle
(called the axz/ of the leaf) which the leaf makes with the

B 2

A FOLIAGE-LEAVES. (CHAP.

stem. ‘The branches may either resemble the primary stem
from which they are given off, or they may differ in the
kind of leaves which they bear, in the length of the intervals
between their leaves, or otherwise. .

he stem, we find, rises above ground; it is usually
coloured green, and is herbaceous in texture; it bears
foliage-leaves and flowers.

3. FOLIAGE-LEAVES.—I use the term foliage-leaves at
present simply in order to avoid confusion with the leaves
of which flowers are composed. It is not necessary you
should always call them so, but it zs necessary that you
thoroughly understand that, speaking generally, whatever is
borne by the stem and its branches is a leaf of some kind,
whether it be green, as are foliage-leaves, or coloured, as
are flower-leaves.

We have already remarked that the lowest leaves often
seem to spring from the root. When this is the case these
leaves may be called radical leaves. ‘They really spring
from a portion of the stem, which is more or less buried
underground, giving off root-fibres below and radical-leaves
from above. ‘This portion of the stem in herbaceous plants
which last more than a season or two is called the stock.
The upper leaves, obviously springing from the stem, may
be described as caudine.

The point on the stem from which any leaf is given off is
called a zode; the space between two nodes is called an
internode. It is owing to the non-development of the inter-
nodes of the lower part of the stem or of the stock that the
leaves which it bears appear to be given off in a tuft.

Each leaf consists of stalk and blade, or of blade only ;
the stalk supporting the blade is called a fetiole. Leaves
which consist of blade without any stalk are termed sessile
The same word is used of any part of a plant to denote the

1.] LOWER-LEAVES. 5

absence of a stalk, whether that stalk be a petiole (which
is the stalk of a foliage-leaf only) or not.

The blade may be entire, or more or less divided into
segments, or into separate pieces called /eaflets. All the
foliage-leaves have the blade spread out more or less hori-
zontally, and they are all coloured green. They may be
hairy, or glabrous, that is, destitute of hairs.

We find, then, the foliage-leaves to be borne by, and around,
the stem ; they are thin, coloured green, and consist of petiole
and blade, or of blade only: the blade being spread out
horizontally. We now come to the examination of the—

Fic. 2. Orange (Cztrus Aurantiunt).

4. FLOWER ; and as the structure of the flower varies very
much in different kinds of Indian annua! weeds, it will be

6 FLOWER-LEAVES. [CHAP.

needful for us to select some well-known plant which we
can speak of by name, se that we may avoid misunder-
standing.

Perhaps we cannot do better than take, first, the ORANGE-
FLOWER, or the flower of one of its near allies, the Citron,
Shaddock, or Lemon. ‘The structure of the flowers of the
latter 1s so similar to that of the flowers of the Orange, that
any of them will do. As the leaves of which the flower
consists are smaller than foliage-leaves, and very different
from them in form, colour, and arrangement, it will be
necessary that you be very careful in your observations,
making sure that you thoroughly understand every stage of
your progress.

The flower, observe, is borne upon a very short branch,
which serves as a flower-stalk, and which is distinguished as
the peduncle of the flower. Before proceeding to dissect (to
separate carefully into its pieces) a flower, select one that
has just opened, and which has lost none of the parts which
it possessed while still a dud, that is, before it expanded.

Observe, first, that all the coloured leaves which form the
flower are apparently arranged upon the very extremity of
the little branch which serves as
a flower-stalk. The internodes
which separate the upper foliage-
leaves of the stem cease, or are
suppressed, in the flower, so that
\ all the parts are in close juxta-
\, \ position. This is characteristic
NA A of flowers. The top of the
flower-bearing branch, from
which the flower-leaves collec-
tively spring, is called the rece/-
tacle. or Hloval reccbtacle.

Fic. 3. Vertical section of the
Fiower of the Orange.

1.] FLOWER-LEAVES. 7

5. Proceed next to note that the lowest and outermost
part of the flower consists of a little cup with about five
minute teeth upon its margin. These minute teeth indicate
—as we shall become well assured as our experience widens
—the number of leaves which are united to form the cup,
each tooth answering to the tip of one of the little cohering
leaves. ‘These leaves are singly termed the Calyx-leaves,
or Sepals, and together they form the Ca/yx of the flower,
whether united, as in the Orange, or wholly separate, as in
many common plants at hand in every garden. In the
Orange the calyx remains after flowering, and may still be
found even when the fruit is ripe. Such a calyx is said to
be persistent.

We shall find it convenient to distinguish between a
calyx which consists of separate calyx-leaves or sepals, and
a calyx in which they are united more or less, terming the
former Zolysepalous,: the latter gamosepalous. ‘The calyx of
the Orange is gamosepalous.

6. Immediately inside the calyx are normally five erect
or slightly curved-back, separate, white, and wax-like leaves.
These also are arranged in a whorl, and they are singly
placed opposite to the intervals between the teeth of the
calyx, not opposite to the teeth (sepals) themselves. Singly,
they are the Corolla-leaves or Peta?s; together they form
the Corolla of the flower. The petals being free, the corollv
is polypetalous ; being equal in size and form, it is alse
regular.

Unlike the calyx, the corolla falls away early, and hence
may be described as deciduous.

1 This. prefix (7oAds, many) is used when applied to sefals and fetals,
to denote that the sepals or petals are free rather than that they are
actually wzazy in number. Usually there are not more than three, four,
or five sepals or petals in a flower.

8 FLOWER-LEAVES. [CHAP.

7. In the examination of the rest of the flower much
nicety is required. Having stripped off the calyx and
petals singly, and laid them aside, proceed to the third
series of flower-leaves. These are very different in form and
structure from both sepals and petals. They consist each
of a lower stalk-like portion, bearing an upper, somewhat
thickened, oblong, and grooved head. This stalk is termed

Fic. 4. Four Stamens of the Orange, three Fic. 5. Three Pollen-grains of the
of which are united by their filaments. same.

the lament, the oblong head which it supports, the anther;
and the filament and anther together constitute a Staminal
leaf or Stamen. The stamens of the Orange are a little
shorter than the petals. As they are united to each other
by their filaments into sets of variable numbers, they are
said to be folyadelphous.

The anther we must examine more closely. We have
already observed that there is a groove up the dack (outer
side), and another, less distinct, along the face (inner side).
These grooves divide the anther into two J/odes, right and
left. If the anther be ripe, each of these lobes will split
open near the edge, allowing certain fine powdery granules
which it contains to be easily removed by insects or other-
wise. ‘These granules are essential to the flower as well as

1] FLOWER-LEAVES. 9

to the stamen, so we must carefully examine them under a
microscope. Fig. 5 shows them highly magnified. We find
that they are distinct globular cells, with minutely granular
contents. The fine powder is the fod/en, and each of its
globular cells is a pollen-grain.

Remove all the stamens, noting that they are, like the
leaves of the corolla and calyx, inserted directly upon the
floral receptacle, and immediately underneath the central
organ of the flower. Such being the case, they are techni-
cally described as hyfagynous.

8. You have now left in the centre of the flower, slightly
raised upon a thickened cushion or ring, called the disk,
the germ of the future fruit. If the lower part be cut across,
you find it to be divided into a number of small cavities,
radiating from the centre, each cavity containing the minute
rudiments of future seeds. If you take the pains to count
the number of cavities (you will probably
find them about ten; they vary from seven ‘
to fifteen), you will ascertain the number of
leaves which are united to form this central
organ of the flower, which we shall speak of
as the pzsz7/Z. But how am I to convince you
that the pistil is really composed of united
leaves? It would not be easy to make this
clear without reference to some other flower
in which the pistil is of much simpler struc- WZ
ture than in the orange-flower, so that I must Fic. 6. A tongi-
ask you to lay it aside for a short interval of the Pistil of
while we examine the pistil of some pea- 278° show:

ing the interior

flower. Take the flower of the common Field °%,,the ovary,

with ovules,

or Garden-pea itself, or of a Scarlet-runner 2nd style thick-

ened upwards

or Haricot, of Lablab, Chick-pea, Sunn-hemp, __ inte thestigma.
or Indigo. Any of them will serve, and one or another

10 FLOWER-LEAVES. (CHAP.

cannot fail to be at hand. Let us suppose that you have
gathered a flower of the Common Pea. ‘The other plants
with pea-flowers differ from it but slightly so far as the
pistil is concerned.

The calyx, you observe, is deeply five-toothed, indicating
that it is composed of five sepals, as in the orange. As the
sepals are united below, the calyx is gamosepalous. ‘The
corolla consists of five petals, the uppermost of which is
much larger than the rest ; so that the corolla is said to be
irregular. The same term is applied to any corolla or calyx
the parts of which are unequal in size or form.

Fic. 7. Section of Flower of Fic. 8. Diadelphous
Garden Pea. Stamens of same.

Remove the petals carefully, especially the two lower
ones, which are united below by their edges into a boat-
shaped sheath called the 4ee. The keel encloses the sta-
mens, which in the Pea are, excepting one, united by their
filaments into a sheath, which is split open along the upper
side. The singie separate stamen is on the upper side of

LJ FLOWER-LEAVES. I}

the sheath next to the large petal. Stamens united thus by
their filaments into two sets are said to be diadelphous.

Carefully cut away the stamens, and the central organ of
the flower, the pistil, remains, corresponding to the pistil of
the Orange. Cut across with a sharp knife in its thickest
part, you find that it contains but a single cavity, and that
the minute rudiments of the future seeds are arranged ina
line upon the inner angle of the cavity. These minute rudi-
ments of the seeds are called, in their present stage, the
ovules, and the hollow leaf which contains and _ protects
them is called a carpellary leaf, or carpe, the lower,
hollow part, containing the ovules, being distinguished as
the ovary.

Fic. 9. Pistil of Common Pea, enlarged. The minute stigma occupies the
outer notch immediately within the apex of the bearded style.

The carpel is prolonged-beyond the ovary into a long,
slightly flattened, up-curved tip, bearded with a row of short
hairs along its inner face. At the oblique apex immediately
beyond the hairs is a minute naked projection, not discer-
nible without care, with a soft and cellular surface upon
one side.

This cellular surface is termed the stigma. It is in-
variably present, and usually much more conspicuous than
it is in the Pea. The stigma does not rest immediately

12 FLOWER-LEAVES. [CHAP.

upon the top of the ovary in the pistil of the Pea, but it is
separated from it by a distinct stalk, abruptly narrowed
where it joins the ovary. This stalk supporting the stigma
is called the s¢y/e. In many plants the stigma is without
a stalk, and rests upon the top of the ovary. When this
is the case, it is described as being sessz/e. In the Pea,
then, we have a pistil consisting of a single carpellary-leaf
answering to a foliage-leaf, a calyx-leaf, a corolla-leaf or
a staminal-leaf, but differing from each of these in having
the margins curled in and united about half of its length,
so that it becomes hollow, and suited to protect the delicate
seed-buds (ovules) which are borne inside upon its united
margins.

Suppose, now, that instead of a single carpellary-leaf in
the flower, there were ten or fifteen of them arranged in a
close ring around the centre. ‘The inner angle (that is, the
angle turned towards the centre of the flower) of each carpel
would correspond to the line of union of the edges of the
same carpel, and upon this inner angle the ovules would be
attached. If we suppose, further, all of these carpels to
cohere together into a single organ, we should have a pistil
similar to that of the orange-flower. The main difference
between the pistil of the Pea and that of the Orange is
simply this: that in the former the pistil consists of a single
carpel, in the latter of a number of cohering carpels. <A
pistil consisting of a single carpel, or of two or more carpels
which do not cohere, is said to be apocarpous. A pistil con-
sisting of two or more carpels cohering, though the extent
of their union be ever so slight, is said to be svacarpous.
The pistil of the Pea is apocarpous; that of the Orange
is syncarpous. In each of them we have an ovary—in
the former one-celled, in the latter many-celled—style, and
stigma.

1.J FRUIT, 13

As the pistil in the Orange is wholly free from the calyx,
it (or rather the ovary) is said to be superior.

g. Gather now another orange-flower; one in a more
advanced state, with the petals and stamens all fallen away,
and only the pistil remaining. The pistil here is passing
into Fruir. The style and stigma have withered up more or
less, and probably fallen away altogether, leaving a scar on
the top of the enlarged ovary, which has now become an
“orange.” In the ripe orange, as in the pistil at the time of
flowering, the carpels continue to cohere, and their thin
membranous sides divide the fruit into many ce//s. The
principal change is due to the great increase in size of the
ovary, to the formation of a quantity of juicy acid pulp in.
its cells, and to the development of the ovules into perfect
seeds, one or more of which vou may usually find in each
cell of the fruit.

If we cut a ripe, plump seed night through lengthwise, we
shall find that it consists of a tough, horny coat, the /es/a,
enclosing one, or often two or more crumpled eméryos, the
germ of future orange-trees. It is so difficult to understand
the structure of the embryo in the seed of the Orange,
owing to the exceptional circumstance (which, however, is
the rule in the Orange) of its containing more than one
embryo, that we shall be obliged to go back to the Pea, or
some other pea-flower, the seeds of which contain but a
single embryo. ‘Take a Pea, and, if hard, soften it by
soaking it overnight, or by boiling it for a few seconds, so
that you may strip off the testa enclosing the embryo. But
before doing so, observe, first, the black spot on the side of
the seed. ‘This indicates the part by which the seed was
attached to the fruit-carpel (Zericarf) in which it was
enclosed ; it is the scar left on its separation from it. It
is called the Aum. On careful examination you may

14 SEED. [CHAP.

observe at one end of the hilum a very minute aperture
through the skin of the seed. You may find it by squeezing
the soaked seed, when moisture issues from it. ‘This is the
micropyle; it answers to the micropyle of the ovule (see
page 26). Generally, in npe seeds, it is obliterated, or too
minute to be observed.

As soon as the testa is removed, you find that its entire
contents easily separate into halves, each half being plane
on the inner face, and rounded on the outer. Observe,
also, that these halves or lobes are hinged together at one
side. Separate the lobes carefully, and you may observe
upon the margin of the inner face of one of the lobes, close
by the hinge, a rudimentary bud and root. You find, then,
enclosed by the testa, (1) one pair of large seed-leaves ;

Fic. 10. Embryo of Pea with the Fic. 11. Seed of same before removal of
cotyledons laid open, showing the testa, showing the hilum and riage
the curved plumule and radicle. above indicating the position of the

radicle inside.

(2) a bud with minute, rudimentary foliage-leaves; and
(3) the rudiment of a root. Nothing more. These parts
are indicated in the cut, which shows the seed-leaves with
their inner faces exposed. The seed-leaves are called coty-
ledons. To the right is the bud of the stem, slightly curved
inwards, called the Adwmule; and, pointing downwards, the
rudiment of the root, called the vadic/e: the extremity of the

Fe ee ae Sl ee

——_—

ee ee, se ll

—————

1.] SUMMARY. 15

- radicle invariably nestles immediately within the micropyle.

The seed leaves, or cotyledons, of the Pea are opposite ; so

_we have an embryo with a fair of cotyledons, or a Dicoty-
| ledonous embryo.

Sow, if you please, a few peas, or a few orange-pips.
Under favourable circumstances they will germinate, and
grow up into plants similar to their parents.

10. Before we proceed to future chapters, in which we
shall inquire into the relation of the various parts of the
plant to each other, into the office or function which each
is intended to perform, and the relation which the organs
of other plants bear to the organs of the common species
just examined, let us recapitulate the different parts which
we have observed thus far. If there be any part which has
not been clearly made out, make a point of understanding
it before proceeding further.

We have, first, a Root, which descends into the soil,
gives off fibrils irregularly, and is pale-coloured ; the fibres
have their extremities sheathed, and, as they do not give
off the rudiments of leaves, the root is leafless. It is at
first directly continuous with, and appears to pass into, the
stem ; but in plants which are fully grown, the original root
is Goually supplemented by other root-fibres which are given
off from the bottom of the stem.

The STEM ascends, bears foliage-leaves, from the axils of
some of which branches usually spring ; it is coloured green
more or less, and either itself terminates, or certain of its
branches, in a tuft of coloured leaves forming the flower.

Root and stem, therefore, we find opposed to each other
in the directions which they respectively take, as well as in
several important points of structure. Together they may
be regarded as constituting the axzs of the plant; the root
being the descending, the stem the ascending portion of the

16 SUMMARY. [CHAP. I

axis. Upon the ascending axis all the leaves, both foliage
and flcower-leaves, are arranged. ‘The plant thus consists of
axis and appendages.

LEAVEs.—These, we have found, are of five different
kinds. First are the radical and cauline

(1) Foliage-leaves, called simply LEAVES."

Then come the FLowers, terminating the stem or its
branches, consisting of—

(2) Calyx-leaves, called SEPALS.

(3) Corolla-leaves, called PETALS.

(4) Staminal leaves, called STAMENS.

(5) Carpellary leaves, called CARPELS.

1 In many plants we may distinguish two modifications of the leaf
below the flower-leaves, besides the green foliage-leaves, but it is not
important to distinguish these at present.

CHAPTER Il.

WHAT THE ROOT, STEM, AND LEAVES HAVE TO DO.

. The plant fades. Why? Experiment shows that it is because
water is withheld.
. The root an absorbing organ.
. Water is exhaled from the leaves. Transpiration. Absorption.
Other substances, besides water, are absorbed. The ash, and inor-
ganic constituents of plants.
5. The organic compounds of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
6. Ternary and quaternary compounds of these elements are in
contrast.
7. Source of carbon in carbonic acid.
8. Liberation of oxygen by plants under the influence of sunlight.
Assimilation.
9. Source of nitrogen.
10. Processes of absorption, transpiration, assimilation, and respiration,
performed by “ organs of nutrition,” viz. the root, stem, and
leaves.

fp wh

_t. By this time the weed which you gathered has pro-
bably faded; the leaves, now become soft and flaccid,
are drooping, and the stem has iost much of its stiffness.
How is this? ;

If the specimen be not quite withered, plant it again in
the soil, and cover it with a flower-pot ; or better and more
easily done, put the root in water, and place the whole in a
cool, shaded place for a few hours. We shall anticipate

18 FUNCTION OF LEAVES [CHAP

matters and suppose that this has been already done, and
that you tried the experiment in this way upon three
distinct specimens. No. 1 you left lying upon the table.
No. 2 was placed with its root in water. No. 3 was hung
upside down, with a flower or leaf in water, the roots in
the air

The general result of your experiment will be as follows :
—After the lapse of a few hours, No. 1 will be, as we have
already found, faded ; No. 2 will be nearly unaltered ; No. 3
will be partially faded, the parts out of water especially.
Hence we may gather that water supplied to the specimens
prevents them from fading, especially if it be supplied to
the root. On the other hand, if water be withheld, they
fade.

2. If we take now the faded specimen first described and
put its root in water, and leave it for a few hours in a cool,
shaded room, we shall probably find, unless it be irre-
trievably withered, that it freshens more or less; the leaves
and stem become firmer and more nearly like their
original state.

This experiment shows us, further, that water supplied to
a fading plant enables it to recover.

Reflecting upon these experiments, we shall be led to
the following conclusions :—

i. That water evaporates from the exposed surface of
plants.

ii. That fresh supplies are taken into the plant by the

root.

iii. That the stem serves to convey this water-supply from

the root to the leaves.

3. We may now try another simple experiment, devised
by Professor Henslow, which shows that exposure to direct
sunlight, as well as dryness of the air, has to do with this

1. | TRANSPIRATION. ABSORPTION. 19

evaporation of water from the leaves. ‘Take six or eight
tolerably large, healthy leaves with petioles an inch or two
in length ; two tumblers filled to within an inch of the top
with water, two empty dry tumblers, and two pieces of
card, each large enough to cover the mouth of a tumbler.
In the middle of each card bore three or four small holes
just wide enough to allow the petiole of a leaf to pass
through. Let the petioles hang sufficiently deep to dip into
the water when the cards are put upon the tumblers con-
taining it. Having arranged matters thus, turn the empty
tumblers upside down, over each card, so as to cover the
blades of the leaves. Place one pair of tumblers in the
_ sunshine, the other in a shady place. In five or ten minutes
examine the inverted tumblers. That exposed to the sun
you will find already lined with dew on its cool side, while
that kept out of the sun is still nearly or quite clear. It is
manifest, therefore, that evaporation from the leaves must
be not only rapid, but considerable in amount when plants
are exposed to the sun or a dry atmosphere.

This exhalatior. of vapour from the surface of plants is
termed ¢ranspiration. A correct understanding of the pro-
cess explains how it is that plants growing in parlours are
apt to become faded even when watered, because the taking
up of water (termed absorption) by the roots cannot keep
pace with the transpiration from the leaves, owing to the
_ rapid evaporation excited by the dryness of the air. Since
the specimen No. 3, experimented upon at the beginning of
the present lesson, faded, notwithstanding the immersion of
some of its leaves, it is clear that the root is the part which
performs the office of absorption principally.

Every part of a plant or animal appropriated to a distinct
purpose or function is termed an ozgam. Hence the root
may be called the organ of absorption of the plant.

zo ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION. [CHAP.

4. Now, not only is water absorbed by the root, but also
various substances which are dissolved in the water. Hence
we find, if we burn a plant carefully, that an ash remains,
consisting of such of these substances as are not dissipated
by heat, which were absorbed in this way, and which had
been made use of by the plant, or stored away in its tissues.
Of the simple elements known to.chemists, about twenty
occur in the ash of the plants ; many of these, however, in
very minute quantities, and never all in the same plant.
Sulphur, phosphorus, potash or soda, lime and silex, are
those most generally found.

s. But if we analyse an entire plant, and not the ash
only, we shall find constantly present, besides the above,
the elements carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. And
these elements are present, there is reason to believe, in
every organized being, whether plant or animal, in combi-
nations peculiar to organized beings. Hence they may
be called the organic elements, in contradistinction to the
(mineral) elements found in combinations which are not
peculiar to organized beings, and several of which remain
in the ash of plants when burnt. ‘The latter may be called
the zzorganic elements. |

6. These four organic elements do not exist separately in
the plant, but, as we have said, in combination. Thus the
carbon is united with oxygen and hydrogen (the two last
the elements of water), forming the basis of a series of com-
pounds, called zernary compounds because they are com-
posed of three elements. ‘The nitrogen occurs combined
with the same three elements, with the addition of sulphur,
forming a more complex substance, called protoplasm, the
medium through which all phenomena of vitality are
manifested. And these two series of organic compounds
stand in remarkable contrast to each other in the plant,

11.] ASSIMILATION. 21

both in respect of the structures in which they respectively
take part, and of function, as we shall point out when we
come to speak of the minute structure of plants.

7. We have already explained how water (oxygen and
hydrogen) finds access to the plant, as well as the mineral
substances which may be held in solution by the water.
With regard to the important element carbon, experiments
clearly show that it is absorbed in combination with oxygen,
as carbonic acid gas, which is soluble in water, and may
thus be taken up by the root. Carbonic acid gas also
occurs in the atmosphere, and green leaves, under the influ-
ence of direct sunlight, possess the power of absorbing it
directly from the air.

8. But the most remarkable circumstance attending this
absorption of carbonic acid is the liberation of oxygen gas
by the leaves, very nearly to the amount absorbed in com-
bination with the carbon of the carbonic acid gas. This
liberation of oxygen is most easily shown by taking a few
leaves which have been first soaked a day or two in water
so as to become saturated, and exposing them, plunged in
water containing carbonic acid (as ordinary spring or pump
water, in which it is always present), to direct sunlight.
Minute bubbtes will be given off, under favourable circum-
stances, in a rapid and continuous stream. ‘These bubbles
consist of almost pure oxygen.

This fixation of the carbon and liberation of the oxygen
of carbonic acid has been termed vegetable vespiration, but
as the conditions which obtain are the reverse of those
characteristic of animal respiration, it may be more correctly
spoken of as a part of the process of vegetable asszmtlation.

Repeated experiments have shown that some of the parts
of the flower, seeds when germinating, and also plants
which are not coloured green, absorb oxygen from the arr,

22 SUMMARY. [CHAP. li.

and give off carbonic acid gas. This may be regarded as a
tespiratory process. It is not improbable that the green
parts of plants also may at all times, but especially in the
dark, absorb oxygen and give off carbonic acid in the same
way, but in these parts the amount of carbon fixed greatly
predominates over that which is liberated. The mutual
relations, however, of these processes are as yet very
imperfectly understood.

g. It is not yet perfectly clear from what immediate
source the plant obtains its nitrogen; not that the element
is scarce, since it forms four-fifths of the atmosphere, but,
the precise state in which it enters the plant, whether
uncombined (which is not probable) or in combination, as
in ammonia and nitrates, is still a matter of inquiry and
discussion among scientific men.

to. The processes which we have briefly described of
absorption, transpiration, assimilation, and respiration, we
find mainly concern the root, the stem, and the leaves.
These are the food-providers and preparers of the plant.
Hence we call them collectively the xutritive organs ; the
root being, as we have shown, the organ of absorption, the
foliage-leaves specially of transpiration, assimilation, and.
respiration. The stem, when green, assists the leaves in
their work ;but, speaking generally, it may be regarded
merely as the support of the leaves, maintaining their con-
nection with the root.

In our next chapter we shall inquire into the mutual
relations and functions of the leaves which compose the
flower, deferring further reference to the chemistry of the
organs until we speak of their minute structure.

CHAPTER III.

FURTHER DETAIL AS TO THE LEAVES OF THE FLOWER

1. Function of the flower-leaves. Organs of reproduction,

2. Sepals and petals do not take part, directly, in the process of
reproduction.

3. The function of the stamens. The pollen-grains are transferred to
the stigma, and develope pollen-tubes.

4. The ovary of each carpel contains one or more ovules. The structure
of the ovule. It contains a large cell which a pollen-tube reaches.
An embryo developes in this cell.

5. Deciduous and persistent organs of the flower.

6. Characters are derived from the reproductive organs which form the
principal practical basis of classification.

1. WE have already seen in the case of our Orange, that
the flower results in a fruit, each division of which, answer-
ing to a carpel, usually contains one or more seeds. The
seed we found to contain the minute germ of a future Orange
plant, which we called the embryo. As it is the special
function of all the leaves which compose the flower to con-
tribute to this formation of embryo-containing seeds, by
means of which the Orange is enabled to reproduce and
multiply its kind, we may term all the parts of the flower
Organs of Reproduction, in contradistinction to the organs

considered in our last chapter, which contribute primarily to

the conservation of the individual Orange-tree, and which,

24 FLOWER-LEAVES. [CHAP.

from their functions, are styled, collectively, Organs of
Nutrition.

2. The four series of leaves of which the flower is com-
posed do not each fulfil the same part in the production of
the seed. The corolla and the stamens are deciduous.
They fall away, leaving the pistil to mature into fruit. But
they do not generally fall until after an important function
has been accomplished by the stamens, either of the same
flower, or of another Orange-flower.

The two outer series of flower-leaves, the sepals and
petals, may be regarded simply as organs designed to protect
the smaller and delicate parts which they enclose during
their early development ; and perhaps, also, the colour and
greater size of the petals may serve to attract insects which,
we shall find, have an important work to perform, as aids in
securing the formation of good seed. Hence the calyx and
corolla are termed the envelopes of the flower. As both
calyx and corolla are present in the Orange-flower, the
envelope of the flower is doub/e, or in two series. Hence
the flower is termed dichlamydeous.

3. The anthers we have observed are divided lengthwise
into two lobes, which lobes, after the expansion of the
flower, become fissured near their margins, so as to liberate
the grains of pollen which they contain. About the time
that the anthers open to discharge their pollen, we may
observe that the stigma is rough, with microscopic projecting
cells which, upon minute examination, we shall find to be
slightly moistened. Upon the stigma, after the flower has
been open for a few hours in fine weather, there may usually
be found a few grains of pollen, which have either reached
the stigma by direct contact of the anthers, or by means of
some insect visiting the flower in search of honey, and
which, unwittingly, conveyed some of the pollen, acciden-

rit.) FOLLEN. OVULES. SE

tally adhering to its hairy limbs and body, to the stigma.
This transfer of the pollen from the anther to the stigma is
highly important. If we separate a few stamens, with their
anthers and pollen, and keep them apart from the rest of
the flower, or if we remove the pistil in the bud so that
‘stamens only remain within the envelopes, we shall find
that they ultimately shrivel and wither up, pollen-grains and
all, without undergoing further change. But the case is
different with the grains of pollen which reach the stigma.
After an interval, varying in different plants from a few
hours to several months, we find the pollen-grains begin to
grow, and their growth takes place in this way :—

_ Each grain of pollen, as we have already learnt, is a single
cell. These cells almost invariably have a double coat, an
outer and an inner; and in the outer coat there are fre-
quently thin places, or actual openings here and there,

Fic. 12 a. peeram Ng wpa et pe! Fic. 12 The Stigma magnified, with
_ grains upon the stigma of a carpel of rains of pollen upon it.
Ranunculus, which have developed their . :

tubes, reaching to the micropyle of the

_ Ovary. The tubes are so delicate that

it is impossible to trace them the whole

way.

which permit the inner coat to grow through them at one or
More points. This growth of the inner coat of the pollen-
rain is encouraged by the moisture which bathes the stigma,

26 FERTILIZATION. [CHAP.

so that at length it protrudes, and, like an excessively minute
root-fibre, penetrates the substance of the stigma, and passes
down through the short style until it reaches the cavity
of the ovary. As the changes of which we speak can only
be observed under a considerable magnifying power, we
shall explain them more clearly by reference to the cut, Fig.
12a, which represents some grains of pollen which have
developed tubes reaching into the ovary.

4. The ovary contains several minute seed-buds, the
ovules; which ovules in the Orange are inverted (ana-
tropous). Each ovule consists of a central cone, called
the nucleus of the ovule, around which central cone is a
layer of cells forming the coat of the ovule. This cellular
coat grows up around the nucleus, and closes over it
excepting at the top, where a very minute aperture through
the coat is always left. This aperture is called the mzcro-
pyle. Owing to the ovules of the Orange being anatropous,
the micropyle is brought close to their point of attachment
(hilum); and as they are pendulous more or less, it is
directed upwards.

By the time that the pollen-tube has reached the cavity
of the ovary, certain important changes have taken place
in the cells which form the nucleus of each ovule. One
cell has enlarged greatly at the expense of its neighbours, so
as to occupy a considerable part of the nucleus. This
enlarged cell is called the ebryo-sac, because within it we
find the embryo to originate. But this is not until after
the pollen-tube has reached the micropyle of the ovule and
actually penetrated to the upper end of the embryo-sac,
against which it becomes closely applied. Presently, after
this contact of pollen-tube ana embryo-sac, a membranous
cell-wall forms around a condensed segregated portion of
the upper part of the embryo-sac, independently of the

111.] CHARACTERS. 27

membrane of the embryo-sac itself. This new cell by
repeated division ultimately develops into the embryo. At
the same time, in the lower portion of the embryo-sac, an
indefinite number of minute cells, originating usually in
the same manner, lay the foundation of the a/bumen, which
in the buttercup acquires, and permanently maintains, a
relatively large bulk as compared with the embryo, and the
ovule then becomes the young seed.

5. We can now understand why the petals and stamens are
deciduous. Their function is soon accomplished, and their
texture is too delicate to allow them to persist, although the
calyx of the Orange, from its firmer texture, remains until
the fruit becomes ripe. A calyx or corolla remaining thus
attached after the time of flowering is said to be erszstent.

6. From what we have here described of the functions of
the different organs of the flower, the high importance to
the plant of their proper performance must be plain. And
from the general constancy which the parts of flowers
present in their principal features, both in the structure of
the several parts and in their relations to each other, in
groups of plants which from numerous general resemblances
we may reasonably imagine to be related by descent (that is,
related to cach other in the same way that Europeans are
more nearly related to each other than they are to the Negro
or Indian races, or as fish are more nearly related to each
other than they are to birds or reptiles), botanists make use
of characters afforded by the organs of the flower and fruit
to mark, in words, the principal divisions of the vegetable
kingdom. Hence it is desirable, before we proceed to
consider the organs which are more subject to variation,
that we should acquire a correct notion of the nature of
the principal modifications to which the parts of the flower
are liable in different plants.

CHAPTER 17.

COMMON FLOWERS TO COMPARE WITH THE FLOWER OF

THE ORANGE.

. Common plants are examined, in order to illustrate the more im-

portant modifications which they severally present, due, chiefly, to
varying conditions of cohesion, adhesion, and suppression of parts.

Opium Poppy.

Indian Mustard.

Rose.

Melastoma.

Garden Zinnia.

Rose Periwinkle.

Basil.

Grass-cloth Nettle.

Willow.

. Points of agreement in the structure of the plants just examined.
. These characters are strengthened by other characters derived from

the seeds and wood.

. Germination, and the way in which it takes place in the Pea.

Comparison of the seeds of Pea and Castor-oil Plant. Albuminous
and exalbuminous seeds.

. They are both dicotyledonous.
. No characters are absolute.

1. GATHER flowers of as many of the following common

plants as you are able. The accompanying woodcuts must
do duty for those which are not in flower, or which happen

be out of reach :—

iy
ig

"cHap. Iv.] MODIFYING CONDITIONS. 29

Opium Poppy ; Indian Mustard or Rape ; any Rose with
"single flowers ; Melastoma Malabathricum ; Garden Zinnia ;
‘Rose Periwinkle (Vinca rosea); Basil (Ocymum Basilicum
" or O. Sanctum, known as Tulsee); Grass-cloth Nettle
: (Behmeria nivea); Willow ; Colocasia Antiquorum, known
_as Kuchoo, Kachalu, Ghwian, or Kandalla; Garden Den-
drobe (Dendrobium nobile); any Draceena; Crinum asiaticum,
known as Buro-kanoor, Sukh-dursan, or Tolabo ; Wheat.
_ There are three conditions which play a most important
part in modifying the structure of flowers, to which we must
direct attention before proceeding. These are cohesion, ad-
_ hesion, and suppression. ‘The first two terms are used by
_ botanists to denote the union of like (cohesion) or of unlike
_ (adhesion) parts of the flower. Thus union of sepals with
sepals, of petals with petals, of stamen with stamen, of carpel
with carpel, is said to be due to cohesion, parts of the same
whorl or series being concerned. Union of corolla to
stamens, or of ovary to calyx, or of stamens to calyx or
corolla or to the pistil, is due to adhesion, parts of different
whorls or series being concerned.

The term szppression is used to denote the absence of
parts in a flower which, from analogy, we might expect to
find. Extended observation shows that the number of
sepals, of petals, and of stamens, is, in a large proportion of
flowers, the same; or the stamens may be a multiple—
twice or three times as numerous, for example, as the petals
or sepals. Thus, when we find that in some flowers the

corolla is absent, in others the corolla and stamens, or the
corolla and pistil, we speak of such parts of the flower as
being suppressed. ‘That this is generally a correct view to
take with respect to the absence of organs we find con-
firmatory evidence in the frequent imperfect or partial
development of such organs in plants allied in other points

POPPY: (CILAP.

of structure to those in which they are wholly absent.
Sometimes but a single series of organs, either stamens or
pistil, constitutes the flower, the three other series being
suppressed. Single parts, also, of a series, as a sepal, a
petal, &c., when absent, are said to be suppressed.

In the Orange-flower we have neither adhesion nor suppres-
sion of paits, but we have cohesion of sepals, of stamens,
and of carpels. So that it may be described as with—

Calyx wferior, gamosepalous (persistent).
Corolla hypogynous, polypetalous.
Stamens hypogynous, polyadephous.
Pistil syzcarpous, ovary superior.

Fic. 13. Opium Poppy (Papgaver
somniferunt).

the examination of the flowers just enumerated we

shall find manifold variety in
respect to these conditions of
cohesion, adhesion, and sup-
pression.

2. Poppy (Papaver).—Either
the white-flowered Opium
Poppy, or any single scarlet
Poppy, or the common in-
troduced weed, the yellow-
flowered Mexican Horned-
poppy, will serve. It will be
needful to gather a bud as
well as an expanded flower,
whichever may be chosen,.
because the calyx is thrown
off very early by the expan-
sion of the large crumpled
petals. Organs thrown off

thus at or before the time of expansion of the flower are

v.] MUSTARD. ROSE 31

said to be caducous. You find the calyx consists of two,
r sometimes of three, distinct sepals, inserted outside of
nd below the other organs of the flower. The corolla
consists of four or six free petals. The stamens are very
umerous and free. The pistil, like that of the Orange,
consists of numerous cohering carpels, as indicated by the
lobes or rays of the stigma. In the Horned-poppy the
coherent carpels are four to six in number, while in the
true Poppies they are indefinite. If the ovary be cut across,
there will be found as many projecting plates or lines bear-
ing ovules as there are stigmas, so that the syncarpous
character of the pistil cannot be doubted. The Poppy may
be described as with—-.

Calyx znferior, and polysepalous (caducous).
Corolla hypogynous and polypetalous.
Stamens hyfogynous and polyandrous.
Pistil syzcarpous, ovary superior.

3. InDIAN MustTarD, or RAPE (Srassica).—Either will
do. ‘There are four free sepals, four free equal petals and
‘six free stamens, of which four are long and two short
(hence called ¢etradynamous). The slightly two-lobed stigma
indicates the syncarpous condition of the pistil, which is
regarded as consisting of, at least, two coherent carpels.
The flower of Mustard or Rape may be described—

Calyx znferior, polysepalous.

Corolla hypogynous, polypetalous, regular.
Stamens hypogynous, tetradynamous.
Pistil syzcarpous, ovary superior.

4. Rose (osa).—Any single-flowered rose will serve.
The calyx at first sight appears to consist of five distinct

MUSTARD. ROSE. [CHAP,

Hl /
aly

a ed X

) WY My ‘

Wig. 15. Tetradynamous Stamens of Fic. 16. Rose (Rasa). Vertical
cruciferous flower. section of a flower.

vj MELASTOMA. 33

sepals, but if the flower be cut vertically from below upwards
through the middle, you will observe that the five apparent
sepals are inserted upon the margin of a flask-shaped cavity,
upon the inner surface of which several carpels are borne.
This cavity is usually regarded as the ¢ude of the calyx, of
which the five lobes surrounding it constitute the Zmé, and
indicate, at the same time, the number of sepals composing
the calyx. Five equal petals and numerous stamens are in
serted in the mouth of the tube, and lower down in the tube
are the numerous distinct carpels composing the pistil of
the flower, with their styles closely crowded together in the
narrow throat of the calyx-tube. The corolla and stamens
being inserted upon the calyx and not upon the floral
receptacle immediately below the pistil, as in the flowers
just examined, they are said to be perigynous. Carefully
note that the carpels are wholly free from the tube of the
calyx, although the latter rises nearly, or quite, to the level
of the stigmas. Describe the Rose as with—

Calyx inferior, gamosepalous.

Corolla perigynous, polypetalous, and regular.
Stamens Zerigynous, indefinite.

Pistil apocarpous, ovaries superior.

5. MeLastomMA MALABATHRICUM.—The calyx is com-
posed of five cohering sepals, as indicated by the five lobes
of its limb. Five equal and distinct petals and ten curious
stamens are inserted upon the calyx. Five of the stamens
are alternate with the petals, and five are opposite to them.
A transverse section of an ovary will show that the pistil is
syncarpous, consisting of five carpels, as indicated by the
five cells of the ovary. The style is undivided. Ifa flower ©
be cut through vertically, you will observe that the ovary
adheres at intervals to the calyx-tube, leaving pocket-like

34 MELASTOMA. ZINNIA. [CHAP.

interstices into which the anthers are packed before the
flower expands. As this adhesion to the calyx does not

See ee \\\
— ==\\\\\

=a
WN gt

‘Mh,
v
H
E 1/1]
iy
uN’
ff
V/A
§
/N
Mt Y)
VEN
uf Y
1
\

WY, Zo a ie \y
\ YY wi”

°e We
wi i) )

Fic. 17. Melastoma Malabathricum. Fic. 18. Flower of Melastoma.

extend to the top of the ovary, the latter may be described
as half-superior.

Calyx halfinferior, gamosepalous.
Corolla perigynous, polypetalous.
Stamens perigynous, decandrous.
Pistil syxcarbous, ovary half-superior.

6. GARDEN ZINNIA (Zinnia elegans).—The structure of
its flower-heads is very puzzling to beginners. The best
way to understand it is to make a vertical section right
through the middle of one of the heads with a sharp knife,
cutting from below upwards. You will then find that what
appeared at first to be a single flower with spreading richly-

Iv. ] ZINNIA. 35

coloured petals, is in reality a head of numerous flowers
(flower-head). ‘The flower-head is surrounded by a number
of scaly leaves, forming an zzvolucre, called by the older
botanists a “common calyx.” Within the involucre the
summit of the stem rises in a conical form, bearing, closely
packed upon its surface, the little flowers, called florets, of

Fic. 19. Garden Zinnia (Ziznza elegans).

the flower-head. There is a marked difference in form
between the outer and inner florets of the flower-head, due
to the one-sided enlargement of the corolla in the former.'
The outer florets with one-sided corollas, taken together,
form the ray of the flower-head ; the smaller florets, with

1 In a recent variety of the Zzzza the flower-heads show a tendency
to become ‘‘ double,” by all the florets acquiring the form of corolla,
which in the wild state and common varieties is characteristic of the
ray-florets only. :

36 ZINNIA. (CHAP.

regular corollas, occupying the centre of the head, form
the disk.

In describing the structure of flower-heads (capztua), it is
well to examine the ray and disk florets separately. Neither
of these appear, at first sight, to have a calyx. Analogy,

Fic. 20. Vertical section of a capitulum of Garden Zinnia, showing
two ray-florets and one disk-floret.

however, affords sufficient reason to conclude that each
floret has its own calyx, but it is wholly adherent to the
ovary. It is superior and gamosepalous. In many plants
related to the Zinnia—the Thistle, for example
—the upper free portion (4mbd) of the calyx
exists as a crown of fine bristles surrounding
the top of the ovary. The corolla of the ray-
florets is gamopetalous and irregular; of the
disk-florets, gamopetalous and regular. In
both it is inserted apparently upon the top
Ghatie “wih Of the ovary, and is consequently termed
cenit ana epigynous. The stamens in the ray-florets are

absent or imperfect ; in the disk-florets they

are five in number (pentandrous), and inserted upon the
corolla. In consequence of this adhesion to the corolla

they are termed epipetalous.

Pihe
ffl
oe Za

Ning

5 ~
Eo Dia}
fia Fn

Iv.] ZINNIA—PERIWINKLE 37

An important character which the stamens present is yet
to be noted. Ifthe tube of the corolla of one of the disk-
florets be very carefully laid open with the point of a pen-
knife, it will be found that the five stamens cohere by their
anthers. On this account they are termed symgenestous.

LD.
wy
———— <3 =

a
= RIPON DOT

\ Ms

Fic. 22. Tubular floret of Composite laid open, showing the
syngenesious anthers.
The coherent anthers form a tubular sheath closely sur-
rounding the style. The pistil we may infer to be syn-
carpous, from its two-lobed stigma, notwithstanding that the
inferior ovary is one-celled.
In Zinnia you find the—

Calyx superior, gamosepalous.

Corolla epigynous, gamopetalous.

Stamens epipetalous, pentandrous, syngenesious.
Pistil syzcarpous, ovary inferior.

7- RosE PERIWINKLE (Vinca rosea).—The calyx is free,
but the five sepals are coherent below. The corolla is

38 PERIWINKLE. BASIL. [CHAP,

hypogynous and regular, consisting of five cohering petals, as
indicated by the five spreading divisions of the limb. . The
five stamens are inserted upon the tube of the corolla, and

Fic. 23. Rose Periwinkie Fic. 24. Flower of Rose Periwinkle
(Vinca rosea). laid open. To the left the stigma
and portion of style.
are consequently epipetalous. Stripping away the calyx and
corolla, the pistil will be found consisting of two carpels,
which are separate below, but coherent above, so that there
ure two ovaries and but a single style and stigma. Rose
Periwinkle may be described—

Calyx inferior, gamosepalous.
Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous.
Stamens cpipetalous, pentandrous.
Pistil syzcarpous, ovary superior.

8. Bast (Ocymum Basilicum or O. Sanctum, known as
Tulsee).—Five coherent sepals form a gamosepalous calvx

Iv.] BASIL, 39

which is free and inferior ; five coherent petals form a gamo-
petalous corolla, which is irregular and two-lipped (dz/a-
biate). The number of stamens falls short of the petals, there
being but four ; so that we may conclude one stamen is sup-
pressed, since in Rose Periwinkle, and in most plants with
regular gamopetalous corollas, the number of stamens equals
the number of petals cohering to form the corolla. It is
worth noting that a tendency to irregularity in gamopetalous
corollas is often accompanied by a tendency to suppression
of one or more stamens. In some species we find the

t'iq 25. Vertical section of Flower of Basil.

missing stamen imperfectly developed, confirming the cor-
rectness of this view. ‘The four stamens are not equal in
length, one pair being rather longer than the other. On
this account they are said to be ddynamous. Observe,

40 NETTLE. LcHar.

also, that the stamens are adherent to the lower part of the
corolla. They are consequently eszpetalous. ‘The pistil is
syncarpous, consisting of two carpels, as indicated by the
bifid stigma, and the ovary is superior and deeply four-
lobed, so that the style springs from the centre and base of
the lobes of the ovary. Basil has—

Calyx inferior, gamosepalous.

Corolla hypogynous, gamopetalous, irregular.
Stamens epipetalous, didynamous.

Pistil syucarpous, ovary superior.

9. GRAss-CLOTH NETTLE (Behmeria nivea).—It will be
needful to gather two specimens, carefully examining the
minute flowers, in order to ascertain that in one specimen
they enclose stamens, in the other a pistil, because these
organs occur not only in separate flowers, but, in this plant,
often upon distinct individuals. Flowers such as these, con-

Fic. 26. Staminate Flower of Grass- Fic, 27. Pistillate Flower
cloth Nettle (Bekmeria nivea). of same.
taining stamens only, or pistil only, are said to be zmperfect,
unisexual, or diclinous. When both staminate and pistillate
(unisexual) flowers occur upon one and the same plant, they
are said to be monacious ; when, as in Grass-cloth Nettle,
upon distinct individuals, they are said to be diwcious.

e iv.) WILLOW. 41

Examine the staminate and pistillate flowers separately.
In the staminate flower you observe the calyx to consist
of four sepals, which are slightly coherent at the base. As
the corolla is suppressed, the envelope of the flower is
single (monochlamydeous), not double (dichlamydeous), as in
the species previously examined. Opposite to the sepals
are the four stamens inserted upon the receptacle. The
pistil is represented by a minute central rudiment.

In the pistillate flower the calyx consists, also, of four
leaves; but here they are coherent nearly to their tips,
forming a flask-like calyx-tube, which closely invests the
ovary, without, however, adhering to it. Four minute, un-
equal teeth, indicate the number of sepals cohering to form
the calyx. There are no stamens, and the pistil consists of
a single carpel, with a superior ovary.

In Grass-cloth Nettle we have the flowers :—

Calyx gamosepalous, inferior.
Corolla o. }
In the male flower (¢), Stamens hypogynous, tetrandrous.
Pistil o.
In the female flower (¢), Stamens o.
Pistil superior, apocarpous.

Io. WILLOw (Sa/zx).—It does not matter as to the species,
_ but, as in the case of the Grass-cloth Nettle, two speci-
_ mens, from different trees, will be required, as the flowers
are diclinous and dicecious. You find the flowers arranged
in spikes, which, being deciduous and bearing imperfect
flowers, are specially distinguished as caékins. Both the
staminate and pistillate flowers are destitute of calyx and
corolla. Having therefore no envelope to the essential
_ organs, they are called achlamydeous. ‘The stamens, two,
three, five, or rarely more, spring from the axil of a minute

42 WILLOW. [CHAP.

scale-like leaf (bract), and constitute the male flower, of |
which a number are crowded together upon the same catkin.
The pistil of the female flowers also springs from the axil of
a similar bract ; it is syncarpous, consisting of two carpels,

Fic. 28. Staminate Flower of Willow. Fic. 29. Pistillate Flower of same.

as indicated by the bifid stigma and two short lines of
ovules in the single cavity of the ovary. The flowers of the
Willow figured above may be described thus :—

Calyx o.
Corolla o.
Male flower—Stamens 2 (dtandrous).
Pistil o.
Female flower—Stamens o.
Pistil syzcarpous.

In the Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica), much planted
in India, the staminate flowers are usually diandrous; in the
common indigenous Willow (S. ¢etrasperma) they vary six
to eight.

11. As the plants which we have hitherto examined differ
in many important particulars from those which yet remain
of the fourteen enumerated at the beginning of the chapter, it

“iv.J SUMMARY. 43

_ may be well to review here some general characters afforded
both by the reproductive and nutritive organs, which are
common to all those we have already done, and which are
more or less markedly in contrast with the characters pre-
sented by the corresponding organs of the plants yet to
be examined.

In nearly all the plants examined you find the leaves with
a distinct blade and petiole; and, if you hold the blade of
any of them up to the light, you may notice that the small
veins which ramify through it are netted zvregularly. In the
flowers, you have observed that the parts of the calyx (sepals)
_ and ofthe corolla (petals), whether free, coherent, or adherent,
are either in fours or fives ; that is, four or five to a whorl.
12. Now the characters of (1) leaves more or less dis-
_ tinctly narrowed at the base into a petiole ; of (2) irregularly
net-veined leaves ; and (3) the arrangement of the parts of
the flower in fours or fives (which three characters we have
found to apply more or less to all the specimens which we
_ have examined hitherto), are supported by other characters
afforded by the seeds and mode of growth of the wood,
which it is important you should correctly understand.
13. If we put a few peas upon moist earth in a flower-pot
-and cover them with a bell-glass, the first stage of growth,
termed germination, of the young pea-plant may be con-
_yveniently observed. The essentials to germination are found
by experience to be a certain amount of moisture, warmth,
and air. If sufficiently warm (and the amount of warmth
required to commence with varies in the seeds of different
plants), moisture is absorbed by the seed, which causes it
to swell up so as to burst the seed-skin. Oxygen also is
absorbed from the air, and certain chemical changes, accom-
panied with the liberation of some carbonic acid, take
place in the cells of the embryo, resulting in the solid

44 SEED. [CHAP.

substances which they contain being made available for the
use of the growing plant. ‘The radicle is always the first to
break out, curving down towards the earth, whatever may
be its position. ‘The radicle, by its direct prolongation,
forms the primary root of the plant. ‘The plumule shortly
after disengages itself, ascends and developes into the stem
of the Pea, bearing foliage and flower-leaves.

14. We have already briefly described the structure of
the seed of the Pea, which we found to consist of an embryo
enclosed by the testa, or seed-coat. Take now, for com-
parison with the seeds of the Pea, a few fresh seeds of the
Castor-oil plant. The hilum or scar indicating the part at

Fic. 30. Seed of Pea ; to the left the embryo, with the cotyledons laid open.

which the seed was attached in the cavity of the fruit is at
the top of the seed, and the micropyle, which it is difficult
to discover in the ripe seed, is close to it. Remove the
thin shell-like and prettily mottled testa, and also the thin
membranous inner covering of the seed, and at the top,
immediately under the micropyle, you may find the point of
the radicle of the embryo directed upwards. Cut the seed
through lengthwise and at right angles to its greatest breadth,
beginning at the radicle, and you will find its parts as repre-
sented in the accompanying cut (Fig. 31). An embryo, con-

“v.] DICOTYLEDONS. 45

“sisting of two large thin cotyledons, and a radicle, enclosed in
: quantity of a uniform, white, firm substance, resembling the
i cotyledons of the Pea in texture. This substance, in which
_ the embryo is embedded, is called the a/bumen of the seed.
pit is at the expense of this albumen that the embryo is
enabled, during its germination, to develope a root and stem.
The albumen in the seed of Castor-oil substitutes the store
of nutrient matter contained in the thick cotyledons of Pea;
the embryo alone of which, with the testa, constitutes the
entire seed. Seeds containing, besides an embryo, a deposit
of albumen, whether large or small, are said to be alu-
minous. Seeds like those of the Pea and Orange, which
contain an embryo only, are exa/buminous. Between the

Fic. 31. Vertical sections ot seed of Castor-oil plant (Ricinus commtunts) ; to the
left cut in the plane of the cotyledons, to the right at right angles to the
cotyledons, showing the copious albumen in which the embryo is embedded.
two extremes of abundant albumen (Castor-oil plant) and no
albumen at all (Pea, Orange) we have every degree.

1s, Like the Pea, therefore, the Castor-oil plant is dicoty-
ledonous ; and as the character expressed by this term (the
possession of a pair of cotyledons) is common to plants with
irregularly net-veined leaves, and with the parts of their
flowers in fours or fives (with but a comparatively small
number of exceptions), botanists employ the term DICOTY-
LEDONS as the name of a great Class of flowering plants,
including all those which present the above characters.

46 DICOTYLEDONS. [CHAP. IV.

16. It must always be borne in mind, however, that none
of these characters are absolute. They are always subject
to exception. So that plants which exhibit a departure from
the prevalent type of Dicotyledons in any single character
only are still referred to the same Class. Thus we have a
few Dicotyledons which are actually destitute of cotyledons,
or which have but one, or more than two ; we have some
with parallel-veined leaves, and others with the parts of the
flower in threes. But in all these cases the question as to
which Class the plant shall be referred, is decided, not by
any solitary character, but by the sum or preponderance
of characters which it presents.

The structure of the stem and mode of growth of the
wood we shall speak of in a later chapter.

CHAPTER V.

EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS, CONTINUED AS BEFORE,

DAP YY ms

. Colocasia.
. Dendrobe.

Crinum.
Draczena.
Wheat.

. Points of agreement in the four plants just examined. The

structure and venation of their leaves, and the number of parts
in the flowers.

. A grain of Wheat is examined. Parts of the seed.
. Structure of the embryo of Wheat. There is but one cotyledon.

It is therefore monocotyledonous. Its mode of germination.

. General characters of Monocotyledons.

. Tabular review of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.

. These great Classes are divided into subordinate groups.

. The principal divisions of Dicotyledons, and the characters upon

which they depend.

. And of Monocotyledons.
. The Classes, Sub-classes, and Divisions are tabulated.

_ 1. COLOCASIA ANTIQUORUM (known as Kuchoo, Kachaiu,
Ghwian, or Kandalla).—Without much care you will be
liable to misunderstand the structure of this plant, as did
Linnzus himself that of a near European ally. The flowers
are closely packed in rings upon the lower part of the
fleshy spike, which you find enclosed in a large sheathing

48 COLOCASTIA. [cHar.

bract-leaf, called a spathe. A flower-spike of this kind,
enclosed in a spathe, is distinguished as a sfadix. Witha
magnifying-glass compare the structure of the minute flowers

Fic. 32. Colocasia antiquorum.

occupying the lower part of the spike, which are similar to
the single detached flower to the left in the cut (Fig. 34),
with those a little higher up, which are similar to the de-
tached flower to the right in the cut. Be careful to note,
however, that between the two belts of different flowers
there occurs a short, often slightly narrower, intermediate
portion of the spadix occupied by a number of rudimentary
organs which must not be mistaken for efficient flowers.

ve] COLOCASIA. 49

The flowers of the lower belt consist each of a pistil only,
each pistil composed of two or three united carpels, as
indicated by the slight lobing of the cellular surface of the

: \ \ wih AU
Y WM (uh? iH

Fic. 34. Spadix of Colocasia. To the right

asingle subsessile anther, opening by ter-

Fic. 33. Spathe with enclosed Spadix minal pores ; to the left a pistil cut through
of Colocasia, vertically, with surrounding scales.

stigma and the arrangement of the ovules upon the sides of
the one-celled ovary in two or three series.
E

50 DENDROBE. [cHar.

The upper belt consists of a number of stamens very
densely packed, the sessile anthers cohering in sets of two,
three, or more. Each stamen may be regarded as repre-
senting a single flower. Thus the structure of the flowers
of Colocasia is of the very simplest kind :—

Calyx o; Corolla 0 ;
é, Stamen 1; Pistiee
¢, Stamen o; Pistil sywcarpous.

2. DENDROBE (Dendrobium nobile, or any allied species).
—At first sight neither stamen nor pistil is visible. The
flower apparently consists of six delicately coloured leaves,
of which five are nearly similar and broadly spreading,

Fic. 35. Flower of Dendrobe (Dendrobium nobile}.

and the sixth, dissimilar, projects forward from the centre
of the flower, with its sides curved in around the deep
crimson blotch of its centre. Observe that, of these six
flower-leaves, three are distinctly outside the rest, as you
cannot fail to note if the flower be viewed from behind.

v.] DENDROBE. 51

These are the three sepals. They are free very nearly
to the base; the two lateral ones, however, are there
united into a short, obtuse, spur-like projection at the
back of the flower. The three inner leaves of the flower
are the petals; the dissimilar concave petal with the dark
blotch being specially distinguished in this flower as the
ip. Jt is usual in flowers like this, in which the parts
of the calyx and corolla resemble each other in colour
and texture (as well as when a calyx only or a corolla
only is present), to speak of the envelopes of the flower
collectively as Zerianth, calling the parts of which it is
made up the /eaves of the perianth. Before you can
ascertain the relation*of the perianth to the ovary, and
whether to describe it as superior or inferior, it will be
needful to make a very careful examination of the flower.
First press down the extremity of the lip, say an inch below
its usual position. This will expose a minute conical body
coloured green, with a crimson apex projecting from the
centre of the flower, which had been previously concealed
by the incurved sides of the lip. This projecting cone it is
convenient to speak of as the column in flowers of this kind.
The crimson tip is the anther-cell of the solitary stamen.!
Remove it with the point of a penknife, and you may
observe the two waxy longitudinally grooved microscopic
pelien-masses side by side between the minute horns of the
top of the column. Observe next the wnder face of the
column—the face turned towards the lip. It is slightly
concave, especially immediately under the anther, where
there occurs a minute glistening depression. This de-
pression is occupied by the stigma. The lower part of the
column is produced downwards a short way into the spur-

1 Be careful to secure a recently expanded flower unvisited by insects,
or the anther-case and pollen may be already removed.

52 CRINUM. [CHAR,

like projection of the lateral sepals, to which it is adnate.
From this consolidation of the stamen with the pistil the
: former is said to be gynandrous.
Lastly, make a clean vertical
section through the centre of
a flower, cutting as nearly as
may be through the median
line of the column and upper
part of the flower-stalk ( pedice?).
No trace of the ovary will be
found in the substance of the
column, but underneath the
attachmént of the perianth,
apparently in the substance of
the upper curved extremity of
PS: Domirolc: showing the pallea ae the pedicel, indications are dis-
situ. ‘To the left the pollen-masses ¢ernible of numerous rudimen-
(godlinza) separated. The upper
part of the ovary is also shown. tary ovules, in three series, in
the obscure cavity of the ovary. The observation is diffi-
cult in this case, because in Dendrobes the ovules are usually
not perfectly developed until a considerable period after the
time of flowering. We find, therefore, an ovary sheathed
by the adherent bases of the perianth-leaves to where they
become confluent with the pedicel.
The flower of Dendrobe may be thus described :—

Perianth superior, gamophylious, irregular.
Stamen 1 (onandrous), gynandrous.
Pistil syzcarpous, ovary inferior.

3. CRINUM asIaTICcUM (known as Sukh-dursan, Buro-
kanoor, or Tolabo).—Separate a single flower from one of
the many-flowered clusters in which they grow. The
perianth consists of a long, nearly cylindrical, or obtusely

v.] CRINUM. 53

angular tube, and a spreading limb of a Be linear
spreading or recurved segments equalling or rather shorter
than the tube. The six segments of the limb are in two
series—an inner and an outer—of three each. Lay open
the side of the perianth-tube, from top to bottom, with a

Fic. 37. Crinum asiaticum

penknife, continuing the section to the base of the shori
stalk of the flower. The section will exhibit the inferior
three-celled ovary adherent throughout to the base of the
perianth-tube. From the top of the ovary the long style
is continued upward through the perianth-tube. The
stamens are six in number, inserted upon the perianth

54 m DRACENA. [cHAP.
(cpiphyllous) at the base of the limb, as in Dracena.

Crinum has therefore—

Perianth superior, gamophyllous.
Stamens epiphyllous, hexandrous.
Pistil syncarpous, ovary inferior.

Fic. 38. Flower of Crinum.

4. DRAC#NA (any cultivated species).—The leaves of
the perianth, six in number, resemble each other in size
and form. The perianth is therefore regular. As the
leaves of the perianth cohere by their margins to about
half their length, forming a short tube, the perianth is
gamophyllous. As it is wholly free from the ovary, it

v.J WHEAT. 55

may be described as inferior. There are “six stamens
inserted upon the perianth and opposite to its six seg-
ments, there being two whorls of three each: the three
outer stamens alternating with the three inner segments

Fic. 39. Flower of Draczna ; a vertical section.

of the perianth; the three inner stamens alternating with
the three outer stamens, consequently opposed to the
three inner perianth-segments, as in like manner are the
three outer stamens opposed to the three outer perianth-
segments. The pistil has a three-lobed stigma and a three-
celled ovary. Draczena may be described thus :—

Perianth inferior, gamophyllous.
Stamens perigynous, hexandrous.
Pistil syncarpous, ovary superior.

5: WHeEAT.—We have here an arrangement of parts widely
different from that obtaining in any of the plants hitherto
examined. The flowers are arranged in short, broad,
sessile spikelets, which spikelets are disposed alternately
in two rows along the top of the stem, forming a dense
obtusely four-cornered spzze. Break the entire spike in two

56 . WHEAT. [CHAP.

about the middle, and take one of the lowest spikelets from
the upper half. Observe that it is attached to the stem
(axis of the spike, called the rachis) by its stde. In some
grasses, as Rye-grass, the spikelets are attached by their
edge to the rachis. Each spikelet consists of a pair of
nearly opposite, hard, dry, scaly leaves, called the outer
glumes, which enclose three to
five closely imbricated flowers,
arranged alternately on opposite
sides of the axis of the spikelet.
Each flower is enclosed between
a flowering-glume and a pale. The
flowering-glumeand pale are oppo-
site to each other, and inserted
very nearly at the same point : the
flowering-glume, however, is the
lower, and usually embraces the
pale with its incurved edges. It
is similar in form and texture to
the outer glumes, and often ter-
minates in a bristle (awz). The
pale is generally easily distin-
Fig. 40. The two outer glumes oyished by its having two lateral

of a spikelet and the parts of

a single floret of Wheat. The nerves and no midrib, indicating
two lowest scales, right and ?

left, are the outer glumes; of apparently, that it may be com-
the next pair, the scale to the PP Ys y

right is the flowering-glume, posed of two organs cohering
that to the left the pale. Then

come the two minute lodicules, together. Between the flowering
the three stamens, and the

vistil. glume and the pale are the three

free stamens and the superior

ovary crowned with two plume-like stigmas. Note also two

very minute scales, called /odicules, representing a perianth,

inserted under the ovary. Between the outer glumes and

the lawest flowering-glume of the spikelet in some grasses,

v.) SEED. $7

and, in others, above the uppermost perfect flower of the
spikelet, there are one or more empty g/umes, which are called,
by some botanists, steri/e flowers. Occasionally a staminate
flower is borne in the axil of the glume next below or above
the perfect flower. Wheat may be thus described :—

Spikelets sessze, with two outer glumes.

Flowers with one flowering glume, one pale, two lodicules.
Stamens ¢viandrous, hypogynous.

Pistil sywcarpous, Ovary superior.

_ 6. Let us now proceed to review, as_ before, the five
plants last examined, viz., Colocasia, Dendrobe, Crinum,
_Draceena, and Wheat.

They all happen to be herbaceous plants. The leaves
_ excepting in Colocasia, although narrowed below more or less,
_do not present an abrupt distinction of petiole and blade,
and, with the same exception, the veins of the leaves are
parallel and not irregularly netted. Those which have the
essential organs of the flower enclosed in a perianth have
the leaves which compose it arranged in two whorls (corre-
sponding to calyx and corolla respectively) of three each.
We find our plants generally marked by (1) the absence of
any abrupt distinction between blade and
petiole ; (2) parallel-veined leaves ; and (3)
the parts of the flowers in threes.

7. We must now soak a few grains of
Wheat for comparison with the seeds of
- Dicotyledons. We must, however, be care-
ful not to regard the grain of Wheat as 5, 4, Longitudi-
_a seed corresponding to that of the Pea wa, seaon Cae

Grain of Wheat.

: it i i isti The embryo is re-
_ or Orange, for it is a fruit consisting of reed aah oe

pericarp (ovary) and seed; the pericarp _base of the Seed.
being closely adherent to the true seed. In the Crinum,

58 EMBRYO. [CHAP.

Draczena, and other plants just examined, the seeds are free
from the pericarp, as they are also in Dicotyledons generally ;
the adhesion, in this case, may be regarded as accidental,
though it is very characteristic of the fruit of grasses.
Cutting the grain open, we find the embryo near the base
Occupying about one-fourth or one-fifth of its contents, the
rest of the seed being filled with a starchy albumen.

8. The structure of this embryo we must endeavour to
understand, though in order to make it clearly out very
careful sections must be made
through it lengthwise. The accom-
panying cut will supply a good idea
of the arrangement of its parts. We
do not find the first leaves of the
embryo opposite to each other,

1 forming a fair of cotyledons, as in
Fic. 42. Longitudinal sections, :
cut at right angles, of the the Bean and other Dicotyledons,
Embryo of Wheat, showing
the cotyledon c, the plumule but they are alternate; the outer-
i, and the root-buds, ~ 2
most only being regarded as a seed-
leaf or cotyledon. Those which it sheaths belong to the
plumule. The cotyledon being single, the embryo of Wheat
is called monocotyledonous. The lower part of the embryo is
the radicle. This never directly elongates in germination,
but the internal, rudimentary root-buds, 7, burst through it
and develope into the root-fibres of the plant. The pro-
cess of germination is similar to that of Dicotyledons,
with this difference in regard to the origin of the root: the
sheathing portion of the cotyledon is protruded from the
seed, and embraces the base of the plumule, which
ultimately developes into a stem.

Now a Structure similar to that of Wheat we find in the
seeds of other corn-plants. In Rice the grain (fruit) presents
a different appearance, owing to the circumstance that in

‘A

Vv. MONOCOTYLEDONS. 59

“this plant the fruit is closely invested by the pales, which
form a sort of spurious pericarp, as in Barley and Oats of
temperate countries, in which species the fruit becomes
actually adherent to the investing pales, which can only be

removed by grinding. The seeds of all of these, however,

are albuminous, corresponding, in this respect, to the seed
_ of the Castor-oil plant.

g. There are plants presenting so many characters in
common with the five last examined as to be universally
classed with them, although they may differ from them in

the absence of albumen in the seed, and in other points,
"just as the Pea differs from the Castor-oil amongst Dicotyle-
dons. But whether albuminous or exalbuminous they are
all MonocotyLepons, with rare exceptions, so that this
_ term comes to be applied to a second great Class, just as
-Dicotyledons is applied to the members of the class of
which we previously examined representative types. ‘The
_ five plants which we have just examined all have monocoty-
_ ledonous embryos, excepting Dendrobe, which is exceptional,
_ in having an embryo destitute of a cotyledon ; they all have

_ parallel-veined leaves, excepting Colocasia ; and those with

Se ee ee ee ee ee ee

a perianth have its parts in threes. Now these characters,

supported by others derived from the internal structure of

the stem, are, as a rule, common to all Monocotyledons,

and in contrast to those characters which we have shown to
prevail amongst and to mark Dicotyledons.
All flowering plants are either

ANGIOSPERMS—With their ovules enclosed in the ovary of a pistil, and fertilised by
pollen-tubes through the medium of a stigma:

DICOTYLEDONS, or MOoNOCOTYLEDONS,
Emb: With 2 cotyledons, the radicle ; With 1 cotyledon, the radicle
eee =! itself usually sloveane : usually remaining undeveluped.
Leaves . .| Net-veined. . . - + | Straight- veined,
Perianth. .| Parts in 4’s or 5’s. ieee fen EARLS In a.5)
WwW Inacontinuous ring . . | In isolated bundles.

Or GyMNOSPERMS—With their ovules open, and fertilised by direct contact of the
nallen.

60 SUMMARY. [CHAP.

11. Upon characters afforded by the flower, of subor-
dinate importance (because less constant) to tiiose which
distinguish Dicotyledons from Monocotyledons, botanists
divide each Class into Sub-classes and Divisions. The kind
of characters upon which these Sub-classes and Divisions
rest we are already familiar with, having examined repre-
sentatives of each. The Divisions are further divided into
numerous Orders. These are treated of in subsequent
lessons. The Sub-classes and Divisions may be synopti-
cally arranged thus :—

12. DICOTYLEDONS are, in respect of envelopes of the

flower—
Dichlamydeous (Dichlamydee), as Poppy, Mustard, Rose,
Melastoma, Zinnia, Rose Periwinkle, Basil,—or
Incomplete (Zzcompletz). If incomplete, either
Monochlamydeous (MMonochlamydee), as Grass - cloth
Nettle,—or
Achlamydeous (Achlamydee), as Willow.

Dichlamydeous flowers are either
Polypetalous (Folypetale), as Poppy, Mustard, Rose,
Melastoma,—or
Gamopetalous (Gamopetale), as Zinnia, Rose Pevwinkld
Basil.

Polypetalous flowers have their stamens inserted on the
receptacle (hypogynous), and are hence calied—
Thalamifloral (Zalamiflore), as Poppy and Mustard,—or,
inserted upon the calyx (perigynous or operons) and
are hence called—
Calycifloral (Calycifiore), as Rose and Melastoma.

13. MonocoTtyLepons have their flowers, often imperfect,
and with or without a minute, scaly perianth, arranged upon
a spadix, hence called—

vid SUMMARY. 6x

Spadicifloral (Spadicif/lore); as Colocasia,—
or with a perianth of petal-like leaves, hence called—
Petaloid (Pe/aloidee), as Dendrobe, Crinum, Draceena—
or with chaffy glumes or scale-like bracts enclosing the
flowers, hence called—
a (Glumifere), as Wheat.

Petaloid Monocotyledons have their perianth—
Hypogynous (Hypogyne), as Draceena,—or
Epigynous (ZZzgyz@), as Dendrobe and Crinum.

14. The Classes, Sub-classes, and Divisions may be
tabulated thus :—

ANGIOSPERMS. he
lamiflore.

(p P “yk eheah { Calyciflorz.

Ce, - Gamopetale.

‘ : Monochlamydez.

\ Achlamydez.

:
|
}
. (Dichlamydez

| DicoTyLEDONS

Flowering (
Plants Incompletz
(Phanero- Sy Mok aad: ; Spadiciflore.
gamta). ; Hep
MonocotyLepons) ..... Pebistace { Pa.
: Glumifere
\ GYMNOSPERMS.

CHAPTER VI.

HOW TO FILL UP THE SCHEDULES

1. The use of the ‘‘ Flower-Schedule” in directing attention to im-
portant points in the structure of flowers, and training to habits
of useful and accurate observation.

z. Explanation of the Schedule and of the mode of filling it up. The

number of parts in each series of Flower-leaves is to be entered.

. Also, the condition as to Cohesion of the parts.

. And the condition as to Adhesion of the parts.

. Terms used to express the various conditions.

. Example of a Schedule filled up from the Orange.

Nu Ap GW

1. YOU may now begin to examine and describe any
flowers which may be within reach. And, in order that
your work may be of vaiue, I give at page 65 a form or
schedule employed (under a very slightly different form)
by the late Professor Henslow of Cambridge, both in his
university and village-school teaching, the purpose of which
is to compel attention to those points which are of the first
importance (because most constant) in the structure of
flowers. A supply of these schedules should be kept on
hand for daily use.

Most of the terms made use of in filling up the schedules
you have already acquired. It may be well, however, to
look over the following list, which embraces all that need

CHAP. VI. ] SCHEDULES. 63

be used at present in describing the flower in the columns
of the schedule, and if any have been forgotten, to turn
back to them, by referring to the Index.

2. The column headed No. (number) is to be filled with
the real number of parts, whether free or coherent, in each
of the four series of organs (calyx, corolla, stamens, and
pistil) which compose the flower. Thus, in the Mustard-
flower there are four free sepals ; and in Rose Periwinkle
and Sweet Basil five coherent sepals. This number must,
therefore, be entered opposite to sefa/s, under the No.
column, and so on. These numbers, or a 0 opposite to an
organ, necessarily indicate Suppression, when such occurs.
Thus in Basil, with five sepals and five petals, there are but
four stamens, one being suppressed, as we infer from the
general constancy with which the parts, in each series of the
flower in plants generally, correspond in number or are
multiples. We often find, however, more direct evidence
in the presence of a rudiment of the suppressed organ.

3..The column headed Cohesion is to be filled up with
those terms which express or involve cohesion of parts, or
the absence of cohesion. Thus, were the Orange-flower
being described, gamosepalous would be entered in this
column, opposite to calyx; the calyx being gamosepalous
owing to cohesion of the sepals. Poppy and Mustard, on
the other hand, would be described in the same place as
polysepalous, the calyx being polysepalous from the absence
of cohesion of the sepals.

4. The last column, headed Adhesion, is for terms which,
in like manner, express or involve adhesion of parts, or the
absence of adhesion. Thus, in the case of the three plants
just referred to, inferior would be entered in this column
opposite to calyx, the calyx being inferior because there is
no adhesion between it and the ovary. Were Melastoma

64 SCHEDULES. [CHAP.

being described, the term halfsuperior would be entered
in the same place, as in this plant the calyx becomes
half-superior, from the partial adhesion of its tube to the
ovary.

5. The terms employed in filling up schedules are :—

Of the caLyx (cohesion or its absence), Jolysepalous,
gamosepalous ; (adhesion or its absence) znzferior, superior.

Of the coroLLa (cohesion or absence of same), Zoly-
petalous, gamopetalous, regular, irregular ; (adhesion or its
absence) Aypogynous, perigynous, epigynous.

Of the sTAMENS (cohesion or its absence); as it is im-
portant to note the number of stamens, and not simply to
write Zolyandrous when the stamens are free, whatever their
number may be, as you write polysepalous and polypetalous
of calyx or corolla when their parts are separate, write
before the termination -azdrous the Greek numeral prefix
denoting the number of free stamens, thus :—

Ta, ao eee 6" 65. S, uf 10. more than 10,
mon- di- tri- tetr- pent- hex- hept- oct- enne- dec- poly-androus.

If the stamens cohere by their f/aments, they are mon-,
di-, or poly-adelphous ; if by their anthers, they are syngen-
estous.

(Adhesion or its absence) hyfagynous, perigynous, epigy-
nous, epipetalous, gynandrous.

Of the pPisT1IL (cohesion or its absence), apocarpous, syn-
carpous ; (adhesion or its absence) superior, inferior. To
denote the number of carpels constituting the pistil, whether
they be free or coherent (if the latter, the number being
inferred from the divisions of the style or stigma), the same
Greek numerals as are employed to indicate the number of
stamens are prefixed to the termination -gyzous. Thus
monogynous signifies with one style or stigma, folygynous

v1] SCHEDULES. 65

with many styles, or stigmas, or distinct carpels. I have
omitted these terms in the schedules of the Type-species in
Part II. of this book, simply noting whether the pistil be
apocarpous or syncarpous. ‘The number of carpels is given
in the No. column.

Of the PERIANTH (cohesion or its absence), polyphyllous,
gamophyllous (regular, irregular); (adhesion or its absence)
inferior, superior.

6. The schedule here given, by way of example, is filled
up from the flower of the Orange, with the characters of
which you ought to be sufficiently familiar by this time.

| | |
| Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion. |
Calyx. | Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. | Mice
Corolla. Polypetalous Hypogynous.
petals. 5 (regular).
Stamens. © Polyandrous. Hypogynous.
Jilaments. Polyadelphous.
anthers.
| Pistil. Syncarpous.
carpels. ©
Ovary. Superior.
Perianth. t t | t
leaves. is ae
Class. Division. | Name.
Dicotyledon. Thalamiflorz. Orange.

N.B. The sign o denotes many.

No entry is made opposite to

perianth (+), because it is described as calyx and corolla in the case of
the Orange and other dichlamydeous Dicotyledons.

CHAPTER VII.
THE VARIOUS ORGANS AND THEIR MODIFICATIONS.

Further examination of Plant-structure. The importance of fre-
quent practice in order to acquire facility in the use of terms.
(Organs of Nutrition.) The Root originates from? Tap-root ;
fibrous root. Adventitious roots. Roots sometimes become

thickened and tuberous.

The Stem originates from? Axillary and terminal buds. Direc-
tion assumed by stems. Rhizome; tubers; bulbs. The Stock.
Remarkable modifications of stem-structures.

Leaves always lateral organs. Their arrangement upon the stem.
Nodes and Internodes.

Cotyledonary leaves are temporary. Scale-leaves. Duration of
leaves.

Petiole and Blade. Vernation. Venation.

Outline of leaves. Simple and compound leaves.

Simple undivided leaves.

Simple divided leaves.

Compound leaves.

Apex and base. Mode of attachment to the stem. Margin.
Surface.

Stipules. Stipulate and ex-stipulate.

Remarkable modifications of leaves. Phyllodes.

(Organs of Reproduction.) Arrangement of flowers upon the stem.
The principal kinds of inflorescence.

The Bracts; bracteate, ebracteate. Involucre.

. AEstivation of the calyx and corolla.

Parts of a petal. Of a gamopetatous corolla, and of a gamo-
sepalous calyx.

CHAP. VII.] ORGANS OF PLANTS. 57

18. The Stamens. Peculiar conditions of which are noticed under
the Natural Orders in Part II.

19. The Pistil. Homology of foliage-leaves and carpels.

20. Carpellary theory. A review of various forms of pistil. The
sutures of a carpel. The ovary and its cells.

21. Placentation.

22. Fruit and seed. Pericarp.

23. Suppression of cells of the ovary during maturation of the fruit.
Changes in different layers of the pericarp. Fruit of Mango,
Pomegranate, Orange, Gourd or Water Melon. Dry syncarpous
fruits ; capsule, nut. Dehiscent and indehiscent fruits. Achenes
of Ranunculus and Bramble. Mulberry. Fig compared with
fruit of Rose. Enumeration of principal kinds of fruit.

24. Number of seeds in the fruit. Albuminous and exalbuminous
seeds.

1. WE now proceed to examine some of the different
forms assumed by the Vegetative, or, as we previously
termed them, the Nutritive, organs of Plants—viz. the
Root, Stem, and Leaves. Also, so far as previous chapters
leave it needful, the general character of the Reproductive
Organs, and especially the structure of the Fruit.

In order to avoid ambiguity, we shall find it necessary
to employ not only the substantive terms used by botanists
to denote the several organs themselves, but also the more
important of the adjective terms employed to denote special
modifications of the same. ‘The necessary terms are very
simple, and easily learned, and, with moderate perseverance,
facility in applying them may soon be acquired.

By carefully examining one plant every day, first filling
up a schedule from the flower, and then writing out, with
these lessons before you, a description of all the organs in
detail, very considerable progress will be made in practical
botany in the course of a single season.

In this and the following chapter, devoted to the structure
of the various organs, whenever it has appeared desirable for
the sake ofillustration, J have named a common plant, which
F 2

68 ROOT. [CHAP.

may be referred to; but it must always be borne in mind that
the organs of plants—root, stem, leaf, and flower—are very
prone to accidental variation, especially in minor particulars,
so that occasionally I may be found apparently contra-
dicting Nature: but in such cases do not rest satisfied with
reference to a single specimen ; compare together a number
of specimens whenever it can be done, and you will then
find, I believe, the illustration confirmed. In explaining
the terms used to denote the mere outline and form of
organs, I have not generally referred to any illustration.
I leave them to the learner to find out for himself.

2. THE Root.—In the germinating Pea we find that the
coot is developed by the direct downward elongation of the
radicle of the embryo. A root thus originating forms what
is termed a ¢af-root. We have good examples of this
primary root-axis in a large number of Dicotyledons, both
trees and herbaceous plants, though in many, by arrest, or
by repeated branching, it loses, more or less, its character
as a proper tap-root. In Monocotyledons, owing to the
origin of the root from root-buds which burst through the
undeveloped radicle of the embryo, we never have a tap-
root. In these plants the root generally consists of
numerous independent fibres, branched or unbranched.
It may be described simply as fdvous. Pull up any grass
and you will find such a root.

Many plants which at first sight appear to be stemless
(acaulescent) we shall find possess a more or less creeping
stem, giving off root-fibres at the nodes. This is a very
frequent condition, and many herbaceous plants, both
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, are principally multiplied,
and the area which they occupy extended, by such creep-
ing, root-producing stems. Roots originating in this way,
and not by direct prolongation of the radicle of the embryo,

VIt.S ; ROOT. 69

are distinguished as adventitious. When adventitious roots
are given off by climbing or erect stems, as in the Pepper,
Banyan, and Screw Pines, and very many trees and climbing
or epiphytal herbs growing in hot, moist, Indian forests,
they are termed aevta/.

Fic. 43. Screw Pine (Pandanus), showing aerial adventitious Roots.

Keeping the distinction between true and adventitious
roots in view, it will be clear, from what we have said of the
origin of the root-fibres in Monocotyledons, that they are

always adventitious. Whether true or adventitious, how-
ever, the function of the root is the same.
:

Le"
is
yy

70 STEM. [CHAP.

The root frequently becomes much thickened in perennial
and biennial herbaceous plants, serving as a reservoir of
nourishment for the growth of the sprouts of the following
season. When the branches or fibres of a root become
thickened in this way, the root is said to be tuberous. Such
tuberous roots much resemble certain forms of underground
and similarly thickened stems, but differ from them in the
absence of leaf-buds. Potatoes and Onions are called
roots, but we shall presently show that this is a misnomer.

Fic. 44. Cycas revoluta. The stem (caudex) unbranched.

3. The Srem always originates in a dud; the primary stem
of the plant from the bud of the embryo—the plumule.
Branches in like manner originate in similar buds formed
in the axils of leaves. Buds borne in the axils of leaves
are axillary; those which terminate a stem or branch,
and which, after a winter’s rest in cold climates, renew the
shoot, are ¢erminal. Some trees, as Palms and Cycads, never
or rarely develope any other than a terminal leafy bud, |

Vi. J : STEM. 7}

excepting when they form a flowering branch. The co.
sequence is that their stems remain unbranched.

We have already referred to the distinction between
woody and herbaceous stems. Besides erect or ascending
annual flowering-stems, many herbaceous plants possess a
stem which either creeps upon the surface of the ground,
or which spreads wholly under the surface, giving off leafy
and flowering shoots above and roots below. This under-
ground form of creeping stem is called a riizome. Beginners
are very liable to regard it as a root, and such is the
common notion respecting it. The capacity of developing
leaf-buds at regular intervals, and the presence of leaves in
the very reduced form of minute scales, indicate its true
stem character. In many plants, spreading underground
stem-branches become greatly thickened, like tuberous roots,
and serve the same end in the economy of the plant. We
have a good example in the Potato and Yam. The “eyes”
of the Potato are leaf-buds, and shoots develope from them
when planted or placed in damp cellars. Such thickened
portions of underground stem are called ¢uders. Some-
what similar is the very short and abruptly-thickened base
of the erect stem of some herbaceous plants distinguished
under the name of corm. In the Onion, Lilies, and Crinum
we have an analogous condition, disguised by very nume-
rous, much thickened, scale-like leaves. If we peel off
these scales successively, until they be all removed, we find
a flattened or conical solid base remains, from the under
side of which root-fibres are given off. This portion is the
excessively shortened stem from which the tall flowering
peduncles arise. Stems of this kind, with the internodes
suppressed and covered by thickened, scaly leaves, are
called du/bs. They may be regarded as equally leaf and
stein formations.

72 LEAVES. [CHAP.

Perennial herbs, the flowering and leafy stems of which die
down annually, often form a permanent tufted mass, called a
stock, either wholly or partially hidden under the surface of
the ground. The stock results from the persisting bases of
the leafy stems. From the axils of the scale-like leaves
which these persisting stem-bases bear the annual shoots
are thrown up each spring. The passage from plants with
this form of perennial stock to those in which more of the
exposed portion of the stem is perennial, as in bushes,
shrubs, and trees, 1s quite gradual.

The form of stems and the direction which they assume
above ground are exceedingly varied. Most of the modifi-
cations which they present are denoted by terms in ordinary
use. Thus the stem may be erect, procumbent, or prostrate ;
cylindrical, angular, furrowed ; and so on.

Branches sometimes assume very anomalous forms, and
might be mistaken for distinct structures, as in the sfznes
of some varieties of Orange and Lime, or the common
Flacourtia sepiaria, and in the ¢Zendrils of the Grape-vine
and many garden Trumpet-flowers (Signonias). All spines
and tendrils, however, are not arrested or specially modified
branches ; they are often leaves or leaf-appendages.

The internal structure of the stem may be more suitably
described when we speak of cells and tissues.

4. Leaves.—We have already spoken of leaves as originat-
ing around the growing apex of the stem as minute, cellular
projections. ‘They are never terminal organs; neither are
they, normally, capable of forming buds upon their surface.
The arrangement of the foliage-leaves upon the stem, though
at first sight it may appear accidental, is according to a law
generally constant in the same kind of plant. Compare,
with respect to leaf-arrangement, a young shoot of Tamarind
with one of the Orange or Banyan. ‘Try to find two leaves

VII. ] LEAVES. 73

exactly or nearly in the same vertical line, one above the.
other. In the Tamarind the upper leaf will be removed
from the lower by but two internodes; in the Orange and
Banyan, by either five or eight. When a single leaf is given
off at each node, the leaves are said to be alternate; if a
pair of opposite leaves, they are described as opposite; if
three or more in a whorl, as verticillate.

The general arrangement of the leaves is materially
affected by the extent to which the internodes of the stem
develope. In the Chinese Primrose of gardens, and Ranun-
culus, we find the lower leaves springing in a tuft from the
short stock, owing to the non-development of the lower inter-
nodes ; while in the latter the upper leaves are separated
from each other by distinct, and often long, internodes. A
parallel but more remarkable case we see in American Aloe
(Agave) and Adam’s Needle (Yucca), much cultivated in
India, in which plants a succession of (really alternate)
leaves are given off from a very short stem or stock, the
internodes of which are not perceptibly developed. This
is continued until the approach of the flowering season,
when the stem suddenly begins to lengthen out, and the
leaves gradually decrease in size to mere scales. In Crinum
and Tacca they cease altogether for a long interval, leaving
the flower-stalk naked. In most deciduous trees, the inter-
nodes from which foliage-leaves are given off are tolerably
uniformly developed, but in Pine and Deodar an anomalous
condition occurs. In these trees there are two kinds of
leaf—one a small, membranous, brown scale-leaf: the
other, a green, needle-like leaf. The needle-like leaves
are arranged in tufts of°2, 3, or 5 in Pines, or in many-
leaved clusters in the Deodar, in consequence of the non-
development of the internodes of the excessively short
branches which bear them. That these tufts really arise

14 LEAVES. [CHAP.

from shortened branches is obvious on examination, for
they occupy the axils of the smaller scale-leaves, and some
of them occasionally develope their internodes, when, con-
quently, the needle-leaves are borne singly upon the shoot,
and are separated from each other by more or less marked
internodes.

5. The cotyledons are the first leaves of the primary
axis of the plant. ‘They are usually, but not always, very
shortlived, and shrivel up and die at an early stage. In
some plants they never leave the testa of the seed, but
remain underground, while in others they rise above the
surface and assume partially the functions of ordinary
foliage-leaves. ‘The first leaves of branches ordinarily differ
from. those which follow, in being much smaller, and often,
in certain Natural Orders and in cool climates, in being hard
and scaly. ‘These are the scale-leaves. ‘They serve as pro-
tective organs to the delicate rudiments of the foliage-leaves
which they enclose, and into which they usually pass more
or less gradually, thus convincingly showing that they are
both modifications of one and the same organ.

Many trees develope each season terminal as well as
axillary buds. As before pointed out, it is only by the
development of the former that the original stem or its
branches are prolonged. Some plants never renew their
branches by annual terminal buds, while others annually
develope branches from both terminal and axillary buds.
This variety of conditions in respect to the relations of
terminal and axillary buds has much to do with the
general aspect of the tree.

Leaves vary in their duration. They may last but one
season, at the close either separating by an articulation from
the stem, leaving a clean scar, or remaining attached and
gradually decaying. In Evergreens, the leaves last two or

vil. ] LEAVES. 75

more seasons; in some Pines, indeed, they persist for
several years.

6. In the fully developed leaf we have already distin-
guished petiole and blade. The mode in which the blade
is folded while enclosed in the bud is spoken of as the
vernation of the leaf.

The blade is divided into symmetrical halves by a midrib,
which, continuous with the petiole, runs from the base of
the blade to its apex. In the Begonias, several of which
are wild, and others cultivated in India for the sake of their
beautiful, variegated leaves, the sides of the leaf are more or
less oblique or unequal.

The arrangement of the veins in the blade is made a
special study by botanists who concern themselves with
fossil plants, for the venation of leaves is almost the sole
character left them of importance in fossil impressions, upon
which to base comparisons with species still living.

7. In describing plants, the form or outline of the leaf
must be noted, and an appropriate adjective term selected
to express it. As the forms assumed by leaves are infinitely
varied, it necessarily follows that numerous terms must be
used to denote them. The same terms apply, however, to
any organs with plane surfaces, whether foliage or flower-
leaves. ‘The more important only we can note here.

In the first place, compare the leaf of a Mango er Banyan
with one from the Rose, Litchi, or Sterculia fetida. You
observe that in the two former the leaf is in one piece ; in the
three latter the petiole bears several distinct pieces. These
distinct pieces are called /caflets, and leaves which are thus
divided into distinct leaflets are termed compound. Leaves,
on the other hand, which are not divided into separate
leaflets are termed simple. Simple leaves are frequently
deeply divided, but the divisions do not extend to the base

76 LEAVES. (CHAP.

of the blade, nor are they separately jointed to the petiole.
The portions of a simple leaf thus divided are called the
segments or lobes of the leaf.

8. Simple undivided leaves.—It will be useful practice to
try to find leaves which correspond to the various outlines
figured below. It will constantly happen that the form of —
some leaves may be as correctly described hy one term as

Fic. 45. Simple Leaf. Fic. 46. Compound (pinnate) Leaf.

by another; and again, some leaves vary so much on the
same branch that they may be found to match two, three,
or more of the outline figures. In describing such leaves
you must use the terms which denote the usual extremes of
variation, as “leaves varying from lanceolate to ovate,” or
from “oblong to elliptical,” &c. The terms may also be
combined when needful, as oval-oblong, linear-lanceolate.

9. Simple divided leaves—We may class these under two
series—viz. (1) those in which the segments radiate froin
the extremity of a petiole, and (2) those in which they are

VII. ] LEAVES. 77

given off successively from a midrib. The former are of the
palnatijid, the latter of the pzmnatifid type. If the segments
be separated nearly to the petiole, the leaf is pa/matipartite ;
if nearly to the midrib it is pinnatipartite; the termination
-fartite being substituted for -#d to denote deep division of

Fics. 47, 48, 49, 50. Outlines of Simple Leaves.

1. Acicular. 7. Lanceolate. 13. Obovate.

2. Linear. 8. Subulate. 14. Oblanceolate.
3. Oblong. g- Cordate. 15. Spathulate.
4. Elliptical. 10. Reniform. 16. Hastate.

5. Rotundate. tr. Ovate. 17. Sagittate.

6. Orbicular. 12. Obcordate

the blade. ‘There are many modifications of these prin-
cipal types of forra, distinguished by special terms, but

78 LEAVES, [CHAP,

with these it is not needful to burden the memory just at
present.

10. Compound leaves we shall class as we have done the
divided simple leaves, from which they differ in having the
blade divided into /afets, which are given off from the
summit of the petiole, or from the midrib (common petiole),
as the case may be. ‘The leaflets separate from the petiole
or midrib in the same way that the entire leaf separates
from the stem, that is, without tearing. Sometimes it is
difficult to tell whether a leaf should be called simple

Fic. 51. Pinnate Leaf. A pair of adherent (adzaZe) stipules are shown at the base ;
one on each side.

or compound. Generally, however, it is plain enough.
Many beginners fall into the mistake of calling /eaféets leaves,
but a little care will rarely fail to save any one from such a
mistake. Compound leaves are either of the pznnate type,
as Rose and Tamarind, or of the digitate type, as Sterculia
fetida. The Rose leaf is wnegually pinnate, because there is
an odd leaflet at the end of the common petiole. When
the odd leaflet is absent, as in Tamarind, the leaf is eguadly
or abruptly pinnate. A leaf becomes twice pinnate (dz
pinnate) when the common petiole, instead of bearing
leaflets, bears secondary petioles upon which the leaflets
are pinnately arranged.

Vil. | LEAVES. 79

When leaflets are arranged on the digitate plan, and are
but three in number, they are called ¢ernaze, and the leaf is ¢v7-
Joliolate ; if five, guznute, the leaf being guznguefoliolate. The
leaflets may be twice ternate (d2-¢ernaze) if the petiole bears
three secondary petioles, each of which bears three leaflets,
and so on.

11. The point of a leaf or leaflet at which the midrib

Fic. 52. Digitate Leaf.

ends is called the afex. The point where it passes into the
petiole, or, if the leaf be sessile, where it is joined to the
stem, the dase. The apex and base vary considerably in
outline, and attention must be paid to both in describing
the form of leaves. The apex, if sharp, is tenined acute; if
blunt or rounded, odtuse; if with a very shallow notch,
emarginate ; if the notch be deep, dz#d¢d—the leaf becoming

%o LEAVES, [CHAP.

bipartite if divided nearly to the base; it is ¢réfid or tripartite
if there be three divisions. ‘The base of the blade in cor-
date, sagittate, and hastate leaves we have already figured.
If the base of a sessile leaf clasp the stem, it is termed
amplexicaul. If the lobes at each side of the base of an
amplexicaul leaf be united together on the side of the stem
opposite to the midrib, so that the stem appears to pass
through the blade, the leaf is perfoliate. If the bases of
two opposite leaves be united on each side of the stem,
the leaves are said to be connate. Sometimes, in sessile
leaves, the margins of the blade are continued down the
sides of the stem, forming wings to it. Such leaves are
decurrent. When the petiole joins the blade upon its under
surface and not at the margin, as in the Sacred Lotus
(Nelumbium), the leaf is said to be felfate (Fig. 54).

The margin of the leaf varies, being sometimes perfectly
continuous and not indented or toothed at all, when it is
termed entire; it is serrate if with sharp teeth directed for-
ward, like those of a saw ; dentate if with sharp teeth directed
outward ; crenate if with rounded teeth.

The surface may be more or less hairy, or altogether
without hairs, when it is termed g/abrous. Different terms
are used to denote different kinds and degrees of hairiness,
but it is not important to learn these at present.

12. Taking up again a specimen of the Pea or Rose,
observe on each side of the base of the petiole a leafy organ
somewhat resembling a leaflet. In the Pea these organs
are very large—larger, indeed, than the leaflets. These are
the stipules. Leaves provided with stipules are called
stipulate, and leaves destitute of them, as those of Mustard,

xstipulate. Like leaves and leaflets, the stipules vary in
form, but they are usually small, and often fall away very
early, as in the Banyan and Bread-fruit.

VII] LEAVES. 81

13. Foliage-leaves are sometimes curiously modified,
either to serve some special purpose, or by the absence
of the blade, or the reduction of the leaf to a mere spine.
Thus in the Pea we find the extremity of the common
petiole and two or more of the lateral leaflets assume the
form of ¢endrils, enabling the weak stem to lay hold of

Fic. 53. Pinnate (quadrifoliolate) leaf, with stipules. S72. stipules
supports in climbing. Compare with the tendrils of the
_ Pea those of the Grape-vine, which we have described as
_ branches modified for the same purpose (p. 72).
In Barberry and its allies, common in the Himalayas, the
first leaves borne by the branches are reduced to sharp
G

82 INFLORESCENCE. [CHAP.

spines, from the axils of which spring tufts of ordinary
foliage-leaves, borne (as in Pine and Cedar) upon branches
with undeveloped internodes. Leaves tufted in this way are
said to be fasciculate. Stipules also are sometimes replaced
by spines. When the blade of the
leaf is absent, the petiole some-
times becomes flattened to such
an extent as to look like an
entire leaf, in order to replace
the blade as an organ useful to
the plant. But the flattening
is generally vertical, so that the
apparent leaf is placed edgewise
upon the stem, instead of spread-
ing horizontally. By this charac-
ter these leaf-like petioles may
be generally recognised. They
are called phyllodes. Sometimes
the true blade is partially de-
veloped at. the extremity of the
phyllode, thus putting its petiolar
character beyond doubt.

14. We cannot fail to have
observed the various ways in
which the flowers are borne
upon the stem, in gathering and
comparing together the com-
mon plants which we have had
occasion to use in the course of these lessons. It is
convenient to speak of the Flowering System, or mode
of arrangement of the flowers of plants, as the INFLOR-
ESCENCE.

In the Sacred Lotus we find a solitary terminal flower,

—_—

Fic. 54. Sacred Lotus
(Nelumbium speciosunt).

vil.] INFLORESCENCE. $3

borne by a firm herbaceous peduncle, which appears to
spring directly from the root. Such radical peduncles,
whether they bear one flower, or many (as in Crinum and
Tacca), are called scapes.

Fic. 55. Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea). The inflorescence a raceme.

In Mustard, the peduncle, instead of ending in a solitary
flower, gives off successively a number of shortly-stalked
(pedicellate) flowers in succession, until it exhausts itself
_ and ceases to lengthen. Such an inflorescence is termed a
raceme.

Common Plantain (flantago) of waste ground has a
G2

;
:
4

84 INFLORESCENCE. [CHAl.

similar kind of inflorescence, but the flowers are sessile.
This difference distinguishes the sfzke from the raceme.

The corymb is a form of raceme in which the lower
pedicels are much longer than the upper ones.

Fic. 56. Crinum. Flowers in simple umbels borne on stout succulent scapes.
Bracts spathaceous.

In Coriander, Fennel or Carrot, and Crinum, the flowers
are borne upon pedicels springing apparently from one
point. Such an arrangement of pedicellate flowers con-
stitutes the wde7. But as you find each of the umbels in
the three first-named plants borne upon peduncles, which,
like the pedicels, also spring from one point, their entire

r1i.] INFLORESCENCE. 5§

inflorescence forms a compound umbel; the umbels of single
flowers being the partial umbels.

Observe the ring of small leaves at the base of the
pedicels in the Carrot, forming an zzzolucre. In compound

Fic. 57. Vertical section through a flower-head of Zinnia. ‘The receptacle convex.

umbels we frequently have both general and partial in-
volucres ; the former surrounding the compound umbel,
the latter each partial umbel.

Fic. 58. Section of flower-head of Sonchus. ‘The receptacle plane.

Suppose, now, all the flowers of a simple umbel to be
sessile. We should have the same form of inflorescence
as we find in Zinnia and Sonchus, in which a number

86 INFLORESCENCE. (CHAP.

of florets are arranged upon a conical or flattened disk (the
common receptacle) surrounded by an involucre. Such an
inflorescence may be called a flower-head. ‘The older
botanists used to regard the flower-head as a kind of com-
pound flower, enclosed in a common calyx, but we found
in the Zinnia that it was composed of a number of distinct
flowers (florets), each with its own calyx and corolla. The
ring of bract-leaves which surrounds the flower-head answers
to the ring surrounding the umbel, and is called by the same
name—zvolucre.

In the Poppy and Sacred Lotus the peduncle (scape)
terminates in a solitary flower. In Mustard we found that
the peduncle does not itself terminate in a flower, but gives
off a succession of secoridary branches (pedicels), each of
which bears a flower. If we take a Ranunculus, we shall
find that the main or primary stem of the plant directly
terminates in a flower like that of Poppy, and if, as is usual,
there is more than one flower upon the plant, the 2d, 3d,
4th flowers, and so on, terminate respectively as many
Successive independent branches, springing from the axils
of the leaves. Such forms of inflorescence, in which the
peduncle, or axis, itself terminates in a flower, are termed
definite or cymose, while those inflorescences in which the
principal axis never actually terminates in a flower, but, as
in Mustard, gives off a succession of lateral pedicels, are
termed znudefinite. In the St. John’s Worts (A/vpericum) and
Exacum we have the cymose or definite inflorescence well
shown in their characteristic, forked cymes.

An inflorescence which branches irregularly, like that of
Melia, Litchi, Mango, and most Grasses, is called a panicle.

In describing the form of an inflorescence, when it does
not exactly coincide with any of the principal types here
defined, that which is nearest may, for the present, be

vit] INFLORESCENCE. 8

applied to it in an adjective form, as sfzcate, racemose,
paniculate—like a spike, a raceme, a panicle, and so on.
15. As we progress from below upwards in the examina-
tion of the various organs of the plant, we notice, in
approaching the flowers, that the foliage-leaves usually
decrease in size, so that those next to the flower, or from

BY
S\,
-, ee Va

__ Si

Fic. 59. Melia. The inflorescence a terminal panicle.

the axils of which the flowers spring, are often very narrow
and sometimes scale-like. Such reduced leaves, bearing
flowers in their axils, are distinguished as dracts, and flowers
springing from the axils of bracts are bracteate. ‘The passage,

FLOWER. [CHAP.

in size, form, and texture, from foliage-leaves to bracts may

Fic 60. Dhak (Butea frondosa).

be very gradual, but in most
plants the transition is rather
abrupt. A ring or series of
numerous bracts, enclosing
flowers or pedicels, as in
Zinnia and Carrot, we have
called an zzvolucre. In Mus-
tard the bracts are unde-
veloped: hence the flowers
are ebracteate.

16. The organs of the
flower and their principal
modifications we ought now
to be tolerably familiar with
from schedule practice. There
are, however, a few charac-
ters of importance which
require further attention, ap-

plying particularly to the manner in which the parts of

Fic. 61. Flower of
Grape-vine. ‘The
petals caducous and
valvate in zstiva-
tion.

corolla of Vine.

the calyx and corolla are folded while in
bud (termed e@stivation), to the form of the
corolla and the structure of the pistil.

In the bud, the sepals and petals (or the
lobes of a gamosepalous calyx, or of a
gamopetalous corolla) may be folded with
their margins either more or less overlap-
ping, or simply in contact without over-
lapping. In the former case, the estivation
is zmbricate, as in the corolla of Rose,
Dhak (Butea), and Bignonia ; in the latter
valvate, as in the calyx of Clematis and the

Sometimes the calyx may be valvate and

the corolla imbricate, as in Hibiscus.

VII. ] STAMENS. 8G

17. The petals of a polypetalous corolla, if narrowed to
the base like those of the Mustard or Pink, are clawed; the
narrow part being the c/aw, the expanded part the Zamina.
In a gamopetalous corolla, or gamosepalous calyx, the lower
united portion is called the ¢wde; the free divisions, which
indicate the number of parts cohering, the 4d, the divisions
of the limb being spoken of simply as ¢ee¢# if small, or lobes
if larger. The more important forms of the corolla are
noticed in Part II. under the groups of plants which are
respectively characterised by peculiar modifications of it.

18. The more important of the characters afforded by the
STAMENS, due to varying conditions as to cohesion, adhesion,

a} %
= = pw @
RAGS

Fic. 62. Stamen,
with oblong
two-celled an-
ther dehiscing
longitudinally.

Fic. 63. Staminate and pistillate Flowers of Ricinus; the
stamens polyadelphous.

and suppression, have been already, directly or indirectly,
referred to. Some other peculiar modifications which they
assume, either in form or in the mode of dehiscence of
their anthers, are pointed out in Part II. as occasion arises.

STAMENS. [CHAP.

Fic 64. Flower of Hypericara. The stamens Fic. 65. A single phalange

hypogynous and triadelphous. of Stamens of the same.

ce \ ( ry
ales
AWS

AY My: \

6%)
A\WHIV/4
\

m»,,

Fic 66. Vertical section of Flower of Hibiscus. The stamens
monadelphous; the anthers one-celled.

vit. | PISTIL. 9!

19. THE Pist1L.—When in our first chapter we spoke of
all the organs borne by the stem as leaves of some kind, you
were not in so favourable a position, as from subsequent
experience you must now be, to appreciate the broad sense
in which the word /eaf was employed. I repeat, all the
organs borne by the stem and its branches are modifications
of one leaf-type. By this statement you are not to under-
stand that a petal, or a stamen, or a carpel, is a modified
foliage-leaf, any more than that a foliage-leaf is any one of
these organs modified ; but they are all alike modifications
of one common leaf-type which has only an ideal existence.
Thus the leaf may be an organ either for the purpose of
nutrition or of reproduction, or it may be merely a pro-
tective organ ; but whatever function it is designed to fulfil—
in other words, whatever special organ it becomes—it is
modified appropriately to the function which it has to perform.
Thus we have the nutritive leaves, broad, green expansions,
exposing the fluids of the plant to the influence of light ;
the protective leaves, hard and scale-like, as the scale-leaves
of leaf-buds; or more delicate, and often showy and coloured,
as the enveloping leaves of the flower.

The essential reproductive leaves invariably assume one
of two forms—either that of the staminal leaf, with the blade
(the anther) thickened and its tissue partially transformed
into pollen, or that of the carpellary leaf, which is hollow,
bearing a seed-bud or seed-buds (ovules) upon its margin
inside, and terminating above in a stigma.

That this is a correct view to take of the nature of the
leafy organs of a plant we have incontestable external
evidence to prove. And this evidence is principally of
two kinds. Either we find one form of leaf passing by
insensible gradations into another, as foliage-leaves into
sepals, sepals into petals, petals into stamens, or we find

Q2 PISTIL. [CHAP.

some of the leaf-organs, especially those of reproduc-
tion, under certain conditions, assuming the character
of other organs. Thus stamens, in many plants, have a
strong tendency to lose their character as staminal-leaves
and to assume that of petals, as you may find if you
compare a double with a single Rose. ‘There is, indeed, a
Rose in which a// the organs of the flower, excepting the
sepals, so far depart from their normal character as to
become small foliage-leaves, all coloured green, and firm in
texture.

The chief difficulty in the way of accepting the notion of
the essential oneness and homology of all the leaf-organs of
a plant rests principally in the wide dissimilarity existing, in
the usual condition of things, between the leaves of the stem
and the stamens or carpels, especially the latter. But the
acceptance and thorough appreciation of this view you will
find furnishes an invaluable key to the comprehension of all
the various modifications which the pistil and its parts, the
carpels undergo ; and it is especially with reference to these
that we shall at present concern ourselves.

Fic. 67. Pod (legume) of Pea, partially laid open to show the attachment
of the Seeds to the ventral suture.

20. Take a pistil of the simplest possible structure,—the
pistil of the Pea, Dhak, or any of their allies, for example.
You have here an apocarpous pistil, consisting of a single

vil. ] PISTIL.

carpel. Ranunculus, Nelumbium, Guatteria, and Unona
also have apocarpous pistils, consisting, however, not of a
single carpel, but of numerous distinct carpels.

/
\
_
\

\ \\' \
», XS \ \\
‘aN
\

WY,

ASA
\\O ¢

al
i! \

fr |

ae
ih

Fic. 68. Flower of Sacred Lotus (Nelusbiunz), in vertical section, showing the
carpels separately immersed in the top-shaped receptacle.

A comparison of any one of the carpels
with the pistil of the Pea will afford satis-
factory evidence that in the latter you have
but a solitary carpel. In Ranunculus you
observe that the stigmas are all oblique to
the carpels which bear them, and that they
all radiate, as it were, from the centre of
the flower. A like obliquity may be noticed
in the Pea, the single carpel which it
possesses being the only one developed of
a whorl of five. Sometimes one or more
of the carpels suppressed in the Pea are

of Ranunculus

Fic. 69. Longitu-
dinal section of
fruit-carpel of Ra-
nunculus, showing
obliquity of the
stigma.

developed in other species which are allied to it in general

structure.

24 PISTIT. [CHAP.

But garden Larkspur, Monkshood, and Star Anise
furnish good connecting links between
the Ranunculus and Pea ; for in these
plants you find the carpels larger than
in Ranunculus, but fewer in number,
varying from one to fifteen, and stand-
ing in a whorl around the centre of
Fic. 70. Star Anise (/ddicéwm). the flower. Each carpel of the pistil

ee ae renee ie of either of these three plants answers

a a a to the pistil, consisting of one carpel,
of the Pea. In all of these plants the pistil is apocarp-
ous; the carpels, however, differ in number, as well as
in the number of ovules which they contain, and in their
mode of opening when ripe (dehiscence) to allow the seeds
to escape.

Observe that in Larkspur, Monkshood, and Star Anise
the ovules and seeds are borne upon the inner angle of the
carpels ; the same in the Pea; and the inner angle of the
carpels coincides with the axis of the flower.

Now ovules are, as a rule, marginal buds (the nature and
relation of which to ordinary leaf-buds is not yet well
understood), that is, they are borne upon margins of car-
pellary leaves; so we may conclude that the inner angle
of each carpel, upon which the seeds are arranged, answers
to the line of union of its infolded edges. This line is called
the ventral suture.

To take the Pea again as the simplest case—if you split
it carefully open up the edge bearing the seeds, you will
find, when laid open, that half of the seeds are on one edge,
half on the other; each margin being alternately seed-bear-
ing. Up the middle of the opened carpel you have a strong
line or nerve (the outer angle when the carpel was closed),
which is, simply, the mzdrzb of the carpellary leaf, answering

vil. ] FISTIEL, 95

to the midrib which we find in foliage-leaves. This line is
called the dorsal suture.

The apex of the carpel is continued into the short style,
and terminates in the stigma, which withers before the Pea
is ripe. Each of the carpels in the other plants which we
have just examined presents the same features as the Pea.
Ranunculus differs only in the small size of the carpels, each
adapted to contain one small seed.

Suppose, now, the three or five carpels of the pistil of
Monkshood, instead of being free from each other, had been
developed cohering to each other by their inner faces. The
consequence would have been that we should have had a

Fic. 71. Transverse sec- Fic. 72. Transverse sec- Fic. 73. Transverse
tion of a_three-celled tion of a three-celled section of a_two-
Ovary, with axile pla- Ovary, with axile pla- celled Ovary, with
centation and multise- centation. The ovules axile placentation
riate indefinite ovules. biseriate. & indefinite ovules.

syncarpous pistil with a five-celled ovary. And syncarpous
pistils with five cells, or more than five cells (as Orange),
or fewer than five (as Lily), occur on every hand, and are
nearly always explicable in this way; that is, by the
cohesion of as many carpels as there are cells in the
syncarpous ovary. It follows, from this explanation of the
structure of a syncarpous ovary, that each of the divisions,
called dissepiments, by which syncarpous ovaries are sepa-
reted into distinct cells, must be double. They must each
necessarily consist of the two infoided and cohering sides

ob PISTIL. [CHAP.

of adjacent carpels. And so we often find, that when
syncarpous pistils are ripe their carpels separate from
each other, each dissepiment splitting into two plates.

21. From the circumstance that the ovules develope upon
the margins of carpels, it must follow that when two or
more carpels cohere, and their margins are infolded so as
to meet in the centre of the pistil, the ovules must also
be attached in the centre or axis. Their attachment, or
placentation, as it is termed, is then termed axile. You
find this well shown in Lily or Crinum, where there are
three carpels ; Solanum, where there are two; and Orange,
where there are many, cohering.

But in many syncarpous pistils, although the carpels
cohere, their margins are not infolded to such a degree
as to reach the centre and become united there into an
ovule-bearing axis. When such is the case, the placentation
is described as parietal. We find all grades
of development of these dissepiments, from
the Violet and its allies, with parietal placen-
tation (the carpels not being infolded at all,

and the ovules arranged in lines upon the
Me 7s, of a one. inside of the one-celled ovary), to the Lily,
ee ey wi in which the carpellary margins are inflected
centas and indef- to the centre, and the placentation is con-
sequently axile. The pistil of Poppy is
intermediate ; the margins of the numerous united carpels
which compose it projecting into the cavity of the ovary
without quite reaching to the centre. The placentation of
this plant is exceptional, the ovules being spread over the
sides of the partial dissepiments, instead of being confined
to their inner edges.

In Pinks and Stitchworts the placentation is axile, but

the dissepiments are lost before the ovary is fully grown,

vil. ] PISTIL. 97

so that the ovules are collected in a head in the centre of a
one-celled ovary. Such placentation is termed /ree central.

Fic. 75. Transverse Fic. 76. Chinese Primrose
section of a one- (Primula sinensis).
celled ovary with
free central placen-
tation.

The same kind of placentation is found in Chinese Primrose,
Ardisia, and Utricularia, but in these plants there is no trace
of dissepiments at any stage of development of the ovary. ~

Fic. 77. Utricularia stellaris.

98 FRUITS; [CHAP.

In Pea, Dhak, Star Anise, Unona, and other apocarpous
pistils, the carpels of which contain several ovules inserted
upon the ventral suture, the placentation may be described
as sutural. The sutural placentation of apocarpous pistils
is, of course, essentially the same as the axile placentation
of syncarpous pistils.

22. The structure of the Fruit deserves careful attention,
especially as there is scarcely any part of the plant more
liable to be misunderstood. We must learn from what
part or parts of the flower the fruit results, and how to
distinguish fruit from seed, for some common fruits are
constantly misnamed seeds, and sometimes seeds are mis-
taken for fruits.

Seeds are almost invariably contained in a seed-vessel
called the fericarf, and the pericarp may consist either of
the ripened ovary only, or, if the ovary be inferior, of the
calyx-tube combined with the ovary.

In the case of Ranunculus, and most plants with apocarp-

ous pistils, the fruit consists of as many distinct carpels as
' there were carpels in the pistil of the flower. Each carpel
contains one or more ovules in flower, and one or more
seeds in fruit. The pistil we call apocarpous, and the same
term applies to the fruit. In like manner we may apply the
term syncarpous to all fruits which result from syncarpous
pistils.

23. Now the changes which take place during the ripening
of the fruit are very simple indeed in Ranunculus compared
with those which take place in many other plants. We find
often that an ovary with several cells in the flower is but one-
celled in fruit, and that many ovules present in the flower are
sometimes sacrificed during the perfecting of a single seed.
Take the acorn of any Oak for example. When ripe it con-
tains but one cell and one seed; but if the ovary be cut

Vit. FRUIT yy

across a month after flowering, it will be found to be three-
celled, with a pair of ovules in each cell. This suppression
of | arts during the ripening of the fruit is very common. It
is, however, but one of the important changes to which it is

subject.

Fics. 78, 79. Acorns of two Indian species of Oak (Quercus).

Another change which greatly disguises the true nature of
the fruit is the excessive enlargement of certain parts, or
the alteration in texture and firmness of the layers of the
pericarp.

Examine a ripe Mango. You find it borne upon a pe-
duncle. At the top of the peduncle there still remains a
scar, showing where the stamens were attached, and that the
calyx was inferior. A little obliquely-placed dot on the top
of the Mango denotes the position of the style. It must
follow, then, that the Mango-fruit has developed from the
ovary only. You cut into the pulp of the fruit, and find that
it encloses a hard stone. Break the stone, and the seed will
be found inside. The stone is a hardened inner layer of the
pericarp, the pulp a succulent outer layer; both the stone
and the pulp which surrounds it originate from the walls of
the ovary. Stone-fruits, like the Mango and Jujube, are
called drupes. Like the small fruit-carpels of Clematis and

H 2

190 FRUIT. [CHAP.

Ranunculus, they do not split open (dehzsce) when ripe to let
the seed escap, but simply fall to the ground, where the
pericarp rots away, and the seed begins to germinate.

Try now a Loquat, Jambolan, or Guava. Examine first
the top of the peduncle, underneath the fruit. There is no
scar to be found as in the Mango, but at the top of the fruit
you find the distinct remains of the limb of the calyx, and
sometimes even a few withered stamens. You thus know
the fruit to be inferior. In each of these fruits the calyx-
tube is adnate to the ovary, so that ovary and calyx-tube
together constitute the pericarp.

Next try an Orange. At the bottom of the fruit you find
either the calyx still remaining, or its scar. The fruit is a
true Jerry, and the same name you may apply to any syn-
carpous fruit that is succulent, and that does not open
(succulent fruits rarely do) to allow the seeds to fall
out, such as the Grape and Cape Gooseberry (Physalis
Peruviana,). On the top of the fruit is a little round
scar, left by the style, which soon withers after flowering,
and usually breaks off. The Orange, therefore, is clearly a
superior fruit, developed solely from the ovary of the flower.
Cut it across, and you find it divided into a variable number
of cells by membranous dissepiments, each cell answering
to acarpel. In the pulp which fills the cells, and which is
developed from the inside of the outer wall of the ovary, the
seeds are embedded.

Try a Cocoa-nut. From the extraordinary enlargement
and change in texture undergone during maturation of the
fruit, probably all external indication of the position of the
perianth is obliterated. In such cases it can only be deter-
mined by watching the development of the fruit whether
to call it superior or inferior. In Cocoa-nut it is superior,
resulting from the ovary alone, two of the three cells of which

vil. J FROTT. Io!

are early obliterated, or, rather, rudimentary from their origin,
so that the fruit is one-celled and one-seeded: the triangular
form of the fruit still indicates its tricarpellary character. A
tranverse section through the entire fruit shows a thick outer
layer of the pericarp, fibrous in texture, and a thin bony
inner layer (the shell). The cavity of this inner layer (endo-
carp) is occupied by the seed. The seed is hollow, con-
sisting of a uniform layer of solid albumen closely applied
over the inner surface of the endocarp, with a portion
(the milk) unconsolidated in the cavity, and a minute embryo
occupies a little cell in the albumen at the base of the nut.

A syncarpous fruit that is dry when ripe, and which opens
(dehisces)—either by the pericarp splitting from the top to the
bottom into valves, as in Tea or Camellia, and Cotton; or
but partially from the top into ¢eeth, as in Chickweeds and
Pinks ; or by little openings called pores, such as are found
in the ripe fruit of Poppy—is called a capsule. And this
name is applied to a great variety of fruits, differing much
in size and mode of dehiscence, but all agreeing in being
syncarpous, and, when quite ripe, dry and dehiscent.

Syncarpous fruits, on the other hand, which are dry and
indehiscent—that is, which do not open, but liberate the seed
by decay, as the fruit of the Oak or of the
Buckwheat (/olygonum)—you may simply
call zzzts.

In Ranunculus a number of distinct car-
pels collectively form the fruit, which conse-
quently we have called apocarpous. Each
carpel is dry, one-seeded, and indehiscent.
Such fruit-carpels are called achenes. eves Caled

With regard to the Mulberry, the fruit of yg, Erut of
the Mulberry-tree, you have here the produce
not of a single flower, but of a short, dense spike of pistillate

102 FRUIT. [CHAP.

flowers, each flower consisting of a perianth of four leaves
in two pairs, enclosing the pistil, which is superior, and
crowned by a bifid stigma. Now, as the pistil ripens and
the seeds mature, the persistent perianth-leaves become very
succulent and juicy; and it is to these organs, thus altered
in texture, that the Mulberry owes such value as it possesses
as an eatable fruit. The Mulberry, therefore, differs from
all the so-called berries which we have examined as yet, in

Fic. 8. Fruit of Fig (Ficus Carica) in
Fic. 81. jack-fruit vertical section. Staminate and pistillate
(Artocarpus integrifolia). flowers are shown separately.

the circumstance that it results, not from a single flower,
but from a number of flowers. On this ground it may be
distinguished as a collective fruit. All fruits which result
from more flowers than one are called collective fruits.
We have examples in the coves of the Pine and Deodar,
in the Pineapple, the Jack-fruit, and the fruit of the Fig.

VII.] FRUIT. 1035

A Fig you can easily get for examination. If cut across,
it appears to be filled with small dry seeds enclosed in a
succulent pericarp. But such is not really the case. Figure
82 shows the staminate and pistillate flowers of the Fig.
In order to observe them you must gather a Fig while
young and green. You will then find that the inside of it
is thickly crowded, not with ovules, but with these minute,
monochlamydeous flowers; the pistillate flowers usually
occupying the lower and greater part of the cavity. It
follows, therefore, that the pulpy portion which forms the
mass of the Fig is a common receptacle, deeply concave
and nearly quite closed at the top, bearing numerous flowers

Fia. 83. Vertical section of Flower of Rose, showing the carpels enclosed
in a deeply concave receptacle.

upon its surface. If you have the opportunity, compare
with the Fig the fruit of a Rose. Although rather similar
# first sight, they are essentially different. The fruit of the
Rose results from a single flower, the receptacle of which
becomes more or less succulent and usually red when ripe.
Inside are the separate, dry achenes, which must not be
mistaken for seeds. ‘The fruit of the Rose is analogous to
that of the Strawberry, chiefly differing in the receptacle,
which is concave instead of convex.

Besides the forms of fruit which we have enumerated,

104 FROIT. [CHAP.

there are a few others so distinct in character as to merit
special names and descriptions ; but as these are confined
to certain groups of plants, they may be suitably noticed
when we come to speak of the general character of the
respective groups in Part II.

The prevalent forms of fruit, the usual structure of which
should be thoroughly understood, are as follow :—

SIMPLE FRUITS (resulting from a single flower) :

Achene, apocarpous, dry, indehiscent, usually one-seeded
(Clematis, Ranunculus, Rose).

Follicle, apocarpous, dry, dehiscing by the ventral suture
(Star Anise).

Legume, apocarpous, dry, dehiscing by both sutures
(Pea, Indigo).

iVut, properly syncarpous, dry and indehiscent, the peri-
carp usually hard and bony.

Drupe, usually apocarpous, succulent, indehiscent and
one-seeded, with the inner layer of the pericarp stony
(Mango, Almond, Jujube). )

Berry, syncarpous, succulent, indehiscent, few or many-
seeded (Coffee, Cape Gooseberry (Physalis), Grape).

Capsule, syncarpous, dry, dehiscent (Cotton, Lily, Camellia,
Rhododendron, Trumpet-flowers).

COLLECTIVE FRUITS (resulting from two or more flowers).

24. ‘The structure of the SEED we have already carefully
examined in the Pea, Castor-oil, and Wheat. In examining
plants, it will be sufficient at present to note whether the
seeds are solitary, definite, or indefinite in the ovary if it be
apocarpous, or in each cell of the ovary if syncarpous.
Thus the seeds are so/étary in Clematis, Cocoa-nut, Mango,
Zinnia, Sweet Basil, and Grass-cloth Nettle ; definite (few and

VII. ] FRUIT. 105

constant in number) in the Elephant Creeper and most of
the Convolvulus order; and zudefinite (numerous or vari-
able) in Cotton, Gourd, and Pomegranate. Note also
whether the seeds are exa/buminous, that is, containing
embryo only, as in Pea, Mustard, Mango, and Zinnia; or
albuminous, containing albumen along with the embryo, as
in Coffee, Castor-oil, and Wheat.

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Be St Se wr

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16.

CHAPTER VIE.

THE MINUTE STRUCTURE AND VITAL PROCESSES OF
PLANTS.

The minute parts of which plants are composed.
The cells.

. The vessels ; their modifications ; they originate from cells.

A few tissues suggested for comparison.

Active cells contain fluid contents.

Cell-wall and cell-contents.

The former ternary, the latter quaternary.

Division and growth of cells.

Temporary reserves. Starch-granules. Oil. Sugar.
Colouring matter of leaves.

Crystals in cells.

. Long and short cells. Fibro-vascular system of plants.

Comparison of the arrangement and mode of increase of fibro-
vascular bundles in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The
cambium cells. Exogenous and endogenous stems.

Woody Dicotyledons further examined. Pith; wood; medul-
lary rays ; bark.

Circulation of fluids through the cells. Diffusion.

The epidermis and its structure. Stomates. Intercellular spaces.

1. IN our second chapter we inquired very briefly into

the functions of the nutritive organs. Now that we have
had the opportunity of comparing the corresponding organs

of
ex

many plants, and of forming some tolerable idea of the
tent to which the same organ may vary in external

CHAP. VIII. ] MINUTE STRUCTURE, ° 107

character in different plants, it may be worth while to exa-
mine more closely than it was at first expedient into their
mode of working. In order to understand this, you must first
acquire a correct knowledge of the minute composition of
the various organs. Now, their minute composition is,
generally speaking, so simple that you need find no difficulty
in comprehending it; but the parts of which I have to
speak—which build up the leaves, and stem, and root—are
so very minute, that unless you make use of a microscope
that will magnify, say 40 to 80 diameters, you will be unable
satisfactorily to see the parts which compose these organs.
In order to meet this difficulty, in case you cannot get a
sight of the objects themselves, which is always best, refer
to the cuts, which correctly represent all that is necessary.

2. Take first, if you please, a little morsel of the succu-
lent stem of a garden Balsam, or of the stem of any Gourd
or of Water Melon. Boil it for a few minutes, until soft
enough to be torn or dissected out with needles. If you
have none of these plants at hand, a bit as large as a small
pea of any soft herbaceous plant will do. Balsam and
Gourd are particularly well suited, because the parts which I
wish you to examine are not quite so minute in their rapidly
developed stems as they are in plants of less succulence
and firmer texture.

We will suppose that you have taken a very small morsel
of boiled Balsam or Gourd. You observe that it is quite
soft and pulpy, and that a few fibrous strings appear to be
mixed up through it. Take a little of the pulp on the end
of a needle and put it upon a slip of glass, adding a drop
of water. If you have a thin glass cover, put it over the
drop, gently letting one side rest first on the slip as you put
it down, so as to push out the air-bubbles, which are apt to
get entangled, and which look lke round balls with black

108 ' MINUTE STRUCTURE. [CHAP.

sides when magnified. When you look at the preparation
under the microscope, you are pretty sure to find a number
of bodies resembling those represented in
the cut. If you do not find them, try ano-
ther morsel until yousucceed. These bodies
are called ce//s. They are hollow sacs, each
filled with fluid. Now, of cells more or less
like these, differing principally in size, in
relative length and breadth, and in the thick-
ness of their sides, every part of every plant
is composed. All the organs are built up
of these minute cells. ;
3. But take now a very small bit of one
cual andar Of the fibrous strings of the boiled stem.
ranged in verti Place it in a drop of water, and, with a couple
of needles, one in each hand, separate it into
what seem, to the naked eye, to be its constituent fibres,
just as you would separate a morsel of string into its finest
threads. When you have got it dissected out, put a cover
on as before, and examine it under the microscope. You
will probably find here, besides numerous cells of various
lengths, some long tubes, with their sides (zva//s) curiously
marked with delicate fibres, usually arranged in a spiral
direction, twisting round and round inside the tube—the
coils sometimes very close, sometimes loose; or you may
find the fibre in the form of separate rings in the inside of
the tubes. These tubes are called zesse/s. They originate
in this way: A number of cells, such as we saw before,
standing one over the other in a row, have the partitions
which separate them more or less completely removed, so
that the row of cells becomes open all through. We have
then a true vessel. Vessels are almost invariably marked
either by a spiral, netted, dotted, or ring-like thickening

Fic. 84. Cellular
tissues; the in-

VITI.] MINUTE STRUCTURE. 109

upon the inside of their walls. In Balsam this thickening
usually takes the form of a spiral fibre, but if you boil a bit
of Teak or Oak wood, half the size of a pea,in a few drops
of nitric acid for a few seconds, it will become white and
soft, and after washing it in water two or three times to
remove the dangerous acid, you may dissect it in the same
way as you did the Balsam. You will find the vessels
which it contains more or less like those in Fig. 86. The
larger vessels of Teak and Oak wood differ from those of
Balsam merely in the thickening on the inside of the vessel

Fic. 85. Spiral and annular vessels, Fic. 86. Dotted duct, associated with
associated with long narrow cells. long, tapering, thick-walled cells.

being more uniformly spread over the wall, omitting only
minute spots, which look like holes or pores through the
wall of the vessel. Such dotted vessels are very common
in wood, and may be easily observed by making very thin
slices of the wood lengthwise with a sharp razor.

Plants, then, are built up of cells, or of cells and vessels ;
the latter originating from cells.

4. Compare with the structure of Balsam that of the
following tissues, selected as well suited to show different
modifications of cells and vessels, because easily obtained
and requiring little preparation.

110 MINUTE STRUCTURE, (CHAP.

Pulp of any ripe fruit. Large, thin-walled cells.

Pith of a young branch of any tree. The cells are often
closely packed, and consequently polygonal.

Piece of the stone of a stone-fruit, or shell of a nut, as
Cocoa-nut, ground excessively thin, by rubbing it with the
finger upon a hone. The cells have very thick sides, so

Fic. 88. Cellular tissue, with the walls of
Fic. 87. Thin-walled cellular the cells much thickened, as in the stone
tissue of pith. of stone-fruits.

thick that sometimes the cavity is almost obliterated. The
“pores” are lengthened out into long “canals,” which
radiate from the cavity of each cell.

Yam. Potato. Thin-walled cells.

Young shoots of any Fern (boiled to a pulp). Large
vessels, marked with cross bars.

Pine-wood (thin slices, both lengthwise and across the
“srain”). Long, thick-walled, tapering cells, without any
vessels. The sides of the cells are marked with minute
disks. .

Thin petals, and petals doubled back to show the pro-
jecting cells on the folded edge.

Pollen. The grains are usually oval or roundish, and
generally separate. Compare the pollen of Hibiscus, Cu-
cumber or Gourd, Passion-flower, Lily, any Convolvulus, and

Vit. ] MINUTE STRUCTURE. II!

Thunbergia. Examine also the pollen-masses of Orchi-
daceze and Asclepiadez referred to in Part II.

5. We have spoken of cells as containing fluid. So they
do, as long as they continue to take part in the work of the
plant. But in the trunks of trees the cells forming the
older wood sometimes become so very thick-walled that
they cease to do any work, and, indeed, may be said to
have no room left to do it in.

6. Take some active, sufficiently transparent cells, such
as you find upon the margin of any young leaf bearing short
hairs upon its surface, and, removing a morsel of the leaf
without injuring the hairs upon it, place it in a drop of
water upon a glass slide under the microscope. You ob-
serve that each hair is simply a cell of the surface of the
leaf which has grown out into the air. Now, if you add
some fluid that will 42/7 the cell, such as a drop of spirits of
wine, you will find, after allowing it time to act, that the
contents of the cell separate from the wall of the cell and
collapse, lying as a loose sac or irregular mass in the middle.
We may, therefore, distinguish cell-contents from cell-wall.
And the distinction is an important one, since all the real
work of the plant is done by the cell-contents; the cell-walls
forming merely the framework of the workshops in which all
the secret and wonderful operations of plants are carried on.

It is this comparative isolation of an infinite number of
vital fragments that constitutes one of the most essential
differences between the vegetable and animal series of the
organized world.

7. In our second chapter we spoke of the elements
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, as existing in plants
in a series of peculiar combinations, some of which chemists
are not yet able to imitate in their laboratories. These
combinations we called ternary and quaternary, from their

t12 MINUTE STRUCTURE. [CHAP.

consisting respectively of three or of four elementary or
simple substances. The cell-wall consists of carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen, forming a ternary compound (ce//ulose). The
essential part of the ceil-contents consists of the same
elements combined with nitrogen and sulphur, constituting
protoplasm. Wherever we have growth going forward,
there we have protoplasm, in varied association with water,
in activity.

8. The way in which growth in plants takes place is
simply this. The contents of the cells of the growing part
divide into two, and between the halved contents there
forms a thin layer of the ternary cell-wall, which divides
each cell into two distinct cells. The new cells then in-
crease in size until they become as large as their parent
cell, when they each divide again, and the process is
repeated. As a general rule, long and tapering cells
acquire very thick walls, while short cells remain per-
manently thin, or become thickened according to circum:
stances.

g. In observing the tissue of a Yam or Potato, referred to
above as well adapted to show thin-walled, closely packed
cells, or of any similar farinaceous tuber or rhizome, you may
notice that the cells which are not cut into (and thus
emptied) in making a very thin slice are filled with very
minute oblong granules. If the slice be too thick, the
granules are so numerous that they entirely conceal the
delicate cell-walls. These granules, which are stored up in
nearly all the cells, are called starch granules. ‘To compare
with potato-starch, you may take the smallest possible pinch
of dry arrowroot and dust it upon your slide, and you will
find that the granules of which arrowroot consists, though
they differ a little in form, are, in other respects, like those
of potato-starch. You may make quite sure of it if you

Vill.] MINUTE STRUCTURE, 113

add a smai: drop of weak tincture of iodine, when they
ought at once to become a deep violet ; for iodine forms
with starch a violet-coloured compound.

Similar granules to those of the Potato, allowing for dif-
ferences in size and form, you may find in nearly all flowering
plants. ‘They are especially abundant in thickened roots,
in underground stems, and in seeds. In these organs the
starch is stored as a temporary reserve, to be made
use of after a winter’s rest, or (in the seed) at the time of
germination. The granules then dissolve, and may be said
to be eaten by the protoplasmic cell-contents. Starch is
identical in chemical composition with the ternary substance
of which the cell-wall is formed: it differs from it in being
a temporary deposit instead of a permanent one. It
originates always in direct connection with the chlorophyll-
granules of the leaves, whence it is conveyed, in what we
may here conveniently speak of as in solution, to those
tissues in which growth is actually taking place, or to other
organs destined to receive reserves of food available for
future use. Under high magnifying power the individual
grains of starch present more or less distinctly the appear-
ance of successive partial zones around a usually eccentric
focus. This is due, like the zoning in thickened cell-walls,
to the alternation of belts richer and poorer in water, and
sO varying in refractive power.

Another form in which temporary reserves are stored up
in the cells we find in the globules of oil, abundant in some
cells, especially of certain seeds and fruits. Hence we find
the principal source of our vegetable oils in the fruits of
different plants, as Sasamum (embryo), Olive (pulp of
drupe), Cocoa-nut (albumen), &c.

Sugar is another food-deposit of plants, differing from
starch in being soluble in the watery cell-sap which fills the

114 MINUTE STRUCTURE. [CHAP.

full-grown cells. It would appear to be usually an inter-
mediate condition of the plant’s ternary food, either pre-
ceding the formation or immediately following the solution
of starch. It abounds in the cell-sap of the stem of the
Sugar Cane and of some Palms.

10. There is another important cell-content of which we
have not spoken. If you take any green part of a plant
(and it will be best to take a morsel from some succulent
leaf, or the thin leaf of a Moss), and examine the cells under
a powerful microscope, you will find that the entire cells
are not coloured green, neither are the whole of the cell-
contents, but that the colouring matter is limited to very
minute granules lying in the colourless fluid contents.
These are called the chlorophyll granules. ‘The development
of the green colour of these granules is determined by the
action of light, as may be proved by growing plants in total
darkness, when they become blanched. The presence,
moreover, of a minute quantity of iron is found to be
essential to the assumption of the green coloration. ‘The
green colour may be easily removed by a little spirits of
wine, leaving the granules, which are essentially but simple
segregated portions of denser protoplasm, almost unaltered.
Upon the presence of the green colouring matter of these
granules under the influence of solar light indirectly depends
the most characteristic phenomenon of vegetable life—the
assimilation of material adapted to vegetable and animal
growth from the inorganic binary compounds, carbonic acid
and water.

tx. Besides starch, oil, and chlorophyll, there may fre-
quently be found minute crystals, either in the form of
needles, or collected into nodules, lying in the cavity of
cells. They are called vaphides, and are, generally, of
subordinate importance,

VIII. ] VASCULAR BUNDLES. 115

12. Besides the distinction which I have pointed out
between cells and vessels, you may roughly group the
different kinds of cells as /ozg or short. Long cells are
usually thick-sided, and often taper at each end, so that
when a number of them have grown together, forming a
tissue, we find such tissue to be generally firm and tough.
Such cells, together with a few vessels, form the principal
mass of wood, of petioles, and of the vezws of leaves. These
veins, which have nothing in common with the veins of
animals, serve as a sort of framework for the support of the
short cells which occupy their interstices. The short cells
of leaves are generally thin-walled, and during spring and
autumn they are busily engaged in elaborating the food of
the plant by the aid of the sun’s light and heat. The
bundles of long, thick-walled cells, with the vessels which
accompany them, forming the veins, we may speak of as the
fibro-vascular system, and the short cells as the cellular
system of the leaf. In the petiole the cellular system is
much reduced, and the fibro-vascular system is contracted
into narrow compass.

13. The arrangement of these systems, as they are termed,
in the stem, differs considerably in the two great Classes of
flowering plants.

Excepting in their single cotyledon and the behaviour
of the radicle in germination, Monocotyledons are not, at
first, materially different from Dicotyledons; but when one
or two seasons of growth are over, a marked difference in
the: mode of arrangement of their fibro-vascular bundles
becomes apparent. And this difference essentially consists
in the circumstance that in Monocotyledons the fibro-
vascular bundles remain permanently isolated, and, once
completed in the stem, do not receive any addition in thick-
ness, while in Dicotyledons they become confluent, forming

116 VASCULAR BUNDLES. [CiTAP.

a continuous ring around the pitn, and constantly increase
in thickness during the successive working seasons of the
tree by organically continuous additions to their outer side :
so that in Monocotyledons the bundles are closed or definite ;
in Dicotyledons continuous or indefinite.

But the nature of this difference you will appreciate
better when you understand thescom-
position or arrangement of the tissues
forming these fibro-vascular bundles.
Each bundle contains at first a layer of
cells ot extreme delicacy, which cells
are capable of undergoing division and
enlargement; and it is by means of
Fic. 89. Diagram repre- this layer only that the bundle can

ti th a ent - - a :
se the tissues in ¢ fAbro- INCrease in thickness. This layer of

lar bundle; Z the: :
liber, ¢ cambiumlayer, active cells is enclosed between two

w wood, 7 wide vessel of distinct systems; one system, on the

side towards the centre of the stem,

consisting of long, thick-walled cells and vessels, forming

the proper wood of the fibro-vascular bundle, and another

(smaller) system, on the side of the bundle towards the

circumference of the stem, characterised by thick-walled,
tapering cells, forming the “der system.

The figure (89) represents a fibro-vascular bundle cut
across, showing at ¢ the layer of delicate cells, called the
cambium layer, the cells of which divide and give off new
cells on each side—on the inner side wood-cells (w) and
vessels (v), on the outer side fibrous liber-cells (2). In
Dicotyledons these bundles are arranged in the stem in
such a manner, at a very early stage of its growth, that
the cambium-cells of the bundles, which are side by side,
coalesce, and thus form one continuous cylinder of multi-
plying and enlarging cells, The consequence is, that in

——————

vull.] EXOGENS. 117

Dicotyledons ail the wood is on the inside of this cambium-
cylinder, and new wood is deposited on the outside of wood
previously formed ; all the “der,
on the other hand, is on the out-
side of the cambium, and im-
mediately within the bark—of
which, indeed, the -liber is re-
garded as forming an inner layer.
Structure such as here described
is precisely what we find in the
stem of a Mango, or any other
dicotyledonous tree, which is said ¢¢. 40. Diagram showing the ar-
to be exogenous, from the circum- 22cment_of the Bbro-w

bundles (each of them wedge-
stance that the wood increases

shaped in cross-section) in the

stem of a young ang late. a

iti ; ; pale circle passing through eacl

by additions to its outside. bundle near its thicker end indi

In Monocotyledons, on the $5 aoe
other hand, the cambium-cells
of the different fibro-vascular bundles never coalesce so
as to form a cambium-cylinder: consequently they do not
form continuous rings of wood. The cambium-cells, there-
fore, soon cease their dividing and enlarging work, and the
fibro-vascular bundle is finished. We find, if we cut the
solid stem of a Monocotyledon across, that the noro-vascular
bundles are irregularly scattered all through the cellular
system of the stem. They are especially crowded towards
the circumference, which consequently becomes much
harder than the centre in Woody Monocotyledons. From
the mode of development of the fibro-vascular bundles, and
the direction which they take in the stem, the trunk of
Woody Monocotyledons does not usually increase in diameter
beyond a certain point, as we find in Palm-trees, which
frequently have tall cylindrical stems as thick at the top as
at the base. These peculiarities led the older botanists

118 ENDOGENS. [CHAP.

to call such stems exdogenous, from a notion that the younger
bundles were those in the centre of the stem, and that
they pushed and compressed
the older bundles towards the
outside.

14. But the structure of
Woody Dicotyledons requires
further examination.

Take a cross-section of the
stem of an Oak, or of any
branching tree from the cooler
mountain ranges, already several

Fic. 91. Diagram showing the ar-
rangement of the fibro-vascular

bundles in a cross-section of the ,, 1
stem of a Monocotyledon. wz & — old. You find in the centre

iibro-vascular bundles ; ¢ ¢cellular the remains Ol tHe (lili aaMeene

tissue,

Jar system of the stem reduced
to a very narrow cord, and distinguished as the Z7¢h.
When young the pith served to contain and to convey
nourishing fluids to the growing point; now it is dry
and useless. Surrounding the pith is the wood, forming
the great mass of the stem A number of concentric
rings are distinguishable in the wood, there being as
many rings as years that the stem has existed, one ring to
a year ; so that by counting the rings you may ascertain
the age of the stem. ‘The appearance of rings or annual
zones, in the wood, arises simply from the wood formed in
summer and autumn being denser, closer grained, and with
fewer vessels than that formed in spring.

With a little care you may notice that there are, as it
were, narrow rays proceeding from the pith to the bark.
These are actual plates of cellular tissue left between the
fibro-vascular bundles, which look like narrow rays when
cut through transversely. They are called the medullary
vays. They are usually very narrow, much narrower in most

vill. 1 WOOD. 61g

trees than in the Oak, the wood:of the common European
species of which, when cut lengthwise in the direction of
these rays, is marked by silvery patches of the cells of the
rays, forming what is called the silver-grain, which painters
imitate in painting wainscot.

It will be difficult to find the cambium-ring without using
a lens, but it is immediately within the dark, which it con-
nects with, while at the same time it separates it from, the
wood.

The outer layers of bark are usually composed of short
cells of corky texture, which serve to prevent the cambium-
layer from drying up, by checking evaporation from the
surface.

The inner or liber-layer of the bark of many plants and
trees is made use of for cordage and in cloth-making.
Hemp, sunn-hemp, jute, and flax, are all derived from this
layer, which, in the plants affording these products, is
very tough.

15. The questions now present—Through which of these
cells, or systems of cells, in the stem, is the watery sap
absorbed by the roots conveyed tothe leaves? And through
which are the products, elaborated in the leaves under the
influence of light, conveyed to their respective destinations
for present or future use? In other words, How do the
sap and nutrient fluids circulate in the plant? But these
questions, reasonable though they seem, it is impossible to
answer fully in the present state of our knowledge.

It is not our business just now to concern ourselves with
contested points ; so we must be content with a very general
and partial explanation. In the first place, we must recall
the fact that the entire plant is built up of closed cells and
vessels ; consequently, solid substances, even in the minutest
state of subdivision and suspension in water, cannot be

120 DIFFUSION. [CHAP.

admitted by healthy uninjured plants. Mistakes as to this
point have arisen from using injured or wounded plants for
experiment. Therefore only fluids, substances dissolved in
fluids, and gases, can be absorbed by the plant; viz. fluids
with solids or gases in solution by the roots, gases and
vapour by the leaves.

The circulation or transference of these fluids and gases
from cell to cell can only be by a@ffuston, a physical process,
probably controlled, in some way not yet imitable, by its
taking place in a living apparatus. This process of diffusion
depends upon two conditions. First, we must have two
fluids separated by a membrane of some kind which they
can permeate. Second, these fluids must be of different
chemical composition, or of different density. When these
conditions exist, a current is set up through the membrane,
which results in one of the fluids (the denser) increasing in
bulk at the expense of the other. This increase is due to
Diffusion. ‘The affinity of the membrane itself for one of the
fluids in preference to the other modifies the result. Now
these conditions obtain throughout all plants, excepting, of
course, the old dead and dry portions of trunks, &c. They
are built up of closed cells, containing fluids of various
density, and the walls of the cells are permeable. ‘The con-
sequence is, that there is a constant transmission of fluids
going forward throughout their tissues. This explanation of
the transference of fluids in plants no doubt is satisfactory so
far as it applies to tissues consisting of cells with relatively
large cavities, but when we find, as in many woody stems,
that the course of the fluid, the so-called “ ascending sap,”
absorbed by the root, is chiefly through the thick-walled
prosenchyma of the wood, the individual cells of which have
their walls much thickened, and their protoplasmic contents
mainly replaced by air, we are compelled to attribute the

VIII.] SAP. 121

transference of this fluid to the existence of some molecular
relation established between the substance of the cellulose
thickening of the cell-walls and the particles of water by
which it is freely permeable, the precise nature of which we
are not yet in a position to define, but which may be
currently described as capillary. Whatever explanation
may be ultimately adopted, the fact is clear that the chief
upward transference of fluid takes place through the wood-
cells of the vascular bundles, which collectively form in
Dicotyledons the sap-wood or alburnum, and that this
transference during active spring-vegetation is very rapid.
The direction of the, current is mainly determined by the
constant evaporation from the leaves, which necessarily
tends to render their cell-contents denser, so that the water
taken up by the surface-cells and hairs of the root-fibrils is
impelled upwards cell by cell, to restore the equilibrium,
until it reaches the leaves and other tissues exposed to
evaporation. The course which the ascending sap, as it is
termed, takes has been usually supposed to be through the
cells forming the younger layers of wood, the vessels assisting
when the current is rapid. This, however, is not absolutely
determined. The elaborated food-products, prepared in
the green organs under the influence of light, are generally
admitted to descend chiefly through the inner layers of
bark. Indeed, a rude experiment may be regarcled as
strongly confirming this view. If you remove a ring of bark
from the stem of a tree, or bind it very tightly round with
a strong hoop, no wood will be formed below the ring or
hoop. On the other hand, a considerable thickening will
take place immediately above it.

16. I have spoken of leaves as capable of absorbing gases,
especially carbonic-acid gas, and probably also vapour, from
the atmosphere.

122 EPIDERMIS, [CH. VIII

If a leaf be examined carefully, it will be found covered
with a thin skin or epidermis, which very often (in fleshy
leaves) may be torn off in filmy shreds. And a similar
epidermis covers nearly all the green and coloured organs
which are exposed to the air. If a piece of this epidermis,
torn from a leaf with the thumb and a sharp penknife, be
placed in a drop of water upon a glass slide, its structure
may be easily made out under the microscope. Suppose
a shred torn from the leaf of a Lily. It will be found
to consist of an excessively thin layer of flattened cells,
closely fitting at their angles. Scattered at intervals over
the epidermis are pairs of very small cells side by side,
with the ends in contact, as shown in the cut. Each pair
of cells forms a stomate. When the cells of the stomates are
rendered turgid by the absorption of fluid, they separate more
or less from each other, leaving a minute
opening in the middle between them. When
they are flaccid, the guard-cells remain close-
ly applied, and the orifice is closed. Under
ordinary conditions of the air as to moisture
they are open; when it is either very dry
or very moist, they are generally closed.

The stomates, therefore, serve to facilitate
the absorption of gases, and probably of
vapour, from the air. They do not how-
Fic. oe. Fragmentof ©VET: Open into cells, but into spaces be-

2 Seal ae 2 tween the cells of the leaf, called utercellular

spaces. ‘Theseintercellular spaces are widest

between the cells forming the lower layers of the leaf, and

we find that stomates are generally much more abundant in

the epidermis of the lower than of the upper surface of leaves.

There are no stomates on roots, nor usually, on surfaces
under water.

rere: fi.

FIRST BOOK OF INDIAN BOTANY.

CHAPTER I
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

1. Extension of the plan of examining Type-specimens to subordinate
groups.

2. The specific and generic names of plants. Individuals. Species.
Genera.

3. The Binomial method of naming plants. Diagnostic characters.

4. Arrangement of genera under superior groups. Subordination of
characters.

5. Varieties.

6. Explanation of the Type lessons. Necessity for a constant reference
to specimens.

1. In preceding chapters I have endeavoured to illustrate
the prevalent structure of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons,
by referring to a very limited number of common plants,
which we made use of to illustrate different kinds of modi-
fication in the various organs, and especially in the parts of
the flower.

Thus we made use of.the Poppy, and others, as examples
of the Dichlamydeous Sub-class, the Grasscloth Nettle of the
Monochlamydeous Sub-class, and the Willow of the Achlamy-
deous Sub-class of Dicotyledons. And further, we employed

124 CLASSIFICATION. [CHAP.

Poppy, Mustard, Rose, and Melastoma as examples of the
Polypetalous Division, and Zinnia, Rose, Periwinkle, and
Sweet Basil of the Gamopetalous Division, of the Dichlamy-
deous Sub-class ; and so on for each of the principal divisions
of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.

These illustrative examples we may regard as representa-
tive Types. Each type embodies the characteristics of a
large group, the members of which group, though they differ
from each other in minor details, such as regularity or irre-
gularity of the corolla, and sometimes in the number of
stamens and of carpels, generally agree in characters which,
from experience, we infer to be important, from their preva-
lence through a large number of plants. These important
characters are principally based upon adhesion, cohesion,
and suppression of the parts of the flower.

By extending this method, by selecting and carefully
studying types representing the principal subordinate groups,
called NATURAL ORDERS, of Indian Flowering Plants, we
shall lay the sure basis of a thoroughly scientific acquaintance
with them. The types which we presently proceed to select
from each important Natural Order are not always the best
suited to serve as representatives of such Order, because we
shall be obliged to make use of plants of which specimens
may be easily obtained, and these do not always happen to
be best adapted for the purpose. Besides, in some Natural
Orders the amount of variation in minor characters is so
considerable that we shall find it needful to employ Sub-types,
the relation of which to their type we shall endeavour to
make clear whenever we find it needful to employ them.

You must not be content with the examination of those
plants only which are employed as types. You must try to
refer to its type every flowering plant you meet with, and, in a
short time, you cannot fail to recognise easily the Natural

1.] CLASSIFICA TION. 125

Orders to which most Indian plants belong. In the follow-
lowing pages you will observe that in nearly every case each
plant is designated both by an English or native and by
a scientific name. This is done partly that you may be
familiarized with a plan of naming plants based upon defi-
nite principles, and partly that the memory may be stored
(though we would not have it burdened) with at least the
generic scientific names of the more important common
native and cultivated plants, which names are in use amongst
botanists of all countries.

2. The scientific name of every plant consists of two
words, a substantive and an adjective. The substantive is
the name of the genus, as Brown or Jones may be the name
of afamily. The adjective indicates the species, as John,
Thomas, or William indicates the individual member of a
family.

But sfecies is a collective term, and the same specific name
is applied to all the zzdividuals which belong to the same
species. All individual plants which resemble each other so
nearly that it is consistent with experience to suppose that
they may all have sprung from ene parent stock, are re-
garded as belonging to the same species. In other words,
the differences between the individuals of the same species
are generally not greater than we are accustomed to observe
between the individual plants in a field of Poppies, or of
Rice, or in a bed of any garden annual sown with seed
which we know to have been gathered originally from a
single plant. All plants, therefore, which resemble each
other thus nearly are referred to the same species, and the
same specific adjective name is employed to designate them.

Then again, species which resemble each other in all im-
portant particulars of structure (though it is impossible to
define the exact particulars, for to a great extent they are

126 CLASSIFICA TION. [CHAP.

arbitrary and of convenience,) may be referred to the same
genus, and the same generic substantive name is employed
to designate them. Thus, we refer all the species of Balsam
to the genus /mpatiens, and of Fig to the genus Fécus. In
this way we have gencra {plural of genus) including often
many species, sometimes several hundreds ; we have others,
again, which include few or but single species. In the
latter case we have species which are necessarily compara-
tively isolated in the characters «f their flowers; more so,
at least, than are the species of larger genera,

Fic. 93. Leaf of,Peepul “1G. 94. Of India-rubber Fic. 95. Of Banyan
(Ficus religiosa). Fig (F. elastica). (Ff. benghalensis).

3. Recoliect, then, that in the scientific name of a plant
we always state both the name of the genus and that of the
species to which it belongs. The generic name precedes.
Thus Sicus benghalensis, the Banyan, /icus religiosa, the
Peepul, and /icus elastica, the India-rubber tree, are three
distinct species of Fig familiar to every one in India; and
although they resemble each other very closely in the struc-
ture of their flowers and seeds, yet inspection of a single
detached leaf will enable any one to distinguishthem. The
brief characters which suffice to distinguish these species from

1.] CLASSIFICA TION. 127

each other are said to be diagnostic. The diagnostic cha-
racters, derived from the leaves only, of these three species
of Ficus are:

F. benghalensis—Leaves elliptical-ovate, obtuse; nerves
prominent beneath, distant, with intermediate reticulation,
the lower palmate.

fF. religiosa—Leaves broadly ovate, narrowed into a long
slender acumen, base narrowly cordate; nerves pinnate
from the base, scarcely prominent beneath, with intermediate
reticulation.

F. dastica—Leaves oblong or elliptical, abruptly apiculate,
base entire ; lateral nerves obscure, pinnate from the base,
very numerous and closely parallel, without intermediate
reticulation in the lower part of their course.

i will be observed that the diagnoses of species rest upon
comparatively slight modifications of structure. The dia-
gnoses of genera rest upon characters of higher importance
(characters more constant in the group than those used to
distinguish species), and so on for the groups superior to
the genus, the characters of each of which embrace, as we
have already shown, those of all their subordinates. The
method of denoting every plant and animal by two names, a
generic and specific, on a uniform plan, was invented by
Linnzus, and this Binomial method 1s now universally
adopted by naturalists.

The method of grouping genera into higher groups, ac-
cording to their resemblance in characters of successive
degrees of constancy, though indicated by the same eminent
man, has been the work of many collaborators, amongst
whom the names of Jussieu, Brown, and De Candolle are
pre-eminent.

4. Precisely as we group species under Genera, so we
group genera under Natural Orders. The Natural Orders

128 CLASSIFICA TION. [CHAP.

again (to which substantive names are applied for conve-
nience) under Divisions, the divisions under Sub-classes and
Classes, as we have already pointed out. Thus the charac-
ters of a Class are common not only to its Sub-classes and
Divisions, but to the Natural Orders, Genera, and Species
included in that Class. It follows, therefore, that the
characters of a Class must be more constant and more
general than those of a Sub-class or Division, those of a
Division than those of a Natural Order, of a Natural Order
than those of a Genus, and of a Genus than of the Species
which it includes.

5. Botanists distinguish as vardetzes groups of individuals
of a species which are marked in common by some trivial
character, subordinate in importance to the characters which
are used to separate species. Thus we may have orange and
purple varieties of the same species of Zinnia, awnless and
awned varieties of the same species of Rice, &c.; the colour
of the flower of the Zinnia and the presence or absence of
an awn in Rice being characters too liable to variation to
serve to separate species.

6. The following pages are chiefly devoted to an examina-
tion of representative Types of most of the Natural Orders
of flowering plants native in India.

I must here emphatically impress upon the beginner, that
it is useless attempting to study this portion of the book
without a constant reference to living specimens, without
which any information he may acquire from it will be com-
paratively unavailable when tested in the field. Numerous
references are given to plants which show peculiar departures
from the several Types. Specimens of these ought to be
procured whenever it is possible, and dried for further use in
the way described in the last chapter of this book. When
a preparation can be preserved without pressing it between

1.] CLASSIFICA TION. 129

papers, as for example many dried fruits, seeds, galls,
spines, &c., it would be well to have them thoroughly
dried and mounted upon pieces of card, labelled with the
name of the plant, the Natural Order to which it belongs,
the particular in which it departs from the Type, &c.
Preparations of plants used for economic purposes, whether
domestic, medicinal, in the arts, or otherwise, are always
interesting, and are very useful for purposes of illustration.
A few of these, which may be easily obtained, I have indi-
cated; but there are hundreds not mentioned and equally
accessible.

CHAPTER, i:

SYNOPSIS OF THE MORE IMPORTANT NATURAL ORDERS
OF INDIAN FLOWERING PLANTS.

ANGIOSPERMS.
DICOTYLEDONS,

DICHLAMYDE&. — Perianth double (calyx and corolla usually both
present).

PoLYPETAL#.—Corolla polypetalous (excepting in many Ternstr6-

miaceze and Olacacez, and in isolated genera of other Natural

Orders).

THALAMIFLOR4:.—Stamens usually hypogynous.

* Pistil apocarpous (excepting in some Dilleniacez,
Nympheeacez, and in the genus Anona).

RANUNCULACE& (p. 146).— Herbs with radical and
cauline (rarely floating) alternate leaves, or climbing
shrubs with opposite leaves (C/ematis). Petals five, fewer
or none; if none, the sepals are petal-like. Sepals and petals
deciduous. Stamens usually indefinite. Seed albuminous,
without an aril.

DILLENIACE& (p. 148).—Trees or shrubs with alternate
leaves, or herbs with radical leaves (Acrotrema). Sepals
persistent. Petals five or four. Stamens indefinite. Seeds
with an aril.

MAGNOLIACE& (p. 149).—-Trees or shrubs with convolute
stipules (except /é/icium, an exstipulate evergreen shrub of

CHAP, II.] KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. 131

Eastern Bengal). Sepals and petals trimerous (except
Llicium), imbricated. Stamens indefinite. Albumen uniform.

ANONACE& (p. 151).—Trees or shrubs with alternate
entire exstipulate leaves. Sepals and petals trimerous. Sta-
mens indefinite. Albumen ruminated.

MENISPERMACE# (p. 153). Climbing or twining shrubs
(except in Cocculus laurifolius of the Himalaya, a small tree
or erect shrub), and very smal] dicecious, usually trimerous
flowers. Stamens definite, often monadelphous. Carpels
usually three, varying with some multiple of three, or with
one. Embryo usually curved.

NYMPH ACE (p. 155).—Aquatic herbs, usually with large
flowers. Petals and stamens indefinite. Stigmas distinct.

** Pistil syncarpous (except in Connaracee).

PAPAVERACES (p. 157).—Herbs with white, coloured, or
(in Tribe /umariee) watery juice. Stamens indefinite, free,
or (in Fumariee) definite, diadelphous. Ovules parietal.

CRUCIFERZ (p. 159).—Herbs with alternate exstipulate
leaves. Sepals four. Petals four. Stamens usually tetra-
dynamous. Seeds without albumen.

CAPPARIDACE& (p. 161).—Herbs or shrubs with alternate,
often divided leaves. Sepals four. Petals four. Stamens
indefinite, or eight, six (not tetradynamous), or four. Ovary
often stipitate. Seeds usually exalbuminous.

VIOLARIEH (p. 163).— Trees, shrubs, or herbs with
alternate stipulate leaves. Sepals five. Petals five. Stamens
five; the connective of the anthers usually dilated, and
produced beyond the anther-cells. Ovary one-celled ; pla-
centas three.

BIXACE# (p. 164).—Trees or shrubs with alternate simple
leaves. Flowers unisexual or hermaphrodite, often apeta-
lous. Stamens indefinite. Seeds albuminous,

K 2

132 KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. [CHAY.

POLYGALACEZ (p. 165).—-Trees, shrubs, or herbs with
alternate simple exstipulate ieaves. Sepals unequal. Sta-
mens usually eight, united below, with the petals adherent
to the staminal sheath.

CARYOPHYLLACE& (p. 166).—Herbs with opposite simple
leaves. Ovary one-celled, with a free central placenta.

HYPERICINE# (p. 167).—Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees,
with opposite undivided leaves. Flowers hermaphrodite.
Calyx imbricate. Stamens indefinite, frequently cohering
below in three or more phalanges.

GUTTIFER# (p. 168).—Trees or shrubs with a resinous,
often coloured, juice, and opposite undivided glabrous
leaves. Flowers unisexual or polygamous. Calyx imbricate.

TERNSTROMIACEE (p. 169).—Trees or shrubs, usually with
alternate simple leaves. Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual.
Calyx imbricate. Stamens rarely definite.

DIPTEROCARPE# (p. 170).—Trees or climbing shrubs
(Ancistrocladus), usually resinous, with alternate penni-veined
simple leaves. Two or more of the segments of the calyx-
limb usually enlarged in fruit.

MALVACEZ (p. 173).—Herbs, shrubs, or trees with
alternate simple, frequently palmi-nerved leaves. Calyx-lobes
valvate. Stamens monadelphous, with one-celled anthers.

STERCULIACE (p. 176).—Trees, shrubs, or herbs with
alternate simple or digitate leaves. Calyx-lobes valvate.
Stamens monadelphous, indefinite or definite, or free and
definite, with or without alternating staminodes ; anthers
two-celled. .

TILIACE (p. 177).——Trees, shrubs, or herbs usually with
alternate simple leaves. Calyx-lobes valvate. Stamens
indefinite, usually free ; anthers two-celled.

LINACE# (p. 178).—Shrubs, herbs, or rarely trees, with
alternate undivided simple leaves. Sepals imbricate. Sta-

iI. | KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. 133

mens definite, more or less coherent below. Ovary undi-
vided ; ovules one or two in each cell.

MALPIGHIACE (p. 179).—Climbing shrubs with opposite
entire leaves. Calyx often with sessile glands. Petals
usually clawed. Stamens ten. Ovary three-lobed. Carpels
winged.

ZYGOPHYLLACE® (p. 180).—Herbs or low shrubs with
opposite stipulate compound leaves. Peduncles axillary,
one-flowered. Stamens eight or ten, free, citen with a
minute scale at the base of the filament.

GERANIACE# (p. 181).—Herbs with opposite or alternate
simple or compound leaves. Flowers regular or irregular
(the posterior sepal spurred in Tribe Ba/saminee), usually
two or more on axillary peduncles. Stamens definite. Ovary
lobed.

RUTACE& (p. 182).—Usually trees or shrubs with alter-
nate or opposite compound (pinnate, or tri- or uni-foliolate)
leaves, dotted with translucent glands. Stamens as many or
twice as many as petals (in Citrus and Aegde indefinite).

OcHNACE# (p. 184).—Shrubs or trees with alternate,
shining, coriaceous, simple, eglandular leaves. Anthers
linear, often elongate. Ovary lobed deeply. Fruit of
three to five, or more, distinct drupes.

BURSERACE& (p. 185).—Trees with resinous juice, alter-
nate compound leaves, and small, panicled or racemose
flowers. Stamens free, as many or twice as many as petals.
Ovary entire, with two or more cells.

MELIACE (p. 186).—Trees or shrubs with alternate com-
pound leaves, and panicled flowers. Stamens definite,
monadelphous (except in Cedreda and Chloroxylon). Ovary
entire.

OLAcAcE# (p. 188).—Shrubs or trees usually with alter-
nate entire leaves, and axillary fascicles spikes or racemes

134 KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. | CHAP.

of small flowers. Petals free or connate, usually valvate.
Ovary one—or imperfectly three—or more-celled.
AMPELIDE& (p. 188).— Usually shrubs with jointed stems,
climbing by tendrils, or in Zeea erect. Leaves alternate,
simple, or tri- to quinque-foliolate (or compound-pinnate in
Lcea). Flowers minute, cymose, greenish. Petals valvate, ca-
ducous. Stamens as many as petals, and opposite to them.
SAPINDACE# (p. 190).— Usually trees (in Cardiospermum,
a scandent herb,) with alternate pinnate leaves, and small,
often panicled, polygamous flowers. Stamens free, fre-
quently anisomerous. Ovary three-, four-, or two-celled.
ANACARDIACEZ (p. 192).—Trees, often resinous, with
alternate or opposite, simple or compound leaves. Flowers
small. Ovary one-celled (in Sfondias and allies, two to
five-celled) ; ovules solitary.
CONNARACE# (p. 193).—Trees or shrubs with alternate
compound leaves. Flowers small, regular, in racemes or
panicles. Stamens definite. Pistil apocarpous.

CALYCIFLORA!.—Stamens usually perigynous or
epigynous.

LEGUMINOS (p. 194).—Trees or shrubs usually with
alternate compound (pinnate, tri- or uni-foliolate) leaves.
Flowers irregular (except in Tribe J“imosee). Carpel
solitary.

RosacE& (p. 200).—Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate,
entire or divided leaves. Flowers regular. Ovary free or
adherent to the calyx-tube (when, if there be two or more
carpels, it becomes apparently syncarpous).

COMBRETACE® (p. 203).—Trees or shrubs with opposite
or alternate simple leaves. Flowers with or without petals.
Ovary wholly inferior, one-celled, with pendulous ovules.

11.) KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. 135

CELASTRACE# (p. 204).—Shrubs or trees with opposite
or alternate simple leaves, and minute flowers. Ovary
more or less immersed in a disk. Stamens alternate with
the petals and equal in number, or only three.

RHAMNACE# (p. 205).—Trees or shrubs with alternate
simple leaves, and minute flowers. Stamens opposite to
the petals and equal in number.

MELASTOMACEZ (p. 206).—Herbs or shrubs with opposite
entire, usually three-nerved leaves. Petals twisted in bud.
Stamens ten or fewer, perigynous; anthers frequently
appendaged. Ovary free or adnate.

MyrtTAcE# (p. 208).—Trees or shrubs usually with oppo-
site entire leaves marked with translucent glandular dots.
Stamens indefinite, perigynous. Ovary adherent, with axile
placentation.

RHIZOPHORACES (p. 210).—Trees or shrubs with opposite
entire coriaceous leaves. Calyx-lobes valvate. Petals often
fringed. Stamens usually some multiple of the petals.
Ovary more or less adherent.

ONAGRACE# (p. 211).—Herbs with alternate or opposite
simple (sometimes if submerged, divided) leaves. Calyx-
teeth usually four, valvate. Ovary inferior, two- or four-
celled, with indefinite (rarely definite) ovules.

LYTHRACEZ (p. 212).— Trees, shrubs, or herbs with
opposite or alternate simple leaves. Ovary free.

CUCURBITACE (p. 213).—Climbing or prostrate herbs
with alternate, usually palmately-nerved leaves, and lateral
tendrils. Flowers unisexual. Stamens usually three (one
with half an anther). Ovary inferior. Seeds exalbuminous.

BEGONIACE® (p. 216).—Succulent herbs with oblique,
radical, or alternate cauline leaves. Flowers unisexual.
Stamens indefinite. Ovary inferior, three-celled; ovules
indefinite:

136 KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. [CHAP.

CRASSULACE& (p. 217).—Herbs or shrubs, usually with
fleshy leaves. Flowers regular, hermaphrodite. Stamens
definite. Pistil nearly apocarpous; ovary superior.

SAXIFRAGE& (p. 218).— Herbs, shrubs, or trees with
alternate or opposite simple leaves (in Indian species).
Stamens usually ten or fewer, perigynous. Ovary more or
less adherent to the calyx-tube. Seeds usually indefinite,
elbuminous.

UMBELLIFER# (p. 219).—Herbs with hollow stems and
alternate sheathing, divided or dissected leaves (orbicular
and peltate in Aydrocotyle), and small umbellate flowers.
Petals five. Stamens five; epigynous. Carpels two; when
ripe, dry, indehiscent, and usually separating.

ARALIACEZ (p. 222).— Trees, shrubs, or herbs with
alternate simple or compound leaves. Petals and stamens
epigynous. Fruit usually succulent, indehiscent, and not
separating into its constituent (two or more) carpels.

LORANTHACE# (p. 223).—Parasitical shrubs with opposite
or alternate coriaceous simple leaves. Stamens opposite to
the apparent petals, and adnate to them below. Ovary
inferior. Fruit one-seeded. Seed albuminous.

GAMOPETAL. — Corolla with the petals united.
(Petals exceptionally free in some species of Ericacez,
Campanulacesze, Styracaceze, Oleaceze, Primulaceze, and
Plumbaginacez).

* Ovary inferior (except in a few Campanulaceze and
Styracaceze).

RUBIACE# (p. 224).—Trees, shrubs, or herbs with oppo-
site simple leaves and interpetiolar stipules, or in some
herbs with verticillate leaves. Stamens as many as corolla-
lobes, epipetalous.

I1.] KEV TO NATURAL ORDERS. 137

ComposiT& (p. 227).— Trees, shrubs, or herbs with
alternate or opposite leaves, and capitate inflorescence.
Stamens as many as corolla-lobes; anthers syngenesious.
Ovary one-celled, with one erect ovule.

CAMPANULACEZ (p. 231).—Herbs or shrubs with alternate
or opposite exstipulate leaves and milky juice. Stamens as
many as corolla-lobes ; epigynous. Ovary two- to three- or
more-celled. Seeds indefinite.

STYRACACE& (p. 233).—Trees or shrubs with alternate
simple leaves. Stamens often indefinite, inserted on the
base of the corolla-tube. Seeds usually solitary.

ERICACEA&, Tribe Vacciniee (p. 232).—Shrubs or trees with
alternate simple leaves. Stamens epigynous, usually twice
as many as corolla-lobes. Anthers opening by pores,
often appendaged. Seeds indefinite.

** Ovary superior.

ERICACE&, Tribe Zricee, (p. 233).—As in Tribe Vacciniee.

EBENACE (p. 234).—Trees or shrubs with alternate
entire leaves, and regular, usually polygamous, flowers.
Stamens inserted on the base of the corolla or hypogy-
nous, usually a multiple of the corolla-lobes. Ovules one
or two in each cell of the ovary.

SAPOTACE# (p. 235).—Trees or shrubs with alternate
entire leaves. Flowers regular. Stamens opposite to the
corolla-lobes, as many or twice as many; often with nume-
rous scale-like staminodes. Ovules solitary or in pairs, in
each cell of the ovary.

OLEACE& (p. 236).—Trees or shrubs with opposite leaves,
Flowers regular. Stamens two. Ovary two-celled ; ovules
one or two in each cell.

APOCYNACE (p. 238).—Trees, shrubs, often climbing or
twining, or herbs with opposite or rarely alternate, exsti-

138 KEV TO NATURAL ORDERS. [CHAP.

pulate simple entire leaves. Flowers regular. Stamens five,
alternate with corolla-lobes. Carpels two, usually distinct
in the ovary, united in the style and stigma.

ASCLEPIADEZ (p. 239).—Shrubs or herbs, often climbing,
with opposite entire exstipulate leaves. Flowers regular.
Stamens five; anthers coherent around the stigma; pollen
usually consolidated in masses attached to minute stigmatic
glands. Carpels as in Afocynacee.

LOGANIACE& (p. 242).—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, sometimes
twining, with opposite entire leaves, often with interpetiolar
stipules. Flowers regular. Stamens as many as, and alter-
nate with, the corolla-lobes. Ovary usually two-celled.

GENTIANACE# (p. 243).— Herbs with opposite entire
leaves, rarelv twining, or an aquatic with floating leaves ;
taste bitter. Flowers regular. Stamens as many as, and
alternate with, the corolla-lobes. Ovary usually one-celled,
with parietal placentas and indefinite ovules.

BIGNONIACE& (p. 244).——Usually climbing shrubs or trees
with opposite, rarely simple, exstipulate leaves. Flowers
irregular. Stamens fewer than corolla-lobes. Ovary two-
celled, with indefinite ovules. Fruit a capsule, with winged
seeds.

PEDALIACEZ (p. 245).— Herbs with opposite leaves.
Flowers irregular. tamens fewer than _ corolla-lobes.
Pistil usually dicarpellary with the ovary four-celled ;
ovules indefinite, rarely solitary.

CONVOLVULACE& (p. 247).—Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees,
usually twining or prostrate (in Cuscuta a leafless parasite),
with alternate leaves, and usually showy regular flowers,
with a plaited funnel-shaped corolla. Stamens as many as
corolla-lobes, and alternate with them. Ovary two- or four-
celled, with one or two ovules in each cell. Cotyledons
usually folded.

11. } KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. 139

BORAGINACE& (p. 248).—Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees,
with alternate simple, often roughly hairy, exstipulate leaves,
and cymose, usually unilateral, inflorescence. Flowers re-
gular. Stamens as many as corolla-lobes, and alternate with
them. Ovary four- (or two-) lobed, with one ovule in each
lobe. Style one, sometimes forked above.

SOLANACEZ (p. 249).—Herbs, shrubs, or sometimes trees,
with alternate exstipulate leaves, and often extra-axillary
inflorescence. Flowers regular. Stamens as many as, and
alternate with, corolla-lobes (anthers opening in terminal
pores in Solanum). Ovary two-celled, with indefinite
ovules. Seeds albuminous ; embryo rarely straight.

SCROPHULARIACE& (p. 252).— Usually herbs with alternate
or opposite exstipulate leaves. Flowers irregular. Stamens
fewer than corolla-lobes. Ovary two-celled, with indefinite
ovules. Seeds albuminous ; embryo usually straight.

LENTIBULARIEZ (p. 254).—Herbs growing in water or in
damp places; the aquatic species usually with dissected
leaves bearing minute air-vesicles. Flowers two-lipped.
Stamens two. Ovary one-celled, with a free central placenta
and indefinite ovules.

ACANTHACE& (p. 255).—Herbs or shrubs (in Zhunbergia
usually twining) with opposite simple exstipulate leaves.
Flowers irregular, often with conspicuous bracts. Stamens
fewer than corolla-lobes. Ovary two-celled, with two or more
ovules in each cell. Fruit a two-valved capsule, with the
seeds supported on horny hooks or cushions of the placenta.

LABIAT& (p. 257).—Herbs or shrubs, usually aromatic,
with opposite leaves and irregular flowers. Stamens fewer
than corolla-lobes. Ovary four-lobed, four-celled, with one
ovule in each cell. Style one, gynobasic.

VERBENACEZ (p. 259).— Trees, shrubs, or heris with
opposite leaves and irregular flowers. Flowers fewer than

140 KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. (CHAP.

corolla-lobes. Ovary four-celled, entire with one ovule in,
each cell. Style one, terminal.

MyrsINacE#& (p. 260).—Trees or shrubs, with alternate
often glandular-dotted entire leaves, and regular flowers.
Stamens as many as corolla-lobes, and opposite to them.
Ovary one-celled, with a free central placenta. Seeds one
or more.

PRIMULACE# (p. 261).--Herbs, with radical or alternate
leaves. Flowers regular. Stamens as many as corolla-lobes,
and opposite to them. Ovary one-celled, with a free central
placenta. Style one. Seeds indefinite.

PLUMBAGINACE (p. 263).—Herbs or shrubs with radical
or alternate leaves. Flowers regular. Stamens as many as
corolla-lobes (often nearly free to the base), and opposite to
them. Ovary one-celled, with a solitary ovule suspended
from a slender funicle. Styles five.

PLANTAGINACE (p. 264).—Herbs with radical or rarely
cauline leaves, and small greenish or scarious, regular, often
spicate flowers. Sepals four. Stamens four, exserted, and
alternate with corolla-lobes. Style simple.

INCOMPLETA:.—Perianth simple or none (double in
some Euphorbiacez).

NYCTAGINACEE (p. 265).—Herbs, shrubs, or trees with
alternate or opposite (unequal) leaves. Flowers regular,
hermaphrodite, usually coloured ; base of the perianth per-
sistent, closely investing the superior one-celled, one-seeded
nut. Seed albuminous, with a curved embryo.

CHENOPODIACE (p. 266).—Usually herbs with alternate
or opposite exstipulate leaves and minute herbaceous her-

11] KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. 141

maphrodite or unisexual flowers. Stamens when equalling
lobes of perianth in number, opposite to them. Ovary
superior, one-celled, with a solitary ovule. Seed albuminous,
with a curved embryo.

AMARANTACE (p. 268).—Herbs or shrubs (Deeringia)
with opposite or alternate exstipulate leaves and minute
scarious hermaphrodite or. unisexual flowers. Stamens
usually five. Ovary superior, one-celled, with one ovule, or
several ovules on a central placenta. Seeds albuminous,
with a curved embryo.

POLYGONACE# (p. 269).—Herbs or shrubs with alternate
simple leaves and sheathing stipules, and small greenish
or coloured hermaphrodite or unisexual flowers. Ovary
superior, with a solitary erect ovule; stigmas two or more.
Seeds albuminous, with a straight or slightly curved
embryo.

URTICACE& (p. 270).—Trees, shrubs, or herbs with usually
alternate stipulate leaves and minute herbaceous unisexual
flowers. Stamens as many as perianth-segments, and oppo-
site to them. Ovary free. Fruit one-seeded.

EUPHORBIACE (p. 276).—Trees, shrubs, or herbs with
unisexual flowers. Ovary free, three-celled, with one or two
pendulous ovules in each cell. Seeds albuminous.

ARISTOLOCHIACE& (p. 281).—Climbing shrubs or herbs
with alternate leaves, and usually an irregular perianth,
valvate in bud. Ovary inferior, three- to six-celled ; ovules
indefinite.

NEPENTHACE& (p. 281).—Climbing shrubs with alternate
pitcher-bearing leaves, and racemose dicecious flowers.

SALICACE& (p. 282).—Trees or shrubs with alternate
leaves, and dicecious amentaceous flowers. Perianth 0, or
rudimentary. Ovary free, one-celled; ovules indefinite,
basal or parictal.

142 KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS, [CHAP.

CUPULIFER& (p. 284).—Trees with alternate stipulate
simple leaves and moncecious flowers. Ovary inferior,
surmounted by a rudimentary, toothed perianth-limb ; two-
or more-celled. Fruit one-celled, one-seeded. Seed ex-
albuminous.

THYMELACE (p. 286).—Shrubs with a tenacious bark.
Flowers usually hermaphrodite. Stamens definite. Ovary
free, one-celled, with one pendulous ovule (except <Aguz-
laria).

SANTALACE& (p. 287).—Herbs, shrubs, or trees with alter-
nate or opposite entire leaves. Flowers hermaphrodite or
unisexual. Stamens opposite to the perianth-lobes. Ovary
inferior, with few ovules suspended from a free central
placenta.

ELAAGNACE (p. 289).—Trees or shrubs more or less
covered with silvery scurf-scales. Flowers usually hermaph-
rodite. Base of perianth-tube persistent around the free
one-celled ovary. Ovule one, erect.

MyrisTICACE& (p. 290).—Trees or shrubs, with alternate
entire leaves and inconspicuous dicecious flowers. Stamens
monadelphous. Ovary free, one-celled, with one erect ovule.
Seed with ruminated albumen.

LAURACEE (p. 291),—Trees or shrubs (or leafless para-
sites in Cassytha) with entire, usually evergreen, leaves.
Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual. Anthers opening by
recurved valves. Ovary one-celled, free, with one pendu-
lous ovule. Albumen o.

PIPERACE (p. 292).—Jointed shrubs or herbs with alter-
nate or opposite simple leaves. Flowers in spikes (or
racemes), hermaphrodite or unisexual. Perianth o. Stamens
two, or three. Ovary one-celled, one-ovuled. Seed albu-
minous. —

———

I.] KEY 70 NATURAL ORDERS. 143
GYMNOSPERMS.

CoNIFER& (p. 294).—Branching trees with simple, usually
acicular or linear leaves.

CYCADACE (p. 299).—Unbranched trees with a terminal
crown of pinnate leaves.

ANGIOSPERMS (continued).
MONOCOTYLEDONS.

PALMACEZ (p. 300).—Stem woody, erect, or slender and
scrambling, or acaulescent. Leaves very large, in terminal
tufts ; pinnately or palmately incised or compound. Peri-
anth six-leaved. Ovary free, of three distinct or united
carpels.

PANDANACEZ (p. 303).—Stem woody or herbaceous.
Leaves linear, sheathing (pinnate in JVZa). Flowers
unisexual, sessile in heads or spikes. Perianth o (except
in staminate flowers of /ViZa). Ovary one-celled.

TYPHACEZ (p. 304).—Marsh herbs with linear leaves and
spicate or capitate unisexual flowers. Perianth o. Fruit
a dry, one-seeded nut.

AROIDE (p. 305).—Stem herbaceous or woody, often
scandent, or acaulescent. Leaves usually net-veined. Flowers
unisexual or hermaphrodite, sessile on a spadix. Perianth
o, or of minute scales.

PISTIACEZ (p. 308).—Floating herbs, in Lemna consisting
of minute leaf-like fronds. Spadix adnate to the spathe.
Perianth o. Ovary one-celled, with indefinite laterally
affixed ovules.

TACCACE& (p. 309).— Herbs with radical, entire or divided
leaves. Flowers umbellate, on long scapes, regular, hermaph-
rodite. Perianth six-lobed. Ovary inferior, with numerous
ovules on three parietal placentas,

144 KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. [CHAE,

DroscOREACEZ (p. 309).— Usually twining herbs with net-
veined simple or digitate leaves. Flowers unisexual. Peri-
anth six-lobed. Ovary inferior, three-celled.

LILIACE (p. 310).—Herbs (in Dracena shrubs or tree-
like). Perianth six-leaved, regular, coloured. Stamens six.
Ovary superior, three-celled.

JUNCACEZ (p. 312).—Herbs with grass-like or quilllike
leaves. Perianth six-leaved, regular, scarious. Stamens six.
Ovary superior.

COMMELYNACE# (p. 313).—Herbs, the leaves usually
deeply sheathing at the base. Perianth nearly regular, the
three inner segments petaloid, three outer herbaceous.
Stamens six, or fewer. Ovary superior, three- or two-celled.

ERIOCAULONEZ (p. 314).— Aquatic or marsh herbs.
Flowers minute, unisexual, in terminal heads. Perianth of
staminate flowers tubular ; of pistillate, three-leaved.

PONTEDERIACEE (p. 314).—Aquatic herbs. Flowers her-
maphrodite, petaloid, irregular, racemose from the sheath of
the upper or only leaf of the scape. Ovary superior.

ORCHIDACE (p. 315).—Epiphytal or terrestrial herbs,
rarely scandent. Flowers irregular. Stamen one (except
Cyripedium with two), consolidated with the stigma. Ovary
inferior.

BURMANNIACEZ (p. 322). —Herbs with grass-like or scaly
leaves. Flowers regular, hermaphrodite. Perianth coloured. |
Stamens three to six. Ovary inferior.

SCITAMINE& (p. 322).—Herbs with irregular coloured
flowers. Stamen one, free (except in AZwsa). Ovary inferior,
three-celled.

AMARYLLIDE# (p. 326).—Herbs with regular coloured
flowers. Perianth six-lobed. Stamens six. Ovary inferior,
three-celled.

IRIDACEZ (p. 329).—Herbs with regular or irregular

11. ] KEY TO NATURAL ORDERS. 145

coloured flowers. Stamens three. Ovary inferior, three-
celled.

HyDROCHARIDACE& (p. 329).— Submerged or floating
herbs. Flowers usually unisexual. Perianth three- to six-
leaved. Ovary inferior. Seeds exalbuminous.

ALISMACE2 (p. 331).—Aquatic herbs. Perianth free, siy-
leaved ; three inner leaves petaloid. Pistil apocarpor.s.
Seeds exalbuminous.

NAIADACE# (p. 332).—Floating or submerged herbs.
Perianth minute, four-leaved or o. Stamens one, two, or tour.
Ovary free, of one, two, or four distinct carpels. Seed
exalbuminous.

CYPERACE& (p. 333).-—Grass-like herbs. Sheaths of the
leaves entire (not split). Flowers hermaphrodite or uni-
sexual, naked or perianth reduced to bristles ; each in the
axil of a single scaly bract. Embryo at the base of copious
albumen.

GRAMINE# (p. 335).—Grasses. Herbs (except in Bam-
busa and allies). Sheaths of the leaves usually split.
Flowers usually perfect, sheathed by two-rowed scaly
bracts (glumes), of which the innermost (pale) is usually
two-nerved. Embryo obliquely applied at the base of
copious albumen.

CHAPTER III.

EXAMINATION OF TYPICAL SPECIES OF THE PRINCIPAL
NATURAL ORDERS OF INDIAN FLOWERING PLATS.

CLASS I.—DIcoTyLepDons.
SuB-cLAss— Dichlamydee. Diviston—Thalamiiore.

* Pistil distinctly apocarpous (excepting in some Dillen.
lacezee, Nymphzeacez, and the genus Anona).

1. Natural Order, Ranunculacee.—The Ranunculus Family.

Herbs with radical and cauline or floating leaves, or
climbing shrubs with opposite leaves. Petals five, fewer, or
0; if o, the sepals are petaloid. Stamens usually indefinite.
Seeds without an aril.

Wt Me

Wic. 96. Vertical section of flower of Ranunculus.

CHAP. III. } RANUNCULACE. 147

Tyvpe—Ranunculus (any species).

Herbs usually growing in damp places (one species
floating in water), with entire or divided, simple, radical

Fic. 97. Achene of Ranunculus Fic. g8. Vertical section of seed of
laid open. Ranurculus.

and cauline leaves, and regular yellow or white flowers, with
deciduous sepals.

Seed solitary, albuminous. Embryo minute.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.

sepals. s(-3)

Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous. |
petals. 5(-15) |
Stamens. roe) Polyandrous. Hypogynous. _ Ewa |
Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.

carpels. co ; Rae geeay’

The deviations from this type are so considerable that
reference should be made to three Sub-types, each of
which is represented in India as well as in Europe, though
in India generally confined to the Himalaya, very few
occurring in the temperate mountainous regions of the
south, and still fewer in the hot plains.

SuB-TYPE 1 (C/lematis).—Stem woody, usually climbing.
Leaves opposite, compound. Sepals petaloid, valvate in
bud. Petals 0, or inconspicuous. Carpels co.

148 DILLENIA CEA CHAP.

SuB-TYPE 2 (Amemone).—Low herbs, with divided, simple
leaves. Flowers regular, with a leafy involucre. Sepals
imbricate. Petals o. Carpels o.

SuB-TYPE 3 (Aconitum).—Perennial herbs. Flowers irre-
gular. Sepals 5, petaloid ; the upper one helmet-shaped
(galeate). Petals 2, spurred; the rest suppressed or very
small. Carpels 3 or 6, several-seeded.

Compare the fruits of
Clematis, Ranunculus, or Anemone . . achene.
Actea (Himalayan plant identical with an
English species) . . =: (a 0% cae
Aconitum (Monkshood), or Delphinium
CLarks pitt) Jem je2! is . 0 &)) qo ene
Nigella (a garden eaten 2 |e) Ja pene anal nee ee

This Family, relatively abundant in temperate and arctic
countries, does not contribute materially to Indian tropical
vegetation.

Many of the species have an acrid juice, and some are
dangerous poisons, as the Aconite, especially Aconitum
ferox of the temperate Himalaya, which is one of the
species affording the Bikh poison. Other species are useful
in medicine ; amongst the rest, some of the Aconites
and the Mishmee “ Teeta” (Cofézs), the latter a herb of
Upper Assam, scarcely known to botanists, although the
bitter root is collected as a drug by native tribes.

2. Natural Order, Dil/eniacee.—The Dillenia Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs with distinctly alternate or radical
leaves. Sepals persistent. Petals 5 or 4. Stamens indefinite.
Seeds with an aril.

TypE—Dzillenia speciosa.
A spreading tree of moderate size, with alternate, simple,

II. ] MAGNOLIACE HZ. 149

serrate leaves, and large, white, solitary, regular flowers,
with persistent sepals.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion. |

Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.

sepals. 5

Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5

Stamens. ro) Polyandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels co)

Seeds oo, albuminous, hairy.

OBSERVE the climbing genera, Delima, Tetracera, and
Schumacheria; the herbaceous Ceylonese and Peninsular
genus Acrotrema; the normally apocarpous fruit and arillate
seeds of the Family.

The type-species (Dilvenia speciosa) presents, in respect
of the pistil, an aberrant character in the Order, the nume-
rous carpels being consolidated with the fleshy axis.

Compare the apocarpous fruit, with dehiscent carpels, of
Delima, Tetracera, and Wormia, with the indehiscent fruit
of Dillenia, enclosed in the thickened, fleshy, persistent
sepals.

The fruit of Did/enia has an agreeably acid taste, and
may be used in jellies.

3. Natural Order, Magnoliacee.—The Magnolia Family.

Trees or shrubs with convolute stipules (except ///icium).
Sepals and petals trimerous (except in ///ctum), imbricated.
Albumen uniform.

Type—Jfichelia Champaca.
A moderate-sized tree, common in gardens all over India,

150 MAGNOLIACE.. [CHAP.

with alternate, entire, stipulate leaves, and large, axillary,
sweet-scented, yellow flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. ae Polysepalous. Inferior.
8
sepals. Bris
Corolla. ae Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
tre | —
petals. |
Stamens. co Polyandrous. Hypogynous,
Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
carpels. ©

Seeds solitary, albuminous.

OxssERVE the large convolvute, deciduous stipules, which
sheath the leaf-buds: the tendency to an arrangement of
the sepals and petals in threes, less evident in the Champaca
than in some other Magnolias: the carpels of Champaca
arranged upon a long receptacle, three to four inches in
length when in fruit, and raised by a short stalk above the
envelopes of the flower: the fruit-carpels splitting dorsally
when ripe; the seeds pendulous, by a thread-like funicle,
after dehiscence of the carpels: the
carpels of Zalauma, dehiscing by
the ventral suture and falling away
from the axis, leaving the ripe seeds
suspended to it.

Compare the axillary flowers of
the Champaca with the terminal
Fic. 99. Star Anise (/Zicium). flowers of the true Magnolias.

The fruit apocarpous. Car- 3 : che

pels uniseriate, dehiscing by A species of Star Anise (//Zicium),

their ventral sutures. e . . .

growing in the Khasia mountains,
represents a section of the Family, differing from the type

ut] ANONACEZ. 151

in the absence of stipules, and in the carpels arranged in
a single whorl instead of upon an elongated receptacle.

The flowers of the Magnolias are extremely handsome
and often powerfully scented. In some species, as in the
magnificent J/agnolia Campbelli of Darjiling, they appear
before the leaves. Some of the Himalayan species grow
to a large size, and afford a useful timber.

4. Natural Order, Anonacee.—The Custard-Apple Family.

Trees or shrubs with alternate, entire, exstipulate leaves.
Sepals and petals trimerous. Stamens indefinite. Albumen
ruminate.

Type—The Sweet-sop, Anmona squamosa (or
Custard-Apple,! A. reticulata),

West Indian trees, cultivated very extensively through the
tropics, with alternate, entire, lanceolate, exstipulate leaves,
and the sepals and petals in whorls of three.

Organ. No. Cokesion. Adhesion. |
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 3
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous,
petals. 6
Stamens. co Polyandrous. | Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. co

Seeds one in each cell, with ruminated albumen.

The above species are selected as types, because they
are so generally cultivated throughout India, whilst very few

1 In India, A. sgwamosa is everywhere called the Custard-Apple;
while A. reticulata is sometimes called the Sweet-sop.

152 ANONACE. [CHAP.

of the native species are widely spread. Their well-known
fruits, however, are not characteristic of the Family. In
all other Indian species, one hundred and twenty or one
hundred and thirty in number, the carpels are entirely

Fic. 100. Custard-Apple (A ona reticulata), flowering branch, with detached fruit
(much reduced).

distinct, so that the fruit is apocarpous. In other respects
the Custard-Apple is typical.

OBSERVE the woody, hooked peduncles of the Sweet-
scented Artabotrys, common in gardens: the trimerous
symmetry of the flowers exceptional amongst Dicotyledons:
the valvate eestivation of the sepals and petals in most of
the Family: the variable number of carpels and of seeds in
each fruit-carpel in different genera; comparing the one-
seeded carpels of Guwatteria longifolia with the (usually)
several-seeded moniliform carpels of Unona discolor, both
common in gardens. Note, also, the constantly ruminated
albumen of the seeds.

urd} MENISPERMACE. 153

5. Natural Order, AZenzspermacee.—The Moonseed Family.

Climbing or twining shrubs with alternate leaves, and
very small dicecious flowers. Stamens definite, often mon-
adelphous. Carpels usually three.

Fic. ror. Tinosfora cordifolia; the lower figure with young achenes (reduced'

TyPE— Zinospora cordifolia.

A common straggling, woody, climbing or twining plant,
with corky, warted bark, alternate, petiolate, cordate leaves,
and axiliary racemes of small, yellow, dioecious flowers.

154 MENISPERMACEE, (CHAP,

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 6
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 6

é Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. Hypogynous.
9 Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
carpels. 3

Seeds solitary, curved, with ruminated albumen.

OBSERVE the broad medullary-rays in a cross-section of
the stem of any of the larger species, as Czssampelos
Pareira: the formation of successive concentric rings of
distinct vascular bundles, also well shown in cross-sections
of thick-stemmed species: the development of thread-like
adventitious roots from the stem of Z7mospora, sometimes
thirty feet long: the flowers of the Family, usually of
trimerous symmetry, but always inconspicuous and uni-
sexual: the two sepals united into a single scale in the
female flower, and the four petals united into a minute cup-
shaped corolla in Cissampelos Pareira: the stamens opposite
to the petals: the sterile stamens in the female flower of the
type: the characteristic horse-shoe shape of the seed.

The Family is chiefly tropical, and nearly all the species
are climbers. Cocculus laurifolius of the Himalaya is ex-
ceptional in this respect, forming a small erect tree or
shrub.

The berries of Anxamirta (Cocculus indicus) are poison-
ous, and are used to kill fish in India. The tonic medicinal
Calumba-root is afforded by an African species of Jateorhiza
(J. Columba), indigenous on the Mozambique coast. The

Ill. J NYMPHAACE. 155
roct of the common Zizosfora (Gulancha) is also used in

medicine.

6. Natural Order, Wymphaacee.—The Water-Lily Family.
Aquatic herbs. Petals and stamens indefinite.
Type—Lotus Water-lily (Vymphea Lotus).

eh Se EE hes Ee ee 8 ce :
Organ. No. Coheszon. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 4
Corolla. Polypetalous. Outer hypogynous.
petals. S Inner epigynous.
Stamens. co Polyandrous. Peri- or epi-gynous.
Disel. Spuriously syn- Superior.
carpous.
carfpels. ©

Seeds oo, albuminous ; albumen double.

Representing distinct Sub-types are :—

The Sacred Lotus (Velumbium speciosum), Padma or
Pudma of the Hindoos, in which the carpels are separately
immersed in a top-shaped receptacle, and the seeds exal-
buminous ; and

Brasenia, with small flowers, three (petaloid) sepals, three
petals, and free carpels.

OBSERVE the wide air-cavities in the petioles and pedun-
cles: the very gradual transition from sepals to petals, and
from petals to stamens, in the flowers: the receptacle which
developes around and adnate to the carpels, so that they
appear united into a syncarpous pistil, and the petals and
stamens seem as though inserted upon the ovary: the
arrangement of the ovules, which are spread over the sides
of the ovaries: the double albumen of the seeds of the true

156 NYMPHALACEZE. [CHAP.

Water-lilies ; the inner albumen, next to the embryo, being
formed within the embryo-sac (endosperm), the outer albumen
the remains of the tissue of the nuc.eus of the ovule

( perisperm) :

Fic. 102. Sacred Lotus (Welumbtum speciosum). About one-tenth to
one-fifteenth natural size.

Victoria regia, a South American member of the Family,
nearly allied to the prickly Hurya/e of India, bears floating
leaves which have been measured twelve feet across, and
flowers about one foot in diameter when expanded.

Besides the points noted above, Velumbium differs from
the true Water-lilies in its peduncles and petioles rising

1. ; PAPAVERACEA. 157

high above the surface of the water. The leaves are peltate,
and sometimes one to two feet in diameter. The rhizome
_ and seeds are eaten, as are those of the Nymphzas.

| ~ “ey pp <a aq

| \ a V7,

lek \ \
e A
SN

NAY: LAY,

‘y i ae el yj, pps
OC ith WN, VA
\W YY; WZ Z,

\ \) —=
= ee A p =
\

Fic. 103. Vertical seetion of flower of Nelumbium, showing hypogynous stamens,
and carpels singly immersed in a turbinate receptacle.

** Pistil syncarpous (except Connaracez and some
Anacardiacez).

7. Natural Order, Papaveracee.—The Poppy Family.

Herbs with milky, coloured, or (Tribe /imariee) watery
juice. Stamens indefinite, free, or (/umariee) definite,
diadelphous. Ovules parietal. Seeds albuminous.

TypE—Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum.)

An annual, erect herb, with milky juice, and large, solitary,

terminal, white or purple fugacious flowers.

158 PAPAVERACEA. (CHAP,

Fic. 104. Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum), with detached capsule One-third
to one-fourth natural size.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Poiysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 2
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 4
Stamens. co Polyandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. cone

Seeds co, minute, with oily albumen.

OBSERVE the caducous sepals, thrown off as the crumpled
petals expand: the tendency to multiplication of the petals
at the expense of the stamens in this species and in the

—-” ~~

aI. } CRUCIFER/A:. 159

small Scarlet Poppy (?. &A@as) when grown in gardens: the
partial dissepiments of the ovary (opposite to the lobes of
the stigma) which are not coherent in the middle: the
placentary or ovule-bearing surface, spread over the sides
of the projecting plates: the dehiscence of the capsule by
pores around the top.

The yellow-flowered Mexican Poppy (Argemone Mexi-
cana), with a capsule dehiscing by short valves, is an
introduced and very common weed in India. The Opium
Poppy is largely cultivated in the north, and occurs as
a weed in waste places. The drug opium is the inspis-
sated, milky juice collected from punctures in the unripe
capsules. ‘The seeds afford a valuable oil.

8. Natural Order, Crucifere.—The Crucifer Family.
Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves. Sepals four.

Petals four. Stamens usually tetradynamous. Seeds exai-
buminous.

Type—Mustard or Rape; species of Brassica (either
will serve).
Herbs with alternate, more or less lobed or pinnatifid
exstipulate leaves, and terminal racemes of ebracteate,
cruciform, yellow flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 4

Corolla. Polypetalous. ‘ Hypogynous.
petals. 4

Stamens. 6 Tetradynamous, Hypogynous,
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

eV——_——— rrr

Seeds exalbuminous, cotyledons folded on radicle.

-—- —-—_—_————__ormrvwmwmwwv————

160 CRUCIFE R/A:. [CHAF.

Chis Family, very abundant and of great importance in
coo! climates, has but few native representatives in India.
I have selected two species cultivated in the cool season for
the sake of the oil contained in their seeds, and which are
probably more easily obtainable than native species.

Fic. 105. Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea). Lower part of stem and inflorescence
about one-half natural size. A detached siliqua to the right.

The Turnip, Radish, Cress, Seakale, and Cabbage ot
temperate countries, all belong to this Family.
OssERVE the six stamens, of which two are shorter than

the rest (tetradynamous), explained by assuming that they
belong to two whorls, two stamens of the outer whorl

111. | CAPPARIDACE. 161

being suppressed: the two-valved fruit (szdzgua) dehiscing
from below, upwards. In Radish (Raphanus) the siliqua is
indehiscent, and in Brassica it is often three-celled.

Fic. 108. Capsule (siliqua) of a Crucifer ;
Fis. 107. Tetradynamous stamens and the valves separating from below
pistil of a Crucifer. upwards.

9. Natural Order, Capparidacee.—The Caper Family.

Herbs or shrubs with alternate, often divided leaves.
M

162 CAPPARIDACE. (CHAP.

Sepals 4. Petals 4. Stamens indefinite, 8, 6 (not tetra-
dynamous), or 4. Ovary often stipitate. Seeds usually
exalbuminous.

Type—Gynandropsis pentaphylla.

An erect, hairy annual, with alternate, quinque-foliolate
leaves, and terminal, bracteate racemes, of small white or
pale pink flowers.

| Seeds «, exalbuminous, embryo curved.

OxsseRVE the long stalk (gywophore) supporting the
stamens and ovary above the envelopes of the flower.
Compare the siliquiform fruit with the more or less
berry-like, often indehiscent fruit of Cadaba, Capparis (true
Capers), and Crateva.

In Polanisia viscosa, a common Indian weed with yellow
flowers, the ovary is sessile.

The Family is closely allied to the Crucifers, differing
from them chiefly in habit and in their stamens, which are
usually more numerous, and the ovary raised upon a stalk
(gynophore). Our type-species is a common weed of
cultivated land in India, where the leaves are used in
curries.

111. J VIOLACEZ. 162.

ro. Natural Order, Violacee.—The Violet Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate stipulate leaves.
Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens 5, connective usually dilated
or prolonged above the anther-cells. Ovary one-celled ;
placentas three.

Type—Any species of Violet or Pansy (Viola).

Low herbs, with alternate or radical, stipulate, simpie
leaves, and axillary, solitary, irregular flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.

sepals. s

Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5

Stamens. - 5 Pentandrous. Hypogynous.

f ii ee RISE OS a

Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels. 3

Seeds parietal, albuminous.

OxpsERVE the “spur” of the lower petal, technically the
upper one, though the lower in position, owing to the flower
being inverted (veswpznate): the small, almost apetalous.
closed flowers of some species, appearing
after the large flowers are past; they are
self-fertilized, and bear fruit with numerous
seeds : the dehiscence of the fruit in three
valves by the dorsal sutures of the car-
pels, so that each valve bears a parietal
Sa eae ie row of seeds.

Viola, showing three A marked Sub-type of this Family
parietal multiovulate

placentas. (Alsodeia) occurs in the Khasia hills,
M 2

164 BIXACEZE. [CHAP,

Ceylon, and in the Malay Peninsula, differing in arborescent
habit, and small, nearly regular flowers.

11. Natural Order, Bzxacee.—The Annatto Family.
Trees or shrubs with alternate, simple leaves. Flowers
unisexual or hermaphrodite, often apetalous. Stamens
indefinite. Seeds albuminous.
Type—The Annatto (4zxa Orellana).

A small tree, with alternate, entire leaves, terminal pani-
cles of beautiful white flowers and echinate capsules. (A
South American tree cultivated in India.)

Organ. Vo. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals, 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. rr) Polyandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carfpels. 2 |

Seeds ©, albuminous, coated with red pulp.

Two distinct Sub-types occur in India, represented by—

1. Hlacourtia sepiaria, a small spinose shrub, with simple,
serrate leaves, and unisexual, apetalous flowers, bearing
pleasantly acid fruit, common on uncultivated land; and

2. Hydnocarpus inebrians, a large tree, with alternate,
serrate leaves, and dicecious, axillary, white flowers.’

OxseERVE the loculicidal dehiscence of the capsules of
Bixa, and the red pulp of the seed, which is collected in
South America for export to Europe as Annatto, used as a
silk-dye and to stain cheese.

11I.] . POLYGALACE., 165

12. Natural Order, Polygalacee.—The Milkwort Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate, simple leaves.
Sepals unequal. Stamens usually eight, often more or less
coherent and also adherent to the petals.

Type—folygala arvensis.

A low, procumbent, branching herb, with small entire
leaves, and racemose, irregular, inconspicuous flowers.

| Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5

Corolla. Polypetalous. Epistaminal.
petals. 3

Stamens. 8 Monadelphous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carfels. 2

Seeds hairy, one in each cell of the fruit.

OxpsERVE the three outer sepals, which are very small ;
the two innermost, called zmgs, much, larger, resembling
bracts or petals, and enlarging after flowering, so as to
enclose the fruit: the cohesion of the filaments and the
adhesion of the really distinct petals to their tube: the
small bearded crest at the end of the keel-petal: the
one-celled anthers: the hooded stigma covering the anthers:
the cap-like arilloid covering at the top of the seeds.

In Salamonia the sepals are nearly equal, and the
stamens fewer.

Xanthophyllum is an arborescent Indian genus, with five
pétals, four of which are nearly equal, and eight stamens
more or less free, with two-celled anthers.

166 CARYOPHYLLACEAE. [CHAP.

83. Natural Order, Caryophyllacee.—The Pink Family.

Herbs with opposite, simple leaves. Ovary one-celled,
with a free central placenta.

Type—Indian Pink (Dianthus chinensis).

A garden herb, with opposite, grass-like, glabrous leaves,
and terminal, solitary or fascicled red flowers blotched with
purple

Organ. No. Cohesion. A adhesion.

Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.

| sepals 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5

| Stamens. 10 Decandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

Seeds , upon a free central placenta.

OBSERVE the central placenta, free from the walls of
the ovary, by the early rupture or sup-
pression of the dissepiments.

Species of this Family abound in the
temperate zone of the northern hemi-
sphere, but are rare in the tropics,
Fic. 110. Transverse excepting some small-flowered weed-like
section of ovary, j

showing free cen- plants and a few grown in gardens.

tral placentation. ‘

The eastern species, taken as a type,

is commonly cultivated in Indian gardens.

Low-tufted species of this Family grow at a great eleva-
tion in the Himalayas, one attaining a height of 14,000 to

18,000 feet.

II. ] HYPERICINE.. 167

14. Natural Order, Hyfericinee.—The St. John's Wort
Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees, with opposite, undivided
leaves. Flowers hermaphrodite. Calyx imbricate.

Type—fypericum japonicum.
A low, procumbent or ascending, perennial, glabrous
herb, with opposite, entire, dotted leaves, and small,
yellow, terminal, cymose flowers.

| Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. co Polyadelphous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. | Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. a4

Seeds co, exalbuminous.

Fic. 111. Vertical section of flower of a species of Hypericum.

OxsERVE the immersed glands of the leaves, shown as

168 GUTTIFERA.. (CHAP.

translucent dots when held up to the light: also the black,
glandular dots of the sepals and petals.
The flowers of 7. mysorense of South India are much

larger than those of the type-species.

15. Natural Order, Guttifere.—The Gamboge Family.

Trees or shrubs with opposite, undivided leaves. Flowers
unisexual or polygamous. Calyx imbricate.

Type—Calophyllum Lnophyllum.
A tree with opposite, simple, coriaceous, shining, closely
veined, entire leaves, and axillary, drooping racemes of
fragrant, white, polygamous flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 4
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 4

$ Stamens. oo Polyadelphous. Hypogynous.
9 Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpets. ?

Seeds solitary, exalbuminous.

The pistil being normally syncarpous in this Family, it is
thus described above, although the ovary is but one-celled
in Calophyllum. Compare with the embryo of the type-
species, which has large cotyledons and a short radicle, that
of the Mangosteen, grown in the Straits of Malacca, or of
any other Garcinia or Xanthochymus. In the latter genera
the embryo consists of an enormous radicle (tigelum
strictly), the cotyledons being obsolete.

This well-marked tropical Family is represented in India

111.] TERNSTROMIACEZ.. 169

by six genera, including the genus Garciza, which, besides
the Mangosteen, includes the species affording the drug and
pigment gamboge. The best gamboge is a gum exuded
from wounds in the bark of a Garcinia growing in Siam
and the Malay Peninsula, closely allied to, if not identical
with, a Ceylon species. The Family generally is charac-
terised by a coloured, resinous juice. |

The flowers are usually dicecious or polygamous, with the
sepals and petals in fours.

Pinnay-oil is obtained from the seeds of our type-species
by pressure. It is used as a lamp-oil and in medicine.

16. Natural Order, Zernstromiacee.—The Tea Farnily.
Trees or shrubs, usually with alternate, simple leaves.
Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual. Calyx imbricate.
TypE—The Tea-shrub (Zea chinensis).

An evergreen shrub, with alternate, shining, simple leaves,
and axillary, pedunculate, white flowers.

Seeds solitary, exalbuminous.

| Organ. | Vo. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Hypogynous and
Stamens. Cie Polyandrous. epipetalous.
| eS SS ee ee
Pistil. | ' Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 3

OsseErVE the slight cohesion of the petals, which character
is not infrequent in several normally polypetalous Families,

170 DIPTEROCARPE. [CHAP.

and is, alone, by no means of sufficient absolute importance
to warrant such a genus as Tea being classed with corolli-
floral (gamopetalous) families. Note, also, the stamens, the
innermost of which are hypogynous, while the outer ones are
more or less monadelphous and adherent to the base of the
petals.

Compare the woody capsule, dehiscing loculicidally, of
Thea and Camellia (scarcely generically distinct) with the
indehiscent berries of Saurauja and ELurya.

The Tea-shrub, of recent years cultivated with so much
success on the cool slopes of the mountains of Northern
India, is found wild in the jungles of Assam. It has not
been noticed in the wild state in China, where its cultiva-
tion dates from an extremely remote period.

17. Natural Order, Dzpterocarpee.—The Malay-Camphor
Family.

Trees or climbing shrubs, usually resinous, with alternate,
penni-veined, simple leaves. ‘Two or more of the segments
of the calyx-limb usually enlarged in fruit.

TypE—The Sal (Shorea robusta).

Seeds exalbuminous.

111. ] DIPTEROCARPEA. 171

A gigantic timber-tree, with alternate, entire, parallel-
veined leaves, loose terminal and axillary panicles of yellow,
hermaphrodite, regular flowers, and enlarging (accrescent)
calyx-lobes.

P \
> INV
QAlhy
en . \ii

.
A\Kar

RQ,
MSY

Wee? ZEN

W777 N
wml A yinvin

= |

Fic. 112. Sal (Shovea robusta), about one-half or one-third natural size.

OxsERVE the remarkable enlargement of each of the lobes
of the calyx after flowering in Dz¢fterocarpus and Hopea
only two become enlarged: hence the name of the former
genus and of the Family, significant of the two-winged fruit.
In some species of Dipierocarpus the wings attain several
inches in length.

172 DIPTEROCARPE:. [CHAP,

The Family abounds in a resin which is collected from
several species, as Vaterta indica, which affords Indian
Copal. Our type-species, besides furnishing a balsamic

( i

Fic. 113. Fruit of a species of Dipterocarpus: the calyx persistent ; the tube
enclosing the ovary and two of the lobes accrescent.

resin, yields one of the most valuable of Indian timbers.
Sumatra Camphor is the resin of a Dryobalanops. It 1s

1. ] MALVACEA. 173

eagerly bought by the Chinese, who export ordinary
Camphyr, their own produce, to Europe.

18. Natural Order, AZalvacee.—The Mallow Family.
Shrubs, trees, or herbs with alternate, simple leaves.

Calyx valvate. Stamens monadelphous, with one-celled
anthers.

TyPE—Rose Hibiscus (A/ibiscus rosa-sinensis).
A large garden shrub, with alternate, simple, serrate,
shining leaves, and large, showy (red, white, or yellow}
axillary flowers.

Fic. 114. Vertical section of flower of Rose Hibiscus, nearly of natural size. To
the left a one-celled anther and free extremity of filament.

174 MALVACEA:. (CHAP.

Organ. No. Cohesion. A dhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Vitferion Gye
sepals, 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Inserted on stamens. |
petals. 5
Stamens. re) Monadelphous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 5

OBseRVE the whorl of numerous, narrow bracts, imme-
diately under the calyx ; in Cotton (Gossypium) the bracts
are three in number, very large and cordate, and must not
be mistaken for sepals: the valvate zestivation of the calyx-
lobes and imbricate (contorted) estivation of the petals :
the staminal tube five-toothed at the top, giving off, from the
side of the tube, very numerous filaments, bearing one-
celled anthers: the large-grained pollen, which, examined
under a magnifier, is found to be rough with minute
projecting points.

Plants of this Family are destitute of noxious properties.
Many of them are mucilaginous, and the liber affords a
useful fibre. The species of pre-eminent importance are the
cotton-producing plants belonging to the genus Gossypium,
several varieties of two or three species of which are now
very extensively cultivated in India. Cotton consists of the
delicate, long, thin-walled hairs which clothe the seeds.
These hairs, when dry, become flattened and twisted. The
commercial value of the Cotton depends upon the length
and tenacity of these hair-cells. A useful lamp-oil is
expressed from the seeds of the Cotton-plant, and the
refuse may be compressed into an oil-cake for feeding
cattle.

MT. J MALVACEZ. 175

The Okra (Aibescus esculentus), a tropical American
species, is much cultivated in India for the sake of its
unripe mucilaginous capsules, which are used as an article
of diet.

iil / \
Hh \ ff | ,
i

Fic. 117. Embryo
of Mallow with
Fic. 116. Fruit of Mallow. The carpels uniseriate. folded cotyledons.

The Durian fruit is the produce of a Malayan tree of
this Family (Durio zibethinus), to which belong, also, the
African Baobab (Adansonia) and the so-called Cotton-tree

176 STERCULIACEA, [CHAP.

(Bombax). ‘These latter agree in the general structure of
their flowers with the type, but they are large trees, and the
two last-named have digitate leaves.

t9. Natural Order, Sterculiacee.—The Sterculia Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate simple or digitate
leaves. Calyx valvate. Stamens monadelphous, with two-
celled anthers.

TyPpe—Svlerculia fetida.

A large, deciduous tree, with alternate digitate leaves
crowded towards the ends of the branches, and racemose,
crimson and brown, hairy, unisexual flowers.

Organ. No. Cohestozt. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. o

$ Stamens. ee) Monadelphous. Hypogynous.
9 Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. | 5

OBSERVE the two-celled anthers, collected into a small,
close head: in the female flower a few imperfect stamens
may be found immediately under the stipitate ovary.
Compare with the type, elicteres (Isora), and several
other common Indian genera of the Family (Prerospermum,
Pentapetes, Waltheria, &c.), in which the corolla is present
and the flowers are hermaphrodite. Observe the unequal
petals of Helicteres and the remarkable spirally-twisted
carpels of the fruit.

The Chocolate and Cocoa-tree (Zeobroma), cultivated in
the northern provinces of South America, Central America.

rit. | TILIACEE. 177

and some of the West Indian Islands, belongs to this
family. Cocoa and Chocolate are prepared from the seeds,
which are roasted, ground, and usually mixed with sugar,
arrowroot, and spices. The seeds are closely packed in a
capsule four to six inches long by two or three inches in
diameter.

20. Natural Order, Zz/zacee.-—The Jute and Lime-tree
Family.
Trees, shrubs, or herbs, usually with alternate, simple
leaves, valvate calyx, and indefinite free stamens.

‘Type—Common Jute (Corchorus capsularis).

A smooth, annual herb, rather woody below, with alter-
nate, simple leaves, and axillary fascicles of small, yellow,
regular flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. . Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. oo Polyandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 5

OBSERVE the tough fibrous liber of the bark, used to
make “‘gunny” bags. Compare the fruit, a roundish cap-
sule, with the siliqueeform capsule of Corchorus olitorius, in

_ which the seeds are separated from each other by transverse
_ partitions: also with the indehiscent, drupe-like, often lobed
fruit of the Grewias, and the bristly capsule of the Trium-
fettas. Corchorus olitorius is used as a pot-herb.
N

178 LINACEZ. [CHAP.

Like the Mallow and Sterculia Families, to which this
Family is closely allied, the species are generally harmless,
and more or less mucilaginous ; many of them have also a
tenacious liber. From the bark of the European Lime-
tree (Zz/ia) Russia-matting or “bast” is obtained.

The genus E/gocarpus, including some large Indian trees,
belongs to a section of this Family, marked by the anthers
dehiscing at their tips. Elzocarpus itself usually has its
petals with a deeply-cut margin. The stones of its drupa-
ceous fruits are often ornamented and strung together as
beads.

21. Natural Order, Lzvacee.—The Flax Family.

Shrubs, herbs, or rarely trees, with alternate, undivided,
simple leaves. Sepals imbricate. Stamens more or less
coherent below. Styles usually free.

Type—Linum trigynum.
A shrubby plant, with alternate, simple, entire, smooth
leaves, and axillary, regular, yellow, pretty flowers, collected
near the ends of the branches.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5 |
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Monadelphous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. * Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 3 |

OBSERVE the tenacity of the liber, especially in the
Common Flax (LZ. wsitatissimum), a cultivated, slender herb,
with fugacious blue flowers: the slight cohesion of the

III. ] MALPIGHIACE.. 179

filaments, and the minute teeth projecting in the intervals
between the filaments indicating a second series of unde-
veloped stamens. In L7rythroxylon, an allied genus, there
are ten perfect stamens without any rudimentary ones.
Observe, also, the spuriously six-celled ovary of the type,
resulting from each of the three cells becoming divided into
two by the infolding of the dorsal suture of each carpel.
Compare, under the microscope, the fibre of Flax with
Cotton. Flax consists of long, thick-walled liber-cells,
resembling jointed cylindrical rods. Fibres of linen from
mummy-cloth of Egypt may also be compared with cloth
from the Peruvian tombs, which is made of cotton.

In the genus Flax, as in several others belonging to widely
different Families, a dimorphous condition of the essential
organs has been observed, consisting in differing relative
lengths and position of the anthers and stigmas in different
flowers. The object of this dimorphism Mr. Darwin has
shown to be to secure fertilisation by the pollen of distinct
flowers of the same species (see Journal of the Linnean
Society of London, Botany, vol. vii. p. 69).

22. Natural Order, JZalpighiacee.—The Malpighia Family.

Climbing shrubs with opposite, entire leaves. Stamens
ten. Ovary three-lobed. Carpels winged when ripe.

TypE—fiptage Madablota.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. . Inferior.
sepals. 5 |
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 10 Decandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. ~ - |

180 ZYGOPHYLLACEA. | [cHapP.

A climbing shrub with opposite, entire leaves, and irre-
gular, very fragrant, yellow-white flowers.

OBSERVE the closely adpressed hairs, covering the young
parts of the plant; examined minutely, they will be found
to be attached near the middle (peltate hairs): the single
“ oland” under the flower, partly adnate to the pedicel, partly
to the calyx; in some genera each sepal bears one or two
dorsal glands: the clawed, unequal, fringed petals: the
declinate stamens: the winged fruit-carpels.

The head-quarters of the Family is in South America,
where many “lianes” of the moist forests belong to it.

Very few species are turned to practical account.

23. Natural Order, Zygophylacee.—Bean-Caper Family.
Herbs or low shrubs with opposite, stipulate, compound
leaves. Peduncles axillary, one-flowered. Stamens eight

or ten, free.
Tyvpe—Zribulus terrestris.

A prostrate herb with opposite, stipulate, pinnate leaves,
axillary, solitary, regular flowers, and spinose fruits.

Organ. No. - ‘Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. , Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. $e) Decandrous. _ Hypogynous.
Fistil. Syncarpous. «> Superior.

carpels, 5

To this Family belong also /agonia, with trifoliolate
leaves, common in some of the dry parts of India, and
the West Indian Guiacum ; the latter affording the hard,
heavy, greenish-brown wood called 4ignum-vite.

Ks
oe

I1T. | GERANIACE.. 181

24. Natural Order, Geraniacee.—The Geranium, Sorrel,
and Balsam Family.

Herbs with opposite or alternate, simple or compound
leaves. Flowers regular or irregular, usually two or more
on axillary peduncles.

Type—Any garden Geranium (Pelargonium)
* Usually glandular-pubescent herbs, with opposite, lobed,
palmi-veined leaves, and umbellate, slightly irregular, hand-
some flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. A eer eeay) ik

Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior. Soret gs) goad
sepals. 5 |
Corolla. Polypetalous. . Hypogynous.
petals, 5
Stamens. 7(-10) Monadelphous. Hypogynous.
_ Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 5 : i ‘s

As Sub-types may be taken :—

1. Indian Cress (Z7op@olum majus), a climbing or pros
trate, succulent, garden herb, with alternate, peltate leaves,
and irregular, orange-coloured, octandrous flowers, with the

posterior sepal spurred.

2. Sorrel (Oxalis), any species. Herbs with trifoliolate
or pinnate leaves, and regular, decandrous flowers.

3. Balsam (Jmfatiens), any species. Succulent or tender
herbs, with alternate or opposite simple leaves, and very
irregular flowers, usually with three coloured sepals, of which
the posterior is spurred, three petals,* and five stamens.

* Two are bifid, indicating that we have really five petals, of which
four cohere in pairs.

182 RUTACEAE, [CHAP.

OxBsERVE the spur of the posterior sepal of cultivated
Pelargonium, which is adherent to the pedicel. Its cavity
may be easily seen on cutting the pedicel across just below
the calyx. In Zropaolum the corresponding spur is free.
Note also the beak-like prolongation of the receptacle of
the Geranium Tribe after flowering: the closely connivent
or coherent anthers of the Balsams: the elastic valves of
the fruit-capsules of the latter. :

The Balsams are a pre-eminently Indian group, but the
distribution of the species is very circumscribed, many of
them being limited to small areas. The beautiful aquatic
Hydrocera triflora (Impatiens natans of the older botanists),
differing from /patiens in its distinct petals and berried fruit,
is, however, widely dispersed throughout India in ponds and
freshwater ditches. ‘The floating and submerged branches
of this species are often several yards in length.

Some species of Oxalis exhibit the phenomenon of “ irri-
tability” in their leaves. The Blimbing and Carambola are
the acid fruits of species of Averrhoa, an arborescent genus
allied to Oxa/is, native in India.

25. Natural Order, Autacee.—The Rue and Orange
Family.

Usually trees or shrubs with alternate or opposite, com-
pound (pinnate tri- or uni-foliolate) leaves, dotted with trans-
lucent glands. Stamens as many or twice as many as
petals (in C7trus and .Z/e indefinite).

TypE—The Orange-tree (Cztrus Aurantium).

An evergreen, often spinose tree, with alternate, entire,
shining, glandular-dotted leaves, and axillary, fragrant, white
flowers.

tT. ] RUTACE. 133

Fic. 118. Orange (Citrus Aurantium), reduced.

Organ. No. Cohesion. | Adhesion.

Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.

sepals. 5

Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.

petals. 5
LT Ride Es eae] (ee a ee

Stamens. oo Polyadelphous. Hypogynous.

Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels. co i

Seeds exalbuminous; often polyembryonous. ~ |

OpsERVE the articulation between the petiole and the blade
of the leaf, indicating that the leaf is of the compound type.

184 OCHNACE. (CHAP.

It is unifoliolate in the Orange, as in the Barberry. In other
Indian genera allied to the Orange the leaves are pinnate
or trifoliolate. Observe, also, the frequently broad wings
on each side of the petiole: the translucent dots of the
leaves, easily seen when they are held up to the light: also
the glandular dots of the flowers ; similar immersed “glands,”
or receptacles of essential oil, are common to most of the
genera of the Family: the cup-shaped disk between the
stamens and ovary: the frequent occurrence of two or more
exalbuminous embryos in the seeds ; they are found irregu-
larly and closely compressed together, so that the cotyledons,
normally plano-convex, are much distorted.

By examining a series of ovaries in different stages, inter-
mediate between the flower and fruit, the development of
the pulp, which ultimately fills the numerous cells of the
fruit, may be observed. It originates in cellular, papilleeform
projections from the inside of the outer wall of the ovary.

The Tribe (Aurantiee) of this large Natural Order, to
which our type belongs, is characterised by a succulent,
indehiscent fruit ; but in other Tribes, including by far the
larger number of species, the fruit is dry, often separating,
when ripe, into nuts or cocci.

In Common Rue (w/a) the capsule is deeply four- or
five-lobed. In the climbing shrub Zanthoxylum alatum the
fruit-carpels are free and dehiscent. The flowers of the
last-named are unisexual.

Besides the Orange and its congeners the Lemon, Lime,
Shaddock, and Citron, the Family includes the Bael (4g/e
Marmelos) and the Wampi (C/ausena Wampi): the former
is in great repute as a medicine in Southern India.

26. Natural Order, Ochnacee.—The Ochna Family.

Shrubs or trees with alternate, shining, coriaceous, simple,

111. J BURSERACEZ. 185

eglandular leaves. Ovary usually deeply lobed. Fruit of
three, five, or more distinct drupes.
TyPpE— Ochna squarrosa.
A small, smooth tree, common in gardens, with alternate,
entire leaves, and fragrant, showy, yellow flowers, in short,
racemose panicles.

Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. - Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5(-12)

Stamens. oo Polyandrcus. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels. 5(-12)

OBSERVE the deep divisions of the ovary between the
carpels, which, as they mature, become free and drupaceous.

27. Natural Order, Burseracee.—The Myrrh Family.

Trees with resinous juice, alternate compound leaves,
and small panicled or racemose flowers. Stamens free, as
many or twice as many as the petals.

TypeE—Boswellia thurifera.

A large timber-tree, with alternate, imparipinnate leaves,
and simple axillary racemes of small, whitish flowers,
clustered towards the extremities of the branches.

Organ. No. / Cohesion. | Adhesion.
Calyx. / Gamosepalous. | Inferior.
sepals. 5 |
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. Io Decandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. are.

186 BRIELIACE:. (CHAP.

OpsERVE the yellowish or red resin which exudes from
the bark. Similar resinous products are characteristic of
several species of the Family ; some of which, growing in
the dry regions of Western Asia, the Red Sea, and Eastern
Africa, afford Myrrh, Olibanum, and so-called Balm of
Gilead.

We much want authentic information as to the source of
some of these fragrant resins, and travellers in the countries
where they grow would do well to secure specimens of
resins, and of the trees yielding them in flower and fruit,
in order that they may be determined by some competent
botanist.

28. Natural Order, AZe/iacee.— Melia Family.

Trees or shrubs with alternate, compound leaves. Flowers
small, panicled. Stamens monadelphous (except in Cedrela
and Chloroxylon).

TypE—Persian Lilac or Bead-tree (Melia Azedarach).

A. middle-sized (introduced) tree, with twice-pinnate leaves,
and large, much-branched panicles of purplish-white flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5(-6)

Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5(-6)

Stamens. 1o(-12)} | Monadelphous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels. | 3

The Nim, Neem, or Margosa-tree (Azadirachta indica)
differs from the type in having a three-celled ovary and a
one-seeded drupe.

iI. } MELIACEE. 187

Several valuable timber-trees belong to this Family ;
amongst the rest, the Indian Satinwood (Chloroxylon Swie-
tenia), and the American and West Indian Mahogany and
Cedar (Szietenia and Cedrela).

Fic. 119. Melia Azedarach, with a detached drupe {much reduced)

Chloroxylon differs from our type in its free stamens, and
(as does also the Mahogany-tree) in a dehiscent, woody,
capsular fruit. The fruit of Azadirachta is a one-seeded
drupe, from the pulp of which an oil is prepared in India.
Its bark and leaves are in repute as medicines.

188 OLACACEAE. (CHAP.

29. Natural Order, Olacacee.—The Olax Family.

Shrubs or trees, usually with alternate entire leaves, and
axillary fascicles spikes or racemes of small flowers. Ovary
one-celled, or imperfectly three- or more-celled.

TyPE—O/ax scandens.

A climbing spinose shrub, with alternate simple leaves,
and short axillary fascicles of small whitish flowers:

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5(-6)

Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals, 5(-6)

Stamens. 8(-12) Octandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 3

OBSERVE the “calyx” enlarging (accrescent) after flower-
ing-time is over. Although described as a true calyx
consisting of sepals, there is reason to believe that, in this
case, it is a cupuliform production analogous to the disk
found, for example, around the base of the ovary in the
Orange. Note, also, the abortion of most of the stamens,
usually but three bearing perfect anthers, the rest being
deeply bifid.

The Family includes several very anomalous Indian
climbing plants, differing from the type in their dicecious
flowers and other characters, of interest chiefly on botanical
grounds.

30. Natural Order, Ampelidee.—The Vine Family.

Usually shrubs climbing by tendrils, with jointed stems,

111. } AMPELIDEE. 189

alternate, simple or tri- to quinque-foliolate leaves, and
minute, cymose, greenish flowers.

TypE—The Grape Vine or any species of V7¢is.

Fic. 120. Flower of Grape Vine after Fic. 121. Same; the petals, cohering
the fail of the petals. The calyx is at their apices, are about to fall.
very short, cup-shaped, and ob-
scurely five-toothed (enlarged).

Usually climbing shrubs, with tendrils, alternate, simple
lobed or entire leaves, and panicles (opposite to the leaves)
of small, greenish flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals, 5(4)

Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5(4)

Stamens. 5(4) | Pent-(tetr-)androus. Hypogynous.
isto Syncarpous. Superior.
carfpels. 2

a Sc

The species of Zeea represent a Sub-type, differing in the
absence of tendrils, their once-, twice-, or thrice-pinnate
leaves, and coherent stamens adnate to the petals. .

OssERVE the peduncles and tendrils given off opposite to

190 SAPINDACEAE. [CHAP.

the leaves and not as axillary branches. A comparison of the
tendrils and flower-bearing panicles will show that they are
both modifications of the same organ. Each tendril and
panicle is regarded as an axis, the lower portion of which
forms the internode (or internodes), immediately below, of the
main stem. The succeeding internode of the stem is a new
and distinct axis, originating in the axil of the leaf opposite
to which the tendril or peduncle is given off. Observe also
the tendency of the petals to cohere at their apices, so that
they are thrown off as a cap by the expanding stamens.

To numerous varieties of one species of this Family (V.
vinifera) we owe nearly all our wine, raisin, and dessert
grapes.

In a curious Malayan genus (Perisanthes) the flowers are
arranged upon a broad, flattened, membranous expansion of
the peduncle, which looks like a monstrous condition.

31. Natural Order, Sapindacee.—The Soapwort Family.

Usually trees with alternate, pinnate leaves, and incon-
spicuous, often panicled, polygamous flowers. Stamens free;
ovary three-, four-, or two-celled.

Type—The Litchi (Vephelium Litchi).

« Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
_ Calyx. - Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 4-6
Corolla.
petals. fe) ° °
6 Stamens. 6-10 | Usually octandrous. Hypogynous.
Q Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2(-3)

Seeds solitary, exalbuminous, arillate.

m1. ] SAPINDACEZ. 191

A garden tree with shining, pinnate (tri- to septem folio-
late) leaves, and terminal and axillary panicles of numerous
small, apetalous, polygamous flowers.

This large Natural Order includes several Indian genera
differing much in habit as well as in some of the more
technical characters of the flower. Note especially :

Cardiospermum Falicacabum ; a much-branched climbing
herb, with twice-ternate, alternate leaves, umbellate panicles
of small irregular flowers, and inflated membranous capsules:

Dodonea viscosa; a shrub with narrow, entire, usually
undivided, rather viscid leaves, small greenish-yellow, uni-
sexual flowers, and winged capsules: and

Maple (Acer, any species). ‘Trees (of the mountains of
Northern India) with simple, opposite, usually palmi-veined
and lobed leaves, and regular, racemose or corymbose,
greenish flowers.

OBSERVE the pulpy aril surrounding the seed of the
Litchi, rendering it an esteemed dessert fruit in India and
China: the slender tendrils at the end of the peduncle of
Cardiospermum, and the heart-shaped hilum of its round
seeds, to which the name Cardiospermum (Heart-seed) refers.

It is generally characteristic of the Family to have the
flowers unsymmetrical, owing to the number of stamens not
corresponding (either the same or as a multiple) with that
of the petals and sepals.

The Longan is the fruit of a near ally of the Litchi,—-
Euphoria Longana. ‘The structure of the fruit is similar to
that of the Litchi. In each of them the lobes of the ovary
(carpels), as they mature, become almost or wholly free from
each other. ‘The carpels are one-seeded in both.

Owing to the presence of a saponaceous principle in the
fruit of several species of Sagzndus, the drupes may be used

192 ANACARDIACEAE, [CHA.

in lieu of soap. From this property the name of the Family
is derived.
32. Natural Order, Anacardiacee —The Mango Faunily.

Trees with alternate or opposite, simple or compound
leaves. Flowers small. Ovary unilocular (in Spondias and
allies, four- or five-celled), with solitary ovules.

TypE—The Mango (A@angifera indica).

Fic. 122. Flower of Mango (Mangifera indica), enlarged.

A large tree, cultivated everywhere, with alternate, simple,
lanceolate, shining leaves, and terminal erect panicles of
small, yellowish, polygamous flowers.

Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. | Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 1(-5) Monandrous. Perigynous,
Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
carpel. I

OBSERVE the usual abortion of all the stamens except one
in the flower of the Mango: the five or six carpels of
Luchanania, of which only one is perfected: the accrescent

111. CONNARACEA 193

petals in two Malayan genera (A/elanorrhea and Swintonia),
and the accrescent sepals in another (farishia). Note,
also, the gum-resin exuded by the bark. Several Indian
species of the Family belonging to the genera Semecarpus
and Melanorrhea yield, either from their bark or fruit, a
resinous product, which is often acrid and poisonous. The
Indian Marking-nut (Semecarpus Anacardium) affords a
black corrosive juice used in marking cloth, &c. Mastic is
the resin of a shrubby Péstacia (P. Lentiscus) growing in
the Greek Archipelago.

Besides the Mango, which is, par excellence, the fruit of
India, the Family includes a few other species affording
useful and edible fruits. Of the Cashew-nut—the fruit of
an American tree—the edible portion is the swollen pear-
shaped peduncle of the flower. The kernel of the seed
may be eaten when cooked.

Pistachio-nuts are the produce of Pistacia vera. Odina
Wodier, a common tree of the Peninsula, easily propagated
by cuttings, is a member of this Family.

33. Natural Order, Connaracee.—The Connarus Family.

Trees or shrubs, with alternate, compound leaves.
Flowers small, regular, in racemes or panicles. Ovary
apocarpous.

TyPe—Connarus pentandrus.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion. |
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogrnous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 10 Monadelphous. Hypogynous.

Pistil. Apocarpous, Superior. |
| carpel. I

194 LEGUMINOSAE. [CIIAP.

A tree with alternate, pinnate (tri- to septem-foliolate),
shining leaves, terminal panicles of small whitish flowers, and
short, oblique, one-seeded legumes.

A small Family, represented in India by several genera,
but the species are mostly Malayan: a few occur in Bengal
and the Peninsula. Their principal interest is in their con
necting the large Family Leguminosz with some of those
which precede. They differ principally from Leguminose
in usually having two or more distinct carpels, in the form
and position of the ovules, and in the absence of stipules.
The species which we employ as Type, and which is per-
haps the most widely-distributed member of the Family in
India, is exceptional amongst Connaracez in having usually
but a single carpel. If there be more carpels in the flower,
they are al] suppressed excepting one, which forms a short
stipitate pod when ripe, very similar to that of some Legu-
minosze.

None of the species are of much economic value.

Division—CALYCIFLORA:.

34. Natural Order, Leguminosae.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, usually with alternate, compound
(sometimes uni-foliolate) leaves. Flowers irregular (except
Mimosez). Carpel solitary.

This Family of flowering plants is numerically the largest,
next to the Composite Family, and includes very many
species of great importance to mankind.

Three principal Types of floral structure require to be
noted, two of which are, at first sight, very dissimilar ; but

un] LEGUMINOSA\ 195

in the fruit, seed, and general characters of habit and
leafage, the numerous genera of the Family are bound
together by a community of sufficiently well-marked cha-
racters, so that the Order is easily recognised, and may be
regarded as a truly natural one.

Peaflower Tribe—Fafpilionacee.

Type 1—The Dhak (Butea froniosa).

Fic, 123. Dhak (Butea frondosa).

A middle-sized tree, with large, alternate, stipulate, tri.
foliolate, deciduous leaves, and numerous racemes of hand-
some, iregular, orange-red, silky flowers.

196 LEGUMINOSAE. (cHar.

| Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals. 5
-Stamens. 10 Diadelphous. Perigynous.
Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
carpel. I

Seed solitary, exalbuminous.

If the Dhak be not at hand, the flower of any Garden Pea
(Pisum), Bean (Vicia), Indigo (Zndigofera), Gram (Cicer),
or Lentil (Zrvum), will answer
equally well as Type of the Pea-
flower Tribe.

OBSERVE the relation of the
petals of the irregular (papilio-
naceous) corolla of the Peaflower
Tribe to each other. ‘There is a
large upper petal which embraces
the rest in the bud; this is the
standard: two lateral petals,
called zzngs, and two, usually
more or less coherent by their
N\\ lower margins, forming the 4ee/,

which enclose the stamens and
Fic.124. Section of flower of

Garden Pea. pistil.

Cassia Tribe— Cesa/pinice.
Typr 2— Cassia Fistula.

A small spreading tree, with alternate, pinnate, glabrous,
stipulate, deciduous leaves, pendulous racemes of bright-

111. J LEGUMINOSE. 197

yellow, fragrant, irregular flowers, and long cylindrical in-
dehiscent pods. (Corolla, petals imbricated, upper petal
inside in bud.)

In the absence of C. /stu/a any common Cassia, as the
annual species C. Sephora, or C. Zora, or the ornamental
garden-shrub Poinciana pulcherrima, will serve.

Mimosa Tribe—JAZimosee.
TyPE 3—Humble Plant (AZimosa pudica).

A prickly, hairly, perennial garden herb, with alternate,
digitate-pinnate, sensitive, stipulate leaves, and axillary,
pedunculate heads of small, pale-purple, regular, polyga-
mous flowers. (Corolla regular, petals valvate in bud.)

OBSERVE the stamens in the type of the Pea-flower
Tribe. Nine cohere into a bundle by their
filaments: one (the upper one next to the
standard) remaining free. In the Sunn Hemp
(Crotalaria) and several other genera the
stamens are monadelphous ; in Adrus there
are only nine stamens; while in Sophora,
as in Cassia and Mimosa, types of the
second and third Tribes, they are all free.
In Mimosa and its allies they are often
indefinite.

Compare the fruit (legumes) of any Pea, =
Bean, or Haricot (dehiscent, two-valved); Ghor%tamens ol
Dhak (indehiscent, one-seeded) ; Crotalaria
(inflated legume); <2schynomene, Desmodium, Alysicarpus,
Uraria (articulated, separating into distinct one-seeded
articles); Dadbergia (thin, flat, indehiscent); Prerocarpus,
Sanders-wood (winged, indehiscent) ; Sephora (cylindrical,
often narrowed here and there but not jointed, indehiscent) ;
Arachis, the Ground Nut (indehiscent, one- to three-seeded,

ry8 LEGUMINOSA:. [CHAR

matured underground); Cassia #istula (cylindrical, inde-
hiscent, divided by spurious transverse plates developed
from the endocarp into one-seeded cells); Guzlandina (de-
hiscent, prickly) ; Zz¢ada (huge, sword-shaped, indehiscent,
several feet in length, the valves separating into one-seeded
articles, which fall from the thickened and consolidated
sutures) ; Zamarindus, the Tamarind (indehiscent, with the
seeds immersed in an acid pulp); A/bzzsza LebbeR (thin and
papery legumes, breaking up into one-seeded articles)

‘\ ml : S
1 \\

‘ it
yall!

fic. 126. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica): a detached legume to the left About
one-third natural size.

The seeds of Leguminosz are generally exalbuminous,
but in a few genera, as Cassia, some albumen is present.
Of species serviceable to man we can here notice but few.

111] LEGUMINOSAE. 199

Of Timber-trees, the more important are the cabinet
Rosewoods, afforded by Brazilian species of Dadbergia.
The same genus includes some valuable Indian timber-
trees, especially D. Sissoo. The wood of the Tamarind is
sometimes used in cabinet-work.

Of Food-producing plants, the more important are the
Pea, Bean, Lentils, Haricots, and Kidney-beans, Ground
Nut (Arachis), Gram (Cicer), and Pigeon Pea (Cajanus).

Of Dyes we have, of first importance, the Indian product
Indigo, obtained by decomposing the herbage of species
of Jndigofera; Red Sanders-wood, afforded by Prerocarpus
saytalinus, and Sappan-wood by Cesalpinia Sappan, both
large trees of the Peninsula; Logwood, by the Central
American Hematoxylon.

Crotalaria juncea, the Sunn Hemp, is an annual, largely
grown in India for the sake of the tenacious hemp-like
fibre afforded by the bark of its long shoots.

Many of the Leguminosz are serviceable in medicine,
and some afford resins balsams, or astringent gums, as the
Dhak, which is one of the Indian lac-producing trees, and
the Catechu (Acacia Catechu); the latter a powerful astrin-
gent, the resin of which is obtained by boiling the wood.
It is exported to England for the use of tanners.

The familiar irritability of the compound leaves of the
Humble and Sensitive plants is but an extreme case of the
condition (called the sleep) exhibited by many of the
Leguminosz, the Sorrels, &c., the leaflets of which fold
together in the evening and remain closed until morning.
The Indian species of the genus Acacia, closely allied to
Mimosa, are characterised by highly compound (twice
pinnate) leaves. It is remarkable that in Australia, where
this genus has its head-quarters, a large proportion of the
species have leaves wholly destitute of a blade, being

200 ROSACEZ:. [CHAP.

reduced to a petiole, which, in order to compensate for the
deficiency, is much flattened and leaflike, serving the
purpose, as to function, of an ordinary leaf-blade. Such
flattened petioles are called phyllodes. Their true nature
is plainly ascertained by finding the compound blade some-
times developed upon the flattened phyllode, as is the case
often in seedling Acacias.

Some of these phyllodineous Acacias have been intro-
duced into Southern India, where they are said to hold their
own, and appear likely to become naturalized.

35. Natural Order, osacee.—The Rose Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate, entire or divided
leaves. Flowers regular. Ovary free, or adherent to the
calyx-tube (when the pistil becomes apparently syncarpous).

TYPE

Any species of Bramble (/tzdus).

Scrambling, prickly shrubs, with alternate, digitate or tri-
foliolate leaves, and terminal panicles of regular white or
rose-coloured flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. | Adhesion. |
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepats 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals 5
Stamens. co Polyandrous. Perigynous.
| Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.

carpels. ©

Seeds solitary, exalbuminous.

This Family, of great importance in orchard and garden
culture of the temperate zone, is represented by several

111. } ROSA CEE. 201

genera in India, which do not however include many
species of mich economic importance. ‘The variety, chiefly
in the arrangement and number of the carpels, and their
position relative to the tube of the calyx, may be reduced
to three Sub-types, each represented in India either by
native or cultivated species.

Bramble (Awbus) may serve as type of the Sub-order
Rose, marked by numerous free carpels.

Fic. 127. Vertical section of flower of Bramble.

Cherry, or any species of Prunus or Pygeum, of the Sub-
order Drupacez, marked by a single free carpel, drupaceous
in fruit. And the

Loquat (Zriobotrya), Photinia, or Apple (Pyrus), of the
Sub-order Pomacez, marked by one or more carpels ad-
herent to the calyx-tube, so that the ovary is inferior.

Most of the species of this large Family agree in their
perigynous stamens, which are usually indefinite; poly-
petalous corolla, prone to become “ double” at the expense
of the stamens, as in Rose and Xerria,; and the essentially
apocarpous pistil.

In Poracez, if the fruit be cut across, it will be seen
that the carpels do not cohere zwfer se, though pressed

202 ROSACEA:. [CHAP.

and bound together by the succulent enlargement of the
so-called calyx-tube.

OrsERVE the fv ickZes of Bramble and Rose, differing from
spines (page 72) in being processes of the bark and not
developments of the axis. Compare the arrangement of the

A
Fic. 128. ‘Transverse section lic. 129. Fruit of Bramble Fic. 130. Single
of a pomaceous fruit. (2 ubus). drupel of Bramble.

carpels in the genera Bramble and Rose. In both the carpels
are wholly free from each other, as well as from the calyx-
tube; but in the latter they are arranged upon the inside of

bic. 131. Fruit of Strawberry. Fic. 132. Vertical section of flower
of Rose (Rosa).

the urn- or flask-shaped tube of the calyx (regarded by some
botanists as a hollowed receptacle), while in the former they
are disposed upon a conical projecting receptacle. In
the European Strawberry the arrangement of the carpels

UI. ] COMBRETACE. 203

is similar to that of the Bramble, but the receptacle becomes
inordinately enlarged and succulent, bearing the small dry
carpels (which are commonly and incorrectly called seeds)
upon its surface.

In the species of Sfzv@a, some of which are Himalayan,
the fruit-carpels are several-seeded follicles,

To this Family belong the following invaluable fruits,
most of them grown in perfection only in temperate
climates :—Apple, Pear (Pyrus), Quince (Cydonia), Medlar
(Mespilus), Almond, Peach, Nectarine (Amygdalus), Apricot
(Armeniaca), Cherry and Plum (Prunus), Strawberry (fra-
garia), Raspberry (Aubus), and Loquat (Zriobotrya),—the
last a Japanese tree, grown in Indian gardens.

Excellent Otto of Rose is obtained: in India from the
petals of sweet-scented Roses. Most of that sold in London
is adulterated with the oil of an Indian grass (Andropogon).

36. Natural Order, Combretacee.—The Combretum
Family.

Trees or shrubs, with opposite or alternate simple leaves.
Flowers with or without petals. Ovary wholly inferior
one-celled, with pendulous ovules.

TypE—The Rangoon Creeper (Quisgualis indica).

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
Letals. 5
Stamens. 10 Decandrous. Perigynous.
Pistil. Apocarpous, Inferior.

carpel. 1(?)

204 CELASTRACELE. (CHAP.

A more or less climbing pubescent shrub, with opposite
or nearly opposite, simple, entire leaves, and terminal and
axillary lax spikes of slender, reddish flowers.

With Quisgualis compare Zerminalia Catappa—a large
ornamental tree, common in gardens, with simple entire
leaves clustered towards the ends of the branches, and
small, whitish, apetalous, polygamous flowers, in axillary,
simple, erect racemes.

OBSERVE the one-celled ovary with pendulous ovules,
characteristic of the Family : the spirally-twisted cotyledons
of the single seed of the Terminalias.

The kernels of the fruit of 7: Ca¢appa are in much esteem.
They are eaten as Almonds. The fruits—Myrobolans—of
other species of Zerminalia (7. Bellerica and 7. Chebula) are
astringent, and are exported to Britain for the use of tanners,
&c. Some of the Terminalias are valuable timber-trees.

37. Natural Order, Celastracee.—The Spindle-tree Family.

Shrubs or trees, with opposite or alternate simple leaves
and minute flowers. Ovary more or less immersed in a
disk. Stamens alternate with the petals and equal in
number, or only three.

Type—Celastrus paniculatus.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals, 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Perigynous. |
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carfpels. 3

ITI. ] RHAMNACEZZ. 205

A climbing shrub, with alternate, simple, serrate leaves,
and terminal panicles of numerous small yellow flowers.

The Indian species of AWipfocratea and Salacia represent
a subordinate type, differing in having triandrous flowers
and exalbuminous seeds.

OBSERVE the yellow pulpy covering (arz//us) of the seed,
exposed, when the capsules split loculicidally, while still
hanging on the plant. The arillus is a cellular investment
growing more or less over the seed as it matures, either
from the funicle (the pedicel by which the ovule is attached
to the placenta) or from the micropyle.

38. Natural Order, RAamnacee.—The Buckthorn Family.

Trees or shrubs, with alternate simple leaves and minute
flowers. Stamens opposite to the petals and equal in number.

TypE—The Jujube (Zizyphus Jujuba).

A thorny shrub or small tree, with alternate, three-nerved,
sub-distichous leaves, shining above, white or rusty-downy
beneath; axillary, umbellate fascicles of small, greenish
flowers ; and yellow, drupaceous, edible fruits.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Perigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 2 :

Although the ovary at the time of flowering is inferior, or
half-inferior, being immersed in the fleshy disk, the fruit is
wholly free and superior

206 MELASTOMACE:. (CHAP,

OBSERVE the stamens opposite to the minute petals, a
character by which this Family may be distinguished from
the preceding.

The fruit of the Type is well known as the jujube. That
of Z. Lotus is said to have been eaten by an ancient people
of North Africa, who were hence called, according to some
authorities, Lotophagi. The berries of some species of
Buckthorn (Ahamnus) afford a yellow dye, and, treated
with alum, the pigment called “sap-green.”

39. Natural Order, JZe/astomacee.—The Melastoma Family.

Herbs or shrubs, with opposite, entire, three- (or more-)
nerved leaves. Petals twisted in bud. Stamens ten or
fewer, perigynous.

TyvpE—Melastoma malabathricum.

An erect, shrubby plant, or small tree, with opposite,

ia 133. Melastuma malabathrium (reduced).

111] MELASTOMACE AE. 207

three- to five-nerved, entire leaves rough with addressed
bristles, and regular, large, terminal, red flowers.

—————

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion |
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Half-inferior. |
sepals. 5 |

ee —— —_—_—_—_— ee |
Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 10 Decandrous. Perigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Half-superior.
carpels. 5

A thoroughly tropical Family, of very little economic use,
though generally characterised by beautiful flowers. The
head-quarters of the Family is in Brazil.

OssERVE the three strong nerves, almost invariably present,
of the opposite leaves: the curious structure of the stamens,
and the mode in which the anthers are tucked into littie
pockets between the ovary and calyx-tube while enclosed
in the bud. In our Type there are five long and five short

) Ama
"ed

WN a\ 2
fl)
i”

will!

Wis)

Fic. 134. Flower of Melastoma mulabathricum.,

stamens ; the anthers of the long ones are prolonged and
curved below the cells, and at the point where they join the
filament they give off two little horns.

208 MYRTACE. [CHAP

The Family derives its name from the genus JZ/e/astoma,
the name of which signifies ‘ black-mouth,” from the ripe
berries, which are edible, dyeing the mouth black. The
fruit of our Type species affords a purple dye.

40. Natural Order, AZyrtacee.—The Myrtle Family.
Trees or shrubs, usually with opposite, entire leaves
marked with translucent dots. Stamens indefinite. Ovary
adherent, with axile placentas.

Fic. 135. Jambolan (Syzygium Yambolanum): showing a bud ; the same in vertical
section; an expanded flower after the fall of the calyptrate corolla; and two
detached stamens.

A tree with opposite, entire, shining, exstipulate leaves,
and trichotomous panicles of small white flowers from the
axils of fallen leaves.

1. ] MYRTACELE. 209

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals, 4
Corolia. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals. 4
>tamens. © Polyandrous. Perigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 2

OpsERVE the leaves of any species of the Family; they
are marked with translucent, glandular dots, like those of
the Oranges, and an intra-marginal vein (ze. a vein running
parallel with and just within the margin): the deciduous
petals of the Jambolan and the Clove (Caryophyllus aro-
maticus); they are thrown off on expansion of the flower
as the stamens unfold. In some other genera the lobes
of the calyx-limb are coherent, and are thrown off in a
similar way as a lid or calyftra. ‘This is well shown in
the large Australian genus Lwucalyptus.

The Myrtle Family is chiefly tropical, abounding in
Brazil, India, and Australia. A single species, the Common
Myrtle (AZprtus communis) is native in Europe.

Lucalyptus, an Australian genus, includes many gigantic
timber-trees, known as Stringy-barks, Iron-barks, and Gum-
trees. Some of the species have been introduced into the
South of India, and promise to succeed.

Cloves are the dried, unopened, flower-buds of Caryo-
phylius, referred to above. ‘They are grown principally
in the Indian Archipelago, Africa, and the West Indies.
Clove pepper, another spice of the Family, is the dried
unripe fruit of Pimenta vulgaris, a tree extensively planted
in Jamaica.

210 RHIEOPHORE:. [CHAP.

The Guava (Psedium Guava) is much cultivated through-
out the tropics for the sake of its delicious fruit.

The Pomegranate (Punica granatum), cultivated in India,
is an exceptional member of this Family. The structure
of its fruit is puzzling, owing to the development of two
distinct whorls of carpels, which become completely con-
solidated. It is believed to have been originally a native
of Western Asia, and not of Carthage, as its name would
denote (AZalum granatum).

Close allies of the Myrtles are the so-called Monkey-
pots (Lecythidee) of tropical America.

They are remarkable for the transverse dehiscence of
their large, woody capsules. Lrazil-nuts are the seeds of
a species of this Tribe (Bertholletia excelsa), as are, also,
Sapucaja-nuts (Lecyzhs, sp.).

None of the Myrtle Family are blue-flowered.

41. Natural Order, ARAzzophoree.—The Mangrove Family.

Trees or shrubs with opposite entire coriaceous leaves.
Calyx-teeth valvate. Petals often fringed. Ovary more or
less adherent.

TypE—R/izophora mucronata (or any other species of
Mangrove).

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion,

Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals. 4

Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals. 4

Stamens. 8 Octandrous. Perigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.

carpels. 4

—~-— ———

III. ] ONAGRACE. 2al

Littoral, swamp trees, often with branching, adventitious
roots, opposite, entire, thick, smooth leaves, axillary forked
peduncles bearing small, whitish flowers, and the seed
germinating before falling from the parent.

OBSERVE the tendency, in species growing between tide-
marks, to develope numerous adventitious roots, which
serve to secure a firm hold of the ground: the fringed
petals of several genera: the growth of the radicle of the
embryo of the single seed while still contained in the fruit
and before it falls. It grows to a length, sometimes, of
several feet, reaching the mud, and throwing out branch-
‘rootlets from its base before parting from the parent tree.

Compare with the Type-species any Bruguiera, with the
calyx about twelve-lobed, the same number of petals, and
double the number of stamens.

‘ The bark of the Mangrove is astringent, and may be used
in tanning.

42. Natural Order, Onagracee.—The Evening-Primrose
Family.
Herbs with alternate or opposite, simple (sometimes
divided if submerged) leaves. Calyx-teeth usually four ;
valvate. Ovary adherent, two- to four-celled.

TypE—/ussieua repens.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous, Superior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 10 Decandrous. Perigynous. |
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior. .
carpels. 5 ;

—EoEoEEEE—————————————————————————— OO Ey
P2

212 LYTHRACEZ:. [CHAP.

A floating or creeping annual herb, with alternate, entire,
obovate leaves, and axillary, solitary, pedunculate, reddish
or yellow-white, regular flowers.

This common water-plant is exceptional in having its
parts usually in fives; the flowers of the Family are almost
invariably ¢e¢ramerous, z.e. with the parts in fours.

OpsERVE the floats of cellular tissue attached to the sub-
merged nodes of the /ussiewa: the valvate eestivation of
the calyx-lobes and twisted zstivation of the petals.

In the garden species of the ornamental South American
genus fuchsia the calyx is beautifully coloured, as well as
the corolla. In some species of /zchsza the corolla is very
small, or wholly absent.

Onagracez are chiefly plants of temperate regions, and
they are not a conspicuous feature in India.

Nearly allied to this Family is the small aquatic Order
Halorageze. It includes the Water Chestnuts (Zrafa i-
spinosa and T. bicornis), important food-plants in Thibet,
N.W. India, and China. The fruit of Z? décornis resembles
the head of an ox in miniature.

43. Natural Order, Lythracee.—The Loosestrife Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite (or alternate) simple

leaves. Ovary free.
Type—Lagerstremia indica.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. * 6
Corolla. Polypetalous. Perigynous.
petals. 6
Stamens. 18(-30) Polyandrous. Perigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 6

111. ] CUCURBITACE A. 213

A showy garden shrub, with opposite or alternate entire
leaves and white or purple flowers in small, terminal,
racemose panicles.

OBSERVE the six outer stamens longer than the rest. In
a common English species of this Family (Lythrum Sali-
caria) there are three forms of flower, each characterised by
the same relative length of the style and stamens. In one,
the style is shorter than the six short stamens; in another,
it is intermediate in length between the short and long
stamens ; and in the third it is longer than the long stamens.
These differences Mr. Darwin shows to be designed to
favour the crossing of the stigma by the pollen of other
flowers, especially by flowers which have stamens corre-
sponding in length to the style of the flower to be fertilized.
Observations upon Indian species with respect to similar
dimorphic (or trimorphic) conditions are much needed.
Observe also the slight infolding of the dorsal sutures of
the carpels forming the syncarpous ovary of the Type-
species.

A second magnificent species of Lagerstremia (L. regina)
is a native of the Indian Peninsula. It grows to a large
size and affords useful timber. Gr¢s/ea tomentosa, a common
Indian shrub, with racemes of red flowers, used as a dye
and in medicine, and with a persistent red calyx enclosing
the capsule, is a member of this Family. Henna, used by
Egyptian ladies to dye their nails and the palms of their
hands a reddish-brown colour, is obtained from the leaves
of Lawsonta inermis. The nails of mummies are sometimes
found dyed with it.

44. Natural Order, Cucurbitacee.—The Gourd Family.

Climbing or prostrate herbs, with alternate leaves and
lateral tendrils. Flowers unisexual. Ovary inferior.

214 CUCURBITACEZE. [CHAP.

Typ«—-Common Gourd, Cucurbita maxima ; or
Cucumber, Cucumis sativus; or
Bottle Gourd, Zagenaria vulgaris ; or
Water Melon, Citrullus vulgaris.

Annual, creeping, usually rough or hairy herbs, with
alternate, palmi-veined and lobed leaves, extra-axillary
tendrils, and solitary, axillary, unisexual, regular, yellow
or white flowers.

Organ. No. | Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Poly- or gamo- Perigynous.
petals. 5 petalous.

6 Stamens. 3 Triandrous. Perigynous.
9 Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 3

Seeds 0, exalbuminous.

OpsERVE the tendrils, regarded as modified leaves of
axillary or extra-axillary shoots, the internodes
of which are undeveloped, the tendril-leaves
being reduced as it were to their principal
veins, which serve as feelers and hold-fasts:
the petals, in some genera free, in others
coherent, forming a bell-shaped corolla: the
three stamens, the anther of one stamen being
one-celled, of the others, two-celled. The
anther-cells are remarkably sinuous, being
twisted up and down like the letter S. In
Cucurbita the anthers are coherent. This
Fig, 36 Me" very important tropical Family, which in-

adelphous sta-

mens with 3m- Clydes many species cultivated in India, is

uous anthers.

_
~ a i
, -

IT. } CUCURBITACE. 215

remarkable for the great variety, in form, of the fruit. It
is often very variable in the same species, as in the Gourd
and Bottle Gourd. The firm outer pericarp, hollowed out,
serves a variety of purposes; it is often ornamented by
painting or burnt lines.

Many species are intensely bitter, and some are dangerous
poisons, as the Colocynth (Citrudlus colocynthus). Besides
the species named as types, the following are employed
in India as food-plants (most of them are cultivated) :—
Karivia umbellata, Momordica charantia, M. dioica, Luffa
pentantra, L.fetida, Benincasa cerifera, Trichosanthes anguina
(the Snake Gourd), Coccinia grandis, and others.

Allied to the Gourds, and scrambling or climbing by the
aid of tendrils, are the Passion-flowers (Passifloree), an
Order principally South American, but represented in India
by a few native species, and several cultivated in gardens
for the sake of their beautiful purple, scarlet, or greenish-
white flowers. They differ from the Gourds in their herma-
phrodite flowers, superior, often stalked ovary, and the
beautiful corona of filiform appendages arising from the
tube of the calyx, as well as in other characters. A
few Passion-flowers yield an eatable fruit, as the Granadilla
(P. quadrangularis) of the West Indies.

OpsERVE the remarkable habit and the structure of the
sulphur-yellow flowers of the Prickly Pear (Opuntia Dillenii);
the representative, very widely naturalized in India, of an
almost exclusively American Family, the Cactacez. This
Family is characterised by remarkable succulence, and by a
tough impervious skin or epidermis, which checks undue
evaporation of the juices in the arid climates to which the
group is principally confined. Very few possess develcped

216 BEGONIACE/. [CHAP.

leaves, the succulent epidermis of the stem performing the
function of these organs.

There are three principal modifications in the form of the
stem amongst the leafless Cactacez, viz. the Columnar,
the Globular, and the Jointed or Lobed. The Indian
Prickly Pear belongs to the last type. Note the gradual
passage from bracts to petals; both sepals and petals, as
well as stamens, being indefinite.

45. Natural Order, Begoniacee.—The Begonia Family.

Succulent herbs, with oblique, usually alternate, leaves.
Flowers unisexual. Ovary adherent, three-celled.

TypE—Begonia laciniata (or any other species of Begonia).

Herbs with alternate, stipulate, obliquely cordate, five- to
seven-lobed leaves, and axillary, two-flowered peduncles
of pale-pink unisexual flowers.

Cohesion. Adhesion.

Organ.

Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 4(-5)

|é Stamens. co

‘| 9 Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 3

OpsERVE the almost invariable obliquity of the leaves,
the midrib dividing them unsymmetrically: the sinuous
stigmas: the forked placentas, with indefinite ovules.

The species of this small Family nearly all belong to the
genus Begonia. They are very widely spread through the
tropics, excepting in Africa, where but comparatively few
species have been met with. Few species are applied
to any use, excepting for ornamental purposes, for which

Ili. ] CRASSULACEAE. 217

several Indian species are well fitted by their beautifully
variegated leaves. The variegation of Begonias, as in
Cissus discolor, arises from the presence of a film of air
under the epidermis wherever the surface appears silvery.
The epidermis is an interesting microscopic object, owing
to the stomates being frequently collected in clusters.

46. Natural Order, Crassudacee.—The Stonecrop Family.
Herbs or shrubs, usually with fleshy leaves. Pistil nearly
apocarpous. Ovary superior.
Type—Lryophyllum calycinum.
An erect, shrubby (introduced) plant, with opposite,

simple or compound, succulent leaves, and large terminal
panicles of pendulous, greenish-purple, regular flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 4
Corolla. Gamopetalous. E Perigynous.
petals. 4 ,

Stamens. 8 Octandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
carpels. 4 |

OxsERVE the inflated calyx. In some genera of the
Family there are as many as twenty sepals. Crassulaceze
are abundant at the Cape of Good Hope, and many species
grow in dry situations in temperate countries. They are
generally characterised by fleshy leaves.

In Britain, as well as in the Himalaya, many species of
the typical genus Stonecrop (Sedum) occur, differing from
the type which we have employed in having a polypetalous
corolla, as well as in habit.

218 SAXTIFRAGEE. (CHAP.

The leaves of Bryophyllum, when placed on moist soil,
produce young plants from the notches on their margin.
This is supposed to illustrate the development of ovules,
which are normally “buds” borne upon the margin of
carpellary leaves.

47. Natural Order, Saxif/ragee.—The Saxifrage Family.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees with alternate or opposite simple

leaves. Ovary more or less adherent. Stamens usually ten
or fewer.

Type—Garden Hydrangea (ydrangea hortensis).
A cultivated shrubby (Chinese) plant, with opposite, simple,

serrate leaves, and large, dense, cymose clusters of pale, rose-
coloured flowers (principally neuter).

Organ. No. | Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals. 4(-5)

Corolla. Polypetalous. Epigynous.
petals. 4(-5)

Stamens. 4(-5) Pentandrous. Epigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 2(-4)

Seeds indefinite, albuminous.

This temperate Family is referred to here partly on account
of a few tropical Indian representatives, and partly to direct
attention to the structure of the flowers of the species which
we employ as type. In the Garden Hydrangea the lobes of
the calyx are prone to enlarge inordinately at the expense
of:the essential organs of the flower, so that they nearly all
become barren, or neuter. The pale-pink colour of this

sm) UMBELLIFERAE. 219

tlower is said to pass into a blue when the soil in which it is
raised contains oxide of iron.

Several species of the typical genus Saxifraga grow at
great elevations in the Himalaya; others are at home in
Arctic regions.

Note the Sundews (Drosera), regarded as a Tribe of this
Family: low, glandular-viscid herbs, usually growing in
boggy situations. Some species exhibit a low sensibility or
»rritability in the leaves, which curl upon particles placed
on their glandular hairs. Is this the case with Indian
species? And do they appear to discriminate between
organic and inorganic matter offered to them?

The Venus’ Fly-trap (Dzonea) of the South United States
affords one of the most remarkable instances of irritability
in the vegetable kingdom. The leaves close instantaneously
when a fly touches one of three irritable hairs placed upon
each lobe of the leaf.

48. Natural Order, Umbellifere.—The Umbellate Family.

Herbs with hollow stems and sheathing, often dissected,
leaves, and small umbellate flowers. Petals and stamens
five, epigynous. Carpels two, dry when ripe.

TypE—either cultivated Fennel (Feniculum); or
Dill (Anethum) ; or
Carrot (Daucus) ; or
Coriander (Coriandrum).

Herbaceous plants, with erect, hollow stems, alternate,
sheathing, much divided leaves, and small flowers in ter-
minal compound umbels.

220 UMRELLIFERA. CHAP.

Fic. 137. Vertical section of flower of Umbelliferous plant, showing the inferior
two-celled ovary with one ovule in each cell.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

Calyx. Gamosepalous Superior.
sepals. 5

Corolla. Polypetalous. Epigynous.
petals. 5

Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 2

Seeds solitary, albuminous.

A very large Family in Europe and temperate Asia, but
of small importance in Indian botany.

OBSERVE the limb of the calyx usually reduced to a mere
rim (then said to be obsolete): the tendency, in the outer
flowers of the umbels, to become irregular, the outside petals
being larger, recalling the relation of the ray and disk
florets in Compositz: the inflexed tips of the petals: the
ripe fruit, separating into its two carpels, which often remain
suspended from a slender stalk (carpophore) in the middle.

III. ] OMBELILTIPERE., 221

The face of union of the two carpels is called the commts-
sure. In the substance of the thin pericarp are often found
minute, longitudinal canals, containing essential oil. These
are the vitte. ‘They may be found, when present, by making
a careful transverse section of the ripe fruit.

\ 1 {
\F UF \
U X
V4 \ \/N
\T f /
\ /
\ i}
\Iif HZ
Ni 4 |
NII
i Uh y
Vif
Fic. 139. Transverse section of same,
Fic. 138. One of the fruit-carpels showing the position of the vittz ; also
of Heracleum, showing four the embryo surrounded by copious
vittazz on the dorsal face. albumen.

In fydrocotyle the umbels are simple. A. asiatica is
common in swamps in India and tropical Africa, occurring
also in South America and Australia. This wide distribu-
tion is shared by numerous plants which affect similar
situations, growing either wholly or partially in water.
probably on account of the facilities afforded to their
dispersion by water-fowl.

The carpels of Umbelliferae are usually marked by lines,
ridges, or wings answering to the dorsal and sutural lines of
the cohering (and adhering) sepals. In Carrot the ridges
are bristly, in Prangos winged. The latter is common in
Thibet, where it serves as a valuable food for sheep.

The Family includes many dangerous plants, as well as
some valuable esculents. Some species afford aromatic
fruits or medicinal resins. Hemlock (Comium), the State

222 ARALIACE4:, [CILAP, .

poison of the Athenians, is one of the foremost amongst
the dangerous species. It is useful in medicine. Culti-
vated in temperate countries, besides the species named as
types, are: Parsnips (Lastinaca), Celery (Apium), Parsley
(Petroselinum), Caraways (Carum), and Anise (Anisum).

49. Natural Order, Avaliacee.—The Ivy Family.

Shrubs, trees, or herbs, with alternate, simple or com-
pound leaves. Petals and stamens epigynous. Carpels
two or more.

Type—faratropia venulosa.

A small tree, with alternate, petiolate, digitate, smooth,
veiny leaves, and numerous umbels of very small flowers,
arranged in terminal panicles.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Epigynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 5

This Family may be regarded as representing the Umbel-
lifers in the tropics. They agree in many technical characters,
but generally differ either in the increased number of carpels
cohering to form the syncarpous ovary, or in their woody
habit. There are many Natural Orders which include much
greater variety of structure than Araliacee and Umbelli-
ferze together, and that in respect of the same organs, but the
ordinal characters of the Umbellifers derive their systematic
importance from their constant prevalence through an im-

it] LORANTHACE. 223

mense number (about 1,500) of species, so that botanists
find it convenient to treat Araliaceze as a distinct Family,
although their technical differences are of small absolute
importance. .

The Ivy is the sole representative of the Family in Britain.
The same very variable species is native in the Himalaya
and Khasia mountains. The Ginseng root, highly prized
by the Chinese as a restorative medicine, and sometimes
sold at from 20 to 250 times its weight in silver, is the pro-
duce of an herbaceous species of Pazax, native in tem-
perate Eastern Asia. Rice paper is the pith of a shrubby
Aralia growing in the island of Formosa. It is cut into
small sheets from the thick cylinder of pith, with long
knives.

50. Natural Order, Loranthacee.—The Mistletoe Family.

Parasitical shrubs, with opposite or alternate leaves.
Stamens opposite perianth-lobes. Ovary inferior. Fruit
one-seeded.

TyvpE—Loranthus bicolor.

A woody parasite, with opposite entire leaves and axillary
racemes of slender, showy, scarlet and green flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Represented by an adherent cup-
sepals. ° shaped disk.

Corolla. Gamopetalous. Epigynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. | Inferior. H
carpels. 3 | :
-}
‘

Seeds solitary, albuminous.

224 RUBIACEA [CHAP

OpsERVE the intimate attachment of the parasite to its prey,
best seen by making a section through the plane of union.
The wood of the parasite and that of the stock, although in
most intimate union, do not intermix or shade off into each
other. Observe, also, the corolla, deeply split on one side,
in some species quite regular: the inferior ovary, buried in
the disk which grows up around and adherent to it; the
single erect ovule which it contains is entirely adnate with
the walls of the one-celled ovary, so that if the latter be cut
across at the time of flowering, it appears to be quite solid.

Several species of Mistletoe (Viscum), both with and
without leaves, are common parasites in India. They differ
from Loranthus in their minute petals, and in the adnate
anthers, dehiscing by numerous microscopic pores.

Division—COROLLIFLOR:.
* Ovary inferior
51. Natural Order, Rudbiacee.—The Peruvian-Bark Family.
Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite simple leaves and
interpetiolar stipules. (In some herbs the leaves are verti-

cillate.)
TyvpE—J/xora coccinea.

Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals.

Corolla. Gamopetalous. Epigynous.
petals.

Stamens. Tetrandrous. Epipetalous.

Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 2

Seeds solitary in each cell, albuminous.

If}. } RUBIACEAE, 225

A commonly cultivated (Chinese) garden shrub, with
opposite, entire leaves, interpetiolar stipules, and terminal
dense clusters of bright scarlet flowers.

Fic. 140. Vertical section cf flower of [xora.

As Sub-types, note—

Gardenia florida of gardens, with one-celled ovary and
numerous seeds ; and

Rubia cordifolia, Munjeet or Indian Madder, with four
leaves in a whorl (two smaller), a two-celled ovary, and one
seed in each cell.

The Gardenia is often “ double,” from a multiplication of
the cohering petals and change of stamens into petals.
This “doubling” of flowers is much more frequent among
polypetalous than amongst gamopetalous Families. It is
generally due both to transformation of the stamens into
petals and to actual increase in number of parts.

The species of this large Family, excepting those of the
Sub-type represented by the Munjeet with whorled leaves,

226 RUBIACEZ. [CHAP.

are almost exclusively tropical, abounding both in the Old
and New World. Many of the commonest tropical weeds
belong to the Family, as well as several beautiful garden
flowers. Comparatively few species are of economic im-
portance, but amongst these are several of very great
value, as the Coffee-tree (Coffea arabica) and the Peruvian
Barks (Czuchona), both now cultivated to profit in India;
the former principally in Ceylon, the latter on cool mountain
slopes in Southern India and the Himalaya.

OBSERVE the invariably opposite leaves of the Family in
all the genera, save one growing in the Himalaya and Khasia
mountains (Carlemannia), with entire margins: the scale-
like stipule between the bases of the opposite leaves, hence
called znterpetiolar : the recurved axillary spines of Gambir
(Uncaria Gambir) : the connate capitate flowers of AZorinda :
the development of one calyx-lobe of the flower into a leaf
in JZussenda: the horny albumen of the seeds, well seen
in Coffee.

The principal supply of Coffee for the British market is
obtained from Ceylon. In 1868 the quantity imported from
that island amounted to one hundred millions of pounds ;
the total from all sources, Ceylon included, to upwards of
one hundred and seventy-three million pounds.

The Peruvian Barks now successfully introduced into
India by the British Government, and into Java by the
Dutch, are native on the slopes of the Peruvian Andes,
where they are becoming scarcer and more difficult of
access year by year, owing to the reckless way in which
they are destroyed by the collectors of the medicinal bark.

The valuable emetic, Ipecacuanha, is the root of a Brazilian
species of the Family (Cephaélis). Several Indian Rubiaceze
are used in native medicine.

Gambir is an astringent extract, obtained by boiling down

11I. } COMPOSITE. 227

the herbage of Uncaria Gambir in the Malay Islands and
Peninsula. It is exported for the use of tanners and dyers.
The Munjeet is a near ally of the Madder, cultivated in
Europe and the Levant (Abia tinctoria). It affords the
valuable dye called ‘‘ Indian red.” ‘The leaves of Canthium
parviflorum, used as a fence-shrub, are eaten in curries.

52. Natural Order, Composite.—The Composite Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate or opposite leaves
and capitate inflorescence. Anthers syngenesious. Ovary
one-celled, with one erect ovule.

TypE—The Garden Zinnia (Zinnia elegans).

Fic. 141. Zinta elegans, considerably reduced.

A common garden annual (imported from America), with
opposite entire leaves, and terminal, solitary, showy heads
of variously coloured florets.

228 COMPOSIT A. [CHAP.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Epigynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Syngenesious. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 2

Seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous.

N.B. The ovary is invariably one-celled, with a solitary
erect ovule. The number of carpels forming the pistil is
inferred from the bifid stigma. From analogy it is inferred
also that the calyx consists of five sepals. The limb, how-
ever, is frequently wholly absent (odsolete), as in the Umbel-
late Family ; while in some genera it is represented by
scales or hairs, forming a pappus, which persists and crowns
the ripe fruit.

In Zinnia the pappus is reduced to one or two bristles.

CoMPARE, with respect to the form of the corolla of the
florets of the flower-heads—

Zinnia, with disk and ray (see p. 36); Vernonia cinerea
(an annual weedy Flea-bane, with small flower-heads, com-
mon in waste places), with all the florets regular (¢ubudar),
resembling those of the disk of Zinnia in form; Sonchus
(a weed of cultivated ground, with yellow flower-heads), with
all the florets irregular (“gzlate), resembling those of the
ray of Zinnia in form; Lchinops echinatus (with terminal,
globose, spiny flower-heads), each floret enclosed in a dis-
tinct involucel.

When all the florets of a flower-head are tubular, the
flower-head is discord; if the florets of the ray be ligulate,
the flower-head is radzate.

III. ] COMPOSITA. 229

The florets of the same flower-head may all be perfect
(Vernonia, Sonchus); or those of the disk may be perfect and
those of the ray pistillate (Zuma), or the florets moncecious
(Calendula) ; or the outer florets may be neuter, or all the
florets of the flower-head may be unisexual and the heads
dicecious, as in the common Thistle of waste places (Carduus
arvensis).

Fia. 142. Vertical section through flower-head of Sonchus.

If all the florets of a flower-head be perfect, it is said to
be omogamous ; if some of them be imperfect, it is Aefero-
gamous.

Compare, also, the common receptacle of Vernonia, or of
any common Slumea, with that of Zinnia. The latter has
numerous chaffy scales, or minute bracts, called ales,
amongst the florets, and the common receptacle is said to
be paleaceous; the former are destitute of scales, and the
common receptacle is said to be naked.

The Composite Family is the largest in the vegetable
kingdom, and at the same time one of the best-defined and
most easily recognised. When once it is thoroughly under-
stood that the “flower-heads” are not simple flowers, but
heads of (usually numerous) independent florets enclosed

230 COMPOSITA:. [CHAP.

within a whorl of bract-leaves (‘zvolucre), there remains no
difficulty in comprehending the principal technical marks of
the Family. ‘The Composites are distinguished from allied
families by—

1. Their inflorescence in flower-heads.

2. Their syngenesious anthers.

3. Their inferior one-celled ovary, with a single erect
ovule. The Family is divided into three Tribes :—

1. With the perfect or hermaphrodite florets regular
(Zubulifiore).

2. With the florets bilabiate (Zadzateflore, principally
South American).

3. With all the florets ligulate (Zzguiflore or Cichoracee).

Sub-tribes are based upon the form of the style and of its
divisions.

The Family is represented in every quarter of the globe,
and in all zones: in the north temperate zone generally
by herbaceous or shrubby species; in the tropics by large
trees, as well as herbs.

Notwithstanding the enormous number of species in the
Family, reckoned at from 8,000 to 10,000, the proportion of
which any general use is made by man is comparatively
small. Many local species are used in medicine; many
are bitter and aromatic, abounding in an etherial oil;
and aconsiderable number are used as salad or pot-herbs
in temperate countries—amongst the rest, Lettuce (Zactuca)
and Artichoke (Cyzara). Jerusalem Artichokes are the
tubers of a Helianthus, allied to the Sunflower (4. annuus).
These are both American herbs, common everywhere in
Indian gardens: the seeds of the latter are edible, and yield
a valuable oil. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) is cultivated
to some extent in India for its flowers, which yield a rose-
coloured dye.

III. J CAMPANULACE. 231

53. Natural Order, Campanulacee.—The Bell-flower Family.

Herbs or shrubs, with alternate or opposite exstipulate
leaves and milky juice. Ovary two- three- (or more-) celled.
Seeds indefinite.

Type— Wahlenbergia agrestis.

A common, spreading, annual weed, with alternate simple
leaves, and solitary, terminal, regular, bell-shaped, white
flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion. |
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Superior.
sepals. 5 |
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Epigynous. |
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epigynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. Ss

Lobelia trigyna, an annual herb, with similar habit, and
axillary blue flowers on slender peduncles, represents a
distinct sub-type, differing in having an irregular corolla and
the anthers syngenesious. From Composites, which have
also syngenesious anthers, the three-celled ovary and many
seeds easily distinguish this sub-type.

Several Bell-flowers (Campanula) and Lobelias are favourite
garden-plants in temperate countries. Two small-flowered
Campanulas of Northern India exhibit the curious pheno-
menon of dimorphic flowers. Besides the flower of usual
form, there are smaller ones, about the size of coriander-
seeds, which never open, but which nevertheless mature
abundant seed. The latter must necessarily be self-fertilised,
while the flowers of ordinary form are often, if not always,

232 ERICACE. [CHAP.

crossed |y the pollen of other flowers of the same species.
The part which these hermetically sealed flowers play in the
economy of plants is not yet well made out. They are
found in isolated species and genera belonging to widely
different Natural Orders, and it would be worth while to look
for fresh examples amongst Indian weeds.

54. Natural Order, Hrzcacee.—The Heath Family.

Shrubs or trees, with alternate simple leaves. Stamens
usually eight or ten, with anthers opening by pores. Seeds -
indefinite. (In the tribe Ericeze the ovary is free.)

TypE-—LRhododendron arboreum (or any other species of
Rhododendron).

A mountain shrub, with evergreen, simple, coriaceous
leaves, and terminal, umbellate clusters of red or white,
slightly irregular, bell-shaped, beautiful flowers.

Organ. | No. | Cohesion A dhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 10 Decandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. Io

A Family widely spread, but most prevalent in cool cli-
mates, either of the temperate zones, or on mountains between
the tropics. The Himalaya are especially rich in beautiful
species of the genus Lhododendron, including the Type
species, which is also found in the mountains of Southern
India.

111.] STVRACE.. 233

The Cranberry Tribe (Vacciniacee) constitute a sub-type,
differing from the above in having the ovary inferior, and
the stamens and corolla epigynous in consequence. Several
species of this group occur in the mountains of Northern
India.

OxsERVE the declinate (turned to one side) stamens, with
the anthers opening by minute terminal pores, in Rhodo-
dendron. The anthers of most genera of the Family are
curiously appendaged with bristle-like spurs.

But few species are turned to account by man, excepting
for garden and shrubbery ornamentation. The genus Heath
(Erica), a great favourite on account of the elegance and
beauty of its flowers, is remarkably numerous in species at
the Cape of Good Hope, while two or three social species,
numerous in imdividuals, cover large areas of barren land in
Northern Europe. The so-called Azalea indica, a favourite
greenhouse shrub in Europe, is a Chinese plant. It differs
from /hododendron in having deciduous leaves.

** Ovary superior.
55. Natural Order, S¢yvacee.—The Benzoin Family.

Trees or shrubs, with alternate simple leaves. Stamens
often indefinite, inserted on base of the corolla-tube. Ovary
sometimes free. Seed usually solitary.

TyPE—Symplocos racemosa.

Organ. No. Cohesion. | Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Half-inferior.
sepals 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Perigynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. re) Polyandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Half-superior.

carpels. 3

234 EBENACE:. [CHAP.

A small tree, with alternate, smooth, serrulate leaves,
and axillary and terminal racemes of yellow flowers.

A small, widely spread Family, including but few species
of economic value. Some species of Symlocos are used as
yellow dyes, and the bark of our Type is employed as a
mordant in dyeing with Munjeet.

The fragrant resin Benzoin is the exudation of a Malayan
Styrax.

56. Natural Order, Adenacee.—The Ebony Family.

Trees or shrubs, with alternate entire leaves, and dioecious
regular flowers. Stamens indefinite.

TypE—Dziospyros cordifolia.

A tree, with the older branches spinose, alternate simple
leaves, and axillary, drooping, dioecious flowers.

The male flowers in clusters of about three, the female
flowers solitary.

Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion. |
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior. |
sepals. 4
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 4

$ Stamens. 16 Polyandrous. Epipetalous.
¢ Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 8 |

N.B. The stamens are very nearly hypogynous, being
inserted upon the base of the corolla.

The genus Ebony (Diospyros) is the largest and most
important of this rather small Family, which is chiefly con
fined to hot countries.

Several Indian species of Ebony afford valuable cabinet-

IIT. ] SAPOTACEAE, 235

wood, especially the true Ebony (2. venus), and the
Calamander (D. gue@szdir) of Ceylon. Ebony is remarkable
for the dark colour and gravity of its heart-wood. The
sap-wood (a/burnum) is pale or nearly white. A few species
yield an edible fruit.

57. Natural Order, Safotacee.—The Sapodilla Family.

Trees or shrubs, with alternate entire leaves. Flowers
regular. Stamens opposite lobes of corolla, equal or twice
as many, often with numerous scale-like staminodia.

TyPpE—Mimusops Elengi.

iy)
<a, (ly
ie liu)

Kia. 143. AlZzmusops Elengi (called Bokul or Bukul), much reduced, witn 6
detached fruit.

236 OLEACEA. [CItAP.

A much-branched, ornamental tree, common in gardens,
with alternate, entire, smooth leaves, axillary fascicles of six
to eight fragrant, white flowers, and yellow, edible berries.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 8
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 24
Stamens. | 8 Octandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. | Syncarpous. Superior. }
carpels. Lats |

OBSERVE the unusual number of sepals and petals, due
to the former occurring in two and the latter in several
alternating series. In other genera the number of corolla-
lobes is usually smaller. Observe, also, the so-called
“barren stamens,” or scales, alternating with the anther-
bearing stamens.

Several species are cultivated in the tropics for the sake
of their useful fruit; amongst the rest, the Sapodilla Plum
(Achras Sapota) and Star Apple (Chrysophyllum Cainito).
The kernels of the seeds of some species of Bassia con-
tain much oil, or so-called “ vegetable butter,” which is
collected from two or three species for use as food, for
burning, and in soap-making. ‘The dried flowers, also, are
sold in bazaars in India.

Gutta Percha is the inspissated milk-sap of species of
Lsonandra, principally £ Gutta, a Malayan tree.

58. Natural Order, Oleace@.—The Olive Family.

Trees or shrubs with opposite leaves Flowers regular.
Stamens two.

III. J OLEACEA. 237
TypE—Ligustrum robustum.

A tree with opposite, entire, smooth leaves and terminal
panicles of numerous, small, white flowers, resembling those
of the European Privet.

Organ. : No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals.
Corolla. en Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 4 —

eS
Stamens. 2 | _Diandrous. Diandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2 : |

The Jessamines (/asminee) form a distinct Tribe of this
Family. Jasminum Sambac, a shrubby twiner, with simple
leaves and delightfully fragrant (often double) flowers, and
J. grandifiorum, or the common white Jessamine (/. officinale)
of gardens, with pinnate leaves, may be taken as repre-
sentatives of the Sub-type. ‘They differ from the Type in
having the corolla with five or more lobes, and a two-lobed
fruit. To this Tribe belongs also the honey-scented, night-
flowering JVyctanthes arbor-tristis, a small tree much culti-
vated in Indian gardens.

The two stamens distinguish Oleacez from nearly all
gamopetalous Families with regular flowers.

To this small Family belong the Ash (/vaxinus), which is
sometimes apetalous, and the Olive ( Olea europea) ; the latter
originally native of Syria and Greece, but from a remote
period extensively grown around the Mediterranean, for the
sake of the excellent oil obtained from the pulp of its
drupes.

238 APOCYNACEZ.. [CHAP.

59. Natural Order, Afocynacee.—The Dogbane Family.

Trees or shrubs, often climbers, with opposite (rarely
alternate) entire leaves. Flowers regular. Stamens as many
as, and alternate with, corolla-lobes. Carpels two, usually
free below.

]

\\
\ My

\
S

4 Lmmi=

Fic. 145. Vertical section of flower of
Fic. 144. Vinca rosea, one-third or Vinca rosca. The transversely con-
one-half the natural size. stricted annulate stigma to the left.

TyvPpE— Vinca rosea.

Organ. Vo. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels. |} 2 ;

11. J ASCLEPIADACEZ. : 239

A small erect perennial, everywhere in gardens, with
opposite, entire, obtuse leaves, and pretty, axillary, rose or
white flowers in pairs.

OBSERVE the twisted ezstivation of the corolla-lobes, and
their slight obliquity, common in the Family: the hour-
glass narrowing of the stigma: the carpels, with the ovaries
free, but the styles coherent, an unusual condition. The
reverse condition, with coherent ovaries and free styles,
is much more prevalent in syncarpous flowers. A pair
of small glands alternate with the carpels upon the
receptacle.

Compare with the fruit of Vinca, consisting of two fol-
licles, that of Carissa Carandas (a very spinous shrub,
serving for hedges), a two-celled berry used in tarts, pre-
serves, &c.; and of A//amanda, a Brazilian climber, common
in gardens, with large yellow flowers, and a one-celled fruit
with parietal seeds.

The Dogbanes constitute a large Family, principally
tropical, and many of them with very gay flowers. They
abound in a milky juice, which is often poisonous. It is
collected from a few species for the sake of the caoutchouc
which it contains. The Madagascar Ordeal-tree (Zan-
ghinia) belongs to this Family. It is said that the kernel of
a single fruit suffices to poison twenty people. The Oleander
(Werium), of which one species is grown in India, is also
poisonous. Many species afford useful medicines.

60. Natural Order, Asclepiadacee.—The Asclepias Family.
Shrubs or herbs, often climbing, with opposite entire

leaves. Flowers regular. Anthers coherent; pollen-masses
adhering to the stigma. Carpels two, usually free below.

240 ASCLEPIADACEE. [CHAP.

‘T'ypE—The Mudar (Calotropis gigantea).

One of the commonest shrubs of India, abounding in
milky juice ; erect, smooth, with opposite entire leaves, and

i %
fh i, ~~

ge \\

fi!

\
N

Fic. 146 Mudar (Calotropis gigantea), reduced. A ripe follicle to the
left below.

interpetiolar (not axillary, but from between the petioles on
one side of the stem) umbels of pretty rose and purple
flowers.

fr] ASCLEPIADACE#. 245

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion. |
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5 >
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Gynandrous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

A Family of peculiar botanical‘interest, on account of
the remarkable structure of the essential organs of the
flower.

ORSERVE the stamens cohering around the pistil and the
five lobes, alternating with and exterior to the stamens,
forming what is termed the corona: the pollen of each
anther-cell cohering into a single mass (Jollen-mass), the
pollen-masses of the adjoining cells of distinct anthers
united in pairs to the stigma: in a few Indian genera
(Secamone, Toxocarpus) the anthers are four-celled, so that
there are twenty pollen-masses, four to each anther: the
carpels, as in the Dogbanes, with free ovaries cohering to
form a single style and stigma: the silky coma of the ripe
seeds, contained in follicular fruits.

The milk of the Mudar is in repute in native medicine,
and the fibre of its bark is valuable for textile purposes.
flemidesmus affords the so-called Indian Sarsaparilla, and
a Marsdenia a very tenacious fibre. Several species are
favourite garden flowers, especially the Stephanotus of
Madagascar, and the species of Hoya. In the Indian‘and
Australian climbing and creeping genus Daéschidia the
leaves are sometimes converted into pitchers.

242 LOGANIACEA, [CHAP.

61. Natural Order, Zoganzacee.—The Strychnos Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite entire leaves, often
with interpetiolar stipules. Stamens alternate with corolla-
lobes. Ovary two- (or more-) celled, with axile placentas.

Type—Nux-vomica (Strychnos nux-vomica).

A tree with opposite, broadly ovate, entire, three- to
five-nerved leaves, interpetiolar stipules, small, rounded,
terminal, cymose panicles of greenish-white flowers, and
orange-yellow fruits.

! Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

Many genera of this Family may be regarded as Rubiaceze
with a superiot ovary. Like that Family they are usually
provided with interpetiolar stipules.

Some of the species differ very much in habit from
Sirychnos ; but as none of them fill an important part in
Indian vegetation, it is not needful to refer to them here.
Several of the Family are virulently poisonous ; few more so
than the Nux-vomica itself, from the seeds of which the
alkaloid Strychnia is prepared. The seeds of a close ally,
S. potatorum, are used in India as “ clearing-nuts,” causing
the impurities of water to settle to the bottom when
poured into vessels which have been rubbed out with one
of the seeds.

m1] GENTIANACEZ. 243

62. Natural Order, Gentianacee.—The Gentian Family.

Herbs with opposite entire leaves and of bitter taste.
Flowers regular. Ovary usually one-celled, with two
parietal placentas.

TypE—LZxacum tetragonum.

An erect, annual herb, growing in grassy places, with
opposite, five-nerved, entire, smooth leaves, and terminal
cymes of showy blue flowers.

Organ. Vo. |___ Cohesion, Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. j | Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 4
Corolla. (Sa Hypogynous.
petals. 4
Stamens. mi Tetrandrous. Tetrandrous. | Epipstalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

N.B. The ovary is normally one-celled in this Family, with
two parietal placentas, but in Hxacust the placentas project
into the cavity and meet, so as to make it almost completely
two-celled.

A cool-climate Family, with several tropical representa-
tives. The species are generally herbaceous, and nearly all
of them are bitter, some of them extremely so, possessing
valuable tonic properties. Our Type species is employed
in India as a febrifuge.

The flowers of the Gentians are very gay, often a brilliant
blue, yellow, or red. A few are aquatic; Villarsia indica,
with yellow and white, bearded flowers, is frequent in lakes
and tanks.

244 BIGNONTACE. [CHAP.

63. Natural Order, Bignoniacee.—The Bignonia Family.

Trees or climbing shrubs, with opposite, usually compound,

exstipulate leaves. Flowers irregular. Stamens usually fewer
than corolla-lobes. Ovary two-celled.

Seeds numerous,
winged.

it svi ;
HN) za
a) ia
very

iG. 147. pigoiia indica; a capsule to the left: much reducea.
TypE—Signonia (Calosanthes) indica.
A large tree, with large, opposite, pinnately divided
leaves (four to six feet long), terminal racemose panicles

of trumpet-shaped, red or .purple, slightly two-lipped
flowers, and very long, flattened, two-valved capsules.

uL J PEDALIACE.. 245

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels. 2 |

Seeds indefinite, broadly winged, exalbuminous.

OBSERVE two stamens longer than the rest, indicating an
approach to the didynamous condition, common in several
Families with bilabiate gamopetalous corollas.

Many species are climbers in tropical countries both of
the Old and New World. ‘They are generally characterised
by very showy flowers, and several of them are garden
favourites. The West Indian Calabash-tree (Cyvesentia),
with gourd-like fruits, the hard rind of which is made into
various utensils, belongs to a tribe of this Family.

64. Natural Order, Pedaliacee.—The Sesamum Family.

Herbs with opposite leaves. Flowers irregular. Stamens
fewer than corolla-lobes. Ovary with twice as many cells
as carpels,

yi)

Fic. 148. Flower ot Sesamtunz indicum.

246 PEDALIACE.. [CHAP.

Type—The Til, or Gingeley Plant (Sesamum indicum).

An annual pubescent herb, everywhere cultivated, two to
four feet tall, with entire or three-lobed leaves and axillary,
slightly bilabiate, pale rose-coloured flowers, forming ter-
minal racemes.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 4 Didynamous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

This small Family may almost be regarded as a Tribe of
the foregoing.

OpsERVE the rudiment of the fifth stamen: the ovary
spuriously four-celled, owing to the margins of the carpels
being recurved so as to meet the dorsal sutures. The
Type of the Family is the familiar Gingeley-oil plant, culti-
vated very extensively in warm countries for the sake of the
oil expressed from its seeds.

Near allies of the Sesamums are the Cyrfandree, a tribe
of the Family Gesneracee, including many herbs with very
pretty flowers of the mountain valleys of India and of the
Malayan islands. The species are so local that it is difficult to
select a serviceable type. Some of the more beautiful Indian
species belong to the genera “4 schynanthus and Didymo-
carpus. They have usually tailed seeds, contained in long,
straight or spirally twisted, very slender, siliquiform cap-
sules. The beautiful Gloxinia and Achimenes of gardens:
are tropical American members of the Family.

Ill. ] CONVOLVULACE. 247

65. Natural Order, Convolvulacee.—The Bindweed Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees, usually twining or prostrate
(Cuscuta parasitical), with alternate leaves and usually showy
regular flowers with a plaited corolla. Ovary two- to four-
celled. Seeds definite.

Type—The Elephant Creeper (Avgyreza speciosa).

A twining shrub, with alternate, heart-shaped leaves
silvery below with silky hairs, and large, handsome, axillary,
rose-coloured, regular flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior. |
carpels. 2

Seeds four in each fruit, cotyledons plicate.

OBSERVE the membranous, accrescent bracts of the
Indian genus (Veurofeltis: the plaited zestivation of the
corolla. Compare the berried fruit of Avgyreca with the
capsular fruit of any of the numerous Indian species of
Tpomea (two-celled), of Pharbitis nil (three-celled), or of
the small-flowered Poranas (one-celled).

+ The Family is principally, but not wholly, tropical; a few
species occur in Britain, and one (Convolvulus arvensis), a
common weed there, also occurs (introduced) in Northern
India. The flowers of most of the genera are very hand-
some, and many of them are favourite garden climbers.

248 BORAGINACE. [CITAP.

The Sweet Potato (Batatas edulis) is cultivated everywhere
in tropical countries. It is the most important food-pro-
ducing species of the Family. Its native country is uncertain,
but evidence favours its American origin. Many of the
Bindweeds are useful in medicine. A Mexican species
(Exogonium Purga) affords the drug Jalap, and a Convolvulus
of the Levant (C. Scammonia) Scammony.

The Dodders (Cuscute) constitute a remarkable Sub-
type of this Family. They are twining, leafless, parasitical
herbs, with small white corollas, often with minute scales
inside, altgrnating with the stamens. _ Their embryo is
spirally twisted, and is usually destitute of cotyledons. It
germinates independently in the soil, but as early as possible
lays hold of some neighbouring plant, to which it attaches
itself by small suckers given off by its stem. One species,
C. reflexa, is common in India.

66. Natural Order, Boraginacee.—The Borage Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees, with alternate, simple,
often rough leaves, and unilateral cymose inflorescence.
Flowers regular, with stamens alternate with corolla-lobes
Ovary, four- (rarely two-) lobed, four- (two-) seeded.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

Seeds, one in each cell of the four-lobed ovary.

nt.) SOLANACEZ. 249

TypE—TZ7richodesma indicum.

A spreading, scabrous or hairy annual, with entire, clasp-
ing leaves, and pale-blue regular flowers opposite to the
bracts.

The Sweet-scented Heliotrope (Heliotropium peruvianum),
common in gardens, may be taken as a Sub-type, differing
from true Borages in its entire ovary and terminal style.

OBSERVE the characteristic roughness and harshness of the
herbage of the Family: the one-sided racemose inflorescence,
well shown in Heliotrope. It is made up of a series of
distinct axes, each of which terminates in a single flower, while
below it forms part of the common axis of the inflorescence.
This explains the anomaly of the pedicels being opposite
to the bracts, instead of axillary. Observe, also, the four-
lobed ovary, composed of two carpels, the dorsal sutures
of which are infolded so far as to divide each carpel into
two one-seeded cells. ‘This structure of the ovary closely
resembles that of Labiates, from which Family the usually
regular flowers and stamens equal in number to the corolla-
lobes distinguish it, besides the usually alternate leaves
and round stem of the Borages. To this Family belongs
the Forget-me-not (JZyosotis), common in wet places in
Europe.

Regarded by some botanists as a distinct Family is the
small group Cordiacez, represented by Cordia Myxa, a low
tree with simple, alternate, entire or toothed leaves, small,
white, panicled, polygamous flowers, and berried fruits.
differs from the Borages in having a twice-forked terminal
style, baccate fruit, and plaited cotyledons.

67. Natural Order, Solanacee.—The Nightshade Family.

Herbs, shrubs, or sometimes trees, with alternate leaves
and often extra-axillary inflorescence. Flowers nearly or

250 SOLANACEA. [CHAP.

quite regular. Stamens alternate with corolla-lobes. Ovary
two-celled. Seeds indefinite.

TyPE—Solanum Jacquinit.

Fic. 149. Solan Yacguiniz, one-third to one-half the natura size.

rai very prickly, spreading or creeping biennial or perennial,

with alternate or geminate lobed or pinnatifid leaves,
extra-axillary peduncles bearing a few blue or purplish
flowers, and yellow or pale-coloured berries.

III. ] SOLANACEA!, 251

a a a ae

Seeds oo, albuminous.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion. |
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior. |
sepals 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous. |
petals. 5 |
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epipetalous.

—.] |
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior. /
carpels. 2 | |

OpsERVE the frequently geminate, though not strictly
opposite, leaves of the Solanums : the extra-axillary peduncle,
well shown in the Type: the accrescent calyx of Physalis
(Cape Gooseberry): the connivent anthers, opening by pores
at their tips: the four-celled prickly fruit of the Thorn
Apple (Datura), a weed of waste places ; the dorsal suture
of the carpels is inflected so far as to meet the placentas,
so that the ovary becomes spuriously four-celled—spuriously,
because the dissepiments are not all the inflected margins
of carpellary leaves, by which alone the ovary is normally
divided into distinct cells. Hence, whenever there are
more cells than carpels, some of the dissepiments are
necessarily spurious in this technical sense.

Several species of the very large, chiefly tropical, genus
Solanum are common in India, and any of them will serve
as type in lieu of the above, as the Egg-plant, Brinjal, or
Aubergine (S. AZédongena), an introduced garden species, or
the tomentose S. verbascifolia.

This Family includes, besides many very valuable food-
plants, many dangerous, narcotic poisons. This anomaly,
of species apparently so diverse in their properties being
included in the same Natural Order, is explicable when we

252 SCROPHULARIACEA [CHAP.

find that even the most useful food-products of the Family
require to be cooked before they are fitted for use. The
most important food-producing species are the Potato (.So-
lanum esculentum), a South American herb, cultivated for
the sake of its tubers throughout temperate countries, the
Aubergine, and the Tomato (Lycopersicum). The so-called
Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) is very common in
India. The pulpy berry, which is wholly concealed within
the yellowish, persistent, and accrescent calyx, is edible.
The scarlet or orange-yellow fruits of species of Capsicum
are everywhere used as a condiment,

The narcotic and poisonous species include Tobacco
(LVicottana), Deadly Nightshade (Atropfa), Henbane (Zyos-
cyamus), and many others.

68. Natural Order, Scrophulariacee.—The Figwort Family.

Usually herbs with opposite or alternate leaves, and
irregular flowers. Stamens fewer than corolla-lobes. Ovary
two-celled. Seeds indefinite.

TypeE—Maurandya semperfiorens.

| Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5

Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5

Stamens. 4 Didynamous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

Seeds oo, albuminous.

A climbing (garden) herb, with alternate, hastate leaves,
and axillary, solitary, pedunculate, irregular, rose-coloured

I.] SCROPHULARIACEE. 253

flowers. (Or JZ Barclayana, with purple flowers. Both
introduced American species, commonly cultivated.)

OBSERVE the one-spurred corolla of Zzvzaria, sometimes
becoming five-spurred and regular (Pedoria), by the develop-
ment of a spur to each petal: the limb of the corolla, quin-
quepartite and nearly regular (Verbascum), quadripartite
(Veronica) ; bilabiate corolla and personate (Snapdragon,
Antirrhinum); ringent (Pedicudaris); the anthers with their
cells frequently divergent below, or actually separated by
the dilatation of the connective in several genera.

Although this very large Family includes a great many
Indian species, I have selected as Type one which is not
native, but likely to be generally accessible in gardens,
because many of the native species are insignificant weeds
and difficult to identify, or else locally distributed.

The Family approaches Solanacez very nearly, but it may
generally be distinguished from that Order by the deficiency
of one or three stamens, the stamens thus becoming fewer
than the number of petals cohering to form the corolla.
When the fifth stamen is present, as in Verbascum, characters
afforded by the eestivation of the corolla-lobes are made
use of technically to separate the Orders. The common
Mullein (Verbascum Thapsus) occurs in waste places in
India. Several genera exhibit a partial parasitism, owing
to the roots attaching themselves to the roots of plants
amongst which they grow. edicularis, of which a large
number of species occurs in the Himalaya, and Ahinanthus
are examples of this condition, which unfits them for culti-
vation, although many of them bear very gay flowers. Aeg:-
néetia indica or Aeg. pedunculata may serve as a Sub-type,
representing the tribe of Broomrapes (Ovrobanchacee).
They are scaly parasites, destitute of green leaves, with
large purplish flowers and spathe-like calyxes. The ovary

254 LENTIBULARIACEA. [CHAP.

is one-celled, with two double and much-branched placentas,
covered with ovules. They are often found on the roots of
grasses ; Aeg. pedunculata on that of the Kus-kus (Andropogon
muricatus).

Many gay garden-flowers belong to the Figwort Family,
as Calceolaria, Pentstemon, Paulownia, Mimulus, and Torenia.
It affords, however, but few plants of economic value,
excepting as medicines.

69. Natural Order, Lentibulariacee.—The Butterwort Family.

Herbs growing in water or damp places. Flowers two-
lipped. Stamens two. Ovary one-celled, with a free central
placenta.

TyveE— Utricularia stellaris.

Fic. 150. Utricularia stellarts.

A floating plant, the submerged leaves with capillary
segments bearing small bladders, and an erect peduncle
with a whorl of inflated vesicles below, terminating in a
raceme of irregular yellow flowers.

UII. | ACANTHACEZ. 255

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Sub-hypogynous.
petals. 5
carpels. 2(s 2)

Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
Seeds ©, on free central placenta.
ile’ Se a, See 2 ee ay oe a eee Es

Stamens. 2 Diandrous. Epipetalous. |
ieee

A small but distinct Family of water and bog plants
widely dispersed both in tropical and temperate countries.
They are nearly allied to the Family last described, but
differ in their one-celled ovary, with a free central placenta,
similar to that of the Primroses, from which their irregular
diandrous flowers distinguish them.

OBSERVE the minute “bladders” attached to the sub-
merged leaves and radicular fibres of many species of Blad-
derwort (U¢ricularia). Several small Indian species, growing
on the ground, are leafless at the time of flowering. JU. re-
ticulata, a species with large, beautiful purple flowers, is
common in rice-fields. It is a variable plant in its habit
and the size of its flowers. The larger forms of it are
twining ; the smaller, rigid and erect.

70. Natural Order, Acanthacee.—The Acanthus Family.

Usually herbs or shrubs, with opposite, simple leaves.
Flowers irregular, usually bracteate. Ovary two-celled.
Seeds usually supported on cushions or hooks of the
placenta.

TyPre—/usticia Adhatoda (Bakas).

A small tree, with opposite, entire leaves, and axillary

256 ACANTHACE.. [CHAP.

bracteate spikes of bilabiate white flowers, spotted with red
or purple, in the axils of herbaceous bracts.

Fic. 151. Flower of ¥usticza Adhatoda.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. S
Stamens. 4 Didynamous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

OBSERVE the two-celled, undivided ovary, by which the
Family may be distinguished from Labiates, which it re-
sembles in its opposite leaves and often bilabiate flowers :
the capsule, dehiscing by two valves, each valve bearing the
seeds upon its median line, supported upon hard, hooked
processes.

Sub-type— Zhunbergia grandiflora, a climbing, woody
perennial, with axillary, peduncled, large blue and white,
bibracteate flowers.

111. ] LABIATA. 257
A

The Sub-type differs in its twining stem, in the very small
calyx, reduced to a mere ring, and in the little cups sup-
porting the seeds. The pair of valvate bracts must not be
mistaken for a calyx.

This very large tropical Family includes many insignificant
weeds, and many species with beautiful and showy flowers ;
very few, however, are turned to any economic use. A
few are employed in native medicine, and one or two
afford dyes.

71. Natural Order, Labcate.—The Labiate Family.

Herbs or shrubs, usually aromatic, with opposite leaves
and irregular flowers. Stamens two or four. Ovary four-
celled and deeply four-lobed.

TyPpE—Sweet Basil (Ocymum basilicum).

Fic. 152. Vertical section of flower of Ocymum, much enlarged.

258 LABIATAE [CHAP.

An erect or ascending aromatic shrub, with square stem,
opposite, simple leaves, and terminal racemes of white or
pink, bilabiate flowers, arranged in six-flowered verticil-
lasters.

Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5

Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
getals. 5

Stamens. 4 Didynamous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. Ape

Seeds solitary, in each of the four lobes of the fruit.

OBSERVE the square stem and invariably opposite leaves of
the Family: the apparently whorled flowers of the Type, made
up of a pair of opposite three-flowered cymes: the upper
tooth of the calyx of Sweet Basil, which enlarges after flower-
ing, becoming membranous, with decurrent adnate margins:
the diandrous flowers of Sa/vza, with the anther-cells removed
from each other by a long (distractile) connective, which
must not be mistaken for the true filament, which is very
short: the four-lobed ovary, similar to that of Borages
(page 248), with the style rising from between the lobes
(gynobasic).

A large, widely-distributed Family, characterised by
aromatic properties. None of the species are hurtful, and
many are useful pot-herbs, as Mint (Aentha), Marjoram
(Origanum), Thyme (Zhymus), Sage (Salvia), and our Type-
species. The fragrant oils of some species, as Lavender
(Zavendula) and Patchouli (Pogostemon), are in request as
perfumes, while others are serviceable stimulant medicines.

mt.] VERBENACEA:. 259

72. Natural Order, Verbenacee.—The Verbena Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite leaves and more
or less irregular flowers. Stamens usually four. Ovary
four-celled, entire.

TypE—The (quinque-foliolate) Chaste-tree (Vitex NMegundo).

A small, downy tree or shrub, with opposite tri- or
quinque-foliolate leaves, and terminal panicles of small,
purplish-blue, irregular flowers.

| Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.

|
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous. |
ioe 5
Pere. as), Didynamous. Epipetalous.
|{———______- —_————
| Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
| carpels. 2

‘Ea i es ees ee

OBSERVE the enlarged limb of the calyx, coloured bright
scarlet, of Holmskioldia : the four-celled ovary of the Family,
resembling that of Labiates, excepting that it is not lobed
and the style is terminal.

A rather large Family, principally confined to tropical
countries. The species are generally trees or shrubs, though
several are low herbs, as the Garden Verbena, one of the
brightest bedding-plants of English gardens. Teak (Zéctona
grandis) is the species of first importance in India, affording
one of the best and most durable timbers known. The
flowers of the Teak are often hexandrous. Normally they
are pentandrous.

Aloysia citriodora, the Lemon-scented Verbena, a fragrant
South American shrub, is common in Indian gardens, and

200 MYRSINACEZ:. [CHAP.

several species of the genera Lantana and Clerodendron
are sought after for the beauty of their flowers. The only

(,)
AY Ops
CAN SOA 'S
SERS

= Me sy \ f bam ==) ., a (9
“S i we: Gh

.
-

Fic. 153. Teak (Tectona grandis). Yo the left the accrescent calyx,
enclosing the fruit.

British representative of the Family, Verbena officinalis, is a
wide-spread weed, with inconspicuous flowers, sufficiently
common in India.

73. Natural Order, AZyrsinacee.—The Ardisia Family.

Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple leaves, and regular
flowers. Stamens five or four, opposite lobes of corolla.
Ovary one-celled, with free central placenta.

rt.) PRIMULACE. 261

TyepE—Aradisia humilis.

A shrub, with alternate, entire, smooth leaves, axillary,
short, umbelliform racemes of small, pale rose-coloured
flowers, and one-seeded berries.

eee eee _

Organ. No. | Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Epipetalous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels.

OBSERVE the stamens, which are opposite to the lobes of
the corolla: the free central placenta bearing numerous
ovules, of which but one is perfected into a seed.

A Family tolerably abundant in hot countries, where it
represents the Primrose Order, from which it has little
technically to separate it, excepting that the Myrsinaceze
are, as a rule, shrubs or trees, with more or less succulent
fruits, while the Primulacez are herbs, with dry, capsular
fruits.

In some genera of this Family, native in India, the petals
are free to the base; in 4¢giceras, a tree growing on the
coast, the anther-cells are transversely chambered, and in
Mesa the ovary is more or less adherent to the calyx. In
other respects the essential characters of the Type-species
apply to the rest of the Family.

Very few species are turned to economic account.

74. Natural Order, Primulacee.—The Primrose Family.

Herbs with regular flowers. Stamens opposite the lobes

262 PRIMULACEA.. [CiIAP.

of the corolla and equal in number. Ovary one-celled,
with a free central placenta.

Type—Primula sinensis (or any species of garden or wild

Primrose).
ere. .
— ag on INN, me
Ser) oe
=— a AN alt Z ——=
C= sl! 'ZR2. 32>

Fic. 154. Vertical section of flower of Primula sinensis.

Herb with radical leaves and umbellate or verticillate
regular flowers.

OBSERVE the stamens opposite to the corolla-lobes, and
the free central placenta, as in the foregoing Family. Many
species, especially of the genus Primrose, are prime spring

III. } PLUMBAGINACE. 263

favourites in the gardens of England. The native Indian
representatives of the Family are almost confined to the
mountains, many of them attaining an alpine elevation.
The Pimpernel (Azagaliis arvensis), a common English corn-
field weed, with small bright red or blue flowers, occurs in
India. It is remarkable in the mode of dehiscence of its
capsule, which opens transversely, the upper part separating
like a cap.

75. Natural Order, Plumbaginacee.—The Thrift Family.

Fic. 155. Plusmbago zeylanica, reduced.

Herbs or shrubs. Petals and stamens five, nearly or
quite free. Ovary one-celled, with five styles.

TypE— Plumbago zeylanica.

A shrubby garden plant, with long branches, alternate,

264 PLANTAGINACE:. (CHAP,

simple leaves, and long, viscid-hairy spikes of regular white
flowers (or the Rose Plumbago, with rose-coloured, or Cape
Plumbago with pale blue, flowers).

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.

1 Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 5

OBSERVE the hypogynous stamens, opposite to the corolla-
lobes: the petals, in some species, nearly or quite free: the
one-celled ovary with a solitary ovule, suspended from a
slender cord (/fumzc/e) rising: from the base of the cavity.

The three species named above are common ornamental
species in Indian gardens. Of the other genera of this
small Family, many species are sea-coast or salt-marsh
plants, or natives of the sterile saline wastes to the north-
west of India. Some species are used in native medicine.

76. Natural Order, PVantaginacee.—The Plantain Family.

Herbs with small greenish, often spicate, flowers, with
scarious corollas. Stamens four, exserted. Style simple

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Polysepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 4
Corolla. Gamopetalous. Hypogynous.
petals. fi
Stamens. 4 Tetrandrous. Epipetalous.

| Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels. 2

cl
~ ~~

ut.] NYCTAGINEZ. 265

Type—Greater Plantain (/Vantago major).

Herb of waste places, with broad radical leaves, and
small, spicate, greenish flowers.

OpsERVE the dry, scarious corolla: the slender filaments :
the transverse dehiscence of the small, capsular fruit.

A small, widely-spread Family, with inconspicuous flowers,
usually arranged in spikes. The species serving as Type is a
common weed in Europe as well as in India. The flowers
of the Indian form are often more loosely arranged upon the
long spike than in the common English plant. The seeds
of one species (P. decumbens [Ispaghula|) are sold in the
bazaars: they are useful in medicine owing to their cooling
mucilage.

Diviston—INCOMPLET.

77. Natural Order, Vyctaginee.—The Marvel-of-Peru Family.

Herbs or shrubs, with alternate or opposite, unequal
leaves. Base of the perianth-tube persistent, enclosing the
one-celled, one-seeded, superior ovary.

TypE—Boerhaavia diffusa.

A common perennial, procumbent weed, with opposite,
more or less unequal, ovate or cordate leaves, and loose
panicles of small red or white flowers, collected in small
heads.

Organ. No. G ae Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 5
Stamens. 3 Monadelphous. Hypogynous.

» Pistil. Apocarpous(?). Superior.
carfpels. t (2)

| Seeds solitary ; embryo curved round the albumen.

266 CHENOPODIACE. [CHAP

Or, in lieu of the above, the Marvel of Peru (A@radilis),
frequent in gardens, with white, crimson, yellow, or varie-
gated flowers.

OBSERVE the opposite leaves, one of each pair being
generally smaller than the other: the five-leaved involucre
of AZtrabilis, which must not be mistaken for a calyx: the
perianth contracted immediately above the ovary, to which it
isnot adherent. The upper portion of the perianth separates
at the contraction after flowering, and the lower part of the
perianth persists, becomes more or less hardened, and,
enlarging, forms an outer envelope of the fruit. A similar
condition occurs in the Eéeagnus Family. One or two
species of the South American genus Sougainvillea have
large membranous, beautiful rose-coloured bracts, which
render them favourite ornamental garden plants.

78. Natural Order, Chenopodiacee.—The Goosefoot Family.

Usually herbs with alternate or opposite leaves, and
minute, herbaceous flowers. Ovary one-celled, uniovulate,
with two or three stigmas.

Type—Common Goosefoot (Chenopodium album).

Fic. 156. Vertical section of flower of Goosefoot (Chenopodium).

An erect, annual, more or less mealy herb (two to eight
feet high), with alternate leaves, and leafy, interrupted
panicles of minute, clustered, greenish flowers.

nu} CHENOPODIACEZ. 267

Organ. No. | Cohesion. Adhesion.
Per.anth. | Gamophyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 5 |
Stamens. 5 | Pentandrous. Hypogynous.

ese ee Pe
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels.

Seeds solitary ; embryo curved round mealy albumen.

OBSERVE the stamens opposite to the segments of the
perianth (strictly, they are monadelphous, but the amount
of cohesion is so slight as to be scarcely perceptible) :
the one-celled ovary, horizontally flattened ; in the female
flowers of the allied, weedy, polygamous genus Atriplex,
the ovary is vertically compressed.

A’ widely-spread Family, occurring generally as weeds in
waste places on the sea-shore, or in saline desert regions.
Several peculiar genera abound in the Caspian and Aral
region of Western Asia.

Several useful pot-herbs belong to the Family. The
Type-species is thus employed in India. Beet (Beta)
yields in cultivation a valuable tap-root; one variety of
which, Mangold Wurzel, is grown for cattle in Europe.
Another variety contains much saccharine juice, and is
used in the manufacture of sugar on the continent of
Europe. <Afriplex hortensis is used as a pot-herb in the
Deccan, as are species of Sasella in India generally.
The latter differs from the Goosefoots proper in its
climbing habit and in the perianth, which at length be-
comes fleshy, forming a pseudo-pericarp, or baccate fruit.
The perianth of A4ase//a is in two series, an outer of two
segments, an inner of five.

268 AMARANTHACE&, [CHAP.
79. Natural Order, Amaranthacee.—The Amaranth Family.
Herbs (or shrubs, Deeringia), with opposite or alternate,
simple, stipulate leaves, and minute scarious flowers.
Type—Cockscomb (Ce/osza cristata).

An erect annual, common in gardens, with alternate,
simple leaves, and terminal, close, panicled or crested
spikes of purple or golden, small, scarious flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Polyphyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 5
Stamens. 5 Monadelphous. Hypogynous. ~
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carfpels. 2 (?)

Seeds several ; embryo curved.

OpsERVE the dry, scarious segments of the perianth,
by which the Family may generally be distinguished at
sight from the foregoing. The technical distinctions are
not strong. A cultivated form of the Type is common (the
Garden Cockscomb) in which the inflorescence is crested
and laterally compressed, and many of the flowers are
barren.

The Globe Amaranth (Gomphrena), Love-lies-bleeding and
Princes’ Feather (species of Amaranthus), are ornamental
garden plants, while several weedy species, with insignificant,
greenish flowers, serve as pot-herbs in India.

A common Indian plant, Deeringia celosioides, represents a
Sub-type, differing from the Amaranths in climbing habit
and baccate fruit.

III. ] POLYGONACE. 269
80. Natural Order, Polygonacee.—The Buckwheat Family.

Herbs or shrubs, with alternate simple leaves, and sheath-
ing stipules. Flowers very small, ovary one-celled, with
three or two stigmas.

TyPE—Polygonum barbatum.

An erect, weedy herb, with alternate lanceolate leaves,
sheathing, coarsely-bearded stipules, and long, terminal,
spike-like racemes of inconspicuous, rose-coloured flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Inferior
leaves. 5 (4)

Stamens. 8 (5) | Oct-(pent-)androus. Epiphyllous.
Pistil. | Syncarpous. Superior.
carfels. 3 .

Seeds solitary, erect, albuminous.

OxsERVE the sheathing, membranous stipules character-
istic of the Family: the three-cornered, one-celled ovary :
trimerous symmetry of the flowers of Rhubarb (Rheum)
and Dock (Aumex): the three inner perianth-leaves enlarged
after flowering and adpressed to the ovary.

A tolerably large and widely-spread Family. Many
species are weeds of both tropical and temperate countries.
A climbing Polygonum, the Buckwheat (P. Fagopyrum), is
grown in the Himalaya for its farinaceous seeds, of which
a good bread is made. The seeds of our Type are used
in Hindoo medicine.

270 URTICACEZE. [CHAP,

81. Natural Order, Urticacee.—The Nettle and Fig Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, usually with alternate stipulate
leaves and minute unisexual flowers. Stamens equal in
number and opposite to perianth-lobes (except Sub-type 2).
Ovary free, usually one-celled.

Type—Grass-cloth Plant (Behmeria nivea).

Fic. 157. Staminate flower of Grass- Fic. 158. Pistillate flower
cloth Nettle. of same.

An erect shrub, with alternate, cordate leaves hoary
beneath, and small, dicecious, greenish-yellow flowers, in
axillary, peduncled, globose heads.

Organ. No. | Cohesion. Adhesion.

6 Perianth. | Polyphyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 4 |

9 Perianth. Gamophyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 4

36 Stamens. 4 Tetrandrous. Hypogynous.

9 Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 2

Seed solitary, albuminous.

7S SCR mie

11. ] URTICACEA:. 271

OpRsERVE the tenacity of the liber of the bark, from
which the so-called “ grass-cloth” is prepared, and for the
sake of which it is cultivated in Bengal: the stamens

Fic. 159. Longitudinal section of frsit Fic. 160. Section of seed of same,
of Nettle (U7rtica). showing the large embryo, with a
superior radicle and but little albu-

men.

opposite to the leaves of the perianth, with elastic filaments:
the stinging hairs of the herbage of several Indian species
(not species of Behmeria).

Fic. 161. Leaf of Peepul Fic. 162. Leaf of India- Fic. 163. Leaf of Banyan
(Ficus religiosa). rubber Fig \/. elastica). Fig (7. denghalenszs)

This large and very important Family embraces genera
so diverse in the form of their inflorescence, that it is
necessary to employ two or three Sub-types.

292 URTICACEZ:. [CHAP.

Sup-TYPE 1—Banyan, or Indian Fig (Aicus benghalensis),
or the Peepul (F: veligiosa). Flowers unisexual, in sessile,
axillary, globular receptacles (Figs). Male and female
flowers in the same Fig. Perianth three- to five-lobed: male
flowers with a single stamen.

OBSERVE the adventitious roots given off freely by the
branches (of the Banyan and many other species of Ficus),
which descend and take root in the soil, thus enabling the
tree to spread itself over a wide area. Observe, also, the
large deciduous stipules, which leave ring-like scars at the
base of the leaves when they fall. The stipules of some
species (F. edastica, &c.) are well adapted for exhibiting
the milk-sap canals zz szfw under the microscope. The
margin of a young stipule should be placed in focus, and
then pressure applied, or a wound made in some part of
the stipule out of the field of view. This occasions a
rapid movement or emptying of the fluid, apparently from
the elasticity of the walls of the canals which contain
it. Some botanists have thought that these canals formed
a circulatory system analogous to the veins and arteries
of animals, but this notion is not supported by careful
observation. Note the succulent, hollow receptacle, the
top of which is closed by minute scales. The flowers
are very minute, and are closely packed on the inner surface
of the common receptacle. When the fig is ripe, the
individual fruits are commonly, but incorrectly, called the
seeds. The common receptacle of Fig resembles the
receptacle of Rose, with this important difference, that
instead of enclosing the fruit-carpels of a single flower
it encloses those of an indefinite number of flowers.

SuB-TYPE 2—Jack-fruit Tree (Artocarpus integrifolia).
A tree much cultivated in Southern India, with stipulate

U1] URTICACE A. 273

leaves like the Figs, the flowers closely packed upon the
outside of large oblong spikes, the male and female flowers
on distinct spikes. The perianth of the male is two-lobed,
enclosing a single stamen ; of the female, entire and more

WE LE —_

Fic. 164. Jack-fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia), much reduced.

or less adherent to adjoining perianths: so that the whole
grow together, and when mature form a huge, collective
fruit, ten to sixty pounds in weight. The seeds are
exalbuminous.

SuB-TYPE 3—Hemp (Cannabis sativa [Gunjah)).

A dicecious herb, largely cultivated for its narcotic, resi-
- nous leaves and flowers, which are smoked as “ Bhang.”
OBSERVE the digitate-partite leaves: the five-leaved
perianth of the male flowers, and single folded sepal of
the female: the resinous secretion of the your ger parts
collected as the intoxicant “ Churrus.”
F

274 URTICACEAE. [CHAP.

To the Fig Sub-type belongs the Fig (/ Carica), one
of the few species of the large and generally tropical

Fic. 165. Section of Fig (Ficus Carica), showing numerous flowers covering the
inner surface of the hollow receptacle. To the left a detached staminate
flower ; to the right a pistillate flower.

genus Ficus affording an eatable fruit. It is supposed to
have been native originally in Western Asia or in the

Fic. 167. Longitudinal section of
Fic. 166. Pistillate flower achene and albuminous seed of
of Fig. Fig.
Mediterranean region, where it has been cultivated from

& very remote period.

:
:

—— ee

111.) ORTICACE. 275

The species often yield a milky juice containing caout-
chouc, especially icus elastica, from which Indian
caoutchouc (India-rubber) is obtained. It is a fine indi-
genous tree, with glossy coriaceous leaves. The viscid
juice of the Banyan is used to make birdlime.

A near ally of the Fig is the Mulberry (JZorus), also with
a collective, or multiple, fruit; but with
the individual flowers arranged on the out-
side of a common receptacle, forming a short
thick spike. The succulence of the fruit is

the perianth. The tree is largely grown,
both in Asia and Southern Europe, on
account of its leaves, which are the food Fic. 168. Collec-
of the silkworm. The Paper Mulberry Minew ”
(Broussonetia) of Japan and Polynesia, the

fibrous bark of which is beaten out and worked up in
“Tapa-cloth,” belongs to this group.

To the Jack-fruit Sub-type belong the Bist Aue
(Artocarpus incisa) of Polynesia and the dangerous Upas
poison (Aztiaris toxicaria) of Java. In Southern India
the natives make “natural sacks” of the bark of Az-
tiaris saccidora, which they separate from the trunk by
beating it.

To the Hemp Sub-type belongs the Hop (Humulus),
anomalous in the Family on account of its twining stem.
The bracts of the female inflorescence enlarge after
flowering, forming a loose cone. They are covered with
microscopic glands containing a resin (/ulin), analogous
to that secreted by Hemp (Currus) in India, and pos-
sessing similar properties. Hence its use in Europe in
malt liquors, to which it imparts flavour and a preserving
quality.

é Mae

276 EUPHORBIACEA. [CHAP.

82. Natural Order, Huphorbiacee.—The Spurge Family.

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with unisexual flowers. Ovary
free, usually three-celled, with one or two ovules in each
cell.

Type—Castor-oil Plant (Ricinus communis).

Fic. 169. Pistillate tlower of Fic. 170. Staminate flower
Ricinus comme«z«i1ts. of same.

An erect, smooth and glaucous, cultivated plant, some-
times tree-like ; with large alternate, peltate, palmately-lobed
leaves, and terminal, racemose panicles of moncecious
flowers ; the female flowers being above.

Cohesion. Adhesion.

Organ.

Perianth. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
leaves. 3-5

Stamens. © Polyadelphous. Hypogynous.

ee eee

Pistil. 5 Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels 3

Seeds one in each cell, albuiminous.

——$—_——_——_— - - -

III. | EUPHORBIACE. 299

A very large Family, especially in tropical countries,
where many species are turned to useful account.

Apart from the ovary, which is superior and usually
three-celled with one or two ovules in each cell, the
structure of the flowers is very diverse in the different
tribes of this Family; so that it will be convenient to
examine three Sub-types, comparing each of them witl
Castor-oil. ’

Sus-TyPe 1—Indian Spurge (Euphorbia indica).

An annual, ascending or decumbent weed, with milky

juice, small opposite simple leaves, and minute greenish

Fic. 171. Involucre of Spurge, bordered by four horned ‘‘glands,” and con-
taining numerous male flowers and one female. The pedicel of the latter is
curved over the side of the involucre.

flowers, in small axillary or terminal cymose heads. Any

other common species of uphorbia will serve.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Pay
2 Beanntal I Monandrous. A
a hy

Syncarpous. ae
carpels. 3

278 EUPHORBIACEA. [CHAP.

OpssERVE the succulent, leafless, prickly £. antiguorum,
with its three-angled irregularly narrowed stem, bearing the
peduncles in the angles of the upper lobes: the bright
scarlet pair of connate bracts, immediately under the
flowers, in the introduced, showy garden species £. splendens
and £. Bojeri: the achlamydeous flowers, of which a num-
ber of monandrous males (single stamens) and one female
(pistil with three-celled ovary) are enclosed in a minute
cup-like involucre, which beginners are apt to mistake for
a calyx enclosing the stamens and pistil of a single flower.
Careful examination with a magnifier of one of the stamens
vvill show that the filament is jointed. This joint indicates
the base of the monandrous flower, and is the point from
which, in an allied species, the perianth is developed. ‘The
ovary is supported upon a stalk in the middle of the
involucre, which stalk is jointed like the filaments. The
involucre is usually bordered by four or five spreading
lobes, which must not be mistaken for petals. These lobes
are called the “glands” of the involucre.

SuB-TYPE 2—The Coral Plant (Jatropha multifida).

A succulent plant, common in gardens, with digitately
multifid leaves, and small red flowers in cymes, borne
upon erect, succulent peduncles.

i
| Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Calyx. Gamosepalous. Inferior.
sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Hypogynous ({?).
petals. 5
|——— 22 ee
| 6 Stamens. 10 Monadelphous. Hypogynous.
pes ee a eee
Q Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.

carpels. 3

ut] EUPHORBIACEZ. 279

OBSERVE the presence of a corolla, unusual in the
Family. It occurs also in the Croton-oil Plant (Cvroten
Tiglium). This character, although exceptional in the

H2ZDG

oe ati
a PROT
g = SASH
SA: Se BES ees ENS
: AK SG
x) WZ Da
SN 1

Fic. 172. Coral Plant (¥atropha multifida), reduced
Family, does not, in accordance with principles stated

before, prevent its being classed with Incomplete.

SuB-TYPE 3—Lhylanthus Emblica.

A tree with distichous, simple leaves, and small axillary,
moncecious flowers.

280 EUPHORBIACEA.. [CHAP,
Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. | Polyphyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 6
6 Stamens. 3(-5) Monadelphous.
g Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carfpels. 3
i

OxsERVE the leaves disposed along the twigs in two rows,
so that the latter resemble long pinnate leaves: the two-
ovuled cells of the ovary, as in Cicca, common in gardens,
cultivated for the sake of its succulent fruit, which is eaten
or made up in preserves.

A large number of species of the Spurge Family are
dangerously poisonous, and many afford very valuable
medicines, as the Castor- and Croton-oil Plants, referred to
above. From the abundant deposit of starch in the roots
of species of Manihot (allied to Jatropha), native in tro-
pical South America, but widely cultivated in hot countries,
they become most valuable food-plants, yielding Cassava-
meal or Mandiocca, and Tapioca.

The flowers are usually so small, that the Family is not
very serviceable for ornamental purposes. The bracts of
the two species of Huphorbia, common in Indian gardens,
named above, and especially of the Mexican Poznsettia, are,
however, very brilliant, and compensate for the insigni-
ficance of the flowers.

South American India-rubber is obtained from the milk-
sap of species of Siphonia (S. brasiliensis, &c.) The sap
is dried upon clay bottle-shaped moulds, and when a
sufficient thickness is obtained, the clay is washed out.
The Kamala dye of India, used to dye silks yellow, is
a red powder, rubbed off the ripe capsules of Loftlera
tinctoria.

111. | NEPENTHACE:. 281

83. Natural Order, Aristolochiacez.—The Birthwort Family.

Usually climbing shrubs, or herbs, with an irregular or
regular perianth, valvate in bud. Ovary inferior, three- or
six-celled.

TypE—Aristolochia indica.

A smooth twining shrub, with alternate leaves and axillary,

cymose, very irregular, brown-red and green flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion. |
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 3
Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. Gynandrous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 6

OpsERVE the one-sided expansion of the limb of the
irregular perianth ; in some American species, one or two
of which are grown in Indian gardens, the perianth is
almost large enough to form a bonnet for a child’s head.
In other genera of the Family the perianth is regular. It
is valvate in estivation. Observe, also, the six stamens
cohering around the stigma, forming a round head at the
bottom of the tube (which is often inflated) of the perianth.

84. Natural Order, Vepenthacee.—The Pitcher-plant Family.

Climbing shrubs, with alternate pitcher-bearing leaves
and racemose dicecious flowers.

Type —Common Pitcher-plant (Vesenthes distillatoria).

A somewhat shrubby, climbing plant, ieaves alternate
with a prolonged midrib supporting a “pitcher,” and

terminal racemes of greenish or reddish-green dicecious
flowers.

282 SALICACEA. [CHAP.

Organ. No. Cohesion. | Adhesion.
Perianth. Polyphyllous, | Inferior.
leaves. 4 |

6 Stamens. 2 | Monadelphous, Monadelphous.
| 2 Pistil. | Syncarpous. Superior.

carpedls. 4

OBSERVE the extraordinary abundance, in the stem and
leaves, of spiral vessels, easily observed under the micro-
scope, when portions of tissue are pulled asunder: the
gradual development of the pitcher, which may be traced
from its earliest appearance, both in seedling plants and
at the tip of the prolonged midrib of the leaves. According
to some botanists the “pitcher” is a hollow petiole, with
its margins united in front, bearing the blade articulated
to it as a “lid.” Dr. Hooker's observations show that
the pitcher is a glandular excavation in the end of the
excurrent midrib of the leaf. The inner surface of the
pitcher secretes a fluid, in which insects are frequently
drowned.

This small and very anomalous Family is confined to
S. E. Asia and the islands of the Indian Archipelago. In
Borneo some species are found with enormous pitchers.

85. Natural Order, Sa/icacee.—The Willow Family.

Trees or shrubs with unisexual (dicecious) flowers. Ovary
free, one-celled ; ovules basal or parietal.

Type—Willow (Salix tetrasperma) ; or Weeping Willow of
gardens (S. dabylonica).

A small tree with alternate simple leaves. and axillary
catkins of achlamydeous, dicecious flowers.

m1. | SALICACEZ. 283

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. ° = _
6 Stamens. 6-8 Hex-oct-androus. aoe
9 Pistil. ae Syncarpous.
carpels. 2

OBSERVE the arrangement of the minute flowers in
deciduous spikes (catkins), each flower in the axil of a
minute bract-scale: the one-celled ovary with two parietal
placentas: the downy aril of the seeds.

Fic. 173. Male flower of Fic. 174. Female flower Fic. 175. Seed of
Willow. of same. same

Cuttings of Willow, when planted in moist earth, give
off adventitious roots very freely, and by this means they
are easily propagated. Of the Weeping Willow of Western
Asia, but one sex is in general cultivation in England. It
occurs also in Indian gardens. ‘This small Family includes
but two genera, Willow and Poplar (Pofulus), both prin-
cipally confined to arctic and temperate regions, and, in
India and the tropics, to mountain slopes.

284 CUPULIFERA. (CHAP,

The twigs of species of Osier Willow are used in northern
countries to make basket-work.

86. Natural Order, Cupulifere.—The Oak and Chestnut
Family.
Trees with alternate leaves and moncecious flowers
Ovary inferior, three- (or more-) celled. Fruit one-celied,
one-seeded.

Type—Spiked Oak (Quercus spicata).

A large timber-tree of the Himalaya and Khasia moun-
tains, with alternate, simple, entire, coriaceous, shining,
stipulate leaves, axillary, long, erect spikes of small mone-
cious flowers, and sessile acorn-fruits.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Q Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. ?
6 Stamens. IO Decandrous.
Q Pistil. | Syncarpous. Inferior.
carfpels. 3 |

| Seed solitary, exalbuminous.

OBSERVE the various modifications of the involucre sur-
rounding the acorn in different species of Oak and Chestnut
(Castanea). In some Oaks it is closed over the fruit, splitting
into valves when ripe (as in Chestnuts) ; in others (as is
usually the case in Oaks), it forms a cup, covered with
numerous imbricating scales, or prickles, or a series of rings.
In other genera, not Indian, as the Hazel and Hornbeam,
the involucre consists of two or three leafy bracts, which
enlarge after flowering. Observe, also, the constant abor-

II. } CUPULIFERA 285

tion of all the ovules contained in the ovary excepting
one, as the fruit ripens, so that it is one-seeded, and, by
suppression, also one-celled.

Ni, ly “Gn...

Vy
Up
iff

uh
NM Ye

Fic. 176. Acorns of Indian species of Oak (Quercus).

The Family is one of very great importance in temperate
countries, especially the genera Oak, Beech (/agws), and
Chestnut. In India, Oaks and Chestnuts are confined to
the Himalaya and mountains of the Malay peninsula, where
the species of Oak are very numerous, differing, generally,
from the European species in their larger, often undivided,
and more coriaceous leaves.

The chief value of the Family depends upon the species
affording timber. Of these, by far the most important is
the English Oak (Quercus Robur), the wood of which is
invaluable wherever strength and durability are needed.

286 THVMELACE, [CHAP.

Several Oaks abound in astringent principles, and the
bark of the English Oak, and acorn-cups of the Valonia
(Q. 4gilops and allied species), are largely used in Britain
by tanners. Gallic acid—used in making ink, from the
intense black colour of its combination with salts of iron—
and tannin are chiefly obtained from galls produced upon
scrubby Oaks of Asia Minor by the puncture of insects.
The gall is a diseased development of tissue induced by
the puncture. Cork is the outer bark of a South European
and Mediterranean Oak. It is collected at intervals of six
to ten years, after the tree has attained an age of about
thirty years. ‘The bark is heated, flattened under weights,
and then slowly dried. The process of barking is said not
to injure the tree.

87. Natural Order, Ziymelacee.—The Spurge-Laurel
Family.

Shrubs with stringy bark. Ovary free, one-celied (or two-
celled), with one pendulous ovule in each cell.

TypE—Paper Daphne (Daphne papyracea).

A shrub (native of the Himalaya) with alternate, entire,
smooth leaves, and terminal heads of regular white flowers.

| Orgai. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 4
Stamens. 8 Octandrous. Epiphyllous.
Pistil. Apocarpous (?). Superior.
carpel. x (2)

Seed solitary, pendulous, exalbuminous. |

III. ] SANTALACE.. 287

OpsERVE the 1emarkable tenacity of the fibre of the
inner layer of the bark (/der), used to make a tough paper
in Northern India: the stamens in two series, four above,
four below.

Fic. 177. Vertical section of flower Fic. 178. Vertical section of fruit of same,
of Daphne. showing a solitary suspended seed.

The West Indian Lace-bark (Zagetta) belongs to this
Family, nearly all the species of which are characterised by
a similar tough liber. A near ally of the Daphnes is the
rare Eagle-wood (Aguilaria Agallocha), with a fragrant
resinous wood. It may be taken as a Sub-type of the
Family, from which it differs in its two-celled ovary and dry
dehiscent fruit.

88. Natural Order, Santa/acee.—The Sandalwood Family

Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with alternate or opposite entire
leaves. Stamens opposite perianth-lobes. Ovary adherent,
with ovules suspended from a free central placenta.

288 SANTALACEAE. (CHap.

TypE—Sandalwood (Saztalum album).

es a 4dN A:

Ve ees Nes: ——

OOS

Fic. 179 Sandalwood (Saxtalum album).

A tree with fragrant wood, opposite, entire, smooth leaves,
and short, axillary and terminal panicles of small flowers, at

first pale yellow, then rusty purple.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
| yparanth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 4
; Stamens Ree Tetrandrous. Epiphyllous.
~ Pistil. PA: Syncarpous (?). Inferior.

carpels. 3 (?)

it. ] ELMAGNACEA:, 289

OBSERVE the stamens, opposite to the lobes of the peri-
anth: small scales alternating with the stamens: the ovules
attached to a free central placenta. By the latter character
the Sandalwoods may be distinguished from the Mistletoe
Family, to which they are nearly allied. Some of the Sav-
talacee are parasitical.

The wood of Santalum album affords, on distillation, a
fragrant oil much used in India as a perfume.

89. Natural Order, A/@agnacee,—The Oleaster Family.

Trees or shrubs, more or less covered with silvery scurf-
scales. Base of perianth-tube persistent over a free, one-
celled ovary. Ovule erect.

Type—L/eagnus (any Indian species).

Shrubs or trees, more or less covered with minute shining
scales, with alternate, entire leaves, and small, axillary,
fascicled, regular flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. A dhesion.
Perianth. Gamosepalous. r Inferior.
leaves. 4
Stamens. Ae 4 Tetrandrous. Epiphyllous.

| Pistil. ae ted Apocarpous (?). | Superior.

Seed solitary, erect.

OBSERVE the scurf-like peltate scales, which more or less
abundantly cover all the young parts and the under surface
of the leaves; scraped off with a knife, they are interesting
objects under the microscope: the base of the perianth-
tube, which persists as in /Vyctagineg, closely investing the

290 MYRISTICACEZE, [CHAP.

ovary as a false pericarp. In some species the truit is
succulent; that of &. orientalis is used in dessert under the
name of Trebizonde Dates.

The Family is a very small one, and principally confined
to the Old World.

go. Natural Order, MZyristicacee.—The Nutmeg Family.

Trees or shrubs, with alternate entire leaves, and incon-
spicuous dicecious flowers. Fruit one-celled, one-seeded.
Aibumen ruminated.

Type—The Nutmeg-tree (JZyristica fragrans)

An introduced tree, thirty to forty feet high, with alternate
entire leaves, small, yellowish, supra-axillary, dicecious
flowers, and one-seeded, drupaceous (dehiscent) fruits.

| Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Inferior.
deaves. 3

$ Stamens. g-12 Monadelphous.

¥ Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
carpe, | I

Seed solitary, arillate, with ruminated albumen.

OBsERVE the acrid juice of the bark, staining red: the
scarlet aril, forming a coarse network over the seed, laid
bare, by the fleshy pericarp dehiscing, when ripe, in two
valves: the albumen, interrupted by folded plates of a
differeui tissue ; such albumen is said to be ruminated (sce
Custard-Apple Family, p. 151): the spreading: (divaricate)
cotyledons of the minute embryo.

A small tropical Family, including but few species of
importance besides that employed as Type, the seed of

111.J LAURACE®. 291

which is the Nutmeg of commerce, and the aril Mace.
The Nutmeg-tree is said to be indigenous in the Moluccas,
though now widely dispersed in the Indian Archipelago.
Aromatic fruits, more or less resembling the Nutmeg, are
afforded by several other species of the genus JZyristica.

g1. Natural Order, Zauracee.—The Laurel Family.

Trees or shrubs, with entire, usually evergreen leaves
(Cassytha is leafless and parasitical). Anthers opening by
valves. Seed solitary, exalbuminous.

: Nyy,
Ally MMM

—=
— 2 —

se
a

Fic. 180. Perianth of Czznasmomum laid open, showing the stamens
and staminodes.

TypE—Cinnamon Shrub (Ciznamomum zeylanicum).

A small tree or shrub, with subopposite, entire, smooth,
coriaceous, three-nerved leaves, and loose terminal and
axillary panicles of small, greenish-white flowers.

fh Organ. No. Cohesion. | Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 6
Stamens, pan Enneandrous,
Pistil. ‘he Apocarpous. chy Superior. o

carpel. I

Seed solitary, exalbuminous.

292

PIPERA CEE, [CHAP.

OBsERVE the three staminodia, alternating with the inner-
most stamens: the dehiscence of the anthers by four cells,

Fic. 181. An Indian species
of Cassytha, somewhat re-
duced; with a fragment of
the plant upon which it preys.

each opening by a recurved valve, as
in the Barberries: three of the nine
perfect stamens, with lateral glands
attached to their filaments, have the
valves of their anthers opening in-
wards.

The genus Cassytha is a singular
Sub-type, bearing the same relation
to the rest of the Family that Cuscuta
bears to the Convolvulus Family.
The species are leafless twining para-
sites. The flowers differ but slightly
from those of the true Laurels.

In some Indian genera (Lé¢saea,
Tetranthera, &c.) the flowers are di-
cecious, and in clusters or umbels.
The Laurel Family is chiefly con-
fined to tropical countries; several
species, however, extend as far north-
ward as Japan in Eastern Asia, and
one, the Victors Laurel (Laurus
nobilis), reaches the South of Europe.
Many species are aromatic; none
more so than our Type, the bark of
which is the Cinnamon of commerce.

Allied species of Cinnamomum afford Cassia. Camphor is
obtained by distillation from the wood of a Chinese
species of Cinnamomum (C. Camphora).

92. Natural Order, Piperacee.—The Pepper Family.
Jointed herbs or shrubs with alternate or opposite simple

It] PIPERACEZ.. 203

leaves. Flowers in dense spikes or racemes. Perianth o.
Ovary one-celled, one-ovuled.

Type—The Betle (Chavica Betle).

A smooth, woody, climbing or creeping, jointed plant
giving off numerous adventitious roots, with alternate,
cordate, seven- or nine-nerved leaves, and leaf-opposed,
drooping catkins of minute, dicecious flowers.

OBSERVE the flowers, borne in the axils of minute, peltate,
shortly-pedicelled bracts: the minute embryo and double
albumen.

‘Fic. 182. Portion of spike and detached hermaphrodite flower of Pepper (P#e7).

The Peppers are almost wholly a tropical Family,
abounding in the hottest regions of South America, India,
and the Indian islands. They generally agree in habit
with our Type, though some of them are low, prostrate
herbs.

Many species are aromatic, or pungent and biting. The
Type-species is universally cultivated in India as a masti-
catory, being chewed with lime and the nut of the Areca
Palm. The root of Piper methysticum is similarly employed
in the Pacific islands under the name of Kava.

Black pepper is the unripe, dried berries of P. nigrum ;
white pepper the same berries allowed to ripen, with tae

294 CONIFERZE. [CHAP.

pulpy coat removed. Long pepper is the dried flower-
spikes of Chavita Roxburghii.

The Family affords some valuable medicines, and several
species are employed as such by the natives of India.

93. Natural Order, Conifere.—The Pine Family.

Branching trees with simple, usually evergreen leaves.
Ovules naked (fertilised by direct contact of the pollen).

Type—The Cheer Pine (Pinus longifolia [Cheersullan,
Sarut]).

A tree of the Himalaya, with long, acicular, evergreen,
ternate leaves, naked, moncecious flowers in catkins, and a
multiple fruit (cone).

[No species of Pine is native in the Peninsula. |

From the extreme simplicity of the flowers of Coniferze,
the usual schedule is not suited to exhibit their structure in
a tabular form.

Fic. 183. Staminal scale of Pine. Fic. 184. Ovule-bearing scale of same.

The male flowers of Pine (Pizus) are arranged in short
catkins, consisting of minute, imbricating scales, each scale
bearing two anther-lobes upon its under surface.

The female flowers, also, are in small, dense, cone-like
catkins, consisting of small scales, each scale bearing upon

It] CONIFER. 295

the base of its upper side a pair of inverted ovules. As the
scales are closely imbricated, the ovules are concealed ; but
they may be easily found by breaking the flowering cone
across the middle, when some of them are sure to be
exposed.

Some botanists are of opinion that the
scales to which the ovules are attached are | or
open carpellary leaves. In any case, the 4, * ide
ovules are naked, so that the pollen-grains fi ily
fall directly upon the ovules. Hence the \ if
term gymnospermous applied to the Family, \\//'
in contradistinction to angiospermous applied
to all other flowering plants in which the
ovules are fertilised through the medium of
the stigma of a carpellary leaf. In the fruit
the ovule-bearing scales are much enlarged,
and hard and woody in texture, each scale |
bearing upon its upper surface a pair of sie. x85.
seeds which ultimately separate, each often Bae Fett ei ie
with a membranous wing derived from a ised seeds:
superficial layer of the ovule-bearing scale.

The scales, both of flower and fruit, are arranged upon
common axes in the form of a cone; hence the name
Coniferze applied to the Pine Family.

In Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens, an exotic species),
Yew (Zaxus baccata), and Juniper (Juniperus communis),
this Type is slightly departed from, though all agree in the
naked ovules of the female flowers.

In Cypress, the scale of the male catkins bear four anther-
cells, and the ovules are numerous and erect in the axils of
a small number of scales arranged in a head. ‘These scales
become woody and peltate, constituting a modification of the
cone called a gulbulus.

296 CONIFER. [cuay,

In Yew, the male flowers consist of peltate scales, bear-
ing about six (three to eight) anther-cells ; the female flowers
of solitary ovules, around each of which a succulent, pink-
coloured disk developes as they mature, enclosing and over-
topping the fruit. 3

rf | i
i i: Gals

Fic. 186. Scale of male inflorescence Fic. i87

f . Scale of female inflorescence
of Cypress.

of same.

Fic. 188. Stamen Fic. 189. Female flower Fic. 190. Vertical section
of Yew. of same. of fruit of same.

In Juniper, the anther-scales are four-celled, and the
ovules three in number, one at the base of each of three
connate scales, which form a succulent galbulus when the
seeds are ripe.

OBSERVE, under the compound microscope, the pollen-
grains of Pine. Each grain bears at its two extremities
an inflated vesicular dilatation of the outer coat of
the pollen-grain, which may probably have something

11.1 CONIFER, 297

to do with the mode of transference of the pollen from
the male flowers to the ovules, which is due to the wind.
Dense clouds of the pollen are carried in the air often to
a considerable distance, giving rise sometimes to so-called
“showers of sulphur.’? When the pollen finds its way to
the apex of the ovule the extine, or outer coat of the grain,
shrivels up and separates from the intine. At about the
same time a portion of the protoplasmic contents of the
grain accumulates at about the middle of its broadly-
rounded back and becomes separated from the rest by
the formation of a cell-wall, convex towards the cavity of
the parent-cell. The new cell is much the smaller of the
two and undergoes no further change (in Pine), while the
intine of the larger one grows out directly into the pollen-
tube, the complete elongation of which is not attained until
about a year after the shedding of the pollen in those Firs
in which the fruit is of biennial maturation.

In Pine the embryo-sac originates in the axis of the
ovule as in Angiosperms, but it is usually imbedded rather
deeply in its substance. It becomes early filled, long pre-
vious to contact of the pollen-tube, with cellular tissue
(an endosperm) originating by free-cell formation like the
endosperm of Angiosperms. Certain of these cells in the
embryo-sac near its upper boundary enlarge as secondary
embryo-sacs (formerly called corpuscula and by some now
called avchegonia, upon the assumption of their homology
with the so-called organs of vascular cryptograms),
within each of which, upon contact of the pollen-tube,
the formation of several embryos is determined by
the repeated division, in the direction of the axis of the
ovule, of a cell at the base of the cavity of the secondary
embryo-sac. Upon the number of longitudinal divi-
sions of this cell (first stage of the fro-embryo) depends

208 CONIFER. (CHAP.

the number of possible embryos. Each cell resulting from
this division then repeatedly divides transversely, and at the
same time grows down into the substance of the endosperm,
which increases rapidly in bulk and finally displaces the
entire nucleus of the ovule. Of all the nascent embryos
contained in the same fertilised ovule but one attains
maturity, the rest being arrested at an early stage. As
the endosperm is not all absorbed during maturation, the
seed is albuminous.

Besides the peculiarity in the structure of the flower of
Coniferee, the Order is characterised by the absence of
vessels in the wood, which consists of tapering wood-cells,

Fic. 191. Female inflorescence of Fic. 192. Seed of same, bearing a
uniper. few resin-receptacles.

marked on the sides, towards the medullary rays, with
circular disks, which answer to the margins of minute,
lenticular, intercellular cavities occurring between the “ pits ”
of adjacent cells. In the Pines and allied species, the
cotyledons are usually numerous, varying from three to
eighteen ; hence the term Aolycotyledonous applied to them.
As in other respects the structure of the Conifera: approaches
that of Dicotyledons, they are usually classed along with
them as an anomalous Family.

Ir. } CONIFER. 299

OBSERVE, also, the different forms and the arrangement
of the leaves in Conifer. In Fir, for example, there are
two forms of leaf, viz. small, brown, scaly leaves on the
main branches, the internodes of which lengthen out, and in
the action of each of these scaly leaves a single pair of, or
fascicles of three or five, long acicular leaves, sheathed at
the base by scale-leaves. The long acicular leaves are
borne upon axillary arrested branches. In Larch (Lazzx)
and Deodar (Cedrus) the acicular leaves are numerous, in
dense fascicles. ‘The former species is well adapted to show
the true nature of these fascicles of leaves, some of which
lengthen out into branches during thesummer. Indeed, the
fruit-cones occasionally lengthen out in this way into leaf-
bearing branches, illustrating the homology subsisting between
the bract-scales of the cone and the scale-leaves of the branch.

The leaves of many species of Pine persist several years.
The Larch is deciduous.

The Pine Family acquires high importance from the
number of species which it includes affording valuable
timber, and also from the resinous products obtained from
several of them.

Differing very much in habit from the Type, and gene-
rally treated as a distinct Family, is the group Gvetacee,
represented in India by species of Guetum and Ephedra,
the latter confined to the Himalaya.

The Gnetums are climbing shrubs with jointed stems,
opposite, shining, entire leaves, and axillary spikes of
verticillate, moncecious flowers. The male flowers each
consist of a single stamen; the female, of a naked
ovule, terminating above in a long, tubular prolongation
of its coat, resembling a style, and enclosed in an undi-
vided perianth. The fruit is an oblong drupe ; in at least
one species edible.

300 CYCADACEZ. [CHAP.

The Ephedras are leafless, much-branched shrubs, growing
in desert regions of the temperate zones. Associated with
Gnetum and L£phedra is the genus Welwitschia, a most
extraordinary and very anomalous dwarf tree of South
Africa, attaining a great age, with a table-like trunk seldom
raised more than six or twelve inches above the sand in
which it grows, and a single pair of leaves, persisting
through the lifetime of the tree, and believed to be the
first pair of leaves after the cotyledons.

94. Natural Order, Cycadacee.—The Cycas Family.

Unbranched, palm-like trees with a terminal crown of
pinnate leaves.

Type—Cycas revoluta.

=
—~—_—_

—_

Fic. 193. Cycas revoluta,

An unbranched, palm-like tree, sometimes ten to twelve
feet high, common in gardens, bearing a crown of pinnate
leaves with numerous, rigid, revolute-margined leaflets, and
dicecious flowers in large terminal cones.

u1.] PALMACEA:, 301

Differing principally from the Pine Family in the simple
stem, marked with the scars of fallen leaves, the structure
of the wood, and the pinnate leaves.

The scales of the male cones, which correspond to single
anthers of ordinary flowers, bear upon their under surface
very numerous, scattered, and clustered cells containing
pollen-grains. The ovules are borne upon the margins of
the scales of the female cones. From the seeds of an
Indian species commonly planted in Malabar and Ceylon a
useful flour is obtained, which is used by the poorer natives.
From the pith of some other species a coarse sago is col-
lected. Fossil remains indicate that Cycadeous plants were
very abundant in Europe at the time of the deposition of the
chalk, and during the early tertiary period. They are now
principally confined to Mexico, South Africa, and Australia.
Our Type-species of the Family is a northern outlier at the
present period, native in China and Japan.

MONOCOTYLEDONS.
SPADICIFLORZ.
g5. Natural Order, Palmacee.—The Palm Family.

Stem woody. Perianth six-leaved. Leaves pinnately or
palmately divided.

TyPE—Cocoa-nut Palm (Cocos nucifera).

A tall, unbranched tree, with a terminal plume of large,
pinnate leaves, much-branched spadices of small, moncecious
flowers from the axils of the outer leaves of the crown, and
large fruits (Cocoa-nuts), with a fibrous epicarp.

OBSERVE the germination of a Palm, the sheathing por-
tion of the cotyledon often penetrating, at the expense of
the large store of albumen, to a considerable depth in the
soil before the development of the plumule : the woody stem,

302 PALMACE. [CHAP.

varying in height and form in different species, sometimes
prostrate, forming a rhizome, or cable-like, but usually erect
and nearly cylindrical, bearing the persistent bases of fallen

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Polyphyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 6
Stamens. 6 Hexandrous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 3

Seed large, solitary, albumimous.
ee ee

leaves, or exhibiting the ring-like scars which they leave. It is
rarely branched, as in the Egyptian Doum Palm (Ayphazne),
an erect-growing species. The wood is often extremely hard
outside, and very soft within. It is well adapted to illustrate
the independence of the vascular cords, characteristic of
Monocotyledons (see page 118). Observe, also, the variety
in structure of the fruit; the three carpels of which it is
normally composed are usually coherent, but sometimes,
as in Chamerops, Rhapis, and Phenix (the Date), the fruit
is apocarpous. Inthe more important Indian genera it is
syncarpous, and one-celled from the suppression of two
cells, as in Cocos and the Betel (Aveca),—or three-celled, ag
in Arenga, Caryota, Calamus, Borassus, and others. The
structure of the pericarp is particularly variable. In the
Cocoa-nut (Cocos) the epicarp is fibrous, affording the coir
fibre of commerce; the endocarp, a hard shell. In the
Date (Phenix) the pericarp is fleshy and sweet, In the
Rattans or Rotangs (Ca/amus), and Sago palm (Sagus), the
fruit is covered with numerous, hard, imbricating scales.
In the Palmyra Palm (Borvassus) it is a huge drupe, with
three large, fibrous, one-seeded pyrenes.

111.) PALMACEZ:, 303

The useful products of this princely Family are so in-
finitely numerous that a few only of the more important,
afforded by Indian species, can be referred to here.

The wood of several species is used in building and other
constructions. The hard outer portion of the trunk is
exported to Europe for walking-sticks and umbrellas.
Canes or Rattans, the flexible stems of species of Calamus,
are also largely exported from the Malay peninsula, for use
in seating chairs, &c. The pith-like tissue of the inside of
the trunk of Sagus, growing in the Archipelago, affords
abundant farinaceous matter, from which sago is prepared
for home use and exportation. The saccharine juice of
species of Phenix, Borassus, Caryota, and other genera, is
collected and fermented as palm-wine, distilled for arrack,
or boiled down for sugar.

Of the leaves numerous applications are made. Strips
are worked up into baskets, and punkahs are made of the
large fan-leaves of the Palmyra (orassus). Books are
made of strips of the leaves of the Palmyra and Talipot
(Corypha) Palms.

The Cocoa-nut, collected as food and for the sake of its
excellent oil, and the astringent seeds, with ruminated albu-
men, of the Betel (4veca Catechi), universally chewed in
tropical Asia, are the most important Indian fruit-products
of the Family. The resin called Dragon’s-blood is princi-
pally obtained from a species of Calamus.

Palms are almost exclusively tropical, abounding in the
hot and humid parts of Asia and South America. The
species are proportionately less numerous in Africa, though
on the western coast of that continent grows one of the
most useful members of the group,—the Oil Palm (Z/Zais).
The oil obtained from the fruit is largely consumed in
England in the manufacture of soap and candles. The

304 PANDANACE _ [CHAP,

species are generally restricted in the area over which they
extend. The Cocoa-nut is one of the most widely dispersed,
occurring on the shores of most tropical countries. A
few Palms reach as far north as China, Japan, and the
United States, while a single species is native of Southern
Europe,—the Dwarf Fan Palm (Chamea@rops humilis).

96. Natural Order, Pandanacee.—The Screw-Pine Family.

Stem woody or herbaceous. Leaves linear (except /Vipa),
Flowers sessile, in heads or spikes. Perianth o (except in
Nipa, &).

TypE—Pandanus odoratissimus.

A forking or unbranched tree, everywhere planted, giving off
buttress-like adventitious roots, with a terminal crown of long;
prickly leaves arranged in three spiral rows, and dicecious
flowers: the males delightfully fragrant, in long, pendulous,
leafy, panicled spikes ; the female is a terminal one.

The flowers are achlamydeous, the stamens being crowded
upon the spadices, and often cohering in bundles; the car-
pels one-celled and one-ovuled, densely packed on the
female cone. The multiple fruit consists of a number of
closely-packed fibrous one-seeded drupes.

The Screw-Pines derive their appellation not from any
resemblance to the Pine Family, but rather from the simti-
larity of their foliage to that of the Pine-apples (Brome-
liacez), and especially to that of the Pine-apple itself
(Bromelia Ananas), a tropical American plant much culti-
vated in hot climates.

OBSERVE the tendency to form adventitious roots from
the lower part of the trunk: the forked branching of the
trunk, unusual amongst arborescent Monocotyledons: the
trifarious (three-rowed) arrangement of the leaves, with their
prickly margins and keel.

111.) IVPHACE. 305

The leaves make a good thatch, and are used for matting.
The fibrous roots serve as cordage, and also, when cut up,

as corks,
A near ally of the Screw-Pines is the dwarf, palm-like

Nipa fruticans, abundant in the Sunderbunds. The leaves
Type—Fandanus odoratissimus.

—<—
——
iy)
‘4

FAX

Pismo

ae) eee \ \
cy \
7 a} | 4
5 hit Pl \
Aa) \ yeaa | ada
r ~ ¢
\ \ \

LY)

My
THe 4)

Fic. 194. Screw-Pine (Paxdanus odoratissimus), showing aerial roots from
_the lower part of the trunk.

are pinnate, and the small flowers are provided with six-
leaved perianths.
97. Natural Order, Zyphacee—The Bullrush Family.
Marsh herbs with linear leaves, and spicate or capitate,

moncecious flowers. Perianth o. Fruit a dry one-seeded nut
x

306 AROIDEZ:. [cHar,

TyPpe— Zypha elephantina.

A perennial herb, growing on the borders of tanks and
Jakes, with radical ensiform leaves, and a tall scape termi-
nating in a cylindrical inflorescence, of which the lower
portion consists of female, the upper, separated by a short
interval, of male flowers, very densely packed.

The flowers are achlamydeous; the males consisting of
two or four stamens, the female of a pedicellate pistil, with
a one-celled ovary, surrounded by a whorl of hair-like
filaments, representing a perianth.

The leaves are used for matting, and are said to be tied
up in bundles to serve as swimming floats. The pollen
is collected, and made up into cakes, and eaten as bread, in
Western India.

98. Natural Order, Avoidee.—The Arum Family.

Stem herbaceous, or woody, or wanting, with leaves usually
net-veined. Flowers monoecious (sometimes dicecious or
hermaphrodite), sessile on a spadix. Perianth usually o,
or of minute scales.

TypE—Kuchoo or Kachalu (Colocasia antiguorum).

A stemless, perennial herb, extensively cultivated, with
large, radical, peltate, arrow-head leaves and moncecious
achlamydeous flowers arranged upon a fleshy spike (spadix),
enclosed in a yellowish sheathing bract (spathe).

The lower portion of the spadix is occupied by numerous
female flowers, each consisting of pistil only, with one-
celled ovary and several ovules upon two or three placentas.
Adjoining and above the female flowers are some abortive
pistils, then a number of closely-packed male flowers, each
reduced to a single two-celled anther, opening by minute
pores at the top. The anthers cohere, side by side, in
masses. The spadix is prolonged beyond the crowded
stamens into an acute “‘ appendix,” which takes no part in

111. ] AROIDEE. 307

reproduction, and which is absent in the allied, ornamental
“Lily of the Nile” (Aichardia ethiopica) of gardens.

The entire spadix and spathe are lable to be mistaken
by beginners for a single flower ; but a comparison of our
Type-species with other genera removes all doubt, and
proves the spadix to be an inflorescence. bearing innume

Fic. 195. Colocasia antiguorum, much reduced.

rable flowers. In the Rchardia of South Africa (not of
the Nile, at its familiar name would imply,) the pistils are
each surrounded by three abortive stamens (staminodia),
and in the common Indian climbing /Pofhes the flowers

are hermaphrodite, each with a six-leaved perianth.
x 2

308 AROIDE.. ‘CHAP.

The Type-species, and several allies of the same and of
different genera, are very valuable food-producing plants.
widely cultivated in the tropics.

i I mth

Fic. 197. Spadix removed of Colocasia. A
Fic. 196. Spathe and spadix of detached stamen to the right; a pistil
Colocasia antiguorum. and surrounding scales to the left.

In India the Colocasia is propagated by offsets from its
tubers, which grow to a large size, and contain abundance
of excellent farinaceous matter, from which the acrid: juice,
characteristic of the Family, is driven off by the process of

111, J PISTIACEA. 309

cooking. It is a variable plant, as are most largely culti-
vated species, and some of its varieties have been separated
as distinct species. The aromatic Acorus Calamus, with
sword-shaped leaves, common in Indian gardens, is a very
widely dispersed member of the Family ; occurring in Eng-
land, through Europe and temperate Asia, and also in North
America. ‘The fragrant rhizome is chewed, made up as a
confection, or used medicinally.

The leaves of Colocasia and some of its allies, growing
in swampy places, distil water from a minute pore at the
tip, to which point free canals, in the substance of the leaf,
converge. ‘This process supplements the transpiration from
the surface of the leaf, and is most abundant when transpi-
ration is checked by the moisture of the atmosphere.

99. Natural Order, Péstiacee.—The Duckweed Family.

Floating herbs, in Zemna consisting of minute, leaf-like
fronds.

Type—fistia Stratiotes.

A floating herb, with tufted obcordate-
cuneate radical leaves, numerous fibrous
roots hanging in the water, and minute
spathes with adherent spadices rising »>
from the middle of the tuft. Ne

The annexed cut will explain the in-
florescence of Pistia better than a verbal
description. The spadix is adherent to
the spathe, and terminates in a small
head of five adherent four-celled anthers.
Immediately below the head of the anthers
is the stigma. The ovary is one-celled and OS ai gna
adherent, containing several ovules. oer

This little lettuce-like plant is gigantic

310 DIOSCOREACEA:. [CHAP.

compared with the minute representatives of the Family in
Europe, belonging to the genus Duckweed (Lemna). Their
fronds are everywhere common, floating in stagnant water.
Some species of Zenza occur in India.

too. Natural Order, Zaccacee.—The Tacca Family.

Herbs, with radical leaves and scapes, bearing umbellate
flowers.
TyPE— Zacca pinnatifida.
A perennial herb, cultivated in Southern India, with
large, tripartite, radical leaves with pinnatifid lobes, and
long scapes bearing an involucrate umbel of greenish flowers.

Organ. Vo. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 6
Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. Epiphyllous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. g

This species is cultivated all through Polynesia for the
sake of its mealy tubers. The Fan.ily is a very small one,
and covfned to the tropics of the Old World.

PETALOIDE.

tor. Natural Order, Dzoscoreacee.—The Yam Family.

Usually twining herbs, with net-veined, simple or digitate
leaves. Flowers unisexual. Perianth six-lobed. Ovary
inferior, three-celled.

TypE—D0voscorea sativa (or any other species of Yam).

A twining herb, with alternate, more or less cordate
leaves, axillary spikes of very small dicecious flowers ; the

I1I.] LILIACELE. 311

males in slender panicles, the females in simple spikes ; and
three-lobed, capsular fruits.

Organ. No. Cohesion. | Adhesion. |
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior
leaves. 6
é Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. Epiphyllous.
9 Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior
carpels. 3

A small Family, widely spread through hot countries ; one
species with berried fruits representing it in Britain. ‘The
species much resemble the Sarsaparilla Tribe of the Lily
Family in habit, with which they agree in having net-veined
leaves. The inferior ovary, however, at once distinguishes
them. The species are generally acrid, but, in those afford-
ing the large tuberous roots called Yams, this acridity,
when present, is removed by cooking. Several variable
species are cultivated for Yams in nearly all tropical
countries. Their culture is believed to have spread from
South-Eastern Asia and the Archipelago.

OBSERVE the minute green bulbels often borne in the
axils of the leaves of the Type-species.

102. Natural Order, Zz/acee.—The Lily Family.

Herbs (in Dracena shrubs or trees), with a six-leaved
petaloid perianth. Ovary superior, three-celled.

TypE—Dracena ferred.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Inferior,
leaves. 6
Stamens. ak Hexandrous. _ Epiphyllous.
Pistil. Rak Syncarpous. Superior,

carpels. 3

312 LILIACEAE. [CHAP.

An erect, shrubby or arborescent (Chinese) plant, com-
mon in Indian gardens, with terminal crowns of red-
brown leaves, and large, terminal panicles of small, white
or purplish, racemose flowers.

Fic. 199. Flower of Dracena, in longitudinal section.

A large Family, including several marked Sub-types, differ-
ing from each other in habit rather than in the structure of
their flowers. ‘They do not form a conspicuous feature in
Indian vegetation ; several, however, are greatly prized in

21G. 200. Flower of Lily (ZzZ712).

Itl.] FUNCACEA. 313

gardens for the beauty of their flowers. Amongst the latter
few are more showy than the Gloriosa (Methonica) superba
of Indian forests, with its climbing, herbaceous stem, aided
by tendrils terminating the leaf-blades.

The African genus Ave (not the so-called American Aloe
(Agave) belonging to the Amaryllis Family) and the Adam’s
Needle ( Yucca) belong to the Lily Family, as do the culti-
vated herbs Garlic, Onion (A/um), and Asparagus.

Bowstring Hemp is a tenacious fibre obtained from the
leaves of an Indian species of Sanseviera. Phormium
tenax of New Zealand yields a similar most valuable fibre.

Peliosanthes Teta,—a stemless perennial, with plaited
radical leaves, and small, green, racemose flowers,—repre.
sents an Indian Sub-type in which the ovary is partially
inferior. The Sarsaparillas (Sz/ax) form a Tribe, some-
times regarded as a distinct Family, differing from the true
Lilies in having net-veined leaves, climbing stems, and small
dicecious flowers. They resemble the Yams (Déoscorea) in
appearance. The species are widely spread, and several
occur in India.

103. Natural Order, /uncacee.—The Rush Family.

Herbs. Perianth-leaves scarious. Stamens six. Ovary
superior.
TypE—/Juncus bufontus.

A small, tufted, much branched, annual weed, with incon-
spicuous, solitary, or fascicled flowers scattered along the
stems in the axils of slender leafy bracts.

This small Family scarcely differs from the preceding, ex-
cepting in the dry texture of the small six-leaved perianth, and
in the very minute embryo. The species employed as Type
is a common, very widely spread weed, in places liable to

314 COMMELYNACEZ:. ; [CHAP.

inundation and near water, especially in temperate countries,
to which, indeed, the Rush Family is mainly confined.
The Type differs much in habit from other common species
of the same genus, in most of which the inflorescence forms
a small panicle, either terminating the slender cylindrical
stem, or apparently given off from the side of it. The
leaves of Rushes are often transversely divided by plates
of pith, so that they seem to be jointed.

104. Natural Order, Commelynacee.—The Spiderwort
Family.

Herbs. Three outer leaves of perianth herbaceous, inner
petaloid. Ovary superior, usually three-, sometimes two-
celled.

TypE— Commelyna benghalensis.

A branched, creeping, more or less hairy, perennial kerb,
with sheathing leaves and hooded bracts, enclosing one
male and two or three hermaphrodite, bright blue flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Polyphyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 6
Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 3

In this Family, as in the Water Plantains, the perianth
consists of outer sepaloid and inner petaloid segments, as
is usual in Dicotyledons. In most Monocotyledons with
conspicuous flowers all the leaves of the perianth are
petaloid.

OBSERVE the filaments in some genera (Cyanotis, &c.),
bearded (s¢«ose), with moniliform hairs, in the cells of which

tI11.] PONTEDERIACE/Z. 315

the movement of currents of viscid protoplasm may be
observed under a high magnifying power: the minute em-
bryo embedded in a cavity at one side of the albumen.
Very few species of this widely dispersed (but not large)
tropical or sub-tropical Family are turned to any account.

105. Natural Order, Zriocaulonee.—The Pipewort Family.
Aquatic or marsh herbs. Flowers minute, unisexual, in
terminal heads.
Typr—L£rtocaulon sexangulare (or E. guingueangulare).

A small aquatic herb of rice-fields and wet places, with,
narrow, grass-like leaves, and small, involucrate heads of
minute moncecious flowers,

Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 6 (two series. )

6 Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. Epiphyllous.
9 Pistil. Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. as

Enocaulon is the only large natural genus of the Family.
It is very widely spread in both hemispheres, though par-
ticularly abundant in South America. The excessively
minute flowers are arranged, like the florets of Composite,
in terminal heads, borne by slender scapes.

Very few species are made use of by man.

106. Natural Order, Pontederiaceez.—The Pontederia
Family.
Aquatic herbs. Flowers petaloid, racemose, from the
sheath of the last, or only leaf, of the scape.

316 ORCHIDACES. [CHAP.
TypE—Jonochoria vaginalis.

An aquatic herb, common in rice-fields and ditches, with

radical, petiolate, cordate leaves, and racemes, apparently

springing from the side of a petiole, of several rather large
bright blue flowers.

Organ. | No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Polyphyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 6
Stamens. 6 Hexandrous. Epiphyllous.
Pistil. . Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 3

OBSERVE the raceme, borne upon a one-leaved scape; as
the petiole is directly continuous with the scape, while the
raceme is lateral, the latter appears to spring from the side
of a petiole.

This species is employed for various purposes in fadien
medicine.

The Family ts a very small one, chiefly confined to the
stagnant waters of hot countries.

107. Natural Order, Orchidacee.—The Orchid Family.
Epiphytal or terrestrial herbs, with irregular flowers.
Stamen 1 (except Cypripediee), anther gynandrous. Ovary

inferior.
TypE—Dendrobium nobile.

Wes Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
; Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 6
Stamen. re Monandrous. Gynandrous.
Pistil. i Syncarpous. Inferior.

carpels. 3

I1.] ORCHIDACEA., 317

An epiphytal herb, cultivated in gardens, with pendulous
branches, emarginate leaves, and beautiful pale-sulphur or
white and rose-coloured irregular flowers, with a purple eye.

Fic. zor. Flower of Dendrobium nobile, natural size.

The three outer leaves of the perianth are often called
sepals, and the three inner leaves petals, in this Family.
Of the three inner leaves, two are lateral and equal, and one
(usually the lower one from the twisting of the ovary) different
in form, often much larger than the sepals and lateral petals,
sometimes lobed and jointed, sometimes very small. This
odd petal is called the Zadel/um. It is sometimes provided
with a spur at its base containing nectar, much sought after
by insects ; the visits of which are in many cases absolutely
necessary, in order that the flowers may be fertilised and
good seed produced.

Compare the structure of the anther and pollen of Den.
drobium with that of the Sub-types—

318 ORCHIDACEE. [CHAP,

1. Vanda Roxburghii, an epiphyte, frequent on the Mango
and other trees, with distichous, recurved leaves, and loose
axillary racemes of chequered yellowish and purple flowers.

2. Platanthera Susanne, an erect “ terrestrial’’ herb with
sheathing leaves, and a few very
large white irregular flowers, with
the lateral lobes of the spurred lip
Z deeply fringed.

In each of these Sub-types, as
in the Type-species, there is but
a single stamen adherent to the
stigma, or to a continuation of
the pistil immediately above the
stigma, called the column.

The anther is sessile and two-
celled, each cell containing the
pollen-grains cohering together into
a waxy “pollen-mass” called a
pollinium.

In Platanthera the two cells of
the anther are erect and nearly
parallel, diverging a little below.
Each cell contains a club-shaped
pollinium, connected below with a
slender stalk called the caudicle.
The caudicles terminate in minute
disks or knobs, which nestle in a
Beet aE projection of the column immedi-

much reduced, ately over the opening into the
long spur of the labellum. The pollinia of Platanthera
are quite separate from each other, and with their cau-

dicles and disks may be independently removed from the
anther-cells,

III. ] ORCHIDACEAE, 319

In Vanda the two poilinia are connected to a single
“ pedicel” (as Mr. Darwin calls it), which pedicel is attached
to a viscid disk at its lower end.

In Dendrobium the small two-celled anther is terminal,
the anther-case forming a minute cap at the top of the
column. It encloses four pollinia, connected in pairs, one
pair in each cell of the anther. They are not provided
with either a caudicle or viscid disk.

(Md Wie,
COM gop

Fic. 203. Pollinia, caudicle, and Fic. 204. Longitudinal section of column of
gland of Vanda. Dendrobium. Yo the left the pollen detached.

From observations which have been recently published
by Mr. Charles Darwin,* it is shown that the peculiar modi-
fications of the pollen characteristic of Orchids stand in
relation to the part fulfilled by insects in securing their
fertilisation. As his observations have not been generally
extended to Indian species, I shall briefly describe the
structure and mode of fertilisation in a common British
Orchis, presenting, in the structure and relative position of

* “On the Fertilisation of Orchids.” Murray.

320

ORCHIDACEA., [CHAP.

its anther, much similarity to that of the beautiful Indian
Platanthera referred to above.
In the common Spotted Orchis of English meadows the

Fic. 205. Poll
nium of Orchis

anther is two-celled, the cells being parallel,
and each containing a separate pollinium, with
caudicle and disk, as in Platanthera. Both of
the disks rest in a small, round, knob-like
projection (the vostellum) at the base of the
column and immediately over the viscid stigma
and spur of the labellum.

Take the very fine stem of a grass or a
finely-pointed pencil, and thrust it gently into
the spur of a newly-expanded flower, which
has not lost its pollen, just as an insect would
insert its proboscis when in search of nectar.

It will be found that the pencil does not fail to push
against the projecting rostellum, so that the pouch-like

membrane

of the latter is pressed down and the pencil

Fic. 206, ae of Spotted Fic. 207. Column of Spotted Orchis ;

rchis. a anther; 7 rostellum; s¢ stigma.

II1.] ORCHIDACEZ. 321

_comes in contact with the under viscid surface of one or of
both of the little glands of the two pollen-masses. On
withdrawing the pencil, the pollinia are found adhering
firmly to it, for the viscid substance which bathes the glands
sets hard in a few seconds when exposed. If the pollinia
be carefully watched zmmediately after they are withdrawn
from the anther, they may be observed to become inclined
forwards to such an extent, that if, after the lapse of a
minute or two, the pencil be thrust into the nectary of a
second flower, the pollinia which adhere to the pencil will
strike against the viscid stigmatic surface of the flower, and
at least a portion of the pollen-grains will adhere to it and
fertilise the ovules of the flower. The viscidity of the
stigma is sufficient to overcome the strength of the delicate
threads which bind the grains of pollen together.

From the peculiar relative arrangement of the pollen-
masses and stigma in Orchids, Mr. Darwin has shown that
the flowers can be but very exceptionally self-fertilised.
Almost invariably insect aid is required to transport the
pollen from flower to flower; hence the importance of the
contrivances indicated above (to which Mr. Darwin has
recently directed attention), to insure the proper fulfilment
of the important function assigned to unconscious agents.

It is extremely desirable that similar observations should
be made upon living Indian species. In Dendrobium Mx.
Darwin finds that the pollinia become attached to insects
visiting the flower by a viscid fluid, which is exuded by the
minute rostellum immediately under the anther, when the
projecting lip of the anther is pushed up by the retreat of
the insect from the short nectary.

The very large Orchid Family is widely spread over the
globe. Most of the species with large showy flowers are

confined to tropical countries, and grow, not upon the
Y

322 ORCHIDACEAE. (CHAT.

ground but upon the trunks of trees. They do not, how-
ever, attach themselves to the tree upon which they grow;
they are not farasites preying upon its juices, like the
Mistletoe and Loranths, referred to at p. 223. Such plants
are distinguished as epzphytes. They throw out cord-like
adventitious roots freely, and the lower joints of their stems,
in many genera, become much thickened and fleshy, so as
to resemble bulbs, suggesting the name pseudo-bulbs, which
is specially applied to them.

Very few species of this great Family are of any economic
importance, though large numbers are prime favourites with
cultivators in Europe, from the beauty and singularity of
their flowers.

As representing a distinct Tribe of the Orchid Family,
take any species of Ladies’ Slipper (Cypripedium), character-
ised by two anthers, one on each side of a shield-like
central disk regarded as a rudimentary
anther (corresponding to the single
anther which is present in all other
Orchids). The column in the Ladies’
Slipper projects over the opening into a
large, slipper-shaped, hollow labellum.
The pollen-grains, unlike those in the
Orchids described above, are not con-
nected together into pollinia, but they
are coated with a viscid fluid, which en-

Fic. 208. Column of
Ladies’ Slipper. ables the grains to adhere when rubbed

against the stigma, which in Cypripedium is not viscid as
in other Orchids.

A small Family, the Apostasiez, nearly related to the
Orchids, is confined to India. It serves as a link con-
necting the anomalous structure of Orchids with that of
Monocotyledons generally, differing from the former in

II!.] SCITAMINEA. 323

having two or three anthers almost quite free from the style
and stigma. The flowers, moreover, are regular.

108. Natural Order, Burmanniacee.—The Burmannia
Family.
Herbs with grass- or scale-like leaves. Stamens three or
six. Ovary inferior.

Type—Burmannia distachya.

A small, slender, erect herb, with narrow radical and
cauline ensiform leaves, terminating in a forked cyme, each
branch bearing several unilateral, pretty, pale-blue regular
flowers, with three-winged inferior ovaries.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 6
Stamens. 3 Triandrous. Epiphyllous.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. — 3

Some of the species of this small Family are scaly, pale-
coloured parasites.

10g. Natural Order, Scztaminee.—The Ginger and
Arrowroot Family.

Herbs with irregular flowers and one free stamen (except
in Musa). Ovary inferior.

TyPE—Affinia nutans (Pinagchampa, Beng.).
A tall (garden) herb with lanceolate, distichous, sheathing
leaves, and a terminal racemose panicle of beautiful orange

and red irregular flowers.
Y 2

324 SCITAMINE. [CIIAP.

Fic. 2709. Alpinza nutans, much reduced.

Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 6 (in two series.)

Stamen.* I Monandrous. Epiphyllous.

Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 3

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
* Outer staminodium a petaloid ‘‘labellum.” |
|

II!.] SCITAMINE/EZ. 325

Sup-TypE—Indian Shot (Canna indica) differs from the
Type-species principally in having three petaloid staminodia
within the perianth, and the anther one-celled, the cell being
upon the margin of a petaloid stamen.

Sup-TyPpE—Banana (JJusa sapientum), with a perianth
in two segments, and five fertile stamens with two-celled
anthers, and a sixth stamen abortive.

The anomalous character of this curious and important
Family, rich in species with beautiful flowers and affording
aromatic products, is chiefly due to the petaloid develop-
ment of two or more leaves of the flower, which in most
other Monocotyledons are anther-bearing stamens. This
makes the comprehension of the structure of these flowers
difficult to beginners.

Normally, the flowers of Sczfaminee possess a six-leaved
perianth in two series, of three each. As the ovary is
always inferior, the perianth is usually regarded as gamo-
phyllous. The six lobes, especially the three inner ones, are
often unequal in form and size. Within the perianth there
are six “leaves” belonging to the staminal series. Of these
five are anther-bearing in Sub-type Banana, and but one in
Alpinia and Sub-type Indian Shot. In Indian Shot the
tendency to suppression of the anthers is carried to an
extreme, there being but half an anther developed in the
single perfect stamen of each flower. The staminal leaves
which do not bear anthers are called staminodia. Frequently
some of the staminodia are almost or altogether suppressed.

In the A/inza employed as Type-species there is but one
staminodium developed of the outer whorl of three staminal
leaves, and it is petaloid and larger than any of the perianth-
segments, forming the beautiful orange and crimson /abellum
of the flower. The remaining two staminodia of the outer
whorl are to be found in the Alpinias as short teeth or lobes

326 SCITAMINE. [CHAP.

at each side of the labellum (see 4/inia Galanghas). In
the beautiful garden Hedychium the three outer petaloid
staminodia are nearly equal, so that the flower is almost
regular. Of the three inner staminal leaves in the Type-
species, one is developed as an anther-bearing stamen, while
the other two are minute staminodia. They may be easily
found on tearing the tube of the perianth open to its base,
nestled around the base of the style. Sometimes they are
coherent, and form a sheath around it.

OBSERVE the entire, parallel-veined, sheathing leaves ; in
the Banana and Plantain of enormous size, their sheathing
petioles forming a stem often several yards in height: the
two-celled anther of 4/pinza and its allies clasping the upper
part of the style, the stigma projecting beyond the cells of
the anther: the crest, often bifid, of the anther in Amomum,
Costus, and some other genera: the pulpy aril enveloping
the seeds in many genera; the embryo separated from the
white, flowery, radiating albumen, by the membrane of the
embryo-sac (in the genera with two-celled anthers).

The three most useful species of this tropical Family
represent respectively the three Tribes indicated above.
They are the Ginger and Arrowroot plants, and the Banana.

Ginger is the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale. Aro-
matic properties more or less like those of Ginger mark the
rhizomes of several species : amongst others, of the Indian
Alpinia Galanghas, of Costus, and of the two species of
Curcuma, affording Zedoary and Turmeric.

Arrowroot is the starch obtained from the tuberous rhizome
of Maranta arundinacea. A farina of similar quality is
afforded in India by the tubers of some native species of
Curcuma.

The fruit of the Banana (J/usa) is familiar to every
resident in tropical countries.

III. ] AMARVLLIDACEZ. 327

The seeds of many Scitaminez are aromatic and often
very pungent, as Cardamoms, the product of an Indian
species of L/ettaria (E. Cardamomum), and grains of Para-
dise, afforded by a West African Amomum. ‘The stalks and
leaves of some Phryniums, Marantas, and allied genera,
split up into narrow strips, make excellent matting, and
from the leaves of one or two species of Musa, especially
M. textilis, a very tenacious fibre is obtained in the Philip-
pines, known as Manila Hemp.

A fragment of a leaf of Banana is well adapted for
exhibiting spiral vessels under the microscope. ‘There are
often a number of fibres to each coil.

t1o. Natural Order, Amarylidacee.—The Amaryllis
Family. |

Herbs, with a six-leaved petaloid perianth, six stamens,
and inferior three-celled ovary.
TyPE—C?rinum asiaticum.

A large, bulbous herb, common in gardens, with long,
smooth, radical leaves, and large umbels of regular, white
flowers.

Syncarpous. Inferior.

In this species the bulb is often prolonged above the
surface of the ground so as to resemble a short trunk. In

328 AMARYLLIDACEZ. [CHAP.

Pancratium, and some other genera cultivated in Indian
gardens, the filaments are united at the base by a mem-
branous cup, and in the Daffodils and Narcissus of Europe
a cup-like expansion called the corona is inserted in the
mouth of the perianth-tube.

Fic. 210. Crinum asiaticum, much reduced.

The Family includes many very ornamental species prized
in gardens. One of its most useful members is the so-
called American Aloe (Agave), which is not an 4/ve at all,
though very similar in habit to some species of that genus.
It is a Mexican plant, and its sap affords to the natives a

AMARYLLIDACE. 329

III. ]

‘MNIIVISY 1UNUIAD JO JeMoyY pey~pLryad

‘11Z ‘DIg

“SNSSIDIEN] [IPOYLC JO J2MOY JO UOT}VS [EOIFADA ‘Z1z “D1

330 IRIDACEAE. [CHAP.
favourite beverage called “pulque.” It is now generally
introduced throughout India.

The inferior ovary is the principal mark by which this
Family is distinguished from the Lilies.

111. Natural Order, /ridacee.—The Iris Family.

Herbs, with six-leaved petaloid perianth, three stamens,
and three-celled inferior ovary.

Type—Ffardanthus chinensis.
A common garden herb, with equitant, vertically flattened
leaves, and a terminal panicle of showy, orange-coloured,
regular flowers, spotted with scarlet.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 6
Stamens. 3 Triandrous. Epiphyllous.
Pistil. , Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 3

A large temperate and South African Family, unimportant
in India and in the tropics generally, excepting a few
species planted for the sake of their showy flowers.

Our Type-species is a Chinese and Formosan plant, very
common in Indian gardens.

OssERVE the sheathing, vertically flattened leaves, arranged
alternately on opposite sides of the stem, characteristic of
the Family: the stigmas in Iris dilated and petaloid ; less
so in Pardanthus.

112. Natural Order, Hydrocharidee.—The Frogbit
Family.
Submerged or floating plants. Flowers usually unisexual.
Ovary inferior.

II.] HVDROCHARIDEZ. 331
TypE—Hydrilla verticillata.

A submerged water-plant, with small, verticillate leaves,
and axillary, unisexual flowers.

Organ. No. Cohesioz. Adhesion.
Perianth. | Gamophyllous. Superior.
leaves. 6

6 Stamens. 3 Triandrous. Epiphyllous.
9 Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
carpels. 3

- OBSERVE the male flowers, which break off from the
plant at the time of expansion, and float to the surface in
order to fertilise the females, as in Vadlisneria, another
genus of the Family, occurring both in India and Europe.
In Vallisneria the female flower is borne upon a long,
spirally-twisted peduncle, which permits it to reach the
surface while still attached.

The Type-species is one of the common water-plants
used by sugar-refiners in claying sugar. The moisture
which it contains slowly percolates the sugar, carrying off
impurities, which are deposited in the clay. It closely
resembles a species (Z/odea canadensis) which has of late
years been imported from America into England and
Europe, where it has multiplied so rapidly as to obstruct
navigation in still-flowing rivers and canals.

Ottelia alismoides, with radical, petiolate, ovate leaves,
is common in India.

The submerged leaves of several species of this Family
are well suited to show the rotation of the cell-sap in their
individual cells. To observe it, place thin, longitudinal
sections, or the membranous margin of a leaf, under a high
magnifying power.

332 ' ALISMACEA. [CHAP.
113. Natural Order, Alzsmacee.—The Water-Plantain
Family.

Aquatic plants. Perianth inferior, six-leaved, three inner
leaves petaloid. Pistil apocarpous.

TypeE—Sagittaria cordifolia.

Organ. | Vo. Cohesion. | Adhesion.
Perianth. Polyphyllous. Inferior.
leaves. 6 |

6 Stamens. | 6-(10)| Hex-decandrous. | Hypogynous.
¢ Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
carpels. i)

Fic. 213. Sagittaria sagitt@folia, much reduced.

II1.] NAIADACEZ.. ° 333

A common annual weed in swamps and rice-fields, with
radical, cordate leaves, and erect scapes, bearing one to
three loose verticils of small, white, polygamous flowers.

The lower flowers of the inflorescence are usually female.
In the allied S. sagzttefolia, with arrow-head leaves, the male
flowers have numerous stamens.

Fic. 214. Longitudinal section of Fic. 215. Embryo of same removed
achene of Adzsma. from the seed.

The Water Plantains represent the Ranunculus Family
amongst Monocotyledons, having the pistil nearly or wholly
apocarpous, and hypogynous stamens. They differ widely
in their embryo, as well as in other points of structure.

114. Natural Order, Vacadacee.—The Pondweed Family.

Floating or submerged plants. Perianth o, or four-leaved.
Pistil apocarpous.

Type—Common Pondweed (Potamogeton natans).

Organ. No. Cohesion. | Adhesion.
Perianth. Polyphyllous. Inferior.
heaves. 4
Stamens. 4 Tetrandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. Apocarpous. Superior.
carpels. 4

An aquatic herb, with floating, opaque, oblong or ellip-

334 CYPERACE. . (CHAP.

tical, stipulate leaves, and pedunculate spikes of minute,
greenish, hermaphrodite flowers.

OrnsERVE the seeds, like those of most Monocotyledons
of aquatic habit, destitute of albumen.

GLUMIFERZ.
115. Natural Order, Cyperacee.—The Sedge Family.
Grass-like herbs. Sheaths of leaves not split. Scale
next the flower with a median nerve.
Type— Cyperus [ria (or any other species of Cyperus).

A grass-like plant, one to two feet high, with an angular,
solid stem, closed leaf-sheaths, and irregularly umbellate,
distichous spikelets of hermaphrodite flowers singly borne
in the axils of imbricating glumes.

Organ. No. Cohesion. Adhesion.
Perianth. ee ‘
Stamens. 3 Triandrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. ae Syncarpous. Superior.
carpels. 3 |

Fic. 216. Flower of Cyperus with

subtending glume ; enlarged. Fic. 217. Male flower of Carex.

I1I.] CYPERACEZ. 335

A large Family, represented in every quarter ot the globe
by numerous species, generally abounding in wet places.
The sedges resemble grasses in habit, but may be distin-
guished by their usually solid and angular stem, the closed
(not split) sheaths of their leaves, and the flowers each
borne in the axil of a single bract (g/ume), without the
additional pale of grasses.

Fic. 218. Female flower of Carex. Fic. 219. Vertical section of fruit of same.

In the largest genus of the Family Carex, and in Seria,
of both of which genera there are numerous Indian species,
the flowers are unisexual. In the latter genus the nut is
often white, shining, and very hard and bony.

In the Type-species the flowers are arranged in distichous
spikelets, but in most of the Indian genera they are in the
axils of glumes which are regularly imbricated all round the
spikelets.

In several genera, as Scirpus, Fuirena, and Rhynchospora,
a perianth is represented by from three to six hypogynous
bristles or scales.

The rhizomes or small tubers of a few species of the
Family are used in native medicine, and the stems and
leaves of others (as Cyperus distans) are employed to make
coarse matting and cordage. The famous Papyrus, used as

336 GRAMINEZ. [CHAP

paper by the ancient Egyptians, was prepared from the pith-
like tissue of the tall stems of a plant nearly allied to the
Type-species. It is now nearly or quite extinct on the
banks of the river Nile.

Some species, with far-spreading rhizomes, serve a useful
purpose in binding together the shifting sands of the coast
and river-banks.

116. Natural Order, Graminee.—The Grass Family.

Herbs (except Bamboos). Sheaths of leaves usually
split in front. Scale (fade) next the flower without a median
nerve.

TypE—Wheat (7riticum vulgare).

A generally cultivated, erect annual, with an unbranched,
jointed, hollow, leafy stem (caw/m), the leaf-sheaths split .in
front, and distichcus spikelets of flowers.

FiG. 220. Dissected spikelet of Wheat (7r2tzcusm vuigare).

111.) GRAMINE. 337
a Ee ea

|__ Organ Organ. Vo. Cohesion. Adhesion.

| Lodicules. Lodicules. - (Diphyllous. ) Hypogynous.
Stamens. ey : Triarndrous. Hypogynous.
Pistil. meet Syncarpous. Superior. |
carpels. 2

The structure of the flower of Wheat has been already
described (p. 55).

The following list shows in what particulars several of the
more frequent and more important genera of Indian grasses
deviate from Wheat in the form of their inflorescence and
structure of their flowers.

* Tf empty glumes or imperfect flowers be present in the
spikelets, they are inserted below the single hermaphro-
dite flower (Tribe, PANICACEA).

Oryza (Ricr).—Panicle. Spikelets one-flowered, pedi-

cellate. Outer glumes minute. Stamens six.

Zea (Maize, or INDIAN CorN).—Moneecious. The male
flowers in terminal, panicled racemes ; spikelets pedicellate.
The female flowers sessile, in lateral, erect spikes.

Coix (Jos’s Trars).—Moneecious. The male flowers
loosely spicate ; the female enclosed in a small involucre,
which becomes at length of stony hardness.

Alopecurus.—Spicate. Spikelets nearly or quite sessile,
one-flowered. No pale or lodicules.

Paspalum.—Several digitate spikes. Spikelets sessile,
unilateral, with one perfect flower.

Panicum.—Variously panicled: in section Digitaria, of
several digitate branches ; in Se¢arza, cylindrical and spicate.
Each spikelet contains one perfect flower, and there are
three empty glumes below it.

Penicillaria.—Cylindrical, spicate panicle. Spikelets with
one perfect flower, without lodicules.

GRAMINEAE.

Fic. 221. Rice (Oryza sativa), much Fic. 222. One-flowered spikelet

reduced. of Rice.

Saccharum (SUGAR-CANE).—Panicle. Spikelets in pairs,
one sessile, one pedicellate, with one perfect flower, and
three empty glumes below.

Andropogon (Kus-Kus) and Sorghum. —- Paniculate.
Spikelets in pairs, one sessile, the other pedicellate. Sessile
spikelet with one perfect flower, and three empty glumes.
The pale is sometimes wanting.

** Lf empty glumes or imperfect flowers be present in the

spikelets, they are inserted above the hermaphrodite flower
or flowers (Tribe, Poace2#).

Sporobolus.—Long, slender panicle. Spikelets pedicel-
late, minute, one-flowered.

111. ] GRAMINEAE. 339

Arundo (Donax).—Panicle. Spikelets pedicelled, two-
to four-flowered.

Cynodon (Dactylon).—Digitate spikes. Spikelets sessile,
one-flowered. |

Eleusine (Coracana and indica).—Spikes digitate. Spike-
lets sessile, unilateral, two- to six-flowered.

Fic. 223. Spikelet, dissected, of Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum). The lowest pair of
scales, right and left, are the outer glumes ; then come two awned empty glumes ;
then, to the right, the flowering glume, and to the left the small pale; lastly the
two stamens and the pistil.

Flordeum (BARLEY). — Distichous, spicate. Spikelets
sessile, ternate, each one-flowered. The lateral spikelets
imperfect (in two-rowed Barley) or perfect (in six-rowed
Barley).

Bambusa (BamMBoo).— Arborescent. Spikelets sessile,
clustered, or verticillate, with several perfect flowers.
Stamens six. Lodicules three.

OBSERVE the stem, called a cu/m, usually hollow (jistuar),
mito

340 GRAMINE A. [CHAP.

with a few joints below, and sheathing leaves: the sheath
of the leaf split down in front: the scale, called a Zgule,
at the base of the blade of the leaf, where it is given off
from the sheath; it is usually membranous, short or long,
blunt or acute: the fruit commonly regarded as a seed, and
technically distinguished as a Caryopsis. It consists of a
thin pericarp closely adhering to the solitary seed. It often

A
| cs |

Fic. 224. Longitudinal sectionthrough _—‘ Fic. 225. Longitudinal and transverse

a grain of Wheat, showing the sections of the embryo of Wheat:
ples embryo at the base of copious c cotyledon ; Z/ plumule ; 7 radicle.
albumen.

happens that the pale becomes adherent to the caryopsis
after flowering, and sometimes, also, the flowering glume.
Whgn this is the case in corn-producing species, it is
removed by grinding, as in the case of Barley and Oats.
In Wheat and Indian Corn the caryopsis is free, that is,
it is not adherent to the pale.

The Grass Family includes probably from 3,000 to 4,000
species. Amongst these are several affording large fari-
naceous seeds, distinguished as Cereals or Corn-grasses,
which are of primary importance to the human race, and
have been cultivated from the remotest antiquity.

Indian genera, including food-producing species, are
printed in small capitals in the above list. ‘To these may
be added the Oat (Avena) and Rye (Seale) of cool
countries.

Rice is stated to furnish a larger proportion of food than
any other single species

III.] GRAMINE.. 341

Maize, or Indian Corn, the largest Cereal, is a plant of
American origin, now extensively cultivated in hot countries.
As noted above, the flowers are moncecious ; an exceptional
character in the Grass Family.

As is usual in plants which have been under cultivation
for a very long period, most of the cereal grasses occur
under numerous slightly different forms or varieties, which
have probably originated by cultivation under various con-
ditions of soil and climate, and the selection of sorts, best
suited for particular purposes, by man.

Apart from their importance as Cereals, Grasses are in-
valuable on other grounds. Some, as the Sugar-cane
(Saccharum officinarum), abound in a saccharine juice.
From this species the bulk of the sugar of commerce is
prepared. Others, as some species of Andropogon (Lemon-
grass, Kus-kus), furnish fragrant essential oils. The culms
of grasses (straw) are largely used in matting, plaited work,
and thatching. Many are fodder-grasses. Cynodon Dactylon
alone is said to furnish three-fourths of the food of horses
and cattle in India.

The applications of the rapidly-growing woody stems
and leaves of the Bamboo by the natives of India and
Eastern Asia are innumerable. A small room in the Kew
Museum is occupied by products and manufactures of the
Bamboo, including umbrella, chair, walking-stick, tiger-trap.
bow and arrow, window-blinds, bowls, combs, musical instrv-
ments, cloth, paper, &c. &c.

CHAPTER IV.

FLOWERLESS OR CRYPTOGAMIC PLANTS.

Tuus far I have avoided reference to those plants which
are commonly regarded as Flowerless, and which have long
been classed together under the general term of Cryptogams,
from the apparent absence of organs corresponding to the
stamens and pistil of the plants which have hitherto occu-
pied our attention.

We have passed these plants by because, from the con-
siderable difference which obtains between their structure
(both of the Reproductive and of the Nutritive organs)
and that of Flowering Plants, they cannot be conveniently
studied together. Any study, however, of the Vegetable
Kingdom from which they are wholly excluded must be
exceedingly incomplete ; and now that facility in observing
has been acquired, attention may be directed to these so-
called lower plants, with a fair chance of comprehending
the relation in which they stand to the Flowering Plants
already familiar to us, and of mastering a few of the principal
features of their leading Families.

The more logical course might seem to be to study first
these simple forms, and progress from them to the more
complicated, to which latter we have hitherto confined
our attention: but from the excessive minuteness of their

ee eee

eS ee

Iv.] CRYPTOGAMS. |. 343

essential organs, and our imperfect acquaintance with many
details of their structure and function, it is practically the
best plan to leave them to the last in a course of Elemen-
tary Botany like the present. Space compels me to be
brief in describing Cryptogams ; and those who desire to
extend their acquaintance with them I must refer to special
works which treat of them in detail. A few of these are
noticed in the list of works on Indian Botany given in the
Appendix.

The development of the embryo in Flowering Plants
we have seen depends upon and immediately follows the
mingling by diffusion of the contents of two distinct cells
belonging to organs conspicuously contrasted morphologic-
ally—the pollen-grain shed by the stamens and the embryo-
sac of an ovule,—which organs may or may not be borne
upon the same axis. The plants which we have now to
consider, with the exception of certain groups of simplest
structure, generally present the same phenomenon of sexu-
ality, manifest in the mingling together, partially or wholly,
of the contents of distinct cells, which cells, however, or the
organs to which they belong, may or may not present any
external or morphological contrast.

The immediate product of this mingling of the sexual
elements in Cryptogams varies very greatly in the different
groups, but it is never an embryo, with rudimentary
differentiation of organs, contained in a seed derived
from the tissues of the parent plant.

One remarkable general difference between Phanero-
gamous and Cryptogamous plants consists in the pro-
minence in the latter of a more or less marked alternation,
in the cycle of development, of two distinct periods or
generations variously associated with methods of sexual
reproduction, and of asexual multiplication by means of

344 CRVPTOGAMS. [CHAP

free cells, either with or without a cellulose coat. The
prevalence of this asexual multiplication by free cells is a
further characteristic of many groups of Cryptogamous plants.

Those free cells which in their development initiate a new
generation, are termed sfoves. They consist of a simple
minute usually double-coated cell, containing protoplasm
and, it may be, starch, oil, and chlorophyll besides.

From their superficial analogy with seeds, and playing
also, as they do, the part of seeds in respect of the dis-
persion of species in many of the higher Cryptogams, the
spores are popularly regarded as, in some sort, parallel
structures with the seeds of Flowering Plants, and so we
find Cryptogams collectively treated of in many botanical
works as Acotyledonous, since, as indicated above, the spores
present no differentiation of organs, consequently no trace
of cotyledons. It will be obvious, however, that the use
of this term is misleading, as it infers a common ground
of contrast which does not exist.

The more important Families of Cryptogams or Flower-
iess Plants are :

PRESENTING CONTRAST OF STEM AND LEAF (Cormophytes) :—
With Vascular Bundles—
Ferns (F27/ices).
Horsetails (Zguztsetacee).
Club-mosses (Lycofodiacee).
Evascular—
Mosses (JZzscz).
WITHOUT CONTRAST OF STEM AND LEAF (ALL WHOLLY CELLULAR)—
(Thallophytes)—
Mushrooms and Moulds (Fzmgz?).
Sea-weeds (Age).
Lichens (Lichenes).

1. Natural Order, /idices—The Fern Family.
Leaves (fronds) curled upon themselves like a crosier
(ctrcinate) before expansion. Fructification upon the under

surface of the frond, consisting of minute usually densely-
clustered capsules (sporanges) of one kind, containing

Iv.] FILICES. 345

microscopic doubly-coated cells (spores) destitute of an
embryo, but capable of developing a small green leafy
expansion (prothallus) bearing the essential Organs of Re-
production.

TyPE—Asfpidium (Nephrodium) molle.

ees L—_ =

\ \ \ “ \a
Not NNSA
NT

SERRA
SEN AWS

PES

Fic. 226. Aspidium (Nephrodium) molle, much reduced.

A perennial herb with a short ascending rhizome, bearing
a terminal tuft of large, annual, broadly lanceolate, thinly
pilose, bipinnate fronds, two to four feet in length.

Upon the under surface of the fertile fronds the fruc-
tification is arranged in small globose clusters, which are
brownish when ripe. These clusters are called sort’
(each cluster a sovus), and there are usually two rows
of the sori upon, at least, the lower lobes (pzmnules) of
each of the pimne of the frond. Occasionally only the

346 FILICES, [ CHAP.

lower sori of each pinnule are developed, and then they
occur in a single row on each side of the midrib of the
pinne. The sori are protected at first by a peltate mem-
brane (ézdusium), which at length, withers up exposing the
minute-stalked sporanges of which each sorus is composed.

Fic. 227. Pinnule of Asfidium molle, with a double row of reniform sori.

The sporanges require examination with a ragnifying
glass. They will be found to be capsules opening trans-
versely, with a vertical elastic ring up the side and over
the top, which serves as a hinge. They each contain an
indefinite number of spores, which are liberated on de-
hiscence of the sporange.

Many Indian Ferns depart considerably from our Type-
species in the form of the frond, the form and arrangement
of the sori, the absence of indusium, and in the structure
and mode of dehiscence of the sporanges. The difference
presented in these respects by some of the commoner and
more remarkable Indian genera are noted in the following
list.

* Sporanges distinct (not cohering), and provided with
a more or less distinct ring (annulus).

(a.) Annulus vertical.

Polypodium.—Sori on the under surface of the frond,
nearly or quite round. Indusium o.

Iv.] FILICES. 347

Niphobolus (adnascens).—Sterile and fertile fronds distinct.
The upper part of the linear fertile frond crowded with
pedicellate sporanges between the midrib and margins,
mixed with stellate, peltate scales.

Fic. 228. Pinnules and'sori of Polypodium. Fic. 229. Pinnule of Adzantum.

Adiantum (Capillus- Veneris, or caudatum).—Sori on the
margins of the pinnules, covered by the indusium, which is
attached by its outer edge, opening (free) within.

Pteris.—Sori in a continuous line upon the margin of the
pinnules. Indusium continuous, attached, as in Adiantum,
by its outer edge.

Blechnum (orientale).—Sori in continuous lines on each
side of, and parallel with, the midrib of the frond or pinnule.
Indusium opening along its inner edge.

Asplenium.—Sori scattered on the under surface; not
marginal, and generally oblique to the midrib of the frond
or pinnule. Indusium membranous.

Aspidium (molle).—Sori nearly or quite globose on the
under surface of the frond. Indusium peltate (in § Aspedium
proper), or reniform and attached by a point at the side (in
§ NMephrodium, to which belongs our Type-species).

348 FILICES. [CHAP.

Lindsea (ensifolia).—Sori continuous along the margin of
the segments, with a narrow continuous indusium opening
on the outer edge.

Davallia (polypodioides).—Sori terminating veins, nearly
or quite on the margin of the pinnules. Indusium cup-

Z
ZZ
Z EE Za

} gt f
ti La f }
Y] Le 2 eS 2s
/ =a i ED» =>
y YY J ? = 5 > 2 ™%

“ ER d
SO SERS SG SS
SSE GASSES SS

Fic. 230. Pinnule of Neshrodium.

shaped, adhering to the pinnule and opening towards the
margin,

Cyathea (spinulosa).—Arborescent; sporanges forming
globose sori in the axils of forking veins, contained in a
cup-shaped indusium, which opens at the top by a few
teeth.

Fic. 231. Pinnule and sorus of Cyathea.

Alsophila (glabra).—Arborescent, sometimes fifty feet
high. Sori globose, without an indusium.

a EE

tv.] FILICES. 349

(4.) <Anniulus oblique, transverse, incomplete or cap-like,

Ceratopteris—An aquatic Fern, with distinct sterile and
fertile fronds. Sori continuous along the veins of the
narrow lobes of the fertile fronds. Indusium formed by
the revolute margins of the lobes. Annulus of the sporanges
incomplete. Spores marked with three separate series of
concentric rings.

Hymenophyllum.—Sori at the end of veins, terminating
lobes of the frond. Sporanges with a horizontal annulus,
sessile upon a slender column within a two-valved indusium.
The fronds of this genus and the following are half-pellucid.
They are often very small and the rhizome is densely

matted.

Fic, 232. Pinnule and sorus of Fic. 233. Pinnule and sorus of
Hymenophyllum. Trichomanes.

Trichomanes.—Sori and sporanges as in Aymenophyllum.
The indusium tubular, and the hair-like column projecting
beyond it, the sporanges clustered near its base.

Gleichenita (dichotoma).—Sori scattered, of few sessile
sporanges. Sporanges opening vertically with a transverse
ring. Indusium o.

Lygodium.—Slender, climbing Ferns with pinnate fronds.
Sporanges on the under side of marginal or terminal lobes

350 FILICES. [CHAP.

of the pinnules, singly attached by the middle, each under
an imbricating bract-like indusium. Sporanges with longi-
tudinal striee.

Osmunda (regalis). —Sporanges densely covering the
upper segrnents or pinnules of the fertile fronds, so as to
recall a panicled inflorescence. Annulus o.

** (Sporanges cohering. Annulus oO.

Kaulfussia.—Sporanges radiating, forming round, con-
cave sori, opening by slits at the top.

Fic. 234. Portion of frond and sorus of Kaudfussia.

*,* Fronds of two distinct parts—sterile or leafy,
and fertile or sporange-bearing.

Ophtoglossum.—Sporanges on an undivided spike.
Lotrychium.—Sporanges on a divided or pinnatifid spike.

The development of young Ferns from their spores may
be watched by growing the spores upon damp soil covered
by a bell-glass. From the germinating spore arises a small,
green, leafy expansion, termed the prothallus, which gives
off from its under surface numerous delicate root-hairs.
Scattered amongst these fibres, especially on the thicker
part of the prothallus, are several microscopic cellular

Iv.] LYCOPODIACEA 351

bodies of two distinct kinds. One kind, the more nume-
rous, called antheridia, contain a number of extremely
small vesicles, each of which liberates a spirally-twisted
filament, called an aztherozoid, which performs the function
of a pollen-grain. The other kind, called archegonia, con-
tains an embryonal cell which, fertilised by the antherozoids
set free by the antheridia, gives origin to a bud which
gradually developes into an independent Fern-plant.

The antheridia and archegonia require a high magnifying
power for their examination. ‘Their true nature has been
understood only within the last forty years.

The stem of Ferns differs from that of both Dicotyledons
and Monocotyledons in its growing solely by additions to
the summit, below which all the tissues are completed with
their first formation, and in the arrangement of the fibro-
vascular bundles, which form an interrupted circle around
a cellular axis which usually decays away, so that old stems
become hollow. From the mode of growth of Fern-stems,
by additions to the extremity, they have been termed
Acrogens (point-growers). Some of the Himalayan species
of Alsophila and Cyathea (Tree Ferns) form tall woody
stems, well adapted to illustrate this structure.

2. Natural Order, Lycopodiacee.—The Club-moss Family.

Low, trailing, or tufted, usually slender, wiry herbs, with
small, two- (four-) rowed or scattered imbricating leaves.
Fructification consisting of sporanges in the axils of the
stem-leaves or collected in terminal bracteate spikes, con-
taining spores of one of two xinds, either minute and
indefinite, called szcrospores, developing antheridia, or larger
and definite, called macrospfores, developing a prothallus
bearing archegonia.

Lycopodiaceze generally affect a humid climate, and in

352 LYCOPODIACEA. [CHAP.

India they are chiefly hill-plants. One of the commoner
Indian species is the Stag’s-horn Club-moss (Lycopodium
clavatum) of British moorlands. It has a very wide geogra-
phical distribution, occurring in the Southern hemisphere,
as well as through Northern Asia and Europe and in North
America. The Indian form, represented in the woodcut,
differs in trivial characters from the European type, but it
may be regarded as specifically identical.

A Scam

2 SON
ore :

STL R
ahi
see

et
Sic
Kc

AGEs
in

Fic. 235. Lycopodium clavatum, Indian form, reduced.
In Sup-TyPE 1 (Lycopodium) the leaves are usually subulate
and imbricated around the stem. Sporanges containing
indefinite minute spores of one kind only.

Iv.] LYCOPODIACEZ. 353

In Sus-TYPE 2 (Selagind/a) the leaves are of two kinds,
the larger usually obliquely oblong or ovate, dis-
tichously arranged in the plane of ramification, the
smaller stipule-like, appressed, and intermediate. The

=h
SMES
SSSS5

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ol

SSS

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A xp y
GY 4 fi
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BISZ "A
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:

Mae
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F:c. 236. Selaginelta caulescens, reduced.

sporanges are of two kinds, containing either macrospores
or microspores.

In Sus-TyPE 3 (/silotum) the leaves are very minute,
distant, and scale-like, and the sporanges three-celled.

The genus J/soefes, represented in India by two aquatic
species, very nearly related to a British one, differs remark-
ably in habit from Club-mosses, but agrees in having two

kinds of sporanges as in Seaginella. The species are either
AA

354 EQUISETACEZ. [CHAP.

aquatic or terrestrial, with a short unbranched stock, and
tufted linear or subulate sheathing leaves, in the bases of
which the sporanges are embedded. ‘The mode of repro-
duction in Lycopodium has not yet been traced throughout,
but in Se/aginella, in which the lower sporanges contain
macrospores, and the upper microspores, a narrow scarcely
protruding prothallus is developed upon the former, bearing
archegonia upon its surface, which are fertilised by anthero-
zoids set free by the microspores.

3. Natural Order, Zguisetacee—The Horsetail Family.

Herbs with holiow jointed stems, with or without slender
whorled jointed branches. Fructification, a terminal spike,
consisting of numerous closely-packed peltate scales bearing

Ds
Fic. 237. Unbranched fertiie and branched barren fronds of Horsetail.

sporanges of one kind around their margins, parallel with
their short. stalks. Outer coat of the spores splitting into
elastic attached hygroscopic filaments (elaters). Developing
a prothallus as in Ferns.

Iv. MUSCI. 355

Tne mode of reproduction of Hguisetacee is similar to
that of Ferns.

In Lguisetum adiffusum, the commonest species of the
Indian mountains, very nearly related to a common Euro-
pean species (2. palustre), the fertile or sporange-bearing
fronds are either simple or branched.

In /. hyemale, an unbranched species of Northern Europe,
the epidermis contains so much silica that bunches of the
stems are sold for polishing metal.

4. Natural Order, AZuscz.—The Moss Family.

Minute herbs with filiform or slender wiry stems, and
alternate usually spirally-arranged and imbricating leaves ;
destitute of vascular tissue. Fructification consisting of a

Fic. 238. Hair-Moss (Polytrichum). a seta bearing a sporange ; 4 sporange covered
by its calyptra; ¢ head of antheridia, forming the male inflorescence.

stalked sporange, usually with a central axis containing mi-

‘ croscopic double-coated spores of one kind, capable of

developing a thread-like branching filament, upon which
AA 2

356 MUSCT. [CHAP.

leafy shoots give origin to new Moss-plants, which bear
the reproductive organs when fully developed.

While in Ferns the spores give origin on their germi-
nation to a minute temporary organ, upon which antheridia
and archegonia are developed, in Mosses the complete
vegetative system—that is, roots, branches, and leaves—
is developed from the spores without the intervention of
sexual organs. Upon the leafy branches antheridia and
archegonia, analogous, though different in structure, to
those of Ferns, are developed. From the archegonia,
fertilised by the spiral antherozoids liberated by the an-
theridia, arise the sporanges, usually borne up by a slender
peduncle, the sefa, and capped by the upper portion of
the archegonium, which is torn away by the rising sporange,
for which it forms the calyptras The mouth of the
sporange is closed until mature by a lid (operculum), which
separates when ripe, exposing a row of minute teeth around
the margin of the sporange, in many Mosses. ‘These teeth
form the peristome.

In Mosses, vessels are wolly absent from both stem
and leaves ; hence they—together with the plants grouped
under the three following Families, all of which are destitute
of vascular tissue—are termed Cellular Plants. Nearly all
the plants which we have hitherto noticed, whether of
Flowerless or Flowering Families, contain vessels, and are
consequently termed Vascular Plants.

The species of Musci are very numerous, especially in
cool and cold climates. In India they are almost confined
to the Himalaya, the mountains of Eastern Bengal, the
Peninsula, Ceylon, and the Malayan chair

—S |

IVv.] FUNGI. 357

5. Natural Order, /vuzg¢.—The Mushroom and Mould
Family.

Type—Any species of Agaric (Agaricus).

With a vegetative system growing under the surface of
soil containing decaying organic matter, and consisting of a
flocculent network of delicate cellular threads, forming what
is called the myceléum. ‘The fructification is borne above
the surface, in the form of an umbrella-like disk called the
pileus, upon a stout stem. The margin of the pileus is at
first united by a membrane to the stalk, from which it
breaks away, leaving a ring-like scar. Upon the under-side

Fic. 239. Mushroom (Agaricus).

‘

of the pileus numerous vertical plates radiate from the top
of the stem to the margin of the pileus. If a very thin,
transverse section of one of these plates be cut with a sharp
knife, and examined under a powerful microscope, the sur-
face will be found to be studded with large cells, each of
which bears four very minute stalked spores upon its apex.

358 FUNGI. [CHAP.

Other Fungi depart very widely from this Type, but nearly
all agree in the absence of green colouring-matter and
of starch in their cells, and in their dependence upon
decaying animal or vegetable matter for support. They
are mostly short-lived, and often deliquesce when mature,
though some, as the Touchwoods (Polyporus), are hard and
woody.

In many Fungi there is no distinction of stem and pileus ;
and the spore-bearing cells clothe excavations in the cellular
substance of the Fungus (as in Puff-balls, Lycoperdon), or
the spores may be formed in the interior of certain cells
called asci, two, four, or more together, as in the subter-
ranean esculent European fungus called Truffle (Z7zer).

Some botanists divide the Fungi into two Tribes: (1)
with the spores borne upon the exterior of cells called
basidia, and (2) with the spores developed in the interior of
cells called asci; those of the former Tribe being termed
Sporiferous, those of the latter Sporidiferous. The variety
in arrangement of the reproductive system of the Fungi is
extreme, and there are very many species of which the life-
history is as yet imperfectly understood.

Though a few of the Fungi are esculent, many are
dangerous, and some poisonous. None should be eaten
unless perfectly sound, and species with a disagreeable
odour should be avoided. Many Fungi are very injurious,
destroying large quantities of agricultural produce, timber,
and miscellaneous substances, when circumstances favour
their development. The Wheat Mildew, Smut, and Bunt
of Cereals, Ergot, Hop-blight, the Moulds, and Dry-rot, are
all Fungi. The Vine and Potato diseases are also due to
the ravages of minute species, which multiply with great
rapidity. As their spores are excessively minute, they cannot
be excluded by any mechanical contrivance.

——

rv. } LICHENES. 350

6. Natural Order, Zichenes.—The Lichen Family.

Lichens occur either as crust-like or leafy expansions,
dr in little branching shrubby tufts, usually coloured grey,
yellow, or greenish-yellow. They spread everywhere in cool
climates—over stones, brick-walls, the bark of trees, and
even upon the most exposed rocks of alpine and arctic
countries, forming the very outposts of vegetation, and
growing at the expense, almost solely, of the atmosphere
and the moisture which it bears to them. In the tropics
the relative proportion of lichens growing upon the leaves
of trees (efiphyllous lichens) is large, and gives a special
character to tropical Lichenology. Lichens are long-lived,
and intermittent in their growth, being at a standstill, and
often crumbling away, when the weatherisdry. They differ,
also, from Fungi in containing a green-coloured layer under
the epidermis, consisting of cells called gonidia, which may
be regarded as answering to the buds of higher plants, since,
when set free, they develop new lichens, and thus multiply
the plant. The true reproductive organs are contained in
special receptacles, either exposed upon the upper surface of
the lichen or buried in its tissue, the spores being contained
in narrow cells similar, in some species, to the asci of
Sporidiferous Fungi.

A transverse section through the crust (thallus) of a
typical Lichen exhibits under a magnifying power of 400
or 500 diameters immediately underneath the upper cortical
layer of rather thick-walled cells, a stratum largely made
up of green chlorophyll containing rounded cells, either
scattered singly or, more usually, clustered or joined end to
end ; these, under the name of “‘ gonidia”’ have been hitherto
regarded as affording a means of vegetative propagation

360 LICHENES [cHaP,

of the Lichen,—the green cells still retaining their vitality
being set free on the disintegration of the crust. Recent
observations however show that the “gonidia” alone
cannot reproduce the Lichen, but merely their like; that
they give origin to other similar cells, but nothing more,
and that they present precisely the characters of the lower
groups of Algze, to various genera of which Order they may
be actually referred. Intermingled with the germ-cells and
in intimate contact with them, as well as usually forming
alone the stratum of the crust immediately beneath that
in which the gonidia abound, are long irregularly ramified
thread-like cells, destitute of chlorophyll, matted often
densely together, forming the mass of the crust. From
the cortical cells of the lower surface copious root-like
hairs are given off which serve as holdfasts to the thallus.

Upon the upper surface of the crust and usually visible
to the naked eye, occurs the so-called ‘‘ fructification,”
although the asexual origin, in the form of convex, flat, or
saucer-like disks in some Lichens (Gymnocarpous or dis-
ciferous genera), or in others as rounded cavities embedded
in the substance of the crust, opening at the surface merely
by a minute aperture (Angtocarpous or nucleiferous genera).
These disks or cayities are lined closely with erect, narrow,
often calvate, densely packed, microscopic cells, amongst
which are numerous asci, each containing usually eight or
fewer spores, originating, as in ascomycetous Fungi, by
free-cell formation. ‘These spore-containing asci originate
from, and in direct continuity with, the colourless filaments
which form the mass of the Lichen, and are not in any
organic relation with the gonidia.

The spores are liberated in damp weather, and on germina-
tion develop thread-like filaments similar to those which,
matted together, form the tissue from which the asci originates,

Iv.] ALGA:. 361

It follows therefore that the Lichen may be regarded as
a composite structure, made up of Alga and ascomycetous
Fungus, each element capable of at least independent
asexual propagation, but incapable alone of reproducing
a Lichen which necessarily requires the concourse of both.

Several species, as Zecanora and Roccella, afford a valuable
purple and mauve dye; and a few are edible, as the so-
called Iceland Moss (Cetraria islandica).. The Reindeer
Moss (C/adonia rangiferina) is a lichen extremely abundant
in polar regions, serving as food to the reindeer. One or
two species of Parmelia growing upon rocks in Southern
India are used in medicine.

7. Natural Order, A/ge.—The Sea-Weed Family.

This Family includes an enormous number of species,
nearly all adapted to grow under water, though by no means
all marine, as many are wholly confined to fresh water,
They vary to an extraordinary extent in size, form, and
mode of reproduction. Some are microscopic and _ indi-
vidually invisible to the naked eye ; whilst others, especially
some marine species, attain a large size—a few indeed,
measuring some hundreds of feet in Jength. The simplest
forms consist of single microscopic cells: hence they are
called Unicellular Alge. These multiply by division, and
also by akind of sexual reproduction, analogous to that of the
higher plants, in which the contents of two distinct individual
cells become commingled, and the resulting mass finally
cesolves itself into a number of new individual cells or plants.

The same species generally present also a sexual process
of reproduction, varying in complexity from the simplest
condition, in which two accidentally contiguous, but pre-
cisely similar, cells of the same or different filaments mingle
their contents and so form a germ-spore, giving origin to

362 ALG, [CrHAP. tv.

one or more individuals, to conditions presenting considerable
diversity between the sexual cells, more especially manifest
in the male-cell (anthertdium), which when diverse in form
from the female-cell (cogonium) usually liberates motile
zoospore-like antherozoids, which become merged in the
contents of the oogonium and so determine the development,
either immediately or after a pause, of a germ-spore.

Forms of a higher grade of structure are represented by
the fine hair-like filaments which we find floating in rivulets
and tanks, rooted at one extremi‘y to stems or to larger
water-plants. Many of these filamentous species (Confer-
voidee) multiply themselves by the contents of the cells
which form their filaments being resolved into innumerable
minute moving bodies, called zoospores, which break out of
the cells and rush about in the water until they finally settle
down and grow.

The higher species, such as the Olive-coloured Sea-Weeds
(Fucus), which clothe the rocks between tide marks upon
the shores of northern countries, possess a complicated re-
productive system of spores and antheridia, contained in con-
ceptacles embedded in the thickened extremities of the divided
fronds. Their mode of reproduction, adapted to the medium
in which the species grow, agrees in essentials with that which
is characteristic of Ferns and Mosses ; with this difference,
however, that the spores themselves are directly fertilized
and rendered capable of independent growth by the contact
of the minute spermatozoids contained in the antheridia.

The marine species vary in colour, some being usually
olive, others red or green. ‘The colour is employed as an
aid in their classification.

Many species are used for food. Some of the larger
marine species used to be burnt for the sake of theiz
alkaline ash (kelp) and for the iodine which they contain.

CHAPTER V.
HOW TO DRY PLANTS.

SPECIMENS which are to be dried, so that they may be
kept in a HERBARIUM and referred to or examined at a
future time, ought not to be gathered at random, but should
be selected as average representatives of their species, unless
they be designed to show some departure from the typical
form. If herbaceous plants, they ought, if possible, to be
taken up, when in flower, by the root, and the root should
be pressed, if not too large, along with the rest. If the
radical leaves be withered at the time of flowering, another
specimen should be gathered at an earlier season to show
them, as the radical leaves are often very different in form
from those of the stem. Besides expanded flowers, the bud
and ripe fruit should be shown; and if these cannot be
had upon a single specimen, other examples should be
collected, to show the plant in its different states. A strong
knife or small trowel will be found useful to dig up the
specimens.

The specimens should not be allowed to wither before
reaching home. They may either be carried in a tin box,
or loosely spread between sheets of paper in a portfolio.
Fig. 240 shows a collecting portfolio, which may be made
of two pieces of pasteboard sixteen inches long by ten

364 HERBAKIUM. [CHAP.

inches wide, fastened, as shown in the cut, by tape or
straps. A few sheets of absorbing-paper must be kept
in the portfolio.

Fic. 240. Collecting Portfolio.

In laying out specimens for the press use plenty of paper,
so that their moisture may be quickly absorbed, and the
danger of mould avoided. ‘The specimens should be laid
between the sheets of drying paper in as natural a position
as may be, taking care not to crumple the leaves or flowers.
If the specimens be too long for the paper, they may be
carefully folded or cut in two. Delicate flowers should be
carefully folded in paper when gathered, and kept flat.
Do not arrange every specimen just in the middle of the
paper, but dispose them in such a way, that were a pile of
them in their papers raised two feet high they would not
topple over: this will equalize the pressure. Several dry
sheets ought to be laid between each layer of fresh speci-
mens, the quantity of paper depending upon the thickness
and succulence of the plants to be pressed. In the case of

thin-leaved and delicate plants, it is not a_bad plan to treat —
the sheet of paper upon which the specimen is laid as part —
of the specimen, removing it, every time the papers are —

v] HERBARIUM. 365

changed, with the specimen undisturbed upon it, to the dry
sheets. Pasteboards, or, better still, ‘‘ ventilators” (made
the size of the paper, of narrow strips of deal at short
distances apart, nailed together in two layers at right-angles
to each other, as shown in the cut, Fig. 241), may be intro-
duced at intervals between the layers of paper until the pile
be ready for the press, which may consist simply of two
stout boards, made so that they cannot bend or warp.
Between these boards the paper and specimens must be
placed, and a weight of stones or metal, not less than
50lbs. or 60 lbs., laid upon the top.

The papers should be changed, several times, once a day,
and then at longer intervals, until the specimens are quite
dry, when they should be removed from the press. If fresh

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Fic. 241. Ventilator.

specimens be placed in the press, while others are in pro-
cess of drying, they must be carefully separated by paste-
board, or by a thick layer of paper. The length of time
which specimens ought to remain in the press varies with
their nature, whether dry or succulent, and with the kind
and quantity of paper used. Common stout brown paper
answers very well. It may be cut to any size, but, generally,
it should not be less than sixteen or eighteen inches long
by ten inches wide. Practice will soon suggest many little

366 HERBARIUM. [CHAP.

useful expedients in drying plants which it is needless
should be detailed here.

The dried specimens should always be accurately labelled
with the locality, name of finder, name of the plant, and
any other details which may be thought desirable. They
may either be kept loose in sheets of paper, or (and
necessarily, if intended for use in a school, or for frequent
consultation) mounted upon sheets of stout cartridge-paper
of a larger size than foolscap, say about 163 ins. by fo ins.
A ream consists of 960 half-sheets, sufficient for as many
specimens.

The specimens should be fastened to the Herbarium
paper with hot glue, about the consistency of cream, the
glue being laid on the specimens with a hair pencil. The
newly-mounted sheets should be placed between waste
paper or newspapers, and pressed overnight, before they
are finally retcuched and placed in the Herbarium. Straps
of gummed thin paper may be fastened over the thicker
narts of the specimens, to prevent them breaking loose
from the paper when accidentally bent.

The mounted specimens belonging to the same genus, or
a part of them if the genus be a large one, may be placed
in a folded sheet of a stronger and coarser paper than that
upon which the specimens are glued: upon this cover, at
the bottom, the name of the genus and of its Natural Order
may be marked. The Genera should be arranged in their
Natural Orders, the Natural. Orders in their respective
Divisions and Classes, and the whole placed in a suitable
cabinet, which, however, need not be procured just at first.

Whatever the form of the cabinet in which the Herbarium
is kept, it should be securely closed, so as to exclude dust,
and camphor should be placed upon the shelves, unless the
specimens are well washed over with a preservative solution

v.} HERBARIUM. 367

before being laid in.* The accompanying cut shows an
excellent form of cabinet, made of deal, similar to those in
use at the Herbarium of the Royal Gardens, Kew

* The preservative solution may consist of corrosive sublimate dis-
solved in spirits of wine, in the proportion of two drachms to the pint.
It is very poisonous, and should be kept labelled, and used with care.

Fic. 242. Herbarium Cabinet.

APPENDIX.

I.
HOW TO DESCRIBE PLANTS.

WHEN the student has acquired facility in filling up schedules
from plants belonging to all the principal divisions of Phanero-
gamia, it is desirable that he should proceed to describe
specimens more at length, as shown in the following examples.
As the principal use of the schedules is to direct the attention
to certain important points of structure, care must be taken
never to omit reference to these important points in describing
plants in this way. If, however, as is best, the description be
headed with the CLAss and D¢vzszon to which the plant belongs,
it is not necessary (excepting in Examination exercises) to detail
all the characters which are implied by referring it to such
Class and Division. The organs must be described seriatim
in the order of their development.

ORANGE: Citrus Auvantium.
CLAss, Dicotyledons. Division, Thalamiflore.

A wholly glabrous evergreen shrub or small tree, with shining
simple (unifoliolate) leaves, fragrant white axillary flowers, and
globose baccate fruits.

EXTREMITIES smocth, green, glabrous, the internodes ob-
tusely angular above ; occasionally armed with short straight
acute axillary spines.

BOB

370 APPENDIX. [Apr.

LEAVES alternate, petiolate, unifoliolate, elliptical elliptic-oval
or broadly lanceolate, acute obtuse or narrowly retuse, often
broadly acuminate, obsoletely crenate-serrulate, rather coriaceous,
translucently glandular-dotted, lamina articulated at the base to
the petiole, which is often more or less distinctly winged.

FLOWERS in shortly pedunculate or sub-sessile few-flowered
fascicles from the axils of the upper leaves, regular, hermaphro-
dite, white and fragrant.

CALYX inferior, cup-shaped, persistent, quinque-dentate, teeth
deltoid.

COROLLA hypogynous, polypetalous, much exceeding the
calyx ; petals normally five (varying to eight), linear or oblong,
fleshy, spreading or recurved, imbricate in zstivation.

STAMENS hypogynous, indefinite, polyadelphous ; filaments
compressed, variously coherent; anthers oblong, two-celled,
dehiscing longitudinally.

PISTIL syncarpous; ovary superior globose, seated upon a
fleshy annular or hemispherical disk, many-celled ; style erect,
terete, deciduous, stigma capitate lobulate ; ovules indefinite,
biseriate.

FRUIT globose, many-celled: pericarp fleshy, replete with
minute immersed receptacles of aromatic essential oil, glabrous,
rugulose ; septa membranous; cells usually few-seeded (or seeds
abortive), filled with a succulent cellular tissue developed from
the inner wall of the pericarp.

SEEDS exalbuminous; testa coriaceous; embryo with fleshy
cotyledons and a small superior radicle, usually deformed from
mutual pressure, the seeds being most frequently polyembryonous.

GARDEN PEA: Pzsum sativum.
(CLASS, Dicotyledons. Division, Calycifloree.

A weak climbing annual herb, with alternate stipulate com-
pound leaves ending in tendrils, and irregular (papilionaceous)
flowers.

Root fibrous, branching.

1) APPENDIX. 371

STEM weak, climbing, slightly branched, glabrous.

LEAVES cauline, alternate, pinnate (bi-tri-jugate), terminat-
ing in tendrils (metamorphosed leaflets) ; leaflets ovate, entire,
glabrous, glaucous; s¢7pules foliaceous, ovate-cordate, slightly
crenate.

STAMENS large, irregular (papilionaceous), in two- or three-
flowered, axillary, pedunculate racemes.

CALYX gamosepalous, five-toothed, bilabiate, persistent.

COROLLA papilionaceous, white; vexil/um large, broadly
obcordate, erect; a/e@ roundish, converging, shorter than the
compressed, curved carina.

STAMENS perigynous, decandrous, diadelphous ; //aments
subulate above ; azthers two-celled, dehiscing longitudinally.

PISTIL apocarpous, monogynous; ovary superior, obiong,
compressed, one-celled; s¢y/e terminal, subfalcate; s¢zgma
simple ; ovules few, attached to the ventral suture.

FRUIT a legume ; seeds few (3-9), globose, exalbuminous, with
a coriaceous, glabrous testa.

TAMARIND: Vamarindus indica.
CLASS, Dicotyledons. Division, Calyciflore.

A large much-branched (introduced) tree, with broadly
spreading crown, alternate multifoliolate leaves and yellowish
or red-striped flowers in simple or panicled racemes.

EXTREMITIES distichously branched, often rugulose, glabrous,
or at first thinly pubescent or puberulous.

LEAVES alternate, distichous, abruptly pinnate, glabrous ;
leaflets usuaily in nine to twenty-one pairs, small (one-third to
one-quarter inch long), coriaceous, oblong, obtuse, reticulate,
subsessile ; st##fu/es linear, early caducous.

FLOWERS small, in simple or panicled, terminal or lateral
racemes ; dracts obovate-elliptical (one-quarter to one-third
inch), concave, caducous; Jdracteoles valvate, enclosing the
early bud, pubescent, caducous ; Jedicel/s spreading, equalling or

shorter than the flowers.
BYVB??

372 APPENDIX. farr.

CALYX gamosepalous ; ¢wde narrowly funnel-shaped (zz/fund-
thuliform) ; limb quadripartite, segments imbricate, entire,
subequal in length, submembranous.

PETALS three (one posterior, two lateral), oblong or obovate-
oblong, subequal, equalling or but slightly exceeding the calyx,
narrowed to the base or shortly clawed; two anterior petals
minute subulate or squamiform.

STAMENS three, anterior, alternating with minute or obsolete
staminodes ; f/aments connate nearly half their length ; azthers
oblong, versatile.

PISTIL apocarpous, monogynous ; ovary stipitate ; s¢y/e rather
short, equalling the stamens; s¢zgwza terminal obtuse, slightly
thickened ; ovz/es eight, ten, or more.

FRUIT an oblong or linear-oblong, subterete or slightly com-
pressed, curved or nearly straight indehiscent legume; outer
layer of Zericarp thinly crustaceous rugulose or nearly smooth,
inner pulpy, fibrous, enveloping the seeds.

SEEDS roundish or obovate, compressed, with a thick shining
testa, each side marked with a large faintly-defined areole ;
albumen oO.

GARDEN ZINNIA: Zinnia elegans.
CLass, Dicotyledons. Division, Corolliflorz.

An annual herb, with opposite entire leaves and terminal
solitary heads of orange, scarlet, purple, rose, or white florets.

Roor annual, slender, tapering, giving off numerous wiry,
fibrous branches.

STEM erect, one and a half to four feet high, simple, or
with one or two pairs of opposite ascending branches, terete,
sparsely hirsute. ;

LEAVES cauline, opposite or subopposite, sessile, amplexicaul,
ovate-oblong or ovate-elliptical, base cordate, apex acute or
broadly pointed, entire, minutely setulose, scabrid or glabrescent,
membranous, three- to five-nerved, the lateral nerves evanescent
above ; exstipulate.

1.] APPENDIX. 373

CAPITULA terminal solitary pedunculate heterogamous ;
peduncles erect, exceeding the upper leaves, appressed-tomen-
tose or pubescent above ; zzvolucre hemispherical of numerous
imbricate unequal obovate or obovate-oblong, very obtuse,
scarious glabrous bracts margined with black above, the outer
scales appressed, the inner at length with spreading or recurved
apices ; receptacle conical at length elongate, paleaceous ; Jalee
submembranous, lanceolate or linear conduplicate equalling
the florets, with a minutely laciniate or dentate coloured apex ;
florets numerous, of the dzsk regular, hermaphrodite, of the vay
irregular, pistillate.

CALYX gamosepalous, adherent ; /z7zd obsolete.

COROLLA of the ray-florets ligulate spreading obovate or
obovate-oblong entire subpersistent, continuous below into the
adnate calyx-tube ; of the dzsk-florets tubular, five-toothed, tube
abruptly dilated and articulated below, teeth spreading, shortly
villous.

STAMENS pentandrous, epipetalous ; f/aments filiform; an-
thers syngenesious, linear, two-celled, dehiscing longitudinally,
unappendaged below.

PISTIL syncarpous ; ovary inferior, one-celled, uniovulate ;
style filiform ; stigma bifid ; ovu/e anatropous, erect.:

FRUIT an achene; fappus o; achenes of the vay obovate
much compressed shortly hispid more especially on the margins, :
continued above into the persistent base of the ligule; achenes
of the dsk obovate-oblong, compressed, entire or shortly biden-
tate above, thinly scabrid; seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous ;
embryo with an inferior radicle.

ROSE PERIWINKLE: Vinca rosea.
Cuass, Dicotyledons. Division, Corolliflore.

A perennial herb with opposite simple leaves, and aincern 4.
conspicuous rose or white flowers.

STEM usually woody and branching below, erect terete
pubescent or puberuicus

374 APPENDIX. [APP.

LEAVES cauline, opposite, membranous, obovate or elliptic-
oblong, obtuse mucronulate entire shortly pubescent or at
length nearly glabrous above, narrowed beiow into the short
petiole.

FLOWERS axillary in pairs, or sometimes solitary, subsessile
or pedicels shorter than the calyx, regular, hermaphrodite.

CALYX inferior, pubescent, divided nearly to the base into
five subulate segments many times shorter than the corolla-
tube.

COROLLA hypogynous, hypocrateriform; Ze cylindrical,
constricted above and five-tubercled at the mouth ; /z#d broadly
spreading, of five obliquely-obovate or rotundate lobes, con-
torted in zestivation.

STAMENS epipetalous, pentandrous, alternate with the -corolla-
lobes; anthers subsessile, linear-oblong, subacute, obtusely
sagittate at base, two-celled, polleniferous throughout.

PISTIL syncarpous, monogynous, dicarpellary, the carpels
distinct in the ovary, united above in a single slender style;
stigma slightly constricted horizontally, crowned bya hairy tuft ;
ovules indefinite, attached to the ventral suture of the carpels.

FRUIT of two narrow cylindrical follicles (half to one and
a half inches long); seeds indefinite, oblong-cylindrical, minutely
tubercled, unappendaged, albuminous; emdryo cylindrical,
radicle superior terete equalling or exceeding the cotyledons ;
albumen fleshy, confluent with the testa.

INDIAN WILLOW: Salzex tetrasperma.
Cass, Dicotyledons. Division, Achlamydez.

A deciduous spreading tree, with alternate simple leaves and
«unentaceous dicecious flowers. |

{RANCHES terete, glabrous, or the annual shoots silvery-
»yubescent.

LEAVES alternate petiolate membranous or thinly coriaceous,
varying from ovate- or oblong-lanceolate to oval and linear-
lanceolate, usually finely acuminate, rounded or more or less

1.] APPENDIX. 375

narrowed at the base, entire or minutely serrulate, glabrous
above or at first appressed-sericeous, glabrous or thinly ap-
pressed-sericeous and opaque or glaucescent beneath; stipules
ovate or oblong deciduous.

FLOWERS dicecious, achlamydeous, in axillary pedunculate
elongate cylindrical occasionally rather lax silky or pubescent
catkins ; peduncle with or without a few reduced leaves : STAM-
INATE flowers with usually six to eight stamens in the axil of
minute ovate bracts; f/aments filiform, az¢hers minute, rotun-
date, two-celled ; g/ands two, anterior and posterior, minute,
fleshy, inserted on the receptacle: PISTILLATE flowers in the
axil of minute silky or tomentose bracts; ovary shortly pedi-
cellate, lanceolate-ovoid, pubescent or glabrous; glands fleshy,
embracing the pedicel; s¢/gmas two, subsessile ; ovzles few, on
two parietal placentas.

FRUIT a two-valved capsule, equalling or exceeding the
pedicel ; seeds few (about four), comose, exalbuminous.

CULTIVATED RICE: Oryza saitva.
CLASS, Monocotyledons. Division, Glumiferz.

An annual cereal with an erect or slightly drooping narrow
paniculate inflorescence.

Root fibrous.

STEM (cudm) erect, or prostrate below and rooting at the
nodes, jointed, terete, striate, glabrous.

LEAVES cauline, alternate, sheathing, linear finely acuminate,
longitudinally-nerved, striate, more or less distinctly scabrous
with minute setz directly forwards ; /7gu/e prominent, lanceo-
late, membranous or scarious.

INFLORESCENCE a panicle, narrow with short ascending lateral
branches or more diffuse, branches wiry, angular or sulcate,
hispid, or scabrous; spikelets pedicellate one-flowered oblong
compressed.

OUTER GLUMES two, minute, nearly equal, subulate, three to
five times shorter than the spikelet.

376 APPENDIX. [APP I,

FLOWERING GLUME navicular, coriaceous, laterally com-
pressed, carinate, obscurely five-nerved, apiculate or aristate, the
scabrous awn often many times longer than the spikelet, thinly
setulose-hispid externally at least on the keel, or glabrate.

PALE equalling or nearly equalling the flowering glume, coria-
ceous, laterally compressed, obscurely three-nerved, mucronate
or apiculate, thinly and minutely appressed-hispid or glabrate.

STAMENS hypogynous, hexandrous ; j/aments filiform ; anthers
versatile linear bilocular dehiscing longitudinally.

LODICULES two, glabrous fleshy.

PISTIL syncarpous; ovary globose or ovoid glabrous one-
celled ; styles two, slender ; stigmas plumose ; ovz/e solitary.

FRUIT a free linear or oblong caryopsis, closely invested by
the persistent flowering glume and pale ; embryo oblique, at the
base of horny albumen.

N.B.—Rice occurs under many varieties, as do several of the
plants here briefly described. The varieties of Rice differ in
the presence or absence of an awn to the flowering glume, the
colour of the glumes, the form of the caryopsis, and in other
trivial characters.

If.

LIST OF SOME WORKS ON INDIAN BOTANY

TO WHICH REFERENCE MAY BE MADE FOR DETAILED
INFORMATION.

Several of these are rare or out of print, but may be occasionally
picked up second-hand.

There is no good work on the general botany of India. Several
named in the following enumeration are excellent so far as
they go, but most of them either apply to the botany of a
limited area, or are incomplete or out of date; others again
are hardly scientific.

HOOKER, Sir J. D.—-“The Flora of British India,” 8vo. ;

London, 1875—and still in progress: complete to the end of
Dicotyledons, with descriptions of Genera and Species.
_ HOoKER and THomson.— Flora Indica,” vol.i. 8vo. ; London,
1855. Ranunculacez to Fumariacez, with a unique Essay
prefixed on the Geographical relations of the Indian Flora.
Under the title of “‘ Przecursores ad Floram Indicam,” the same
authors published in the “Journal of the Linnean Society of
London,’ systematic reviews of other Natural Orders: Cam-
panulacez, Saxifragez and allies, Crassulacez, Caprifoliacez,
Balsaminez, and Cruciferz.

WicuHT and ARNoTT.—“ Prodromus Florz Peninsulz Indiz
Orientalis,” vol. i. 8vo.; London, 1834. Descriptions of Genera
and Species of the Indian Peninsula, from Ranunculaceze to
Dipsaceze. e

ROXBURGH.—“ Flora Indica.” Three vols. 8vo. ; Serampore,
1832. The third volume, edited from posthumous manuscripts

378 APPENDIX. [APP.

only, occasionally contains the same species described twice
over under different names: a verbatim reprint, by Mr. C. B.
Clarke, with the addition of Cryptogamia, from the “ Calcutta
Journal of Natural History,” was published at Calcutta, in one
volume, in 1874.

WIGHT.—“ Illustrations of Indian Botany;” or Figures
illustrative of each of the Natural Orders of Indian Plants
described in the author’s “ Prodromus Florz Peninsule Indie
Orientalis,” with Observations, &c. Two vols. 4to.; Madras,
1838-1841.

WIGHT.—“Icones Plantarum Indiz Orientalis,” or Figures
of Indian Plants. Six vols. 4to.; Madras, 1838-1853. A
collection of upwards of 2,000 uncoloured Lithographs, with
brief descriptions.

THWAITES.—“ Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylaniz.” One vol.
8vo. ; London, 1864. An enumeration of the Flowering Plants
and Ferns of Ceylon, with descriptions of many new species.

RoyLe. —“ Illustrations of the Botany, &c. of the Himalaya.”
Two vols. folio; London, 1839; with 1oo coloured Plates.

ROXBURGH.—* Plants of the Coast of Coromandel.” Three
vols. large folio; London, 1795-1819 ; with 300 coloured Plates.

WALLICH.—“ Plantz Asiaticz Rariores.”? Three vols. folio ;
London, 1830-1832; with 295 coloured Plates.

WALLICH.—‘“‘ Tentamen Florz Nepalensis.” One vol. folio ;
Calcutta, 1824-1826 ; with fifty Plates of select Nepal Plants.

HOOKER.—“ Illustrations of Himalayan Plants.” One vol.
large folio; London, 1855 ; with twenty-five coloured Plates of
remarkable plants of the Sikkim-Himalaya.

HOOKER.—“ Rhododendrons of Sikkim-Himalaya” One vol.
folio ; London, 1849; with thirty Plates.

JACQUEMONT.—“ Voyage dans l’Inde pendant les Années
1828-1832.” Botany by Cambessédes and Decaisne. One vol.
folio; Paris, 1841-1844; with 180 Plates.

DALZELL and GIBSON.—“ Bombay Flora.” One vol. 8vo. ;
Bombay, 1861 (as to species only).

KLOTZSCH and GARCKE.—“ Die botanischen Ergebnisse der
Reise . . Prinzen Waldemar von Preussen.” Berlin, 1862.

I1.] APPENDIX. 379

One vol. 4to. with 100 Plates, and Descriptions of Himalayan
Plants.

DruRY.—‘ Handbook of the Indian Flora.” Two vols. 8vo. ;
Travancore, 1864-1866.

GRIFFITH.—* Posthumous Works ;’’ Calcutta, 1847-1854; in-
cluding ‘* Palms of British India,” one vol. folio; “ Notulz ad
Plantas Asiaticas,” being Miscellaneous Observations on Indian
Plants, three vols. 8vo. ; “ Journal of Travels in India,” one vol.
8vo. ; and “ Itinerary Notes,” one vol. 8vo.

BEDDOME.—“ Ferns of Southern India ;” Madras, 1863, one
vol. 4to.; with 271 Plates of Ferns (with descriptions) of the
Madras Presidency : also “‘ Ferns of British India,” Madras,
1865. The latter work in progress ; exclusive of species figured
in the previous work.

Don, D.—‘ Prodromus Florez Nepalensis.’? One vol. 12mo. ;
London, 1825.

CLARKE, C. B.—“Commelynacez et Cyrtandracez bengal-
enses.” Calcutta, 1874, one vol. folio.

BRANDIS, D.— Forest Flora of N.W. and Central India,”
one vol. 8vo. and Atlas.

MITTEN.—“ Mosses of the East Indies.” Journal of the
Linnean Society, iii. 1859 (Swpplement).

In the same Journal are numerous Monographs and Essays
relating to Indian Botany, by Hooker and Thomson, Lindley,
Edgeworth, Anderson, Aitcheson, Baker, Clarke, Oliver, and
others.

Many plants of North-Western India, of Afghanistan and
Beloochistan, are described in Boissier’s “Flora Orientalis,’’
and “ Diagnoses Plantarum Orientalium Novarum,” two series,
two vols. Geneva, 1842-1859. See also Hooker’s ‘‘ Journal of
Botany” and “Kew Journal of Botany” for Miscellaneous
Memoirs on Indian Botany, by Bentham, Stocks, and others ;
Cleghorn’s “‘ Forests and Gardens of Southern India,’’ one vol.
8vo. London, 1861; “ Pharmacopeeia of India,” one vol. 8vo.
London, 1868 ; Hooker’s “ Himalayan Journals,” two vols. 8vo.
London, 1854; Thomson’s ‘‘ Western Himalaya and Thibet,”
one vol. 8vo. London, 1852 ; Bentham’s “ Flora Hongkongensis,”
London, one vol. 8vo., 1861.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Abortion, imperfect or rudimentary de-
velopment.

abrupt, applied to crgans terminating
suddenly.

Abrus, 197.

Absorption, 19.

Acacia, 199.

Acanthacee, 255.

Acanthus Family, 255.

acaulescent, apparently stemless, 68.

accrescent, applied to parts of the calyx
or corolla which persist and enlarge
after flowering, 188, 192-3.

Acer, rot.

Achene, 101.

Achimenes, 246.

Achlamydez, 60.

achlamydeous, without either calyx or
corolla, 41.

Achras, 236.

acicular, 77.

Aconitum, 148.

Acorn, 98.

Acorus, 309.

Acotyledons, 344.

Acrotrema, 149.

Actzea, 148.

Acule?, prickles; acudeate, prickly.

Acumen, along narrow point; acza-
nate, having an acumen.

acute, 79.

Adam’s Needle, 73, 313-

Adansonia, 175.

A.ihesion, 29.

Adiantum, 347.

adnate, adherent; also applied to an-
thers with the filament prolonged up
the back of the anther.

Adventitious roots, 69.

7Egiceras, 261.

fEginetia, 253, 254.

fEgle, 184.

Aerial roots, 69.

f€schynanthus, 246.

Eschynomene, 197.

LE stivation, 88.

Agave, 73, 313, 328.

Ale, wings (of papilionaceous corella,
196); alate, winged.

Albizzia, 198.

Albumen, 45.

albuminous, 45, 105.

Alburnum, sap-wood (of ebony), 235.

Algz, 367,

Alismaceze, 332.

Allamanaa, 239.

Allium, 313.

Almond, 203.

Aloe, 313.

Aloe, American, 328.

Alopecurus, 338.

Aloysia, 259

Alpinia, 323, 326.

Alsodeia, 163.

Alsophila, 348.

alternate, 73

Alysicarpus, 197.

Amaranth Family, 268.

Amaranthacezez, 268.

Amaryllidacez, 327.

Amaryllis Family, 327.

American Aloe, 73, 313.

Amomum, 326, 327.

Ampelidez, 188.

amplexicaut, &o.

Amygdalus, 203.

Anacardiaceze, 192

Anagallis, 263.

anatropous, applied to ovules when in
verted, so that the micropyle adjoins
the hilum, and the organic base of the
nucleus (where it is united to the coat
or coats of the ovule) is at the ex-
tremity remote from the hilum, 26.

Andrecium, the stamens of a flower
collectively.

382 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Andropogon, 203, 338, 341.

-androus, in composition, applying to
the stamens.

Anemone, 148.

Anethom, 219.

Angiosperms, plants having the ovules
fertilized through the medium of a
stigma, 295.

Anise, 222.

Anisum, 222.

Annatto Family, 164.

annual, producing seed and dying in the
first season.

annual zones (of wood), 118.

Anona, 151.

Anonacez, 151.

anterior, same as inferior, when applied

to the relation of the parts of a flower
to the as

Anther,

peers B5ns

Antheridium, the male organ of Cryp-
togams, corresponding to the anther
of Phzenogams.

Antiaris, 275.

Antirrhinum, 253.

apetalous, without petals (or corolla).

Apex, 79.

apiculate, wth a small abrupt point
(apicules).

Apium, 222.

apocarpous, 12.

Apocynacee, 238.

Apostasiez, 322.

apothecium, the fructification of Lichens;
usually applied to the open, shield-like
disks bearing the sporanges or thece.

Apple, 201, 203.

Apricot, 203.

Aquilaria, 287.

Arachis, 197.

arachnoid, like cobwebs.

Araliaceze, 222.

Archegonium, the female organ of Cryp-
togams, corresponding to the ovule or
embryo sac of Phznogams, 351.

Ardisia, 261.

Ardisia Family, 260.

Areca, 302.

Arenga, 302.

Argemone, 159.

Argyreia, 247.

Aril, or arillus, a coat growing partially

or wholly over the testa of certain
seeds, developed from the funicle or
micropyle. An aril developed from
the micropyle is sometimes distin
guished as an avillode.

aristaze, having an awn (a@7ista)

Aristolochia, 281.

Aristolochiaceze, 281.

Armeniaca, 203.

Aroidez, 306.

Arrowroot, 326.
Arrowroot Family, 323-
Artabotrys, 152.
Artichoke, 230.
Artichoke, Jerusalem, 230.
Artocarpus, 272, 275.
Arum Family, 306.
Arundo, 339.
Ascending axis, 15
Ast, 358.
Asclepiadacez, 239.
Asclepias Family, 239.
Ash of plants, 20.
Asparagus, 313
Aspidium, 345, 347.
Asplenium, 347.
Assimilation, 21.
Atriplex, 267.

Atropa, 252.
Aubergine, 251.

Auricle, an ear-like appendage

auriculate, with auricles.
Avena, 340.

Averrhoa, 182.

Awn, 56.

Axil (of leaf), 3

Axile placentation, 96.
axillary, 70.

Axis, 15

Azadirachta, 186, 187.
Azalea, 233.

BE.
Bael, 184.
Bakas, 255-
Balm of Gilead, 186.
Balsam, 181, 182.
Bamboo, 339.
Bambusa, 339-
Banana, 325.
Banyan, 272.
Baobab, 175.
Bark, 118.
Barley, 339.
Base (of leaf), 79.
Basella, 267.
Basidia, 358.
Basil, 29, 38, 257
Bassia, 236.
Batatas, 248.
Bead-tree, 186.
Bean, 196, 197.
Bean-caper Family, 130
Beech. 285.
Beet, 267.
Begonia Family, 214.
Begoniacez. 216.
Bell-flower Family, 231.
Benincasa, 215.
Benzoin Family. 233-
Bertholletia, 210.
Beta, 267.
Betel, 302.

——_—— rl ell eee

INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 383.

Betle, 293.

Bhang, 273.

éz-, two, in composition.

bidentate, with two teeth.

biennial, producing seed and dying in
the second season.

bifid,79.

bifoliolate, with two leaflets.

Bignonia Family, 244

Bignoniacee, 244.

Bikh poison, 148. .

bilabiate, 39.

bilocular, two-celled; applied to anthers
and ovaries.

Bindweed Family, 247.

bipartite, 80.

Birthwort Family, 281.

biternate, 79.

Bixa, 164.

Bixacez, 164.

blade, 4.

Blechnum, 347.

Blumea, 229.

Boehmeria, 29, 40, 270. .

Boerhaavia, 265.

Bokul, 235.

Bombax, 176.

Borage Family, 248.

Boraginacez, 248.

Borassus, 302, 303.

Boswellia, 185.

Botrychium, 350.

Bougainvillea, 266.

Bowstring hemp, 313.

Bracteole, the small bract of an indi-
vidual flower of an inflorescence.

Bracts, bracteate, 87.

Bramble, 200.

Brasenia, 55.

Brasil-nuts, 210.

Brassica, 31, 159, 160, 161

Bread-fruit, 275.

Brinjal, 251.

Bromelia, 304.

Brcom-rapes, 253.

Broussonetia, 275.

Bruguiera, 211.

Bryophyilum, 217, 218.

Buchanania, 192.

Buckthorn, 206.

Buckthorn Family, 205.

Buckwheat, 101, 269.

Buckwheat Family, 269.

Bud, 6.

Bulb, 71.

Bull-rush Family, 305.

Bunt, 358.

Burmannia, 323.

Burmanniacez, 323.

Buro-kan vr, 29, 52.

Burseracez, 185.

Butea, 195.

Butterwort Family, 254.

Cabbage, 160.

Cactacez, 215.

Cadaba, 162.

caducous, applied to organs of the flower
which fal: off at or before the time of
expansion, 31.

Cesalpiniez, 196.

Cajanus, 199.

Calabash-tree, 245.

Calamander, 235.

Calamus, 302.

Calceolaria, 254.

calceolate, slipper-shaped.

Calophyllum, 168.

Calosanthes, 244.

Calotropis, 240.

Calumba-root, 154.

Calycifloree, 60, 194

Calyptra, 356.

Calyx, 7.

Cambiun, 116.

Camellia, 170.

Campanula, 231.

Campanulacez, 231.

campanulate, bell-shaped.

Camphor, 292.

campylotropous, applied to ovules when
the nucleus and its coat are curved so
as to bring the micropyle near to the
hilum and to the organic base of the
nucleus.

canescent, hoary with minute hairs,
giving the surface a whitish hue.

Canna, 325.

Cannabis, 273.

Canthium, 227.

Cape Gooseberry, 100, 251-2.

Caper Family, 161.

Cafpitula, 36.

Capparidacez, 161.

Capparis, 162.

Capsule, 101.

Caraways, 222.

Carbon of plants, 21.

Carbonic acid, 21, 120.

Cardamoms, 327.

Cardiospermum, 191.

Carex, 335-

Carina, a keel (of papilionaceous co-
rolla), 196.

carinate, keeled.

Carissa, 239.

Carlemannia, 226,

Carfpels, 11.

Carpophore, 220.

Carrot, 219.

Carthamus, 230.

Carum, 222.

Caryophyllacez, 166,

Caryophillus, 209.

Caryopsis, 340.

384

Caryota, 302, 303.

Cassava, 280.

Cassia, 196, 197, 198, 292.

Cassytha, 292.

Castor-oil Family, 276.

Castor-oil seed, 45.

Catechu. 199.

Catkin (or Ament), a deciduous spike,
41, 283.

Caudicle, 318.

cauline, 4.

Cedar, 297.

Cedar, W. Indian, 187.

Cedrela, 187.

Cedrus, 297.

Celastracez, 204.

Celastrus, 204.

Celery, 222.

Cell-contents, 111.

Cells, 108.

Cellular plants, 356.

Cellular system, 114.

Cellulose, r12.

Celosia, 268.

centrifugal, same as definite, applied to
an inflorescence.

centripetal, same as indefinite, applied
to an inflorescence.

Cephaélis, 226.

Ceratopteris, 349.

Cereals, 341.

cernuous, pendulous, overhanging.

Cetraria, 361.

Chalaza, the part of an ovule where the
base of the nucleus is united to its
coat.

Chamezrops, 302.

Chaste-tree, 259.

Chavica, 293.

Cheer Pine, 294.

Cheersullah, 294.

Chenopodiacez, 266.

Chenopodium, 266.

Cherry, 203.

Chestnut, 284.

Chlorophyll, 113.

Chloroxylon, 187.

Chocolate, 176.

Chrysophyllum, 236.

Churrus, 273.

Cicca, 280.

Cicer, 196.

Cinchona, 226.

Cinchoracez, 230.

Cinenchyma, branching or simple vessels
containing white or coloured fluid
(milk-sap).

Cinnamomum, 291.

Cinnamon, 291, 292.

circinate. 344.

circumscissile, dehiscing transversely ;
applied to capsular fruits.

Cissampelos, 154.

INDEX AND

GLOSSARY.

Citron, 6, 184.

Citrullus, 214, 215.

Citrus, 5, 182.

Citrus aurantiu:n, described, 360.

Cladonia, 361.

Class, 45.

Classification, 123.

Clausena, 184.

Claw of petal, 89.

Clearing nuts, 242.

Clematis, 147, 148.

Clerodendron, 260.

Clove, 209.

Clove pepper, 209

Clubmoss Family, 35.

Coat of ovule, 26.

Coccinia, 215.

Cocculus, 154.

Coccus, the one-seeded carpel of a syn-
carpous fruit, the carpels of which
separate from each other when ripe.

Cockscomb, 268.

Cocoa-nut, 100, 301.

Cocoa-tree, 176.

Cocos, 301, 302.

Coffea, 226.

Cohesion, 29.

Coix, 337-

Collective fruits, 102.

Colocasia, 29, 47, 306, 308.

Colocynth, 215.

Columella, the central axis in the spo-
range of mosses.

Column, 318 ; of Orchids, 51.

Coma, 241.

Combretacez, 203.

Combretum Family, 203.

Commelyna, 314.

Commelynacez, 314.

Commitssure, 221.

contplete, applied to flowers when calyx,
corolla, stamens, and pistil are present.

Composite, 227.

Composite Family, 227.

Compound leaves, 75, 78.

Conceptacle, a closed cavity containing
fructification in Cryptogams ; of Fucus,

362.

conduplicate, folded down the middle.

Cone, 102.

Confervoidez, 362.

Coniferze, 294.

Conium, 221.

Connaracez, 193-

Connarus Family, 193.

connate, 80.

Connective, the portion of the anther
connecting the pollen-bearing lobes

Constituents of plants, 20.

contorted, twisted.

Convolvulacez, 247.

Convolvulus, 247, 248.

Copal, Indian, 172.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 255

Coptis, 148.
Coral-plant, 278.
Corchorus, 177.
cordate, 77.
Cordia, 249.
Cordiacez, 249. :
coriaceous, of leathery consistence.
Coriander, 219.
Cork, 286.
Corm, 71.
Corolla, 7.
Corolliflorez, 224.
Corona (of Amaryllidacez), 328 ; of Ascle-
piadacez, 241.
Corymb, 84.
Costus, 326.
Cotton, 174.
Cotton-tree, 175.
Cotyledons, 14.
Cranberry Tribe, 233.
Crassulacez, 217.
Cratzva, 162.
crenate, 80.
Crescentia, 245.
Cress, 160.
Crinum, 29, 52, 327.
Crotalaria, 197, 199.
Croton, 279.
Croton-oil plant, 279.
Crucifer Family, 159.
Cruciferz, 159.

'Cryptogamia, 342.

cucullate, hooded.
Cucumber, 214.
Cucumis, 214
Cucurbita, 214.
Cucurbitacez, 213.
Culm, 339:
cuneate, wedge-shaped.
Cupressus, 295.
Cupule, the cup-like involucre of Cory-
lacez.
Cupuliferz, 284.
Curcuma, 326.
Cuscuta, 248.
cuspidate, with an abrupt, acute point.
Custard Apple,’ 151, 152.
Custard-Apple Family, 151.
Cyanotis, 314.
Cyathea, 348.
Cycadacez, 300.
Cycas, 70, 279.
Cycas Family, 300.
Cyme, 86.
cymose, 86.
Cynara, 230.
Cynodon, 339, 341.
Cyperacez, 334.
Cyperus, 334.
Cypress, 295.
ipedium, 322.
Cyrtandrez, 246.

Daffodil, 328.

Dalbergia, 197, 199.

Daphne, 286.

Date, 302.

Dates, Trebizonde, 290.

Datura, 251.

Daucus, 219.

Davallia, 348.

Deadly Nightshade, 252.

deca- or decem-, ten, in composition.

deciduous, 7.

declinate, applied to stamens when
directed to one side, 233.

decumbent, applied to stems horizontal
at first, then rising from the ground
towards the inflorescence.

decurrent, 8o.

decussate, with opposite pairs alternating
at right angles.

Deeringia, 268.

definite: inflorescence, 863 seeds or
ovules, 104; vascular bundles, 115.

dehiscence (of fruits), 94, 100.

Delima, 149.

Delphinium, 148.

Dendrobe, 29, so.

Dendrobium, 29, 50, 316, 319.

dentate, 8o.

denticulate, finely toothed.

Descending axis, 15.

Describing Plants, 3609.

Desmodium, 197.

determinate, applied to an_ inflores-
cence which is definite, centripetal, or
cymose.

Dhak, 195, 197.

di-, two, in composition.

diadelphous, 11.

diagnostic characters, 127.

diandrous, 42.

Dianthus, 166.

Dichlamydez, 60.

dichlamydeous, with calyx and corolla,

24, 4t.

dichotomous, forked.

diclinous, applied to flowers with stamens
only, or with pistil only.

diclinous, 40.

dicoccous, applied to syncarpous fruits
consisting of two cocci.

dicotyledonous, 15.

Dicotyledons, 45.

Didymocarpus, 246.

didynamous, two long and two short.
applied only to stamens, 39.

Diffusion, 119.

Digitaria, 337.

digitate, 78, 79.

digynous, with two sty tes.

Dill, 219.

Dillenia Family, 148.

386 INDEX AND

Dillenia speciosa, 148, 149.

Dilleniacez, 148.

dimerous, applied to flowers with parts
in twos.

Dimorphism, 179; of Campanula, 231.
diecious, dioicous, with staminate and
pistillate flowers on different plants.

Dionza, 219

Dioscorea, 310.

Dioscoreace®, 310.

Diospyros, 234-

Dipterocarpez, 170.

Dipterocarpus, 171, 172.

Dischidia, 241.

discoid, 228. ; :

Disk, a cellular ring, or cup-like thick-
ening, of the receptacle, either free
or adherent to the calyx-tube or
ovary, 9, 36. LIS

dissected, cut into fine divisions.

Dissepiments (of ovary), 95-

distichous, in two rows.

distractile, applied to anthers when the
anther-lobes are widely separated from
each other by an extension of the con-
nective.

distractile, 258.

Dock, 269.

Dodders, 248.

dodecandrous, with twelve stamens.

Dodonza, 191.

Dogbane Family, 238.

Dorsal suture, 95-

Double flowers, 201.

Doum Palm, 302.

Draczna, 29, 54, 311.

Drosera, 219.

Drupacez, 201.

Drupe, 99-

Dryabalanops, 172.

Drying Plants, 363.

Dry-rot, 358.

Duckweed, 309, 310.

Durian, 175.

Durio, 175.

Eagle-wood, 287.

Ebenacez, 234.

Ebony Family, 234.

ebracteate, 88.

Echinops, 228.

Egg-plant, 251.

Elzagnacez, 289.

Elzagnus, 289.

Elzocarpus, 178.

Elais, 303-

Elaters, elastic spiral fibres associated
with the spores of certain Cryptogams ;
of Equisetum, 354.

Elementary Constituents, 20.

GLOSSARY.

Elephant Creeper, 247.

Elettaria, 327.

Eleusine, 339.

elliptical, 77.

Elodea, 331.

emarginateé, 79.

Embryo, 13.

Embryonal vesicle, the rudimentary cell
formed within the embryo-sac, from
which the embryo developes; called
also germinal vesicle.

Embryo-sac, the large cell of the nucleus
of the ovule in which the embryo ori-
ginates, 26.

Endocarp, the inner layer of the peri-
carp, Io1.

endogenous, 117.

Endosperm, albumen formed inside the
embryo-sac.

Endostome, the mycropylar opening
through the inner coat of an ovule.

ensiform, sword-shaped.

Entada, 198.

entire, 80.

Envelopes of flower, 24

Ephedra, 298.

Epicarp, the outer layer of the peri-
carp.

Epidermis, 121.

epigynous, inserted upon the ovary;
applied to corolla and stamens.

epipetalous, 36, 40.

epiphyllous, 54.

Lpiphytes, 322.

equally pinnate, pinnate without an odd
terminal leaflet.

Equisetacez, 354.

Equisetum, 355.

equitant, applied to conduplicate leaves
folded one over the other.

Ergot, 358.

Erica, 233.

Ericacez, 233.

Eriobotrya, 201, 203.

Eriocaulon, 315.

Eriocaulonee, 315.

Ervum, 196.

Erythroxylon, 179.

Eucalyptus, 209.

Euphorbia, 277.

Euphorbiacez, 276.

Euphoria, 191.

Euryale, 156.

Evening Primrose Family, err.

Exacum, 243-

exalbumtinous, 45, 105.

Exhalation, 19.

exogenous, 116,

Exogonium, 248

Exostome, the micropylar opening
through the outer coat of an ovule.

exserted, projecting beyond the corolla ,
applied to stamens.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 4E7

exstipulate, 80.

Extine, the outer coat of a pollen-
grain.

extrorse, applied to anthers dehiscing
on the side from the pistil.

Fagonia, 180.

Fagus, 285.

Jalcate, curved like a scythe.

Fan Palm, 303.

Jasciculate leaves, 82.

Fennel, 219.

Fern Family, 344.

Fertilisation, 26.

Jibrous, 68.

Fibro-vascular system, 115.

Ficus, 272.

-fid, in composition, divided to about
the middle, 77.

Fig, 102, 272, 274.

Figwort Family, 252.

Filament, 8.

Filices, 344.

Jiliform, thread-l.ke.

jimbriate, fringed by fine divisions of the
lamina.

Fir, 299.

7istular, hollow.

Flacourtia, 164.

Flax, 178.

Flax Family, 178.

Floret, the flower of a Composite, or of a
grass, 35.

Flower, Structure of, 5, 23.

Flower-head, 35, 86.

Flowering-glume, 56.

Flowerless plants, 342.

Fly-trap, 219.

Feniculum, 219.

JSoliaceous, leaf-like.

Foliage leaves, 4.

Foramen, see Micropyle.

Forget-me-not, 249.

Fragaria, 203.

Fraxinus, 237-

Sree, neither coherent nor adherent.

Sree central placentation, 97.

Frogbit Family, 330.

Frond, the leaf of a Fern, or leaf-like
expansion of any Cryptogam, 344.

Fruit, 98.

Fruits, Table of, 104.

Fuchsia, 212.

Fucus, 362.

Fuirena, 335-

Fumariez, 157.

Fungi, 357.

Funtcle, 264.

fusiform, spindle-shaped.

Galbulus, 295.

galeate, helmet-shaped,

Gallic Acid, 286.

Gambir, 226.

Gamboge Family, 168.

Gamopetale, 60.

gamosepalous, 7.

Garcinia, 168, 169.

Gardenia, 225.

Garlic, 313.

gentinate, in pairs.

Gentian Family, 243.

Gentianacez, 243.

Genus, 125.

Geraniacez, 181.

Geranium Family, 181.

Germination, 43.

Gesneracez, 246.

Ghwian, 29, 47.

gibbous, with a short obtuse spur.

Gingeley, 246.

Ginger, 326.

Ginger Family, 323.

Ginseng, 223.

Llabrous, 5, 80.

Glands, cells or hairs containing or
secreting resinous or oily matter; or
the lobes of the involucre of Euphorbia;
or of a disk.

glaucous, bluish-green.

Gleichenia, 349.

Globe Amaranth, 268.

Gloriosa, 313.

Gloxinia, 246.

Glume, 56, 335-

Glumiferz, 61, 334.

Gnetacez, 299

Gnetum, 299.

Gomphrena, 268.

Gonidia, cells capable of developing
new plants, liberated by the vegetative
system of leafless Cryptogams, 359.

Goosefoot, 266.

Goosefoot Family, 266.

_Gossypium, 174.

Gourd, 214.
Gourd Family, 213.
Grain (of wheat), 57.
Gram, 196
Graminee, 336.
Granadilla, 215.
Grape, 100.
Grape-vine, 189.
Grass-cloth Family, 270.
Grass-cloth Nettle, 29, 40.
Grass Family, 336.
Grewia, 177.
Grislea, 213.
Ground Nut, 197.
growing point of root, 2.
Guatteria, 152.

Ces

388 INDEX AND

Guava, 100, 210.

Guiacum, 180.

Guilandina, 198.

Gulancha, 155.

Gunjah, 273.

Gutta Percha, 236.

Guttiferz, 168.

Lymnospermous, 295.

Gymnosperms, plants with naked seeds ;
z.e. not enclosed in an ovary.

Gynandropsis, 162.

gynandrous, applied to stamens adher-
ing to the pistil, 52.

Gynecium, the pistil, or carpels of a
flower collectively.

Gynophore, a stalk supporting the ovary
above the rest of the flower, 162.

-gynous, in composition, applying to the
pistil.

Hzmatoxylon, 199.

Haloragez, 212.

hastate, 77.

Heart-wood (or duvamen), the matured
central portion of the wood of Exogens.

Heath Family, 232.

Hedychium, 326.

Helianthus, 230.

Helicteres, 176.

Heliotrope, 249.

Hemidesmus, 241.

Hemlock, 221.

Hemp, 273.

Henbane, 252.

Henna, 213.

hepita-, seven, in composition.

herbaceous, not woody; applied generally
to plants which do not form a woody
stem, 3.

Herbarium, 363.

hermaphrodite. with stamen and pistil
in the same flower.

heterogamous, 229.

hex-, hexa-, six, in composition.

Hibiscus, 173-175.

Hilum, the point of attachment of a
seed or ovule, 13.

Hippocratea, 205.

Hiptage, 179.

hirsute, oil rather long stiff hairs.

hispid, with short, harsh hairs.

Holmskioldia, 259.

homogamous, 229.

Hordeum, 339.

Horsetail Family, 354.

ya, 241
Humble Plant, 197-199.
Humulus, 275.

GLOSSARY.

hybrid, a cross between two species.

Hydrangea, 218.

Hydrilla, 333.

Hydnocarpus, 164.

Hydrocera, 182.

Hydrocharidez, 330.

Hydrocotyle, 221.

Hydrogen of plants, 21.

Hymentum, the surface bearing spores
or sporidia in leafless Cryptogams ;
usually restricted to Fungi.

Hymenophyllum, 349.

Hyoscyamus, 252.

Hypericinez, 167.

Hypericum, 167.

Hyphaene, 302.

hypocrateriform, salver-shaped ; applied
to gamopetalous corollas, with the
tube longer than the flat, spreading
limb.

hypogynous, inserted under the ovary:
applied to stamens and corolla, 9.

Iceland Moss, 361.

icosandrous, with twenty stamens; ap-
plied to flowers in which they are
inserted upon the calyx.

Illicium, 149, 150.

tmbricate, overlapping, 88.

imparipinnate, pinnate with an odd
leaflet.

Impatiens, 18r.

imperfect, with stamens only, or with
pistil only, 4o.

Incomplete, 60, 265.

inconiplete, when one or more of the
whorls (calyx, corolla, stamens, or
carpels) is absent from a flower.

indefinite inflorescence, 86; indefinite
seeds,104; indefinite vascular bundles,
TiS.

indehiscent fruits, 101.

indeterminate, applied to an inflores-
cence which is indefinite or centripetal

Indian Botany, Books on, 376.

Indian Copal, 172.

Indian Corn, 337, 341-

Indian Cress, 181.

Indian Madder, 225.

Indian Shot, 325.

India-rubber, 275-280.

Indigo, 196.

Indigofera, 196, 199.

Indusium, 346.

inferior (ovary), adherent throughout
or nearly so to the calyx; (calyx) free

from the ovary ; (relation of parts of
a flower to the axis) farthest from the
axis; (vadicle) directed towards th
base of the fruit. P

INDEX AND

inflorescence, 82.

infundibuliform, funnel-shaped.

innate, applied to anthers when the
filament appears to terminate at their
base.

inorganic elements, 20.

Insertion, point of attachment.

intercellular spaces, 122,

Internode, 4.

interpetiolar, between the petioles of
opposite leaves ; applied to stipules, 4.

intine, the inner of the two coats of a
pollen-grain ; the only coat when but
one is present.

introrse, applied to anthers dehiscing
on the side towards the pistil.

Involucre, 35, 85, 88, 230.

tnvolute, with the margins rolled in- -

wards.
Tpecacuanha, 226.
Ipomeea, 247.
Iridacez, 330.
Iris Family, 330.
irregular, 10.
Isoetes, 353.
Isonandra, 236.
Ivy Family, 222
_ Ixora, 224.

Jack-fruit, 272.

Jalap, 248.

Jambolan, roo, 208.

Jasminum, 237.

Jateorhiza, 154.

Jatropha, 278.

Jerusalem Authoke, 230.

Jessamine, 237.

Job’s Tears, 337.

John’s-wort Family, 167.

Foint, the point where two parts are
united.

Jujube, 205, 206.

Juncace2, 313.

Juncus, 313.

Juniper, 295, 296.

Juniperus, 295.

Jussieua, 211, 212.

Justicia, 255.

Jute Family, 177.

Kachalu, 29, 47, 306.

Kamala, 280.

Kandalla, 29, 47>

Karivia, 215.

Kaulfussia, 350.

Kava, 293.

Xeel, a medium projecting ridge; of papi-
lionaceous corolla, 196.

GLOSSARY. 389

Kelp, 362.

Kerria, 201.
Kuchoo, 29, 47, 306.
Kus-kus, 338, 34.

Labellum, 317; of Scitaminex, 325.

Labiate, 257.

Labiatzflorz, 230.

Labiate Family, 257.

Lace-bark, 287.

laciniate, drremularly cut.

Lactuca, 230.

Ladies’ Slipper, 321.

Lagenaria, 214.

Lagerstroemia, 212, 213.

Lagetta, 28

Lamina (of. petal), 89.

lanate, with wool-like, rather long and
felted hairs.

lanceolate, 77.

Lantana, 260.

Larch, 297.

Larix, 297.

Lauracez, 291.

Laurel, 292.

Laurel Family, 291.

Laurus, 292.

Lavender, 258.

Lawsonia, 213.

Leaflets, 5,75, 78.

Leaves, 4, 72; of flower, 7; of perianth,
BTS

Lecanora, 361.

Lecythidez, 210.

Leea, 189,

Legume, 197-

Leguminose, 194.

Lemna, 310.

Lemon, 6, 184.

Lemon-grass, 341.

Lentibulariacez, 254.

Lentil, 196.

Lettuce, 230.

Liber, 116, 118; of Daphne, 287.

Lichen Family, 359-

Lichenes, 359.

Lignum-Vitz, 180.

Ligule, 340.

Liguliflorz, 230.

Ligustrum, 237.

Liliaceze, 311.

Lily Family, 311.

Liméd (of calyx), 33, 36; of corolla, &c. 8g

Lime, 184.

Lime-tree Family, 177.

Linacez, 178.

Linaria, 253.

Lindsza, 248.

linear, 77.

Linum, 178.

390 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Lip (of Orchid), 51.

Litchi, 190.

Litszea, 292.

Lobelia, 231.

Lobes (of corolla, &c.), 89; of leaves, 76.

loculicidal, applied to the dehiscence of
a capsule by the dorsal sutures of its
component carpels

Locusta, the spikelet of grasses.

Lodicules, 56.

Loganiacez, 242.

Logwood, 199.

Longan, 191.

Loosestrife Family. 212.

Loquat, 100, 201, 203.

Loranthacez, 223.

Loranthus, 223.

Lotus, Sacred, 155

Lotus, Water-lily, 155.

Love-lies-bleeding, 268.

Luffa, 215.

Lupulin, 275.

Lycoperdon, 358.

Lycopersicum, 352.

Lycopodiacez, 351.

Lycopodium, 352.

Lygodium, 349.

lyrate, pinnatifid, with the terminal lobe
largest.

Lythracez, 212.

Mace, 291.

Macrospores, 351-

Madder, 227.

Madder, Indian, 225.

Mesa, 261.

Magnolia Family, 149.

Magnoliacez, 149.

Mahogany, 187.

Maize, 337, 341-

Malay-Camphor Family, 170.

Mallow Family, 173.

Malpighia Family, 179.

Malpighiacez, 179.

Malva, 175.

Malvacez, 173.

Mandiocca, 280.

Mango, gg.

Mango Family, 192.

Mangold Wurzel, 267.

Mangrove Family, 2ro.

Manihot, 280.

Manila Hemp, 327.

Maple, 191.

Maranta, 326.

marcescent, persisting when withered
and dry ; applied to the corolla.

Margin (of leaf), 80.

Margosa-tree, 186.

Mar‘oram, 258.

Marking-nut, 193.

Marsdenia, 241.

Marvel-of-Peru Family, 26. .

Mastic, 193.

Maurandya, 252.

Medlar, 203.

medullary rays, 118.

Melanorrheea, 193.

Melastoma, 29, 33, 206, 208.

Melastoma Family, 206.

Melastomacez, 206.

Melia, 186.

Melia Family, 186.

Meliacesxe, 186.

Menispermacez, 153.

Mentha, 258.

Mespilus, 203.

Methonica, 313.

Mexican Poppy, 159.

Michelia Champaca, 149.

Micropyle, 14, 26.

Microspores, 351.

Midrib, 75.

Mildew, 358.

Milkwort Family, 165.

Mimosa, 197.

Mimosez, 197.

Mimulus, 254.

Mimusops, 235.

Mint, 258.

minute structure, 107-

Mirabilis, 266.

Mistletoe, 224.

Mistletoe Family, 223.

Momordica, 215.

Monkey-pots, 210.

mon-, t0n0-, One, in composition.

Monochlamydez, 60.

monochlamydeous, with calyx only, 41.

Monochoria, 316.

monocotyledonous, 58

Monocotyledons, 59, 301.

monecious, utonoicous, with staminate
and pistillate flowers on the same plant,
40.

monogynous, with one style or one carpel,

monopetalous, with one petal; usually
employed instead of gamopetalous, i.e.
with coherent petals.

Moon-seed Family, 153.

Morinda, 226.

Morus, 275.

Moss Family, 355.

Mould Family. 357. A

mucronate, with a minute, hard point
(mucro) terminating the midrib.

Mudar, 240.

Mulberry, 1o1, 275.

muitz-, in composition, many.

Munjeet, 225.

Musa, 325, 327.

Musci, 355.

Mushroom Family, 357.

— Sf ee

.
:
:
|

INDEX AND:GLOSSARY. 39!

Mussznda, 226.
Mastard, 159, 160.
Mustard, Indian, 29, 31.
Mycelium, 357.
Myosotis, 249.
Myristica, 291.
Myristicacez, 290.
Myrobolans, 204.
Myrrh, 186.

Myrrh Family, 185.
Myrsinacez, 260.
Myrtacez, 208.
Myrtle Family, 208.
Myrtus, 202.

Naiadacez, 333-

naked receptacle, 229.

Narcissus, 328.

Natural Orders, 124.

Nectarine, 203.

Nectary, applied, vaguely, to glands,
lobes of the disk, modified petals,
spurs, or other floral appendages,
especially if secreting fluid.

Neem-tree, 186.

Nelumbium, 155, 156; pistil of, 93.

Nepenthacez, 281.

Nepenthes, 281.

Nephelium, 190.

Nephrodium, 345, 346, 348.

Nerium, 239

Nettle Family, 270.

Nettle, Grass-cloth, 29, 40.

Neuropeltis, 247.

Nicotiana, 252.

Nigella, 148.

Nightshade Family, 249.

Nipa, 304, 35-

Niphobolus, 347.

Node, 4.

Nucleus (of a cel/) a microscopic body
serving apparently as the centre of
activity of the contents ; (of an ovzde)
the central mass.

Number of parts in a whorl, 43.

nutant, nodding, 26.

Nutmeg, 2o1-

Nutmeg Family, 290

Nutritive Organs, 22, 24, 67.

Nux-vomica, 242.

Nyctaginez, 265.

Nyctanthes, 237.

Nymphzacee, 155.

O.
Oak, 285.

Oak Family, 284
Ozck, spiked, 284.

Oats, 340.

obcordate, 77.

oblanceolate, 77.

oblong, 77-

obovate, 77.

obsolete calyx-limb, 220, 228.

obtuse, 79.

Ochna, 185.

Ochna Family, 184.

Ochnacez, 184.

Ochrea, a sheathing membranous sti
pule.

oct-, octo-, eight, in composition.

Ocymum, 29, 38, 257.

Odina, 193.

Oil Palm, 303.

Oils, 113.

Okra, 175.

Olacacez, 188.

Olax, 188.

Olax Family, 188.

Olea, 237.

Oleacez, 236.

Oleander, 239.

Oleaster Family, 289.

Olibanum, 186.

Olive, 237.

Olive Family, 236.

Onagracez, 211.

Onion, 313.

Oferculum, a lid; applied to the lid of
the sporange of Mosses, 356.

Ophioglossum, 350.

Opium Poppy, 29, 30, 157, 158.

opposite, 73.

Opuntia, 215.

Orange, 5, 100, 182; described, 368.

Orange Family, 182.

Orange-flower, 24.

orbicular, 77.

Orchid Family, 316.

Orchidacez, 316.

Ordeal-tree, 239.

organic elements, 20.

Organs of plants, 19, 67.

Origanum, 258.

Orobanchacez, 253.

orthotropous, applied tc ovules when
the organic base of a straight nucleus
(where it is united to the coat or coats
of the ovule) coincides with the hilum,
and the micropyle is at the further
extremity.

Osier Willow, 284.

Osmunda, 350.

Ottelia, 331.

Otto of Rose, 203.

Ovary, 11.

ovate, 77.

ovoid, egg-shaped; applied to solids,

Ovules, 11, 26, 94.

Oryza, 337- ,

Oryza sativa, described, 375

392

Oxalis, 181, 182.
Oxygen of plants, 21.

iP:

Padma, 155.

Pale of grasses, 56.

Paleaceous receptacle, 229.

Pales (of Compositz), 229.

Palm Family, 301.

Palmacez, 301.

palmatifid, 77.

palmati-partite, 77-

Palmyra Palm, 302, 303.

Panax, 223.

Pancratium, 328.

Pandanacez, 304.

Pandanus, 69, 304:

Panicacez, 337:

Panicle, 86.

Panicum, 337-

Pansy, 163.

Papaver somniferum, 157, 158.

Papaveracee, *157-

Paper Daphne, 286.

Paper Mulberry, 275.

papilionaceous, 196.

Pappus, 228.

Papyrus, 335-

Paraphyses, microscopic filaments, asso-
ciated with the thecz of certain Cryp-
togams.

Parasites, 322.

Paratropia, 222.

Pardanthus, 330.

parietal placentation, 96.

Parishia, 193.

Parmelia, 361.

Parsley, 222.

Parsnips, 222.

partite, 77.

Paspalum, 337.

Passifloreze, 215.

Passion-flower, 215.

Pastinaca, 222.

Patchouli, 258.

Paulownia, 254.

Pea, 196, 197; described, 369.

Pea-flower, 9.

Pea, pistil of, 92.

Peach, 203.

pectinate, with comb-like teeth or lobes.

Pedaiiaceze, 245.

pedate, digitate with the lateral leaflets
springing from the branches of a short
fork of the petiole.

pedatijid, pedati-partite, applied to a
simple leaf divided on the pedate plan.

Pedicel, the stalk of each single flower of
a two- or more-flowered inflorescence,

52.
Pedicularis, 253.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Peduncle, 6.

Peepul, 272.

Pelargonium, 181, 182.

Peliosanthes, 313.

peloria, the regular form of a flower
normally irregular, 253.

peltate, 80.

Penicillaria, 337.

enta-, five, in composition.

pentamerous, applied to flowers with
the parts in fives.

Pentstemon, 254.

Pepper, black and white, 293.

Pepper Family, 292.

Pepper, long, 294.

perennial, lasting several years or in-
definitely. :

perfoliate, 80.

Perianth, the envelopes of a flower col-
lectively. In practice applied to the
envelopes of the flower of Monocoty-
ledons and to the envelope of mono-
chlamydeous flowers, 51.

Pericarp, 13, 98.

perigynous, inserted around the ovary ;
applied to petals and stamens, 33. |

Perisferm, albumen originating outside
the embryo-sac. Often applied tu
albumen irrespective of its place of
origin.

Peristome, 356.

Perithecium, a nearly or quite closed
cavity containing thece in Crypto-
gams; applied to the closed apothecia
of some Lichens.

Periwinkle, Rose, 29, 37-

Persian Lilac, 186.

persistent, 7, 27.

personate, bilabiate, with the lips closed.

Peruvian Bark, 226.

Peruvian Bark Family, 224.

amie petal-like or corolla-like.
etaloidez, 61.

Petals, 7.

Petiole, 4.

petiolate, the petiole of a leaflet.

Petroselinum, 222.

Phanerogamic, bearing flowers ; used in
contradistinction to cryptogamic.

Pharbitis, 247.

Phoenix, 302.

Phormium, 313.

Photinia, 201.

Phyllanthus, 279.

phyllode, 82, 200.

phyllotaxis, the arrangement of the
leaves upon the stem.

Physalis, 251, 252.

Pigeon Pea, 199.

Pileus, 357-

hae with rather long, soft hairs.
imenta, 209.

Pimpernel, 263.

———

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Pine, 294.
Pine-apple, 304.
Pine Family, 294.
Pine wood, r1o.
Pink Family, 166.
Pinna, 345.
pinnate, 78.
J innatéfd, 77s
pinnattipartite, 77-
Pinnules, 345.
Pinus, 294.
Piper, 293.
Piperacez, 292.
Pipewort Family, 315.
Pistacia, 193.
Pistia, 309.
Pistiaceze, 309.
Pistil, 9, 91-
Pisum sativum, 196; described, 370.
Pitcher (of Nepenthes), 282.
Pitcher-plant Family, 281.
Pith, 117.
Placenta, the part of the ovary upon
which the ovules are inserted.
Placentation, 96.
Plantaginacez, 264.
Plantago, 265.
Plantain, 265.
Plantain Family, 26a.
Platanthera, 318, 320.
Plum, 203.
Plumbaginacez, 263.
Plumbago, 263.
plumose, plum-like.
Plumule, 1 4.
luré-, several, in composition.
oaceze, 338.
Pogostemon, 258.
Poinciana, 197.
Poinsettia, 280.
Polanisia, 162.
Pollen, 9, 25; varieties of, 110.
pollen-mass, 51; of Asclepiadex, 241.
Pollen-tubes, 25.
Polliniunt, 318.
poly-, many, in composition.
polyadelphous, 8, 64.
polyandrous, 64.
polycotyledonous, 297.
Polygala, 16s.
Polygalacez, 165.
golygamous, with male, female, and
hermaphrodite flowers on the same or
on distinct plants.
Polygonacez, 269.
Polygonum, 269.
polygynous, with numerous carpels or
styles.
Decal;
polype. Sy 7»
Gal aipions, applied to perianths con-
sisting of free leaves.
Polypodium, 346.

393

Polyporus, 358.

polysepalous, 7.

Pomacez, 2or.

Pomegranate, 210.

Pondweed, 333-

Pondweed FR amily 333.

Pontederia Family, 315s.

Pontederiaceze, 315.

Poplar, 283.

Poppy, 29, 30.

Poppy Family, 157.

Poppy, placentation of, 96.

Populus, 283.

Porana, 247.

posterior, same as superior when applied
to the relation of the parts of a flower
to the axis.

Potamogeton, 333.

Potato, 252.

Pothos, 307.

premorse, applied to roots terminating
abruptly.

Prangos, 221.

Prickles, sharply-pointed projections ori-
ginating from the bark, as in Rose
202.

Prickly Pear, 21s.

Primine, the outer coat of an ovule.

Primrose Family, 261.

Primula, 262.

Primulacee, 261.

Princes’ Feather, 268.

procumbent, applied to stems which
spread upon the ground.

proliferous, producing leaf-buds in the
place of flower-buds or seeds.

gc at a tissue of long, tapering
cells.

Prothallus, 345, 350.

Prunus, 201, 203.

Psidium, 210.

Psilotum, 353.

Pteris, 347.

Pterisanthes, 1go.

Pterocarpus, 197, 199.

Pterospermum, 176.

pubescent, downy, with very short, soft

hairs.
Puff-balls, 358.
Pulque, 330.
Punagchampa, 323.

Punica, 210. j
Putamen, the endocarp of stone fruits.
Pygeum, 2or.
Pyrus, 201, 203.

guadri-, four, in composition.
guaternary compounds, 20.
Quercus, 284.

guinate, 79.

394 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Quince, 203.

quingue-, five, in composition
quingue po 79:
Quisqualis indica, 202.

Raceme, 83.

Rachis, the axis of an inflorescence, or
of a compound leaf or frond, 56.

radiate, 228.

radical, 4.

Radicle, 14.

Radish, 160, 161.

Ramentum, the chaffy scales on the
rachis of ferns.

Rangoon Creeper, 203.

Ranunculacez, 146.

Ranunculus, 147, 148.

Ranunculus Family, 146.

Ranunculus, pistil of, 93.

Raphe, that portion of the vascular cord,
connecting the chalaza of an ovule
with the placenta, which is adherent to
the side of the ovule.

Raphides, 114.

Raspberry, 203.

Rattans, 303.

Ray, 35-
Receptacle (of flewer), 6 ; of flower-head,
86.

regular, 7.

Reindeer, Moss, 359.

reniformt, 77.

Replum, the persistent sutural frame re-
maining after the fall of the valves of
the fruit in some Crucifers and Mimo-

sez.

Reproductive Organs, 23.

Respiration, 21.

resupinate, applied to flowers when re-
versed or upside down, 162.

retuse, applied to a very obtuse extremity
notched in the middle.

vevolute, with the margins rolled out-
wards.

Rhamnacez, 205.

Rhapis, 302.

Rheum, 269.

Rhinanthus, 253.

Rhizome, 71.

Rhizophora, 210.

Rhizophorez, 210.

Rhododendron, 232, 233.

rhomboidal, lozenge-shaped.

Rhubarb, 269.

Rhynchospora, 335-

Rice, 337, 338; described, 373.

Rice paper, 223.

Richardia, 307.

Ricinus, 45, 276.

vingent, bilabiate and gaping.

Roccella, 361.

Root, 2; forms of, 68.

Rosa, 31.

Rosacez, 200,

Rose, 29, 31, 103.

Rose Family, 200.

Rose Periwinkle, described, 372.

Rosez, 201.

Rosewood, 199.

Rostellum, 320.

votate, applied to a gamopetalous regu-
lar corolla, with the spreading limb
equalling or exceeding the tube.

Rottlera, 280.

votundate, 77.

Rubia, 225, 227.

Rubiacez, 224.

Rubus, 200, 203.

Rue, 184.

Rue Family, 182.

rugose, wrinkled.

Rumex, 269.

ruminated albumen, 290.

runcinate, pinnatifid, with the segments
directed downwards.

Runner, a rooting prostrate slender
branch.

Rush Family, 313.

Rutacez, 182.

Rye, 340.

Saccharum, 338, 341.
Safflower, 230.

Sage, 258.

Sagittaria, 332.

sagittate, 77.

Sagus, 302.

Sal, 170.

Salamonia, 165.
Salicaceze, 282.

Salix, 41, 282.

Salix tetrasperma, described, 374.
Salvia, 258.

Samara, a winged fruit or coccus.
Sandal-wood, 288.
Sandal-wood Family, 287.
Sanders-wood, 197, 199.
Sanseviera, 313.
Santalacez, 287.
Santalum, 288.

Sap, 120.

Sap-green, 206.
Sapindacez, 190.
Sapindus, 191.

Sapodilla Family, 235
Sapodilla plum, 236.
Sapotaceze, 235.
Sappan-wood, 199.
Sapucaja-nuts, aro.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 395

Sap-wood (or alburnum), the younger
outer portion of wood of Exogens. It
takes a principal part in the upward
conveyance of sap, and is usually of
paler colour than the centre heart-
wood.

Sarsapariila, 311, 313.

Sarsaparilla, Indian, 241.

Sarut, 294.

Satin-wood, 187.

Saxifrage Family, 218.

Saxifragez, 218.

scabrous, rough to the touch.

Scale-leaves, 74.

Scammony, 248.

Scape, 83.

scartous, dry, and rather stiffly mem-
branous.

Schedules, 62.

Schumacheria, 149.

Scirpus, 335-

Scitaminez, 323.

Scleria, 335.

scorpioid, curled to one side.

Screw-Pine, 69, 304, 305.

Scrophulariacez, 252.

Seakale, 160.

Sea-weed Family, 361.

Secale, 340.

Secamone, 241.

secund, turned to one side.

secundine, the inner coat of an ovule.

Sedge Family, 334.

Sedum, 217.

Seed, 13; structure of, 44, 58,

Segments, 5.

Selaginella, 353.

Semecarpus, 193.

Sensitive plant, 199.

Sepals, 7.

septem-, seven, in composition.

septicidal, applied to the dehiscence of
a capsule by the septa or margins of
its component carpels.

Septum, a partition or dissepiment.

sericeous, covered with silky appressed
hairs.

serrate, 80.

Sesamum Family, 245.

sessile, 4.

Seta (of Mosses), 356.

setaceous, bristle-like.

Setaria, 337.

s@Z-, Six, In composition.

Shaddock, 6, 184.

Shorea, 170.

Siliqua, 161.

simple leaves, 75, 76.

Sinuate, wavy.

Sinus, the space between lobes or seg-
ments.

Siphonia, 280.

Smilax, 313.

smooth, plain; without protuberances.

Smut, 358.

Snake Gourd, 215.

Soapwort Family, rgo.

Solanacez, 249.

Solanum, 2§0.

solitary seeds, 104.

Sonchus, 228, 229.

Sophora, 197.

Sorghum, 338.

Sorrel, 181.

Sorus (pl. Sort), 345.

Spadiciflorz, 61, 301

Spadix, 48.

Spathe. 48.

spathulate, 77.

Species, 125.

Spiderwort Family, 314.

Spike, 84.

Spiklets, 55.

Spindle-tree Family, 204.

Sines, sharply-pointed projections ori-
ginating from the wood, and regarded
as abortive branches, leaves or pe-
duncles, 72.

Spirza, 203.

Spondias, 192.

Sporanges, 344, 345-

Spores, 344.

Sporiferous and Sporidiferous Fungi,

358.

Sporobolus, 338.

Sur, a conical or cylindrical projection,
usually from the base or side of a sepal
(calyx), or petal (corolla); (of Orchid),

317-

Spurge Family, 276.
Spurge-Laurel Family, 286.
spurious dissepiment, 251.
Stag’s-horn Moss, 352.
Stamens, 8; number of, 64.
Staminode, a rudimentary stamen, 325.
Star Apple, 236.

Starch, 112.

Stem, 3; form, &c. of, 70.
Stephanotus, 241.

Sterculia Family, 176.
Sterculiacez, 176.

Sterile flowers, 57.

Stigma, 11.

stipulate, 80.

Stipules, 80.

Stock, 4, 72-

Stolon, a short rooting branch.
Stomate, 122.

Stonecrop Family, 217.

Stone Fruits, go.

Strawberry, 203.

striate, marked with fine lines.
Strychnos, 242.

stuposeé, 314.

Styles, 12; number of, 64
Styracez, 233.

396

Styrax, 234.

subulate, 77.

succulent, fleshy.

Sugar, 113.

Sugar-cane, 338, 340.

Sukh-dursan, 29, 52

sutcate, furrowed.

Sundew, 219.

Sunflower, 230.

Sunn Hemp, 197, 199.

superior, applied to the ovary when
wholly free from the calyx-tube, 13;
applied to the radicle of the embryo
when straight and directed toward the
apex of the fruit ; applied to the calyx
when the limb of the calyx appears to
be inserted upon the ovary, owing to
the adhesion of the ovary to the tube
of the calyx.

Suppression, 29.

Surface (of leaves), 80.

sutural placentation, 90.

Sutures (of carpels), 94.

Sweet Potato, 248.

Sweet-sop, 151.

Swintonia, 193.

symmetrical, applied to flowers with the
number of parts in each whorl equal
or multiples.

Symplocos, 233.

SYNCAYPOUS, I2.

SYNZENESTOUS, 37, 64.

Synopsis of Indian Natural Orders, 130.

Syzygium, 208.

Tacca Family, 310.

Taccacez, 310.

Talauma, 150.

Talipot, 303.

Tamarind, 198 ; described, 371.

Tanghinia, 239.

Tapioca, 280.

Tap-root, 68.

Taxus, 295.

Tea, 169.

Tea Family, 169.

Teak, 259.

Tectona, 259.

Teeta, 148.

Teeth (of corolla, &c.), 89.

Tendrils, 72, 8t.

terete, when the transverse section is
circular.

terminal, 70.

Terminalia, 204.

ternary compounds, 20.

ternate, 79.

Ternstrémiacez, 169.

Testa, 13. a!

tetra-, four, in composition.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Tetracera, 149.

tetradynamous, four long and two short ;
applied to stamens only, 31, 160.

tetramerous, applied to flowers with the
parts in fours.

Tetranthera, 292.

Thalamiflorz, 60.

Thalamus, the floral receptacle.

Thea, 170.

Theca, a cell containing the spores of
Cryptogams.

‘Theobroma, 176.

Thorn Apple, 251.

Thrift Family, 263.

Thunbergia, 256.

Thyme, 258.

Thymelacez, 286.

Thymus, 258.

Tigellusm, 168.

Til, 246.

Tilia, 178.

Tiliacez, 177.

Tinospora, 153, 154.

Tobacco, 252.

Tolabo, 29, 52.

Tomato, 252.

tomentose, with short, dense, more or
less felted, cottony hairs,

Torenia, 254.

Torus, the floral receptacle.

Touchwoods, 358.

Toxocarpus, 241.

Transpiration, 19.

Trapa, 212.

‘Frebizonde Dates. 290.

Tree Ferns, 351.

tri-, three, in composition.

Tribulus, 180.

Trichodesma, 249.

Trichomanes, 349.

Trichosanthes, 215.

tricoccous, applied to a syncarpous fruit
consisting of three cocci.

trijid, 80.

trifoliolate, 79.

trigonous, three-cornered in cross section,
with the angles obtuse.

trimerous, applied to flowers with the
parts in threes.

trimorphism (of Lythrum), 213.

tripartite, 80.

triguetrous, three-cornered in cross
section, with the angles acute.

Triticum, 336.

Triumfetta, 177.

Tropzolum, 181, 182.

Truffle, 358.

truncate, terminating abruptly.

Tube (of calyx), 33; of corolla, &c. 89.

Tuber, 71, 358.

tuberous, 70.

Tubuliflore, 230.

Tulsee, 29, 38.

—s- |

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Turnip, 160.
Typha, 306.
Typhacez, 305.

Umbel, 84.

Umbellate Family, 219.

Umbelliferze, 219.

Uncaria, 226.

uncinate, hooked.

unequally pinnate, pinnate with an odd
leaflet.

umi-, one, in composition.

unicellular alge, 361.

-untlocular, one-celled ; applied to an-
thers and ovaries.

unisexual, with stamens only, or with
pistil only, 40.

Unona, 152.

unsymmetrical, applied to flowers with
the parts of each whorl unequal in
number and not multiples, r9r.

Upas, 275.

Uraria, 197.

urceolate, urn-shaped.

Urticacez, 210.

Utricularia, 254.

Vacciniacez, 233.

Valisneria, 331.

Valonia, 286.

valvate, 88.

Vanda, 318, 319.

Varieties, 128.

vascular bundles, 115; vascular plants,
356.

Vateria, 172.

Vegetative Organs, 67.

Veins of leaves, 43, 57 ; Structure of, 114.

Venation, 75.

ventral suture, 94-

ventricose, inflated.

Verbascum, 253.

Verbena, 260.

Verbena Family, 259.

Verbenacee, 259.

Vernation, 75.

Vernonia, 228, 229.

Veronica, 253.

verrucose, warted.

versatile, applied to anthers when at-
tached by the back to the slender
tip of the filament.

verticillate, whorled, with three or more
parts inserted in the same plane; ap-
plied to foliar organs, 73.

397

Vessels, 108.
Vicia, 196.
Victoria regia, 156.
Villarsia, 243.
Vinca, 29, 37, 238.
Vinca rosea, described, 373,
Vine Family, 188.
Viola, 163.
Violacez, 163.
Violet Family, 163.
Viscum, 224.
Vitex, 259.

Vitis, 189, 190.
Vitte, 221.

Wahlenbergia, 231.

Wampi, 184.

Water-Chestnut, 212.

Water in plants, 2.

Water-Lily Family, 155.

Water Melon, 2rq.

Water-Plantain Family, 332.

Weeping Willow, 42.

Welwitschia, 298.

Wheat, 29, 55, 336.

Willow, 29, 41, 282.

Willow Family, 282.

Willow, Indian, described, 373.

Wings (of papilionaceous corolla), 196 ;
of Polygala, 16s.

Wood, Structure of, 116.

Wormia, 149.

Xanthochymus, 168.
Xanthophyllum, 16s.

¥.

Yam Family, 310.

Yew, 295.
Yucea, 73, 313.

Zanthoxylum, 184.

Zea, 337.

Zedoary, 326.

Zingiber, 326.

Zinnia, 29, 34, 227, 228; described, 372.
Zizyphus, 205.

Zones, apnual, of wood, 118.
Zygophyllacez, 180.

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