Fishery leaflet

THE AMERICAN SHAD

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

BUREAU OF COMAAERCIAL FISHERIES

Fishery Leaflet 614

Cover. Adult (S-year-old) male and
female American shad. The male
(top) weighed 3.2 pounds and the
female (below) 4 pounds.

Revision of Fishery Leaflet 504, February 1961

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

THE AMERICAN SHAD

By
RANDALL P. CHEEK

Fishery Leaflet 614

Washington, D.C. 20240
August 1968

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 1

Description 1

Life history 1

Spawning 1

Food and feeding 2

Age determination 2

Rate of growth 3

Migrations 3

Economic importance 5

Commercial fishery 5

Sport fishery 5

Research and managennent 10

References 13

THE AMERICAN SHAD

By

RANDALL P. CHEEK, Fishery Biologist

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory
Beaufort, N.C. 285 16

ABSTRACT

The life history of the American shad (Alosa sapidissima) is described. The
economic importance of the commercial and sport fisheries are reviewed, and the
status of research and nnanagennent of this species are summarized.

INTRODUCTION

The American shad, Alosa sapidissima
(Wilson), is the largest member of the herring
family (Clupeidae) in North America. The
shad is also known by other common names
such as "white shad," "roe shad," and just
plain "shad" and is one of the best known
fishes of the Atlantic Coast. Although the
species is distributed along the east coast
from the St. Lawrence River, Canada, to the
St. Johns River, Fla., it is most abundant
from North Carolina to Connecticut. In 1871,
about 12,000 young fish were taken across
the continent by train and planted in Sacramento
River, Calif. More were planted in succeeding
years in Sacramento and Columbia Rivers,
where they prospered. Now they occur on the
Pacific Coast from the Mexican border to
Cook Inlet, Alaska. Unsuccessful attempts
have been made to introduce this fish into
streams of the Mississippi River drainage,
peninsular Florida, Colorado, the Great Lakes,
and Great Salt Lake. The shad is found
throughout its range in sufficient quantities
to support fisheries of great commercial and
recreational values. Because little information
is available on Pacific Coast stocks, this
leaflet is primarily about stocks on the Atlantic
Coast.

DESCRIPTION

The American shad is similar inappearance
to many other herringlike fishes. It has a com-
pressed fusiform shape, single soft- rayed back

and anal fins, deeply forked tail fin, strongly
serrated midline of belly, and large scales that
are easily lost. The color is silvery with a
bluish green metallic luster on the back. The
shoulder has a large dark spot followed by
several smaller spots. A longer-than-deep
cheek bone and the outline of the lower jaw
distinguish from other clupeids such as
the alewife, blueback herring, and hickory
shad. Mature males average between 2 and 3
pounds, and mature females between 3 and 4
pounds. Shad weighing up to 15 pounds were
recorded in the early years of shad fishing, but
today few shad weigh over 9 pounds.

LIFE HISTORY

Spawning

American shad are anadromous fish; that
is, they spend most of their life in the ocean
but return to fresh- water streams to spawn.
The first summer of their life is spent in the
stream where they were hatched (fig. 1). In
the fall, when the young shad are about 3 to 6
inches long, they migrate to the ocean where
they remain until mature. Males mature when
3, 4, or 5 years old, and females when 4, 5,
or 6 years old. Most spawning shad are 3 or
4 years old. Mature shad return to their natal
streams to spawn in early spring. The time
the shad enter the rivers varies with latitude.
In the St. Johns River, Fla., shad enter the
river as early as November; in North Carolina,
as early as February; but in eastern Canada,
as late as July.

Figure 1. --Young shad collected with surface trawl to
determine distribution and growth.

When seeking spawning grounds, shad ascend
some streams for great distances. In the 19th
century shad could ascend most streams to the
headwaters- -distances as great as 200 or
300 miles. Today dams on many streams
restrict shad to the stream area below these
barriers.

Spawning habits of American shad are very
similar from river to river. Male shad usually
enter the stream first and swim to the spawning
grounds where the females later join them.
They begin to spawn after the water tempera-

ture has warmed to at least 53

and

spawning is usually over by the time the
water temperature reaches 75° F. They start
to spawn in the evening after sunset and
continue to about midnight. One female is
accompanied by several males during the
spawning act. Eggs are released in open
water where they are fertilized by the males.
The spawning fish swim close together near
the surface with their back fins projecting
from the water. During spawning, the fish
splash vigorously; fishermen call this action
"washing" because of the sound.

The eggs of shad are very easily recognized.
They are about one- sixteenth inch in diameter
when spawned but soon absorb water and in-
crease to about one-eighth inch. Their color
is transparent, pale pink, or amber, and they
are slightly heavier than water. The eggs

sink and are carried along near the bottom
by the current. If the eggs settled on the
bottom, many would be smothered in the
silt and mud. Eggs hatch in 3 to 8 days,
depending on water temperature (6 days
at 63° F.). Each female lays from 100,000
to 600,000 eggs, depending on her size
and the stream from which she origi-
nates.

For unknown reasons shad that spawn in
coastal streams of the South Atlantic States
die after spawning. North of North Carolina,
the nunriber of shad that survives the initial
spawning and returns to sea progressively
increases northward. The fish that return
again to fresh water to spawn the next year
are called "repeaters."

Food and Feeding

The food of American shad varies with size
and age. The young possess small teeth and
feed primarily on insects and crustaceans
during their first summer in fresh water.
Schools of young shad can be observed in the
evening feeding on insects at the surface;
many jump out of the water to catch flying
insects. During the day, the young apparently
feed below the surface on small crustaceans.
After they leave the rivers in the fall, young
shad lose their teeth. Then they feed on
plankton (small organisms) in the same manner
as adults, by straining water through comblike
structures known as gill rakers. Adult shad
do not feed during the spawning migration.
They will, however, strike artificial lures
when they are on their spawning grounds,
but biologists believe the fish are acting
instinctively to protect their spawning
grounds.

Age Determination

The age of shad is determined from their
scales, which have rings somewhat similar
to those on a tree. A scale from a 5-year-
old shad is shown in figure 2. The markings
or lines that lie close together and run
laterally across the scale are called striae.
The distinct marks that cross the scale
laterally on the same general contour as the
striae but are spaced farther apart are called
transverse grooves. The annual growth rings
(annuli) follow the contour of the outer edge
of the scale.

Formation of an annulus is caused by slowing
down or cessation of growth in late winter or
early spring. The first ring on the scale
does not represent the first year and is
termed a false annulus. The area inside this
ring is called the fresh- water zone because it
is formed when the young shad move from
fresh to salt water.

Figure 2.— Scale from 5-year-old American shad. FWZ marks the fresh-water zone. 1, II, and III
represent annular rings. SM represents a "spawning mark" which also Is an annular ring.

Scales can also be used to tell how many-
times a shad has spawned. A shad does not
feed during the spawning run, so the edge
of the scale becomes resorbed by the fish.
This resorption causes a scar or "spawning
mark" on the edge of the scale and occurs
about the same time a new annulus forms;
thus the "spawning mark" is also counted
as an annulus or year mark.

Rate of Growth

American shad grow fast during their first

3 years of life. Average lengths are 5 to 6
inches at 1 year, 9 to 10 inches at 2 years,
and 10 to 14 inches at 3 years. After the
first 3 years, the growth rate decreases.
The average length is 15 to l6 inches at

4 years of age and 1 8 to 19 inches at 5 years.

Migrations

American shad, like salmon, migrate thou-
sands of miles in the ocean and then return
to spawn in the stream in which they were
hatched- - how they are guided is still a mystery.
On the Atlantic Coast, adult shad that survive
after spawning migrate back to sea and north-
ward to the Gulf of Maine, where they spend
the summer and fall feeding on abundant
plankton. Scientists believe they winter in
deep water off the Middle and South Atlantic
States. As spawning season approaches, mature
fish migrate inshore and move either south-
ward or northward to their natal streams
to spawn (fig. 3). They repeat this cycle each
spring. Young shad leave the rivers in fall
and probably overwinter in the ocean off the
Atlantic States. In summer they presumably
migrate with the adults to the Gulf of Maine.

Figure 3.— Localities of recovery of American shad tagged in the Gulf of Maine extend from Georgia
to Quebec. Numbers in circles indicate number of tags recovered at each location.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Commercial Fishery

In colonial times, the American shad was
very abundant on the Atlantic Coast. As the
hunr\an population increased, so did the harvest
of shad. The peak was in 1896, when more
than 50 million pounds were landed. Production
declined to about 25 million pounds by 1908,
when shad still ranked third in value among
U.S. fishery products. Since 1908, the yield
has decreased even more, and today the shad
ranks 40th in weight and 28th in value among
the species in the total U.S. catch. The annual
catch of shad along the Atlantic Coast now is
about 10 million pounds (fig. 4).

On the Pacific Coast, the commercial fishery
began in 1890, and its catch increased to 7
million pounds in 191 5, but today it has declined
to about 1.5 million pounds annually. This
decline in catch is probably due to the lack
of market for shad and does not necessarily
represent a decrease in abundance.

During the last 20 years, shad have become
an important sport fish during their spawning
runs in the rivers. The St. Johns, Ogeechee,
Edisto, Pamlico- Tar, Susquehanna, Delaware,
and Connecticut Rivers on the Atlantic Coast
and Sacramento and American Rivers on the
Pacific Coast are the main rivers with sport
fisheries (fig. 5). Of these, the St. Johns and
Connecticut Rivers are the most important.
The sport catch is substantial but unrecorded
in several other rivers. The annual catch
by sport fishermen is estimated to be about
one-half million shad (1.5 million pounds).

Figure 4. — Commercial catch of American shad on the
Atlantic Coast of the United States, 1880-1965.

American Indians used shad for food before
the white man arrived. The Indians took the
shad with bush nets (seines), weirs, spears,
and bows and arrows. Early in the fishery
of the white man, haul seines, weirs, drift
gill nets, and dip nets were used for shad,
but the haul seine was the n-iost efficient and
most often used (fig. 6 and 7). Over the
years, the gear has remained essentially
the same but fishing techniques and net ma-
terials have changed. Principal gears are
pound nets (fig. 8) and stake gill nets (fig. 9)
in broad estuaries and bays; drift gill nets
(figs. 10 and 11) in lower reaches of rivers;
and seines, traps, gill nets, and bow nets
(fig. 12) in narrow headwater streams.
"Fishing machines" (fig. 13) are still being
used to a limited extent in some North Caro-
lina streams.

Some of the shad caught commercially on
the Atlantic Coast are sold locally, but most
are shipped to markets in Baltimore, Phila-
delphia, and New York each spring during
the annual spawning runs. The female shad
is more important commercially because of
the demand for roe (eggs).

The appearance on the market of frozen
fish and fish products that can easily and
quickly be prepared by the housewife has
caused a decrease in the demand for shad,
which are usually marketed whole and fresh.
The roe is sold separately, and a limited
amount of shad is being marketed as fillets.
These products have been popular, but account
for only a small part of the catch; therefore,
future use of the shad as a food fish is
dependent on the development of still other
products in a form more acceptable to the
modern housewife.

Sport Fishery

During the last 20 years the American
shad has become a highly prized game fish.
Shad are taken by trolling or casting various
types of small spinners, spoons, and weighted
jigs (fig. 14). Many fishermen use two of
the lures in an arrangement called a "shad-
rig." Shad strike hard and put up a game
fight, jumping out of the water frequently.
Their mouths are tender, and the hooks
will tear out if pulled too hard, so light
tackle is best.

Figure 5.--Sport fishing for shad in the Connecticut River.

j»r e <

Figure 6. — A Delaware River shad club with haul seine in early 1900's (Photo courtesy of Frank Bowen, Hancock, N.Y.)

Figure 7.--Fishing a haul seine for American shad, St. Johns River, Fla.

7

Figure 9. — Setting or "riding down" a stake for stake
gill nets, York River, Va. (Photo courtesy of
Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester
Point, Va.)

Figure 8. — Fishing a pound net for American shad,
Chesapeake Bay, Md.

Figure 10. — Drift gill net fishing for American shad, Pamlico-Tar River, N.C.

Figure II. — Removing American shad from drift gill net,
Potomac River, Md.

Figure 12. — Taking American shad with bow net,
Neuse River, N.C. (Photo courtesy of North
Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission)

Figure 13. — "Fishing machine" or "fish wheel" for taking shad and other anadromous fish, Roanoke River, N.C. Wheel is
turned by the current and fish slide into boats on each side as scoop is raised.

Figure 14 — Lures used to take American shad in the sport
fishery. Lead weight is added to make spoon fish
deep.

RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT

In the late 1800's shad hatcheries were
built along the Atlantic Coast with the hope
of maintaining and increasing production
(fig, 15). The hatching and stocking of young
shad, as practiced from 1880 until 1950,
did not, however, significantly increase shad
abundance.

Over the last 2 decades the Bureau of
Commerical Fisheries and several States
have jointly and independently investigated
the shad resource along the Atlantic Coast.
These studies were made to acquire basic
knowledge of the species and its fisheries and,
through scientific management, to increase
the size of the shad runs and the annual
yield. Through the knowledge gained from
these studies, the shad populations in several
rivers are being effectively managed.

Primary problems of the shad resource
are pollution, dams, and overfishing; thus,
the most effective management procedures

Figure 15. — Taking eggs from an American shad for
incubation in a hatchery.

have been abatement of pollution (fig. 18),
construction of fish-passage facilities (figs.
16 and 17), and regulation of fishing. Fishing
regulations are set by each State and vary
from State to State.

If annual production of shad could be restored
to 19th century levels, the commercial catch
would be worth more than $6.5 million and
the sport fishery would provide many addi-
tional man-days of fishing.

10

Figure 16.— Passing shad at the Connecticut River fish lift, Holyoke Mass.

11

Figure 17. — Fishway and dam on Neuse River, Goldsboro, N. C.

12

Figure 18. — Young American shad killed by pollution
in the Anacostia River, Washington, D.C. (Photo
courtesy of Charles Del Vecchio, Washington
Post-Times Herald)

REFERENCES

COLLINS, GERALD B.

1951. A fishway that shad ascend. U.S.
Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish.
65, ii + 17 pp.
DAVIS, WILLIAM S.

1957. Ova production of American shad in
Atlantic coast rivers. U.S. Fish Wildl,
Serv., Res. Rep, 49, ii + 5 pp,
FREDIN, REYNOLD A,

1954. Causes of fluctuations in abundance
of Connecticut River shad. U.S. Fish
Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 54: 247-259.
MOLLIS, EDGAR H.

1948. The homing tendency of shad. Science
108(2804): 332-333.

JUDY, MAYO H,

1961. Validity of age determination fronr\
scales of marked American shad. U.S.
Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 61: 161-
170.
LAPOINTE, DONALD F.

1958. Age and growth of the American shad,
from three Atlantic coast rivers.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 87: 139-150.
LEIM, A, H.

1924. The life history of the shad (Alosa
sapidissima (Wilson)) with special ref-
erence to the factors limiting its abun-
dance. Biol. Bd. Can., Contrib. Can.
Biol. 2(11): 163-284.
NICHOLS, PAUL R., and MARLINE. TAGATZ.
1960, Creel census Connecticut River shad
sport fishery, 1957-58, and estimate
of catch, 1941-56. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 351, iii +
12 pp.
STEVENSON, CHARLES H.

1899. The shad fisheries of the Atlantic
coast of the United States. U.S. Comm,
Fish and Fish. Rep. Comm. pt. 24,
1898: 101-269.
TALBOT, GERALD B.

1954. Factors associated with fluctuations
in abundance of Hudson River shad,
U,S, Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull.
56: 373-413.
TALBOT, GERALD B., and JAMES E. SYKES.
1958. Atlantic coast migrations of American
shad. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull,
58: 473-490.
WALBURG, CHARLES H,, and PAUL R.
NICHOLS.
1967. Biology and management of the Ameri-
can shad and status of the fisheries,
Atlantic coast of the United States,
1960, U,S, Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec.
Sci. Rep. Fish, 550, iv + 105 pp.

MS. #1704

13

GP 0 940-219

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developed and used wisely, that park and recreational
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the future.

UNITED STATES

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20240

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