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GUTTA CAVAT L»PIDEM NON VI SED S/EPE CA D E N DO. -- HOR AT.
NOT BY FORCE, BY FREQUENT FALL ALONE
A DROP IN TIME CARVES OUT A STONE.
THE FLORA OF TENNESSEE
AND
A PHILOSOPHY OF BOTANY
RESPECTFULLY
DEDICATED
TO THE CITIZENS OF TENNESSEE
BY
AUGUSTIN GATTINGER, M.D.
Published by Authority of the State through the Bureau of Agriculture
Press of
Gospel Advocate Publishing Company
Nash villi:, Tknn.
« 1 '.»<)!
THE AUTHOR'S THANKS.
His Excellency \ Benton McMilliri, Governor.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit to you a copy of my work on
the Tennessee Flora and treatise on Philosophy of Botany.
Please accept my thanks for your generous support in your
special message to the Legislature of the State.
Yours very respectfully,
A. GATTINGKR.
12715)1
APPROPRIATION FOR THIS VOLUME.
AN ACT to provide for the acceptance by the State of a work on botany,
prepared by Dr. A. Gattinger, and to make an appropriation for its pub-
lication and distribution.
Whereas Dr. A. Gattinger has offered to present to the State a
work prepared by him, on the botany of the State of Tennessee;
and
Whereas the dissemination of such information among the
people of the State is of the highest importance and value, and
eminently worthy of the aid of the State; therefore,
Section i. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State
of Tennessee, That said work so presented by Dr. A. Gattinger
be accepted by the State, and that the Commissioner of Agri-
culture be, and is hereby, empowered and directed to have said
work printed and distributed among the citizens of Tennessee.
Sec. 2. Be it further enacted, That the sum of six hundred
and fifty dollars, or so much thereof as may be required, is here-
by appropriated for the purpose of printing, publishing, and dis-
tributing said work.
Sec. 3. Be it further enacted, That this Act take effect from
and after its passage, the public welfare requiring it.
Passed April 17, 190 1. v
NEWTON H. WHITE,
Speaker of the Senate.
E. B. WILSON,
Speaker of the House.
Approved April 18, 1901
BENTON M'MILLIN,
Governor.
ERRATA.
Page 3- Quotation should be credited to Virgil.
Page 27. For " Graborchard " read " Craborchard . "
Page 27. Below "border" insert " O. S." (Over the State) and 'M.'
(Medicinal).
Page 28, 10th line. For "bulifera " read "bulbifera."
Page 28, 20th line. For " Novceboboracensis " read " Novaeboracensis.*'
Page 29, 13th line from below. For " thelypleroides " read "thelypter-
oides. "
Page 39, middle. For " an8d " read " and."
Page 52, 14th line from below. For -" uburnea " read " eburm a."
Page 55, middle. For " uniformis " read " reniforniis "
Page 64, 14th line from below. For " Potty " read " Putty."
Page 76, 4th line from below and higher. For " champion " read
" campion."
Page 78, 12th line from above. For " dichtotoma " read " dichotoma. "
Page 84, nth line. For " Malapcena " read " Malapoenna."
Page 86, 12th line from below. For "Thelipadium " read " Thelipodium."
Page 97, 9th line from below. For " Soheele " read " scheele."
Page 100, 3d line. Before " Gattingeri " insert " C."
Page 105, 8th line. For " Thephrosia " read " Tephrosia."
Page 115, 16th line. For "W. W. Ashe from" read " \V. W. Ashe.
From, etc."
Page 118, 9th line from below. For " moshata " read " moschata "
Page 120, 8th line from below. For " gymmanthum " read " gymnan-
thum."
Page 120. After " Hypericum Kalmianum " insert "II. aureum Bart ram.
Limestone cliffs of M. Tenn. Frequent. July."
Page 122, middle. For " Criocarpa " read " Friocarpa."
Page 123, 8th line below. For " Caney Fork " rea.l " Collins River."
Page 135. 3d line and below. For " pimpernell " read " pimpernel."
Page 138, 6th line. For " Pleuresy " read " Pleurisy."
Page 142, 4th line and below. For " gomfrey " read " comfrey."
Page 142, 12th line from below. For "raccoon " read "puccoon."
Page 146, below. For " majoran " read "marjoram.
Page 151, below " Leptandra." "M." omitted.
Page 152, 6th line from below. For " Lausewort " read " Louseworth."
Page 154, below. For " leptosyachya " read " leptostachya."
Page 154, 3d line. For " proboscoidea " read " proboscidea."
Page 155, 3d line. For " cocerulea " read " coerulea."
Page 158, 17th line from belowr. For " Cururbita " read " Cucurbita."
Page 160, 12th line from below. For " Leontedon " read " Leontodon."
Page 162, middle. For " strum aricum " read " strumarium."
Page 163, 9th line. For " tencrifolium " read " teucrifolium."
Page 163, 13th line. For " rotundifoium " read " rotundifolium. "
Page 165, 2d line from below. For " corybosus " read " corymbosus. "
Page 170, 10th line. For " Braunneria " read " Brauneria."
Page 170, 4th line. For " Lapachys " read " Lepachys."
Page 172, middle. For " Helienium " "Helenium."
Page 1S0. For " Danthus " read "Dianthus."
Page 187, below quotation. Read translation : " Time obliterates opinions
of men, but it confirms the decisions of nature."
Page 193, middle. For "Arbella " read "Arbela."
Page 204, 21st line. For "creed " read "greed."
Page 209, Latin quotation. For " etque " read "atque."
Page 216, nth line. For " Sarcen " read " Saracen."
Page 218, 7th line. For "A.D. 33 " read "A.D. 337."
Page 218,1 7th line. For ' ' 556 ' ' read ' ' 350. ' '
Page 234, 12th line from below. For " grassculum " read "grassculm."
Page 241, 7th line. For "him" read "man."
Page 243, middle. For " lappaegue " read " lappceque."
Page 244, German quotation. For " Such " read " Such'st."
Page 272, nth line from below. For "nutritou " read " nutrition."
CONTENTS.
FLORA OF TENNESSEE.
Preface 3
Areal Botany 1 1
Synopsis of the Flora 27
Review of Families 176
Index to Genera [78
PHILOSOPHY OF BOTANY.
Evolution of Botany 187
Forestry 241
Introduction of a National Forestry Policy..
Modern Thoughts on Origin, Evolution, and
Significance of Life
PREFACE
Coelum non animum mutant qui trans mare currunt.* // i/l+laA J
The fifth decade of the past century proved disastrous to the
patriots of Germany who were seeking liberty and progress, and no
hope was left for recovery from the defeat sustained or for better
success in the near future by a renewal of the struggle for liberal
government. For the first time in the history of the Bavarian
capital of Munich, a meeting of discontented citizens was held, to
deliberate upon joint action to secure better and safer means of
emigration to the United States of North America. Artists, pro-
fessional men, mechanics, and farmers, people of good standing in
society and amply provided financially, to the number of nearly
two hundred, composed the meeting.
At this time an association of students of the University of Mu-
nich, of which I was a member, resolved to celebrate in a solemn
fete Washington's birthday, a proceeding never before heard of, but
fully in accord with the sentiments of this party, which in these tur-
bulent times represented the liberal movement in the university.
The celebration was a great success, and speeches and eulogies on
Washington and Jefferson, Franklin and other heroes were in-
dulged in fervently and unreservedly.
The open avowal of republican institutions was immediately de-
nounced as a provocation, too flagrant to be allowed to be passed by,
and actions were instituted by the authorities. Several of the
participants had to leave the city. Called before the university
tribunal, I was released on my pledge to emigrate. I regret to Bay
that I have never since found an opportunity to celebrate this
national festivity with the same pathos and enthusiasm as on this
memorable twenty-second of February, 1849.
Severance from beloved friends and the ancestral soil is a bitter
and mournful task, and recollection of it even now clouds the -
renity of the moment. But the genius of love mitigated my dis-
* New stars, new sights the pilgrim meets;
He stays the same in thoughts and deeds.
4 Preface.
tress, for the one whom I had chosen for my companion through
the turmoils of life consented to go with me, and we joined hands
at the American consulate at Havre before sailing.
These circumstances account for my appearance in Chattanooga,
Tenn., in June, 1849, which place I reached by stage from Dalton,
Ga., the terminus of the Georgia and South Carolina Eailroad. I
was fascinated by the magnificence of the scenery; but there were
but few dwellings, and these of poor construction, as might be ex-
pected in a recently-settled place. After a short delay, a small side-
wheel steamer blew its whistle and brought me and my party after
three days' navigation up to Kingston, on the Clinch Kiver. This
little town looked clean and airy, and, pleased with the friendliness
of the citizens, we made it the base of operations for exploring the
vicinity. Weary of traveling and wishing to enter on the practice
of my profession, I was easily fascinated by a romantic spot called
" Cave Spring," eight miles to the west of Kingston, at the time oc-
cupied by an older physician, who intended to go West. I purchased
the place in partnership with my brother-in-law, the late George
Dury, a Munich artist, whose exquisite paintings now adorn the
State Library in the Capitol. Unfortunately, we did not take into
consideration, in making this purchase, the possible — or, rather,
impossible — revenues to be derived from this possession, a circum-
stance which ultimately necessitated the abandonment of our farm-
ing experiment at a great sacrifice.
The transfer from a buoyant German city to this silent retreat
was to me a stimulus to concentrate my attention outside profes-
sional duties and equestrian hardships to the study of the botany
and geology of the country. At my alma mater, the University of
Munich, it was obligatory to pass through a course of natural sci-
ences— chemistry, mineralogy, and botany — before being admitted
to the medical department. A two-years' course in general and
medicinal botany initiated me into the science. Moreover, I had
from earlier school years been a botanical collector, and had given
a great deal of time to these studies.
After the abandonment of Cave Spring I acquired some property
in Charleston, Bradley County, where I remained until I accepted,
in 1858, the charge of resident surgeon at the copper mines of
Ducktown, situated in the high mountains of East Tennessee, ad-
joining North Carolina and Georgia. The new situation was so-
cially very agreeable, moderately remunerative, and possessed botan-
Preface.
icallyand geologically so many and so diversified points of it:
that a whole lifetime of a competenl investigator could nol exhaust
and unravel all the problems and collect the various plants, min-
erals, and rocks. A prominent member of the United States {'<>->~
logical Survey, who is intimately acquainted with this region, as-
sured me in a recent correspondence that in the entire area of the
United States he knows of no part which, in an equal territory,
possesses so great a diversity and complication of structure. I ei -
joyed and utilized industriously my opportunity, although with
great diffidence, in the results of my analyses, for \v;mt of scientific
botanical literature, especially of the American.
Having been fifteen years in the saddle, traversing more than
one-half of East Tennessee, throughout the Cumberland Mountains
and all the valleys between Walden's Ridge and Smoky Mountain,
I held in my mind a well-connected panorama, of the natural rista
at all seasons of the year.
Possessed, as I believed myself to be, of a moderate and quiet
enjoyment of intelligent and useful pursuits, it came suddenly to
pass that I had to bear my share of the agonies and convulsion- of
the Civil War.
Opposed to the disruption of the Union, knowing from experi-
ence the misery of a great nation split into petty principalities (as
was the case with Germany for centuries), seeing in the growing
greatness of this government the future liberation of all nationali-
ties through its physical power and moral influence, I advocated
the cause of the Union, and created such displeasure t<> my former
friends that I found it advisable to leave my domicile and part with
my family. On a cold, starry March night, afoot, no money, with
a small satchel as traveling outfit, I wound my way through the
Ocoee gorge and reached the town of Cleveland, forty miles distant,
without an accident.
The government in which I had put my faith and trusi
me under its care, sent me to Nashville, and put me int.. serv-
ice as an assistant surgeon. After the expiration of my term
and recovery from a. severe malarial fever, winch temporarily
disabled me for army duties, I accepted from the military I
ernor, Andrew Johnson, the* position of State Librarian, which
I held during five years, whereby I greatly improved my acquaint-
ance with scientific American literature. Moreover, I found such
helps in pursuit of making collections a- I never before or
6 Preface.
wards enjoyed. Through the kindness of the military superin-
tendent of the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway,
Gen. William T. Innes, I was favored with the privilege of using
all trains, passenger and freight, at all points for travel. This
permit continued four years, until the administration of the rail-
road was changed, and when I also lost my office as State Librarian.
From this time on I carried on an interesting correspondence with
prominenl botanists in all parts of the United States, and by sub-
mission to the approval of our leading botanical authorities, I se-
cured the correctness of specific determinations. I am under great
obligations to the late Dr. Gray, of Cambridge, Mass. ; the late Dr.
Engelman, of St. Louis, Mo. ; the late Dr. G. Vasey, of the United
States Department of Agriculture ; the late Dr. Chapman, of Apa-
lachicola, Fla., for their assistance.
It is much to be regretted tha.t Dr. Eugel, who, about fifty years
ago, resided in the vicinity of Greeneville and made valuable collec-
tions and discoveries in that vicinity and the mountains of East
Tennessee and North Carolina, died without leaving a record of his
work. His collections came in the possession of Mr. Shuttleworth,
of England. Senecio Eugelia Gray, Plantago Rugelii Decaisne,
Siphonychia Rugelii Chapm. commemorate his name.
My collections were in much request for exchange, as they
contained many novelties and were well prepared. The area
of Middle Tennesse was an unexplored region, botanically, and
I claim the honor of being the pioneer in this field. At the
meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, held in Nashville in 1877, the botanical division en-
couraged me to prepare a catalogue of plants or flora of Tennes-
see, which I was assured would be received favorably by all Ameri-
can botanists. I consented to do so, and fulfilled my obligation in
1883 by publishing a small volume of one hundred and nine
pages, a systematic enumeration of seventeen hundred and eight
species. It was printed at my own expense, and distributed
gratuitously among the schools of the State, and such patrons of
botany as applied for it. This movement helped me very much
in the furtherance of my enterprise, as it brought together all per-
sons within the State who had an interest in botany, and had col-
lected more or less. With this catalogue in hand, every collector
in Tennessee was enabled to see whether or not it contained all
the species which he had found himself, and he would then report
Preface. t
to me his own discoveries. I soon received valuable contributions
from my esteemed friend, the late Gen. E. Kirby-Smith, at Se-
wanee; Prof. T. M. Bain, now of the Agricultural College, Knox-
ville; Prof. A. Euth, superintendent of public Bchools in Knox-
ville; the late Mrs. Lydia Bennett, of Fisk University. Nash-
ville; Dr. G. Egeling, pharmacist, Memphis; and Prof. Lamson
F. Scribner and Mr. Kearney, both now of the Botanical Division
of the Agricultural Department at Washington. Much valuable
information I drew from the "Memoirs" of the Torn v Botanical
Club, in a report on the flora of Western Xorth Carolina and con-
tiguous territories, made by John K. Small and A. A. Heller in
the season of 1891, and published in February, 1892, followed by
a similar report made in the season of 1892 by John K. Hall and
Anna Murray Vail, on the flora of Southwestern Virginia. Both
areas extend to the geographical borders of Tennessee, along moun-
tain ranges and water courses, which continue into the upper bor-
der counties of Tennessee without any difference in the nature of
the soil or elevation. The flora, being necessarily identical. 1 took
the privilege to add to my list all such species which yei had ooi
been collected within the adjoining boundaries of the State. Most
recently I have been favored with valuable information and addi-
tions from the botanists of the Biltmore Botanical Institute —
Messrs. C. D. Beadle, F. E. and C. L. Boynton, and T. 0. Harbi-
son— published in "Biltmore Botanical Studies," Vol. I.. No. 1 :
William Wesley & Son, London. From all these Bourcee and
my own continued collections, I can now add over four hundred
species not contained in the first edition, and am, moreover, en-
abled to amend and correct many errors occurring in the same.
For the census of 1880 I collected for Professor Sargent, the
superintendent of the botanical division of the census, specimens
of the timbers of Tennessee. I also collected for the mineral di-
vision of the same census the building stones o\' the State, with
the exclusion of the marbles. This collection consisted of forty
pairs of cubes, all of different character, four hv four indies. This,
I think, was the first time the granites of Tennessee were brought
to notice in beautiful specimens. The collection also contained
the sandstones — the beautiful white one from tin- Biwassee Valley
— and the argillites, conglomerates. Blates, and Limestones, includ-
ing the oolitic or Bowling Green stone, which i- used in the con-
struction of our customhouse.
8 Preface.
In April, 1878, I assisted Hon. J. B. Killebrew, then Commis-
sioner of Agriculture of the State, in the publication of his work
on the Tennessee grasses and forage plants, by giving him the list of
grasses actually collected by me, and revising the manuscript. In
the same year I prepared a publication on the trees and shrubs
suitable to the soil and climate of Nashville for the Board of
Health of the city of Nashville.
In 1883 I was engaged by Hon. A. J. McWhirter, then Commis-
sioner of Agriculture for the State, as an assistant in his office and
in collecting minerals, building stones, and plants for the Louis-
ville Exhibition and other exhibitions; but after the close of these
exhibitions I was again dismissed, to be followed in office by the
commissioner's own son, Mr. L. B. McWhirter.
In 1894 Hon. T. F. P. Allison, Commissioner of Agriculture,
intrusted me with a publication on the medicinal plants of Ten-
nessee. The work was carried out to mutual satisfaction.
In 1897, in connection with the Centennial Exposition, I was
a member of the Committee on Minerals and Mines of the State, of
which Professor S afford was chairman. I procured a rich collec-
tion of the copper ores and smelting products of the Ducktown
Mines and Smelting Works, inclusive of a rich display of ingots,
I also exhibited a large collection of Tennessee granites in blocks,
with one side polished, from Wolf Creek, Carter County, and from
near Elizabethton, on the line of the railroad which extends from
Johnson City to the Granberry Mines, in North Carolina.
At the time of my publication of the medicinal plants, my bo-
tanical collections had so far progressed that I felt satisfied that
within a limited time not many more additions could be made, and
that I had very nearly reached the limits of the record. In pre-
paring the new edition I adopted the new nomenclature and made
some other changes, for which I give an explanation in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.
One of the greatest burdens and causes for confusion in sys-
tematic botany had been the constantly increasing synonyms for
the same species. Much of it originated from the disjointed labors
of distant botanical writers describing the same plants ; often from
imperfect specimens, while unacquainted with the past or contem-
poraneous labors of others in the same field; and in not a few
instances it resulted from the abuse of personal prominence and
disregard of the merits of others. This disturbing condition would
Preface. 9
never have come to an end, if the great majority of naturalists bad
not recognized the necessity of accepting the name given by tbe
discoverer of a plant, whenever the name is conformable to pre-
established rules. Priority should be a fixed and positive limita-
tion, which admits of nothing arbitrary or partial.
On the invitation of Alphonse De Candolle, an International
Botanical Congress was held in Paris in 1867, to which botanists
from all countries were invited, and the most importanl Bubjed
discussed was botanical nomenclature. Mr. A. De Candolle, author
of the " Prodromus," presided. He had drawn up a mosl carefully
considered code of rules to govern botanists in their writings, and
this code was submitted to the assemblage of botanists, each rule
being formulated and modified as the majority deemed wise. 1
nally the whole was printed and circulated. The fundamental prin-
ciple of these laws was priority of publication, with adequate de-
scriptions. Unfortunately it was made retrospective, without any
sufficiently defined statute of limitations. Among zoologists the
Stricklandian code governs — known as the "Rules of the British
Association." It was signed by Charles Darwin and Pre:
Hensley. A revision was made in 1860 by Mr. A. 1\. Wallace,
P. L. Clayton, Professor Balfour, Professor Huxley, Dr. J. D.
Hooker, and Mr. George Bentham. A still further revision of the
same occurred in 1865. In the preface to this code occurs this
sentence: " No one person can subsequently claim an authority
equal to that possessed by the person who is the first to define a
new genus or describe a new species."
The adoption of the Paris code did not meet an immediate
and universal acceptance. The conflict with the interests of
authors and publishers of works of great value, the issue of which
had been commenced and was still progressing, was a matter of
some consideration. The nonattendance of English botanists at
the Paris Congress was perhaps due to tins cause. The annoyance
created by such radical changes is a very gnat one, and a burden
pressing heavily upon the older botanists, who are n«>t bo well fitted
to recast their memories as the younger generations, who will reap
the benefit of the movement. There was also Borne friction with
us, even after the meeting of the American Association for t!
vancement of Science, held in August, L892. The botanical di-
vision adopted at this meeting the Paris code of L867, with Borne
modifications. At the following meeting, in Madison, W
1 0 Preface.
1893, an additional amendment was adopted, and a committee of
the association was appointed to elaborate a list of Pteridophyta
and Spermatophyta, growing without cultivation in Northeast-
ern North America. This work was subsequently published in 1894
as the fifth volume of the "Memoirs" of the Torrey Botanical
Club. The synonyms given under each species in this work in-
clude the recent current names, and thus avoid any difficulty in
identification.
The recently published volumes of " The Illustrated Flora " will,
on account of the helpfulness of the illustrations, soon find their
way to general favor as an indispensable guide for less expert col-
lectors, for which the innovation therein adopted has no harassing
inconvenience. In view of this prospect I have also, although re-
luctantly, adopted the new nomenclature. I have, furthermore,
given in this edition the English vernacular names and some
derived from the Aborigines, where such are known, but did not
think it proper to make, in their absence, English translations from
the Latin names. A general botanical and geological chorography
or natural aspect of the area precedes the systematic enumeration
of the species.
In the year 1890 my entire collection, the second largest herba-
rium in the South, came into the possession of the University of
Tennessee, at Knoxville, and as I cannot, by my advanced years,
expect to add much to its enlargement, I am happy to know it is
in hands under whose care it will be well preserved and utilized.
While the pursuit of botany never brought me any financial ad-
vantages, I acknowledge that it was a mighty protector in keeping
me out of the way of social corruption, and it gave me many hours
of the purest enjoyment of life and brought me into friendly re-
lations with many excellent men and women.
In order to gain a wider circle of readers and to give further in-
ducement to the study of botany, I have added an " Epitome of
the History of Botany/' a " Treatise on the Introduction of a For-
estry Policy in the United States','" and a " Treatise on Protoplasm
and Origin of Life."
A list of authors whose works have been consulted or literally
quoted is given at the end of the work.
I am well aware that there is much scope for improvement of this
work, and I turn to the younger generation of botanists, who can
work under more favorable conditions, soliciting their cooperation
in extending and perfecting it.
Very respectfully, A. GATTINGEE, M.D.
Areal Botany or Regional Distribution
of Plants*
Engaged with laurel, oak, and fir,
'Midst fern and sedge, the viler or the rare,
In dismal swamps, 'neath cypress grand and fair,
Where snakes and tangles bring despair;
On lofty crags, in clouded sphere,
Where eagles built their artless lair,
And, whistling, swing in upper air;
Onward, though of waning strength aware,
Seeking truth, with firm resolve 1 dare
To plead my right to reason, doubt, or err.
GENERAL ASPECT OF THE FLORA.
The boundaries of Tennessee are embraced within the great
Atlantic forest region. The whole of this territory was in Its
yirgin state, an immense expanse of varied woodlands, being in the
lowlands of dense and massive growth, filled with pathless jungles
of cane and shrub, or, away from the water courses, on the uplands,
reduced to open and airy groves (with great diversity of timbers ).
the barrens. Here a dense sward covers the ground and herba
growth prevails. Mountain forests are always of greater uniform-
ity in distribution of timbers.
Nearly one-third of the entire area is now reduced to fields
or occupied by buildings or roads. Canebrakes have well-nigh
disappeared, and the forest is in all accessible regions depleted of
valuable timber.
Immigration of foreign and retirement of native Bpecies con-
tinually modify the aboriginal flora and tend to weaken character-
istics due to presence of peculiar plant forms, or collocation of
species, by the intricacies of mutual predilection and adaptation to
surroundings.
Such areas, which differ among themselves conspicuously in
such properties, admit of the establishment of natural flora] ar-
rondissements.
Differences of elevation, diversity in elementary constitution
I have retained in this chapter the old nomenclature of Dra Oraj
and Chapman, for the benefit of those using their manuals.
D. H. HILL LIBRARY
North Carolina State College
12 Tennessee Flora.
of the soil, and inequality in distribution of atmospheric humidity
are, in our territory, sufficiently potent to mark out four distinct
regions :
I. The high crests of the Alleghany Mountains, formed of
Grauwake slates, gneiss, or mica schists, with an elevation of from
4,000 to 6,600 feet. Subalpine region.
II. The western slopes of the Alleghanies and their outlying
spurs, and the Cumberland Mountains. Sandstones and slates.
Mountain flora. Elevation, from 2,000 to 4,000 feet.
III. Valley flora, the lower division of which is coextensive with
the limestones (Silurian) of East and Middle Tennessee. Eleva-
tion, from 350 to 500 feet. The upper division, or highlands, has
siliceous and argillaceous soils, sometimes limestones of the sub-
carboniferous formation. Elevation, about 1,000 or 1,200 feet. The
former division is characterized through its cedar glades; the latter
is the region of the oak barrens.
IV. West Tennessee, situated between two powerful rivers,
with much level or only gently undulating surface, owes its pecul-
iarities to the abundance of swampy lands and predominantly
argillaceous soils, in connection with a in ore humid atmosphere.
SUBALPINE REGION.
The dividing line between the States of North Carolina and
Tennessee passes over and along the crest of the highest ridges
and peaks, known as the Unaka, Great Smoky, Bald, and Frog
Mountains. Their average elevation is about 5,000 feet, but about
twenty-two summits are 6,000 feet or more. The highest stretch
lies between the French Broad Eiver and the Little Tennessee
River, with fifty-five high points, eighteen of which are over 6,000
feet. ( !lingman's Dome, by a few feet the highest, rises to the very
respectable altitude of 6,600 feet above tide water, according to the
measurements of Prof. Arnold Guiot, of Princeton, N. J. (Vide
American Journal of Science, September, 1857, and November,
1860.) Geologically they consist of Huronian schists and gneisses,
and in some spots of Laurentian granites.
Not one of these high crests presents a bleak crag, bare of
vegetation, nor is there a timber line. Some are evenly timbered
throughout, others support only a scattered and stunted arboreal
growth, and some bear only a low shrubby or herbaceous vegeta-
tion. The absence of timber on the so-called " Balds " is perhaps
Tennessee Flora. 18
due to waves of excessive cold; such, at least. Beem the dead trunks.
looming up here and there, to suggest.
. VALLEY LANDS.
If you approach the mountains of East Tennessee from their
western slope, taking a direct course eastward, traveling from
Cleveland along the road which leads to the copper mines in Polk
County, you are constantly uphill and downhill for nearly fifteen
miles, intersecting a series of low parallel ridges. The soil is
directly derived from the underlying rock, one of the Lowesl mem-
bers of the Silurian formation, and only very small strips of allu-
vium line the few streamlets which you have to cross. Along t In-
line is also the watershed, between the Tennesse'c River system and
the Coosa River. It belongs mainly to that class of kind which, all
over the State, is not very favorably known as gravelly hills, from a
superficial covering of sharp cherty or dolomitic gravels of all
sizes, generally small, but often also protruding in dykelike masses.
Magnesian and siliceous rocks, no matter to which geological age
they may belong, are, all the world over, the most unavailing min-
eral constituents of soil, and, for the lack of alkali and phosphates,
are soon exhausted by crops which consume much of these element-.
The generally thin covering of humus supports a meager herbage,
and cattle have to be on their feet all the while in defense againsi
starvation. Black-jack oaks, Spanish oak, black oak, sourwood,
dogwood, slim chestnuts, loblolly pine, scrub pine, and lure and
there a yellow pine which has escaped the ax, make up the !
which, throughout this region, is stripped of the merchantable
timber. I have, myself, within thirty-five years, witnessed the rise
and fall of this empire. The short space of time which passed be-
tween the first harvest and hopeless abandonment had not vet
prostrated all the dead timber girdled in the firsl clearing, when
the returns became too small to pay for the expense el* cultivation.
Stunted sassafras and persimmon, here and there a. loblolly pine.
sumacs (Rhus glabra and copallina), are the growth by which
regenerating nature tries to reclaim those ruined lands. The herb-
age consists generally of very humble plants: the buttonweed
(Diodia teres), Virginia plantain (Plantago Virginica) , the flow-
ering spurge {Euphorbia corollot 'a) , butterfly weed (Asclepias ////"-
rosa), two species of broom grass (Andropogon Vvrgimcus and
parius), the foxtail grass (Setaria glauca ). the poverty gri
14 Tennessee Flora.
tida dichotoma), the common evening primrose (CEnothera bien-
nis), the mullein (Verbascum thapsus), the never-failing ragweed
(Ambrosia artemisicBfolia) , a few solidagos and asters (Aster eri-
coides and dumosus), constitute the larger herbs. In places the
ground is spread over by the prostrate low blackberry (Rubus trivi-
alis), or cinquel'oil (Potentilla Canadensis), while the high black-
berry ( Huh us ri/losus) replaces former fence rows. Cattle find an
insufficient support from browsing on the Japan bush clover (Lespe-
deza striata), white and yellow clover (Trifolium repens and pro-
cumbens), and about two nutritious grasses, the crop grass (Pani-
cum digitarid), and a species of paspalum. The botanist finds but
few rarer species to compensate him for his exertions, and rejoices
to find himself at last in full sight of the mountains, in descending
the eastern slope of a ridge which borders the Ocoee Eiver. This
broad mountain stream, swiftly gliding over his pebbly bed, is
skirted by a stately and diversified growth of timber — Herculean
sycamores and massive cottonwoods, immense lindens and pop-
lars, slippery and white elms, ashes, white walnut, and box elder
of stately growth. The water oak and willow oak (Quercus aquat-
ica and Quercus phellos), with elegant outline and glistening color
of foliage, are contrasted by the chalk-white trunks of the gray
birch (Betula lutea), with ever-tremulous foliage, on delicate
sprigs. Xow and then a holly (Ilex opaca), silver-bell tree (Ha-
lesia tetraptera), and an umbrella tree (Magnolia umbrella) pre-
sent themselves as outliers from the upper regions. Crossing the
river, the romantic hamlet, Parksville, is soon reached, the gateway
to the great mountains, opening between two mighty pillars, the
Chilhowee Mountain to the left or north side, and the Bound Moun-
tain to the right or south side. Before reaching the milldam, the
last ledges of chert and dolomite are passed, andquarziteandsiliceo-
argillaceous conglomerates are the country rocks. Narrow but
rich bottoms, encompassed by high and steep mountain sides, the
latter heavily timbered, give room for small and scattered farms,
well cared for and successfully managed.
MOUNTAIN FLORA.
The lower mountain flora is spreading around on all sides,
clothed in deeper green or gaudier coloriners. As we ascend the
river, which gushes with deafening roar from shoal to shoal, we
discern how every submerged rock is densely coated with a rough,
Tennessee Flora. l G
wool-like growth, an inch or two long, threadlike, the flowers the
size of pin heads, the mountain river weed (Podostemon fl6-
rotanoides), pondweeds float in loner streamers (Pcdamogeton
hybridus, Potamogeton Claytorvi). An endless variety of shrub-
bery constitutes the undergrowth. The Kalmia {Kalmia lati-
folia), worthy companion to the great mountain laurel (Rhodo-
dendron maximum), and four azaleas, equally beautiful (the fra-
grant clammy azalea), merit the highest praise and are very abun-
dant. Various other kinds of the heath family, with white and
bell-shaped flowers and evergreen foliage, are characteristic features
of the scenery. Foremost, the dense masses of Leucothoe ( '"'■
a tall shrub with wand-shaped, recurved branches and dense pen-
dulous racemes, exhaling the odor of chestnut flower-: Leucothoe
recurva, the Andromeda floribunda, and the white alder (Clethra
acuminata) , either as bush or small tree, all belong to this type.
A singular and unparalleled display is reserved for the untiring
botanist if he climbs to the highest cliffs of the Chilhowee, from
whence at one glance he can survey the whole valley of Easl Tennes-
see until his eye meets, in the smoky distance, the rectilinear coarse
of Walden's Eidge. At an elevation of about 2,500 feet he descries
along vertical cliffs of Potsdam sandstone, dense groves of the
fringe tree (Chicmanthus Vvrginica), in greater vigor and alum-
dance of flowers than he had ever before witnessed. Several rare
ferns grow in the crevices,, such as the woolly-leafed Cheilanthea
(Chil. tomentosa) , grayish green on the upper surface ami rusty
•colored underneath; the Cheilanthes vestita,, <>f similar habit, luit
not quite so attractive; the neat little Asplenium Trichomanes and
Asplenium montanum. Polpyodium vulgare and incanum ami
some larger species of Phcgopteris and Aspidium abound. < Irchids
of rare beauty nestle in the deep mold — Bl&tia aphylla, Goodyera,
pubescens, Pogonia ophioglossoides and verticillata, Cypripediutn
spectabile, acaule and pubescens.
From the twelfth to the sixteenth mile above Parksville, the
canon cuts through the highest part of the Big Prog Mountain and
opens out into a rugged plateau or l>a>in formed of micaceous,
copper-bearing rocks. From Greasy Creek, three miles above
Parksville, to the Mundic Bluff, which is within the hearl of the
great mountain chain, dark-colored, argillaceous or roofing slates,
porphyritic from disseminated cubes of pyrites, and grayish mica-
ceous slates build up the towering and grotesque masses and
16 Tennessee Flora.
which lead up to the ridgelike summit. An untouched virgin
forest covers these slopes — principally splendid white pines, mixed
with some yellow pine, and in low and sandy spots also scrub pine.
In very moist places, immediately at the foot of ridges or vertical
precipices, where deep beds of mold accumulate, the hemlock
spruce (Abies Canadensis) reaches 160 feet, and probably over, and
a diameter of six feet. Prostrate and decaying trunks are com-
pletely wrapped up in mosses, liverworts, and lichens, for which this
region is a selected homestead. Embedded in the soft pillows of
moss, some delicate, shade-loving plants enjoy a well-protected and
concealed existence — the mountain bluets (Honstonia serpylli-
folia), the frail and subtle Circaea alpina, the Canada and downy
yellow violet (Viola Canadensis and Viola pubescens) , and the span-
high Mitella diphylla, or miter wort, with a spike of white flowers,
followed by miter-shaped seed capsules. The wood sorrel (Oxalis
Acetosella) , and the low-creeping partridge berry nestle close and
snug in cushions of sphagnum, hypnum, and climacium. Above
Mundic Bluff a granitoid, heavy bedded rock sets in. It is of gray-
ish color, hard, and but little prone to weathering (Grauivake) . A
thin crust of soil which has formed upon it supports a grayish-
green club moss (Sclaginella torlipila) , a low and diffusely-
branched willow grass (Vraba ramosissima) , the shrubby St.
Johmswort (Hypericum BucMcyi). Where the debris has accu-
mulated, and water trickles down from the overhanging cliffs, there
nod the golden panicles of the Lysimachia Fraseri, and the climb-
ing shrub Decumaria barbara drapes the walls.
THE BIG FROG MOUNTAIN.
A short distance up the road, the river must again be forded to
reach some secluded mountain homes called " Beyers Settlement,"
from whence the ascent of the mountain is most direct and easiest.
I made the ascent in July, 1878, in company with some young
friends and a guide. At an elevation of about 2,000 feet, with the
Big Frog mountain right before us, we started at four o'clock in the
evening, prepared to camp out at least one night. The entire party
was on foot, a mule carrying the package. A somewhat level place,
about two-thirds up the mountain, called the " Sugar Orchard,"
from the sugar maples which cover this place, was chosen for the
camping place, and early in the morning we accomplished the as-
cent.
Tennessee Flora. it
At this altitude, from camp to summit, from 3,500 to near •'•
feet, the reduction of mean temperature corresponds aboul with the
mean temperature of the latitude of Northern Ohio, a differei
eight degrees of latitude. Various shruhe and herbaceous plants,
which are indigenous to the latter region, and do not uow inhabit
the intervening territory, luxuriate in this coo] and cloud-enveloped
zone. The glory of the prairies has passed away in the Middle and
Northern States, but their untainted splendor survives here in these
untrodden mountain meadows, although very limited in extent.
Trees become scarce and more scattered, with greai bald Bpaces
between, with very low trunks in proportion to size of limb and
crown. The chestnuts ramify so close to the ground thai the lower
limbs can be grasped with the hand. The varieties on the sum in it
are chestnut, red oak, yellow birch, mountain maple (Acer spica-
tum}) mountain ash (Pyrus Americana), white and v<<] cherry
(Prunus Pennsylvania!), and chock cherry (Primus Virginiana).
Of shrubs, we find the round-leafed currant (Ribes rotundifolium i.
two or three species of blueberries (Vaccinium hirsutum and /'< nn-
sylvanicum), the creeping wintergreen (GauLtheria procuml
arborescent azalea (Azalea arborescent) , Stuartia (Stuartia pen-
tagyna), and two species of holly (Ilex monticola and Ilex mollis),
and a low, grayish willow (Salix humilis).
The gems of .this great conservatory, however, are the herba-
ceous plants, which thrive here with unusual vigor. The Carolina
lily, with stems seven feet high, surrounded by a pyramidal raceme
of deep orange and black-spotted blossoms, often as many as
twenty-five, is very abundant; likewise the Melanthium Virgimcum,
five to six feet high, with hundreds of small, star-shaped, cream-
colored flowers in an immense spreading panicle; the Stenanthium
augustifolium, also a liliaceous plant, resembling the former, flow-
ers greenish white, in a tall raceme; the purple flowering raspberry
(Eubus odoratus), with simple five-lobed leaves and coryn
large, showy, purple blossoms, the whole plain very fragranl and
clammy. The cow parsnip (Heracleum lanatum) spreads its
and woolly leaves broadly over the ground, and lifts its flat umbels
above a man's head. White and yellow Baptisiaa and i
tea (Monarch, didyma) contribute freely to this unaurpaflsab
play. The blue joint grass (Galamagrostis Canadensis) and the
Muhleribergia Willdenovii arc the principal grasses, both tall and
18 Tennessee Flora.
slender. A pleasantly odorous fern (Dicksonia punctilobula) and
Aspidium spinulosum cover moist depressions of the ground.
SMOKY MOUNTAINS.
A type of flora somewhat different from this from the admixture
of truly Alpine or high Northern plant forms crowns the still loftier
summits of the Smoky Mountains and the Eoane Mountain. The
mountain defiles and coves on Doe River and Watauga River are
traversed by a narrow-gauge railroad, which presently terminates
at the Cranberry Iron Works, and a stage road leads up to Cloud-
land, a mountain resort on the summit of Roane Mountain, at an
altitude of 6,600 feet. Yellow and white pine, and also the table-
mountain pine (Pinus pun gens) predominate on the mountain
sides ; but white oak, chestnut, cherry, sugar maple, and also walnut
and hickories, strong and densely grown, hold the lower grounds
and river banks. In these moist and shady gorges abounds the
Dicentra eximia, a beautiful plant. It is a variety of the bleeding
heart, a well-known garden ornament. The Adlumia cirrhosa, or
climbing fumitory, a very graceful plant, also frequently cultivated
in gardens, yet common in Northern New York and the Western
States, accompanies the former. A peculiar and very rare shrub,
not known elsewhere, the Buckleya distichophylla, and the oilnut
(Pyrularia oleifera), the beaked hazelnut (Corylus rostrata), the
scrub oak (Quercus ilicifolia), and other shrubs which are also
common in the Ocoee region form the undergrowth. The smooth-
leaved Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia Sipho), the climbing bitter-
sweet (Celastrus scandens), two species of. Lonicera, and the bush
honeysuckle {Dier villa sessilifolia) are lovely and odd-shaped
climbers or bushes. Magnolia Fraseri abounds here. It is beyond
the scope of this sketch to enumerate the species for which the high
summits are famous among botanists. The discovery of the sand
myrtle (Leiophyllum buxifolium) , a native of the sandy pine bar-
rens of New Jersey, on the summit of Roane Mountain, is a curious
incident in plant geography. Rhododendron Catawliense, several
Saxifragas and Solidago §lommerta, monticola, spithamea, the
Diphylleia cymosa, Chelono Lyoni, Cardamine Clematitis, Paro-
nychia argyrocoma, Sedum Rhodiola, Geum radiatum, Geum ge-
niculatum, Boykinia aconitifolia may serve as examples of rare
plants.
Another range of mountain flora we find in the Cumberland
Thinnesses Flora. 19
Mountains. Selecting the Lookout near Chattanooga for a type,
we find its summit wooded with Quercus Prinus, Quercus rubra,
Quercus alba, Quercus obtusiloba, and Quercus rrigra; Pinus mops,
Pinus Tceda, Pinus mitis; Betula lutea, Gleditsehm, Irianuitlms,
Robinia Pseudacacia, several Caryas and C. microcarpa among
them. Of -shrubs: Robinia hispida, Diervilla rivularis, Hex mollis,
Stuartia pentagyna. Hydrangea radiata, and again (bul very rare)
Buckleya distichophylla, Nemopanthes Canadensis, and in a swamp
Dirca palustris. Of herbaceous plants: Utricularia gibba, luncus
Canadensis, and Arundinaria tecta. On flat rocks: Diamorpha
pusilla, Fimbristylis capillaris, Kriyia Virginica, Arenaria glabra.
On the cliffs of the crest : 8tipaavenacea,8Uene rottfndifolia, Linaria
Canadensis, Campanula divaricata, Thalictrum clavatum. Near
the base of the mountain, on limestone ledges: Gah'sia. hictn-in /<■<.
Callicarpa Americana, Triosteum perfoliatum, Silphium brachi-
atum. The Cumberlands excel the Alleghaniea in a greater variety
of ferns. Besides all species of the latter, we also find here As*
plenium Bradleyi, Asplenium pinnatifidmn, Lygodium palmatum,
.Scolopendrium vulgare, and Trichomanes radicans, Asplenium ri-
ride, Adiantum ca pill us Veneris.
MIDDLE TENNESSEE.
The next division embraces the valley of East Tennessee and
the entire area of Middle Tennessee. Contour of surface and
geological structure result in Easf Tennessee from the combined
processes of folding and erosion, whereby heterogeneous Btrata are
placed in juxtaposition, the whole valley being an often-repeated
series of synclinals and anticlinals of calcareous and siliceous rocks,
while in Middle Tennessee erosion alone had been at play.
A great fault connected with the upheaval of the Pine and
Grab Orchard Mountains, and in a line south of it. an eroded an-
ticlinal, the Sequatchie Valley, designate in the Cumberland Moun-
tain region the western terminus of those convulsions which in-
volve the problem of the stratographv of the Alleghanies in so
difficulties. West of this line spread out the horizontal Btrata of
the Cumberland table-land, which terminates with an abrupl de-
scent of about 1,000 feet upon the highlands of Middle Tenn<
These in turn overreach and encircle the floor of the basin of Middle
Tennessee by from 500 to 600 feet, either in a bluff or through a
gradual descent.
20 Tennessee Flora.
The succession of strata is normal throughout: Uppermost sub-
carboniferous limestone and chert, followed by the Devonian shale;
lastly, the lower Silurian.
Irregular basins, crossed and intersected by ridges of from 400 to
600 feet elevation, and this lower terrace again girded by a plateau,
is the outline of Middle Tennessee. This shape of surface is the
effect of unequal erosion through differently constituted strata.
This agency has been in bygone epochs, probably during the Cham-
plain, much more energetically at work than at the present day.
Some superficial gravel beds and the iron ores in the western part
of Middle Tennessee have probably been deposited at this period.
The floor of this denudation lies either in the Nashville (Hudson)
or Trenton limestone, while the hilltops are Devonian or subcarbon-
iferous shales or chert, sometimes sandstones. The limestones pro-
duce the strongly calcareous, very productive soil of the lower
grounds. The disintegration of the Devonian shales resulted into
strata of heavy, impermeable beds of clay or loams, and the con-
comitant swampy lands and the cherty and siliceous beds have
yielded the angular gravels of the poor hilltops. The difference
of elevation is so slight that it cannot essentially affect vegetation,
and the greater or less adaptation only of plants to certain soils
causes their appearance or disappearance at the limits of particular
geological areas. The phosphatic rocks belong to this group.
Alluvium is restricted to river and creek bottoms. The heavy
and fertile clay soils of the uplands are the insoluble residuum of
the fossiliferous, argillaceous limestones, with more or less com-
plete lixiviation of the lime by atmospheric precipitations. In the
midst of these is a third class of soil, of black color, full of bog iron
ore in the shape of rounded grains. Sulphurated ferrugineous
springs, decomposition of pyritical limestones, accompanied by
perennial growth of cane, have, as it seems, generated it.
Increase in annual range of temperature and greater dryness
of air, as compared with the former regions, cause the mountain
flora to disappear and to yield to other designs in nature's garb.
A close botanical inquiry into the array of species soon discloses
the fact that different assemblies of species congregate in the lime-
stone and argillaceo-siliceous region. The former includes the
glades ; the latter, the barrens, of Middle Tennessee.
Glades are thinly-wooded, unarable lands, with shallow soils,
fit only for pastures. They ought to remain in their natural state,
Tennessee Flora. 21
undisturbed by cultivation. To clear them La to convert them into
deserts. In some parts they are exclusively occupied by the cedar,
with a small percentage of deciduous trees intermingled.
Trees distinguishing this ground and region are the overcup
oak (Querent lyrata), bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), in moist
soils; the water Spanish oak (Quercus Texana), in wel land-.
The former two are the largest of our oaks. The yellow chestnut
oak (Quercus Muhlenbergii) grows in wel and dry soil. The shin-
gle oak (Quercus imbricaria), with undivided lanceolate leaves, like
the willow, makes a large, well-shaped, and very ornamental tree.
White oaks, post oaks, black oaks, and red oaks are equally dissemi-
nated. Elms, very large and numerous, add four species. Two va-
rieties of shellbark hickory belong to rich bottoms, and mocker-nut
and pignut hickory to the hills. The pecan nut (Ccvrya olivceformis )
occurs here and there in single old trees, probably planted by
settlers. Black walnut (Juglans nigra) has formerly been co-
pious; white-walnut is scattered along the river and creek banks
and swamps. The Ohio buckeye abounds on the north Bide of
Cumberland Eiver. In Hadley's Bend, near Edgefield Junction,
are groves of holly with 20-inch diameter of trunk. Catalpas are
Tare, but the yellow wood (Virgilia lutea) and the coffee t ree I Qym-
nocladus Canadensis) are very numerous on the rich hillsides Bouth
of Nashville. Altogether, we have about one hundred different
kinds of timber in the immediate vicinity of Nashville.
The climbing form of growth is an eminently Southern type, lov-
ing rich soils and moisture, addicted to the forest which it is des-
tined to embellish. Multiform ligneous and herbaceous climbers,
stragglers, and creepers tangle and barricade the woodland-. Five
different grapevines fill the air in May with the sweet fragrai
their flowers — the summer grape (Vitis CBstivalis) on dry or
ground; the winter grape (Vitis cordifolia) on rich and moist
lands, especially river banks. A variety of tin- with lobed ■
(Vitis riparia) grows copiously on Mill Creek. The rock e
(Vitis rupestris), on rocky bluffs, is a Western species, not discov-
ered before east of the Mississippi. All these hear edible fruit, and
are serviceable for root grafting with imported varieties, such vines
being more resistant to the aggression of the root phylloxera. Two
species with inedible fruit (Vitis indivisa and Vitis bipinnaia)
may also be mentioned. The woolly-leaved Dutchman's pipe I
tolochia tomentosa), the wistaria, the bignonia, and the trui
22 Tennessee Flora.
flower bear beautiful or curiously-shaped flowers, but the unsightly
smilax threatens with his thorns the vexed explorer.
Several plants held for exclusively Western have lately been
observed around Nashville. The Solarium rostratum — from the
tribe of the Irish potato — with golden flowers, foliage like the
watermelon, elegant looking, but unapproachable from the prickles
and thorns with which it is beset all over, is such an intruder, and
a very undesirable one, being an inexterminable, all-spreading weed;
Oenothera triloba, a. dwarfish evening primrose, not more than a
span high, with large yellow flower, a common plant on the plains;
and some other less conspicuous weeds. Where the soil thins out,
leaving here and there the rock exposed, or where from the collapse
of subterranean cavities the strata are tumbled about in confusion
and earth and humus irregularly distributed, there the heavier
timber growth gives out, and the cedar is the predominant growth.
Its far-searching roots descend into the crevices and cavities of the
age-worn rock. The somber tint of the cedar delineates a cedar-
barren from its surroundings at a distance, and serves within its'.
environs to bring out with dazzling vividness the beautiful green
of the glade grass, aglow with rose-colored petalestemons, sky-blue
lobelias, golden Leavenworthias, Schoenoliriums and shrubby hy-
perieums. The pink stonecrop, Sedum pulchellum, covers acres of
surface, yielding again to equal profusion of the delicate white-
Arenaria (Arenaria patula), or a low, purple-flowered skullcap
(Scutellaria nervosa). The Talinum teretijolium, span high, with
fleshy leaves like a portulaca, the flower resembling the bloom of
a phlox, but of the purest carmine, finds room for its tuberous root-
lets in the smallest fissures. It will bear transplanting even while
flowering, and grows well in the garden. Cream-colored and blue
astragals (Astragalus Plattensis and Astragalus caryocarpus) , and
a purple, large-flowered, and prostrate psoralea (Psoralea suba-
caulis), phacelias, the blue false indigo (Baptisia australis),
bluets, and the Carolina anemone (Houstonia patens, Anemone
Caroliniana), verbenas, violets (especially the pansylike Viola
pedata var, bicolor), the dwarf heliotrope (Heliotr -opium tenellum),
the pale purple Phlox Stellaria (which deserves a bed in every gar-
den), and many, many more assemble — a natural conservatory that
could fearlessly challenge any flower garden in the combined effect
of gayety and luxuriance. For truth, my honored Tennessee
friends, go and see, and learn to appreciate and to preserve such
Tennessee Flora.
great ornaments of your native land. I cannol dwell longi
this point; suffice it to say that the above are only a i'-w of the most
obvious spring flowers, and thai every succeeding season has its
own peculiar growth. The hop tree (Ptelea trifoliata), fragranl
sumac (Rhus aromatica), Carolina buckthorn (Frangula Caro-
liniana), Forestiera ligustrina, delightfully fragrant when flower-
ing in July, the Callicarpa, with clusters of rosy flowers and violet
berries, and several kinds of hawthorn, are the characteristic shrubs
of these barrens. Hackberry, honey locust, winged elm, posl oak
and shingle oak intermingle in limited oumbers with th«- cedar.
The siliceous and argillaceous soils which surround tin- Silurian
formation correspond to the cherty strata of the subcarboniferous
and the blue or black shales of the Devonian formation. The for-
mer is commonly called "gravelly hills," and support- a n
and monotonous vegetation. Black-jack oak, Spanish oak, red oak.
and black oak are prevailing, especially the former two. Posl oak
and white oak attain only medium size. Chestnut, sourwood, mock-
er-nut and pignut hickory are the principal t rees. The shrubbery is
represented by the farkleberry (Vaccinium wrboreum), deerberry
(Vaccinium stamineum), black huckleberry (Oaylussacia
nosa),, Kalmias, purple azalea, chinquapin chestnut (Castanea
puniUa), Xew Jersey tea (Cean-othus Americantts) and an im-
mense amount of dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina), Lespedezas and
Desmodimus, and later in the season several species of Coreopsis
and Solidago. The common bra.ke (Pterin aquilina) and the
beech fern (Phegopteris hexagonoptera) grow aboundantly. The
sandy, loamy, or argillaceous soils of the shale contain some valu-
able farming lands, but a good deal of it is either too light or too
wet. The underlying slate seems to form impermeable strata, and
in winter and spring large tracts of land are covered with shallow
ponds, which disappear only from evaporation in the summer and
autumn. These strata, underlie the Oak Barrens (Tullahoma).
The vegetation is diversified and very interesting. The forest.con-
tains a good selection of hardwoods, and the trees attain a
good size. Water oak, willow oak. and white oak grow v.rv
sweet gum and black gum, in abundance; poplar- and beech s,
as many as in the calcareous soils: cedars, only solitary and rare;
pines and firs, none at all. There are neither pines Qor firs the
whole length of distance from Pulaski to Elizabethtown, Dear
Louisville, Ky., nor are any found for a greal distance easl or \\< b1
24 Tennessee Flora.
of this line (Nashville and Decatur Railroad). The scrub pine is
the only species I ever observed in Middle Tennessee. I found it
sparingly and confined to a limited belt in the hills around the
confluence of the Harpeth and Turnbull Rivers, in Dickson County.
Shrubs which are especially addicted to the Oak Barrens are the
large-flowering hydrangea {Hydrangea radiata, at the Cataract, in
Tullahoma), ltea, with small white flowers in drooping racemes;
calycanthus, or Carolina allspice; service berry (Amelanchier Can-
adensis), the narrow-leaved crabapple (Pyrus angustifolia), hazel-
nut (Oorylus Americana) , and in wet lands the button bush (Ceph-
alanthus occidentalis) , chockberry (Pyrus arbutifolia) , arrow-
wood (Viburnum nudum) , Southern buckthorn (Bumelia lycioides),
smooth alder (Alnus serrulata), dwarf gray willow (Salix tristis).
The moist woodlands and swamps abound in showy orchids, lilia-
ceae, and aquatic plants. Three species of flags (Iris versicolor,
Iris Virginica, Iris cristata) , Turk's cap lily (Lilium superbum) ,
blackberry lily (Pardanthus chinensis), Zygadenus limantlnoides ,
narrow-leaved false hellebore (Stenanthium angustifohum) , fly
poison (Amiantliium muscaetoxicum) . Several species of or-
chids : Habenaria, Pogonia, Corallorrhiza, Calopogon, and Cypri-
pedium; various Sabbathias, a host of Pycnanthemums, Asters,
Gerardias, Helianthus, button snake roots (Liatris sqwarrosa, Lia-
tris graminifolia) , and some very elegant grasses, the woolly beard-
gross (Erianthus alopecuriodes, Eriantlms brevibarbis, and Erian-
thus strictus), Indian grass (Sorghum nutans), wood reedgrass
(Cinna arundinacea) . Among ferns we find a stately growth of
Osmundas, especially the Osmunda regalis and Claytoniana, attain-
ing three to five feet; the chain fern (Woodwardia angustifolia),
Aspidium Goldieanum, also becoming sometimes four feet high;
sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis). Rushes, sages, and grasses pre-
sent themselves in interminable succession to the well-trained bota-
nist who understands how to distinguish them.
WEST TENNESSEE.
The Tennessee River very nearly indicates in its northern
course a geological division, flowing, as it does, along an ancient
Devonian and Silurian shore line. A few miles west and parallel
with the river rises the eastern escarpment of an undulating plateau
of from only 200 to 300 feet elevation above the waters of the Ten-
nessee River. This irregular table-land slopes gradually toward
Tennessee Flora.
the Mississippi River and terminates there in another bluff, which
rises about 200 feet over the floods of the Mississippi. The eastern
portion of this area is composed of cretaceous deposits, and the
western portion is composed of tertiary and post-tertiary dep
either sands or soft cretaceous shala Solid, often ferruginous,
sandstones appear at the surface, scattered in Lncohereni masi
We behold no longer limpid streams, rippling over rocky bot-
toms, sided by cliffs and bluffs. Instead of them, we find lag
and swampy borders, stretching along muddy-looking waters of
sluggish streams.
From distance already, before crossing the Tennessee River, we
are in sight of towering cypresses. While a thousand miles
from here they yet occupy the shore line of the Atlantic, here the
shore line has receded to the Gulf and left the cypress behind. Their
dimensions are truly enormous. The far-spreading roots emerge
like sharp-backed ridges from the brownish Lagoon, gradually creep-
ing up and girding with buttresslike projections the many-angled
column. A perpendicular shaft ascends to a height of from I
150 feet and then spreads in a flat or hemispherical crown. Such I
have seen, in 1864-70, near Johnsonville. Cypress BwampE
along both big rivers, and many other extensive Bwamps and
swampy lands are along every wafer course — the most, perhaps,
along Big Sandy. It may, therefore, be expected that a great many
more aquatic species and such as inhabit marshy land- exisl in this
region than in either East or Middle Tennessee. Mv own experi-
ence is, however, limited and restricted to one point on the M —
sippi River — the regions of Brownsville. Humboldt. McKenzie,
Hollow Rock, and Johnsonville, in which place- I have made inter-
esting collections.
In the cypress swamps and boggy lowlands we find the planer
tree, or water elm (Planera aquatica) : the cypress ( Taxodium dis-
tichum),the stateliest of our timber trees; the Bwamp locusl I
ditschia monosperma) ; the tupelo gums (Xifssn. sylvatica and
Nyssa aquatica) ; the mountain sweet pepper bush (Cle4hra acumi-
nata), so frequent in the mountains of Kast Tennessee, Inn rare
in Middle and West Tennessee: the Bwamp white i
bicolor), the black alder (Ilex verticillata) , the Bwamp holly
decidua), intertwined with the climbing bittersweei (Cekutrus
scandens), and the supple-jack (Berchemia volvbUis). Two
thorns (Rhamnus Carolirtiana and Rhamntu lana <</<//</) are
D. H. HILL LIBRARY
26 Tennessee Flora.
very frequent in the bottoms. One of the showiest shrubs of this
region, the lately-discovered Hypericum lobocarpum, which would
make a splendid adornment of every garden, grows copiously
around Hollow Rock. It makes a flat-topped bush from six to
eight feet high. In the swamps float the water shields (Brasenia
peltata and Cabomba Caroliniana), while the water chinquapin
(Nelumbo lutea) rears its big, peltate foliage and large, sulphur-
yellow flowers high above the brownish waters of the lagoon.
Of other frequent aquatics I may only mention the Limnantlie-
mum lacunosum, Ranunculus multifhdus, Utricularia biflora. Spe-
cies of Lemna, Wolffia, and the neat Azolla cast a green veil over
the quiet pools. The Indian rye {Zizania aquatica), a tall grass,
which the Indians used to harvest, using the grains for meal, is
here in its proper sphere, and its tall heads look down upon patches
of sword lilies, Iris cuprea, and Iris hexagona; and all the swampy
flats are filled with Scirpus debilis, Carices, and Rhynchosporas.
On higher grounds congregate Dalea alopecuroides, Galium Ar-
hansanum, Erynqium prostratum, MarshaUia lanceolata, Ambrosia
bidentata, Helenium tenuifolium, Senecio lobatus, Hydrolea af-
finis, Verbena striata, Polypremum procumbens, Stillingia syl-
vatica, Lithospermum angustifolium, Habenaria virescens, Juncus
militariSj Spartina cynosuroides, Aristida ramosissima.
From the suburbs of Memphis I received the elegant Erogrostis
oxylepis. On the sandy shores of the Mississippi River abounds a
species of horsetail, the Eguisetum robustum, and the invidious
burgrass that sticks to clothing and spoils the vlieses of the sheep
with its sticky spikes. (Cenchrus tribidoides.)
Synopsis of the Flora of Tennessee.
Arranged according to the system of Engler and Prantlt in their
44 Naturliche Pflanzenfamilien."
BOTANICAL TEXT-BOOKS AND LITERATURE CONSULTED.
"Synoptical Flora of North America." By Asa Gray. (As far as out.)
New York. 1884.
"The Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States and Canada." By
Nathaniel Britton and Hon. Addison Brown. Three volumes. New
York. 1896.
"The Grasses of Tennessee." By F. Lamson Scribner. Two parts.
Knoxville. 1894.
"A Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States." By Asa Gray.
Fifth edition. 1886.
"Flora of the Southern United States, with Supplement." By A. W.
Chapman. New York. 1870.
"Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. III., No. 1." Report on the
"Flora of Western North Carolina." By John K. Small and A. A.
Heller. New York. 1892. Report on the "Botanical Expedition of
Southwestern Virginia. " By John K. Small and Anna Murray Vail.
New York. 1893.
"Biltmore Botanical Studies, Vol. I., No. 1." By C. D. Beadle and C. L.
Boynton. London. 1901.
"Studies on Crataegus, Vols. I. and II." By C. D. Beadle. Chicago.
1899.
Tennessee Flora. 27
pteridophyta:
OPHIOGLOSSACE.E Presl.
OPHIOGLOSSUM L.
1. Ophioglossum vulgatum L. Adder's-tongue. In moisl
spots in the cedar glades at Lavergne, Williamson County.
May, June.
BOTRYCHIUM Sw. Schrad.
i. Botrychium ternatum (Thunb) Sw. Moonwort, grape
fern. O. S. May, June. M.
2. B. Virginianum (L) Sw. Rich, moist woods. ( ). S.
May.
3. B. dissectum Sprengel. With the former. May. June.
OSMUNDACE^: R. Br.
OSMUNDA L.
1. Osmunda regalis L. Royal fern. Bogs and swamps,
mountains and lowlands. Frequent. O. S. May. June. .1/.
2. O. cinnamomea L. Cinnamon fern. In marshes, high
grounds or low grounds. O. S. May-July.
3. O. Claytoniana L. Cumberland and Alleghany Moun-
tains. May, June.
HYMENOPHYLLACE.E Gaud.
TRICHOMANES L.
Trichomanes radicans Sw. Bristle fern. Underneath wet.
shelving rocks. Sewanee. June, July.
SCHIZAEACEJE Reichenh.
LYGODIUM Sw. Schrad.
1. Lygodium palmatum (Bernh.) Sw. Climbing fern.
Cumberland Mts. Rockwood. Graborchard. Piney Falls,
Mrs. Bennett. July, August.
POLYPODIACE.i: R. Br.
ONOCLEA L.
1. Onoclea sensibilis L. Wet meadow- and borders
ponds. O. S. June.
2. O. sensibilis obtusilobata Torr. Williamson County.
July, August.
♦Arranged after W. R. Maxon's List of Ferns of North America in
Smithsonian Publications, No. 1226, May. 1901.
28 Tennessee Flora.
WOODSIA R. Br\
i. Woodsia Ilvenis R. Br. Knox Count v. A. Ruth. June,.
July.
2. W. obtusa (Spreng.) Torr. Very common. O. S.
July, August.
DENNSTAEDTIA Bernh.
Dennstaedtia punctilobula (Michx.) Moore. Dicksonia
punctilobula L'Her. Higher Cumberland and Alleghanies.
Piney Falls. Mrs. Bennett. August.
FILIX Adans.
Filix bulbifera (L.) Underw. Cystopteris bulifera Bernh.
Shady cliffs around Nashville, Cumberland Mts. July.
F. fragilis (L.) Underw. Cystopteris fragilis Bernh. Moun-
tains and lowlands. O. S. May-July.
POLYSTICHUM Roth.
Polystichum acrostichoides (Michx.) Kuntze. Dryopteris
acrostichoides Kuntze. Christmas fern. Very common.
O. S. June-August.
DRYOPTERIS Adans.
Dryopteris Novaeboboracensis A. Gray. Moist grounds in
the oak barrens of M. Tenn. Tullahama. July-September.
D. thelypteris (L.) Asa Gray. Knoxville, L. F. Scribner.
June, July.
D. Goldieana (Hook.) A. Gray. .'Aspidium Goldieanum
Hook. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Frequent. July,
August.
D. marginalis (L.) A. Gray. Aspidium marginale Sw.
Over the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Leaves evergreen.
July, August. M.
D. spinulosa (Retz.) Kuntze. Smoky Mts.
D. spinulosa intermedia (Miihl.) Underwood. Wolf Creek.
Cocke County, Clingman's Dome. July.
D. spinulosa dilatata (Hoffm.) Underw. With the former.
Julv, August.
PHEGOPTERIS F^e.
Phegopteris Phegopteris (L.) Underw. Beech fern. Phe-
gopteris polypodioides F^e. Mts. of East Tennessee.
Ph. hexagonoptera (Michx.) F6e. Highlands of Middle
Tennessee. Frequent ; leaves, fragrant. August.
WOODWARDIA J. E. Smith.
Woodwardia areolata (L.) Moore. Woodwardia angusti-
folia J. E. Smith. Chain fern. Bogs. O. S. July, August.
Tennessee Flora.
PHYLLITIS Ludwig.
Phyllitis Scolopendrium (L.) Newm. Hart's tongue.
lopondrium vulgare J. E. Smith. Near South Pittsburg,
Cumberland Alts. R. M. Middleton. Jr. June-Augr.
CAMPTOSORUS Link.
Camptosorus rhizophyllus (L.) Link. Walking fern ; com-
mon. O. S. June-August.
i
ASPLENIUM L.
Asplenium pinnatifidun Nutt. Cumberland plateau and
Lookout Mountain. May-July.
A. viride Huds. Bluffs near South Pittsburg. R. M.
Middleton, Junior.
A. parvulum Mart and Gal. On limestone rocks. ( I S
June-October.
A. platyneuron (L.) Oakes. Asplenium ebeneum Ait. On
limestone rocks ; common. O. S. July-September.
A. Trichomanes L. On schists and siliceous rocks. Chil-
howee and Cumberland Mts. June-August.
A. angustifolium Michx. Rich, damp woodlands. ( >. S.
July, August.
A. Ruta-muraria L. On limestone and siliceous rocks in
the valleys and in the mountains. July, August.
A. montanum Willd. Cumberland and Alleghany \fts.
June-August.
A. Bradleyi DC. Eaton. On standstone rocks, summit of
Lookout Mountain; also Sewanee, E. Kirby Smith; Sequat-
chee Valley, Middleton. June-August.
ATHYRIUM Roth. O. C.
Athyrium acrostichoides Desv. Athyrium thelypleroides
Michx. Highlands of Middle Tennessee.
A. Filix-foemina (L.) Bernh. Lady fern; common. I I S
M.
A. Filix-foemina angustum Willd. Bogs at Hollow Rock,
West Tennessee.
ADIANTUM L.
Adiantum Capillus-Veneris L. Venus hair fern. Cumber-
land Mts., near South Pittsburg, four miles fr.»m furnace, J.
E. Wall, Jr.; also near South Pittsburg, with fronds two feel
in length, by R. M. Middleton, Jr. May. June. 1/
A. pedatum L. Maiden hair fern. Rich, moist w<
O. S. May-July. M.
30 Tennessee Flora.
PTERIDIUM Scop.
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Bracken fern. The larger
form in rich, moist woods, Cumberland and Alleghany Mts.
Pt. aquilinum pseudocaudatum (L.) Clute. A form common
in siliceous soils, and gravelly hill lands. O. S. July-Sep-
tember.
PELL^A Link.
Pellaea atropurpurea (L.) Link. Cliff brake. On exposed
situations on limestone banks and cliffs. O. S. June-Sep-
tember.
CHEILANTHES Sw.
Cheilanthes Alabamensis (Buckl.) Kuntze. Limestone
rocks ; frequent in E. and M. Tenn. July-September.
Ch. lanosa Michx. Ch. vestita (Sw.) Watt. Bluffs on
Cumberland River, cedar glades under cedars, Mts. of East
Tennessee. June-September.
Ch. tomentosa Link. Bluffs on Ocoee River. Fronds often
2 feet long. Also South Pittsburg. Cumberland Mts.
POLYPODIUM L.
Polypodium vulgare L. On rocks and on the ground, Cum-
berland and Alleghany Mts. Summer. M.
P. polypodioides (L.) A. S. Hitchcock. P. incanum Sw.
Covering trunks of trees, on rocks, and on the ground. O. S.
June-October.
SALVINIACE^] Reichenb.
AZOLLA Lam.
Azolla Caroliniana Willd. On a weir or millpond, near
Riceville, McMinn County, and W. Tenn. cyprtss swamps.
July.
EQUISETACE^] Michx.
EQUISETUM L.
Equisetum arvense L. Field horsetail. Moist fields, Cave
Spring, E. Tenn.
E. robustum A. Br. Sandy banks of Mississippi River,
W. Tenn.
E. hyemale L. Common scouring rush. Along Holston
River. J. K. Small.
LYCOPODIACE^E Michx.
LYCOPODIUM L. Club Moss.
Lycopodium Selago L. Roane Mt. T. W. Chickering.
L. lucidulum Michx. Sewanee. Rugbee. Mrs. M. S. Per-
cival.
Tennessee Flora. i i
L. obscurum L. Ground pine. Lycopodium dendroitfeum
Michx. Wolf Creek, Cocke County. Cranberry, on Doe
River. Cumberland Mts.
L. complanatum L. Trailing Christmas-green. Over tin-
Cumberland Mts.
SELAGINELLACEJE Underw.
SELAGINELLA Beauv.
Selaginella tortipila R. Br. Dry rocks in Ocoee Valley.
July-October.
S. apus Sprengel. Moist, shaded grounds; often among
the grass. O. S. June-September.
S. rupestris (L) Spreng. Dry rocks and gravelly lull-.
O. S.
ISOETACE.^ Underw.
ISOETES L.
*Isoetes Butleri immaculata Engelm. Cedar glades near La-
vergne. West Nashville (" New Town"), near Nashville.
in miry grass plots.
SPERMATOPHYTA.
GYMNOSPERM.E.
PINACEiE Lindl.
PINUS L.
Pinus Strobus L. White pine. Cumberland Mts. and prom-
inently the Alleghanies along the slopes of the highest ridges,
where it frequently constitutes two-thirds of the status of the
forest over extensive areas, reaching an altitude of from ioo to
175 feet. It is a very clean and graceful tree. May. M.
P. Virginiana Miller. P. inops Ait. Scrub pine. Rocky,
dry mountain slopes. O. S. April, May.
P. echinata Miller. Yellow pine. Spruce pine. P. mitis
Michx. Formerly abundant, clading the lower ridges of the
valley of East Tennessee; presently much reduced in num-
bers. May, June.
P. pungens Michx. f. Table mountain pine. Frequent in
the Smoky Mt. range. Altitude from 40 to 80 feet. May.
P. rigida Mill. Pitch pine. With the former, and of about
the same size. May.
*Dioecious, with a subglobose trunk, bright green, rather firm leaf.
sometimes as many as 60, 6 to 9 inches long; sporangium, without
spots; macrospores, 0.40-0.56 mm. diameter; microspores, 0.029-031 mm.
long, spinulose.
32 Tennessee Flora.
P. Taeda L. Loblolly pine. Old field pine. This pine is
the most frequent in the southeast corner of the State, along
Conasauga Creek, extending down into Georgia. A large
tree reaches in favorable ground to a height of 150 feet. April,
May.
PICEA Link.
Picea Mariana (Mill.) B. S. T. Abies nigra Ait. Black
spruce. Highest points of the Smokies. On White Top
Mountain. Southwest Virginia. J. K. Small. May, June.
P. rubra Link. Red spruce. With the former. Both are
slender trees. May.
TSUGA Carr.
Tsuga Canadensis (L.) Carr. Hemlock. Along water
courses Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. One of our largest
forest trees, attaining a height of from 150 to 180 feet by
from 6 to 7 feet diameter. April. M.
T. Caroliniana Engelm. Abies Caroliniana Chapm. Does
not grow to the sublime height of the former, scarcely ex-
ceeding 50 or 75 feet. High mountains on the border of North
Carolina. April.
ABIES Juss.
Abies Fraseri (Pursh.) Lindl. Pinus Fraseri Balsame Fir.
Smoky Mts. Summit of Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering. May,
June.
TAXODIUM (L.) C. Rich.
Taxodium distichum (L.) L. C. Rich. Cypress. The larg-
est conifer in the Eastern United States. Along Tennessee
River and Mississippi River in West Tennessee and their af-
fluents, in the bayous and cypress swamps, it attains an alti-
tude of perhaps 200 feet by 12 feet diameter near the ground.
The extensive railroad trussels and bridges in West Tennes-
see have been built from it. The wood stands exposure to
wet and atmosphere better than any other soft-wood timber.
May, June.
THUJA L.
Thuja occidentalis L. White cedar. Along Holston River
in the mountains of E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
JUNIPERUS L.
Juniperus Virginiana L. Red cedar. Scatteringly O. S.
Forming forests of nearly exclusive cedar growth in the basin
of M. Tenn. Cedar glades, with a diversified and peculiar
flora. April, May. Fruit matures in September and October.
Tennessee Flora.
TAXACEJE Lindl.
TAXUS L.
Taxus minor (Michx.) Britton. American Yew. Tax us
baccata var. minor Michx. Waters of Holston River. [. K.
Small.
CLASS 2. ANGIOSPERMAE
SUBCLASS 1. MONOCOTYLEDON i;s.
TYPHACEJE J. St. Hil.
TYPHA L.
Typha latifolia L. Cat tail. In marshes. O. S. Fune,
July.
T. angustifolia L. Apparently rare. Ducktown, Polk
County, near Kingston Springs. In ponds and ditches. Tunc.
July.
SPARGANIACEJE Agardh.
SPARGANIUM L.
Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. Cleveland. E. Tenn. ;
Tullahoma; Nashville. May.
S. androcladum (Engelm.) Morong. S. simplex var. Nut-
tallii A. Gray. O. S. One-mile pond, Nashville, July.
NAIADES Lindl.
POTAMOGETON L.
Potamogeton natans L. Floating pond weed. Wolf River,
W. Tenn. Dr. Egeling.
P. perfoliatus L. Wolf River, Memphis. Dr. Egeling.
P. pusillus L. Wolf Creek. Cocke County.
P. Spirillus Tuckerm. Pond at new bridge, Nashville.
August.
P. diversifolius Raf. P. hybridus Michx. Cumberland
River, Nashville; Tullahoma Creek. Tullahoma. July-Sep-
tembers
P. foliosus Raf. P. pauciflorus Pursh. O. S. June-Au-
gust.
P. Nuttallii Cham, and Sch. P. Claytonn I uckerm.
Mountain streams of E. Tenn. June-August.
ZANNICHELIA L.
Zannichelia palustris L. In ponds and springs. O. S.
June-August.
2
34 Tennessee Flora.
ALISMACE-E D. C.
ALISMA L.
Alisma Plantago-aquatica L. In shallow water. O. S.
June-September.
ECHINODORUS Rich. Engelm.
Echinodorus radicans Engelm. Swamps along Cumber-
land River. July.
SAGITTARIA L.
Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Broad-leaved arrow head.
Ponds and shallow waters. O. S. August-September.
S. latifolia pubescens Michl. East Tennessee.
S. latifolia angustifolia Engelm. Hollow Rock, West Ten-
nessee.
S. graminea Michx. West Tennessee.
VALISNERIACE^J Dumort.
PHILOraiA Raf.
Philotria Canadensis (Michx.) Britton. Elodea Canaden-
sis Michx. (Anacharis Canadensis Planch.). Stagnant wa-
ters. O. S. May-August.
GRAMINE^E Juss.
MAYIDE^J.
ZEA L.
Zea Mays L. Indian corn. Cultivated in many varieties,
it constitutes the most important field crop in the State.
Sometimes it is self-sown at the roadside, but it does not at-
tain any growth without cultivation. M.
TRIPSACUM L.
Tripsacum dactyloides L. Gama grass. In moist pastures
near Hickman. A large patch in the old graveyard in Nash-
ville. June-September.
i
ANDROPOGONACE^E.
ERIANTHUS Michx.
Erianthus alopecuroides (L.) Ell. Plum grass. Old fields,
Dickson County. Tullahoma. September, October.
E. strictus Baldw. Tullahoma. Swamps near lackson.
S. M. Bain.
Tennessee Flora.
E. brevibarbis Michx. Mitchellville, Sumner bounty.
E. contortus Ell. Hiwassee Vallev. A. Ruth. E. Smallii
C. V. Nash.
E. Ravennae Beauv. Frequently cultivated,. maturing seeds
and spreading outside of cultivation. Jul v.
ANDROPOGON L.
Andropogon scoparius Michx. Broom grass. ( >ld fields.
O. S. August-October.
A. scoparius multirameus Haekel. Banks of Cumberland
River.
A. argyreus Schult. Ocoee Valley. Vicinity of Knoxville.
Scribner.
A. furcatus Miihl. A. provincialis Lam. O. S. Augusl
September.
A. Virginianus L. A. dissitiflorus Michx. O. S. August,
September.
A. Virginicus vaginatus Chapm. With the former.
A. Elliottii Chapm. A. clandestinus Hale. ( Occurs in two
forms promiscuously near Tullahoma: var. genuina and var.
gracilis Hack. September, October.
A. glomeratus (Walt.) b. s. p. a. macrourus Michx. Sandy
soils. O. S. October.
CHRYSOPOGON Trin.
Chrysopogon avenaceus Michx. Wild oat grass. < ). S.
Old fields.
Ch. nutans (L.) Bentham. Old. sandy fields. Dick- mi
Qounty; Knoxville, on dry hills. Scribner.
SORGHUM Pers.
Sorghum Halepense (L.) Pers. Johnson grass. ( >ld fields
and waste grounds. O. S. July-September. Introduced for
forage, but frequently abandoned as unsuitable for regular
cultivation and inferior in nutritive qualities.
S. saccharatum Pers. Chinese sugar cane. Largely culti-
vated for production of molasses.
S. saccharatum (var.) technicum ITaeckl. Broom corn.
Cultivated for the manufacture of brooms.
S. vulgare. Pers. Chicken corn. Occasionally cultivated
for poultry feed.
PANUK.K.
PASPALUM L.
Paspalum mucronatum Miihl. P. fluitans Smith. Slow-
streams, floating. July-September. O. S.
36 Tennessee Flora.
Paspalum membranaceum Walt. P. Walterianum Schult.
Moist and miry soils, along Cumberland River, and in the
barrens. September.
P. distichum'L. Joint grass. Low grounds, margin of
points. O. S. August, September.
P. dilatatum Poir. Memphis. August, September.
P. platycaule Poir. P. compressum Nees. Cultivated at
the Knoxville Experiment Station. Scribner.
P. pubiflorum glabrum Vasey. Vicinity of Nashville, Belle
Meade. Scribner. Lake County, near Mississippi River. S.
M. Bain. June-August.
P. Boscianum Flugge. P. purpurascens Ell. Knoxville.
L. F. Scribner. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. September.
P. Floridanum Michx. Moist fields, West Tennessee. S.
M. Bain. September.
P. laeve-pilosum Scrib. With the former.
P. ciliatifolium Michx. Common in grass plots. O. S.
July-September.
P. longipedunculatum Le Conte. Frequent. O. S. July-
September.
P. longipedunculatum debile Michx. Damp, sandy soil, at
the pond. Pond Station, Dickson County. July.
PANICUM L.
Panicum Crus-galli L. Barnyard grass. Barnyards, ponds,
and ditches. O. S. August-October.
P. Crus-galli muticum Vasey. Streets of Nashville. Au-
gust, September.
P. Waited Pursh. P. Crus-galli hispidum Torr. Very
common O. S. in water and in barnyards. September.
P. colonum L. Miry places along Cumberland River. La-
vergne. September.
P. gibbum Ell. Madison County. S. M. Bain. E. Tenn.
A. Ruth.
P. hians Ell. P. melicarium Michx. Memphis. Dr. Ege-
ling.
P. rostratum Miihl. P. anceps Michx. Moist places in
the cedar glades, Lavergne. July.
P. agrostidiforme Lam. P. agrostoides Trin. Wet ground.
O. S. September.
P. elongatum Pursh. P. agrostoides Miihl. Ditches and
ponds. O. S. July-September.
P. virgatum L. Islands in Cumberland River. Sandy soil
in the barrens at Tullahoma. July-September.
P. sphaerocarpum Ell. Cedar glades. The earliest of all
our Panicums. May.
Tennessee Flora.
P. microcarpon M/iihl. P. multiflorum Ell. In moist and
rich soils, Craggy Hope, Cheatham County. (>>-.n< Valley.
June, July.
P. Porterianum Nash. P. latifolium Walt. ( ). S. Ap-
pears early. May, June.
P. commutatum Schult. P. nervosum Miihl. I Till -
M. Tenn. May- July.
P. Columbianum Scribn. Fide Illust. Flora. Appendix.
P. macrocarpon Le Conte. Dry hillsides on Mill Creek,
Nashville. July.
P. clandestinum L. Rich soil along river banks. Nash-
ville. July, August.
P. Scribnerianum Nash. P. pauciflorum. A. Gray. Dry,
siliceous grounds. July, August.
P. laxiflorum Lam. Highlands, damp, rich woods. Inly,
August.
P. nitidum Lam. Siliceous soils, vicinity <>f Nashville and
Knoxville. Scribner.
P. dichotomum L. Thickets. O. S. May- July.
P. barbulatum Michx. With the former. ( >. S. June-
August.
P. viscidum Ell. O. S. .Madison County. S. M. Bain.
Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. June.
P. scoparium Lam. (var.) genuinum. W. Tenn. S. M.
Bain. Cedar glades. July.
P. scoparium minus Scribner. Hilltops around Nashville.
P. depauperatum Miihl. Drv, siliceous soil. M. !
July.
P. pubescens Lam. P. lanuginosum Ell. In the cedar
glades. June-September.
P. angustifolium Ell. P. consanguineum S. Watson.
Henderson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. Knoxville. Scribner.
P. proliferum Lam. P. genieulatum Miihl. Ditches and
ponds. O. S. July-September.
P. capillare L. Witch grass. Sandy, activated ground.
O. S. July-September.
*P. capiilare Gattingeri Nash. P. ca ullare var. compestre
Gattinger (in "Tennessee Flora," firs' edition). Common in
the cedar glades. September.
*Panicum capillare L.. var. Bexile tattinger, is eith< tin1
forms of P. capillare, or an annual variety of P. autumnal R
which it resembles greatly, especially in smootbness and form of
spikelets. It is very smooth above, with lome hairs <>n the lower part
of culm and leaves; culm \ Lder, panicle rather small, and
branches not spreading unt;; ,',,,, ma{ar« ipikelete are ready i«» drop
off; leaves linear, gradiyaJ]v attenuate, <>f ■ p:i1'' preen color' u ;,1,oun,,s
in the cedar glades, and is rarely seen out?i(ie of tn,MU
88 Tennessee Flora.
P. flexile (Gattinger) Scribner. Cedar glades; very com-
mon. July-September. Characteristic of the glades.
P. minus (Muhl.) Nash. P. capillare var. minimum En-
gelm in litt. Loamy fields, near Rising Sun Bluff, below
Nashville.
P. verrucosum Miihl. Bogs along Cumberland River.
Mitchellville. July.
SYNTHERISMA Walt. (Digitaria Scop.)
Syntherisma sanguinalis (L.) Nash. Digitaria sanguinalis
Scop. Crop grass. Yields a spontaneous crop of hay in corn-
fields at the close of the growing season. September, Octo-
ber.
S. linearis (Krock.) Nash. (Panicum glabrum Gaud.)
Pastures and waste grounds. A very valuable pasture grass,
maturing later than the forrner. Middle Tennessee. Sep-
tember, October.
S. filiformis (L.) Nash. Digitaria filiformis Miihl. Pan-
icum filiforme L. In siliceous soil. O. S. July-September.
S. serotina Walter. P. serotinum Trin. Glades. Septem-
ber.
IXOPHORUS Schlecht. (Setaria Beauv.)
Ixophorus verticillatus (L.) Nash. Setaria verticillata
B^auv. Fox tail grass. Sparingly found in fields and gar-
de is. Introduced. July-September.
1. glaucus (L.) Nash. Setaria glauca Beauv. Yellow fox
tail. Pigeon grass. Introduced and now ubiquitous. July-
September.
I. glauc js-laevigatus Chapm. Cedar glades ; very common.
July-September.
I. viridis (L.) Nash. Setaria viridis Beauv. Introduced
and now ubiqui. "us. July-September.
I. Italicus (L.) Nash. Setaria Italica R. & S. Hunga-
rian grass; Italian n :llet. In cultivation and frequently es-
caped into waste places July-September.
I. Germanicus (Beau. ) Nash. Setaria Germanica Beauv.
German millet. Both millets give important hay crops. July-
September.
CENCHRUS L.
Cenchrus tribuloides L. Burga§£- On the sandy ^ats
along Mississipppi River. ypreqUently' intermixed with equis-
etum robustum. Augugf
Tennessee Flora.
PENNISETUM Pers.
Pennisetum typhoideum Rich. Pearl millet. [ntrodu
from the Orient; it is sometimes cultivated.
ORYCE.E.
ZIZANIA L.
Zizania aquatica L. Indian rice. Near Humboldt, W.
Tenn. Guthrie, Ky.
ORYZA L.
Oryza sativa L. Rice. A variety called " upland rice " is
here and there cultivated on a small scale in W. Tenn. M.
HOMALOCENCHRUS Meig. (Leersia Swartz.)
Homalocenchrus Virginicus Britt. Leersia Virginica Willd.
White grass; shady an8d damp locations. O. S. July-Sep-
tember.
H. oryzoides (L.) Poll. In swamps and along streams.
O. S. July-September.
H. lenticularis (Michx.) Scribn. Catch-flv grass. W. Tenn.
S. M. Bain.
PHALARIDE^.
PHALARIS L.
Phalaris Canadensis L. Canary grass. Food for canary
birds, whence it frequently escapes.
Ph. arundinacea L. Reed grass. Introduced, witli the next.
Ph. arundinacea picta L. The ribbon grass is frequently
found in gardens and survives in abandoned garden plots, but
the genuine Ph. arundinacea I have never seen in Tenn
spontaneous.
ANTHOXANTHUM L.
Anthoxanthum odoratum L. Sweet vernal grass, [s fre-
quently found in meadows in E. Tenn.. in which part of the
State it seems to thrive best. Introduced with grass
from Europe, it imparts the hay a sweet flavOr.
agrostidrt:.
aristida l.
Aristida dichotoma Michx. Poverty grass. In poor, sandy
soils. O. S. September, October.
A. gracilis Ell. In glades and sterile soils, with the former.
September, October.
40 Tennessee Flora.
A. ramosissima Engelm. Sandy soil, Humboldt, W. Term.
July-September.
A. purpurascens Poir. Paradise Ridge, Robertson County.
Jul>'- , ~ «.
A. oligantha Michx. Dry, gravelly soils. O. S.
STIPA L.
Stipa avenacea L. Black oat grass. Charleston, Bradley
County; summit of Lookout Mountain. May, June.
MUHLENBERGIA Schr.
Muhlenbergia sobolifera (Miihl.) Trin. Rocky woodlands,
O. S. August, September.
M. Mexicana (L.) Trin. Thickets along water courses.
O. S. August, September.
M. sylvatica Torr. Damp woodlands. O. S. September,.
October.
M. tenuiflora (Willd.) M. Willdenovii Trin. Woodlands
of Middle Tennessee to the summits of the Smoky Mountains.
July-September.
M. diffusa Schreb. Nimble Will, Dropseed grass. Pas-
tures and grass plots ; very common, and not liked by cattle.
September, October.
M. capillaris (Lam.) Trin. A very graceful grass, with
light purple panicle. In a cedar glade at Lavergne. July,
August.
BRACHYELYTRUM Beauv.
Brachyelytrum erectum (Schreb.) Beauv. B. aristatum R.
& S. Dry woodlands. O. S. July-September.
PHLEUM L.
Phleum pratense L. Timothy. Gives the best hay crop in
the State. July, July.
ALOPECURUS L.
Alopecurus pratensis L. Meadow foxtail. In meadows ;
introduced with other grass seeds. Scarce. June, July.
A. geniculatus L. Wet places. May-July.
A. geniculatus aristulatus Torr. In similar localities.
Charlotte Pike, near West Nashville (" New Town "). June.
SPOROBOLUS R. Br.
Sporobolus asper (Michx.) Kunth. Cedar glades at La-
vergne ; Knoxville. Scribn. October.
Tennessee Flora. u
S. vaginaeflorus (Torr.) Wood. S. minor Vasey. Poverty
grass. Sterile, rocky places; very common. August-October.
S. neglectus Nash. S. vaginaeflorus Vasey. With th<
mer. September, October.
S. Indicus (L.) R. Br. Sweet grass. Sandy soils in the
Cumberland Mts. and in the oak barrens. June-September.
CINNA L.
Cinna arundinacea L. Indian reed grass. Wet, rich wood-
lands. O. S. A form smaller throughout is found on Paradise
Ridge. August, September.
C. pendula Trin. On Roane Mountain. L. F. Scribner.
AGROSTIS L.
Agrostis alba L. Redtop, herd's grass. ( me of the princi-
pal meadow grasses. Sometimes extensively Stoloniferous.
July, August.
A. exarata Trin. O. S. July-September.
A. Elliotiana Schult. A. arachnoides Ell. Dry. siliceous
ground. O. S. May-July.
A. canina L. White Cliff Springs, Monroe County. July.
A. rubra L. A. rupestris Chapm. Summit of Roane Moun-
tain. July.
A. intermedia Scribn. Common in damp thicket-. O. S.
A. perennans Tuckerm. Open woodlands. O. S. July-
September.
A. Novae - Angliae Tuckerm. Along mountain streams,
E. Tenn. Scribn.
A. hyemalis (Walt.) B. S. P. A. scabra Willd. In dry or
wet places. A noxious weed, but not frequent. July.
A. altissima Walt. A. elata Trin. Sandy soil, vicinity of
Knoxville. A. Ruth.
CALAMAGROSTIS Adans.
Calamagrostis Canadensis Beauv. Blue joint. Roam- Mi
Checkering.
C. cinnoides (Miihl.) Scribn. C. Xuttalliana Steudel.
Frog Mts. and Cumberland Mts. July. August.
avenace.t:.
HOLCUS L.
Holcus lanatus L. Velvet grass. Naturalized in E. Tenn.
especially frequent in the mountains, in meadows a- well
open grounds. June. July.
42 Tennessee Flora.
DESCHAMPSIA Beauv.
Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin. Mts. of E. Term., Ocoee
Valley, and Lookout Mt. July.
TRISETUM Pers.
Trisetum subspicatum (L.) Beauv. var. molle Gray. Sum-
mit of Roane Mountain. F. L. Scribner. July.
T. Pennsylvanicum (L.) Beauv. T. palustre Torrey.
Moist places throughout the Alleghanies. June, July.
AVENA L.
Avena sativa L. Oat. Cultivated ; occurs frequently self-
sown in fields and on roadsides. July.
Our common oats are, perhaps, derived from the wild oats
of Europe. Avena fatna L. a variable species, through culti-
vation. There are distinguished two classes — " panicle oats,"
with widely-spreading panicles, and " banner oats," with pan-
icles contracted and one-sided. Both of them vary again in
the envelopment of the grain, being either " chaffy " or naked
fruited. Oats are also distinguished by the color of the grain,
as " white oats " or " black oats." Its cultivation reaches back
into prehistoric times.
ARRHENATHERUM Beauv.
Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Beauv. Oat grass. Old City
Cemeterv and in fence rows, vicinity of Nashville. June,
July-
DANTHONIA D. C.
Danthonia spicata (L.) Beauv. Wild oat grass. Hilltops
around Nashville, in siliceous soils. June.
D. sericea Nutt. Cedar glades, Edgefield Junction ; dry
soils in the ridges of E, Tenn. May, June.
D. compressa Aust. Throughout the higher mountains of
E. Tenn. July.
CHLORIDES.
CAPRIOLA Adans.
Capriola Dactylon (L.) Kuntze. Cynodon Dactylon Pers.
Bermuda Grass. Does not mature seed and has to be prop-
agated by cuttings. Along river banks and in grass plots,
where it soon suppresses the other grasses. July-September.
SPARTINA Schreb.
Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Willd. Marsh grass. Browns-
ville, W. Tenn. September, October.
Tennessee Flora.
CHLORIS Sw.
Chloris verticillata Xmt. As a weed in the garden of f.
Rath, in Cleveland. May-July.
GYMNOPOGON Beauv.
Gymnopogon racemosus Beauv. Barrens at Tullahoma.
July.
BOUTELOUA Lag.
Bouteloua curtipendula (Michx.) Torr. B. racemosa Lag.
Mesguite grass; Grama grass. Cedar glades, Lavergne.
July.
ELEUSINE Gaert.
Eleusine Indica (L.) Gaertn. Crab grass. Introduced, and
noAv in every waste place. O. S. June-September.
LEPTOCHLOA Beauv.
Leptochloa mucronata (Michx.) Kunth. In cultivated
grounds. O. S. July-September.
festucej:.
gynerium h. b. k.
Gynerium argenteum Nees. The Pampas grass is frequent-
ly cultivated for ornament, but is too tender to survive the
winter in open grounds.
ARUNDO L.
Arundo Donax L. Reed. Cultivated for ornament, espe-
cially the white-banded var. A. Donax variegata. The com-
mon variety grows very tall (fifteen feet high), and both ma-
ture seed, but do not spread beyond cultivation. July-Sep-
tember.
SIEGLINGIA Bernh. (Triodia R. Br.)
Sieglingia sessleroides (Michx.) Scribner. (Triodea cu]
J. F. Jacq.) O. S. In all soils. September, October.
ERAGROSTIS Beauv.
Eragrostis capillaris (L.) Nees. Frequent in E. Tenn,
Scribn.
Eragrostis major Host. E. poaeoides var. megastrachya
Gray. In cultivated grounds. O. S. August, September.
Introduced.
E. Brownei Kunth. Low and decumbent. Differs from
44 Tennessee Flora.
Eragrostis minor, and seems to be indigenous to the cedar
barrens. July-September.
E. Frankii Steud. Abundant in the cedar glades ; unpleas-
ant smelling. July, August.
E. pilosa (L.) Beauv. Naturalized from Europe. Fre-
quent around Knoxville. F. L. Scribn.
E. Purshii Schrad. Waste grounds, streets of Nashville.
August, September.
E. pectinacea (Michx.) Steudel. E. pectinacea var. specta-
bilis A. Gray. Knoxville. A. Ruth. August, September.
E. refracta (Miihl.) Scribn. Dry uplands and cedar glades.
M. Tenn. July-September.
E. secundiflora Presl. E. oxylepis Torr. Vicinity of Mem-
phis. Dr. G. Egeling.
E. hypnoides (Lam.) B. S. P. E. reptans Nees. Wet,
sandy soils and river banks. O. S. Aueust, September.
EATONIA Raf.
Eatonia obtusata (Michx.) A. Gray. Hills on Cumberland
River, below Nashville. May.
E. Pennsylvanica Gray. Copses around Nashville ; com-
mon. May, June.
E. filiformis Vasey. Dry hills, Chester County. S. M.
Bain.
E. Dudleyi Vasey. Copses. O. S. April, May.
MELICA L.
Melica mutica Walt. Shaded hillsides and ravines. O. S.
May, June.
KORYCARPUS Zea. (Diarrhena Beauv.)
Korycarpus diandrus (Michx.) Kuntze. Diarrhena Amer-
icana Beauv. Rich soil; not very frequent. July-September.
UNIOLA L.
Uniota latifolia Michx. Creek and river bottoms. O. S.
July-August.
U. laxa (L.) B. S. P. U. gracilis Michx. In thickets. E.
Tenn. F. L. Scribn. Nashville. July, August.
U. longifolia Scrib. Perhaps a variety of the former. Tul-
lahoma, Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth.
DACTYLIS L.
Dactylis glomerata L. Orchard grass. Growing in tus-
Tennessee Flora.
socks, it is not adapted for meadow culture by itself; fully
naturalized. June-October.
CYNOSURUS L.
Cynosurus cristatus L. Has been recently introduced to
cultivation in this State, and is naturalized in Canada and the
Eastern States.
POA L.
Poa annua L. Six weeks' grass. Introduced, and n<..
erywhere abundant; annual. March-< October,
P. Chapmanniana Scribn. P. cristata Cbapm. Spring}
places, West Nashville ("New Town"), mar Nashville;
Knoxville. A. Ruth.
P. compressa L. English blue grass. Introduced and
thoroughly naturalized. May-July.
P. pratensis L. Kentucky blue grass. Makes the besl
meadows in calcareous soils. June-August.
P. trivialis L. Occurs very rarely in this State. Intro-
duced.
P. autumnalis Miihl. P. flexuosa Miihl. Moist thickets
Paradise Ridge, Davidson County. June. July.
P. sylvestris Gray. Woodlands. O. S. May.
P. alsodes Gray. Mts. of E. Tenn. F. L. Scribn.
P. Wolfii Scrib. Cedar glades at Lavergne. May, June.
P. brevifolia Miihl. Hillsides around Nashville. Knox-
ville. A. Ruth. April, May.
P. debilis Torr. On White Top Mountain. West Virginia,
J. K. Small. Smoky Mts., E. Tenn.
PANICULARIA Fabr. (Glyceria R. Br.)
Panicularia elongata (Willd.) Kuntze. Glyceria elongata
Trin. Roane Mountain. F. L. Scribn.
P. nervata (WTilld.) Kuntze. Gylceria nervata Trin. Wei
meadows ; common. O. S. June-September.
P. acutiflora (Torr.) Kuntze. Glyceria acutiflora Kuntze.
One-mile Pond, near old waterworks, Nashville. June.
P. pallida (Torr.) Kuntze. Edge of a millpond in Duck-
town; July.
P. Americana (Torr.) McMillan. Glyceria aquatica Smith.
Bell's Bend, Davidson County; in low ground- near the Cum-
berland River. June, July.
P. fluitans (L.) Kuntze. In swamps and muddy places.
O. S.
FESTUCA L.
Festuca octoflora Walt. F. tenella Willd. Hilltops,
ceous ground, M. Tenn. ; common. April. May.
46 Tennessee Flora.
F. rubra L. var. glauceseens Haeck. Rocky banks of Cum-
berland River, near Nashville. June, July.
F. Myuros L. Nashville, near lunatic asylum, introduced.
Knoxville. Scribn.
F. ovina L. Sparingly occurring ; introduced. Knoxville.
F. L. Scribner.
F. elatior L. Tall Fescue grass ; naturalized. The var.
arundinarea Schreb. is found scatteringly in the vicinity of
Nashville, the old Akin place. June, July.
F. Shortii Kunth. Collected in the barrens near Tullaho-
ma. It greatly resembles F. elatior.
BROMUS L.
Bromus ciliatus L. B. purgans L. Woods and thickets.
O. S. July, August. The. variety purgans Gray differs but
little in pubescence.
B. sterilis L. Old field on Granny White Pike, near Nash-
ville. June.
B. hordaceus L. B. mollis L. Soft chess. In fields and
waste places. O. S. June.
B. secalinus L. Cheat, chess. A weed in grain fields. O.
S. June-August.
B. racemosus L. Fields and pastures. O. S. June, July.
B. unioloides H. B. K. Recently introduced in this State
in cultivation, and a plot of it was planted in the Centennial
grounds. July.
HORDEACE^.
LOLIUM L.
L. temulentum L. Darnel. Waste grounds. O. S. June-
August.
L. Italicum A. Br. Introduced and sparingly cultivated.
A plot of it was cultivated at Centennial grounds.
AGROPYRUM J. Gaertner.
Agropyrum repens (L.) Beauv. Couch grass. An ex-
tremely troublesome weed in fields and gardens, but not fre-
quent in this latitude. Introduced. June-September. M.
A. caninum L. Occasionally introduced with field and gar-
den seeds. July, August.
SECALE L.
Secale cereale L. Rye. This State is in the southern limit
of profitable culture of this cereal. Still found spontaneously
growing in Southern Russia, its original home is apparently
Tennessee Flora. \~
in the Caucasus and adjoining territories. First ve
its culture are found in the Swiss lake dwellings. M.
TRITICUM L.
Triticum sativum L. Wheat. The origin of culture of the
wheat in several varieties readies hack into prehistoric times.
Grains are found embedded in Egyptian and Assyrian tiles.
Indian and Hindoo myths relate its early use. as do likewise
the sacred writings of the Hebrews. In our time we distin-
guish the following varieties, some of which are extensively
cultivated in this State :
T. sativum hibernum L. Winter wheat.
T. sativum aestivum L. Summer wheat.
T. sativum nudum L. Unbearded wheat.
T. sativum album L. White wheat.
T. sativum rubrum L. Red or Mediterranean wheat.
The following species and varieties are less common in cul-
tivation and have, perhaps, never been tried in Tenness*
T. turgidum and T. compositum L. Turgid wheat. The
latter is only a subvariety. The spikes of T. compositum are
compound or ramified. It yields very heavy crops, and is
best adapted to warm climates.
T. durum Desf. T. rubrum Kunth. Hard or horny wheat.
Cultivated principally in Northern Africa and in Southern
Spain.
T. Polonicum L. Grown mainly in Russia.
T. Spelta (L.) Spelt. This species is extensively culti-
vated in Southern Germany, Hungaria. and Russia in the fer-
tile heavy red clay soils of these countries. It forms very
large and heavy grains which adhere to the chaff trout which
they have to be separated like the chaff of the rice.
T. dicoccum Schrank. Two-grained wheat; adapted to
high altitudes, resisting severe cold.
T. monococcum L. Single-grained wheat, reserved for the
poorest rocky soils which would not support other varieties.
HORDEUM L.
Hordeum nodosum L. H. pratense Huds. Wild barley.
Dry, rocky places. O. S. May. June.
Hordeum pusillum Nutt. Similar localities like the former.
O. S. May, June.
H. distichum L. Two-rowed barley. Long-eared barley.
Heads flattened and two-ranked, husk attached to the gi
Cult.
H. distichum Zeocriton L. Battle-door barley, a variety ol
the former. Cult.
48 Tennessee Flora.
H. vulgare L. Grains arranged in four rows. Cult.
H. hexastichum L. Grains arranged in six rows. Cult.
The latter four species are found in cultivation only. They
have ceased to mature germinating seed outside of cultiva-
tion in our latitude. Hordeum distichum is still found in a
wild state in Western Asia and in Arabia Petraea ; Hordeum
hexastichum we know to have been cultivated in the remotest
ages of which we possess records in Egypt and the Syro-Baby-
lonian countries.
ELYMUS L.
Elymus striatus Willd. Wild rye. O. S. July, August.
E. striatus villosus Gray. In the barrens with the former.
O. S. July, August.
E. Canadensis L. O. S. July.
E. Canadensis glaucifolius Gray. In the cedar glades.
July-September.
E. Virginicus L. Very common. O. S. July.
HYSTRIX Moench.
Hystrix Hystrix (L.) Millsp. Bottle brush gr*ass. As-
prella Hystrix Willd. In rocky ground. O. S. June, July.
BAMBUSE^E.
ARUNDINARIA Michx.
Arundinaria gigantea Chapm. Cane. Forming the cane-
brakes of all the Southern water courses. May- July.
A. tecta Miihl, Small cane. In low and high lands.
Summit of Lookout Mt. O. S. The cain reaches maturity
and dies off when the shoots attain io°-i5° height, and bears
seeds from auxiliary branches. A. tecta is merely a youn
state throwing flowering shoots immediately from the roots.
&
CYPERACE.E J. St. Hill.
CYPERUS L.
Cyperus flavescens L. In marshy ground. O. S. August-
October.
C. diandrus Torr. With the former. July-September.
C. rivularis Kunth. C. castaneus Torr. In wet soil. O. S.
August-October.
C. inflexus Miihl. C. aristatus Rottb. Glades and sandy
river banks. O. S. July.
C. pseudovegetus Steud. C. calcaratus Nees. Damp soils.
O. S. July.
C. acuminatus Torr and Hook. Cedar glades. Lavergne.
My-
Tennessee Flora. ig
C. virens Michx. Brownsville. August.
C. rotundus L. C. Hydra Michx. Old horticultural
den in North Nashville. July.
C. esculentus L. C. phymatodes Miilil. Yellow nut grass.
A pest in cultivated grounds. O. S. August, Septemb
C. esculentus angustispicatus Britt. A variety very com-
mon about Nashville.
C. erythrorhizos Miilil. River swamps. O. S. August,
September.
C. Hallei Torr. Reported from Tennessee in [llustr;
Flora.
C. speciosus Wahl. C. Michauxianus Torr. River banks
and pools. Nashville. September.
C. strigosus L. The most frequent species. O. S. Am
October.
C. strigosus capitatus Bcekl.
C. strigosus compositus Britt.
C. strigosus robustior Kunth.
C. strigosus elongatus Britt. All these varieties arc found
promiscuously in the same range.
C. refractus Engelm. On dry, rocky uplands. Nashville.
August, September.
C. retrofractus (L.) Torr. Hollow Rock, W. Tenn. Au-
gust, September.
C. Lancastriensis Port. Dry uplands. Old Cemetery, at
Nashville. August, September.
C. ovularis Torr inch yar. robustus Boekl. and var. sphericus
Boekl. Frequent in the glades of M. Tenn.
C. filiculmis Vahl. Dry uplands, vicinity of Nashville, and
O. S. June-September.
C. echinatus (Ell.) Wood. C. Baldwinii Torr. Knoxville.
A. Ruth.
KYLLINGIA Rottb.
Kyllingia pumila Michx. Miry places. O. S. July. Au-
gust.
DULICHIUM L. C. Richard.
Dulichium arundinaceum (L.) Britton. Swamps along
Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers. August-October.
ELEOCHARIS R. Br.
Eleocharis mutata (L.) R. & S. E. quadrangulata K. & S
Bogs along Cumberland River. July-September.
E. ovata (Roth.) R. & S. Bogs. O. S. July-September.
E. Engelmanni Steud. E. ovata var. Engelmanni Britt.
Damp soil in the barrens. July.
50 Tennessee Flora.
E. palustris (L.) R. & S. Ponds and swamps. O. S. July-
September.
E. acicularis R. Br. Wet lands. O. S. July-September.
E. tenuis (Willd.) Schultes. Barrens and highlands. O. S.
July, August.
E. acuminata (Miihl.) Nees. E. compressa Sull. Frequent
along water courses. O. S. June-August.
DICHROMENA Michx.
Dichromena latifolia Baldw. Barrens at Tullahoma. June-
August.
FIMBRISTYLIS Wahl.
Fimbristylis laxa Wahl. Cedar glades, Lavergne. July-
September.
F. autumnalis (L.) R. & S. Bogs and ditches. O. S. June-
September.
STENOPHYLLUS Raf.
Stenophyllus capillaris (L.) Britton. Fimbristylis capil-
lars A. Gray. Sandy soil in the Cumberland Mts. June,
July.
SCIRPUS L.
Scirpus debilis Pursh. Bogs, W. Tenn. August, Septem-
ber.
S. lacustris L. Bulrush. In a marshy meadow near rail-
road station, Cleveland, E. Tenn. June-September.
S. fluviatilis (Torr.) A. Gray. Bogs along Ocoee River, E.
Tenn. June-September.
S. atrovirens Miihl. In bogs. O. S. June-August.
S. polyphyllus Vahl. O. S. June, July.
S. caespitosus L. Roane Mt., Chickering.
S. sylvaticus L. Waters of Holston River. J. K. Small.
June-August.
S. carinatus (IT. & A.) Britton. Madison, W. Tenn. S. M.
Bain. June-August.
S. divaricatus Ell. Jackson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. June-
August.
S. lineatus Michx. Eriophorum lineatum Benth. & Hooker.
Wet places in the glades. June-September.
S. cyperinus (L.) Kunth. Eriophorum cyperinum L. In
swamps. O. S. August, September.
ERIOPHORUM L.
Eriophorum polystachium L. Cotton grass. Mountain
"bogs. E. Tenn. July.
Tennessee Flora. :. i
^ E. Virginicum L. In bogs of the Cumberland Mts. June-
September.
HEMICARPHA Nees & Am.
Hemicarpha micrantha (Vahl.) Britton. Bottom lands
along Cumberland River, near Nashville. July, August.
RHYNCHOSPORA Vahl.
Rhynchospora alba Vahl. Bogs in the Cumberland Mts.
and Alleghanies. July.
Rh. glomerata (L.) Vahl. Bon Air. Tullahoma, Lookout
Mt. August.
Rh. fusca (L.) R. & S. Bogs in the Cumberland Mts. July.
August.
Rh. cymosa Ell. Bogs. O. S. July. August.
Rh. corniculata (Lam.) A. Gray. Swamp-. I ». S. July-
September.
SCLERIA Berg.
Scleria triglomerata Michx. Lookout Mt., -Tullahoma.
July.
Sc. pauciflora Miihl. Dry glades, Lavergne. June-Septem-
ber.
CAREX Ruppius Sedge.
Carex follicularis L. Mts. of S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
C. intumescens Rudge. Swamps along Cumberland River.
E. Tenn. August, September.
C. Asa Grayi Bailey. Swamps in W. Tenn. September.
C. lupuliformis Sartw. C. lupulina var. polystachya Schw.
& Torr. Swamps. O. S. August.
C. bullata Schku. Swamps. O. S. June- August.
C. lurida Wahl. C. tentaculata Miihl. Edgefield Junction,
South Tunnel. August, September.
C. Baileyi Britt. C. tentaculata var. gracilis Booth. In
Tennessee (fide) Illustrated Flora.
C. hystricina Miihl. Knoxville. A. Ruth. June-Augi
C. Frankii Kunth. C. stenolepis Torr. Swamp-.
June-September.
C. squamosa L. Bogs. O. S. June-September.
C. Shortiana Dewey. Tunnel Hill. Nashville, E. Tenn.
Mav-Julv.
C. scabrata Schwein. E. Tenn. Curtiss. May. June.
June.
C. vestita Willd. O. S. June. July.
C. torta Boott. S. W. Va. J. K. Small. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
52 Tennessee Flora.
C. prasina Wahl. C. miliacea Miihl. Mts. of E. Tenn.
May- July.
C. crinita Lam. Cumberland Mts., Whiteside. June, July.
C. virescens Miihl. Cumberland Mts., valley of E. Tenn.
June, July.
C. Caroliniana Schwein. Hiwassee Valley. Kearney.
May- July.
C. gracillima Schwein. Bogs. Jones' Bend, Davidson
County, May-July.
C. aestivalis M. A. Curtis. Clingman Dome, summit. Roane
Mt., Chickering. June-August.
C. oxylepis Torr. & Hook. Illustrated Flora for Tennessee.
May, June.
C. Davisii Schwein. & Torr. Bogs, near Nashville. May-
July.
C. triceps Michx. Glades of M. Tenn. April-August.
C. tenuis Rudge. C. debilis Michx. Bogs. Summer
County. June, July.
C. amphibola Steud. C. grisea var. angustifolia Boott.
O. S. April-June.
C. glaucodea Tuckerm. C. grisea var. mutica Carey. Moist
thickets. O. S. June, July.
C. flaccosperma Dew. C. laxiflora var. mutica Torr. Thick-
ets. O. S. June.
C. granulans Miihl. Wet meadows. O. S. May-July.
C. Crawei Dew. Cedar glades, Lavergne. May, June.
C. oligocarpa Schk. Paradise Ridge, Jones' Bend, David-
son County. June.
C. Hitchcockiana Dew. Adjoining Tennessee, Southwest
Virginia. J. K. Small. May-July.
C. laxiflora Lam. Wet woodlands. O. S. May-July.
C. plantaginea Lam. Ducktown, E. Tenn. Waters of Hol-
ston River. J. K. Small. May, June.
C. setifolia (Dewey) Britton. C. uburnea Boott E. Tenn.
A. Ruth. May-July."
C. Pennsylvanica Lam. Dry woodlands. O. S. May,
June.
C. varia Miihl. C. Emmonsii Dewey. Nashville, Knox.
ville. A. Ruth. May-July.
C. nigro-marginata Schwein. Dry copses, Nashville. May-
July.
C. Jamesii Schwein. C. Steudelii Kunth. Highlands. O.
S. April, May.
C. leptalea Wahl. C. polytrichoides Willd. Mountain
bogs, E. Tenn. June-August.
C. Fraseri Andr. Southwest Virginia, adjoining Tennes-
see. J. K. Small. May-July.
Tennessee Flora.
C. juncea Willd. Roane Mt. Chickering. July.
C. stipata Miihl. White Top Mt. J. K. Small.
C. teretiuscula Goodw. Mts. of E. Tenn. May-July.
C. vulpinoidea Michx. O. S. June-August.
C. rosea Schk. E. Tcnn. May-July.
C. retroflexa Miihl. Nashville. May-July.
C. radiata Dewey. C. rosea var. radiata Britt. E. Tenn.
A. Ruth.
C. sparganioides Miihl. Rich woods. O. S. June-Auj
C. cephalophora Miihl. Nashville. Kingston Springs.
May-July.
C. Miihlenbergii Schk. Nashville. May-July.
C. sterilis Willd. O. S. May-July.
C. canescens L. O. S. Nashville. May- July.
C. brunnescens Poir. C. canescens var. alpicola Wahl.
Summit of White Top.
C. brunnescens gracilior Britt. With the former. Moun-
tains of Southwest Virginia and perhaps in the Smokies. J.
K. Small. June, July.
C. cephaloidea Dewey. Paradise Ridge, Davidson County.
May-July.
C. tribuloides Wahl. C. lagopodioides Schk. E. Tenn. A
Ruth.
C. scoparia Schk. Mts. of E. Tenn. June, July.
C. cristatella Britt. C. cristata Schwein. Southwest Vir-
ginia. J. K. Small.
C. macrokolea Steud. C. verrucosa Ell. Madison. \Y. Tenn.
S. M. Bain. June-August.
C. straminea Willd. O. S. June, July.
C. Digitalis Willd. Low grounds. O. S. June. July.
C. Careyana Torr. Southwest Virginia. J. K. Small.
C. laxiculmis Schwein. White Top Mt.. Southwest Vir-
ginia. J. K. Small. May, June.
C. Atlantica Bailey. C. stellulata var. conferta Chapm.
Jackson. S. M. Bain. June.
C. Leavenworthii Dewey. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
C. Austro-Carolinensis Britton. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
ARACE^E Neck.
ARIS^MA Man.
Arissema triphyllum (L.) Torrey. Indian Turnip.
in-the-pulpit. Rich, moist woodland-. O. S. April, May. M
A. Dracontium (L.) Schott. Dragon root. With the
mer. O. S. April, May.
PELTANDRA Rat
Peltandra Virginica ( L.) Kunth. < ). S. En swamps. July.
54 Tennessee Flora.
SPATHYEMA Raf. Symplocarpus Salisb.
Spathyema foetida (L.) Salisb. Symplocarpus foetidus
Nutt. Mountain bogs, E. Tenn. ; Duck River, M. Tenn.
Skunk cabbage. February-April. M.
ORONTIUM L.
Orontium aquaticum L. Golden Club. Cleveland, E. Tenn.
With Peltandra. April.
ACORUS L.
Acorus Calamus L. Calamus root. E. Tenn. Perhaps
from imported stock. Cultivated here and there. M.
LEMNACEJE Dumort.
SPIRODELA Schleid.
Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleiden. In all ponds. O. S.
LEMNA L.
Lemna trisulca L. Ponds and ditches. O. S.
L. gibba L. Duck weed. In all ponds. O. S.
L. minor L. With the former.
L. perpusilla Torr. Shelby Pond, Nashville. June, July.
WOLFFIA Horkel.
Wolffia Columbiana Karst. Slightly submerged and fre-
quently adhering to other aquatics. Stagnant ponds near
Nashville. June, July.
W. Brasiliensis Weddel. Floating on the surface. In a
pond on the grounds of the Tennessee Hospital for the In-
sane. June, July.
XYRIDACEiB Lindley.
XYRIS L.
Xyris flexuosa Miihl. Yellow-eyed grass. In a swamp in
Hadley's Bend, in Davidson County. Marshy regions in the
oak barrens at Tullahoma. July-September.
X. montana H. Ries. X. flexuosa var. pusilla Gray. Moun-
tain meadows and brooks. Mts. of E. Tenn. July, August.
ERIOCAULONACEJE.
ERIOCAULON Lindl.
Eriocaulon decangulare L. Pipewort. Mountain mead-
ows of E. Tenn. June-October.
Tennessee Flora.
COMMELINACEJ-: Reichenb.
COMMELINA L.
Commelina nudiflora L. Day flower. Alluvial hank-. < »
S. July, August.
C. hirtella Vahl. Shaded bluffs, Nashville. Augusts
ber.
C. Virginica L. Copses. O. S.
C. Virginica angustifolia Michx. Cedar glades of M. Tenn.
July, August.
TRADESCANTIA L.
Tradescantia Virginiana L. Spiderwort. Rich woodland-.
O. S. May.
T. montana Schuttlw. Wolf Creek, Cocke County, E. Tenn.
T. H. Kearney. June, July.
T. brevicaulis Raf. Bluffs on Mill Creek. Nashville. June.
PONTEDERIACE^: Dumort.
PONTEDERIA L.
Pontederia cordata L. Pickerel weed. Wild Goose Pond,
near Mitchellville, Robertson County. June-October.
HETERANTHERA R. & P.
Heteranthera uniformis R. & P. Mud plantain. Ditches
and ponds. O. S. August.
H. limosa (Sw.) Willd. With the former. O. S. Ponds
near Nashville. August.
H. dubia (Jacq.) MacM. Schollera graminifolia A. Gray.
Water star grass. E. and W. Tenn.
JUNCACEJE Vent.
JUNCUS L.
Juncus effusus L. Common rush. In swamps and moist
places. O. S. June-September.
J. bufonius L. Toad rush. In clayey soil July-* tetober.
J. tenuis Willd. Roadsides in damp soil; very common.
O. S. June.
J. secundus Beauv. J. tenuis var. secundus Engelm. 1
Tenn. Oakland Station*. Robertson County.
J. setaceus Rostk. Along streams. ( >. S. June. July.
J. repens Michx. Miry places in the barrens of M. Tenn.
Tullahoma. June-August.
J. marginatus Rostk. Mts. of E. Tenn. and in the oak
rens of M. Tenn. June.
56 Tennessee Flora.
J. pelocarpus E. Meyer. Tullahoma. July.
J. articulatus L. Cleveland, E. Tenn. July.
J. Canadensis J. Gray. Mts. of E. Tenn. August, Septem-
ber.
J. acuminatus Michx. O. S. Var. legitimus Engelm. Au-
gust.
J. acuminatus debilis (A. Gray). Engelm.
J. robustus (Engelm.) Coville. Hollow Rock, W. Tenn.
August, September.
J. diffusissimus Engelm. Ponds in the barrens at Tulla-
homa.
J. leptocaulis Torr. & Gray. Cedar glades of M. Tenn.
May, June.
JUNCOIDES Adans. (Luzula DC.)
Juncoides pilosum (L.) Kuntze. Wood rush. Luzula pi-
losa Willd. O. S. April, May.
J. campestre (L.) Kuntze. Luzula campestris DC. Wood-
lands. O. S. June, July.
MELANTHACE^E R. Br.
XEROPHYLLUM Michx.
m Xerophyllum asphodeloides Michx. Turkey beard. Dry
woodlands, E. Tenn. A. Ruth. May-July.
CHAM^LIRIUM Willd.
Chamaelirium luteum (L.) A. Gray. Blazing star. Ch.
Carolinianum Willd. Dry woodlands. O. S. May-July. M.
CHROSPERMA Raf. (Amianthium A Gray.)
Chrosperma muscaetoxicum (Walt.) Kuntze. Amianthium
muscsetoxicum A. Gray. Fly poison. Boggy woodlands, E.
Tenn. Cave Spring, Roane County. May, June.
STENANTHIUM Kunth.
Stenanthium gramineum (L.) Morong. St. angustifolium
Kunth. Chilhowee and Cumberland Mts. July, August.
St. robustum S. Watson. Wet ground. Tullahoma, South
Tunnel, and in the Frog Mts., E. Tenn. July.
ZYGADENUS Michx.
Zygadenus leimanthoides S. Watson. Frog Mts., E. Tenn.
July.
Z. angustifolius S. Watson. Barrens at Tullahoma. June.
Tennessee Floba. 57
MELANTHIUM L.
Melanthium Virginicum L. Bush flower. High moun-
tains of E. Tenn. July.
M. parviflorum S. Watson. With the former. June, July.
VERATRUM L.
Veratrum viride Ait. American white hellebore. Indian
poke. Wolf Creek and Bench Mt., Cocke County, E. Tenn.
May-July. M.
UVULARIA L.
Uvularia perfoliata L. Bellworth. South Tunnel, Sumner
County. Highlands of M. Tenn. May, June. .
U. grandiflora J. E. Smith. Rich soil on the bluffs of Cum-
berland River. Paradise Ridge. April-June.
U. sessilifolia L. Oakland Station, Robertson County.
June, July.
U. puberula Michx. Oakesia puberula S. Watson. South-
west Virginia, adjoining Tennessee. J. K. Small.
LILIACE.E Adans.
HEMEROCALLIS L.
Hemerocallis fulva L. Day lily. Introduced and e£C;
from cultivation. Near old homesteads. June, July.
H. flava L. Introduced and sometimes astray. June, July.
ALLIUM L.
Allium tricoccum Ait. Wild leek. Mts. of E. Tenn. Tune.
July-
A. cernuum Roth. Wild onion. Frequent. 0. S. July,
August.
A. vineale L. Crow garlick. A weed in cultivated grounds.
Old Citv Cemetery, Nashville. Tune, July .
A. Alleghanense John K. Small. Buffalo Park, Wolf Creek.
H. Allen.
A. Canadense L. Moist thickets. O. S. May, June.
A. mutabile Michx. Cedar glades. Lavergne. May.
The following species are in general cultivation:
A. Cepa L. The onion, in several varieties.
A. sativum L. Garlie.
A. Porrum L. Leek.
A. Ascallonicum L. Shallot.
A. Scorodoprasum L. Rocambole or potato onion.
A. Schoenoprasum L. Chive.
58 Tennessee Flora.
NOTHOSCORDIUN Kunth.
Nothoscordum bivalve (L.) Britton. Frequent. • O. S.
March-June.
LILIUM L.
Lilium Philadelphicum L. Red lily. Cumberland Mts.
Mrs. J. Bennett.
L. Canadense L. Yellow lily. Moist woodlands. Para-
dise Ridge. Mountains about Ducktown, E. Tenn. July.
L. Grayi S. Watson. Summit of Roane Mt. Prof. A. Gray.
Chickering. July.
L. superbum L. Turk's-cap lily. High peaks of the East
Tennessee mountains. Frog Mt. July.
L. Carolinianum Mich. Mountain region of E. Tenn., ad-
joining North Carolina. July.
ERYTHRONIUM L.
Erythronium Americanum Ker. Yellow adder's tongue.
O. S. April. 31.
E. albidum Nutt. White adder's tongue. White's Bend,
below Nashville. Roane Mt., E. Tenn. Canby.
QUAMASIA Raf.
Quamasia hyacinthina (Raf.) Britton. Scilla Fraseri A.
Gray. Wild hyacinth. Rich woodlands. O. S. April.
SCHOENOLIRIUM Gray.
Schoenolirium croceum Gray. Moist places in the cedar
glades at Lavergne. May.
ORNITHOGALUM L.
Ornithogalum umbellatum L. Star of Bethlehem. Natu-
ralized from Europe. Frequent in grass plots and fields.
May-June.
MUSCARI Mill.
Muscari botryoides L. Grape hyacinth. Adventive from
Europe. Escaping in adjoining fields. April.
ALETRIS L.
Aletris farinosa L. Star grass. Colic root. Frequent in
the oak barrens. O. S. June. 31.
YUCCA L.
Yucca filamentosa L. Adam's needle. Drv, rocky ground.
O. S. May.
Tennessee Flora.
CONVALLARIACE^l Lindl.
ASPARAGUS L.
Asparagus officinalis L. Escaped from cultivation and nat-
uralized. May, June.
CLINTONIA Raf.
Clintonia borealis Raf. Summits of the Smoky Mts., White
Top Mi, Pine Mt. S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
C. umbellata Torr. Big Frog Mt., Smoky Mts. June.
VAGNERA Adans. (Smilacina Desf.)
Vagnera racemosa (L.) Morong. Wild spikenard. Rich
woodlands. O. S. May-July.
V. stellata (L.) Morong. Solomon's seal. Waters of Hoi-
ston River. J. K. Small. June.
UNIFOLIUM Adans.
Unifolium Canadense (Desf.) Greene. Smilacina bifolia
var. Canadensis A. Gray. Summit of Big Thunderhead,
Smoky Mts. May-July.
DISPORUM Salisb.
Disporum lanuginosum (Michx.) Nichols. Prosartes lanug-
inosa Don. Rich woodlands. O. S. May. June.
D. maculatum Benth. & Hooker. Prosartes maculata < ira\ .
Mts. of E. Tenn.
STREPTOPUS Michx.
Streptopus roseus Michx. Smoky Mts.. Big Thunderhead.
May- July.
POLYGONATUM Adans.
Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell. Hairy. Solomon's
seal. Woods and thickets. O. S. April-July.
P. commutatum (R. & S.) Dietrich. P. giganteum I
Solomon's seal. In rich, moist woodlands. Along
courses. May-July.
CONVALLARIA L.
Convallaria majalis L. Lily of the valley. Frequent in
cultivation, but native of the higher Alleghanies. Little and
Big Frog Mt., E. Tenn. May. June. M.
MEDEOLA L.
Medeola Virginiana L. Indian cucumber root. Cumber-
land and Alleehanv Mts. May.
60 Tennessee Flora.
TRILLIUM L.
Trillium sessile L. Wake robin. Moist woodlands. O. S-
April.
T. recurvatum Beck. With the former. Nashville.
Eaglesville, Rutherford County. S. M. Bain. April-June.
T. grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb. Hills west of Nashville,
Cumberland Alts., Knoxville. A. Ruth. April.
T. erectum L. O. S. April. M.
T. cernuum L. Lookout Mt., Ducktown. April.
T. undulatum Willd. T. erythrocarpum Michx. Ocoee Val-
ley, Polk County. White Top Mt., Southwest Virginia. J.
K. Small.
T. Underwoodii n. sp. J. K. Small in Torr. Botanical Bul-
letin, April, 1897. North Carolina and Tennessee mountains.
April, May.
T. viride Beck. T. sessile var. Nuttallii S. Watson. Woods
and glades. Tennessee to Missouri. April, May.
T. luteum Small. ined. Rich woods. Knox County.
A. Ruth. May.
SMILACE^E Vent.
SMILAX L.
Smilax herbacea L. Carion flower. Woods and thickets.
O. S. April-June. M.
S. tamnifolia Michx. In dry soil. O. S. May^ June.
Smilax ecirrhata S. Watson. Southwest Virginia, adjoin-
ing Tennessee. J. K. Small. May, June.
S. glauca Walter. Greenbrier. Dry, sandy soil. O. S.
May, June.
S. rotundifolia L. S. quadrangularis Willd. Greenbrier,
Horsebrier. Very abundant in M. Tenn.
S. rotundifolia crenulata Small & Heller. Waters of Hol-
ston Riber. J. K. Small. June.
S. hispida Miihl. Low, moist thickets. Nashville. O. S.
June, July.
S. Pseudo-China L. Sarsaparilla. Tuberous rootstock, lo-
cally known as sarsaparilla. Along river banks and up to the
mountains. March- August. M.
S. Bona-nox L. S. tamnoides A. Gray. In thickets. O. S.
April-June.
S. laurifolia L. Foot of Lookout Mt. Memphis. An ever-
green, useful for decorations. March-September.
S. Walteri Pursh. In wet ground. Credited to Tennessee
in Illustrated Flora.
Tennessee Flora. 61
AMARYLLIDACK.E Lindl.
HYMENOCALLIS Salisb.
Hymenocallis occidentalis (Le Conte), Kunth. Pancra-
tium Carolinianum L. Moist, meadow lands. I >. S. July-
September.
AGAVE L.
Agave Virginica L. In dry soil. O. S. July. August.
HYPOXIS L.
Hypoxis erecta L. Star grass. In dry glades. ( >. >
May.
DIOSCOREACEiE Lindl.
DIOSCOREA L.
Dioscorea villosa L. Wild yam root. In moist thickets.
O. S. June, July. M.
D. Batatas L. Is sometimes found as an ornamental vim*
in our gardens, but is not cultivated for its deeply-buried tu-
bers.
IRIDACE^E Lindl.
IRIS L.
Iris versicolor L. Larger Blue Flag. In marshes and thick-
ets. O. S. May-July. M.
I. hexagona Walter. On the western side of Tenn<
River at Johnsonville. Hollow Rock. April, May.
I. prismatica Pursh. I. Virginica Miihl. Abundant in the
wet oak barrens east of Tullahoma. May, Juno.
I. Germanica L. Fleur-de-lis. On an abandoned garden
plot on Charlotte Pike, near Nashville. May. June.
I. fulva Ker. I. cuprea Pursh. \Y. Tenn., near Humboldt.
May, June.
I. cristata Ait. On hillsides and in open woodlands. I V S.
April, May.
I. verna L. Cumberland Mts. Rugby. Mr-. Perciva!.
April, May.
NEMASTYLIS Nutt.
Nemastylis acuta (Bart.) Herb. Ixia acuta Bart. Cred-
ited to Tennessee in the Illustrated Flora.
GEMMINGIA Fabr. (Pardanthus Ker.)
Gemmingia Chinensis (L.) Kuntze. Pardanthus Chinen-
sis Ker. Blackberrv lily. O. S. Very abundant. I
lected it alreadv fifty vears ago in the remotest mountain
62 Tennessee Flora.
glens, and think it is really indigenous, not naturalized from
Asia. June.
SISYRINCHIUM L.
Sisyrinchium graminoides Bicknell. Blue-eyed grass.
Sisyrinchium anceps Wats. O. S. April-June.
S. angustifolium Mill. S. mucronatum Michx. O. S.
May, June.
ORCHIDACEvE Lindl.
CYPRIPEDIUM L.
Cypripedium reginae Walt. C. spectabile Salisb. Lady's
slipper. Ducktown. June-September.
C. hirsutum Mill. C. pubescens Willd. Paradise Ridge,
near Nashville; Lookout Mt., and throughout the Cumberland
Mts. May, June. M.
C. parviflorum Salisb. Hills near Nashville. Mts. of E.
Tenn. May-July.
C. acaule Ait. Moccasin flower. Alleghanies and Cum-
berland Alts. May.
ORCHIS L.
Orchis spectabilis L. Rich woodlands around Nashville.
April, May.
HABENARIA Willd.
Habenaria orbiculata (Pursh.) Torrey. Slopes of White
Top Alt., Southwest Virginia, adjoining Tennessee. J. K.
Small. July.
H. integra (Nutt.) Sprengel. Tullahoma, Mitchellville.
Julv.
H. bracteata (Willd.) R. Br. Waters of Holston River. J.
K. Small. May.
H. clavellata (Michx.) Spreng. H. tridentata Willd. Fre-
quent in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. July, August.
H. flava (L.) A. Gray. H. virescens Spreng. Bogs, W.
Tenn. June.
H. cristata (Michx.) R. Br. Sewanee, Cumberland Mts.
July, August.
H. cilaris (L.) R. Br. Edgefield Junction. E. Tenn. July,
August.
H. blephariglottis (Willd.) Torrey. Tullahoma. August.
H. psycodes (L.) A. Gray. White Top Mt., S. W. Va. J.
K. Small.
H. peramoena A. Gray. Cedar Hill ; Mitchellville, Robert-
son County. July.
H. Michauxii Nutt. Grassy Cove, in the Cumberland Mts.
Mrs. L. Bennett. July.
Tennessee Flora.
POGONIA Juss,
Pogonia ophioglossoides ( L.) Ker. Snake-mouth. Hiwas-
see, Polk County. June, July.
P. trianthophora (Sw.) B. & P. P. pendula Lindl. In leal
mold in the highlands of M. Tenn., Mitchellville, War
Frequent. August, September.
P. divaricata (L.) B. Br. Mts. of E. Tenn. July.
P. verticillata Nutt. Sewanee. E. Kirby-Smith. July.
GYROSTACHYS Pers. (Spiranthes L. C. Rich/.
Gyrostachys plantaginea (Raf.) Britton. Spiranthes lati-
folia Torr. Lady's tresses. Southwest Virginia, adjoining
Tennessee. J. K. Small. June-August.
G. cernua (L.) Kuntze. Spiranthes cernua L. Barrens
around Tullahoma. August.
G. praecox (Walt.) Kuntze. Spiranthes precox S. Watson.
Grassy places. O. S. July, August.
G. simplex (A. Gray) Kuntze. Harpeth hills, south of
Nashville, in siliceous soil. Abundant. August, September.
G. gracilis (Bizel.) Kuntze. Grass plots around Nashville.
Barrens. September.
LISTERA R. Br.
Listera convallarioides (Sw.) Torrey. TwaJ-blade. Slopes
of White Top Mt., Southwest Virginia. J. K. Small. June-
August.
L. australis Lindl. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
PERAMIUM Salisb. (Goodyera R. Br.)
Peramium repens (L.) Salisbury. Goodyera repens R. Br.
Rattlesnake plantain. O. S.
P. pubescens (Willd.) McM. Mts. of E. Tenn. July.
ACHROANTHES Raf. (Microstylis Nutt.)
Achroanthes unifolia (Michx.) Raf. Microstylis ophioj
soides Nutt. Adder's mouth. Cumberland Mts. Mrs. L.
Bennett. Lemon's Gap. A. Ruth.
LEPTORCHIS Thouars. I Liparis L. C. Richard.)
Leptorchis liliifolia (L.) Kuntze. Liparis liliifolia L. C.
Rich. W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
May-July.
L. Loesellii (L.) McM. Water- of Holston River. J. K.
Small. May-July.
£4 Tennessee Flora.
CORALLORHIZA R. Br.
Corallorhiza Corallorhyza (L.) Karst. C. innata R. Br.
Coral root. Highlands of Middle Tennessee. May, June.
C. odontorhiza (Willd.) Nutt. Harpeth hills, south of
Nashville. July-September. M.
C. multiflora Nutt. In leaf mold in dry woodlands. O. S.
June, July.
C. Wisteriana Conn. E. Tenn, Hiwassee Valley. R. Ruth.
TIPULARIA Nutt.
Tipularia unifolia (Miihl.) B. & P. T. discolor Nutt.
Crane fly Orchis. Vicinity of Ducktown, in Fanning County,
Ga. July, August.
LIMODORUM L. (Calopogon R. Br.)
Limodorum tuberosum L. Calopogon pulchellus R. Br.
Grass pink. Mts. of E. Tenn. and oak barrens of M. Tenn.
June, July.
HEXALECTRIS Raf. (Bletia Nutt.)
Hexalectris aphylla (Nutt.) Raf. Bletia aphylla Nutt.
Parksville, Polk County. Dry hills east of Cleveland. Un-
der pines (E. Tenn.), and also under oaks (hills of Davidson
County). July, August.
APLECTRUM Nutt.
Aplectrum spicatum (Walt.) B. S. P. Aplectrum hyemale
Nutt. Potty root. Mts. of E. Tenn. S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
May-July.
SUBCLASS 2. DICOTYLEDONES.
SAURURACEJE Lindl.
SAURURUS L.
Saururus cernuus L. Lizard's tail. In stagnant waters.
O. S. June-August.
JUGLANDACEJE Lindl.
JUGLANS L.
Juglans nigra L. Black walnut. O. S. M.
J. cinerea L. Butternut. White walnut. Creek and river
bottom lands. O. S. April, May. Fruit ripe in October. M.
J. regia L. The English walnut is sparingly introduced,
and seems to grow well.
Tennessee Floba.
HICKORIA Raf. (Carya \
Hickoria Pecan (Marsh.) Britton. Pecan. Tennessee and
Mississippi bottoms in West Tennessee. Some larg<
the vicinity of Nashville have been planted by early settl
H. minima (Marsh.) Britton. Carya amara Xuti. Swamp
hickory. Bitternut. Swampy -rounds along Cumberland
River below Nashville. May, June. Fruit in I October.
H. ovata (Mill.) Britton. Carya alba Xutt. Shell
hickory. O. S. May. Fruit in September.
H. laciniosa (Michx. fil) Sargent. Big shag bark. King-
nut. Carya sulcata Nutt. In rich soil. ' O. S. May.
in September, October.
H. alba (L.) Britton. Carya tomentosa Nutt. Mockernut.
O. S. May. Fruit in October.
H. microcarpa (Nutt.) Britton. Carya microcarpa Xutt.
Lookout Mt. May. Fruit in October.
H. glabra (Mill.) Britton. Carya porcina Nutt. I'
hickory. Very frequent on the Cumberland Plateau. May,
June. Fruit in October, November.
*H. Carolinae-septentrionalis Ashe. Tennessee. (Vid
lustrated Flora; Appendix, page 511.)
SALICACE.E Lindl.
POPULUS L.
Populus alba L. Abele. White or silver-leaf poplar. Na-
tive from Europe. Roadsides and yard-. Difficult to eradi-
cate where it is undesirable. March.
P. balsamifera candicans (Ait.) A. Gray. Balm of Gilead.
Transplanted from the Northern territories, it escaped cultiva-
*H. Carolinae-septentrionalis Ashe. A small tree attaining B max
imum height of eighty feet and a diameter of two and one-half
with gray bark, hanging in long, loose strips; bud Bcales, from
to ten, imbricate, the inner greatly enlarging In leafing, and tardily
deciduous; terminal bud, ovate-lanceolate, truncate, the seal
ing. barely one-third inch long; lateral buds, oblong; I
slender, one-eighth inch thick, glaucous, smooth, purplish bi
staminate aments in threes, glabrous on short peduncles at be
shoots of the season; stamens, glabrous: ovary, glabrous;
liage blackening in drying, glabrous, ciliate, with few resil
ules; leaflets, three to five; the two upper, three-fourths Inch to
and one-fourth inches wide, four to six inches long, lai
pair, often smaller; fruit. suDglobose,three-fourths Inch to
one-fourth inch long; husk, soon falling Into four pieces; nul
or brownish, much compressed, angled, cordate or BUDCOrdal
thin-shelled; seed, large and sweet.
66 Tennessee Flora.
tion, and is scatteringlv found in the woods in E. Tenn.
April. M.
P. heterophylla L. Swamp or downy poplar. In wet wood-
lands. April, May.
P. grandidentata Michx. Credited to our State in Gray's
Manual.
P. deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood. P. monilifera Ait. Fre-
quent in all parts of the State. April, May.
P. dilatata Ait. Lombardy poplar. Frequently planted,
but short-lived in this State.
SALIX L.
Salix nigra Marsh. Black willow. Banks of streams. O.
S. April, May. M.
S. Wardii Bebb. Along Cumberland River, Nashville.
April.
S. lucida Miihl. Mts. of E. Tenn. April, May.
S. Babylonica L. Weeping willow. Widely cultivated.
O. S. Native of Asia. April.
S. purpurea L. Basket willow. Introduced and cultivated
for wickerware. March, April.
S. humilis Marsh. Prairie willow. In the oak barrens in
dry soil and on the high mountains. Summit of Big Frog Mt.
April.
S. tristis Ait. Dwarf gray willow. In dry barrens. Tul-
lahoma. March, April.
S. sericea Marsh. Banks of White Top Creek, S. W. Va.
J. K. Small. May.
S. petiolaris J. E. Smith. Frequent around Nashville.
Grows to a tree thirty feet high. April.
S. longifolia Miihl. S. fluviatilis Nutt. W. Tenn. April,
May.
S. alba L. Introduced from Europe. In moist soil. April. M.
BETULACE.E Agardh.
CARPINUS L.
Carpinus Caroliniana Walt. American hornbeam. Water
beech. In moist woods. O. S. April, May. Fruit ripe in
August, September.
OSTRYA Scop.
Ostrya Virginiana (Mill.) Willd. Hop hornbeam. Iron-
wood. In dry lands. O. S. April, May. Fruit ripe in July,
August.
Tennessee Flora. 67
CORYLUS L.
Corylus Americana Walt. Hazelnut. From the mountains
to the Mississippi bottoms, in which it forms widespi
thickets. March, April. Nuts ripe- in July.
C. rostrata Ait. Dense undergrowth in the Alleghai
April, May. Nuts ripe in August.
EETULA L.
Betula nigra L. Red birch. A slender tree lining \.
courses. Frequent in W. Tenn. April, May.
B. lenta L. Sweet birch. Black birch. Cumberland and
Alleghany Mts. April, May. .1/.
B. lutea Mich. Gray birch. Summit of Thunderhead. May.
ALNUS Gaertn.
Alnus Alnobetula (Ehrh.) K. Koch. Mountain alder. Al-
nus viridis DC. Mts. of E. Tenn. May, June.
A. rugosa (Du Roi.) K. Koch. Smooth alder. In wet
or hillsides. O. S. March. M.
FAGACE.E Drude.
FAGUS L.
Fagus Americana Sweet. F. ferruginea Ait. American
beech. O. S. Large forest tree, attaining from 50 t<> 120 feet
in height. April, May. Fruiting in September, October.
CASTANEA Adans.
Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Barkl. C. vesca var. Ameri-
cana Michx. American chestnut. A large forest tree pre-
ferring siliceous soil, attaining from 80 to 100 feet. Most nu-
merous in the Cumberland Mts. June. July. Nuts ripe in
October.
C. pumila (L.) Mill. Chinquapin. A shrub or small tree,
preferring siliceous soil. O. S. June. Nuts ripe in Septem-
ber.
QUERCUS L.
Quercus rubra L. Red oak. A large tree attaining in rich
land a height of 140 feet by 7 feet diameter. ( >. S. May.
Acorns ripe in October, November. M.
Q. Texana Bucklev. Texan red oak. A large tree when
in suitable soil. O. S. April, May. Acorns ripe in Septem-
ber, October. Q. palustris Du Roi o\ first edition.
Q. coccinea Wang. Scarlet ( >ak. Big tree from So to
feet high by from 4 to 5 feet diameter. < >. S. May. June.
Acorns ripe" in September, October.
68 Tennessee Flora.
Q. velutina Lam. O. tinctoria Bartram. O. coccinea var.
tinctoria A. Gray. Black oak. Quercitron. Large forest
tree. Maximum height, about 150 feet; trunk diameter, 5 feet.
O. S. April, May. Fruit maturing the next season. M.
Q. digitata (Marsh.) Ludw. Spanish oak. (Q. falcata
Michx.) Maximum height, 90 feet by 5 feet diameter. In sili-
ceous soil. May, June. Acorns ripe in October.
Q. nana (Marsh.) Sargent. Q. ilicifolia Wang. Bear or
scrub oak. Dry, gravelly places in the barrens. May.
Acorns maturing in October.
Q. Marylandica Moench. Black-jack oak. Stony, gravelly
ridges, siliceous formations. O. S. May, June. Acorns ma-
ture in October.
Q. nigra L. Water oak. Maximum height, about 80 feet ;
diameter, 4 feet. In siliceous and argillaceous soils. M. and
E. Tenn. Prefers the banks of streams. Ocoee Valley. April,
May. Acorns in September, October. Fruiting the second
year.
Q. Phellos L. Willow oak. Large tree, attaining from 80
to 100 feet by 3 feet diameter. Prefers moist situations in ar-
gillaceous soils. O. S. April, May. Fruit maturing in Sep-
tember. Fruiting the second year.
Q. imbricaria Michx. Shingle oak. Attaining 100 feet by
3! feet diameter. Especially frequent in the basin of M. Tenn.
April, May. Fruit maturing the second year.
Q. alba L. White oak. Maximum height, 150 feet by 5
feet diameter. O. S. May, June. Acorns mature in Septem-
ber, October. M.
Q. minor (Marsh.) Sargent. Post oak. Biggest size, 100
feet; diameter of trunk, 4 feet. In dry soil. O. S. May,
June. Acorns mature same year in September, October.
Q. lyrata Wralt. Overcup oak. In moist soil, mostly in
M. Tenn. Height, 100 feet by 3 feet diameter. April, May.
Fruit maturing the first season.
Q. macrocarpa Michx. Mossy cup or bur oak. A large
tree , attaining 160 feet by 8 feet diameter. Loves rich bot-
tom lands. O. S. May, June. Acorns maturing the same
season. They are sometimes 2 inches high.
Q. platanoides (Lam.) Ludw. O. bicolor Willd. Swamp
white oak. A large tree, attaining no feet by 9 feet diameter.
Mississippi bottoms. May, June. Acorns mature in Septem-
ber, October. .
Q. Michauxii Nutt. Cow oak. Attaining 100 feet by 7 feet
diameter. Rich bottom lands. O. S. April, May. Acorns
ripe in September, October.
Q. Prinus L. Rock chestnut oak. Rocky, but rich, hill-
Tennessee Floil
sides. Slopes of the Cumberland Mts. Bark gathered for
tanning. May, June. Acorns ripe in October, November
Q. acuminata (Michx.) Sarg. Q. Muhlenbergii Ei
Dry or clamp limestone soil. Frequeril in Davidson County.
May, June. Acorns ripe in October, November. Edible.
Q. Boyntoni C. D. Beadle, n. sp. Common on Lookout
Alt., near Gadsden, Ala. It very probably extends also on the
Tennessee extension of Lookout Mt.
ULMACEiE Mirbel.
ULMUS L.
Ulmus Americana L. White elm. A robust tree, attain-
ing a height of 120 feet and n feet diameter. In rich and
moist soil. O. S. March, April. Samaras maturing in May.
U. racemosa Thomas. Rock elm. Grows to a height of
ioo feet by 4 feet diameter. In rich soil. Nashville.
U. alata Michx. Winged elm. Wahoo. A small tree.
Very frequent in the glades of M. Tenn. March. Samara-
ripe in April.
U. fulva Michx. Slippery elm. Tree attaining 70 feet by
2\ feet diameter. Hillsides and along streams. Bark mucil-
aginous, fragrant in drying. March, April. Fruit matures
in April, May. M.
fU. serotina Sargent. Discovered in 1878 near grounds of
Vanderbilt University. Flowering in October.
PLANERA J. F. Gmelin.
Planera aquatica (Walt.) J. T. Gmelin. Planer tree. A
small tree 40 feet high. Along water courses and in swamps.
W. Tenn. Bridgeport. April, May.
*Q. Boyntoni C. D. Beadle. Shrub L-5 111. tall, usually growinf
in large clumps, or a small tree, with short trunk Less than 1 dm. in
diameter; leaves, obovate in outline, 5-9 cm. long, l.fi-4 cm. broad,
with from three to five small, obtuse lobes above the middle, cuneate
from the lower lobes to the base, glabrous above, tomentose beneath;
acorns, sessile or short pedunculate; nut, oval or obovoid. 11' mm. high,
9-10 wide; cup, turbinate, inclosing less than one-half of the nut.
t U. serotina Sargent. Tree K> to 50 feet high 2 to •'■ f<
ter of trunk, with close, pale-gray bark; leaves, oblonj to oblon
vate, acuminate, variously oblique at the lias.', coarsely and doubly
crenulate-serrate, membranaceous, glabrous and lustrous above, pub
erulous below on the prominent midribs and veins; Bowers, p-
autumnal, racemose, from buds in the axils of the leavee of the year,
long-pedicellate; calyx, six-parted at the base, its divisions oblong
obovate, rounded at the apex: ovary, sessile, narrowed below, hi
samaras stipitate, oblong elliptical, deeply two-parted at the apex, cll-
iate on the margin; seeds, obovate, raphe conspicuous: young h
stipules and bracts unknown. (Botanical Gazette, February, 1899
0 Tennessee Flora.
CELTIS L.
Celtis occidentalis L. Hackberry. Maximum height, 120
feet by 5 feet diameter. O. S. April, May. Fruit matures in
September.
C. Mississippiensis Bosc. Shrubby, or a smaller tree, as the
foregoing. In the dry glades of M. Tenn. April. A stunted
form is Celtis pumila Pursh.
MORACEJE Lindl.
MORUS L.
Morus rubra L. Red mulberry. In rich soil. O. S. April,
May. Fruit ripe in June.
M. alba L. White mulberry. Formerly used for feeding
silk worms, and, therefore, imported. Sparingly escaped.
May. Fruit matures in July, August.
TOXILON Raf. (Madura Nut.)
Toxilon pomiferum Raf. A small tree indigenous to the
Transmississippi region. Here planted for hedges, and occa-
sionally spontaneous. May, June. Fruit matures in October.
BROUSSONETIA L'Her.
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent'. A small dioecious tree,
native of the South Sea Islands. Cultivated as a shade tree in
"Europe and America. All those in Nashville, with a single
exception, are male. May, June. Fruit in September.
HUMULUS L.
Humulus Lupulus L. Hop. Sometimes found escaped
from cultivation. July, August. Our climate is not congenial
to hop culture. M.
CANNABIS L.
Cannabis sativa L. Hemp. In waste places, escaped from
cultivation or scattered from bird cages. Native of Europe
and Asia. July-September. M.
URTICACE.E Reichenb.
URTICA L.
Urtica dioica L. Stinging nettle. Frequently introduced,
but not naturalized in Tennessee. June, July.
U. gracilis Ait. Along fence rows in the mountains of E.
Tenn. May, June.
U. urens L. The burning nettle. In waste places in towns
Tennessee Flora. 71
where imported goods are unpacked. Does nol get natural-
ized. April.
U. chaemaedryoides Pursh. In thickets. Frequent around
Nashville. April.
URTICASTRUM Fabr. (Laportea Gaud.)
Urticastrum divaricatum ( L.) Kuntze. Wood nettle. In
rich woods. O. S. July, August.
ADICEA Raf. (Pilea Lindl.)
Adicea pumila (L.) Raf. Pilea pumila A. Gray. Rich
weed. In moist situations, on rotton wood. O. S. July-Sep-
tember.
BCEHMERIA Jacq.
Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Willd. False nettle. In moist
soil. O. S. July.
B. nivea Hooker & Arnott. Introduced from Eastern Asia,
and, as reported, growing well in YY. Tenn.
PARIETARIA L.,
Parietaria Pennsylvanica Miihl. Pellitory. In waste
ground, edge of woodlands. O. S. June. July.
LORANTHACE^E DC.
PHORADENDRON Nutt.
Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh.) Nutt. American mistle-
toe. Parasitic on all deciduous-leaved trees. May-July.
Fruit matures in December.
SANTALACE.E R. Br.
COMANDRA Nutt.
Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. Bastard toad flax. Par-
asitic on roots of various plants. In the oak barren^ of Tulla-
homa. April-June.
PYRULARIA Michx.
Pyrularia pubera Mich. P. oleifera A. Gray. Oil nut.
Buffalo nut. Alleghany and Cumberland Mts. May. Fruit
ripe in August.
BUCKLEYA Torr.
Buckleya distichophylla Torr. Along the road from Wolf
Creek to Hot Springs, X. C. Along French Broad River.
May.
72 Tennessee Flora.
ARISTOLOCHIACEJE Blume.
ASARUM L.
Asarum Canadense L. Wild ginger. Woodlands. O. S.
Banks of Cumberland River at Nashville. April, May. M.
A. Virginicum L. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. May,
June.
A. macranthum ( Shuttlw.) Small. Valley of Ocoee River
at Parksville. May.
A. arifolium Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn. April-June.
A. Ruthii Ash. n. sp. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth.
ARISTOLOCHIA L.
Aristolochia Serpentaria L. Virginia snake root. Bluffs
along Cumberland River, Nashville. E. and M. Tenn. June,
July. Fruit in September. M.
A. macrophylla Lam. A. Sipho. L'Her. Dutchman's pipe.
Alts, of E. Tenn. Along Doe River. May, June. Fruit ripe
in September.
A. tomentosa Sims. Valley of Cumberland River. May,
June. Fruit in August.
POLYGONACE.E Lindl.
RUMEX L.
Rumex Acetosella L. Sheep sorrel. In dry fields. O. S.
May-September. M.
R. verticillatus L. Swamp dock. Swamps along Cumber-
land River. July, August.
R. altissimus Wood. R. Britannica Meisson. Moist ground
or ditches. O. S. April, May.
R. crispus L. Curled dock. Native from Europe. O. S.
June-August. M.
R. conglomeratus Mun. Waste places. Nashville. May-
July.
R. obtusifolius L. Bitter dock. O. S. Naturalized from
Europe. June-August.
FAGOPYRUM Gaut.
Fagopyrum Fagopyrum (L.) Karst. F. esculentum Moench.
Buckwheat. Frequently cultivated on the Cumberland Pla-
teau, and p-ersistent in fields after cultivation. June, July.
RHEUM L.
Rheum palmatum L. Rhubarb.
Rh. compactum L., with their varieties, are important prod-
ucts of the market gardens.
Tennessee Flora.
POLYGONUM L.
Polygonum emersum (Michx.) Britton. P. Muhlenb
S.Watson. River swamps. Wild-goose pond near Mitchell-
ville. July-September.
P. incarnatum Ell. In wet soil. ("). S. rune-Septeml
P. lapathifolium L. Waste places. I >. S. [une
ber.
P. Pennsylvanicum L. In moist soil. O. S. Inlv-Septem-
ber.
P. Persicaria L. Lady's thumb. Waste and wet ground.
O. S. June-October.
P. hydropiperoides Michx. Mild water pepper. Inundated
ground. O. S. June-September.
P. Hydropiper L. Smart weed. In moist waste places. I ».
S. July-September.
P. punctatum Ell. P. acre H. B. K. Water -mart weed.
Ponds and ditches. O. S. June-October. 1/.
P. orientale L. Prince's feather. Escaped from gardens.
O. S. August, September.
P. Virginianum L. Virginia knot weed. Thicket-. I
July-November.
P. aviculare L. Knot-door weed. In all yards and road-
sides. O. S. June-October.
P. erectum L. Frequently in company with P. aviculare L.
O. S. July-September.
P. tenue Mich. Cumberland Plateau. Sewanee. July-
September.
P. Convolvulus L. Black bind weed. Waste and culti-
vated grounds. Nashville. July-September.
P. dumetorum L. Hedge buckwheat. Vicinity of Knox-
ville. July-September.
P. scandens L. Thickets. O. S. August, September.
P. cristatum Engelm. Climbing high. Harpeth hills, -
of Nashville. August-October.
P. sagittatum L. Arrow-leaved tear thumb. Swampy
lands. O. S. July-September.
P. arifolium L. Cumberland Plateau. September.
BRUNNICHIA Banks.
Brunnichia cirrhosa Bank. Grounds of the Tennessee Hos-
pital for the Insane, near Nashville, around the fountain.
W. Tenn. May, June.
CHENOP< >l)l.\( "K.K Dui
CHENOPODIUM L.
Chenopodium album L. Lamb's quarters. Pigweed. Cii
74 Tennessee Flora.
tivated grounds. O. S. June-September. Naturalized from
Europe.
Ch. glaucum L. Goosefoot. W. Tenn. June-September,
Naturalized.
Ch. polyspermum L. Knoxville. July-September.
Ch. Boscianum Mag. Fields and woods. O. S. July-Sep-
tember.
Ch. urbicum L. Streets of Chattanooga. Adventive from
Europe. June-September.
Ch. murale L. Naturalized from Europe. In towns and
settlements. O. S. June-September.
Ch. Botrys L. Jerusalem oak. Cultivated in gardens for
its fragrancy, and naturalized from Europe. O. S. July-Sep-
tember. M.
Ch. ambrosioides L. Mexican tea. Naturalized from trop-
ical America. In waste grounds. Brownsville, W. Tenn.
August-October.
Ch. anthelminticum L. Wormseed. Naturalized from Eu-
rope. Abundant. O. S. M.
BETA L.
Beta vulgaris L. Beet. Cultivated in numerous varieties,
including the sugar beet. A native of Southern Europe, and
already cultivated by the Romans.
B. Cicla L. White or Sicilian beet, native of Sicily, includ-
ing a variety called Swiss chard beet, are favorite vegetables,
and the blanched and sliced leaves and midribs are served as
salads.
B. maritima L. The sea beet or mangold wurzel, a native
of Britain and Southern Europe, are excellent food material
for cattle ; and, moreover, from the brilliant tints of their
leaves, very decorative plants.
SPINACIA L.
Spinacia oleracea L. Of unknown nativity; is an esteemed,
much-cultivated pot herb ; only found in cultivation, although
cultivated ove'r three hundred years.
AMARANTHACE,E J. St. Hil.
AMARANTHUS L.
Amaranthus retroflexus L. Common weed, naturalized
from Europe. August-October.
A. hybridus L. Naturalized from tropical America. O. S.
August-October.
A. spinosus L. Naturalized from tropical America. Very
Tennessee Flora. ::,
copious in the streets and vacant town lots in Nashville.
June-September.
A. hybridus paniculatus L. and A. hypochondriacus L.
quent in gardens, known as " princess feather; " often
into waste grounds.
ACNIDA L.
Acnida tamariscina (Ntitt.) Wood. Western water hemp.
Var. tuberculata Mag. Abounds as a troublesome weed in
fields near Nashville. July-September.
FRCEHLICHIA Munch.
Frcehlichia Floridana (Nutt.) Mag. According to Illus-
trated Flora, belongs to Tennessee. June-September.
IRESINE P. Br.
Iresine paniculata (L.) Kuntze. I. celosioides L. River
banks and adjoining fields near Nashville. August, Septem-
ber.
PHYTOLACCACE.E Lindl.
PHYTOLACCA L.
Phytolacca decandra L. Poke root. Frequent in wood-
lands and cultivated grounds. O. S. July-October. Berries
ripe in October. Also called " inkberry."
NYCTAGINACEJE Lindl.
ALLIONIA Loefl. (Oxybaphus L'Her.)
Allionia albida Watt. Umbrella wort. Oxybaphus albidus
Chaisy. Cliffs along Cumberland River at Nashville. May-
August.
A. nyctaginea Michx. Oxybaphus nyctagineus Sweet. \\
Tenn. Guthrie. May-August.
AIZOACEJE A. Br.
MULLUGO L.
Mollugo verticillata L. Carpet weed. In waste and culti-
vated grounds, a weed. O. S. May-September.
PORTLL.U .U'K.K Reichenb.
TALINUM Adans.
Talinum teretifolium Pursh. Crevices in the limestone
rocks, in the cedar glades. Frequent. July. August.
76 Tennessee Flora.
CLAYTONIA L.
Claytonia Virginica L. Spring beauty. Woods and pas-
tures. O. S. March-May.
C. Virginica graminifolia. Leaves narrowly linear, elon-
gated. Hills around Nashville. March, April.
C. Caroliniana Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn. May, June.
PORTULACA L.
Portulaca oleracea L. Purslane. Common garden weed.
O. S. June, July.
P. retusa Engelm. Among the former and in the cedar
glades. June.
P. pilosa L. Xow and then in E. Tenn., Meigs County.
P. grandiflora Hook. Garden portulaca. Escaped from
cultivation. Native of South x\merica. July.
TETRAGONIA DC.
Tetragonia expansa Fenzel. New Holland spinach. Culti-
vated only for the table. A native of Tasmania.
CARYOPHYLLACEJE Reichenb.
AGROSTEMMA L.
Agrostemma Githago L. Corn cockle. In grain fields and
waste places. O. S. July-September.
SILENE L.
Silene stellata (L.) Aiton. Starry champion. Open wood-
lands. O. S. June, July.
S. Caroliniana Walt. S. Pennsylvania Michx. Cumber-
land and Alleghany Mts. April-June.
S. Virginica Link. Fire pink. Sunny hillsides. O. S.
May, June.
S. rotundifolia Nutt. Catchfly. High cliffs of Cumberland
Mts. Lookout Mt. June, July.
S. regia Sims. Lake Ottose, near Knoxville. A. Ruth.
July.
S. antirrhina L. Waste places, rocky soil. O. S. April-
June.
S. ovata Pursh. Lemon's Gap, Cocke County. T. H. Kear-
ney. June.
S. alba Miihl. White champion. Near Wartburg, Morgan
County. June.
SAPONARIA L.
Saponaria officinalis L. Soap wort. O. S. Naturalized
from Europe. July, August. M.
Tennessee Flora. ::
DIANTHUS L.
Dianthus Armeria L. Pink. River banks al Marion, S. W.
Va. Advantitious from Europe. J. K. Small.
ALSINE L. (Stellaria L.)
Alsine media L. Stellaria media Cyr. Common chick
weed. Waste places. O. S. Naturalized from Europe.
nary-December. M.
A. pubera (Michx.) Britton. Stellaria pubera Michx. I
chick weed. Rich woodlands. O. S. April. May.
A. longifolia (Miihl.) Britton. Stellaria longifolia Miihl.
Stick wood. Low grounds, Kingston Springs. Ma v.
A. fontinalis (Short & Peter) Britton. In we1 places, in the
glades. Frequent in the vicinity of Nashville. April, Maw
A. prostrata. Stellaria prostrata Baldw. Knoxville. A.
Ruth.
CERASTIUM L.
Cerastium viscosum L. Mouse-ear chiek weed. Meadows
and waste places. 0.-&. April.
C. vulgatum L. Pastures and roadsides. O. S. March-
May.
C. longipedunculatum Miihl. C. nutans Raf. M
grounds and hillsides. O. S. May. June.
C. arvense L. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
C. oblongifolium Torr. C. arvense oblongifolium Holt. &
Britton. Moist, shady banks, growing in tufts. Nashville.
April, May.
SAGINA L.
Sagina decumbens (Ell.) Torrey & Gray. Pearl wort.
Damp and dry soil. On pavements. Nashville, Knoxville.
March-May.
ARENARIA L. (Alsine W'ahlA
Arenaria serpyllifolia L. Sandwood. Dry, rocky ground.
O. S. March, April.
*A. patula Michx. A. Pitcheri Nutt. Limestone regions
of M Tenn Nashville, Knoxville. April, May.
A. Groenlandica ( Retz.) Spreng. A. glabra Michx. I I
•A. patula Michx. Type, as I understand it. has corolla
to 15 mm. and ripe capsule exceeding calyx lobefl by one-third.
is a variety occurring in the same region with expanded Ho
5-7 mm., other proportions equal to former, and the testa marked wit]
the same beautiful design like the former A. patula tenella.
IS * Tennessee Flora.
est points of Alleghany and Cumberland Mts. June-Septem-
ber.
A. diffusa Ell. Bluffs on Mill Creek. Copses near Pu-
laski. June.
PARONYCHIA Adans.
Paronychia argyrocoma (Michx.) Nutt.' Whitlow wort.
Higher Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Black Mts., above
Piney. Mrs. J. Bennett. July.
P. dichotoma (L.) Nutt. Mts. of E. Tenn., near Ducktown.
July-October.
ANYCHIA Michx.
Anychia dichtotoma Michx. Chick weed. Dry woods and
thickets O. S. May-September.
A. Canadensis (L.)'B. S. P. Anychia capillacea DC. With
the former, and often on the same square foot of ground. Hills
south of Nashville. O. S. June-September.
SCLERANTHUS L.
Scleranthus annuus L. Knewel. Waste grounds. Nash-
ville. March-September.
NYMPHAEACE.^ DC.
CABOMBA Aubl.
Cabomba Caroliniana A. Gray. Carolina water shield. Cy-
press swamps, W. Tenn. May-August.
BRASENIA Schreb.
Brasenia purpurea (Michx.) Casp. B. peltata Pursh. Wa-
ter shield. Lagoons along Tennessee River. Ponds in Sum-
ner County. May-August.
NYMPH^A. L.
Nymphaea advena Soland. Nuphar advena R. Br. Yellow
pond lily. In ponds and slow streams. O. S. April-Septem-
ber. M.
CASTALIA Salisb.
Castalia odorata (Dryand.) Woodf. & Wood. White water
lily. In ponds and lagoons along rivers. O. S. Pond in
lunatic asylum near Nashville. June-September. M.
NELUMBO Adans.
Nelumbo lutea (Willd.) Pers. American Nelumbo. Wa-
Tennessee Flora.
ter chinquapin. Lagoons and ponds. M. and \Y. Tenn. Nash-
ville. Very frequent. June-September.
CERATOPHYLLACE^flE A. (iray.
Ceratophyllum demersum L. Hornwort In ponds and
stagnant water. O. S. June. July.
MAGNOLIACEJE J. St. Hil.
MAGNOLIA L.
Magnolia Fraseri Walt. Slopes of the Smoky Mts. fune.
July.
M. macrophylla Michx. Large-leaved umbrella tree. Alle-
ghanies. Cumberland Mts., near Rugby. J. F. James.
M. tripetala L. Umbrella tree. Cumberland and Alle-
ghany Mts. June.
M. Virginiana L. M. glauca L. Sweet bay. Madison
County, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. May. June.
M. acuminata L. Cucumber tree. Rich soil, river bottom-.
O. S. May, June.
M. grandiflora L. In cultivation only.
LIRIODENDRON L.
Liriodendron Tulipifera L. Yellow poplar. O. S. V
taining to a height of from ioo to 190 feet by from 4 to u feel
diameter. Most frequent in the Mississippi bottoms, where
it grows to greatest size. May, June. .1/.
ANONACEJE DC.
ASIMINA Adans.
Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Papaw. A shrub or tree
reaching from 20 to 40 feet in the river bottoms. Flowering
in March ; fruit maturing in October.
RANUNCULACE.E Juss.
HYDRASTIS Ellis.
Hydrastis Canadensis L. Golden seal. Yellow puccoon.
Open woodlands and rich soil. < >. S. Various places around
Nashville. April. May. M.
CALTHA L.
Caltha palustris L. Marsh marigold. Boggy mount
meadows. Ducktown. April-June.
80 Tennessee Flora.
COPTIS Salisb.
Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb. Gold thread. Higher Allegha-
nies. Summit of Thimderhead. At the edge of laurel thick-
ets. Verv abundant. Piney Creek, in Rhea County. Mrs.
Lydia A. "Bennett. May-July. 31.
XANTHORRHIZA L'Her.
Xanthorrhiza apiifolia L'Her. Yellow root. Shady banks
of mountain streams in the Cumberland and Alleghany Alts.
April, May. 31.
ACTJEA. L.
Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd. Red baneberry. Moist woods.
O. S. April-June. M.
A. alba (L.) Mill. White baneberry. Same range with the
former. O. S. April-June. 31.
CIMICIFUGA L.
Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. Black snake root. Woods.
O. S. June- August. M.
C. cordifolia Pursh. Bluffs along Tennessee River at Knox-
ville. A. Ruth. T. H. Kearney. C. rubifolia Kearney n. sp.
seems to be identical with cordifolia Pursh.
C. Americana Michx. American bugbane. Big Frog Mts.
Roane Mt. Chickering. August, September.
AQUILEGIA L.
Aquilegia Canadensis L. Columbine. Rocky woods. O.
S. April-June.
A. coccinea Small, ined. Rich soil. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
DELPHINIUM L.
Delphinium urceolatum Jacq. D. exaltatum Ait. Tall lark-
spur. Roane Mt. J. W\ Chickering. July, August.
D. Consolida L. Knight's spur. Larkspur. Waste grounds,"
old fields. O. S. Naturalized from Europe. July.
D. Carolinianum Walter. D. azureum Michx. Rocky
places. Frequent about Nashville. May, June.
D. tricorne Michx. Edge of woodlands in rich soil. O. S.
April, May.
ACONITUM L.
Aconitum uncinatum L. Monk's hood. Lake Otosee, near
Knoxville. A. Ruth. June.
A. reclinatum A. Grav. Wolf's bane. Mts. of E. Tenn.
July.
Tennessee Flora. 8]
ANEMONE L.
Anemone Caroliniana Walt. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. La
vergne. April, A [ay.
A. cylindrica A. Gray. Alleghanies, near Ducktown. June-
August,
A. Virginiana L. Woods. O. S. June-August.
A. trifolia L. Little Frog Mi., with Convallaria majalis.
April.
A. quinquefolia L, A. nemorosa var. quinquefolia A. G
A. nemorosa of eleventh edition of Tennessee Flora. Wind
flower. Paradise Ridge, Davidson County. April. Ma v.
HEPATICA L.
Hepatica Hepatica (L.) Karst. Liverwort. In the Big
Frog Mts., E. Tenn., it occurs with obtuse and acute li
from the same root. March. .1/.
H. acuta (Pursh.) Britton. Hills and woodlands oi M.
Tenn. March, April.
SYNDESMON Hofffflg.
Syndesmon thalictroides (L.) Hoffmg. Rue Anemone
Anemonella thalictroides Spach. O. S. March, April.
CLEMATIS L. (Anemonella Spach.)
Clematis Virginiana L. Virgin's bower. O. S. July. Au-
gust.
C. Addisonii Britton. Cliffs on Cumberland River above
Nashville. Sequatchie Valley. Mrs. Lydia S. Bennett.
C. ochroleuca Ait. Mts. of E. Tenn. Roanoke. S. W. Va.
J. K. Small. May, June.
C. Viorna L. Leather flower. O. S. May- July.
C. Gattingeri J. K. Small, n. sp. Bluffs on Cumberland
River above Nashville. June.
C. reticulata Walter. Bluffs of Cumberland River at N
ville. May, June.
ATRAGENE L.
Atragene Viticella L. Since many years cultivated in
dens in Nashville, and hence escaped into hedges. Ma>
Viticella L.
MYOSURUS L.
Myosurus minimus L. Mouse tail. In raoi'St pltt
racetrack, Nashville. April.
TRAUTVETTERIA F. & M.
Trautvetteria Carolinensis Walt. T. palmata F. & M.
82 Tennessee Flora.
Throughout the Alleghanies and at the Piney Falls, in the
Cumberland Mts. Mrs. L. F. Bennett. June, July.
RANUNCULUS L.
Ranunculus hispidus Michx. Water crowfoot. Low
.grounds, five miles from Knoxville. A. Ruth.
R. pusillus Poir. Ditches and waste grounds. O. S. April,
May.
R. oblongifolius Ell. Damp ground. Tullahoma. Para-
dise Ridge, Davidson County. April.
R. obtusiusculus Raf. R. alismsefolius A. Gray. Ponds
along Cumberland River. June-August.
R. abortivus L. O. S. April-June.
R. sceleratus L. In ditches, E. Tenn. April-August.
R. recurvatus Poir. Hooked crowfoot. In woods. O. S.
April-June.
R. bulbosus L. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May-July.
R. septentrionalis Poir. Marsh buttercup. O. S. April-
July-
R. fascicularis Miihl. Fields and pastures. O. S. March-
May.
R. parviflorus L. Naturalized from Europe. O. S. April-
July.
BATRACHIUM S. F. Gray. (Ranunculus L.)
Batrachium trichophyllum (Chaix.) Bossh. Ranunculus
aqUatilis var. trichophyllus DC. Ponds along Cumberland
and Tennessee Rivers. June-September.
B. divaricatum (Schrank.) Wimmer. Ranunculus divari-
catus Schrank. In pools and on the mud on river banks. O.
S. June, July.
THALICTRUM L.
Thalictrum clavatum DC. Meadow rue. Cumberland
and Alleghany Mts., in irrigated places. May, June. .
T. dioicum L. In woods in the mountains and on the high
lands. O. S. April, May.
T. caulophylloides T- K. Small. Cove Mt. Prof. Ruth.
July.
T. coriaceum (Britt.) Small. Mts. of E. Tenn. Ducktown.
White Rock Mt., S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May, June.
T. purpurascens L. T. purpurascens var. ceriferum Aust.
O. S. July.
T. polygamum Miihl. T. Cornuti T. & G. Tall meadow
rue. Moist woodlands. O. S. John Overton's farm, Nash-
ville. June-August.
Tennessee Flora.
BERBERIDACEJE T. & G.
BERBERIS L.
Berberis Canadensis Mill. Barberry. Waters of Holston
River. J. K. Small. May, June.
B. Aquifolium Pursh. Mahonia repens Don. Frequently
cultivated in gardens. Native of Rocky Mts. April. May.
Escaped.
CAULOPHYLLUM Michx.
Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. Blue cohosh.
Papoose root. Rich woodlands. O. S. April, Ma v. 1/
DIPHYLLEIA Michx.
Diphylleia cymosa Michx. Umbrella leaf. Smoky Mts.
Roane Mt. Checkering. May, June.
JEFFERSONIA Bart.
Jeffersonia diphylla (L.) Pers. Twin leaf. Rocky w 1
lands. O. S. Also called '"rheumatism root." April, May.
PODOPHYLLUM L.
Podophyllum peltatum L. May apple. Wild mandrake.
Low woods. O. S. May. M.
MENISPERMACEiE DC.
CALICOCARPUM Nutt.
Calicocarpum Lyoni (Pursh.) Nutt. Cupseed. River bot-
toms, climbing high. May, June. Fruit ripe in August.
CEBATHA Forsk. (Cocculus DC.)
Cebatha Carolina (L.) Britton. Cocculus Carolinus DC
Dry uplands, as well as river bottoms. O. S. June Berries
ripe in September.
MENISPERMUM L.
Menispermum Canadense L, Moon seed. Bottom land-.
O. S. June, July. .1/.
CALYCANTHACK.K Lind^
BUTTNERIA Duham. (Calycanthus L.)
Buttneria florida (L.) Kearnev. Calycanthus floridus I.
Strawberry shrub. Harpeth hills, south ni Nashville. King-
ston Springs. Also frequently cultivated in gardens. April
August.
84 Tennessee Flora.
B. fertilis (Walt.) Kearney. Calycanthus laevigatus Willd.
Calycanthus glaucus Willd. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts.
Fruit poisonous to sheep. August, September.
LAURACKdE Lindl.
SASSAFRAS Nees & Eberm.
Sassafras Sassafras (L.) Karst. Sassafras officinale Nees.
Sassafras. A small to a large tree. On the islands of Hi-
wassee and Tennessee Rivers, it reaches an altitude of from
ioo to 120 feet by 5 feet diameter. April, May. Fruit ma-
tures in July, August. M.
MALAPCENA Adans. (Tetranthera Nees.)
Malapoenna geniculata (Walt.) Coulter. Tetranthera gen-
iculata Nees. Pond spice. In swamps on Cumberland Mts.
East of Ducktown, in North Carolina. March, April.
BENZOIN Fabr. (Laurus L.)
Benzoin Benzoin (L.) Coulter. Spice bush. O. S. Banks
of Cumberland River at Nashville. March, April. Fruit ma-
tures in August, September. M.
B. melissaefolium (Walt.) Nees. Not so frequent like the
former. Cumberland Plateau. March.
PAPAVERACE^S B. Juss.
PAP AVER L.
Papaver somniferum L. Occasionally on waste grounds, es-
caped from gardens. Tune-August. Source of opium.
P. dubium L. Waste grounds. Unfrequent. Adventitious
from Europe. Summer.
ARGEMONE L.
Argemone Mexicana L. Prickly poppy. In some streets
of Nashville. June-September,.
A. alba Lestib. Is perhaps only a variety of the former, and
grows promiscuously in same locality. June, July.
SANGUINARIA L.
Sanguinaria Canadensis L. Blood root. In rich wood-
lands. O. S. April, May. M.
STYLOPHORUM Nutt.
Stylophorum diphyllum (Michx.) Nutt. Celandine poppy.
Woods, vicinity of Nashville. March-May.
Tennessee Flora.
CHELIDONIUM L.
Chelidonium majus L. Celandine. Adventitious from
rope. Knoxville. A. Ruth. .1/.
BICUCULLA Adans. (Dicentra Benin.)
Bicuculla Cucullaria (L.) Millsp. Dicentra Cucullaria Torr.
Dutchman's breeches. In leaf mold. Shady ravines, rlar
peth hills, near Nashville. April, May.
B. Canadensis (Goldie.) Mills]). Dicentra Canad<
Walp. Squirrel corn. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. 1/
B. eximia (Kerr.) Millsp. Dicentra eximia Torr. Do<
River, Carter County. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. May-
October.
ADLUMIA Raf.
Adlumia fungosa (Ait.) Greene. A. cirrhosa Raf. Climb-
ing fumitory. Mts. of E. Tenn. Cranberry. June-* >ct<
CAPNOIDES Adans. (Corydalis Vent.)
Capnoides sempervirens (L.) Bork. Corydalis gla
Pursh. Ravines on Doe River, Carter County. April-Sep-
tember.
C. flavulum (Raf.) Kuntze. Corydalis flavula Raf. Rocky
woods. O. S. May, June.
C. micranthum Engelm. Corydalis micrantha A. I
Woods. O. S. May, June.
FUMARIA L.
Fumaria officinalis L. Fumitory. An abundant weed in
fields in Europe, sometimes appearing here in vegetable
dens. June-August.
CRUCTFER.E Bernh. Jus
LEPIDIUM L.
Lepidium sativum L. Garden pepper grass. Escaped
gardens. May- August.
L. Virginicum L. Wild pepper grass. In fields and along
roadsides. O. S. May-November.
L. apetalum Willd. Naturalized from Europe. Here and
there. O. S. May-July.
CORONOPUS C.aertn.
Coronopus Coronopus (L.) Karst. Senebiera Coron
Poir. Vacant town lots. Memphis. Dr. Egeling. Natural-
ized from Europe. Summer.
86 Tennessee Flora.
THLASPI L.
Thlaspi arvense L. Field penny cress. In the grounds of
market gardens, introduced with seeds. Summer.
SISYMBRIUM L.
Sisymbrium officinale L. Hedge mustard. Waste places.
O. S. Introduced from Europe. May-November.
SINAPIS L.
Sinapis alba L. White mustard. Escaped from cultiva-
tion. Native of Europe. Summer.
BRASSICA L.
Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Black mustard. In cultivation
and escaped.
B. arvensis (L.) B. S. P. Sinapis arvensis L. Charlock.
Wild mustard.
B. campestris L. Turnip. Cultivated in many varieties.
Summer.
B. Rapa L. var. depressa. Flat-top turnip. In cultivation.
B. Napus L. Rape. Formerly cultivated for the oil of the
seeds, but now abandoned.
B. oleracea L. Cabbage. Cultivated in many varieties.
Summer.
RAPHANUS L.
Raphanus sativus L. Garden radish. Cultivated in many
varieties, and sometimes spontaneous. Native of Asia. June-
October.
R. Raphanistrum L. Appears sometimes as a garden weed,,
introduced with other seeds. "Jointed charlock." Summer.
IODANTHUS Torr. & Gray.
Iodanthus pinnatifidus (Michx.) Steudal. Thelipadium
pinnatifidum S. Watson. Damp woodlands. O. S. Mayr
June.
RORIPA Scop. (Nasturtium R. Br.)
Roripa palustris (L.) Bess. Nasturtium palustre DC.
March water cress. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May-August.
R. sessiliflora (Nutt.) A. S. Hitchcock. Nasturtium sessili-
florum Nutt. Wet meadows and ditches. O. S. April-June.
R. Nasturtium (L.) Rusby. Nasturtium officinale R. Br.
Water cress. In brooks and streams. O. S. Also sometimes
cultivated. Naturalized from Europe. April-November. M.
R. Armoracia (L.) A. S. Hitchcock. Nasturtium Armora-
Tennessee Flora.
cia Fries. Horse-radish. Escaped from gardens into low
grounds. Adventive from Europe. Summer.
R. Americana (A. Gray) Britton. Nasturtium lacustre A.
Gray. Swamps along Tennessee and Cumberland Ri
Summer.
CARDAMINE L.
Cardamine Pennsylvanica Miihl. Bitter cress. On wet
lands. O. S. April-June.
C. arenicola Britt. Moist, sandy soil. In Tennessee
cording- to Illustrated Flora. March, April.
C. parviflora L. C. hirsuta var. parviflora A. Gray. Drj
woodlands. O. S. April, May.
*C. Clematitis Shuttlw. Summits of Smoky Mts. May-
July.
C. purpurea (Torr.) Britton. Arabis rhomt>oidea var. pur-
purea Torr. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. April, May.
C. bulbosa (Schreb.) B. S. P. C. rhomboidea DC Low.
wet ground. O. S. April.
C. rotundifolia Michx. Near Marion. S. \\ . \ a. I. K.
Small. May, June.
DENTARIA L.
Dentaria laciniata Miihl. Pepper root. In moist, rich
woods. O. S. March-May.
D. diphylla Michx. Shady ravines. O. S. Nashville.
Banks of Cumberland River. April.
D. heterophylla Nutt. Woodlands. O. S. April.
D. multifida Miihl. E. Tenn. Cave Spring. March, April.
LEAVENWORTHIA Torr.
Leavenworthia uniflora (Michx.) Britton. L. Michauxii
Torr. Open, moist grounds. Nashville. Cedar glades.
April, May.
L. torulosa A. Gray. Cedar glades, with the former. April,
Mav.
fL. stylosa A. Gray. Cedar glades at Lavergne. All three
often in close proximity. April. May.
*C Clematitis Shuttlw. Smooth; earliest Leaves reniform, d<
entire- lower stem leaves broadly triiobed, the middle lobe la
form-cordate, or angularly-trilobed; upper ones, oblong, tl
petioles with an arrow-shaped appendage at the be
loose; petals, white, spatulate-obovate, twice as Long as the
silique, narrow-linear, compressed, tipped with the long Btyle.
TL. stylosa Gray. Slender, stemless; Bilique, oval »r broadly oblong
(2 inches long), plain, surmounted l>> :i Blender Btyle fully I
in length; only from three to six seeds, orbicular, distinctly nv
embryo as in the preceding; petals, pure golden-yellow.
88 Tennessee Flora.
LESQUERELLA S. Watson.
Lesquerella globosa (Dew.) S. Watson. Vesicaria Shortii
Torr. & Gray. Rising- Sun Bluff, fourteen miles below Nash-
ville, on Cumberland River. April, May.
L. Lescurii A. Gray- Covering- whole fields and glades in
the vicinity of Nashville. April, May.
BURSA Weber. (Capsella Med.)
Bursa Bursa-pastoris (L.) Britton. Thlaspi Bursa-pastoris
L. Shepherd's purse. A common weed in fields and waste
places. O. S. March-November. M.
CAMELINA Crantz.
Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz. False flax. Naturalized
from Europe, where it is cultivated for the fine oil yielded by
its seed. Scattering-ly O. S.
DRABA L.
Draba verna L. Whitlaw grass. In fields and pastures.
O. S. February-May.
D. Caroliniana Walt. Glades of M. Term. February-April.
D. ramosissima Desv. Cliffs on Ocoee River, Polk County.
With Saxifraga Tennessiensis. April, May.
D. brachycarpa Nutt. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. March,
April.
SOPHIA Adans.
Sophia Sophia (L.) Britton. Sisymbrium Sophia L. In
fields and gardens. Naturalized from Europe. June, July.
S. pinnata (Walt.) Britton. Sisymbrium canescens Nutt.
Knoxville. A. Ruth.
STENOPHRAGMA Celak. (Sisymbrium Gray.)
Stenophragma Thaliana (L.) Celak. Sisymbrium Thaliana
Gay. Fields. O. S. Frequent in vicinity of Nashville. In-
troduced from Europe. April.
ARABIS L.
Arabis Virginica (L.) Trelease. A. Ludoviciana Meyer.
Rock cress. Fields and pastures. O. S. March-May.
A. lyrata L. Rocky lands. O. S. Nashville. Banks of
Cumberland River. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
A. dentata Torr. & Gray. Woodlands. O. S. April-June.
A. patens Sulliv. Bluffs on Ocoee River. Knoxville. A.
Ruth.
Tennessee Flora.
A. hirsuta (L.) Scop. Cumberland Mts. May-September.
A. laevigata (Miihl.) Poir. On limestone cliffs along Cum-
berland River. April. May.
A. Canadensis L. Sickle pod. Rocky woodlands
April, May.
ERYSIMUM L.
Erysimum cheiranthoides L. Treakle mustard. Knoxville.
A. Ruth. June-August.
KONIGAAdans. (Alyssum L.)
Koniga maritima (L.) R. Br. Alyssum maritimum Lam.
Sweet alyssum. Escaped from gardens along fences. Nash-
ville. Summer.
BERTEROA DC. (Alyssum L.)
Berteroa incana (L.) DC. Alyssum incanum L. Intro-
duced and first observed in my garden in Nashville in June.
1897. June.
HESPERIS L.
Hesperis matronalis L. Dame's gilliflower. Introduced
along a garden fence on Belmont Park, Nashville. May- June.
CAPPARIDACE^E Lindl.
CLEOME L.
Cleome spinosa DC. C. pungens Willd. Spider flower. In
waste places, river banks. O. S. Adventive from tropical
America. Summer.
POLANISIA Raf.
Polanisia graveolens Raf. Along the track of the Nashville,
Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway, in Dickson and Benton
Counties. Foot of Fort Negley, South Nashville. Summer.
Capparis spinosa L. The caper ought to be introduced in
cultivation, as it grows well under slight protection, I lult.
SARACENIACE^ Fa Pyl.
Saracenia purpurea L. Pitcher plant. Low grounds along
Mississippi, Tennessee, and Duck Rivers. Vpril.
PODOSTEMACEjE Lindl.
Podostemon abrotanoides Nutt. In all mountain streams
of the Alleghany Mts. Submerged and on rocks. Jul)
tember.
P. ceratophyllum Michx. River weed. Streams in the
Cumberland Mts. July-September.
90 Tennessee Flora.
CRASSULACE.E DC.
SEDUM L.
Sedum roseum (L.) Scop. S. Rhodiola DC. Rose root.
Roane Mt. Chickering.
S. Telephium L. Orpine. In a field near Bellvidere, Frank-
lin County. Escaped from cultivation. June.
S. telephioides Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn. Chickering.
June.
S. acre L. Wall pepper. Fountain Head, Sumner County,
near a cabin. Adventitious, or escaped from cultivation. Na-
tive of Europe. June.
S. pulchellum Michx. Rocky and moist places, growing
gregariously in patches, covering many acres. Prominently
in the cedar glades. May.
S. ternatum Michx. Wild stone crop. Shady, rocky
places, and among the grass. O. S. April, May.
S. Nevii A. Gray. On rocks throughout the Alleghany Mts.
May, June.
DIAMORPHA Nutt.
Diamorpha pusilla Nutt. On sandy flats, and on rocks in
the Cumberland Mts. Abundant in Sewanee and on Lookout
Mt., covering the surface in " Rock City." May.
PENTHORUM L.
Penthorum sedoides L. Virginia stone crop. Pools and
ditches. O. S. July-September.
SAXIFRAGACEJE Dumort.
ASTILBE Hamilt.
Astilbe biternata (Vent.) Britton. As. decandra D. Don.
False goat's beard. Near water courses in the mountains of
E. Tenn. June.
SAXIFRAGA L.
Saxifraga micranthidifolia (Haw.) B. S. P. S. erosa Pursh.
Rocks on Wolf Creek. Roane Mt. Chickering. May, June.
S. Virginiensis Michx. Rocky places. O. S. March-June.
S. Tennessiensis J. K. Small. Rocky bluffs on Tennessee
River, above Knoxville. A. Ruth. T. H. Kinney. In the
gorge of the Ocoee River, above Parksville. April, May.
S. Michauxii Britton. S. leucanthemifolia Michx. Roane
Mt. Chickering. Big Frog Mt. June.
S. Grayana Britton. S. Caroliniana A. Gray. Walker Mt.,
S. W. Va. J. K. Small. June, July.
Tennessee Flora. . 01
S. Careyana A. Gray. Roane Ml. Chickering. Will
Canby. July, August.
THEROFON Raf. (Boykinia Nutt.)
Therofon aconitifolium (Nutt.) Millsp. Boykinia aconiti-
folia Nutt. Throughout the Alleghanies, ( >coee and I toe Riv-
ers, and in the Cumberland Mts. Piney Falls. Mr-. Lydia
Bennett. July.
TIARELLA L.
Tiarella cordifolia L. False mitrewort. E. Tenn. April,
May.
HEUCHERA L.
Heuchera Rugelii Shutthv. Piney Fall>. Cumberland Mts.
Mrs. Lydia Bennett. July-September.
H. villosa Michx. Limestone rocks. M. Tenn. Frequent.
June-September.
H. Americana L. Alumroot. Vicinity of Nashville. May.
H. pubescens Pursh. Sewanee. Mts. of E. Tenn. May,
June.
H. macrorhiza Small, n. sp. Frequent on limestone bluffs
along Cumberland River and all the way along Louisville and
Nashville Railroad to Pulaski. June, Jul}'.
MITELLA L.
Mitella diphylla L. Mitrewort. Cumberland and Alle-
ghany Mts. April, May.
CHRYSOSPLENIUM L.
Chrysosplenium Americanum Schwein. Irrigated plac<
the Frog Mts. March-June.
PARNASSIA L.
Parnassia Caroliniana Michx. Cumberland and Alleghany
Mts. June-August.
P. asarifolia Vent. Big Frog Mts., E. Tenn. July-Septem-
ber.
HYDRANGEA L.
Hydrangea arborescens L. Wild hydrangea. Highlan
M. Tenn. and river bluffs. June. July.
H. arborescens Kanawhana Millsp. II arborescens var.
cordata Gray. H. cinera J. EC. Small. Bluffs on i River,
above Parksville. June-September.
H. radiata Walt. Cataract near Tullahoma, and from there
on up and through the Cumberland Mts.
H. quercifolia Bartram. Tullahoma. Barnes.
92 Tennessee Flora.
DECUMARIA L.
Decumaria barbara L. Damp situations throughout the Al-
leghanies, clinging to rocks and bark of trees. May, June.
PHILADELPHIA L.
Philadelphus coronarius L. Mock orange. Frequently cul-
tivated in gardens, and hence found in deserted homesteads.
May, June.
Ph. hirsutus Xutt. Bluffs on Cumberland River. Mts. of
E. Tenn., Cocke County. Kearney. May.
Ph. inodorus L. Baker's Station to Ridgetop, Davidson
County. May.
Ph. grandiflorus Willd. Knox County. A. Ruth. April,
May.
ITEA L.
Itea Virginica L. Mts. of E. Tenn. and cypress swamps of
W. Tenn. May, June.
GROSSULARIACE^E Dumort.
RIBES L.
Ribes Cynosbati L. Dogberry. At the edge of a cedar glade
near Fosterville. Marion, S. W. Va. J. K. Small. April-
June.
R. gracile Michx. Missouri gooseberry. Dry, rocky soil.
Fide Illustrated Flora. May.
R. rotundifolium Michx. Summit of Roane and Thunder-
head Mts. May-July.
R. prostratum L'Her. Fetid currant. Summit of White
Top Mts., S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May, June.
R. rubrum L. Red currant. Cultivated, and sometimes es-
caped and seemingly spontaneous. Marion, S. W. Va.
Small. April.
R. aureum Pursh. Buffalo currant. Has been for a long
time in cultivation, and sometimes indicates old garden plots.
May.
R. Uva-crispa L. R. Grossularia L. Garden gooseberry.
Cultivated in gardens and temporarily existing in fence rows.
Red currants and gooseberries do not prosper in Tennessee.
HAMAMELIDACE.E Lindl.
HAMAMELIS L.
Hamamelis Virginiana L. Witch-hazel. A shrub, or some-
times a small tree. On the summit of Thunderhead (altitude,
Tennessee Flora.
6,000 feet) I found a regular grown tree, 25 feet high 1
inches diameter of trunk. Flowers, Christmas tiirn
in October.
LIQUIDAMBAR L.
Liquidambar Styraciflua L. Sweetgum. Red gum. I.
forest tree growing in wet or swampy lands. V< r\ large, and
frequent in the Tennessee and Mississippi bottoms. April,
May.
PLATANACEJE Lindl.
PLATANUS L.
Platanus occidentalis L. Buttonwood. Plane tree. S
more. Attains the widest spread of crown of any of our tim-
ber trees. Reaches an altitude of 150 feet ami diamet
trunk of 15 feet in our river bottoms. May.
ROSACEA B. Juss.
OPULASTER Kuntze. (Neillia Brew.)
Opulaster opulifolius Kuntze. Neillia opulifolia. Brewer
& Watson. Nine bark. Rocky places along Cumberland
River. June.
SPIRAEA L.
Spiraea salicifolia L. Meadow sweet. Grand View, R
County. Miller's Cove, E. Tenn. June- August.
S. tomentosa L. Hardhack. Highlands of M. Tenn., in
boggy localities. Fountain Head, Sumner County. July.
S. corymbosa L. S. W. Va. J. K. Small. July.
S. Virginiana Britton. Little River, E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
June.
ARUNCUS Adan<.
Aruncus Aruncus (L.) Karst. Spiraea Aruncti- 1.
beard. Moist woodlands. O. S. Nashville, above water-
works. May-July.
PORTERANTHUS Britt. (Gillenia Mcench.)
Porteranthus trifoliatus (L.) Britton. Gillenia trifol
M<rnch. Indian physic. Common in E. Tenn. May, June.
P. stipulatus (Miihl.) Britton. Prevailing in M. Tenn
woods. June, July.
RUBUS 1
Rubus odoratus L. High mountains of E. Tenn. B
Mt. Vallev of Ocoee River, above Parksville. June.
94 Tennessee Flora.
R. strigosus Michx. Wild red raspberry. Woods and
copses. O. S. May, June.
R. occidentalis L. Black raspberry. O. S.
R. villosus Ait. Common blackberry. Bush blackberry.
A white-fruited variety is found near Cleveland, E. Tenn.
R. Alleghanensis Port. R. villosus var. montanus Port.
Mountains around Ducktown, E. Tenn.
R. cuneifolius Pursh. Gravelly hills. O. S. July, August.
R. hispidus L. Swamp blackberry. Lookout Mt. June.
R. trivialis Michx. Sandy soils. O. S. March-May.
R. Baileyanus Britt. R. villosus var. humifusus. Torr. &
Gray. R. Britt. Hills around Marion, S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
R. Canadensis L. Dewberry. Dry soil. O. S. April,
May. Fruit ripe in July.
FRAGARIA L.
Fragaria Virginiana Duchesne. Scarlet strawberry. Dry
uplands. O. S. April, May.
F. vesca L. European wood strawberry. Naturalized
from Europe. Dry woodlands. O. S. April, May.
DUCHESNEA J. E. Smith. (Fragaria Andr.)
Duchesnea Indica (And.) Focke. Waste places. Intro-
duced from India. Old graveyard in Nashville. June, July.
POTENTILLA L.
Potentilla arguta Pursh. Banks of Cumberland River, above
waterworks, at Nashville. June.
P. Monspelliensis L. P. Norvegica L. Mts. of E. Tenn.
Knoxville. A. Ruth. Foot of hills on White's Creek, David-
son County. July, August.
P. paradoxa Nutt. P. supina Michx. W. Tenn. Johnson-
ville and Hickman. June-September.
P. fruticosa L. Shrubbby cinquefoil. Near Ducktown, in
Turtletown, Cherokee County, N. C. June-September.
P. tridentalis Ait. Big Frog Mts., E. Tenn. June-August.
P. Canadensis L. Five finger. O. S. July-September.
WALDSTEINIA Willd.
Waldsteinia fragarioides (Willd.) Tratt. Alts, of E. Tenn.
Ocoee Valley. May, June.
*W. parviflora Small. Fide Illustrated Flora, Appendix.
Ocoee Valley. June, July.
*W. parviflora Small. Perennial by horizontal rootstocks; villose
hirsute or glabrous in age; leaves, basal, from 5 to 12 inches high;
Tennessee Flora.
GEUM L.
Geum radiatum Michx. Avens. Roane Mt. Chickering.
July, August.
G. vernum (Raf.) Torr. & Gray. Shaded ground. I I
March, April.
G. Canadense Jacq. ( i. Album Gmel. White- Avens.
Shaded places. O. S. June-August.
G. Virginianum L. Mountains and highlands. O. S. May-
July.
G. flavum (Port.) Bicknell. G. ( anadense Jacq. \ ar. fla-
vum Kritt. Woods along Wolf Creek, Cocke County. T. II.
Kearney. Waters of Holston River, S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
June.
ULMARIA Hill.
Ulmaria rubra Hill. Spiraea lobata Gronov. Queen of the
prairie. In a moist meadow, Cave Spring, Roane County.
June, July.
U. Ulmaria (L.) Bernhart. Spiraea Ulmaria L. Es<
from gardens. Seen but one time near Nashville.
ALCHEMILLA L.
Alchemilla arvensis (L.) Scop. Argentill. Fields near
Knoxville. A. Ruth.
AGRIMONIA L.
Agrimonia hirsuta (Miihl.) Bicknell. Mts. of E. Tenn. Tall
agrimony.
A. striata Michx. A. parvirlora DC. Glades of M. Tenn.
July.
Agrimonia mollis (T. & G.) Britton. Mts. oi E. Tenn.
Slopes of White Top Mt.. S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
A. parviflora Soland. O. S. July, August.
SANGUISORBA L.
Sanguisorba Canadensis L. Poterium Canadense A. Gray.
American burnet. Along Doe River, E. Tenn. Hiv.
Valley. A. Ruth.
petioles, much longer than the blades, usually much Ie88 densely pub-
escent than the scapes; leaflets, cuneate. ovate, or broadly rhomboidal,
from lv, to 3 inches long, coarsely and Irregularly crenate or lobed;
scapes, erect, solitary, or several together, commonly Bhorter than the
leaves, corymbose at top: calyx, usually hairy, the tube broadly tur-
binate, from lv4 to 1':, lines long, the segments triangular lanceolate
or lanceolate-acuminate, often Bhorter than the tube; petals, linear-
oblong or narrowly elliptical, shorter than the calyx segments or barely
longer; achenes, obovoid, \\., lines long.
-96 Tennessee Flora.
ROSA L.
Rosa setigera Michx. Prairie rose. Abundant in the glades
of M. Tenn.
R. setigera tomentosa Gray. With the former. O. S. May-
July.
R. Carolina L. Swamp rose. Low grounds and river
swamps. O. S. June-August.
R. humilis Marsh. Pasture rose. Rocky slopes and glades.
O. S. May-July.
R. humilis lucida Ehrh. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
R. canina L. Dog rose. E. Tenn. Vicinity of Marion, S.
W. Va. J. K. Small. June.
R. rubiginosa L. Sweet brier. Roadsides and old fields.
O. S. Naturalized from Europe. June, July.
R. bracteata Wendel. Old homesteads and hedges. No-
lensville Pike, six miles south of Nashville. June.
R. pimpinellifolia L. Old homestead, Davidson County,
Colonel Prosser's farm. Introduced by early settlers. June,
July.
SORBUS L.
Sorbus Americana Marsh. American mountain ash. Sum-
mit of Thunderhead. Smoky Mts. Small tree. May, June.
PYRUS L.
Pyrus communis L. Pear. In cultivation only. In many
varieties. Native of Eurasia. April.
MALUS Juss.
Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Michx. Pyrus angustifolia Ait.
Narrow-leaved crab apple. Small tree, from 15 to 20 feet
high. O. S. In limestone regions. March-May.
M. coronaria L. Pyrus coronaria L. American crab apple.
Upper E. Tenn. South fork of Holston River. J. K. Small.
Cultivated in some gardens. March. Fruit matures in Sep-
tember.
Malus Malus (L.) Britton. Pyrus Malus L. Apple. Na-
tive of Europe and Asia. Sometimes spontaneous, and culti-
vated in many varieties.
ARONIA Pers.
Aronia arbutifolia (L.) Ell. Pyrus arbutifolia L. Red coke-
berry. Mountain bogs in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts.
March-May.
A. nigra (Willd.) Britton. Black cokeberry. Laurel thick-
ets in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Sewanee. March-
June.
Tennessee Flora.
CYDONIA L.
Cydonia vulgaris Pers. Quince. Native of E. Europe
the Levante. ]n cultivation only. April.
C. Japonica Pers. Pyrus Japonica L. Frequentl) cultn
as an ornamental shrub. Sometimes found as a strag
Fruit very fragrant. February, March. Fruit in S<
October.
AMELANCHIER Med.
Amelanchier Canadensis ( L.) Med. Service berry.
tending from the high mountains to the valleys of E. Tenn.
March-May. Fruit in June, July.
A. Botryapium (L. f.) DE. A. Canadensis var. oblongifolia.
T. & G. Same range with the former. April, May.
CRATAEGUS.*
Crataegus Crus Galli L. Cockspur thorn. (). S. May.
C. punctata Jacq. C. tomentosa var. punctata A. < rray.
Summit of Roane Mt.
C. cordata Ait. Washington thorn. Rocky glades around
Nashville. May.
C. viridis L. C. arborescens Ell. April. Jackson. Hoi
low Rock.
C. rotundifolia Bork. C. glandulosa Willd. Marion. S. W.
Va. J. K. Small. April-June.
C. mollis (T. & G.) Soheele. C. tomentosa var. in-
Gray. From 15 to 20 feet high. Nashville. April. May.
C. tomentosa L. Nashville. Tree from 12 to 15 feet high.
May, June.
C. tomentosa Chapmani Beadle. M. Tenn.
C. uniflora Moench. Dwarf thorn. Wolf Creek. T. H
Kearney. Lookout Mt. Knoxville. A. Ruth. April.
fC. Biltmoreana Beadle. E. Tenn. Shrub from 1 to 5 feel
high. Legit Beadle.
*The genus Crataegus has been revised from notes re m C.
D. Beadle, curator of the Biltmore Herbarium, as represented in said
collection.
fC. Biltmoreana Beadle. Flowers appearing when the
nearly fully grown in 3-7 flowered corymbs, with lanceol
nately glandular caducous bracts on strict, pubescent p
pubescent, obconic; petals, broadly ©bovate or orbicular; stamen
shorter than the petals; styles. 3-5: fruit maturing in September.
October; depressed globose, bluntly angled, 10-16 nun. broad, 10-lJ mm.
high, containing 3-5 nutlets; leaves. 2-5 cm. wide, 3-10 cm. Long, Includ-
ing the petioles; ovate, acute at the apex, wedge-shaped at the
and prolonged into a winged <>r margined petioli
cised or slightly 5-9 lobed and sharply and Irregularly
the base; spines, stout, 2-5 cm. long, slightly curved. (Vide Bot
Gazette, No. 6, December. 1899.)
98 Tennessee Flora.
*C. Sargenti Beadle. S. E. Tenn. Shrub from 2 to 6 feet
high. April.
fC. Boyntoni Beadle. Tree or shrub. C. rotundifolia.
Bork. E. Tenn. Marion, S. W. Va. J. K. Small. Small
tree. April.
xC. Austro-Montana Beadle. Cumberland Mts. E. and M.
Tenn. May.
§C. Harbisoni Beadle. Discovered by T. G. Harbison on
the hills near Nashville, 1899. May. Charlotte Pike, 1886.
collected by the author.
**C. Mohri Beadle. Tree, 6-10 m. tall. Southern part of
M. Tenn. May.
*C. Sargenti Beadle. Shrub or small tree, branches spreading
armed with straight or curved spines, 2-7 cm. long, flowers appearing
when the leaves are almost fully grown, in generally three-flowered
corymbs; calyx, obconic, pubescent; segments, glandular-serrate; di-
visions of corolla nearly round; stamens, normally 20; pistils, 3-5;
fruit mature at middle September; globose, 10-12 mm. high, orange yel-
low; nutlets, 3-5; leaves, thin, glabrous, with 5-7 pairs prominent
veins; ovate, acute at apex, rounded or abruptly contracted at base,
in a margined or winged petiole, irregularly and doubly serrate, and
incisely lobed; stipules, linear or linear-lanceolate.
|C. Boyntoni Beadle. Shrub or small tree, flowering with the
expanded leaves, produced in short glandular-bracteate 4-10 flowered
corymbs; calyx, obconic, smooth; divisions, acute, glandular, serrate;
petals, nearly orbicular, 9-12 mm. diameter; stamens, 10; pistils, 3-5;
fruit, dull, yellowish green, depressed globose, angled, 10-14 mm.
high, ripening in October; nutlets, 3-5; leaves, subcoriaceous with age,
glabrous, with 4-7 pairs of veins, broadly ovate, acute at apex, rounded
at the base, sharply serrate, serratures minutely gland-tipped; stipules,
linear.
+ C. Austro-Montana Beadle. A straggling shrub. 1-4 m. in height;
branches, unarmed; branchlets, pilose-pubescent or tomentose; flow-
ers, large in 3-5 flowered corymbs; calyx, broad, obconic, pubescent;
divisions, lanceolate; stamens, 10; pistils, 3-5; fruit (which ripens at
end of September), large; globose, 12-15 mm. in diameter, bright red,
containing 3-5 nutlets; leaves, orbicular, 3.5-12 mm. long, including
the pubescent petioles, pubescent on both surfaces, with 5-7 pairs of
veins.
£C. Harbisoni Beadle. Tree, 5-8 m. high; leaves, obovate or oval,
3-12 cm. long, including the petiole; acute at apex, roughly pubescent
on the upper side, densely coated on the lower surface, dark green
and lustrous above, pale below; borders, doubly and irregularly ser-
rate; calyx, obconic, pubescent; stamens, normally 20; pistils, 3-5;
fruit, large, red; globose, 10-13 mm. diameter; nutlets, 3-5; spines of
the branches, 3-6 cm. long.
**C. Mohri Beadle. Leaves, cuneate-obovate. 2-7 cm. lone, includ-
ing the petioles; acute or rounded at the apex and contracted below
into a winged petiole; sharply serrate to the middle; entire, or nearly
so, at the base; stipules, linear, caducous; flowers in many-flowered
corymbs, which are pubescent at flowering time; calyx, narrow, ob-
conic; divisions of corolla, round, ovate, with undulate or erose bor-
ders; stamens, 20; fruit globose, 8-9 mm. diameter; nutlets, 3-5.
Tennessee Flora.
llsides. M.
Flowei
Dry hills.
SC. straminea Beadle. Shrub r m. high. Lookoul Mt. and
adjacent valley of E. Tenn. April, May.
**C. tetrica Beadle. Hills about Nashville. May.
tiC. Buckleyi Beadle. Tree 8 m. high, 1-2 dm. diameter. E.
Tenn. May.
*c.
Aprica Beadle.
Large
shrub. Sunny
Tenn.
April.
tc.
rubella Beadle.
Shrub.
1-4 meter high.
April.
Lookout Mt.
tc.
sinistra Beadle.
[ned.
West Nashville
*C. Aprica Beadle. Leaves, thin, obovate-orbicular. 1.6-7 cm. long,
including petiole, dentate or crenate-dentate and conspicuously gland-
ular, more or less lobed near the acute apex; flowers, borne In M
flowered, pubescent, bracteate corymbs; calyx, obconir, pubescent; pet-
als, broader than long; stamens, 10; styles, 3-5; fruit, globose, M4
mm. diameter; nutlets, 3-5.
fC. rubella Beadle. Branchlets numerous, armed with Blender,
straight, or slightly curved spines, 1.5-4 cm. long; leaves, oval or ODO-
vate, 3-9 cm. long, including the petiole; sharply and doubly serrate
to near the base; prolonged into a margined, sparsely-glandular petiole;
flowers in simple 3-6 flowered glandular bracteate corymbs; calyx,
obconic; petals, rather broader than long, 8-12 mm. wide; stamens,
normally 10; styles. 2-4, rarely 5; fruit, red. pyriform, or oval, 12-15
mm. long, ripening middle of September; nutlets, 2-3, rarely i -."..
+ C. sinistra Beadle. Small tree; leaves, obovate, scarcely, if at all.
glandular; stipules, linear, not exceeding 1 cm. in length: flowers, in
7-15 flowered corymbs; calyx, obconic, pilose; petals, nearly orbicular;
the claw at the base, short; stamens, 10; styles. 1-2; fruit, oval. 6-8 mm.
wide, reddish, ripening in November; nutlets, 1-2; flowers, May.
<SC. straminea Beadle. Branchlets armed with Blender Bpines;
leaves, oval, round-ovate, acute at the apex, acutely contracted or
rounded at the base, acutely incised or slightly 5-9 lobed. sharply and
irregularly serrate except at the extreme base: serratures, glandular
apiculate, 2.5-10 cm. long, including the petiole, with 3-5 pairs of reins;
flowers, in glandular-bracteate 3-6 flowered corymbs; calyx, obconic;
petals, nearly orbicular, 6-10 mm. diameter; stamens, normally 10;
fruit, subglobose or pyriform, 10-13 mm. high, yellow or greenisll yel-
low, ripening middle of September; nutlets, 3-5.
**C. tetrica Beadle. A tree 5-7 m. tall, with Bhorl trunk; Bpines,
very stout, 1-5.5 cm. long, curved or straight; Btipules, lin<
the longer shoot lineate; leaves, broadly oval. 3-7 cm. long, with p<
rounded at the apex, sharply and irregularly serrate; corymba
flowered; calyx, obconic; petals, orbicular: stamens, 10; styles, 8; fruit,
globose, 7 mm. by 1 cm. diameter.
ffC. Buckleyi. Beadle. Leaves, glabroua at maturity, ultimafc
coriaceous, ovate or round-ovate, and in< is.ly lobed,
narrowed at the base, and prolonged into a margined petiole; flo
in 3-7 flowreed corymbs; calyx, obconic; petals, orbicular; Btamen
styles, 3-5; fruit, subglobose. angled, red, 8-12 nun. diameter, Witl
nutlets. (Biltmore Bot. Studies. Vol. I.. No. 1.)
100 Tennessee Flora.
*C. Margaretta Ashe. Nashville, Charlotte Pike. April,
May.
fC. macrosperma Ashe. Frequent on Lookout Mt.
JGattingeri Ashe. Nashville.
C. collina Chapm. Banks of Cumberland River, near wa-
terworks.
C. Vailliae Britton. Wolf Creek, Cocke County. J. H.
Kearney.
C. populifolia Elliott. Lebanon Pike, Nashville. Cowan.
COTONEASTER Med.
Cotoneaster Pyracantha (L.) Spach. Evergreen thorn.
Thickets near Hyde's Ferry, Nashville. Introduced. May.
DRUPACE^E DC.
PRUNUS L.
Prunus Americana Marsh. Wild yellow or red plum. O.
S. April, May. Fruit ripe in July, August..
P. hortulana Bailey. Wild goose plum. O. S. Formerly
believed to be a hybrid between P. Americana and Chickasa.
April, May.
*0. Margaretta Ashe. Small tree, 4-5 m. high, sometimes a shrub;
branches, flexuous geniculate, thornless, or only sparingly beset with
short, slender thorns; leaves, glandless membranaceous, bright green
both sides, broadly rhombic to broader than long, with 3-6 prominent,
straight veins, obtusely serrate, with 3-5 pairs shallow lobes; flowers,
in 7-12 flowered corymbs; petals .orbicular; stamens. 15-20; styles. 2-3:
fruit, 1 cm. diameter, nearly round, reddish or orange.
tC. macrosperma Ashe. (Journal Elisha Mitchell Soc, Decem-
ber, 1900.) Small tree 5-7 m. in height, with wide-spreading branches,
armed with numerous short, very stout, 1-2 cm. long, red brown to
black thorns; leaves, membranaceous, but firm, dark green above, paler
and sparingly glaucous or whitish beneath, deltoid or broadly oval at
the apex, rounded or subcordate, with a narrow sinus at base, 3-6 cm.
long, 2-5 wide, sharply serrate to the base; flowers, in 4-9 flowered sim-
ple corymbs on slender petioles; divisions of calyx, lanceolate, short,
3-5 mm. long, persistent and coloring with the fruit; styles, 3-4; sta-
mens, 5-10; fruit, 12-18 mm. diameter; flesh, thick and mealy, falling
In September; nutlets, 3-5.
+Gattingeri Ashe. (Journal Elisha Mitchell Soc, December, 1900.)
Twigs, glabrous, dark purple brown, sparingly glaucous, armed with
numerous thorns, 3-4 cm. long; leaves, glabrous, dark green above, paler
beneath, the blades oblong, ovate, or deltoid in outline, 2-7 cm. long,
2-5 cm. wide, rounded, truncate, or subcordate at base, attenuate at the
apex, finely but acuminately serrate, generally with 3-5 prominent
lobes; petioles, slender, roughened above, with 1-2 pairs of glands;
corymbs, few-flowered, the pedicels slender and glabrous, 1-1.5 cm.
long; calyx lobes, short, triangular, glabrous; stamens, 20; fruit, dark
red, sparingly pruinose, globular, 8-11 mm. thick, generally capped by
the stalked calyx lobes, persistent until after the foliage has fallen.
Tennessee Flora. 101
P. angustifolia Marsh. P. Chickasa Michx. Chicl
plum. Very frequent in the limestone basin of M. Tenn.
April. Fruit ripe in May, June.
P. gracilis Engelm & Gray. In Tennessee)
Gray's Manual.
P. spinosa L. Sloe blackthorn. Hillsboro Pike, twelve
miles from Nashville. Escaped into the woods from an or
chard. Adventitious from Europe. April.
P. Cerasus L. Sour cherry. In cultivation, and sometimes
escaping into open grounds. Native of Europe. April, May.
Fruit in June, July.
P. avium L. Sweet cherry. Also cultivated like the
former in several varieties, and wandering into open grounds.
Tennessee is at the Southern limit of the natural zone of both
species ; and, therefore, the fruit is inferior.
P. domestica L. Damson. Cultivated only.
P. Pennsylvanica L. fil. Pin or pigeon cherry. E. Tenn.
Principally in the higher mountains. On Clingman Dome a
form is found with narrow, lanceolate leaves. April-June.
The latter is perhaps P. serotina movtana Small.
P. Armeniaca AVilld. Apricot. Native of Persia. In cul-
tivation only.
P. Virginiana L. Chock cherry. Cumberland and Alle-
ghany Mts. April, May.
P. serotina Ehrh. Wild black cherry. Large tree, often
from 50 to 70 feet high. AYood used in cabinetmaking. May.
Fruit ripe in August. M.
AMYGDALUS L.
Amygdalus Persica L. Peach. Frequently escaped from
cultivation. To be considered naturalized. April. Fruit in
August-October.
A. communis L. Almond. Rarely found in cultivation.
MIMOSACE.*] Reichenb.
ACACIA Adans.
Acacia Julibrissin L. Native of Persia. In gardens.
A. lophantha L. Appears here and there in gardens, and en-
dures hard winters.
ACUAN Med. (Desmanthus Willd.)
Acuan Illinoensis (Michx.) Kuntze. Desmanthus brachy-
lobus Benth. Frequent in the glades of M. Tenn. Ma\
tember.
102 Tennessee Flora.
MORONGIA Britton. (Schrankia Willd.)
Morongia uncinata (Willd.) Britton. Schrankia uncinata
Willd. Sensitive brier. Dry soil. W. Tenn., Brownsville.
May-July.
M. angustata (Torr. & Gray) Britton. Schrankia angustata
P. & I. Dry soil. In the glades of M. Tenn., extending into
the Alleghany and Cumberland Mts. May-July.
CAESALPINACE^E Kl. & Garke.
CERCIS L.
Cercis Canadensis L. Red bud. In rich soil. O. S.
March, April. M.
CASSIA L.
Cassia nictitans L. Sensitive pea. Siliceous soils. O. S.
July-October.
C. Chamaecrista L. Partridge pea. Sunny hillsides in sili-
ceous formations.
C. Torra L. C. obtusifolia L. Low senna. In damp, rich
clay soils. River banks. O. S. July-October.
C. Marylandica L. Wild senna. Bottom lands and waste
ground. O. S. July, August. M.
C. occidentalis L. Coffee senna. Jasper, E. Tenn. R. M.
Middleton. June, July.
GLEDITCHIA L.
Gleditchia triacanthos L. Honey locust. Large tree, at-
taining ioo feet by 4 feet diameter. Limestone regions. O.
S. May-July. M.
G. aquatica Marsh. G. monosperma Walt. Water locust.
W. Tenn. July.
GYMNOCLADUS Lam.
Gymnocladus dioica (L.) Koch. G. Canadensis Lam.
Large forest tree, attaining 100 feet high by 3 feet diameter.
Scatteringly O. S. Kentucky coffee tree. May.
PAPILIONACE^] L.
CLADRASTIS Raf.
Cladrastis lutea (Michx.) Koch. C. tinctoria Raf. Yellow
wood. Hills south of Nashville. E. Tenn. Attaining 50 feet
high by 4 feet diameter. Trunk liable to early decay. June.
BAPTISIA Vent.
Baptisia australis (L.) R. Br. Blue false Indigo. Cedar
glades at Lavergne. June-August.
Tennessee Flora.
B. tinctoria (L.) R. Br. Abundant m Cumberland and Al-
leghany Mts. June. .1/.
B. alba (L.) R. Br. White wild Endigo. Mts. of I'.. Tenn.
Ducktown. June.
CROTALARIA L.
Crotalaria sagittalis L. Rattlebox. Dry. sandy soil. I »
S. June, July.
LUPINUS L.
Lupinus perennis L. Wild lupine Woods near Hiwa-
Polk County. Also S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May. June.
L. albus L. Field lupine. Sometimes found in gardens.
Makes heavy crops in S. Europe.
MEDICAGO L.
Medicago sativa L. Alfalfa Luzerne. Cultivated for for-
age. Introduced from Europe. Frequent in cult i .
grounds. Summer.
M. lupulina L. Black medic. Waste places. Capitol hill.
Native from Europe. March-May.
MELILOTUS Juss.
Melilotus alba Desv. White melilot. Bokhara clover.
Waste places. O. S. Adventitious from Europe. Fragrant
in drying and good for fodder. June-September.
M. officinalis ( L.) Lam. Yellow melilot. Introduced and
spread like the former. Both species ought to be cultivated
for forage. June-August.
TRIFOLIUM L.
Trifolium agrarium L. Yellow or hop clover. Along road-
sides and waste places, but only locally. Naturalized from
Europe. May-September.
T. procumbens L. Hop trefoil. Abundant in old fields
and pastures. O. S. Naturalized from Europe. May-Sep-
tember.
T. dubium Sibthorp. T. procumbens var. minus Koch.
Occasional. O. S. Nashville. Naturalized from Europe.
May-September.
. T. incarnatum L. Crimson clover. Cultivated for fodder.
Introduced from Europe. Summer.
T. arvense L. Rabbit foot. In sterile waste ground. Fre-
quent. O. S. Naturalized from Europe. May-Septcm'
T. pratense L. Red clover. Best fodder plant. Natn
104 Tennessee Flora.
S. Europe and W. Asia. Fully naturalized, it sustains itself
in fields and meadows. April-November.
T. reflexum L. Buffalo clover. Banks of Cumberland
River, below Nashville. April-July.
T. stoloniferum Michx. Running Buffalo clover. Very
common in rocky limestone glades in M. Tenn. May-August.
T. hybridum L. Alsike or Alsatian clover. Sometimes
cultivated for fodder and spontaneous, but infrequent in pas-
tures and meadows. Naturalized from Europe. O. S. May-
October.
T. repens L. White clover. In fields and open places.
O. S. May-December.
PSORALEA L.
Psoralea pedunculata (Mill.) Vail. P. melilotoides Michx.
Samson's snakeroot. Hills and highlands of M. Tenn.
P. Onobrychis Nutt. Sainfoin Psoralea. Banks of Ten-
nessee and Cumberland Rivers. June, July.
P. subacaulis T. & G. Cedar glades and rocky lands of M.
Tenn. Tuber highly farinaceous. March-June.
AMORPHA L.
Amorpha fruticosa L. False Indigo. Along streams. O.
S. May, June.
A . canescens Pursh. Lead plant. Grainger County. A.
Ruth.
A. Tennessiensis Shuttlw. Alleghany Mts. Wolf Creek
and Ocoee River, above Parksville. April-June.
A. virgata Britt. Mts. of E. Tenn. C. L. Boynton.
PAROSELA Cav. (Dalea Willd.)
Parosela Dalea (L.) Britton. Dalea alopecuroides Willd.
Frequent in W. Tenn. August, September.
PETALOSTEMON Michx.
Petalostemon candidus (Willd.) Kuntze. P. candidus
Michx. White prairie clover. Cowan, near tunnel. Para-
dise Ridge, Davidson County. July, August.
P. purpureus (Vent.) McM. P. Violaceous Michx. Ce-
dar glades of M. Tenn. July, August.
P. foliosus (A. Gray) Kuntze. Frequent in vicinity of
Nashville and the cedar glades. June, July.
Tennessee Flora. 105
*P. Gattingeri Heller. Petalostemoti decumbens Nutt.
Frequent in the cedar glades of M. Tenn. A white vari<
found at Lavergne, Rutherford County. June. July.
INDIGOFERA L.
Indigofera tinctoria L. Endigo. Formerly cultivated for
home use by country people For dyeing homespun goods. E.
Tenn. July, August.
CRACCAL. (Thcphrosia IVi^.i
Cracca Virginiana L. Thephrosia Virginiana Pers
gut. Dry, siliceous soils. Common in the oak barrens. 0 S
June, July.
C. spicata (Walt.) Kuntze. Same range with the former.
O. S. June-August.
KRAUNHIA Raf. (Wistaria Xutt. |
Kraunhia frutescens (L.) Greene. Wistaria frutescens Poir.
Alts, at Cowan. May, June.
fK. macrostachys Small. Banks of Cumberland River,
low Nashville. jYfay.
ROBINIA L.
Robinia Pseudacacia L. Yellow or black locust. Tr<
taining a height of 80 feet. O. S. May, June.
R. viscosa Vent. Clammy locust. Grand View, E. Tenn.
Miss Hattie R. Stratton. Knoxville. A. Ruth. June.
*P. Gattingeri Heller n. sp. vide Bull. Toir. Bot. Club. Vol. XXI II
No. 4, p. 121; April 11, 1896. Perennial; stems, a foot in length or
more, usually branching from the base, sometimes decumbent spar-
ingly glandular and pubescent, sometimes villous on the peduncles;
leaflets, 2 or 3 pairs, narrowly linear or oblong, from j .. to y4 of an Inch
long, one line in width or less, dull and glandular on the upper Bide,
light green beneath, the midvein prominent; spikes on rather short
peduncles, cylindrical, loose, especially when old. from 1 to i1' . Inchet
long; bracts, slightly longer than the calyx, oval-lanceolate, Blender
pointed, glandular, pubescent; calyx, pubescent, with spreading hairs.
the lanceolate lobes slightly shorter than the tube and more pubet
petals, deep rose purple; ovary and base of stylo, pubescent
fK. macrostachys Small. Wistaria Frutescens var. macrosta
T. C. Gray. A vine sometimes from 20 to 25 feet long, Btem
2 inches thick, branching; leaves. 4-8 Inches long; leaflets, usually :<.
ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, 1:', Inches long, acuminate or a< ut<
or cordate at the base; racemes. 8-12 Inches long, loosely flow<
drooping; rachis and pedicels, densely hirsute and glandular;
pubescent, like the pedicels; the tube, companulate; tin
lanceolate, lateral ones about as lout; as the tube, lower on*
corolla lilac, purple or light blue; standard, with blade 7 li?
decurrent on the claw; pods. 2-4 Inches long, constricted between the
black, lustrous seeds. (Illustrated Flora: Appendix, page 517.)
106 Tennessee Flora.
R. hispida L. Rose Acacia. Lookout Mt., Chattanooga.
Young plants bear flowers when only a span high. Var. nana
Ell. Very ornamental in cultivation. May.
ASTRAGALUS L.
Astragalus crassicarpus Nutt. A. caryocarpus Ker. Ground
plum. Cedar glades near Lavergne Station.
A. Tennessiensis A. Gray. Milk vetch. Very frequent in
the rocky glades of M. Tenn. March-May.
A. Carolinianus L. A. Canadensis L. O. S. July, August.
STYLOSANTHES Sw.
Stylosanthes biflora (L.) B. S. P. St. elatior Sw. Pencil
flower. Siliceous soils. O. S. June-September.
S. riparia T. H. Kearney. At Sewanee both species occur
in close proximity. O. S. June-September.
MEIBOMIA Adans. (Desmodium Desv.)
Meibomia nudiflora (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium nudiflorum
DC. Woods. O. S. July, August.
M. grandiflora (Walt.) Kuntze. Desmodium acuminatum
DC. Dry, rocky woods. O. S. June-September.
M. pauciflora (Nutt.) Kuntze. Desmodium pauciflorum DC.
In leaf mold. O. S. July.
M. Michauxii Vail. Desmodium rotundifolium DC. Woods.
O. S. July-September.
M. ochroleuca (M. A. Curtis) Kuntze. Desmodium ochro-
leucum M. A. Curtis. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
M. glabella (Michx.) Kuntze. Desmodium humifusum
Beck. Highlands of M. Tenn. Ridge Top, Baker's Station.
M. sessilifolia (Torr.) Kuntze. Desmodium sessilifolium
T. & I. Along railroad, Mitchellville, Sumner County. July-
September.
M. canescens (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium canescens DC.
Highlands of M. Tenn. July-September.
M. bracteosa (Michx.) Kuntze. Desmodium cuspidatum
Hook. Ridge Top, Sumner County. In siliceous soil. July,
August.
M. paniculata (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium paniculatum DC.
The most common species in calcareous and siliceous soils.
July-September.
M. laevigata (Nutt.) Kuntze. Desmodium lrevigatum DC.
O. S.
M. viridiflora (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium viridiflorum Beck.
Siliceous soils. O. S. August-October.
Tennessbe Flora. L07
M. Dillenii (Darl.) ECuntze. Desmodium Dillenii Darl.
O. S. July.
M. Canadensis (L.J Kuntze. Desmodium Canadense DC.
Cumberland Mts., Cowan. July-September.
M. rigida (Ell.) ECuntze. Desmodium rigidum I"
dar glades. Lavergne. July-( October.
M. Marylandica (L.) Kuntze. Desmodium Marylandicum
Boott. Cedar and oak barrens. M. Tenn. July-September.
M. obtusa (Miihl.) Vahl. Desmodium ciliare DC Bar-
rens. July-October.
LESPEDEZA Michx.
Lespedeza repens (L.) Bart. Creeping bush clover. Sili-
ceous soils. O. S. August, September.
L. procumbens Michx. L. repens var. procumbens. ( ira) 's
Man. O. S. August, September.
L. violacea (L.) Pers. Dry copses. ( ). S. August, Sep-
tember.
L. Stuvei Nutt. Highlands of M. Tenn. August. Var,
intermedia S. Watson. With preceding.
L. frutescens (L.) Britton. L. reticulata S. Watson. Har-
peth hills. August, September.
L. hirta (L.) Ell. L. polystachya Michx. Dry, siliceous
soils. O. S. August-October.
L. capitata Michx. Harpeth hills. Tullahoma.
L. leptostachya Engelm. Dry hill lands. \V. I'enn. Au-
gust, September.
L. striata (Thunb.) H. & A. Japan clover. Widely spread
over the whole State, carpeting the ground with a beautiful
sod. Has been in the remotest mountain settlements since
fifty years, and is probably indigenous. Also found in Japan,
from whence it is believed to have been imported. .Inly. Au-
gust. It is an annual.
&
VICIA L.
Vicia Americana Miihl. Thickets, vicinity of Nashville.
May-July.
V. Caroliniana Walt. Valleys of E. Tenn. May-July.
V. micrantha Nutt. Copses and edge of woods. M. Tenn.
Nashville. April, May.
V. sativa L. Common vetch or tare. Sometimes sown
with rye and cut for fodder. Native of Europe. May-August.
V. Faba L. Common field pea. Small patches are -
sionallv found in erardens.
108 Tennessee Flora.
ERVUM L.
Ervum Lens L. The lentil is sparingly cultivated for culi-
nary use. May-July.
PISUM L.
Pisum sativum L. Garden pea. Cultivated as field and
garden crops in many varieties. Pisum arvense L. preferred
for field culture.
CICER L.
Cicer arietinum L. Sugar pea. Already known to the lake
dwellers. Cultivated by all truck farmers.
LATHYRUS L.
Lathyrus venosus Miihl. Mts. of E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
Kate's Mt., S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May-July.
L. myrtifolius Miihl. L. palustris var. myrtifolius A. Gray.
According to Illustrated Flora, in E. Tenn. May-July.
BRADBURYA Raf. (Centrosema Benth.)
Bradburya Virginiana (L.) Kuntze. Spurred butterfly.
Centrosema Virginianum Benth. Siliceous soils. O. S.
Piney Creek, Rhea County. Mrs. L. Bennett. July, August.
CLITORIA L.
Clitoria Mariana L. Dry, sunny places in siliceous ground.
O. S. June, July.
FALCATA Gmel. (Amphicarpaea Ell.)
Falcata comosa (L.) Kuntze. Amphicarpaea monoica Ell.
Hog peanut. Damp woodlands. O. S. August, September.
F. Pitcheri (T. & G.) Kuntze. Amphicarpaea Pitched T.
& G. Fide Illustrated Flora.
APIOS Mcench.
Apios Apios ( L.) McM. Apios tuberosa Mcench. Ground-
nut. Moist thickets. O. S. Climbing or trailing over shrubs.
O. S. July-September.
Tennessee Flora. 109
*A. Priceana B. L. Rpbinson. Similar localities with the
former. Nashville. May, June.
GALACTIA P. Br.
Galactia regularis (L.) B. S. P. G. glabella Michx. Milk-
pea. Open grounds. O. S. July, August.
G. volubilis (L.) Britton. G. pilosa Ell. G. mollis Nut!
White Bluff, Dickson County. June, July.
G. mollis Michx. G. pilosa Nutt. Common in open, drv
ground. O. S. July, August.
RHYNCHOSIA Lam.
Rhynchosia tomentosa (L.) H. & A. Dry, siliceous
O. S. May-July.
PHASEOLUS L.
Phaseolus polystachys (L.) B. S. P. I'. perennis Walt.
Wild bean. Brownsville Cumberland Mts. Mr-. Lydia
Bennett. July-September.
P. vulgaris Savi. Common harricot. Pole bean. Var.
nanus bush bean. Cultivated since the dawn of culture to
the present day in many varieties. Believed to have come
from W. Asia.
P. lunatus L. The lima bean is claimed for the intertropical
*A. Priceana B. L. Robinson. (Torr. Bot. Bull. IM'vi v\ n
herbaceous twiner; stem, terate, slightly striate, at first covered with ;i
fine reflexed pubescence, but soon nearly glabrate. arising from a large
oblate spheroidal root (18 cm. diameter); leaves, 3-9 foliate, th.
the main stem 24 cm. long, the ovate or ovate-lanceolate a. m ilnate
leaflets sparingly pubescent upon both surfaces, green and Bcarcely
paler beneath, thin and rather veiny, obtuse or rounded at th.' base,
4-10 cm. long, half as broad; petiolules, hirsutulous; leaves ami leaflets
of the branches, considerably smaller: stipules, subulate, pubea
mm. long; racemes, dense, borne mostly by twos and threes in tin-
axils, those of the main stem often 12-15 cm. long, 50-70 flowered, and
mostly bearing a single short branch: rameal Inflorescences, smaller
and simple; floral axes, thickish; pedicels, slomh-r. .' mm. long, com*
monly borne by twos and threes in the axils of ovate caudate-acuminate
bracts at somewhat greater length; calyx, hemispherical roseate; th.'
limb, obliquely subtruncate, except for the linear-attenuate anterior
tooth; petals, greenish white, tinged especially toward th-' end with
rose purple or magenta; the vexillum suborbicular 26 mm. long, biau-
riculate at the base and bluntly cornute at the apex; wings, Bomewhal
shorter, narrowly oblong, a little broadened ami rounded at th.'
essential organs of the genus: pods, clustered, L2-16 cm. lone. I cm.
broad, acuminate at the apex, attenuate at the has.-, about
seeds, oblong, olive green. 8 mm. long, separated in the i«"! by bicoi
sections of the silvery-white pithy endocarp. First collected and .lis
tinguished by Miss Sady F. Price, of Bowling Green, Ky.
110 Tennessee Flora.
parts of both hemispheres, and cultivated with us as a runner
and a bush bean.
P. multiflorus L. The scarlet runner. It succeeds only on
the higher mountains, but sets no pods in the lowlands of this
State.
ARACHIS Willd.
Arachis hypogaea Willd. Peanut. Goober pea. Native of
tropical S. America. Largely cultivated in the western part
of the State for its seeds and the oil which is obtained from
them. August-October. 31.
STROPHOSTYLES Ell. (Phaseolus L.)
Strophostyles Helvola (L.) Britton. Phaseolus Helvolus
L. Strophostyles angulosa Ell. Sandy soil. O. S. July-
October.
S. umbellata (Miihl.) Britton. Ph. Helvolus T. & G. P.
peduncularis Ell. Abundant in the barrens. July-September.
S. pauciflora (Benth.) S. Watson. In rich, moist grounds.
O. S. July-September.
VIGNA Savi.
*Vigna Sinensis (L.) Endl. and var. V. melanocarpa. Cow
pea. Planted between corn rows. In cultivation only. O. S.
July-September.
GERANIACE.E J. St. Hilaire.
GERANIUM L.
Geranium maculatum L. Spotted crane's bill. Woods.
O. S. April-July. M.
G. Carolinianun L. Carolina crane's bill. Waste grounds.
O. S. April-August.
G. pusillum L.' Slopes of White Rock Mts., S. W. Va. Ad-
ventive from Europe. May.
\\ OXALIDACEJE Lindl.
OXALIS L.
Oxalis Acetosella L. White wood sorrel. Summits of the
high mountains of E. Tenn. ]\ Fay-July.
O. violacea L. Rocky woods. O. S. May, June.
O. macrantha Trelease. Rocky glades. M. Tenn. April-
September.
♦Two allied species have been recently introduced from the tropics,
the soja bean (Glycine hispida) and the velvet bean (Mucuna utilis
Wall.). It has been found that the seasons of Tennessee are not al-
ways long enough to perfect their growth.
Tennessee Flora. i i i
0. filipes Small n. sp. In Tennessee. Fide Illustrated Flora.
May-August.
C). stricta L. Woods. ( ). S. April-October.
O. grandis Small. O. recurva Trelease. Rich soils. I
May- August.
O. corniculata L. In fields and gardens. Introduced.
February-November.
O. hirsuticaulis J. K. Small. Nashville. Open woods.
With O. macrantha. April, May.
LINACE2E Dnmort.
LINUM L.
Linum usitatissimum L. Flax. Linseed. Along road
sides. Adventitious from Europe or fugitive from cultivation.
which has recently greatly declined in this State. Summer. 1/.
L. Virginianum L. Yellow flax. Dry, open woodlands.
O. S. June-August.
L. Floridanum (Planch.) Trelease. Near Dickson, Dickson
County.
L. striatum Walt. Cedar and oak barrens. O. S. Jinn
L. sulcatum Riddel. Hickman, W. Tenn. Summer.
RUTACE.E Juss.
XANTHOXYLUM L.
Xanthoxylum Americanum Mill. Prickly ash. Hills vicin-
ity of Nashville. April, May. .1/".
PTELEA L.
Ptelea trifoliata L. Three-leaved hop tree. Common shrub
in the limestone regions of Tennessee. June. M.
RUTA L.
Ruta graveolens L. Common garden rue. Found in an
open field at Belvidere, Franklin Count v. Introduced. June.
M.
STMAKIT.ACK.K \)C.
AILANTHUS Desf.
Ailanthus glandulosa Desv. Tree of heaven. Ulanthus.
Fully naturalized, and spreading. The male tree is ol
tionable for planting in streets on account of the disagreeable
odor of its flower. Native of China. June-September. If.
112 Tennessee Flora.
MELIACE.E DC.
MELIA L.
Melia Azedarach L. Formerly frequently seen in yards,
but apparently dying out. Pride of India China tree.
KCEHLREUTERA DC.
Koehlreutera paniculata DC. Recently introduced, but
seemingly not bearing rigorous winters.
POLYGALACE^E.
POLYGALA L.
Polygala cruciata L. Marsh milkwort. Oak barrens. O.
S. July.
P. verticillata L. Mts. of E. Tenn. Tuckalechee Cove
June.
P. ambigua Xutt. Dry soils. O. S. Nashville. May-
July.
P. incarnata L. Barrens, siliceous and rather moist soils.
Summer.
P. viridescens L. P. sanguinea L. Cumberland Mts. J.
F. James.
P. Curtissii A. Gray. Barrens and mountains of E. Tenn.
August, September.
P. Mariana Mill. P. fastigiata Nutt. Sewanee. July, Au-
gust.
P. Nuttallii T. & G. P. sanguinea Nutt. Siliceous soils.
O. S. July, August.
P. Senega L. Seneca snakeroot. O. S. May, June.
P. Senega latifolia T. & G. E. Tenn. and vicinity of Nash-
ville. May, June.
P. polygama Walt. Valley of E. Tenn. Frequent. June,
July.
P. paucifolia Willd. Flowering wintergreen. Cumberland
Mts. Rugby. Mrs. Percival. Alleghany Mts.
EUPHORBIACE.E J. St. Hil.
PHYLLANTHUS L.
Phyllanthus Carolinensis Walt. Pastures and glades. O.
S. Mav-October.
CROTON L.
Croton glandulosus L. O. S. Not as common as the fol-
lowing. July-September.
C. capitatus Michx. Dry soils, especially M. Tenn. June-
September.
Tennessee Flora. i 18
C. monanthogynus Michx. Dry pastures. O. 5. fune-
October. M.
CROTONOPSIS Michx.
Crotonopsis linearis Michx. Cedar barrens. Summ
Lookout Mt. July-September,
ACALYPHA L.
Acalypha ostryaefolia Ridd. A. Caroliniana I'll. Gardens
and fields. O. S. June.
A. Virginica L. Fields and thickets. < >. S. June ' October.
A. gracilens A. Gray. Dry. rocky grounds. O. S. June-
September.
TRAGIA L.
Tragia nepetaefolia Cav. East of Cleveland, Bradley ( !ounty.
May-October.
T. macrocarpa Willd. Severely stinging. Abundant in the
cedar barrens of M. Tenn. Nashville. June-September.
RICINUS L.
Ricinus communis L. Castor-oil plant. Cultivated ;
ornamental plant, and escaping into waste places. July-Sep-
tember. M.
STILLINGIA L.
Stillingia sylvatica L. Queen root. Vicinity of Memphis.
Dr. G. Egeling. March-October. .1/.
EUPHORBIA L.
Euphorbia serpens H. B. K. Abundant in glades and culti-
vated grounds. Nashville. July-September.
E. maculata L. Spotted spurge. O. S. June-November.
E. humistrata Engelm. River banks and moist grounds.
Nashville. July, August.
E. nutans Lag. E. hypericifolia A. Gray. A troublesome
weed in cornfields. O. S. May-October. M .
E. corollata L. Flowering spurge. Open woodlands
S. April-October. M.
E. marginata Pursh. Along lines ni railroads. An immi-
grant from the West. May-October.
E. dentata Michx. Glades of M. Tenn. Nashville. June-
September.
E. Ipecacuanhas L. W. Tenn. May.
E. heterophylla L. Harpeth hills, near Nashville. Vpril-
November.
E. Lathyris L. Vicinity of Roane Mt. J. \V. Chickering.
May, June.
1U Tennessee Flora.
E. obtusata Pursh. Frequent in glades around Nashville.
March-June.
E. commutata Engelm. Cedar barrens of M. Tenn. April.
E. mercurialina Michx. Stoner's Creek, Wilson County.
Tunnel Hill, Sumner County. Lookout Mt. May-July.
CALLITRICHACEJE Lindl.
CALLITRICHE L.
Callitriche Austini Engelm. Water starwort. On mud
banks along streams. Nashville. July.
C. heterophylla Pursh. Ponds near Nashville. July-Sep-
tember.
BUXACE.E Dumirt.
PACHYSANDRA Michx.
Pachysandra procumbens Michx. Dr. Hampton's farm, Da-
vidson County. White Bluff, Dickson County. Beersheba
Springs, Grundy County. Col. Wilkins. April, May.
ANACARDIACE.E Lindl.
RHUS L.
Rhus copallina L. Darf sumac. Poor, siliceous soils. O.
S. June-August.
R. hirta (L.) Ludw. R. tyhina L. Staghorn sumac. Hill-
sides. O. S. June.
R. glabra L. Scarlet sumac. Old fields. O. S. June-
August. M.
R. aromatica Ait. R. Canadensis Marsh. Limestone re-
gions of M. Tenn. March, April. M.
R. trilobata Nutt. Rh. aromatica var. trilobata Gray. Oc-
curs over the same range. M.
R. Vernix L. R. venenata DC. Poison sumac. Poison
ash. Boggy lands in the Cumberland Mts. Sewanee. June.
M.
R. radicans L. R. Toxicodendron Michx. Poison oak. E.
Tenn. May, June. .]/.
R. Toxicodendron L. With crenately-lobed, very-pubescent
leaves. Nashville. M.
COTINUS Adans.
Cotkius cotinoides (Nutt.) Britton. R. cotinoides Nutt.
Southern border of the State. Limestone County, Ala. Dr.
Charles Mohr. April, May.
Tennessee Flora. i 15
ILICIXK.K Lowe.
ILEX L.
Ilex opaca Ait. American holly. A slim tree in the Cum-
berland and Alleghany Mts. Attains a heighl of 5" fee! l>\
18 to 20 inches diameter in the Cumberland and Eiiwa
River bottoms. April. Fruit matures in November, Decem-
ber. M.
I. decidua Walt. Swamp holly. Brownsville, W. Tenn.
May.
I. monticola A. Gray. I. montana T. & G. Mts. of K. Tenn.
I. monticola mollis A. Gray. Lookout lit. June. Inly.
I. verticillata (.L) A. Grav. Black alder. Swain].- at Hoi
low Rock, W. Tenn. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
I. ambigua Chapm. Foot of mountains near tunnel al
Cowan. July, August.
I. Bidleyi W. W. Ashe from the mountains of E. Tenn.
Is perhaps identical with the foregoing.
CELASTRACE/E Lindl.
EVONYMUS L.
Evonymus Americanus L. Strawberry bush. ( >. S. fune.
M.
E. atropurpureus Jacq. Burning bush. Wahoo. Along
streams. O. S. June. M.
CELASTRUS L.
Celastrus scandens L. Climbing bittersweet. Brownsville,
W. Tenn. Also Bushy Mts., S. \\ . Va. J. K. Small. 1/
STAPHYLEACE^l DC.
STAPHYLEA L.
Staphylea trifolia L. American bladdernut. Moist w
O. S. Nashville. April, May.
ACERACEJE Si. llil.
ACER L.
Acer saccharinum L. A. dasycarpum Ehrh. Silver maple.
A larq-e tree reaching too feet by 3 feet diameter. Bot
lands and river banks. Flowers in February, March, and ma-
tures its seeds the earliest of all our plants.
A. rubrum L. Red or swamp maple. Wet or swampy
lands. O. S. March. April.
A. saccharum Marsh. \. saccharinum Wanger. A. bar
116 Tennessee Floea.
batum Michx. Sugar maple. Large tree. O. S. Frequent
around Nashville. April, May.
A. nigrum Michx. A. saccharinum var. nigrum T. & G.
Black sugar maple. Large tree. O. S. April, May.
A. leucoderme J. K. Small. Banks of Ocoee River above
Parksville. C. L. Boynton.
A. Pennsylvanicum L. Moose wood. Striped maple.
Smoky Mts. Slopes of White Top Mt., S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
A. spicatum Lam. Mountain maple. Small tree. Summit
of Thunderhead. May, June.
A. Negundo L. Negundo aceroides Moench. Box elder.
Large, irregularly-branching tree, growing alongside water
courses. O. S. April.
HIPPOCASTANACEJE T. & G.
iESCULUS L.
iEsculus Hippocastanum L. A large tree. Native of Asia.
Frequently planted in cities, but not enduring high tempera-
tures. Horse chestnut. May.
IE. glabra Willd. Ohio buckeye. Frequent in the barrens
of M. Tenn. April, May.
IE. octandra Marsh. M. flava Ait. Yellow buckeye. O.
S. April, May.
IE. octandra hybrida Sargt. M. flava var. purpurascens
A. Gray. A decumbent shrub. Frequent at the foot of the
Cumberland Mts. and ravines in E. Tenn. Ought to be ranked
as a species. April, May.
IE. Pavia L. Red buckeye. Prospect Station, Giles County.
A small tree. It is also flowering when only a span high,
April, May.
iE. parviflora Walt. A shrub. Very ornamental and
planted in gardens. Native of N. Alabama, and perhaps also
occurring on the southern borders of this State. April, May.
SAPINDACEJE R. Br.
CARDIOSPERMUM L.
Cardiospermum Halicacabum L. Balloon vine. Native of
tropical America. Frequently in cultivation and escaped.
May-July.
BALSAMINACEJE Lindl.
IMPATIENS L.
Impatiens biflora Walt. I. fulva Nutt. Spotted touch-me-
not. Moist grounds. O. S. July-October.
I. aurea Muni. T. pallida Nutt. Pale touch-me-not. Sim-
ilar localities. O. S. July-September. M.
Tennessee Floba. iit
RHAMXACKJ-: Dumort.
kERCHEMIA Neck.
Berchemia scandens (Hill.) Trel. B. volubilis DC. Supple
jack. Lookout Mt. Very luxuriantly in low grounds in
Brownsville, W. Tenn. March-June.
RHAMNUS L.
Rhamnus lanceolata Pursh. Buckthorn. River hank- and
copses. Nashville. May. .1/.
Rh. Caroliniana Walt. Carolina buckthorn. Low grounds.
O. S. May, June. M.
ZIZYPHUS Lam.
Zizyphus vulgaris Lam. Jujuba. Cultivated in a few gar-
dens. Fosterville. Small tree. Perfectly hardy. Abundant
bearer. The fruit, a small plum of agreeable flavor, is com-
monly eaten in both fresh and dry state. Ought to be more
largely cultivated. May.
CEANOTHUS L.
Ceanothus Americanus L. New Jersey tea. Red root. In
siliceous soils. O. S. May, June.
VITACE^ Lindl.
VITIS L.
Vitis Labrusca L. Northern fox grape. Along the Alle-
ghany Mts. Cultivated in Bayer's settlement, in the Frog
Mts., as early as 1848 by French and German immigrants, and
improved in size and flavor. It made very good wine. May.
Fruit ripens in August, September.
V. aestivalis Michx. Summer grape. Uplands, cedar glades,
and mountains. May. Fruit ripe in September, ( )ctober,
V. cinerea Engelm. Downy grape. Along banks of Cum-
berland River, Nashville, and over M. Tenn. May. Fruit
ripe in September.
V. cordifolia Michx. Frost grape. O. S. Mav. Fruit
ripe in October, November.
V. rupestris Scheele. Sand grape, [stands of Cumberland
River. Bluffs on Mill Creek and Stoner's Creek. Fruit ripe
in July, August.
V. rotundifolia Michx. V. vulpina T. & G. Southern fox
grape. Muscadine grape. In siliceous soil. Cumberland
Mts. Mav. Fruit ripe in August, September.
V. palmata Vahl. River banks of Tennessee River. Fruit
maturing in September.
118 Tennessee Flora.
AMPELOPSIS Michx.
Ampelopsis cordata Michx. Vitis indivisa Willd. River
banks and moist woodlands, M. Tenn. Nashville. May, June.
A. arborea (L.) Rusby. Vitis bipinnata T. & G. Damp
soil. \Y. Tenn. June, July.
PARTHENOCISSUS Planchon. (Ampelopsis Michx.)
Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Ampelopsis
quinquefolia Michx. Virginia creeper. O. S. June-August.
M.
P. tricuspidata (Sieb. & Zucc.) Planch. Ampelopsis
Veitchii. Frequently cultivated. Closely clinging to walls.
Is a Japanese vine.
TILIACEJE Juss.
TILIA L.
Tilia Americana L. Basswood. Mts. of E. Tenn. May,
June. M.
T. heterophylla Vent. White basswood. River banks and
bottom lands. Nashville. June, July.
T. Europaea L. The, European linden. Frequently planted
as an ornamental tree. The exquisite fragrancy of the flowers
and its freedom from disease and insect pests recommend it
for more frequent planting. May. M.
MALVACEAE Neck.
MALVA L.
Malva sylvestris L. Mallow. Waters of Holston River,
S. WT. Va. J. K. Small.
M. rotundifolia L. Cheeses. Naturalized from Europe.
Waste places. O. S. Summer.
M. verticillata L. M. crispa L. Waste grounds. Adven-
titious. O. S. Summer.
M. moshata L. Musk mallow. S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
Adventitious.
CALLIRRHOE Nutt.
Callirrhoe alcaeoides (Michx.) A. Gray. Copses along
Brown's Creek, Nashville. In a glade near Edgefield Junc-
tion, Davidson County. T. S. Imborden.
MALVASTRUM A. Gray.
Malvastrum angustum A. Gray. Glades of M. Tenn. Very
frequent around Nashville. July, August.
TENNE8BEE FLORA.
SIDA L.
Sida spinosa L. A bad weed, covering acres. I i S. Sum-
mer.
S. Elliottii T. & G. Frequent in the cedar glades. July.
August.
S. hermaphrodita (L.) Rusby. In a Fence row near I.
villa. June-August.
ABUTILON Grertn.
Abutilon Abutilon (L.) Rusby. Indian mallow. Abutilon
Avicennte Gjprtn. 'Adventive from S. Asia. O. S. August-
October.
HIBISCUS L.
Hibiscus Moscheutos L. Swamp rose mallow. River
banks and swamps. O. S. July. August.
H. lasiocarpus Cav. Swamps. Hickman County. August.
H. militaris Cav. H. Virginicus Walt. Along v.
courses. O. S. A white-flowered variety near Nashville.
June, July.
H. Trionum L. Flower-of-an-hour. Adventive from S.
Europe. July-September.
H. Syriacus L. Shrubby althaea. Rose of Sharon. Intro-
duced from W. Asia. Sometimes escaped from cultivation.
O. S. July-September.
H. esculentus L. Okra. Two varieties arc in cultivation
in gardens. June, July.
GOSSYPIUM L.
Gossypium Barbadense L. The cotton plant. The short
staple or upland cotton is largely cultivated in the Stair. 1/
THEACE.K DC.
STUARTIA L.
Stuartia Malachodendron L. Stuartia Virginica '
White Cliff Springs. Coal Creek. A. Ruth.
S. pentagyna L'Her. Cumberland and Alleghany MtS.
June.
HYPERR :ACE M Lindl.
ASCYRUM L.
Ascyrum stans Michx. St. Peter'- wort. Moist thickets in
the mountains. Siliceous soil. July, August.
A. hypericoides L. A. Crux-Andreae L. St. Andrew'- Ci
Dry, siliceous soil. O. S. June-August.
120 Tennessee Flora.
HYPERICUM L.
Hypericum Kalmianum L. St. John's wort. Typical low
form. Cumberland Mts. Mrs. Lydia Bennett.
H. Kalmianum Majus. Stout shrubs, 5 to 7 feet high.
Oak barrens at Tullahoma, Coffee County. July.
H. prolificum L. Cleveland, E. Tenn. Craggie Hope,
Cheatham County. July-September.
H. densiflorum Pursh. Post Oak Springs, Roane County.
Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth. July-September.
H. galioides L. Along water courses in siliceous ground.
Frequent in E. Tenn. June, July.
H. adpressum Bart. Wild-goose pond near Mitchellville,
Sumner County. July-September.
H. sphaerocarpum Michx. Frequent in the barrens of M.
Tenn. Also in E. Tenn. July-September.
H. dolabriforme Vent. Chilhowee Mt., Parksville. Dry,
gravelly hills, east of Cleveland, E. Tenn. July, August.
H. virgatum Lam. H. angulosum Michx. Damp places in
the oak barrens at Tullahoma. Var. acutifolium Coult. With
the former.
H. perforatum L. Common St. John's wort. Waste places.
Uncommon. Introduced. June.
H. maculatum Walt. H. corymbosum Michx. An abun-
dant weed in fields. O. S. July-September.
H. graveolens Buckl. Summit of Thunderhead. White
Top Mt., S. Wr. Va. J. K. Small. June, July.
H. mutilum L. Edge of pools. O. S. June, July.
H. gymmanthum Engelm. & Grav. Barrens of M. Tenn.
July-
H. Canadense L. Cumberland Mts. July-September.
H. Drummondii T. & G. Belvedere, Franklin County.
July-September.
*H. lobocarpum Gattinger. Hollow Rock, W. Tenn. July,
August.
H. glomeratum J. K. Small. I suppose to be the same as
*H. lobocarpum Gattinger. n. sp. Sepals, linear-lanceolate, small,
unequal, ly2-3 lines long; petals, unequal, unsymmetric, 3-6 lines long,
reflected, early deciduous; capsule, five-celled, deeply five-lobed, lance-
olate, tapering into a long beak; carpels, almost distinct, and at full
maturity falling away from a central axis; seeds, 1 mm. long, incurved,
apiculate, striate lengthwise, transversely grooved; leaves, linear, ob-
tuse, slightly mucronate, attenuate downward, pale underneath. Shrub
5-7 feet high, with upright branches. Low, swampy lands in the Orange
Sand formation at Hollow Rock, Carroll County, W. Tenn. First col-
lected in fruit in 1867, and again in July, 1886, in flower, in very
swampy ground. I have since received specimens of a Hypericum la-
beled H. prolificum, " collected by D. H. E. Hasse, of Little Rock, Ark.,
in wet pine barrens," which proved to be the same speoies. M.
Tennessi b Flora. 121
I enumerated in the first edition as II. prolificum var. mon
tannm, collected in the Frog Mts. about 1870.
SAROTHRA L.
Sarothra gentianoides L. Hypericum nudicaule Walt.
Pine weed. Orange grass. In sandy soil. O. S, July, Au-
gust.
TRIADENUM Raf.
Triadenum Virginicum < L. ) Raf. Elodea Virginica Nutt.
River swamps. Scatteringly O. S. July-September.
T. petiolatum (Walt.) Britton. Cypress swamps. July.
August.
CISTACEJE Lindl.
HELIANTHEMUM Pers.
Helianthemum Canadense ( L.) Michx. Frost weed. (
mon in dry, siliceous soil. E. Tenn. April, May. M.
LECHEA L.
Lechea villosa Ell. L. Major Michx. Dry, open grounds.
O. S. July, August.
L. minor L. L. thymifolia Michx. Pinweed. Barrens of M.
Tenn. and mountains of E. Tenn. July, August.
L. racemulosa Michx. Wolf Creek, Cocke County. T. IT.
Kearney. Waters of Holston River. J. K. Small.
L. tenuifolia Michx. Cumberland Mts.. M. Tenn. June-
August.
VIOLACE.E L.
VIOLA.
Viola palmata L. Early blue violet. V. cucullata var. pal-
mata A. Gray. O. S. April.
V. pedatifida Don. V. delphinifolia Nutt. Prairie violet.
Sewanee. Gen. E. Kirby-Smith. March-May.
V. obliqua Hill. V. cucullata Ait. I >. S. Vpril-June.
*V. domestica Bicknell. Yard violet. Nashville.
V. villosa Walt. Pond Mt.. S. W. Va. 1. K. Small. Knox-
ville. A. Ruth.
V. sagittata Ait. Highlands of M. Tenn. and mountains ol
E. Tenn. April, May.
V. ovata Nutt. V. sagittata var. ovata T. & G. Summit ol
White Top Mts., S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
*V. domestica Bicknell. Yard violet Nashville, in
grounds. Resembles closely V. obliqua, but differs In the Bhort-pedun
cled subterranean peduncles and broadly-reniform blad<
122 Tennessee Flora.
V. pedata L. Bird's-foot violet, and var. bicolor Pursh.
Siliceous soils. Highlands. Harpeth hills, near Nashville.
April. M.
V. odorata L. Sweet violet. Native of Europe. Fre-
quently escaping from cultivation. March-May.
V. rotundifolia Michx. Cumberland Mts. March-May.
V. blanda Willd. Dry, rocky grounds. Hills around Nash-
ville. April, May.
V. blanda amcena Le Conte. V. blanda var. palustriformis
A. Gray. Iron Mts., S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
V. renifolia A. Gray. V. blanda renifolia A. Gray. Sum-
mit of Thunderhead. Smoky Mts. April-June.
V. primulaefolia L. Sewanee. E. Kirby-Smith. Grand-
view. Mrs. H. R. Stratton. May.
V. emarginata (Nutt.) Le Conte. Wolf Creek. T. H.
Kearney.
V. lanceolata L. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Knox-
ville. March-May.
V. hastata Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn.
V. hastata var. tripartita Grav. Sewanee. E. Kirby-Smith.
May.
V. pubescens Ait. Woods. O. S. Nashville. Var. Crio-
carpa Nutt. Highlands of M. Tenn. March-May.
V. Canadensis L. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. May-
July.
V. striata Ait. Nashville. O. S. April, May.
V. multicaulis (T. & G.) Britton. V. Muhlenbergii var.
multicaulis T. & G. Mts. of E. Tenn. March-June.
V. rostrata Pursh. Sewanee. E. Kirby-Smith. Hiwassee
Valley. A. Ruth.
V. tenella Miihl. V. tricolor var. arvensis Hook. Field
pansy. Dry pastures. O. S. March-May.
CUBELIUM Raf. (Solea Spreng.)
Cubelium concolor (Forst.) Raf. Solea concolor Ging.
Damp woods. O. S. April, May.
PASSIFLORACE^E Dumort.
PASSIFLORA L.
Passiflora incarnata L. Passion flower. Dry soil. O. S.
A troublesome weed when entering gardens and fields. Fl.
May. Fruit in August. Called " May pops."
TENNE8S1 I. PlOH \. 12 I
P. lutea L. Yellow passion flower. Thick* lav-
July.
CACTACK.K Lindl.
OPUNTIA Mill.
Opuntia Opuntia (L.) Coulter. ( >. vulgaris Mill. Easl
prickly pear. A waif near a railroad station, 1.
Common on the Atlantic Coast. June. Jul v.
O. humifusa Raf. O. Rafinesquii Engelm. Western prickly
pear. Abundant in rocky glades. ( >. s. Varying with or-
bicular and obovate joints. June, July.
THYMELEACE.E Reichenb.
DIRCA L.
Dirca palustris L. Leatherwood. Moosewood. Swampy
or moist thickets in the Alleghany and Cumberland
April, May.
LYTHRACE.E Lindl.
AMMANIA L.
Ammania coccinea Rottb. Swamps or ditches. ( >. S. July-
September.
A. latifolia L. Wet places. Tullahoma, etc. July, Aug
DIDIPLIS Raf.
Didiplis diandra Wood. D. linearis Rat. I ). S June-Au-
gust.
ROTALA L.
Rotala ramosior (L.) Kcehne. Ammania humilis Michx.
Pools and ditches. O. S. July-September.
DECODON J. T. Gmelin.
Decodon verticillatus (L.) Ell. Nesaea verticillata H B. K.
Loosestrife. Waters of Barren Fork of Caney Fork, mar
Nicholson Springs. September.
LYTHRUM L.
Lythrum alatum Pursh. Angled loosestrife. Bordei
springs and rivulets. Cleveland. E. Tenn. July.
PARSONIA P. Br. (Cuphaea Jacq.)
Parsonia petiolata (L.) Rusb} Cuphaea vi
Clammy cuphaea. Tar weed. Dry woods. I '. S \
September.
124 Tennessee Flora.
MELASTOMACEJB R. Br.
RHEXIA L.
Rhexia Mariana L. Maryland meadow beauty. Wet lands.
O. S. July.
Rh. Virginica L. Meadow beauty. Low grounds. O. S.
July-September.
LAGERSTROEMIA L.
Lagerstroemia Indica L. The crepe myrtle. Frequently
cultivated. Ornamental shrub. From E. India.
PUNICA L.
Punica Granatum L. From S. Europe and N. Africa. Cul-
tivated, but frequently killed by hard frosts ; belongs to this
family.
ONAGRACEJE Dumort.
ISNARDA L.
Isnarda palustris L. Ludwigia palustris Ell. Marsh purs-
lane. Ponds and ditches. O. S. June-November.
LUDWIGIA L.
Ludwigia linearis Walt. Bogs and pools. O. S. July-Sep-
tember.
L. hirtella Raf. Tullahoma. Paradise Ridge. June-Sep-
tember.
L. alternifolia L. Rattle box. Ponds. O. S. June-Sep-
tember.
L. glandulosa AValt. L. cylindrita Ell. Oak barrens. O.
S. August.
L. polycarpa Short & Peter. Swamps. O. S. July-Octo-
ber.
L. natans Ell. Ponds. O. S. July-September.
JUSSIAEA L.
Jussiaea diffusa Forskl. J. repens Sw. Swamps near Nash-
ville. June-August.
J. decurrens (Walt.) DC. In swamps. O. S. July-Sep-
tember.
EPILOBIUM L.
Epilobium coloratum Miihl. Purple-leaved willow herb.
Burnt grounds. O. S. July-September.
ONAGRA Adans.
Onagra biennis (L.) Scop. (Enothera biennis L. Evening
Tennessee Flora. L25
primrose. O. S. Dry soil. Naturalized from Europe, fune-
October.
O. biennis grandiflora (Ait.) Small. Scatteringly over the
:same range with the former.
OENOTHERA L.
CEnothera laciniata Ell. ( E. sinuata L. Near Hyde's i ■'•■rrv.
Nashville. May. June.
CE. linearis Michx. E. Tenn. Marion, S. \\ . \'a. (. K.
Small.
KNEIFFIA Spach. (CEnothera L.)
Kneifna linearis (Michx.) Spach. CEnothera linearis Michx.
E. Tenn. Marion, S. W. Va. J. EC. Small.
K. pumila (L.) Spach. (Enothera pumila L. Mts. of K.
Tenn. Ocoee Valley. Tullahoma. June-August.
K. fruticosa (L.) Raimann. CEnothera fruticosa L. Com-
mon snndrops.
K. fruticosa var. hirsuta Nutt. Cleveland. Bradley County.
K. glauca (Michx.) Spach. (Enothera glauca Michx.
Lookout Mt. Frog Mts., E. Tenn. May-September.
HARTMANNIA Spach. ((Enothera L. I
Hartmannia speciosa (Nutt.) Small. CEnothera spe
Nutt. Showy primrose. Unoccupied town Lots. Escaped
from gardens. Nashville. May- July.
LAVAUXIA Spach. ((Enothera L.)
Lavauxia triloba (Nutt.) Spach. CEnothera triloba Nutt.
Open grounds around Nashville. Frequent. May-July.
GAURA L.
Gaura biennis L. Cumberland Mts. E. Tenn. July-Sep-
tember.
G. Michauxii Spach. G. filipes Spach. Chattanooga. Dr.
G. Engelman. July. August.
CIRCAEA L.
Circaea Lutetiana L. Bind weed. Nigh! shade. Woods.
O. S. June-August.
C. alpina L. High summits of the Alleghanies, E. Tenn.
July-September.
HALLORAGID M I .E.
PROSERPINACA E.
Proserpinaca palustris L. Mermaid weed. Swamps. I '
S. July.
126 Tennessee Flora.
P. pectinacea Lam. Ditches along the railroad at Tulla-
homa. Summer.
MYRIOPHYLLUM L.
Myriophyllum verticillatum L. Water milfoil. Tullahoma
Creek, Tullahoma. May.
M. pinnatum (Walt.) B. S. P. M. scabratum Michx. Hay-
wood County. S. M. Baine.
ARALIACEJE Vent.
ARALIA L.
Aralia spinosa L. Angelica tree. Frequent in rocky hills
and glades. O. S. June-August. M.
A. racemosa L. American spikenard. E. Tenn. and high-
lands of M. Tenn. Charlotte Pike, two miles from Nashville.
July, August. M.
A. hispida Vent. Bristly sarsaparilla. Throughout the
mountains of E. Tenn. Frog Mts. June, July. M.
A. nudicaulis L. Sewanee. June, July. M.
PANAX L.
Panax quinquefolium L. Ginseng. Rich woodlands. O.
S., but scarce. In the Harpeth hills, south of Nashville.
July, August. M.
UMBELLIFER.E B. Juss.
DAUCUS L.
Daucus Carota L. Wild carrot. The mother plant of the
garden carrot. Introduced, naturalized, and growing more
robust here than in its native home in Germany. June-Sep-
tember. M.
ANGELICA L. (Archangelica Hoffm.)
Angelica Curtisii Buckl. Roane Mt. Chickering.
A. villosa (Walt.) B. S. P. Angelica hirsuta Miihl. Angel-
ica. Dry barrens. O. S. July, August.
OXYPOLIS Raf. (Archemora DC.)
Oxypolis rigidus (L.) Britton. Archemora rigida DC.
Cowbane. Woodlands. O. S. August, September.
HERACLEUM L.
Heracleum lanatum Michx. Cow parsnip. High moun-
tains of E. Tenn. June. M.
Tennessee Flora. 127
PASTINACA L.
Pastinaca sativa L. Parsnips. Native of Britain and
many. Cultivated and naturalized, [n moist woodlands. 0
S. June-September. 1/.
POLYTiENIA DC.
Polytaenia Nuttallii DC. Baker's Station. Paradise R
Robertson County. April, May.
THASPIUM Xutt.
Thaspium trifoliatum (L.) Britton. Th. atropurpureum
Nutt. Purple meadow parsnip. In woods. < ' S.
Th. trifoliatum aureum Britton. Th. aureum Nutt. I I -
June, Jul)r. M.
Th. barbinode (Michx.) Xutt. Woods. O. S. July. Au-
gust.
Th. barbinode angustifolium Coult. & Rose. Barrens of M.
Tenn. Frequent. May.
Th. pinnatifidum (Buckl.) A. Gray. In similar localities
like the former. May, June.
LIGUSTICUM L.
Ligusticum Canadense (L.) Britton. L. actaeifolium Michx.
Lookout Mt. Roane Mt. June-August.
ERYNGIUM L.
Eryngium aquaticum L. E. yuccjpfolium Michx. Rattle-
snakemaster. Dry uplands. O. S. June-September. 1/
E. Virginicum Lam. Near Mt. Mitchell. A. Ruth.
E. prostratum Nutt. Low grounds. Brownsville, W. Tenn.
E. virgatum Lam. Henderson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
SANICULA L.
Sanicula Marylandica L. Black snakeroot. Moist w<
O. S. May-July. M.
S. Canadensis L. S. Marylandica var. Canadensis Torr.
Woods. O. S. June-August. .1/.
S. gregaria Bicknell and
S. trifoliata Bicknell arc likely to occur within the St
FCENICULUM Adans.
Foenieulum Fc3eniculum (L.) Karst. P. vulgare ' tort Fen-
nel. In waste places. Escaped from gardens. 0. S July-
September. M.
128 Tennessee Flora.
F. dulce Gaert. Sweet fennel. Sometimes cultivated.
Yields. Oleum Foeniculi. July. M.
PIMPINELLA L.
Pimpinella integerrima (L.) Asa Gray. Zizia integerrima
DC. Yellow pimpernell. From the high mountains to the
rocky banks of the rivers. O. S. May, June.
P. Anisum L. Anis. Sometimes cultivated. The seeds
yield the Ol. Anisi. June. M.
APIASTRUM Nutt. (Leptocaulis Nutt.)
Apiastrum patens (Nutt.) Coulter & Rose. Leptocaulis pat-
ens Nutt. Knoxville. A. Ruth. June.
EULOPHUS Nutt.
Eulophus Americanus Nutt. Thickets along Charlotte and
Murfreesboro Pikes, Nashville. May, June.
ANTHRISCUS HofTm.
Anthriscus Cerefolium (L.) HofTm. Chaerophyllum sativum
Lam. Garden chervil. Cultivated as a pot herb, and some-
times escaped. May, June.
BUPLEURUM L.
Bupleurum rotundifolium L. Thorough wort. Fort Neg-
ley, Nashville. Cedar glades. Naturalized from Europe.
June, July.
CHiEROPHYLLUM L.
Chasrophyllum procumbens (L.) Crantz. Wild chervill.
Moist, rock woodlands. Nashville. April-June.
Ch. Teinturieri Hook. Characteristic of the cedar glades
of M. Tenn. March-May.
WASHINGTONIA Raf. (Osmorrhiza Raf.)
Washingtonia Claytoni (Michx.) Britt. Osmorrhiza brev-
istylis DC. Sweet cicely. Along Holston River, S. W. Va.
J. K. Small.
W. longistylis (Torr.) Britton. Smooth sweet cicely. Os-
morrhiza longistvlis DC Rich woods. O. S. Nashville.
April, May. M.
SIUM L.
Sium cicutaefolium Gmel. Hemlock. Water parsnip.
Marion, W. Va. J. K. Small. July, August.
Tennessee Flora.
APIUM L.
Apium Petroselinum L. Common or garden parsley. Cul-
tivated in kitchen gardens, and sometimes escaped, Juiy \u-
gust.
A. graveolens L. Celery. Cultivated, escaping into •
places. May-July. .1/.
ZIZIA Koch.
Zizia aurea (L.) Koch. Thaspium aureum var. apterum A.
Grav. Golden meadow parsnip. Rocky glens and hillsides
O. S. May.
Z. Bebbii (Coult. & Rose) Britton. Mts. of E. Trim. May.
Z. cordata (Walt.) DC. Thaspium trifoliatum var.
rum A. Gray. O. S. May. June.
CARUM L.
Carum Carvi L. Caraway. Adventive from Europe, -< one-
times appearing- in fields, near dwellings. May- July. 1/.
CICUTA L.
Cicuta maculata L. Water hemlock. Musquash root.
Along streams. O. S. July. \f.
DERINGA Adans. (Cryptotaenia DC.)
Deringa Canadensis (L.) ECuntze. Cryptot»nia Canad<
DC. Housewort. Low. damp woods. I ). S. June. July.
SPERMOLEPIS Raf. (Leptocaulis Nutt.)
Spermolepis divaricatus (Walt.) Britton. Leptocaulis div-
aricatus DC. Occasionally found in pastures. Nashville.
April, May.
PTILIMNIUM Raf. ( I >isc< >pleura I M
Ptilimnium capillaceum (Michx.) Hollick. Mock bishop
weed. A single plant found in Nashville. July.
P. Nuttallii (DC.) Britton. Discopleura Nuttallii DC
Damp woods east of Cleveland. Bradley County. July.
HYDROCOTYLE L.
Hydrocotyle umbellata L. Marsh pennywort. Ditches
near Hvde's Ferry, Nashville. June-September.
H. Americana L. Polk County, E. Tenn. Jun< ber.
H. ranunculoides L. til. Tullahoma Creek, Coffee ( ounty.
Tune.
130 Tennessee Flora.
ERIGENIA Nutt.
Erigenia bulbosa (Michx.) Nutt. Harbinger of spring. O.
S. March, April.
CORIANDRUM Hoffm.
Coriandrum sativum L. Cumin. Used as a condiment, and
hence escaping into garden plots. M.
CUMINUM L.
Cuminum sativum L. Cumin. A condiment. Sparsely es-
caping into open grounds.
CORNACE.E Link.
CORNUS L.
Cornus florida L. Flowering dogwood. O. S. March,
April.
C. Amonum Mill. C. sericea L. Kinnikiniks. Moist
grounds. O. S. May-July.
C. asperifolia Michx. Along streams. O. S. May, June.
C. stolonifera Michx. Red osier dogwood. Banks of
streams. O. S. May, June.
C. alternifolia L. fil. Copses and hillsides. E. Tenn. May,
June.
NYSSA L.
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. N. multiflora Wang. Sour gum.
Low, moist grounds. Medium-sized tree, 30 to 35 feet high.
O. S. April-June.
N. biflora Walt. N. sylvatica var. biflora Sargt. N. Caro-
liniana Poir. Along mountain streams, E. Tenn., and in
swamps in W. Tenn. Hollow Rock. April, May.
N. aquatica L. N. unirlora Wang. Large tupelo gum.
Large tree, frequently 80 to 100 feet high in the lowlands of
W. Tenn. Also on uplands on Paradise Ridge, near Nashville.
April, May.
CLETHRACE.E Klotsch.
CLETHRA L.
Clethra acuminata Michx. Mountain sweet pepper bush.
Throughout the Alleghanies. July, August.
PYROLACEtE Agardh.
PYROLA L.
Pyrola rotundifolia L. Round-leaved wintergreen. Mts.
Tennessee Flora. m
ofE.Tenn. South fork of Holston River IK Small Fune
July.
P. elliptica Nutt. Wolf Creek, Cocke County. June, July.
CHIMAPHILA Pursh.
Chimaphi'a rraculata | L. ) Pursh. Pipsissawa. Dry wo
especially under pines. O. S. June-August.
Ch. umbellata I L. | Nutt. Prince's pine. Tracy .City. July.
MONOTROPACEJE Lindl.
MONOTROPSIS Schwein. (Schweinitzia Nutt.)
Monotropsis odorata Ell. Schweinitzia odorata I M
pine sap. Rugby. Mrs. M. L. Percival. February-May.
MONOTROPA L.
Monotropa uniflora L. Indian pipe. In leaf-mold. ( I -
Nashville. Harpeth hills. June-August.
HYPOPITIS Adans.
Hypopitis Hypopitis (L.) Small. Monotropa Hypopitis L.
False beechdrops. Cumberland Mts. Oakdale Station. June-
October.
ERICACEAE DC.
AZALEA L.
Azalea nudiflora L. Wild honeysuckle. Siliceous -
O. S. April, May.
A. lutea L. A. calendulacea Michx. Azalea. Cumberland
and Alleghany Mts. Ravines in the valleys. In argillaceous
or siliceous soils.
A. arborescens Pursh. Tree-Azalea. Sometimes a small
tree 20 feet high. Big Frog Mts. Mead of Piney Creek, in the
Cumberland Alts. Mrs. L. Bennett. June.
A. viscosa L. Rhododendron viscosum Torr. Swamp
honeysuckle. Along mountain streams in the Alleghanies.
Parksville, Polk County. June. July. ^
RHODODENDRON L.
Rhododendron maximum L. Great laurel. Attaining
sometimes the size of a tree 25 to 30 feet high by 1 m. diam
eter. Big Frog Mts. Over the Cumberland and Alleghany
Mts. June, July.
Rh. Catawbiense Michx. Mountain rose bay. Summit of
Smoky Mts. Roane Mt. Wolf Creek. July, August.
Rh. punctatum Andr. Along Little River, E. Tenn. 1
Hill. Wolf Creek. A. Ruth.
13*2 Tennessee Flora.
MENZIESIA J. E. Smith.
Menziesia pilosa (Michx.) Pers. M. globularis Salisb.
High mountains of E. Tenn. Clingman Dome. Roane Mt.
May. June.
DENDRIUM Desv. (Leiophyllum Pers.)
Dendrium buxifolium (Berg.) Desv. Sand myrtle. Leio-
phyllum buxifolium Ell. Summit of Roane Mt. Chickering.
April-June.
KALMIA L.
Kalmia latifolia L. Calico bush. Mts. of E. Tenn. and
highlands of M. Tenn. Always in siliceous soils. May, June.
LEUCOTHOE D. Don.
Leucothoe Catesbaei (Walt.) A. Gray. Common along
streams in the Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. April, May.
L. recurva (Buckl.) A. Gray. With the former. May. June.
L. racemosa (L.) A. Gray. Along Emory River, Roane
County. T. H. Kearney. Along French Broad River. April-
June.
PIERIS D. Don. (Andromeda Pursh.)
Pieris floribunda (Pursh.) Beirth. & Hooker. Andromeda
floribunda Pursh. Mountain fetter bush. High mountains of
E. Tenn. May.
P. Mariana (L.) Benth. & Hook. Cumberland and Alle-
ghany Mts. May-July.
XOLISMA Raf. (Lyonia Nutt.)
Xolisma ligustrina (L.) Britton. Andromeda ligustrina
Miihl. Lyonia ligustrina DC. Privet Andromeda. Big Frog
Mts., E. Tenn. July.
OXYDENDRUM DC.
Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. Sour wood. Tree reach-
ing 50 to 60 feet. Frequent in siliceous soils. O. S. June,
July.
EPIG^EA L.
Epigaea repens L. Trailing arbutus. Ground laurel. Cum-
berland and Alleghany Mts. * March-May.
GAULTHERIA L.
Gaultheria procumbens L. Wintergreen. Mts. of E. Tenn.
Abundant. June-September.
Ten lessee Plob \.
VACCINIACEJE Lindl.
GAYLUSSACIA II. B. K.
Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) T, & G. Vaccinium frondosum
L. Dangleberry. Mts. of E. Tenn. May, June. Fruit in
July, August.
G. resinosa (Ait.) T. & G. Vaccinium resinosum Ait. Black
or high-bush huckleberry. Siliceous soils. O. S. May, June.
Fruit in July, August.
G. brachycera (Michx.) A. Gray. Vaccinium brachycerum
Michx. Box huckleberry. Slopes of the Alleghanies. P
ville, on Ocoee River. May.
G. ursina (M. A. Curtis) T. & G. Bear huckleberry. A Few
miles southeast from Ducktown, in Georgia.
VACCINIUM L.
Vaccinium virgatum tenellum (Ait.) A. Gray. Southern
black huckleberry. Paradise Ridge, Davidson County. April.
May. Fruit in July.
V. corymbosum L. High-bush blueberry. Gravelly hills.
O. S. A fay, June. Fruit in July.
V. vacillans Kalm. S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May. June.
Fruit in July, August.
V. pallidum Ait. V. Constablei A. Gray. Mts. of F. Tenn.
May, June. Fruit in July
V. melanocarpum Chas. Mohr. n. sp. Bluff Mi
County. T. H. Kearney. May.
V. stamineum L. Deerberry. Dry woods and thickets.
O. S. April-June.
V. arboreum Marsh. Farkleberry. Siliceous soils. I » 5.
May, June.
V. hirsutum Buckl. Frog Mts. Sugar Loaf Mt. at Parks-
ville, Polk County, with Gaylussacia brachycera. May, June.
OXYCOCCUS Hill.
Oxycoccus macrocarpus (Ait.) Fers. Vaccinium macr<
pum Ait. American cranberry. Swamp at Cranberry Mines,
on Tennessee and North Carolina State line. June-August
Fruit in October.
O. erythrocarpus (Michx.) Pers. Vaccinium erythrocarpum
Michx. Southern mountain cranberry. High mountains of
E. Tenn. June, July. Fruit in September.
DIAPENSIACEjE Link.
GALAX L.
Galax aphylla L. Colt's foot. Throughout the Allegha-
nies. May-July.
134 Tennessee Flora.
PRIMULACE.E Vent.
SAMOLUS L.
Samolus floribundus H. B. K. S. Valerandi var. America-
nus A. Gray. Water pimpernell. Wet places. O. S. May-
September.
LYSIMACHIA L.
Lysimachia Fraseri Duhy. Golden Loosestrife. Lookout
Mt. ClifYs along Ocoee River. June, July.
L. quadrifolia L. Crosswort. Wroodlands. O. S. June-
August.
L. Nummularia L. Moneywort. Naturalized from Europe.
Escaped from gardens. May, June.
STEIRONEMA Raf.
Steironema ciliatum (L.) Raf. Moist thickets. O. S. June-
August.
S. tonsum (Wood) Bicknell. S. intermedium Kearney.
Alts, of E. Term. T. H. Kearney.
S. tonsum simplex Kearney. Wolf Creek. T. H. Kearney.
June. July.
S. radicans (Hook.) A. Gray. Henderson, W. Tenn. S. M.
Bain. June-August.
S. lanceolatum A. Gray. O. S. June, July.
S. quadriflorum (Sims) Hitchc. S. lanceolatum var. angus-
tifolium A. Gray. Bradley County. E. Tenn. Cumberland
Alts. June, July.
ANAGALLIS L.
Anagallis arvensis L. Pimpernell. Naturalized from Eu-
rope. Scatteringly O. S. May, June. M.
A. coerulea L. Grass plots in Nashville (Blind School).
May, June.
CENTUNCULUS L.
Centunculus minimus L. Chaff weed. Hilltops along
Harding Pike, twelve miles west of Nashville. Abundant.
April, May.
DODECATHEON L.
Dodecatheon Meadia L. Shooting star. The purple flow-
ering variety in E. Tenn. The white exclusively in vicinity of
Nashville. April, May.
SAPOTACE.E Reichenb.
BUMELIA Sw.
Bumelia lycioides (L.) Pers. Southern buckthorn. Shrub
Tennessee Flora.
or small tree. M. Trim, and southern par: of E. Tenn. In
moist, rich soil. June-August.
EBENACE^E Vent.
DIOSPYROS L.
Diospyros Virginiana L. Persimmon. Sometimes n
ing 80 to 100 feet in heighl by 3 to 4 feet diameter. 1 1 -
May, June. Fruit in September. November.
SYMPU HACK .!•: Miers.
SYMPLOCOS L.
Symplocos tinctoria ( L.) L'Her. Sweet-leaf hors
Near Ducktown, Polk County, in \<>rth Carolina. M
April.
STYRACK.K A. DC.
STYRAX L.
Styrax Americana Lam. Smooth storax. Jackson, \V.
Tenn. S. M. Bain. March. April.
MOHRODENDRON Britt. (Halesia Ellis.)
Mohrodendron Carolinum (L.) Britton. Halesia tetra]
L. Snowdrop tree. O. S. Along streams. Ocoee Vallej
March, April.
M. dipterum (L.) P.ritton. Halesia diptera. Grounds ";
St. Cecilia Academy, Nashville. Cultivated. April.
OLEACEJE Lindl.
SYRINGA L.
Syringa vulgaris L. Lilac. Frequently cultivated, and
sometimes remaining- on deserted garden plots. Native ol
rope. April, May.
FRAXINUS L.
Fraxinus Americana L. White ash. O. S. Attaining
100 feet by 3 to 5 feet diameter.
F. lanceolata Borck. F. viridis Michx. Green ash Gi
ing to 65 feet by 3 feet diameter. Cow. moist -round-. Fre-
quent about Nashville. April. May.
F. Pennsylvanica Marsh. F. pubescens Law. Swamps
low grounds. O. S. April, May.
F. quadrangulata Michx. Blue ash. Larg lining
sometimes no feet by 3 feet diameter. I >. S. March, April.
F. Americana var. microcarpa A. Gray. Frequent in the
136 Tennessee Flora.
Harpeth hills, near Nashville. Is a hybrid between F. Amer-
icana and viridis. Its copious seeds are sterile. March, April.
ADELIA P. Br. (Forestiera Poir.)
Adelia acuminata Michx. Forestiera acuminata Poir. At
the water's edge of Cumberland River and its tributaries.
March, April.
A. ligustrina Michx. Forestiera ligustrina Poir. A shrub
characteristic of the cedar glades of M. Tenn. July. Fruit in
October.
LIGUSTRUM L.
Ligustrum vulgare L. Privet. Used for hedges. Native
of Europe, but well naturalized and producing perfect fruits.
June, July.
LOGANIACEJE Dumort.
GELSEMIUM Juss.
Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) Ait. f. Yellow jessamine.
Lookout Mt. Frequent in the southern part of M. Tenn.
March-October.
SPIGELIA L.
Spigelia Marylandica L. Pink root. O. S. May, June.
CYNOCTONUM J. G. Gmelin. (Mitreola R. Br.)
Cynoctonum Mitreola (L.) Britton. Mitreola petiolata T.
& Gray. Mitrewood. Near Kingston Springs. J. M. Bain.
June-September.
POLYPREMUM L.
Polypremum procumbens L. Sandy soil. Scatteringly O.
S. May-September.
GENTIANACEJE Dumort.
SABBATIA Adans.
Sabbatia lanceolata (Walt.) Torr. & Gray. Elizabethtown,
E. Tenn. May-September.
S. angustifolia (Michx.) Britton. S. brachiata Ell. Cen-
tury. Barrens. O. S. June, July. M.
S. angularis (L.) Pursh. Rose pink. Pastures in rich soil.
O. S. July, August. M.
S. campanulata (L.) Torr. S. gracilis Pursh. Slender
marsh pink. Barrens at Tullahoma. July. 11 .
Tennessee Flob \.
GENTIANA L.
Gentiana quinquefolia P. Stiff gentian. [ts„ Polk
County. Hills around the copper mines. August tnber.
G. Saponaria P. Soapwort gentian. Moist t!
highlands. September, October. M.
G. Andrewsii Griesebach. Closed gentian. Highlands.
South Tunnel. August, September.
G. villosa P. G. ochroleuca Frcehl. Stringed gentian.
rens. O. S. September, October. 1/.
FRASERA Walt.
Frasera Carolinensis Walt. American Columbo. Barrens.
O. S. June-August. M.
OBOLARIA L.
Obolaria Virginica L. Pennywort. Moist, rich woodlands.
O. S. Paradise Ridge. Sequatchie Valley.
BARTONIA Miihlb.
Bartonia Virginica (L.) P>. S. P. B. tenella Willd. Moun-
tain bogs. Sewanee. July-September.
MENYANTHACE^E G. Don.
LIMNANTHEMUM S. G. Gmelin.
Limnanthemum lacunosum Griesb. Floating heart.
press swamps. W. Term. July, August.
APOCYNACE.K Lindl.
AMSONIA Walt.
Amsonia Amsonia (P.) Pritton. A. Tabenuemonl
Walt. Including A. latifolia Michx. and A. salicifolia Pursh.
O. S. Tn moist soil. May. June.
VINCA L.
Vinca minor P. Periwinkle. On all old graveyards. Ma-
tures and propagates from seed. Introduced from Europe.
March-Mav.
APOCYNUM L.
Apocynum androsaerr.ifolium P. Spreading dogban< 0 S
July, August. .1/.
A. cannabinum L. Indian hemp. O. S. June-Augu>t. 1/
138 Tennessee Flora.
TRACHELOSPERMUM Lemaire.
Trachelospermum difforme (Walt.) A. Gray. Forsteronia
difformis A. DC. Haywood County, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
ASCLEPIADACEJE Lindl.
ASCLEPIAS L.
Asclepias tuberosa L. Butterfly weed. Pleuresy root.
Fields and pastures. O. S. June, July. M.
A. purpurascens L. Purple milk weed. Edges of woods
and fields. O. S. June, July.
A. incarnata L. Swamp milk weed. Swamps. O. S.
June, July.
A. incarnata L. Var. longifolia Gray. Swamps along Cum-
berland River. M.
A. obtusifolia Michx. Ocoee District. Rugby. Mrs. Per-
cival. June, July.
A. exaltata (L.) Miihl. A. phytolaccoidea Pursh. Mts. of
E. Tenn. July.
A. variegata L. White milk weed. Dry uplands, Nash-
ville. E. Tenn. June, July.
A. quadrifolia Jacq. Oak barrens of M. Tenn. June, July.
A. Syriaca L. Silk weed. A. Cornuti Decaisne. O. S.
July. M.
A. perennis Walt. Bottoms, W. Tenn., at Henderson. S.
M. Bain. May-August.
A. verticillata L. Whorled milk weed. Frequent in the
cedar glades. July.
ASCLEPIODORA A. Gray.
Asclepiodora viridis (Walt.) A. Gray. Cedar glades. In
dry, open places. May-July.
ACERATES Ell.
Acerates viridiflora (Raf.) Eaton. Cedar glades, Lavergne.
June, July.
A. longifolia Ell. A. Floridana Hitch. Barrens at Tulla-
homa. July, August.
AMPELANUS Raf. (Britton Enslenia Nutt.)
Ampelanus albidus Nutt. Britton Enslenia albida Nutt.
Sand vine. Thickets and along river banks. O. S. July.
VINCETOXICUM Walter. (Gonolobus Michx.)
Vincetoxicum gonocarpon Walt. Gonolobus laevis var. mac-
rophyllus A. Gray. G. macrophyllus Michx. O. S. July.
Tennessee Flora.
V. hirsutum (Michx.) Britton. G. hirsutus Michx. Thick-
ets along Cumberland River and Stoner's Creek, [une, lulv.
V. obliquum (Jacq.) Britton. Gonolobus obliquus R. Br.
Copses around Nashville.
V. Carolinense (Jacq.) Britton. Gonolobus Carolinensis
R. Br. Vicinity of Nashville. May, June.
V. Shortii (A. Gray) Britton. Gonolobus Shortii A. Gray
E. Tenn. July.
CONVOLVULACIJ: Vent.
EVOLVULUS L.
Evolvulvus pilosus Xntt. E. argenteus Pursh. Cedar
glades, Lavergne. May-July.
QUAMOCLIT M(i*nch.
Quamoclit Quamoclit (L.) Britton. [pomaea Quamoclit L.
Cypress vine. Immigrant from S. America. Frequent in
cornfields and in gardens. July-October.
IPOMCEA L.
Ipomoea pandurata (L.) Meyer. Wild potato vine. Man
of the earth. Dry soil. Along hedges. May-September. 1/
I. lacunosa L. Small-flowered white morning-glory. Moisl
soil. O. S. July-September.
I. purpurea (L.) Roth. Morning-glory. Adventive from
tropical S. America. Frequent in cultivation, and naturalized.
O. S. July-October.
I. hederacea Jacq. Ivy-leaved morning-glory. Fields and
waste places. O. S. June-October.
I. Batatas Lam. Batatas edulis Chois. Sweet potato. Na-
tive of S. America. In cultivation only.
CONVOLVULUS L.
Convolvulus sepium L. Great bind weed. Fields and thick-
ets. O. S. June-August.
C. repens L. C. sepium var. repens Gray. Old fields.
South fork of Holston River. J. K. Small. July, August.
C. spithameus L. Calystegia spithamea Pursh. Dry. rocky
woods. Frequent in the Alleghanies. July-September,
C. arvensis L. Small bind weed. Grass plots in the ci1
Nashville. Xormal College grounds. June-August.
CUSCl"T.UT..K Dumort.
CUSCUTA L.
Cuscuta arvensis Beyrich. Field dodder. Near Nashville,
on ambrosia. July, August.
140 Tennessee Flora.
C. chlorocarpa Engelm. A. Gray. On polygonums and
other herbs. O. S. July-September.
C. indecora Choisy. C. decora Engelm. On solidago and
asters. Nashville. Knoxville.
C. tenuiflora Engelm. Big Frog Mt. E. Tenn. July.
C. Gronovii Willd. On shrubs and herbs. O. S. August,
September.
C. rostrata Shuttle w. Summit of Thunderhead, on solidago
glomerata. July.
C. compacta Juss. On eupatorium and other herbaceous
plants. Paradise Ridge. Sumner County. August, Septem-
ber.
C. paradoxa Raf. C. glomerata Choisy. Low bushes, high-
lands, Sumner County. July.
C. obtusiflora H. B. K. Var. glandulosa Eneelm. On
bushes and herbaceous plants. Frequent about Nashville.
July, August.
POLEMONIACEJE DC.
PHLOX L.
Phlox paniculata L. Garden phlox. Rich, moist wood-
lands. O. S. July-September.
P. maculata L. Wild sweet William. With the former.
Very common in the Alleghanies. July-September.
P. glaberrima L. Mts. of E. Tenn. Highlands of M. Tenn.
P. glaberrima L. Var. suffruticosa Gray. Banks of Cum-
berland River at Rising Sun Bluff. July.
P. pilosa L. Var. detonsa Gray. Cliffs on Cumberland
River above Nashville. June.
P. amoena Sims. Mts. of E. Tenn. and highlands of M. Tenn.
Mitchellville, Sumner County. April-June.
P. divaricata L. O. S. April, May.
P. reptans Michx. Marion, S. W. Va. J. K. Small. Duck-
town, Polk County. April, May.
P. bifida Beck. Dry ground. Indiana-Tennessee. Fide
Illustrated Flora.
P. Stellaria A. Gray. Cedar glades, Lavergne. April.
P. ovata L. P. Carolina L. South Tunnel, Robertson
County. June.
P. subulata L. Moss pink. Kate's Mt., S. W. Va., near
Tennessee border. J. K. Small. June.
GILIA R. & T.
Gilia coronopifolia Pers. Standing cypress. Red knobs.
McMinn Countv, E. Tenn. Perhaps strayed from cultivation.
Tuly.
Tennessee Floba. in
POLEMONIUM L.
Polemonium reptans L. Greek valerian. Moist woods.
O. S. April, May.
HYDROPHYLLAc I J] Lindl.
HYDROPHYLLUM L.
Hydrophyllmm Virginicum L. Virginia water leaf. Duck-
town, Polk County. June.
H. macrophyllum Nutt. Damp woods. South Tunnel,
Sumner County. June.
H. appendiculatum Michx. Frequent in vicinity of Nash-
ville. June.
H. Canadense L. Mts. of E. Tenn. June. July.
NEMOPHILA Nutt.
Nemophila microcalyx (Nutt.) T. & M. Copses and ravines.
M. Tenn. Frequent around Nashville. Grounds of Vander-
bilt University. March, April.
PHACELIA Juss.
Phacelia bipinnatifida Michx. Moist thickets. O! S. April,
May.
P. dubia (L.) Small. P. parviflora Pursh. Rocky glades.
Vicinity of Nashville. April-June.
P. hirsuta Nutt. On dry ground. Frequent around Nash-
ville. March, April.
P. Purshii Buckl. Very frequent in the glades of M. Tenn.
April, May.
P. fimbriata Michx. Mts. of E. Tenn. White Top Mt.. S.
W. Va. I. K. Small. May, June.
P. Bicknellii J. K. Small. Collected by Mr. Bicknell
city of Nashville, 1894. Is perhaps same as I have taken to be
P. hirsuta Nutt.
NAMA L. (Hyrolea L.)
Nama affinis (A.Gray). Kuntze. Hollow Rock, W. Tenn.
August.
BORAGIN \CI-.i: Lindl.
HELIOTROPIUM L.
Heliotropium tenelium (Nutt.) Torr. Cedar glades of M.
Tenn. Very copious. July.
H. Indicum L. Low, wet grounds. (VS. May-July.
H. anchusaefolium Poir. Introduced and spreading in the
grounds of Dr. Cheatham, now Belmont. June.
142 Tennessee Flora.
CYNOGLOSSUM L.
Cynoglossum officinale L. Hound's tongue. Waste
grounds. O. S. April, May.
C. Virginicum L. Wild gomfrey. Woods. O. S. April,
May.
LAPPULA Moench. (Echinospermum Sw.)
Lappula Lappula (L.) Karst. Echinospermum Lappula
Lehm. Burseed. Naturalized from Europe. Waste places.
Johnson ville. May-September.
L. Virginiana (L.) Greene. Echinospermum Virginianum
Lehm. Beggar's ticks. Woods. O. S. Jurre, July.
MERTENSIA Roth.
Mertensia Virginica (L.) DC. Pulmonaria Virginica L.
Lungwort. Rich woodlands. O. S. March, April.
MYOSOTIS L.
Myosotis palustris (L.) Lam. Forget-me-not. Hampton,
E. Tenn. May.
M. laxa Lehm. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May, June.
M. Virginica (L.) B. S. P. M. Verna Nutt. Early scorpion
j*rass. Dry hills. O. S. March, April.
LITHOSPERMUM L.
Xithospermum arvense L. Corn gromwell. Waste places.
'O. S. April.
L. officinale L. Gromwell. Knoxville. A. Ruth. May.
L. latifolium Michx. American gromwell. Highlands. In
damp woods. South Tunnel, Sumner County. May, June.
L. canescens Lehm. Hoary raccoon. Glades of M. Tenn.
June, July.
L. angustifolium Michx. W. Tenn., near Hickman. June.
L. tuberosum Rugel. Dry ridges near Knoxville.
ONOSMODIUM Michx.
Onosmodium Carolinianum DC. False gromwell. Banks
of Holston River, below the Falls. J. K. Small. May-July.
O. molle Michx. Abundant in the glades of M. Tenn. April,
May.
SYMPHYTUM L.
Symphytum officinale L. Gomfrey. Old settlements in the
mountains of E. Tenn. May, June.
TBNNBS8BB FLORA. I i:i
BORAGO L.
Borago officinalis L. Borage. Escaped from gardens. E
Term. June.
ECHIUM L.
Echium vulgare L. Vipers Bugloss. I rpper E. Tenn. May.
June.
VERRFWUF.K J. St. Hil.
VERBENA L.
Verbena officinalis L. Vervain. Roadsides and old fields.
Naturalized from Europe. E. Tenn. June-September.
V. urticaefolia L. Pastures and roadsides. O. S. August,
September.
V. hastata L. Waste ground. O. S. July-September.
V. angustifolia Michx. Dry limestone soils. O. S. July-
September.
V. stricta Vent. W. Tenn. June-September.
V. bracteosa Michx. Roadsides, around dwellings. I
June, July.
V. Canadensis (L.) Britton. V ' . Aubletia Jacq. (
glades. May-July.
V. riparia Raf. Small & Heller. V. urticaefolia var. riparia.
Britton. Banks of Staley Creek, at Marion; banks of Cedar
Creek, S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
LIPPIA L.
Lippia lanceolata Michx. Fog fruit. Moist soil. O. S.
August, September.
CALLICARPA L.
Callicarpa Americana L. French mulberry. Limestone re-
gions of M. Tenn. June. July.
LABIATE B. Juss.
TEUCRIUM L.
Teucrium Canadense L. American Germander.
thickets. August. September. M.
ISAMTHUS Michx.
Isanthus brachiatus (L.) B. S. P. I cobtuIcus Michx
Rocky slopes of limestone regions of M. Tenn. July-Septem-
TRICHOSTEMA L.
Trichostema dichotomum L. Blue curls. Sandy field-. O.
S. July, August.
144 Tennessee Flora.
SCUTELLARIA L.
Scutellaria lateriflora L. Mad-dog scullcap. Moist wood-
lands. O. S. Jul)'-September. M.
S. serrata And. Wood. M. Tenn. Cumberland Mts. R.
M. Middleton. May, June.
S. incana Miihl. S. canescens Nutt. Hills near Nashville.
Craggy Hope, Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railway.
June-August.
S. cordifolia Miihl. S. versicolor Nutt. Hills near Nash-
ville. June, July.
S. cordifolia var. bracteata Benth. Bluffs on Mill Creek,
near Nashville. July.
S. pilosa Michx. Hills near Nashville. E. Tenn. July,
August.
S. pilosa hirsuta (Short) A. Gray. South Tunnel, Sumner
County. July.
S. integrifolia L. Highlands. Cumberland Mts. May,
June.
S. integrifolia var. major Chap. Parksville, E. Tenn.
S. parvula Michx. Cedar glades. May.
S. campestris Britton. S. parvula var. mollis A. Gray.
Glades. Baine.
S. saxatilis Riddel. Chilhowee Mts., E. Tenn. May-July.
S. galericulata L. Mts. of E. Tenn. Ducktown. June-Sep-
tember.
S. nervosa Pursh. Swampy woodlands. Sumner County.
J«iy-
S. venosa T. H. Kearney. Bull. September, 1897. Bluff
Mt., E. Tenn.
MARRUBIUM L.
Marrubium vulgare L. White hoarhound. Waste places.
Naturalized from Europe. July. M.
AGASTACHE Clayt. (Lophanthus Benth.)
Agastache nepetoides (L.) Kuntze. Lophanthus nepetoides
Benth. Catnip. Giant hysop. Woods and thickets. M.
Tenn. July-September.
A. scrophulariaefolia (WTilld.) Kuntze. Lophanthus scroph-
ularisefolia Benth. High mountains of E. Tenn. July.
MEEHANIA Britt. (Cedronella Benth.)
Meehania cordata (Nutt.) Britton. Cedronella cordata
/enth. Highlands of M. Tenn. May-July.
Tennessee Floe \. 1 i
NEPETA
Nepeta Cataria L. Catnip. Waste places. Natural
from Europe. July-November. .!/.
GLECHOMA L.
Glechoma hederacea L. Ground ivy. Shaded,
grounds. O. S. March-May. 1/.
PRUNELLA L.
Prunella vulgaris L. Self-heal. Fields and roadsides. I I
S. July-September. M.
PHYSOSTEGIA Benth.
Physostegia Virginiana i L.) Benth. False dragon head.
Barrens. O. S. July.
SYNANDRA Nutt.
Synandra hispidula (Michx.) Britton. Moist woods. John
Overton's place, near Nashville. March, April.
GALEOPSIS L.
Galeopsis Tetrahit L. Hemp nettle. Lemon's (iaj>, E.
Tenn. A. Ruth.
LEONURUS L.
Leonurus Cardiaca L. Motherwort. Waste places.
June-September. M.
LAMIUM L.
Lamium amplexicaule L. Henbit. Weed in fields and
dens. O. S. February, March.
L. purpureum L. Red dead nettle. Knoxville. A.Ruth.
L. maculatum L. Spotted dead nettle. Troutdale, W. Va
J. K. Small.
STACHYS L.
Stachys aspera Michx. Hedge nettle. Moist W(
O. S. June, July.
S. tenuifolia Willd. S. aspera xar. glabra Gray. Banl
Cumberland River, above Nashville. May. June.
S. cordata Riddel. Rich hillsides in the Eiarpeth hills,
Nashville. July.
BETONICA L.
Betonica officinalis L. Stachys Betonica Benth,
Adventitious in cultivated grounds in Nashville. Jul)
tember. M.
146 Tennessee Flora.
SALVIA L.
Salvia lyrata L. Lyre-leaved sage. Copses. O. S. April,
May.
S. urticaefolia L. Woods. O. S. April-June.
S. officinalis L. Sage. Cultivated only. M.
MONARDA L.
Monarda didyma L. Oswego tea. Wet places in the higher
mountains of E. Tenn. July.
M. Clinopodia L. Alts, of E. Tenn. June-August.
M. fistulosa L. Wild bergamot. O. S. June-September.
M. fistulosa var. mollis Benth. Nashville. June-August. M.
M. Bradburiana Bick. Highlands of M. Tenn. June, July.
M. punctata L. Horse mint. Memphis. Dr. Egeling. M.
M. citriodora Cero. Lemon horse mint. Montgomery Bell
Academy grounds, Nashville. June, July.
BLEPHILIA Raf.
Blephilia ciliata (L.) Raf. Dry soil. O. S. July.
B. hirsuta (Pursh.) Torr. Shady grounds along Cumber
land River, near Nashville. June-September.
HEDEOMA Pers.
Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers. American pennyroyal.
O. S. June-September. M.
MELISSA L.
Melissa officinalis L. Balm. Cultivated, and escaped from
gardens. June. M.
CLINOPODIUM L. (Calamintha Mcench.)
Clinopodium vulgare L. Calamintha Clinopodium Benth.
Wild Basil. Knoxville. A. Ruth. M.
C. Nepeta ( L.) Kuntze. Calamintha Nepeta Link. Basil
Thyme. Dry, rocky grounds. Frequent around Nashville.
E. Tenn. July-September.
C. glabrum (Nutt.) Kuntze. Calamintha glabella var. Nut-
tallii A. Gray. Abounds in the cedar glades. May, June.
C. glabellum (Michx.) Kuntze. Calamintha glabella Benth.
River banks of Tennessee. Fide Illustrated Flora.
M.
ORIGANUM L.
Origanum Majorana L. Cultivated majoran. June, July.
Tennessee Flora. it:
KCELLIA Moench. (Pycnanthemum Michx.)
Koellia flexuosa (Walt.) MacM. Pycnanth. linifolium Pursh.
Mountain mint. Siliceous and argillaceous soils. I > S func
July. M.
K. Virginica MacM. P. lanceolatum Pursh. O. S. Au-
gust, September.
K. pilosa (Nutt.) Britton. P. muticum var. pilosum Gray.
Dickson County. July.
K. verticillata (Michx.) Kuntze. P. Torreyi Benth. S. W.
Va., near Tennessee line. July-September.
K. clinopodioides (T. & G.) Kuntze. P. clinopodioides T.
& G. E. Tenn. Fide A. Gray.
K. incana (L.) Kuntze. Pycnanthemum incanum Michx.
O. S. August-October.
K. pycnanthemoides (Leavenw.) Kuntze. P. Tullia Benth.
Hills west of Nashville. June, July.
K. albescens (T. & G.) Kuntze. P. albescens T. & G.
Parksville, E. Tenn. Also hilltops near Nashville. July-Sep-
tember.
K. mutica (Michx.) Britton. P. muticum Pers. Oak bar
rens of Tullahoma. Very abundant. July, August.
K. montana (Michx.) Kuntze. P. montanum Michx.
Frog Mt. Clingman Dome.
THYMUS L.
Thymus vulgaris L. Sweet thyme. Cultivated only. 1/.
SATUREIA L.
Satureia hortensis L. Summer savory. Cultivated. 1/
LYCOPUS L.
Lycopus Virginicus L. Bugle weed. Ponds and ditches. I I
S. August, September.
L. rubellus Moench. Stalked water hoarhound. Swamps.
O. S. July-October.
L. Americanus Miihl. Cut-leaved water hoarhound. Wet
soil. O. S. July-October.
MENTHA L.
Mentha spicata L. M. viridis L. Spearmint. Introduced.
Wet grounds. O. S. July. M.
M. Piperita L. Peppermint, [ntroduced. July-Septem-
ber. M.
M. rotundifolia L. Round-leaved mint. South fork o\ Ho
ston River. J. EC. Small. July.
148 Tennessee Flora.
M. aquatica L. Water mint. Knoxville. A. Ruth. Au-
gust-October.
M. arvensis L. Field mint. Waste places. Introduced.
July-September.
M. sativa L. Whorled mint. Knoxville. A. Ruth. Sep-
tember, October.
M. Canadensis L. American wild mint. Margin of ponds.
O. S. July-October.
COLLINSONIA L.
Collinsonia Canadensis L. Horse balm. Rich woodlands.
Frequent in E. Tenn. July-October. M.
C. punctata Ell. Cumberland Mts. Harpeth hills, along
Hillsboro Pike. July.
C. verticillata Baldw. Lookout Mt. W. M. Canby. Knox
and Loudon Counties. A. Ruth. M.
PERILLA Ard.
»
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton. P. ocymoides L. Native
of India. Spreading in M. Tenn. Growing in old farm lands
in big patches. July-October.
SOLANACEJE Pers.
PHYSALODES Boehm. (Nicandra Adans.)
Physalodes Physalodes (L.) Britton. Nicandra Physa-
lodes Gifrtn. Apple of Peru. In clearings, or a weed in gar-
dens or fields. O. S. July-September.
PHYSALIS L.
Physalis pubescens L. Sandy soil. Ground cherry. O. S.
July-September.
P. angulata L. Copses, in rich soil. O. S. July-Septem-
ber.
F. Philadelphica Lam. Fields and gardens. O. S. July.
P. lanceolata Michx. Prairie ground cherry. Uplands.
Cumberland Mts. July, August.
P. Virginiana Mill. Cedar glades and woods. O. S. July-
September.
SOLANUM L.
Solanum nigrum L. Black nightshade. Waste ground.
O. S. July-October. M.
S. Carolinense L. Horse nettle. Fields and waste grounds.
O. S. May-September. M.
S. rostratum Dunal. Sand bur. Adventive from the West.
Tennessee Flob \. 1 19
The original food of the potato bug. Nashville and vicinity.
July- August.
S. Dulcamara L. Nightshade. Bittersweet. Rare
spontaneous growth. Near dwellings. I ». S. [une-Septem
ber. M.
S. tuberosum L. Potato. In cultivation only. I
to perfection on the high mountains of K. Tenn. (B
Mt.), where it also matures its seeds.
S. Melongena L. Eggplant. In cultivation only.
LYCOPERSICON Mill.
Lycopersicon Lycopersicon. Solanum Lycopersicon L.
Tomato. Sometimes escaped. Largely cultivated.
LYCIUM L.
Lycium vulgare Dunal. Matrimony vine. Roadsides and
wraste grounds. O. S. Introduced from Europe. May. June
DATURA L.
Datura Stramonium L. Thorn apple. Jamestown wed
O. S. June-September. M. »
D. Tatula L. Purple thorn apple. With the former. 0 -
June-September. M.
NICOTIANA L.
Nicotiana Tabacum L. Tobacco. Universally cultivated in
several varieties. The finest qualities are grown in the moun-
tain plateaus of E. Tenn. and North Carolina.
PETUNIA Juss.
Petunia violacea Lindl. Escaped from gardens into v.
places. July.
CAPSICUM L.
Capsicum annuum L. Red pepper. Spanish pepper. I
pepper. .1/.
C. fastigiatum L. Bird pepper. Fruit in shape
spur. Used in pickles.
C. frutescens L. Cayenne pepper. Pods shaped like
last, but larger. Preferred for medicinal purposes. If.
C. grossum W. Bell pepper. Pods large and less pung
All these varieties occur under cultivation only.
SCROPHULARIACE.E Lindl.
VERBASCUM L.
Verbascum Thapsus L. Great mullen. O. S. June S
tember. N.
V
150 Tennessee Flora.
V. Blattaria L. Moth mullen. Waste places. O. S.
June-November.
LINARIA Juss.
Linaria Linaria (L.) Karst. Linaria vulgaris Mill. But-
ter and eggs. Fields and fence rows. O. S. June, July. M.
L. Canadensis (L.) Dumort. Wild toad flax. Lookout Mt.
On summit. May-September.
SCROPHULARIA L.
Scrophularia Marylandica L. Figwort. WTood and thick-
ets. O. S. June, July. M.
CHELONE L.
Chelone glabra L. Turtle head. Swamps. O. S. July-
Augnst. M.
C. Lyoni Pursh. Mountain bogs in the Alleghanies. July-
September.
PENTSTEMON Soland.
Pentstemon hirsutus (L.) WTilld. Hairy beard tongue.
Dry woods and thickets. O. S. May-July.
P. Digitalis (Sweet) Nutt. Glades. July, August.
P. Pentstemon (L.) Britton. P. lsevigatus Solander.
Woods and thickets. M. Tenn. June, July.
P. canescens Britton. Slope of Kate's Mt., S. W. Va. J.
K. Small. May, June.
P. Smallii Heller. Frequent in the glades around Nash-
ville. Knoxville. F. L. Scribner.
P. calycosus J. K. Small. Bluffs. Tennessee. Bulletin
Bot. Club. September, i!
PAULOWNIA Sieb. & Zucc.
Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Baill. P. imperialis Sieb.
& Zucc. Ornamental tree from Japan. Matures its seeds,
and is sometimes found in the open country. May-July.
MIMULUS L.
Mimulus ringens L. Monkey flower. Wet ground. O. S.
June-September.
M. alatus Soland. Ponds and ditches. O. S. June-Sep-
tember.
CONOBEA Aubl.
Conobea multinda (Michx.) Benth. Sandy soil, along
streams. Common in M. Tenn. June-September.
Tennessee Flora. 15]
MONNIERA P, Br. (Herpestis G»rt.)
Monniera acuminata (Walt.) Kuntze. Herpestis n
cens Benth. Moist places in the barrens of M. Tenn. |une-
September.
M. rotundifolia Michx. Hedge hyssop. Ponds urn-
berland River. June-September.
GRATIOLA. L.
Gratiola Virginiana L. Clammy hedge hyssop. Miry
places. O. S. May- August.
G. sphaerocarpa Ell. White Cliff Springs, K. Tenn. L
Scribner.
G. Floridana Nutt. E. Tenn. Nashville, <»n the site of the
old waterworks. April, May.
G. ramosa Walt. Wet lands in the oak barrens at Tulla-
homa. June, July.
ILYSANTHES Raf.
Ilysanthes gratioloides (L.) Benth. Wet ground. False
pimpernel. O. S.
I. attenuata Small. Same range with the former. April,
May.
I. refracta Benth. Ducktown, E. Tenn. May. June.
VERONICA L.
Veronica Americana Schwein. American brooklime. Vlong
water courses. O. S. April-September.
V. officinalis L. Common speedwell, [onesboro, E. Tenn.
A. Ruth. May.
V. serpyllifolia L. Weed in fields and gardens. <
April, May.
V. peregrina L. Weed in cultivated ground. I >. S. April,
May.
V. arvensis L. Weed among the grass in pastun
uralized from Europe. March-May.
LEPTANDRA Xutt.
Leptandra Virginica (L.) Nutt. Veronica Virginica L
Culvers root. Mountains and highlands, I '. 5. Jun<
tember.
BUCHNERA L.
Buchnera Americana L. Blue hearts. Oak barrens, M.
Tenn. June-September.
152 Tennessee Flora.
AFZELIA J. G. Gmel. (Seymeria Pursh.)
Afzelia macrophylla (Nutt.) Kuntze. Mullen fox glove.
Rich, alluvial soil. Nashville. July.
A. tenuifolia (Pursh.) Kuntze. Copses near Cleveland, E.
Tenn.
DASYSTOMA Raf. (Gerardia L.)
Dasystoma Pedicularia (L.) Benth. False fox glove. Sili-
ceous soil. O. S.
D. Pedicularia var. pectinata Nutt. Harpeth hills, near
Nashville. July, August.
D. flava (L.) Wood. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. and
barrens of M. Tenn. July.
D. grandiflora (Benth.) Wood. Dry woods. E. Tenn.
July, August.
D. laevigata Raf. Thickets. O. S. July, August.
D. Virginica (L.) Britton. D. quercifolia Benth. Harpeth
hills, Davidson County. July, August.
D. patula Chapm. Bluffs of Cumberland River at Nashville.
July, August.
GERARDIA L.
Gerardia purpurea L. In siliceous soils. O. S. July-Sep-
tember.
G. tenuifolia Vahl. Harpeth hills. July-September.
G. tenuifolia asperula A. Gray. Greenbrier, Robertson
County. July-September.
CASTILLEJA Mutis.
Castilleja coccinea (S.) Sprengel. Painted cup. Bradley
County, east of Cleveland. Dickson County. April, May.
SCHWALBEA L.
Schwalbea Americana L. Chaff seed. Tullahoma. June.
PEDICULARIS L.
Pedicularis Canadensis L. Lausewort. Dry woodlands.
O. S. April-June.
MELAMPYRUM L.
Melampyrum lineare Lam. M. Americanum Michx. Cow
wheat. Wolf Creek, E. Tenn. T. H. Kearney. May-July.
M. latifolium Miihl. Thunderhead Mt., n,ear summit. July.
TENNE88EB FLORA.
LENTIBULARIACEiE Lindl.
UTRICULARIA L.
Utricularia inflata Walt. Bladderwort. Jackson. S. M.
Bain.
U. gibba L. Bogs on summit of Lookout Mt.
U. biflora Lam. Swamps near Hollow Rock. [uly.
OROBANCHACEJE Lindl.
THALESIA Raf. (Aphyllon A. Cray.)
Thalesia uniflora (L.) Britton. Aphyllon uniflorum T. i
One-flowered broomrape. In leaf mold. Parasitic <»n herbs.
April-June.
OROBANCHE L.
Orobanche Ludoviciana Nutt. Aphyllon Ludovicianum A.
Gray. Knoxville. F. L. Scribner. June-August.
CONOPHOLIS Walt.
Conopbolis Americana (L. f.) Wallr. Squaw root. Damp
woods. O. S. June.
LEPTAMNIUM Raf. (Epiphegus Karst.)
Leptamnium Virginicum (L.) Raf. Epiphegus Virginianus
Bart. Parasitic on the roots of beech trees. August-i October.
M,
BIGXOXTACICK Pers.
BIGNONIA L.
Bignonia crucigera L. B. capreolata L. Cross vine.
Climbing high, fastening itself on the hark of trees. April-
June.
TECOMA Juss.
Tecoma radicans (L.) DC. Trumpet flower. Climbing Of
spreading over the fields. July-September. M.
CATALPA Scop.
Catalpa Catalpa (L.) Karst. Catalpa bignonioides Walt.
Frequent in M. Tenn. June, July. M.
C. speciosa Warmer. Frequent in E. Tenn. June. July.
154 Tennessee Flora.
MARTYNIACE^E Link.
MARTYNIA L.
Martynia Louisiana Mill. Martynia proboscoidea Glox.
Waste places. O. S. July-September.
ACANTHACEJE J. St. Hil.
RUELLIA L.
Ruellia strepens L. Dry soil. O. S. May-July.
R. ciliosa Pursh. Barrens. O. S. May-July.
DIANTHERA L.
Dianthera Americana L. Water and wet grounds. May-
August.
D. humilis Engelm & Gray. Madison County. S. M. Bain.
G^TESIA Gray.
Gaetesia laste-virens Gray. Lookout Mt., E. Tenn. July.
DIAPEDIUM Konig. (Dicliptera Juss.)
Diapedium brachiatum (Pursh.) Kuntze. Dicliptera brach-
iata Sprengel. Damp woodlands. Nashville. July-October.
PHRYMACE^E Schauer.
PHRYMA L.
Phryma leptosyachya L. Lopseed. Woods and thickets.
O. S. June-August.
PLANTAGINACEiE Lindl.
PLANTAGO L.
Plantago major L. Common plantain. Waste grounds.
In cities. Not frequent, like the next. May-September.
P. Rugelii DC. Very common, and easily distinguished by
its very slender spikes. O. S. June-September.
P. lanceolata L. Rib grass. Obnoxious intruder into mead-
ows. O. S. April-June.
P. cordata Lam. Water plantain. Swamps, W. Tenn.
Falls of Holston River, S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
P. aristata Michx. P. Patagonica aristata Gray. Dry,
sandy soils. Tullahoma. Dickson County. May-October.
P. Virginica L. O. S. March-May.
P. elongata Pursh. P. pusilla Nutt. Mitchellville. April,
May.
P. heterophylla Nutt. Barrens. O. S. 'April-July.
Tennessee Flora.
RUBIA( IAK B. Ju
HOUSTONIA I.
Houstonia cocerulea L. Bluet. Moist, open ground. I
April-June.
H. serpyllifolia Michx. Covering the ground on the
summits of the Alleghanies. May.
H. minor (Michx.) JVitton. H. patens Ell. Cedar gla<
March, April.
H. minima Beck. I'noxville. Fort Saunders. A. Ruth.
March, April.
H. purpurea L. Oldenlandia purpurea A. ( ira\ I I -
H. purpurea var. puhescens Britton. With the former
H. purpurea var. calycosa. Similar localities with the for-
mer. May-September.
H. tenuifolia Xutt. Throughout the mountain- of E. Tenn.
Wolf Creek. August, September.
H. angustifolia Michx. Copiously in the cedar gla
Bluffs of Cumberland River, at Nashville. May-July.
OLDENLANDIA L.
Oldenlandia Boscii Chapm. Ditches along railroad at Tul-
lahoma.
CEPHALANTHUS L.
Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Button bush. Swamps and
wet ground. O. S. June-September. 1/.
MITCHELLA L.
Mitchella repens L. Partridge berry. Woods. I I
April-June. M.
SPERMACOCE L.
Spermacoce glabra L. Smooth button weed. V
O. S. June-September.
DIODIA L.
Diodia teres Walt. Old fields. I ». S. July-Septen
D. Virginiana L. Wet lands, covering fields. June-Au-
gust.
GALIUM L.
Galium Aparine L. Cleavers. Fence rows and shady
grounds. O. S. April. May. M.
G. virgatum Xutt. Dry ground in the cedar glades at La
vergne. Knoxville. A. Ruth. April-June.
G. Parisiense L. G. anelicum Huds. Knoxville. A.. Ruth.
156 Tennessee Flora.
Along north fork of Holston River, S. W? Va. J. K. Small.
June- August.
G. pilosum Ait. Hairy bedstraw. Common. O. S. June-
August.
G. pilosum puncticulosum T. & G. Near Lynchburg, S. W.
Va. J. K. Small.
G. lanceolatum Torr. E. Tenn. S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
G. circaezans Michx. Wild liquorice. Dry woods. O. S.
May-July.
G. triflorum Michx. Fragrant bedstraw. Cedar glades and
dry woods. O. S. June.
G. latifolium Michx. High mountains of E. Tenn. July,
August.
G. latifolium var. hispidulum Small. Spurs of Iron Mt.
G. Arkansanum Gray. Johnson ville, W. Tenn. June, Jul v.
G. tinctorium L. Tennessee. Fide Illustrated Flora.
G. trifidum L. Swampy meadows. O. S. June-August.
CAPRIFOLIACE.F] Vent.
SAMBUCUS L.
Sambucus Canadensis L. American elder. O. S. June,
July.
S. pubens L. Mountain elder. Alleghanies. April, May.
VIBURNUM L.
Viburnum alnifolium Marsh. V. lantanoides Michx. Hob-
ble bush. Mts. of E. Tenn. Summit of Thunderhead, Blount
County. May, June.
V. Opulus L. Cranberry tree. The variety floridum only,
with all flowers sterile. Frequently planted shrub in gardens.
Sometimes found in derelicted places.
V. acerifolium L. Maple-leaved arrow wood. Cumberland
and Alleghany Mts. May, June.
V. dentatum L. Arrow wood. Peak Mt., S. W. Va. J.
K. Small.
V. cassinoides L. Beersheba Springs, Cumberland Alts.
M. B. Howell. May, June.
V. nudum L. White rod. Swampy lands in the oak bar-
rens, Cumberland Plateau. May, June.
V. prunifolium L. Black haw. Cumberland Mts. E.
Tenn. April-June.
V. rufo-tomentosum Small. V. prunifolium var. ferugineum
T. & G. Frequent in the vicinity of Nashville. April, May.
TRIOSTEUM L.
Triosteum perfoliatum L. Horse gentian. Foot of Cum-
Tennessee Flora. 15
berland Mts., at Cowan. Bluffs of Cumberland River May
July.
f. angustifolium L. Parksville, E. Tenn. Knoxville \
Ruth. May-July.
SYMPHORICARPUS Juss.
Symphoricarpus racemosus Michx. Snowberry. Along
Holston River. J. K. Small. June-September.
S. Symphoricarpus (L.) Michx. S. vulgaris Michx
berry. Indian currant. Abundant in M. Trim.
LONICERA L.
Lonicera dioica L. L. glauca Hill. L. parvi flora Lam.
Glaucous honeysuckle. Cliffs, north of Bristol. J. I\. Small.
Mts. of E. Tenn.
L. Sullivantii Gray. Woodlands. ( ). S. May, June.
L. flava Sims. E. Tenn. April, May.
L. sempervirens L. Trumpet honeysuckle. Frequent in
the cedar glades of M. Tenn. June. Jul}'.
L. Japonica Thunb. Japanese honeysuckle Naturalized
from E. Asia. Banks of Cumberland River, above and below
Nashville. June-August.
DIERVILLA Mcench.
Diervilla trifida Moench. D. Diervilla McM. Cumberland
and Alleghany Mts. May, June.
*D. rivularis Gattinger. Lula Falls, eight miles south of
summit of Lookout Alt. July. Vide Bot. Gazette, July, ivXs;
VALERIAXACK.K Batsch.
VALERIANA L.
Valeriana pauciflora Michx. American wild valerian.
Moist soil. Fide Gray's Synopt. Flora. May, June.
VALERIANELLA Poll.
Valerianella Locusta (L.) Bettke. V. olitoria L. ]
pean corn salad. Cultivated and the young plant- eaten as
salad under the name or" " fetticus." March. April,
*Branchlets, nearly terate; leaves, Bubsessito, ovate, or ob
olate. acuminate, whitish underneath, all parts hirsutely :
evmes, numerous, 3-6 flowered; corolla, Blightly bilabiate, the upper
three divisions in close contact, middle lobe longest, the lo
more spreading; calyx lobes, slend.r. lance-subulate; flower,
brighter than in susilifolia; shrub 3 to 5 feet high, Dear the
stream.
158 Tennessee Flora.
V. radiata (L.) Dufr. Lamb's lettuce. Glades and copses.
M. Tenn. March, April.
V. Woodsiana (T. & G.) Walpers. Moist ground. O. S.
March, April.
V. Woodsiana var. umbilicata Gray, and
V. Woodsiana var. patellaria Gray. Moist places in the bar-
rens. March, April.
DIPSACE.E Lindl.
DIPSACUS L.
Dipsacus sylvestris Huds. Wild teasel. Waste places.
O. S. July-September.
CUCURBITACE^E Bernh. Juss.
CUCURBITA L.
Cucurbita Melopepo L. Flat squash. Cult.
C. verrucosa L. Warty squash. Cult.
C. maxima DC. Winter squash. Cult.
C. ovifera Gray. Orange gourd squash, including the Hob-
bard and the var. medullosa A. Grav. Vegetable marrow.
Cult.
C. Pepo and Melopepo L. Common and sugar pumpkins.
All these varieties are well known to cultivators.
LAGENARIA Seringe.
Lagenaria vulgaris Seringe. Cururbita Lagenaria L. Bot-
tle gourd. Occurs sometimes self-sown. Summers.
CITRULLUS Schrad.
Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. Watermelon. The citron is a
variety with firm flesh, used for preserving.
CUCUMIS L.
Cucumis Melo L. Mushmelon, cantaloupe. Var. flexuosus
is the serpent melon : var. Dudaim, vegetable pomegranate,
also named C. odoratissimus, var. Chito, size of goose egg, also
called " vine peach."
C. sativus L. Cucumber. Cultivated in several varieties.
Cult.
C. Anguria L. Gherkin. Small, spiny, used for pickling.
Cult.
LUFFA Roem.
Luffa cylindrica Roem. and L. angularis R. Towel gourds,
dishrag. Useful as a bathing sponge. Cult.
Tennessee Flora.
MELOTHRIA L.
Melothria pendula L. Creeping cucumber. Cedar gli
and hillsides. ( ). S. July, August.
MICRAMPELIS Raf. (Echinocystis T. & i
Micrampelis lobata (Michx.) Greene. Echinocystis I
T. & G. Wild balsam apple. Tullahoma. July.
SICYOS L.
Sicyos angulatus L. Star cucumber. Hedges and thi
and river banks. O. S. June-September.
TRIANOSPERMUM Roem.
Trianospermum Boykinii. Roem. Banks of Cumberland
River above Nashville. Lester F. Ward. August, September.
CV-T.WrLACE.K Juss.
CAMPANULA L.
Campanula aparinoides Pursh. Boggy laurel thickets, in
sphagnum, Cumberland Mts. Sewanee. June-August.
C. divaricata Michx. Bell flower. Cumberland and Alle-
ghany Alts. June-September.
C. Americana L. Tall bellflower. Moist thicket-. July-
September.
LEGOUZIA Durand. (Specularia Heist.)
Legouzia biflora (R. & P.) Britton. Specularia biflora V
Gray. Pastures around Nashville. Jackson. W. Tenn
M. Bain. April-June.
L. perfoliata (L.) Britton. Specularia perfoliata \. DC.
Venus' looking-glass. Waste grounds. O. S. May Septem-
ber.
LOBELIA L.
Lobelia cardinalis L. Cardinal flower. Moist soil
July-September.
L. syphilitica L. Great lobelia. Moist soil. 0. S. July-
October. M.
L. puberula Michx. Highlands. O. S. AugUi bcr.
L. spicata Lam. Cedar glades. E. Tenn. June-August
L. leptostachys A. DC. Moist places in the barrens. July.
August.
L. inflata L. Indian tobacco. Dry. argillaceous soils
S. August, September. I/.
loo Tennessee Flora.
L. Nuttallii R. & P. Mountain bogs. Sewanee. July.
*L. Gattingeri Gray. Cedar glades of M. Tenn. April,
May.
CICHORIACEJE Reichenb.
CICHORIUM L.
Cichorium Intybus L. Chicory. Roadsides. Waste ground.
Sparingly O. S. Root substitute of coffee, shoots blanched
for salad. June, July. M.
C. Endivia L. Endive. Cultivated for salad. Cult.
ADOPOGON Neck. (Krigia Schreb.)
Adopogon Virginicum (L.) Kuntze. Krigia amplexicaulis
Nutt. Rich woods. O. S. April, May.
A. Dandelion (L.) Kuntze. Krigia Dandelion Nutt. Moist
woodlands. O. S. April.
A. Carolinianum Walt. Krigia Virginica Willd. Cumber-
land Mts. Prospect Station, Giles County. June.
A. montanum (Nutt.) Krigia montana Nutt. High moun-
tains of E. Tenn. Roane Mt. Chickering. July.
TRAGOPOGON L.
Tragopogon pratensis L. Meadow salsify. Introduced.
Waste grounds near Nashville. Scarce. May, June.
T. porrifolius L. Salsify. Introduced. Cultivated in truck
gardens and running wild. June. Cult.
TARAXACUM Hall.
Taraxacum Taraxacum (L.) Karst. Dandelion . Leonte-
don Taraxacon L. Fields and waste places. O. S. April-
September. M.
T. erytrospermum Andrz. With the former. In grass
plots. Plant looks more delicate than the former. It is nearly
as common as the former. Nashville.
SONCHUS L.
Sonchus oleraceus L. Sow thistle, and
S. asper (L.) Allen. Waste grounds. O. S. May-Novem-
ber.
LACTUCA L.
Lactuca Ludoviciana (Nutt.) DC. Western lettuce. Re-
*N. sp.; flowers, 4 to 5 inches long, deep blue; lobes of the calyx, at-
tenuate, subulate, not at all ciliate, obscurely appendaged at base only
by a minute callus on each side, in fruit equaling or longer than the
mature capsule (not "shorter"), pedicels often practeolate (next to
Lobelia appendicular. ).
Tennessee Flora. 161
cently introduced in Nashville, and spreading rapidly. June,
July.
L. Scariola L. Prickly lettuce. Waste places. Nashville.
Knoxville. Naturalized from Europe.
L. sativa L. Garden lettuce, descending- from the fori
Cultivated in many varieties.
L. Canadensis L. ^'ild lettuce. Clearings and w Hands
O. S. June. M.
L. villosa Jacq. L. acuminata Gray. Blue lettuce. Tl
ets. O. S. July-September.
L. Floridana (L.) Gaertn. Rich woods. O. S. July
tember.
L. spicata (Lam.) Hitchc. L. leucophrea A. Gray. River
bottoms. O. S. June-September.
L. spicata integrifolia A. Gray. Highlands. June. July.
L. hirsuta Miihl. Knoxville. L. T. Scribner.
NOTHOCALAIS Greene. (Troximon Nutt.)
Nothocalais cuspidata (Pursh.) Greene. Knoxville. Ruth.
Troximon cuspidatum Nutt.
SITILIAS Raf. (Pyrrhopappus D( . I
Sitilias Caroliniana (Walt.) Raf. Pyrrhopappus Carotin-
ianus DC. East of Cleveland. Ducktown Road. April-July.
HIERACIUM L.
Hieracium venosum L. Rattlesnake weed. Dry woods
O. S. May-October.
H. Marianum Willd. Maryland hawk weed. Farmer
S. W. Va. J. K. Small. May-July.
H. paniculatum L. Dry woodlands. O. S. July-Septem-
ber.
H. scabrum Michx. Dry woods. O. S. June-Septenr
H. longipilum Torr. W. Tenn. July.
H. Gronovii L. Dry soil. Nashville. June. July.
H. Scribneri Small. Lookout Mt. Legit F. L. Scril
Is perhaps H. Greenii.
NABALUS Cass. (Prenanthes L.)
Nabalus altissimus Hook. Prenanthes altissimus L, I :
lands. July-September.
N. albus Hook. P. alba L. Rattlesnake root. Jacl
W. Tenn. S. M. Bain. July. M.
N. serpentarius (Pursh | Hook. P. serpentaria Pi
Lion's foot. Barrens of Dickson County. August. If,
162 Tennessee Floea.
N. serpentarius var. barbatus Gray. Roane Mt. dicker-
ing. Big Thunderhead. July, August.
N. asper (Michx.) T. & G. Barrens. O. S. July, August.
N. crepidineus (Michx.) DC. Bottoms. O. S. August.
AMBROSIACE.E Reichb.
AMBROSIA L.
Ambrosia bidentata Micx. Waste grounds at Brownsville,
W. Term. August.
A. trifida L. Horse weed. Along water courses. O. S.
A. trifida integrifolia T. & G. With the former.
A. artemisiaefolia L. Rag weed. The most abundant weed
in the State. August.
A. psilostachya DC. Knoxville. A. Ruth. July-October.
XANTHIUM L.
Xanthium spinosum L. Burr weed. In towns, along rail-
road tracks. O. S. September. 0.
X. Canadense Mill. American cockleburr. O. S. July-
October.
X. strumaricum L. Waste places. With the former. July-
September.
COMPOSITE Adans.
VERNONIA Schreb.
Vernonia Noveboracensis (L.) Willd.ffiTron weed. Dry
soil. O. S. July-October.
V. Baldwinii Tori*. Wr. ,Tenn. August.
V. gigantea (Walt.) Britton. V. altissima Nutt. Tall iron
weed. Moist soil. O. S.
V. fasciculata Michx. With the former. O. S. July-Sep-
tember. M.
ELEPHANTOPUS L.
Elephantopus Carolinianus Willd. Elephant's foot. Dry
woods. M. Tenn. August-September. M.
E. tomentosus L. Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. Au-
gust-September. M.
EUPATORIUM L.
Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Smal. E. foeniculaceum
Willd. . Dog fennel. Lawrenceburg. E. Tenn.
E. purpureum L. Gravel root. Moist soils. O. S. Au-
gust, September. M.
E. serotinum Michx. Thoroughwort. Streets of Nashville.
O. S. September-November.
Ten Flora. 163
E. album L. Paradise Ridge. Robertson County. E.
Tenn. August, September.
E. hyssopifolium L. Knoxville. F. L. Scribner.
September.
E. semiserratum DC. Barrens a1 Tulahoma. Knoxville.
August, September.
E. altissimum L. Dry copses around Nashville. Auj
October.
E. verbenaefolium Michx. E. tencrifolium Michx. Hamp
ton, E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
E. rotundifolium L. Mitchellville. Tullahoma. July,
gust.
E. pubescens MiUil. E. rotundifoium var. ovatum 1
Cumberland Gap. J. EC. Small. July-September.
E. perfoliatum L. Boneset. Low grounds. O. S. July-
September. .1/.
E. sessilifolium L. E. Tenn. \. Ruth. Middle fork of
Holston River. J. K. Small. July, August.
E. ageratoides L. White snake root. « >. S. 1/.
E. aromaticum L. Barrens of Tullahoma. Knoxville. \.
Ruth. August-October.
E. coelestinum L. Conoclinium coelestinum DC. Mist
flower. Moist soil. Edge of ponds. O. S. Vug tober.
KUHNIA L.
Kuhnia eupatorioides L. False boneset. ( '. S. Aug
October.
K. glutinosa Ell. K. eupatorioides var. corymbulosa T. &
G. Glades around Nashville. September, ( October.
LACINIARIA Hill. (Liatris Schreb.1
Laciniaria squarrosa (L.) Hill. Liatris squarrosa Willd.
Scaly blazing star. Greenbrier, Robertson County, fune,
July. M.
L. scariosa squarrulosa Small. Mts. oi I I enn. July. If.
L. spicata L. Kuntze. Liatris spicata Willd. Botton snake
root. M. and E. Tenn. July. M.
L. graminifolia (Pursh.) Barrens of M. Tenn. and moun-
tains of E. Tenn. July, August.
L. microcephala J. K. Small. Tullahoma. With the
mer. Vide Bull. Torr. Bot. Club., September, [£
GRINDELIA Willd.
Grindelia lanceolata Nutt. Cedar glades of !
July-September. M.
164 Tennessee Flora.
CHRYSOPSIS Nutt.
Chrysopsis graminifolia (Michx.) Nutt. Golden aster.
Cumberland and Alleghany Mts.
Ch. Mariana (L.) Nutt. Sandy soil. O. S. June, July.
Ch. Ruthii Small. Hiwassee Valley. A. Ruth.
SOLIDAGO L.
Solidago caesia L. Blue-stemmed golden-rod. O. S. Sep-
tember.
S. caesia var. paniculata Gray. With the former.
S. flexicaulis L. S. latifolia L. Cliffs on Richland Creek,
near Nashville. Highlands. August, September.
S. Curtisii T. & G. Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering. July.
S. bicolor L. White golden-rod. Dry soil. August, Sep-
tember.
S. hispida Miihl. S. bicolor var. concolor T. & G. Siliceous
soils. O. S. July, August.
S. erecta Pursh. S. speciosa var. angustata. Greenbrier.
Glades at Lavergne. August.
S. monticola T. & G. Clingman Dome of the Smokies.
Roane Mt. Chickering. July.
S. puberula Nutt. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
S. speciosa Nutt.' Highlands of M. Tenn. Greenbier. Au-
gust-October.
S. odora Ait. Barrens and highlands. O. S. July. M.
S. rugosa Willd. Along Mill Creek, Nashville. Highlands.
July-October.
S. ulmifolia Miihl. With the former. July.
S. Boottii Hook. Smoky Mts. July.
S. juncea Ait. Oak barrens and woodlands. M. Tenn.
July.
S. arguta Ait. Lookout Alt. Ocoee region. August, Sep-
tember.
S. rupestris Raf. Cliffs along Cumberland River. July,
August.
S. serotina Ait. S. gigantea Willd. Fields and fence rows.
O. S. September, October.
S. serotina var. gigantea Gray. With the former.
*S. Gattingeri Chapm. Cedar glades at Lavergne. Abun-
dant around Tulahoma. August, September.
♦Solidago • Gattingeri Chapm. Slender, upright, 2 to 4 feet high;
branches and inflorescence, perfectly smooth and glabrous; leaves,
ciliolate; lower cauline and radical lanceolate-spatulate, appressed ser-
rulate, obviously tripli-nerved ; upper cauline mainly entire and with-
out lateral ribs, oblong lanceolate and an inch or so long, and the up-
per reduced to half or quarter inch, but near the inflorescence very
small and bractlike; racemiform clusters of small heads open and
Ten \ 1 98EE Flora. 165
S. Canadensis L. O. S. Abundant. September, October.
S. Canadensis procera T. & ( ;. With the form<
S. Canadensis scabriuscula T. & G. Low, wet ground.
Nashville. ( October.
S. rigida L. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
S. corymbosa Ell. Bon Aqua, Dickson County. Tullal
July, August.
S. mollis Bart. S. nemoralis A. Cray. Abundant in all
glades and barrens. July-September.
S. spithamea M. A. Curtis. Roane Mt. J. W. CI
July. .
S. stricta Ait. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
EUTHAMIA Xutt.
Euthamia graminifolia (L.) Xutt. Solidago lanceolata L.
Fragrant golden-rod. Fountain Head, Roberts unty.
July.
BRACHYCHjETA T. & G.
Brachychaeta sphacelata Raf. B. cordata Gray. '
September, October.
BELLIS L.
Bellis integrifolia Michx. Western daisy.
April, May.
BOLTONIA L'Her.
Boltonia diffusa Ell. Damp, sandy soil. Tullahoma.
Paradise Ridse. Ausfust-October.
SERICOCARPUS X
ees.
Sericocarpus linifolius (L.) B. S. P. S. solidagineu
Drv, argillaceous soils. ( ). S. June-September.
S. asteroides (L.) B. S. 1'. S. conyzoides Nees. With the
former. June-September.
ASTER L.
Aster divaricatus L. A. corybosus Ait. White- wood a
Mountain districts. Sewanee. July.
spreading, not recurving, disposed to forming B corymbll
naked panicle; involucral bracts, oblong, very obtuse, yellowish in the
dried plant; flowers. 15-20 in the head: rays. 1-6; akenes. appr.
puberulent or the lower part glabrous. (S. Missouri. inal
Chapm. Fl. Suppl.. 627.) Between MisBOurienslfi and Shoi
It occurs in numerous individuals over a couple Ol
likely to be a hybrid. The associated Bpeclea are
abundant). S. speciosa. var. angustata, S. Bpeciosa, B. Canadensis.
collected, September, 1869.
166 Tennessee Flora.
A. macrophyllus L. Marion, S. W. Va. J. K. Small.
A. azureus Lindl. Knoxville. A. Ruth. August-October.
A. cordifolius L. Rocky glens. O. S. September.
A. sagittaefolius Willd. Wild goose pond near Mitchell-
ville. September.
A. undulatus L. O. S. September.
A. patens Ait. Highlands. September.
A. phlogifolius Miihl. With the former. September.
A. oblongifolius Nutt. Cliffs on Cumberland River near
Nashville. September.
A. Drummondii Lindl. Nashville. September.
A. laevis L. Nashville. September.
A. concolor L. Oak barrens of M.Tenn. July-September.
A. Shortii Hook. Rich woodlands. M. Tenn. August,
September.
A. gracilis Nutt. Tuberous-rooted aster. Blount County.
A. Ruth.
A. surculosus Michx. Creeping aster. E. Tenn. A. Ruth.
September, October.
A. puniceus L. Vicinitv of Nashville. Knoxville. A.
Ruth.
A. paludosus Ait. Moist ground in the barrens. August-
October.
A. Curtisii Torr & Grav. Roane Mt. J. W. Chickering.
July.
A. dumosus L. Sandy soil, covering acres of ground. Au-
gust, September.
A. Tradescanti L. Sandy soil. As abundant as the former.
August, September.
A. multiflorus Ait. Old fields. Siliceous soils. Abundant.
August-November.
A. acuminatus Michx. Roane Mt. A. Ruth.
A. lateriflorus (L.) Britton. A. diffusus Ait. A. miser
Nutt. In dry or damp soil. O. S. Very variable. August-
October.
A. lateriflorus thyrsoideus. A. Gray. River banks.
A. lateriflorus grandis Port. A. diffusus var. bifrons. Gray.
Moist, shady places.
A. lateriflorus horizontalis (Desf.) Burgess. Thickets
along Cumberland River. September, October.
A. ericoides L. Frost weed. Covering large tracts in cal-
careous soils. O. S. September, October.
A. ericoides pilosus (Willd.) Porter. A. villosus Michx.
With the former.
A. ericoides var. Rivesii A. Gray. Dry river banks near
Nashville and cedar glades in M. Tenn. September, October.
Tennessee Flora. lei
ERIGERON L.
Erigeron pulchellus Michx. E. bellidifolius Miihl. Rol
plantain. Siliceous or argillaceous soils. I >. S. April,
E. Philadelphicus L. Philadelphia fleabane. Troubles
weed in meadows. April-June. .1/.
E. annuus (L.) Pers. Sweet scabious. I >r\ glades. I
May, June.
E. ramosus (Walt.) B. S. P. Daisy fleabane. I'.. Strij
Michl. Fields and pastures. ( ). S.
E. ramosus Beyrichii Smith & Pamel. \V. Tenn.
LEPTILON Raf.
Leptilon Canadense i L. ) Britton, Erigeron Canadenst I.
Canada fleabane. Some plants reach 10 feet high; som
minute, only i inch high. ( ). S. June-November. 1/.
L. divaricatum (Michx.) Raf. Erigeron divaricatus Michx.
Sandy soil. M. Tenn. June-( Ictober.
DGELLINGERIA Nees.
Dcellingeria umbellata (Mill.) Nees. Diplopappus umbel-
latus Hook. O. S. July.
D. infirma (Michx.) Greene. Diplopoppus cornifolius I
Cumberland and Alleghany Mts. August, September. R
Mt. A. Ruth. July.
IONACTIS Orcein.
Ionactis linariifolius (L.) Greene. Dry, siliceous, or
laceons soils. O. S. July.
PLUCHEA Cass.
Pluchea foetida L. Marsh. Fleabane. Swampy ground.
O. S. July-September.
ANTENNARIA G»rt.
Antennaria plantaginifolia L. Richards. Everlasl
Dry woods. O. S. April.
A. monocephala Kearney. Knoxville. A. Ruth.
GNAPHALIUM L.
Gnaphalium obtusifolium L. G. polycephalum Mi
Sweet everlasting. Dry, open plac<
tember. M.
G. Helleri Britt. Wolf Creek, Cocke Counl
G. decurrens tves. Clammy i ng. Highl;
June-August.
168
Tennessee Flora.
G. uliginosum L. Bogs on Cumberland Mts. July-Sep-
tember.
G. purpureum L. Sandy soils. O. S. May-September.
TNULA L.
Inula Heleniurri L. Elecampane. Naturalized from Eu-
rope. Sweetwater, Loudon County, E. Tenn. July. M.
POLYMNIA L.
Polymnia Uvedalia L. Leaf cup. Yellow bear's foot. O.
S. July, August. M.
P. Canadensis L. Ravines in the Cumberland and Alle-
ghany Mts. June-September.
P. Canadensis radiata A. Gray. With large three-dentate,
shining white ligules. Plant not over 2 feet high. Ought to
rank as a species. Fosterville, in the cedar glades. June,
July.
SILPHIUM L.
Silphium perfoliatum L. Cup plant. Brown's Creek, near
Nashville. July-September. M.
S. integrifolium Michx. Rosin weed. Charlotte Pike, near
Nashville. July.
S. trifoliatum L. Whorled rosin weed. O. S. July, Au-
gust.
S. Asteriscus L. Craggie Hope. Cheatham County. Par-
adise Ridge. Knoxville.
S. Asteriscus var. laevicaulis DC. Tulahoma. June, July.
S. laciniatum L. Compass plant. E. Tenn. July-Septem-
ber. M.
*S. brachiatum Gattinger. Foot of mountains at Cowan.
S. scaberrimum Ell. Barrens at Tullahoma. July.
S. terebinthinaceum Jacq. Prairie dock. Lavergne. June,
July.
S. terebinthinaceum var. pinnatifidum Gray. Same range.
S. compositum Michx. Western slopes of Chilhowee Mts.
and in the hills on Chestua Creek. E. Tenn. July, August.
S. rumicifolium J. K. Small. Knoxville. Prof. Ruth. July-
September.
*S. brachiatum Gattinger. Stem, 3 to 5 feet high and very slen-
der; brachiate branches, smooth, glabrous, glaucous; leaves, somewhat
hispidulous-scabrous, thin; cauline, hastate or deltoid-lanceolate, 4 to 8
lines long, slightly dentate on rarely long and barely margined or naked
petioles; those of the branches, small and very distant, sessile, ovate-
lanceolate, entire; uppermost reduced to small bracts, heads small, half
inch or so high, on long and slender peduncles; involucral bracts,
ovate; rays, 6-8; akenes, ovate-orbicular, narrowly winged, with barely
emarginate summit. (Bot. Gazette, IX., 192; coll., 1867.)
TBNNE8SBB FLORA.
CHRYSOGONUM L.
Chrysogonum Virginianum L. Ducktown, Polk County.
April -July.
PARTHENIUM L.
Parthenium integrifolium L. American fever few.
grounds. O. S. July.
HELIOPSIS L.
Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) B. S. P. If. lflBvis Pel
eye. Highlands of M. Tenn. and mountains of E. Tenn. Au-
gust, September.
H. scabra Dunal. Paradise Ridge. Knoxville. July.
ZINNIA L.
Zinnia pauciflora L. Escaped. Nashville.
ECLIPTA L.
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. E. procumbens Michx. M
ground .along streams, and a weed in fields and gardens.
uralized from tropical America. July-October.
TETRAGONOTHECA L.
Tetragonotheca helianthoides L. Cave Spring, Roane
County.
RUDBECKIA L.
Rudbeckia triloba L. Cone dower. O. S. July-Septem-
ber.
R. subtomentosa Pursh. Henderson, \\ . Tenn. S.
Bain.
R. hirta L. Black-eyed Susan. Barrens. O. S. Ai:.
September.
R. Brittoni Small. Alts, of E. Tenn. Fide Illustrated Flora.
May- July.
R. fulgida Ait. Dry wood- and barren-. I >. S. V.:.
October.
R. spathulata Michx. Chilhowee Mts., E. Tenn. \. II.
Curtiss. September.
R. speciosa Wenderoth. Lavergne. Holloa Rock.
gust-October.
R. laciniata L. Paradise Ridge. Mts. of E. 1 enn. W<
Creek. Var. humilis Gray. Is a mountain form. Julj
tember. .1/.
R. bicolor Nutt. Open, dry barrens. Nashville.
September.
170 Tennessee Floea.
*R. umbrosa n. sp. C. L. Boynton and C. D. Beadle.
Sparta, White County. August.
• RATIBIDA Raf. (Lepachys Raf.)
Ratibida pinnata (Vent.) Bernhart. Lapachys pinnata
Torr & Gray. Dry copses. O. S. June-September.
R. columnaris (Sims) D. Don. Prairie cone flower, var pul-
cherrima. Found near cotton compress, S. Nashville. A
waif.
BRAUNERIA Neck. (Echinacea Moench.)
Braunneria purpurea L. Britton. Echinacea Moench.
Black Sampson. M. and E. Tenn. In moist, rich soil.
B. pallida (Nutt.) Britton. Echinacea angustifolia Nutt.
Hills near Nashville. Flowers differ from deep purple to pure
white. July-October.
HELIANTHUS L.
Helianthus angustifolius L. Swamp sunflower. Craggy
Hope, Cheatham County, and in W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
H. annuus L. Common sunflower. Frequently escaping
cultivation. July-September.
H. verticillatus Small. Henderson, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
H. atrorubens Nutt. Dry woods. O. S. August-October.
H. laevigatus Torr & Gray. Alts, of E. Tenn. August-Oc-
tober.
H. microcephalus T. & G. H. parviflorus Bernh. O. S.
July-August.
H. giganteus L. Knoxville. A. Ruth. August-October.
H. divaricatus L. Highlands of M. Tenn. E. Tenn. July,
August.
H. mollis Lam. Barrens of AT. Tenn. Abundant. Au-
gust, September.
H. decapetalus L. Highlands of M. Tenn. Alts, of E.
Tenn. August, September.
H. tracheliifolius Alichx. Big Frog Alts., .Polk County.
July, August.
H. hirsutus Raf. Barrens of M. Tenn. Abundant. July,
August.
H. lastiflorus Pers. Brownsville, W. Tenn. August, Sep-
tember.
H. tomentosus Michx. Lake Otase, near Knoxville. A.
Ruth.
*R. umbrosa C. L. Boynton. Related to R. speciosa Wender., dif-
fering from the latter species in the broad and hairy-lipped chaff, size
of flower heads, shorter and fewer rays, and in the outline of the leaves.
(Biltmore Botanical Studies, Vol. I., No. 1.)
T] \ \i.-i.i: Flora. 1:1
H. tuberosus L. Jerusalem artichoke. Rich soil. R
banks. Also sometimes in cultivation. 1 »•
tention as a foodstuff for hogs. Hard to eradicate from fields
where it onc^ has been planted. September, I »• I >ber.
VERBESINA L. (Actinomeris Nutt.)
Verbesina Virginica L, Virginia crownbeard. Limest
soils. M. Tenn. August, September.
V. occidentalis ( L. ) Walt. Western declivities of Smoky
Mts. In abundance. September.
V. helianthoides Michx. Actinomeris helianthoides Nutt.
Moist woods. ( ). S. June, July.
V. alternifolia (L.) Britton. Actinomeris squarrosa Nutt.
Moist woods. O. S. August, September.
HELIANTHELLA T. & G.
Helianthella tenuifolia T. & < i. In big patches, two miles
east of Tnlahoma. July.
COREOPSIS L.
Coreopsis rosea Nutt. In a swamp in Ducktown, Polk
County. July.
C. tinctoria Nutt. Garden tick seed. Frequently escaping
cultivation. July, September.
C. major Walt. C. senifolia Michx. Siliceous soils. (l S
July, August.
C. major Oemleri (Ell.) Britton. C. senifolia var. stellata
T. & G. With the former. July, August.
C. delphinifolia Lam. E. Tenn. June-Septeml
C. verticillata L. Upper E. Tenn. June-September.
C. pubescens Ell. Cumberland Mts. June-August.
C. crassifolia Ait. C. lanceolata var. villosa Michx. B
of Cumberland River at Nashville. May September.
C. auriculata L. Greenbrier, Robertson County, June.
C. grandiflora Nutt. Harpeth hills, south of Nashville,
July-September.
C. tripteris L. Common tick seed. Low lands and thick-
ets. O. S. August, September.
BIDENS L.
Bidens lasvis (L.) B. S. P. B. chrysanth
Smooth marigold. Wet land- and ditches. I v S
November.
B. cernua L. Nodding burr marigold. In water and
lands. O. S. July-October.
172 Tennessee Flora.
B. connata Miihl. Swamp beggar ticks. Swamps and
ditches. O. S. August-October.
B. discoidea (T. & G.) Britton. River swamps. O. S. Au-
gust, September.
B. frondosa L. Beggar ticks. Moist soil. O. S. July-
October.
B. bipinnata L. Spanish needles. Bad weed. O. S. July-
October.
B. trichosperma (Michx.) Britton. Coreopsis trichosperma
Michx. Tick-seed sunflower. River swamps. Nashville.
August, September.
B. aristosa (Michx.) Britton. Var. mutica A. Gray. Jack-
son, W. Tenn. S. M. Bain.
GALINSOGA R. & P.
Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Introduced from S. America.
Gardens near Nashville. September.
MARSHALLIA Schreb.
Marshallia trinervia (Walt.) Porter. M. latifolia Pursh.
Fountain Head. Eggert. Tullahoma. May, June.
M. lanceolata Pursh. Vicinity of Memphis. Dr. G. Ege-
ling. May, June.
HELIENIUM L.
Helenium autumnale L. Sneeze weed. River banks and
low grounds. O. S. August-October.
H. nudiflorum Nutt. Leptopoda brachypoda T. & G.
Sandy, damp soils. O. S. Tullahoma. July, August.
H. tenuifolium Nutt. Scatteringly O. S. August-October.
H. parviflorum Nutt. Cedar glades at Lavergne. July-
September.
DYSODIA Cav.
Dysodia papposa (Vent.) A. S. Hitchcock. Fetid marigold.
D. chrysanthemoides Lag. Mitchellville. Abundant across
State line in Kentucky. July-October.
ACHILLEA L.
Achillea Millefolium L. Millfoil. Yarrowr. Roadsides
and pastures. O. S. June-November.
ANTHEMIS L.
Anthemis Cotula L. May weed. Fetid chamomile. Waste
ground.' O. S. May, June.
Tennessee Flora.
CHRYSANTHEMUM L.
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum L. 0
May-July.
MATRICARIA L.
Matricaria Chamomilla L. German chamomile. Formerly
cultivated by early settlers as a medicinal herb, and i
sionally in fields. June, July.
TANACETUM L.
Tanacetum vulgare L. Tansy. Cultivated and in .
grounds. July, August.
ARTEMISIA L.
Artemisia Absinthium L. Common wormwood. R
waste grounds near gardens. Adventive from Europe, and
frequently in gardens. July, September.
A. annua L. Adventive from Asia, but widely dissemin
and abundant near Nashville. September. < October.
A. biennis Willd. W. Tenn. Copiously on the banks
the Ohio River at Louisville. Septemb- ber.
A. Mexicana Willd. W. Nashville, on open grounds.
tember, October.
ERECHTITES Raf.
Erechtites hieracifolia R. In clearings. O. S. June, July.
MESADENIA Raf. (Cacalia Nutt.)
Mesadenia reniformis (Miihl.) Raf. Cacalia reniformis
Miihl. Great Indian plantain. Cumberland and Alleghany
Mts. July, August.
M. atriplicifolia (L.) Raf. Rich woodlands. < ). S. July.
M. tuberosa (Nutt.) Britton. Wet places in the cedar
glades. July, August.
SYNOSMA Raf.
Synosma suaveolens (L.) Raf. Cacalia suaveolens L
Banks of Turnbull Creek, near Kingston Springs. July. An
gust.
SENECIO L.
Senecio obovatus Miihl. Squaw weed. S. Aurens vai
ovatus T. & G. Moist soil. M. Tenn. April June.
S. Balsamitae Miihl. S. aurens var. BalsamitflB T. 8
Ducktown. E. Tenn. May-July.
S. Smallii Britt. Banks of Wolf Creek. E. 'Tenn.
S. aureus L. Golden ragwort. Swamps and wet mead
O. S. Mav-July.
174 Tennessee Flora.
S. lobatus Pers. Butter weed. Wet places. Brownsville.
Lavergne. April, May.
S. vulgaris L. Knoxville. Erratic.
S. Rugelia Gray. Smoky Mts. Legit Dr. Rugel.
S. Earlei J. K. Small. Knoxville. Professor Ruth. May-
July.
ARCTIUM L.
Arctium Lappa L. Burdock. Waste grounds. O. S.
July, August.
A. minus Selik. Cumberland Gap. J. K. Small.
CARDUUS L.
Carduus lanceolatus L. Crisium lanceolatum Scop. Com-
mon thistle. O. S. July, August.
C. altissimus L. Cnicus altissimus Willd. Fence rows.
O. S. Not as frequent as the former. July-November.
C. discolor (Miihl.) Nutt. Cnicus altissimus var. discolor.
A. Gray. Banks of Cumberland River below Nashville.
July-November.
C. muticus (Michx.) Pers. Lookout Mt. Roane Mt.
Chickering. July.
MARIANA Hill. (Silybum Gsert.)
Mariana Mariana (L.) Hill. Silybum Marianum Grert.
IMilk thistle. Near Tracy City. Mrs. Turner. Nashville,
near Chattanooga shops. June-August.
ONOPORDON L.
Onopordon Acanthium L. Cotton thistle. Dry pastures
and roadsides around Nashville. July-September.
CENTAUREA L.
Centaurea Cyanus L. Blue bottle. Corn flower. Waste
places. Escaped from cultivation.
CNICUS L.
Cnicus benedictus L. Blessed thistle. Centaurea benedicta
L. Waste ground around Livingston Hall, Nashville. Mrs.
Lydia Bennett. May-August.
Tennessee Flora. i:-.
ADDENDA TO SYNOPSIS OF THE FLORA OF
TENNESSEE.
Crataegus apiifolia Michx. Collected 1>\ T. G. Hai
Memphis.
*Juncoides bulbosum Wood. Lookout Mt. S. M. Bain.
Rudbeckia monticola J. K. Small. White Cliff Springs. T.
H. Kearney. Lookout Mt. H. Eggert.
fCornus Priceae J. K. Small. Bluffs on Cumberland River
at Nashville.
*Juncoides bulbosum Wood. Base of plant accompanied by bulb-
lets; foliage, almost glabrous, or somewhat webby on the leaf margin!
and at the top of the sheaths; stems. 1-4 dm. tall; spik.s. Bh<
those of J. echinatum; sepals and petals, ovate-lanceolate or Ian. •
2-2.5 mm. long, brownish, acuminate, neither manifestly soft nor hya-
line at the apex; capsule, broadly obovoid or globose-obovoid. mil
ing the sepals or sometimes about equaling them.
fCornus Priceae. A branching shrub 1-2.5 m. tall, with rod and
finely-pubescent twigs; leaves, numerous; blades, elliptic to ovate-Hlip-
tic or ovate, 5-12 cm. long, rather leathery, usually acuminate
green and roughly pubescent above, pale and more copiously, but rather
softly pubescent and prominently veined beneath; petioles, I I
long, pubescent like the twigs; corymbs. 2-3 cm. broad during an*
4-6 cm. broad at maturity; peduncles and pedicels, closely and harshly
pubescent; sepals, triangular; corolla, white, about 7 mm. broad; p
4, oblong-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate; filaments, slightly shorter than
the petals; drupes, about 3 mm. in diameter, subglohose. wh
about 2 mm. in diameter, scarcely longer than broad, faintly pit-
176
Tennessee Flora.
LIST OF ORDERS— With the Number of Genera and
Species, the Cultivated and Officinal.
Pteridophyta
Ophioglossaceae
Osmundaceae
Hymenophyllaceae
Schizaeaceae
Polypodiaceae
Salviniacese
Equisetaceae
Ivvcopodiaceas
lsoetaceae
Spermatophyta.
Gymnospermae.
Pinaceae
Taxaceae
Angiospermae.
Monocotyledones.
Typhaceae
Sparganiaceae
Naiadeae
Alismaceae
Valisneriaceae
Gramineae.
Mayideae
Andropogonaeeae
Paniceae
Oryceae
Phalarideae
Agrostideae
Avenaceae
Chlorideae
Festuceae
Hordeaceae
Bambuseae
Cyperaceae
Araceae
Leninaceae
Xridaceae
Eriocaulonaceae
Pontederiaceae
Juncaceae
Melanthaceae
L,iliaceae
Convallariaceae
Smilaceae
Amaryllidaceae
Dioscoreaceae
Iridacea>
Orchidaceae
Dicotyledones.
Saururacea>
Juglandaee.i}
Salicineae
Betulace*
Fagacea:
Ulmacea?
Moraceae
Urticacea>
T3
V
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c6
B)
s
o
u
ft
3
O
O
•x
u
o
2
4
l
1
1
3
1
1
1
15
41
5
1
1
1
3
2
6
1
1
1
7
14
3
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
8
3
1
6
1
1
?,
9
1
16
3
9
59
3
5
2
4
li)
85
(5
9
7
7
14
54
7
31
1
2
18
124
5
6
4
3
7
1
2
?,
7
2
4
1
2
17
1
8
14
1
11
13
6
4
Ki
22
1
3
1
11
8
3
3
1
1
2
1
4
11
1
14
40
4
1
1
1
2
11
5
2
17
2
3
5
10
1
:i
21
7
3
8
1
5
61
4
5
9
1
Dicotyledones— Contin'd
L,oranthacea3
vSantalacea'
Aristoloehiaeea' . .
Polygonacea1
Chenopodiacea? . .
Amaranthacea1 . .
Phytolaccacea1 . . .
Nyctaginacere . . .
Aizoacea1
Portulacacea1
Caryophyllacea? .
Nymphaeacea1 . . .
Magnoliacea»
Anonacea1
Ranunculacea? . . .
Berberidacea?
Menispermacea1 ,
Calicanthacea-
L,auracea^
Papaveracea1
Crucifera> ,
Capparidacea1
Saraceuiacea? ....
Podostemacea' . . .
Crassulacea1
Saxif ragaceae
Grosulariacea1 . . .
Hamamelidacea1 .
Platanacea'
Rosacea1
Drupacea1
Mimosacea^
Caesalpinacea^ . . .
Papilionacea'
Geraniacea1
Oxalidacea*
Linaceae
Rutacea>
Simarabaca'
Meliacea'
Polygalacea1
Euphorbiacea'
Callitrichacea? . . .
Buxacea-
Anacardiacea>
Ilicineae
Celastracea>
Staphyleacea?
Aceracea'
Hippocastanacea>
Sapindacea^
Balsaminaceae
Rhamnacea;
Vitaceae ,
Tiliacere
Malvaceae
Theacea>
Hypericacea1
Cistacea'
Violaceae
Passifloraceae —
Cactacea?
Thymeleacea1
Lythraceae
172
Tennessee Flora.
LIST OF ORDERS — Continued.
Dicotyledones— Contin'd
Melastomacea-
Ouagracea1
Halloragidaceii'
Araliacea-
Umbellifera"
Cornacea?
Clethracea-
Pyrolacea1
Monotropacea'
Ericaceae
Vacciniacea>
Diapensiacea^
Primulacea1
Sapotacea?
Ebenacea?
Symplocacea>
Styracea?
Oleacea'
IvOganiacea'
Gentianacea>
Menyanthacea?
Apocynacea1
Asclepiadacea?
Convolvulacea?
3
4
11
25
1
9
4
2
5
5
30
52
12
H
•>
s
>>
1
1
>>
4
2
:\
3
11
19
2
3
14
5
1
I
»i
14
1
1
1
....
1
1
-)
3
1
5
10
3
4
4
2
0
11
7
1
1
1
3
5
2
5
20
3
4
12
i
1
Dicotyledones
Cuscuta< i
Polemonia< • ■ <■ .
Boragin
Vei ben •
I.al>i.tt:r
Solanaceaa . . . .
Scrophulariacei
Lentibulariacea
( trobanchacece .
Bignoni
Martyni
Acanthai
Phrymacese . ...
Plantaginai eae
Rubiaceas
Caprifoliaceffi . .
Valeriana* eae . ,
Dipaacec
Cucurbitace e ,
Campanulacese
Cichoriaceje
Ambrosi
Composite
10
81
I
l
1
I
-
•J!
1
It
18
-
Total :
Families.
Genera . .
16]
Species
Cultivated
Officinal
178
Tennessee Flora.
Index of the Genera*
PAGE.
Abies 32
Abutilon 119
Acacia 101
Acalypha 113
Acer 115
Acerates 138
Achillea 172
Achroanthes 163
Acnida 75
Aconitum 80
Acorus 54
Actaea 80
Acuan 101
Adelia 136
Adiantum 29
Adicea 71
Adlumia 85
^sculus 116
Afzelia 152
Agave 61
Agrimonia 95
Agropyrum 46
Agrostema 76
Agrostis 40
Ailanthus Ill
Alchemilla 95
Aletris 58
Alisma 34
Allionia 75
Allium 57
Alnus 67
Alopecurus 40
Alsine 77
Amaranthus 74
Ambrosia 162
Amelanchier 97
Ammania 123
Amorpha 104
Ampelanus 138
Ampelopsis 118
Amsonia 137
Amygdalus 101
Anagallis 134
Andropogon 35
Anemone 81
Angelica 126
Antennaria 167
PAGE.
Anthemis 172
Anthoxanthum 39'
Anthriscus 128
Anychia 78
Apiastrum 128
Apios 108
Apium 129
Aplectrum 64
Apocynum 137
Apogon 160
Aquilegia 80
Arabis 88
Arachis 110
Aralia 126
Arctium 174
Arenaria 77
Argemone 87
Arisaema 53
Aristida 39
Aristolochia 72
Aronia 96
Arrhenaterum 42
Artemisia 173
Arum 53
Aruncus 93
Arundinaria 48
Arundo 43
Asarum 72
Aselepias 138
Ascyrum 119
Asimina 79
Asparagus 59
Asplenium 29
Aster 165
Astilbe 90
Astragalus 106
Athyrium 29
Atragene 81
Avena 42
Azalea 131
Azolla 30
Baptisia 102
Bartonia 137
Batrachium 82
Bellis 165
Benzoin 84
Tennessee Flora,
L7fl
Berberis 83
Berchemia 117
Beta 7 1
Betula 67
Bicuculla 85
Bidens 171
Bignonia 153
Blephilia 140
Boehmeria 71
Boltonia 165
Borago 143
Boutelloua 43
Brachychaeta 165
Brachyelytrum 40
Bradburia 108
Brasenia 78
Brassica 86
Brauneria 170
Bromus 46
Broussonettia 70
Brunnichia 73
Buchnera 151
Buckleya 71
Bumelia 134
Bupleurum 128
Bursa 188
Buttnera 83
Cabomba 78
Calamagrostis 40
Callicarpa 143
Callirophoe 118
Callitriche 114
Caltha 79
Calycocarpum 83
Camelina 88
Campanula 159
Camptosorus 29
Cannabis 70
Capnoides 85
Capparis 89
Capriola 42
Capsicum 149
Cardamine 87
Cardiospermum 116
Carduus 179
Carex 51
Carpinus 66
Carum 129
Cassia 102
Castalia 78
Castanea 67
Castilleja 152
Catalpa 153
Caulophyllum 83
Ceanothus 117
Cebatha 83
Celastrus
Celtia
Cenchrua
Centauroa
CentunculuB
Cephalanthui
Cerastium
Ceratophyllum
Cercia 102
Chaerophyllum 128
Chamadirion
Cheilanthos
Cbelidoniuni
Chelone i .-,->
Chenopodium
Cbimaphila 131
Chloris
Chrosperma
Chrysanthemum 171
Chrysogonum 1 S:<
Chrysopogon 16
Chrysopsis l S 1
Chrysosplenium
Cicer L09
Cichorium L60
Cicuta
Cimicifuga
Cinna
Circaea L26
Citrullus
Cladrastis 19%
Claytonia 16
Clematis
Cleome
Clethra
Clinopodium 14*
Clintonia
Clitoria IW
Cnious 1 T 4
Collinsonia 148
Commandra
Commelina
Conobea
Conopholis
Convallaria
Convolvulus
Coptis
Corallorhiza
Coreopsis 1
Coriandrum
Cornus
Coronopus
Corylua
Cotlnua
Cotoneaster
Cracca
Crategua
180
Tennessee Flora. '
PAGE.
Crotalaria 103
Croton 112
Crotonopsis 113
Cubelium 122
Cucumis 158
Cucurbita 158
Cumminum 130
Cuscuta 139
Cydonia 97
Cynoglossum 142
Cynosurus 45
Cyperus 48
Cypripedium 62
Daetylis 44
Danthonia 42
Dasystoma 152
Datura 149
Daucus 126
Decodon 123
Decumaria 92
Delphinium 80
Dendrium 132
Dennstaedtia 28
Deschampsia 42
Diamorpha 90
Dianthera 154
Danthus 77
Diapedium 154
Dicnromena 50
Didiplis 123
Diervilla 157
Diodia 155
Dioscorea 61
Diospyros 135
Diphylleia ■ 83
Dipsacus 158
Dirca 123
Disporum 59
Dodecatheon 134
Doelingeria 167
Draba 88
Duchesnia 94
Dulichium 49
Dysodia 172
Eatonia 44
Echinodorus 34
Echium 143
Eclipta 169
Eleocharis 49
Elephantopus 162
Eleusine 43
Elymus 48
Epigaea 132
Epilobium 124
Equisetum 30
PAGE.
Eragrostis 43
Erechtites 173
Erianthus 34
Erigenia 130
Erigeron 167
Eriocaulon 54
Eriophorum 50
Ervum 108
Eryngium 127
Erysimum 89
Erythronium 58
Eulophus 128
Eupatorium 162
Euphorbia 113
Euthamia 165
Evolvulus 139
Evonymus 115
Fagopyrum 72
Fagus 67
Falcata 108
Festuca 45
Filix 28
Fimbristylis 50
Fceniculum 127
Frasera 137
Fragaria 94
Fraxinus 135
Froehlichia '. 75
Fumaria 85
Gsetesia 154
Galactia 109
Galax 133
Galeopsis 145
Galinsoga 172
Galium 155
Gaultheria 132
Gaura 125
Gaylussacia 133
Gelseminum 136
Gemmingia 61
Gentiana 137
Geranium 110
Gerardia 152
Geum 95
Gilia 140
Glechoma 145
Gleditschia 102
Gnaphalium 167
Gossypium 119
Gratiola 151
Grindelia 163
Gymnocladus 102
Gymnopogon 43
Gynerium 43 i
Gyrostachys 63 >
Tennessee Flora.
181
PAGE.
Habenaria 62
Hamamelis 92
Hartmannia 125
Hedeoma 140
Helenium 172
Helianthemum 121
Helianthella 171
Helianthus 170
Heliopsis 169
Heliotropium 141
Hemerocallis 57
Hemlcarpha 51
Hepatica 81
Heracleum 126
Hesperis 98
Heteranthera 55
Heuchera, 91
Hexalectris 64
Hibiscus 119
Hicorya 65
Hieracium 161
Holcus 41
Homalocenchrus 39
Hordeum 47
Houstonia 155
Humulus 70
Hydrangea 91
Hydrastis 79
Hydrocotyle 129
Hydrophyllum 141
Hymenocallis 61
Hypericum 120
Hypopitis 131
Hypoxis 61
Hystrix 48
Ilex 115
Ilysanthes 151
Tmpatiens 110
Tndigofera 105
Inula 168
Iodanthus 86
Ionactis 167
Ipomoea 139
Tresine 75
Iris 61
Isanthus 143
Isnarda 124
Isoetes 30
Itea 92
Ixophorus 38
Jeffersonia 83
Juglans 64
Juncoides 56
Juncus 55
Juniperus 32
Jussirea 124
Kalmia
KneifRa
Kcehlreutera HJ
Krcllia 1J7
Koniga g9
Korycarpus 14
Kraunhia 105
Kuhnia L63
Kyllingia 49
Laciniaria 1 63
Lactuca 160
Lagerstroemia 124
Lagenaria 158
Lamium 145
Lappula 142
Lathyrua 108
| Lavauxia 125
Leavenworthia 87
Lechea 121
Legouzia 159
Lemna 54
"Leonurus 145
Lepidium 85
Leptamnium 153
Leptandra 1 5 ]
Leptilon . .■ 167
Leptoehloa
Leptorchis
Lespedeza 107
Lesquerella ss
Leucothoe 132
Ligusticum 127
Ligustrum 136
Lilium
Limnanthemum 137
Limodorum
Linaria 150
Linum 1
Llppia ' ,::
Liguidambar
Liriodendron
Listera
Lithoapermum 142
Lobelia 159
Lolium
Lonlcera ' ■"
Ludwigia
Luff a
Lupinus
Lycium 1
Lycopersicum
Lycopodium
Lycopua 1417
Lygodium
Lysimachia '
Lytbrum !
182
Tennessee Flora.
PAGE.
Magnolia 79
Malapcena 84
Malus 96
Malvastrum 118
Mariana 174
Marrubium 144
Marshallia 172
Martynia 154
Matricaria 173
Medeola 59
Medicago 103
Meehania 144
Meibomia 106
Melampyrum 152
Melanthium ■ 57
Melia 112
Melica 44
Melilothus 103
Melissa 146
Melothria 159
Menispermum 83
Mentha 147
Menziesia 132
Mertensia 142
Mimulus 150
Mitchella 155
Mitella 91
Mohrodendron 135
Mollugo 75
Monarda 146
Monniera 151
Monotropa 131
Monotropsis 131
Morongia 102
Morus 70
Miihlenbergia 40
Muscari 58
Myosotis 142
Myosurus 81
Myriophyllum 126
Nabalus 161
Nama 141
Nelumbo m 78
Nemastylis . ." 61
Nemophila 141
Nepeta 145
Nicotiana 149
Nothocalais 161
Nothoscordium 58
Nymphaea 78
Nyssa 130
Obolaria 137
Oenothera 125
Oldenlandia 155
Onagra 124
Onoclea 27
PAGE.
Onopordon 174
Onosmodium 142
Ophioglossum 27
Opulaster 93
Opuntia 123
Orchis 62
Origanum 146
Ornithogalum 58
Orobanche 153
Orontium 54
Oryza 39
Osmunda 27
Ostrya 66
Oxalis 110
Oxycoccus 133
Oxydendron 132
Oxytfolis 126
Pachysandra 114
Panax 126
Panicularia 45
Panicum 35
I Papaver 84
j Parietaria 71
I Parnassia 91
j Parosella 104
Paronychia 78
Parsonia 123
Parthenium 169
Parthenocissus 118
Paspalum 35
Passiflora 122
I Pastinaca 127
Paulownia 150
I Pedicularis 152
Pellaea 30
Peltandra 53
Pennisetum 39
Pentstemon 150
1 Penthorum 90
Peramium 63
Perilla 148
! Petalostemon 104
Petunia 149
Phacelia 141
Phalaris 39
Phaseolus 109
Phegopteris 28
Philadelphus 92
Philotria 34
Phleum 40
Phlox 140
Phoradendron 71
Phryma 154
Phyllanthus 112
Phyllitis 29
Physalis 148
Tennessee Plor,
1 AGE.
Physalodes 148
Phy sostegia L45
Phytolacca 75
Picea 32
Pieris 132
Pimpinella 128
Pinus 31
Pisum 108
Planera 69
Plantago 154
Platanus 93
Pluchea 167
Poa 45
Podophyllum 83
Podostemon 89
Pogonia 63
Polanisia 89
Polemonium 141
Polygala 112
Polygonatum 59
Polygonum 73
Polymnia 168
Polypodium 30
Polypremum 136
Polystichum 28
Polytaenia 127
Pontederia 55
Populus 65
Porteranthus 93
Portulaca 76
Potamogeton 33
Potentilla 94
Proserpinaca 125
Prunella 145
Prunus 100
Psoralea 104
Ptelea Ill
Pteridium 30
Ptilimnium 129
Punica 124
Pyrola 130
Pyrularia 71
Pyrus 96
Quamassia 58
Quamoclit 139
Quercus 67
Ranunculus 82
Raphanus 86
Ratibida 170
Rhamnus 117
Rheum 73
Rhexia 124
Rhododendron 131
Rhus 114
Rhynchosia 109
Rhynchospora 51
PACI .
Ribes
Ricinua 1 1:»
Rbbinia ] n-
Roripa
Rosa
Rotala i _• ;
Rubua
Rudbekia L69
Ruellia l :. i
Rumex
Ruta ill
Sabbathia ]::•;
Sagina
Salix
Salvia 144
Sambucus 1 .",»,
Samolus
Sanguinaria B I
Sanguisorba
Sanlcula 127
Saponaria 76
Sarothra 121
Saracenia 86
Sassafras
Satureja 147
Saururus
Saxifraga M)
Schcenoliriuni
Schwalbea L52
Scirpus
Scleranthus 78
Scleria 51
Serophularia L50
Scutellaria ill
Secale
Sedum
Selaginella
Senecio 173
Sericocarpus 166
Sicyos 159
Sfda 118
Sieglingia
Silene
Silphium 169
Sinapie
Sisymbrium
Sisyrincbium
Sitilias
Slum
Smllax
Solanum ' *s
Soil dago 164
Sonchua 160
Sophia
Sorbua
Sorghum
184
Tennessee Flora.
Sparganium 33
Spathyma 54
Spartina 42
Spermacoce 155
Spermolepsis 129
Spigelia 136
Spinacia 74
Spiraea -. 93
Spirodella 54
Sporobolus 40
Stachys 145
Staphylea . . 115
Steironema 134
Stenanthium 56
Stenophragma 88
Stenophyllus 50
Stillingia 113
Stipa 40
Streptopus 59
Strophostyles 110
Stuartia 119
Stylophorum , . . . 84
Stylosanthes 106
Styrax 135
Symphoricarpus 157
Symphytum 142
Symplocos 135
Synandra 145
Syndesmon 81
Synosma 173
Syntherisma 38
Syringa 135
Talinum 75
Tanacetum 173
Taraxacum 160
Taxodium 32
Taxus 33
Tecoma 153
Tetragonia 76
Tetragonotheca 169
Teucrium 143
Thalesia 153
Thalictrum 82
Thaspium 127
Therophon 91
Thlaspi 86
Thuja 32 I
Thymus 147
Tiarella 91
Tilia 118 J
Tipularia 64 j
Toxylon 70
Trachelospermum 138 I
Tradescanthia 55 |
Tragia 113 |
Tragopogon 160 j
Trautvetteria 81
APCK.
Triadenum 121
Trianospermum 159
Trichomanes 27
Trichostema 143
Trifolium 103
Trillium 60
Triosteum 156
Tripsasum 34
Trisetum 42
Triticum 47
Tsuga 32
Typha 33
Ulmaria 95
Ulmus 69
TJnifolium 59
TTniola 44
TJrtica 70
Urticastrum ,71
Utricularia 153
Uvularia 57
Vaccinium 133
Vagnera 59
Valeriana 157
Valerianella 157
Verbascum 149
Verbena 143
Verbesina 171
Vernonia 162
Veronica 151
Viburnum 156
Vicia 107
Vigna 110
Vinca : 137
Vincetoxicum 138
Viola 121
Vitis 117
Waldsteinia 94
Washingtonia 128
Wolffia 54
Woodsia 28
Woodwardia 28
Xanthium 162
Xanthorrhiza 80
Xanthoxylum * 111
Xerophyllum 56
Xolisma 132
Xyris 54
Yucca 58
Zannichelia 33
Zea 34
Zinnia 169
Zizania 39
Zizia 129
Ziziphus 117
Zygadenus 56
PHILOSOPHY OF BOTANY.
" Naturae vero rerum vis atqne majestas onini niniiruni mo«
mento fide caret, si quis modo partes ejus ac non totam con-
templatur animo." (Plin. Hist. Nat.)
The power and greatness of the works of nature lose of their
true comprehension in nearly every instance when the mind
seizes on particulars and does not embrace the whole.
An Epitome of the History and
Philosophy of Botany.
" Opinion uiri commenta delet dies, naturae judicia confir-
mat." (Cicero.) *
In the history of mankind we observe three coi
stages of culture. In the first we find men ceaselessl) en
gaged in the dire struggle for the daily wants of maintei
and in self-defense until they acquire the faculty of providing
for regular sustenance and enter into the social state. They
arrive now at a state of mental composure, inducing it of
inquiry into the nearer or remoter relation of things around
them and their applicability to their benefit or pleasure. Thus
engaged, they collect the material for the third stat<
education, in which they acquire a comprehension of mora"1
law, an interpretation of the physical forces, and ultimately
attain to the ability to control them and make them sal-
ient to their will.
Likewise we may arrange the history of botany in three
riods — of, however, very unequal duration, and. like the former.
disturbed, especially in the earlier states, by periodic fluctu-
ations.
The first period embraces the whole time from the incip
iency of human culture to the late periods of mediaeval his
lory, from Dioscorides and Theophrastus to the Bauhins
(1600), in which plants were nearly exclusively attended
relation to their applicability to the healing art. to agriculture
and horticulture, and as material for wood-work.
The second period, beginning with kajus and Turn<
reaches its acme in the Linnean school, and is strict 1\
fined to technical botany; that is. the exact description and
artificial systematizing.
The beginning of the third and really scientific period
within the recollection of botanist- yet living, who
and cooperated in the rapid ascendency of this discipl
In this instance plants are treated from the biol
• / 1 y ^ *
188 Philosophy of Botany.
point, as living organisms developing in definite phases of
growth and reproduction with regard to their affinities among
themselves, their analogies to animal and human life, their
dependencies from the elements in which they are placed, the
mutual dependencies among themselves, as also upon animal
life, and ultimately the human race itself. Even the function
of the human intellect is shown to be intertwined with the
phenomena of their sensitiveness resembling volition. With
the scrutiny of the origin and meaning of life they help to
transport us in the sphere of philosophy, the sublime terminus
of science.
The earlier phases of the development of any particular sci-
ence cannot be followed up otherwise than along the line of
general intellectual progress, following the plan of gradual
specializations. How this process evolved in the struggles
with the floods and eddies of history I wish to depict within
the smallest possible compass, with the special aim to point
out the interferences which even at this day have not ceased
to make themselves felt. I intend to proceed like a navigator
who sails around a continent, directing his course from prom-
ontory to promontory. To follow the coast line and explor-
ingly to ascend the rivers would be the work of an historian.
The birthplace of all ideal creations of the human mind and
also of the natural sciences is ancient Athens, and the origin
of scientific botany is one of the latest fruits which matured
from the flowery epoch of Greece. Great statesmen, heroes,
genial artists, poets, and philosophers had in unbroken suc-
cession followed each other in the interval of one hundred and
fifty years betAveen the battles of Salamis and Arbela, and the
Hellenic genius appeared to exhaust itself in the luxuriance of
its productions. The first school of philosophy was a natural
philosophy, known under the name of the Ionian school. It
originated with Thales, the Milesian, who first calculated the
length of the year to be three hundred and sixty-five days, and
was the first who predicted a solar eclipse and called water the
passive principle in nature. His friend and disciple was An-
aximander, also born in Miletus. He taught that the universe,
though variable in its parts, as one whole is immutable. The
invention of the sundial is ascribed to him. Anaximenes, also
Philosophy of Botaott.
a Milesian, born B.C. 556, conceived the air or ether end
with a divine principle and the celestial bodies of i'ut\ nature
Anaxagoras, of Clazomene, taught philosophy in Athens B.C.
500, and among his pupils were Euripides, the tragedian; the
orator and statesman, Pericles; Socrates, and Themistocles.
He originated the idea of the dualism of mind and matter.
For his assertion that the so-called divine miracles of the times
were nothing more than common natural effects he was
cused of impiety toward the gods, thrown into prison, con-
demned to death, and barely escaped through the influence of
Pericles. He fled to Lampsacus, where he ended his da
exile.
The antagonism between learning and Polytheism had com-
menced, and became from day to day more apparent. The
natural result of such a state of things was to force the philos-
ophers to practice concealment and mystification, as is strik-
ingly shown in the history of the Pythagoreans.
This school was started by Pythagoras in Croton, in L
Italia, a province called Grecia Magna. Pythagoras had lived
a long time in Egypt among the priests of Thebes, by whom
he was introduced into their religious secrets. All wisdom and
learning was held there by the sacerdotal class, and their ten-
ets were kept concealed from the common populace, which
was taught to receive with submission and obedience the doc-
trines and tenets of the order. The independent I [ellenic char-
acter would, however, not bend to such rulings, and they could
only practice their tenets within their own fraternity.
Pythagoras was born in Samos in the time of Tarquinius
Superbus. He was the rirst to use the term "philosophus."
Out of esteem for his sublime wisdom the people would call
him " Sophos " (the wise one). He declined this honor, saj
ing that he was only a philosophus. a friend of wisdom. I he
most important dogma of his school is the assertion that the
divinity is the soul of the world, of which the human soul is
an emanation, and that it will revert again Into the former
after its migrations through many bodies, He laid a firm
foundation for the science of mathematics among the Greeks.
Besides the Pythagorean flourished also the Eleatic 5<
of philosophers, of which Xenophanes. of Kolophon, i- tin-
190 Philosophy of Botany.
founder. The basis of their doctrine was Pantheism, the un-
ion of all things into one indivisible whole ; that God and the
world are one and the same.
From these schools, which were engaged in speculating
about the nature and origin of things, we turn now to the So-
cratic school, of which Socrates, the son of Sophroniscus (B.C.
469), was the founder. His father was a statuary, and his
mother, Phaenarete, a midwife. In his youth he followed the
trade of his father, and became a successful artist. Later, and
under the protection of Crito, a wealthy Athenian, to whom
he served as an instructor of his children, he gave up his occu-
pation and attached himself to the school of Anaxagoras,
Archelaus, and others, and became master of every kind of
learning which the age in which he lived could afford. For
three times in succession he also served his country in military
capacity with great distinction. After he had reached an age
of nearly fifty-six years, he, for a while, served in a civil office
in the- Senate of the Five Hundred. From his wide experience
in public life he had regretfully observed how much the opin-
ions of the Athenian youth were misled and their principles
and taste corrupted by philosophers, who spent all their time
in refined speculations upon the nature and origin of things,
and by sophists, who taught in their schools the arts of false
eloquence and deceitful reasoning. To amend this evil he
conceived the wise and generous design of instituting a new
and more useful method of instruction. He justly concluded
the true end of philosophy to be, not to make an ostentatious
display of learning, and oratory, but to free mankind from the
dominion of pernicious prejudices, to correct their vices, to in-
spire them with the love of virtue, and thus conduct them over
the path of wisdom to true felicity. His method of instruc-
tion was in the form of dialogue, in which he endeavored with-
out persuasion to deduce the truths of which he wished to con-
vince a person as a necessary consequence of his own conces-
sions. His favorite maxim was : " Whatever is above us does
not concern us." He estimated the value of knowledge by its
utility, and recommended the study of geometry, astronomy,
and other sciences only so far as they admit of practical appli-
cation to the purposes of human life.
PHJXOSOrHY OF BoTAX Y. 191
Cicero said of him that he was the first who called down
Philosophy from heaven to eartli and introduced her Into the
public walks and domestic retirements of nun, thai she might
instruct them concerning life and manners.
His continuous, severe arraignment of the horde of SOp
hypocritical priests, and selfish politicians gave rise to a p
of dangerous and unscrupulous enemies. His endeavor •
graft upon the mind of the youth the idea of the exist*
one supreme Being threatened the interests of tin priestfa 1.
who stirred up the fanaticism of the common people 1>\ de-
nouncing him as a contemptor of the gods. Although he wa-
in the seventieth year of his age, they could not await his
ural demise. The accusation was delivered to the Senate in
the name of Melitus, and read thus: " Melitus. son of Melitus,
of the tribe of Pythos, accuseth Socrates, son of Sophroniscus,
of the tribe of Alopeces. Socrates violates the law in not ac
knowledging the gods, which the State acknowledges, and bj
introducing new divinities. He also violates the laws by cor-
rupting the youth. Be his punishment death." Aft it a mock
trial, he was condemned to be put to death by the poison of
hemlock. Thus died one of the most virtuous men. a victim
to priestcraft and unscrupulous politicians.
With truth Socrates said at the close of his speech in self-
defense to the judges who had condemned him: "It is now
time that we depart — I to die, you to live; but which has the
better destiny is unknown to all except God." His memory
was honored and his name immortalized by two oi his disci-
ples, who became his biographers, Xenophon and Plato. It
was also a blessed termination of an advanced period of life
to die in behalf of virtue and morality.
After the passing away of Socrates, other schools arose pro-
fessing to be founded upon his principles — the Megaric, headed
by Euclid; the Cyrenaic, founded by Aristippus; and the l
ical school, originated by Antisthenes. It is a melanchol} aa
pect to contemplate the sudden upset of sublime thought into
moral mire of those sophistical extremists. The name oi
Diogenes, of Sinope, has come down to us as an inimitable ex-
ample of a humorous pessimist. This temporary eclipse ol
the Hellenic genius soon passed over, recognized as a discred-
192 Philosophy of Botany.
itable delusion. Like a metempsychosis of the soul of Soc-
rates, his chief disciple, Plato, continued and embellished the
work of his master. To the bent of mind attained in the so-
ciety of Socrates within eight or ten years he added all that
could be obtained from the philosophers of Egypt, Cyrene,
Persia, and Tarentum. Of noble and illustrious parentage,
lie numbered Solon among his ancestors ; also possessing the
advantage of wealth, he concluded to establish a school in the
grove of Hecademus. There he devoted himself to science,
and spent the last years of a long life in the instruction of
youth, and, arriving at the eighty-first year of his age, died from
gradual decay of nature. His portrait is preserved to this day
in antique gems, but the most lasting monuments of his genius
are his writings, which have been transmitted without material
injury to the present time.
The powerful effect of the writings of Plato is equally pro-
duced by their external form as by their internal value. The
elegant world of letters which so readily sacrifices the essence
of a literary production to the form in which it is presented
would never have paid such homage to Plato had it not been
for the art of presentation and introduction of his ideas, which
he knew how to handle in a masterly way. Even when he
chastises his sophistic adversaries with pungent ridicule, he
never passes beyond the limits of decency and dignity.
All his works are rendered in dialectic form, displaying an
equally philosophical and poetical style. Various as were the
models of literary style which he had before him, to none, how-
ever, was he more indebted than to Aristophanes, the come-
dian, in depicting the life and actions of men. He also made
much use of Indian and Egyptian myths and mysteries, and
handled with great caution in those discussions questions
which penetrated into the field of the religious faith of his coun-
trymen. Many sentences are obscure and ambiguous to avoid
conflict. He knew of the dismal fate which shortly before his
day had overtaken Anaxagoras ; Diagoras, of Melos ; Prota-
goras, of Abdera ; and Prodicus, of Keos — all of whom were
prosecuted for alleged irreverence against the gods. The lat-
ter was first banished, his writings publicly burned and their
possession and sale interdicted, and he himself condemned ul-
Philosophy of Botany.
timately and executed. This is the first instance in the annals
of history of the procedure- of public combustion of condemned
writings.
While at this epoch several speculative, philosophical s :hools
nourished; the arts, dramatic poetry, and oratory had reached
the climax of perfection; and peace reigned on the
side of the Hellespont, the Macedonian campaign in Asia, the
culminating point in the strategy of ancient history, swept
over the Persian Empire, crushing the hereditary fo<
Greece. The daring and gifted son of the shrewd Philip of
Macedon, had in rapid strides subdued all the eastern nations
from the oasis of Jupiter Amnion to the distant Bactria. In
the short space of time between the battle on the Granicus
(June, B.C. 334) to the battle at Arbella and Gaugamela
tober, B.C. 331) the whole of the Persian Empire, with all its
outlying appendages, had, by right of conquest, become tin-
property of the victor. With the death of Darius (July, B.C.
330), Alexander became also the legitimate heir to 1 )ariu>, the
king, in accordance with Oriental custom and tradition-.
The unrestrained and ambitious Alexander came t<> a hah
only through the irrepressible objection of his entire army
after crossing the Indus in its upper course. IK- met and de-
feated there Porus, an independent ruler, in the populous and
rich Pendschab. Here the Macedonians for the first time
faced the peculiar Indian armament, a train of armed ele-
phants, who, though fierce and valiant fighters, could not with-
stand the undaunted valor of Alexander's warriors. The -:
of the Hyphasis, an eastern tributary of the Indus, on the foot
of the Himalayas, became the terminus ni his advance. Tin-
reduction of Persia was an act of policy and retribution, l'nr
ther extension of dominion would only glorify personal am-
bition, wrould be an impious frenzy. In a general council "t
war the return was insisted upon, and the order for return met
the greatest gratification of the soldiers, whose homesick
hearts grieved for Hellas and the I Olympian games. At the
end of the summer (B.C. 320) the home march was com-
menced, and continued into Persia under many difficulties ami
exposures. Engaged with plans for the consolidation *^i his
empire, he designed to make Babylon Ins future residence
7
194 Philosophy of Botany.
There his premature death ended his career, and the ungovern-
able expanse of territory became divided among his generals.
Great as were the political results of the Macedonian expedi-
tion, they were equaled by the intellectual. A longing had
taken hold of the minds to descend to the roots from which
sprung the fascinating Platonic ideas.
Penetrating into the tropical climate of India, with its di-
versified fauna of big or fierce species, gigantic vegetation dis-
played in impenetrable bamboo jungles, and entering into the
ancient seats of culture older than the one of the pyramid
builders, with a national character disposed to quiet contem-
plation, the conquerors were yet more amazed by the contrast
of life and manners of the conservative Indian people with
their own progressive, stormy, vacillating national life. Their
experiences — political, geographical, ethical — were destined to
prepare a reaction upon Grecian life and thought. The inter-
mixture of Greek elements among the immense throngs of
the Oriental nationalities sufficed only for a transient stir,
after which they relapsed again into their hereditary quietism.
The Greek character, on the contrary, took in much of the
novel and foreign element.
In the resulting new empires governed by Grecian rulers,
Grecian ideas were soon universally felt, but nowhere with
such lasting effect as in the domain of the Ptolemeans and
in the city founded by Alexander, Alexandria, the cardinal
point around which in the near future ruled the intellectual
progress of Europe for several centuries. It is an unparalleled
incident in history that the same period could produce a genius
competent to understand the existing philosophical systems
and to remodel and enlarge all sciences (Aristotle), and also
a hero of cultivated mind, attentive to progress, and unlimited
ability for execution (Alexander).
Aristotle was born in Stagyra, a town in Thracia, belong-
ing to the dominion of Philip, king of Macedon, B.C. 384. He
was the favored disciple of Plato, and remained in the acad-
emy to the time of the death of his master, when he was thirty-
seven years of age. Philip, having heard of his extraordinary
abilities, invited him to his court, and put him in charge of his
son, Alexander, who was then (B.C. 343) fifteen years of age.
r„
ll-OS(>l'JlY Ol |>it| AW.
Honored with the esteem and confidence of the king, h<
joyed a true filial attachment of the juvenile Alexan
whom he remained until he opened his Asiatic camp;
After Aristotle had thus left his pupil, th
friendly correspondence, in which the philosopher ;
upon Alexander to employ his increasing power and wealth in
the service of philosophy by furnishing him in his retirement
with the means of enlarging his acquaintance with nature
Alexander responded to this request with an abundant supply
of specimens of objects of natural history from both animal
and vegetable kingdoms, and which were either maintained in
zoological gardens or preserved in a museum. Upon this
lection he composed a work of fifty volumes on the history of
animated nature, only ten of which are now extant. II-
wrote on the nature of plants, and collected notes and obser
vations from scattering writings on natural history for centu-
ries before him. He arranged his objects in systematic d
sition, created a scientific language for exact definition, and
taught the graduations into classes, genera, species, and indi-
viduals. This made him the creator and founder of natural
history.
He was an exceedingly productive writer, and his utterances
were the illuminating beacon of philosophy and science for all
nations for twenty centuries. 7 he writings generally received
under his name may be classed under the head- of
physics, metaphysics, mathematics, ethics, rhetoric, and p
After his departure from Alexander, Aristotle ret urn <
Athens and resolved to acquire the fame of a leader in philos-
ophy by founding a new sect, in opposition to the. academy.
and teaching a system of doctrines different from that of Plato.
He chose a place in the suburbs of Athens, a grove, called the
Lyceum. From his habit of walking while he delivered his
discourses his followers were called Peripatetics. He
tinued his school for twelve years.
The philosophical method of Aristotle is the inverse of that
of Plato., wdiose starting point was universal-, the very i
ence of which was a matter of faith, and from there he de-
scended upon particulars or details. Aristotle, on the con
trary, rose from particulars to universals, advancing t.. them
196 Philosophy of Botany.
by inductions : and his system, thus an inductive philosophy,
was in reality the true beginning of science.
Here it must be observed that, notwithstanding his correct
and scientific method, his time was not in possession of the
sufficient knowledge needed to support such a vast edifice as
he aimed to construct, and many of his statements are asser-
tions deficient in proof. The superiority of his abilities and
the novelty of his doctrines created him many rivals and
enemies, against whose assaults he was well shielded through
the influence of his friend, Alexander ; but after the death
of Alexander the fire of jealousy burst into a flame of per-
secution. Eurymedon, a priest, was instigated to accuse
him of holding and promulgating impious tenets. Opinions
of his, pointing to the denial of the necessity of prayers and
sacrifices, were to be resented as inimical to existing religious
institutions. Aristotle became apprehensive of meeting the
fate of Socrates, and concluded to retire and leave Athens. " I
am not willing/' says he, " to give the Athenians an opportu-
nity of committing a second offense against philosophy." He
departed for Chalcis, where he died in the sixty-third year of
his age.
When Aristotle withdrew from the charge of the Peripa-
tetic school in the Lyceum, his disciples importuned him to
nominate a successor. In compliance with their request, he
appointed to the chair one of his favorite pupils, Theophrastus.
B.C. 323. This philosopher was a native of Eresus, in Lesbos.
He had studied under Alcippus, Plato, and Aristotle. When
lie undertook the charge of the Peripatetic school, he con-
ducted it with such high reputation that he had about two
thousand scholars, among whom were Nicomachus, the son of
Aristotle, whom his father intrusted, by will, to his charge.
He lived to the advanced age of eighty-five. His last advice
to his disciples was that " since it is the lot of man to die as
soon as he begins to live, they would take more pains to enjoy
life as it passes than to acquire posthumous fame." He wrote
many valuable works, of which all that remain are two books,
" On the Natural History of Plants " and treatises " On Fossils
and Metaphysical Fragments." With this work he laid the
foundation of the scientific botany.
Philosophy of Botany. 19?
That some plants were known by specific names lonj
Aristotle and Theophrastus is quite evident. I »t main their
real or alleged wholesome or noxious qualities were kno
pharmacopolists, others to gardeners for adornments in us
religions ceremonies or for sorcery. Vintagers and agricul-
turists had made and collected observations and experii
with the cultivated plants, and much empyrical knowled
aid of success and profit in culture- had accumulated and
in general circulation. But efforts directed toward lucre and
increase of wealth only do not possess the elevating moral
character of science. This term signifies the operation of such
an intellectual energy which is spent in the discovery of t ruth
or the elimination from our judgments of that which is
impure, or confused.
Science begins as soon as the student commences to ana-
lyze critically observations made by himself or others, to a
ciate their relations, and to bring to light the remote or occult
sources of externally visible phenomena.
With this motive in his mind Aristotle founded the science
of nature in general, and Theophrastus became the fat '
scientific botany. Not only that, but he collected a surpris-
ing array of trite and simple observations upon native and
exotic species gathered from the columns of Hercules to the
plains of the Euphrates and the waters of the Indus, from the
cataracts of the Nile to the shores of the Pontus; he did not
confine his attention to vegetables of common utility only, but
he inquired with equal zeal into the nature of the humblest
plants when they appeared to him to confer to the solu
of general problems, which was the main object of hi- studies.
He queried: Wherein consists the difference between plant
and animal? Which are the organs of the plant: Wl
the function of root, stem, leaves, and fruit? To what age do
plants attain? What causes them to take on dii How
can their diseases be prevented or be remedied? What influ-
ence on their thrift exert heat or cold, moisture or dry
external injuries or excessive fruit bearing, can or negl<
cultivation, soil or climate? Can a plant originate sp
neously? Can one species transform itself into another
How do plants grown from seed differ from those grown from
198 Philosophy of Botany.
cuttings? With such and similar inquiries dealt Theophras-
tus. They were in the main the same ones which yet in our
day occupy the attention of the botanist.
It is in the proposition of these questions, rather than in the
answers to them, wherein the scientific maturity of the school
of Aristotle manifests itself. The preparatory studies which
ought to have preceded were as yet entirely insufficient. Verv
pointedly remarks Goethe : " If one takes a view of the prob-
lems of Aristotle, one is seized with surprise at the ingenuity
of observation and universality of attention by the Greeks.
Yet they fall into error from presumption, as they do, with
too much haste, jump from the phenomenon to the explanation
of its cause, whereby they construct incomplete and untenable
theories." Could any one of the two thousand attendants as-
sembled in the arcades of the Lyceum at Athens, listening to
the discourses of Theophrastus, have been brought to think
that the rearing of the scientific structure so auspiciously in-
itiated would soon experience a subsidence of nearly two thou-
sand years before the work could be continued and ultimately
carried to perfection as planned by its inventor? But the up-
heaval, political as well qs intellectual, of that age was so im-
mense that also the stability of philosophical principles be-
came affected. Greece and Macedonia were involved in con-
tinual rebellion and wars, reducing the population, laying
waste the land, destroying the industries. Last the Romans
found an opportunity to settle their quarrels. A Roman army
under the command' of Cecilius Metellus occupied Macedonia
after the defeat of the strategus Andronicus (B.C. 148), and
two years afterwards, in a renewed campaign, the whole of
Attica fell into the hands of the rude and ignorant Lucius
Mummius, who wantonly ruined and despoiled Corinth. The
whole of Greece was now annexed to the Roman Empire under
the administration of a Roman pnetor.
The policy of Alexander the Great to amalgamate, as it were,
Oriental and Greek culture utterly failed in the Asiatic States
by absorption of the Greek character into the Oriental. The
reverse occurred in the city of Alexandria, the capital of the
Ptolemeans.
I am glad to record here an act of Alexander which embel-
Philosophy 01 Boi any.
lished his philosophical and liberal chara much as
heroism and victories immortalized his nam. as
and statesman. When he built the city of V
peopled it with immigrants from various countries, opei
new seat for philosophy, he granted a general indulj
the promiscuous crowd assembled in this rising city, wl ■
Egyptians, Grecians. Jews, or others, to profess th<
tive systems of philosophy and religion without mol
The consequence was that Egypt was seoti filled with i
and philosophical sectaries of every kind, and particularly
almost every Grecian sect found an advocate and pro!
Alexandria.
The family of the Ptolemies, who, after Alexander obtained
the government of Egypt, from motives of policy and Ders
enlightenment, encouraged this new establishment. Ptolemy
Lagns removed the schools of Athens to Alexandria. In or-
der to provide in Alexandria a permanent residence for I
ing and philosophy, he laid the foundation of a library, which
after his time became exceedingly famous; granted phil
phers of every class immunity from public offices; and encour
aged science and literature with royal munificence. His
cessor, Ptolemy Philadelphia, added to the library, and in-
stituted a college of learned men. who. that they might have
leisure to prosecute their studies, were maintained at the pub-
lic expense.
The ethical character of this period displayed a marked in-
clination to utilitarianism, and. with the development of wealth
and luxury, a desire to adorn refined sensualism with I
physical speculations. In such times may only such lean
and such sciences flourish which are applicable to external
wants, as are mathematics, mechanics, ph; nd m<
cine.
In the natural sciences the Alexandrian school continued
to build upon the foundation laid by Aristotle and Theo-
phrastus, but unfortunately assumed again much of the s\
ulative way of Plato. Physiology and anatomy, chen
and botany profited by it. Herophilus and
founded two opposing medical schools. The former ann<
botany to the medical curriculum.
200 Philosophy of Botany.
Under the last of the Ptolemies appeared the celebrated bot-
anist, Dioscorides, whose writings stood out as the guide and
groundwork in botany for the Arabs as well as the Occidental
nations to mediaeval times.
Alexandria can also boast of having produced or supported
Eratosthenes, Euclid, and Archimedes in mathematics, and
Hipparchus, the greatest astronomer of ancient time.
Of the many writings of Dioscorides have been preserved
his work, " De Materia Medica," and the "Alexipharmaca ; or,
About Poisons and Antidotes." His death occurred toward
the end of the first century of the Christian era, while the fame
of the Alexandrian school was yet at its climax.
Philosophy during this period suffered a grievous corruption
from the attempt which was made by philosophers of different
sects and countries — Grecian, Egyptian, Oriental — who were
assembled in Alexandria to frame from their different tenets
one general system of opinions. Herein originated Neo-Pla-
tonism, a religious philosophy, distinguished for the conflict it
maintained with the rising power of Christianity. Its author
was Plotinus, an Egyptian, born about A.D. 204.
Another outcrop of this connubium is the Cabbala, a Jewish
sect. This system contains some profound tenets, polluted
with many erratic superstitions. One of these asserts that
God had imprinted upon all plants certain marks, from which
the initiated and gifted could read their manifold qualities.
Adam, in paradise, is said to have been instructed by God him-
self, but to have lost the secret when he was expelled from
paradise. It was revealed again unto Solomon. The name of
one of our liliaceous plants, " Solomon's seal " (Polygonatum
officinale), points to this myth. (Doctrine of signatures.)
The poetical, romantic, and inquisitive spirit of the Aris-
totelian time had died out. One part of humanity was de-
pressed by intellectual inertia produced from absolute realism
or sensual debauchery ; the other lay chained by remorseless
oppressors, with no hope to free themselves by their own
valor. The hearts of men ached with a desire for a new order
in the affairs of humanity, grieved with a desire for some
source of delivery.
Not one of the countries subiect to the Roman rule had suf-
Philosophy of I J< >t a n v. 801
fered a greater degradation than Judea, at that time \
by the vicious tyrant, Antipater. More vivid than ever b
in the hardest trials grew the expectancy of tin- pious k
the advent of the deliverer, the messenger of Jehovah, who
should, as promised by the prophets, deliver them from their
oppressors and be the God-appointed King over th<
people, to reside in Jerusalem. The learned classes of Syria
and Palestine were habitually disposed to disputations upon
the meaning of their own ancient religious literature. The
Hebrew language was already a dead language and the holy
writings in the hands of the Levites and the scribe- as inter-
preters. The ancient creed divided in three opposing -
one of which, the sect of the Esseniens, distinguished them-
selves by their religious devotion and purity of life. Among
the Esseniens formed a separate society, who endeavored t<>
perfect themselves by acts of penitence and self-inflicted tor-
ments, the Nasireans. John the Baptist was a member of this
sect. He was a cousin of Jesus, taught the doctrines of the
Esseniens, urging his hearers to repentance and good conduct,
and immersed in water, as an emblem of purification, all those
who promised to follow his exhortations. When Jesus (the
son of Joseph and Mary, of poor, but noble, lineage I came
to him, he also submitted to this symbol, and was then de-
clared by John as the expected Messiah. Without doubting
the correctness of the statement as given by the evangelists,
there is, however, a large scope for comment by the student <>;
the comparative history of religions. The Essenien doctrines
were very much the same as those of the Buddhists, rhey
also used ablutions in water as a symbol of purification of tin
heart. In like manner did the Buddhists, on command of their
master, send out missionaries in all lands to spread their doc-
trines.
In this simple and unpretending language of Christ exhort
ing to justice, love, and forbearance; in the exalted example
of his pure and noble life, the fidelity ^\ In- mission sealed by
his death, humanity received the guide to the accomplishment
of the heavenly promise of peace t<> man upon earth, to the
only one possible happiness in a necessarily imperfect world.
But he was ill understood during hi- own life even by those
202 Philosophy of Botany.
nearest to him, and humanity proved itself unworthy of his
promise at his ultimate departure that he would send that Holy
Spirit that would teach them every truth ; for truth nearly two
thousand years had to pass before this Holy Spirit could as-
sert his influence in the revelations of science. Christianity,
however, is not a reform of Judaism, a mere advance beyond
Philo, but a synthesis of the Semitic and Aryan thought, and
its strength lies in its power to calm the cravings of the heart
and satisfy the postulates of reason. On these premises will
stand the Christianity of the future.
Far removed as the essence of the divinity is in the ancient
Jewish faith, even as close are both the natures drawn together
through the idea of the Logos, a concept of thoroughly Greek
origin, explained already by Heraclitus, Zeno, and Athenag-
oras. Christianity, confined to Jerusalem, would never have
advanced beyond the Talmud. Its influence on the world at
large began with the conversion of men who then represented
the world, who stood in the front rank of philosophical
thought, who had been educated in the schools of Greek phi-
losophy, and who, in adopting Christianity as their religion,
showed to the world that they were able honestly to reconcile
their own philosophical convictions with the religious and
moral teaching of Jesus of Nazareth. Those who are truly
called the fathers and founders of the Christian church were
not the simple-minded fishermen of Galilee, but men who had
received the highest education which could be obtained at that
time ; that is, Greek education. In Alexandria, at that time
the very center of the world, it had to either vanquish the
world or to vanish. In the Catechetical school in Alexandria
it took a definite form. St. Paul had made a beginning as a
philosophical apologete, but St. Clements was a far superior
champion to the new faith.
It is unmistakably true that in the early days the Christian
mind was inclined to demonstrate in the order of this universe
and from the beauty of nature the greatness and benevolence
of its author. Such a bent of the mind to glorify the divinity
through the description of its works created a taste for descrip-
tions of natural scenery. Some beautiful versions are found
in the homilies of ecclesiastical writers in the time of Ter-
I HILOSOPHY OF DO! ANY.
tullian. This disposition of a purely emotional chan
might have in time of social quietude assumed a prom
to the inquiry into the intellectual causation of natural phe-
nomena and reestablished ilu Aristotelian methods.
To the great detriment of Christianity, ultimately to the
fate of humanity, the Christian teachings were interv.
with accounts of miracles, quite unessential as to the validity
of the precepts, even incompatible with the dignity of the Ma-
ter in the consideration of the enlightened and philosophicall)
inclined. More than any other weakness of human nature
did the forcible burdening of the consciences with unprovable
tenets extinguish in the hearts of men the divine love and for-
bearance kindled by the Master. When the light of n
is put out, error becomes incorrigible and faith turns into fa-
naticism.
The fateful disposition of the human mind to anticipate
events before the law of causation is comprehended or appre-
ciated, invites premature speculation, credulity, superstition.
Preferment of the decisions of authority in the present
contradictory, established physical laws and dictate- of plain
reasoning is a vicious or perverted constitution of the will, the
eternal enemy of truth and science, the Pandora box of his-
tory, the object of active and unrelenting warfare, and will
find its overthrow through the improved arms and methods of
the natural sciences.
Should a continuous progress of the science- only be de-
picted, one should stop with the era ^\ the Ptolemeans and
the names of Dioscorides, Archimedes, Manetho, and Hip-
parchus, or Euclid, and resume again the thread <^i history wit
the close of the thirty-years' war. the last religious war,
the treaty of peace at Schmalkalden in the year A.D [648.
This was the first international pledge for parity of relif
confessions.
Such a psychological condition hovered over the mysl
brooding minds of mankind at all time-, with ever l< -
by reason and experience, the farther back we reach in the
annals of history: fate and de-tune- of mortal- a play ball
thrown about in the heavenly court- for the amusement ol
the gods. Deeper minds only recognized tin " irrevocable fa-
204 Philosophy of Botany.
turn " to which even the gods had to bow. That all events in
space and times are subject to unimpeachable laws was not
understood at all or very imperfectly comprehended. Men
had an estimate of the ordinary course of things from a limited
experience. To interrupt or to set aside the rules of govern-
ment in the physical and ethical world was held to be an undis-
puted privilege of the gods. A fear of this power invited ven-
eration and worship. A breach in the laws of nature was with
them an incontrovertible evidence of divine power. When
the silent and undesigned beginnings of the new creed in sal-
vation by faith crystallized itself around the person of the
great teacher, Jesus of Nazareth, the Redeemer, the legendary
Orientalic persuasion was largely called in aid for the accred-
iting of his person, and was accepted as an essential part of
the first apostolic creed and catechism as composed in the
Cathechetical school in Alexandria, where also the first ecclesi-
astic or episcopal establishments were organized.
The study of the historical development of Christianity
confirms the sad experience that men will convert into disas-
ter what God had bestowed upon them for a blessing, and
that ambition and creed will seize upon religion the same as
they do likewise upon patriotism and every other noble in-
spiration.
The simple teaching of pure truth had been estranged from
its original designs long before Constantine the Great had
raised it to the dignity of the religion of the empire through
the organization of the hierarchy, the establishment of dog-
matic systems, and the parade of a pompous service, mak-
ing it subservient to the wants of government, the enter-
tainment of the masses, and the pride of the nobility. By
these methods became Christianity completely adapted to step
into the place of the old pagan religion, and Constantine acted
fully in conformity with the spirit of his age when he accepted
the new faith.
These events were absolutely fatal to the maintenance of
a spirit of inquiry. Wisdom and learning degenerated, espe-
cially in sequel of a totally changed system of education and
instruction by conferring the care and supervision over the
schools upon the Christian clergy, in opposition to the rhetors
Philosophy of BOTAm .
of Athens, Antiochia, and Ephesus, who still maintained the
old doctrines.
The plan of the new system intended to discourage individ-
ual, independent thought. The youth was to be brougl I
humility, faithfulness, and " laissez-faire " manners. Men of
strength of character and self-reliance were considered dan
gerous to the hierarchy and its dictates. In place of th< |
philosophers, orators, and historians of the old time, which
had formerly served as manuals of instruction to the stud
the holy writs of the Old Testament were supplanted. A re-
ligion which was originally intended for the awakening of pi-
ous emotion/love, and justice, and which was well preached by
the untaught apostles and their followers, was converted into
a collection of sophistical subtleties, and attendance to dispu-
tations and partaking in ecclesiastic ceremonies formed the
prominent entertainments of the society of those days.
I had to interrupt the chronologic order to forestall tin-
events under whose influence the Christian clergy acquired
control of the education of the youth in the Eastern Empire to
bring it in closer connection with the same events in the V
ern Empire.
The great c'\\'\\ war, the contest for supremacy beta
Caesar and Pompejus, had ended with the defeat of the
in the battle of Pharsalus. which sealed the downfall of the
Roman republic, the occupation of Egypt 1 \ Cfesar, tl
sassination of the dictator. Then followed the tragic death
of Cleopatra, the last heir to the Ptolemean throne; the in-
corporation of Egypt into the Roman Empire under a Roman
pnptor. All these revolutions exerted but little influence
upon the Alexandrian schools. At the time of the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem the Sceptics and Gnostics shared equal au-
thority. Within a short period Christianity had mad
many conversions, and came into ascendency, and Alexandria
became one of the three rivaling bishoprics, the othei I
ing Constantinople and Rome.
The Christian church had been divided in regard to admin-
istration and tenets from the very beginning. For a while
tolerance and even liberality prevailed toward diffei
opinion. Not until the council ^>\ \ica-a appeared the nam.-
206 Philosophy of Botany.
of " heretic " in a vindictive sense, and an equality of rights of
membership was observed solely upon the confession of the
apostolic creed. The first act of grave violence was com-
mitted by Theophilus, .bishop of Alexandria, in the destruction
of the Seraphim, the most magnificent structure in the East,
the relic of the statesmanship of Alexander's captains, the con-
necting link between the ancient cult of Egypt and free-think-
ing Greece.
From this period on there was no longer any thought of sci-
ence. The sects became numerous, their contests violent ; the-
ological discussions ended in bloody riots and wholesale mur-
ders. The religious sermons delivered in the churches were
accompanied by clapping of the hands and shouting of the
audience, like theatrical performances.
In the midst of raving and wrangling of sects between
Aryans, Nestorians, Monophysites, Eutychians, and the mu-
tual anathematizing of rioting powers appeared the Khalifa
Omar, with his invincible army, who entered the gates of the
city, burned the museum and great library, and the dark cloud
of Moslem fanaticism henceforth overshadowed the realm of
the Pharaohs.
The appearance of Mohammed and the promulgation of his
religion was adverse to progress in science and philosophy dur-
ing the first ages of Islam. This impostor thought it neces-
sary to keep his followers as ignorant as himself. That he
might at ®nce cut off impertinent contradiction, he issued an
edict which made the study of liberal sciences and arts a cap-
ital offense. At the same time to captivate the imaginations
of his ignorant followers, and thereby establish his authority,
he sent forth in separate portions a sacred book, to which he
gave the name of the Koran, containing the doctrines and pre-
cepts of his religion. This book, which was chiefly a compila-
tion, sufficiently injudicious and incoherent, from the books
of the Nestorians, the Jews, and ancient Arabic superstitions,
long continued the only object of study among the Mohamme-
dans. Their reverence for this holy book, the leaves of which,
they were taught to believe, were communicated to the prophet
by an angel from heaven, long superseded every philosophical
and literary pursuit. Imagining that the Koran contained
Philosophy 01 Boi
everything necessary or useful to be known, what
trary to its dogmas was immediately condemned as erroi
and whatever was not found in this sacred volume
missed as superfluous.
After the extinction of the < Immiades, who trod in!
footsteps of Mohammed, the accession of the famil)
sides to the Khalifat opened again the dawning of philos
in the East.
Of all the ancient peoples, none perhaps were less incl
to materialistic conceptions than the Romans. With a
gion deeply rooted in superstition was their public life
wrapped up in fanatical bigotry. Dominion they rated ..
wealth, fame above welfare, conquest above- all. A philo-
sophical school was attempted in Rome in the time of Cato.
the censor; but he, fearing that philosophical studies w
effeminate the spirit of the young men, sternly dismiss*
Cato himself was not illiterate, for he wrote a celebrated trea-
tise upon agriculture, and was acquainted with the Pytl
rean tenets.
Lucullus, while he was questor in Macedonia, and after-
wards, when he had the conduct of the Mithridatic war. had
frequent opportunities to converse with Grecian philosophers,
whence he acquired such a relish for philosophical studies
that afterwards, returned to Rome, he made a large collection
of valuable books and erected a library, with galleries and
schools adjoining. This place became the daily re-.»rt for
men of letters, where every one enjoyed the benefit of read
ing or conversation, as best suited to his taste. At a little
later period M. Terrentius Varro wrote a work touching Upon
natural history, " De Re Rustica " on agriculture.
In the year B.C. 106 was born Marcus Tulliua Cicei
Arpinum. This illustrious Roman, who eclipsed all his
temporaries in eloquence, has also acquired no small shai
reputation as a philosopher. His eventful and merit..-
life has been as much praised and admired as his t-
has been deplored and lamented. He addicted himself t<> the
principles of the middle academy, a branch n\ tile old acad
or strictly Platonic school. In hi- treatise, " I »«
rum "—on the nature of the gods— and "Questiones T
208 Philosophy of Botany.
lanae " — Tusculan researches — he effected a complete over-
throw of the Olympian gods, exposing the unworthiness of
such conceptions of divine nature. Of his philosophic works,
" Hortensius," which did not come down to us, the celebrated
ecclesiastic writer, Augustine, confesses that the study of this
work was to him a powerful stimulus to the pursuit of wisdom.
Equally aggressive against the ancient faith is the didactic
poem, " De Rerum Natura " — on the nature of things — by
Titus Lucretius Carus. He was born in the year B.C. 99.
Very little is known about his private life, which he seems to
have passed remote from the tumults of the civil war. He
was an Epicurean, and his great poem, which he dedicated to
his friend, the poet Memmius, conferred, more than any other
writing, at the restoration of the sciences and toward the re-
vival, illustration, and rehabilitation of the doctrines of Epi-
curus. By this time all the old schools of Greek philosophy
were well represented in Rome, and we see that, as Alex-
andria had sapped Athens, thus Rome was now sapping Alex-
andria. Public patronage was divided between the Stoic and
Epicurean tenets, the latter becoming prevalent under the
rule of Augustus. All the gay and mirthful intellects of the
poetical circle attached to the person of Maecenas, and as-
sembling at the jovial Court of Augustus, were followers of
Epicurus. According to Epicurus' doctrine, happiness is the
highest object and good of life. This happiness was referred
to the soul as an inseparable element of the body. As a natu-
ral consequence of this opinion, exploration and observation
were held to be the main object of philosophy. The vitality
of the scientific germ was thus preserved, although it remained
dormant for ages to come.
The Stoics held purity of morals, self-control, and contempt
of sensual pleasure for the main object of life. In the times
of adversities the Stoics proved themselves true to their prin-
ciples. When under the reign of Tiberius and Nero, every
kind of abomination was practiced openly, and every enjoy-
ment of life became poisoned with fear and shame, the Epi-
cureans retired. The Stoics alone fought the battle against
vice and oppression, and fell victims with unshaken fortitude,
like Seneca and hundreds of Christians.
Philosophy of Botani .
Augustus himself was a patron of literature and
Many persons of the highest distinction in Rome were tin-
same way inclined, and during his reign so generally pi
lent was the study of philosophy that almosl ever nan.
lawyer, and man of letters was conversant with the writings
of philosophers. The period of his reign, and of several of his
successors, was distinguished in cultivated taste and el
manners, going down to posterity as the Augustai Thai
taste continued, even under those emperors who were more
addicted to pleasure than to wisdom. Ultimately, in tin- •
ess of time, in the Christian era it went under through the
interminable theological strifes, and that monstrous produc-
tion of monkish ignorance, the Scholastic philosophy.
The poetic and philosophic work- issuing under the
Augustan palladium, entirely lost sight of the progi
because inductive procednre of Aristotelian investigation,
reverting to Platonic and Epicurean sublimities,
after the ideal, obscure, and unknowable, treating with con-
temptuous neglect those obvious realities out of which
generations were destined to construe a higher civilization.
Many sublime but fruitless conjectures are avowed in tin-
classics of that time. Thus Virgil, in the fourth
rives the origin of things, after the Stoics, from a divine prin-
ciple pervading the whole mass of matter :
His quidam signis etque haec exempla BecutI,
Esse apibus partem divinae mentis, et haustus
Aethereos dixere: Deum namoue Ire per omi
Terresque, tractusque mans, coelumque profundum.
Hinc pecudes, armenta. viros. genus omne f.-iaruin.
Quemque sibi tenues nascentem arcessere vitas.
Scilicet hue reddi deinde, ac resoluta, referrl
Omnia, nee morti esse lorum. Bed viva volar.-.
Sideris in nun.erum atque alto Buccedere coelo.
_1\ . < .. ■ . it.
Led by such wonders, Bages have opined
That bees have a portion of b heavenly mind;
That God pervades, and. like one common BOUl,
Fills, feeds, and animates the world i great whole;
That 'flocks, herds, beasts, and nun from hln
Their vital breath; in him all move and live;
"210 Philosophy of Botany.
That souls discerpt from him shall never die,
But back resolved to God and heaven shall fly,
And live forever in the starry sky. — I. Warton.
In another place the poet introduces Anchyses philosophiz-
ing upon the same principles :
Principio coelum, ac terras, camposque liquentes
Lucentemque globum lunae, Titaniaque astra,
Spiritus intus alit, totamque infusa per artus
Mens agitat molem, et magno se corpore miscet.
Aen. VI., V. 724.
Know first a spirit with an active flame
Pervades and animates the mighty frame.
Runs through the watery worlds, the fields of air,
The pondrous earth, the depths of heaven, and there
Glows in the sun and moon, and burns in every star.
'Thus mingling with the mass, the general soul
Lives in the parts and agitates the whole. — Pitt.
In another beautiful verse he gives utterance to the Stoical
mood, in honor of Lucretius:
Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas
Atque metus omnes et irrevocabile fatum
Subjecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari!
— Georg. II., v. v. 490.
Happy the man whose vigorous soul can pierce
Through the formation of this universe,
Who nobly dares despise, with a soul sedate,
The din of Acheron and vulgar fears and fate. — I. Warton.
Of the three greatest poets of this era, Virgil alone, in his
"" Georgica," occupies himself with the processes of organic
nature. Ovid, in his " Metamorphoses," in the touching idyl,
" Philemon and Baucis," expresses the belief of the ancients
about the divine government of the world, as subject to the
unrestrained discretion or pleasure of the gods in exact oppo-
sition to the modern idea of causation :
Immense est finemoue potentia coeli
Non habet, et quidquid superi voluere peract est.
Immense and unlimited is the power of the gods;
And whatever be their wishes, perfected it is.
Philosophy of Botany, -l i
Agriculture was the only one of the exact sciences which the
Romans cultivated with fondness and success. Since an
times it had been well attended to in Italy and Sicily. I
the Older had excelled as an agricultural author. Columella,
who lived in the time of Nero, spent his literary talent for the
revival of love of husbandry; Terentius Varro laid down the
rules for pruning grapevines; Cornelius Celsus flourished
celebrated physician and botanist.
The influence of nature upon the intellectual life of man
seems to have been first conceived by Plinius the ( Mder, who,
stimulated by this idea, resolved to compose a work which
should give an account of all objects of nature which had here-
tofore become known. This remarkable man enjoyed th<
teem and friendship of Trajan, to whom he was an advisor in
affairs of State. He gave his work the title: " Historia
Naturalis." As it is not strictly systematic it should be
called an Encyclopedia. Such works issue now from
ciations only of scientists, but Plinius undertook the
task upon his personal erudition and resources, extracted from
the works of not less than 2,500 publications of precedin
contemporaneous authors. In style and depth of research, it
is vastly inferior to the Aristotelian work, which it was in-
tended to supersede. The Grecian being equally great in in-
venting and observing, comparing all things critically,
thoughtfully penetrating, giving new forms; the Roman,
collecting with indefatigable zeal and industry, but void of
individual judgment and personal observation, neither a critic
nor a specialist. The botanical part of the book is tin-
conducted because he took Dioscorides for his guide.
The work happily escaped the ravages of the times, and be-
came for the Middle Ages the foundation For the stud) of tin-
natural sciences. In behalf of the service it rendered to the
contemporaries it is entitled to the credit to have, by methodic
exposition, raised natural science to the dignity of philosophy.
Taking up again the thread of history in Africa, we are trans-
lated to a period when the Christian religion had mad.- |
progress. A thorough ecclesiastic organization with 9
bishoprics represented the secular power and dignity of the
church.
212 Philosophy of Botany.
Here we meet the ever memorable personage of Augustinus,
the Bishop of Hippo. He was born at Tagaste, in Africa,
A.D. 354; studied philosophy at Carthage and afterwards in
Rome. Inclined to dissipation in his youth, he took on an ac-
tive change of his mind after he had become conversant with
the writings of Cicero. They had improved his taste and in-
spired him with an ardent love for wisdom. Not meeting
with the satisfaction he expected from the Greek and Roman
writers, he applied himself to the study of the holy Scriptures.
While in Rome he undertook the profession of rhetoric.
From this engagement and his skeptical turn he became in-
volved in irksome controversies, to evade which he moved to
Milan. While there, and before his return to his native land,
to accept the Bishopric of Hippo, he gained the friendship of
Ambrosius, Bishop of Milan, a Christian teacher of great elo-
quence and probity. In his works he shows great attach-
ment to the Platonic system, and in one chapter of the book.
" De Civitate Dei," (The City of God), he treats natural the-
ology in the manner of Plato. He is inclined to think that
all objects, besides animals, are in some way endowed with
souls, and advances the idea of a possible spontaneous gener-
ation, as he could not otherwise explain the existence of ani-
mal life upon oceanic islands, far removed from the continents.
He proposed that from the beginning of the world two kinds
of seeds of the living beings had existed : one, the visible,
which the Creator had implanted in animals and plants ; that
each, after his own manner, should propagate itself ; the other,
an invisible one, which lies latent in all elements, and becomes
active only by particular proportions of mixture of matter and
degrees of temperature. This seed, lying latent in the ele-
ments, since primordial times, he thought would produce
plants and animals in great multitudes without the coopera-
tion of preexisting organisms. He did not controvert the
privilege of explaining a natural process in an intelligible way.
The orthodoxy of the present day would not allow him to
raise such a conflict with the Mosaic narration. He is the
most learned, and permanently, the most influential of the an-
cient fathers of the church. His firm belief in the reality of
miracles, his definite declaration that he would prefer a mira-
Philosophy 01 Botany.
cle to logical proof in an argument, has been, on account of his
authority with the faithful, a serious obstacle to the scientific
investigations of the truth. His writings mark the turning
point in the transformation of the classical philosophical style
into the mystic theologic dogmas and hierarchic aspirations
of the fifth century. The minds of the people in the Western
Empire, as well as in the Eastern Empire, had become
erally and so profoundly occupied with metaphysical mys-
ticism, and depraved through the fearful social corruption re-
sulting from it, that the love of knowledge fell into disn
and repudiation, and was declared nefarious.
Augustinus died during the siege, and only two days b<
the storming of Hippo by the Vandals, in the year 430.
The Vandals, a half-breed of Germanic and Sarmatic blood,
had, during the migration of the nations, overrun Spain, and
invaded from there the Roman province of Africa. ( »f all the
Germanic tribes they were the most cruel and and
their character had been little, or not at all. improved with
their adoption of the Christian faith. Tn 420 they bad cr<
the straits of Gibraltar under their leader. I reiserich. After a
fearful despoliation, lasting about one hundred years, their
dominion came to an end through an annihilating d<
which they sustained at the hand of Belizarius, whom Km-
peror Justinian had intrusted with the command of a large
army. Africa was now annexed to the Byzantine empire, un-
til fate soon again delivered it into other hands.
In the preceding chapters We left Alexandria silenced by the
scymetar, and dismantled, and thus tin- patriarchate of that
city ceased to have any further political influence in the ( hris-
tian system. In little more than one generation the whole "t
Northern Africa was converted and speaking Arabic.
With the rapidity of a storm advanced the fore "nar.
After Syria, Jerusalem, and Egypt had fallen int.. his hands In-
determined to advance upon the Roman province of \tt
His successor, Khalifa Abd-Almalik. completed the conquesl
intrusting his tried general. Emir Musa, with the onA:-
the campaign. Musa completely subjugated the Barbers and
retired to the capital of his own province, Kairawan, trans
214 Philosophy of Botany.
ferring the command in the extreme west upon the trusted
general, Tarik.
Having completed the conquest of the entire East, from the
Ganges to the Nile, and now of Africa, the Moslems, now
known under the name of Saracens, bethought themselves to
invade and convert to the Islam the reign of the Visigoths in
Spain.
The Khalifs had abandoned, ere this, the evil policy of
opposing science. They very soon became distinguished
patrons of learning. It became customary for the first digni-
taries of State to be held by men distinguished for their erudi-
tion. Under the Khalifs of Bagdad this principle was thor-
oughly carried out. The cultivators of mathematics, astron-
omy, medicine, and general literature abounded in the court
of Almansor, who invited all philosophers, offering them his
protection, whatever their religious opinion might be. His
successor, Al-Rashid, issued an edict that no mosque should be
built unless there was a school attached to it. The schools of
Alexandria flourished again under complete religious equality.
After the fall of Ceuta, the Visigothic outpost in Africa,
Tarik crossed the straits and took a fortified position with his
army on a mountain, afterwards named after him, Gabel al
Tarik, Gibraltar.
After the decisive victory in the battle of Xerres de la
Fontera, won by Musa, over the king of Goths, Roderic, who
in this calamity lost his life, the conquerors lost no time in
occupying the entire peninsula. •
Onlv the northern mountainous provinces of Gallicia.
Asturia, and Biscaya, maintained their independence. The
Gothic princely families had retreated into inaccessible
mountain fastnesses. Unapproachable in front, they were se-
cure in their rear, as they stood in friendly relations to the
neighboring Franks. From this asylum grew forth, at a later
period, a new Christian Spanish empire. Spain was now a
part of the great Moslem empire, whose Khalifs resided in
Bagdad, and later in Damascus. The provinces were gov-
erned by Satraps, appointed by the Khalifs, with the title of
Emirs.
The absolute freedom granted to all professions brought
Philosophy ot Bo
I A \ Y
about in a very short time a conflux of enterprising people and
rapid growth of industries, trade, and science. After the lapse
of two hundred years, during the reign of Abd-Errahman III.
(912-961), Spain had become the most prosperous empire,
with a population of 30,000,000, emulating Rome in tin- Au-
gustan time. Abd-Errahman was the first Spanish ( tmajade
who declared himself independent from the ( Oriental Khalifat.
From authentic documents we are informed that then
seventy large libraries and seventeen great schools, provided
with liberal endowments, elegantly furnished in palatial build-
ings. Students from distant Anglia, Germany, and France
flocked to the celebrated universities of Cordova, which num-
bered one million inhabitants; to Toledo. Granada, and Sevilla
to listen to the lectures of Averrhoes. of Cordova, the chief
commentator of Aristotle; Albucasis, the surgeon; Alha/.en,
the astronomer, who discovered the refraction of the atmos-
phere; Almaimon, who determined with nearly complete
curacy the obliquity of the ecliptic; Ben Musa, who intro-
duced the Indian numerals and invented the common method
of solving the quadratic equations. The works of Aristotle,
Theophrastus, and Dioscorides were translated and taught in
the schools.
Alhazen was the first to correct the Greek misconception as
to the nature of vision; determined the retina as the seal of
sight, and showed that the impression was carried by the optic
nerve to the brains. Many instances in physio are not better
explained nowadays than they were by him. The materia
medica was expounded in well-arranged pharmacopoeias. No
branch of art or science known at this period was neglected.
and advancement loomed up in the theoretical field as well as
the practical. This effulgent radiancy, however, found it>
counterpoint in the dark shadow of extravagant luxury, etfem
inating sensuality weakening the national valor. Wisdom
and mental acumen sunk to scholastic flippery; fatuous
ulations and that trifling witticism to which the Arab, by
national propensity and a spirit of language, is much add
and which found abundant fuel in the now prevailing religious
discussions.
The eastern Khalifat had already fallen into a tottering atti-
216 Philosophy of Botany.
tude through the division into the sects of Sonnites and
Shiites, which had been formed into violent political factions.
The Spanish Khalifs had been repeatedly overtaken by serious
disasters by their attempt to spread the Islam across the
Pyrenees. Their defeat at Tour by the united forces of the
Franks, under Karl Martell, terminated forever their advance
northward (October, 732).
The Goths, who had preserved their ancient valor, now de-
scended from their mountain fastnesses, harassing- the heredi-
tary foe with unceasing raids, taking advantage of the internal
feuds in the disorganized and weakened Sarcen dominions
One by one fell the open or fortified cities into the hands of the
kings of Castile and Aragone, who gave the defeated the choice
to either submit to forced conversion or to be burned at the
stake, by order of the Holy Inquisition.
In place of the toleration and equal rights before the law
for all nationalities and confessions granted three hundred
years ago by the conquering Saracens, the Spaniard now in-
stitutes the Inquisition, and as we will hereafter see, becomes,
at a later day, the merciless despoiler and executioner of two
other civilizations in the newly discovered Western Hem-
isphere. It is meet here to speak of this hellish institution,
which more than any other wickedness obstructed progress
and overwhelmed the best of men for their devotion to reason
and truth with ruin or cruel death. The device originated in
the plan to increase to an unlimited extent the power and
wealth of the church and its adherents. A papal bull, issued
under papal seal by Pope Innocence III., Anno 1193, gives to
Peter of Castelnan instructions to summon before a tribunal,
called " The Holy Inquisition," all persons accused of hold-
ing or divulging heretical doctrines or opinions not in con-
formity with the doctrines of the orthodox Roman Catholic
Church, with unrestricted jurisdiction.
This mandate of the Holy Father was so successfully car-
ried into eli'ect that in Madrid alone — other places also desig-
nated for the execution not included — within three hundred
years, as attested by documentary history, 300,000 persons
were cremated at the stake for religious opinion's sake. These
Philosophy of Botany. 811
public executions were great festivals for this noble n;
and were called "Auto da fe " — act of faith.
Under the pressure of this fearful hierarchical dei
tion originated the frantic efforts for the conquest of the holy
land. With the sacrifice of millions of lives a momentar)
success had been purchased, to end directl) in a con
tire. The progress of the fourth crusade gives a vivid picture
of the state of barbarism in the Western States, and the char-
acter of the Roman Church at that time. The campaign was
ostensibly planned by Pope [nnocence IV.. but afterwards in-
sidiously diverted through the connivance of the Venetian
Republic, and the Roman curia against Constantinople, tin-
seat of the Eastern Church, and the rival Byzantine Bishop or
Patriarch.
The superior physical strength of only 20,000 attacking
Franks overwhelmed a city which at that time had yet 4<x).ooo
inhabitants. Few lives only were lost by the combatants, but
the greatest part of the city was laid in ashes, and many 1 »f tin-
inhabitants afterwards slain or brutally mistreated, and the
devastation and ruin from the treatment of their Chris
combatants (1204) was in no degree less severe than what
happened two hundred and fifty years later, after the ultimate
downfall of the Byzantine empire and sack of Constantinople
by the Turks.
Rome had accomplished its design. The Bishops of Rome
at last appointed the Bishop of Constantinople. The acknowl-
edgment of papal supremacy was complete. The holy relics
were carried away to raise to greater holiness the cathedrals
0$ the Western barbarians.
An inventory of the spoils carried away by Abbott Mart
for his monastery in Elsace illustrates the low moral char;
and superstition of .the Christian world at that period. It en
merates the following priceless article-: in \ Spot
blood of our Savior. (J) a piece of the true cross,
of the apostle James, (4) part of the skeleton of Join
Baptist, and (5) a bottle of the milk ^i the mother ^i God
Works of art in precious metal- or bronze were melted
coin and thousands of manuscripts were burned, It
time the works of many ancient authors disappeared I
218 Philosophy of Botany.
Before bringing to a conclusion the history of the gradual
collapse of the Byzantine empire, and its extinction through
the second conquest of Constantinople by Asiatic barbarians,
it will be well to recall the principal data of the fate of the
Western empire, and what little there can be said about the
intellectual state in that time.
Constantine the Great had on his deathbed, A.D. 33, divid-
ed the empire into two halves between his sons. Byzantium
had already put on the name of New Rome, City of Constan-
tine ; finally, Constantinople ; and had taken on customs and
manners of Oriental character, having little semblance to
Roman habits ; Oriental servility and sycophancy the tone of
court life.
After Emperor Justinian had reconquered Africa from the
Vandals he turned his forces against the Goths, who held
Italy, where his general, Belizarius, captured Rome, December,
556. The operation closed with the surrender of Ravenna,
493. Under the reign of the Ostro-Gothic king, Theodoric,
two remarkable men were his ministers, Boetius, the philoso-
pher, and Cassiodorus, the theologian. The latter, being
completely imbued with the doctrines and principles of
Augustinus, the Bishop of Hippo, introduced an educational
system which totally ignored the classical philosophical style
of teaching. Heaven, he says, is to be the terminus of man's
earthly wanderings ; abandonment of worldly interests, and
the surrender of personal convictions to the doctrines and
commandments of the church, the sure path to his supreme
blessing. The schools were graded into two courses: the
Trivium, or lower class, instructed in grammar, rhetoric, and
dialectic ; the upper course, or Quadrivium, was occupied with
the teaching of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.
He pays some tribute to the natural sciences only in aid to
agriculture and horticulture, but omits them altogether in the
course of education.
This system remained in vogue under the monastic rule
throughout the Middle Ages. Unremitting scholastic and
sophistic strife about theological whims and trifles, bloody
contests, and cruel persecutions for opinion's sake, fill hence-
forth, under the unbroken dominion of the church, the annals
Philosophy oi Botaky.
of the Western church, until the violent strue
mation admitted some rays of spiritual freedom,
asunder the dark clouds of intellectual subju
ing once more and bringing to lift- the blasted fields.
In a period when religious systems had losl all ethical -
tioning, when all sciences and civil order had been dro
in blood, when fratricide, poisoning, and assassination
the regular methods and instruments of governments, hier-
archy and a faith without intellect must necessaril
vene, can even be beneficial to maintain some kind of coh<
of society, until unforeseen events cooperate to bring about a
new era; but if the hierarchical state becomes perman<
a system is sure to fall into degeneracv.
The student of history turns over many a page with a shud
der and a sigh. None are more painful and distressing than
the ones now passing before him, when darkness
plete and general without the glimmer of one single star to
point out an opening or rent in the overcast clouds.
History becomes then only interesting, instructing, and
cinating when there is progress. To give a pleasing account
of the Byzantine, Turkish, or Chinese history would
distract the ingenuity of a Thucydides.
A wandering tribe of Asiatic nomads had adopted the I
of Mohammed. A branch of them, the Seldshuk Turks, had. a
century asro, overthrown the Persian Empire. After this they
defeated the Greeks and drove them out of Asia Minor,
those successes they designed the conquest of the Byzantine
Empire. Their Sultan. Soliman, had crossed the Hellespont,
captured and fortified Gallipoli. thus securing a Footli
Europe, and a base for future operations. From this tii:
the tottering empire lay in an agony. It- doom was apparc
The emperor, John Pakvologus. went to Rome, pi
himself at the feet of Urban V., tin- Roman pontiff, renounced
his heresy respecting the supremacy of the Roman poi
the double procession of the Holy Ghost, and kissing th<
of the Holy Father, besieged him for help. The sue
Constantine the Great had given up his religion, hut !
ceived no equivalent reward. The pontificate had no p
2^0 Philosophy of Botany.
of his own, and could not or would not influence the western or
northern powers to take up the defense of a sinking empire.
At last the inevitable asserted itself. On May 29, 1453, the
assault was delivered. Constantine Palreologus, the last of
the Roman emperors, fell, as it became a Roman emperor, in
the ditch. With his death resistance ceased, and the victori-
ous Turk rushed into the city, whose citizens to the last mo-
ment expected that an angel of the Lord, with a sword in his
hand, would descend from heaven and save the city of the
Lord.
There was no longer any need for reconciliation between
Latin and Greek Christianity — the sword of Mohammed had
settled their dispute.
Soliman the Magnificent was ruler over all Macedonia,
took Belgerad in 1520, and beleaguered Vienna in 1529, but
the German valor stayed his advance.
These events may be considered as the tragic end of an age
bound in its conception on false logic, and ill conceived faith
in wonders and ecclesiastic infallibility.
Encouraged by the success of three commercial enterprises,
the revival of art and letters in Italy, a spirit of critical thought
emerges.
Within a short space of time the true configuration of the
earth was definitely demonstrated by the three great voyages,
the discovery of America by Columbus, the doubling of the
cape by Vasco de Gamma, and the Magellan circumnaviga-
tion of the earth. Progress came again, gradual, but assured
of continuance, when the spirit of a new era first dawned in
Italy in the fourteenth century. To Dante, Petrarca, and
Bocaccio, Europe not only owes the creation of a new modern
national literature, but also the revival of classical studies, of
Greek and Roman letters.
During the fifteenth century arise again from their lethargy
arts and sciences in Italy, one by one, and toward the end of it
botany too attains a resurrection. John Argyropolus, a noble
Byzantine, who arrived in Italy a refugee, after the destruc-
tion of his home by the Turks, and having lost all but his lib-
erty and learning, by papal order translated the writings of
Theophrastus from the Greek into Latin. The works of
Philosophy of I !<»i .w \ . 22 1
Dioscorides and Plinius were brought up from the du
livion and put in circulation among the literary world by tin-
aid of the recently discovered art of printing.
Soon it becomes evident that to understand the botai
books the knowledge of the ancient languages alone was not
sufficient, and that one had to be conversant with tin- obj
themselves which were treated of in these writings. Now, at
last, turned the scholars of Italy (which in ever)
art was far in advance of the rest of Europe I witli grei
to the observation of nature, that they might find the plant -
with which the ancients were occupied.
Reuchlin and Erasmus had, meantime, north of the Alp-.
kindled the torch of classical learning, which was soon to
blaze up into the purifying flame of the reformation. The
movement soon extended to the Netherlands, and over
many. The most prominent, indeed, of the father- of botany
in the sixteenth century, who, in careful observation and de-
scription of the native plants, rank foremost, had their homes
in that memorable corner, the southwestern plain, thr
which flows the upper course of the Rhine, where also stands
the cradle of the art of printing, and where a lively intero
was cultivated between the ancient towns of Frankfurt
Mainz, and Strassburg.
Botany, however, as cultivated by these men was not tin-
free and independent science of Aristotle. It was once- for all
the helpmate of philosophy and medicine, for tin- only problem
which they tried to solve was to find again the plant- of which
Theophrastus, Plinius. and Dioscorides had spoken, and to
discover the virtues which, according to ancient suo
are thought to be inherent in every plant, either beneficial or
injurious to man. Nevertheless the morning had dawned, tin-
day grew lighter, and the scientific thought, which had been
captive in the gloomy monasteries during medieval times,
moved about again amongst thinking people, in the ..per.
light.
Since that time botany continued, uninterruptedly, to de
velop, although the solution of the problems with t
was occupied were, at different time-, diversely attempted.
222 Philosophy of Botany.
for, as Goethe remarks: " The further that knowledge extends,
the more questions come in evidence."
The fathers of the modern botany held the naive opinion that
the plants of Greece and Anatolia could all be found in their
northern fields and forests. Yet, a closer search of their re-
gions soon cleared up this mistake, and when in that period of
the great geographical discoveries the newly acquired terri-
tories were explored, it became manifest " how unequally is
woven the carpet with which vegetation clothes the naked
earth," and that there were vastly more plants than what were
known to Plinius and Dioscorides. The number of plants rec-
ognized as distinguished kinds increased so rapidly that even
the most favored memory could not encompass all. The old
names were not sufficient, and new ones had to be invented.
Authors strove to make the descriptions as plain as possible,
and the illustrations were, after the early example of the
Greeks, inserted into the text, as true to nature as the
newly invented art of wood engraving could accomplish.
Soon the necessity of an orderly arrangement to facilitate
identification became imperative. Such a repertory is called
a system, and from that time it appeared to be the principal
problem of botany to find a system by the aid of which a sur-
vey of the vegetable kingdom would be rendered easy, and the
proper name of an unknown plant be found with the least
effort.
Not before the middle of the last century appeared that
analytic mind who would teach men to find the way through
the immeasurable plenitude of plants, and likewise animals —
Linn£, who, far ahead of his time, gifted with eminent power
of conception, grasped and perfected a perspicuous plan of
arranging all terrestrial objects into classes, orders, genera,
and species. He carried botanists through a severe but
wholesome schooling, training them to fix their eyes upon
plants attentively, to dissect and compare them. He is like-
wise the author of an admirable scientific language (terminol-
ogy), which provides for every difference of plant form an ex-
act and intelligible term.
In that way more than in any other, Linn£ excelled his
predecessors, when he perceived that the utility of a system
PlULOSOPH? OF Boi any.
of plants would reach beyond its practical usefulm
desired to establish still another system, which would group
together those plants which resemble another the mo!
which are, as he explained himself, the n< lated,
a system he declared to be the natural system, and in-
struction of such a one the highest and ultimate problt
botany. But the time and means for it- accomplishm
not at Limit's disposition. It was reserved for a more genial
clime, and a people endowed with taste in horticulture, I
velop this idea.
Bernard Jussieu, then director of the Jardine des Plant
Paris, had designed a system arranged on affinity, according
to the natural relationships, based upon investigations made
in the garden of Trianone, near Versailles, which bel<
Madam Pompadour, a friend and patron of science.
His nephew, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, a man of verj
pressible and imaginative mind, and profound learning,
after became the author of the natural system. This
tematic tendency which seeks its principal object in the de-
scription and arrangement of plants, while it incr.
immensely our knowledge of the forms of plants, yet while
thus occupied with the external differences, lost sight of those
qualities which constitute her a living organism. Th<
surely a fascinating charm in the aspect of the thousandfold
mixture in the crowded mass of Mowers, which is so well ex-
pressed in the confession of Jean Jacques Rousseau, *' I ant
que j'herborise, je ne suis pas malheureux ; " and this attraction
is not even absent in the dried plants of the herbaria. It is
attributable to this fact, that such a one-sided tendencj as the
one followed so long a time by the old Linnaaan school was
kept up for many decades by a great number of practical
anists. Up to this day thrives, especially in England, tlu- tribe
of root diggers and herbalists over which alread) Theophras-
tus, two thousand years ago. made merry.
While thus amongst the followers of Linne* the stud) oi
botany had become somehow encrusted, and apparently
temporarily arrested, a rise had taken place long ago in En
gland. The experimentative method had revived and ani-
mated the other natural sciences. Fran on, tlu i
2^4 Philosophy of Botany.
Chancellor of King Tames L, of England, presented to philoso-
phers a new method of inquiry — " a new instrument," as he
called it — the " Novum Organum," a philosophical treatise, an
idea which Aristotle had not yet conceived, which led the way
from discovery to discovery, and served to rejuvenate culture
and progress. Bacon taught : " The natural philosopher
ought not to confine himself to the observations of nature in
just that state in which it happens to present itself to the ob-
server. Results from such inquiries are ambiguous and con-
fused. The inquirer must understand to put nature in such a
condition that by rationally conducted examination no other
but just, definite, and plain answers could be possible : he must
combine experiment with observation." Like a seed dropped
on congenial and well-prepared soil, Bacon's advice brought a
gratifying harvest, and ever since experiment and observation
go hand in hand by every scientific investigation.
The students of olden times often had to console themselves
with the poor consolation :
Geheimnissvoll am lichten Tag
Last sich Natur des Schleiers nicht berauben,
Und was sie deinem Geist nicbt offenbaren mag
Das zwingst du ihr nicht ab mit Hebeln nud mit Schrauben.
—Goethe (Faust).
Mysterious, even in the open day
Nature retains her veil, despite our clamors.
That which she doth not willingly display
Cannot be wrenched from her with levers, screws, and hammers.
— Faust.
The modern investigators have refuted this maxim ; with
the levers and the screws of their physical and chemical ap-
paratus, the telescope, microscope, and spectroscope, they
forced Nature to surrender her recondite secrets, one by one.
which spontaneously she never would have revealed.
The new exoerimentative method came to be applied in
the course of the seventeenth century for the investigation of
the actions of inanimate nature, and for the laws of atmos-
pheric and hydrostatic pressure, gravity, and light, and for the
purpose of submitting them to mathematical calculations.
Philosophy of Boi \ .
Toward the end of the century the same method wa
sorted to for the investigation of animal life, and the d
of the circulation of the blood was the firsl important r<
In the eighteenth century, lastly, plants also und< rgo th
of experiment, and the Englishman. Hah-, was the fii
consider the vital action of plants as the result of the
physical forces, and to determine them with weights and m
ure. He compares the force which propels tin- sap of the
bleeding grapevine upward in the spring, •■• a column of mer-
cury of a definite height, or with tin- pressure of the .rural
artery of the horse. He weighs the quantity of water which
a pear tree or a sunflower absorbs from tin- -nil in twenty
hours; he sets forth in the year 1727 a static of V(
which resolves the whole of vegetable life into a phys
problem.
The Frenchman, Duhamel, published in 175S a phys
treatise on trees, wherein he investigates the laws by which
the sap circulates in the wood and bark; and in the same
appeared a book on the functions of the leaves, by Bonn*
Geneva, wherein he attempts to define the cause of the m
ment of leaves toward the light, and their transpiration.
In this way enters the physiology of plant-, based upon
physical science, into the rank of the exact scienc
As soon as. toward the end of the eighteenth century
Chemistry awakes out of the obscure hallucinations 1
chemistic dreams, we find her at once engaged in the -
of botany. The Belgian, Ingenhauss, and the Englishman
Priestlev. discovered the wonderful interaction bet v.
tight and terrestric atmosphere, vegetable and animal life,
demonstrating how the carbonic oxide, exhaled by ami
is inhaled by the plants, and inversely, that tin win,
the plants emit under the influence of light is ind
for the life of animals. Toward the end of the century Theo
dore Saussure, of Geneva, shows how, by the im-
plants, the moving force is supplied by the light and h<
the sun, carbonic oxide by the air. and water and
the soil; further, that the ashes of the plant
impurities, but indispensable elements, which 1'
up'from the -oil with, their roots, and thereby lies the found
8
226 Philosophy of Botany.
tion of our knowledge of the chemical nutrition of plants,
which Justus Liebig has recently elaborated and made the
basis of rational agriculture.
To the edifice of scientific botany, as far as we have followed
it, contributed successfully all nations of Europe — Italians.
Englishmen, Netherlanders, Swedes, and Frenchmen ; the
latter, since the time of Louis XIV., conspicuously so through
works of great originality and importance. Germany, though,
had to some degree since the reformation ceased to take part
in the progressive development ; not for deficiency of opera-
tors, but for want of individual creative ideas, they ranked
second and third, treading in the footsteps of their foreign
neighbors.
Last, during the reign of Frederick the Great, a turning
point is reached. The national spirit announces itself in a
vigorous onward push in novel paths. In science the flood
begins to swell ; higher and higher rises the wave of youthful
vigor, and like in a seasonable spring, all trees, one after the
other, become bedecked with flowers, thus likewise Germany
experiences a rapid development in all sciences, in literature,
music, and philosophy.
About the time of the seven-years' war, Casper Frederic
Wolff originated biology, or the science of life, by his micro-
scopic -researches, examining the development of animals
from the egg, and of leaves and flowers in the bud. Koehl-
reuter, Hedwig, and Conrad Sprengel disclosed, by clever ex-
periments and observations, the secret of the fertilization of
plants. In the nineteenth century scientific botany flourishes
in Germany as it never did before, and it is especially by the
agency of German students that botany now stands on an
equal footing with the other sciences which formerly ex-
celled it.
Should the new departure in modern botany be brought in
connection with the name of any single man, no better one
can be chosen than Goethe. He does not rank with scientists
professionally considered, but nevertheless he was well versed
in those disciplines. Although an accurate observer, reflec-
tion overreached observation and poetry the thought, until
from the lovely flower of poetry matured the natural philoso-
Philosophy of BoTAmr.
phy. The reformatory idea which Goethe conceived in the
view of living nature, is the idea of evolution. When in
C. F. Wolff did prepare the way for the study of dev<
by the method of microscopie examinations, so lik-
Goethe did initiate morphology, the exposition of the forms
of plants and animals. Goethe sees the essence of life not in
the perfected form, no matter how complicated the structure,
nor in the mechanical efforts or fruition, which ever
curring, represent the play of life. He concer
ganism to be a process of development, beginning with tin-
moment of the birth, and passing through a series of condi-
tions to its final termination. The universe and the individ-
ual obey the same law, as Goethe gives it :
Es muss such regen, srhaff^nd handeln,
Nur sheinbar stehts Momente still;
Das Ewige regt sieh fort in Allem,
Derm Alles muss in Niehts zerfallen,
Wenn es im Sein beharren will.
Even systematic botany has profited from morpholof
comparisons, which permitted it to draw its ideas from pro-
founder sources, and to adduce a rational interpretation of the
genesis of the organs to the mere description of external
forms.
Since Alexander Von Humboldt, animated by the charm and
grandeur of the impressions which he had received on his
journeys, had raised the geography of plants to the dignil
a science, it has become clear that there exists an intimate con
nection of species, genera, and families of plants, with tin-
conformation of the surface of the planet, and the condil
of soil and climate.
Let it begin to stir, give birth.
Take shape first, then convert
Seemingly for moments stain Is it still;
Eternal motion is eternal's
Be sure it will dissolve to naught
If to stand still it be brought.
More fruit bearing than any are the ideas connected with the
evolutionary doctrines of Darwin, which explain lmw the in-
228 Philosophy of Botany.
numerable forms of plants ought to be considered as one un-
interrupted series of development, which begins with the first
dawn of life, and remodels form and structure of plants in ever-
increasing perfection, and not as accidental and isolated in-
dividuals.
Unger, and others have even conclusively proven that the
history of their ancestors, which lie buried in the rocks of past
epochs, has to be considered, if the present distribution of
plants would be comprehended.
Goethe had followed up the development of the plants to the
germ, but the starting point at which his examinations begin,
the radicle descends into the soil and presents its cotyledons
the moment when the germ breaks through its envelopes and
to the light, this is not the real beginning of vegetable de-
velopment. The question remains : How comes the germ
into existence?
The unaided eye does not suffice, nor the simple magnify-
ing glass, which alone was at the disposal of the botanists of
the Linnaean time. The compound microscope had to come to
the aid of the botanist.
The invention of the microscope gave the same impulse to
the study of objects of the smallest dimensions, as did the
telescope for the view of the infinite expanse of the firmament.
Without knowledge of each other, and fully independent, two
scientists, Marcello Malphighi, of Bologne, and Nehemias
Grew, of London, put before themselves the task to examine
microscopically the internal structure of plants. On Decem-
ber 29, 1671, happened the memorable incident that both these
men presented simultaneously to the Royal Society of Arts in
London the results of their researches. This day, therefore,
must be called the birthday of microscopical anatomy of
plants.
From this date we know that plants are not made up of
flesh and blood, nerves and veins, as Theophrastus had
fancied, but throughout from small, vesicle-like particles,
which, on account of their resemblance to cells of the honey-
comb, received the name " Vegetable Cell." The importance
of this discovery failed at this time to be duly appreciated
and utilized, and had a century afterwards nearly fallen into
oblivion.
Philosophy oj Boi .\.\n .
Again, at the beginning of the nineteenth centui
impulse takes hold in this direction, and the mi
now applied with more painstaking and circumspection.
instrument, too, had been, about [830, greatly impro
made available for the solution of problems of structun
growth.
The origin of the germ or embryo was the first object of in-
quiry which found its solution in the discovery thai
plant, be it palm or oak, or a humble grass, is originally a
simple microscopical cell, which comes into existence in the
interior of the germ, through the agency of a generativ<
That was a highly important discovery, for the origin of a new
living being must be considered a new creation. Now il
apparent that the secret of that creation consists in the forma-
tion of a cell. After this followed the second problem : :
develops out of this first cell the complicated plant, with the
manifold organs, each again composed of innumerable cells?
The microscope again served to illustrate the process: the
contact of the fertilizing pollen causes this cell to form a
tition through its middle, dividing it into two chambers.
Each chamber represents an independent cell, and each of
these soon subdivides itself again, and by this same pro
continually repeated, comes about the many-chambered and
many-celled structures, which we call the plant.
Analogous to the rearing of a house in accordance with the
design which prescribes the position d\ the stones and
follows the process of cell after cell in obedience to an innate
plan which differs in every species, and descends by inher-
itance from generation to generation.
The larger flowering plants were naturally the first ob
submitted to these investigation-, but it was soon found
that the less conspicuous and simpler plants, commonly
prised under the name " Cryptogames "■— i. 1
weeds, lichens, and fungi— afford a far richer field to th<
server. The simpler the plant, the more incompl*
the less is also the number of cells composing it, and the '
the chance to survey the structure and development Many
surprising processes accompany the growth oi the I
Here only we meet with those curious germ cells, which, like
230 Philosophy of Botany.
infusories, swarm about in the water with rapid motions.
Here we find invisible corpuscles, or threads endowed with
distinct sexual properties, and an incredible variety of propa-
gation, and such astonishing metamorphoses, as to make the
same individual at different periods of his life appear totally
different.
It is hardly possible for those who are not connected with
such investigations to conceive the charm by which an in-
conspicuous little plant fastens the observer for hours, days,
nay, even weeks, to the microscope, until he- succeeds to close
up a break in the process of development. No wonder that
since half a century nearly all eminent botanists have been en-
gaged in the study of the evolution of plants, and that the
most important discoveries in plant physiology have been
made, especially by German botanists, who conducted the
most thoroughgoing microscopical investigations. Not the
less in esteem are held abroad contributions from German
biological laboratories, and it is very pleasurable to recount
the foremost workers whose works are amongst the greatest
creations of German science.
Foremost Schleiden initiated the profounder research by
his analysis of the origin of cells in general, and of the germs
in particular, in the year 1838. He was followed by Hugo
Mohl, of Tubingen ; Alexander Braun, of Berlin ; Wilhelm
Hoffmeister, of Heidelberg; Hanstein, of Bonn; De Bary in
Strassburg, and Sachs in Wiirzburg, all of them now defunct.
Among the living are Naegeli in Munich, and Pringsheim
in Berlin. Under the direction of these eminent men have,
within the last forty years, nearly all German universi-
ties established public botanical laboratories and physiolog-
ical institutes, whereby a school of younger scientists was
brought up, who elaborated thus continuously and success-
fully, that there is presently hardly any one important plant
on which not the chain of development had link for link been
joined together to a closed ring.
Furthermore had, during the same time, with equal and un-
abated zeal, the investigation of the development of the ani-
mal world been carried on, and we are now in a manner en-
abled to trace the evolution of the whole animated world, from
Philosophy op Botany.
the simple plant upward, to the highest being, man himself,
and to fathom the great plan 0f |jfe ])V comparison of
tions and differentiations.
But the services which the microscope had render*
scientific botany are not ended in detailing the ment
of plants; for the cells, whose form and growth the micro-
scope had revealed, are not merely the building i\
whose superposition the body of the plant had been built up;
each cell is also an individual living being. Yes, it is the main
living principle in the plant. As far as the tree tak<
nutriment it is the cells of its roots which are saturated with
the water, which, concealed, circulates in the soil; while the
tops and branches exhale oxygen at the exposure of the sun-
light, for it is the green cells of the leaves winch abs
bonic acid out of the atmosphere and through the stimulus
of light waves convert it into chlorophyll, starch, and other
substances, and again emit the oxygen into the air.
Pending their growth, it is the cells which, stretching
swelling in consequence of the absorption of nutritive fluid.
give rise to their multiplication in definite directions for thf
formation of new organs.
Should disease attack the plant, the cause lies in the cells,
which were disturbed in their normal functions; and if ulti-
mately the plant dies, the extinction of life starts from the cells.
After all the improvements of the methods with which the
experimentative physiology had been advanced, and tin- rela-
tion of plant life to light, heat, gravitation, electricity
chemical affinities had been so much clearer defined, as
possible to do a hundred years ago, there never was left out «f
sight the importance of referring it to the life of the cell.
Moreover, it has been Sehwann who, in the year [838, clear-
ly demonstrated that also the course of evolution of ever}
imal, and even of man, begins with a simple cell; that all or-
gans of animals are composed of cells, and proceeding
the division of the first cell. Further, that the animal cell is
of the same structure with the vegetable cell ; there is but
cell and one life.
The same way that the mathematician uses to find the value
of an unknown quantity by the way of a simple equal
232 Philosophy of Botany.
the same method investigates the scientist the occult laws of
life by comparison of the simplest functions of the cells. Thus
succeeded the genial Virchow to construct a system of pathol-
ogy upon the presence of diseased cells.
A very great interest attaches to the recent investigations
about fungi. Problems of surpassing importance, the solu-
tion of which the whole civilized world is eagerly awaiting,
are thereby involved. Rust, blight, and mildews have from
time immemorial ruined the crops. During the last quarter
of a century nearly all cultivated plants have been visited by
epidemics, which commenced locally, here and there, and were
unheeded, and then spread themselves at once over whole
countries, leaving failure of crops and famine in their train. A
terrible plague -has been the potato disease since 1845, and the
diseases of the grapevines since 1848. Even the insects, from
the common fly to the silkworm and the forest-devouring
caterpillars, are infected by plagues. The pebrine, or silk-
worm disease, worked great injury to the silk industry and
threatened thereby to seriously affect the wealth of a nation.
We now know that all these epidemics are caused by micro-
scopic fungi, and spread by the dispersion of their spores,
which communicate from plant to plant, and from insect to in-
sect, the germ of a fatal disease.
After these facts had been satisfactorily established the
question necessarily came up, whether or not these insidious
plagues which, traveling from land to land, to remain here
and there for a while, and then to disappear, to return again
probably after a short interval, such as cholera, typhus, small-
pox, scarlatina, and epidemic diseases of domestic animals,
were also brought about by the presence of microscopic fungi?
Up to this day we have actually learned that such is the case
in diphtheria, scarlatina, Oriental plague, cholera, intermit-
tent and relapsing fever, yellow fever, and tuberculosis, and
in hospital gangrene, smallpox, septicaemia, and even some
other non-epidemic diseases.
Knowing now the nature of the invisible enemy, we may
hope to devise means to keep off the enemy, or to avert its
ravages.
In former times there had been an intimate connection be-
1 EIILOSOPin 01 DOTANV,
tween botany and the healing art. The former I
to provide the most potent drugs, and received in retun
couragement of its scientific endeavors. This kind
tionship is presently very unimportant since most of th<
dicinal plants have been eliminated from the materia m<
or are merely obscurely known as domestic rem.
Investigation of the disease creating fungi make- up
hereafter setting up new problems for both scieno
cannot be solved advantageously to the benefit of mankind
except with mutual aid and cooperation. Modem agricul-
ture and forestry are likewise intimately connected with
botany. The former seeks to understand the conditions in
which plants have to be placed in order to produce th<
returns; the other depends on information «»f a sanatory na-
ture, or questions concerning the health of forest I 1 the
means of averting noxious influences which threaten them
with disease and premature decay.
In this way it has come about that botany is n con-
fined within the narrow limits of its former territory.
plied to the highest problems of the natural sciences, it
important element of national culture. We have
and still further expect from it explanations relative to the
profound questions concerning life: What is life? What is
death? Is there a specific vital power which ever re:
the same, immutably indestructible, although the individual
may perish? Is life possibly merely a phenomenon of the
motion of matter ,'and equivalent of other forces light, heat,
gravity, chemical affinity — and. under the law of correlation oi
energy, transmutable into other modes of motion, and
ceeding from them? By which process and in what manner
has life taken its origin upon earth? How did it receive shape
and expression in the innumerable form- of animals
plants? How did the long interval- of the dii
periods affect it? Finally, are the- highest expi
functions of life — consciousness, sensation, volition, mi...
tion, reflection— operation- of a separate cau
ifications of life itself, phenomena traceable down to their
obscure beginnings, nay. even to the cells of the |
Space does not allow to dilatr on this t, but 1
234 Philosophy of Botaxy.
mention in the line of physiological researches the discoveries
of Bohumel Nomec and G. Haberlandt in respect to geotro-
pism — that is, the faculty of directing the growth of the roots
in the direction of the earth's axis.
This phenomenon had always been accepted as a simple fact
of nature, without any inquiry into, the directing cause of this
movement.
Physiologists had some time ago established the nature of
the function of the delicate hairs and the otoliths in the semi-
circular canals and ampullae of the vertebrates, including man,
to be organs of equilibration and localization ; they had also
found that the so-called auditory cells on the extremities of
insects and of Crustacea, which are of a similar structure, sub-
serve the same purpose. It is the act of pressure by gravity
of these otoliths, now called statoliths, upon those fine hairs,
which excites the living protoplasm in these cells to effect
functions, resulting in motions by which animals become
sensitive of disturbances in their normal position in relation
to normal or desired direction of their bodies, in relation to
gravity, and try to correct them. By a chain of observations
have the above observers determined that an analogous appa-
ratus also subserves the geotropical and heliotropical move-
ments of plants.
Specialized amylaceous granules in the tips of the roots,
suspended in the protoplasm, and obeying the call of gravity,
secure the centripetal movement. Likewise is it a statolithic
pressure in the internodes of the grassculum, which causes a
swelling on one side of such a blade, and thereby a flexion or
erection of the culm, when, for instance, the culm of wheat or
stalk of corn had been prostrated by wind or rain.
Thus we have a very interesting elucidation of correlation
of physical phenomena between plant and animal in the or-
ganic world.
It has been my intention to give a short review of the prob-
lems toward which botanists have been aiming, and at which
they have, notwithstanding the changing demands of suc-
cessive periods, sedulously working, closer and closer ap-
proached, ever since the time when twenty-two centuries ago
Philosophy oi Botany.
the genius of Aristotle and Theophrastus assigned to b< I
a special place in the domain of philosophy.
Last, but not least, it behooves us to devote a few lin<
our own immediate interests. ( )n our side of the Atlanti
science of botany developed on the same line oi evoluti
Ave observed it on the old continent. All energy wa
matter of necessity, even in colonial times, directed to th<
ferentiation and collection of species. Learned emigi
and scientific explorers from France, England, and Germany
issued at home the first notices about American plants. Na-
tive-born citizens, otherwise employed in various \ < •« .- 1 t i - • 1 1 -> .
as clergymen or physicians, soon followed, devoting their
leisure time to collecting and describing the rich har
gathered in their unexplored fields These men were all
either self-taught or had visited universities in Europe. Bo-
tanical training in public schools or colleges has been taken
up only recently, and even within the memory of botanists
yet living the courses in this science were limited, and br<
inquiry considered not long ago as an object merely of r
ation and relaxation. I know of reputable educational
tutions of to-day which consider the instruction in natural
sciences as a matter of polite accomplishment only, or f<
conflict with their religious sentiments. Fortunately for tin-
progress of science men who, in the great stride- of commerce
and manufactures, have acquired great wealth, have
that all the advances in their great enterprises have grow I
of a succession of obscure discoveries, made by the
to pure science, which the discoverer himself estimated only
as one step in unraveling the great mysteries ol nature
Sooner or later the great business men adopted and ap]
their discoveries for the benefit of all men in the shrewd art
of money-making. To these men. successful in business, we
owe it to-day that institution- have been endowed fi»r the
propagation of knowledge, and. supplied with ample meant
that some men are able to devote their entire time under 1
favorable conditions to scientific research.
All the greater universities in tin- country are n
with botanical or biological laboratories, in which much in-
dependent research is carried on and published in
236 Philosophy of Botany.
or scientific journals. Botanical gardens, arboreta, and green-
houses are annexed to several, to serve the purposes of the
demonstrator or investigator.
St. Louis may be justly proud of its magnificent Shaw
Botanical Institute, which, under the direction of a distin-
guished botanist, is destined to be a model school for scientific
botanists, agriculturists, and horticulturists.
In our own State the Agricultural Experiment Station has,
since several years, done excellent work, and issued valuable
instructive publications for the farmers of the State. This in-
stitute ought to be enlarged so that it could also embrace for-
estry, and should have two auxiliary experimental stations,
one in Middle Tennessee and one in West Tennessee, added
to the field of its activity.
Bacteriology, formerly a branch of botany, but now enrolled
with biology on account of its far-reaching efficiency, has
lately found a representative in connection with the Vander-
bilt Medical College, and through the munificence of Mr.
George Vanderbilt, and under the care of an eminent bac-
teriologist, who for several years had attended the bacteriolog-
ical laboratories of France and Germany. It offers ample op-
portunities to the student who enjoys the use of an equipment
which is provided with all modern appliances.
I am confident that the time is not far off when we will have
institutions endowed with the fullest outfits in libraries, in-
struments, greenhouses, and botanical gardens, for original
work conducted by the heads of the departments, or by stu-
dents under their direction. The newly acquired colonies
offer the most inviting locations in the tropics for biological
stations.
I undertook the wearisome and painful task to delineate in
outlines the period from the downfall of the Alexandrian
school to the revival of letters in Italy ; to remind the read-
er to what fearful, depravity mankind will sink when, for sake
of hegemony in religion or politics, for hierarchy or imperial-
ism, the light of reason is put out and intellectual darkness is
spread over the land to shield the despoilers from responsi-
bility; no longer by fire and sword, yet by supple and con-
Philosophy 01 Boi ksr.
cealed ways is presently waged the assault
of conscience and diffusion of knowledge.
That the important results which followed th< in-
vestigations, that discoveries which so irresistibly I
botanical students, that such intellectual commotio!
but little attention in wider circle
not accuse the specific or abstruse character of the problem,
but rather hold the deplorable inadvertency of our educational
system responsible for it.
Continually treading in the steps of antiquated methods,
the schools neglect to stimulate and encourage a I aturc
and its works, and withhold the necessary elementary in-
structions, without the aid of which a lively interest and intel-
ligent comprehension of scientific questions is not DO
Conditions and wants of society are changing, and methods
and maxims which formerly suited the political state have
lost their meaning. Modern thought leads to the convi
that the interactions of conditions upon which depends the
status of society are governed by physical laws, definite
unalterable, like those which control the development of
plants. How governments should direct those movemei
not a matter of sentiment and feeling, but a purely scientific
question.
In the present educational system memory gets loaded with
a heavy charge of book learning, consisting of disconm
doctrines, all of them necessary for the practical wai
times — the ideal demand of general culture. The
correlation between this heterogeneit) now divested ol
ligent means to bridge over the mental chasm.
mental deficiency of our higher education.
A philosophical method of thinking, the essential *>i which
is the endeavor to comprehend the interrelation- o
phenomena in the physical and ethical world, through which
the individual feels himself inseparably allied in harmori
concert with Infinity, is needed. The iv.
now pregnantly characterizes society, is a declared part
ism, a premature application to specialt) vocations, controlling
a narrow intellectual horizon. Her nate the
;ions of opinions, and the diverse monomanias in i
238 Philosophy of Botany.
social, and other spheres; hence the thriving of spiritualism,
Christian society, single tax folly, silver swindle, and other
fads. Would this deportment be restricted to the class of the
half educated, then the danger would not be so threatening as
it really is, when We see that college graduates, educational
leaders, and university professors are likewise destitute of the
necessary philosophical training.
May, therefore, instruction in the natural sciences become
more general and thorough ; may the spread of scientific cul-
ture strengthen the scientific spirit and make it a world-con-
quering power!
Unbiased by authority, loving the truth for its own sake,
may it secure the happiness of the Commonwealth !
FORESTRY.
Tho' floods, with time, gome roots have bared.
Blasts the limbs have bent and gnaned.
The bark by birds is pecked and scarred.
Green stayed the crown and unimpaired ;
Sweet songsters' quiet nesting berth,
It shelters now the timid herd.
The Forest.
Of the many obstacles the human race- has had to
with to maintain its existence, increase in number of ind
uals and ultimately gain mastery, not the leasl one was the
woods, where they in overwhelming expanse spread o
tinental regions. They offered more adequate shelter,
more copious and better adapted food to the mightier animals
than to him, hemmed in his steps, and prevented his gathi
into larger groups. This circumstance governed n-r long
periods the fate of our ancestors in the northern latitude
the Eastern Continent. After the retreat of the < rlacial p-
we find him following the shore lines from the Baltic to the
Biscayan Gulf as a shell and fish devouring savage, or
inhabiting troglodyte.
In the highlands of Central Asia he first multiplied in
numbers that he commenced to direct his migrations .
ward into the deep forests, upon paths which, perhaps, the
woolly rhinoceros and herds of woolly elephants had bl
and tramped out for him. The extension southward found a
barrier in the ice-glittering ranges of the I lima':..
Hindu Kooh. At this time, when thousands of yeai
our era this first westward movement began int.. tin
matian plains, into the regions of the Danube and Wolj
pires had commenced to form in tin- deltas of the Nih
phrates, and Tigris, and all around tin- great Meditd
Gulf. With a benign and generous -mile nature invited h
groves where the date palm bore weighty clustei
cious fruit, offering a delicious meal; fruit-laden carob
with spreading limb, gave nutritious Food for him ami
herds; groves of olives, chestnuts, and walnuts alten
in the scenery in tin- wide territorj from the bank*
Ganges to the shores of Lusitania, where tin •
mingles with the noble -rape ami tin- gi
had thought to strew the nutritious barle) on tl
waters of the Nile and Euphrates, and the rich hi
242 Philosophy of Botany.
easily and safely garnered ; plenty spreading all around, even
the animal world came to the aid of their nobler brother ; the
proud Apis had bent his nervy neck under the yoke, sheep
flocked around him, and camel and elephant lifted him on their
backs.
Thus did the Southland empires nourish and decay, while
the Northland barbarian made little headway in clearing
openings, and prepared with the meanest tools the virgin soil
for the production of a little oat and rye and flax, until the
Scandinavian had discovered the art of making iron from the
rich and easily reducible ores buried in his mountains.
Swinging the iron ax, no tree could stand before him ; the
hammer opened the treasure vaults of the mountains, the
plowshare laid out broader fields, and with the sword in his
fist he overwhelmed the Roman intruders in the Herzynian
forest.
With the spread of civilization the demand for wood grew
from year to year, and after the lapse of centuries fields and
meadows overreached in expanse the woods, for whose pres-
ervation little thought was given. They were no longer com-
mon property, but were divided out amongst communities,
or held as private property by princes and noblemen. They
were principally valued as resorts and retreats of all kinds of
game, the chase being the principal sport and amusement of
the nobility.
The continued despoliation of the woods wrought at last in
the mountainous as well as seashore regions of Central Europe
severe injury by denudation of the mountain slopes, and con-
sequent inundations, such that enlightened individuals, and
the governments themselves, realized the necessity of pro-
tective legislation enactments against unlimited felling of
trees.
Restorative efforts on scientific plans, with a view of per-
manence in supervision have been. carried on in France, Ger-
many ,and Italy at enormous expense and with great success
for more thati one hundred years.
History is now repeating its lessons in the vast realm of
the Union, where, by the unparalleled development of the
country, the demand for timber has grown out of all propor-
PiiiLosoriiv 01 Boi ajtt.
tionfor a continued supply under the unchecked inroads
lumber trade, and the unparalleled facilities for internal •
portation by navigation. The importance of the
terests have induced me to devote some pages to thi
ment of our national economy, and to notice the emotional
and aesthetic impressions upon the human mind evoked by the
forest in the aspect of nature.
It is interesting to observe the difference in the sentiment
and association of thought as it ever existed i the
southern and northern inhabitants of the old continent.
The aspect of, or sojourn in. the woods filled the I
well as the Roman with fear and dismay; he avoided them
as habitations of robbers and wild beasts. From Homer to
Tacitus poets and historians paint it in the darkest coloi
the dark abode of demons and monsters, filled with cut an.
thorns. " Subit aspera silva lappaegue tribulique " *' If' I
the dismal wood with thistles and tangles uncouth." ( Vii
The German mythical folklore spins the finest thread- •
poetical mood under the deep shadows of beech and <»ak.
Over the Rhine into the tanwood, where fir and pine thickly
-crowd, storms the baneful chase of King Gunther; <>n the
spring underneath the linden sinks the dying Siegfried into
a bed of flowers, pierced by the spear of Hagen; Genofeva
hides from the ire of her husband in the depth of the foi
Hildebrand and Hugobrand, the greatest swordsmen of their
■day, cross their swords in furious combat, until Hildebrand
recognizes from the weight of his strokes that his comba
must be iiis son; here gathers Cinderella blueberries, and fra-
grant woodruff for spicy May wine, and loiters the bard, spin-
ning the yarn for his songs with which he cheers the daunt-
less hearts of the champions when the mead-tilled horn makes
the rounds.
The poetically inspired naturalist covets a response from h^
dear favorites, Flora's children, to his own ! them, and
is sore at heart and loath to believe that tl their
forms, splendor of coloring, and the sweet breath of theii
halations should delight and benefit creatures only t.
in the scale of life from themselves, without an;.
to their own selves; that they should be without any partici-
244 Philosophy of Botany.
pation in the endearment with which they fill the human
hearts. It appears contrary to the demands of human reason-
ing that so much individuality should exist without some kind
of consciousness or subjective individuality.
Especially in their higher and enduring arborescent forms
plants are typical of the attainment of the ideal endeavors of
man, to accomplish in the historical evolution of the race that
well-balanced social state in which the single citizen, in ac-
cordance with his abilities, may contribute to the general wel-
fare, and partake of the emoluments equally accessible to all.
Within their bodies the component cells and structures may
change, be altered, die, and be regenerated, the whole remain-
ing a personal perpetuity lasting for ages. This is beautifully
expressed in the Xenia of Goethe, when he says :
Such du das Schoenste, das Hoechste ?
Die Pflanze kann es dich lehren!
Was sie willenlos ist, sei Du es willend,
Das ists.
Do you ask what in beauty and goodness
Ranks high beyond measure ?
Be taught by the plant ; what she does without choice
You do it freely with pleasure.
The Introduction of a National Forestry
Policy in the United States-
It is about twenty years since for the first time in an ofl
way the attention of the Federal Government had 1- •
to the importance of providing means of pi for the
forests within the national domain, against
improvident despoliation.
It was ex-Senator Carl Schurz who discussed,
of the Interior, the necessary evil consequences of th<
practice of forest devastation, and the responsibility of tin-
present generation in permitting and perpetuating pra
of public policy which would s<x»n lead to irreparable ii
to the future welfare of this great republic.
Mr. Schurz's world-wide experience was in this instanc
based upon his personal observations of the forestry man
ment in Germany and France, and the disastrous consequ<
that in the latter country had followed the reckl< tment
of the forests in the last century, and which ultimately, by
stringent legislation, and at enormous expenditures,
be brought to an end, and restoration secured by a well -de'
forestry administration.
The remarks of Mr. Schurz were, for a time, treated with
some merriment; and even Mr. Blaine, a- wise a man
was, would join in the ridicule, and call Mr. Schui I man
idealist— to which, however, the latter did not let Mr. Blaine
wait a long while before giving him a sharp rejoinder.
There was then scarcely a man amongst the native citi
who was not fully persuaded that the wealth of our *
imperishable, and that the benignant hand of natui
fully replenish the deficiency without calling upon the a
man for minding and nursing.
It was onlv within a few German circle-, scientists, and
practical foresters, who had seen in their old hoi
management, or even functioned as for<
246 Philosophy of Botany.
the immensity of the threatened danger was fully appreciated,
and who knew that the coming generations would sorely suf-
fer for the faults of the fathers.
The census reports had meantime given indisputable facts
relative to the great losses within the forest region of the ever-
recurring conflagrations and the actual amount of lumber
culled in successive years.
A generally better comprehension of the period of time
which nature requires, even under the most favorable condi-
tions, to effect a restoration, and the understanding of the
obvious disturbances in such a process in territories unguarded
by effective protection against any kind of abuse, soon cre-
ated a reaction in public opinion. An agitation which had
been started in behalf of an establishment of forest reserva-
tions, with national grants, and through provisions enacted
by State legislation, soon grew in public favor, and the crea-
tion of a National Forestry Association was the first impor-
tant result of this movement.
The National Forestry Association is mainly composed of
the membership of the different State Forestry Associations,
and holds annual migratory meetings. Nearly every State in
the Union now has such a forest association.
This work was started and guided along through the un-
ceasing labors and invincible energy of two citizens. The
one, Professor B. E. Fernow? the former Chief of the Forestry
Division of the Agricultural Department in Washington, is
a native of the Prussian Province of Pommern, a graduate of
the Forestry Academy of Munden, who, after having served
as a volunteer in the Franco-Prussian War, entered the forestry
service (as an aspirant to the higher forestry service). He
resigned this position to emigrate to this country. Soon after-
wards he was married to an American lady, a woman of great
talents and hfgh culture, who, with the fullest apprehension
of the worthiness of his intentions, was a devoted and skillful
aid to the advancement of his well-conceived plans. Undis-
turbed by the change of the different administrations has he.
until recently, presided over the Forestry Division of the Agri-
cultural Department; but recently (in 1899) he accepted the
Philosophy 01 Boi ak\ .
charge of Director of the Foresfr} Collej >rnell Univer-
versity, Ithaca, N. Y.
The other gentleman is G. Pinchot, a private i
scendant of an old, distinguished New England family. In
his travels through Germany he had made tl m of
the agricultural and economic condition of the latter countrj
an object of close and extensive study. The still pi
productiveness of its soils, and the marvelous pn
its forests impressed him so profoundly that he concluded,
after his return, to bring to public benefit the conclua
which he had drawn from his observations. Assisted I
friends, he succeeded in the foundation of several fori
associations in the New England States, and hold- now the
position of Consulting Forester to the National Forestry A —
ciation, with offices in New York and Boston. H<
German very fluently, and most cordially receives any I
who wishes to call on him to either receive or impart infor-
mation.
These societies initiated their movements with petitioi
Congress, as well as to the State Legislatures, for the i
ment of laws for the protection and preservation of tl
in general, and the national domain in particular.
It had also been noticed that the frequent conflagrations
not only reduced the extent of the timbered area, but al
fully depleted every kind of game. Thus repeats itself in the
new continent the ancient experience of the necessan and
ural correlation of the existence of the game with the pr»
tion of the forests. Numerous associations of sportsmen
hunters joined in with petition- i<>\- protective hunting
and restriction of the chase within limited periods. In
uals convicted of willfully setting tire to the woods w«
liable to severe punishments.
This was all very good theoretically, but ally
laws were dead letters only, there being no provisions mad',
for their execution bv persons specially appointed and
trusted with the execution of the same. There was but
sympathy as yet anion-- the masses for abseil mprehen
sion of the subject, [n various States, foremost in Wis onsin
where the numerous German population had considerabl
248 Philosophy of Botaxy.
litical influence, likewise in Minnesota and Michigan, forest
guards were appointed to look after forest fires ; while in
Maine, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New York the pro-
tection of the game was principally thought of. Both these
functions do necessarily coincide to effect that kind of serv-
ice which in Germany is comprehended under game and for-
est keeping.
It is interesting to notice how the same events which in all
European countries led to the introduction of a regulated for-
est administration give also here again the impulse for the
like provisions. There, like here, wood was cut for the local
needs in building and firewood, without any reflection or care
for the welfare of posterity, and would perhaps permanently
have sufficed with the natural aftergrowth for all the time to
come ; but with the increase of the industries, mining, and
shipbuilding the deficit in heavy timbers made itself felt, and
preventative measures against excessive depletion had to be
instituted.
Thus it came that toward the end of the Middle Ages, first
Venice, the " Queen of the Seas," enacted laws in which she
reserved certain forests exclusively for use in her shipyards,
and also laid restrictions for the cutting of timbers in private
estates, and placed the management of all under a regularly
officered administration. Holland, Belgium, France, and En-
gland took similar measures.
Relations of a different character ruled in Germany, where
the passion for the chase indulged in by princes and nobility
drew their attention to the preservation of the forest.
The right of hunting big or small game was a royal preroga-
tive or privilege of the landed nobility. Their numerous reti-
nue of huntsmen constantly on the lookout for poachers, ex-
pert in all things in connection with woods and their inhab-
itants, formed a sort of clannish organization, and formed an
excellent contingent for the gradually developing intelligent
supervision of forests, and by and by became converted into a
professionally and scientifically educated corps of public
service with military organization. Care for the protection of
game is in Germany inseparably connected with the economic
management. In a similar manner must we also begin to start
Philosophy 01 Botany.
a crew of foresters until regular schools of forestry will
been established.
After the first steps had been made with the appointmei
wardens and gamekeepers in various States, n wj
in order to secure rational proceedings, to procure ampli
tistical data, to give exact information about the
tion, and condition of the still unoccupied and timber clad
lie domain. This work had been carried on by the fori
division with great success, and the annual reports of il
kept Congress so well informed and interested that on M.
3, 1891, the President was empowered t" issue a pi
tion that such suitable parts of the public lands a- had not
yet become private property should be reserved a- foi
ervations. In addition to the Yellowstone Mat ion al Park,
which is indeed but a great forest and game reservation, there
were next such reservations selected a- are interestii .
historic, scientific, or economic respects. Thus tin- Yosemite
Reservation in California, where are the last remainders of the
once extensive stands of the giant sequoia, should be pres
and rescued from total extermination.
It was furthermore considered as a matter of great in
tance to preserve extensive bodies of wooded territories at the
head waters of the great streams, to maintain the water supply,
and regulate it to prevent excessive inundation.
In this way had taken place the foundation of a great many
reservations in the AYest and Northwest, when, in the b
ning of the year 1897, President Cleveland issued anothei |
lamation which secured at once seventeen more tions,
with a total area of more than 21,000,000 ana-. I !.- fai
act of prudent statesmanship was prompted through
of the National Academy of Science, made "ii requ<
Secretary of the Interior, Hoke Smith. Tin- commit!
composed of the most distinguished scientists and 1
this country, and the\ had Eor their investigations i
$100,000 at their disposition. Divided into
they explored carefully the limits, nature, and conditioi
such regions as they thought best suitable for p.nn. inn-
ervations. The commission in tin- tinal report also
recommended to introduce and establish a regulai
250 Philosophy of Botany.
administration, after the methods of the European, especially
the German, forestry.
Here it was for the first time that recognition was given to
the necessity of regular forestry administration, having in
view not only the preservation, but also the exploitation, man-
agement, and rejuvenating of the forests, after the example
of the German forestry system, through educated professional
forest officers.
One would think that the readiness with which the energetic
President Cleveland responded to the proposition of the com-
mission would have been received with the greatest satisfac-
tion and immediate acceptance in the halls of Congress. On
the contrary, it raised a storm of indignation amongst Repre-
sentatives as well as in the Senate. Especially the latter suf-
fered itself to be influenced by those great combines which
drew enormous revenues from the despoliation of the woods,
selling the lands afterwards again to actual settlers. Gov-
ernment supervision would have put an end to their specula-
tions. A bill passed the House setting aside the proclamation.
It was returned with the President's veto. The matter was
laid over until March I, 1898, and a resolution passed that the
new reservations should be again surveyed, and remain as
such, provided that not before the expiration of said time they
should have been otherwise disposed of. It is evident that
no change will occur from Mr. Cleveland's policy.
An actual beginning of a national forest administration
has furthermore taken place through the issue of regulations
of the General Land Commissioner in Washington, who is in-
trusted with the supervision of the forest reservations con-
cerning the sale at public auction of all timbers allowed to be
cut on the public lands. The felling and transporting of the
logs is also governed by specific regulations.
The first methodic and scientific forest administration is,
since a few years, engaged in active work upon the extensive
• possessions of Mr. George Vanderbilt in Biltmore, N. C. The
forest administration is under the direction of Dr. C. A.
Schenck, a graduate of the University of Giessen, Germany.
A forestry school has been opened in the same place.
Mr. Vanderbilt has furthermore made a proposition to the
Philosophy of IJotaht.
trustees of the University of the South, at S<
there, at his expense, a forester and a forest school for th<
ular management of the extensive area I [0,00
by the University of the South on the- Cumberland pla
around Sewanee.
The eourse of instruction prescribed in German foi
schools, or academies, embraces the following lectui
A: Fundamental Instruction: General and agricultural chem-
istry; (2) mineralogy and geognosy, with special instruc-
tions in soil analysis; (3) botany as general botany, or ;
physiology and forest botany; (4) general zoology and I
zoology; (5) physic, meteorology and climatolog)
mathematics, with surveying and drawing: (7) theory of me-
chanics; (8) national economy; B : Specialties: (1
planting and maintaining; (2) forest protection; (3) utiliza-
tion; (4) forest mathematics; (5) designing and locating plots ;
(6) bookkeeping and forest police; 17) gamekeeping
history of science of forestry.
In answer to the question raised about the financial n -
of a regular forest administration a> a branch
national government, I copy from the Forester of March,
the following abstract on the forest management of the
dom of Bavaria :
Financial Results of Forest Administration in Bavaria.
In this small kingdom, with over 5.000,000 people on an
of about 29,000 geographical square miles, or about hal
great as that of the State of Wisconsin, and with about ;
cent mountain district, the forest has long hem r<
an indispensable part of a well-to-do Commonwealtl
during the Middle Ages the cities and religious bodi<
monasteries and churches ^i this region, accumulated
properties. The " Nueremberger Reichswald " had
famous in the sixteenth century, and as earl) as t: « y< ar l6l
definite forestry regulations helped to develop a judi
of the woods and their maintenance on all expo
lands.
For over forty years the forests of Bavaria hav<
the neighborhood of 6,000.000 acres, or about 34 \>- f l,K"
252 Philosophy of Box ax y.
total area, and they have been owned all this time in about the
same proportions — namely, about one-third by the State, one-
half by private owners, the rest by villages and corporations.
The policy of the State has been during all this time to in-
crease its holdings wherever practicable, and more than
$8,000,000 have been spent in the way of land purchases since
1830. But even with private owners a similar disposition
exists, and though the right to clear land is given wherever
this may be shown to be fit for agricultural purposes, there has
been almost as much land restocked with woods by private
owners and villages as has been cleared, so that the total hold-
ings of private owners have not been reduced through clearing
by more than one-third pro mille. Of the 6.2 millions* acres o£
forest, about 46 per cent is stocked with spruce and fir, usually
harvested at an age of about one hundred and twenty years ;
30 per cent is pine (nearly all Scotch pine — a hard pine resem-
bling our red or Norway pine), largely used as a firewood, and
generally cut at an age of eighty years and less. The rest is
stocked with hardwoods, mostly beech, which is allowed to-
grow to an age of about one hundred and twenty years ; some
white oak (Quercns pedunculata), part of which is managed
as tanbark coppice, being cut down every fifteen or twenty-
live years, and part is allowed to grow into larger timber, for
which about one hundred and eighty years are necessary in
this region. The yield of cut per acre is generally large.
Groves one hundred years old, cutting 10,000 cubic feet of tim-
ber per acre, are by no means rare in the forests of the foot-
hills, and even the poor rocky Alpine ranges are made to yield
during the same length of time from 3,000 to 4,000 cubic feet.
In the State forests about 61 cubic feet per acre grows, on an
average, every year over the entire area, so that they furnish
an annual cut of about 126,000,000 cubic feet of timber and
firewood.
In the private forests the growth and consequent yield is
generally smaller, since less care is had and less skill displayed.
Nevertheless, according to a thorough examination made
about i860, the growth even in this private and village woods
amounted to about 54 cubic feet per acre and year.
* State and private ownership.
PhILOSOPHI 01 BOTAKT.
With increased care the State Forests, of which m
per cent is unproductive as rocky wastes, roads, etc., 1
made to yield more wood and a greater money return. I
In 1829 the cut was 35 cubic feet of wood (from all
measuring over five inches in diameter) : in [850 the cut
44 cubic feet; in 1S60 the cut was 48 cubic feet : and in
cut per acre had increased to 60 cubic feet.
While in 1850 fully 84 per cent of the cut was still fin
this inferior class formed onl) <>~ per cent in [880, and thi^
proportion is still changing in favor of bole size material, a^
the average age and size of the timber increa
half and half in 1896.
The money returns of Bavarian State forests have no1
so great as those of the forests of Saxony and Wurtteml
This is partly due to a prevalence of mountain lands, which
reduce the yield, increase the cost of all operations, and partly
also to a less intensive management. Nevertheless, impi
ments in methods have led to fully as great an advance in the
net revenue here as in the neighboring States, so that th
income, which was only $1 per acre and year in
$1.92, or nearly double that amount.
In this way the little State of Bavaria has a net income Fi
its forest property alone — 2,091,930 acres — of nearly four mil-
lion dollars per year, after paying out in wages for superv
logging, planting, etc., a like amount, the net revenue
ing in 1896 just 50 per cent of the gross income.
Considering the many difficulties of stocking rough V
and other mountain lands with forests, it is noteworthy that «
the total expenses only 8 per cent, or about 10 cent
and year, is devoted to that sylvicultural pan of tl 1
to planting, sowing, gathering seed, nursery w
50 per cent is paid out \^v supervision, and
cutting and logging.
It is also of interest in this connection to note thai
not by a shortsighted, stingy policj of reti
penses, but by a liberal policy thai 11
to furnish a steady and cheap supply of timber to hundrt
mills, cheap firewood to the whole people, and a n<
which, if regarded as an interest on the valut
254 Philosophy of Botany.
property, makes this, at the prevailing 3 per cent rate, worth
$130,000,000, or $65 per acre, for land which without the forest
cover would hardly bring $10, even in these densely settled
countries.
Instead of expending only 80 cents per acre and year, as
was done as late as the year i860, Bavaria now expends more
than double this amount, pays higher salaries, and maintains a
larger force of steady workers ; it spends about a quarter of a
million per year on roads and other permanent improvements,
and at the same time improves its woods, has more standing
timber of larger average size, has more wood growing, and re-
ceives more money from this resource than ever before.
Preservation of forests must come about largely by the abso-
lute ownership of lands, either by the nation, State, or associ-
ated capital. The management must be controlled by national
or State supervisors, amenable to definite forest laws. Pres-
ervation of the forest does not mean to keep the ax out of the
woods, but to use it rationally. In all natural woodlands
must a constant culling be practiced, in order to insure the
greatest possible thriftiness in timber growth. This selective
thinning out by felling the mature or diseased individuals or
undesirable species is for the present the only one practicable
form of management.
If in any region certain kinds are particularly wanted in aid
of certain industries, such would, without delay, be planted or
sown, especially when younger growth is preferred, like in the
pulp industry. The paper mulberry makes a very rapid
growth, thrives in any soil, and is well suited for the South.
Large areas in the State of Tennessee are unfit for profit-
able agriculture from poverty of the soil. The spare popula-
tion wears out a toilsome life without hope for improvement.
Schools of the lowest grade and inadequate to effect intel-
lectual improvement give no encouragement in some kind of
home industry, and they are ultimately forced to seek employ-
ment in the mines. The legitimate remedy would be to put
such districts under forest culture. The timber question is
a vital point in the life of the coal-mining industry in the Cum-
berland Mountains, and not less so to the iron, copper, and
other industries in East Tennessee, and a promising field is
Philosophy of Botaht.
open here to capital in buying up such tracts f I culture.
Many tracts of land in East and Middle Tcni
cessively rugged that only here and there may small
admit of plowing. The surface, although in the main l<
is full of rocks of all sizes, like a mighty convulsion ha
up the surface of the earth. The cause of tin- phenom
is the geological structure, consisting of king thin
strata of fossil limestone and shale, which, unequall)
and the latter partly washed out. causes displacements ui
all degrees of angles, and this rough-and-tumble aspect. The
surface is so deeply rifted that the far-reaching cedar I
find moisture in the depth when the surface is parched.
region is naturally reserved for the cedar, especially
is also unfavorable for the growth of other CMiiin : ount
of the great dryness of the air in the summer season in the
middle division of the State. Cedar and hackberry would be
the forest composition. Very recently an enterprise has
planned which, if successfully carried into execution, would
immensely benefit our State. An association composed of
citizens of several States, known under the name of the
National Park Association, has addressed a petition
gress explaining the desirability of establishing a national
park in the Southern Appalachian region. Petition
that upon unquestionable authority of our foremost b
like Prof. A. Gray, Professor Sargent, and others, no mor<
able reservation could be selected anywhere within the bounda-
ries of the United States than the one to he described here
after. There is a greater diversity of hardwoods and conifers
within limited areas in the Southern Appalachian Moui
chain in the grandest development of growth than could be
gathered over the whole of Europe, or in the latitude
adelphia, from the Atlantic Coast to the mountains
orado.
This area is also blessed with the embellishment of the ■
gorgeous and peculiar species of herbaceous plant-, and m
ploration of those high summits will always have in the t
of the lover of nature's scenic grandeur emotions
ment and fascination.
The forests of this region are all of a " mixed Maud.
256 Philosophy of Botany.
the English version of the German term " bestand." They
are in no part made up of but one single kind, but of conifers
and hardwoods intermingled in very diverse proportions.
Now, before the extension into this region of extensive rail-
road lines and intersections, and the intrusion of numerous
forest-destroying mining operations, would yet be an oppor-
tunity to secure large and coherent tracts of mountain lands
in the virgin state of nature.
The forest, once destroyed, will within the borders of culture
not spontaneously restore itself, as we have learned from ex-
perience on the old continent. We also know that artificial
reafforestation is a slow process, calling for lifetime energy and
expenditure of succeeding generations. Government aid and
direction has to be depended on in such operations, which
do not yield an immediate compensation. Moreover, the gov-
ernment alone can clothe its officials with such authority as
will be necessary to protect such territories against destruc-
tive inroads. The areas as presently planned, cover the heads
of all the water courses flowing west into the valley of East
Tennessee. These in their descent, cutting narrow gulches
through the rugged mountain masses in grades of several
hundred feet from their heads to the flood level of the valley
rivers, represent an available amount of energy representing
millions of horse power. The continuance of this energy de-
pends entirely on the preservation of the forests at their
sources. They are the guardians of the industrial life of East
Tennessee. Yet another quality peculiar to this region is its
unexcelled suitableness for health resorts. The abundant
springs draw their cool and limpid waters from silicated or
granitic rocks ; are free from calcareous, magnesian, or alumi-
nous impurities. Ferrugineous springs, on the/ contrary, are
not infrequent. .Other blessings are the absence of the mos-
quito plague and freedom from malaria.
As the forests are nearly half and half composed of conifers,
the air is charged with balsamic fragrance and richly ozonized.
The obnoxious Northwestern gales do not reach over that far
East, although they are yet felt on the Cumberland plateau.
On the contrary, warm and moist breezes are frequently wafted
up from the Caribbean.
Philosophy of Botj
The mildness of the climate makes this region B
all seasons of the year, and even the highest summit
but a month or six weeks snow covered. The We
national parks are, from the rigor of their prol<
period, accessible for only about five months.
Duly central to the Northern sea© >ast, I oled
Louis, and New Orleans, could this region be readily : .
by millions of people within one day's travel.
The tracts, as now proposed for a reservation, He I
32 to 35 degrees north latitude, and 82 to 85 western I
tude. The central or highest crests of the Balsam
Smoky Mountains traverse it from southwi
with the greatest expanse of surface to the east I i.
survey takes in a strip of AlcMinn. Blount, S<
Greene Counties, in Tennessee; nearly the whole <>t" Graham,
part of Swain (and the Cherokee reservation), part of Hay-
wood and Madison, and nearly the whole of Yancey, in North
Carolina; or probably 2,000,000 acres of mountain lands.
The State of Tennessee ought to make a strenuoti
that all the headwaters of the Hiwassee and I >coe l\;\<-
their ultimate sources in North Carolina and ould
also be included in this reservation. The greatest opportuni-
ties for mining enterprises are open in this region for buil
stones, granites, and slate quarrying, beside- gold, CO]
iron, asbestos, and gems, not to speak of the natural and
ing products of a national forest management
The success of this enterprise lies within the power of, and
depends upon, the appreciation of its merits by the pi
Congress. Since the writing of these lines the present I
second General Assembly of the State passed a joint r«
tion by both houses memorializing Congress througl
resentatives, and petitioning for a national Lrrant. Tin- I
eral Assembly declared its readine-s to cede all
against compensation to present owner- to the Governmer
the United States, recognizing its absolute domain.
The State of Georgia has also sent a similar I in-
struction to its Representatives in Congri
a joint action of the three States of North Carolina, T
and Georgia.
9
258 Philosophy of Botany.
I have adjoined below the message of the President to Con-
gress, January 16, 1901, in relation to the Appalachian Moun-
tain Reservation, Secretary Wilson's report on the contem-
plated National Park, and Senator Pritchard's bill for the ap-
propriation of $5,000,000 for the execution of the Appalachian
Park Bill :
To the Senate and House of Representatives:
T transmit herewith, for the members of the Congress, a letter from
the Secretary of Agriculture, in which he presents a preliminary report
of investigations upon the forests of the Southern Appalachian Moun-
tain region. Upon the basis of facts established by this investigation
the Secretary of Agriculture recommends the purchase of land for a
national forest reserve in Western North Carolina, Eastern Tennessee,
and adjacent States. I recommend to the favorable consideration of
Congress the reasons upon which this recommendation rests.
WILLIAM M'KINLEY.
Washington, D. C, January 3. 1901.
The President:
The bill making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture
for the fiscal year ending on June 30, 1901, provides that a " sum not to
exceed five thousand dollars may, in the discretion of the Secretary of
Agriculture, be used to investigate the forest conditions in the Southern
Appalachian Mountain region of Western North Carolina and adjacent
States." In accordance with this provision, I have made a thorough in-
a estigation of the forests in a portion of the Southern Appalachian
Mountains, as directed above, including an estimate of the amount and
condition of the standing timber, an inquiry as to the suitability of this
region for a national park as proposed by the Appalachian National
Park Association, and an examination of the validity of the reasons
advanced by Its advocates for the creation of such a park. In this task
I have received generous and effective cooperation and assistance,
through the United States Geological Survey, from the Department of
the Interior, which recognized in this way the deep and widely-diffused
public interest in the plan.
The forest investigation was made to include a study of the charac-
ter and distribution of the species of timber trees, the density and value
of forest growth, the extent to which the timber has been cut or dam-
aged by fire, the size and nature of the present holdings, the prices at
which these forest lands can now be purchased, and the general and
special conditions that affect the prosecution or conservative forestry
on a large scale.
The hydrographic survey of the region conducted by the United
States Geological Survey includes a general study of its topographic
features; of the relation of the soils, forest cover, and rainfall; of the
Philosophy of Bota.w.
quantity of water flowing out of it through the various luring
different seasons; and of the influenc ■ exerted on the rei : thH
flow by forest clearings. More than 750 Btream measures
already been made, and much additional data of Bpeclal \al
secured.
In addition to these investigations, I have given thorough attention
to the arguments advanced by the movers for the proposed park and to
those of their opponents, and as a result I am Btronglj of opinion thai
this matter is worthy of careful consideration.
I have the honor to transmit herewith a mounted original i iopj
large map, which shows in detail the mapping of forests accomplished
during the past summer over an area of nearly 8,000 square mil-
full report of the work and of its results is now in preparation and will
be submitted for your consideration at an early date. The foil
preliminary statement is made to bring before you without delay i
summary of the facts sufficient to set forth clearly the principal features
of the region and the plan :
The movement for the purchase and control or' a !arg< area of for-
est land in the East by the government has chiefly contemplated 8 na-
tional park. The idea of a national park is conservation. Dot use; that
of a forest reserve, conservation by use. I have, therefore, to i
mend a forest reserve instead of a park. It is fully shown by the in-
vestigation that such a reserve would be self-supporting from the Bale
of timber under wisely-directed conservative forestry.
Extensive areas of hardwood forests within the region colored on
the accompanying map are still in their primitive condition, and these
are among the very best and richest hardwood forests of the United
States. The region in general is better adapted for forestry than for
agricultural purposes. It is located about the head waters of numer-
ous streams — such as the Ohio, Tennessee, Savannah, Yadkin, and
Roanoke — which are important buth for water power and for DJ
tion. The general conditions within the region are exceptionally
vorable for the carrying on of large operations in practical for<
and the weather is suitable for lumbering operations at all seasons of
the year. It contains a greater variety of hardwood trees than any
other region of the United States, since the Northern ami the Bouthern
species here meet. It is a region of exceptional beauty and pictun
ness; and although it would not be easily accessible to visitors in all
raits at all seasons of the yea'\ by far the greater portion >f it
would be easily reached and climatically pleasant throughout the
It contains within the forest-covered areas no lai
mining operations which would Interfere with the management of
a forest reserve, and yet there is a sufficient population foi the ■■■■
ing and protection of the forests. Large lumber cOmpanl ipidly
invading the region, and the early destruction ol the mon
timber is imminent. Lands in this region suitable tor such a I
260 Philosophy of Botany.
reserve are now generally held in large bodies of from 50,000 to 100,000
acres, and they can be purchased at prices ranging from $2 to $5 per
acre. It is probable that the average price would not exceed $3 per
acre. In explanation of the widespread and urgent demand for the es-
tablishment in this Southern Appalachian region of a national park,
or forest reserves, it may be added that it contains the highest and
largest mountain masses and perhaps the wildest and most picturesque
scenery east of the Mississippi River; that it is a region of perfect
healthfulness, already largely used as a health resort both summer and
winter; and that it lies within little more than a day's travel of the
larger portion of the population of this country.
The rapid consumption of our timber supplies, the extensive destruc-
tion of our forests by fire, and the resulting increase in the irregularity
of the flow of water in important streams have served to develop among
the people of this country an interest in forest problems which is one
of the marked features of the close of the century. In response to this
growing interest the government has set aside in the Western forest
reserves an area of more than 70,000 square miles. There is not a sin-
gle government forest reserve in the East.
I have the honor to be,
Very respectfully,
JAMES WILSON, Secretary.
APPALACHIAN PARK BILL FOR THE APPROPRIATION OF FIVE
MILLION DOLLARS.
Section 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives
of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Secre-
tary of Agriculture is hereby empowered and directed to purchase land,
suited to the purposes of a national forest reserve, in the Appalachian
Mountains, within the States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, in total extent not to exceed
two million acres, and to care for, protect, use, and make accessible the
said forest reserve or any part of it when so purchased.
Sec. 2. That the Secretary of Agriculture is hereby empowered and
directed to make such rules and regulations and establish such service
as he may deem necessary for the care, protection, and use of such for-
est reserve, and to sell such wood and timber as may be removed with-
out injury to the forest; provided, that no wood or timber shall be sold
otherwise than by public auction, except to actual settlers, and in no
case at less than the appraised value thereof; and provided, further,
that the proceeds of such sale shall be covered into the treasury of the
United States.
Sec. 3. That the sum of five million dollars, or as much thereof as
may be required, is hereby appropriated for the purchase of lands for
a national forest reserve, as hereinbefore specified, said reserve to be
known as the Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve; and said five mil-
Philosophy op Botany.
Hon dollars shall be available until the expiration of the I lilO-
1911, unless sooner expended.
Corresponding to the above followed the joint enactmenl
the General Assembly of the State of Tenness
AN ACT to give consent by the State of Tennessee to the acquisition
by the United States of such lands as may be needed for the i
lishment of a national forest reserve in said State.
Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the
high mountain region of Eastern Tennessee and adjacent SI
tional forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests and I
preserve the head waters of many important streams, ami which will
thus prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this
and
Whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress provid-
ing for the purchase of such lands for such purposes; there*
Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the St..
Tennssee, That the consent of the State of Tennessee he, and is hereby,
given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase, gift, or con-
demnation, according to law, of such lands in this State as in the opin-
ion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establishment
of such a national forest reserve in that region; provided, that the
State shall retain a concurrent jurisdiction with the United Stat
and over such lands so far that civil processes in all cases and BUCh
criminal processes as may issue under the authority of the Stats a(
any person charged with the commission of any crime Without or within
said jurisdiction may be executed thereon in like manner as if th
had not been passed; provided, further, that this Act shall apply only
to lands in Tennessee lying within twenty miles of the North Carolina
State line; that all condemnation proceedings herein provided shall bs
limited to lands now forest covered; and that in all BUCfa COndeou
proceedings the right of the Federal Government shall he limited to the
specific objects set forth in this Act and in the laws of th.' I
States in regard to forest reserves.
Sec. 2. Be it further enacted, That power is hereby conferred opon
Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessary to the aCQU
as hereinbefore provided for incorporation in said national for.
serve such forest-covered lands lying in the Stat.- as in the opinion Of
the Federal Government may be needed for this pun
Sec. 3. Be it further enacted. That power is hereby conferred upon
Congress to pass such laws and to make or provide for the msJtinf of
such rules and regulations of both civil and criminal nature and pi
punishment for violation thereof as in its judgment may be m •. easary
for the management, control, and protection of iUCb lands as may be
262 Philosophy of Botany.
from time to time acquired by the United States under the provisions
of this Act.
Sec. 4. Be it further enacted, That this Act take effect from and after
its passage, the public welfare requiring it.
Passed April 16, 1901. E. B. WILSON,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.
NEWTON H. WHITE,
Speaker of the Senate.
Approved April 22, 1901. BENTON M'MILLIN,
Governor.
These are the initiatory steps by which this priceless gift of
nature, the hitherto undefiled retreat of the virgin forest,
sacred to bird and beast, still the same as it was before the
encroachment of the white man, will be preserved for the com-
ing generations.
Subject to the greed, ignorance, or carelessness of individual
owners, the stately groves would soon be rendered unsightly
and worthless as dens and covers for bird and beast, which
could not escape their utter extinction.
Torrid knobs and blackened stumps would remain only, a
witness of human impiety. Under present auspices we will
soon see a noble corps of custodians, trained for scientific
management in the forestry department of our universities,
employing and directing squads of laborers in the utilization,
preservation, and embellishment of the reservation.
Modern Thoughts on the Origin, Evolu
tion, and Significance of Life.
Ihr Alle fiihlt geheimes Wlrken
Der ewig waltenden Natur,
Und aus den untersten Bezirken
Schmiegt sich herauf lebend'ge Spur.
b ist i!.. Theil.
All the secret working fepl
Of Nature's ever-guiding will,
And from the abyss deep and dark
Floats gleaming up a living spark.
RECENT VIEWS o\ PROTOPLASlJ AND
ORIGIN OE LIFE.
By the dissection of living plants and the exposure of their
interior structure under the microscope by a moderate enli
ment a chambered, or so-called cellular, structure is visible.
These chambers appear to be filled with a transparent, aqui
fluid, ascending- from the root, and carrying along with it un-
assimilated nutritive elements. It is called cell -
of chlorophyll are frequently floating in it. This elemei
the plant body had been observed and described befoi
A close observation, however, of any living cell will n
another substance, mostly in the form of a slimy, \
subsolid mass, either filling the whole cavity, or only clothing
the inner wall with a thin layer, or traversing in t li-
the cavity of the cell. The distinct character of this subst
was first announced by Hugo Mohl in [846, and called by him
protoplasm.
This is, in its general bearing, a verj well-known, but in ii
innermost, nature a yet totally unexplained, su W •
know about it to a certainty, that it is the
alone of plants, but likewise of animals. The pro!
each cell also contains a formative differentiation, the nucleu
From a chemical standpoint it is comp than
264 Philosophy of Botany.
four, but generally five, elements — carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, and sulphur — forming the albuminoids, the most com-
plex, variable, and unstable chemical compounds. Here we
see how, within the cell, from the circulating nutritive fluid the
plastic mass, protoplasm, gradually develops.
The progress of growth proceeds in animals nearly uni-
formly, in plants from the terminal vegetative points — buds —
and in the cambium or peripheral region (green bark). Thence
begins the differentiation of tissues, and of the whole series of
vegetable and animal bodies, and that mutual interaction by
which from the root or stomach nutritive elements are con-
veyed and elaborated. The production of protoplasm termi-
nates in the maturing and storage of such albuminoids as
make up the body of seeds, and fill the cells of tubers, bulbs,
roots, and cambium, and provide for the renewal of individual
life and nutrition in its infant state. None of the secondary
elements or products possess an inherent vitality. The pro-
teins, which are the most complex in composition, are exceed-
ingly prone to decomposition. The simpler hydrocarbons, like
lignin, cellulose, starch, the resins, only, are enduring. The
most obvious of the protoplasmic forms is the chlorophyll,
whose principal function is the separation of the carbon in the
process of plant respiration.
Respecting the comparative quantities in the composition of
the individual bodies — of proteinic, nitrogenated constitu-
ents, and the nonnitrogenated simpler ones — we observe re-
verse relation. While in plants the amount of albuminoids is
comparatively insignificant, we find the bodies of animals
nearly exclusively proteinic. Plants increase constantly, dur-
ing the vegetative period, their supply in albumen, until they
enter the resting period. Animals have, without interruption,
to renew it, lest they perish.
It is meet to remember that all protoplasmic bodies are sub-
ject to a constant process of elimination and renewal, and that
the suspension of either effects their immediate death, which
under all circumstances is their ultimate fate.
Very different is the problem of the origin of the primitive
protoplasm when it takes its rise without the medium of pre-
existing protoplasmic bodies. This process is called the " gen-
Philosophy of Botany, -*•'•
eratio equivoca or spontanea" by the older authors; by the
moderns, " archegonia."
The term " archegony " comprises, in a strictly scientifit:
sense, two essentially different pro,
" plasmogony." Under the term " autogon) , the
origin of the most simple plasma body in an inorganic flu
i. e., in such a fluid in which those elements which an I
for the composition of the organic body .
simple and constant solutions; for instance, carboi
hydrate of ammonia, binary salts. Contrariwise, th<
would be called " plasmogony." if the organic individual I
its rise in an organic vegetative fluid — i. e., in a fluid which
contains these essential elements in form of complicated an-!
unstable carbon compounds, in solution (albumen, carbon-
hydrates, etc.).
The processes of autogony as well as of plasm* .-. my ha\
yet. not been demonstrated. Attempts at the solution of the
problem of archegony in earlier as well as recent times nearl)
all refer not to autogony, but to plasmogony. which '
process is of little avail in reference to primordial organic
ination. The temporary failure to verify by experiment the
possibility of autogony cannot have more than a negative
ing, and does not absolutely prove that under no circumstai
such an event ever could have occurred.
The ripened judgment of contemporaneous inves
tends to make it clear that the impossibility as well as tin
sibility, can never be brought to a tangible demonsti
its ultimate inchoative state. More about this hereafter.
Hypotheses about a natural spontaneous generation
advanced already in the seventh century before our era by the
leaders of the Ionian school, the three Milesians 1 1
Anaximenes, and Anaximander. The hit :■
important fundamental tenets of our modern monism. They
pointed out that a natural uniform law is the source of the
manifold manifestations, recognized the unity of the whole
nature, and the constant transmntati- ma i >f I >rms Blan-
der allows that the living creatures have i i in tin-
water, under the influence of solar heat, and that man ha
veloped out of fishlike creatures. Later on we read in the
266 Philosophy of Botany.
natural philosophy of Heraclitus and Empedocles, and in the
scientific writings of Democritus and Aristotle, allusions to
ideas, in which we recognize fundamental principles of our
modern theory of evolution.
Two great and weighty fundamental ideas of the theory of
evolution are also presented in Genesis, conceived by Moses,
in surprising clearness and simplicity — the conception of sepa-
ration and differentiation, and the conception of progressive
evolution or improvement.
All these views hitherto proposed in favor of a specific,
mutually unconnected production by creation, lead, upon log-
ical inferences, to that manner of reasoning which is under-
stood as anthropomorphism. Under this term the Creator is
conceived as an organism, conjecturing after the manner of
man, meditating and altering his plans, ultimately carrying out
his designs like a human architect would rear his structure.
The miraculous aspect has always been unsatisfactory to those
of speculative mind, and was too closely affiliated to other
ancient mythological narratives as not to invite modified inter-
pretations. The inconceivable was prominently proposed,
which is merely a sophistic evasion, and means to affirm that
one entertains no opinion at all and declines to have one.
In contrast with this complete scientific inadequacy of the
creative hypotheses, we are compelled to seek refuge in the
opposite theory of evolution, if we intend to form a conception
serving the purpose of rationally acceptable exposition. We
are forced and morally bound to make such an attempt, even if
these evolutionary doctrines should cast merely a glimmer of
probability upon a mechanical and natural origination of the
different species of plants and animals, but the more so if they
are able equally as plainly and simply, as also completely and
comprehensively to explain all related facts.
These evolutionary theories are by no means what is often,
yet falsely, pleaded against them, arbitrary notions or products
of the imagination, applicable only to one or the other single
organism ; they are indeed strictly scientifically supported the-
ories, resting upon a firm and lucid basis, whence the totality
of natural phenomena and especially the origin of the organ-
Philosophy of Boi ajh .
isms may be explained in the plainesl manner, .
sary consequences of mechanical natural pro< i
This theory is known as the monistic or mechanical
causal, because it applies only mechanical a
with necessity (causa- efficientes) in the interpret
natural phenomena.
On the other hand, the supernatural hypothes<
coincide with that totally opposite view of the uni hich,
in contradistinction to the former, is called the dual
often also teleologic or vital, because of its all*
merit of conditions after a design planned upon usefulness
efficiency (causa? finales).
The manner in which science attempts to vindicate th<
nistic theory leads to the following considerations:
Chemistry shows us that all known bodies ma] . by ana:
be resolved into a limited number of elements or primary sub-
stances ; such not furthermore resolvable bodies are, •
bon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, or the divers metals, like
potassium, natrium, iron, gold, etc. At present we ktio
about seventy-five such elements. The majority of then
rather unimportant, and of unfrequent occurrence; only the
lesser number is generally distributed, and forms not only
most inorganic objects, but also all organic bodi<
If we compare those elements which compose the bodi<
organisms with those elements which arc i" « » 1 1 1 1 < I in the inor-
ganic substances, we are impressed with the fact that there
appears no element in the bodies of animals and plants, which
could not also be found outside of them in lifeless nature.
There is absolutely no organic element.
Be it here incidentally remarked that all th<
ments are (most probably) only different combination forms
of homologous atoms of one absolutely simple prim
stance, " the Mass." The differences between element i
nized at the present day. originate probabl) in tin circum-
stance that these mass-atoms are arranged in different nun
bers and positions: and their atom-groups or molecules
in different relations to the universal ether which fills B]
The group-wise arranged mutual affinity of tin- elemen
speaks for this hypothesis, which, however, ha- not
^68 PHILOSOPHY OF BOTANY.
experimentally demonstrated. It is furthermore supposed
that these chemical elements formed prior to the formation of
planetary systems, in the evolution of star systems, under con-
ditions of heat, higher than now artificially producible.
The chemical and physical differences existing between
organic and inorganic bodies have therefore their material
origin not in the distinct nature of the component elements,
but in the different way and manner in which they are aggre-
gated into chemical combinations.
This distinct way of composition conditions, consecutively
certain physical peculiarities, especially in reference to their
density, which at once appear to open a wide chasm between
these two groups of bodies. The formed inorganic or lifeless
natural objects, the crystals and the amorphous rocks are of a
degree of density which we call solid in contradistinction to
the fluid state of the water or the gaseous state of the atmos-
phere.
It will be remembered that these different states of aggrega-
tion of the inorganic bodies are not at all due to their ele-
mentary nature, but are depending upon certain degrees of
their temperature. Every one of the inorganic solid elements
may be converted by raising its temperature into the fluid or
molten, and by further increase to the gaseous or elastic fluid
state. Likewise every gaseous body — e. g., carbonic acid — by
sufficient reduction of temperature or increased pressure can
be condensed to the fluid, and furthermore to the solid, state.
In distinction from these three conditions of density of the
inorganic substances, we find the living bodies of all organ-
isms, of plants as well as animals, in a quite peculiar fourth
state of aggregation. This one is neither solid like a stone,
nor liquid like water, but keeping the middle between these
two conditions, of what may be called a firmly liquid or tumid
consistency. In all living bodies, with no exception, is a cer-
tain quantity of water bound up in a peculiar way with solid
substance, and just by this characteristic combination of water
with solid substance comes about the soft, neither hard nor
fluid, consistency which, for the coming into existence and the
mechanical interpretation of the phenomena of life, is of great-
est importance.
Philosophy of Botahy.
The cause of this is principally attributable to the chcn
and physical properties of one single element, tl>
Carbon is, from our point of view, of all elemei • the
most efficient and interesting, because the function of thii
ment plays the most important r61e in the life history i
plants and animals of which wc have any knowledj
the element which, by virtue of its peculiar inclinati<
formation of complicated combinations with the Othei
ments, effects the greatest possible diversity of chemical
positions, and thereby also of the forms and qualities of the
bodies of animals and plants. In combining with the other
elements it forms an infinite series of formulas through di
proportions in number and weight.
Foremost in the combination of carbon with these other
ments oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen (with which also >ul-
phur and phosphorus are frequently associated) arise those
extremely important compositions in which we recogniz<
first and indispensable basis of vital phenomena, the albumi-
nates (proteids).
Proteinic substances have as yet not been found othen
than in single or aggregate bodies of definite forms, which,
subject to the laws of organic evolution, differ, in an ascending
series, in complexity of molecular structure. ma>^ and sha]
external form, and degree of development of organs foi
etative and physical functions.
Within the recollection of our older botanists or brolof
it was firmly believed that the cell was the ultimate an:-.
element of bodies, and that the cells took their origin directly
from inorganic matter, under the influence ni light and
Virchow and Schleiden were the first to make char the en
ousness of this presumption, showing that no cell 01
spontaneously, but directly out of another cell. " ( tannifl cel-
lula ex cellula " became the biological maxim.
With the rapid advance in biologic studies and th<
improved methods in microscopy it was recognized that the
cell is a too complicated, too highly organized, and too mutable
formation for us, to accredit it with the power to bri
at once the chasm between the organic and the in
To remedy the discrepancy, the attention was drawn to the
2^0 Philosophy of Botany.
function of the nucleus, the formative element of the cell, and
the formula was changed to " Every nucleus from another
nucleus."
The above-given term. " autogony," proposed by Haeckel,
could merely serve to circumscribe the genetic act within the
nearest possible compass, until his discovery of the " moners,"
the simplest living organisms, strengthened our hopes to trace
up the thread of life to the present.
The first complete observations upon the nature of a moner
(Protogenes primordialis) had been made by him at Nizza in
1864. Other remarkable moners have been found by him
later on the Canaries and Lanzarote, and in 1867 in the Straits
of Gibraltar. (The complete life history of one of these Cana-
rian moners, the orange-colored Protomyxa aurantiaca, with
illustration, is given in the " Natiirliche Schopfungs-
Geschichte,'' of Ernst Haeckel, ninth edition, Vol. I., page
168.) Also in the German Ocean, on the Norwegian coast,
near Bergen, he found some peculiar moners. An interest-
ing Sweetwater species Cienkowski found, and described it
under the name " Vampyreila." Another one Sorakin found
and named it " Gloidium." Very recently the number of these
organisms has been greatly augmented through the efforts of
other investigators.
All of them are exceedingly small corpuscles, who, indeed,
do not merit the name of organisms, a term based upon the
assumption that all living beings are made up of organs, which,
like the component parts of a machine, harmoniously cooper-
ate to effect the activity of the whole. These moners, how-
ever, are absolutely without structure or nucleus, consisting of
a homogeneous plasma. The entire body during their life-
time is nothing more than a mobile particle of jelly, without
a permanent form, a minute living speck of an albuminous
carbon compound. We assume this homogeneous mass to
possess a very complicated molecular structure, which is, of
course, neither anatomically nor microscopically demonstrable.
The largest moners are of the size of a small pin head ; the
smallest are the bacteria, which in all probability belong to
this order of beings. More simple and imperfect beings could
not be conceived.
Philosophy of Boi
We have here arrived at the limits of our physical ii
tion. The nature of light, the prop
media, and the structure of the human eye will liar.';
us to penetrate deeper into this special in tion.
Of the bacteria we know little more than their external
form, their reaction upon certain coloring substances which
render their hyaline bodies visible under the high ma
powers which we have to use to make them visibli
come distinguishable under culture in certain nutritive liquids,
through peculiar forms of aggregation, through rapid multipli-
cation by division, and through the products of their growth.
This growth is due to the absorption of the nutritive fluid
to the subsequent elimination of waste material.
In a state of rest the moners appear as minute globular
puscles, either undiscernable to the naked eye, or merely the
size of a small pin head, as before state. 1. Their facult
cuting movements takes place through the protrusion
ular fingerlike protuberances From the slimy surfa ■' fine
radiating filaments or pseudopodia The pseudop
simple, immediate continuations of the structureless albumi-
nous mass which constitutes the entire body. We are not
able to find in it differentiated parts, and we can make the
direct proof for the absolute homogeneity of the semil
albuminous substance by observing them under the m
scope in the act of taking food. If minute bodies, acceptable
to their tastes, such as comminuted organic substances or in-
fusory animals, come into actual contact, the} adhere to the
sticky surface and create an irritation. In res] tin-
an increased flow of the slimy substance toward that pa-
takes place, which ultimately incloses it. Sometimes a fun-
nel-shaped depression forming in the moner
purpose. The nutriment is thereafter digested by diffu
(endosmosis) and what is left unabsorbed br
surface again in a corresponding way. Equall) simple i
mode of propagation, winch is asexual or b) monogamy
consists simply in self-division. Whenever su nute
body acquires a certain size from sufficient nutrition
into two pieces; an annular constriction fofms I I the
division is soon complete.
272 Philosophy of Botany.
In other species, like Vampyrella and Gloidium, the body
divides into four equal parts ; in Protomonas and Protomyxa
the body at once resolves into a great number of globular
spherules.
Here, like elsewhere, when science transcends the limits of
the perceptible and the domain of experience, venturing into
the dark field of the unknown, the investigator must ulti-
mately be guided by an ingenious use of the imagination ; of
that wondrous faculty which, left to ramble uncontrolled, leads
us astray into a wilderness of perplexities and errors, a land of
mists and shadows ; but which, properly controlled by experi-
ence and reflection, becomes the noblest attribute of man, the
source of poetic genius, the instrument of discovery in
sciences, without the aid of which Newton would never have
invented the fluxions, or Davy have discovered the earths and
alkalis, nor Roentgen the X rays, nor Columbus have found
another continent.
The clearest and best elaborated hypothesis about organic
states preceding the moners is given by Karl von Nageli in
his great work, " The Mechanico-physiological Theory of Evo-
lution " (" Mechanish-physiologische Theorie der Abstam-
mungslehre "), Munich and Leipzig, 1884.
Before entering upon the micellar* hypothesis of Nageli, it
may be well to state that Haeckel had made distinction be-
tween those " Beginnings of Life " based upon the mode of
nutriton, as phytomoners and zoomoners. The first are built
up from protoplasma, possessing the faculty to prepare plasson
synthetically from inorganic matter, converting the living
force of sunlight into latent chemical energy of organic combi-
nations.
The other class, or zoomoners, are plasma eaters, consist
of zooplasma and cannot transmute inorganic matter into
plasma. They live upon the plasma of the preformed phyto-
moners, and convert the therein contained energy again into
heat and motion. To the phytomoners belong the Chromaceae,
and also the hypothetical, oldest originators of all organisms,
* Micella, diminutive of mica, a grain, crumb, a cell, or assumed in-
termediate state between a molecule and a cell.
Philosophy of Botany.
the Protobiens. He defines them as very minute, living
ma-granules proceeding from micellar organization. Ni
thinks that these bodies are too minute to become distinguish-
able even under the highest powers. To be more i ;•
quote three paragraphs from Nageli's work, referring the r<
to the original work :
" Certain organic compounds, among them albumen,
ther soluble, despite their great affinity for water, nor are they
fusible, and hence are produced in the micellar form. These
compounds are formed in water where the molecules thai
immediately adjoining each other arrange themselves into
incipient crystals, or micella*. Only such of the mole
as are formed subsequently and come into contact with the
micella, contribute to its increase in size, while the othei
account of their insolubility, produce new micella-. For this
reason the micellae remain so small that they are invisible,
with the microscope.
" On account of their great affinity for water the micella
surround themselves with a thick film of it. The attraction
of these micella? for matter of their own kind is felt outsid
this film. Hence the micellae with their films unite themselves
into solid masses permeated with water, unless other i
overcome attraction. The internal and external constitution
of micellar bodies depends essentially upon the size, form, and
dynamic nature of their micellae, since on these factors depends
the original arrangement of the micella', and the insertion in
proper order of those formed later.
"The micella) of albumen or plasma are susceptible of tin-
greatest diversity of form, size, and chemical com]
since they originate from unlike mixtures oi various albumen
compounds, and besides are mixed with various organic
inorganic substances. For this reason the plasma bcha
both chemically and physically, in many unlike ways, and in
consequence of the variable relation ^i the micella' I
the plasma shows all degrees of micellar solution up to quite
solid masses. Within the plasma masses the production "f
albumen goes on more easily under the influence ^i their in
ular forces than in the liquid without. Hence the compounds
present in the organic substratum and capable ^i forming
2^4 Philosophy of Botany.
albumen enter preferably into the masses of plasma, and by
intussusception of micellae of albumen cause growth. Here
life exists in its simplest form."
Spontaneous generation presupposes the origin of plasma-
micellae from molecules, hence cannot be brought about by
solutions from albumens or peptones, since these are micellar
solutions. Life presupposes the intussusception of plasma-
micellae; hence it ceases as soon as the arrangement of micel-
lae is so far disordered by injurious influences as to render
that process of growth impossible. The resulting organism
must be perfectly simple, a mass of plasma with micellae as yet
unarranged, because any organization without a preceding
organizing activity is inconceivable. For this reason known
organisms cannot have originated spontaneously; a kingdom
of simpler things must have preceded them. (Probien — the
suborganic kingdom.)
Haeckel (f< Natiirliche Schopfungs-Geschichte," Vol. II.,
pages 430-431) says: " I believe, with Nageli, it is very prob-
able that the like acts of spontaneous generation have repeated
themselves very often, invariably when the necessary condi-
tions emerged in the inorganic nature. They may even occur-
now, daily, without our being able to observe them directly
with our inadequate methods of research. We are entirely
unacquainted with those conditions ; and the spontaneous orig-
ination of minute probionts, of minute plasson-granules, which
elude discovery even with the highest magnifying powers, may
fail to be demonstrable even amid the best chances. In refer-
ence to the contemporary moners we have the choice between
the following conclusions: Either they descend, indeed,
•directly from the first originated (or created) oldest moners,
and then they must have propagated and preserved them-
selves, since many millions of years in the original form of
minute, simple, plasma corpuscles, or the moners of the pres-
ent day have come into existence in the course of the organic
evolution of the earth, by repeated acts of spontaneous gener-
ation, and then there is no physical obstacle imaginable, why
it should not be repeated infinitely often."
Pending this question the reflection is forced upon us that
in those immemorial preaeval times, terrestrial conditions ex-
Philosophy 01 Boi
isted, quite different from those of the present day, v. hull may
have facilitated autogony.
The organic history of this globe must have had if
ning in an age when the oceans were united, forming an unin-
terrupted surface, and the temperature of the wat<
ciently decreased to allow the formation of albumtno
pounds. This may have been not far from the boiling point,
as we even now find living organisms in natural sprii
high temperature. I picture in my fantasy the incumbei
mosphere charged with irrespirable gases, filled with immense
masses of vapors inclosing the ocean in impenetrable dark-
ness, which was relieved only by the diffuse phosph
of floating luminous corpuscles; the waters charged with
mineral solutions, ready for precipitation with pn
refrigeration; the sky luminous From uninterrupted electric
flashes; and the atmosphere trembling from incessanl
of thunder, and whirled about by furious cyclom
Then already may possibly the hot waters of the primordial
oceans have been peopled by living being-. Their high tem-
peratures may even have been favorable to their coming into
existence, as we even nowadays rind oscillatories and
in hot springs at 140°. In the geysers of Yellowstone
live Conferva major and Phormidium laminosum, flourishing
by 1620 to 1760, while the albumen of the higher
coagulates at 1620 Fahr. As tlure is reason to belie>
above stated, that the surface oi the globe was shrouded in
darkness, or only illuminated by diffused light, until tin
broke through the clottds, we must take into account that the
gelatinous bodies of the schizomycetes and algae oi this time
contained a bluish green substance; the phycocyanin in <ht
fusion through their bodies, whose carbon-absorbing fui
was not confined to any granular or cellular formation, like the
chlorophyll, which came into existence afterwards with the
higher vegetable forms and for whose action a \\ Humi-
liation sufficed.
It is a permissible speculation that the enzyi r 1 -rm
less ferments may have played an important part in tl
■of life. We have long known of a number of album;:
soluble substances which chemists called
276 Philosophy of Botany.
shapeless and formless ferments, which, like yeast — a well-
known organized ferment — excite fermentation in organic
solutions and cause the splitting up of their molecular struc-
ture, without experiencing an increase of their own volume.
By this they imitate or replace the vital action of the formed
fermenters.
Judging from the ordinary standard those shapeless bodies
would be considered as lifeless; yet it is very doubtful if
they should as such be held, for they develop properties in
common with those of the living ferments. Whenever the
solutions of these enzymes are exposed to temperatures of
1600 to 2io° they become inefficient just as well as the organ-
ized ferments. They are also killed by alcohol, corrosive sub-
limate, and all the substances which destroy the vitality of
the bacteria. Thus is established a difference between living
and dead enzymes.
Recently an experiment was made by Buchner, to obtain
under high pressure a juice from living ferment-organisms,
with subsequent nitration. The fluid prepared in this way
has had the same effect, like the living structural ferments.
Thus we are led to conjecture a still lower grade of vital
processes, some kind of chemical life which eludes our micro-
scopical investigations.
The immense quantities of carbon now deposited in the
devonian and carboniferous strata and the oil-soaked lime-
stones and sandstones of the silurian, circulated as carbonic
dioxide, mixed with sulphureted hydrogen gas. Immense
periods may have passed before the rays of the sun broke
through the clouds, before chlorophyll-bearing tissues could
proceed to depurate the air of the carbon. The geometric reg-
ularity of the organic forms of that era, the protophytae
(diatomace* and cosmariaceae), and of the protozoa (radi-
olarise) and the large percentage of mineral matter, silica,
and carbonate of lime, contained in their texture, give them a
great resemblance to certain systems of crystallization — snow-
flakes or augitic forms of crystals.
The doctrine of protoplasm as advanced by Huxley and
the recent success in synthetic chemistry in the production of
some organic compounds, like urea or indigo, hold out the
Philosophy op Botajty.
promise of the manufacture of living matter by artificial m
Yet none of these numerous laboratory products ha
the quality of protoplasm— a substance endowed witl
evolving power of continuous change.
All the artificially produced proteids are definite and h<
geneous chemical compounds, without thai fundan.
organic characteristic of a definite external limitation.
Bacteria and moners are without recognizable internal
structure, but greatly specialized in size and Bharx
they show functions of psychical force, be it only tin
of food.
From these lowest forms onward we observe with inci
ing clearness the organic progress— irritability and
diversity of structure, sexuality, sensibility, in.. re and more
specialization in digestive, reproductive, and nervous
and ultimately the intellectual or psychical faculties.
The continuity of evolution represented in th<
of species is rerepresented in the genesis of individual In i
embryonic development, when during fetal life the ai
tral stages are gradually passed through, a ]>r- >cess pi
the validity of the laws of inheritance and adaptation
togeny.
At this point we are brought in contact with the higl
problems not only of biology, but also of philosophy, the
psychical question.
The individual existence of organ isms takes its ■
in the moment of fertilization of the ovum, through the v..
scopically small spermatic cell. An Important d
made recently by Pfeffer demonstrated thai the mutual
tion between the spermatozoa and ovum is effected bj chem-
ical affinity. No other act in organic life demon mort
convincingly the importance and efficiency ^i matter, when we
contemplate how the physical and intellectual development
not only of the newly generated being, hut also ol bil
scendants, for indefinite time is therein predetermined The
minuteness and simplicity of the external Structure oi this
cell demand an indeterminable complicity molecular
composition.
Indications of a psychical energy are noticeable low
2*78 Philosophy of Botany.
stage of organization. M. Romanes, in his zoological scale,
assigns the first manifestations of surprise and fear to the
larvae of insects and annelids; but according to A. Binet thi >
emotion is proper also to infusories. If a drop of acetic aci J
be introduced beneath the glass slide in a preparation contain-
ing quantities of infusories, the latter, will at once be seen o
flee in all directions like a flock of frightened sheep.
Mobius thinks that memory is one of the most elemental y
and primitive psychological facts, already observable in the
ciliated infusories. He properly remarks that every time '<. n
animal repeats the same action under influence of the same
excitation that fact proves that the animal is possessed • )f
memory. According to Verworn even rhizopods are endowi d
with primary instincts, as he demonstrates in the conduct of
the Difflugia urceolata, which constructs an envelope out of
sand particles for its offspring, before it passes out of its body
by division.
To find such complete psychical activity in the history of
these low organisms becomes less surprising when we call to
mind that, agreeable to the idea of evolution now accepted, a
higher animal is nothing more than a colony of protozoans.
Every one of the cells composing such an animal has retained
its primitive properties, giving them a higher degree of perfec-
tion by division of labor and by selection. The epithelial cells
that secrete the nails and the hair are organisms perfected with
reference to the secretion of protective parts. Similarly, the
cells of the brain are organisms that have been perfected with
reference to psychical attributes.
I wish to close this sketch of protoplasm with some remarks
on the mechanism of the cerebral functions and ultimate infer-
ences in reference to the psychical problem.
Considering that the human cerebral mass, weighing 3 4
pounds, consists of material of the most impressible and versa-
tile molecular composition, with the supra-addition of an im-
mensely complicated structure, with a supply of blood for its
nutrition and repair, amounting to one-third of the supply for
the whole body, it is evident that a motor center is provided,
able to evolve great effects.
Microscopical cerebral anatomy and psycho-physiology
Philosophy oi Botany.
have within the last twenty-five years reached importai
suits. The differentiation and localization of the mol
sensitive, and intellectual functions has been determii
is estimated that the gray or conical substance contains fr< ra
500 to t,ooo millions of ganglia or cells, each of which nuns
from 5 to 10 nerve fibers to receive external impression!
to intercommunicate them. Thus we see a field •
which the most vivid fantas) could not survey.
I venture, with some diffidence In my ability •■
short sketch the mechanism which combined with the ph)
chemical processes effects those cerebral functions which are
comprehend as psychical activities, consciousness and n
The speculative or metaphysical procedure has from th<
motest days to this time always been attempted in two totally
different and opposite ways. The dualist i-
elements, body and soul, whereby the body presides over the
vegetative and animal functions and the soul 1 - the
hegemony over all the intellectual faculties, retaining
consciousness and permanence after its separation from the
body by death.
The other, or monistic, view declare- for the inseparable
unity of both, and, repudiating the intrusion of dogmatic ele-
ments as parts of argumentation, defends its position by means
of the exact natural sciences, facts sustained by anal
dissection, the microscope, and psychological experiment.
From this source we know that the faculty to think ai
move depends upon the intact state of nervous cells and fi
and that the entire psychology is identical with the anatomy
and physiology of the nervous system.
We know now with considerable detail how the conta
the sensual organs with the outer world produ
activities, to be conducted along linear paths, the nei
nerve fibers and fibrils to the brain, in whose different depa
ments the peripheral perceptions are elaborated into 1
lectual concepts.
But few years ago it was believed that nerve fibers MB
from the great hemispheres would, in uninterrupted continu
extend to the outmost limits oi the body, comparing the 1
apparatus with an immense central station of a telephom
280 Philosophy of Botany.
tem, with millions of connections. The excitation of a pe-
ripheral terminal thus to be reported in the central station,
whence again the elaborated volition would be sent out to a
subordinate organ for execution.
This comparison is, however, not fully correct. The exact
anatomy of the brain, as has been developed by the researches
of Waldeyer, Flechsig and Ramony Cayal, proves that the for-
mer view, accepting a division of the function of nerve fibers
and nerve cells, was incorrect, and that neither does anywhere
exist by itself, that there is no fiber without a cell, and re-
versely. The fiber is only the long-drawn-out end of the cell.
The uninterrupted continuance is also a misconception. We
observe how a decapitated frog executes movements of
his legs to counteract the pricking of the skin of his back.
From this it is evident that there are intermediate stations
which in part, at least, supplant the cerebral action. Such sta-
tions or organs are called '" ganglia." They are the governing
seat of action by all animals not possessed of a cephalic cere-
bral system. Their actions are excited by irritation of sensitive
fibers, and are purely emotional and sensational, and but little
specialized functions. From such a ganglionic point the con-
duct is carried forward by other cells and fibers until the ulti-
mate destination ends in the gray matter of the hemispheres
of the vertebrates in a specially designated sphere. In sleep
or in a state of rest the ends of fibrils float freely in the sur-
rounding plasma, until a moment of excitation arrives, when
the ends immediately approach each other, forming connec-
tion. Those links, serving as the transport of the excitations,
are called (! neurons " and the transmitting force is commonly
called " animal electricity." The velocity of transportation
has been experimentally tested, never to exceed from twenty-
five to thirty meters per second, not exceeding the velocity
of a rapidly moving express train. In the same space of time
which elapses between the prick of a needle at the point of the
index finger and its appearance in consciousness a telegram
would cross the Atlantic. Neural and physical electricity
must be forces of different kinds. Many of the nervous func-
tions of the highest organizations are confined to the gan-
glionic systems, and fulfill within this circuit their activities
Philosophy oi Boi a.\y.
concerned in nutrition, circulation, respiration, and reproduc
tion, and communicate only indirectly with the hemisp]
but directly with the spinal cord, medulla elong
lum, and corpora quadrigemina, which art- the c< I the
organic functions.
These divisions are fully developed in the newborn hu-
man infant and in perfect functional activity. Wrv difl
is at the same time the state of development of the I
spheres, which are the seat of the sense perception in intel-
lectual activity. While an infant shows tin- livelii
est in the means employed to gratify his physical want-. I
mains in a state of intellectual imbecility for months, and
pass before he reaches maturity. The cause of this lie- in the
circumstance that in the gray substance of tin- newborn in-
fant are, as yet, comparatively but few cells with extended
necting fibril ends. Not before the lapse of -<>me time do
the corresponding nerve ends of the sense organs adi
sufficiently to approach and come in contact with th<
fibers. First to develop are the olfactory, ami at last i:
ditory nerves, to proceed from the base of the brain up
into the cortical sphere.
Although thus the psychical activities, with the awakening
of consciousness, are herewith initiated, the sphere of volition
is as yet very limited; for, as only one-third of the hemi-
spheres are assigned to the reception of sense percepti*
which the other two-thirds are not at all concerned, th<
remain yet for one whole month completely undevel
are yet in no way connected with the other cerebral c<
and conductive structures. Not before the regions <■! th<
cial sense organs have completely finished their development,
commences the evolution in those belated part-. It ifl now
that millions of fibers extend from the sensual Sphere into the
other two regions to intercross with one another, t-- i
the muscular action, to combine with Stored-Up pert
concepts, to execute all the manifestation- ^i the intelta
emit their command to every division ^i the body undei
control of volition. These parts are called th<
centers — the workshop of the mind.
The herewith presented theory of mind is based npofl
282 Philosophy of Botany.
anatomical structure of the brain, and has been fully attested
in the clinical practice as a satisfactory explanation of the
cause of intellectual disturbances. It is the immense pre-
ponderance of the association centers over all the other cere-
bral divisions which secures the intellectual superiority of man
over the highest intelligences of all other animals, in neither
one of which a like relation occurs. Lesions, mechanical or
pathological, in the association centers are the source of mental
disturbances. Should conducting channels in any other part
of the body happen to take place, anaesthesia or paralysis re-
sults in the affected parts, consciousness and intelligence re-
maining intact. Injury to the sensitive spheres produces loss
of the respective sensual perceptions of sight, hearing, etc.,
but disturbances in the associated regions means intellectual
aberration.
In respect to the evolution of the human brain and mind,
the lower animals seemingly are at some advantage in achiev-
ing so soon after birth the faculty of taking care of themselves,
and perfecting the cerebral integration in an incomparably
shorter period than man does.
This apparent tardiness is, however, nothing more or less
than a prolonged plasticity and long-continued receptivity for
cell production and extension of association tissue and storage
of sense and reflective impressions.
Other conditions being equal, it is the prevalence of this
quality which conditions the differentiation not only between
individuals, but also between the races. The dark-colored
tribes attain to sexual and intellectual fullness much earlier,
greatly to a disadvantage in regard to docility and training.
Under this aspect I accept the view of Alexander von Hum-
boldt on the differentiation of man: "Mankind presents a
graduation into more docile, higher cultivated, through intel-
lectual culture more ennobled, but not unconditionally nobler
races. All are in the same measure destined to enjoy liberty,
which in the more barbarous conditions consists in personal
independence and in the civilized state, under the protection
of political institutions, secures for all equal rights." Diver-
sity of adaptation, conditions of climate accelerate or retard
the social progress, but all have to struggle for its achieve-
ment under the slow and severe process of social evolution.
Philosophy 01 Botany.
This is the physico-mechanical provision for th<
plishment of cerebral functions, as Far as our pn
ical studies have made char. The ad itself of thi
sion of molecular motion into consciousm II of
things outside of us — objective consciousnes A the
internal processes of self-consciousness in gradatioi
degree, is yet an unsolved problem, tempting the inventive
of the speculative mind.
The modern monism accords the origin of the whole uni
verse to an absolute Unity and Essence whose quality the hu-
man mind has no means of investigating, which we aim *
press as the union of matter, motion, and mind, tl ntial
realities which never and nowhere exist separately mere
functions of one or the other, but are coexistent and uni\ •
Matter is the extended, space-filling, indestructible reality,
subject to gravitation, appearing in three different
tions — the solid, liquid, and gaseous — and in about seventy
elementary forms. We recognize in the atom the ultimate
divisibility of the chemical elements; in the molecule the
limit of divisibility, without change of its chemical pn >]>< •
in the advance of the combination of those molecules, first, the
stable elements of the mineral kingdom: pr g in the
scale of evolution, we advance to the multifarious and mutable
hydrocarbon compounds, which are the substratum of tl
ganic creation, the most complex of which arc the prol
and albuminoids, which, while some of them may DC arti-
ficially produced by synthesis, by -till further recompounding
appear as protoplasma, a living, organized substance, whose
continuance depends on an uninterrupted exchanj
stituent molecules by the process of nutrition and eltminat
and is subject to death and decay whenever this metabolisnc
is suspended while it is in an active state of growth. It has
been suggested by Lester Ward that the ultima!
of albuminoids to perfect the constitutionality of protop
is no longer dependent on chemical affinity, but follows
law of molar attraction or gravitation, and COI
tility. This may serve to account for their extreme instability.
Contractile tissue and muscular fiber follow,
The second reality is motion, or function of the ether,
284 Philosophy of Botany.
sidered by physicists an " imponderable matter," of which
we cannot form any sensual conception, and whose existence
we deduce from its functions — light, electricity, magnetism,
and radiant heat — which are mutually convertible energies and
indestructible. We can only give it the attribute " ethereal,"
since it is not comparable with any of the qualities of ponder-
able matter. Ether is the supporter and transmitter of all
modes of motion, the harmonizer of cosmical processes. Po-
tential and actual energy, heat and electricity, are in the same
constant play of alternations as the molecular chemism of
the elements, and controlled by the laws of the preservation
of energy and matter, and are always the same quantitatively.
As a third reality we conceive mind as a cosmic energy. In
its action upon the psychic organs of organisms it effects con-
sciousness, the idea of the ego, which, with its percepts, sensa-
tions, concepts, memories, desires, and volitions, we, by
traditional acceptance, know as the soul, a metaphysical en-
tity, and which we have been taught to consider as different
from the body, although with widely differing opinions as re-
gards their mutual relations.
This cosmic mind can possibly have no semblance to the
highest intelligence we know of, the human mind.
The human mind lives, so to speak, within a triple environ-
ment of its expansiveness.
We are aware of the outer world by sensual perceptions,
out of which, in another cerebral department, the percepts
are transformed into concepts, construed into thoughts and
ideas, processes, which ultimately enable our reflective ca-
pacity to understand that what we think we know of the world
outside of us is only a reflected image of the reality of things ;
but what all things may be by themselves, beyond the inter-
pretations of our senses, we are utterly in the dark, without a
ray of hope or probability of ever passing this limitation.
It appears to me that the cosmic mind, unlimited as we as-
sume it to be in its expanse, must also be beyond all estima-
tion, penetrating, knowing the inside of things as well as their
outer appearances. The only revelation from the sacred
books of the East we are assured to have been given concern-
ing it, was given but once — to Moses on Sinai — in the words *
Philosophy of Botaht.
* 1 am that I am." (The translation from the Hebr<
am" is not correct. It is meant: "The essence I am
am the true essence of things.") The oldest of the Brahmanic
sacred books, "The Upanishads," records a similar shorl
tence, which expresses the deepest meaning of their relij
ideas: "Tat tuam asi "—-"Thy own self is the divinity." The
philosophies, both of Greece and of India, started before the
days of Homer or Solomon from a common point- namely,
from the conviction that our ordinary knowledge, depending
upon the report of the senses, is uncertain and deceitful
knowledge according to Hindoo philosophers depend
authorities— namely, sensual perception and deduction.
An infinite intelligence does not depend on our mind :
esses, on induction and deduction; it is the power of intui-
tion, and its effect is causation.
I think it is not an illegitimate analogy to compare the func-
tions of the brain with the respirators process of the li
It calls for an uninterrupted vital process to maintain the
blood corpuscles in a state of receptivity for the proces
oxidation, on which depends the whole process of rei
and elimination. We know, on the other hand, that th
currents of measurable intensities are constantly generated in
the whole nervous system, perhaps thereby producing the con-
dition of maturity for the intussusception of the cosmic mind
force manifesting itself as consciousness. The limit
all individualized substances and the delineation of all forms in
the organic and inorganic world and the persistence of inherit-
ance of specific properties or qualities belong in the
•of this mind force.
It pictures the flowery congelation of the watery vapor on
the freezing window pane, prescribes the angles and con
of the forming crystal.
It may affect protoplasm in inconceivable paths to some
kind of sensation in the plant, to emotion in the lower animals,
.and ultimately guide the intricate process of i
light up to the highest spheres of our ideal It
stands in the same relation to the whole of the cosmos
•consciousness does to plain consciousness, repn divin
•omniscience.
286 Philosophy of Botany.
" Ob wohl Natur sich selbst erkennt? "
— Goethe, Faust.
May not Nature be self-conscious?
In rhythmic swells like ocean waves flows by the current of
history. The past fifty years presented a period of unparal-
leled material progress in all civilized countries. The advance
in mechanical and technical operations in transportation
and production was so immense that they would nec-
essarily imply a new valuation of human life. It is the out-
come of the progress of the natural sciences. The measure of
its value can only be taken by a parallelization with moral
progress, on which rest the security, peace, and happiness of
society. The evident disproportion in these two kinds of ad-
vances is due to the different nature of motor forces, the real-
istic or materialistic on the one side, and the idealistic on the
other. Neither one is, of itself, either good or bad, and their
efficiency depends upon the direction of the impetus with
which they are started.
The materialist subjugates the forces of nature for material
purposes, without definite reference to their bearing on the
character and moral standing of the individual or the commu-
nity. The character of this force is purely intellectual. It
has an egoistic tendency.
The idealist is moved by sympathetic impulses. The
psychical impulse originates in the sympathetic and allied
nervous system ; the intellectual sphere is a mere consulting
— often a reluctant — aid. Sympathetic feeling is preexistent :
in the course of evolution it is very likely active before the de-
velopment of nervous systems, and inherent to the unspecial-
ized nerve matter. Its ultimate judgments and aspirations
turn to the realization of the highest truth, goodness, beauty,
and justice.
The realist finds the anchorage of his judgments in condi-
tions as they are actually presented; the idealist forms trans-
cendental estimates — how things ought to be — and judges
them by this standard. The realist finds security in direct
observation ; the idealist is swayed by sentiment. The one
operates with the intellect ; the other, with emotion. Realism
Philosophy oj Botais
«v
consequently advances the sciences; idealism, philosoph;
ligion, history. In the logical procedure realism |
dnctively; idealism, deductively.
Never was, in a short interval of time, this division of
energy more clearly denned than in the teachings of P
Aristotle — men of such eminent wisdom thai theii
remained as guiding stars for these two factions of philosophy
for twenty centuries.
It seems to fit the occasion to explain the principal
tudes of mind, instinct and intelligence.
In his work on "Origin of Species," Darwin gives th<
lowing definition of instinct: "An action which we ours<
should require experience to enable us to perform, when per-
formed by an animal, more especially very young mirs. without
any experience, and when performed by many individuals in
the same way, without knowing for what purp< per-
formed, is usually said to be instinctive. As all instinct- show
a trace of selective qualities, a trace oi reasoning p< w i r has
to be conceded, even to the lowest one>." 1 1c further qualified
this tenet by the following doctrines :
i. The instincts of the species differ with individuals, ami
are in the same way subject to variation a- arc the morpho-
logical marks of bodily formation.
2. These variations are by inheritance in part transfi
the descendants, and in the succession <>f generations accumu-
lated and confirmed.
3. Selection (artificial as well as natural) exercises ami
these hereditary variations of vital activities a preferen
continuing the most useful and abandoning the less suitable
modifications.
4. The divergence of physical characters, thus origii
leads to the continuity of succession in the same man:
origin of new instincts as does the divergence of morph
ical characters produce new species.
The scholastic mediaeval psychologic views— which even yet
have adherents — made an absolute distinction
psychical activity of animals and man. calling the former
stinct" (implanted) and the latter " reason/1 judj
cording to the Mosaic historj of creation, every - I am
288 Philosophy of Botany.
mal received a certain measure of intelligence, just sufficient
for its protection and maintenance. The latter opinion we find
plainest expressed in the works of Thomas ab Aquina, a
medieval saint and celebrated doctor of theology, and inter-
preter of the works of Aristotle.
It is generally believed that instincts are infallible guides of
action. This is, however, far from being true to its full ex-
tent. They often lead to great injury to the individual, and
even destruction of large masses. They are sufficient only for
the maintenance of the species in the lower orders, who dis-
pose of an immense reproductivity. A phase of selective ac-
tion, the germ of reason, is, as above mooted, traceable very
early in the course of evolution. A similar relation is manifest
also in the unconscious (not instinctive) actions of man. The
execution of, for instance, a sonata may pass on in a dormant
state of reason, as far as memory of melody, but the expression
of pathos or affection must be rendered in full consciousness or
the performance will be a failure.
Of instincts there are innumerable varieties — as many, in-
deed, as there are species of animals. All may be distinguished
on two fundamental principles, as primary and secondary.
Primary instincts are the general lower impulses, which
irom the beginning of organic life existed in the unconscious
state of the " psychoplasma " as inherent qualities — self-pres-
ervation (protection and nutrition), and propagation (coitus
and rearing of the young). These two fundamental motors
of organic life, hunger and love, have originated uncon-
sciously, without the access of reason or intelligence, but have
afterwards, in the course of evolution, by man and the higher
animals become objects of consciousness.
A reverse relation governs the secondary instincts. These
riave primarily come about by intelligent adaptation, by
rational thinking and reflection, and by appropriate conscious
action. Gradually they became habitual and unconsciously
effective, and appear now in the descendants through inher-
itance as congenital qualities.
The first authorities in physiology and animal psychology
nave now arrived at the nearly uniform agreement that
there is no qualitative, but only a quantitative, difference be-
I'HILOSOI'in OF II..I ,
tween the souls of men and animals. The movementi
and actions, from the lowest to the highest, are determii
antecedent physiological states. The changes whicl
moment take place in consciousness are produced by an in
finitude of previous experiences, registered in the nervous
structure, cooperating with the immediate impressions on the
senses; the effects of these combined factors being in •
case qualified by the physical state-, general or local, of th
ganism.
The current tenet respecting the freedom of the will is " that
every one is at liberty to do what he desires to do." All a. hint
this; however, the real proposition involved in the ■
free will is, whether every one is at liberty to desire or n
desire. The mainspring of desires, the plr
has to respond to the solution of this question.
Herbert Spencer expresses himself thus: "Psychical
changes either conform to law or they do not. If the) do not
conform to law, any work on psychical inquiry is sheer non
sense; no science of psychology is possible. If they do
form to law, there cannot be any such thing as free will."
The intellectual expression of the will we find in its influ-
ence on consciousness. The normal state of consciousness
supposes diffusion, with the work of the brain diffused. The
will can localize the work of the brain to special regions,
may affect different elements, spread through the mass of en-
cephalon, to a working in harmony, to the exclusion of tin-
others. This attitude of the mind constitutes attention
Consumption of stored-up energy is called in aid for the
fection of this effort, which is only transient and soon bi
about relaxation. This is the culmination of mind em
As the greatest multitude of vital actions are ever return-
ing repetitions of actions of the same quality, they become
habitual, instinctive, unconscious. The combination **i the
mind elements subserving these unconscious actioi
tutes the instinct mechanisms of the brains. That such in-
stinct mechanisms direct not only the actions of the l<
animals, but also the higher organisms, including man
daily experience in the process of training, through whicl
convert intellectually-conceived action- into unconsciousl)
10
290
Philosophy of Botany.
transpiring ones. Such actions are walking, riding, singing,
speaking, piano playing, and almost all intellectual actions.
These acquired unconscious faculties are not transmissible to
descendants by inheritance, although this had been the process
by which instincts had originally been built up.
The inherited mechanisms of instinct have, in the course
of evolution, been superseded by an organ of educability, the
evolution of the organs of the mind, the great hemispheres of
the brain. The annexed diagrams give a graphic illustration
of the gradual expansion and preponderance of the intellectual
over the vegetative, purely instinctive, reflex, and emotional
organs and functions.
Comparative sketch of cerebral structure of Fish, Reptile, Bird, Mammal,
and Man, viewed laterally (A) and from above (B) ; of, olfactory ; cr,
hemispheres ; ol, corpus callosum ; cb, cerebellum ; m, medulla oblongata.
—After Le Conte.
Philosophy oj I
.••I w ■, .
Schematic illustration of the cerebral increase by the different
vertebrates, projected in supraposition : o/, olfactory lobe - rum ;
op, corpus callosum or median sphere ; menschy man mam-
mal ; vogel, bird. (The median sphere progresses in evoluti
plexity of structure and increasing number of component elements.
Satiated (as we now are, almost) by the dail) recurrent .
of inventive genius, and influx of material riches, we stand
listening on the shore of time, and watching, for ear and eye
perceive a new swell and the distant rumble of another *
the first ripples of which indicate its idealistic nature, and in-
dicate the demands of the era of the twentieth century.
The peace conference at The Hague, the parliamei
ligion, the societies for ethical culture, have initiated
movements: Universality and unity of religious sentimen
that cannot he dismembered by commanding «1« va-
cation of the conflict between capital and labor b) lej
limiting the aggressiveness of either: defining on Si
estimates the share of labor in the net profits; a stroi
ernment with relinquishment of the policy of lenienc) a
itation which only serves to embolden violent and
ous characters, and encourages them to deeds mi.
now cast the whole nation in grin' and distresi
of the Aleutian Islands to be chosen as a place of
gerous criminals: deliverance of the ^<\v
ecclesiastic supervision, and the organ izatioi
tion intrusted to a commission, selected from the |
and lecturers in the universities, technical
schools, with authority to make appointments and
292 Philosophy of Botany.
the courses of instruction. In view of the fact that all doc-
trines, including theology, have to incorporate into their teach-
ing the results of the natural sciences, as under their discipline
alone correct thinking can be acquired, science teaching should
on an appropriate scale be attempted in all grades. Abandon-
ment of the missionary invasion commends itself on pleas of
equity and prudence. Bold persistence in the traditional prac-
tice would provoke a permanent and irreconcilable conflict.
Should the Eastern nations be considered amenable to the
practices of the international code, they must be met on terms
of complete political equality, as the disquieting introduction
of dogmas alien to their national character, religious and polit-
ical institutions born of the most ancient lineage in the world,
must naturally appear to them as an unbearable imposition.
The comparative study of religions — Brahmanism, Bud-
dhism, Parseeism, Mohammedanism — has proven that the ele-
ments of pure ethics are the same in all, and like in Christian-
ity, and that errors and abuses have, from human depravity,
equally corrupted all, and that in the progress of time with a
strictly scientific theosophy a harmony could be effected.
Our own grievous sectarian ebullitions are sorry witnesses
of the intellectual neglect and stifling influences of dogmatic
superstitions. Those movements are also idealistic waves,
but — alas ! — of the briny flood that ruins fertile fields by its
overflows.
Creeds, brought down from hoary antiquity as symbols of
pristine religious sentiment, do no longer express the more ex-
alted attitude of present generations toward the eternal and
infinite, and reasonable and honest theologians are acknowl-
edging the right of pure reason to subject to criticism the
fountains of those creeds, and the so-called higher criticism
is the result.
Epochs of history do not follow now in such tardy succes-
sion as they did in ancient time and still do in uncivilized re-
gions, and the coming generation will not have gone into its
grave when the portentous commotions produced by the pres-
ent idealistic wave will have subsided in compromises and new
financial and economic methods.
Philosophy oi Botahy.
Thus the floods of ideas will swell and sink as long as the
deeds of men make history.
At the Tennessee Centennial in [897 I attended the Lil
Congress of Religions and joined in the Lord's Prayer with the
Hindoo, Parsee, Mohammedan, and Jew. I felt deeply im-
pressed by the simple service, but from the ab I tin-
ministry I became aware that the morning star of the union of
religions, was, for this latitude, yet below the horizon of
tarian strife.
Constitutions of minds and ways of life differ amongst men
immensely. The increasing acceptance of demonstrable
may gradually effect a better understanding, and ultimately
reconcile the still invincible adherents to tradition. The frame
of mind which prompted my philosophy has come to me by
way of my professional calling, and my early acquired habit
of pursuing botanical studies, by which I learned to l<"»k. not
only to the flowery side of things, but also to their roots
fruits, and which removed me more or less from the fictil
aspirations and pretensions of society.
My travels had no semblance with the rambles of the roam-
ing nomad, who prostrated himself before the phantom of the
burning bush and received a mission for conquest.
My path was lighted by a milder sun; it led over humming
and blooming meadows to the silent forest, where a friendly
Dryad received me into her shade, inviting to musing
She interpreted to me the sounds ni the rustling leaves, the
chirping of the cicada, the melody ^\ the sweet songsti rs, and
enjoined me to search and reason.
Was kann der Mensch im Leben mehr gewinnen
Als dass sich Gott Natur ihm offenbare!
Life's greatest glory la that mind
In Nature God revealed may liml.
As in a dream it came to my thoughts that the chan
picture spread before me was the effect of the alten
light and color, and that no object could be visible unlea
cast a shadow; that all evils that oppress earthly life I
necessarv consequences of individualization and dil
tion in the organic world; imperfection to be the com
294 Philosophy of Botany.
under, which alone individuality is granted; perfection to be
alone the attribute of that infinite reality who, divesting him-
self of his all-embracing personality, assumed the garb of the
cosmos and endowed it with intelligence and love, beauty and
justice, to adjust its inequalities in the process of evolution.
As the dewdrop reposing on the grass blade, glittering in
the morning sun, reflects the splendor of the heavens and the
image of the horizon, until with the rising day it disappears,
dissolving in the air, thus the light of philosophy pictures the
image of ideas on a film of protoplasm.
Dl H Httl LIBRARY
Nbrfft Carolina State College
Authors Consulted or Referred to in the
Philosophy of Botany.
Schleiden, M. I., Ph.D., " Grundzuge der Wisscnschaftli
Botanik." Leipzig, T889.
Sachs, Julius, " Vorlesungen fiber Pflanzenphysiolo
Leipzig, 1882.
Strassburger, Dr., Eduard, "Das Botanische Practicum."
Jena, 1884.
Cohn, Dr., Ferdinand, "Die Pflanze, Vbrtraege aus den
biete der Botanik." Breslau, [882.
De Candolle, Alph, " Origin e des Plantes Cultfvees." P
1SS3.
Haeckel, Ernst, " Natiirliche Schopfungs-( reschichte."
volumes. Berlin, 1898.
Haeckel, Ernst. "Die Weltraethsel." Ninth edition. Bonn,
^ 1899.
Sterne, Cams, Werden und Vergehen, " Eine Entwickelungs
Geschichte des Naturganzen." Two volumes. Berlin, 1901.
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