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FOOD AND CLOTHING
BY
LENO OSBORNE
SUPERVISOR OP TIFF, DEPARTMENT OF HOME EOONOMTCS,
PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLAHOMA
CHICAGO NEW YORK
ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY
Copyright, 1914
ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY
SEP d\ 1914
OCU'380476
PREFACE
The course contains material for the first one hundred
and forty lessons to be taught in foods, cookery, diet,
textiles, and clothing. The number of lessons given per
week and the length of time taken for each recitation
will determine the number of school years it will require
to complete the course.
In schools without laboratories, if three Theory les-
sons are given per week, with three Practice lessons of
home-work required, the course may be finished in two
years.
It makes very little difference whether the teaching
of this subject is first introduced in the fifth or a later
grade. The beginning lessons should 1)p the same ; that
is, those presenting :
The classification of the difi^erent foods.
The building materials they contain.
The efi^ect heat and moisture will have upon them.
The planning, cooking, and serving of meals with
regard to "balanced rations."
The composition and manufacture of difi^erent cloths.
The making of plain and useful garments.
The appropriateness of material and style to occasion.
The present day Physiology treats the subjects of sani-
tation and digestion so completely that it is not necessary
to repeat but to correlate with them. In the Agriculture
we find the growth, cultivation, and care of most of our
food stuffs, simply and clearly explained ; the Geography
takes up the adaptation to climate, and the commercial
side of these subjects. Teachers by this correlation may
6 PREFACE
save the time of at least two recitations per day — a valu-
able feature in a crowded program.
Language Lessons, or Composition work, might often
be selected from these subjects with gratifying results.
The subject matter has been arranged in chapters for
a matter of convenience, but it is not the intention that
they be taught in the order given unless the season of
the year so dictates. For example the chapter on vege-
tables should be divided and the fresh vegetable lessons
be presented in the spring and the dry vegetables in the
winter ; the sugar lessons at Christmas time ; the meat
lessons and dry fruits and vegetables in the winter.
In the "Suggestions to Teachers" it is the aim to
discuss very plainly the hoiv of presenting these subjects.
The aim of this course is to give the student the prin-
ciples of the selection and preparation of food ; a study
of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, with the effect of
heat upon them ; a study of meats and vegetables with
a comparison of animal and vegetable foods and ways of
preparing and combining them ; the cost of the different
foods in comparison with the building material each con-
tains ; laboratory work which teaches how to perform
the various duties of the home with the greatest efficiency
and the least expenditure of effort.
For many helpful suggestions and for assistance in
proofreading, the author expresses cordial appreciation
to Misses Helen Bishop, B. S., Columbia University ;
Alice Blair, B. S., Columbia University ; Leaffa Randall,
B. S., Kansas A. M. College ; Helen Allison, Kansas M. T.
School ; and Kathryne IMaxwell of Oklahoma City.
Leno Osborne.
Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma, May, 1914.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Suggestion to Teachers 8
CHAPTER
FIRST YEAR
I Home Economics, Instructions to
Pupils, Food, Cooking 15
II Milk 26
III Eggs As a Food (protein) 33
IV Vegetables (carbohydrates) 39
V Sugar (carbohydrate) 53
VI Meats— Beef, Pork, Fish 62
VII Cheese (protein) 82
VIII Cereals (carbohydrates) 86
IX Flour (in combination) 93
X Beverages 110
XI Table Setting and Service 118
XII Canning, Preserving, Pickling (ster-
ilization ) 121
second year
XIII Eggs As a Thickening Agent (protein) . 130
XIV Beef, Game, Fowl 136
8 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
XV Warmed-over Dishes 144
XVI Fats and Oils 150
XVII Bacteria — Yeast 159
XVIII Cakes 167
XIX Soups and Salads 177
XX Fruits 189
XXI Sherbets and Ice Creams 196
XXII Dietary Standards 201
XXIII Planning and Serving IVIeals. House-
hold Expenses 209
domestic art
XXIV Textiles 216
XXV Plain Sewing 218
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
If it were possible for all teachers who must
teach Domestic Science to have training in the
theory and practice of the subject, the following
suggestions would hardly be necessary. But ob-
servation has taught us that a carefully planned
text, with general directions for class manage-
ment, in the hands of resourceful and energetic
teachers, can bring about results far superior to
those of the trained teacher who lacks initiative.
It makes little difference how well or how poorly
equipped the instructor is for presenting this sub-
ject, the most essential qualifications in her are
resourcefulness, system, good judgment and per-
sonal cleanliness.
No woman can arouse in girls the proper inter-
est in this subject unless she is interested in it
herself. The teacher who makes the assertion that
she does not enjoy any phase of housekeeping or
of the preparing of meals, should not be allowed
to teach Domestic Science. Her pupils may be
able to pass an examination, but they will never
be able to make the house a home, and she must
be able to lead girls to feel that they cannot do a
better thing than to give their time and energy
to the care and maintenance of this home.
9
10 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
Personal cleanliness of the teacher has a great
influence upon the girls. No woman can inspire
the proper interest in this subject, if she appears
before her class in a soiled dress or apron, or with
unclean hands and nails. Large white aprons
over woolen dresses may be tolerated where the
work occupies only a minor portion of the day,
but the careful teacher will wear a wash-dress,
preferably white. The woolen dress collects odors
and dust, often full of bacteria, and in the kitchen
these may be the cause of harmful results. The
teeth should be clean and the breath free from
bad odors.
The P^quipment
The object of equipment in this work is three-
fold: to prepare food for cooking, to furnish the
vessels w^hich contain the food while it is being
cooked, and to supply heat. Elaborate equipment
has very little to do with good results.
One teacher succeeded with this purchased
equipment for each of her pupils: one 12 inch pan,
one 6 inch pan, one pie tin, one knife, one fork,
one tablespoon, one tin cup; all costing 40c. The
large pan served as a dishpan, as a vegetable pan,
and, by placing the smaller one in it and using
the pie tin for a lid, as a double boiler. The fork
was used in place of an egg beater. A baking
powder can was used as a biscuit cutter and a pop
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 11
bottle for a rolling pin and a maslier. A piece of
window screening was cleaned with gasoline,
shaped over an inverted pan and used as a sifter.
These, besides a stove, and tables and cupboards
made of boxes, furnished the equipment for a
school kitchen. The results were so gratifying
that the patrons were anxious to have money
spent towards the furnishing of a modern labor-
atory.
A teacher in a rural district borrowed a tent
from one family, an old stove from another and
whatever could be loaned from the various homes
in the way of dishes and cooking utensils. These
she kept in a locked box which was carried out
to the tent-kitchen every morning and each day
four pupils prepared, under her direction some
one thing for the lunches of the other pupils.
When a laboratory is to be fully equipped and
the teacher is inexperienced, it is wise to consult
the director of a larger or an older school as con-
ditions vary so greatly tliat it is not wise to give
specific directions which are to be used generally.
Class Management Where There Is No Equipment
In rural schools where all practical work must
be done at home, tlie teacher should, as each new
subject is presented, lead the pupils to become
interested in its production (from agriculture) ;
its adaptation to climate and its commercial value
12 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
(from geograpliy) ; its food classification (domes-
tic science) ; the effect of the digestive fluids upon
it (physiology) ; the effect of heat upon it (moist
or dry), and the various ways it may be prepared
by itself or in combination to make it palatable
and digestible (domestic science).
The number of lessons for this Avill depend upon
the time given at each recitation. The recipes in
the Domestic Science text are for small amounts,
individual proportions unless otherwise stated.
Help the students to figure the amount they
must prepare for the number of people at home.
Use the time of several lessons for reports as to
the results of the home-work, and if any failures
are reported, help them to find from their text
the cause and the means of prevention. Lead
them by questions from their Physiology and
Domestic Science texts to make food selections
suitable for body building, and emphasize con-
tinually the dangers of allowing appetite to gov-
ern food consumption.
If possible study and prepai'e the quick-grow-
ing perishable vegetables and fruits in the spring
and fall seasons, leaving the dry vegetables,
grains, fruits and meats for the winter months.
Class Management
The order in the room depends upon conditions.
Usuallv there is no occasion for conversation
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 13
among pupils, especially if the equipment is in-
dividual. Working in groups is by no means a
satisfactory method and does not bring about the
best results. Pupils de])end upon each other in-
stead of developing independent judgment and
self-reliance.
Housekeepers
There is so much general work to do in a lab-
oratory that it is necessary to have some extra
help after each lesson. The girls who are ap-
pointed to do this work are called "house-
keepers." This is the only general housekeeping
work that most school kitchens oft'er and it should
be under close supervision. The duty of each
housekeeper and the number needed will depend
upon the equipment. These duties should last
only during one lesson, and care should be exer-
cised that the appointments come in regular rota-
tion with a change of duties. The following sug-
gestions may be helpful :
Housekeeper No. 1 — Put away supplies. Clean the
supply table. Clean the ice box and keep in order.
Housekeeper No. 2 — Wipe out all the drawers and
shelves in the laboratory not in special charge of any
one else. Clean the faucets, strainers and soap dishes.
Housekeeper No. 3 — Clean the sinks and all stoves not
used during the lesson.
Housekeeper No. 4 — Inspect cupboards and drawers
and report missing utensils. Inspect towels, tea-kettles,
14 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS
etc., and report any disorderly condition in the
laboratory.
The Lesson
It is practically impossible to conduct a Domes-
tic Science lesson in the lahuratory in less than
ninety minutes, even though the theory or chem-
istry part is given at a separate period. A few
directions must be given, the lesson prepared,
criticisms offered, and failures, if any, explained,
with means of prevention reasoned out. Dishes
and utensils must be washed and tow^els scalded
and placed to dry.-
Each girl's part in the cleaning of the labor-
atory after a lesson is one of the most valuable
of the hour. A pupil who is not corrected for
leaving her dishes improperly scalded and dried,
her stove not clean, or her equipment out of
place, has lost an essential part of every labora-
tory lesson, — those of order and neatness and
cleanliness.
It is best for the teacher to have all supplies
out and ready for use when the pupils come to
the room. This is considered one of the very
important parts of lesson preparation.
FIRST YEAR
CHAPTER I
HOME ECONOMICS
Home economics. This term is applied to tlie
scientific study of all matters pertaining to the
healthy, efficient, enjoyable home life. Within
its scope is included the study of chemistry, bac-
teriology, plant life; the home, its location, ar-
rangement, furnishings and ventilation; househohl
management, which includes not only the study
of how to perform the various duties of the home
with the greatest efficiency and least expenditure
of effort, but how to maintain the mental and
physical health of those in the home; physiology
of digestion ; sanitation ; care of the sick ; cookery
of food ; textiles and clothing.
So great is the importance of this subject to
the home, and to the welfare of those in the home,
that colleges have extended the completion of the
course over four years of time. We, with less than
one hundred recitations, can give the subject
under only two heads:
Domestic science, which includes the study of
food, its source, nutrition, cost and cookery; the
15
16 FOOD AND CLOTHING
physiology of digestion; tlio scientific planning
and serving of meals with reference to "balanced
rations," or the amount of food necessary, under
specified conditions, to supply the body with
building material.
Domestic art, the scientific study of clothing
from the standpoint of health and comfort; tex-
tiles, with reference to their various sources,
weaves, and colors; garment making, including
the appropriateness of the style to the wearer and
the occasion.
IXSTKrCTTOXS TO PUPILS
In tite Laboratory
Each girl should have:
A clean apron, preferably white.
A small hand towel fastened to tlie l)elt.
A nail file.
A small hag or purse to liold rings. l)racelets. etc.
Girls should ^vear, if possible, clean wash
dresses. The dangers of the Avoolen dress in the
kitchen may be very great. A girl often wears
the same dress for weeks ; and, since the pupils
come from many different homes, having varied
conditions, possibly diseases, the woolen dress is
likely to be a germ carrier.
Place great stress upon clean hands and nails.
HOME ECONOMICS 17
The hands should be washed, the nails cleaned,
then the hands washed again before beginning to
prepare a food.
Things to Reme^fber When Cooking
1. Read the recipe carefully before beginning
to prepare the dish. Determine the fewest pos-
sible utensils with which you can prepare this
food and do not use more. Avoid the very bad
habit of so many housekeepers, that of soiling
every dish in the kitchen when preparing a meal.
2. Keep all dishes and other utensils washed
and in the smallest possible space.
3. Plan your work so as to save steps. ' ' Con-
servation of strength'* should be the watchword
of every housekeeper.
4. Do not use your apron for a towel, a lifter,
or in place of a handkerchief. Many women who
consider themselves neat, wipe their hands and
face on their apron and then use it for removing
dishes from the oven, handling pans, etc.
5. Keep your hands absolutely clean duriug
the lesson. Wash them after you have used the
handkerchief or had them on your face or hair.
6. "When tasting a food to determine its sea-
soning, place a portion in a spoon with the mixing
spoon. Do not place a spoon that has been in
the mouth in food. Many years ago, before people
18 FOOD AND CLOTHING
knew the dangers of infection from the hreath,
women would blow their breath on portions of
food to cool it for the children, or would blow
back the cream from a vessel containing milk
when they wanted only the milk. Read the chap-
ter in your physiology, ''The Air Passages and
the Lungs," and reason from that, why any of
these careless habits are very dangerous to the
health of those about us.
7. Do not eat particles of food while cooking.
A housekeeper who minces over her food as she
cooks it does not take the proper interest in its
preparation or service.
To Wash Dishes
1. Scrape all food particles from the dishes.
2. Rinse the dishes before placing them in the
dish water.
3. Dishes or vessels which have had egg or
flour mixtures in them should be rinsed in cold
water.
4. Dishes or vessels which have had greasy
foods or syrup in them should be rinsed in boiling
water.
5. Pack like dishes and cooking vessels to-
gether.
6. Wash in this order: glass, silver, china, tin,
crockery, iron. Place in another pan, scald each
division and dry before washing the next. When
HOME ECONOMICS 19
placing tlieiii in the draining pan to be scalded,
place each dish inside up. Why?
7. Have two dish cloths, one for dishes and one
for cutlery. Scald the cloths before hanging away
to dry.
Drying towels should be scalded after each us-
ing, or hung in the sun to sterilize. Too mucli
importance can not be given to having clean,
pure, sanitary dish cloths and towels.
FOOD
A food is any substance which, when taken into
the body, builds tissue, and produces heat and
energy without directly or indirectly injuring the
cells.
Foods are divided into five classes:
1. Proteins. The tissue or lean meat builders,
which may also be used to produce heat, are ob-
tained from lean meat, eggs, milk, cheese, fish,
dry peas and beans, wheat, oats, and in small
amounts from any cereal except rice. Each
food has its own specific kind of protein, yet all
have the general characteristic of coagulating at
a low temperature and hardening and contracting
at a high temperature. The protein in milk and
cheese is known as casein; in eggs as albumin;
in wheat as gluten; in peas and beans as legumen;
in lean meat as myosin; in blood as fibrin.
All protein foods should be cooked at a tem-
20 FOOD AND CLOTHING
perature below the hoiliny point to insure ease
in digestion.
2. Starches and sugars, carbohydrates. These
fatty-tissue builders and heat producers are
obtained from fruits, vegetables and cereals.
Almost all plants have their own kind of starch,
as corn starch, rice starch, wheat starch, potato
starch, etc. Commercial sugar is obtained from
sugar cane and the sugar beet. We obtain sugar
also from fruits, milk, corn, cereals, sweet pota-
toes, and peas.
3. Fats and oils. The decided heat producers
are fats and oils. In a small way they produce
fatty-tissue. We obtain most of these from but-
ter, meats, nuts, salad dressings, cheese, milk and
chocolate. The digestive organs can take care of
only a limited amount of these at a time; there is
great danger in over-eating.
4. Minerals. Some inorganic materials such
as salt, lime, iron and sulphur are valuable in the
building of the solids of the body and the blood.
They are obtained from fruit, vegetables, grains
and animal foods.
5. Water acts as a solvent and is necessary
in the fluids of the body.
Balanced Rations
To take within our bodies, each day, the proper
proportion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates,
HOME ECONOMICS 21
and, on tlie other hand, have these in sufficient
quantities to meet the needs of the various condi-
tions brouglit about by climate and vocation, is
called '* balanced rations." So important is a
thorough knowledge of balanced diet to every boy
and girl that a chapter will be devoted to it later,
under "Dietary Standards."
Accessories
Numerous other substances are taken into the
body which are not foods, but in food combina-
tion add to the attractiveness of the dishes by
giving odor and taste. These are:
Flavors. The various oils and essences, as van-
illa, lemon, etc.
Stimulants. Alcohol, tea, coffee, cocoa, beef tea.
Condiments. Salt, pepper, mustard, spices.
In other chapters these will be treated more
fully, but too much emphasis cannot be placed
upon the injurious effects of the over-use of these
accessories.
COOKING
Cooking is the preparation of food by means of
heat to develop new flavors, or to make it more
palatable and digestible, and to destroy micro-
organisms.
22 FOOD AND CLOTHING
]\Iethods of Cooking
Baking is cooking by means of dry, confined
heat.
Roasting really means exposing food to the di-
rect rays of a fire. Before the invention of ovens
all foods not cooked in water were roasted, but
now it is very unusual to taste a piece of roasted
food. Meats spoken of as roasts, are really baked
meats.
Broiling is a combination of baking and roast-
ing. The meat is exposed to the direct rays of a
fire, yet in the broiler attachments to the new
stoves the heat is confined. In broiling we use
thinner cuts of meat than for a roast, with as
much surface exposed as possible.
Pan-h roiling means that the food is placed on
a very hot iron surface and turned continually
until sufficiently cooked. No fat is used and if
any collects, it is removed. This is the most satis-
factory way of cooking game or fowl for con-
valescents.
Frying is a method of immersing the food in
deep hot fat. Degrees of heat used for frying are
not general as vegetable oils may be heated to a
higher degree than animal oils.
Sauteing is very much the same as pan-broiling,
except that in sauteing the fat is allowed to collect
or is added as the food is cooked. This method
HOME ECONOMICS 23
of cooking lias been improperly termed frying.
Fricasseeing is sauteing and serving with a
sance or gravy. Very thin steaks or jointed
chickens are the foods commonly cooked by this
method.
Boiling means that foods are cooked to the de-
sired degree by being placed in boiling water.
Stewing means cooking to the desired degree in
water just below the boiling point. This is the
best method for all protein foods as the albumen
will coagulate instead of contracting and harden-
ing, as when strong heat is applied.
Steaming food means cooking over hot water in
vessels that confine the steam. This is the best
method for young, green vegetables, potatoes that
have a tendency to fall to pieces when partially
cooked, and some meats.
Fireless cooker. Vessels for holding foods are
placed in boxes or cases so packed that when the
hot food is placed in them and the lid fastened
down, there will be little change of temperature
for from eight to twelve hours. Sometimes a hot
soapstone is placed under the vessel. For cook-
ing meats, fowls and cereals they have no equal.
Sherbets and creams, if cooled to the freezing
point before being placed in the cases, will con-
tinue to freeze. The theory of this invention is
insulation to prevent change of temperature.
24 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Degrees of Heat in Water
Luke-warm. When a tin vessel holding the
water can be held with comfort in the hand.
Scalding. When steam arises.
Simmering. When tiny bubbles collect around
the sides and on the bottom of the vessel.
Boiling. When these bubbles arise to the top,
burst and send out steam.
Degrees of Heat in the Oven
Warm. When th(' hand may be held in with
comfort.
Moderate. When a piece of white paper will
brown in 10 minutes.
Hot oven. When a piece of white paper will
brown in 10 seconds.
Most of the new kitchen ranges have ther-
mometers in the ovens with the different degrees
of heat registered. This is the only true way of
testing heat, but until we are all supplied with
new stoves, the old methods of testing must be
used.
Abbreviations
Some teachers prefer to use the small "t" for
teaspoon and the capital "T" for tablespoon. It
makes very little difference if the same abbrevia-
tions are used throughout the work, but since the
HOME ECONOMICS 25
true abbreviations for the words are "tsp." and
''tbsp." they will be used in this text:
tsp teaspoon qt quart
tbsp tablespoon pt pint
c cup oz ounce
ni mmute lb pound
cm cream Ind Individual
B. P Baking Powder
All measures used in cooking are level. Pupils
must not be allowed to use "rounding" or ''heap-
ing" measures in any recipe.
To get one spoonful, take upon the spoon all
that it will hold, then with the sharp edge of a
knife level it smooth to the edge of the spoon;
one-half spoonful, the spoonful is cut in two
lengthwise; one-fourth spoonful, the half-sj)oon is
cut in two crosswise; one-eighth, the fourth is cut
in two crosswise, etc.
All liquid measures should be leveled oft', the
same as dry measures. In small amounts and
with thick materials as molasses the amount that
would adhere might be enough to cause a failure.
Weights and IMeasures
3 tsp 1 tbsp. 2 c. ground meat . . 1 lb.
16 tbsp 1 cup 15 lbs. potatoes. ... 1 pk.
2 cups 1 pint 16 ozs 1 lb.
4 c. flour 1 lb. 2 tbsp. butter 1 oz.
2 c. butter 1 lb. 4 c. shelled nuts. .1 lb.
2 c. g. sugar 1 lb. 1 egg, mixed. 3 to 4 tbsp.
CHAPTER II
MILK
Milk contains all of the elements necessary to
sustain life and to build body tissues of the very
young or of inactive people, but, when activities
that require a great deal of energy are begun, milk
will not suffice, as it is lacking in carbohydrates,
as will be seen by the following table:
Water
Fats
Sugar
Casein
Albumeii
Minerals
87%
4%
5%,
2>4%
/2%
1%
This will prove why bread and milk is a health-
ful food for children. The fats in milk are in the
form of tiny globules, so small and so evenly dis-
tributed through the milk, that in fresh milk they
can not be observed without the aid of a magnify-
ing glass, but if left undisturbed in a cool place
the fat particles will rise to the top as cream.
Test. Put 1 tbsp. of vinegar and 1 tsp. of an
oil in a bottle and shake well. Notice how the oil
is broken up into tiny particles. This represents
the fats in the milk as they would appear, if
magnified. Hold the bottle still, and notice how
the globules run together and gather at the top.
This explains to you how cream rises.
26
MILK 27
The fat of milk is commercially its most im-
l^ortant element, since from it we get the cream
and the butter, and it enters largely into cheese
making.
The sugar in milk is known as milk-sugar or
*' lactose," and is not so sweet as cane sugar. It
is collected from the whey after cheese has been
made and is used in the manufacture of medicines
and baby foods.
The casein, a protein, may be seen by adding
acid to milk. The tiny flecks you see are the
casein, which the acid has caused to contract and
separate from the water. This will be discussed
in detail under '^Cheese."
The albumen, another protein, may be seen by
placing milk over a hot fire. The scum which col-
lects on the top is the albumen which has been
hardened by the heat.
The mineral matter in milk is made up largely
of phosphates and lime.
How milk is classified. Whole milk is that
Avhicli contains all of its elements; skimmed milk,
that which is left after the cream has been taken;
buttermilk, the milk left after churning; the
fats have practically all been removed, and the
lactic acid which caused the milk to sour has
separated the casein from the water. Since the
fat has been removed and the acid has performed
some of the functions of stomach digestion, butter-
28 FOOD AND CLOTHING
milk is sometimes recommended by physicians in
cases of intestinal troubles.
Why milk sours. Milk is subject to a great
many chemical changes as it presents favorable
conditions for the growth of various bacteria, but
the one most common is ''souring," due to the
forming of lactic acid. This acid develops very
quickly in milk, if the temperature is above 40
degrees. The widespread belief that thunder or
lightning sours milk is unfounded. Souring at
such times is brought about by the atmospheric
conditions. The same climatic condition that pro-
duces electricity during a thunder storm will cause
milk to sour.
The chief sources of bacteria in milk are, health
conditions of the cow, the stables, the feed, the
utensils and the milkers. The general belief now
is that milk is never entirely free from bacteria ;
yet the milk from dairies where the vessels are
thoroughly scalded and cleaned, the milkers work
with clean hands and clothes and the animals are
thoroughly cleaned and are healthful, tests prac-
tically pure.
On the other hand, pure, clean milk is often sold
to a person who leaves it uncovered where flies
or dust can get into it, or turns it into a poorly
washed vessel, or places it in a warm, moist place
where odors from other foods can get to it. Tests
have been made and by great care milk has been
MILK 29
kept sweet 21 days by simply using cleanly
methods. Many preservatives are used to prevent
milk from souring, but in all cases these are in-
jurious to the health of the consumer.
While slight warmth promotes the growth of
bacteria, extreme heat kills them. Unfor-
tunately heat sufficient to kill bacteria causes
chemical changes to take place in the milk. How-
ever, heat is often used and the two most common
methods are pasteurization and sterilization.
Pasteurization requires just enough heat to de-
stroy as many bacteria as possible without mak-
ing a chemical change. Milk is placed in jars,
sealed and immersed to the neck in hot water
and heated to 150 F., let stand for 30 minutes,
then removed and cooled quickly. Rapid cooling
lessens the "cooked" taste.
Sterilized milk has been heated three succes-
sive days to boiling point and continued at that
degree for 15 minutes. Sterilized milk will re-
main sweet in a warm place several days, but the
extreme heat has caused an undesirable change.
Condensed and evaporated milk and milk pow-
ders are forms of canned milk, which have been
heated until all of the water has evaporated.
Effect of strong heat upon milk has been seen in
the test for albumen. The protein becomes so con-
tracted and hard that the digestive fluids can not
liquify it. All foods containing milk should he
30 FOOD AND CLOTHING
cooked heloiv the boiling point. Double boilers
and fireless cookers have done mncli toward tiie
proper cooking of milk in food combinations.
WHITE SATJCE
The thickness of the sauce desired is regulated
by the number of tablespoonfuls of flour and but-
ter used to 1 cup of liquid. Since the amounts of
(flour and butter are the same we indicate the con-
sistency as:
''One to one" white sauce means 1 tbsp. each
flour and butter to 1 c. milk, — used mostly for
thickening soups.
"Two to one" white sauce means 2 tbsp. each
butter and flour to 1 c. milk, — used for creamed
vegetables, heavy gravies and purees.
When a very heavy sauce is desired, as for
croquettes, the amount of fat is decreased as tlie
amount of flour increases as; 2 tbsp. butter, 5 tbsy).
flour, 1 c. milk and would be given as "2 to 5
to 1."
In making small amounts for class work the
evaporation will be relatively so much greater
than for a large amount — that, in a recipe which
calls for 2 c. white sauce ''2 to 1," one-fourth
cup would have to be made ^'1 to 1" to give the
desired consistency.
Melt the butter slightly, blend it with the flour,
add the liquid and cook over boiling water about
I\IILK 31
8 minutes, until thick and tlie starch in the flour
has a clear look. Add the salt last. The usual
amount is i/4 tsp. to the cup, but that depends
upon its use. Two tbsp. grated cheese added to
1 c. white sauce is called cheese sauce. Tomato
juice used in place of milk is called tomato sauce.
Why starch thickens. If we were to examine
the fine white powder through a microscope, we
would see that each grain resembles a white
marble. This expands and bursts in sufficiently
moist heat.
TESTS
1. To 1 tsp. starch add 1 tbsp. cold water, mix well,
add Yi e. boiling water and cook three minutes.
What change has taken place in the color? In the
consistency?
2. To 1 tbsp. starch add Yz c. boiling water. Cook 3
minutes.
What change in consistency do you find as compared
with that in the first test?
3. To 1 tsp. starch add 1 tsp. fat or oil, blend well,
add Y^ c. boiling water and cook 3 minutes.
What consistency do you find ?
MOCK OYSTER SOUP
1 c. whole milk 2 crackers
Vl^> t^P- salt
Spread the crackers with butter and place in a
soup dish. Heat the milk to scalding point over
hot Avater, pour it over crackers and serve hot.
32 FOOD AND CLOTHING
1. In what one of the food classes is milk deficient?
2. Why is milk, alone, not a perfect food for a child
old enough to go to school?
3. Why is milk a perfect food for a baby :'
4. Give four reasons for milk souring.
5. Why should milk or foods containing milk not be
cooked at a boiling temperature ?
Note: Unless otherwise stated, the reeipes may lie considered
to be for individual service.
CHAPTER III
EGGS
Eggs, another form of protein food, are in a
sense a perfect food since they contain all of the
elements necessary to life. The entire body of
the chick is formed inside of the shell, yet when
it is hatched and begins to move about, the ele-
ments in different proportions must be taken up
by its body to keep it alive and growing.
Eggs, like milk, lack the carbohydrates, and as
soon as the chick begins to use muscular energy,
he is fed upon cornmeal or other starchy foods
to insure his supply of energy-producing material.
The proportion of elements in the egg is :
Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Minerals
74% 13% 12% .... 1%,
Perhaps no article of diet of animal origin is
more commonly eaten in all countries, or served in
a greater variety of ways than eggs.
Hens ' eggs are most common, although the eggs
of all fowls and most birds are used to some ex-
tent. Turtle eggs are highly prized in some coun-
tries, and fish eggs, under the name of caviar are
sold in large quantities.
33
34 FOOD AND CLOTHING
The different parts of an egg are : Shell, lining,
air space, white, twisted cord, yolk, and embryo.
The white is nearly pure albumen and water,
with a percentage of sulphur; the yolk contains
fat, albumen and a number of minerals in small
quantities; for example, iron, sulphur, etc.; the
shell is made up of mineral matter, principally
lime. The embryo, on the yolk, is the germ from
which the life of the young chick starts. The cords
hold the yolk in place.
How TO Tell Fresh Eggs
1. If, when held between your eve and a strong liglit,
the egg is clear with a dark spot in tlie center it is fresh ;
if it is cloudy, it is stale. This is called "candling."
2. Drop an egg into fresh water. If it is fresh it will
sink ; if it comes to the top it is stale or spoiled.
3. Shake an egg close to .your ear; if it rattles it is
spoiled.
4. The shell of a fresh egg is rough ; that of a stah^
egg is usually srnootlL
Why Eggs Spoil.
1. The shell is porous and when the egg is
exposed to the air, the water in the egg evaporates
and air enters and takes its place. Bacteria, enter-
ing with the air, begin working and soon the egg-
is stale or spoiled, according to the length of time
it is exposed.
EGGS 35
2. When subjected to heat equal to that of the
body of the hen, about 78 degrees, the germ of the
chick will begin to develop and within a few days
the egg will be unfit for use.
Many ways of preserving eggs have been tried
and a few have been successful. If, when eggs are
plentiful and selling at a low price, they can be
packed away and kept fresh until they are scarce,
an important problem in domestic economy has
been solved.
Eggs should never be packed in a material that
has a disagreeable odor. Musty straw or bran
will injure the flavor, and crates of eggs have been
ruined by leaving them near cabbage or onions.
Preserving Eggs
The results of preserving eggs by different
methods through a period of eight months showed
the following results:
Brine — salt absorbed by egg, not edible.
Wrapped in paper — 80% bad.
Rubbed with salt— 707^ bad.
Packed in bran — 709? bad.
Covered with paraffin — 70% bad.
Partially sterilized by placing in boiling water
for 12 to 15 seconds — 50% bad.
Varnished with vaseline — all good.
In lime water — all good.
In solution of water glass — all good.
36 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Cooking. Coagulation is the solidifying of tlie
albumen by means of heat. If coagulated rapidly
the albumen becomes hard and contracts and is
hard to dissolve. If coagulated slowly it is easily
dissolved. In the cooking of eggs it is necessary
to keep this in mind, and cook them very slowly
or at a temperature below the boiling point. As
one of the functions of stomach digestion is to
liquify its contents, the easier a substance is liqui-
fied the quicker it is digested and the less strain
on the digestive organs.
SOFT-COOKED OR "BOTTiEO" EGGS
Drop an egg into a pan of water that is just
below the boiling point and let stand from 3 to 5
minutes. When broken, the white will be jelly-
like and the yolk heated through.
POACTTF.D EGGS
Break an egg into a pan of simmering salt
water, deep enough to cover the egg. When the
white is firm, remove and place on buttered toast.
Scalding hot milk may be used in place of water.
HARD-COOKED OR " BOTTLED " EGGS
Drop an egg into a pan of water just below the
boiling point, turn the fire very low and cook at
the same temperature 40 minutes. Remove the
EGGS 37
eggs and yjlace in cold water for a few seconds,
then take tliem out of the cold water, put aw^ay
and cool before taking off the shell. This insures
a dry mealy yolk and a firm but not tough white.
GOLDEN-KOD EGGS
1 hard-cooked egg 1/3 c. white sauce "2 to 1 "
Dice egg white and add to white sauce. Turn
into a toasted bun cup. Press yolk through a
ricer and pile on the top. A slice of toast may
be used in place of the bun cup.
TOASTED BT'N-CT'PS
Cut off the bottom crust of small buns and
partially hollow out. Butter the inside and toast
in a hot oven. They are very nice to use in serv-
ing creamed meats.
EGG SANDWICHES
( S samlwiclies)
2 hard-cooked eggs ^s tsp. salt
^2 tsp. celery salt ^ tsp. paprika
1 tbsp. melted butter 2 tbsp. mayonnaise
Rice the yolks, add cliopped whites and blend
with it the other ingredients. Cut bread very
thin, brush each side with melted butter, spread
on a layer of the egg mixture, press down the
other slice and cut in triangular slices.
Approximate cost, 8 cents.
38 FOOD AND CLOTHING
FOAMY OMELET
Beat the white of one egg stiff and dry. Add 1
tsp. water to the yolk and beat until lemon colored.
Fold into the white, add % tsp. salt and turn into
a well greased and hot omelet pan. When brown
on the under side, place in a hot oven to cook the
top. Wlien firm, remove from the oven, slip a
spatula under the side nearest the handle and
fold. Garnish with parsley.
BREAD OMELET
Soak 1 tbsp. small pieces of bread in 2 tbsp.
milk. Add egg yolk and white, beaten stiff' and dry.
Cook as foamy omelet.
SCRAMBLED EGGS
1 egg }4 tbsp. milk
y2 tsp. butter 1/16 tsp. salt.
Melt butter in pan that is heated over hot water.
Mix egg thoroughly with milk and turn into the
melted butter. Stir continually until the egg is
cooked to the desired consistency. (If cooked at
a low temperature hard-cooked eggs are digest-
ible.) Add salt last and serve on toast or on a
warm plate. .
CHAPTER IV
VEGETABLES
Fresh vegetables are composed mainly of water,
but all of the five food principles may be obtained
from the vegetable kingdom. Dry vegetables, as
peas and beans, contain a higher percentage of
starch and protein than the fresh vegetables.
All vegetables have in their construction a woody
fiber called cellulose. In cooking vegetables the
main object to attain is the softening of this
cellulose so that it may be more easily digested.
Plants that grow rapidly, with plenty of moisture
and sunshine, have little of this when very young,
but more when old. Radishes and asparagus are
good examples.
Vegetable protein occurs as legumen and gluten
substances.
Vegetables are rich in minerals, especially iron,
potash and phosphate.
Vegetable protein lies near the outer surface of
the different grains and vegetables.
All green vegetables contain a coloring matter,
chlorophyll, which develops in light and air.
Chlorophyll develops best in the presence of iron,
39
40 FOOL) AND CLOTHING
and is essential to the continued growth and de-
velopment of all green plants. If green plants are
covered so that light cannot reach them a change
takes place in the chlorophyll and it is bleached
out. Celery, lettuce, endive, and other salad plants
are bleached and it is believed that in the bleach-
ing, strong flavors are diminished.
Vegetable foods are divided into:
Cereals, which include all grains, as corn, wheat, etc.
Legumes, as peas, beans, lentils.
Tubers, as potatoes.
Roots, as turnips, beets, radishes.
Bulbs, as onions, garlic.
Greens, as lettuce, celery, si)inacli.
Fruit, as tomatoes. i)umpkin, cucuihIxm-. melons.
Flower, as caulitlower.
Digestibility of vegetables. Aside from the
amount of tissue-building material they contain,
vegetables aid in the process of digestion by fur-
nishing bulk, or substances which help carry the
foods along the digestive tract. Many times we
should eat vegetables wdiose building properties
are very low, simply for the bulk they furnish.
Cabbage has very little material for the body, yet
it is recommended by dietitians as a proper food,
occasionally, for well people. By cooking, the
cellulose is softened and it is not irritating to the
digestive organs.
VEGETABLES 41
Cooking of Vegetables
The preparation of vegetables for cooking var-
ies with each kind, so that no general rules can be
given except these:
1. Vegetables u'ilf because some of the water in
their cells has evaporated ; therefore all wilted
vegetables should be soaked in cold water before
being cooked.
2. Vegetables have decayed places on them be-
cause bacteria have begun their work ; all decayed
places must be removed.
3. In preparation for cooking, vegetables that
form heads, as cabbage, cauliflower, etc., should
be soaked, heads down, in cold salt water to which
has been added a small amount of vinegar. If
there are any worms in these vegetables they will
crawl out.
To secure the best results in cooking vegetables,
all except the dry legumens, should be put in boil-
ing salt water, and allowed to boil until tender.
Green peas and beans should simmer; greens
should boil gently, or be steamed so as not to break
them. A little soda added to the water helps dis-
solve the cellulose, but too much destroys the
flavor and its use is not recommended. Briefly, the
changes which take place in the cooking of vege-
tables are:
Cellulose tissues are softened and loosened.
42 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Protein substances coagulate.
Starch grains swell and burst.
Flavors and odors are developed.
The Potato
In a text on agriculture read the chapter on the
potato : of the soil, time of planting, care, market,
etc. From a geography make a list of states or
sections of the country where potatoes grow best.
Examine a cross-section of a potato and notice
the three distinct layers:
1. The brown outer skin, of no food value.
2. A broader white layer mside the skin. This
contains the largest amount of the mineral and
protein.
3. The flesh of the potato and a center core
with decided arms extending into the flesh. These
are the cells holding the water in which the tiny
starch grains float.
Scrape a tablespoonful of the potato flesh and
place it in a thin cloth. Squeeze it until you can
get no more moisture from it. In the cloth you
will have a dry fiber, or broken-down cell walls
which hold the starch and water. After the water
has stood a few minutes you will find a white
sediment. This is starch. By this time the water
and cellulose has turned a reddish brown. This
change of color in many fruits as well as in pota-
VEGETABLES 43
toes is clue to the action of tlie oxygen in the air
upon the wet minerals.
The potato is composed of:
Water Starch Cellulose Minerals Protein
75 7o 18%' 4% 1% 2%
1. The potato belongs to what class of foods'?
2. Why do we get more food value from the j^otato
that is cooked with the jacket on than from one that has
been peeled?
3 In what food principle are potatoes lacking'^
Effect of Heat
Heat causes the water in the cells to expand and
change to steam. As it expands it presses hard
against the cell walls and they are broken down
and the starch grains are freed. They also expand
and change in color.
This is the reason why a potato which has been
cooked in the jacket should be pierced to allow
the steam to escape, otherwise the steam will
change back to water and the potato will be soggy.
For the same reason potatoes should always be
served in an uncovered dish.
A theory of long standing, that potatoes should
be plunged into boiling water, is perhaps not a
bad one to follow, but tests prove that peeled
potatoes lose very little of their value if placed
in cold water, while potatoes cooked in their
jackets lose none at all in that way.
44 FOOD AND CLOTHING
BOILED POTATOES
1 potato y^ tsp. salt
Boiling water to cover.
Wash, pare very thinly, remove eyes, and rinse
in cold water; place in the boiling salt water and
cook very slowly until it can be easily pierced
with a tooth pick. Let the water boil very gently,
as vigorous boiling wears away so much of the
potato. Drain off the water and shake over the
fire until dry and ''snowy. " Chopped parsley
sprinkled over just before serving adds to the
appearance and food value.
We add salt to the water, not to flavor the po-
tato, but to increase the density; that is, raise the
temperature at the boiling point, as the thicker
the liquid, the higher the temperature is at boiling
point.
At certain seasons of the year potatoes, if
cooked by this method, will break to pieces before
they are done. At such seasons the only satis-
factory way is to steam them. The price of a
steamer will be saved many times by the saving
of the potatoes.
BOILED POTATOES IN .JACKETS
Wash, clean, and cook as above. These may be
skinned and sent to the table hot or allowed to
cool, then skinned and cooked as German saute
or hash brown potatoes.
VEGETABLP]S 45
Test a small amount of the potato water from
each recipe with iodine and observe the differ-
ence in the amount of starch, (Iodine is a liquid
which turns all starchy substances blue.)
Place a drop of iodine on a cracker, on some
sugar, on some butter, bread, flour, meat. Note
the difference. Which contain starch?
BAKED POTATOES
Use medium sized potatoes. Scrub thoroughly
with a brush. Oil lightly, place on the grill of a
hot oven, and bake until they can be easily pierced,
from 20 to 40 minutes. Eoll in a clean napkin
and twist until the skin is broken, or pierce sev-
eral times. Serve in an uncovcixd dish.
1. Why oil the skin?
2. Why twist and break the skin ?
3. Why serve potatoes in an uncovered dish?
BAKED POTATOES ON THE HAl.F-SHELL
Cut otf the end of a baked potato, scoop out,
and season. To every cup of the potato, add i/4
tsp. salt, dash pepper, V2 tsp. butter and 1 thsj).
cream (sweet or sour) or milk. Beat until light
and creanw. Refill the shell loosely and heap
above the shell. Return to the oven to brown.
Grated cheese may be sprinkled over the top
before returning to the oven to brown.
If the potatoes are allowed to cool before sea-
46 FOOD AND CLOTHING
soiling and refilling the shell, the beaten white
of an egg folded into them adds much to the
lightness of the filling.
1. Why add butter and milk to the potato?
2. What combination of food does it give you?
3. Why does the grated cheese sprinkled on the top
add to the food value ?
GERMAN SAUTE
(.Serve 6)
3 e. cold boiled finely chopped potatoes, cooked in jackets.
3 slices bacDU, sauted crisp and cut fine.
Yz c. finely chopped onion. 1 tsp. salt — dash pepper.
Mix thoroughly and turn into skillet where
the bacon was rendered. Cover and cook very
slowly, stirring as they broAvn on underside, so
as to brown evenly, through and through. Serve
hot.
Just before serving, ^ c. cream may be turned
over the potatoes, the lid replaced and the whole
allowed to steam for a few seconds. This softens
the brown crusts and adds to the flavor.
BOILED CABBAGE
After cleaning as directed in ^'Prej^aration and
Cooking of Vegetables," cut fine and put in a
stew pan wdth enough boiling water to cover.
Cook from 25 to 45 minutes, depending upon the
age of the cabbage. Drain for 2 minutes in a
colander, season with salt, pepper and butter.
VEGETABLES 47
If cabbage is cooked in a great amount of
water with tlie lid off the odor will not be notice-
able. To 1 c. shredded cabbage, use 5 c. of water,
and as the water evaporates add more.
BOILED CABBAGE WITH PORK
■ Boil the pork until tender, adding the cabbage
as directed above, and serve all together.
CREAMED CABBAGE
Boil cabbage as directed. Make cream sauce
or cheese sauce ''2 to 1." Put cabbage in baking
dish, turn sauce over it, sprinkle with buttered
crumbs, and brown. (See "white sauce.")
CREAMED CAULIFLOWER
Use only the flowers. Soak in cold, salt, vinegar
water for an hour, cook as ''Boiled Cabbage" and
turn over all a cheese sauce.
SPINACH
Pull the leaves from the roots, drop in a pan of
water, wash well in two waters, shaking each leaf
separately. Throw into a kettle, with only the
water that is on the leaves, and cook with the lid
on for 20 minutes from time it begins to steam.
Pour spinach in colander and drain thoroughly.
Place in a dish, add salt, pepper, butter and hard-
48 FOOD AND CLOTHING
cooked egg cut in slices. One peck of spinach
will make IV2 pts. when cooked.
Mustard greens should cook from one to three
hours very slowly. The cellulose in these greens
is very hard to soften.
BOILED BEETS
Wash the beets well, being careful not to break
the skin; also leave about 2 inches of the top on.
This will keep in the red coloring matter. Drop
in boiling water. Young beets will cook in one
hour, but old beets sometimes require as long as
4 hours. Put in cold water, slip off the peeling
and prepare as:
1. Buttered beets, by dieing and adding salt, pepper
and plenty of butter, then reheating.
2. Pickled beets, by -slicing and covering with half
vinegar, half vvater, and allowing to stand 24 hours.
ASPARAGrs
Cut off the lower, woody part of each stem.
Wash well, tie in a bunch, and stand in a pan
with the tender ends up. Fill the pan with enough
boiling water to cover and cook until tender, about
]5 minutes. Drain, season with salt, pepper and
butter or make a ''3 to 1" white sauce and pour
over. This is often served on toasted points.
After the cooked asparagus has drained and
cooled, several sticks may be arranged on a let-
VEGETABLES 49
tuce leaf, with French dressing or mayonnaise
over it and served as a salad.
CANDIED SWEET POTATOES
Skin boiled sweet potatoes and cut in length-
wise slices. Place in an earthen dish, put lumps
of butter on each slice and sprinkle with sugar.
Bake until the butter and sugar has candied and
the potatoes are brown.
SWEET POTATO PUFFS
Cut baked potatoes in halves, scrape out the
inside, season with salt, pepper, butter and
chopped nuts, refill shells, leaving a rough surface,
and bi'own in a liot oven before serving.
TOMATOES
To peel : Put ripe tomatoes in a dish, pour boil-
ing water over them and let stand one minute;
pour the water oif, and pour on cold water; turn
this off immediately and cool. The thin skin will
slip off readily, and the tomato will retain its
shape.
SCAIJ.OPED TOMATOES
(Servo 6)
2 0. peeled tomatoes 1 tsp. salt
2 ('. bread chunks 1 tbsp. butter
Reserve Y^. c. crumbs for the top
50 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Add the salt and bread chunks to tomatoes.
Put in baking dish, dice butter over top, add
crumbs and brown in an oven. One tbsp. or more
of diced onions may be added if desired.
CREAMED ONIONS
Select small onions of uniform size. Remove
roots and outside skin. Cook until tender in
enough boiling water to cover, with the lid off.
Drain and pour over, for each onion, 2 tbsp. white
sauce *'2 to 1" and serve.
GREEN CORN
The most satisfactory way to serve green corn
is on the cob. Remove the husks and silks and
any brown places on the cob or corn. Drop the
ears in a kettle of boiling water, and boil rapidly
for 20 minutes. Drain before serving.
TURNIPS
Wash, peel and if very large, quarter. Cook
until tender in a large amount of water, just at
the boiling point. Drain, and season with salt,
pepper and butter.
Creamed turnips: mash the boiled turnips thor-
oughly, add salt, pepper, butter and cream.
CREAMED CARROTS
Wash and scrape the carrots thoroughly. Dice
VEGETABLES 51
and cook until tender in boiling water. Drain and
serve with a white sauce "2 to 1."
Many people are not fond of carrots, but they
contain a high percentage of mineral, and their
cellulose is so easily softened that they are a very
desirable food.
CREAMED STRING-BEANS
%. c. golden snap beans ]4, <"■ white sauce "2 to 1"
1 sHce toasted bread
If canned beans are used, add to the white sauce,
and cook over water 10 minutes. Turn onto toast
and serve hot.
If fresh beans are used, they should be cooked
in boiling water until tender, then measured.
CREAMED PEAS
1 tbsp. peas 2 tbsp. white sauce "2 to 1 "
1 slice toast or 1 patty shell
Cook as for creamed beans.
Peas and beans belong to a family of vegetables
known as the pulse family. Dried, they are very
rich in nitrogen and their principle protein is
known as "legumen." They are, therefore, often
called legumens. On account of their large
amount of protein they are sometimes styled
'^Poor Man's Beef." They are also very rich in
carbohydrates, but are poor in fats, and for that
52 FOOD AND CLOTHING
reason are usually served with fatty foods.
Served with a cream sauce they make a well-bal-
anced food.
Fresh peas and beans should be cooked immedi-
ately after pickini^ as they loose both in flavor
and value by evaporation. When 'Afresh w^ith
the dew from the garden" they are at their best.
1. What names are given to vegetable protein?
2. Name some minerals that are fonnd in vegetables.
3. Give three reasons for a strong vegetable diet.
4. What do we mean by ' ' coarse vegetables ' ' ?
5. Why do we need "coarse vegetables"?
CHAPTER V
SUGAR
Sugar, one of tlie carbohydrates, lias its source
in fruits, cereals and vegetables, as well as in milk.
There are several kinds of sugar :
Sucrose, cane or beet sugar, very sweet.
Lactose, milk sugar.
Glucose, made from corn starch. It is not as
sweet as cane sugar and does not crystallize read-
ily, hence its value in making some candies.
Dextrine, a sugar which is produced in the
process of digestion, also, by applying heat to
starch, as in toasted bread.
Commercial sugar is made from the juice of
sugar cane, beet roots, and maple trees.
Sugar cane is a tall plant of the grass family
resembling corn, cultivated extensively in the
South for use in making syrup and sugar.
Sugar heel is a large white variety of beet,
from the juice of whicli sugar is made. It is cul-
tivated extensively in Colorado, New Mexico,
Michigan and California.
Maple sugar is made from the juice of a maple
tree which grows in northeastern United States.
There are two kinds of granulated sugar, — beet
53
54 FOOD AND CLOTHING
and cane. Often beet sugar has a blue tinge and
cane sugar a yellow tinge, though when both are
highly refined there is no distinction between
them.
In cane sugar the sweet juice which is obtained
by crushing the cane between large rollers is
boiled down to a thick syrup. As it slowly cools
part of it separates into crystals. The liquid that
will not crystallize is called molasses. After drain-
ing this off the impure product called raw sugar
(brown sugar) is left. This is mixed with water
and filtered several times and then boiled down in
covered vessels which contain no air. Granulated
sugar is made by putting the syrup into revolving
vessels, the centrifugal force forming the gran-
ules. Other kinds of granulated sugar are block
sugar and powdered sugar.
Block or cut sugar is the purest kind and is
made by running the syrup into molds wdiere it
hardens. AVhen taken from the molds it is sawed
into blocks. An inferior kind of square loaf sugar
is made by pressing granulated sugar into cubes.
Powdered sugar is made by pulverizing the
sugar particles left from sawing the block sugar.
Brown sugar is the unrefined cane sugar.
Molasses is the thick brown syrup which drains
from the sugar in the process of manufacture.
Sugar is often adulterated by adding to it white
sand, lime dust, or starch. As pure sugar dis-
SUGAR 55
solves quickly in warm water, the presence of
foreign matter may be readily detected.
The digestion of sugar requires less energy on
the part of the digestive organs than any other
food, on account of its solubility, but since
the body can care for only so small an amount at
a time, people commonly eat too much and a great
amount ferments and causes digestive disturb-
ances.
Effect of heat upon sugar. Heat changes sugar
chemically almost as soon as it is applied. When
sugar is melted over a slow fire, it has been
changed to barley sugar; when barley sugar has
begun to brown we have caramel sugar; burned
until it is black we have carbon. In each sugar,
some of the sweetness has been lost, until, if you
were to taste the carbon, you should find it bitter.
This proves to us that when cooking fruits or
vegetables, where sugar is to be used, it must be
added just in time to melt it as the longer it cooks
the greater the loss of the sweet taste.
Sugar as a food is both wholesome and pleasant.
It is also one of the best and cheapest sources of
body heat and energy. Children, who are natur-
ally more active than grown people, require more
sweets. A moderate amount of candy is good for
children, but it should be eaten immediately after
meals, otherwise it spoils the appetite for other
foods.
56 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Since sugar, in any form, is a food, and candy
is the most attractive form of sugar, and people,
especially children, will have candy, it is wisdom
for every girl to learn to make pure simple can-
dies, and make them often in the home. The
''penny-candy" habit has brought more harm to
children than any other source of temptation set
before them. Cheap candies are often full of
poisonous colorings and flavorings and contain
adulterations that stunt the growth and ruin the
health of thousands of their users.
Candy ]\Iaking
The different stages oi sugar cookery m candy
making are, soft ball, hard ball, crack, and hard
crack.
The sugar and Avater boiled together reaches the
''soft ball" stage when a portion dropped into
cold water can be gathered up into a soft ball.
The "hard ball" stage is reached when the por-
tion tested forms a firm, compact ball.
At the "crack" degree, the portion tested be-
comes slightly brittle and can no longer be molded
into a ball.
The ' ' hard crack ' ' is the stage at which the por-
tion tested becomes hard and brittle.
After the hard stage is passed, the syrup gradu-
ally changes color, becoming first light yellow,
SUGAR 57
then brown and finally a deep red. These repre-
sent the different stages of carmelization.
At the last stage the sugar has lost its sweet
taste and is used for coloring soups and gravies.
At the intermediate stage it is used for flavor-
ing ice creams and custards.
These different stages may be easily determined
by the use of a thermometer, which is the most
accurate way of testing.
In most candies the object is to prevent the
recrystallization of the sugar, or to insure its
formation in minute crystals, that the candy may
be creamy. This may be brought about by invert-
ing a portion of the sugar: first, by long boiling,
with the addition of at least half as mucli liquid
as sugar, or by the addition of an acid as vinegar,
lemon juice, or cream of tartar (an acid salt);
second, by melting the sugar at a high tempera-
ture with no addition of liquid.
PEANUT BRITTLE
1 c. sugar 1 c. shelled peanuts
Put the peanuts on a buttered tin plate. Heat
the sugar slowly until it is a brown color (cara-
mel). Pour over the peanuts. Even the thickness
in the pan by tilting.
Weigh the candy, note the cost and compare
with the selling price. Do not attempt to make
more than one pound of this at a time, as in melt-
58 FOOD AND CLOTHING
ing large amounts of sugar some will burn before
the rest can melt.
NUT TAFFY
2 c. sugar 1 tsp. viuegar
1 c. water 1 tsp. butter
Yi c. chopped nuts
Cook sugar and water together until sugar is
dissolved. Add the butter and vinegar and cook
to the hard ball stage. Pour into buttered pans
on which the nuts have been spread. When cool
enough to handle, pull until white and hard.
Twist into ropes ^2 inch in diameter and when
cold break into small pieces.
COCOANUT CREAM CANDY
V/z c. sugar 1 tbsp. butter
Ya, e. milk Y^ c. coeoanut
Y2 tsp. vanilla
Stir sugar in milk, add butter and heat gradu-
ally until the butter is melted. Cook to soft ball
stage. Remove from fire, beat in coeoanut and
vanilla, and beat until mixture is creamy and be-
gins to sugar around the edge. Turn at once into
a buttered plate and score.
CHOCOLATE NUT FUDGE
2 c. sweet milk 2 tbsp. butter
1 tsp. vanilla 2 c. sugar
V2 e. chopped nuts 2 sections chocolate,
of the Y2. lb. cakes
SUGAR 59
Melt chocolate over hot water, acid milk and
let it come to the boiling point. Cream butter and
sugar, add to hot milk and chocolate. Cook until
soft ball stage is reached. Remove from fire and
beat in the nuts. Add vanilla and beat until
creamy. Pour into pans and score.
A slight acid in the chocolate will sometimes
curdle the milk, but this does not interfere witli
the creaminess of the fudge.
1. Why add the vanilla last?
2. Why beat the fudge?
3. Has fudge a food value?
FONDANT
3/2 c. sugar ^ c. water
ys tsp. cream of tartar
Add sugar to water and stir until the sugar has
dissolved. Place over a slow fire and, when it
begins to boil, shake in the cream of tartar. With
a wet cloth wrapped around the tines of a fork,
keep the sides of pan washed clean from sugar
grains that accumulate as the syrup boils. When
a drop of the syrup, in cold w^ater, may be gath-
ered up and brought to the top, it has cooked suffi-
ciently. Pour into a vessel, and when cold, beat
until creamy. Then knead like bread for a few
minutes, put in a jar, cover and let stand until
ready for use. It is better if allowed to stand a
few days before using.
Do not stir fondant after it begins to cook. Do
60 FOOD AND CLOTHING
not scrape it from the pan; use only what will
pour. When testing fondant or any candy always
remove from the fire and wait until boiling ceases.
Sometimes the few seconds between the test and
the time for removing from the fire, it will have
cooked too much if it was just right at the time
the test was taken.
If fondant has been cooked too long and it turns
to a hard sugar, equal parts of water may be
added and it may be cooked again with good
results.
When cooking larger amounts of sugar for
candy, as 2 cups, one-half the amount of water
may be used, but in small amounts, as y^ c. of
sugar, equal parts of water must be used, as the
evaporation is relatively greater.
CANDIED ORANGE PEEL
Cut the rind of six oranges into fine strips.
Throw into 2 qts. of boiling salt water and cook
imtil tender, changing the water three times.
Drain and dry. Make syrup of 2 c. sugar, 1/2 c.
water, and when it has reached the crack stage
put in the peel and cook again for 2 or 3 min-
utes. Turn on paper, sprinkle with enough sugar
to keep the strips from sticking together.
MARSHMALLOWS
1 e. sugar 1 egg white
y2 c. water 1 tsp. gelatine
SUGAR 61
Soak gelatine in 2 tsp. cold water. Cook sugar
and water until it spins a long thread. Add gel-
atine to hot syrup and, when well dissolved, pour
slowly over the stiffly beaten egg white, stirring
continually. Beat until stiff. Pour in a shallow
pan, cover with powdered sugar, and let stand
until firm and cut into small cubes.
CHAPTER VI
MEATS
The food value of meat depends upon the pres-
ence of two classes of nutriment; namely, protein
and fat, which build muscular tissue and yield
heat and energy.
Compared, with other protein foods, meat is
very expensive, and in many cases it is slow to
digest. Bacteria develops so rapidly in meat that,
unless the digestive organs are rapid or entirely
normal in their work, substances will be absorbed
and thrown into the circulation which will cause
general disorder.
The classifications are:
31 eat: Beef, pork, lamb, mutton, veal.
Fish: Red fish, white fish, oysters, elams, shrimps, etc.
Poultry: Chicken, capon, turkey, duck, goose.
Game: Rabbit, pigeon, squab, quail, squirrel, wikl
duck, wild turkey.
Beef
The fat consists of tiny sacks or cells filled with
oil. In the young, well-fed beef it is firm and of a
light yellow color ; in old beef it is soft, flabby and
of a dark yellow or straw color.
62
MEATS 63
The muscular tissue, or lean meat, consists of
bundles of muscular fibers or tubes held together
by means of a connective tissue, which in the
young beef is soft and jelly-like, while in the old
beef it is firm and elastic. The bundles may be
seen very plainly by examining a piece of round
steak or the cross cut of a section of a rump roast.
In each of the different muscles, these Inmdles are
placed one way ; and for this reason a person who
carves should cut across the grain of bundles of
each muscle even though he has to change the
direction of his knife several times. These
bundles of muscles tied together with this connec-
tive tissue may be compared to a bundle of wheat
wrapped from the top to the bottom with the
twine. It is easy, from this comparison, to see
how carving a cross-section would give an alto-
gether different result tlian cutting lengthwise of
the fiber.
A fresh cut of beef should be bright red in color,
but as it is exposed to the air it turns a dark color.
One of the best tests for fresh meat is the odor.
Do not accept a cut of meat that has the least
trace of an offensive odor.
Meats are cooked for four reasons:
To loosen and soften the connective tissues.
To kill parasites and organisms.
To coagulate the protein substances.
To render it more acceptable to the sight and to
develop the flavor.
64 FOOD AND CLOTHING
In tougli cuts, and by those we mean the muscu-
lar parts most used by the animal, the percentage
of nutrition is greater but it also requires greater
etfort on the part of the digestive organs to pre-
pare it for use, unless the method of cooking lends
aid.
Strong heat hardens and contracts proteins,
while slow heat coagulates them. From this w^e
have two rules for cooking the tough cuts of
meat :
First, if the flavor and nutrition is desired in
the meat, strong heat must first be applied to
harden the protein substances on the outside so
as to keep the juices in, then it should be reduced
to a temperature below the boiling point for the
remainder of the cooking.
Second, if the flavor and nutrition is to be
taken from the meat, as for soups and sauces or
gravy, it should be placed in cold water and the
temperature increased very slowly until it is sim-
mering.
The fireless cooker method is the most success-
ful way of cooking tough cuts of meat.
"Ways of Cooking Beef
Soups: Hind shank, fore shank, neck.
Stews: Chuck, shoulder, brisket, flank, ribs.
Boasts: Prime ribs, third, fourth, fifth, etc.
Pot roasts: Rump, top shoulder.
Steals: Loin, top round, chuck, flank.
MEATS 65
1. Give two reasons why meat is an expensive protein
food.
2. Make a comparison between the fatty tissues and
the lean tissues of meat.
3. What proof have we that tough meats should be
cooked at a low temperature?
4. Why are some pieces of meat termed ' ' tough ' ' and
some "tender"?
5. Why will carving a piece of meat cross-grain make
it seem tender ?
6. Why is the tireless cooker a successful method of
cooking tough cuts of meat?
ROLLED FLANK STEAK
(Mock Duck)
Wipe a flank steak and chop it each way. Salt,
pepper and spread with rendered suet. Spread
over this a layer of dressing about 1 inch thick.
Roll, skeAver and tie. Weigh and place in a hot
baking pan, which has a small amount of fat in
it, and bake in a moderate oven, 20 minutes per
pound. Several times during cooking baste with
extra fat. Remove all fastenings, slice through
meat and dressing and serve with brown gravy.
DRESSING
1 e. bread chunks 2 tbsp. chopped onion
54 tsp. sage Yi tsp. salt
Moisten all with waten or tomato juice. Handle
very lightly as the crumbs are likely to become
packed and the dressing will be heavy.
66
FOOD AND CLOTHING
BROWN GRAVY
To every tbsp. of fat in the baking dish
add 1 tbsp. of flour. Blend well and brown
slightly, scraping loose all browned particles
in the pan. Add water slowly until it is as thick as
'*3 to 1" white sauce. Add salt and pepper if
necessary.
1
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/
z
1
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iO
12
1. Keck. V^
— — 1
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8. Chuck. V
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3. Ribs. \
4. Shoulder cled, '
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4.
7
^ S y.
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13 1
6. Fore shank.
v>N
L_
^__^„...'^
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>w
6. Brisket.
w
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^/v
-wi
7. Cross ribs.
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st
r^
-^^ >
8. Plate.
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wol
9. Navel.
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s A
10. Loin.
\ ,
/ 1
n. Flank.
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m
' ^ */
uk
^Mf/.^
12. Rump.
13. Round.
M.
m
'\i'-'i(.L
Mi^i
14. Second cut round.
15. Hind shank.
Diagram of Cuts of Beef
1 . Locate en diagram a tiaiik steak.
2. AVhy do the fibers of muscles all run one way?
3. Why should we add fat to the flank steak!
4. Name other foods tliat may be served with it.
MEATS 67
IIAMBCIRG STEAK
(Servo 6)
1 c. ground steak (imeooked) dash pepper
y2 tsp. salt 1 egg
1 tsp. chopped onion, or 6 drops onion juice if preferred
Mix thoroughly. Mold into small flat cakes and
saute in hot drippings until thoroughly browned
and cooked.
The round is cut from the leg of the hind
quarter and is easily recognized by the round
bone, near the center of the entire cut. It is one
of the most nutritious cuts of the beef and is used
for beef teas and juices.
1. Why do we mix the egg with the ground beef?
2. When eggs are expensive, what may be substi-
tuted ?
FRICASSEED STEAK
(Serve 4)
Use % lb. cut of round steak I/2 in- tbick. Salt,
pepper and dredge with flour. Saute in a saute
pan with enough fat to brown the meat well on
both sides. When well browned turn in enough
water to cover. Befill as often as necessary and
let simmer one hour, or until tender. A bay leaf
added to the water will improve the flavor.
1. Why cook so long?
2. Why use round steak?
3. What is the price per pound?
68
FOOD AND CLOTHING
Chuck Steak
(from Shoulder)
Rib Roast
Tip of Sirloin
Porterliimse Steak
a. Sirloin b. Tenderloin
Round Steak
Flat-bone Sirloin
PLATE I
MEATS By
CREAMED DRIED HEEP
(Serve 8)
Yi lb. chipped beef (sliredded) 4 tbsp. flour
2 c. milk 4 tbsp. butter
If beef is very salt, soak in boiling water for 5
minutes. When butter is hot in saute pan turn
in the beef and cook until brown. Sift the flour
over gradually, stirring continually. When well
blended add the milk and cook for 3 minutes.
Instead of adding the milk, ^4 c. grated cheese
and three eggs may be added and all stirred until
the cheese is melted and the eggs well scrambled-
This last makes a very palatable luncheon disli.
BOILED BRISKET
(Servi' 4)
Cut 1 lb. of brisket into small pieces after wip-
ing thoroughly with a damp cloth. Drop into boil-
ing water, then reduce the temperature to sim-
mering and cook until tender, about 2 hours. Add
salt, from 1 to 2 tsp., depending upon the brand
of salt.
Brisket is the cut along the end of the ribs. The
cartilage on the ends of the bones, is an indication
of a good cut. The li(iuor from this meat is ex-
cellent for cooking dumplings or potatoes.
BEEF STEW
(Serve 8)
Use 2 lbs. of neck meat, brisket, or shoulder.
70 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Cut in small pieces and place in cold water and
bring to tlie simmering point. At the end of one
hour add 2 tsp. salt, 1 onion cut into small pieces,
4 turnips quartered, 4 carrots halved, and 20
minutes before the dish is to be served, add 4
potatoes halved, which have first been cooked in
boiling salt water 10 minutes. If dumplings are
to be served with this, follow recipe in chapter on
''Flour." Turnips should be pared, carrots
scraped and potatoes peeled very thinly before
being added to the stew.
POT ROAST
(Serve 8)
Place 4 lbs. of rump meat in a large iron kettle
with a piece of suet the size of a cup. Pour over
enough boiling water to cover. Simmer with the
lid off until the water has evaporated, add 3 tsp.
salt, then turn and brow^n each side of the meat
in the hot fat. Remove and add to the fat V^ c.
flour, mix thoroughly, scraping all of the brown
particles from the sides and bottom of the kettle*^
Pour in cold water enough to make a brown sauce
of *'2 to 1" consistency.
Veal
Veal is the flesh of a calf. In some states the
law requires that calves must be six weeks old
before they may be killed for veal. Since it is
MEATS 71
immature flesh it is much less nutritious than beef,
but easier to digest. The bundles of fibers are
softer and the connective tissue very easy to dis-
solve. Being very poor in fats it is usually cooked
with bacon or other fat meats.
Sweetbreads are the thymus or ''throat
glands" and the pancreas or ''stomach glands"
of the calf and are at their best while the calf is
still living upon milk. They are decidedly a pro-
tein food and one of the easiest to digest.
TO PREPARE SWEETBREADS
Soak in salt water 1 hour. Throw into simmer-
ing water and cook at that temperature from 1
to 2 hours or until the connective tissue may be
loosened from the glands. Cut in small pieces
and serve with a cream sauce or use as equal part
with peas or mushrooms, creamed.
Pork
Pork is the flesh of the hog. It is very rich in
fats and contains a medium amount of protein.
Tlie indigestibility of pork, for so many people,
is due to the fact that the fat is so thoroughly
distributed throughout the muscular fibers as well
as around the muscles, also that these fibers are
very compact. It is stated that it requires one
hour longer to digest pork than beef.
Acid fruits or vegetables are usually served
72 FOOD AND CLOTHING
with pork, so the acid may aid the stomach in
eiimlsifying the fats; thus the combination of
''roast pork and apple sauce."
In a bottle put 1 tbsp, oil, 1 tsp. vinegar and
shake well. The tiny particles into which the oil
has been divided is called an emulsitication and is
one step in digestion.
The fats in cured bacon and ham are partially
broken down and are more easily digested. For
this reason crisp bacon is often given to children
or people who can not digest other fatty food.
The cooking- of pork should be thorough and
very slow. In no instance should pork be broiled.
Its compactness and its likelihood of containing
disease germs, makes of it a dangerous food which
can only be rendered safe by the slow and pro-
longed application of heat.
PORK CHOP WITH DRESSING
Make dressing as for mock duck, using the
tomato juice. Pile the dressing in a loose mound
on the chop and bake in a moderate oven 30 min-
utes. Make brown gravy as given in mock duck
recipe.
Dressing adds the much needed starches to the
meats and is also a good way to use dry bread.
The chop is cut from the small ribs and is very
tender. It sells for from 15 to 22 cents per pound.
Note: Read the papfe in Physiolo<r\' which tells of trichinae.
MEATS 73
1. Why do we need an acid with pork?
2. How does it aid digestion?
IIA.M SANDWICHES
1 tbsp. ground boiled ham 1 tbsp. dressing
y2 tsp. minced onion
Mix ham, onion and dressing. Cut white bread
very thin, spread ham upon one slice. Press the
other down over it and trim in any shape de-
sired.
Bread from one to two days old makes the best
sandwiches.
To make good sandwiches have a sharp knife to
cut thin, even slices, add filling as thick as one
slice of bread.
SANDWICH DRESSING
1 egg yolk 1 tsp. sugar
^ tsp. mustard dash salt and pepper
2 tbsp. strong vinegar or lemon juice
Mix well and then beat into it l^/^ c. salad oil,
streaming the oil into the eggs while beating. If
properly made the dressing will be as stiff as
beaten ^%^ white. More acid may be added if
liked.
1. Why do we not butter the bread for sandwiches?
2. Figure the cost of 1 dozen sandwiches.
3. Name the food principles we have in a ham
sandwich.
74 FOOD AND CLOTHING
SAUTE LIVER AND BACON
Cut strips of veal liver 1 incli thick, and 1^2
inches wide. Wash in weak vinegar water, dry,
salt and roll in flour. Saute strips of bacon until
crisp. Saute liver in bacon grease, cooking very
slowly until browned on both sides and well done.
To saute bacon, have a very low fire and turn
the bacon often, so the rendering will be even
and the crispness thorough.
Liver is hard to digest owing to its compact-
ness and rich composition. It is rich in protein
but lacking in fats, therefore the reason for serv-
ing it with bacon. When buying liver, accept only
that from a veal or young pork which has had in-
spection.
TO COOK SMOKED HAMS
Hams should be steamed, simmered or baked
to obtain the best results. If baked, a cloth cov-
ered with a thick layer of dough tucked around
the meat in the pan, will keep the flavor of the
meat within and will aid much in the cooking by
holding the steam. The general rule is : Cook at
a low temperature.
Mutton
Mutton is the meat of sheep. It is compact, but
its muscular fibers are shorter and its connective
tissues less elastic, therefore it is more easily
MEATS 75
digested tlian beef. Tlie fat of mutton is very
hard, owing to the great amount of substance
called stearin which it contains. Since stronger
heat is required to melt it than for other fats,
mutton fat is hard to digest. The different cuts
of mutton are cooked as the different beef cuts,
but owing to its strong flavor, mint sauce is usu-
ally served with the roasts.
Lamb is the immature meat of sheep and, since
it contains more fat, is less digestible, but when
properly cooked has, for some, a very fine flavor.
Since it is lacking in protein but rich in fats, it
is usually served with a protein vegetable such
as peas.
Fish
The word fish as ordinarily used, means any
water animal, as oysters, cod, salmon, etc. Fish
is classified as :
White fish, whose oil or fat is stored in the liver
and not through the flesh ; as white fish, cod, perch,
red snapper, etc.
Red fish, whose oil or fat is distributed through
and around the flesh; as salmon, trout, herring,
etc.
Shell fish, whose bodies have a hard shell-like
covering to protect the soft flesh; as oysters, lob-
sters, shrimps, crabs, etc.
The meat of the white fish is more easily di-
76 FOOD AND CLOTHING
gested than that of the red fish and should there-
fore be selected as a food by people of weak diges-
tion or by invalids.
As a food, the three are generally composed of :
Water Protein Fat ^linerals
White Fish 85% 12>4 7o >^% 2%
Red Fish 64% 20 % 14% 2%
Shell Fish 84% 12 % 3% 1%,
The connective tissue is a substance which soft-
ens very easily, and the meat fibers are very short,
so that the cooking of fish should be at a moderate
temperature and for a short time.
When selecting fish that has been shipped care
must be taken that the eyes are full, the gills
red and fiesh firm.
BAKED WHITE FISH — FRESH POTATO BALLS
Use a fish that weighs from 2^/2 to 4 lbs. Clean
and wipe fish with damp cloth. Rub the inside
with salt, brush outside with melted butter,
sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge with flour,
tie and bake in a dripping pan or skillet in mod-
erate oven until flesh is firm and separates easily
from the bone. Baste during baking with melted
butter and hot water. When brown slip onto a
hot platter, garnish with parsley and thin slices
of lemon. This should bake from 30 to 45 min-
utes.
MEATS 77
POTATO BALLS
Cut small potato balls from raw potatoes and
fry ill deep fat until well browned and tender.
Salt and pile on platter around fish.
CREAMED CODFISH
(Serve 2)
1/3 c. white sauce " 2 to 1 " 1/4 egg
1 tbsp. shredded codfish dash nutmeg
1/4 tsp. lemon juice 1 tbsp. buttered crumbs
Mix white sauce and codfish in baking dish. Stir
in beaten egg. Add lemon juice, nutmeg and
crumbs to the top. Bake 20 minutes in moderate
oven.
The codfish is a large white fish of the north-
eastern Atlantic. Those caught on the New Eng-
land coast are eaten extensively by the people of
that locality. Large canneries are located there
which ship our fish to us.
SALMON CROQUETTES
(4 croquettes)
yi c. shredded red sahnoii dash salt
j4 c. white sauce "4 to 1" 6 drops lemon juice
Mix lemon juice and salt with the salmon and
add to the Avhite sauce. Cool. A\ hen cold mold
into small cylinders, roll in crumbs, in beaten egg,
in crumbs again and let stand until the egg has
dried. Drop in deep fat and cook until a golden
78 FOOD AND CLOTHING
brown. Drain on cloth or soft paper and serve
garnished with parsley.
To test hot fat. When a crumb of bread will
brown in 40 counts the fat is hot enough.
In preparing the eggs for croquettes, add 3 tbsp.
of water for each good sized egg and beat all to-
gether until well mixed. One egg will roll from
8 to 10 croquettes, depending upon the size.
The salmon is a red-fleshed fish. The most ex-
tensive fisheries of this country are on the north-
western coast and especially in the Columbia river.
The older fishes live in the sea, but ascend some
large fresh water river which empties into the
ocean to deposit their eggs in the fresh water.
The young fish sometimes stay in the fresh water
two years.
In buying salmon, always select the reddish
flesh. Pink or white salrnon is very inferior.
1. What is the difference in composition between the
cod and salmon?
2. Which is easier to digest? Why?
3. What foods are best to serve with fish?
4. Why do fish courses usually contain potatoes and
bread ?
Why use lemon juice with fish '!
SCALLOPED SALMON
(Serve 6)
1 lb. can red salmon c. milk
2 c. cracker crumbs 1 tsp. salt
1 tsp. lemon juice
MEATS 79
In a baking dish make alternate layers of the
salmon and the crumbs, beginning and finishing
with the crumbs. Shake over the salt, add the
lemon juice by drops and then the milk. Bake in
a moderate oven 30 minutes.
Oysters
Oysters, under the best conditions are very easy
to digest though in proportion to their weight
and usual cost they have not high nutritive value
compared with other foods.
They supply the most food value, when eaten
raw, as cooking hardens and contracts them, but
if cooked very lightly they are more appetizing to
some people.
Inland towns do not get oysters at their best
and great care must be taken in selecting and
preparing those that have been sealed and
shipped. It is not advisable to use the liquor
that comes with the oysters that have been packed
in large kegs. Each oyster should be carefully
washed and run through the fingers to remove
shells.
OYSTER SOUP
J/2 c. oysters (selected and washed) 1 e. milk
ji tsp. salt 1 tsp. butter
Put milk and butter in double boiler and, when
scalding hot, add the oysters and salt and heat
80 FOOD AND CLOTHING
until the gills of the oyster begin to curl. Re-
move from the fire and serve. A dash of nutmeg-
over the top improves the flavor for some persons.
CREAMED OYSTERS
34 ^'- oysters (selected and wjished)
1 e. Avhite sauce "2 to 1 "
Add oysters to hot white sauce and when the
gills begin to curl, pour over toast and serve.
The juice of Vi small lemon, squeezed over the
top, improves the flavor.
SCALLOPED OYSTERS
( Serve () )
1 pt. oysters 1 tl)si). butter
2 c. cracker cruinl)s 1 c. milk
1 tsp. salt dash cayenne
After oysters have been prepared, arrange in
a baking dish alternate layers of crumbs and
oysters, beginning and finishing with the crumbs,
and over each layer of oysters dot pieces of the
butter and some of the salt. Add the milk and
bake in a moderate oven 20 minutes.
CREAMED SHRIMP
(Serve S)
1 can dry shrimps 2 c. white sauce " 2 to 1 "
diced whites of 2 hard-cooked eggs
MEATS 81
Pick the shrimps into small pieces, removing' all
hard particles. Add the shrimps and egg white
to the white sauce and serve on toast.
CHAPTER VII
CHEESE
Cheese is believed to be the first form in which
milk was preserved for future use.
From the standpoint of the housekeeper cheese
is of importance; first, because of its high nutri-
tive value in muscle-forming material; second,
because of the great number of foods with which
it may be served in combination; and third, be-
cause of its use as a flavoring. The general com-
position of cheese is as follows :
Water Protein Fats Milk Sugar Mineral
347r 25% 347c 37o 47o
Cheese is made from whole milk, skimmed milk,
or cream. In some foreign countries goat's milk
is used entirely, but American cheese is made
from cow's milk. Rennet, a kind of acid, is added
to the milk which causes it to curdle; that is, the
casein is separated from the water, which is called
whey. The whole is heated to a degree of 100 F.
The whey is drained off and the curd salted and
put into a press for a day. Then the cheese is kept
several weeks to "ripen"; that is, develop flavor,
82
CHEESE 83
which it does by the growth of bacteria. The aver-
age cheese when fresh, contains about i/i its
weight in protein, 1/3 fat, 1/3 water and 1/12 min-
eral and carbohydrates. Owing to the addition of
salt the percentage of mineral matter is high.
There is always present a small amount of albu-
men and milk sugar which clings to the curd. This
is the cheese we ordinarily buy for our home use.
Numbers of foreign makes are sold in this country
which we shall study later.
Digestibility of cheese. Cheese has, heretofore,
been considered the cause of digestive disturb-
ances, but recent experiments have shown that
this is not a fact. There are persons with whom
eggs or milk do not agree. The same principle
applies to cheese in the average diet! The fatty
acid which cheese contains in small amounts
causes trouble in some stomachs just as do dough-
nuts, pork or fats of any kind. The compactness
of cheese, when eaten alone, renders it hard for
the digestive fluids to liquify. However, it does
not remain longer in the healthy stomach than
some kinds of meat.
Why cheese is served with pie. When cheese
enters tlie stomach an excess of juice is called
forth to digest it, and as pastry is also hard to
digest, the extra juice more easily disposes of
the pastry. Whj pastry is hard to digest will be
studied later.
84 FOOD AND CLOTHING
CHEESE BALLS
(To be served with a salad)
1 egg white 1 e. grated cheese
1 tsp. salt and cayenne
Beat egg white, mix witli it tlie cheese and sea-
soning. Mold in small balls and roll in cracker
crumbs. Place on the ice about 30 minutes to dry
the egg on the outside. Drop in deep fat and fry
a golden bro^vn.
WELSH RAREBIT I
y2 c. white sauce "2 to 1" j4 tsp. salt
2 tbsp. grated cheese speck cayenne
Make white sauce in double boiler. Add cheese
and seasonings and, when cheese has melted, serve
on w^afers or toast.
This is the least expensive rarebit that can be
made.
WELSH RAREBrr H
(Serve fi )
1 c. diced fresh cheese 1 tbsp. bntter
1 c. milk 1 egg
}i tsp. salt dash cayenne
Melt butter in a pan over water, add milk, then
cheese and cayenne. When melted, add egg which
has been thoroughly mixed, and cook one minute.
Serve on wafers. Tomato juice may be used in-
stead of milk.
CHEESE 85
CHEESE SANDWICHES
( 1.1 saiuhviches)
2 e. grated cheese (>4 lb.) Yz tsp. salt
y^ c. mayonnaise 1 large pimento
^ tsp. paprika )<4 c. chopped nuts
Cut pimento very fine. Blend cheese, mayon-
naise, salt, paprika, nuts (if used) and pimentoes.
Spread as in other sandwiches.
Estimate the cost.
Thin slices of tomato, hard cooked egg or cu-
cumber, in these sandwiches, adds much to their
taste.
('OTTAOE CHEESE
Heat one gallon firm clabber very slightly or
until the whey is separated from the curd. Drain
the whey off by pouring the heated mixture in a
cloth sack and hanging it where it can drip for
an hour or so or until the curd is dry. Season
with salt, pepper and cream, either plain or
whipped. This may be used for salads, in pie, or
in place of a vegetable.
CHAPTER VIII
CEEEALS
Cereals are manufactured from the seeds or
grains of the various members of the grass family.
The grains most used are wheat, oats, corn, rice,
rye and barley; and from these are prepared the
numerous brands of breakfast foods which flood
the markets.
Oatmeal, the oat grain, is ground into small
particles and is used mostly for porridge and
gruel.
Boiled oats, the grains are moistened and run
between hot steam rollers, which flattens each
grain and partially cooks the starch. For this
reason oatmeal should be steamed from 5 to 6
hours, while rolled oats will cook sufficiently in
from 30 to 45 minutes. For a well-balanced cereal,
rolled oats, when properly cooked, furnishes the
most nutriment.
Most cereals contain a large amount of starch.
Oats, corn, and wheat contain, also, a large amount
of vegetable protein, and are very rich in fats and
minerals.
Compare the foods from the f ollow^ing table :
86
cp:iie.
.\LS
87
Carbo-
Protein
hydrates
Fats
iMiuerals
Water
Oats . .
. . 12%
'66%
7 %
3 %
12%
Wheat .
. . 12%
71%
3 %
2 %
12%
Corn . .
. . i07f
70%
4 %
2 %
14%
Rice . .
. . 7%
78%
/2%
1/2%
13%
Since cereals contain sucli a high percentage of
starch and so little water, they must be cooked
a long time in a large amount of water.
Table for Cooking Cereals
Method of
Cereal Amount
Water
Salt
of Cooking
Time
Oatmeal 1 c.
4 c.
1 tsp.
steamed
6 hrs.
Rolled Oats. . . 1 c.
2 c.
1 tsp.
steamed
40 min.
Cm. of Wheat 1 c.
4 c.
1 tsp.
steamed
40 min.
Cornmeal .... 1 c.
6 c.
1 tsp.
boiled
40 min.
Rice 1 c.
10 c.
1 tsp.
boiled
20 min.
Rolled Oats.. . 1 c.
4 c.
1 tsp.
boiled
25 min.
General directions for cooking cereals. Add the
salt to the boiling water, and add the cereal to
the water, stirring continually. If it is to be
steamed, cook it over direct heat for 5 minutes,
then over water the required length of time.
If it is to be boiled, cook over direct heat the re-
quired length of time. Cornmeal mush must be
stirred continually the entire time of cooking.
Rice must have a sufficient amount of water, that,
as it boils, the grains may be kept apart.
88 FOOD AND CLOTHING
When cooking small amounts the evaporation
will be greater and more water may have to be
added to obtain the desired results.
Digestion of cereals depends upon their being
properly cooked or prepared. Some are so pre-
pared before they are sent to the market that a
large amount of their starch has been turned to
dextrine (one of the functions of digestion) and
they are advertised as ''pre-digested" foods.
CREA^I OF WHEAT WITH DATES
(Serve 4)
3/2 c. cream wheat Vi tsjx salt
2 c. boiling water 4 chopped dates
Cook as directed in table. A(hl dates the last
10 minutes.
Since dates contain a large percentage of sugar,
the combination with cream gives us a well-bal-
anced food. Raisins may be used in place of the
dates with the same results.
What will it cost per person to serve Cream of Wheat
with milk?
CORNMEAL MUSTT
(Serve 4)
1 e. meal (> c. water
1 tsp. salt
Cook as directed in table. Einse a square or
oblong granite pan with cold w^ater, turn mush
CEREALS 89
into it, let stand until cold. Remove from pan,
slice in i/o inch slices, dredge with flour, saute in
bacon drippings, and serve crisp or with a syrup.
If served crisp, grated cheese may be sprinkled
over the top.
1. What is the cost per pound?
2. Why should we eat a great deal of food prepared
from cornmeal?
3. What additional food element does it give to serve
it with s.yrup?
4. What food element is added when cheese is used?
5. Suggest other combinations that add to its value.
RICE WITH CHEESE SxVUCE
(Serve 4)
%. c. dry rice >4 tsp. salt
■1 c. Ijoiliiig water
Wash rice until the last water is clear. A good
way is to put rice in a strainer and hold under a
faucet until the water runs through clear. Cook
as directed in the table, and when tender, drain.
Pour over it the cheese sauce and serve immedi-
ately or place in a hot oven and brown slightly,
with buttered crumbs added to the top.
CHEESE SAUCE
1 e, white sauce "2 to 1" 2 tbsp. grated cheese
Add the cheese to the hot white sauce and let
stand until cheese is melted. A dash of cayenne
may improve the flavor for some.
90 FOOD AND CLOTHING
1. Why wash rice so thoroughly ?
2. What does rice lack as a food that the cheese and
white sauce supply?
3. Rice is rarely served alone, but usually in combina-
tion with eggs, milk, meat, etc. Why this combination f
4. Where does rice grow? How is it harvested?
What is the cost per pound?
BAKED RICE
(Serve 4)
Yi e. rice 1 tbsp. sugar
\y2 qts. of milk
Wash rice in one water. Mix with the milk and
sugar and bake slowly for 3 hours. Cinnamon
may be sprinkled over the top. Rice is washed
in one water only so as not to lose the starch that
will thicken the milk.
ROLLED OATS APPLE SAUCE
(Serve 4)
^ c. rolled oats 1 c. water
K' tsp. salt
Cook as directed in table. Pile on top of each
dish of rolled oats 2 tbsp. apple sauce, and serve
with sugar and cream.
A pound of rolled oats costs 5 cents and will
serve 16 liberal portions.
As the food elements are so well balanced in this
cereal it makes a very economical, wholesome food.
CEREALS 91
1. What would it cost per service with milk and
sugar 1
2. "Why is apple sauce a logical combination with
the oats?
HOMINY GKITS
(Serve 4)
1 c. hominy grits 1 tsp. salt
3 c. boiling water
Cook as directed for all cereals.
Serve with cream and sugar. Or cook very
stiff and serve with maple syrup.
Macaroni
Macaroni is not, in a true sense, one of the
cereals, but as it is manufactured from flour we
study it along with the cereals.
Macaroni is manufactured from a paste made
of hard wheat flour and w^ater molded in slender
tubes. Spaghetti and vermicelli are different
forms of the same paste. It was first manufac-
tured in Italy, and it is one of the principal food-
stuffs of that country. The best is made from
a fine grade of hard wheat which is very rich in
a protein, called gluten, but is poor in water and
fat. To obtain the best results, it should be cooked
in plenty of water and seasoned well or combined
with other foods sucli as fats, milk, butter,
cheese, eggs, or meat stocks.
92 FOOD AND CLOTHING
MACARONI AU GRATIN
(Serve 4)
1 c. macaroni (broken) 1 tsp. salt
4 c. boiling water 1/3 c. grated cheese
lyo c. white sauce "2 to 1"
Drop macaroni in the boiling salt water and
cook until tender (about 20 minutes). Drain. To
the white sauce add the grated cheese and, when
the cheese has melted, pour over the macaroni.
Put into a baking dish, cover with buttered crumbs
and brown in a hot oven.
When macaroni is to be served with roast beef,
as is usually done, a tomato sauce instead of the
cheese sauce adds to the general taste of the
course. Whyf
1. What is the meaning of "an gratin"?
2. AVhy not serve beef and cheese together?
3. What is the cost of macaroni per pound ?
4. What is the cost per person with cheese?
MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE
(Serve 4)
1 c. macaroni 1 tsp. salt
4 c. boiling water
Cook as macaroni au gratiii. Turn over it the
tomato sauce, put in a baking dish, sprinkle but-
tered crumbs over the top and brown in the oven.
TOMATO SAUCE
1 c. strained tomato juice 2 tbsp. butter
2 tbsp. flour ^ tsp. salt
Make as white sauce.
CHAPTER IX
FLOUR
Flour is made by grinding the grains of various
cereals into a powder, as rice flour from rice, rye
flour from rye, white flour from wheat. Some
cereals are ground or broken into fine particles
called meal, and thus we have, cornmeal, oatmeal,
barleymeal, etc. Since we deal principally with
the white flour, the term flour to us always means
that made from wheat.
Two kinds of wheat are used in making flour;
namely, hard wheat and soft wheat.
Hard wheat is so called on account of the high
percentage of protein, called gluten, which it con-
tains. It is planted in the spring and is harvested
in the late summer. While it may be grown in
the south as well as the north, the northern states
seem to excel in this special wheat. The flour
from this wheat is called ''bread flour" and is
used especially for making bread mixtures. The
gluten has a peculiar elastic quality, which makes
it especially desirable in mixtures which are to
have body or be without crumb.
Soft irlieat has very little gluten in it, but a
Read in a text on agriculture, "Wheat" and Farm Jiulletin
No. 380.
93
94 FOOD AND CLOTHING
liigli percentage of starch. The wheat for this flour
is planted in the fall, grows all winter and is har-
vested in the early summer. The flour from this
wheat is called "pastry flour" and it is recom-
mended for mixtures which are to be crumbly or
short, as cakes or pastry.
Whole wheat flour is made by grinding the
whole grain of the wheat into a powder.
Graham flour is made by separating the brown
skin of the wheat kernel from the inner portion,
grinding each separately and then combining.
This is so often adulterated by the use of inferior
brans that its use is not recommended when whole
wheat flour can be purchased.
Test for gluten. Take V4, c. bread flour and
moisten it with enough cold water to make stiff
dough. Let stand 15 minutes. Work this dough
with the hands until it becomes smooth and elastic,
then wash it under cold water until it gives out no
more starch. Bake in a very hot oven. Its pe-
culiar structure and quality may be plainly ob-
served. This elastic property renders it unfit for
a dough or batter which is to be kept short and
crummy in texture ; as cakes, pastry, etc.
Doughs and Batters
Wlien we mix a liquid and some starchy mate-
rial together, we call it either a dough or a batter,
according to the degree of stiffness. Those that
FLOUR 95
we are able to handle and shape, are called doughs.
Those that must be stirred or mixed with a spoon
until the cooking is begun, are called batters.
Flour and meal are the starchy materials most
used. Milk and water are the liquids.
Just flour and water mixed together with a little
salt would be a very compact substance, hard to
digest, so it is necessary to imprison air in these
doughs and batters to make them "light" or less
compact.
The substances used to ** lighten" these mix-
tures are baking powder, soda and an acid, air in-
closed in beaten egg white, or yeast. In nature
there are two opposing elements, acids and alkali.
When brought together in the presence of mois-
ture the stronger overcomes the weaker and a gas
is formed. This gas formation expands and grows
when subjected to heat. The gas, when entangled
with the batter and forced to expand, pushes the
dough upward in the pan. The tiny holes we see
in doughs and batters are the cells where the gas
bubbles were formed.
The acids most used in cooking are cream of
tartar, sour milk, sorghum molasses. The alkali
used is soda.
Good baking powder is composed of one part of
soda to two parts of cream of tartar, with a small
amount of starch added as a filler or to absoi'l)
moisture.
96 FOOD AND CLOTHING
These definite statements should be thoroughly
understood; acid plus alkali plus moisture forms
a gas ; when heat is applied the gas expands.
When baking powder is used. Dry acid (cream
of tartar) plus dry alkali (soda) plus moisture
(milk or water) forms a gas. The heat of the oven
causes the gas to expand and the composition is
light.
When soda is used. Moist acid (sour milk or
molasses) plus dry alkali (soda) forms a gas.
Cream of tartar is made by drying and grind-
ing the scum which collects on the top and around
the sides of vats where grape juice is being boiled.
This dried purple scum is bleached, refined and
powdered, and is our commercial cream of tartar.
Soda or sodium carbonate is a salt of strong al-
kaline taste. It is formed in nature, as in soda
lakes, etc. ; but for the most ])art is made artifici-
ally, as by the burning of sea plants, etc.
Tests
1. Add 2 tbsp. cold water to 1 tsp. B. P.
2. Add 2 tbsp. boiling water to 1 tsp. B. P.
Which foams the more? What does that ex-
plain ?
What are in these bubbles?
3. Add 2 tbsp. cold water to i/o tsp. soda.
4. Add 2 tbsp. vinegar to Yi ^^V- soda.
FLOUR 97
Which foams the more ? What does that ex-
plain ?
5. Mix 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of tartar.
What happens ? Now add 2 tbsp. cold water and
heat. What happens 1
Albumen or egg white is very elastic and holds
the air in small sacks which form during the pro-
cess of whipping. Wlien flour is mixed with the
beaten egg, the dough or batter is filled with air
l)ubbles.
A soft dough. Starchy material with sufficient
liciuid to make it thick enough to handle, makes
a soft dough. Since the kinds of flour dif-
fer so widely in the amount of water they will
absorb, it is never wise to use a given amount, but
first, know your batter or dough, then add the
liquid to the dry materials until the desired con-
sistency is obtained. In the use of shortenings, if
a compound is used, measure out 1/3 less, than if
butter or lard is to be used. Compounds are con-
centrated, while butter and lard have water in
them. In these recipes, unless stated differently,
compounds are used as a matter of economy.
BAKING POWDER BISCTHTS
(9 small biscuits)
1 e. pastry flour J4 tsp. salt
2 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. tirm shortening
liquid to make soft dough
98 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Sift dry ingredients together. Cliop in fat.
When mealy-like add liquid. Handle and stir as
little as possible. When all of the dry material is
moistened, turn on a floured board, pat into shape,
cut and bake in hot oven.
Be sure that you cliop in your shortening. If
blended or mashed the dough will be soggy and
oily. When oil is used add it after the liquid.
Save out a portion of the dough and work it with
the hands, then bake it. Note the difference in
structure.
Is tliere any difference between the textures of the
biscuits that were baked without handling and those
baked after kneading?
A well-made and properly baked biscuit will
rise evenly all around with layers of crumb be-
tween the top and bottom crust. A poorly made
and baked biscuit will rise in the center and the
outer edges will still touch the bottom crust.
SODA BISCUITS
. (8 small biscuits)
1 c. flonr Ya tsp. salt
14 tsp. soda 2 tbsp. fat
sour milk to make soft dough
Sift flour, soda and salt together. Chop in fat.
Add the liquid and make as B. P. biscuits.
The amount of soda required depends upon the
sourness of the milk, usually it is 1/2 tsp. to 2 c. of
flour, or 1 c. of butter-milk, in a soft dough.
FLOUR 99
There is a story told in tlie south, that at one
time milk was very scarce and the women made
griddle cakes and biscuits with orange juice. Could
such a thing be possible ?
QUICK CINNAMON ROI.LS
(3 rolls)
^ e. flour y2 tsp. baking powder
1 tsp. shortening ]/16 tsp. salt
liquid to make soft dough
Mix as for B. P. biscuits. Roll 1 inch thick,
spread with a thin layer of butter, sift over 1 tsp.
brown sugar and i/^ tsp. cinnamon. Roll as for a
jelly-roll cake, cut in three pieces and bake with
scroll side up, in a moderate oven for 15 minutes.
Raisins may be dotted over the surface when the
sugar is sifted on.
DFMPLTNGS
(8 dumplings)
1 c. flour 1 tsp. salt
2 tsp. B. p. liquid to make soft dougli
Sift dry ingredients, add liquid to make soft
dough, leaving it moist. Scrape from a spoon.
Have boiling the liquor in which a piece of meat
has been cooked. Drop in the dough, a spoonful
at a time. Cover closely and boil the broth, with-
out lifting the lid for 12 minutes. Serve.
1. How do dumplings differ from biscuits!
2. Why do we use uo shortening?
]00 FOOD AND CLOTHING
SHORT CAKES.
Make as for baking power biscuits, using twice
the amount of shortening, rolling and cutting a
larger size. Open, fill and cover the top with
crushed strawberries, peaches or any fruit. Serve
witli Avhipped cream.
Stiff doughs. A mixture of a starchy material
and enough liquid to moisten, allowing ease in han-
dling, is classed as a stiff dough. Usually they re-
quire from 6 to 8 times as much dry material as
liquid. This amount depends upon the propor-
tion of egg and fat in the mixture.
STTGAR COOKIES
(A gallon fiofk full)
1 ('. butter 2 tsp. B. P.
1 egg 1 c, sugar
3 e. flour milk to make stiff dough (about }4 c.)
Mix as butter cakes. When stiff, turn onto well-
floured board and roll out a part at a time to a
very thin sheet. Cut, sprinkle with nutmeg and
sugar and bake in moderate oven. Keep pan and
board well floured.
INDIVIDUAL RECIPE FOR SUGAR COOKIES
2 tbsp. butter M tsp. B. P.
6 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. egg
2 tbsp. sugar liquid to make stiff doufrb
(about 1 tsp. milk)
FLOUR 101
Mix butter cakes by creaming the butter and
the sugar, adding the egg, the flour, the B. P. and
liquid.
DOUGIINITS
( 12 eakos)
iy2 c. fionr 1/16 tsp. ench nutmeg, mace, cinnamon
^ tsp. sah 6 tbsp. sugar
3 tsp. B. P. 2 tsp. shortening
y2 egg
liquid to make stiff dough (about 3 tbsp. milk)
Sift dry ingredients, chop in fat, a(kl egg and
liquid, a littk^ at a time, until the right consistency
for a stiff dough.
Roll 14 in- thick, cut and fry in deep fat. Roll in
sugar while hot. For individual recipe use i/j. of
these quantities.
If doughnuts fall to pieces in the grease it is
not hot enough, or too much shortening has ])e<'n
used. These were originally called Fried Cakes
and those make from bread-dough, Doughnuts, l)ut
now we call both Doughnuts.
OATMEAL rOOKIES
( lU cookies I
1 egg 2/3 e. flour
1/4 tsp. soda 1/3 c. butter
2/3 e. rolled oats 1/3 tsp. cinnamon
1/3 c. sugar 1 scant tbsp. water
1/3 c. raisins 1/3 c. chopped nuts
102 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Sift flour, soda, cinnamon and sugar; add oat-
meal, butter, egg, raisins, water, nuts, and mix
thoroughly. Drop these from a tsp. onto a dry
pan and bake in hot oven from 13 to 15 minutes.
These are better if allowed to stand in a stone jar
several days before serving. Whj'-'?
Drop batters. When a mixture of starchy mate-
rial and liquid wdll drop from a spoon, yet retain
something of its shape, it is a drop batter. Usually
it is given as 2 measures of flour to 1 of liquid.
Eggs and fat count as liquid.
MUFFINS
(12 nmmns)
2 c. flour 4 tbsp. shortening
y2 tsp. salt 4 tsp. B. P.
6 tbsp. sugar 2 eggs
liquid to make drop batter (about 2/3 e.)
Sift dry ingredients. Chop in fat. Drop in
whole egg and a little of the liquid. Mix, adding
a little liquid at a time until it is the right con-
sistency. Do not stir more than is necessary to
mix well. Bake in hot oven. If a sweeter mufhn
is desired from 1 to 2 tbsp. more sugar may l)e
added.
1. Notice the similarity of this batter to biscuit dough.
2. AVhat are the differences?
FLOUR 103
How eggs leaven. In beating the white of eggs,
we enclose air in small bubbles, these bubbles then
become distributed through the dough when mixed
in with it. In baking, the heat expands the air and
also makes the walls of the air bubbles firm, so that
a porous or spongo-like structure is retained. Be-
fore hardened by heat, these cell walls are very
easily broken down, for that reason we fold in
beaten egg white instead of beating it in. This
gives a fine spongy texture.
TEA CAKES
(12 cakos)
2 c. flour }i c. sugar
2 eggs 4 tsp. B. P.
6 tbsp. shortening >^ tsp. vanilla
3/2 tsp. salt /4 c. currants (cooked,
dried and floured)
liquid to make drop batter
Sift dry ingredients together, chop in shorten-
ing, add eggs and a small amount of liquid at a
time, until consistency desired is obtained. Add
floured fruit and flavoring and bake in mufhn tins
in a moderate oven. Stir only enough to mix well.
1. Work out the cost of these cakes.
2. Compare with the same amount purchased at a
bakeshop.
3. What is the principal food element in these cakes?
4. How do they differ from muffins? From biscuits?
104 FOOD AND CLOTHING
GRAHAM GEMS
I 16 ycms)
2 c. gTaham tioiir Yi tsp. soda
3 tbsp. shortening 4 tsp. B. P.
1 tbsp. sugar Yi tsp. salt
4 tl)s]). molasses Sweet milk or water to
make dro]) liatter
Sift dry ingredients and turn the bran back witli
them. Chop in shortening and add molasses and
liquid, a little at a time, until the desired con-
sistency is obtained. Bake in a moderate oven.
1. AYhy us(' soda and K. W l)oth?
FRITTERS
(4 flitters)
3/2 e. Hour 1)/ tbsp. sugar
Yi egg 1 tsp. B. P.
Y?, tsp. salt liquid to make drop batter
(about 8 tbsp.)
Sift dry ingredients. Add egg and liquid a lit-
tle at a time. Beat thoroughly. Mix with it 4
tbsp. of corn, or cut banana or any fruit. Drop by
tablespoonfuls in hot fat and fry until golden
brown.
CREAM PITFFS
(8 small puffs)
Y2 c. flour Ya ^- butter
2 eggs Y^ ^- boiling water
Add butter to water and when boiling, add flour
all at once and stir vigorously. Remove from the
FLOUR 105
fire, cool and add unbeaten eggs one at a time,
beating until thoroughly mixed before adding the
next egg. Droj) by spoonfuls on a buttered sheet,
about 2 inches apart, shape as nearly round as pos-
sible, and slightly higher in the center. Bake
30 minutes in a moderate oven. If not thoroughly
cooked they will fall. With a sharp knife open one
side and fill with cream filling.
No baking powder or soda is used. What acts
as a leaven ?
CREAM FILLING
6 tbsp. sugar ^ tsp. salt
3 tbsp. tiour 1 egg
1 c. scalded milk ^ tsp. lemon extract
Mix flour, salt and sugar, add egg slightly beaten
and pour over gradually the scalded milk. Cook
15 minutes in a double boiler, stirring constantly
until thick, afterwards occasionally. Cool and
flavor.
This filling may be used for any of the cream pie
fillings and will fill one small pie shell.
AVhipped cream, sweetened and flavored with
vanilla may also be used.
CORN MEAT; MUFFINS
(6 muffins)
1 c. corn meal 1 tbsp. shortening
2 tsp. B. P. i;4 tsp. salt
1 egg sweet milk
106 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Sift meal and salt in a bowl. Add tlie butter
and pour over this % c. boiling water, and beat
until cold. Break into it the egg and add the milk
a little at a time until a drop-batter consistency is
obtained. Dissolve the baking powder in the last
tbsp. of milk used, mix it thoroughly with the bat-
ter and bake immediately. It will require from 15
to 20 minutes in a hot oven.
SOFT GINGER BREAD
(1 loaf I
2^4 c. flour y2 tsp. soda,
1/2 c. molasses 1 egg
1 tsp. ginger J/2 c. sugar
% e. nuts 4 tbsp. shortening
34 tsp. salt hot water (about yi c.)
Sift Hour, ginger, soda and sugar together. Chop
in shortening. Stir in molasses, egg and nuts and
enough hot water to make drop batter. Bake as
soon as mixed, as the gas will form, expand and
escape very rapidly. All mixtures containing a
high percentage of fat or sugar must bake at a
moderate or low temperature.
Pour batters. When a mixture of starchy mate-
rial and liquid will pour from one vessel to an-
other it is called a pour batter. Usually it is equal
parts of liquid and of flour, butter and eggs count-
ing as liquid in a proportionate way. There are
two classes of pour batter ; that is, thick pour and
FLOUR 107
tliin pour. We will note tlie dill'erence as we make
the different mixtures.
TIMBAL CASES
(40 cases)
V/z c. flour 2 tbsp. sugar
2 eggs 1 tbsp. olive oil
1 tsp. salt 1 c. milk
Sift dry ingredients together, add whole eggs
and a little milk at a time, beating continually.
When well mixed, beat in the oil.
If the timbals are not crisp when baked the bat-
ter is too thick.
If the timbals do not stick to the iron while
cooking, the iron is too hot.
If the timbals stick to the iron so that they can-
not be removed, the iron is too cold.
Timbals are used as cases for serving creamed
foods, as creamed peas, chicken, beef, etc.
Timbals belong to the class of thin pour bat-
ters.
GRIDDLE CAKES
2 c. flour 4 tsp. B. P.
1 tsp. sugar y2 tsp. salt
1 egg 1 tbsp. shortening
liquid to make pour batter (about 2 e. milk)
Sift flour, sugar, salt and B. P. together. Chop
in shortening. Add egg and milk and beat until
thoroughly mixed. Stir the batter each time be-
108 FOOD AND (M.OTHING
fore pouring a fresh batch of cakes on the griddle.
Bake by tablespoonfuls. When the cakes are full
of bubbles on the top and brown on the under side,
turn with a broad knife or turner. If large bubbles
rise at once at top of cakes, the griddle is too hot.
If the top stiffens before the under side is brown,
the griddle is not hot enough. Never turn a cake
twice.
Put the griddle on the stove where it will be hot
by the time batter is made.
BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES
Yz c. bread crumbs 1/16 tsp. salt
J4 tbsp. butter 34 ^- flour
Yz egg Yi tsp. B. P.
J4 f-- niilk
Sift the dry ingredients. Mix the ^^^ and stir
it in the milk. Pour the ^^% and milk over the
bread crumbs and when they are soft stir in the
dry ingredients and the melted butter.
WAFFLES
(6 waffles)
2 ('. flour 2 tbsp. sugar
3 eggs 1 tsp. B. P.
4 tbsp. butter Y^ tsp. salt,
liquid to make pour batter, about 1 1/3 c.
Sift flour, B. P., salt and sugar. Beat ^%^ yolks
until lemon colored. Add to the dry ingredients to-
gether with a little of the milk at a time. Melt
FLOUR 109
tilt; butter and beat in. Lastly fold in whites, which
have been beaten stiff and dry. (The batter should
be a very little thicker than a gxiddle cake batter.)
Have both sides of the waffle iron hot and well-
oiled. Put 1 tbsp. of batter on each compartment,
spread out and let top down. When brown on
under side turn the iron.
If well made and bakeel the watfle will be crisp
and tender.
Estimate the cost of these waffles.
SOUTHERN WAPFLP:S
(These are less expensixe and \eiy good)
2 c. tioiir 1 tb.s[). sugar
Yi tsp. salt 1 egg
3 tbsp. coriiineal 4 tsp. 1>. P.
2 tbsp. butter liquid (about lyi c.)
Sift flour, cornmeal, B. P., sugar and salt to-
gether. Add egg and a portion of the liquid. Mix
thoroughly. Add melted butter and mix again.
Add enough more milk to make desired con-
sistency.
1. What effect does the eoi-unieal have ui)()u tlie
bat ter .'
2. Estimate the cost of these waffles.
CHAPTER X
BEVERAGES
Beverages are liquids used as drinks to quench
the thirst, as stimulants, and in a small way to sup-
ply the body with food.
Water, when pure and fresh, is nature 's remedy
for thirst, and from three to four pints per day
is needed to keep the body in a healthful condi-
tion.
Many acids and flavors are added to water to in-
crease its popularity as a thirst quencher, but in
so doing the benefit of the drink is often lost by
the injurious etfects of the concoctions put into it.
The evil effects of some of the ''soda fountain"
drinks upon the nervous system cannot be over
estimated ; and when a person feels that he cannot
do his work without a certain number of these
drinks per day, it is time to give them up alto-
gether, as the stimulation is only artificial and is
wrecking the nervous system.
Tea and coffee contain an acid called tannin,
which, if extracted in any considerable degree, has
an injurious effect upon the digestive system by
Note: Read in connection "Disease Oerms in Water" in your
Physiology.
110
BEVERAGES 111
retarding the fiow of the saliva and gastric juice.
They also contain an alkaloid called theine or caf-
feine (the same elements) which has a stimulating
effect upon the nerves.
Tea or coffee may be made in such a way that
but very little of the tannin acid will be extracted,
and to the improper making we attribute a large
percentage of their injurious effects.
Cocoa is made from the bean or seed of a native
tree of the tropical countries of America. In the
factories these beans are cracked into irregular
bits known as cocoa nibs. These nibs contain so
much fat that when they are ground, instead of
becoming a powder, they form a paste, giving us
our commercial Chocolate. In some cases a large
amount of this oil is extracted before the grinding
and then the powder is called cocoa. The oil is
called cocoa-hutter.
Cocoa contains an element called theobromine,
similar to caffeine or theine, though much less
stimulating in its effects.
Cocoa is composed of:
Water Fats Starch Nitrogen ]\Iinerals Theobromine
4% 50';{ 14'/f 26% 4'/o 2%
As you notice, cocoa contains a large amount of
fat and starch and ranks as a high-class foodstuff.
However, the presence of so much fat means that
it is too rich for some people, though others can
1V2 FOOD AND CLOTIITXG
digest it with no difficulty. Tlie food value depends
to a large extent upon the manner in which it is
prepared. The milk and sugar adds to its nutri-
ment.
coco.v
(1 quart)
1 pt.
])oiling' water
6 tbsp. eoeoa
1 pt
scalded milk
8 tbsp. sugar
Mix the cocoa and sugar in a sauce pan; add the
water and let it boil 5 minutes, or until it is smooth
and free from any raw taste. Scald the milk in a
double boiler and just before serving, add to the
cocoa and beat well with a Dover beater. Do not
allow the cocoa to boil after the milk has been
added. Using the egg beater will prevent al-
buminous skin from forming. The amount of
cocoa used will depend upon the brand. Some con-
tain more sugar and oil than others.
TEA
(Olio cup)
1 tsp. tea .1 e. fresh l)oiling water
Place tea in a hot scalded vessel which may be
covered. Pour over it the boiling water and let
stand covered 2 minutes, stirring with a spoon
once. Pour the tea from the grounds into an
eathern vessel that has been scalded. Serve.
BEVERAGES 113
A thin slice of lemon, a clove, a strawberry or a
few drops of lime juice may be added to each cu])
to improve the flavor.
Tea is made by infusion and not by boiling. The
mistake of boiling tea is often made by inex-
perienced housekeepers. Pouring the tea from
the grounds after 2 minutes prevents a very great
amount of tannic acid from forming. Tea is the
leaves of a small bush, a native of China, Japan,
Ceylon and India. The best tea is made from the
young leaves and buds from the top of the bush
and is called Orange Pekoe. If the leaves are dried
as soon as picked, we have Green Tea ; if they are
packed in such a way that a small amount of fer-
mentation takes place, the color changes and we
have Black Tea. During the fermentation, some
of the acid is liberated and for that reason Black
Tea is not as injurious as Green Tea.
ICED TEA
1 tsp. tea >{> f. boiling water
Pour water over the tea and after 1 minute
strain off liquid into a tall glass that is half full
of cracked ice. Sugar and a thin slice of lemon
add to the flavor of the tea* for some people.
The mistake is often made of infusing the tea
several hours before it is to be used, or even worse,
many housekeepers pour water over tea leaves and
allow them to stand for several hours. By these
114 FOOD AND CLOTHING
processes, tannic acid develops in very large
quantities.
Coffee
Coffee is tlie berry or seed of a tropical ever-
green tree. The fruit when on the tree resembles
the cherry. When the flesh of the fruit begins to
shrivel, it is taken from the tree and allowed to
dry until the seeds can be easily removed.
These seeds are roasted, ground and sold to us
as the coffee we have in our homes. Coffee con-
tains an element, caffeine, wdiich stimulates the
nervous system. It is not a food in any sense, since
it neillier builds tissue nor supplies heat or energy,
but has the power of exciting extra action from
the nervous system. In most cases a cup of strong
coffe<' at night will defer sleep for hours.
To make coffee. The coffee pot should be thor-
oughly cleaned, scalded and sunned after each us-
ing and the grounds thrown away. Many years
ago, before science of foods was so clearly under-
stood, people saved the grounds from one meal to
another; put in fresh ground coffee, on top of
the old grounds or just "boiled over" the old
coffee. This is one of the most injurious practices
ever employed by housekeepers. It is useless
economy as the real coffee strength is extracted in
the first few minutes after making, and it is detri-
mental from the fact that tannic acid develops
BEVERAGES 115
very rapidly if tlie liciuid romains loiii»' on the
^^Tounds. This exphiiiis wliy coffee turns (hirker
in color after it has been made an hour or so.
BOILKD COFFEE
(10 pups)
12 thsp. coffee 1 o. cold water
1 egg white speck of salt
5 c. boiling water
Put coffee in large kettle, drop into it the egg
white and mix it thoroughly with the grounds. Add
the cold water and stir. Pour over the boiling
water, place on the fire and boil slowly for 3 min-
utes. Remove from direct heat and let settle for
4 minutes. Strain through a fine cloth into another
vessel. Serve.
1. Why mix egg with the grounds?
2. Why use cold water before the boiling water?
PERCOIiATED COFFEE
The coffee is held in a sieve-like receptacle at
the top of the pot, while the boiling water and
steam are carried up by means of a small tube and
forced to filter down through the grounds. This
is one of the most satisfactory ways of making-
coffee, and, aside from the care of the pot, the
easiest. Since very little of the water is lost by
evaporation, a tbsp. of coffee for each cup of
water, either hot or cold, is used, and is allowed to
cook about 20 minutes.
lie FOOD AND CLOTHING
LEMONADE
(Two o'lasses)
2 tbsp. juice (3^ lemon) 4 tbsp. sugar
3^2 c. boiling water
Dissolve sugar in the boiling water. When
cool add lemon juice, and ice water to suit indi-
vidual taste. Adding the sugar to the boiling water
completely dissolves it and adds to the flavor. One
half c. grape juice may be added or 1 raw egg well
beaten.
Lemons grow best in warm climates, and are
highly prized for their power of allaying thirst,
developing flavors, aiding in emulsifying fats.
CHAPTER XI
TABJ.Iil SETTING AND SERVICE
The girl who observes and reads, knows that the
manner of table setting and the form of table
service changes very often, and for that reason
no detailed rules can be given which will be in
good form for any specified length of time ; the up-
to-date hostess observes what good authorities
say, from time to time, and is guided accordingly.
A few general rules at the present time are:
^vm
BB^^l
j^^='^''-'^» ~~Z_!5^^^B
.jf^ ^ ^^B
PLATE II. A Table Simply Set for Breakfast or Luncheon
1. Simplicity of arrangement, with strict ob-
servance to straight lines. This means that the
plates, silver and linen are placed on the table on
a line, the napkin folded in a square or rectangle ;
the ends of the handles of the knives, spoons and
117
118 FOOD AND CLOTHING
forks are even with each other, and in line with the
phite and napkins.
2. The silver should be so arranged that the
outside pieces will be used first. "We eat in."
It may be fault of the hostess and not ignorance
on the part of the guests, if the wrong piece of
silver is used, as the table arrangement should
be such that no mistakes can be made. Various
spoons or forks have no place beyond the plate
as was once the custom, when every gTiest had to
"watch the hostess" to know what piece to use
with the next course.
3. The good hostess is the one wdio makes her
guests feel comfortable. This can only be done by
adhering to the general rules of simplicity. The
bare table with doilies, for luncheons and break-
fasts, is at present the favorite arrangement, while
the damask is for the dinner table. With the ex-
ception of this the following arrangements may
be carried out in every detail :
"uc*
PLATE III. A Table Set for Three Courses
TABLE SETTING AND SERVICE 119
Table Setting
(liifoinial)
1. Cover the table with u clean thick cloth. This is
called a silence cloth.
2. Spread the table cloth over the silence cloth with
the length extending from head to foot. It should be
of such size that from 6 to 8 inches will extend over the
sides and ends of the table.
3. Arrange center piece of lace or embroidery and
a low bouquet of flowers.
4. Arrange space in front of each person's place for
the plate when it is served.
5. Arrange the silver in the order of its use, that to
be used first farthest from the plate ; the knives and
spoons on the right, the forks on the left, all the same
distance from the edge of the table as the plate. The
knives with the edges toward the plate, the spoons with
the bowls up. The forks with the tines up.
6. Place napkin at left of forks, the loose corners
toward the edge of the table.
7. Place water glass at point of knife.
8. Arrange salt and pepper shakers and other neces-
sary dishes at convenient places on the table.
9. Place dinner plates before the host, with the meat
and vegetable dishes in convenient places from which
to serve.
Table Service
( Formal )
When passing bread, cream or sugar, and the
guest is expected to serve himself, go to the left
side, so that he may use the right hand.
In refilling water glasses or coffee cups, go to
120 FOOD AND CLOTHING
the right side. There was, at one time a much
used phrase, ' ' Serve to the right and remove from
the left, ' ' and when convenient it may be followed,
but if the dishes to be removed are at the right,
it is far better to go to the right than to reach in
front of the guest. The general rules for service
are convenience, ease and consideration.
CHAPTER XII
CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING
Tlie secret of successful preserving of foods for
future use is perfect sterilization. This may be
brought about by dyying, smoking, use of salt,
thick syrups, acids, or enclosing the sterilized food
in sterlised jars.
Sterilization. Minute forms of life, which we
call bacteria, are present everywhere in untold
numbers. The air we breath, the water we drink,
and the food we eat are teeming with them. These
bacteria are practically the sole cause of the
' ' spoiling" or fermenting of the various fruits and
vegetables. The reproduction of bacteria, whicli
is very rapid, is brought about by one of two
processes. The bacterium either divides itself into
two parts, making two bacteria where one existed
before, or else reproduces itself by means of
spores. Spores may be compared with the seed
of an ordinary plant. These spores present the
chief difficulty in canning the products of the or-
chard and garden.
All forms of bacteria are killed by complete
sterilization. This is nothing more than enclosing
the products to be sterlized in jars or cans that
121
122 FOOD AND CLOTHING
can be sealed air-tight and submitting them to
heat of sufficient temperature for a time — long
enough to destroy the bacteria that cause the raw-
material to spoil. Sterilization is readily accom-
plished by the use of boiling water. There are
three different ways by which this can be done.
WHiile the parent bacteria can be killed at the tem-
perature of boiling water, their spores retain their
vitality for a long time even at that temperature.
In large commercial factories, sterilization is ac-
complished by subjecting the cans containing the
various products to steam under pressure. By
this process the temperature is raised to a degree
higher than that of boiling water, thereby killing
both bacteria and spores at the same time. Smaller
factories and the different home-canning outfits
usually make use of the "open-kettle" process.
Here the cans are submerged in boiling water and
kept at that temperature for a time sufficient to
destroy bacteria and spores. The third process
known as fractional sterilization, is that of keep-
ing cans or jars in boiling water for a specified
time upon each of two or three consecutive days.
The process of boiling upon consecutive days is
the safest method and is much to be preferred in
home canning. The first day's boiling kills prac-
tically all the bacteria, but does not kill the spores.
As soon as the jars or cans cool, these spores de-
velop a new lot of bacteria, which begin their
CANNING, PEESERVING, PICKLING 123
destructive work on the contents. The second day's
boiling kills the new lot of bacteria before they
have had time to produce spores.
Boiling the third day is not alw^ays necessary,
but it is advisable in order to be sure that the
sterilization is complete.
Jelly is fruit juices sterilized by the medium of
hot syrup. All fruit juices wall not congeal or
make jelly on account of the absence of a sub-
stance called pectin, a gelatine or gum found in
most fruits and vegetables. Pectin dissolves in
boiling water and stiffens in cold. It is more
abundant in the harder parts of the fruits, the
core and the skin. Fruit containing the most pectin
makes the best jelly. Quinces, crab-apples, cur^
rants, grapes and apples are rich in pectin.
To make jelly. Usually fruit is lifted drip-
ping from the last water where it was w^ashed into
the cooking vessel, where it is cooked until the
juice runs freely. It then is strained, measured
and cooked for at least ten minutes before the
sugar, which is measure for measure of the juice
before it cooked down, is added. This is cooked
until a drop on a cold plate wall congeal. If a path
is made through the jelly on the plate and it
does not run together, it has cooked sufficiently.
To insure a clear jelly, the scum should be removed
as it forms. When testing jelly remove from the
fire each time before the test is made and wait until
124 FOOD AND CLOTHING
tlie liquid is still. As in candy making, a few sec-
onds longer would make a difference, if it was just
right at the time the test was made. The sugar is
not added until the juice has partially cooked
doAvn, as long cooking lessens the sweetness of
sugar. Do not attempt to make more than four
glasses of jelly in one vessel. It is better to make
it often and in small amounts.
Many housekeepers can their fruit juices in the
summer, then make their jelly from this juice in
small amounts in the Avinter. There are three rea-
sons why this is a good plan: First, sugar is
usually much cheaper in the winter ; second, fresh
jelly tastes better and is freer from grape sugar;
third, cool weather is more agreeable for this
work.
Use of paraffin. Melt any amount of paraffin
over a very slow fire and when clear and thin,
turn over the firm jelly to the depth of 1/16 of an
inch. Paraffin may be used from year to year if
washed and reheated.
GRAPE JELLY
Pick fruit from stems, wash and lift dripping
into a cooking pan and heat till juice runs freely.
Strain through cheese cloth bag. Use measure
for measure of sugar and juice. Cook the juice
a few minutes before adding the sugar. When a
few drops will congeal on a cold plate, strain into
CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING 125
sterilized glasses and wlieii firm, about 12 hours
later, cover with paraffin.
CRAB APPLE JELLY
Wash and quarter firm crab apples. Place in
enough water to cover and when soft drain
through cheese cloth bag. Use equal parts of sugar
and juice and cook until a drop will thicken on a
cold plate.
Pour into sterilized jars and let stand covered
24 hours. Cover with paraffin.
BLACF<BEHKV JELLY
Use only firm berries, not very ripe. Lift from
the last water and place dripping in a cooking pan.
Cook 15 minutes after boiling begins. Strain
through thick cloth. Add equal parts of sugar and
cook until a small amount will thicken on a cold
])late. Strain again into jelly glasses. When firm
cover with paraffin.
CRANBEKUV JELLY^
(1 glass)
1 ('. (•raiil)erries (selected) Y^ c. sugar
1/3 e. water
Pick over cranberries, wash and measure. Add
water and cook slowly about 15 minutes. Press
through strainer, add sugar and cook 5 minutes
longer. Turn into molds and let stand until firm.
126 FOOD AND CLOTHING
The cranberry is the fruit of a slender creeping
plant, a native of the Atlantic coast, but
grows to some extent in the North Central States.
It requires a sandy, marshy land and a high alti-
tude. It is harvested about the first of August and
may be kept in storage from 6 weeks to three
months before being placed upon the market.
Canning. When canning fruits, a small amount
of sugar is usually added to the water which covers
the fruit in the jars. The amount depends upon
the taste. From 2 tbsp. to 1 c. for each qt. may be
used.
When canning vegetables, 1 tsp. of salt to each
({uart of water may be used. Acids or preserva-
tives should never be used, as they harden the
cellulose.
To prepare jars. AVash jars and tops in clean,
warm suds. Place in a pan of cold water, enough
to cover, and boil 20 minutes. This is called ster-
ilizing.
To Can Berries
Pack a sterilized jar full of freshly washed ber-
ries. Pour over them a syrup made of 1 qt. water
and 14 ^- sugar. Place in a deep pan or kettle,
which has in it some screening or wire enough to
keep the jar from resting flat on the bottom of
the kettle, and fill with warm water enough to
come up to within an inch of the top of the jar.
CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING 127
Cook, with the lid off, for 30 minutes after the
water begins to boil. Put on the rubber, which has
been sterilized, and fasten down the lid per-
manently. Invert the jar and let it stand for 24
hours. Then place in the kettle in cold water,
bring to the boiling point, and copk 30 minutes.
Let cool and repeat the third day if there is any
doubt that the sterilization is not complete. All
berries may be cooked by this recipe. Pears,
peaches, and apples may be cooked in water until
they can be pierced, then packed in the jars. The
first day's cooking will suffice.
To Can Asparagus
Cut stalks of proper length to fill jars. Wash
in cold water and pack firmly in the jar, arranging
stalks as uniformly as possible with tip ends
up. Force extra stalks in the center of the can,
tips down, to insure a firm pack. Pour over cooled,
boiled water to which has been added the propor-
tion of salt. Cook for the three days as directed
for "Berries." Spores grow more rapidly in
quick-growth fruit or vegetables. Asparagus,
beans, corn, tomatoes, peas, etc., must all be
cooked the three successive days. The general
directions for asparagus may be followed with
successful results when canning the other vege-
tables named.
Preserving. A syrup of equal parts of sugar
128 FOOD AXl) CLOTHING
and water is first iiiatle. Finn fruits wliicli have
been pared and cut into pieces, are cooked in tliis
syrup until tlie liquid will jelly. They should be
canned in sterilized jars and perfectly sealed. Soft
fruits and berries when cooked in this syrup fall to
pieces and are called jam. JeiUI tests for thorough
cooking are the same as for preserves. When fruits
with the seeds removed are cooked until the cel-
lulose is entirely softened and much of the mois-
ture evaporated, they are called butters. Sugar
and spices are added just before the butter is taken
fi-om the fire, to suit the individual taste, though
care must be taken not to add so much that the
natural taste of the fruit is destroyed.
ORANGE MARMAT.ADE
6 oranges 3 qts. water
2 lemons 6 e. sugar
Cut oranges and lemons in thin slices, crosswdse,
removing the seeds. Add to the water and let stand
in a covered vessel 24 hours. Boil slowdy for 3
hours. Add the sugar and cook until the juice
will test as jelly.
Pickling". A weakened \'inegar water with sugar
and spices added to suit the taste, is scalded and
turned over fruit or vegetables in jars, and sealed
The fruit is usually cooked in simmering w^ater
until tender, packed in the jars and the pickling
juice poured over the fruit until the jar is filled.
CANNING, PRESERVING, PICKLING 129
Peaches, apples, pears, melon rind, beets, beans,
etc., are used mostly for pickling. Melon rind
should be soaked in strong salt ice water for an
hour before cooking.
SALTED CHERRIES
Fill fruit jars with fresh washed cherries on the
stem. Pour over them equal parts of vinegar and
water with 1 tsp. of salt to each pt. of liquid. All
ingredients should be cold. Seal.
1. Why do we cook soine fruits and vegetables three
successive days in jars, while others require only one
day?
2. Why do we wait until a great amount of water
has evaporated from oui- jellies and preserves before
adding the sugar?
3. What is the length of time recpiired to sterilize
jars, lids, etc? Why?
SECOND YEAR
CHAPTER XIII
EGGS
As a thickening agent. Since protein coagu-
lates when slow heat is applied and eggs contain
a high percentage of protein, their value as a
thickening agent may be readily seen when the
proper amount of heat for a given length of time
is applied. The proper cooking of eggs as this me-
dium is absolutely a test of skill and judgment.
If cooked 10 seconds too long or if too much heat
is applied the dish may be ruined. Foods thick-
ened by eggs are called custards.
Custards are a composition of eggs and milk
cooked very lightly. In custards of the best qual-
ity only sugar, salt, and flavoring are added, but
in inferior custards, starchy materials are used in
place of the required number of eggs. There are
two classes of custards, finn and liquid. The firm
custard is cooked, undisturbed, until firm, AVhen
properly cooked, it has a smooth jelly-like con-
sistency throughout. If cooked too long or at too
high a temperature, it is full of holes, curdles and
wheys. A firm custard is cooked sufficiently when
130
EGGS 131
the center is firm. Thin custards are cooked over
water, which is below the boiling point, until they
coat the spoon, and are stirred during- the entire
time required for cooking. If cooked too long
they will curdle.
Proportion of egg to milk:
1 e. milk and 1 egg gives a thin oustard.
1 e. milk and 2 eggs gives a firm custard.
1 tbsp. milk and 1 egg gives a custard that may be
cut in figures for consommes.
THIN CUSTARD
^2 c, milk 1/16 tsp. salt
8 drops vanilla 1 tbsp. 1 tsp. sugar
^ egg yolk
Beat the yolk until light colored. Add the sugar
and salt and mix thoroughly. Heat the milk over
hot water and stir in the yolk mixture. Stir con-
tinually until it coats the spoon. Remove, add
vanilla and pour into a soup plate. Beat the egg-
white until stiff and dry, folding in 1 tsp. sugar.
Drop by spoonfuls on the top of the custard,
forming each portion in cone shape.
This is decidedly a child's dish, though grown
people would be much better off if they ate more
desserts of this simple variety.
FIRM CUSTARD
1/2 c. milk 1/16 tsp. salt
1 egg 1 tbsp. 1 tsp. sugar
(lash nutmeg or 8 drops vanilla
1;12 FOOD AND (M.OTTTTXG
Mix the eg;i>- white and yolk until thoroughly
blended. Add sugar and salt and beat until well
mixed, then add t(> the milk and stir until the sugar
is dissolved. Strain into buttered baking cups and
cook in a moderate oven, with the cups in water,
until the center is firm. The water in which the
cups are placed nmst not be too hot or the custard
will curdle at the bottom. This will require about
30 minutes to cook.
1. Give the different food elements in ;i enstard.
2. Why is eiistard easy to digest?
3. Why is it a good food for cliildi'cn or invalids?
BREAD PUDDING
^ e. bread chunks 1^ tbsp. sugar
3/2 c. milk ^ egg yolk
1/16 tsp. salt dash nutmeg
Beat the yolk thoi-oughly, add the sugar, salt
and milk and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour
this over the bread chunks and turn all into a but-
tered baking cup, and bake as for firm custard.
Raisins may be added to this. Sprinkle the nut-
meg over the top or add 8 drops of vanilla to the
milk before mixing it with the bread. When the
pudding is firm, remove from the oven, spread a
layer of jelly over the top and on this roughly pile
the white of the egg, after it has been beaten stiff
and dry, with 2 tsp. sugar added. Return to the
oven to brown slightly.
EGGS 1:33
Bread Puddini^' is a very old and wbolesome des-
sert, but it has l)eeii out of favor on account of
the poor substitutes which have been offered in
the jjhice of good Bread Pudding.
CHOCOLATE CITSTARD
y^ c. milk 2 tbsp. sugar
Yo egg 1/16 tsp. salt
1 tbsp. shaved chocolate 1 tbsp. tlour
8 drops vanilla.
Blend the sugar, flour, salt and eg^ together.
Heat the milk and chocolate over hot water until
the chocolate has dissolved. Stir into the egg mix-
ture and cook for 8 minutes. Add vanilla and turn
into cold molds. Serve cold. More chocolate and
sugar may be added to suit the taste.
BLANC MANGE
lA e. milk 1 tbsp. flour
y2 e^^ 1/16 tsp. salt
2 tbsp. sugar 8 drops vanilla
Make as Chocolate Custard. Serve with chopped
nuts and maple syrup or any crushed fruits over
the top.
RICE PUDDING
% e. cooked rice ^4 ^- liquid custard
(uncooked)
Mix rice with custard, add raisins, and bake in
134 FOOD AND CLOTHING
slow oven until firm. Beaten egg white (meringue)
may be added to tlie top.
MACAROON PITDDING
(Serve 4)
^ tbsp. gelatine 3 tbsp. sugar
2 tbsp. cold water 1/16 tsp. salt
1 e. milk 1/3 e. crushed macaroons
1 egg yolk y2 tsp. vanilla
2 tbsp. crushed almonds 1 egg white
2 tbsp. white raisins (cut in halves)
Soak gelatine in cold water for 10 minutes. Make
liquid custard of egg yolk, milk, sugar and salt.
Add tbe gelatine and, when thoroughly dissolved,
put on ice. When it begins to tliicken, fold in the
stiffly beaten egg white, add the almonds, mac-
aroons and raisins, and mold either in individual
dishes or in loaf form. Serve with whipped cream.
CHAPTER XIV
BEEF, FOWL, GAME
The tender cuts of beef are from the loin, the
least used of any of the muscular parts of the body
— hence its tenderness. The connective tissue is
small in amount and the tubes making up the tissue
bundles are thin, but contain a high percentage of
liquid.
Effect of heat. For this reason the tender cuts
of beef require but little cooking and it may be
done at a high temperature. The extreme heat ap-
plied to the surface of the meat, causes the juices
to change to steam which cannot escape because
of the crust formed on the outside. This steam is
sufficient to break down the connective tissue and
to coagulate the albumen.
Thei food value. These cuts of meat are desir-
able chiefly because of the ease with which they
may be digested, but as a matter of fact, they do
not contain as much nutriment as some of the
tough parts. The loin cuts are the choice pieces of
meat and are expensive. The value received from
them is only attained by proper cooking. Many
fine pieces of meat are prepared in such a way that
135
136 FOOD AND CLOTHING
they contain no more nutrition or taste, and are
no better than the cheapest cut of the beef.
PAN-BROILED STEAK
Select a porter-house or sirloin steak, 1 to li/.
in. thick. Wipe with damp cloth, trim off fat and
bone. Rub a piece of the fat over an iron skillet
and, when it is smoking hot, put in the meat, in-
creasing the heat, and turn constantly from 10 to
20 minutes. This turning will prevent the juices
from escaping. Serve on a hot platter, with slices
of lemon, parsley or a butter sauce. Do not add
salt or pepper until the last. A sauce may be ma(k^
by browning 4 tbsp. each of butter and flour, add-
ing 2 c. milk and, when sufficiently cooked, turning
in 1 c. mushrooms. This may be served over the
steak or with it.
1. Locate on the meat chart a cut of sirloin steak.
2. AVhy will it cook in 10 inin.. while it requires 1 hr.
for a round steak?
3. What is the cost of sirloin steak per lb. .'
BROILED STEAK
Many stoves have broiler attachments and, when
possible, this is the ideal way to cook tender steaks.
Prepare as for pan-broiled. Lay on the grill of
the broiler and with the tire high, cook from 8 to
10 minutes.
PLANKED STEAK
Prepare steak as for pan-broiling, using a pre-
BEEF, FOWL, GAME 137
pared oak board instead of the skillet. Heat the
plank in a hot oven, lay on the steak and return
to the oven, the temperature very high. Cook from
10 to 20 minutes. Remove, spread with butter,
salt, pepper, and garnish with potatoes forced
through a pastry bag, heated mushrooms and
creamed peas. Slices of lemon and parsley add
to the appearance.
ROAST BEEF AND BROWN GRAVY
Buy the third, fourth and fifth ribs with the
bone. This will w^eigii from three to four ]l)s.
Bone, wipe with a damp cloth, add 1 tsp. salt for
each pound, in the places where the bones were
removed. If desired, 1/16 tsp. ground cloves, some
paprika and a small piece of bay leaf may be
added. Cut the suet in small strips and add it
also. Roll and tie and sear (in the baking pan
on top of the stove) until w^ell browned on both
ends. Fasten the lid and bake in a moderate oven,
allowing 20 minutes to the pound. Do not put
water in with the meat. Remove to a platter and
add to the liquid and fat in the pan equal parts of
flour, and brown. Pour over this the water from
the bones and cook as for white sauce, scraping
loose all brown particles from the edge and bot-
tom of the pan. If the gravy is light in color small
amounts of beef extract may be added.
To bone a roast. With a sharp knife cut very
138 FOOD AND CLOTHING
close around tlie bones and remove. This does
not require any special skill and is a matter of
great economy. Besides knowing that it is done
in a cleanly manner, the bones may be placed in
cold salt water and simmered for an hour or so,
and this extract used for soups or gravies.
To carve a rolled roast. Place the fork, tines
up, in the side next to the carver, midway of the
roll as it stands on end. Then with a sharp knife,
slice the meat, beginning at the farther side and
cut toward the fork. Remove each slice, with the
knife, to the edge of the platter. The fork should
not be removed until the carving is done, except
to lower its place in the roast.
1. Why is boning a roast at home an economy?
2. Why is it a cleaner method?
3. How can the bones be used?
FowtjS
The breast of chicken and game is considered
to be very easily digested, while the dark meat is
tough and hard to liquify. The cooking of fowls
and game should be at a low temperature and for
a long time, except in the case of very young birds,
when the breast may be broiled. The greatest fault
of the untrained housekeeper in the cooking of
these meats, is in trying to hurry the process, while
only the long, slow application of heat can bring
about the desired results.
BEEF, FOWL, GAME 139
To dress a chicken. The head should be sev-
ered from the body to allow free bleeding. Im-
merse the entire chicken in a pail of water just be-
low the boiling point, holding it by the feet, and
lifting it up and down until it is entirely wet, then
plunge in a pail of cold water. When cool enough
to handle, pull or rub off the feathers. If the
chicken is young, there will be small inn feathers
on the wings, back and legs ; if it is old, there will
be long hairs on the skin. To remove the pin
feathers requires long, careful work by scraping
and pulling with a knife. The hairs may be singed
off by holding over a quick blaze.
If the fowl is to be cooked whole, an opening
should be made just below the breast bone, from
thigh to thigh and the internal organs removed,
care being taken that the gall is not burst. The
liver, gizzard and heart should be cut from the rest
of the organs and cleaned for use. If the chicken
is to be jointed the following directions may be
observed : First, remove the wings ; second, re-
move the first and second leg joints together, then
separate; third, open the body below the breast
bone by cutting the thin membrane there and be-
tween the back and the breast ; fourth, remove the
internal organs, with their fastenings to the back ;
fifth, cut the thin membrane which joins the back
to the breast and sever ; sixth, break the back from
the ribs, and remove the oil sack ; seventh, cut the
140 FOOD AND CLOTHING
neck from the ribs ; eighth, remove the wish bone
and divide the breast.
FRIED CHICKEN AND CREAM GRAVY
Joint a small, young chicken. Salt, i^epper and
roll in flour. Have an iron skillet warming. Put
in it 14 c. lard and 14 c. butter. When melted and
hot, lay in pieces of chicken and turn fire low so
that the pieces will brown but not burn. Turn
often to brown evenly. When well cooked, re-
move to hot platter. Dust into the hot grease 4
tbsp. flour and 14 tsp. salt, stir until brown. Add
2 c. rich sweet milk and let simmer. Serve in
separate dish.
SMOTHERED CHICKEN
Joint a young fat hen. Salt (1 tsp. for each lb.) ,
roll each piece thoroughly in ilour and lay in a
baking dish. Pour over this 3 c. cold water and
place in a moderate oven and cook, undisturbed,
for two hours.
BAKED TriiKKY
When baking- a young turkey allow 15 minut(\s
for each pound. An old bird should be steamed
an hour and then baked the required time. When
thoroughly cleaned inside and out, salt, allowing
1 tsp. for each lb., fill with oyster or chestnut dress-
ing, sew the skin together at the neck and at the
lower opening ; tie the legs together and the wings
BEEF, FOWL, GAME 141
to the body. Bake in a covered pan, at a moderate
temperature the required time. When an open
pan must be used, a cloth covered with a layer of
dough may be laid over the bird to hold the steam.
BAKED CHICKEN
■ Follow directions for Baked Turkey, using an
onion dressing.
ONION DKESSING
2 tbsp. melted butter or 1/16 tsp. pepper
baeon fryings Yi tsp. salt
2 c. bread chunks 3^ tsp. sage
2 tbsp. chopped onion
hot water to thoroughly moisten
When mixing, use a fork, so as not to make the
dressing compact.
OYSTER DRESSING
2 c. bread chunks 2 tbsp. melted butter
1 tsp. salt 1/16 tsj). pepper
1 c. oysters (if large, cut water to thoroughly moisten
in fourths)
BAKED GOOSE
Simmer gently in a covered vessel 1 hour. Stuff
with dressing made of 2 c. bread crumbs, 1 c. diced
raw apples, Vi> c. raisins, 1 tsp. salt, cold water to
moisten. Bake slowly 15 minutes for each lb.
Make gravy from water in which goose was par-
boiled.
142 FOOD AND CLOTHING
QUAIL
Quail should be picked dry, never skinned or
scalded. Bemove head and feet and open down
the back. This leaves the breast whole. Follow
recipe for fried chicken.
Carving a Fowl
The craving knife should be thoroughly sharp-
ened before it is placed on the table. Never place
the steel on with the set. The rasping sound that
is made as the knife is drawn over the steel is
very disagreeable and it is the duty of every house-
wife to see that this is not a necessary preliminary
to the carving.
To stand while carving is permissible, but as
sitting is more agreeable to most people, it is as
easy to learn one way as another and beginners
should practice sitting while carving.
If possible, have a platter large enough to hold
the bird and the slices after carving, if not, an
extra one should be provided. Lay the bird on
the platter with the head toward the left. The
fork is placed astride the breast bone and should
not be removed up to the No. 8.
1. Sever the drum stick from the second joint.
2. After the thin membrane which joins the second
or thigh joint to the body has been cut, this piece can
be pushed from the body with the dull side of the knife
BEEF, FOWL, GAME U3
and then severed by raising the bird a little to avoid
cutting against the platter.
3. Cut around the wing and sever the same way.
4. If but half of the bird is needed, begin to slice the
breast by letting the knife follow a slanting line from
the front side of the breast toward the wing joint,
otherwise remove wing and leg on both sides tirst.
5. Remove wish bone by putting knife under it at
the point of the breast and turning it back.
6. Remove shoulder blade by putting the point of
the knife under it, turning it back and cutting the
sinews.
7. Tip the bird slightly, and remove the meat known
as the oyster and other pieces of meat found on the side
bone.
8. Cut through the skin between the breast and ribs
in order to have access to the dressing.
9. Cut through the cartilage which unites the breast
and ribs and remove the breast bone.
10. Turn the piece over, then place the back of the
knife on the piece which unites back and ribs, lift the
back piece with the fork, thus breaking the joints and
separating the two.
11. Lay the back on the platter inside down and
separate in two pieces.
12. Cut thigh in two or three pieces. Serve each
plate with light and dark meat and dressing.
CHAPTER XV
WARMED-OVER DISHES
In no other way does a housekeeper display her
skill so much as in the making of left-overs into
attractive and nutritious dishes. It has been truly
said that the untrained housekeeper wastes half of
what she buys.
To be successful she must know the classes of
foods, the proportions of each necessary to make a
balanced food, which and how much of flavoring
foods will be required to give the desired result.
Generally we observe these rules : If the left-
over is a protein, we must add a starch and fat to
make a balanced food; if it is a starchy food, we
add protein and fat. Such flavoring as onions,
smoked meats, spices, etc., are used when the
foods in combination have no decided flavor. Often
in the using of left-overs from roasts, steaks, etc.,
the flavor has been extracted in the cooking or it
is the end cuts which have no particular flavor.
Condiments
Seasoning and spices are used to give relish to
food and to gratify the taste.
There is great danger of forming an appetite
for these seasonings to such a degree that the
flavor of the food may be entirely lost, and as they
144
WARMED-OVER DISHES 145
also stimulate the How ol' tlio (li.ij;estive juices their
excessive use is injurious from that standpoint.
Pepper is either black, white, or red. Black
pepper is the whole dried pepper corn, ground.
AYliite pepper is dried pepper corn ground after
the black outer husk is removed. Red pepper, or
Cayenne, is ground dried pods of the Chili pepper.
Ginger is an underground stem and contains
starch. AVhen young it may be preserved and is
called candied ginger. When dried it is ground
into a powder.
Cinnamon is the bark of a small tree, the best
grade coming from Ceylon. We may buy it eitlier
as a bark or powder.
Nutmeg and mace are from the same plant. Nut-
meg is made by grinding the nut and mace by
grinding the covering of the nut. The tree is cul-
tivated in the West Indies.
Cloves are the flower buds of a plant. These,
when dried, may be ground or used whole.
Allspice is the dried pimento, ground.
Pimentoes are the berries from a tree in the
West Indies.
MEAT PIE
(Serve 2)
From cold roast, steaks, or boiled meat.
1 e. chopped meat Salt-pepper
1 tbsp. chopped onion paprika
1 c. white sauce "2 to 1" to suit taste
1 tsp. dried parsley
146 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Add other ingredients to white sauce and pour
in a baking dish. Spread over the top a crust 1/8
in. thick made from biscuit dough, using twice the
amount of shortening. Bake 20 minutes in a hot
oven.
1. Why add onion and parsley ?
2. Tell how yon eonld make over into a palatable dish,
1 c. rice, 1 c. cold mashed potatoes, 1 c. canned tomatoes.
HASH BALLS
1 tbsp. ground meat 1 tbsp. cold mashed pota-
^ tsp. salt toes or rice
Yi tsp. diced onion
Yi, egg or 1 tbsp. of white sauce or tomato sauce " 2 to 1. "
Mix all together, mold into small flat cakes, and
saute in bacon f ryings until browned on both sides.
1. Why use bacon f ryings?
2. Name the food elements in these cakes.
TAMALA PIE
(Serve 6)
1 c. ground meat from 1 c. hot water with 1 tsp.
roast beef extract or 1 c.
2 c. hot cornmeal mush brown gravy
Season the meat with chili pepper and paprika
to suit the taste. Mix thoroughly wdth the gravy.
Line the bottom of the pan with a layer of the
mush, turn in the meat, and spread the remainder
WARMED-OVER DISHES 147
of the mush on top. Bake in a hot oven 20 minutes.
There are several brands of the chili peppers on
the market, some inferior and some very good.
The use of these peppers is not recommended ex-
cept in very small amounts to serve as flavoring
in an otherwise tasteless dish.
CREAMED CHICKEN
(Serve 10)
Use meat from a cold roasted or steamed chicken.
J4 c. butter or chicken fat 1 tsp. salt
2 c. milk or chicken broth 2c. cut chicken
^ tsp. white pepper ^ c. tiour
Cut chicken in small pieces. Make white sauce
of fat, flour, milk. Add salt and pepper. Put
chicken in white sauce and when warmed through
serve on toast, wafers or rosettes. 1 c. mushrooms
may be added to the white sauce.
When serving light refreshments, one four lb.
hen will make about 4 c. of cut chicken and should
serve from 25 to 30 people.
CREAMED BEEF
The same proportions may be used as for
creamed chicken. However, the gravy from meat
will make a better sauce and often a few pieces
of onion and diced potato are added. This is
sometimes called hash.
Croquettes are another very attractive form of
148 FOOD AND CLOTHTNG
using up left-overs, but for some they are indi,2:est-
ible on account of tlie fat they absorb; thougli, if
properly made and cooked, very little fat pene-
trates through the egg and crnm coating.
A very heavy white sauce is made, — 1 c. milk, 2
tbsp. fat and 4 of flour. When cold, the meat or
vegetable, ground in small particles, is stirred in,
with such seasonings as will blend well. This is
made into small cylindrical shapes, rolled in
crumbs, in beaten egg, and set aside to dry, about
30 minutes. The thorough drying prevents them
from falling to pieces in the hot fat. Heat the
fat until a piece of dry bread will brown in 40
counts, then drop in the croquettes and cook until
a golden brown, from 40 to 60 seconds.
The following make very good croquettes :
Ground chicken, veal, beef, ham; or rice, mac-
aroni or cheese. . The amount of white sauce is
1/3 that of the other material.
MINCEMEAT
(2 (HUU-ts)
1 lb. chopped apples 34 lb. raisins
1 lb. ground boiled meat 2 tsp. salt
1 lb. currants y^ e. sugar
1^ c. apple vinegar ^^ lb. suet
(weakened to suit taste) J/^ tsp. cinnamon
% tsp. mace 5^ tsp. allspice
Chop apples, meat, and suet and mix. Add the
currants, raisins, spices, sugar, salt. Pour over
WARMED-OVER DISHES 149
all the vinegar and cook slowly until lieated
through. Seal up in jars until ready to use. Keep
in cool place. When ready to be made into pies,
1/8 c. chopped nuts may be added to each pie.
1. Estimate the cost of each quart of mincemeat.
2. What is your idea as to its food value?
3. Is it an extravagant pie for a person in ordinary
circumstances ?
4. Where is the best cooking suet found? (see Fats).
5. What cut of meat is most used for mincemeat ?
CHAPTER XVI
FATS AND OILS
Generally we give the name fata to the solids
and oils to the liquids. However, since the tem-
perature has such a marked effect upon them, this
classification will not hold. We also generally
speak of obtaining fats from animals and oils from
vegetables, but recently several vegetable oils
have been manufactured which are solids when
cold.
The fats and oils most used are obtained from
meat, fish, poultry, butter, cream, olives, nuts,
cocoa bean and cotton seed.
Olive oil is obtained from the fruit of the olive
tree. The best oil is obtained from the first press-
ing of fresh, carefully picked fruit; a poorer
grade from the second pressing; and after treat-
ing the pulp with hot water, a third grade used
for soap making. In some parts of Europe, espe-
cially Italy, it is commonly employed for frying,
but in this country it is generally too expensive.
It is, however, best of all fats for deep frying and
can be heated to 600 degrees.
Cotton-seed oil, when of the best quality, is
excellent for table use. Like olive oil it is good
150
FATS AND OILS 151
for deep frying and can be heated to a higher de-
gree than lard, suet, butter, etc. We buy it under
many different names.
Suet is the adiyjose tissue of cattle, and is found
around the kidneys, heart and intestines. In the
living body it is in the liquid condition and only
after death does it become a solid, as suet, tallow, .
etc.
Lard is the adipose tissue of the hog. Leaf
lard, which is best, is found around the heart,
kidneys and intestines.
Butter, the fat of milk, is, under the best con-
ditions, an ideal fat on account of its flavor and its
ease of digestion.
Nuts. The term "nut" usually brings to our
mind a hard, woody covering, surrounding a meat
or kernel. The kinds vary so with different lo-
calities that we are able to study only a few of
the commonest used by us, as the peanut, English
walnut, black walnut, and pecan. Their percentage
of food elements is :
Water Protein Carl)ohydrates Minerals Fats
Peanut 8% 30%, 20% 2% 40%,
Pecan 4%o 12% 12%, 2%o 70%;
Wahiut4%, 18%o 16%o 2% 60%o
The percentage of protein is very high, but, as
with cheese, it is in a concentrated form and
thorough mastication is necessary to insure ease
152 FOOD AND CLOTHING
of digestion. Nuts also contain a small amount of
tannic acid.
It is only witliin the past few years that their
value as a food was recognized. They are most
valuable when eaten with other foods, as in salads,
breads, and deserts.
Digestion of fats. In the mouth, the sali^■a
merely separates the fats into small globules and
they pass on into the stomach as such. In the
stomach they are changed very little, with the ex-
ception of being split into smaller portions. As
they enter the small intestines they are split by
the pancreatic juice into fatty acids and gycerine.
A small amount is absorbed as such. The bile next
acts upon the fats, forming an emulsion in which
the globules are finely divided and rendered cap-
able of passing through the membranes to pro-
duce heat and energy.
The digestion of fats depends mainly upon get-
ting the globules small enough that they may be
easily passed through the walls of the intestines.
Separating the fats into such tiny globules is called
emulsification. The alkaline pancreatic juice unites
with the fatty acid of the fats to form a soap, while
the glycerine is set free. Both the soap and the
glycerine are more easily absorbed than the
original fat.
Fatty foods are valuable to the body because of
the material thev furnish for heat and energy.
FATS AND OILS 153
They act in the same way as starch and sugar, ex-
cept that fats produce between two and three times
as much heat as starch.
Fats "shorten" bread mixtures; that is, make
them more tender by separating the starch grains
of the flour. When using a compound 1/3 less
must be used than when using lard or butter as
the latter contain a percentage of water while the
compounds are wholly condensed fat.
Heat has much to do with the digestil)ility of
fat, as a strong heat scorches it and decomposition
sets in which causes it to be irritating to the mucus
membranes of the digestive organs.
1*ASTRY
Why pies are indigestible. The digestion of fat
is not begun in the mouth as is that of starch. Fat
undergoes no chemical change in the system until
it is emulsified and saponified in the small intes-
tine. In making pastry the starch granules are
completely enveloped in fat, these cannot be acted
upon by the saliva, hence the digestion of starch
in pastry must be postponed until after the fat is
acted upon. If the pancreatic juice can discharge
its office, all is well, if this fails, the starch be-
comes so much waste material. For this reason
pie is looked upon with fear. Yet, when properly
made, occasional indulgence may be permitted.
Pie crust. The underlying principle of good
154 FOOD AND CLOTHING
pastry is expansion. We place cold flour and cold
fat in a bowl placed on crushed ice. The fat is
cut into the flour until it resembles a meal; then
ice water is cut into this, until the dough is smooth
and free from fat or white streaks. Toss this on
a cold floured board away from the fire, (a piece
of marble or heavy glass is best) roll 1/16 inch
thick, lifting and turning with each stroke of the
rolling pin, fit over the bottom of a pie tin, pierce
several times to allow the steam to escape, and
bake in a moderate oven until well done, about 12
minutes. The air and the ice water wdiicli were
worked into the cold materials expand immediately
after being placed in a hot oven; result — a flaky,
crisp crust. When a baked shell is wanted it is
better to invert the \rdn and fit the dough over the
outside.
Materials: 1/3 as much shortening as flour.
1/5 as much ice water as flour.
1/4 tsp. salt to each c. of flour.
When using butter or lard. Yz as much as flour may be
used.
Custard Pie
One crust pies. Since pie tins differ so widely
it is difficult to give -the amount of flour required
for a crust ; but for the average tin, % c. flour will
make one crust. Do not roll the crust too thin.
Line pie tin with dough, cutting it around the
edges larger than the pan. Pinch with the finger
FATS AND OILS 155
tips, so that it will stand. Fill with liquid made
as "firm custard," and bake until the center is
firm, about 30 minutes.
Cream Pies
Bake a pie shell on an inverted pan. Make a
cream filling as for cream putt's. Fill the shell with
the cream filling, add meringue to the top and re-
turn to the oven to brown ; or make, —
Banana cream pie, by half filling the shell with
thinly sliced bananas, (with sugar added) and fill-
ing to the top with the cream and adding mer-
ingue ; or make, —
Cocoanut cream pie, by mixing cocoanut with
the cream and filling the shell. To make meringue,
beat an es^p:^ white stiff and dry. Add 1 tsp. sugar.
Two crust pies. After the crust is made, divide
it into two parts. Roll one, 1/16 inch thick and line
the pan. Roll the other, making scroll or leaves in
it — these to serve as an escape for the steam. Fill
the pie, add such seasonings as are recommended,
lay the top crust on very loosely, and fasten to the
bottom crust by pressing with a fork or by pinch-
ing them together with the thumb and finger.
APPI;E PIE
Fill the crust with thin slices of firm, tart fruit.
Sprinkle over the top from i/o to 1 c. sugar mixed
with 1 tsp. cinnamon. Dot over it small pieces of
156 FOOD AND CLOTHING
butter and from 6 to 8 drops of lemon extract.
Moisten tlie lower crust, lay on the top crust, press
together and bake about 30 minutes or until the
fruit is tender and the crust is brown.
Any fruit pie as peach or apricot may be made
by the same directions, or by leaving out the cin-
namon and lemon and adding other flavors that
night blend with the fruit.
BERRY PIES
Follow general directions for apple pie. The
great difficulty with making berry pies successfully
is in keeping the juice from running over the
edges. They should not be baked in as hot an oven
as other fruit pies. The crusts must be carefully
pressed together, and the slashes in the top crust
must be of sufficient number to allow the steam to
escape. No extra moisture need be added, but
from 1 to 2 tbsp. of flour, sifted with the sugar
should be added to each pie.
CHEESE STRAWS
From any pie crust that is left cheese straws
may be made. Eoll plain pastry 14 ii^ch thick.
Sprinkle 14 with grated cheese to which has been
added a few grains of salt and cayenne. Fold,
press edges firmly together, fold again, pat and
roll out 14 i^ch thick. Sprinkle with cheese and
proceed as before. Eepeat twice. Cut in strips
FATS AND OILS 157
5 inches long and i/4 ii^^li wide. Bake 8 minutes
in moderate oven.
SUET PUDDING
(Serve 2)
J4 e. chopped suet ^ tsp. soda
}4 tsp. cinnamon ^ c. molasses
34 c. tiour }4. tsp. allspice
^ c. milk j-i tsp. salt
% c. chopped raisins
Mix dry ingredients. Chop suet fine, mix with
milk and molasses, then with dry ingredients. Add
fruit last. Grease baking powder cans and fill two-
thirds full. Steam one hour. Larger amounts
must be cooked longer. Four times this recipe will
serve eight people and should steam three hours.
Serve w^ith hard sauce.
Dates or figs may be added to this recipe and it
is then called fig pudding or date pudding.
HARD SAUCE
34 ''. butter ] c. pwd. sugar
1 egg white j4, tsp. nutmeg
1 tsp. vanilla
Cream butter and sugar, add white of egg, un-
beaten, and the vanilla, and beat together thor-
oughly. Grate nutmeg over the top and set in a
cool place until ready to serve. One-half c. of
whipped cream may be added instead of the egg.
1. "Why should a person with a weak digestion eat
158 FOOD AND CLOTHING
very sparingly of this pudding.:' What do we mean by
"weak digestion."
POTATO CHIPS
Wash and pare potatoes. Slice thinly into a
bowl of ice water. Let stand i/. hour. Pat dry
between towels, fry in deep fat until golden brown,
keeping in motion. Drain on brown paper and
sprinkle with salt.
FRENCH FRIED POTATOES
Cut pared potatoes in strips Yg inch thick and
wide and 3 inches long. Fry in deep fat until
tender.
CHAPTER XVII
BACTERIA— YEAST
Dirt is matter out of place. It may be animal,
vegetable, or mineral.
Dust may be composed of the three classes of
dirt and is a powder, so fine that it will fly in the
air. If animal and vegetable dust is left undis-
turbed where it settles, tiny plants will grow.
These plants are known as molds, yeasts and bac-
teria.
Bacteria are tlie smallest and simplest of known
living things, of the vegetable family. Each con-
sists of a single cell, endowed with the character-
istics of living animals in as much as they take
food, change it into their own substance and give
off waste. This waste or excretion 'sours milk and
renders fish and all fresh foods unfit for use. Such
foods are said to be spoiled. The brown spots on
bananas and other fruits are good examples of
the work of bacteria.
Molds grow from vegetable dust in the form of
long threads which, by uniting, form a frame work
over the substance they are using as a food. They
grow and multiply rapidly in warm moist places
and destroy food and clothing.
Mildew is a form of mold.
159
160 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Yeast is the plant that produces fermentation
or "working" in many liquids, fruits, juices, pre-
serves, etc.
From a lesson on bacteria in Physiology prepare to
answer the following questions :
1. Why should food eaten raw or unskiuned be thor-
oughly cleaned?
2. What sanitary end is attained by cooking food?
3. Why are oranges or bananas safer than grapes
when bought from a street vender?
4. Why should milk receptacles be thoroughly
scalded or sunned?
5. What is mildew, and under what conditions in
the house is it likely to occur?
YEAST
In the fall, we dig up our flow^er bulbs, pack
them in dry soil, and put them in a place — the
temperature of which is such that they will live,
but not grow until warm weather comes. Then we
put them out again, and the warmth and moisture
and soil causes them to grow.
The small cake of yeast that we buy is a starchy
mixture packed full of tiny plant-bulbs, known as
yeast plants, which, mixed wdth certain material,
and made warm enough, begin growing, budding
and reproducing. In growing yeast plants these
facts must be considered :
They grow and multiply very fast.
Note: Read in an A^-ienlture tlie various topics under "Uae-
teria."
BACTERIA— YEAST 161
Tliey grow only when warm and moist.
They grow best at temperatures from 75 to 80
degrees.
They may be forced to grow at a higher tem-
perature, but a great lieat kills them.
Cold checks their growth, but does not kill the
plants.
Frozen yeasts have been thawed out and made
to grow.
When yeast plants are fed upon a sugar with
moisture they absorb the sugar and give off from
their cells compounds called carbon dioxide and
alcohol.
Fill a glass half full of sweetened fruit juice
and place in it a small amount of yeast. Place
the glass in warm water and observe the change
which will take place in a few minutes.
In bread making the cells feed upon the sugar
in the Hour and that which is added in the bread
making, and, as the carbon dioxide is given off,
it collects in tiny sacks and makes room for itself
in the dough. These sacks are the holes we see
in the slices of bread. If unbaked bread is kept
at even temperature the gas formation will be
about the same throughout the dough and the
sacks will be of a uniform size, giving us an even-
grained bread ; but we can readily see how a strong
heat on one side and perhaps a cold draft of air on
the other side would cause an uneven expansion
162 FOOD AND CLOTHING
and a difference in the texture of tlie bread.
Examine living yeast under the microscope.
Yeast plants are so small that they cannot be seen
by the naked eye, yet they are in the atmosphere,
blown everywhere by the winds. These are known
as wdld yeasts, but may be captured very easily
if a glass of fruit juice be placed where the w^arm
air can get to it. Ordinarily we would say ''the
juice has soured."
Yeast plants are very plentiful around hop
fields. A pail of sweetened water left in a hop field
will, in a short time, be full of tiny bubbles or
foam. Cornmeal, stirred into this water until it
forms a stiff dough, may be rolled to a thickness of
% inch, cut in squares, dried, and used as yeast
cakes.
Another form of yeast is made by mixing a very
fine flour (rice) in the hop water, making this into
cakes, and wrapping these in tinfoil while they are
still moist. This is called compressed yeast.
Bread made from the dry yeast, which requires
a longer time for growing, is called Long Process
Bread. This usually requires about 18 hours to
make and bake.
Well made bread should have:
An evenly browned crust without breaks at the
sides or ends.
Even texture inside.
A "nuttv" flavor.
BACTERIA— YEAST 163
Bread bakes in an uneven shape when the heat
of the oven is irregular, and it has an irregular
grain when the temperature during the rising-
period is uneven.
WHITE BREAD
(1 loaf)
1 cake compressed yeast 1 tbsp. fat
2 e. warm water IJ^ tsp. salt
flour to make stiff dough 1 tbsp. sugar
(about 6 cups)
Dissolve the sugar and fat in the warm water.
Add the yeast and stir until dissolved. Add
enough of the flour to make a batter and beat for
10 minutes. Add the salt and the rest of the flour
and knead until the dough is elastic and will not
stick to the hands. The exact amount of flour can
not be given since flours differ as to the amount of
moisture they will absorb. Place in a well greased
bowl, in a warm place, where the temperature is
even and let rise 2 hours. The top of the dough
should be lightly oiled. Mold into a loaf, grease
on top, and when the size has doubled, bake 60
minutes in a moderate oven.
WHOLE WHEAT BREAD
(1 loaf)
1 cake compressed yeast 1 tbsp. fat
1 c. warm water 2 tbsp. brown sugar
}i tsp. salt y2 c. warm milk
164 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Soak yeast in warm milk until tliorouglily dis-
solved. Add sugar and fat to the water and,
when dissolved, add to the milk and yeast. Beat
in the flour gradually, with the salt added. Knead
and bake as white bread, only lower the tempera-
ture of the oven when baking.
GERMAN COFFEE BREAD
(1 loaf I
1 c. compressed yeast 1 egg
;?4 c. warm milk J,^ e. sugar
l->4 c. flour 2 tbsp. fat
^ c. raisins Y^ tsp. salt
Dissolve the yeast and 1 tbsp. of the sugar in
the warm milk and add '-Vx c. flour. Beat well and
set in a warm place to grow until light and spongy
(about 1 hour). Cream the fat and the rest of the
sugar, add the ^^^^ salt and raisins (well floured)
to the sponge. Add flour until you have a cake
batter and beat for 5 minutes. Turn into a bread
Ijan and let rise until twice its size, then bake in
a slow oven until the center is firm (about 25
minutes).
This bread is especially a food for breakfast.
LIGHT ROELS
Follow the recipe for white bread until time to
mold into loaf form. Then make into small balls
the size of a walnut, greasing each one before
BACTERIA— YEAST 165
placing it in a well-oiled pan. Crowd tliem very
closely together and when twice their size bake in
a quick oven for 20 minutes.
PARKER HOUSE ROLLS
Follow recipe for light rolls up to the time for
molding into loaves, then roll the dough into a
sheet 1/4 inch thick and cut in circles about 2
inches across. With the handle of a knife, press
through the center until it forms a hinge, butter
one side and fold the one over the other. Place
in a pan and, when twice their size, bake.
NUT BREAD
(1 loaf)
2 c. flour 1 tsp. salt
4 tsp. B. P. y^ e. sugar
2 eggs 1 e. chopped nuts
Sift the dry ingredients. Add the eggs and the
milk until it is a stiff drop batter. Add the nuts
and pour into a greased pan. Let rise 20 minutes
in a warm place. Bake in a moderate oven 40
minutes.
BROWN BREAD
(1 11). coffee can full)
1 e. yellow meal ^ c. molasses
1 e. whole wheat flour ^ tsp. soda
1 e. flour 1 tsp. salt
4 tsp. B. P. milk
166 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Mix dry ingredients, add molasses and milk
until it is a drop batter. Bake in tins which are
2/3 full in a pan of boiling water for three hours
or in a slow oven for ly^ hours.
TEA BISCUITS
(6 biscuits)
1 c. flour 2 tsp. B. P.
^4 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. fat
1 egg milk to make soft dough
Sift dry ingredients, chop in fat, drop in egg
whole, add the milk and mix thoroughly until it
is a soft dough. Roll i/o inch thick, cut in circles
and bake in a moderate oven until brown and well
done. These may also be used for short cakes.
CHAPTER XVIII
CAKES
Cakes are of two classes, those made with butter
as the various layer, pound, or loaf cakes, and
those made without butter as sunshine, sponge,
and angel food.
Cakes are a form of batter. For fruit or nut
cakes the batter must be made stitf enough so that
the nuts or fruits will not sink to the bottom.
Plain cakes may be a pour batter, but generally
we designate them as a "tear batter," that is,
the batter seems to tear away from the edge of
the vessel instead of drop.
A thin batter cake may be baked in a quicker
oven than a thick batter cake. In general a cake
should be proportioned :
% to y^ as much fat as sugar.
3 times as much flour as sugar.
1 whole egg or 2 whites for each cup of flour.
Though material and conditions differ so widely
that no definite rule in proportion can be given.
If the flour is sifted several times it will hold
the air better. It should be sifted once, measured,
167
168 FOOD AND CLOTHING
then sifted several times. The sugar should be
fine. It is best to use only the sugar that will fall
easily through the sifter, — using the coarse in
foods where it must be dissolved. On account of
expense, the cotton seed oil compounds are used
more generally than butter. "When using them
add 1/4 tsp. salt for each cup and use 1/3 less
than the recipe calls for if butter is designated.
Since these compounds are a concentrated oil, the
same amount as compared with butter would
make the batter too rich.
To cream butter or other fats. Beat the material
with a wooden spoon until light and creamy. The
texture and appearance will have changed de-
cidedly when air is beaten into it.
Pans may he:
1. Greased.
2. Greased and sprinkled with flour. (All flour that
does not adhere should be shaken out.)
3. Lined with oiled paper (for very old pans).
4. Vsed dry (for all cakes without butter).
Steps in- cake maling:
1. Arrange all utensils for convenience.
2. Measure and collect all materials. Sift flour and
B. P. several times.
3. Prepare the pans.
4. Regulate the heat of the oven, unless the cake is
to be placed in a cold oven.
5. Combine and bake.
6. Cool and ice.
CAKES 169
Methods of coHibiniiig:
First,
1. Cream fat.
2. Add sugar, cream again.
3. Add eggs whole (yolk and white, or either sep-
arated) and beat the mixture thoroughly.
4. Add flavoring.
5. Add flour and milk and mix lightly until the de-
sired consistency is reached. Fruit or nuts should be
floured and folded into the batter the last thing.
After the flour and baking powder is added the
batter must be stirred as little as possible as the
gas, which forms as soon as baking powder and
moisture is combined, will escape.
Second,
1. Cream fat and sugar (and o^g yolks if used).
2. Add flour, milk and flavoring.
3. Fold in beaten egg white.
Forms of baking :
Layer
Loaf
Roll
Individual
Sheet
The sheet cake is decidedly the popular form
for cakes at the present time. When baked they
should be about 2 inches thick, the icing adding
1/4 to 1/^ inch more.
170 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Temperature for baking. Many cake bakers
who use gas ovens, tliat heat very rapidly, place
the cake in the oven, light the fire, and after 10
or 15 minutes, turn off all of the heat. This is a
very successful way if the housekeeper knows her
oven thoroughly, but it is not recommended for
general use. Generally the most successful way
is to have the oven at a moderate temperature
(see Degrees of Heat in Cooking) and continued
at that degree until the cake is baked.
It is usually considered that "it is the baking
and not the making" that effects the results of
cake making.
Time for baking:
Layer or sheet from 20 to 30 niiiuitcs (depending upon
the thickness).
Loaf from 40 to 60 minutes (depending upon in-
gredients and thickness).
Tests for telling when a cake is done :
1. When it shrinks from the sides of the pan.
2. When touched in the center it springs back.
3. When hissing ceases.
Causes for falling:
1. Too much fat.
2. Jarring.
3. Draught of cold air.
4. Too much sugar.
5. Not enough leavening.
CAKES 171
Causes for cracking:
1. Too hot oven.
2. Uneven heat.
3. Too much tlour.
PLAIN CAKE
Yz c. tlour 8 drops vanilla
1 tbsp. fat y^ tsp. salt
1 tsp. B. P. y2 egg (yolk and white
3 tbsp. sugar mixed)
milk to make tear batter
]\[ake by combination method No. 1.
Six times this recipe will make a loaf or sheet cake.
WHITE CAKE
\y2 tbsp. fat 10 tbsp. tlour
4 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. B. P.
1 egg white 8 drops vanilla
y% tsp. salt milk to make tear batter
Make by combination No. 1. From four to six times
this amount will make a large cake.
CHOCOLATE CAKE
1 tbsp. fat. 2 tbsp. shaved chocolate
y^ tsp. salt 1 tsp. B. P.
4 tbsp. sugar 1 egg yolk
3/2 c. tlour 8 drops vanilla
milk to make heavy batter
Melt cliocolate over hot water. Cream fat,
sugar and ^g% yolk. Add melted chocolate (not
hot) and flavoring, then the dry ingredients and
172 FOOD AND CLOTHING
milk. The amount of chocolate a cake contains is
a matter of taste. More or less may be used, as
desired. For a large cake, use 4 to 6 times these
amounts.
SPICE CAKE
1 tbsp. fat 1 tsp. B. P.
^ tsp. ground cloves y^ tsp. salt
4 tbsp. sugar 2 tbsp. shaved <'hoco]ate
1 egg yolk 2 tbsp. hot mashed po-
ys tsp. cinnamon tatoes
milk to moisten 1/16 tsp. nutmeg
yi c. flour
Melt chocolate and mix thoroughly with the po-
tatoes. Keep these in a warm place until used.
Sift dry ingredients together. Cream fat, sugar
and egg yolk. Add potatoes with the chocolate
to the dry ingredients, and milk to make tear bat-
ter. Bake into sheet or loaf form. Caramel or
chocolate icing should be used.
Angel Food Cake
As eggs ditfer so materially in size, for this
cake the whites should be designated by measure
instead of number. From 11 to 13 whites are
usually required to fill a cup. One c. each, egg
white, flour and sugar, with 1 tsp. cream of tartar,
flavoring and % tsp. salt make the ordinary loaf
cake. Small amounts cannot be made so success-
fully. The eggs must be fresh, so they will hold
CAKES 173
the air. The sugar must be fine and the flour,
a pastry flour.
Beat the egg whites stiff and dry. When pai'ti-
ally beaten, sift over the cream of tartar. Acid
has a hardening effect upon albumen and thus
helps the beaten whites to hold the air. Sift the
sugar and the flour separately three times, then
together once. Fold this into the beaten eggs,
very gently from the side, adding the flavoring
with the salt. Turn into a dry pan and bake in a
moderate oven. When done invert the pan and
cool. If the pan is smooth and dry, the cake will
come out of its own accord.
SUNSHINE CAKE
^ e. yolks 1 e. sugar
3/2 ('. whites 1 ts}). cream of tartar
1 e. flour 1 tsp. lemon extract
Beat egg yolks until thick. Add sugar and i/g
tsp. salt. Fold in beaten whites with cream of
tartar and flavoring. Fold in flour. This may be
baked as a butter cake.
SPONGE CAKE
^S lemon (grated rind and yi c. flour
juice) ] egg
34 c. sugar
Add lemon rind and juice to the sugar and mix
well. Separate the egg. Beat the yolk light, add
174 FOOD AND CLOTHING
the sugar gradually and beat thoroughly. Beat
the white of the egg stiff, fold it lightly into the
batter, then sift in the flour a little at a time, mix-
ing lightly. Bake until the center is firm and it
shrinks from the pan. A sponge cake will shrink
when removed from the oven and will have a
sugary crust on top.
Cake Icings
Frosting — Egg white beaten to the frothy stage
may have a small amount of sugar added.
Meringue — Egg white beaten stiff, with sugar
added.
Icing — Cooked sugar and water syrup beaten
into stiffly beaten egg white.
Uncooked icings are made by blending pow-
dered sugar with thick cream until it forms a
paste. This is often used on angel food cakes.
Frostings or meringues are very seldom used
for cakes. Icings fail unless the sugar is in the
right proportion to egg white and is cooked to the
required degree.
When icing is so thin that it will run off the
cake, it should be placed in a vessel over hot
water and cooked until it becomes grainy around
the edge. There is too much moisture in it, either
from the egg or the syrup, and reheating will
evaporate H.
If the icing is too hard to spread, place it in a
CAKES 175
vessel over hot water, add a few drops of cold
water and when melted it can be spread.
WHITE ICING
iy2 e. sugar Y^ tsp. cream of tartar
10 drops vanilla ^ c. water
1 egg white
Read "Fondant Making" before making this icing.
Cook sugar and water with cream of tartar
until it spins a thread about 6 inches long. Stream
into the beaten Qgg white and beat until it feels
grainy around the edges. Spread with a silver
knife on a cold cake. Various nuts, fruits and
flavorings may be added to this icing.
CARAMEL ICING
lyi Q. brown sugar 2 whites (beaten stiff and
y^ c. water dry)
3/2 e. granulated sugar
Cook until it spins a thread 6 inches long. Pour
slowly over the whites, beating meanwhile. Set
over hot water and beat it as it cooks, until it
will hold its shape and is slightly granular around
the edge. One-fourth c. nuts may be added if
desired. This will not run or stick and will stay
soft for several days.
CHOCOLATE ICING
1 c. sugar 2 tbsp. shaved chocolate
1 tbsp. butter 1 c. water
1 tsp. vanilla or ^ c. nuts
176 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Cook, add flavoring or nuts, and beat until it
begins to crystallize. Spread on cake.
The same proportions of brown sugar, butter
and water may be cooked tlie same way.
L Of what food value are cakes?
2. Are cakes a balanced food?
3. For whom are they indigestible?
4. How may we make them so they will be more
easily digested?
CHAPTER XIX
SOUPS AND SALADS
Soups
Soups are liquids which contain the flavorings
and extracts of meat and vegetables. Their value
to the body lies chiefly in their stimulating effect
upon the digestive fluids. The food value, even
in the strong soupj, is so low that it is a mistake
to depend upon them for buikling material. How-
ever, in some thick soups which contain macaroni,
peas, beans, etc., a small amount of nourishment
is obtained. Clear soups contain about 98%
water, %% mineral, i/2% protein, 1% fats. Thick
soups contain only about 909^ water, 8% carbo-
hydrates and fat, and li/^% protein and i/^'v
mineral.
Tu cook foods and especially meats for- soup,
they should be placed in cold water and the tem-
perature raised very slowly. This gradually
draws out the extracts and albumens: AVlien
meats are placed in water and it boils very soon
afterwards, a brown scum gathers on the top.
This is the albumen which was hardened by the
strong heat and since it cannot be dissolved again
177
178 FOOD AND CLOTHING
it may as well be skimmed off, but in so doing the
most nutritious part of the soup is lost.
We serve soups at the beginning of our lunch-
eons and dinners, the heavy soups at luncheons,
as usually the other courses will be light, but at
dinner, when heavy meats and vegetables and
pastries are to follow, the clear soups are served.
Cheese straws, and crisp wafers when served
wdth soup, add to the food value.
Stock is the clear extract made from cooking
lean meat, bone and fat. A careful housekeeper
saves the meat scraps, bones from roasts, etc., and
makes the stock for her soups without additional
expense.
Soups are divided into two classes, — soups
with stock and soups without stock. Under the
first we include:
1. Bouillon, made from lean meats or vegetables
delicately seasoned and cleared.
2. Consomme, usually made from two or three kinds
of meats highly seasoned with spices and herbs, and
cleared.
T jider the second we include :
1. Cream soup, made of vegetables or fish, white
sauce and seasoning. A cream soup may or may not be
tliick.
2. Puree, made from vegetables or fish which have
been cooked until they are tender enough to be forced
through a sieve and retained in the soup. Always tliick.
SOUPS AND SALADS 179
3. Bisques, made as Puree from fish or meat. Very
thick.
CLEAR CONSOMME
(Serve 6)
1 beef knuckle bones from chicken or
1 ham bone (small) turkey
4 (|ts. water
Simmer very gently for three hours. When
ready to serve the water should have evaporated
until only 1 qt. is left. Season with salt, ground
cloves, and cayenne to suit the taste. Strain until
clear and serve hot in tea or bouillon cups.
TOMATO BOUILLON
^ e. tomatoes 3^ tsp. diced onion
2 cloves ^ e. water
}i tsp. sugar small piece bay leaf
Simmer all together until it is reduced to the .
original amount of tomatoes. Strain, add salt,
pepper, cayenne and reheat. Serve in cups.
VEGETABLE SOUP
1 beef shank 1 e. peas
1 c. string beans snapped 1 c. diced turnips
1 c. chopped cabbage 1 e. diced carrots
2 tbsp. diced onion 1 c. tomatoes
Simmer shank for 1 hr. in 3 qts. water. Add
beans and carrots, and simmer ^2 hr. Add the
other vegetables and simmer i/> hr. longer. Sea-
son with salt, pepper and cayenne to taste. Stir
each time before filling the dishes, so that por-
180 FOOD AND CLOTHING
tions of the vegetables may be served Avitli each
dish.
CREAM OF CORN SOUP
^ e. com ^ c, milk
1 tsp. flour 1 tsp. butter
Use canned or stewed corn. Cover with water.
Cook until soft, mash through a sieve, add enough
cold water to bring it up to the first measure.
Make cream sauce of butter, flour and milk. Add
corn pulp, salt and sugar to taste. Serve hot.
POTATO SOUP
(Serve 2)
y2 c. diced raw potatoes y^ tsp. celery seed
1 tsp. flour Yi tbsp. chopped onion
1 tsp. butter 1 c. milk
Cook potato and onion together until soft.
Strain. Make cream sauce, add celery seed, salt
and pepper. When hot, pour over the potato
pulp. Serve.
CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP
(Serve 2)
1 c. tomatoes 2 cloves
1 tsp. onion 1 c. water
Cook slowly until the water has evaporated and
1 c. of tomato juice remains. Strain. Make %
c. white sauce "1 to 1." Have both the tomato
juice and the white sauce hot and just before mix-
SOTTS AND SALADS 181
iiig them add 1/16 tsp. soda to tlie tomatoes to
neutralize the acid. When thoroughly mixed, if
there are any lumps, strain, and pour into a
heated soup plate and serve.
BEAN PUREE
( Servo 2 i
1 0. soup beans, which have been cooked until soft,
about 6 hours.
1 c. broth in which beans were cooked and in which
a ham lione was simmered.
Mash beans through a sieve and mix thoroughly
with the broth. Season with paprika and cayenne
to taste. A small piece of onion may be simmered
with the broth, to impart flavor.
SALMON BISQUE
(Serve 2)
Yz e. salmon ^ tsp. lemon .iuiee, dash
1 c. water nutmeg
y% tsp. salt
Simmer salmon, water, lemon juice and salt,
until water has evaporated. Press through a
sieve, and mix thoroughly with 1 c. white sauce
"3 to 1." Reheat, strain into a hot soup dish,
sprinkle nutmeg over the top and serve. A tsp.
of whipped cream may be added to each dish.
Salads
Salads are a combination of the green vege-
182 FOOD AND CLOTHING
tables, with fruits, meats or otlier vegetables and
a French or mayonnaise dressing.
They are given the place on our menus, first
after the meat or heavy course, because they con-
tain the food stuffs which call forth digestive
fluids and therefore aid in the digestion of the
heavy course. It is now considered very neces-
sary to give the salad a place in every heavy din-
ner and when well made and with the right com-
binations it has a high food value.
Different dressings are made for salads, tastes
varying as to the best.
French dressing. 1 c. oil (olive or salad), 5
tbsp. acid (lemon juice or vinegar), ^^ tsp. salt,
dash cayenne and i/4 tsp. paprika. Mix all to-
gether and beat thoroughly before turning over
the salad. One tbsp. of sugar may be added for a
fresh tomato salad or for any salad with which
the taste of sugar blends.
Mayonnaise. 1 egg yolk, blended with Yz tsp.
salt, 1/4 tsp. paprika, dash cayenne, 2 to 4 tbsp.
vinegar. Beat into this 2 c. oil. This should make
a very hea^'y dressing for vegetables and fruit.
For meat, mustard may be added. Many times,
without any apparent reason, this dressing will
fail to thicken. If, after streaming in a small
amount of oil, it is thin, do not attempt it farther
with that egg. Use another yolk and when that
thickens, the first egg and oil may be added with-
SOUPS AND SALADS 183
out fear of failure. These cautions may insure
success: be sure of a fresh egg and keep the oil
cold. The albumen in an old egg will not have
sufficient strength to hold the oil in the form of
an emulsion.
Roquefort cheese salad dressing. 1/4 lb. Roque-
fort cheese blended with French dressing until it
forms a smooth paste. This is especially fine for
vegetable salads, as tomato, asparagus, lettuce,
etc. This amount will serve ten people.
Cooked salad dressing. One c. weak vinegar
water heated. Blend 1 egg yolk, 1 tbsp. flour, 2
tbsp. sugar, 14 tsp. salt, speck cayenne, i/4 tsp.
paprika and a small amount of water, enough
to form a paste. Stream slowly into the hot
vinegar and cook over water for 8 minutes. Re-
move and beat into it 1 tbsp. oil or 1 tbsp. melted
butter. When cold, thin any amount of it with
whipped cream. Mustard may be added but in
small amounts, as its use is not recommended in
any diet.
To serve a salad, of a combination that will be
in harmony with the other courses, is one of the
marks of good training on the part of hostess or
housekeeper.
A meat salad should only be served at
luncheons or with other refreshments to take the
place of a meat course, never at a dinner where
there has been a heavy meat course.
184 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Fruit salads are most appreciated at tlie dinner
or luncheon, when the first course has been a
vegetable soup, or on a refreshment plate where
meat and vegetables are served.
Vegetable salads may be served when the first
course has been a fruit or when the desert is to
be a fruit. If the dinner course contains dry
vegetables, and a vegetable salad is to follow, it
must be of the. fresh variety.
There are no limits to the possibilities of salads
as to combination and manner of serving, but
the points to remember in making salads suc-
cessfully are:
The salad must blend with the other courses.
The salad must not repeat the other courses.
The salad must be dainty and attractive in ar-
rangement.
The dressing must be well made, well seasoned,
and used with discretion.
Wafers, cheese straws, butter crisps or cheese
crisps may be served with a salad.
POTATO SALAD
( Sei-vi' (i )
2 c. cold diced potatoes 1 tsp. diced carrots
2 tsp. capers 1 c chopped celery or
1 tbsp. diced onion 1 tsp. celery seed
Sweet peppers and hard-cooked eggs may be added
Mix thoroughly with any dressing. Pile loosely
SOUPS AND SALADS 185
on crisp lettuce leaf. One tbsp. diced beets may
be added to the top or grated cheese.
TOMATO SALAD
Select smooth ripe tomato. Peel. Cut off top,
partially hollow and fill with diced cucumbers.
Place on lettuce leaf and cover with French dress-
ing or Roquefort cheese dressing.
ASPARAGl'S SALAD
Arrange 6 tender asparagus tips through a ring
of green pepper, on a crisp lettuce leaf, and pour
the dressing over them.
CABBAGE SALAD
2 c. shredded cabbage 1 tbsp. celery seed
1 sweet red pepper J4 c. chopped parsley
Mix well with dressing.
Either dressing may be used with the following
combinations :
Cauliflower and beets.
Cauliflower and pimentoes.
Shredded lettuce, sliced tomatoes, green pep-
pers cut into bits.
GELATINE SALAD
Yz box gelatine ^ c. sugar
Yz c. cold water juice 1 lemon
Yt. c. mild vinegar 1 tsp. salt
1 pt. boiling water 2 pimentoes
1 c. finely shredded cab- 2 c. celery (cut in small
bage pieces)
186 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Soak the gelatine in cold water 5 minutes, add
boiling water, vinegar, lemon juice, sugar and salt.
Strain, and when beginning to set, add remaining
ingredients.
Turn into small molds and chill. Serve on let-
tuce leaf with mayonnaise dressing. This is a
delicious accompaniment to cold chicken or veal.
There are many varieties of the gelatine salads
and, since they may be made hours before they
are to be served, they are very popular.
Fruit S.vlads
WxlLDORF SALAD
(Serve 6)
2 e. chopped apples 12 maraschino cherries
Yz c. chopped celery (cut fine)
i/z c. chopped nuts
Mix these thoroughly in 1 c. cooked salad dress-
ing and serve on lettuce leaf. The cherries may
be halved and arranged on the top or mixed with
the salad.
PINEAPPLE SALAD
Arrange 1 slice of pineapple on a lettuce leaf.
Pile on center 1/2 banana, cut in cubes. Pour over
this thick mayonnaise dressing. Sprinkle chopped
nuts on the top.
The exact proportion of different fruits used
SOUPS AND SALADS 187
in the making of salads is not an important point
so long as the blending flavors are pleasing.
The following suggested combinations may be
used in any proportion with dressing and served
on lettuce leaf:
White grapes (seeded), apples, nuts, celery.
One-half pear, pineapple, pimento.
Grape fruit, bananas, nuts.
Peaches, oranges, marshmallows in orange
cups.
MEAT SALADS
Chicken and fish are used most for meat salads,
ayom
salads.
Mayonnaise dressing blends best with these
CHICKEN SALAD
(Serve 8-10)
2 e. cold cubed chicken ^ c. chopped celery
Yz e. seeded white grapes Yz c. chopped nuts
Use mayonnaise dressing. Serve on lettuce leaf
with salted wafers.
The following proportions will serve six. Use
any of the dressings.
1. Oue-half c. shrimp, % c. shredded cabbage, 1 tbsp.
diced onion. 2 hard egg whites diced.
2. One-half c. salmon, Yx c. diced cold potatoes, Y^ c.
celery, 1 tbsp. lemon juice.
3. One-half c. stutfed olives, Ya ^- grated cheese, ^
c. nuts.
188 FOOD AND CLOTHING
4. One c. cottage cheese, 1 green pepper, cnt fine, one
pimento, yi c. nuts.
5. One-half e. peas, 3^ c. salted peanuts, ^ c. diced
cucumber in half tomatoes.
EGG SALAD
One cold hard-cooked Qgg cut in halves, cross-
wise. Arrange on lettuce leaf with mayonnaise
and garnish with ribbons of green or red peppers.
CHAPTEPv XX
FKUIT
The walls of the cells of vegetable or fruit
which hold the juices is known as cellulose. In
young vegetables or fruits it is soft, but in older
growths it is generally woody and hard to digest.
Make a test for cellulose in apples, oranges, or
bananas. (See experiment under Potatoes.)
In a broad sense, all seed-vessels are fruits.
This would include nuts, grains, squash, etc., so
we commonly class as fruits those seed vessels
served with sugar or as a dessert. When tomatoes
were eaten with sugar and cream they were called
a fruit, ''love-apples."
Most fruits contain from 80 to 90 per cent water
and the remaining per cent cellulose, acid, mineral
and sugar, which, in an unripe state, is starch.
They furnish a small amount of nutriment, con-
vey water to the system, and act as both a tonic
and an aid to digestion.
Digestibility of fruit in the stomach and intes-
tines depends largely upon its degree of ripeness.
The excess of acids present in unripe fruit causes
it to be irritating to the intestines, and is fre-
quently the cause of acute digestive disturbances.
180
190 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Cooking renders fruits more digestible by soft-
ening their cellulose and it also, as we liave seen
in the making of jelly, converts the gum into a
gelatinous form.
Pineapple juice contains a remarkably active
digestive principle similar to pepsin. So power-
ful is its action upon proteins that it will digest
one thousand times its weight in a few hours.
Bananas contain a large amount of starch, as
much as the potatoes, therefore they should not
be eaten in an unripe state. Cooking, of course,
develops the food value and, for some persons, the
flavor.
Figs and prunes have an effect upon an inactive
liver, and for that reason are considered most ex-
cellent laxatives. They are also highly nutritive,
as the pulp contains 60 per cent of sugar, and 6
per cent of protein.
Apples may be said to be to other fruits what
potatoes are to other vegetables. They exert a
great influence upon the liver and kidneys, and
those containing a great amount of juice, are a
laxative. "Cooking" apples are those that con-
tain a high percentage of acid and pectin. '* Eat-
ing" apples have more sugar and less acid and
pectin.
Pears have less acid and cellulose than apples.
They are best eaten raw, but may be preserved in
syrup or dried.
FRUIT 191
Quince resemble pears but liave much firmer
flesh. The seeds are very rich in mucilaginous
substances, which, when cooked with the fruit for
jelly making, render it the easiest jelly of all to
make.
Oranges, lemons and limes have an abundance
of citric acid and are especially valuable for their
refreshing properties and power of allaying
thirst. Oranges when cooked, are used mostly for
marmalades. The rind of these fruits is dried,
candied, and used extensively by confectioners.
The white portion underneath the skin is almost
entirely cellulose and should never be eaten.
Grapes exceed all other fruits (except dates) in
the amount of sugar. The minerals found in
grapes are lime, potash, and magnesia.
Raisins are dried grapes and are prepared in
two ways. The finest are dried on the growing
plant by partially cutting the twig. Others are
gathered, dried in the sun, dipped in a solution of
soda, olive oil and salt, then allowed to dry again
for several days.
Currants are a small seedless grape first found
in Greece, but now grown extensively in our own
country.
Strawberries are richer than most fruits in
potash and lime salts, and especially soda salt.
Prunes have a large amount of digestible cellu-
lose and sugar. They are considered to be a mild
192 FOOD AND CLOTHING
laxative. For many years prunes were very cheap
and so poorly cooked that they were entirely ban-
ished from the average memi, but now they are
slowly coming into favor owing to the modern
ways of evaporating and the numerous ways in
which they may be served attractively.
BANANA PIE
Line pie tin with short pie crust and bake. Fill
crust with thinly sliced bananas and cover with
meringue made of
2 eggs (whites) ^ c. sugar
Put whites of eggs and sugar in bowl and beat
until mixture will stay in shape. Pile on the pie
in irregular form and bake in slow oven 15 min-
utes.
BAKED APPLES — CREOLE STYLE
Pare and core sound tart apples. Steam until
almost tender, remove to buttered pan, fill cavities
with cocoanut, stick apples full of blanched al-
monds, baste with syrup made with sugar, water
and lemon juice. Bake tender. Serve with
whipped cream or jelly.
APPLE SAUCE
(Serve 8)
Pare and cut in eighths, 6 tart apples. Cover
with warm water and steam until they can be
FRUIT 193
easily pierced. Add y^ c. sugar, i/^ tsp. lemon
extract, i^ tsp. cinnamon. When sugar has dis-
solved, serve.
1. Why not cook in boiling water?
2. Why add the sugar last ?
BAKED APPLES
Wash each apple and remove the core. Fill hol-
low place, with 1 tsp. sugar blended with i/o tsp.
butter and % tsp. cinnamon. Pour over 2 tbsp.
warm water and bake in a slow oven until soft.
Serve with cream and sugar.
PRUNE SAUCE
Buy the best evaporated prunes. Wash care-
fully, place in a vessel and cover with warm water
and steam 2 hours. A few minutes before remov-
ing from the fire add sugar to taste.
PRUNE WHIP
(Serve 6)
Press through a sieve cooked prunes to meas-
ure 2 c. Add to the pulp, sugar to taste and Yo
c. flour. Fold into this the stiffly beaten whites of
2 eggs and bake in a very slow oven 20 minutes.
The pan in which this is baked should be only
one-half full when placed in the oven.
FRUIT DUMPLINGS
Make soft dough, as biscuit dough, using twice
194 FOOD AND CLOTHING
the amount of shortening, Eoll Vs ii^- thick. Cut
in three-inch squares, pile fruit in center, add
sugar and spices to taste; gather up points and
sides and press together. Turn the dough ball
over and place in a buttered pan. Bake in a hot
oven 20 minutes, if the fruit is cooked, or if raw,
until fruit is sufficiently done. Just before remov-
ing from the oven glaze with beaten egg and sugar.
Serve with a sauce made of :
^ c. butter ^ e. water
1 c. brown sugar 3^ tsp. lemon extract
j4 tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg
Heat in double boiler until sugar and butter
have made a syrup.
Sliced apples, peaches, apricots or berries may
be used in these dumplings.
When fresh berries are used, the dough may be
rolled thin, the berries spread over it, sugared and
floured and all rolled as a ''jelly roll" and baked.
Slices 1/2 in. thick are cut from the end and served.
Fresh fruit should be served as nearly as pos-
sible in its natural state. The following sugges-
tions may be helpful :
Strmvberries — washed thoroughly with the
stems on, and served with the powxlered sugar.
Oranges — in halves with the pulp cut free from
the skin.
Grape-fruit — in halves, with each section cut
FRUIT 195
free from the skin and tlie tough white partitions
of each section removed. These may be served
with sugar or natural.
Grapes — in bunches, thoroughly washed.
Canteloupe — in halves, with seeds removed.
Watermelon — only the heart, cut in small pieces,
pieces.
All fruits are better if served very cold.
CHAPTER XXI
SHERBETS AND ICE CREAMS
The food value of these dishes depends upon
their composition. Ice cream made from pure
cream, sugar and flavorings, has a high food value,
and the sherbets and ices made from the juices of
fresh fruits rank high for their ability to stimu-
late and refresh. The fact that ice cold drinks
and foods delay digestion is much against this
otherwise very delightful way of supplying the
body with nutriment and liquid.
Ices and sherbets are either a composition of
fruit juice, sugar and water frozen, or crushed
fruit added with the juice. Beaten egg white,
gelatine and cream may be added to sherbets.
Ice creams are a composition of milk, sugar and
flavoring, frozen, or a thin custard frozen. The
first class of cream known as Philadelphia ice
cream is the simplest form of frozen cream.
Those made from a custard are known as Neapol-
itan ice creams and to them may be added the
various flavorings, fruits, nuts, etc. Inferior
creams of the last class are often made by using
a large amount of starch in place of the egg in
the custard.
To freeze. The can, paddle and lid should be
196
SHERBP]TS AND ICE CREAMS 197
thoroughly scalded before placing it in the wooden
bucket. Fasten the freezer and everything in
place, as if ready to freeze. Fill the space be-
tween the can and the bucket with ice and rock
salt; 1 part salt to 3 parts ice — the ice pounded
fine. Turn the freezer slowly while the packing is
being done. When nearly to the top, remove the
crank and lid and pour in the liquid. Do not have
the can more than two-thirds full, as the liquid
expands as it freezes. Replace the lid and crank,
fill to the top with ice and salt and turn slowly a
few minutes to evenly distribute the freezing
through the liquid. As the liquid freezes the
crank may be turned very fast.
Why we use salt. Salt causes ice to melt and
the melting ice withdraws heat from the surround-
ing substances, and so lowers their temperature,
causing them to freeze. The finer the ice the
sooner it will melt.
When the liquid is frozen, remove the paddle,
pack firm with a spoon, place a paper over the
top of the can, then the lid w^ith a cork in the top.
Draw off all the water and fill the bucket with
ice until the can is covered. Let stand for an
hour or so. Do not add salt to the ice when pack-
ing the cream.
LEMON ICE
(2 quarts)
1 qt. water juice 6 lemons
2 e. sugar
198 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Dissolve the sugar in the hot water. Add lemon
juice and freeze.
PINEAPPLE SHERBET
( 1 gallon )
1 qt. water 1 qt. can grated pineapple
1 egg white 2 c. sugar
2 lemons
Dissolve sugar in hot water, add fruit and
lemon juice, and when partially frozen add the
egg white, beaten stitf and dry. After the egg is
added the freezer must be turned very fast.
When adding the egg white, 1 c. cream may be
added also. The name sorbet is sometimes given
to a sherbet when cream has been added.
APRICOT ICE
1 pt. dried apricots (cooked 1 pt. sugar
and strained) 1 fit. water
1 tbsp. lemon juice
Dissolve sugar in hot water. Add fruit and
freeze. When frozen remove paddle and pack
until ready for use.
PHILADELPHIA ICE CREAM
( I gallon )
3 pts. sweet cream (2 c. maple syrup may be
1 tbsp. vanilla used in place of brown
1 c. b. sugar sugar)
Scald cream, add sugar and when dissolved add
flavorins: and freeze.
yilEKBETS AND ICE CREAMS 19'J
FRUIT ICE CREAM
( 1 gallon )
2 ([tn. thin cream 2 c. crushed strawberries
2^ c. sugar
Scald cream and sugar. Add the fruit, crushed.
Freeze. Any fresh fruit may be used.
NEAPOLITAN. ICE CREAM
Make a thin custard as directed in Chapter
XIII, and freeze. Nuts and fruits, either fresh or
candied, may be added.
Caramel creams are made by using one and one-
half as much sugar as the recipe calls for, heat-
ing it slowly over a fire until the sugar has melted
and browned slightly. Eemove and pour over this
water to cover and stir until it is dissolved. Use
this with the cream or custard in place of the re-
quired amount of sugar.
We use more sugar, as caramelizing destroys
some of the sweetness. Great care must be taken
not to burn the sugar as it will then have a bitter
taste.
Gelatine in Creams
Gelatine is a protein obtained from animals and
vegetables. The animal gelatine is made by cook-
ing the bones of young calves in water, strain-
ing the liquid, allowing it to congeal, and then
evaporating it. Vegetable gelatine is made from
a sea weed.
200 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Soak gelatine first in cold water until soft, then
add boiling water or liquid to it and put it in a
cold place to congeal.
The directions on the packages of gelatine you
buy are a safe guide to follow in the preparation
of the dishes. In creams, gelatine gives body and
food value to the dish. One oz. of gelatine will
congeal 1 qt. liquid. When using it with a custard
cream i/o oz. (i^ tbsp.) of gelatine should be used.
1. Why do we not draw off the water while the cream
is freezing?
2. Why do Ave draw off the water and use no salt
when packing cream?
CHAPTER XXII
DIETARY STANDARDS
Statements of the amounts and kinds of food
needed or taken by people of various climates,
ages and occupations are called "dietary stand-
ards," or "balanced rations." In studying these
standards the aim is :
(a) to determine the food requirements under
different conditions.
(b) to determine the amount of food neces-
sary under different conditions.
(c) to classify the foods that will give us the
required nutrition.
To secure a proper combination of the proteins
on the one hand and the fats and carbohydrates
on the other, in such proportions as to provide the
necessary material for the building and repair of
the body and to generate energy for its work, and
at the same time not to complicate the process of
excretion or elimination, is one of the problems of
dietetics.
Every act of ours is a breaking down of body
tissue. It makes no difference if the body is kept
practically still, the very acts of breathing and
201
202 FOOD AND CLOTHING
thinking break down cells and tissue. The break-
ing down of these cells and tissues produces a
waste substance, which may be compared to the
ashes left after wood or coal has been burned.
This body waste should be thrown off as fast as
it accumulates or we must pay for the storage
with, headaches, indigestion, or severe illness.
Nature provides several avenues through which
this may be eliminated ; namely, the skin, the kid-
neys, the lungs, and the intestines; and it is our
duty to aid these organs in their work by making
a careful selection of the kinds and amounts of
food we eat.
Physical and I\Iental Effects of Pood
A very wise person said, ''The food we eat de-
termines our efficiency," meaning that a man or
woman is well and strong and capable of working
and thinking according to the amount and kind of
food he eats. If every mother or teacher would
give one-tenth as much time to teaching her
children how to select foods and how to eat, as
she does to any one of the other subjects in school,
the coming generations would be marvels of
strength and intelligence.
Among the lower animals the meat eaters
are fierce and dangerous and of little or no value
to man. While the vegetable or grass eating ani-
mals are mild and gentle and of service to the
DIETARY STANDARDS 203
world. Investigations into tlie lives of degener-
ates and criminals prove that with but few ex-
ceptions they were inveterate meat eaters.
To make a comparison between educated people
and animals or degenerates is perhaps too strong,
yet it is a fact that the average American family
eats too much meat. A liberal service of meat,
once a day, eaten in combination with coarse
vegetables could not possibly injure any one who
is well, and in fact, the animal protein which meat
contains cannot well be supplied by other foods ;
but the families who serve one and sometimes
two meats at each meal are committing nothing-
short of a crime towards their own bodies.
Meat putrifies sooner than any other food, and
for that reason should be eaten with coarse vege-
tables, corn bread, and the like, so as to insure its
rapid movement along the alimentary canal. This
putrification causes various disorders of body and
mind, known as headaches, irritableness, indiges-
tion.
Appetite as a Standard
The statement is sometimes made that if a per-
son would follow his appetite, no mistake would
be made as to selection of diet. It takes only a
moment's time to satisfy a person that this state-
ment is untrue. Some people, by following their
appetites, become unduly stout or have all sorts
204 FOOD AND CLOTHING
of digestive disturbances while others become
very thin and show a lack of nourishing food. If,
however, from year to year a person is strong and
well from eating the things suggested by appetite,
it is a safe guide until disorders arise. People
have been known to learn to like foods that had
been very distasteful to them; such as, tomatoes,
celery, olives, spinach, etc.
OVER-EATING
Many times whole meals which otherwise would
serve as '* balanced rations" are wasted as a re-
sult of over-eating. When the stomach is over-
loaded with food the mass becomes so compact
that digestion is practically impossible, and fin-
ally a large part is eliminated from the body as
waste.
Dietary Statements
Fuel value of food is estimated by a measure
termed "calories," which you will study in detail
in more advanced work, but for our purpose it
serves just as well to use the gram and the ounce
as estimates, and it is well to keep these propor-
tions in mind :
28 grams equal 1 ounce, 16 ounces equal 1 pound.
While much valuable work is being done with
the purpose in view of determining the amount
of food which a person of a given age, sex, and
DIETARY STANDARDS
205
degree of activity should eat, not enough has been
accomplished as yet to make it possible to lay
down any hard and fast rules. The most com-
monly accepted American standard is that of
Dr. C. F. Langworth, that the average adult in
the United States should daily be supplied with :
Protein 4 oz. Fats 5 oz. Carbohydrates 13 oz.
Making an approximate of 22 oz. of solid food
per day besides from three to six pints of liciuid.
From these figures, for a man who exerts much
physical energy, the following menu is suggested
and contains the above amounts of food propor-
tions :
BREAKFAST
1 prepared wheat biscuit
1 Clip medium cream
1 tbsp. sugar
2 slices of toast
2 one-inch cubes of butter
y4. cup coffee
% cup cream
1 egg, poached
LUNCH
1 cup chicken soup
2 water wafers
1 baked potato (medium)
macaroni with cheese sauce
(1 cup)
1 apple fritter
2 tbsp. maple syrup
Yi pint milk
DINNER
1 cup cream of tomato soup
2 water wafers
1 lamb chop broiled (lean)
mashed potatoes (1 cup)
2 parker house rolls
2 one-inch cubes butter
1 tbsp. jelly
1 slice pineapple — lettuce
mayonnaise — nuts
1 water wafer
rice pudding (i/4 cup)
with cream
lA inch cube cheese
4 tbsp. black coffee
206
FOOD AND CLOTHING
For a teacher or man or woman of indoor voca-
tion the daily supply should be : Protein, 3 oz. ;
fats, 3 oz. ; carbohydrates, 11 oz.
BREAKFAST
J^ orange
1 cup oatmeal (steamed;
1 cup medium cream
2 tbsp. sugar
2 slices toast
1 one-inch cube butter
1 cup milk
LUNCH
J/2 cup cream corn soup
2 wafers
1 three-inch cube white
fish (tomato sauce)
34 cup creamed potatoes
2 slices whole wheat
l)read
] one-inch cube butter
4 stewed prunes with
juice
1 cup milk
DINNER
1 slice roast beef (1 cub. 1 one-inch cube butter
inches)
1 medium sized boiled
potato
y'2 cup spinach
]/,; cup cottage cheese —
cream
2 slices white bread
1 tbsp. grape jelly
J4 cup apple, celery and
nut salad (mayonnaise
dressing)
1 water wafer
^ cup thin custard
water
For the average school girl of from twelve to
sixteen years of age the following amounts are
approximate in temperate climates: Protein,
31/2 oz. ; fats, 2^ oz. ; carbohydrates, 10 oz.
DIETARY STANDARDS
207
BREAKFAST
3/2 cup oatmeal with 1
1
banana
2
Yj cup medium cream
1
1 tbsp. sugar
1
1 graham muffin
1
2 one-inch cubes butter
1
4 tbsp. maple syrup
1 cup milk
V2
r.UNCH
cup vegetable soup
wafers
slice lean bacon, crisp
baked potato (medium)
one-inch cube butter
three-inch cube corn
bread
cup baked custard
DINNER
1 lean chop, broiled
(well d(me)
J4 cup creamed turnips
34 cup steamed peas
2 stocks young celery
2 parker house rolls
1 tbsp. jelly
Yi cup lettuce and hai'd-
boiled egg salad
(mayonnaise)
water or milk
1 baked apple — cream
Needless Buying of Expensive Foods
With people generally, and especially those witli
moderate incomes, the mistake is made of buying'
expensive foods or those out of season when tlie
less expensive fruits, vegetables, or meats wouhl
serve the purpose just as well. Strawberries, at
25 cents per box, tomatoes at 20 cents per pound
or grapefruit at 15 cents apiece, are luxuries, yet-
it is often those who can least afford it that in-
dulge in these extravagances. On the other hand
a woman may be very anxious to do the best she
can for her family on a limited income, but is ig-
208 FOOD AND CLOTHING
norant of the nutritive value of the cheaper foods
and how to cook them to the best advantage; Eggs
at 30 cents per dozen can be replaced with cheaper
cuts of meat, beans, peas, etc., which will give
three times as much nourishment for the money
expended.
Housekeepers need to learn that there is a
higher nutritive value in some of the cheaper
foods when compared in price with the costlier
kinds ; that the present methods of cooking in the
average home must be improved, and that to make
the table more attractive will be an excellent
means for making the home life more enjoyable.
1. What do we mean by "balanced rations?"
2. How will carefully selected foods effect onr gen-
eral health?
3. Compare the inclinations of meat eatino: animals
to vegetable or grass eating animals.
4. In M'hat way might a heavy and excessive meat
diet affect our disposition?
5. Give reasons why it might affect our health.
6. Why do M-e need to eat coarse vegetables, as cab-
bage, turnips, celery, etc. ?
7. Explain why we should not allow our appetite to
govern our selection of food.
8. What are the dangers of over-eating?
9. Why does a man at hard work need more fats
and protein in proportion than the man of indoor life?
10. Why does a teacher or pupil need less food, and
in different proportions, than the man* who works in tlie
field all dav ?
CHAPTER XXIIT
PLANNING MEALS
It is the duty of every liomekeeper to plan her
meals at least a day ahead. After breakfast, make
out the menu for dinner, luncheon and the break-
fast foT the next morning. In doing this, three
points are to be considered :
First, will your meals, as planned, contain each
of the food principles as given in dietary stand-
ards, known to be necessary to a well-balance<l
meal for body building.
Second, have you made arrangements to have in
the house all of the materials necessary to the ful-
filling of the menu ? In many homes the meals are
so poorly planned that when the preparation is
started, the coft'ee can will be found empty, the
sugar used, the baking powder or the butter or
the flour vessels empty. At the last minute, the
children or the husband is sent to the nearby
grocery store or to some neighbor for help. For-
tunately, the teaching of domestic science in
schools is fast doing away with the *' borrowing
housewife. ' '
Third, have you planned to use up all your
209
210 FOOD AND CLOTHING
left-overs? In no other way can a good house-
keeper show her skill more than in making;
palatable and attractive dishes from the remnants
left of other meals.
This much of the preliminary done, we shall
consider each of the steps in detail. From our
study of balanced meals we know that we must
have protein, fats, carbohydrates and besides
these, bulk, meaning coarse vegetables, fruits, or
breads, which may or may not have food value,
but which will aid in carrying the other foods
along the alimentary tract. For many years
farmers have known that to keep their stock in
the most healthful condition they must feed them,
besides grains, a "roughage," straw, hay, etc.
People, generally, are just beginning to realize
that they too must have ' ' roughage, ' ' obtained by
eating such food stuffs as celery, cabbage, turnips,
lettuce, and some fruits cooked with the skins, as
cranberry sauce, unpeeled apples and the like.
From the chapter on ''Foods" in this text, it
is easy to determine from what sources the differ-
ent food principles may be obtained. This dinner
was served in the home of a very intelligent fam-
ily : Eoast beef, gravy, baked beans, cheese souf-
fle, bread, butter, water. Notice that the foods
were all proteins, practically no carbohydrates,
and very little fats. Any one of the three pro-
teins, with potatoes, or rice and a coarse vegetable,
PLANNING MEALS 211
bread, and some fruit would liave been more
wholesome, more digestible and less expensive.
Of What Meals Should be Composed
A breakfast should, if possible, consist of fruit,
cereal and cream, eggs, or crisp bacon, or fish;
bread, butter and a drink and, perhaps, a syrup.
A luncheon should consist of a heavy soup, some
of the proteins, potatoes, or rice, bread, butter,
fruit arranged as a salad, and one of the light
desserts of the custard variety. A dinner should
consist of two vegetables, one of the coarse variety
and one a starch, a meat, well cooked, a jelly or
preserve, bread, butter, a salad of any variety ex-
cept a meat, a dessert of w^ell-made pastry, per-
haps, small piece of cheese, and a drink. A clear
soup served at the beginning of a dinner is a good
addition.
Service
There are two forms of service, family service,
where the food for the whole meal is placed on
the table at once, and. formal service, where the
foods of the different classes are served separ-
ately or in courses.
The family service is undoubtedly the easier,
though not the most attractive way of serving
and is most frequently used in families where
there is only one pair of hands to carry on the
212 FOOD AND CLOTHING
work and where the conservation of strength and
time are the main problems. Even in this simple
service the dishes should be made to look neat and
attractive and the table should be well-arranged.
In the formal service, the courses for the dif-
ferent meals and their order of serving is as fol-
lows:
BREAKFAST
LUNCHEON
1.
Fruit
1.
Heavy soup or a fruit
2.
Cereal
2.
Light meat with vege-
■S.
SimpL
e egg or meat
tables, bread
dish
, bread 3.
Salad
4.
A sweet (cakes or waf- 4.
Dessert
fie,
synip) 5.
Drink
5.
Drink
DINNER
1.
Relish (tart drink or
canape)
2.
Cocktail (fruit or fish)
3.
Clear soup
4.
Fish (with potatoes,
bread and relish)
5.
A roast, two vegetables, bread, sweet.
6.
Water ice.
7.
Salad
8.
Dessert
9.
Cheese — water crackers
10.
Black coffee — mints
Repetition of Foods and Flavors
Care must be taken not to repeat a food or a
flavor in a meal. In the formal dinner, if the cock-
PLANNING :\IEALS 213
tail is a fruit, the salad should be a vegetable;
if the roast is beef, and a fowl or fish course is to
be served, a vegetable soup should be used; if
the roast is fowl the soup may be beef, or vege-
table. Often at dinners, nuts are used as many as
three times ; on the table, on the salad, in the des-
sert. This should never be, and the hostess who
serves chicken soup at the beginning of her
luncheon and chicken salad later on, displays
very bad taste. Oysters are often repeated at a
dinner, as oyster soup, or cocktail followed by
oyster dressing with the tui'key, or scalloped
oysters ; all of which go to show how little thought
is given to the planning of satisfactory meals.
A Study of Household Expenses
1. Make a list of the different necessary foods used
in every household, with the prices as used.
2. Make a trip to the market with a lesson on how to
select the best foods; also a trip to the butcher shop to
make a study of meat cuts, etc.
3. Work out the menus for the meals for a day for
a family of four that will cost not over 50 cents.
4. Take up the expense of the average household —
lights, heat, water, repairs, and study ways and means
of economy in each.
5. Study the cost of clothing for men, women, and
children, and the ways and means of economy along this
line.
6. Work out the division of a man's salary which is
$520 per year, for a family of four, rent to pay or build-
214 FOOD AND CLOTHING
ing and loan payments to meet. Give one week's kitchen
expense in full with each day's menu worked out.
In working out this division of salary, make an
allowance for the yearly expense under these
items, — rent, heat, lights, clothes, food, new fur-
niture, replacing broken dishes and kitchen uten-
sils, doctor, dentist or medicine, gifts, amusement,
carfare, church, magazines, papers, school books,
stationery and accessories. Under accessories will
be included tooth brushes and powder, pins, toilet
articles, etc. When itemizing the clothing for each
member of the family, make a complete list needed
for summer and winter with ways of economizing
for each.
DOMESTIC ART
CHAPTER XXIV
TEXTILES
Olotli from which garments are made is of one
of two fibers — animal or vegetable. Animal fibers
are silk, wool, mohair. Vegetable fibers are cotton
and flax.
Animal fibers are characterized by their com-
position of protein and sulphur, so plainly de-
tected by the o.dor when portions are burned. This
is one of the surest tests of the difference between
an animal and a vegetable fabric — the odor
evolved on burning. Animal fibers are made up
of tubes which are elastic in appearance and have
the power to shrink or elongate under certain
conditions.
Wool is the covering of the skin of sheep — a
mass of short, kinky hair. Under a magnifying
glass, each hair is seen to be made up of scales,
piled one upon the other, somewhat as fish scales.
These scales may over-lap each other nearly their
full length or may be pulled out until only the tip
edges are touching.
215
216 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Mohair is the long silky hair of angora goats.
In structure it resembles wool, with the exception
that its scales lie very close together with very
little lap. This gives it its luster and stiffness.
Silk is the continuous thread spun from the
cocoon of the silk worm. In structure, when mag-
nified, the threads show a smooth surface, like
firm gelatine. This gives to it its softness and its
luster.
Vegetable fibers are made up of tubes composed
of small cells which form fibers. These cells are
easily broken apart, giving the fibers this char-
acteristic : when a vegetable fiber thread is broken
it snaps, while the animal fiber threads gradually
pull apart.
Cotton is the lint of a plant which grows in
warm countries. This lint is separated from the
seed, carded, spun into thread and woven into
various cloths. (Head cotton culture in an agri-
culture text.)
Linen is made from the fiber of the flax plant.
It is grown to some extent in this country, but
more extensively in Ireland, Holland, and other
European countries. When it has attained its
growth, it is pulled up by the roots, the seeds
removed and the straws tied in bundles and
thrown in water to soak about one week. This
is called retting. Eetting causes the hard cellulose
on the outside of the plant to decompose and slip
TEXTILES 217
off. When the retting is during exactly the right
length of time the linen has a luster. If the straw
is left in the water too long we have a dull looking
cloth.
Weaving. All fibers are first spun into threads
and these threads woven into cloth. Some are
colored before they are woven, and in others the
cloth is colored or stamped.
Cotton cloths. Cotton is much used for under-
clothes, dresses, waists and skirts and is made
in various weaves and has numerous names; but
the standard cloths are :
1. For underclothes — muslin, longcloth, nain-
sook and cambric.
2. For wash dresses and waists — lawn, calico,
crepe, pique, and ginghams.
3. For separate skirts — Indian head, crash,
heavy pique, and poplin.
These goods will shrink, and it is wise to have
them shrunk by soaking them in boiling water
for 30 minutes, drying and ironing smooth with a
very hot iron, before they are made into gar-
ments.
CHAPTER XX
PLAIN SEWING
It is necessary to know something of the dif-
ferent stitches and seams with their appropriate
use, before attempting to apply them in garment
making. Seams and stitches may be ripped and
made over, but in some cases the appearance of
the garment is spoiled, and it is much better to
practice the various seams and stitches on odd
pieces of cloth, until their use and making is un-
derstood.
The thimble, a hood of silver, gold, or aluminum
is to be worn on the middle finger of the right
hand for use in pushing the needle through the
goods. Most girls must be taught to use a thimble,
but its use must be insisted upon on account of
the danger that the needle will break the skin of
the fingers and hand.
The needle, a smooth slender steel piece used
to carry the thread, is made in various sizes and
lengths. We may buy them in packages all of one
size or in assorted sizes, with numbers ranging
from 5's to 10 's, etc. The small numbers are for
the coarse thread, the higher numbers for the
fine thread. A No. 8 needle will carry thread from
60 to 80, No. 5 needle, thread from 30 to 40.
218
PLAIN 8EWIXG 219
The thread, hard twists of cotton, linen or silk
fiber, is manufactured in practically every shade
and size. For convenience it is wound on spools in
lengths from 50 to 200 yards. The sizes of the
thread are designated by numbers and letters.
When selecting cotton thread for a certain ma-
terial, buy the number that is the same size as
the warp of the cloth. In hand sewing, measure
the thread from the hand to the shoulder to de-
termine the length. Beginners generally use too
long threads. It is an economy of time and en-
ergy to thread a needle often rather than to use
the extra energy in pulling a long thread through
and untying and unfastening the knots that long
threads make.
To thread a needle. Break or cut the thread
from the spool, twist the end between the thumb
and finger until it is pointed, then force it through
the eye of the needle. Do not bite tluj thread from
the spool or wet the end of the thread in the
mouth. These practices are unsanitary and wet
thread soils the work.
The stitches. Bastings, — hasty stitches made in
garments to hold goods in place until permanent
stitches are made. There are three basting stitches
used, even hasting — the stitches and spaces are of
even length, about % inch long, and are used in
shoulder, under arm and skirt seams ; uneven hast-
ing— the stitches are of uneven length usually two
220
FOOD AND CLOTHING
^■^y- ^-y-y j^yv Jr/^^^7"Z^7^^ ^r / >.^
g
h
.<.^ ^ .^ ^ ^
(a) overcasting.
(b) even basting.
(c) uneven basting.
(d) diagonal basting.
(e) running stitch.
(f) stitclTing or back stitch.
(g) fell seam, machine and whipped edge,
stitched it is sometimes called a tailored seam,
(h) overhand seam showing one edge overcast,
(i) French seam.
When machine
PLAIN SEWING 221
short and one long stitch is taken. This basting-
is used in hems, etc. ; diagonal hasting — the
stitches are taken in the goods in a vertical line,
from y^ to 2 inches apart. Thijs basting is used
mostly in tailoring when paddings and stiffening
are fastened together.
Permanent stitches are made in place of machine
stitches; running stitch, the stitches are of even
length and very small, often only two threads of
the goods between stitches; back stitch, each new
stitch is begun in the goods where the last stitch
finished, an imitation of machine work; whipping
stitch, the threads of the goods are taken up by the
needle, then the edge of the goods. Used in hems.
Seams constitute the manner of fastening edges
of materials together:
Plain seams are made by sewing the edges of
two materials from i/4 to 1 inch from the edges.
Open seams have the edges of the plain seams
pressed open and over-cast.
French seams have the edges of the goods first
made into a plain seam on the right side of the
goods, then this seam is trimmed very near to the
raw edges turned in to the wrong side and stitched.
Fell seams have a plain seam made on the right
side, one edge of the cloth in the seam is trimmed
very close to the stitching and the other folded
over the short edge, turned down and stitched.
This is used in underclothes, shirts, tailored waists
222
FOOD AND CLOTHING
a. Overt- a s t
edges Of button-
hole.
b. Worked but-
ton-hole. One end
fanned, the other
barred.
c. d. Hook and
eye fastened in
place with button-
hole or blanket
stitch.
e. Blind - eye
made with blanket
stitch.
f. The blind-
eye in process of
making.
g. To sew on a
two-hole button.
h. To sew on a
four-hole button.
PLATE V
PLAIN SEWING 223
and suits. Tlie wide edge in this seam should be
folded toward the back.
Overhanded seams are made w^itli the edges of
the two pieces of cloth folded back the width of a
seam, then the creased edges placed together and
whipped.
To make button-hole stitch. Pull the thread
through the goods once, place the needle through
the goods again, bring the threads from the eye of
the needle around its point and then pull the
needle through. This will make a knot or ' ' purl ' '
on the edge of the cloth.
Button-holes should be cut, their length with
the length of the goods, and may be made with
rounding ends, where there is no strain on the
ends, or with one end or both ends barred, where
there is a great strain. In goods that frays very
easily the edges should be overcast before the
button-hole is worked.
Hooks and eyes should be lightly fastened in
place by a basting thread, and then made per-
manent with the button-hole stitch.
Plackets are finishings for openings of skirts
at the belts, or for shirt sleeves at the cuff. The
continuous placket, is made by sewing the strip of
cloth, cut lengthwise of the goods, straight around
the edge of the placket, turning the top edge over
the raw seam and whipping it down. This placket
224 FOOD AND CLOTHING
is best for the skirts of wash dresses and should
he from 9 to 11 inches deep.
PLATE VI
(a) The faced edge. (b) The bound edge.
Bound edge. Extended finishing of an edge.
Faced edge. The entire finishing is turned back
on the goods.
The different steps to be followed in making the
four foundation garments are given in order of
their application. When the making of these four
garments, with their various problems, is mas-
tered, all plain sewing will be simply a matter of
application and judg-ment.
PLAIN SEWING
225
PLATE VII
Darning-. Suitable for mending- table linen, lace, stockings
or woolens.
226 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Use of Patterns
There are many companies ayIio make good, re-
liable patterns. These patterns state length of
skirt, bust and waist measure, and the number of
yards of material, of stated widths, required.
When selecting a waist pattern, buy according to
bust measures ; when selecting a skirt pattern, buy
according to waist measure. To obtain waist
measure, place tape around smallest part of waist.
For bust measurement, take loose measure around
the fullest part of bust well down in front and
slightly raised at back.
Read carefully all printed explanation found
with pattern. Follow these instructions closely,
and thus avoid mistakes in cutting and putting the
pieces together. Pin the entire pattern upon the
cloth before cutting. This will eliminate waste
of cloth.
Plan of Skirt JMaking
1. Baste seams together and fit to figure.
2. INIake permanent seams (French or Fell).
3. Press all seams.
4. Make placket (continuous placket preferred).
5. Finish top with band ^ inch wide (on straight
of goods) or face at waist line.
6. Hem or face at desired length. (To obtain length:
measure from floor, with a ruler or gage, the distance the
skirt is desired from the floor, and mark with chalk or
pins.)
PLAIN SEWING 227
To Make Waist
1. Baste shoulder and under-arm seams.
2. Fit to figure.
3. Make permanent seams. (French seam in thin ma-
terial, fell seam in heavy material.)
4. Hem or put box plait on right side of waist, face
left side.
5. Finish at neek with band or collar.
6. ]\Iake seams in sleeve to correspond with seams in
waist.
7. Put sleeve in by matching notches in sleeve and
eye of arm (bind or fell).
8. Obtain desired length of sleeve and finish with
cuff or facing.
9. Finish bottom with band or narrow hem.
To Make Corset Cover
1. Baste seams and fit.
2. ]\Iake narrow French seams.
3. Hem right side, face left side of front.
4. Face arms, eye and top, with narrow bias strips
turned to the wrong side and stitched.
5. Finish at waist with 34 -inch band or narrow hem.
6. Work small button-holes, cut lengthwise of mate-
rial. Sew on buttons.
7. Trim with lace or embroidery.
To Make Drawers
1. Stitch front and back seams.
2. jNIatch front and back seams at crotch and stitch —
thus forming the legs. All seams are narrow French
seams.
PLAIN SEWING 229
3. Allow nine inches opening at back or side for
placket.
4. Finish with continnous placket.
5. P'inish at waist with straiglit or shaped band.
6. AVork button-hole and sew on buttons or sew on
tape.
7. Hem legs with narrow hem or facing, then tinish
with trimming.
To Repair Garments or Linens
Three methods are used to repair worn or torn
garments and linens; namely, patching, mending
and darning.
Patching is used mostly on cotton goods. The
rent is cut into the smallest possible square, the
corners clipped, and the edges folded to the wrong-
side. Place under this a piece of the goods, the
length of the patch with the length of the goods
in the garment, and the stripes or figures in exact
line with those that were cut out. Whip down the
folded edges of the square, turn to the w^rong side,
cut the patch one inch from the wdiipped edge, fold
under the edges and fasten to the goods with the
running or wiiipping stitch.
PLATE VTTT
a. Continuous placket showing straiglit .strip of goods
sewed to tlie cut edges. b. Continuous placket witli the
.straiglit strip folded in place and ready for the band or finishing,
c. Snagged or torn place in cotton or linen garments. d.
Patch for linen or cotton garments, f. Snagged or torn place
in woolen garment, g. Mended place in woolen garment. The
rough edges are pressed flat, then with a raveling from the
goods the edges are darned flat. All raw edges are trimmed
with the scissors after the darning.
230 FOOD AND CLOTHING
Mending is used mostly on woolens, mohair and
table linens. When mending, if the rent is very
large, a piece of the goods is fastened under the
tear, the edges pressed flat upon it, and with ravel-
ings from the goods, the edges are woven back in
place. In very fine goods a long hair, is often
used in place of the thread in the weaving.
Darning is used mostly on table linen, knitted
goods, stockings and laces. Darning is weaving
back in place threads that have been removed or
worn away. The illustration shows how the threads
are first placed in the length of the goods and then
another thread woven back and forth through
them.
INDEX
Abbreviations, 24, 25.
Accessories, 21.
Apples, I'JO.
baked, 1!);5.
baked — Creole style, 1!)2.
Apple sauce, 192, 193.
Apricot ice, 198.
Asparagus, canning of, 127.
preparation of, 48, 49
B
Bacteria, defined, 159.
Baking powder, wlien used. 96.
Baking powder biscuits, 97, 98.
Baking, tenii)erature for, 170.
time for, 170.
Balanced rations, 20, 2i.
Bananas, 190.
Bean puree, 181.
Beef, composition of, 02, (K!, 64.
creamed, 147.
effect of heat on, 135.
food value of, 135, 130.
tender cuts of, 135.
ways of cooking, 64, 05.
Beef stew, 69, 70.
Beets, boiled, 48.
Blackberry jelly, 125.
Blanc mange, 133.
Boneing a roast, 137, 138.
Bound edge, 224.
Bread, brown, 165, 160.
German coffee, 164.
nut, 165.
white, 163.
whole wheat. 163, 164.
Bread griddle cakes, 108.
Bread omelet, 38.
Bread pudding, 132, 133.
Brisket, boiled, 69.
Brown bread, 165, 166.
Brown gravv, 66.
]>utter, (h'fined, 151.
Butter or other fats, how to
cream, 168, 169.
Button-holes, 223.
Button-hole stitch, 223.
C
Cabbage, boiled, 46, 47.
boiled with pork, 47.
creamed, 47.
Cake, angel food, 172, 173.
causes for cracking, 171.
causes for falling, 170.
chocolate, 171.
plain, 171.
spice, 172.
sponge, 173, 174.
sunshine, 173.
white, 171.
Cake icings, 174, 175.
Candied orange peel, 60.
Candied sweet potatoes, 49.
Candy making, 56, 57.
Canning. 126.
Carving a fowl. 142, 143.
Carrots, creamed, 50, 51.
Cauliflower, creamed, 47.
Cereals, defined, 86, 87.
digestion of, 88.
general directions for cook-
ing, 87, 88.
Cheese, composition of, 82.
cottage. 85.
digestibility of, 83.
how- made." 82, 83.
why served with pie, 83.
Cheese balls, 84.
Cheese sandwiches, 85.
Cheese sauce, 89, 90.
Cheese straws, 156, 157.
Ciiicken, baked, 141.
creamed, 147.
i31
232
LNDEX
dressing a, 139, 140.
fried and cream gravy, 14U.
smothered, 140.
Chocolate cake, 171.
Chocolate custard, 133.
Chocolate nut fudge, 58, 51).
Clear consomme, 179.
Cocoa, composition of. 111. 112.
how made, 112.
Cocoanut cream candy, 58.
Codfish, creamed, 77.
CoiTee, boiled, 115.
defined, 114.
how to make, 114, 115.
percolated, 115.
Condiments, 144, 145.
Cooked salad dressing. 183.
Cooking, coagulation, 36.
defined, 21.
methods of, 22.
things to remember Avhen, 17,
18.
Corn, green, 50.
Cornmeal mutlins. 105, 106.
Cornmeal mush, 88, 89.
Corset cover, directions for
making, 227.
Cotton cloths, 217.
Cotton-seed oil, 150. 151.
Crabapple jelly, 125.
Cranberry jelly, 125, 126.
Cream filling, 105.
Cream puff's, 104, 105.
Cream of corn soup, 180.
Cream of tartar, 96.
Cream of tomato soup, 180, 181.
Cream of wheat with dates, 88.
('reamed dried beef. 69.
Croquettes, 147, 148.
Currants, 191.
Custard pie, 154, 155.
Custards, composition of, 130,
131.
firm, 131, 132.
thin, 131.
D
Dietary statements. 204. 205.
Dirt, defined, 159.
Dish washing, 18.
Domestic art, defined, 16,
Domestic science, defined, 15.
Dougiinuts, 101.
Doughs and batters, 94, 95, 96.
Drawers, directions for mak-
ing, 227. 229.
Dressing, 65.
Dried beef, creamed, 69.
Drop batters, 102.
Dumjjlings, 99.
E
Egg sandwiches, 37.
Eggs, as a thickening agent,
130.
composition of, 33. 34.
golden-rod, 37.
hard cooked or boiled, 36. 37.
how they leaven. 103.
how to tell fresh, 34.
poached, 36.
preserving, 35.
scrambled, 38.
soft cooked or "boiled," 36.
why they spoil, 34, 35.
Equipment, 10.
F
Fats, digestion of. 152, 153.
Figs, 190.
Fireless cooker, 23.
Fish, classification of, 75, 76.
Flank steak, rolled, 65.
Foamy omelet, 38.
Fondant, 59, 60.
Food, 19.
Fowls, 138.
French dressing, 182.
Fricasseed steak, 67.
Fritters, 104. '
Fruit, 189, 190.
Fruit dumplings. 193, 194.
G
Garments or linens, directions
for repairing, 229, 230.
German coffee bread. 164.
German saute, 46.
Gluten, test for, 94.
Goose, baked, 141.
(Jraham gems, 104.
Grape jelly, 124, 125.
INDEX
233
Grapes, 191.
Griddle cakes, 107, 108.
H
Haul sandwiches. I'.i.
Hamburg steak, 67.
Hams, to cook smoked, 74.
Hard sauce, 157, 158.
Hash balls, 146.
Heat, degrees of in the oven.
24.
degrees of in water, 24.
Hooks and eyes, 223.
Home economics, defined, 15.
Hominy grits, 91.
Hot fat, testing, 78.
House keepers, 13, 14.
Household expenses, a studv of,
213, 214.
JVI
]Macaroni an gratin, 92.
defined, 91.
with tomato sauce, 92.
Macaroon pudding, 134.
Management, class, 11, 12.
Marshmallows, 60, 61.
Mayonnaise, 182, 183.
Meals, of what they should be
composed, 211.
Meat pic. 145, 146.
Mildew, defined, 159.
Milk, composition of, 26, 27.
how classified, 27, 28.
why it sours. 28, 29, 30.
:\Iince meat, 148, 149.
Molds, defined, 159.
Muffins. 102.
Mutton, defined, 74. 75.
Ice creams, composition of. 196.
how to freeze, 196, 197.
why salt is used in freez-
ing, 197.
Iced tea. 113, 114.
Ice, apricot, 198.
lemon, 197, 198.
Ices and sherliets, 196.
Icing, Caramel, 175.
chocolate, 175, 176.
white, 175.
Instructions to pupils, 16.
Jars, preparation of, 126.
Jelly, blackberry, 125.
crabapple, 125.
cranberry, 125-126.
defined, "123.
grape, 124, 125.
how made, 123, 124.
Laboratory, in the, 16.
Lard, defined, 151.
Lemon ice, 197, 198.
Lemonade, 116.
Lesson, methods of conducting,
14.
Light rolls. 164, 165.
N
Xeedle, defined, 218.
how to thread, 219.
Needless buying of expensi\e
foods, 207," 208.
Nut bread, 165.
Nut taffy, 58.
Nuts, composition of, 151, 152.
O
Oatmeal cookies, 101, 102.
Omelet, bread, 38.
foamy, 38.
Onions, creamed, 50.
Onion dressing, 141.
Orange marmalade, 128.
Oranges, use of, 191.
Over eating. 204.
Oyster dressing, 141.
Oyster soup, 79, 80.
Oysters, 79.
creamed. 80.
scalloped, 80.
Paraffin, use of, 124.
Parker house rolls, 165.
Pastry, 153.
Patterns, use of. 226.
Peanut brittle, 57.
Pears, 190.
234 INDEX
r^as, creamed, 51, 52. Rice
riiilailelphia ice cream, I'.l'S.
Physical anil .nental eilects of
food, 202, 203.
Pickling, 128, 129.
Pie, apple, 155, 156.
banana, 192.
Pie crust, 153, 154.
Pies, berry, 156.
cream, 155.
one crust, 154. 155.
why they are indigestible,
153.
Pineapple sherbet, 198.
Plackets, defined, 223, 224.
Plain cake. 171.
Plan of skirt making, 226.
Pork chop with dressing, 72,
73.
Pork, cooking of, 72.
defined, 71, 72.
Pot roast, 70.
Potato, composition of the, 42,
43.
Potato balls, 77.
Potato chips, 158.
Potato soup, 180.
Potatoes, baked. 45.
baked on the half shell, 45,
46.
boiled. 44.
boiled in jackets, 44. 45.
effects of Meat on, 43.
French fried, 158.
Pour batters, 106, 107.
Preserving, defined, 127, 128.
eggs, 35.
Prunes, 191, 192.
Prune sauce, 193.
Prune wnip, 193.
Pupils, instructions to, 16.
Q
Quail, 142.
Quick cinnamon rolls, 99.
Quince, 191.
R
Repairing garments or linens,
229, 230.
Repetition of foods and flavors
212, 213.
baked, 90.
with cheese sauce, 89.
Rice pudding, 133, 134.
Roast beef and brown gravy,
137,
Rolled oats — apple sauce, 90,
91.
Roquefort cheese salad dress-
ing, 183.
188.
186.
133.
187.
79.
78.
S
Salad, a meat, 183
as|)aragus, 185.
cabbage, 185.
chicken. 187,
vy^i:, 188.
gelatine, 185.
how to serve
pineapple, 186,
potato, 184-185.
tomato, 185.
Waldorf, 186.
Salads, defined, 181, 182
fruit, 184.
nu»at, 187.
vegetable, 184.
Salmon, scalloped, 78,
Salmon bisque, 181.
Salmon croquettes, 77,
Salted cherries, 129.
Sandwich dressing, 73.
Saute liver and bacon.
Seams, classification
223.
Service, 211, 212.
Short cakes, 100.
Shrimp, creamed, 80. 81.
Skirt making, plan of, 226
Soda biscuits, 98, 99.
Soda, when used, 96.
Soft dough, 97.
Soft ginger bread, 106.
Soup, 177, 178. 179.
Southern waffles, 109.
Spinach, preparation of.
Starch, whv it thickens
Steak, broi'led, 136.
pan broiled, 136.
planked, 136, 137.
Sterilization, 121, 122
Stiff doughs, 100.
74.
of.
221,
47. 48.
31.
123.
INDEX
235
Stitches, bastiiij,', 21'.), 221.
peiinaiR'nt, 221.
Strawberries, 11)1.
String beans, creamed, 51.
Suet, defined, 151.
Suet pudding, 157.
Sugar, classification of, 53, 54,
55.
Sugar cookies, 100.
individual recipe for. 100,
101.
Sugar, digestion of. 55.
effect of heat upon, 55. 56.
Suggestions to teachers, !).
Sweetbreads, how to prei)are.
71.
Sweet potatoes, candieil. 40.
Sweet potato puffs, 40.
Table service (formal), 110,
120.
Table setting (informal i . ll'.i.
Tamala pie, 140, 147.
Tea, how made, 112, li;{.
iced, 113, 114.
Tea biscuits, 166.
Tea cakes, 103.
Tea and coffee, 110, 111.
Teachers, suggestions to, 0.
Tests, 96, 97.
Tests for telling when a cake
is done, 170.
Textih^s, classification of, 215,
216, 217.
Tliiml)le, defined, 218.
Thread, defined, 219.
Timbail cases, 107.
Toasted bun caps, 37.
Tomato bouillon, 179.
Tomato sauce, 92.
Tomatoes, 49.
scalloped, 49, 50.
Turkey, baked, 140, 141.
Turnips, 50.
V
Veal, defined, 70, 71.
Vegetable foods, classification
of, 40.
Vegetable soup, 179, ISO.
Vegetables, composition of, 39,
40.
cooking of, 41, 42.
digestibility of, 40.
W
^^■affles, 108, 109.
southern, 109.
Waist, directions fiir making,
227.
Warmed over dishes, 144.
Weaving, 217.
Weights and measures, 25.
Welsh rarebit I, 84.
Welsh rarebit II, 84.
Wliite bread, 163.
White fish, baked — fresfi pt)tato
l)alls, 76.
White sauce. 30. 31.
Whole wheat bread, 163, 164.
Yeast, 160, 161, 162, 163.
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