Full text of "Food and dietetics"

See other formats

f- -''"^

' P

te?

It**..*-! =

IK^

^^rars

H^Bs^ry^^i!

^-^^^^ ^ ,

!
1

/^BB^^^^^Bb

M^^pH^S;

■'j^P

^ylrX

THE LIBRARY

HOME ECONOMICS

A COMPLETE HOME-STUDY COURSE

ON THK MCW PROFESSION OF HOME-MAKING AND AKT OF RIGHT LIV-
1N(!: TllIO ntAOTlCAL AITLICATION OF THE MOST RECENT AD-
VANCES IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES TO HOME AND HEALTH

TEEPAEED BY TEACHEKS OF
EECOGXIZED ArTHORTTY

FOR HOME-MAKERS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NCRSEl
DIETITIANS, J'ROFKSSIONAL IIOISK MANAGERS, AND ALL INTER-
ESTED IN HOME, HEALTH, ECONOMY AND CHILDREN

TWEL\^E VOLUMES

NEARLY THREE THoCSAND PAGES. ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS

TESTED BY i:SE IN CORRKSI'ONDENCK INSTRUCTION

REVISED AND SUPPLEMENTED

CHICAGO

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS

1911

Home Econo.mics Associati

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London

All Ri'jhls Reserved

AUTHORS

ISABEL BEYIER, Ph. M.

Professor of Household Science, University of Illinois. Au-
thor U. S. (iovernment Bulletins, "Development of the Home
Economics Movement." "Selection and Preparation of Food, "
etc. I'resident American Home Economics Association.

ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, M. A.

.Assistant Professor of Home Economics, School of Education,
University of Chicago : Director of the Chautauqua SchofJ of
Domestic Science ; Author "Teaching of Home Economics."

S. MARIA ELLIOTT

Instructor In Home Economics. Simmons College ; Formerly
Instructor School of Housekeeping, Boston.

ANNA BARROWS

Teacher of Cool<ery. Teachers' College. Columbia University.
Director Chautauqua School of Cookery : formerly Editor
"American Kitchen Magazine" ; Author "Home Science Cook
Book."

ALFRED CLEVELAND COTTON, A.M., M. D.

Professor Diseases of Children, Rush Medical College. T'ni-
versity of Chicago; Vis'ting Physician Presbvterian Hos-
pital, Chicago ; Author of "Diseases of Children."

BERTHA M. TERRILL. A. B.

Professor of Home Economics and Dean of Women, Univer-
sity of Vermont : Author of U. S. Government Bulletins.

KATE HEINTZ WATSON

Formerly Instructor in Domestic Economy, Lewis Institute :
Lecturer University of Chicago.

MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE

Editor "The Mothers' Magazine ;" Lecturer Chicago Froebel
Association ; Author "E'verydiy Essays," "Family Secrets,"
etc.

MARGARET E. DODD

Graduate Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; Teacher of
Science, Woodward Institute.

AMY ELIZABETH POPE

With the Panama Canal Commission ; Formerly Instruct.or
in Practical and Theoretical Nursing, Training School for
Nurses, Presbyterian Hospital, New York City.

MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B.

Director American School of Home Economics : Member
American Public Health Association and American Chemical
Society.

CONTRIBUTORS AND EDITORS

ELLEX H. RICHARDS

Author "Cost of Food," "Cost of Living," "Cost of Sheltor,'
■Food Materials and Their Adulteration," etc., etc. ; Chair-
man Lake I'lacid Conference on Home Economics.

MARY HINMAN ABEL

Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, 'Tractical Sanitary
nnd Economic Cooking," "Safe Food." etc.

THOMAS D. WOOD, M. D.

Professor of Physical Education. Columlna University.

H. M. LUFKIX, M. D.

Professor of Physical Diagnosis and Clinical .Medicine, Uui-
vin-sity of Minnesota.

OTTO FOLIX, Ph.D.

Special Investigator, McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass.

T. MITCHELL PRUDDEX, M. D., LL. D.

Author "Dust and Its Dangers," "The Story of the Bac-
teria." "Drinking Water and Ice Supplies," etc.

FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN

Architect, Boston, Mass. : Author of "The Five Orders of
Architecture," "Letters and Lettering."

MRS. MELVIL DEWEY

Secretary Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics.

HELEN LOUISE JOHNSON

Professor of Home Economics, James Millikan University,
Decatur.

FRANK W. ALLIN, M. D.

Instructor Rush Medical College, I'niversity of Chicago.

MANAGING EDITOR

MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B.

Director American School of Home Economics.

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS

MRS. ARTHUR COURTENAY NEVILLE
President of the Board.

MISS MARIA PARLOA

Founder of the first Cooking School in Boston ; Author of
"Home Economics," "Young Housekeeper," U. S. Govern-
ment Bulletins, etc.

MRS. MARY HINMAN ABEL

Co-worker in the "Xew England Kitchen," and the "Rum-
ford Food Laboratory :" Author of U. S. Government Bul-
letins. "Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking," etc.

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL

Special Commissioner sent by the British Government to re-
port on the Schools of Home Economics in the 'United
States ; Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, London.

MRS. ELLEN M. HENROTIN

Honorary President General Federation of Woman's Clubs.

MRS. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF

President National Congress of Mothers.

MRS. LINDA HULL LARNED

Past President National Household Economics Association :
Author of "Hostess of To-day."

MRS. WALTER McNAB MILLER

Chairman of the Pure Food Committee of the General
Federation of Woman's Clubs.

MRS. J. A. KIMBERLY

Vice President of National Household Economics Associa-
tion.

MRS. JOHN HOODLESS

Government Superintendent of Domestic Science for the
province of Ontario : Founder Ontario Normal School of
Domestic Science, now the MacDonald Institute.

Food AND Dietetics

ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, M. A.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

DIRECTOR OF THE CHAUTAUQUA SCHOOL OF

DOMESTIC SCIENCE

CHICAGO

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS

19II

■=^ COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY

^ AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS

Entered at Stationers Hall, London
All Rights Reserved

mil'

CONTENTS

Letter to Students
The Food Problem
Cost of Food
Food and the Body
Food Principles
Carbohydrates .
Fats

Dietary Standards
Special Food Stuffs
Meat .

Fish

Eggs ....

Milk

Milk Products .

Cereals and their Products

Bread ....

Sugar as Food

Vegetables

Fruits ....

Nuts .....

Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa

Adulteration of Food

Special Diet

Bibliography

Notes on the Questions

New Methods in Diet Calculations

Protein Metabolism in its Relation to Dietary

Standards — Otto Folin, Ph.D.
Program for Supplemental Study
Index ........

7
30

41
44
48
50
63
66
72
77
go
92
98
106

113
119
130
136
138
158
173
181
191
197

224
244
250

239299

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS
CHICAGO

January 1, 1907.

Dear Medar.:

In the study of the lessons on
Pood and Dietetics, full use should be made of
the mary interesting and valuable publications
of the United States Department of Agriculture
These are divided into the popular bulletins
and pamphlets sent free to all in the United
States and the more technical bulletins for
which a nominal price is charged.

The free publications are included chief-
ly in the series of Farmers' Bulletins and in
Extracts from Year Books, etc. The "for sale"
bulletins are issued by the various divisions o€
the Department of Agriculture, those on food
chiefly by the Office of Experiment Stations
and the Division of Chemistry.

Any or all of the free publications nay
be obtained simply by addressing the Department
of Agricultiire, V/ashington, D. C. For the "for
sale" bulletins coin or money order must be sent
to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D. C. Postage stamps are not accepted.

The full list of free and "for sale" p-ab-
lications will be sent on request by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. A fairly complete list of
the publication^ on food is given in the bibliog=
raphy, but new bulletins are constantly being
published. Their numbers, titles and contents
are given in the monthly list or new publica-
tions which is sent free on request.

Bulletins of the various state agricul-
tural experiment stations cannot be obtained
from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, but
sunmiarios are given of the more Important of

these in the series of Farmers* Bulletins called
Experiment Station Work, the contents of which
are given in the list of free publications.

Of the "for sale" bulletins, two of the
Office of Erperiraent Stations at least should be
sent for — No. 28, American Pood Materials, which
gives the composition of all ordinary foods,
price 6 cents, and No. 129, Dietary Studies in
Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia and Chicago,
price 10 cents,- interesting in connection with
the cost of food. Farmers' Bulletin No. 142,
The Nutritive and Economic Value of Food, should
be read in connection with Part I.

The food problem is a large one and al-
though nutrition by no means depends entirely
upon the composition of the food eaten, knowledge
of the character nnd coirposition of food iS funda-
mental in the selection Of a healthful diet. In
the last analysis, the food problem must always
be an Individual one based on conditions and
personal peculiarities.

If difficulties or questions arise in
connection with this series of lessons, renember
that you are always privileged to write to the
School for assistance and advice.

Sincerely yours.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

np HE problems of the household are more difficult
to-day than they have ever been, for each ad-
vance in science, each modern invention, has brought
in its train new responsibilities and new duties. In
every department of the administration of the home
more knowledge and skill are required than ever be-
fore. With the increase of conveniences has come
increased care. Standards of living have changed as
well, and greater perfection in all household service is
demanded of the home-maker.

We still carry on in the household many of the
numerous trades that were formerly a part of the home
life, as cooking, cleaning, laundry work, sewing. At
the same time more close supervision of the life of
the children, mental, m.oral and physical, is required;
more knowledge is needed to control materials if we
would have that power over our environment which
makes us the masters and not the slaves of our belong-
ings ; and the social demands upon time and strength
can not be ignored.

If to-day we would lead "the simple life," it must
be as a result of determined effort, often in the face
of more or less conscious opposition on the part of
relatives and friends and of society in general.

ProblemB
of To-Daj

The

Simple

Life

4 FOOD AND DIETETICS

Essentials Yet a Simpler life is not to be attained by ignoring
Essentials the results of science, and refusing to apply the knowl-
edge made available by the investigator; but rather
by making use of every help that will give knowledge
of the materials with which we work, that will culti-
vate the power to distinguish between the essential and
the non-essential, and that will give control of the
situation.
The Food The food problem is perhaps the most difficult of
all the physical problems that present themselves in
the household, partly because it is so vital to the wel-
fare of the family, and partly because it is so inclusive.
The food question once meant the providing some-
thing palatable and presumably wholesome at a cost
within one's means. To-day it implies a knowledge
not only of the cost and nutritive value of food mate-
rials, their composition and digestibility ; but of the
balanced ration, the proportion of different food prin-
ciples necessary for perfect nourishment, and of the
way in which this proportion should be varied to suit
the needs of the child or of the aged, of the laborer,
or of the student. An understanding of the princi-
ples involved in the preparation of food is demanded,
as well as a knowledge of food adulterations that will
insure pure food materials.

The importance of the question can scarcely be ex-
aggerated. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards tells us that "the
prosperity of a nation depends upon the health and
morals of its citizens; and the health and morals of

THE FOOD PROBLEM

a people depend mainly upon the food they eat, and
the homes they live in. Strong men and women can
not be raised on insufficient food ; good tempered, tem-
perate, highly moral men can not be expected from a
race which eats badly cooked food, irritating to the di-
gestive organs and unsatisfying to the appetite.
Wholesome and palatable food is the first step in good
morals, and is conducive to ability in business, skill
in trade, and healthy tone in literature."

It is quite true that we may put food in a wrong
position, making it an end rather than a means in
living. We should eat to live, not live to eat. Yet
we must keep in mind that right food, clothing and
shelter are the primary conditions of health, and that
health is essential to the most complete happiness and
to the highest usefulness.

Some one has said that "well dressed men and
women, well fed men and women, are still an ethical
possibility of the future." However this may be in
regard to dress, certainly an age that has devoted so
much time and thought to feeding on the stock farm,
so much attention to the right nutriment for plants,
and that has solved so many difficult problems in these
directions, should be able to lay down the principles
which govern the diet of human beings.

While the food question then is by no means the
one thing in housekeeping as it is apparently so often
considered, it yet is of real and vital importance; and
the housekeeper who desires to make the most of her

A Means
to an End

Importance
of the
rood
Problem

6 FOOD AND DIETETICS

opportunities to contribute to the extent of her ability
to the welfare of her family, should master the prin-
ciples of diet so far as they are known, should keep
an open mind toward new knowledge, and should
apply with discretion and intelligence the knowledge
now available in this direction.

THE COST OF FOOD

The first practical question that will appeal to the
housekeeper in regard to food is its cost. Long before
she asks what proportion of carbohydrate, of fat,
and of proteid she must provide for her family, the
question, "What shall I spend for food?" appeals to
her, and indeed she is often forced by absolute neces-
sity to decide the question. Later, "How shall I
spend?" will be the important problem.

Two main questions are involved. First, What Proportion

. . ., . . . , ., of Income

proportion of the family income may go for food? for Food
What is the relation of the expenditure for food to
that for rent, for clothing, for travel and amusement,
for books and education? Second, What is the mini-
mum cost per individual of food sufficient to give nec-
essary nourishment? How much shall this minimum
cost be exceeded for the sake of added attractiveness,
increased digestibility, or adaptation to individual
taste ?

Nor is the cost of food a question of raw material Raw Food

-111 ^"^y ^"*
alone. The amount of waste must be considered, the of Cost

cost of the fuel used in cooking, and the cost of ser-
vice. These often triple the original cost of the food.
Mr. Atkinson has said that half the cost of life is
the price of food. This broad statement is true only
in the case of the small income. A fairer interpreta-
tion of the matter is given by Dr. Engel, who has
formulated four laws that in the main seem to hold,
both in ideal and actual budgets. As quoted in The

FOOD AND DIETETICS

DIVISION OF INCOME CHAET
Typical Family of Two Adults and Three Children

*3600

Running Expenses include Wages, Fuel, Light, Ice, Etc. With S1,000
Income the Children Would be Educated in the Public Schools.

The above chart was adapted from a large colored
chart prepared under the direction of Mrs. E. H.
Richards for the Mary Lowell Stone Exhibit on Home
Economics.

COST OF FOOD g

Cost of Living, the first of these laws is "that the
proportion between expenditure and nutriment grows
in geometric progression in an inverse ratio to well-
being; in other words, the higher the income, the
smaller is the percentage of the cost of subsistence."
That is, while clothing, rent, heating and lighting
keep a nearly invariable proportion, whatever the in-
come, the proportion expended for food varies from
sixty per cent in an income of three hundred dollars
to twenty-five per cent or less in the three thousand
dollar income.

In discussing the amount of money needed for lood, cost per
it is usual to consider the amount expended for each per Day
individual per day. How much is necessary to supply
the required nourishment depends upon various factors.
The locality will be important. As a rule, country
prices are lower than those in the city, while in differ
ent sections of the same city there may be wide vari-
ation. Eastern prices differ from those of the middle
west, and these again from those prevalent in the far
west or the south. In institutions where food is pur-
chased in large amounts, the cost is less per person
than in the individual household. An absolutely defi-
nite statement is, therefore, impossible, but a number
of experiments have shown that a sufficient amount of
the simplest raw food material may, under favorable
circumstances, be furnished for from eight to ten cents
a day per person. This implies the absolute exclusion
of all but the cheapest materials. Fifteen cents for

FOOD AND DIETETICS

True

Food

Economy

Cost of
Cooking

each person means a less limited choice in raw mate-
rials, but the most careful management and the strict
denial of anything approaching luxury. For twenty-
five cents a day, one may add to the dietar}^ a limited
amount of fresh fruit and vegetables in season, coffee
and other beverages, a fair supply of milk, and may
furnish a satisfactory variety of food, while forty cents
per person gives an excellent table with added lux-
uries, though it will not purchase fruit out of season,
such as strawberries in January, nor give an unlimited
supply of high priced game and similar delicacies.
In deciding what one of these standards to adopt,
the number of members in the family and the total
amount of income must be considered. The typical
economic family, on which estimates are made, is one
of five members, two adults and three children, or four
adults. The real family often has six or eight mem-
bers, and this additional number must modify the
application of economic theories to real life.

It is not desirable to cut down the expenditure for
food to the lowest point at which nutritive food may
be obtained if the income justifies a larger expendi-
ture. Economy does not mean spending a small
amount, but expending money in such a zvay that it
may bring in the largest return.

The cost of cooking modifies the expenditure for
raw material. Often a cheap food, requiring long
cooking, is in the end more expensive than a higher
priced food requiring only a short cooking. This dif-

COST OF FOOD ii

ference is particularly marked in the case of such a
fuel as gas. With a coal stove careful planning for
the utilization of all the heat may mean only the differ-
ence between the wasting of heat and the using of it.
For example, the beans baking in the oven while iron-
ing is going on add practically nothing to the amount
of fuel used, while the beans baked in the gas oven
must have the cost of the gas consumed added to their
cost. It is quite possible that a cheap, tough piece
of meat might consume so much gas in the long cook-
ing necessary to stew it that its cost would be raised
nearly to that of the more expensive cut that it sup-
planted.

Another element in the cost of food is that of the costo^
labor consumed in preparation and in service. The
time taken to prepare a certain dish must be added to
the cost of the raw materials before we can fairly esti-
mate the cost of that dish. It must be remembered,
however, that a dish requiring long cooking does not
necessarily involve the expenditure of much time in
preparation.

In a certain hotel having a large number of guests
it was estimated that the extra time required to add
a sprig of parsley to each plate of meat served meant
the employment of an additional helper for the equiva-
lent of one day a week. In the private family, the
difference between a dinner served in three courses,
or in four, means an expenditure of additional time
that has a definite money value.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

"Waste
of Food

Amount

Harmony

Flavor

The waste of food must also be considered. This
is of two kinds, necessary waste, and needless waste.
It is foolish to say, as some have done, that the gar-
bage can might be eliminated from our houses if
greater care were taken. The parings of potatoes,
the husks of corn, the pods of peas, must always be
refuse. In one experiment it was found that because
of the cost of service, it was cheaper to allow thick
parings of potatoes to be thrown away than to pay
for the care that would insure thin parings. On the
other hand, the head of a certain institution found
that the careful paring of the potato meant the actual
saving of a large number of bushels each year. Mrs.
Richards says, "It is not food actually eaten that costs
so excessively ; it is that wasted by poor cooking, by
excessive quantity and by purchase out of season when
the price is out of all proportion to its value.

"Good judgment as to the amounts to be prepared,
as to the harmony of the meal, the blend of flavor; as
to the right appetizers ; and good humor and cheerful
conversation, with the most attractive setting and per-
fect serving, will cut down the cost of almost any table
one-half. Many seem to hold the idea that hospitality
requires the setting of a double portion before the
guests, and this alone doubles the cost of food in some
families."

She says again, "In no other departmenx of house-
hold expenditure is there so great an opportunity for
the exercise of knowledge and skill with so good re-

Cookery

COST OF FOOD 13

suits for pocket and health ; no item of expense is so
fully under individual control."

On the other hand, Thudicum, in his Spirit of Economical
Cookery, refers to "the delusion of economical cookery
with scraps costing nothing-." He speaks of what is
termed "the fearful waste in English kitchens," and
says, "When we proceed to investigate the items of
the alleged waste, we find them to consist of stale
lumps of bread, bacon rind, and bare bones of boiled
or roast joints." He quotes with scorn and denial a
prominent medical journal which says, "The French
cook makes excellent and nutritious soup out of mate-
rials which the English housewife throws away as
useless ; while her pot-au-feu is composed of stray
scraps carefully husbanded, which cost her nothing,
but which, when skilfully combined, constitute a use-
ful and inexpensive food."

Perhaps the truth lies between the two extremes.
To set an attractive table costs something in raw food
material, in equipm.ent and in service. The snowy
table cloth, always spotless, so often suggested in nev/s-
paper articles as a substitute for expensive food,
means the expenditure of time, money and energy.
The soup made from "scraps" involves expenditure
of time and fuel, if not of money with which to pur-
chase fresh material. The cost of saving may out-
weigh the cost of material saved. But that there is
much unnecessary waste in the average household can
not be denied. Nor is the mere money value of the

14 FOOD AND DIETETICS

material wasted the most serious part. The habits
of carelessness and extravagance engendered show
themselves in a lack of responsibility for material and
indifference toward useless expenditure of time and
energy as well as money, and in general thoughtless-
ness.
Conditions How the moucy to be expended shall be distributed

Cases between different food materials must be largely a
matter for the individual housekeeper since conditions
vary so greatly. As a rule, vegetable foods are
cheaper than animal. This may be counter-balanced
by the more easy digestibility of the animal food, as
we shall see in a later discussion. Whether one food
or another is the cheaper source, of a particular food
principle depends upon the percentage composition and
comparative cost of these foods. As is seen in Table
I, potatoes at two cents per pound, i. e., 30 cents per
peck, cost almost twice as much, so far as actual food
value is concerned, as rice at five cents per pound.
When rice is ten cents per pound, as it is in many
places at present, and potatoes are one cent a pound,
conditions are reversed. Sweet potatoes at five cents
a pound must be definitely considered as a luxury when
white potatoes may be had for one cent at the same
place.

COST OF FOOD

Some Important Foods Considered as to Their Nutritive and
Economic Values.

^ u

0 a3

1'^

ill

1.6

Nuts (peanuts, edible por-
tion)

9.3

25.8

38.6

24.4
100
75 1
74.6
78.5
79
59.1

■■i5;3'

5
13.7

13.9

Sugar (granulated)

1857

Cornmeal (bolted)

12.9
12 5
12.7
12.4

13.2

67.1
87

44.5
60

.?s

7 1

7.8
22.3
16

1.8
3.3

3 3
1.1

1.8

1.5

'.,

.5
.9

1655

Wheat flour (roller process) .
Rye flour

1645
1630

Rice

Meats (as purchased about) .
Fish (fresh) . ..

30
15

928

388

Potatoes

325

Milk

335

Bananas

40
25

390

Fruit (apples, grapes, etc.) ..

285

Wheat flour at 2 cents per pound furnishes 300® calories for 3.6 cents

Cornmeal at 3 " '■ " '■ " •• " 5.4 "

Wheat flour at 4 " " " " " " '• 7.2 "

Rice at 5 " " " " " " •' 9.2 "

Potatoes at 1

Legumes at 8 " " " " " " " 15

Milk at 3

Potatoes at 3

Nuts(kernels)at 16cents

Cheese (American pale) at 14 " " " " " 20

Fruit at 2 cents per pound " " " " 21

Milkat3J4 (7centsaqt.) " " " " 33

Beef (medium fat)at 15 cents (15^ bone) " " " " 47

Beef (sirloin) at 35 cents pei- pound " " " " 69

Eggs at 25 cents per dozen " " " "115

(From The Cost of Food, by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards.)

i6 FOOD AND DIETETICS

Finding The most satisfactory way to get at the cost of food

of Fo°od per individual in a family is to keep careful accounts
over a considerable period of time, both of the actual
expenditure for food, and of the number of meals
served. To make an experiment for a definite time,
one month for instance, look over the material on
hand, estimating as accurately as possible the amounts
of flour, of sugar, of spices, etc. At the end of the
month, again take account of stock and estimate the
value of the materials on hand. Add the difference
if there is less, and subtract the difference if there
is more, to the amount expended during the month,
and the result will be the cost of the food.

The following tables are records of actual expendi-
ture for food. Table II gives the expenditure in two
institutions in an eastern city, where, under the direc-
tion of an expert, effort v^^as made to provide a suffi-
cient amount of food at the lowest price.

The left-hand table gives the expenditure for food
in a house of correction and the right-hand table for
that in an orphans' home. In this table it will be
noticed that one of the largest expenditures was for
milk. The cost for food at the officers' table was
about the same in both institutions. Provisions were
bought at wholesale prices.

COST OF FOOD

TABLE II

Average Daily Cost of Food Materials per Person in Two Public

Institutions in Boston.

Inmates

Officers

Inmates

Officers

Number of Persons Fed

533
Cents
4.67

0.93

2 22
0.46
0.36

0.63

0 38
0.36
0.03
0.04

73
Cents
23.13
1.14

3J3
3.16
0.75
0.13
0 04
0.04
0.67
0.06
0.57
0.48
0.26
0.04

333

Cents
1.59

0.16
3.75

0.07
1.88
0.37
0.13
0.04
0.29

0.17
0.03

Cents

Meat and fish (fresh or salt)

Eggs

19.60
1.39

0.30

Milk

5.03

Butter and Lard

3 97

Flour, cornmeal, crackers.

1.19
0.35

Peas, Beans ....

0 11

Tapioca, sago, cornstarch

0.08
1.37

Dried fruits

0 34

0.53

0.38

Apples •

0.11

0.06

Cost per day per person

9.86

33.85

8.37

33.40

(From Report of Institutions Commissioner of the City of Boston
for 1897.)

Table III is a record from the middle west, and is
taken directly from the expense account of three col-
lege girls who were trying to keep the cost of living
as low as possible. There is no pretense to an ideal
diet. Probably it was low in proteid, but the girls
lived and apparently thrived upon it.

Experience
of College
Girls

FOOD AND DIETETICS

TABLE III
Weekly Expense Account for Food for Three People.

Second Week in

October,

1903.
25

Third Week in October, 1903,
Bread 05

Sardines

Butterine . ..

.20

Grapes 35

Bananas .15

.. .20

Apples

Crackers .10

Bread 10

Bread.

.10

Cheese. 20

.10

Milk 51

:::: .25

Meat 15

Beef

.... .40

.. .07

Cranberries. . .10

Salt pork.

Cranberries 10

Bread .

.20

Crackers 1 '

.13

Butter

.20

Pork .05

Prunes

.05

Bread 10

Celery

.05
.51

Salt . . .. .10

Milk

?3.16

$3.59

Second Week in Apri

, 1904.

.15

Third Week in

April, I'Mi.

Pork, fat

.05

Radishes

Can Tomatoes

Ham

Grapes

.20

Bread

.05

Crackers

.05

Oranges

.20

Honey

'.'.'.'.'.'. ".20

.10

.05

Crackers

... .10

Beefstea^

Crackers

Bananas

Eggs

Flour

Bread

.10

.05

Oranges

Apple butter

.1 J

.01

Beef, boil

.30

■lO

. .05

Macaroni ....

.15

Potatoes

Sugar

.25

.a)

.10

Bread

Pork steak

.lO

Milk

.51

Pickles

.10

$3.91

Butter

.25

Milk . .

sIot

Total cost for three people for twenty-eight days. $11.83

Average cost for one person for one day 0.141

COST OF FOOD

Table IV shows the expenditure in a summer home
in the mountains. In this case no effort was made
to reduce expense by excluding articles desired, but
true economy was practiced in careful planning of
meals and in utilizing all material.

Liberal
Table with
High Prices

TABLE IV

Expenditure During the Summer of 1903, in a Mountain Town in New

England, Some Miles from a Bailroad.

Lbs.

Proteid

Fat

Carbohyd'te

Fish

44 5

83.88

3 5

343 1

28.

16.
151 16

87.
250.5

5 9345

2.0.57

25 9495

.022

.1065

49 681

.3615

1.337

3 719

.303

3.775

Meats

13
2
1

2.59
088
0805
616
3775
353
680
564
915

Dried Fruit

Dairy

2.6735
14 3r,4

Cereals

Bakeries

19 099
10 597

Sugar and starches
Fruit

116.717
11 349

Vegetables

36 06

293 Days (1 person)
Each day per pers'u

1011.64
3.45 lbs.

106 f
3.7

866

grams
3oz.

87.444

135.17 grams

4.78 oz.

210.8495
336. 1 grams
11.51 oz.

Total cost, $114.14. Cost per day, per person, $0.39.
The number of meals served was 878. This is taken as
equivalent to 293 days for one person.

The prices of some of the chief articles of food
are given here.

Beef roast 20 cents per pound

Beefsteak.. ..28
Lamb roast. ..18
Lamb chops. .25
Veal " ..20

Chicken .25

Fowl 20

Halibut. 16 "

Salmon 30 cents per pound

Haddock 6 "

Potatoes 20 and 25 cents per peck

Cream. 25 cents per quart

Milk ...5 "

Butter 28 " " pound

Eggs. ..28 and 30 cents per dozen

20 FOOD AND DIETETICS

The following tables give in detail the weight and
composition of the various food used.

Fish

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

Carb.

Mackerel

2
4

1.275
.612
.918
.693
.222
.0835
.225
.762
.224
.93

.525
.356
.264
.0165
.004
.005
.0135
.009
.078
.788

Halibut

Haddock

Lobster

Blue fish

Cod (salt)

Sardines

44.5

5.9345

2.057

Steak

Lamb

Veal

Chicken....
Pork (salt)

Ham

Fowl.... ...

Bacon

Lard

SI. Ham....
Pot. Ham . .

Chicken

Corn beef . .
Dried beef.
Tongue, Ox

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

14K

3.405

1.4535

12%

7.006

9.799

.954

.357

13%

2.984

.346

.106

1.002

2.978

3.304

.483

.407

4.095

2.66&5

5.000

.192

.162

.095

.1705

,128

.014

1.053

.748
.054

.390

.464

83.88

24.259

25.9495

Soup

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

Carb.

.027
.036
.025

.022

Tomato

Corn

.088

.022 1

COST OF FOOD

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

Carb.

Seed raisins

.078
.0025

.099
.0075

3.283

Citron

.3905

.0805

.1065

2.6735

Dairy

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

Carb.

Eggs..

27.6
240.
38.5
3.
34.

3.643

7 920
.962
.751
.34

3.312
9.60
7.033
.847
28.9

120 qts. milk

13 00

1954 qts. cream

1.732

Cheese

623

Butter

343 1

13.616

49.681

14.354

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

Carb.

Rice .

4/2

4
13

.126

.484
.105
.11
1.104

.29054
.158

.004'4

.073

.014

.328

.021

.008

1 098

Wheat.

3 008

Sh. Wheat .

.779

.763

Corn Meal.

9 048

Hominy

2 765

RiceFl

1.638

2.377'4

.3615^

19.099

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

Carb.

U. Biscuits

2
6
2

.196
.486
.130
.066
.134
.234
.106

.183
.414
.173
.140
.193
.10
.137

1 463

3.253

1.53

Van. Cr.

.716

Mis. Cookies

Water Cr.

1.448
1.514

Saltines

.685

1.353

1.337

10.597

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Sugars and Starches

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

Garb.

6
40
8

70
15
3

2J4

.144

.402
7.70
2.07
.204
.242
.008
.323
.588

.027
.63

.285
.037
.008

4.153

40.

1 gal. Svrup

11.016

Maccaroni.

2 223

S. D. Flour

42.08

F. M. Flour

10.785

Rye Flour

2.361

1 526

1.624

Chocolate

1.217
1.525

.657

Almonds

287

lo\%

11.680

3.719

116 717

Lbs.

Prot.

Fat

Carb.

Oranges

7
25
2

iV2

4
3
4

3
2

.034
.06
.015
.017
.036
.05
.100
.02
.019
.017
.065
.003
.016
.009
.028
.003
.044
.012
.014
.012

.006
.034

348

Currants

.128

Raspberries.

.01

126

Melons (12)

553

5 doz. peaches

Apples

.125

3 550

Plums

.402

.009
.01,
.08 "
.003
.013

.004
.003
.004
.003
.003
.012

Box berries

136

Grapes ....

960

2 pineapples .

388

3 canteloupes

138

Pears

180

Cherries .

844

Qr. Mar

Currants

108

..564

..305

11 349

COST OF FOOD
Vegetables

Lbs.

Prot. Fat

Garb.

31
30

2
10
20
2
1
2
20
10

.93

.480
3.062
2.03 1

.115

;i60
.18
.022
.008
.07
1.38
.210
.031
.984
.225

656

008

203

008

800

330

Oil

015

13.051

2.910
5 430

Potatoes.

Beans

370

Tomatoes

780

186

Olives

Mushroom.s

136

Bakv.d beans.

3 920

Corn

197

Split Peas..

2 480

250.5

8.915 4.08

36.060

As an example of fairly attractive menus with low
priced foods, the following extract from Bulletin No.
129 of the Office of Experiment Station, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, by Miss Bertha M. Terrill,
may be of- interest:

"In February, 1902, the students of the Bible Nor-
mal College, situated then in Springfield, Mass., voted
to save a sum of money, which they desired to raise
for a special object, by reducing the cost of their table
board. They had been paying $3 per week for table
board at the time, or very nearly 43 cents per person
per day, which of course included the cost of fuel,
preparation, and service, estimated to be 10.6 cents
per person per day. Learning that it has been found
possible to provide a balanced and nourishing diet for
10 cents per man per day for the raw food, they en-
tered eagerly into an experiment with a diet to cost
that amount for food materials only, the cost of prep-

A Typical
Investigation

24 FOOD AND DIETETICS

aration, etc., to remain the same as before, making
the total cost of the daily food as served 20.6 cents
per person, or 22.4 cents less than their ordinary diet.
There were 30 students interested in this project, and
it was planned to continue the investigation three days,
as this would suffice to save the $20 desired." * *
The menus tor the different days covered by the
study were as follows:

SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 8.

Breakfast.— Oa,tmea.l and top of milk, fish cakes, toast (with a little
butter) , prunes, milk and cereal coffee.

Dinner.— Beef soup, croutons, beans (baked with pork), brown bread,
apricot shortcake.

Supper.— Sandwiches (cheese and jelly), white and graham bread (no
butter) , sliced bananas, milk-

SUNDAY, FEBRUARY 9.

Breakfast.— Corii-inea,l mush and top of milk, baked beans, buns,
milk and cereal coffee.

ZJinn^r.— Split-pea soup and crackers (crisped), potted beef, brown
sauce, baked potatoes, bread, rice with milk and sugar.

Supper. — Brown-bread sandwiches (with a little butter), white-bread
sandwiches with date and peanut filling without butter, cocoa, popcorn
salted.

MONDAY, FEBRUARY 10.

S?vaA/"as<.— Oatmeal with top of milk, cream toast, cereal coffee.
ZJiwner.— Baked-bean soup, crisp crackers, Hamburg steak balls,
brown satice, hominy, turnip, peanuts and dates.

iS'upper.— Potato and beet salad, gingerbread, cheese, bread, milk.

TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 11.

Breakfast.— 'Whe^t breakfast food and dates, creamed codfish
muffins (with little butter) , milk and cereal coffee.

Dinner.— Beel Stew with biscuits, bread pudding, bread.

/Supper.— Scalloped meat and potato, bread (with butter), prunes
chocolate candy "fudge."

COST OF FOOD 25

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 12.

Breakfast.— 0&tmea,\ with top of milk, liash, corn cake, milk and
cereal coffee.

2>j/i74«r.— Vegetable soup, croutons, baked stuffed beef's heart, browTi
sauce, rice, cornstarch blanc mange, caramel sauce.

Supper.— Fotato and celery salad, white and graham bread, fried corn-
meal mush, sirup, '

THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 13.

Breakfast.— CoTn-meal mush with top of milk, hashed meat on toast,
milk and cereal coffee.

Dinner. — Salt salmon, drawn butter sauce, baked potatoes, parsnips,
bread, evaporated apple shortcake.

Supper.— ColA sliced beefs heart, creamed potatoes, cocoa, bread
(white and graham) , ginger snaps.

"The family in this experiment consisted of 30 stu-
dents— 26 women and 4 men — ranging in age from 25 Family
to 45 years. Considering the 4 men as equivalent to
5 women as regards food consumption, the family for
six days was equivalent to 186 women for one day.

"The cost of the diet, 9.4 cents per woman per day, cost of
was just within the limit set, but the quantities of nu-
trients and energy (75 grams of protein and 2,243
calories) were somewhat smaller than was intended.

"The low cost of the diet in this experiment was
made possible by the selection of simple and inexpensive
food materials and by reducing the quantities of some
foods commonly used rather abundantly, as meat and
butter. Most of the students felt quite satisfied with the
food. The curtailing of the amount of butter served
at the table was considered the greatest deprivation ;
a small pat, about half the customary size, being
served to each where butter is indicated with bread on
the menu.

The

Food

26 FOOD AND DIETETICS

Economy "The importance from the standpoint of economy

•ishment of Selecting foods which are nourishing rather than
those having a low food value but which please the
palate and add to the attractiveness of the diet, is
illustrated by a dietary study made of a family in New
Jersey in which it was found that $2:i6 was expended
in three weeks for oranges and $3 for celery, making a
total of $5.16 for these two articles, which together
furnished only 150 grams of protein and 6,445 calories
of energy. During the same period $5.16 was also
expended for cereal foods and sugars, which supplied
3,375 grams of protein and 184,185 calories of energy,
or about twenty-five times the amount furnished by
the oranges and celery. Of course, the sum expended
for these articles was not excessive and they undoubt-
edly helped to make the diet palatable and pleasing, a
by no means unimportant consideration, but it is evi-
dent that they were not economical sources of nutri-
tive material.
D'-i-^ty "In the present investigation it was found to be

well worth while to use special care in arranging the
dishes for serving, that they might be as appetizing in
appearance as possible. Much care was also ob-
served in avoiding waste both by careful preparation
and by the use of all 'left overs.' "

In the following table is given the details of cost,
weight and nutritive value of the food used in this
investigation.

COST OF FOOD
Weights and Cost of Food and Nutrients

Food consumed during the entire

Cost,

nutrients, and fuel value

study (6 days).

per woman per day.

Kinds and amounts.

ANIMAL FOOD.

Dols.

Cts.

Gnis.

Gms.

CaU

Beef: Hearts, 11 lb., 38c.; round,

ones.

10.5 lb., U.Ob; rump, 101b., 80c. :

shank, fore, 3 lb.; brisket

(stew), 7.25 lb., 50c

2.73

1.5

229

Pork: Bacon, 2 lb.. 30c.; salt

pork, 2 lb., 18c. ; lard, 1 lb., 12c . .

.60

Fish : Cod, salt, 4 lb., 42c. ; salm-

on, salt, 5 lb. ,40c

.82
.33

2.25
.30

2.70

.4
.2

1.2
.2

1.4

Eggs 1 lb., 33c

Butter, 91b., *2.25 ....

......

19
2
20

■■■26'

169

Cheese, 21b., 30c

Milk, 2101b., $2.70.

350

9.73

5.2

883

Cereals: Corn meal, 101b., 29c.;

pop corn, 1 lb., 5c.; hominy,

1.44 lb., 5c.; oatmeal, 4.5 lb.,

15c.; rice, 4 lb., 28c.; graham

flour, 101b., 85c.: white flour,

66 lb., $1.55; crackers, Boston,

0 75 lb., 4c

2.66

1.4

178

S'XS

Sugars, starches, etc.: Sugar,

granulated, 20 lb., $1; mo-

lasses.2. 331b., 36c. ; cornstarch.

0.33 lb., 2c.: cocoa. 1 lb., 17c.;

chocolate, 0.12 lb., 5c.

1.60

229

Vegetables: Beans, lima, 2 lb.,

18c.; beans, pea, 2.44 lb., 10c. ;

beets, 1.25 lb., 4c.; cabbage, 5

lb., 10c. : carrots, 1.25 lb., 2c.;

celery, 2.06 lb., 10c. ; parsnips.

4.69 lb., 15c.; peas, split, 1.69

lb., 13c. ; potatoes, 80 lb., $1.47;

turnips, 5.5 lb., 7c.

2.36

1.3

201

Fruits, nuts, etc.: Apricots, 1.5

lb., 17c.: bananas, 7 lb., 30c.;

dates, 2 lb.. 12c. ; prunes, 2 lb..

18c.; raisins, 0.25 lb., 2c.; pea-

nuts, 2 lb., 25c.; crab-apple

jelly, 0.2 lb., 3c

1.07

Total vegetable food

7.69

4.2

286
312

1,360

Total food

17.42

9.4

2,243

FOOD AND DIETETICS
Chart of Composition of Foods

Non-nutrients.

Water. Refuse.

Fuel valne.
Calories.

COST OF FOOD
Chart of Pecuniary Economy of Food

From Farmers' Bulletin, No. 142.

Function
of Food

FOOD AND THE BODY

It is impossible to decide intelligently how the money
available for food shall be distributed among different
food materials without understanding something of the
composition of these food materials, and of the rela-
tion of food to the needs of the body. Experience has
taught us many things, but the accumulation of experi-
ence needs interpretation by definite scientific knowl-
edge. Until lately this knowledge was in the hands
of only a few, and even then in so indefinite a form
that it was not available for the housekeeper, no mat-
ter how well trained, and hardly for an educated phy-
sician.

Much progress has been made, but even to-day the
housekeeper is often a little slow in availing herself
of the knowledge she needs. This is partly because
of the common feeling that what our fathers and
mothers knew is enough for us, and partly because so
much of the information is still locked up in more or
less technical books, and the ordinary housekeeper,
even though she be well educated, has not the key.
It is to furnish the key to some of this knowledge
that this series of lessons is written.

We all know in a general way that food nourishes
us and makes us strong. But when we try to inter-
pret this general idea into specific terms we find that
we do not realize its meaning. Nothing is in the strict
sense a food unless it performs at least one of three

POOD AND THE BODY 3r

functions, (i) that of building the body, (2) furnishing-
heat, and (3) giving power to work.

The first function of food, that of building the body,
is exercised not only in the growing child, where
the material that can be transformed into bones and
muscles, blood and nerve tissue, must be furnished by
food, but in the adult, since even after growth has
ceased, the constant waste of the body tissue must be
repaired by food. So far as this function is concerned,
the composition of the body must determine to a great
extent the kind of material that may be used as food.
It is easy to see that the body can be built only by
foods containing the same elements, and that the pro-
portion of these elements must bear some relation to
their proportion in the body. It is reasonable to ex-
pect that the elements are combined in food in a way
similar to that in which they are combined in the
body

The body of a man of average weight has been esti-
mated to contain the following amounts of the various
combinations known as the proximate principles:

Water 108 lbs.

Mineral matter 1 1.00

Proteid 29.75

Fat 5.00

Carbohydrates 25

Total 154.00

It will be judged from this that so far as the organic
food principles proteid, carbohydrate and fat are con-
cerned, proteid holds the chief place as a tissue former.

Building:
Foods

Composition
of the Body

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Fuel and Not Only must the body have its actual material

Foods furnished by the food, but from this also must be
derived its energy.

Heat

ATWATER-S RESPIRATION CALORIMETER.

A Man Lives in the "Box" for Days and the Actual Heat and Energy

Obtained from the Food Consumed is Determined. (See page 53.)

The two forms of energy with which we are espe-
cially concerned in our study of the body are heat
and power to work.

Heat is required to maintain the body temperature
necessary in order that the processes of life may be
carried on.

The work performed may be considered as of two
kinds, internal and external. The internal work is
that used in maintaining the different functions of

FOOD AND THE BODY

the body itself.- The beating of the heart, breath-
ing, the absorption of food, all require the expenditure
of energy; this internal work requires a large portion
of the available power. As in all machines, energy is
lost in the form of radiant heat, but the body is con-
sidered an efficient machine because a larger propor-
tion of energy is available for external work than in
most engines constructed by man.

The amount of energy required for external work,
i. e., muscular work, is a variable factor, and the
amount of physical activity is consequently important
in determining the amount of food necessary.

So far as present knowledge goes, we may say that
the energy of the body is derived from the slow oxida-
tion (or combustion) of food that takes place in the
tissues all over the body. The process is undoubtedly
a complex one, far from the simple chemical union
of the food materials with the air we breathe. It is
easy to understand that this oxidation gives heat,
but how it produces the power of muscular contrac-
tion, nervous energy, and all the activities of life is
not known.

All combustible substances have what is known as
potential energy. This might be defined as stored-up
energy. It implies that energy from some exterior
source has been used in producing the substance in
its present form. For instance, heat from the sun
has been utilized in the formation of the starch or
proteid in the plant, and this energy is again set free
in the oxidation or the decomposition of the substance.

External

Work

Variable

Source of
Energy

Potential
Energy

S4 FOOD AND DIETETICS

Potential energy may perhaps be most easily under-
stood by thinking of one form of it, energy of position.
A weight lifted to a height has by virtue of its place
a certain amount of potential energy. The fall of the
weight from its position will convert its potential
energy into active or kinetic energy by which work is
accomplished.

The waste materials of the body have little or no
potential energy, and the outgo of the body differs in
this important respect from its income. If the foocj
taken in is only partially oxidized, the waste material
still contains some energy, and this potential energy
must be substracted from that of the income in order
to find the amount available for the use of the body.
Unit of The value of a food to produce heat and mechanical

^ifnergy energy is measured by the amount of heat that may be
produced by it, and the unit of measure is the calorie.
A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise about
one pound of water f6ur degrees Fahrenheit, or,
accurately, the a('mount of heat required to raise
one kilogram of/water one degree centigrade. This
is the large calorie, and it is sometimes written with
a capital C to distinguish it from the small calorie.
The small calorie ftas a value one-thousandth as great.
The term used in tms paper means the large calorie.
It has been found tljat there is an exact quantitative
relation betwen heat art^ work, expressed by the term
mechanical equivalent of heat. Experiments have
shown that about 778 foot-pounds of work are con-

FOOD AND THE BODY

sumcd in heating one pound of water one degree Fahr-
enheit, or 1400 foot-pounds in heating the same amount
of water one degree Centigrade. In other words, the
same amount of energy would be ex-
pended in heating a pound (about one
pint) of water one degree Fahrenheit, as
in raising a weight of 778 pounds one
foot, or a weight of one pound 778 feet.
By the same calculations a calorie is
equivalent to 3,087 foot-pounds. The
calorie then is used as a convenient meas-
ure not only of quantity of heat, but of
mechanical -energy, or pozuer to ivork.

One gram of proteid has been found to ^^^^^^^^l-^?^
yield 4.1 calories; a gram of carbo- orimeter.
hydrate yields the same amount, while a
gram of fat yields 9.3 calories. Or more than twice
as much heat can be obtained from a given amount of
fat as from the same amount of either proteid or carbo-
hydrate.

The number of calories any particular food will
yield theoretically is determined by the use of the
bomb calorimeter. A portion of .food of a given
weight is enclosed in an iron shell or "bomb," which
is then immersed in a given amount of water and the
temperature of the water taken. By means of an
electric spark the contents of the bomb are ignited and
burned, and the temperature of the water is again
taken at the end of the combustion. For instance.

Mechanical
Equivalent
of Heat

Bomb

Calorimetei

FOOD AND DIETETICS

if the burning of one gram of meat raised the tem-
perature of one kilogram (about two pounds) of watel
seven degrees Centigrade, that amount of meat would
be said to yield seven calories.

CHART OF HEAT AND ENERGY
Values in Calories of some Common Foods

Cnlones !■% i

MILK

BUTTER

CHEESE

EOGS

BEep feirjQin steaM

BEEfe (rooT.dl
MUTTbrJ LEG
FOWL
COD (boneless salO
CODffresK)
OV8TERS
APPLES
BANANAS
SUGAR
FXOuR t.hitd
FLOUHfcntirewKeae
BREAD
CRACKERS
MACARONI
CORN MEAL
RICE
POTATOES
DRIED BEANS-
DRIED PEAS
LETTUCE
AUMONDS
RAISINS
CHOCOLATE

The chart given shows the number of calories yield-
ed by several different foods.

There is one factor that is often not sufficiently
considered in determining the amount of energy ob>

FOOD AND THE BODY

tainable from food. A food may yield excellent re-
sults in the calorimeter and yet be of little service
in the body because of its lack of digestibility. It is

CHART OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS
Percentage of Nutrients of Edible Portion, i. e., Without Bone, etc.

7>~iX 30% 40r.

tar. 70% aox eo^ loo^

MILK

'r li'P 1 1 ' 1 1 1

BUTTER

l[ |l# ':'::'' !"l''''i''''':!;l:;l!!l

i:ii![ii''ii"i:::!!|i:^:!iiiiii

'Illilllllll

IIPIII

CHEESE

\ , ! i ' ':;:!i!,ili

EGGS

BLEFCs.rlomsteaK)

! i;,':',ii;i:ii::lilliill

BEEF (round)

j il'lillll':!

MUTTON LEG

FOWL

{■ ■;: 1

COD (boneless salt)

COO(fresh)

III

OYSTERS

APPLES

BANANAS

•SUGAR

! "

7£=j

f=^LOuR(wh,td

III'

1 It

BREAD

''-

V-

- —

CRACKERS

•y |:il

MACARONI

; ■'!

r_;.;/_

: j

CORN MEAL

RICE

POTATOES

DRIED BEANS

_..._ H -:-=J

DRIED PEAS
LETTUCE

i,h

- 4- -m

^■' 1

]

ALMONDS

'■' iiiiiiiiiiii

illilllllll

illillillilHIIIIIIIIIIililliliiinlilll! i.-- A

^ J

RAISINS

111'^

- -

-\ - -V- - 1^- M

chocola-e

l!!!lill

illlllllil

llllll'li

iil!ll!!llllllll!IIIIIP^- 1-^

i 1

PROTEIOr/ .'i CARBOHYDRATE
FAT [Ml] WATER

by no means the food we eat but the food we assimilate
that nourishes us. The portion of food that is really
absorbed by the body differs greatly under different
conditions and with different food materials. Many

FOOD AND DIETETICS

careful experiments have been made of late, and more
will be made to determine the amount assimilated in
dififerent cases. This element of digestibility is fre-
quently not taken into account, and the value of a
food is estimated wholly from its chemical composition.

Some reasons for this are the great difficulty in de-
termining the digestibility of a food, the fact that
this digestibility may vary from time to time according
to the condition of the body, and the fact that the
personal equation enters largely into the matter.

The accompanying tables showing the comparative
digestibility of some common foods are therefore
merely a general statement, and represent average re-
sults.

Table of Digestibility and Fuel Value per Pound of Nutrients in Dif-
ferent Groups of Food Materials. (Atwater.)

Protein.

Fat.

Carbohydr'ts

Kind of food.

Digesti-
bility.

value per
imuiid

Digesti-
bility .

Kuel
value per
pound.

Digesti-
bility.

Fuel
value per
pound.

Meats and fish

Per
cent.
97
97
97
97
85
78

Calories.

1,940
1,980
1,940
1,940
1.750
1,570

Per
cent.
95
95

Calories.

4,040
4,090
8,990
4,050
3,800
3,800

Per
cent.
98

98
98
98
98
97
98
98
95
90
97
97

Calories.

1 730

1,730

Dairy products

1,730

Animal food (of mixed diet) . .

Cereals

Legumes (dried)

1,730
1,860
1 810

Sugars

1,750

1,860

i.iio

1,530

90
90
90
95

3,800
3,800
3,800
4,050

1.800

Fruits.

',630

Vegetable foods(ofmix'd diet)
Total food (of mixed diet) ....

liaio

FOOD AND THE BODY

Table of Comparative Digestibility, Commencing: with the Most

Digestible and Ending with the Least Digestible of Meats

and Other Common Animal Food,

Oysters.

Soft-cooked eggs.

Sweetbread.

White flsh, boiled or broiled, such

asblueflsh, shad, red snapper,

weakflsh, sraelt.
Chicken, boiled or broiled.
Leanroast beef or beefsteak.
Eggs, scrambled, omelette.
Mutton, roasted or boiled.
Squab, partridge.

Tripe, brains, liver.

Roast lamb.

Chops, mutton or lamb

Corned beef.

Veal.

Ham.

Duck, snipe, venison, rabbit, and

other game.
Salmon, mackerel, herring.
Roast goose.
Lobsters and crabs.
Pork.
Roast fowl, chicken, capon, Smoked, dried, or pickled flsh

turkey, and meats in general.

(From W. Gilnian Thompson.)

It should be noticed that the fuel value obtained in
the body from the various classes of foods is somewhat
less than the theoretical amount mentioned on page
35, because they are not completely digested and as-
similated nor completely oxidized in the body. The
following values are used in the U. S. Government
reports as representing average conditions :

Proteid, fuel value, 4 calories per gram, or 1,820 calories per pound.
Fats, fuel value, 8.9 calories per gram, or 4,040 calories per pound.
Carbohydrates, fuel value, 4 calories per gram, or 1 ,820 calories per pound.

The foods that are particularly useful in furnishing
heat and energy for the body, the carbohydrates and
fats, are frequently called the fuel foods, although
proteid can act as fuel just as readily as can these.
Since the proteids, however, have a more important
function and are most expensive, the other foods are
used as proteid sparers. The amount of these fuel
foods that is to be taken depends not upon the amounts

Fuel Value
in the Bod^

Fuel and

Energy

Foods

40 FOOD AND DIETETICS

present in the body, but upon the amount of heat and
energy to be produced. This depends, in general, on
the size of the body and the amount of muscular
activity.
'''^^^and The comparison is frequently made between the
An Engine body and a locomotive, the food representing the fuel,
the air taken in through the lungs representing the
draft, the waste matters of the body corresponding to
the smoke and ashes from th^ engine fire. In many
ways this is a helpful comparison, but we need to keep
in mind the essential differences between the human
body and the mechanical engine as well as their like-
ness. Combustion in the body is much slower than
in the machine, and is therefore not accompanied by
light, though by the oxidation of the same amount of
fuel the same total amount of heat is produced.

Oxidation in the body takes place not in one central
cavity, but in every living tissue and not only fur-
nishes the heat to keep the body warm but, in some
unknown way, gives directly muscular energy, nerv-
ous energy and the energy for all the functions of liv-
ing. Moreover, unlike any engine, the body builds
and repairs itself constantly. If the building food is
not sufficient in amount the waste of tissue proceeds
faster than its repairs, and there is a constant loss of
body substance. The body can store fuel food as fat
for use in case of need.

FOOD PRINCIPLES

In this and other series of lessons we have already
discussed the food principles to some extent. Let us
consider them now somewhat more in detail.

The proteids are more difficult to understand than
the other food principles because different members
of the class seem at first sight to have little in com-
mon. A few simple experiments that will isolate some
typical proteids in a more or less pure state will serve
to give a clearer image.

To a quarter of a cup of flour add very slowly a
tablespoon of water and stir it until the flour is com-
pletely moistened, then work the dough in the hands
until it becomes smooth and elastic, and finally wash
it under cold water until fresh water added no longer
grows milky. This will take from fifteen to twenty
minutes. If a little iodine is at hand add a drop. If
no blue color appears the starch is all washed out.
There will be left in the hands a sticky, elastic mass,
called gluten. Save part of this for comparison with
other proteids and bake the rest in a hot oven.

Add a little acid, such as lemon or vinegar, to some
milk, and heat it gently. Wash the curd thus formed
in order to separate it from the whey. The curd is
chiefly composed of casein.

With, a. knife scrape a piece of lean meat until the
tender -mascle fibre is separated from the firm white

Different
Proteids

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Composition
of Proteids

connective tissue. The fibre represents one of the
chief proteids of meat, called myosin. Beside the glu-
ten, the casein, and the myosin, put the white of an
egg, and you have before you the four chief represen-
tatives of the proteids of our food.

If we could add to them legumin, the proteid found
in peas, beans, and other members of the pulse fam-
ily, we should have a fifth important member of the
class.

If we compare these substances, we shall find that
although at first they seem very different, they yet
have certain properties in common. All, for instance,
to a greater or less extent, show the elasticity and
tenacity that is so marked in gluten ; all of them are
toughened by a high temperature ; and all when dried
may be ground to powder similar in texture and ap-
pearance.

These physical likenesses, however, would hardly
be sufficient to place these substances in one group.
It is only when we consider the chemical composition
of each and the function that each has in the body
that we are justified in classing them together as pro-
teids. Proteids are substances containing the elements
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and fre-
quently phosphorus. They alone of the food princi-
ples are able to supply nitrogen, one of the essential
elements in all living things, whether animal or vege-
table, and one that we are forced to obtain from our
food, since, although we are surrounded by an atmos-

FOOD PRINCIPLES

phere that is nearly four-fifths nitrogen, we cannot
utiHze it in this form.

Beside the true proteids, there are certain other sub-
stances which also contain nitrogen, but which are
classed separately because they cannot alone supply
the nitrogen needed by the body, though they can re-
place part of the proteid in the diet, and perform its
function. Gelatin is one of the best known of these
substances. They are called gelatinoids or albumin-
oids. Ossein, of which bone is largely composed, ker-
atin, the horny material present in the hair and in the
horns and hoofs of animals, collagen, forming the
greater part of the connective tissue of meat, are all
representatives of the same class of substances. All
these named may be changed into gelatin by boiling.

Certain other nitrogenous substances called extrac-
tives, are present in some foods. These may help give
the flavor to meat. They form the chief ingredient of
the extracts of beef on the market; and it is these
that give the chief value to beef tea and to clear soup.
The extractives act as stimulants rather than as true
foods since they ne"<"her build tissue nor act as fuel,
but they seem to play some role in digestion.

The proteids, gelatinoids, and extractives, are
sometimes classed together under the general name
of protein. This is the usage of the United States
Government pamphlets. The nomenclature applied
to the nitrogenous substances is very confusing, since
each author seems to have adopted his own. Albumi-

Nomen-
clature

44 FOOD AND DIETETICS

noid, for instance, is sometimes used to designate the
true proteids, and sometimes is applied to the gelatin-
oids. Proteid is sometimes used in a much more lim-
ited sense than we have given to it, including only
certain classes of the substances ordinarily designated
by the term.

In studying the subject, therefore, one must first
of all ascertain the writer's use of terms.

CARBOHYDRATES

Composition The Carbohydrates are so

called because they arc
composed of the elements
carbon, hydrogen and oxy-
gen, the last two in the pro-
portion in which they are
found in water. This last
statement, although it is
generally made in defining
carbohydrates, is not strict-
ly true, since a few of the
less common members of
the class are found to vary
somewhat from this pro-
portion.
The principal carbohydrates may be classed in three
groups. The following table shows the chief mem-
bers of these different groups, so far as our food is
concerned.

Grains of Potato Starch.

FOOD PRINCIPLES
Classification of Carbohydrates

Starch (or Amylase)
Group.

Starch

Dextrin

Cellulose

Gums

Glycogen

Cane Sugar (or Sucrose) | Grape Sugar {or Glucose)
Group. I Group.

0,2 H,, O,, I C, H,, 0«

Cane Sugar (Sucrose) | Grape Sugar

Malt Sugar (Maltose) I (Dextrose)

Milk Sugar (Lactose) | Fruit Sugar (Levulose)

That the second and third groups bear a definite

0\J

Corn Starch. Rice Starch.

(From Hygiene, by Parks.)

chemical relation to the first may be seen by a com-
parison of their formulae.

Starch is the mo;t important of the carbohydrates
from the standpoint of food. It is familiar to us all
as the fine, white, glistening powder of "corn starch"
and of laundry starch. We may easily, by washing it,
obtain it also from grated potatoes and from flour.
Starch is found only in the vegetable kingdom, and
is manufactured by green plants and stored in differ-
ent parts of the plant in the form of tiny grains lying
within the plant cells.

starch

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Structure
of Starch

The structure of these grains has been very hard
to determine because of their minuteness. It was
thought for a long time that
they were composed of a celki-
lose envelope enclosing the true
starch, and that by the action
of water and heat these grains
swelled and the cellulose en-
velope burst.

A later theory was that the
starch grain was built up in
alternate layers of starch cellu-
lose and starch granulose.

The late work of a German
botanist, Meyer, seems to show
that the grains are in the form
of sphero-crystals, each made
up of many tiny particles. These
radiate from a center, and at the same time are arranged
in concentric layers. The particles are of two kinds
called by Meyer alpha-amylose and beta-amylose.
These may be compared to the starch cellulose and
starch granulose of the older theory. Upon the appli-
cation of heat and moisture the beta-amylose swells
and becomes gelatinous, forming a solution. The
alpha-amylose is affected only by a temperature much
above the boiling point, or by long continued heating.
The starch grains in different plants differ much
in form, size and general appearance, as shown in the

Bean Starch.

FOOD PRINCIPLES 47

illustrations. The relation of the difference in struc-
ture to digestibility is not well determined.

Dextrin is a substance having the same general
composition as starch, but unlike it in some of its
properties. It is chiefly important to us in that it is
an intermediate product of the change of starch into
sugar.

Glycogen is the form in which carbohydrate is
stored in the body until it is needed for use. It is

Diagram Representing the Supposed Structure of a SpheroCrystal of

Starch, Showing Radial and Concentric Arrangement.

From A. Meyer.

found chiefly in the liver and is sometimes called ani-
mal starch.

Cellulose is so slightly digested that we do not put
it in the list of human foods, yet it is important from
two standpoints. First, it gives the necessary bulk
to food; and second, it so encloses the nutrients in
vegetables and fruits that it must be definitely con-
sidered in cookery.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Composition

Water and
Mineral
Matter

Nutrient
Ratio

Allied to the gums are the pectose and pectin that
are concerned in the making of jelly from fruit juice.
The gelatinous substance obtained from Irish moss
also belongs in this class. The sugars will be dis-
cussed under the special foods.

FATS

The fats, like the carbohydrates, are composed of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but with these elements
in very different proportions from that in which they
exist in the carbohydrates. There is a much larger
proportion of carbon with less oxygen than in starch
and sugar, and this accounts for the readiness with
which they burn and the intense heat that we get from
them. They are of both animal and vegetable origin.
Those which are liquid at ordinary" temperature we
often speak of as oils.

In discussing the value of a food we commonly con-
sider only the organic principles. Although water is
absolutely necessary it is so easily supplied and so
abundant that we do not have to consider whether or
not it is present in our food as we purchase it. This
is not true of mineral matter to so" great an extent, but
it is largely so, except in the case of growing children.
The mineral matter will, as a rule, take care of itself if
we provide the other substances needed.

By food value or nutritive value we ordinarily mean
the amount of organic nutrients present in the food.
In determining the importance of any particular food,
we corisider not only the total amount of the nutrients

FOOD PRINCIPLES 49

present, but the relation that the proteid bears to the
other nutrients. This is often called the nutrient ratio.
The nutrient ratio of potatoes, for example, containing
two per cent of proteid and eighteen of starch, is i
to 9. In reckoning this ratio, fat is changed into its
starch equivalent, that is, one part of fat is considered
equal to two and a quarter of starch.

The following classification of the food principles
may help to fix in the mind their relationship.

Nutritive Ingredients (or Nutrients) of Food

C 1 Protelds, e.g., albumin, casein, gluten, etc.

I Nitrogenous < Gelatinoids, e.g., gelatine, etc.

Organic] I Extractives.

[Non-nitrogeneous] Carbohydrates, e.g., sugar, starch.

inorganic. J ^--1--"--

Use of Food Principles in the Body

Proteid.. Forms tissue \

eg , white (albumen) \

of eggs, curd (casein) . I All serve as

of milk, lean meat, " / fuel to yield

gluten of wheat, etc. I energy in the

Fats Are used or stored as fat / forms of heat

e.g., fat of meat, but- \ and muscu-

ter, olive oil, oils of 1 lar power

corn and wheat, etc. /

Carbohydrates Are used or transformed into fat. /

e.g., sugar, starch.etc.

Mineral matters (ash) . . Share in forming bone, assist in digestion, etc.
e.g., phosphates of
lime, potash, soda,
etc.

Classification
of Foods

Amount
of Food
Required

Food for

Different

Ages

DIETABY STANDARDS

In addition to a knowledge of food constituents,
of the proportion of which these exist in our food, and
of the use of food in the body, w'e need to know the
amount of food necessary to supply our daily needs
under different conditions. Many factors will influ-
ence not only the total amount of food that we need,
but also the proportions in which we shall use the pro-
teids, the carbohydrates and the fats. The flesh weight
of the body is important in deciding the amount of
proteid (that is, the muscle weight, not the total
weight of the body) since the greater the flesh weight
the greater the nitrogenous waste. The shape of the
person, whether tall or thin, or short and plump, in-
fluences the amount of fuel food required, since the
amount of surface exposed affects the loss of heat.
The degree of activity has an important influence upon
the amount of all the food principles. Variations in
climate to a certain extent afifect the amount of heat
to be produced in the body, and occupation also has
an important influence.

The age of the individual is, within certain limits,
one of the greatest factors. The growing child needs
a large amount of building material, while the old
person needs distinctly to lessen the tissue building
foods. The accompanying diagram gives an idea of
the way in wdiich these proportions vary with different
ages. It will be seen that the proportion of proteid is
much greater in comparison with other food materials

DIETARY STANDARDS 51

in the case of the child than of the adult. The total
amount of food is also greater in proportion to body
weight in the child than in the adult. Although not
shown in the table, mineral salts are needed in large
proportion in the child's diet, while they may well be
cut down in the diet of the old. The amount of food
needed increases rapidly from birth to about four

, j'V'i ■, ', 7 J y ; r ,• r r r j r r r rr

j' — , '

A ^-.

^ ' ^»s^»^

/ ^"^'"-

-v^ ^^

^ ^^

-.^ ^

7 ^

^r ^'

zi _^^

fe-=-- \ ^----^

Years of Age.

Diagram Showing the Varying Amounts of Food Principles Required
at Different Ages.

years of age, very slowly from four to about ten, with
a rapid increase from this time to twenty-four. From
ten to twenty-four the carbohydrates should increase
in amount more rapidly than the other food principles.
To put in terms of the nutrient ratio the difference
between the diet of the child and that of the adult —
in the adult diet the ratio is about 1 15.3 ; in the diet of
the child, i 4.3.

Nutrient
Ratio

FOOD AND DIETETICS

standard
Dietaries

These statements are of course true only approxi-
mately, yet one familiar with children must recognize
in them a fair generalization from the facts.

The proportions of the different food principles
needed daily constitute the dietary, and dietary stand-
ards have heen made up taking into account as far as
possible these different conditions. These dietaries
are sometimes called experimental, and sometimes sta-
tistical, according to the method used in formulating
them. An experimental dietary is the result of care-
ful observations of the effect of different proportions
of food nutrients upon an individual under determined
conditions. The statistical dietary is the outcome of
the study of the actual ration of large numbers of peo-
ple. Each of these has its drawbacks. In the first
case it is diflficult to decide how far the result is due
to individual idiosyncrasy, and a large number of ex-
periments must be tried before the personal factor
can be eliminated. In the second case it is hard to
determine whether some variation in the diet might not
produce better results.

An example of the first method of formulating die-
taries is that of Professor Atwater's respiration calori-
meter, sometimes called "the man in a box," described
in one of the government pamphlets. A small room
was constructed in the laboratory with flues arranged
to bring in fresh air and to carry off the products of
respiration. Each of these flues was arranged so that
the temperature and composition of the air entering

DIETARY STANDARDS 53

and going out might be determined. A man lived in
this room for several days at a time, his food being
given to him by means of slides in a double wall. A
sample of each food given was analyzed and a determi-
nation of the number of calories yielded by it made by
means of the bomb calorimeter. All food taken was
carefully weighed, and the excreta of the body were
analyzed so that an accurate estimate could be made
of the total income and outgo of the body. See illus-
tration on page 32.

Many statistical dietaries have been taken, some of statistical
the most valuable being those of the German army.
Experiments have been made there as to the effect of
the addition of certain articles of food to the diet, and
the conclusions have been of much value. Similar
dietary studies have been made at many schools and
universities.

From a careful comparison of dietaries made up
in these two ways certain standards have been deter-
mined upon. The American standards vary in some
important points, notably in the amount of fat used,
from those of Europe. Some of these dietaries are
given here.

FOOD AND DIETETICS
Standard Dietaries

Voit
Woman at moderate work (German) —

Man at moderate work (German)

Man at hard work (German)

Plaijfair.
Man with moderate exercise (English) . .

Active laborer (English)

Hard-worked laborer (English)

Atwater.
Woman with light exercise (American) .

Man with light exercise (American)

Man at moderate work (American)

Man at hard work (American)

'^.rr

1 >. 1

M 1 ^M 1

?.n

PhO I feCi

400

118

500

145

100

450

119

531

156

568

185

568

300

100

360

125

450

150

500

536 I 2425
674 3055
Ob 3370

701 ' 3140
795 I 3630
834 3750

2300
2815
3520
4060

There are twenty-eight and thirty-four hundredths
grams (28.34) in one ounce. A man at moderate
work requires, therefore, according to the American
standard, about four and one-half ounces of proteid,
four and one-half ounces of fat, and nearly a pound
of carbohydrate daily.

The dietary standards that we have been considering
are those that have been accepted generally since work
of this kind was first begun. Some late experiments
conducted at Yale University by Professor Chittenden
and others, indicate that a much smaller amount of
food, especially of proteid, may better serve the pur-
poses of the body, than the larger amounts indicated
in these standards. The experiments were carried out
upon men representing three dififerent classes of in-
dividuals. The first class was composed chiefly of

DIETARY STANDARDS

professors and instructors. The second represented
the moderate worker. The third class were trained
athletes. The experiments covered a period of five
months, and the proteid taken daily varied from about
thirty-five to fifty grams per day, while the total num-
ber of calories yielded was from twenty-five to twenty-
eight hundred a day. The general conclusion drawn
from these experiments is that under ordinary condi-
tions of life, with an ordinary amount of work, bodily
health and vigor are maintained as well, if not better,
on a minimum proteid diet than on the amount given
in the generally accepted standards.

Some careful experiments and analyses recently
made by the physiological chemist. Dr. Otto Folin, at
the McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass., indicate that
about twenty grams of proteid represents the actual
daily proteid wastes of an average sized man under
ordinary conditions. That is, only about three-fourths
of an ounce of proteid material is necessary per day in
an adult to rebuild the nitrogenous tissue of the body
that wears away through use.*

Such radical differences from standards found by
long experience to give good results in health and
strength must be considered very carefully before be-
ing accepted. But in this as in many other ways, we
may be obliged to revolutionize our ideas of food.

We must not fail to distinguish between the amount
of proteid required and the amount of food containing
proteid. If, for example, meat be supplied containing

*See Report of the Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics, 1905,
and American Journal of Physiology, March, 1905.

Dr. Folin's
Experiments

Amount
of Food
to Furnish
Required
Proteid

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Example for
Practice

Calculations

Balanced
Bation

i8 per cent of proteid (a fair average), a little more
than a pound and a half of the meat will be required
to furnish the four and a half ounces of proteid.
Bread containing 9 per cent of proteid would be re-
quired to the amount of three pounds. Nearly two
pounds and a quarter of eggs, with 13.1 per cent of
proteid, or about eighteen eggs, would be necessary
to supply four and a half ounces of pure proteid.

Taking the percentage composition from the accom-
panying table, calculate the amount of milk that would
be required daily to furnish four and a half ounces
proteid. How much potato would be required ? How
much corn meal?

Calculations: From the table, milk is found to con-
tain 3.3% of proteid or i oz. contains .033 oz. protein.
To furnish 4.5 ozs. would require

4-5 ^ -033 = 136+

As a pound contains 16 ozs., 136 oz.=8>< lbs. A pint
of milk weighs about i lb., so about 434 quarts would
be required to provide 4.5 ozs. of proteid.

Potatoes as purchased contain 1.8% proteid.
4.5 ^ .018 =: 250
250 oz. = 15 lbs. (aprox.)

A bushel of potatoes weighs about 60 lbs., conse-
quently about one peck of potatoes would be required.

Corn meal contains 8.9% proteid and by the same
calculations 3 lbs. 2 ozs. will be found to contain
4.5 ozs. of proteid.

It is by no means a matter of indifference whether
tlie proteid be derived from any one of these food

DIETARY STANDARDS 57

materials, or from a mixture of different ones. The
other food ingredients present must be taken into
account. For example, the three pounds of bread

Composition of the Edible Portion of Some Common Foods

I
1

5
1

Milk

0.7
3.0
3.8
1.0
1.0
1 1
1.0
1.0
19.0
0.9
1.1
0.3
0.5

87.0
11.0
34 0
73.7
61.3
65 5
63.3
63.7
55.0

84:6
75.3

3.3

1.0
25 9
13.4
19.0
-30.3
18.7
19.3
27 3
16.7
6.0
0.4
1.3

4.0

85.0
33 7
10.5
19.1
13.6
17.5
16.3
0.3
0.3
1.3
0.5
0.6

5.0

"i'.i"

13.0
21.0
100.0
75.1
71.9
53.1
71.9
74.1
75.4
79.0
18.4
59.6
62 0
2.9
17.3
76.1
30.3

325

Butler

3,605

1,950

Beef (sirloin)

1,155

Beef (round) .

950

Mutton (leg) .

1,085

Fowl

1 045

Cod (boneless salt)

Cod (fresh) . . .

490
335

Oysters

330

290

Bananas

460

Sugar . . .

1,857

Flour (white)

0 5
1.0
1.1
1.8
1.3
1.0
0.4
I.O
3.5
2.9
0.9
2.0
3.3
3.3

is. 6
11.4
35.3

6.8
10.3
13.5
13 3
78.0
13.6

9.5
94.7

4.8
14.6

5.9

ii.4

13.8
9.2

10.7

13.4
9,3
7 8
3.3

22.5

24.6
1.2

21.0
3.6

13.9

1.0

1.1

8 8
0.9
1.9
0.3
0.1
1.8
1.0
0.3

54.9
3.3

48.7

1,650

Flour (entire wheat)

Bread

1,675

1,315

1,905

Macaroni

1,665

Corn meal ....

1,655

Rice

1,630

Potatoes..

385

Dried Beans

1,605

1,655

Lettuce . . .

Almonds

3,030

1,605

3,860

>'. (See pages 36 and 37 for charts giving graphic representa-
tion of these foods.)

would furnish also more than a pound and a half of

carbohydrates, a great excess of the required

amount. The meat would vary in fat, but estimating

58 FOOD AND DIETETICS

the per cent as twenty, the pound and a half would
yield four and eight-tenths ounces, more than would
be required for the day. The quantities used of these
different foods must then be so adjusted that the nu-
trients will be in approximately the right proportion.
The deciding upon these different quantities from the
percentage composition of the food is the essential
point in calculating dietaries.
Use of The question will probably come to each one — of

le anes j^^^ much practical use for the everyday housekeeper
is this study of dietaries. In the first place, it would
mean the expenditure of a great deal of time if one
should undertake to determine each day's rations in
this way. In the next place, it is impossible to know
the actual composition of the food that we eat, except
in a few cases. We may be fairly sure of the com-
position of the egg, but when meat varies in proteid
from 12 per cent to 22 per cent as it does according
to the Atwater analyses, how are we to determine
the composition of the particular cut that we are using
to-day? ]\Ioreover, even if our meal were prepared
so that the exact proportions of nutrients were fur-
nished, it is quite possible that one member of the
family might eat too large a proportion of the pro-
teids and another too much of the carbohydrates.

Another element of uncertainty lies in the difference
in composition between cooked and uncooked food.
Rice, for example, according to the tables, contains
79 per cent of carbohydrate and 7.8 per cent of pro-

DIETARY STANDARDS 59

teid. But if you. will weigh a cup of rice before it
is cooked, and the same rice after it is cooked, you will
find that it has gained perhaps four times its original
weight. In other words, a quarter of a pound of
cooked rice will only furnish about a fourth as much
nutrient as a quarter of a pound of rice without the
added water. Often we can allow for this difference
in the calculation of our dietary ; but sometimes we
know too little about the changes which take place
in cooking to do this. Finally, even if we know
exactly what we eat we do not know what we assimi-
late. Is there, then, any use in the dietary standard?

In two ways it is of great service. In the first place, variation
it is a standard by which we may test our diet if we standard
extend our experiment over a sufficiently long period.
At the beginning of a month let us take account of
stock, estimate the amount of food materials on hand,
and then keep careful account for a month of all food
brought into the house ; at the end of the month we
will again estimate what we have on hand and in this
way ascertain the amount of raw material used.
Table IV, with the details which follow, gives an
example of a carefully calculated dietary. The com-
position of the various foods. was taken from Bulletin
No. 28 of the office of Experiment Stations, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture.* If, on calculating the food
value of the dififerent materials, we find that for the

* "The Chemical Composition of American Food Materials" which
may be obtained by sending Ave cents i« com to the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C.

6o FOOD AND DIETETICS

number of persons serv'ed we have a distinct varia-
tion from the standard diet, we can legitimately con-
clude that there is something wrong. If, for ex-
ample, we find that the amount of proteid calculated in
our food materials is twice as much as that supposed
to be required, we shall conclude that either our fami-
lies must be using a much larger amount of proteid
than would be conducive to the best health, or there
must be much unnecessary waste, and in either case,
an investigation would be needed.
Errors in Another way in which the dietary standard is of

Dietaries ^ ■' ^ , _

especial service, is in enabling us to judge what error
in diet is responsible for some particular weakness or
peculiarity in any member of the family. A girl of
fourteen may be unusually thin or may appear lan-
guid and tired, and everything point to improper feed-
ing as the cause. The first thing to do in this case
would be to see whether the child's diet were deficient
in any one of the three nutrients, and if so bring the diet
up to the standard. In dealing with abnormal condi-
tions, then, or with large masses of people, or with
diet over an extended length of time, the dietary
standards may be applied to great advantage. It is
not necessary to apply it strictly to each individual
at each meal.

The calculation of a few dietaries is very useful
in giving us a definite idea of the general composi-
tion of foods, and so making it easier to estimate the
amount of different nutrients which we are providing

DIETARY STANDARDS 6i

at ordinary meals, without the tediousness of reckon-
ing each meal in detail.

In such calculations the following factors are used
to reduce the results to the standard of one man at
moderate work.

Factors used by the U, S. Department of Agriculture in Calculating
Meals Consumed in Dietary Studies.

Man at hard muscular work requires 1.2 the food of a man at moderatelj- Factors
active muscular work.

Man with light muscular work and and boy 15-16 years old require 0.9
the food of a man at moderately active muscular work.

Man at sedentary occupation, woman at moderately active work, boy
13-14, and girl 15-16 yoars old require 0.8 the food of a man at moderate-
ly active muscular work.

W^oman at light work, boy 13, and girl 13-14 years old require 0.7 the food
of a man at moderately active muscular work.

Boy 10-1 1 and girl 10-12 years old require 0.6 the food of a man at moder-
ately active muscular work.

Child 6-9 years old requires 0.5 the food of a man at moderately active
muscular work.

Child 2-5 years old requires 0.4 the food of a man at moderately active
muscular work.

Child under 2 years old requires 0.3 the food of a man at moderately
active muscular work.

In making dietary studies all food used should be ^tMi\s
weighed, but the following data may be of use for
approximate home calculation :

I measuring cup:rr>^ pint.
i6 tablespoons zr: I cup.
3 teaspoons^ri tablespoon.
A cup of water weighs about 8.3 oz., of milk 8.6 oz., of
cream 8.4 oz., of butter 8.4 oz., of lard 7.5 oz., of sugar 8 oz.,
and a tablespoonful of the foregoing weighs about 0.5 oz. A
cup of meal weighs 5 oz., of sifted flour 4 oz., of oatmeal 2.7
oz., of cream of wheat 6 oz. A cubic inch of meat or butter
weighs about 0.5 oz. An egg without shell weighs 1.6 oz. A
slice of bread ^ in. thick weighs i oz., a heaping teaspoonful
of sugar 0.4 oz.

62 FOOD AND DIETETICS

Since the foregoing was written, Professor Irving
Fisher of Yale University has devised a compara-
tively simple method of calculating individual
dietaries. His method is given in full in Bulletin
No. 13, "Food Values," of the A. S. H. E, and in the
supplement to this series of lessons. Before going
further it is well to become familiar with this method.

Instead of starting with the percentage composi-
tion by weight of foods, the basis is percentage by
"food units" or fuel and energy value, or in other
words, by calories. This does away with the varying
amounts of water contained in food which, while ab-
solutely necessary, has no fuel value and the method
places the fats on the same basis as the carbohydrates
and proteins.

A table is given showing the average food units
required for men, women and children, based on
Professor Chittenden's standards.

After becoming familiar with this method, the
approximate total food value of one's daily diet may
be reckoned mentally and the proportion of the three
chief food principles may be obtained with but little
figuring.

Note the additional work required by this method
in connection with Question 21 of this lesson p. 217.

TEST QUESTIONS

The following questions constitute the "written reci-
tation" which the regular members of the A. S. H. E.
answer in writing and send in for the correction and
comment of the instructor. They are intended to
emphasize and fix in the memory the most important
points in the lesson.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

PART I

Read Carefully. The Department of Agriculture Bulletin No.
142, "The Nutritive and Economic Value of Food," should be studied
in connection with this lesson. Make your answers full and complete.

1. What to-day is included in the food problem?

2. What factors affect the proportion of the income

spent for food ?

3. At current prices in your locality, give a list of

foods you would provide for a day's ration at
20 cents per person for raw food material. At
30 cents. At 40 cents.

4. To what extent can waste in food be eliminated?

5. How do animal and vegetable foods compare in

cost?

6. Which would be the cheaper source of proteid,

beefsteak at 25 cents per pound, milk at 8 cents
per quart, bread at six cents per pound, corn
meal at 4 cents per pound? Cxive details of
calculations.

7 . How is the heat and energy of the body produced ?

8. What is meant by the term calorie? How is it

that mechanical energy can be measured by
this unit?

9. How does the amount of heat produced by pro-

teid compare with that obtainable from an
equal amount of starch? With that from an
equal amount of fat?

FOOD AND DIETETICS

10. What relation has digestibiUty to food value?

11. What are the five food principles? Give their

functions. Which of the food principles is
most important?

12. What is meant by proteid ? Name the most com-

mon representatives of the class found in food.

13. If possible, perform the experiments in separat-

ing- some of the proteids as described and
report.

14. How does gelatine differ from the true proteids?

How may it be obtained?

15. What is the most important carbohydrate from

the standpoint of food? What is its source?

16. How do fats differ from carbohydrates?

17. What Is meant by food value? By nutrient ratio?

18. How are dietary standards determined?

19. What factors affect the amount and proportion

of food needed?

20. Of what practical value to the housekeeper are

dietary standards?

21. Calculate the amount of proteid, carbohydrate,

and fat in your own diet for one day as nearly
as you can. Give details of calculation.

22. What questions have come to you in the study

of this lesson?
Note. Question 2-1 is optional. After completing the test
sign your full name.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

PART II

SPECIAL FOOD STUFFS

In the selection of foods one of the questions that
will come up will be that of the relative value of ani-
mal and vegetable foods. An increasing number of
people are confining their diet largely, if not exclu-
sively, to vegetable products, while others add to these
such animal substances as do not imply the taking
of life, such as milk and eggs. Is a mixed diet essential
for health? Or may we at will choose exclusively
from the animal or the vegetable kingdom?

Certain broad distinctions between animal and vege-
table food will immediately present themselves.
Speaking generally, animal foods are richer in nitrog-
enous matter, while vegetable foods are the chief
source of carbohydrates. This becomes much more
evident if we compare the two in a dry condition.
Milk, for instance, makes a poor showing in proteid
as compared with dried peas and lentils, or even with
rice. But if we take the total solids of the milk as a
basis of comparison, eliminating the 87 per cent of
water, the case is quite otherwise. This is the fair
method, for the dried peas and rice absorb many times
their weight of water in the process of cooking, so
that the analysis of the raw material is quite different
from that of the cooked food.

Animal
and

Vegetable
Food Stuffs

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Caibohydrates

Comparative
Cost

Hutchison gives the following composition of a few
typical dried foods:

One hundred parts of dried lean beef contain 89 parts of
proteid.

One hundred parts of dried fat beef contain 51 parts of
proteid.

One hundred parts of dried pea flour contain 27 parts of
proteid.

One hundred parts of dried wheat contain 16 parts of
proteid.

One hundred parts of dried rice contain 7 parts of proteid.

To this we may add:

One hundred parts of dried milk contain 25 parts of
proteid.

On the other hand we find our carbohydrates almost
wholly in the vegetable kingdom. Milk is the only
important exception to this. In milk, dried, we find
38 parts of carbohydrate to 100 of the total solids.

Another difference between animal and vegetable
food is found in their comparative cost. Animal food as
a rule is much more expensive than vegetable. This
is not difficult to understand when we remember that
our animal food has been put through a further pro-
cess of manufacture than the vegetable food. If the
grain raised, instead of going directly to man as food,
is used to feed cattle, and these in turn are slaughtered
to furnish nourishment for human beings, the process
necessarily adds to the cost of the food. This pro-
cess, as well as the fact that plants are in general
builders of material, while animals break down the
complex compounds built up by the vegetables, is
graphically shown by the accompanying diagram.

SPECIAL FOODS

The same intermediate process which adds to the
cost of food increases also its digestibility, though the
less complete absorption by the system of vegetable

Bigestibility

APlmJl Ufe

Cycle of Lite

than of animal proteid seems to lie in the fact that in
the plant the proteid is enclosed within cellulose walls
and ordinary processes of cooking do not always free
it, rather than in any difference in the proteids them-
selves.

In deciding from which kingdom we shall choose

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Source of
Proteid

Vegetarian
Diet

our diet, we consider almost wholly the proteid. As
we have seen, carbohydrates must necessarily be ob-
tained chiefly from vegetable sources, and it seems
to be a matter of indifference whether the fat of the
diet is of animal or vegetable origin. With the addi-
tion of milk, butter, cheese, and eggs, it is not diffi-
cult with care to provide a satisfactory dietary without
the use of meat.

The case is different when vegetables form the only
source of food supplies. Because of the great excess
of carbohydrates and the presence of indigestible mat-
ter in the form of cellulose, a great bulk of food must
be taken in order to get the necessary proteid. As a
matter of fact, nearly all purely vegetarian diets are
deficient in proteid. The extra cost of the animal pro-
teid is justified by its availability since it may be ob-
tained without an excess of other substances and since
it is easily assimilated.

MEAT

In the ordinary family the greater part of the pro-
teid diet is probably furnished by meat, so that a
knowledge of the composition and nutritive value of
this article of food is important. The structure of the
meat may be best seen if one with a sharp knife scrapes
a small piece of meat, thus separating the muscle fibre
from the white connective tissue. Under the micro-
scope the muscle fibre is seen to consist of bundles of
smaller fibres held together by delicate connective tis-
sue in which fat cells are imbedded. These muscle

MEAT

fibres vary in length in different kinds of meat, and
the length of fibre probably plays some part in the
digestibility of the meat- -the short fibre meats being
the more digestible.

The toughness or tenderness of meat
depends partly upon the muscle fibres
and partly upon the connective tissue,
though as a rule the same conditions
that have made the connective tissue
tough and strong will have had a sim-
ilar though less effect upon the muscle
fibre. In general the muscles that are
most used or most exposed to v^^ind
and weather will be both tougher and
richer in flavor than those not so ex-
posed. The young animal will, of
course, have more delicate tissues and
less toughened fibres than the older or
harder worked animal.

The composition of different pieces of
meat, even from the same animal, differs greatly, the
proteid of beef, for instance, varying all the way from
twelve per cent to twenty-one, according to the cut of
meat and to the feeding of the animal from which it
is obtained.

The proteids of meat include a number of different
substances, the chief of which are fibrin, myosin and
albumin. After the animal is killed the myosin coagu-

FIBRE OP

MEAT.

a Fibre
b Fat

c Connecting
tissue

Composition

Proteids
of Meat

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Fat of
Heat

lates, thus causing the hardening of the muscle, known
as rigor mortis. In this condition the meat is very
tough, and the hanging of meat is practiced in order
to give time for tb? disappearance of this rigor by the
re-solution of the myosin.

The presence of albumin in the meat can be easily
shown by soaking a small portion of the meat in water
for a few minutes, and then heating this water. The
albumin dissolves in the water and coagulates upon
heating just as white of egg would do under similar
conditions. The scum that forms in the water when
a piece of meat is boiled, is largely this same albumin.
Beside the true proteids, gelatine may be obtained
from meat in varying quantities. The connective tis-
sue upon boiling becom.es gelatine, and it is due to
this as well as to the gelatine obtained from the bones
that water in which meat has been cooked so often
sets into a jelly. The color of meat is due largely to
the same substance that gives the color to blood,
haemoglobin. Its flavor depends chiefly upon the
nitrogenous substances called extractives, though the
characteristic taste of pork and mutton is caused partly
by the fats they contain. These extractives have no
real food value, but act as stimulants.

The fat in meat varies even more in amount than the
proteid ; beef, as purchased, containing from five and
eight-tenths per cent to more than forty per cent.

Even in meat that appears lean much fat is present
lying between the muscle fibres. This may be seen

MEAT

upon heating the meat m water, when globules of fat
appear from even the leanest meat. The solidity of
the fat is due chiefly to the stearin that is present.

The amount of water in meat varies very much.
A lean cut of beef may have as much as seventy-five
per cent of water, while a fat piece might not contain
more than fifty per cent. In general the more fat the
less water there is present, so that in buying it is
economy to select meat that is moderately fat.

From the standpoint of digestibility, meat is an ex-
cellent food. It is among the most easily digested of
the proteid foods. As a rule raw meat is more digesti-
ble than cooked, and rarely cooked meat more digesti-
ble than that which is well done. The cooking of
meat has its value not in adding to the digestibility
but in developing flavor, so that the meat becomes
more palatable ; and in rendering it more safe, by de-
stroying certain parasites that are sometimes present
in raw meat, particularly in pork, and bacteria that
under certain circumstances may cause dangerous de-
composition.

There is much difference in the digestibility of dii-
ferent meats. Pork is ranked among the less digestible
meats, since it requires a longer time for complete
digestion than do other varieties. This is probably
due to the large amount of fat closely combined with
the muscle fibres. Bacon fat, on the other hand, from
its different form, is generally found to be easily di-
gested.

Factors in
Digestibility

FOOD AND DIETETICS

EflFects of
Cooking

Losses in
Boiling

Mutton and beef stand equally well in this respect.
As has been suggested before, short fibred meats are
in general more easily digested than long fibred ones,
yet veal is an exception to this. Hutchison explains
this by suggesting that the fibres of veal easily elude
the teeth on mastication, and that the comparatively in-
sipid character of the veal fails to excite a free flow
of gastric juice. It would seem that this absence of
extractives would be the more important factor.

How far the cooking of meat alters its chemical
composition is not wholly determined. Some inter-
esting experiments at the University of Illinois liave
taught us much about the losses that take place in
the cooking. It is shown that in whatever way meat
is cooked, there is much loss of weight, amounting
either in boiling or in roasting to a fourth or even
a third of the original weight. This loss is partially
proteid and fat, but consists still more largely of water.
The loss of water appears to be caused partly, at
least, by the hardening and consequent contraction
of the muscle fibre, the water being mechanically
forced out.

An interesting experiment has been tried in regard
to the effect of salt in preventing or accelerating the
losses in meat. A salt solution was prepared, having
the same density as that of the juices of the meat, and
a piece of meat was boiled in this. It was found that
a very small amount of the juices of the meat were lost
in the water and practically none of the salt penetrated

MEAT

into the interior of the meat. The conclusion drawn
was that very Httle interchange of the water and the
meat juices could tfke place unless the medium in
which the meat was cooked was either less or more
dense than the meat juices themselves.

Meat does not form a cheap source of proteid food,
but the cost can be lessened very much by care in
selecting- the clieaper cuts. As a rule these cheaper
parts need longer cooking than the more expensive
tender cuts, and, as has been suggested before, the
fuel must be taken into account in estimating their
cost. Where the cheapness of the meat is not counter-
balanced by the additional expense of the fuel a great
variety and a satisfactory diet may be obtained with
only the occasional use of the more expensive portions.
As has been said, the nutritive value of the cheaper
parts is as great as that of the more tender portions.

The nutritive value of meat soups, broths and ex-
tracts has been much discussed. Often in estimating
this value too little allowance has been made for the
method used in preparation. A clear soup contains a
ver>^ small amount of real food. Its value lies in the
extractives that give it flavor, and in tlie small amount
of gelatin that it contains, and in its power to stimu-
late the flow of the gastric juices, and so wdiet the
appetite rather than satisfy it. The meat from which
such a soup has been made still contains a large por-
tion of its nutritive value, and although because of its
lack of flavor it cannot be used as it is, it may be

Cost of
Meat

Soups

and

Broths

•J2

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Extracts
of Meat

Beef
Juice

Nutritive

Value and

digestibility

made palatable and attractive by the addition of spice
or seasoning, or by its combination with a small por-
tion of fresh meat. Unless large quantities of soup
are made, it ought to be possible, in the ordinar}^
household, to utilize the soup meat in some way.

The commercial extracts of meat, are similar to
clear soup in that they contain practically nothing but
the extractives. A more nutritious broth may be
made if the meat, cut in small pieces, is allowed to
soak for some time in cold water and then is heated
to a low temperature, not above i8o degrees Fahren-
heit, and kept at this point for some hours. Toward
the end of the process the broth may be brought to the
boiling point for a few minutes in order to dissolve all
the gelatin possible. The brown flecks of albumin
that form must be served in the broth and not be
strained out. Even made in this way, the value of
the broth is small compared with that of meat, but it
is much greater than that of the clear soup.

Raw beef juice is valliable as a food. If the beef
be cut small, and thoroughly pressed, a much larger
amount of proteid is obtained than by any other treat-
ment. The round of beef, very slightly broiled and
pressed, may yield as much as seven per cent of pro-
teid and four per cent of extrr.ctives.

FISH

One of the most natural substitutes for meat is
fish. Its nutritive value is much like that of meat, al-
though it contains a somewhat smaller proportion of

FISH 7i

proteid. It also has the advantage of being as a rule
easily digested, and so is particularly adapted to the
needs of a person of sedentary habits. It is probably
this fact that has given rise to the false idea that fish
is a particularly good brain food. As a matter of
fact, it is no more a brain food than meat or eggs or
any other proteid food. The cost of fish is generally
less than that of meat, so that it furnishes a cheap
source of the necessary proteid. The value of fish
depends, however, upon nearness to the source of sup-
ply much more than does that of meat, since fish de-
teriorates rapidly upon keeping.

For food purposes we may divide fish into white classification
and fat fish ; or we may take Hutchison's classification
of, (i) fish with more than five per cent of fat,
such as eels, salmon and herring; (2) fish with from
two to five per cent of fat, as halibut and mackerel ;
and (3) fish with less than two per cent, such as cod
and haddock. Fish with a small amount of fat is
more easily digested than the more oily variety. Be-
side the proteid and fat in the fish, we obtain a certain
amount of gelatine. The sturgeon furnishes isin-
glass, a very pure variety of this substance.
I In estimating the cost of fish, allowance must be cost
made for the large amount of waste so that the price
per pound tells by no means the whole story of its
value from an economic standpoint. The follow-
ing analysis by Miss WilHams shows the waste in

of Fisk

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Variety
in Diet

Shell
Fisi

cooked fish as served at the table, and also the amount
of nutrient present.

Composition of Fish

Fish

Part analyzed

Per cent

Waste.

Bones,

etc.

Per cent Per cent
Gelatin j Water

Per cent
Nutrients

Sardines ..

Whole

4.91
5.99
8.23
11.66
10.51
15.99
6.13
35.10
21.50
31.20
6.84

42.17
61 06
67.12
53.29
65.21
63.78
67.68
46.46
61.29
53.09
69.35
79 85
61.18
77 71
65 20

Section

0.53
0 55
1.09
0.25
0.43
0.33
0.80
0.86
0.59
0.03

32.03
24.10
33.96
24.03

Trout. .

Whole

Eels

Mackerel .

Head s removed.

Whole

Cod.

Section

Salt cod . . .

25.85
17 64
16 35

Haddock

Whole .

Whiting...

Whole

Turbot
Halibut....

Anterior and head. .
Section

15.13

Plaice

Flesh

20 14

Soles

Whole

22.02

0.74

Oysters....

22 29
15 56

Smelts

Whole

is. 86

6.38

Fish, beside being an economical source of nitrog-e-
nous substances, has much value in satisfying the
demand for variety in food. Any lack in nutrients is
frequently supplied by the sauces with which it is
served, and by the fat used if it is fried. It would
seem to be an error from the standpoint of food values
to serve a rich sauce with a fish like salmon that
already contains a high proportion of proteid and a
large amount of fat, but an egg sauce serv^ed with a
light fish like cod or haddock has its justification, not
only in the additional flavor imparted, but in the addi-
tional food value.

Oysters may be taken as a good type of the various
shell fish that we use. The analysis of oysters shows
a composition somewhat similar to that of milk,

PISH 75

although they are higher in nitrogen and lower in fat
than milk.

Average Composition of Oysters. (Langworthy.)
(Exclusive of liquid.)

Water 88.3

Nitrogenous substances 6. 1

Fat 1.4

Carbohydrates 3.3

Salts 1.9

When milk is seven cents a quart and oysters are
twenty-five, the amount of food material purchased for
a given amount differs greatly in the two. When oys-
ters are fifty cents a quart they must be distinctly re-
garded as a luxury, used for the purpose of provid-
ing variety, and not as a valuable source of food.
Oysters are one of the few animal foods that contain
a large amount of carbohydrates. These are present
in the liver of the oyster in the form of glycogen.

The oyster is especially easy of digestion, but this
digestibility is lessened by cooking. This is particu-
larly true when the oyster is overcooked. An object-
tion to the use of the raw oyster is that during the
so-called fattening of the oyster, that is done in shal-
low water, it may become contaminated with typhoid
germs derived from sewage. Some noted epidemics
have been traced to this source. This simply means
that greater care should be taken in the supervision
of such a food supply in order that it may be protected
from such possible contamination.

Of other shell fish commonly used, clams have a
similar composition to that of oysters, but contain

Comparative
Cost

Digestibility

Clams
Lobsters

FOOD AND DIETETIC.^

Dried and

Smoked

Fish

Cooking

a tougher muscle, while lobsters and crabs are gen-
erally considered somewhat indigestible because of
the firmness and compactness of their fibre. The dif-
ficulty here seems partially at least to be the failure
to properly masticate the flesh, as is true In so many
other cases, and also the difficulty of obtaining the
food in an absolutely fresh condition.

Dried and smoked fish deserve a place in the diet
for the sake of variety, and because, since the water has
been eliminated, a large amount of food material is
obtained for a small amount of money. The use of cer-
tain varieties of canned fish has become general. Sal-
mon is perhaps the most satisfactory of these. Special
care should be taken in using canned fish to remove it
immediately from the can after it is opened, and to use
it within a short time. Fish that has been frozen
should be cooked immediately after thawing, since it
decomposes much more rapidly than fish which has
not been frozen.

Fish, particularly some varieties, such as cod, occa-
sionally contains parasites, but these are destroyed by
thorough cooking. It is essential that all fish used
should be thoroughly cooked, although this does not
mean that it should be cooked at a high temperature.
A temperature of from i8o to 200 degrees Fahrenheit
continued long enough to coagulate the proteid and
render the fish opaque instead of clear, gives far more
satisfactory results than boiling.

As in other cooking of flesh, this principle is appar-
ently violated when fish is cooked in a hot oven, or

FISH

fried, but as a matter of fact, the violation is only
true so far as the ouiside layers are concerned, and
this sacrifice is made in order to keep the shape of the
fish and to develop the flavor.

Comparative Costs of Protein and Energy as Furnished by a Number
of Food Materials at Certain Prices

Kind of Food Material.

Price per
pound.

Cost of
protein

per
pound.

Cost of
energy
per 1000
calories.

Codfish .

Cents.
10
13

18
7
10

l§

20
14
5
25
20
23
13
23

18
3
3

$0.94

i;33

1.18

.44

.68

.55

2.50

5.00

1.53

1.23

.77

.36

.97

1.54

1.48

.85

1.65

1.06

.91

3.05

.27

.23

!44
1.79
3.57
5.00
8.75
7.00

Codfish steaks

Bluetish

.59

Halibut

.22
.11
13

Mackeral, salt

Salmon, canned

Oysters, "solids" (30 cents per quart)

Oysters, "solids" (60 cents per quart)

.65
1.30
.26

Beef, stew meat ...

Beef, dried "chipped"

Mutton leg ..

Pork, .smokpd lia.m , . ,

Milk (7 cents per quart)

1 24

Wheat flour

.01

Potatoes (90 cents per bushel) . ..

.03

Cabbage

.23

Bananas

•23

Strawberries

From Fish as Food

One of the most general substitutes for meat is the Composition
egg. One would at first thought expect eggs to be
of much the same composition as milk, since each fur-

FOOD AND DIETETICS

White

and

Yolk

nishes food for the growing animal, but when the
different conditions are considered, the reason for the
variation in this respect is readily seen. The tgg must
contain a large amount of nourishment in the most
compact form. It must furnish all the materials nec-
essary for growth, but it does
not need to provide for activ-
ity to the extent that milk
does. Consequently we find
the carbohydrates wholly ab-
sent, and a much larger pro-
portion of solid material than
is present in milk. The solids
are in the form of proteids,
fourteen and eight-tenths per
cent; fat, ten and a half per
cent ; and mineral salts, one
per cent. This refers to the
edible part only.
The white of the &gg contains twelve per cent of
proteid, with practically no fat and a small amount of
mineral matter, while the yolk has sixteen and two-
tenths per cent of proteid and almost thirty-two per
cent of fat.

The greater part of the mineral salts are also in the
yolk, although the sulphur that causes the blackening
of the silver spoon with which we eat our egg is
chiefly in the white.

(After Hutchison.)

Diagram showing Composi-
tion of White and Yolk of
an Egg.

EGGS 79

While eggs form a valuable meat substitute, it is
difficult to use them wholly in the place of meat, since
it takes so many eggs to equal a pound of meat. From
eight to nine eggs constitute a pound. If the eggs
have the composition given and meat contains eighteen
per cent proteid, it would require about twelve eggs
to furnish as much proteid as one pound of meat ; and
one who would have no difficulty in eating half a
pound of beefsteak at a meal, would not wish to eat
an equal weight of eggs.

Eggs like meat need to be supplemented by carbo-
hydrate material. Bread and eggs furnish a satis-
factory combination as well as bread and meat. Raw
eggs are usually considered more easily digested than
cooked eggs, although some experiments show that
the cooked egg leaves the stomach in a shorter time
than the uncooked. This is explained by the state-
ment that the raw egg is digested largely in the in-
testine. Its failure to excite the secretion of gastric
juice in the stomach makes it possible to use raw eggs
in the diet when the stomach requires rest.

Hard cooked eggs take a longer time to digest than Digestibility
those lightly cooked, but from recent government
experiments they seem to differ little in the complete-
ness with which they are digested, an egg boiled three
minutes having 8.3 per cent of its nitrogen undigested
at the end of five hours ; one boiled for five minutes
having 3.9 per cent undigested, and one boiled for
twenty minutes having 4.2 per cent remaining. Eggs

8o FOOD AND DIETETICS

cooked at 1 80 degrees Fahrenheit for five and ten min-
utes respectively were totally digested in five hours.
Possibly the rapidity of the digestion of the hard
cooked tgg may depend on the fineness of mastication.
Cost Whether eggs are to be used freely depends largely

upon their price. Eggs at fifteen cents a dozen may
be so used, while at fifty cents a dozen they can not be
regarded as an economical source of food.

MILK

Milk is often called a perfect food. This is true,

however, only in a limited sense. Hutchison gives

five tests of a perfect food.

Tests of First, such a food must contain all the nutritive

a Perfect

constituents required by the body; proteids, fats,

carbohydrates, mineral matter and water.

Second^ it must contain these in their proper rela-
tive proportions.

Third, it must contain, in a moderate compass, the
total amount of nourishment required daily.

Fourth, the nutritive elements must be capable of
easy absorption, and yet leave a certain bulk of un-
absorbed matter to act as intestinal balance.

Fifth, it must be obtainable at a moderate cost.

Of these tests milk meets only the first perfectly.
It contains the two proteids, casein and albumen. It
contains the fat so familiar to us in the form of cream
and butter. The carbohydrates are represented in it
by milk sugar or lactose. The mineral salts are par-

Food

MILK

ticnlarly valuable,- and consists chiefly of calcium
compounds, including calcium phosphate.

When we come to the second test, we find a differ-
ent condition. An average sample of milk contains
87 per cent of water, three and three-tenths per cent
proteid, four per cent fat, and
five per cent carbohydrate,
with seven-tenths of one per
cent mineral matter. This pro-
portion is of course right for
the young animal, who de-
mands a large proportion of
muscle-building food, but it is
far from a desirable propor-
tion for the adult.

Remembering that the nu-
trient ratio is about one to
five, or to put it in another
form, that the adult requires
approximately five times as much carbohydrate (or its
equivalent) as proteid, we see that milk must be sup-
plemented by some food containing a large proportion
of carbohydrate before it can adequately supply the
needs of the adult. As a matter of fact, experience
has taught us to use with milk such a food as bread,
thus supplying the needed starchy material.

The third condition is not met better than the second.
At least four quarts of milk a day would be necessary
for the complete nutrition of a healthy man doing a

(After Hutchison.)

Composition of a Glass
of Milk.

Proportions
of Nutrients

Nutrient
Ratio

S2 FOOD AND DIETETICS

moderate amount of muscular work. Milk also is lack-
ing in the bulk of unabsorbed matter that it leaves.
Cost The fifth condition may or may not be fulfilled. In
the city the price of milk is too high for it to be
an economical source of food if used exclusively. On
the other hand in the country the price of milk is
often so low that this condition might be fulfilled.

A comparison of the food value obtained from one
pound (a pint) of milk and from that of a similar
weight of some common article of food, is given,
with the cost of each at prices taken from two differ-
ent sections of the country:

Comparative Food Value of Milk
1 lb. of milk fm-nishes .03'5 lbs. proteid .01 lbs. fat .05 lbs. carbohydrate
1 " " sirloin steak " .1G5 " " .161 " " no "

1" "eggs(8eggs) " .131 " '• .093 " " no
1 " " bread " .093 " " .013 " " .5311bs.

1 " " potatoes " .018 " " .001 " " .147 '•

(one 60th bu.)
From milk at (.01 per qt. or .03 per lb.) 1 lb. of proteid costs % .60

" (.07 .035 " ") 1 " " " " i.oe

" sirloin steak at .18 a lb. 1 " •' " " 1.09

" .35 " 1 ' 1.53

" eggs at (.15 per doz. or .10 per lb.) 1 " •' " " .76

" (.36 '• " " .34 " •' ) 1 ■' '• '■ " 1.83

" bread at .05 per lb. 1 " " " " .51

" .08 " " 1 " " " " .87

" potatoes at .60per bu. or .01 per lb. 1 " " " " .56

" " '• ^1.30 .03 ■' " 1 " " " " 1.11

In addition to the proteid, the money invested would
have purchased, in the case of milk more than a pound
of fat and of sugar; in that of meat an equal amount
of fat; in the case of bread more than five pounds of
starch ; in that of potatoes nearly seven pounds of

MILK

starch ; while three-fourths of a pound of fat would be
furnished by the eggs.

Even at city prices milk might well be substituted to
a certain extent for other proteid foods. The habit
of many people of using milk simply as a beverage in
addition to the food required, is perhaps responsible
for the fact that many people find milk indigestible;
the difficulty lies not with the milk but with the over-
abundance of food. An experiment was tried at the
Maine Agricultural College on the effect of a limited
and an unlimited amount of milk at the University
boarding house. These experiments are reported in
the Government Bulletin called Milk as Food, and the
following conclusions are drawn :

"First, the dietaries in which milk was more abun-
dantly supplied was somewhat less costly than the
others, and at the same time was fully as acceptable.
Second, the increased consumption of milk had the
efifect of materially increasing the proportion of pro-
tein in the diet. Third, the milk actually supplied the
place of other food materials, and did not, as many
suppose, simply furnish an additional amount of food
without diminishing the quantity of other materials.
Fourth, the results indicate that milk should not be re-
garded as a luxury, but as an economical article of
diet which families of moderate income may freely
purchase as a probable means of improving the char-
acter of the diet and of cheapening the cost of the
supply of animal food."

A Food
Not a
Beverage

Economical

Food

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Chart of the Pecuniary Economy of Milk and Other Foods at
Given Prices

FooamiiteiM

Ten

buy-

Potmda of jralrlenta »nd calories lo ten omU' worth.

lbs Oz

■f^r e^z. 1201. 1601 ZOoz. 240Z. Z3oi. SZat.

lOCdcal. ZOOOcal. 3000cal. 4000cal.

2 .0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Whole mUk, 10
cu-perqt....

•\ri \

Whole milk, 8

2 8

..i 1 1

VHiole milk. 7

2 .14

...5 1 1

Cl8.perql....

Wliolo milk, fi

3 S

,j i 1

eta. per ql....

Wliole milk, 6
cts.perql

4 0

:..J 1 1

Wholo milk. 4

S 0

-^1 p— ]

cla-rerqt

Skim milk. 3 els.

6 11

)

Skim milk, 2 cts.

10 0

li ■ -/^'y \

Butter. 24 cts. per

0 7

Cheese. 16ct3. per

0 10

...I .M

Beef, round, E

0 13

^ i

cu.perlb

Beef, eirloin. 18

..lA

Mutton, loin, 10

0 10

'.i -1

Pork. salt. 12cta.
per lb

0 13

r -^

Cod, salt. 8 cU.

1 s

jirxs^

Ej-s.22cts.rer

0 u

.^4

O/sters, 30 cts.

0 11

Potatoes Mcta.

10 0

m^ - 1

beans, dried. 8

2 8

^^^^■Ml '^ -■'■■^

8 6

^^^f}- —

WbMt flonz. 8
Ms-perlbT.^.

I ' ., ■ . ■,,y'7^.^'/

MILK 85

We may conclude that while it would not be econom-
ical to obtain our total food supply from milk, it is
good economy to use it freely in connection with other
foods to furnish part of the proteid of the diet.

The digestibility of milk varies very much with the DigestibUiti
method in which it is taken. If a small amount of
liquid rennet or of the junket tablets so commonly
found in the market, be added to a portion of warm
milk, a thick clot forms. This is similar to the process
that takes place in the stomach after milk has been
swallowed. ]\Iilk properly, then, so far as its diges-
tion is concerned, is a solid rather than a liquid food.
Its digestibility depends largely upon the way in which
this clot is formed. If the milk be swallowed rapidly,
so that the rennin acts upon a large mass at once, one
large clot is formed. If, on the other hand, the milk
be sipped slowly, or eaten from a spoon, the action is
slower and the curd is broken.

The same result in a more marked degree is obtained Addition
by the addition of certain substances, such as lime-
water, to the milk ; or by the mixing of the milk with
bread, as is done in eating bread and milk. Some peo-
ple who cannot use milk in its ordinary form have
found that they could digest it without difficulty if a
cracker were rolled into fine crumbs and stirred into
the milk. The digestive juices that would act slowly
upon a large mass of curd, act readily upon the same
amount when it is broken into small clots.

Boiled milk has generally been considered less diges-

POOD AND DIETETICS

Boiled
Milk

Buttermilk
Koumiss
Skim-milk

tible than uncooked milk, but some experiments seem
to contradict this. The experiment station bulletin
states that when cow's milk has been boiled before it
is taken into the stomach it is likely to be precipitated
in a more floculent form. Hutchison says that it has
been found in the case of infants and calves that ster-
ilized milk which has been kept at or above the boil-
ing point for more than an hour is absorbed, quite as
well as milk which has merely been boiled in the usual
way, and he concludes that boiling does not appreciably
diminish the digestibility of milk.

On the other hand, the government bulletin states,
after acknowledging that the results of experiments
upon the subject are conflicting, that "the more com-
mon experience seems to indicate that cooking or heat-
ing the milk makes the proteids somewhat more
difficult for most persons to digest, but there are ex-
ceptions to this rule, if it be a rule, for there are per-
sons who cannot take fresh milk with comfort but with
whom boiled milk agrees very well."

In this case as in many others we must wait for a
larger number of experiments to be made before we
can make very dogmatic statements.

Buttermilk is considered an especially digestible
form of milk, while koumiss or fermented milk is of
still greater value in this respect. Skim-milk deserves
more general use than it has, since the proteid of the
milk nearly all remains in this, and it is for the proteids

MILK

that we especially value the milk. Where skim milk
is sold at a low price, it is economy to use it freely in
cooking, supplying the needed fat in a less expensive
form than cream.

The Compositio-i of Milk

The composition of milk has already been stated in
a general way. If we examine it more in detail, we
find that the proteids of milk consist chiefly of two:
casein or, as it is sometimes called, caseinogen. This
forms about three per cent of the total of the
milk. It is held in solution more or less completely by
the salts of lime present in the milk. When acid is
added to the milk, or it becomes sour, this casein is
precipitated. When rennet is added the casein is
coagulated and is changed in chemical composition.
The scum that forms upon heated milk is chiefly
casein.

The other proteid present in milk is lact-albumen.
This coagulates when the milk is heated for a long
time. It is present in much smaller amount than the
casein, forming only about one-seventh of the total
proteid of the milk.

The sugar of the milk, forming between four and five
per cent, is called lactose or milk sugar. It has two
important characteristics. It lacks the sweetness usu-
ally associated with the name of sugar, having only a
very slight sweet flavor, and it is considered the most
digestible form of sugar, apparently fermenting in the

Lact-
Albumen

Milt
Sugar

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Mineral
Matter

' O . °o

i oO^ .•>.

oooc

stomach or intestines with much less ease than do
other sugars. For both of these reasons it is particu-
larly suitable for the use of infants or invalids. The
commercial article is obtained from milk, and is sold
in the form of a fine white powder looking not unlike
pulverized sugar. Aside
from its use as a food
it is extensively used in
the preparation of pills.
The fat of milk is
present in the form of
an emulsion. If one
looks at a drop of milk
through the microscope
one sees a large num-
ber of tiny fat globules.
That the fat is so fine-
ly divided is a factor in
its digestibility, though
fat derived from milk,
either in the form of
cream or butter, is also
considered particularly
digestible.

The mineral matter of milk consists largely of
potash and lime salts, and of these salts the phos-
phates are the most abundant. These are important,
not only in the building of bone tissue, but also,
as has been suggested before, in holding the casein
in solution.

) ••oTO«°

Fat Globules of Milk Magnified
200 Times.

SldmMilk. b Whole Milk.
c Cream.

MILK 89

Water forms about 87 per cent of milk, and its chief water
use in this form is in holding other materials in solu-
tion. To compare milk with other foods, we should
properly think of the solid ingredients alone, since
the water has no more food value than water in any
other form.

Milk readily undergoes many cl:anges, some of them Souring
harmless and some more or less harmful. The most
common change is that of souring. Bacteria present
in the milk act upon the sugar and change it into lactic
acid. After a certain amount of this acid has been
produced, the growth of the bacteria is stopped, and
no further change in the sugar takes place, though
undoubtedly certain other changes take place both in
the fat and in the proteid.

There is no evidence that sour milk is unwholesome, use of
The objection to it seems to be chiefly one of taste. Its m^us
use in cooking produces good results, and many pre-
fer it for some purposes to sweet milk since it seems
to produce a more tender product than does the sweet
milk. On the other hand, milk may under the action
of certain bacteria produce most harmful products,
and poisoning from these ptomaines is not uncommon
where milk has been handled in an uncleanly manner
and has been poorly cared for. A more serious dan-
ger from milk is that owing to the excellent food it
furnishes for almost all bacteria, it is frequently a
carrier of disease. Disease germs that in water would
not multiply and would probably live only for a short

Pure

Condensed

90 FOOD AND DIETETICS

time, multiply abundantly in milk. It is because of
the possibility of the presence of these harmful bac-
teria, rather than from any danger from sour milk,
that we guard our milk supply carefully. Each hour
that elapses between the milking of the cow and the
use of the milk by the consumer, increases the num-
ber of bacteria present. One cubic centimeter of milk
frequently contains from 400,000 to several million
bacteria.

Efforts to guard the milk supply have been directed
^'^^ in two ways. The sterilization of pasteurization of all
milk is often recommended ; but a more satisfactory
method would seem to be the insuring of cleanly con-
ditions upon the dairy farm where the milk is pro-
duced. The next essential after cleanliness is that the
milk should be cooled rapidly when first milked, since
the lower temperature makes the fluid less favorable
for the growth of germs.

In the household milk should be kept in perfectly
clean vessels, and should be loosely, not tightly, cov-
ered, in order that there may be access of air to it,
since the absence of fresh air favors the growth of
certain putrefactive organisms. The entirely open
vessel is only allowable in perfectly clean surround-
ings, not only free from dust, but with no strong
flavoring substance near from which odors could be
absorbed.

One form in which we often get milk is that of
Mils evaporated or condensed milk. This is simply milk

Care of
Milk

MILK

from which most of the water has been removed, and
which has been made sterile by heating to a high tem-
perature. It has usually been s\Veetened, and the sugar
acts as a preservative. While it is a convenient form
for use when fresh milk is not obtainable, its large
amount of sugar renders it somewhat undesirable as
a common article of diet, and also makes it unfit for
many cooking purposes.

There is being put upon the market now milk
powder that seems to consist chiefly of the curd of the
milk dried and ground. With the addition of water
it forms a very fair substitute for milk.

Alilk is perhaps more often adulterated than any
other common article of diet. The most common form
of adulteration is that of skimming or removing part
of the cream. This can easily be detected, because it
increases the specific gravity of the milk. To coun-
terbalance this, water, which is slightly lighter than
milk, is added in such proportion that the twice adul-
terated milk gives the same test as if it had not been
tampered with at all.

Another adulteration that is sometimes practiced is
that of adding coloring matter to the milk. This is
usually done in order to conceal the blueness of the
milk, when it has been watered.

Preservatives are frequently used. Of these boric
acid is probably the least harmful, though some au-
thorities contend that formaldehyde in the minute
quantities in which it is used has no physiological

Milk
Powder

Adulteration

Preservatives

92 FOOD AND DIETETICS

effect. A milk that will stand in a warm place for
some hours and show no tendency to sour is open to
the suspicion of having been treated in some such
way. Ordinary cooking soda is sometimes added to
neutralize the acidity that may be present because of
the age of the milk. Salicylic and benzoic acids are
sometimes found, while formaldehyde is used most of
all.

MILK PRODUCTS

The importance of milk is hardly greater than that
of its two chief products, butter and cheese. Butter
consists chiefly of the fat of the milk with a small
amount of water, of casein and of salt, with sometimes
a little milk sugar. The average amount of fat con-
tained is 82 per cent. The fats which are present may
be put into two classes : Those derived from the so-
called "fixed" fatty acids, and those from the volatile
fatty acids. The fixed fatty acids are present in the
form of stearin, the chief ingredient in beef fat, and
of palmitin and olein. The amount of the volatile
acids present differentiate butter from most of the
other fats that we commonly use as food. The flavor
of butter is produced apparently by the action of
bacteria upon the cream, the different flavor of butter
at different times of the year coming largely from
differences in the kind and amount of bacteria that
find their way into the milk. The "ripening" of the
cream is often induced by artificial cultures of the
proper bacteria. Many buttermakers abroad and in

BUTTER

some sections of our own country, depend entirely
upon these bacterial cultures for the production of
their butter flavor.

The rancidity of butter may be produced by changes
taking place in the casein that is present, or from a
decomposition of the fats themselves. Cooking les-
sens the digestibility of butter as it does that of other
!ats, probably because of the decomposition that takes
place when fats are subjected to a high temperature,
and the consequent freeing of irritating fatty acids.

The adulteration of butter consists chiefly in a sub-
stitution of other substances, either in whole or in
part, for the butter fat, or of an inferior and "doc-
tored" article. The coloring of butter is almost univer-
sal, but it is so generally accepted that it can hardly
be classed as an adulteration, although it surely shows
a false standard in foods when we insist upon buying
a deep yellow compound colored with annatto or some

Changes

Adulteration

colored substance that most natural uncolored butter is.
The substitutions spoken of are chiefly either what
is called renovated butter, or oleomargarine. Reno-
vated butter is made by taking different lots of stale
or rancid butter, melting it, allowing the curd to settle,
and re-churning the fat with a small amount of milk.
The product is certainly better than the rancid butter,
but it cannot compare in flavor and in wdiolesomeness
with fresh butter, and certainly should not be sold as
such.

Renovated

Butte.-

94 FOOD AND DIETETICS

Butterine Oleomargarine, or butterine, is made by clarifying

the fat of beef and churning it in milk. It differs
from butter in its composition in that it contains
practically no curd, and is lacking in the volatile fatty
acids that are present in the butter and character-
istic of it. It is a cheaper product than butter, and
the temptation to put it upon the market under the
name of butter has consequently been great. There
is absolutely no reason, however, why, sold under its
own name, it should not be a very general article of
use. There seems nothing to show that it is materially
less digestible than butter itself ; it does not grow
rancid with the ease that butter does, and it is made in
a perfectly cleanly and wholesome way, certainly so far
as the best quality of it is concerned. Even if it is
artificially colored, this is no worse than is true of
butter. The difference in taste between it and butter
is rather in an absence of the aroma that we find in the
best butter, than in any disagreeable flavor present.
Indeed, although each person thinks to the contrary
in regard to himself, few people are able to distin-
guish it from butter by taste. It may be used in almost
every way as a butter substitute. It is perfectly satis-
factory to use in the making of sauces or upon vege-
tables or meat. It does not make so light a cake as
butter, and is not satisfactory for this purpose, except
that in a plain cake it may be substituted for part
of the butter ; and it cannot be used in candy making
as, for some reason, it fails to combine with the other

CHEESE 05

materials and always separates out upon cooling.
Since it is so much cheaper than butter it would be
well to use it as a substitute for part of the more ex-
pensive material.

The present law in regard to it has lessened its
sale to a great extent since it can no longer be artifi-
cially colored, but it is certainly only prejudice that
prevents our accepting a pure white fat instead of a
bright yellow one.

Cheese, so far as nutritive value is concerned, stands
almost at the head of our list of foods. Since it is
made from the curd of the milk, and the water has
largely been disposed of in the whey, while the fat is
carried dow^n with the curd, we have the most im-
portant part of the milk solids in a condensed form.
The composition of the di liferent varieties of cheese
varies to quite an extent, but in a rough way A\e may
say that cheese is one-third proteid, one-third fat and
one-third water. ^Mineral salts are abundant as well,
while a small amount of milk sugar :s sometimes
present.

Cheese is prepared by the addition of rennet to
milk. Coloring matter is generally added, and salt.
After the curd has set, it is cut in small pieces and the
whey allowed to drain off. The curd is then put into a
press and allowed to remain for a few hours. After
this the real curing or ripening of the cheese begins,
and this process is allow-ed to go on for months in
order to develop the flavor. This flavor is produced

Cheese
Making

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Digestibility

EflFects of
Cooking

by the action of bacteria, different varieties of bac-
teria giving- us the different flavors of the various
kinds of cheese.

While there is no question as to the nutritive value
of cheese, there is more doubt as to its digestibility.
In many countries cheese is used largely as a substi-
tute for meat, and wherever it can be digested this is
certainly a rational thing. Some people who have
delicate digestions have no difficulty in digesting
cheese, while others find it an extremely indigestible
food. One difficulty seems to be that the cheese is
frequently not chewed enough, and the digestive
organs have to cope with lumps of the material.
Cheese generally proves more digestible if it is finely
divided and mixed with some starchy material like
bread crumbs or macaroni. Another factor in its
digestibility is the temperature at which it is cooked.
Like all proteid foods, it is toughened and hardened by
a high temperature. This is very evident in the case
of such a dish as a Welsh rarebit, where over-cooking
produces a tough, stringy, most indigestible mass. In
combining cheese with such a dish as macaroni it is
well not to allow the cheese to be at the bottom or the
top of the dish, but to protect it from the high tem-
perature by putting it between the layers of starchy
material.

Matthieu Williams, in his chemistry of cookery,
suggests the use of a little bicarbonate of potash, the
old-fashioned salaratus, to make the cheese more

CHEESE 97

soluble and therefore more digestible. Sometimes
after the cheese has become tough from the action of
too high a temperature, it may be again miade soft by
the addition of this substance, or of baking soda.
Hutchison suggests that the disagreeable effect that
cheese has upon some people may be due to small
quantities of fatty acids produced in the process of
ripening. The philosophy of the use of cheese at the
end of a dinner seems to be that the cheese in small
quantities aids the digestion of other foods, even
though it is not always easily digested itself. Wher-
ever, then, cheese can be used and digested without
difficulty, it forms an excellent article of food, one that
should be used more freely than is done at present.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Importance

CEREALS AKD THEIR PRODUCTS

The most important of all our vegetable foods are
without doubt cereals. Not only do they contain a
large amount of nutriment, chiefly, but by no means
wholly, in the form of carbohydrates, but their areas
of growth are widely distributed, and their power of
adaptation to different climates and conditions is usu-
ally great. This alone would render them exceedingly

PROBABLE NATIVE HOME OF THE GRAINS.
(From Corn Plants By Fredric LeRoy Sargent.)

important as food for the human race. Of them all
wheat is undoubtedly the most important from its wide
distribution and its power of adaptation to different
conditions. Rice follows closely in importance, while
corn, oats, rye, barley and millet each have an impor-
tant place in the food of the world. The home of the

CEREALS

cereals seems for the most part to have been Central
Asia, nearly all, except rice and corn, originating
there. Corn is supposed to have originated in Mex-
ico. From these centers their production has spread
through all parts of the world.

A comparison of the composition of some of the
different cereals in forms commonly used is given in
the following table :

Composition of Cereals.

Per Cent

Water.

Per Cent

Proteid.

13.8

9.2
16.1

6.8
10.5

8.5

Per Cent
of Carbo-
hydrate.

71.9

75.4

67.5

78.7

72.8

77.8

79.

Per Cent
of
Fat.

Wheat flour (entire)

11.4
12.5
7.3
12.9
11.9
11.5
12.3

1.9

7.2

Rye flour .

Barley meal and floui" .

2.2

1.1

Rice.;

Wheat derives its special importance from the fact
that it will grow in so many different climates and
imder so many varying conditions. It may be sown
either in the fall or in the spring, and receives its name
of winter or spring wheat, according to the time of the
planting. Alany varieties are found, such as red
wheat and white wheat, hard and soft wheat.

The hard wheats contain a larger proportion of
gluten, and therefore a smaller proportion of starch
than do the soft wheats. Wheat from wdiich macaroni
is manufactured, is an exceedingly hard variety. Suc-
cessful attempts have been made within a few years to
grow macaroni wheats in this country, and much of it
is now produced in Dakota. Though hard wheat is

Composition

THE PRINCIPAL GRAINS.
(Redrawn from Corn Plants.)

CEREALS

used chiefly for making pastes like macaroni, excellent
bread can be made from it also, as is shown by ex-
periments made at the SOo Dakota Agricultural Col-
lege.

Winter wheats as a rule are
softer than spring wheats. So-
called pastry flour is made from
the softer wheats. Much of our
bread flour is now made from
mixtures of winter and spring
wheat, and great care is exercised
in the combining of these in order
to keep an even standard.

The process of manufacturing
flour is carried out differently by
different manufacturers, so far as
its details are concerned, but the
main features are the same. The
wheat as it comes to the mill is
first of all cleaned, by screening to get rid
of any large foreign substances that may be
present in it, and by "scouring" to get rid
of the fine dirt that may adhere. The next process
is that known as breaking. The wheat is cut by-
corrugated iron rollers provided for the purpose.
There are generally five breaks in all. Each "break"
is put through a number of siftings. The meshes of
the bolting cloth through which this sifting is done are
graduated in size, and the products accordingly vary in

Section of a Grain

of Wheat.

From a Maine Exp.

Station Bulletin.

Flour

Bolting

Scalping

Mixing

and

Testing

102 FOOE AND DIETETICS

fineness. The finest particles are called the dustings,
the coarsest are the scalpings, while between these are
the middlings, — germ, medium and fine. The scalpings
from the first break undergo a second breaking and
are again separated by sifting as in the first break,

SECTIONS OF A WHEAT GRAIN SHOWING THE STRUCTURE
AND DIFFERENT PARTS.
(From Original Drawings.)

and this process continues through all the breaks.

The flours on the market are made from mixtures of
the products of the different breaks. When a flour is
mixed it is tested by making a portion of it into a
small loaf and baking it, and comparing this loaf with
that made from some standard flour. The scalpings
from the last break constitute the bran. This is al-

CEREALS

103

most wholly cellulose and is therefore not digestible
by human beings, but much of the so-called Graham
flour on the market is simply a mixture of white flour
with some of this bran. True Graham flour is really
wheat meal made by grinding the entire kernel.

So-called whole wheat flour contains the inner
portion of the bran only. The cellulose is very finely
divided, so that it is less irritating to the digestive
organs than the bran in Graham flour.

There is little difficulty today in obtaining good
flour, but the different brands vary in composition,
and so do different lots of the same brand, in spite
of the effort to keep them constant. This means
that a different treatment must be used. It is well,
then, in the household, to experiment a few times
with a new lot of flour before condemning it as poor
and returning it.

Some false standards have been set up in regard
to flour. The best bread flour is not pure white, but
yellowish in tint. It readily retains the impression of
the fingers, if a little is pressed together in the hand.
It always has a slightly gritty feeling, while pastry
flour is much smoother and more velvety to the
touch.

AV^ithin a few years the use of cereals as breakfast
foods has become general. We have now not only the
standard meals, which have been used for a long time,
but a multitude of patent preparations as well. The
Maine agricultural experiment station found that of
fifty varieties of cereals purchased in the market, only

Whole
Wheat
Fiour

Breakfast
Foods

i:4 FOOD AND DIETETICS

about twenty had been on sale for more than three
years. Many of these are only new in name, or differ
very slightly from those before used. Within a short
time there has been added to our list of breakfast
cereals many that claim to be predigested foods, and
some that make absurd claims with regard to their
wonderful food value, while others stand for what they
are, without pretence.

Probably there is comparatively little to choose be-
tween different preparations of the same grain, so far
as their chemical composition goes. The analysis of
tlie uncooked food, however, by no means represents
the composition of the cereal as we eat it. An analysis
of boiled oatmeal, for instance, gave: Water, 84.5 per
cent ; protein, 2.8 per cent ; carbohydrate, 11.5 per cent ;
fat, 5 per cent. Comparing this with the analysis of
oatmeal given on p. 99, we find only about one-sixth
the per cent of nutritive material, with a correspond-
ing increase of water. A cereal that would absorb a
greater weight of water would show still greater varia-
tion.
Dip-estiMiity The digestibility of the cereals is influenced by the

coarseness of the particles. The coarser foods are
highly desirable in many cases, especially where a slug-
gishness of the intestines exists, and in other cases are
very irritating to the delicate lining of stomach and
intestine. Individual needs must determine the use of
each.

Most of the cereals, even those that are steam

of Cereals

CEREALS 105

cooked, need much more cooking than is ordinarily Jo'^ing'
given them in order to sufficiently hydrate the starch.
Of the foods supposed to be ready to eat, it is difficult
to speak definitely, for lack of careful experimentation.
In most of them a certain proportion of the starch
has been converted into dextrin and sugar. Two
questions arise in regard to this. Has the starch been
sufficiently changed so that it no longer is indigestible
as uncooked starch ; and is it desirable to have the
starch digested? There seems to be a tendency in our
modern life to depend too largely upon predigested
foods, particularly in the case of children. This means
a tendency toward the lessening of the power to digest.
It is certainly a question whether it is not best to take
our starch undigested but in such a form that it can
be easily acted upon by the digestive juices, rather
han to have the work done outside the body.

io6

FOOD AND DIETETICS

History

Kinds of
Bread

BREAB

Bread was one of the earliest foods of man. That it
was used long before history was written, the discover-
ies of modern times have shown us. In Switzerland,
in the lake dwellings of prehistoric times, there have
been found not only stones for grinding meal and bak-
ing bread, but even bread itself, in the form of round
cakes. The first mention of bread in literature is in
Genesis, in the words of Abraham to the angels, "I
will fetch a morsel of bread." The Egyptians knew
the art of breadmaking, and baked loaves and cakes in
great variety of form and flavor. One ancient Greek
writer names sixty-two kinds of bread in use ; and in
Rome there were many bakeries, where not only was
the baking of bread done, but the grain was pounded
and sifted, to prepare it for use.

In our own day bread is found in a great variety of
forms, many of them characteristic of certain nations ;
familiar examples are the black bread of Germany, the
oat cakes of Scotland, the hard rye cakes of northern
Sweden, baked only twice in the year, and the passover
cakes or unleavened bread of the Jews.

Bread forms the staple food of a large section of the
human race, and is often the only means of subsistence
of the very poor. Mr. Goodfellow, in some investiga-
tions made in London, found that in the worst districts
fifteen per cent of the children ate only bread for the

BREAD 107

twenty-one meals of the week, while forty per cent
more had other food only two or three times a week.

It is essential that so universal a food should be nu- |°°f^
tritious, palatable, and digestible. To fulfil these con-
ditions, the flour used must be rich in nutriment; the
bread must be light and pox-ous, that as large a surface
as possible may be exposed to the digestive juices;
and the cooking must develop the flavor, and render
the food materials assimilable to the greatest possible
extent. The necessary ingredients of bread are flour
of some variety and liquid for moistening it. Salt
for flavoring is required by almost every one, and to
most of us the term bread implies some agent for light-
ening the dough.

Wheat is the flour most commonly employed not wheat
only because of its widespread growth but because of
the presence in it of the proteid called gluten, or more
strictly speaking, of the proteids that upon the addition
of water form gluten. Gluten is an important aid in
the making of bread light in that being an elastic tena-
cious substance it retains the gas as it is formed in the
dough. In the process of cooking, the gluten hardens
and thus enables the loaf to retain its shape. This ^
function of gluten may be compared to that of soap
in the water from which soap bubbles are blown.

If some gluten be prepared from flour, as in the ex-
periment on page 41, and baked, the value of this sub-
stance in lightening the dough will be appreciated.

io8

FOOD AND DIETETICS

other
Breads

Of the Other cereals, rye makes the lightest bread as
its proteids form with water a sticky substance not so
elastic or tenacious as the gluten of the wheat, but
sufficiently so as to retain much gas. Corn flour,
however, makes only a flat and crumbly loaf unless
Qgg be added to increase the elasticity of the dough.

The most desirable bread flour is one rich in gluten.

Leavening
Agents

DIAGRAM SHOWING COMPOSITION OF A
LOAF OF BREAD.

(After Hutchison.)

Even very hard macaroni wheat may be made into
excellent bread as has been shown at the South Dakota
Agricultural Experiment Station, If a flour poor in
gluten and rich in starch is to be used a stiffer dough
must be made than with the opposite conditions. In
spite of the efforts of the manufacturers to maintain a
constant standard in flour each barrel varies somewhat,
and slightly difllerent treatment may be needed.

Many different agents for lightening the dough have
been used at various times. The ancient leaven was
made by allowing flour and water to stand in a warm

BREAD

109

place till it fermented. Part of this dough was used
to start the fermentation in a new mixture of flour and
water. In some sections of our own country "salt
rising" bread is commonly used. In England aerated
bread, made by forcing carbon dioxide under pressure
into the dough, has been advocated and used to some
extent.

The most common method of lightening the loaf, in
this country at least, is by means of yeast. Yeast
comes into the household in three forms, that of liquid
yeast, compressed, and dried yeast. The last is most
often used by those too far from the source of supply
to obtain compressed yeast in good condition. It
makes satisfactory bread, but the process is a long one,
as time must be allowed for the dry yeast to take up
water and renew its life processes. Liquid, or home
brewed yeast, prepared usually from potato with the
water from a few hops, frequently with the addition of
sugar and flour, and the whole fermented by means of
the addition of a "pitching" yeast, is much less used
than formerly. Aside from the trouble of preparation,
it is open to the disadvantage of usually containing
many bacteria and wild yeasts. Many think, however,
that the fine texture and delicious flavor of old fash-
ioned home made bread was due in part to the use of
this yeast.

Compressed yeast is a by product of the distillery or
the brewery. It is skimmed from the top of the fer-

Yeast
Bread

Compressed
Yeast

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Chemical
Process

Methods
of Making

menting liquor, is washed, strained, mixed with a small
amount of starch and pressed into large cakes. At the
distributing centers it is cut and wrapped in foil and
sold for one or two cents, according to locality. It is,
on the whole, the most satisfactory yeast to use in bread
making, though it is rarely, if ever, free from the bac-
teria that cause the souring of bread when conditions
are right for their growth.

The changes that take place in the process of bread-
making are largely those of fermentation. Some of
the starch of the flour is changed to sugar, and the
sugar is broken up into alcohol and carbon dioxide. If
the fermentation goes too far the alcohol is changed
to acetic and other acids and the bread becomes sour.
Yeast is not the sole agent working; bacteria and not
yeast are responsible for the souring, while the change
of starch into sugar is probably accomplished by bac-
teria or some enzyme (ferment) present in the flour.

Chemical changes, such as the change of some of the
starch into dextrin and some of the sugar into cara-
mel, which takes place especially in the crust of the
bread, are caused by the heat of the oven, while the
same agent is responsible for the driving off of the
alcohol and carbon dioxide present.

A few years ago bread was alinost invariably made
by what is called the long process. A small amount of
/east was used and the bread was allowed to rise over
night. Now more often the bread is set in the morning
and the whole process is carried through in six hours.

BREAD III

The advantage of the latter method is that it makes it
possible to watch the process and regulate the temper-
ature more carefully than can be done if the bread is
set at night. As temperature is an important factor in
the growth of the yeast, too low a temperature hinder-
ing its growth, and too high a temperature favoring the
growth of the acid producing bacteria, this is a distinct
advantage. The most favorable range of temperature
is from 75 degrees to 90 degrees F.

On the other 'hand, the long process produces a
loaf of a texture preferred by many, and some ex-
periments tend to show that it may be slightly more
digestible.

There has been discussion for many years over the Graham
comparative value of graham, whole wheat and white wheat Bread
bread. Several years ago graham bread was urged
upon every one as the only satisfactory bread. After
a time the conclusion was reached that the coarse par-
ticles of the graham flour were too irritating to the in-
testinal wall, and its use was discouraged except where
this ver}' irritation was desirable, as in case of consti-
pation. Then came the era of whole wheat bread, show-
ing like the graham a high percent of nutriment. At
one time it seemed to be considered almost a crime to
use any other bread than this. The presence of phos-
phates in larger amount than in white flour and the
higher proportion of proteid seemed a sufficient reason
for encouraging its use by ever}^ one.

The latest government investigations have proved

FOOD AND DIETETICS

that this was a false assumption. While from the chem-
ical standpoint it is true, from the physiological one it
is not. Less of the material of whole wheat bread
is available for use in the body, or in other words, a
larger proportion is excreted in the feces than in white
bread, so that whole wheat is not superior to white
bread in real nutritive value. It is hurried through the
intestines more quickly and thus given less chance for
absorption than is true of the white bread. The
phosphates are so closely attached to the outer cellulose
wall that they probably do not furnish any more ma-
terial to the body than is obtained from bread made of
white flour.

Although bread contains a fair proportion of proteid,
about 9.2 per cent, it has too little proteid, too little
fat, and too large an amount of starch to form in
itself a perfect food. Instinctively we supplement it
with these lacking ingredients. We use butter on
our bread, we eat bread with meat, or we combine
it with milk. In either case we are supplementing it
admirably. Eggs, too, contain the lacking fat and
proteid. Nuts eaten with bread and cheese so much
used in many countries have scientific sanction.

Good bread is one of the cheapest, most nutritious,
most easily and completely digested of all foods and
weli deserves its title the "Staff of Life."

SUGAR

113

SUGAR AS FOOD

jMrs. Abel, in the government pamphlet Sugar as
Food, calls attention to the fact that the consumption
of sugar is everywhere increasing. In England
eighty-six pounds per capita and in the United States
sixty-four pounds per capita were consumed in the
year 1895. This means simply the sugar that is manu-
factured in this form, and does not include that taken
in the form of various fruits and vegetables.

The desire for sugar seems to be universal, and
the fact that children always crave it would seem to
be an indication that it is needed in their diet. On the
ether hand, we must remember that the manufacture
of sugar is comparatively a late matter, and that
earlier, a hundred years or so ago, people got along
without it except as naturally present in their foods.

In using sugar it must be remembered that it is a
highly concentrated food, and that it is therefore not
to be used in such large quantities as would be right
m the case of foods containing a large amount of
water. It seems best fitted for assimilation by the
body when it is diluted or used with other foods that
give it the necessary bulk. It is also an error to use
sugar, as is so often done, with other foods in such
a way or in so large an amount as to disguise the
natural flavor of these foods.

One of the advantages of sugar is that it passes
quickly into the circulation, so that the energy obtained

Consumption

Concentrated
Food

114

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Sources
of Sugar

from it is available in a very short period. It is par-
ticularly fitted for food in cases of exhaustion.

The bad eflfects of sugar are ascribed by Mrs, Abel
to its use in too great quantity. Three or four ounces
a day can be disposed of by the healthy adult with
impunity. It has generally been thought that sugar
is injurious to the teeth, but this also is denied. Any
bad effects of this kind are due not to sugar in the
diet, but to the allowing particles of sweet food to re-
for acid fermentation and possible injury to the
teeth.

The source of most of the sugar used until a
few years ago was the sugar cane. Now over half
of the sugar used in the world is obtained from the
sugar beet. In 1904, only about 10 per cent of the
sugar used in the United States came from the sugar
beet. There has been an impression that beet root
sugar is less satisfactory for many purposes than the
cane sugar, but it is identical chemically. It may be
true in some cases that the beet root sugar has not been
completely purified, and that these impurities give an
odor to the sugar upon boiling, and possibly affect some
of its uses ; but the properly prepared sugar may be
used in every way that sugar from the sugar cane may ;
indeed, it is impossible to distinguish between them.

Another sugar of which we hear a good deal is
glucose. This has been made much of as an adul-
terant, particularly of candy. There is, however, no
reason to think that glucose is less digestible or less

SUGAR

115

easily assimilated than cane sugar. Indeed, it is more
nearly ready for assimilation. When we boil sugar
for any length of time in the presence of an acid, we
change a certain amount of the sugar into glucose.
Candy that will stretch w-e may be sure contains at
least some of its sugar in this form. If glucose is pure
and properly prepared there is no reason to fear it as
an adulterant of candy. The cheap coloring matter
and flavors that are used in some of the cheap candies
are more to be feared, since some of them are harmful.

It is possible that since glucose goes so rapidly into
circulation it may overload the system more readily
than would plain sugar, and it is more easily fer-
mented.

Maple sugar, regarded as a delicacy, is simply cane
sugar plus the flavoring matters found in the maple
tree. j\Iilk sugar is generally considered the most
easily digested form of sugar and it less easily under-
goes fermentation.

Cane sugar is on the market in various forms.
Ordinary powdered sugar is, of course, the same sub-
stance as granulated sugar, but more finely ground.
This is often considered adulterated because it is less
sweet than the granulated form, but the lack of sweet-
ness is due to the finely divided condition. A very
simple test will serve to show the presence of adulter-
ants since these would probably be either some form
of porcelain clay, or starch. If the sugar dissolves in
water neither of these can be present.

Maple
Sugar

Powdered
Sugar

ii6

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Effect

on Diet

of Use

of Sugar

The brown sugars that we use are simply cane sugar
that has not been decolorized, or has been only par-
tially so treated.

Molasses formerly was obtained as a bi-product in
the manufacture of sugar, and was the part of the
sugar-cane juice that would not crystallize, containing
a large per cent of glucose. With modern methods
of work and with the coming in of beet sugar,
whose molasses has such a strong flavor that it cannot
be put upon the market, a manufactured molasses came
into use. The commercial molasses of the present day
is frequently glucose, prepared from starch, colored
and flavored with a small amount of molasses from
the sugar factories. Sometimes the light molasses
has been bleached, and the bleaching agents, unless
completely removed, may be injurious. Sorghum
molasses is also used in some sections.

One comparison in regard to the addition of sugar
to the diet may be interesting. In the case of milk, it
has been found that an addition of this in any large
amount to the diet means a corresponding decrease
in the amount of other foods used. This seems not
to be true of sugar. When sugar is furnished freely
in abundance, it does not decrease the use of other
foods, but sometimes by adding to the flavor of these
actually increases tliier consumption. On the other
hand, the desire for sugar often marks an inadequate
diet.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Read Carefully. The following- U. S. Government Bul-
letins should be read in connection with this lesson: No.
34, Meat Composition and Cooking-; No. 85, Fish as Food;
No. 128, Eggs and their Use as Food; No. 74, Milk as Food;
No. 112, Bread and the Principles of Bread Making; No. 93,
Sugar as Food. These may be obtained free by addressing-
the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Place
your name and address on the first sheet of the test.
Leave space between answers. Make your answers full
and complete.

1. What is the relative value of animal and vege-

table foods?

2. What are the chief nutrient ingredients of meat?

How may the presence of some of these be
shown? What reasons are there for cooking
meat?

3. Compare clear soup, beef broth, and beef juice

as to their nutritive value.

4. What meat substitutes may be used in the daily

diet, and how does their value -compare with
that of meat?

5. In what ways does milk satisfy the require-

ments of a perfect food? How does it fail?

6. What is the approximate composition of milk?

Under what conditions is its free use econom-
ical?

7. Give the composition of butter. How does

cooking affect its digestibility?

8. What is renovated butter? How may oleomar-

garine be used and how does it compare with
butter in wholesomeness?

9. Describe the process of cheese making.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

10. What is die food value of cheese? With what

foods should it be combined?

11. What can you say of the value of the cereals as

food?

12. If scales are available weigh out a portion of

rice (about Y^ cup), boil, and weigh again. If
the scales are not at hand, measure the rice
carefully, before and after cooking. How does
the composition of the cooked rice differ from
that of the uncooked? Repeat the experiment
with a potato and compare results.

13. Why is wheat so extensively used? ^Mlat is

its especial value in bread making?

14. What are the chief steps in the manufacture of

flour?

15. What are' the tests for a good flour? Why is

a flour high in gluten desirable for bread?

16. What are the characteristics of good bread?

17. Compare the nutritive value of whole wheat and

white bread. When is graham bread valu-
able?

18. What kinds of yeast are in common use ? \\'hat

are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

19. State the chief changes that take place in the

process of bread making and baking.

20. What is the value of sugar as food? How does

beet sugar differ from that obtained from the
cane? ^^^^at can you say of the adulteration
of sugar?

21. Ask one or more questions on this lesson.
Note.— After completing the test, sign your full name.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

PART III

FOOD AND DjfiTETlCS

PART 111

VEGETABLES

An increasing importance is coming- to be attached
to the use of vegetables and fruits in the diet. Not
only vegetarians but many others have found from
experience that it is possible to live largely upon vege-
table food, while those who use meat freely lay great
stress upon the vegetable accompaniments whether in
the form of salads or of cooked vegetables.

A study of vegetables from the standpoint of bot-
any would imply their classification according to the
parts of the plant used ; whether leaf, as in the case of
lettuce, cabbage, spinach ; stem, as in celery, aspara-
gus, potato (a tuber, or underground stem) ; root, as
in beet, carrot and sweet potato ; flower, as cauli-
flower ; or fruit, as squash, cucumber, tomato.

From the standpoint of cookery the most important
classification is that of strong flavored and szvect
flavored vegetables, since this modifies our method of
cooking ; right methods leading us to retain all the
juices of the latter as far as possible, while we legiti-
mately discard part of the extract of the former. For
example, green peas and string beans, young carrots,
and squash, should be cooked in a small amount of
water, or have the water in which they are cooked

concentrated at the end so that it may all be served
119

Botannical
Classification

Flavor
Classifloation

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Nutritive
Classification

Cellulose of
Vegetables

with the vegetable ; while in the case of onions we
may well use a large portion of water, and throw it
away. It is true that in this latter case we may lose
valuable salts and some nutriment, but these we sac-
rifice for the sake of improved flavor.

From the standpoint of diet a better classification
would be into nutritive vegetables and flavor vegeta-
bles. With the latter we should include those that
contain mineral salts, but have little food value. Of
this class, lettuce, spinach, cabbage, tomato and cucum-
ber are types; while rice, potatoes, peas, beans and
lentils furnish examples of the former. Many vege-
tables will be on the border line between the two.

The composition of vegetables varies in general from
that of animal foods in that here we have the carbo-
hydrates largely represented. The chief carbohy-
drates of vegetables are starch, sugar, and cellulose of
various types.

The fact that cellulose forms the framework of the
plant and that it is within cellulose walls that the
starch as well as the proteid of the plant are con-
tained, is important in two ways. While cellulose is
only slightly digested by human beings (only so
little of it in young and tender plants really serving
as a food that the amount may be neglected), it does
have a more or less important function in furnishing
the required bulk of food. If one undertakes to live
wholly upon a vegetable diet, this bulk generally be-
comes too great; on the other hand, one of the objec-

VEGETABLES I2I

tions to an exclusively animal diet is in the absence
of bulk. Since the digestive juices do not act upon
cellulose to any extent, and the nutritive portions of
the vegetables are enclosed within walls of this sub-

STARCH OF A POTATO ENCLOSED IN CELUI.0SE CELLS.

stance, the province of cooking is to so change the
cell wall that the nutritive materials may be set free,
or the digestive juices penetrate to them.

We usually speak of softening the cehulose by means Effect of
of cooking. Apparently what we really do is to dis- ceiiuiose
solve the intercellular substances that bind the walls
together, and thus make it possible for the cell walls

I2i FOOD AND DIETETICS

to be mechanically ruptured, either in the process of
cookery or by the pressure exerted in the mouth. Part
at least of this intercellular substance belpngs to the
pectin g:roup that causes the jelling- of fruit juices.

SWELLING OF THE STARCH.

Hydration The first process in rendering the starch of the vege-

•f the Starch i i i- -i i •

table digestible is one of hydration. It is important,
therefore, that an abundance of water be present when
starch is cooked. Some vegetables like the potato
contain so much water that the necessary amount for
the starch is supplied within the vegetable itself. The

VEGETABLES 123

grains and other dry vegetables need to have a large
amount supplied. The swelling of the starch grains
upon hydration is probably an important agent in the
rupturing of the cellulose cell wall already referred to.

THE CELL WALLS RUPTURED.

Sugar is the soluble carbohydrate of the vegetable, sugar in

as starch is the insoluble form in which this nutri-
ment is stored. Some vegetables, such as carrots,
show large amounts of sugar, while starch is absent
from this part of the plant. Other typical vegetables
containing a large amount of sugar are beets, pars-

Vegetables

124

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Starchy
Vegetables

nips, artichokes, sweet potato. Onions, cabbage, and
some varieties of peas, string beans, squash and sweet
corn all contain a fair amount,

A'egetables containing a large amount of starch are

COIiJTOSITION OF THE CAEEOT AND TURNIP.

( After HutchldOQ )

Proteid of
Vegetables

represented by potato, sweet potato, rice, peas, beans
and lentils. Some vegetables containing a large
amount of cellulose are squash, potato, beet, celery,
cabbage.

As a rule, we do not look to the vegetable world
for our main supply of proteid, yet some of our vege-
tables, notably the legumes, do contain an abundant

VEGETABLES

12$

supply of this food principle. Whether this is as avail-
able for use in the body as the proteid in meat is
often questioned. With ordinary cooking processes
it evidently is not, but with long continued heat the
matter is different. That there is no inherent differ-
ence between vegetable and animal proteiri, so far as

Pi-ote.d
eo.rbot\ydY-<xte

COMPOSITION OF THE CABBAGE.
Blackened portions represent amount dissolved in cooking.

its digestibility is concerned, would seem to be indi-
cated by the fact that when the vegetable is finely di-
vided, as in the case of some of the vegetable meals,
it is absorbed to a greater extent than in its ordinary
form. It is said, for instance, that when lentils are
soaked and boiled until soft, 60 per cent of their pro-
teid is absorbed, while in the lentil meal 90 per cent
is utilized by the body. No careiul experiments have
been made to see what proportion of the boiled lentils
would have been absorbed if the cooking had been
continued for several hours. There is every reason,

Digestibility
of Vegetable
Proteid

126

FOOD AND DIETETICS

however, to think that the percentage would be in-
creased. Anyone who has compared dry peas or beans
cooked two hours, or until they have just become
soft, with those cooked from eight to twelve hours
will realize the difference in the result.

FAT -^a^
CRUDE FIBER -*y^

PROTEID-^2^?'
ASH

COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO,

The
Potato

Salts of
Vegetables

Among the vegetables, the potato, in this country
at least, is the most generally used. It has of late
been decried as having no food value. This is far
from true. It has, of course, a small amount of pro-
teid, some of which is lost in the process of cooking.
Its mineral salts are less in amount than in many vege-
tables, and are partially lost in the cooking. Its chief
value as food lies in the starch it contains, and in the
fact that its very absence of strong flavor makes it
acceptable day after day.

A>getables should be in our diet not only for their
food value but for their mineral salts as well. The
bad effect of the failure to use a certain proportion
of vegetables and fruits, has long been known. Scurvy
has usually been attributed to this error in diet, while
it is quite possible that some minor disorders of the

VEGETABLES

I2f

digestion are attributable to the same cause. Cabbage,
lettuce, celery, onion, spinach and the different leaves
used as greens find their value almost wholly in the
presence of mineral salts.

Mushrooms have often been considered of great
value, from the proteid they contain, but it seems cer-
tain now that this value has been much exaggerated,

SECTION OF A POTATO.

a — Outer Skin, d — Inner Skin or Fibro-vascular Layer,
rf— Inner Flesh.

-Flesh.

and that the reason for using them as articles of food
lies in their pleasant flavor and the variety they give,
rather than in the amount of nutriment they furnish
the system.

The digestibility of different vegetables must always
be difficult to ascertain, so far as any one individual
is concerned. Not only the presence of cellulose, but

Digestibility
of Vegetables

128

FOOD AND DIETETICS

of acids, as in the tomato, of nitrogeneous substances,
such as asparagin found in asparagus, and of vola-
tile flavors, as in the onion, all affect this question.
There has been within a few years a great gain in
the abundance and variety of vegetables available.
Formerly in winter choice was confined to cabbage.

COMPOSITIOX OF THE CUCUMBER.

turnip, squash, onions and a few others. Now a visit
to the market of a large city, even at the least promis-
ing time of year, shows an overwhelming variety of
fresh vegetables. If we add to these the numerous
canned vegetables of excellent quality available (and
these are increasing in variety constantly) and the
dried vegetables, like the peas, beans and mushrooms
even, that are obtainable, we have no excuse for limit-
ing our diet so far as vegetables are concerned.

True economy will consist not in cutting down the
supply but in choosing fresh vegetables at the time
when each is most abundant and therefore cheapest,
and presumably at its best, and in supplementing these
by the judicious use of the canned or dried product,
not forgetting the ordinary winter vegetables.

VEGETABLES
Average Composition of Vegetables

129

Percentage Composition of
Edible Portion

Name

13
is

-«

1
Pm

■i

Beans, dried

Beans, string

Peas dried . ....

"i'.o

12.6^

9^5
74.6

78.3
69.0
75.4
83.0

88.2
87.5

91.5
92.3
88.3
94.3
94.7
94.5
95.4

55.2
5.5
57.5
15.2
18.0
26.1
19.2
11.0
8.2
8.8
6.8
9.1
4.5
2.3
8.2
3.3
2.2
2.3
2.4

4.4
1.9
4.5
1.7

.4
1.3

1.1

1.3

1.1

1.0

22.5
2.3

24.6
7.0
2.2
1.8
3.1
1.6
1.1
1.6
1.3
1.6
1.6
2.1
1.4

.9
1.2
1.1

1.8
.3

1.0
•5

^7
1.1
.5
.4
.1

'.S
.3
.3
.5
.4
.3
.1
.2

3.5

2:9

1.0

1.1

1.4

1.0

1.1

1.0

2.1

1.0

1,605

195

1,655

Peas, green

Potatoes

Sweet Potatoes

45.0
20.0
20.0

61.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
30.0
10.0
15.0

465
385
570

Sweet Corn

Parsnips

470
300

Carrots

Beets

210
215
185

225

Cabbage

145
110

50.0

215

Tomatoes

105

Lettuce

Celery

Cucumbers

15.0
20.0
15.0

90
85
80

*Not including fiber.

tincluding fiber and thus higher than fuel value available in the body.

The substances grouped under carbohydrates in the above
table are chiefly starch, sugar and pectose bodies. Church
states that turnips contain no starch or sugar, only pectose,
but one of the analyses of the Department of Agriculture
showed one sample to contain over 4% of sugar. The carrot
contains sugar and pectose, but no starch; parsnips, sugar,
starch and pectose. The nitrogenous matter is only in part
proteid ; in potatoes about 57% ; in carrots, onions, cabbage,
cucumbers, lettuce, about one-half.

Classification
of Fruits

Dietetic
Value

Nutritive
Value

FRUITS

Fruits may, like vegetables, be classified as flavor
fruits and food fruits, and again these two classes will
run together so that we shall have difficulty in decid-
ing where certain ones belong. The apple, the orange,
the strawberry, although all having a certain food
value, are used so largely for their flavor and to give
variety, that these may well be put under the head
of the flavor fruits. Bananas form, perhaps, the best
common example of the food fruits. Bread fruit, so
largely used in the tropics, is another representative
of this class.

From a dietetic standpoint the most important func-
tion of fruits is that of furnishing mineral salts and or-
ganic acids to the body. The potash salts are consid-
ered especially important. Some fruits, like the pine-
apple, contain ferments that are said to be aids to
digestion. Fruits are generally laxative in eft'ect, —
apples, figs, prunes, peaches and berries are particu-
larly effective in this respect, especially if taken be-
tween meals or at the beginning of a meal.

Their chief nutritive value is given to fruits by the
carbohydrate group. This is largely in the form of
sugar, while the remainder consists chiefly of vege-
table gums, among which may be included the "pectin
bodies" that give to fruits their power to form jelly.
Starch may be present in unripe fruits, but disappears
as the fruit ripens. Bananas, as we use them, contain
a small amount of starch. Of fresh fruits very few
contain more than one per cent of nitrogenous mat-
ter, not all of which is proteid.

180

FRUITS

131

Dried fruits may be without question put under the
food fruits, dates containing sixty-six per cent of
carbohydrate, prunes approximately the same amount,
figs about sixty-three per cent, while raisins furnish
seventy-five per cent. Raisins in this respect stand
almost at the head of the list of concentrated foods
since they furnish so much nutriment in so small a

Dried
Fruits

CARBOHVORATt
_^"MIN. MAT.

y^ ACIDS

COMPOSITION OF AN AFFLE.

(, After Hutchison.;

bulk. When fresh fruits are not obtainable dried
fruits may well take their place. These are usually
less expensive than fresh fruits, and properly cooked
go far to make up for the absence of the fresh varie-
ties.

Canned fruits are increasingly used, and many who
formerly thought it necessary to put up large amounts
of fruit at home, are now purchasing those canned on
a commercial scale. Whether this is a wise thing or

Canned
Fruits

New
Varieties

132 FOOD AXD DIETETICS

not depends on the amount of fruit available for the
housekeeper at a low cost, the price of sugar, and the
time and strength at her disposal. Often the fruit
commercially canned is really superior to that pre-
pared at home for the reason that the canning is done
where the fruit is easily obtainable in its freshest and
most perfect condition. When canned fruit is as rea-
sonable in cost as it is at present, the housekeeper
should certainly be very sure that her time cannot be
used to better advantage before she undertakes to
prepare quantities of fruit at home.

Perhaps no article of diet has increased in use dur-
ing the last few years so rapidly as fruits. Not only
the most hardy, but the more perishable varieties, in-
cluding berries, are by improved methods of transpor-
tation, by the use of refrigerator cars and by increased
areas of cultivation made available through a longer
season, and at greater distances from the source of
supply than ever before. The fruit industries, includ-
ing the cultivation of the fruit, the great canning and
drying establishments, and the transportation of the
product, have become of immense importance in the
commercial world.

New varieties of fruit produced by careful selection
and cross fertilization are constantly appearing. Some
of the most important changes that have been induced
by cultivation have been the lessening of the proportion
of cellulose, the production of seedless varieties, the
increase in size and the development of fine flavors.

FRUITS 133

As in the case of vegetables, the digestibility of
'ruits is largely an individual matter. Bananas may
-)C eaten freely by many, even by children, while oth-
ers fail to digest even a small portion. Strawberries,
generally considered easily digested, are actual poison
to some people. The chief benefit of a table of digesti-
bility is as a guide for experimentation. In feeding a
child, for instance, one would try first the fruits con-
sidered most digestible.

Aside from the personal equation, ease in mastica- Direstibiuty

r , . , • 1 1- .• of Fruits

tion IS one of the nnportant elements m the digestion
of fruits, as in the case of other foods. The banana,
for instance, easily slips down the throat in large
pieces ; the blueberry can be swallowed whole, while
such a fruit as the apple is naturally more thoroughly
masticated, for ease in swallowing, and the orange
almost falls apart of itself.

The difference in the digestibility of ripe and unripe
fruits is generally attributed to the larger proportion
of cellulose in the latter; this and the excess of acids
in unripe varieties is held responsible for their ill
effects.

Gilman Thomson gives among the commoner fruits
easy of digestion : grapes, oranges, lemons, cooked
apples, figs, peaches, strawberries and raspberries ;
while he classifies as somewhat less digestible : melons,
prunes, raw apples, pears, apricots, bananas and fresh
currants. Dried currants and citron he considers
"wholly indigestible," while he gives as the most use-

134

FOOD AND DIETETICS

f ul fruits for invalids : lemons, oranges, baked apples,
stewed prunes, grapes, banana meal.

Young children and those of delicate digestion
should avoid all skin and seeds of fruit.

Average Composition ot Fruits

Percentage Composition or

Edible Portion

d
PJ

1
J

Bananas

35.

75,3

?1.0

1.0

1.3

Grapes

25.

77.4

14.9

4.3

1.3

1.6

45"

Plums

78.4

'/O 1

1 0

395

Cherries

80.9

16.5

1.0

365

Huckle berries

81.9

16.6

345

25.

84.6

13 0

1.2

290

Pears

10.

84.4

11.4

2.7

295

Blackberries

86.3

8.4

2.5

1.3

1.0

270

Apricots

85.0

13 4

270

85.0
86.9

10.5
11.6

...._..

.6
.5

Oranges

240

Raspberries (red)

85.8

9 7

2.9

1.0

255

Cranberries

88.9

8.4

1.5

215

30.

89.3

7.4

1.1

1 0

205

89.3

9 3

200

Muskmellon

50.

89.5

7.2

2.1

185

Strawberries . .

5.
60.

90.4
92.4

6.0
6.7

1.4

1.0
.4

.6
.3

180

140

* Not including fiber,
t Including fiber.

The carbohydrates of fruits are chiefly in the form of sugar.
Nearly all contain pectin bodies and these are most abundant
in unripe fruit. The acids of the fntits are here included un-
der the carbohydrates . Apples, pears and peaches contain
malic acid ; lemons and oranges, citric acid ; grapes, tartaric
acid; rhubarb, oxalic acid, etc.

FRUITS 135

Average Composition of Dried Fruits

Peecent.age Composition of

Edible Portion

«H

rt
^

1
§

••-

Dates

10.0

15 4

78.4

2.1

2.8

1.3

1,615

Raisins

10.0

14.6

76.1

2.6

3.3

3.4

1,605

Currants

17.2

74.2

2.4

1.7

4.5

1,495

Figs

18.8
22.3

74.2
73.3

4.3
2.1

2.4
2.3

1,475

Prunes

15.0

1,400

28.1
29.4

6215

1.6

4.7

2.2
1.0

2.1

2.4

1,350

1,290

* Including flbor.

Nutritive
Value

NUTS

The form of fruits that we know as nuts has a very
different place in diet from that of the ordinary fruit.
We find here foods having a nutritive vakie that com-
pares favorably with that of the most nutritious sub-
stances. Almond kernels for instance contain twenty-
one per cent of proteid. fifty-four of fat. and seventeen

S.eX, PI^OTEID

76Ji/c EL-LU L.OSE.
COMPOSITION OF AN ENGLISH WALNUT.

of carbohydrates, while peanuts are richer still in pro-
teid and also contain a large amount of fat. Indeed,
nuts often may well be substituted for meat, and have
the advantage that they supply at the same time a
certain amount of carbohydrates. Some nuts, as chest-
nuts, are very rich in the latter. The table given is
taken from the experiment station bulletin, A'nts as
Food, and shows the comoosition of some of the most
common nuts. 135

NUTS
Average Composition of Nuts

137

Almonds

Brazil Nuts

Filberts

Hickory Nuts

Pecans

Walnuts

Chestnuts (tresh)

Butternuts

Cocoanuts

Coeoannt, shredded.

Pistachio

Peanuts

Roasted Peanuts

Peanut Butter

47.0
49.4
52.1
62.2
50.1
58.8
15.7
86.4
34.7

27.0
32.6

Peecentage Composition of
Edible 1'oetiox

4.9
4.7
5.4
3.7
3.4
3.4

43.4
4.5

13.0
3.5
4.2
7.4
1.6
2.1

21.4
17.4
16.5
15.4
li.l
18.2
6.4
27.9
6.6
6.3
2^6
::9.8
30.5
29.3

54.4
65.0
C4.0
67.4
70.3
60.7
6.0
G1.2
56.2
57.4
54.5
43.5
49.2
40.5

16.8
9.6
11.7
11.4
12.2
16.0
42.8
3.4
22.6
31.5
15.6
17.1
16.2
17.1

2,895
3,120
3,100
3,345
3,3C0
3,075
1,1J0
3,370
2,f-C5
3,125
3,250
2,610
2.9.^5
2,-.25

Much has been said about the indigestibility of
nuts, but this probably comes largely from the fact
that nuts are most usually eaten at the end of a
hearty meal after the appetite has been completely
satisfied. If nuts were more often taken as a sub-
stitute for a part of the meat of the meal, there
would probably be less difficulty with regard to
their digestion. Another important factor in their
digestibility as in the case of other foods, is that
of their finely divided condition; often they c^'e in-
sufficiently masticated. Some of the nut meals and
pastes on the market are valuable because of their
fine division, and their use as a meat substitute
certainly has a rational basis. Peanut butter is
the most common of these preparations.

Digestibnity
of Nuts

TEA, COFFEE AND COCOA

The common beverages, tea, coffee and cocoa, are in

such general use today that it is difficult to realize

that two of them were not introduced into Europe

until the seventeenth century, and the other only a

hundred years earlier, though other nations had known

them long before. Tea drinking began in Japan in

692 A. D., while coffee, though not known to the

Greeks and Romans, had been used in Abyssinia and

Ethiopia from time immemorial.

Varieties The tea plant seems to be a native of Assam, a prov-
of Tea

ince of Burmah, but it has been grown in China and

Japan for fifteen hundred years. Two different types
of the plant are illustrated by the Assamese and Chi-
nese varieties. The tea of Assam grows luxuriantly,
but is sensitive to drought, cold or winds. Its leaves
are of bright green, sometimes reaching a size of nine
inches in length and three in width, while the young
leaf is of soft texture and golden color. It may pro-
duce as many as twenty "flushes," or successive crops
of young leaf during each picking season. The Chi-
nese plant is tough and hardy, able to endure severi-
ties of climate, and to grow in poor soil with deficient
moisture. The leaf is smaller, tougher and darker
than that of the Assam tea plant. Between these two
extremes exist all varieties of tea. Most varieties
produce three or four crops a year.
' The tea plant produces small white flowers which
eventually yield the seed from which cultivated tea is

TEA

139

raised. In cultivating the plant an effort is made to pekoe
produce abundant young leaf, since good tea is made ^®*
from this alone. Pekoe tea is the choicest variety.
The undeveloped bud at the end of a young shoot is

TEA LEAVES.

a— Flowery Pekoe. 6 — Orange Pekoe, c— Pekoe. <f—SouchoL'g (first),
f— Souchong (second), /—Congou. A^— Bohea.

called the pekoe tip, or flowery pekoe. It is said that souchong
this tea rarely comes to this country. From it is made
Mandarin tea, that commands a very high price in its
native country. The next leaves produce orange pekoe
and pekoe. Souchong is the next larger leaf and Con-
gou the next. A still larger leaf formerly on the mar-
ket more generally than now yields Bohea.

140

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Black
and

Green
Tea

Fermentation
Process

All of these different varieties may be made either
into black or green tea, though some plants yield
leaves better adapted for the manufacture of black
tea, and some that serve better for green. Japan tea,
for example, is usually made into green, while the
Indian are generally black. Chinese tea provides both
varieties. The difference between black and green
tea is, however, in the method of preparation. Green
tea is prepared by withering the leaves in iron vessels
over a quick fire, or by steaming them on mats. The
leaf is then rolled in order to break up the tissue con-
taining the essential oil. It is then re-heated and sub-
jected to long continued drying over a low fire. In
black tea the fresh leaf is spread out to wilt in the
sun, then rolled, spread out thinly, moistened and
allowed to ferment. The leaves are then dried and
fired in a furnace or over a charcoal fire.

The chief difference between the black and green tea
lies in this fermentation process. By this means, some
of the tannic acid in the leaves is changed so that it
becomes less soluble. The blaek tea is thus less as-
tringent than the green. Common varieties of green
tea are hyson, corresponding to the pekoe or sou-
chong, and gunpowder, corresponding to congou.

Aside from the varieties given by the stage of
growth at which the leaf is plucked and by the method
of preparation, teas are named from the different
countries or the special district that produces them,
or even from the gardens where they are grown.

TEA

141

Japan, Chinese, Indian and Ceylon teas each have their
own marked characteristics, while the different dis-
tricts of China give various kinds, as the oolongs
from Formosa or the monings from north China.

The quality is dependent on the cultivation of the
plant, the age of the leaf, and the care in manufacture.
Some of the finest tea of China is so high priced that
it can be purchased there only by the very rich, while
the lowest grades are often made into bricks (brick
tea) and sent into the interior. The choicest Japan tea
is raised under protection from direct sunlight and is
prepared without rolling. It is said to be untouched
with the hand after it is put upon the steaming appara-
tus. Most of the teas sent to the United States might
be classed as low middling, with some superior grades.
The choice varieties are rarely received.

The most important constituents of tea are theine,
or caffeine, tannic acid and the volatile oil that gives
the flavor. Black and green tea contain practically
the same amount of oil and caffeine, but black tea has
only about half as much tannic acid as green.

The method of making tea has an important influ-
ence on the constituents of the beverage. Methods
vary all the way from one Japanese fashion of stir-
ring the finely ground tea into warm water and drink-
ing the whole infusion, to the Russian method of
bringing the water just to a boil and making a deli-
cate infusion.

The boiling of tea and the practice of keeping the

Quality

Composition

Method
of Making

142 FOOD AND DIETETICS

teapot on the stove all day that the brew may be ready
at any moment, each results in extracting the largest
possible amount of tannic acid from the tea. If tea
must stand after making, it should be poured off the
leaves immediately. The difference in extract can be
easily seen if equal amounts of tea be in one case
boiled four or five minutes, in another allowed to
stand in cold water, and in a third infused in hot water
for the same length of time. If. these three results be
put into glasses, the depth of color will indicate the
difference in material extracted. If a solution of ordi-
nary copperas be made, and a few drops of this added
to each, a black, inky substance, a tannate of iron,
wall form, the amount varying with the tannic acid ex-
tracted.

Adulteration Adulterations of tea are much less common than

formerly. The chief fraud practiced is that of sub-
stituting an inferior grade for a better. One method
of doing this is by facing the tea. This is practiced
especially on green teas, giving them a brighter color.
Occasionally spent or exhausted leaves are mixed
with fresh ones, thus constituting an adulteration.

Tea tablets are sometimes prepared for the use of
travelers by pressing finely ground tea of varying
quality into tablets to be dissolved in hot water.

of Tea

COFFEE

The coffee tree (caffaea arabica) belongs to the
same botanical family as the tiny partridge berr_y
found in our northern woods, the familiar button
bush of the country roadside, and the gardenia.

COFFEE BEANS AND BLOSSOMS.

It is native to Abyssinia, western Africa, and per- Native
haps western Arabia, though it has now been nat-
uralized in a large number of tropical countries. It
blooms eight months in the >ear and with its small
fragrant, white blossoms in the axils of the glossy

144

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Soastin^

Preparation

Constituents

evergreen leaves, it presents an attractive appearance.
The ripe coffee berry is dark in color and is a pulpy
fruit, somewhat resembling a cherry. The berries
have two cells, each containing a single seed, the
coffee bean. Three gatherings of coffee are generally
made annually. The ripe fruit is dried and then freed
from skin and pulp, usually by machinery.

In the east a decoction is frequently made of the
unroasted seeds, while in some places the leaf of the
tree is used for preparing a drink ; and it is said that
in the Sultan's coffee the dried pulp of the berry is
employed.

The roasting of coffee so generally practiced, is
chiefly for the purpose of developing its flavor and
rendering the beans brittle so that they can be more
easily ground, though it has other effects also. Coffee
is imported from Mocha, Java, Ceylon, Maracaibo,
Porto Rico, and other countries. But 75 per cent of
that used in this country comes from Brazil. C)ur
Mocha and Java mixtures are simply dift'erent kinds
of berries from the same plant.

Coffee, unlike tea, may properly be prepared either
as an infusion or a decoction ; that is, it may be ex-
tracted without boiling, or it may be boiled.

The important constituents of coffee are caffeine
and caft'etannic acid, and caffeol, the oil that gives the
fragrant aroma and flavor. Caffeol is developed by
the process of roasting while the amount of caffeine
is lessened. Sugar is present in considerable amounts,

PICKING COFFEE BEEEIES.

146 FOOD AND DIETETICS

and most of this is caramelized in the roasting. Fat
also is found, sometimes to as much as 15 per cent.,
and proteid to about 10 per cent. A comparison ol
the composition of tea and coffee is given below :

Percentage Composition of Coffee

Raw. Roasted.

Moisture 8.y8 0.63

Caffeine 1.08 0.82

Saccharine matter 9.55 0.43

Caffeic acid 8.46 4.74

Alcoholic extract 6.90 14.14

Fat and oil 12.60 13.59

Lugumin and albumen 9.87 II.23

Dextrin ' Q.87 1.24

Cellulose and insoluble coloring

matter 37-95 48.62

Ash 3-74 456

Percentage Composition of Tea

Unprepared Green Black

Leaves. Tea. Tea.

Caffeine or theine 3-30 3-20 3.30

Ether extract 6.49 5.52 5.82

Hot-water extract 50.97 53-74 47.23

Tannin (as gallotannic acid) . .12.91 10,64 4.89

I Other nitrogen-free extract. .. .27.86 31.43 35.39

Crude protein 37-33 3743 38.90

Crude fibre 10.44 10.06 10.07

Ash 4-97 4 9.2 4.93

Nitrogen 597 599 6.22

Composition This docs not give a fair estimate of the compost-

of Decoctions ^j^^^ ^^ ^j^^ druiks sincc we use more coffee to the cup

COFFEE BERRY AND LEAF, NATURAL SIZE
From Bulletin No. 25, Division of Botany- U. S. Department of Agriculture

COFFEE

than tea. Hutchison finds that a cup of black coffee
contains nearly the same amount of caffeine and tan-
nin as a cup of tea. This depends, of course, very
largely upon the methods of preparation. It is gen-
erally considered that with our ordinary methods that
less tannin is present in coffee than in tea.

The adulterants of coffee are many. One of the Adulterants
commonest is chicory. In France this is often used in
order to add a desired flavor. Other adulterants that
have been found are roasted peas, beans, wheat, brown
bread, charcoal, red slate, and dried pellets consisting
of ground peas, pea hulls and cereals held togethei
with molasses. These are met with only in ground
coffee. Although at one time artificial coffee beans
were manufactured to some extent, they are said to
be seldom found today. The adulteration of un-
ground coffee consists rather of the substitution or
admixture of cheap or inferior varieties. A simple
rough test for the detection of adulteration in cofi'ce
consists in shaking some of the sample in cold water.
The pure coffee usually floats on the surface while
most of the adulterants sink, the grains of chicory
coloring the water a brownish red as they fall. Some-
times adulteration can be detected if ground coffee is
spread out upon a paper and examined with a mag-
nifying glass, A better protection is aft'orded, how-
ever, by purchasing the coffee unground.

Cocoa

COCOA

It is said that "the earhest intimation of the intro-
duction of cocoa into England is found in the an-
nouncement in the PubHc Advertiser of Tuesday,
i6th June, 1657 (more than a hundred and thirty
years after its introduction into Spain), stating that
"in Bishopgate street, in Queen's Head alley, at a
Frenchman's house, is an excellent West India drink,
called chocolate, to be sold, where you may have it
ready at any time ; and also unmade, at reasonable
rates."
u^rif ^" ^P^*-^ °^ ^^^^^ alluring advertisement, it was the

beginning of the eighteenth century before chocolate
became a fashionable beverage. And even as late as
1832 the consumption of cocoa was very limited, ow-
ing to a large duty that existed up to that time. Long-
before this it had become a great favorite in Spain as
it was in Spanish Ameria. In New England a mill
for the preparation of chocolate was established in
1765. The chocolate of the early Spanish days must
have been somewhat different from the modern arti-
cle. This is one receipt that is given : "Take a hun-
dred cocoa kernels, two heads of Chili or long peppers,
a handful of anise or orjevala, and two of mesachusil
or vanille — or, instead, six Alexandria roses, pow-
dered— two drachms of cinnamon, a dozen almonds
and as many hazelnuts, a half pound of white sugar,
and annotto enough to color it, and you have the king
of chocolates."

COCOA

149

The cacao tree (theobroma cacao) from which
chocolate and cocoa are obtained, is a native of tropi-
cal America. It grows to an average height of from
thirteen to twenty, or even thirty feet, with a diam-
eter of from five to ten inches. A quaint description
of the appearance of the tree is given in the following

Coooa
Tree

FLOWER AND FRUIT OF COCOA TREE,

words : "The cacao-tree almost all the year bears
fruit of all ages, which ripens successively, but never
grows on the end of little branches, as our fruits in
Europe do, but along the trunk and chief boughs,
which is not rare in these countries, where several
trees do the like. Such an unusual appearance would
seem strange in the eyes of Europeans, who have
never seen anything of that kind ; but, if one examines
the matter a little, the philosophical reason of the dis-

Bean

150 POOD AND DIETETICS

position is very obvious. One may easily apprehend
that if nature had placed such bulky fruit at the ends
of the branches their great weight must necessarily
break them, and the fruit would fall before it came to
maturity."

Cocoa is raised from seed, and the tree does not bear
fruit till it has reached the fifth or sixth year. It re-
quires an abundance of air and light, but must be
shaded from too much direct sun. This is accom-
plishd by growing large shade trees at frequent in-
tervals in the cocoa plantation.
Cocoa The cocoa beans are the seed of the plant and lie in

even rows in a pod not very unlike a large cucumber
in shape and size. The first step in the preparation
of cocoa is the removal of the bean from this pod and
its subjection to a "sweating" or fermentation pro
cess. After this the beans are dried in the sun and
in this form are shipped to our market.

Beans from different places, Caracas, Trinidad,
Maracaibo, Java, and others are imported by the
manufacturer who mixes them in different proportions
in order to get the result desired. The second step
in the process of manufacture is the careful roasting
of the beans to develop the flavor, and the crushing
or cracking of the nuts and the removal of the thin
husk or shell with which the seed is covered, by win-
nowing. The sl:ells are used in many places for the
preparation of a drink. If they are boiled for a long
time, a smooth, oily beverage with a pleasant nutty

COCOA BELNS.
Showing Fruit, Flowers and Leaf.

152

FOOD AND DIETETICS

flavor is obtained. The cracked cocoa, or cocoa
nibs, as it is called, is also used for preparing a bev-

METHOD OF GROWTH OF COCOA.

erage. A mixture of the shells and nibs gives a very
satisfactory result.

The next step in the preparation of chocolate is the

COCOA 153

grinding" of the nibs and running the semi-Hqnid prod-
uct into molds. If sugar or any flavoring is to be
added, it is done at this time.

Cocoa in its purest form is chocolate with part of
the fat removed. In order that it may stay in a pow
dered condition, it is necessary either to remove this
oil or add some form of starchy material. Sometimes
flavoring materials such as cinnamon or vanilla are
also added.

Cocoa, like tea and coffee, contains an alkaloid
called theobromine. Tannin is also present in the raw
bean, but is changed during the roasting to cocoa-
red which gives the color to the cocoa. A substance
somewhat like the caffeol of cofl^ee is also developed
during the roasting process. Cocoa beans also con-
tain a large amount of fat — about 50 per cent — with
proteids, starch, and other substances in small amounts.

Percentage Composition of Cocoa

Roasted Cocoa Nibs.

Water 2.72

Ash 3-32

Theobromine ' 1.44

Other nitrogenous substances 12.12

Crude fibre 2.64

Starch 8.07

Other nitrogen-free substances 19-57

Fat 5012

100.00
The food value of clear chocolate has never been
questioned. Perhaps the writer of the eighteenth cen-

Theobromine

154 FOOD AND DIETETICS

tury who is responsible for the following statements
may have exaggerated somewhat. He says :

"In reality, if one examines the nature of chocolate
a little, with respect to the constitution of aged per-
sons, it seems as though the one was made on pur-
pose to remedy the defects of the other, and that it
is truly the panacea of old age."

"There lately died at Martinico a counsellor, about
a hundred years old, who, for thirty years past, lived
on nothing but chocolate and biscuit. He sometimes,
indeed, had a little soup at dinner, but never any fish,
flesh, or other victuals. He was, nevertheless, so vig-
orous and nimble that at fourscore and five he could
get on horseback without stirrups."
Food So good a scientist as Liebig says, however: "It is
a perfect food, as wholesome as delicious. It is
highly nourishing and easily digested, and is fitted to
repair wasted strength, preserve health, and prolong
life." A simple statement of the case is that we have
in cliocolate a highly concentrated food, particularly
rich in fat, but containing a fair amount of the other
food principles. Since it is so concentrated it de-
mands water in abundance. So far as its digestibility
is concerned, there is more question. The very pres-
ence of so much fat means that it is too rich for
some people, while others can digest it with no dif-
ficulty. Hutchison tells us that so far as cocoa as a
drink is concerned the food value is over-estimated,
since the amount we actually use is small. This de-

Talue

COCOA

155

pends to a large extent upon the manner in which the
beverage is prepared. The milk and sugar used add
appreciably to the nutriment, and if we follow Thudi-
chum's suggestion, we shall have a beverage of high
food value even if one questions its perfection in other
respects. He says : "Chocolate should be served in
cups and be of sufficient consistency to be eaten with a
small spoon, rather than drunk. In this way it was
used by the Mexicans; they also ate it with golden
spoons. We have tasted the combination, and find
chocolate in a red cup and saucer, to be eaten with a
golden spoon, aesthetical perfection; both taste and
sight are much pleased with the combination."

The possible effect upon digestion of the theobro-
mine present has not been fully determined. It is a
substance similar in character to caffeine in coft'ee
and tea. These beverages, however, unlike cocoa,
have no food value.

The physiological eft'ect upon the system of tea,
coffee, and cocoa has been much discussed. Of the
three, cocoa seems to have much less influence eithci
in retarding digestion or as a stimulant, though there
is reason to think that it is not without stimulating
effects.

Tea has a marked influence in lessening the action
of the saliva, whfle both tea and coffee retard diges-
tion, the latter to a less extent than the former. This
effect seems due to the tannic acid and the volatile
oil. The caffeine itself favors digestion. Both tea

Physiological
Effect of
Tea, Coffee
and Cocoa

156

POOD AND DIETETICS

Personal
Equation

Cereal
Coffee

and coffee act as stimulants because of the caffeine
present. It is this that causes them to be so effective
in lessening the feeling of fatigue. Strong coffee is
a powerful antidote to narcotics, and is often used
where a heart stimulant is needed. Coffee and tea
may, because of the tannic acid and other astringent
substances present, prove irritants to the mucous
membrane of the stomach. This action is greater if
the stomach is empty. The stimulating effect also is
greater if taken upon an empty stomach.

The effects of coffee and tea seem to be influenced
largely by the personal equation, and quite opposite
results are produced in different persons by them;
while in most people they tend to produce wakeful-
ness, in others they are conducive to sleep. Some
people can use one freely and must refrain completely
from the other.

The general conclusion from experiment and ob-
servation seems to be that, taken in moderate quanti-
ties and at suitable times, they are not injurious to
the healthy adult, but that those of a feeble digestion,
or who are nervous, should use them in exceedingly
small quantities, if at all. Of the two, coffee seems
to have the least harmful effect in the majority of
cases.

On the market at present there are a large number
of coffee substitutes. Some of them undoubtedly are
true cereal drinks, and may be used as such, though
when a large amount of food value is attributed to

COCOA 157

them on this account, one cannot help wondering how
the insohible substances of the wheat grain can so
largely be present in the drink made from the treat-
ment of wheat kernels in water. Some of the so-
called cereal coffees are said to derive their flavor
from the volatile oils produced in the roasting of cof-
fee, while others actually contain cofifee.

Pure Food
Campaign

False
Impressions

ADULTERATION OF FOOD

Probably no food question has been so much dis-
cussed of late, or has appealed so generally to the
public at large as that of food adulteration. Nearly
all the states have passed laws providing for more or
less stringent regulations, and the United States
Congress has passed a national law and is considering
further legislation on the same subject. Magazines
and newspapers have taken up the matter; the wom-
en's clubs have enthusiastically pressed it and a vigor-
ous "pure food" campaign has been made. This is
right and proper; but, either through ignorance, or
the belief that it is justifiable to do evil that good
may come, many statements are made that are not
only sensational in the extreme, but absolutely untrue.
Others, while not absolutely wrong, convey a distinctly
false impression.

Mrs. Abel, in a recent article, calls attention to
some types of such statements by the following illus-
tration :

"A baby has dined on a candy Easter egg and saus-
age, and the heading reads

DEATH FROM COAL TAR COLOR IN
EASTER CANDY.

"Now sausage is not exactly an infant food and
might perhaps have been held responsible for the
sad result, but sausage is a trite and common thing,
while chemical colors, bearing such a disagreeable
name will surely catch the public eye|

ADULTERATION OF FOOD 159

"And (lid we not read one other day that a promi-
nent hygien.ist had announced that 450,000 babies die
yearly in this country of poisoned milk? Few of us
had access to census reports from which to learn that
this is a much larger number than die yearly from all
causes under the ages of five, and perhaps fewer still
saw the indignant denial of this official, and learned
how a truthful and moderate statement can be dis-
torted."

One of our most reputable city dailies is responsible
for the following absurd statement in the report of a
speech :

"Dr. Wiley, chief of the national bureau of chemis-
try, says that nine-tenths of the deaths each year in
this country are due to dyspepsia, generally caused by
impure food. He declares that the tendency also is to
shorten the duration of life, and cites figures to show
that 2,000,000 deaths in the United States in the last
ten years have been traceable largely to the use of
bad food. It is the workingman, the poor man, who
cannot aft'ord to buy the higher priced articles of food,
who suffers more from these conditions.

"Viewed from an economic standpoint also, the
laboring man should be interested. In the report of
the Kentucky state board of health for last year the
statement is made that for every dollar spent in the
purchase of food, 45 cents on the average is paid for
adulterations."

T'he implication here is even worse than the actual

Newspaper
Statements

i6o FOOD AXD DIETETICS

statement, for while '•impure food" and "bad food"'
might include water and milk contaminated with ty-
phoid germs, or food that has been allowed to deteri-
orate by bacterial action till it is in a dangerous con-
dition, it is evident that the meaning intended to be
conveyed is that these phrases mean adulterated food.

The same paper in a recent editorial makes the ab-
solutely ungrounded charge that numerous deaths
have been caused by the presence of coal tar dyes in
candy. It implies that all manufacturers are actuated
by greed, and that they care nothing as to the poison-
ous character of their materials if only they make
money.

A circular advertising a certain breakfast food,
after dividing glucose into good and bad kinds, in-
troduces the following paragraph, saying that the
definition is from the dictionary, "Glucose, the
trade name of a syrup obtained as an uncrystallizable
residue in the manufacture of glucose proper, and
containing in addition to some dextrose or glucose,
also maltose, dextrine, etc. It is used as a cheap
adulterant of syrups, beers, etc. Thus we learn even
in this public way that there are harmless and harm-
ful kinds of glucose."

The implication is, of course, that glucose is untit
for food, and no account is taken of the facts thai
maltose is a sugar perfectly wholesome and digestible,
and that dextrine is always an intermediate product in
the change of starch into sugar, whether this change

ADULTERATION OF FOO^. i6i

is induced by the action of acid as in the manufacture
of commercial glucose, or by a ferment as in the
change of starch into sugar by the sahva.

No good can come from exaggerated and false
statements, and it is the business of every woman who
has to do with the purchasing of foods to so inform
herself that she shall not be misled.

We may classify the adulterants of foods, using
the term in a broad sense, under three headings .
First, additions or substitutions used for the sake of
cheapening the product ; second, material such as col-
oring matter, used either to imitate the natural prod-
uct or to beautify and make more attractive some
foods; ////n/, preservatives. Of the first class, by far
the greater number are such as affect the pocketbook
and not the health. One of the common adulterants
of spices, for instance, is starch, and this only means
that v;hen such a spice is used a larger amount is
needed than would be the case if it were pure. CofTec
to which has been added chicory or ground peas oi
beans, or for which has been substituted an artificial
bean, cannot be said to be less wholesome because of
this treatment. Cream of tartar, because of its ex-
pense, is often adulterated, but again the adulterant is
usually harmless. Butterine substituted for butter
means the payment on the part of the consumer of a
large price for an inexpensive article ; but the article
consumed is in every way as digestible and whole-
some as if no substitution had been made. This and

Classificot'ori
of Adulterants

i62 FOOD AND DIETETICS

many other articles used to adulterate more expensive
ones, have their own value, and if placed upon the
market under their own names, might be profitably
used. There is no reason to think that corn syrup, or
glucose, with a flavoring of caramel is less wholesome
than maple syrup, but we all justly object to having
the former product labelled with the name of the latter
and sold at its price,
T v"^?'^* -^^^ crusade against adulterations should then, so

tar as this class is concerned, be directed toward fuii
and correct labelling, and against the possibility of
cheap articles being branded as superior ones or sold
at the price of the better article. The consumer should
demand the right to receive the full equivalent for
money paid, and every effort should be made, not only
to have right laws passed but to see that frequent
tests are made of food materials bought in the open
market, and to compel manufacturers to make a cor-
rect statement of the ingredients in their wares.

On the part of the housekeeper there should be a
knowledge of materials, and ability to make simple
tests, while for such tests as imply technical chemical
knowledge material should be sent to the board of
health or other experts. IMost of all, skill in interpref-
ing labels should be cultivated. A bottle purporting to
be vanilla and labelled

PURE VANILLA,

Compound

Matter

ADULTERATION OF FOOD 163

on the face of it is not vanilla, though it may not
necessarily be a less wholesome article.

The second kind of materials that we have classed Coloring
as adulterants — the coloring matters, are used gener-
ally to satisfy a popular demand. Everyone knows
that fresh butter is seldom of the bright yellow color
of that on the market, yet few people would purchase
an uncolored butter. Because in June, under the best
conditions, butter is yellow, we have come to regard
that as the only desirable thing. The manufacturer of
a certain brand of cheese a few years ago made an
attempt to put an uncolored product on the market,
though he had formerly used coloring. To his sur-
prise, he could not sell his cheese. The public, ac-
customed to a deep orange color in that brand, said
the white cheese was not "so rich," that it was made
of skim milk instead of cream, and refused to accept it.

As soon as the purchasing public has a different
standard of values the manufacturer will cease to color
his products. He will be content to ofifer properly
canned tomatoes, even though the color is not as bril-
liant as that of the fresh fruit, and will put upon the
market a catsup more attractive though less bright
than the modern product. He will devise methods of
canning peas and beans that will change their color
as little as possible, but will not "green" them to de-
ceive a credulous public. At the same time, the dis-
honest manufacturer will have less opportunity to
conceal the inferiority of poor goods by the addition
of color.

i64 FOOD AND DIETETICS

Coal Tar Color is also used frankly to beautify articles, as in

Dyes

the case of candy, and this seems legitimate when the
colors are harmless, and the coloring is delicate. In
this case, as in that of other uses of it, the question
arises as to the possible harmful effects of the colors
used. Of late the so-called coal tar dyes have been
frequently employed, and perhaps because of their
name much anethema has been directed against them.
As a matter of fact, most of the coal tar dyes used are
perfectly harmless, with absolutely no physiological
effect. They are so strong in coloring power that a
very minute amount is all that is necessary to give
the desired result. Some of the coal tar dyes are
poisonous, and sliould not be used, though again the
fact that so small an amount is required to produce
the effect is a protection. Some vegetable dyes are
also poison, as well as some of the mineral dyes used
before the coal tar products were available, and both
of these classes have less coloring power, and so must
be used in larger quantities.

That the confectioners are not all "monsters of
greed" "reeking" with the desire to make money at
the cost of the health and lives of an unsuspecting
public, is shown by the fact that long lists of harm-
Jess and harmful colors have been made by the Na-
tional Confectioners' Association, and that the same
association has offered resolutions for dealers in con-
fectioners' colors as well for manufacturers of candies,
urging only the legitimate use of non-poisonous col-

ADULTERATION OF FOOD

165

ors. Legislation and public opinion should unite in
forbidding the use of any harmful coloring even in
minute quantities, and careful investigation should be
made and lists of safe colors presented. An educated
public will see no beauty in crude and vivid colors
and v^ill demand only the most delicate shades in
candies and similar products, and this will mean less
coloring of any kind.

As to the use of preservatives in food, there is an
honest difference of opinion among experts. It is
contended by many that in proper amounts and under
proper regulation they are a desirable safe-guard,
since they keep in a fresh and wholesome condition
foods that would otherwise deteriorate. The amounts
necessary are so small that they would seem presum-
ably to have no effect on the users. On the other
hand, the user may not be a healthy adult, but an in-
fant or an invalid, presenting quite a different prob-
lem. In miost cases a little more care would keep the
food in proper condition without the resort to doubt-
ful means.

The two sides of the case are stated as follows in
the government pamphlet giving the result of the
famous borax experiment.

"It is admitted by all who have examined the sub-
ject in a critical way, even by the users of preserva-
tives, that in certain maximum quantities the limit of
toleration is reached in each individual and positive
injury is done. But it is also well recognized that

Preservatives

Government
Statement

i66 FOOD AND DIETETICS

many, if not all, of the usual foods when used in large
excess produce injurious results. The many cases of
disease produced by overeating, or by eating im-
properly prepared or poorly cooked foods, or by eat-
ing at unusual times, are illustrations of this fact.
Upon this basis and upon the further statement that
when used in extremely small quantities the preserva-
tives in question cannot be regarded as harmful, is
founded the principal argument in favor of the use
of the preservatives, aside from the fact that the
foods themselves are kept in a better and more whole-
some state.''
Small "It would be useless to contend that the occasional
Quantities consumption of small quantities of boric acid in a
sausage, in butter, or in preserved meat would pro-
duce, even upon delicate stomachs, any continuing
deleterious effect which could be detected by any of
the means at our disposal, but naturally it seems that
this admission does not in any way justify the indis-
criminate use of this preservative in food products,
implying, as it would, the equal right of all other
preservatives of a like character to exist in food
products without restriction.

"It appears, therefore, that, there is no convincing
force in the argument for the use of sm.all quantities
unless it can be established that there is only a single
preservative used in foods, that this preservative is
used in only a few foods, that it will be consumed in
extremely minute quantities, and that the foods in

ADULTERATION OF FOOD

167

which it is found are consumed at irregular intervals
and in small quantities. On the other hand, the logi-
cal conclusion which seems to follow from the data
at our disposal is that boric acid and equivalent
amounts of borax in certain quantities should be re-
stricted to those cases where the necessity therefor
is clearly manifest, and where it is demonstrable that
other methods of food preservation are not applicable
and that without the use of such a preservative the
deleterious effects produced by the foods themselves,
by reason of decomposition, would be far greater than
could possibly come from the use of the preservative
in minimum quantities. In these cases it would also
follow, apparently, as a matter of public information
and especially for the protection of the young, the
sick, and the debilitated, that each article of food
should be plainly labeled and branded in regard to the
character and quantity of the preservative employed."

Many more experiments need to be conducted be-
fore we know the truth in the matter of preservatives.
Meanwhile most careful supervision of their use
should be exercised when they are allowed at all, and
every effort should be directed toward securing clean-
ly processes of food preparation, and such good condi-
tions that no preservatives should be needed other
than the ordinary ones of salt, sugar, spices, with the
processes of smoking and sterilization.

The most common preservatives in general use are

Conclusion

Experiments

Needed

Tests

l68 FOOD AND DIETETICS

formaldehyde, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, baking soda,
borax and boric acid.
Home Some of the simpler tests for food adulterants can

be successfully used by the housekeeper even without
technical training.

The following methods of distinguishing between
butter, oleomargarine and renovated butter are taken
from the farmers' bulletin on the subject:

The Spoon Test for Butter

In the kitchen the test may be conducted as fol-
lows: Using as the source of heat an ordinary kero-
sene lamp, turned low and with chimney off, melt the
sample to be tested (a piece the size of a small chest-
nut) in an ordinary tablespoon, hastening the process
with a splinter of wood (for example, a match). Then,
increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a boil as possible,
and after the boiling has begun, stir the contents of
the spoon thoroughly, not neglecting the outer edges,
two or three times at intervals during the boiling —
always shortly before the boiling ceases. In the labor-
atory a test tube, a spoon, or sometimes a small tin
dish, is used in making this test. From the last-
named utensils the test is often called the "spoon
test," and sometimes the "pan test."

A gas flame, if available, can be used perhaps more
conveniently than a kerosene lamp.

Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily,
sputtering (more or less) like a mixture of grease
and water when boiled, and produce no foam, or but

ADULTERATION OF FOOD 169

very little. Renovated butter produces usually a very
small amount.

Genuine butter boils usually with less noise, and
produces an abundance of foam.

To Distinguish Oleomargarine from Genuine and Renovated Butter

Utensils Required. — The utensils required in the
test to distinguish oleomargarine from renovated and
genuine butters are as follows :

(i) A one-half pint tin "measuring cup," common
in kitchen use, marked at the half and quarters ; or a
plain one-half pint tin measure, ordinary narrow form ,
or an ordinary small tin cup, 2^ inches in diameter
and 2 inches in height, holding about one gill and a
half.

(2). A common kitchen pan, about 9^ inches m
diameter at the base.

(3). A small rod of wood, of the thickness of a
match and of convenient length for stirring.

(4). A clock or watch.

The Process. — The process for distinguishing oleo-
margarine from renovated and genuine butters is as
follows :

Use sweet skimmed milk, obtained by setting fresh
milk in a cool place for twelve to twenty-four hours
and removing cream as fully as possible. Half fill
with this milk the half-pint cup or measure, or two-
thirds fill the smaller cup mentioned, measuring accu-

170 FOOD AND DIETETICS

rately the gill of milk when possible ; heat nearly to boil-
ing, add a slightly rounded teaspoon ful of the butter or
butter substitute, stir with the wooden rod, and con-
tinue heating until the milk "boils up," remove at once
from the heat and place in the pan (arranged while
milk and fat are heating), containing pieces of ice
with a very little ice water, the ice to be mostly in
pieces of the size of one to two hens' eggs (not
smaller, as small fragments melt too rapidly) and
sufficient in quantity to cover two-thirds of the bottom
of the pan; the water to be in quantity sufficient,
when the cup is first placed in the pan, to reach on
the outside of the cup to only one-fourth the height of
the milk within; any water in excess of that amount
must be removed. (This refers to the condition at
the beginning of the cooling; later, as the ice melts,
the water will rise to a higher level.) Stir tne con-
tents of the cup rather rapidly, with a rotary and a
cross-wise motion in turn, continuously throughout
the test, except during the moment of time required
for each stirring of the ice and wate/ in the pan,
which must be done thoroughly once every minute by
the clock. This is done by moving the cup about, in
a circle, following the edge of the pan. Proceed in
this manner for ten minutes, unless before that time
the fat has gathered or has allowed itself to be easily
gathered in a lump or a soft m^i^s, soon hardening. If
it so gathers, the sample is oleomargarine ; if not, it is
either genuine or renovated butter."

ADULTERATION OF FOOD 171

It will be seen that by trying both of these tests
one may determine which of the three a suspected
sample of butter really is.

A method of determining the presence of coal tar
dyes in foods has been given in the following words
by a recent writer:

"Suppose that some cheap currant jelly is to be ex- Test for
amined. Stir up about one-fourth of the contents of colors^
the tumbler of jelly with about a pint of water in an
agate stewpan. Take a piece of white woolen cloth
about five or six inches square and wet it thoroughly
with boiling water. Care should be taken that it is
"all wool," and white is better than cream color.
Nun's veiling is an excellent thing to use. Immerse
the cloth in the diluted jelly and boil it on the stove
for five or ten minutes, stirring it frequently with a
small wooden stick. Then remove it and wash well in
boiling water. If a dye has been used in the jelly
the cloth will be brightly colored.

"Natural colors impart to the wool, when treated in
this way, only a dull pinkish-brown color, quite dif-
ferent from the brilliant color of the artificial dye.
In order to be absolutely certain, however, it is best
to take the dyed wool and boil it with about a table -
spoonful of ordinary household ammonia in half a
pint of water. After boiling for five minutes, remove
the wool, and if the ammonia is colored add to it a
third of a cupful of vinegar, immerse it in a second
piece of the white woolen cloth and boil it as before.
Any color that is imparted to the second piece of

Test

172 FOOD AND DIETETICS

cloth IS the analine dye, which was dissolved off by
the ammonia. The natural color would not be re-
moved from the first cloth by the ammonia, hence
would not dye on the second piece. The coloring can
be boiled out of sausages and dyed on wool in the
same way."

"Another interesting way of showing the presence
Gelatine of these dyes, especially in beverages, is to dye them
on gelatine. Dissolve one part of gelatine in ten
parts of boiling water and pour it into a deep pan to
harden. When it is cold, by means of a sharp knife
cut it into inch cubes. Place one of these cubes into
the suspected liquid and allow it to remain for twenty-
four hours, then wash it slightly with cold water and
cut through it with a knife. If the color is a natural
one it will lightly tinge the outer surface of the cube,
but will not penetrate far below the surface, so that
the inner portions will be largely free from color.
Nearly all of the coal-tar dyes, cochineal and similar
colors, will be found to permeate the jelly cube, often
to the center.

'"One advantage of the dyeing on cloth, however,
is that the sample can be preserved as evidence.
Nothing is better than ocular proof to convince the
average person."

Several other tests for food adulteration have been
given under the special foods or in other papers of
this series. (See also Bulletin No. 100. Some Forms
of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods for Their
Detection. Price 10 cents, of the Supt. of Documents,
Washington, D. C.)

SPECIAL DIET

The housekeeper of today must know not only how
to select food for the normal member of her house-
hold, and how to provide for the varying needs of
different ages and activity, but she is many times
called upon to direct the diet of an invalid or a delicate
child or to provide special foods for those who are
sick.

It is not her province to diagnose a case, or to
prescribe special diet, but it is her part to be able in-
telligently to carry out the directions of a physician.
If the invalid is to have starchy foods eliminated from
his menu, the housekeeper must know where to turn
to obtain foods that will furnish the requisite number
of calories without recourse to carbohydrates, and
she must be able to prepare such food in a palatable
manner; if the diet is to contain a large amount of
fat, as in the case of a tubercular patient, she must
know where to obtain this food in a digestible form,
and, if there is need for economy, how to substitute
cheap forms of fat for the more expensive ones. She
must know, when the direction is given for a nourish-
ing diet, how to add the egg or milk that is required,
or to substitute some other form of food if these are
not acceptable.

The housekeeper then, so far as invalid diet is con-
cerned, should be familiar first, with the composition
of the ordinary food materials, and second, with the
relative digestibility of the different foods so far as

173

174

FOOD AND DIETETICS

ro»d for
Children

High
Proteid

that knowledge is available and with their physio-
logical effect. Then, and then only, can she intelli-
gently carry out the directions given.

One of the troublesome problems for the mother is
the deciding upon the right food for children, espe-
cially for those of school age. While the physician
will direct her in the care of her invalids, and in the
food necessary for the young baby, she is usually left
to work out her own problems so far as the older child
is concerned. One reason for this is that compara-
tively little attention has been given to this matter,
while the diet for the baby has been studied for years.

Fortunately the healthy child settles the matter for
himself to quite an extent and his own normal appe-
tite guides him up to a certain point. But a normal
appetite may easily become perverted, and lead him
i^r astray.

As we have seen, the child needs a larger percent-
age of proteid in the diet than the adult. At about
ten or twelve years the needs of the body rapidly in-
crease, and a far larger amount of food in proportion
to body weight is used than in the case of the adult.
The mother who has a growing boy of this age is
often astonished at the amount of food he eats and
seems to need. The chart given on page 51 shows
the proportional amounts of the different foods needed
at different ages.

Little anxiety need be felt lest the child overeat if
the food be prohcrly masticated and so taken slowly,

SPECIAL DIET 175

if it be of the right kind, and if it be taken at proper
times. The latter point is particularly important m
its relation to sweets. Candy at the end of a meal
for dessert is legitimate and even desirable, but the
same article bought at the candy store and eaten on
the way home from school before dinner is seriously
objectionable, since it satisfies the appetite and lessens
the desire for the regular meal without giving ade-
quate nourishment. An over amount of sugar may
easily be taken in this way while rarely, if ever, does
this happen if the appetite is first largely satisfied with
bread and milk, vegetables and meat.

The often objectionable children's party would be children'
robbed of its evil effects if simple, attractive sand- Parties
wiches were always provided in abundance before the
ice cream and cake were offered, since few children
would over-eat of the latter under these circumstances.

If children are to be allowed to eat freely the food
must be simple in character and easy of digestion.
The ordinary meats, with the exclusion of pork,
cooked simply, few "made" dishes, an abundance of
vegetables and fruits, only the simplest puddings, no
pastry, occasional plain cake (not between meals),
plenty of the best of bread and butter, of well cooked
cereals and of milk and eggs will furnish variety
sufficient for anyone. Tea and coffee are to be re-
served for the adult, while cocoa may be used in mod-
eration, chiefly for the milk with which it is made.
Highly seasoned foods are to be avoided, as they tend

176

FOOD AND DIETETICS

Fat in

the Child's

Diet

Omniverous
Tastes

to excite unduly the flow of the digestive juices and
gradually make such flow dependent on their stimu-
lation. Their continued use also seems to induce a
craving for strong stimulants.

It is necessary to encourage many children to eat
more fat than they are inclined to do. This may as
legitimately be taken in the form of butter and cream
as in that of fat meat, so generally repungant to chil-
dren. Hutchison suggests that toffee taken at the end
of the meal is a good medium for fat when there is
difficulty in giving sufficient in other ways.

With young children special attention must be paid
to the digestibility of the food. This is frequently a
matter of personal idiosyncracy, and when this is the
case the matter can only be determined by experiment.
The safe way is to begin the diet with foods which
are generally easily digested, and to allow those more
difficult of digestion only at a later period. If any
one article proves unwholesome in the particular case,
it should of course be discarded.

On the other hand, it is most undesirable that chil-
dren should grow up without learning to like all
ordinary foods, and without being able to eat every
kind of wholesome food. Such habit cannot be ac-
quired unless a certain variety is provided and unless
the child who is old enough be encouraged to try dif-
ferent articles. Even those less easily digestible may
at a proper age be taken occasionally with impunity,
for the sake of accomplishing this end. Vegetables,

Between
Meals

SPECIAL DIET 177

while so desirable in the diet, often seem to be an ac-
quired taste.

Above all things there should be no yielding to a
child's whims in allowing him to refuse the food of-
fered and to require special provision for himself.

The question of eating between meals is one that Eating
frequently arises. During the school period there is
difficulty in providing food at sufficiently short inter-
vals. The child who has breakfasted early, often be-
comes exhausted before the time of the noon meal.
This exhaustion sometimes is shown by the apparent
stupidity or the inattention and restlessness of the
child, and sometimes by extreme irritability. Wher-
ever this interval is a long one, there should be pro-
vision for some luncheon during the morning.
School lunches have been established in many places
and when well conducted serve an excellent purpose.
Where the establishment of such a luncheon is not
possible, a light lunch carried from home, such as a
sandwich, a slice of bread and butter sprinkled with
sugar, or even some fruit or sweet chocolate, eaten
■ in the middle of the morning, will do much to preserve
the good temper of the child and to make it possible
for him to do his work adequately. The child who
at home grows hungry between meals should be al-
lowed to have something to eat, provided it be bread
and butter, a sandwich, or crackers and milk, or fruit.
With the younger children the heartiest meal should
be in the middle of the day, and the evening meai

178 FOOD AND DIETETICS

should be chosen with especial reference to ease "in
digestion.

In general, then, the food for children should differ
from that of adults, first, in being of the most simple
character; second, in the absence of stimulating sub-
stances, such as large amounts of spice; third, in the
proportions of the different food principles. In addi-
tion to this the child should think as little as possible
about the food he eats. The constant discussion of
the wholesomeness of different articles of diet and the
consequent directing of the attention of the child to
his own bodily processes seems distinctly harmful.
Such discussion should only be used when necessary
in order to show the unsuitableness of some especially
desired food that must be denied. Good habits in
regard to food should be established at this age. rather
than theories about it.
students' Much has been said in regard to food for older

"^*'* students, and a number of studies of student diet have
been made. A few points only can be considered.
In the first place, the student is leading a sedentary
life, and does not need the hearty food required by
the laborer or the one who is doing much outdoor or
manual work. The proportion of proteid should be
somewhat high in comparison with that of the carbo-
hydrates, and the food should be simple and digestible,
in order that but little energy be used in carrying on
the processes of digestion.

Diet

SPECIAL DIET 179

A good variety is needed, however, and especial
care must be exercised to make the food attractive
that the appetite may be stimulated. The compara-
tively small amount of exercise taken generally by
the student makes this especially necessary, though no
amount of attention paid to the food can or should be
a substitute for the healthy appetite.

As in the case of the child, it is frequently wise for
the student to eat oftener than /at the regular meal
time. A glass of milk, a cup of cocoa, or of broth
with a cracker in the middle oi the morning will often
prevent a headache from exhaustion.

Old age needs especial consideration in regard to ow Age
diet as well as youth. After middle life the total
amount of food needed lessens somewhat, and the
proportion of building material, both of proteids and
of mineral salts is less. Again, as in childhood, care
must be exercised in regard to digestibility and sim-
plicity of food. Often special conditions of the sys-
tem must be considered and certain kinds of food
avoided, but this is a matter for intelligent following
of a physician's directions.

One of the question that frequently arises in regard
to diet is that of reducing or increasing flesh by this
means. Increase in weight implies that more food is
4;aken into the body than is utilized in the repair of
waste and in work. To prevent the storage of fat more
work must be performed or less food taken. The well
known systems for curing obesity depend chiefly on
the reduction of the total amount of food,— some-

i8o FOOD AND DIETETICS

times to two-fifths of the standard dietary, and on the
lessening of the proportion of fats and carbonydrates,
especially of the latter. So radical a treatment as this
should only be undertaken under the direction of a
physician as there is a possibility of serious injury to
health. A diminution of the sugar and starch in the
diet and a slight lessening of the total amount eaten
with increased light exercise may be undertaken by
almost anyone with the result of decreasing the fat of
the body.

The converse of course holds true. Rest, a full diet,
and one rich in carbohydrate and fat tend to increase
the storing of fat in the body, although there is occa-
sionally a person who fails to respond to such treat-
ment. In increasing the diet due regard must be paid
to the digestive powers of the individual that they may
not be over-taxed.

It is said that some oriental countries, wiser than
we, have a custom of paying the physician for keep-
ing the family well, not for restoring the sick mem-
ber to health. In the absence of such a custom and
with physicians not trained for this purpose, the
housemother herself must perform this office.

Special diet in disease must be directed by the physi-
cian, for the housekeeper, even though she informs
herself upon the general principles of such diet, can-
not recognize special symptoms that often require in-
dividual modification of general rules. She must con-
tent herself, then, with the role of preserver of health,
and though she can by no means ward ofif all sick-
ness by the best planned dietary, she can do much
toward strengthening the constitution of the members
of her family, and making their bodies more resistant
to disease.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. B.— Z of Our Own Nutrition ($i.oo, postage .10).
Horace Fletcher.

Air, Water, and Food ($2.00, postage .18). Richards and
Woodman.

Corn Plants ($1.00, postage .08). F. L. Sargent.

Cost of Food ($1.00, postage .10). Ellen H. Richards.

Cost of Living ($1.00, postage .10). Ellen H. Richards.

Dietary, The ($0.15, postage .02). Ellen A. Huntington.

Dietary Computer ($1.50, postage .12). Ellen H. Richards.

Dietetic Value of Bread ($1.50, postage .14). Goodfellow.

Diet in Relation to Age and Activity ($1.00, postage .08).
Sir Henry Thompson.

Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery ($1.00,
postage .08). Williams and Fisher.

Essentials of School Diet ($2.00). Clement Dukes.

Essentials of Chemical Physiology ($1.50, postage .14).
Halliburton.

Food ($1.20, postage .08). A. H. Church.

Food as a Factor in Student Life ($0.25, postage .02). Rich-
ards and Talbot.

Food and Its Functions ($1.00, postage .08). James Knight.

Food Inspection and Analysis ($7.50). Albert E. Leach.

Food Products of the world ($1.50, postage .14). Mary E.
Green, M. D.

Food and the Principles of Dietetics ($3.00, postage .26).
Robert Hutchison, M. D.

Food and Feeding ($1.75, postage .14). Sir Henry Thomp-
son.

Food in Health and Disease ($5.00). I. B. Yeo.

Food Materials and their Adulterations ($1.00, postage .08).
Ellen H. Richards.

Handbook of Domestic Science and Household Arts ($1.00,
postage .10). L. L. W. Wilson.

181

i82 FOOD AND DIETETICS

How to Feed Children ($i.oo, postage .10). Louise E. Ho-
gan.

Milk and Its Products ($1.00, postage .08). Wing.

Physiological Economy in Nutrition ($3.00, postage .20).
R. H. Chittenden.

Plain Words About Food (Rumford Leaflets) ($1.00, post-
age .06). E. H. Richards.

Practical Dietetics ($5.00). Oilman Thompson, M. D.

Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking ($0.40, postage
.06). Mary Hinman Abel.

Story of a Grain of Wheat ($1.00, postage .10). W. C.
Edgar.

Story of the Living Machine ($0.35, postage .04). H. W:
Conn.
Note.— Books may be ordered through the School at the

prices given. Any book for which the postage is given may

be borrozvcd by members of the School for one week. Send

the postage in stamps with the request.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS
Farmers' Bulletins.

Free, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
No. 34 — Meats, Composition and Cooking.
No. 42— Facts About Milk.
No. 63— Care of Milk on the Farm.
No. 74— Milk as Food.
No. 85— Fish as Food.
No. 93~Sugar as Food.

No. 1X2— Bread and the Principles of Bread Making.
No. 121— Beans, Peas and other Legumes as Food.
No. 128 — Eggs and their Uses as Food.
No. 129— Sweet Potatoes.

No. 142— Principles of Nutrition and the Nutritive Value
of Food.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 183

No. 175 — Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented
Grape Juice.

No. 182 — Poultry as Food.

No. 183 — Meat on the Farm : Butchering, Curing, and
Keeping.

No. 203 — Canned Fruit, Preserves and JelHes.

Reprint from Year Book of 1900 — The Value of Potatoes
as Food.

Reprint from Year Book of 1902 — The Cost of Food as Re-
lated to Its Nutritive Value.

Circular No. 43 — Foods, Nutrients, Food Economy.

Circular No. 46 — The Functions and Uses of Food.

Also, see the List of Bulletins and Circulars of U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture for Free Distribution, for contents of
the Farmers' Bulletins called "Experimental Work," which
have many brief articles of interest, compiled chiefly from
State Agricultural Station reports.
STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETINS.

Free, within their own states, usually sent to others free or
for a two cent stamp. Apply to the various stations.
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine.

Bulletin No. 54— Nuts as Food.

Bulletin No. 65— Cofifee Substitutes.

Bulletin No. 84— Cereal Breakfast Foods.

Bulletin No. 118— Cereal Foods.
Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, 111.

Circular No. 71 — Roasting of Beef.
Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y.

Bulletin No. 230 — The Cooking Quality of Potatoes.
Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minn.

Bulletin No. 74— Digestibility of Beans.

Bulletin No. 92— Digestibility of Cabbage, Cheese, Rice,
Peas ana Beans.

NQtg_7here are many other State bulletins but their re-
sults are usually republished in the bulletins of the Office of
^Experiment Stations.

i84 FOOD AND DIETETICS

FOR SALE BULLETINS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT
STATIONS.

Send coin or money order (stamps not accepted) to the
Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.

No. 28 — The Chemical Composition of American Food Ma-
terials. By W. O. Atwater. Price 5 cents.

No. 29 — Dietary Studies at the University of Tennessee in
1895. By Chas. E. Wait, Ph. D. Price 5 cents.

No. 35 — Food and Nutrition Investigations in New Jersey.
By Edward B. Voorhees. Price S cents.

No. 40 — Dietary Studies in New Mexico. By Arthur Goss,
M. S. Price 5 cents.

No. 43 — Losses in Boiling Vegetables and the Composition
and Digestibility of Potatoes and Eggs. By H. Snyder, B. S.
Price 5 cents.

No. 52 — Nutrition Investigations in Pittsburg, Pa. By Isabel
Bevier, Ph. M. Price 5 cents.

No. S3 — Nutrition Investigations at the University of Ten-
nessee. By Chas. E. Wait, Ph. D. Price 5 cents.

No. 55 — Dietary Studies in Chicago. Jane Addams and
Caroline L. Hunt. Reported by W. O. Atwater. Price 5
cents.

No. 63 — Description of a New Respiration Calorimeter and
Experiments on the Conversion of Energy in the Human
Body. By W. O. Atwater, Ph. D. Price 10 cents.

No. 84 — Nutrition Investigations at the California Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. By M. E. Jaffa, M. S. Price 5
cents.

No. 85 — A Report of Investigations on the Digestibility and
Nutritive Value of Bread. By Chas. D. Woods. Price 5
cents.

No. 91 — Nutrition Investigations at the University of Illi-
nois, North Dakota Agricultural College, and Lake Erie Col-
lege, Ohio. By H. S. Grindley, J. L. Sammis, E. F. Ladd,
Isabel Bevier, and Elizabeth C. Sprague. Price 5 cents.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 185

No. loi— Studies on Bread and Bread Making at the Uni-
versity of Minnesota. By Henry Snyder, B. S. Price 5 cents.

No. 102— Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meat. By H.
S. Grindley, D. Sc. Price 5 cents.

No. 107— Nutrition Investigations Among Fruitarians and
Chinese at the California Agricultural Experiment Station.
By M. E. Jaffa, M. S. Price 5 cents.

No. 126— Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value
of Bread at the University of Minnesota in 1900-1902. By
Harry Snyder, B. S. Price 5 cents.

No_ i2Ch-Dietary Studies in Boston and Springfield, Mass.,
Philadelphia, Pa., and Chicago, Hi. By Lydia Southard, El-
len H. Richards, Susannah Usher, Bertha M. Terrill, and
Amelia Shapleigh. Price 10 cents.

No. 132— Further Investigations Among Fruitarians at the
California Agricultural Experiment Station. By M. E. Jaffa,
M. S. Price 5 cents.

No. 141— Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meat, 1900-
1903. By H. S. Grindley, D. Sc. Price 5 cents.

No. 143— Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value
of Bread at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, 1899-
1903. By C. D. Woods. Price 5 cents.

No. 149— Studies of the Food of Maine Lumbermen. By
C. D. Woods. Price 10 cents.

No. 152— Dietary Studies with Harvard University Stu-
dents. By Edward Mallinckrodt, Jr. Price S cents.

No. 156— Studies of the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of
Bread and of Macaroni at the University of Minnesota. By
Harry Snyder, B. S. Price 10 cents.

No. 162— Studies on the Influence of Cooking upon the Nu-
tritive Value of Meats at the University of Illinois, 1903-1904.
By H. S. Grindley, Sc. D. Price 15 cents.

i86 FOOD AND DIETETICS

PURE FOOD

Circular No. i6 — Officials charged with the Enforcement of
Food Laws in the United States and Canada.

Circular No. i~ — Standards of Purity for Food Products.

Circular No. 59 — Influence of Formaldehyde on the Diges-
tive Enzymes.

Extract No. 44 — Butter Substitutes.

Extract No. 221 — The Use and Abuse of Food Preserva-
tives.

Extract No. 328 — Determination of the Effect of Preserva-
tives on Food and Health.

Extract No. 331 — The Adulteration of Drugs.

Farmers' Bulletin, No. 131 — Household Tests for the Detec-
tion of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter.

Bulletin No. 13 — (Bureau of Chemistry). Part 9, Cereals
and Cereal Products. Price 5 cents.

Bulletin No. 13— (Bureau of Chemistry). Part 10, Pre-
served Meats. Price 10 cents.

Bulletin No. 84 — (Bureau of Chemistry). Influence of Food
Preservatives on Health, Part I Boric Acid and Borax. Price
30 cents.

Bulletin No. 69 — (Bureau of Chemistry). Food and Food
Control. (Revised). Parts I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII.
Price 5 cents each.

National laws to 1905 in Part I and laws of all the States
in alphabetical order. Request State laws wanted.

Bulletin No. 100 — (Bureau of Chemistry). Some Forms
of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods for their Detec-
tion. Price 10 cents.

Bulletin No. 46 — (Bureau of Animal Industry). The Milk
Supply of 200 Cities and Towns. Price 15 cents.

Bulletin No. 70 — (Bureau of Animal Industry). Milk Sup-
ply of 29 Southern Cities. Price 5 cents.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 187

Bulletin No. 81— (Bureau of Animal Industry). The Milk
Supply of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. Price 5 cents.

Also, see State publications on pure food, especially bulle-
tins and reports of North Dakota Experiment Station, Fargo,
N. D. ; Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, Laramie,
Wyo. ; Wisconsin Dairy and Food Commission, Madison,
Wis. ; Pennsylvania Dairy and Food Commission. Harrisburg.
Pa.; Massachusetts State Board of Health, Boston, Mass.;
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Me.; Nebras-
ka Food Commission, Lincoln, Neb. ; Minnesota Dairy and
Food Commission, St. Paul, Minn., etc.

PERIODICALS AND LISTS.

Experiment Station Record, published by U. S. Department
of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. Price $1.00.
Published monthly and contains extracts and summaries of
national and state publications, foreign and domestic maga-
zines, and current books relating to food and the work of the
various departments.

The Monthly List of Nezv Publications of the Department
of Agriculture will be sent regularly to all who apply for
it. (Free.)

Complete list of bulletins for free distribution and for sale
will be sent on application to the Department of Agriculture,
also the list food of the Office of Experiment Stations, Bureau
of Chemistry, etc.

TEST QUESTIONS

FOOD AND DIETETICS

PART 111

Read Carefully. It will be advisable to read the fol-
lowing United States Department of Agriculture Bulletins in
connection with this lesson : No. 121 — Beans, Peas, and
Other Legumes as Food. No. 129 — Sweet Potatoes. Re-
print— The Value of Potatoes as Food. Circular No 17 —
Standards of Purity for Food Products. Circular No. 16 —
Officials Charged with the Enforcement of Food Laws. Ex-
tract No. 221 — Use and Abuse of Food Preservatives. Mahe
your anszi'crs full and complete.

1. In what different ways may vegetables be classi-

fied? Classify the following according to each
method : Tomatoes, potatoes, sweet potatoes,
squash, turnips, beets, green corn, lettuce, spin-
ach, cabbage, green peas, dried peas, string
beans, dried lima beans, celery, rice.

2. How does the percentage of water in milk com-

pare with that in vegetables and fruits?

3. How does the presence of cellulose in vegetables

affect our use of them?

4. Why do vegetables have an important place in

the diet?

5. Compare fruits and nuts as to food value.

6. Name three fruits that have a high food value.

7. Compare tea, coffee and cocoa as beverages.

8. Describe the process of the preparation of tea for

the market, and account for the names of dif-
ferent kinds.

9. \Miat are the reasons for prohibiting the adultera-

tion of foods ?
10. (a) How ought this to be accomplished? (b)
What do you know of the food laws in your
own state?

FOOD AND DIETETICS

11. Give examples, from your own experience if pos-

sible, of misleading statements in regard to
food, and show the truth in the matter.

12. Can you suggest any way in which standards may

be changed so that the public will not demand
such articles as colored butter?

13. Give the arguments for and against the use of

preservatives. Which side seems to you to have
the better case ?

14. Try the two tests for distinguishing butter, but-

terine, and renovated butter, and report your
results.

15. How should the diet of a child, say from five to

ten years of age, differ from that of the adult ?

16. What is the objection to the use by the child of

tea, coffee and highly seasoned food?

17. What control should be exercised over eating be-

tween meals on the part of the child?

18. What is the need for fat in the child's diet? In

what ways may it be supplied?

19. Make out a menu for three days for a child of

about eight.

20. What is the province of the housekeeper in re-

gard to food for the sick?

21. Summarize the chief new points that you have

learned from Food and Dietetics.

22. To what extent and how has the study of these

lessons resulted in the modification of your own
diet or that of your family ?

23. What questions have you ?

Note.— After completing the test, sign your full name.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

NOTES ON THE QUESTIONS

The chief difficulty that our students seem to have
in answering the questions seems to be in the calcu-
lations necessary in question 6 and 21 of Part I.
These seem to arise chiefly from lack of practice in
using percentages.

Question 6 reads: " Which would be the cheaper
source of proteid, beefsteak at 22 cents per pound,
milk at 7 cents per quart, bread at 5 cents per pound,
com meal at 3 cents per pound?"

As percentage simply denotes the number of parts
in 100, it seems simplest in this problem to calculate
the cost of I pound of proteid in 100 pounds of each
of the materials, viz., if beef contains 19% of rro-
teid (table page 57), 100 pounds of beef will contain
19 pounds of proteid, and

100 lbs. beef steak @ 22c. a lb. costs $22.00. Then
I lb. proteid in beef steak will cost $22.00 -=- 19
= $1.15 per lb.
In the liame way, —

100 lbs. of milk with 3.3% proteid contains 3.3 lbs.

100 lbs. milk = 50 qts. @ 7c. a qt. costs $3.50. i lb.

proteid in milk costs $3.50 -h 3.3 — $1.06 per lb.

In like manner, the cost of one pound of proteid
in bread and in com meal is obtained with Httle cal-
191

192

FOOD AND DIETETICS

culation and the cheapest source of proteid is obvious.
In the use of percentage and decimals, to avoid errors
in pointing off, note whether the answer is reason-
able.

Although Question 21 is optional, — "Calculate
the amount of proteid, carbohydrates, and fat in
own diet for one day as nearly as you can," a num-
ber of interesting solutions have been sent in. The
following is a good example:

Breakfast

Orange

3 02

Oatmeal

¥2 "

Cream

iK "

Sugar

'A "

Toast

2 "

Butter

Va. "

Lunch

Potato Soup
Potato
Milk
Butter
Flour

Cold Beef

Bread

Butter

Chocolate
Milk 3

Sugar I

Cbocolate M

Dinner

Tomato Soup
Butter y« (

Flour Vs

Tomatoes 4

Crackers Yt

Beefsteak 6

Potatoes 4

Lettuce with Oil
Dressing
Lettuce i <
Oil Va.

Bread i

Butter %

Strawberries 4
Cream i

Sugar yyi

NOTES ON THE QUESTIONS 193

Percentage Composition and ^Veight of Nutrients of Food Consumed

c g

Oatmeal

3
3

4
6 '

16 7

0835

66.2

51 S
22.4

30" 3

100. 0

3 9

731

"2:5

•331

•135

.255

2.575

1.344
.101

3.000
.156
.ogi

."025

:28o

28 6

48.7

■4

10.2

100 0

•0365

• 555
.003

i:?J^

:^^^
.005

.016
.011
.612

Orange

Bread

Butter

I
"?
3
7
22
12

q
23

6
9
0
6
3
9
3
9

9
8
9

018

59S

°^l
216

231

043

036
012

434
001

036

Milk

Cold Beef

Chocolate

Sugar

Tomato

Crackers

Beefsteak

Oil

Strawberries

.250
.024

.7 1

3 268

8.929

3.981

Total Amount of Food Consumed During the Day

Proteid Carbohydrate Fat

3 268 ounces 8.929 ounces 3.981 ounces

or or or

92.615 grams 253.019 grams 112. 821 grams

There are 28.34 grams (28>3) in an ounce.

Fuel and Energy Value of Food Consumed

Calories

92.615 grams proteid X 4.1 = 379-7

2S3.019 grams carbohydrate X4.i= 1.037.3

114. 821 grams fat X 9.3 = i.049°

Total 2,466.0

Of course this involves a great deal of calculation,
and no one would think of undertaking so much extra
work often. As stated on page 60, the chief value
of calculating a few dietaries is in givin? a definite-

194 FOOD AND DIETETICS

idea of the composition of food. It is not expected
or necessary that each day's ration should conform
to any standard. It is only when the diet is calcu-
lated for a considerable period of time that it be-
comes of much use for comparison.

The method of studying the diet for a month is
described on page 59. When this is done, there is
in reality less calculation involved, for then the
figures are based on the amount of raw materials
used and the composition of each individual dish
need not be calculated. That is, the total weight
of flour, butter, milk, eggs, and sugar is known and
there only remains the allowance to be made for
waste.

The whole subject of standard dietaries is in a
somewhat chaotic state at present. Professor Chit-
tenden's experiments have shown that it is possible
to maintain health and strength on about half the
amount of proteid recommended in the standard
dietaries. If Dr. Folin's theory is correct (see fol-
lowing article), any ordinary diet contains more than
sufficient proteid for the physiological needs of the
body. Nearly all dietetians agree that, from the phy-
siological standpoint, it is immaterial whether the
body obtains its supply of heat and energy from fats,
carbohydrates, or proteids.

But all this does not mean that a proper balance
between the food materials is not necessary for health.
Digestibihty, bulk, personal taste and habit must

NOTES ON THE QUESTIONS 195

be considered. The problem, then, of the balanced
ration becomes an individual one, to be solved ac-
cording to the conditions and experience of each
individual person. To make the best selection of
foods it is necessary to know as much as possible
about the composition of all ordinary foods. Then
proper cooking and serving and especially the man-
ner of eating and the amount eaten are fully as
important as the composition. So there is no royal
road to the selection of a best diet, but experience
based on knowledge should give good judgment.—
M. Le Bosquet.

NEW METHODS IN DIET CALCULATIONS

THE ordinary method of figuring dietaries, using the
tables of food by percentage composition, involves
much tedious figuring so that such dietaries are very
seldom calculated in practice. Although there is no settled
"best diet" for human beings applicable to all conditions
a scientific diet cannot be planned unless it is known
definitely what people eat.

In one of the Bulletins of the School, Professor Irving
Fisher's article "A Graphic Method in Practical Dietetics"
was reviewed. The number of the Journal of the American
Medical Association April 20, 1907, and the reprint of the
article, both are exhausted. As his method of calculating
food values is very valuable we are republishing in this
Supplement the tables given in the original article.

Dr. Fisher's method of calculation is given in the article
as follows: "Two methods have hitherto been used for com-
puting proportions of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates. One
consists in using the tables of percentages by weight of proteids,
fats and carbohydrates; the other, Dr. J. H. Kellogg's, in
using a table which gives the number of calories in the form
of proteids, fats and carbohydrates per ounce of each kind of
food. These may be described, respectively, as the method,
of 'weight per cent' and the method of 'calories per ounce.'
The method here suggested is different from either, and may
be called the method of ' calories per cent.'

"It takes as its starting point not a unit of weight, but a

197

ig8 FOOD AND DIETETICS

unit of food value, called a ' standard portion ' of each kind of
food. A ' standard portion ' is defined as that amount of food
which contains 100 calories, or food units. A table is con-
structed which gives the weight in a ' standard portion ' of
each particular kind of food, and out of the 100 calories con-
tained therein the number of calories in the form of proteids,
fats and carbohydrates.

' ' In order to carry out this method food should be served
at the table in ' standard portions,' or simply multiples thereof.
The amount of milk served, instead of being a whole number
of ounces should be (for average milk) 4.9 ounces — the
amount that contains 100 calories. This 'standard portion'
constitutes about two-thirds of an ordinary glass of milk.
Of the 100 calories which it contains 19 will be in the form of
proteid, 52 in fat, and 29 in carbohydrates. In other words,
of the food value of milk, 19 per cent is proteid, 52 per cent
fat, and 29 per cent carbohydrates.

" One advantage of this method is apparent at once. It
enables us to make a true comparison between different foods
as to the relative amounts of proteids, fat and carbohydrate.
The other methods are misleading in this regard. For in-
stance, though it is w^ell recognized that milk is a higher pro-
teid food than pecan nuts, yet, if we compare milk and the
pecans on the basis of the method of weight per cent, we shall
find that the pecans appear three times as rich in proteid,
milk containing 3.3 per cent and pecans 11 per cent. But
if we compare them on the basis of calories per cent we find
that, while milk contains 19 calories of proteid out of each
100 of total calories, pecans contain only 6, milk showing
three times as much proteid as pecans. * * *

Moreover by havmg the composition of foods in food

DIET CALCULATIONS

igg

units (calories) the fats are on the same basis as the proteids
and carbohydrates. This is not the case in composition by
weight, for one ounce of fat in the body produces 264 calories
of heat and energy, while one ounce of carbohydrate or pro-
teid produces only 116 calories. Or in grams, one gram fat
gives 9.3 calories, one gram carbohydrate or proteid 4.1
calories. (A calorie is approximately the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water, 4° F.)

THE GRAPHIC METHOD

" Different foods contain the three food elements, proteids,
fats and carbohydrates, in different proportions. The tri-
partite constitution of any particular food is represented in
the present method by the position of a point in the triangle
CPF (Fig. 1). The method of locating the point on the tri-
angle is analogous to that of locating a city on a map by lati-
tude and longitude; the per cent of proteid in the food is
represented, like latitude, by the height of the point above
the base line CF (the total height, CP, being taken as 100
per cent). The percentage of fat is represented like longi-
tude, by the distance of the point horizontally from the verti-
cal line CP (the total horizontal breadth, CF, being taken as
100 per cent). Thus, the point 0, representing milk, is lo-
cated at a height above CF ('latitude') 19 per cent of the total
height of the triangle, which signifies that 19 per cent of the
food value of milk is proteid; and at a distance to the right
of CP ('longitude') 52 per cent of the total breadth of the
triangle, which signifies that 52 per cent of the food value of
milk is fat. Foods high in proteid will be represented by
points high up in the triangle. White of egg, of which the
food value is all proteid, will be represented at the point P,
representing 100 per cent. P is, therefore, called the 'pro-

200 FOOD AND DIETETICS

teid corner' of the triangle. Foods rich in fats, as nuts,
cream, and butter, are represented by points far to the right.
Pure fats, like olive oil, are located at F at the extreme right,
representing 100 per cent of fat. F is therefore called the
' fat corner. '

"The point representing a food is completely located by
means of the percentage of proteid and fat; no attention

100

90
80
70

60
50

1 1 1 \

•10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Fig. 1 " Food Map." Composition of .Milk Rep-
resented by Position of Point O.

need be paid to the carbohydrate. If one desires a graphic
representation of carbohydrates it is found in the distance
of the point O from the third side of the triangle, FP t,the
total distance of this side from the opposite corner being
taken as 100 per cent). Foods like bread, cereals and fruits,
which are mostly carbohydrate, will thus be represented by
points far away from the side FP. Foods such as sugar, of
which the food value is wholly carbohydrate, will be repre-

<<■"%>

.-/.»'"

Ootnttal QoiltJ Sb^ .
I^acaroni Ji \

'Iithremtat Jb ' X
Flour iGraham 9b — ^^
iSranijard gmdf 9? ^

•ifagrr'i 3? _"

^hitfOrnd 13- -■
Cam riontz 97 . ■'' '
naming 1 2 ' ^

FlesK and Cereals,

WA/v Of 5 j^5 ^^

^ Dairij Product , £()(^s and

Mtat Sub^tUutts.

yy/rey
Condensid Milk I Oh~ \r^

Figs. 2 and 3, "FOOD MAPS"
201

Figs. 4 and 5, "FOOD MAPS'

Consemmeieuii £3- ~

Citm C/tcKder ssf

Janarc Calsup b — '

.•r ./

/•' ,-^- ,.*

■"

9«^" ,/

..^"

^-^ 1

/ ;

>\p

J i

■M 1
"" * ^

' ',

1 1 .'

Honey 105 ._
flolasseiCane IZ,<
Tapioca 3.35"^ '[
Tapioco Applet 3t.-
Prune Marmalade 2 2?-
Granularediuqar /36-
Maple sutjjr /£— ^

'i 5 -3 ^ cP ^ ,1 ,|

204 FOOD AND DIETETICS

sented at the remotest point C, representing 100 per cent
carbohydrate, which is, therefore, called the 'carbohydrate
corner.'

" Any food is thus represented on the ' food map ' by a point,
the relative distances of which from the three sides of the
triangle represent the proteid, fat and carbohydrate. On
this food map, fatty foods are represented by points near
the fat corner, F; starchy and saccharine foods by points near
the carbohydrate corner, C, and proteid foods by points near
the proteid corner, P. A food devoid of proteid is evidently
located on the base line C; a food devoid of fat, on the side
CP, and a food devoid of carbohydrate on FP. The chief
classes are represented in the accompanying diagrams, flesh
foods and cereals being shown in Figure 2; dairy products,
eggs and meat substitutes in Figure 3; vegetables in Figure
4; nuts and fruits in Figure 5; soups, salads and relishes in Fig-
ure 6, and puddings, pies, pastries and sweets in Figure 7.
In each case the position of the point relatively to the sides
of the triangle represents the proportions of the proteids, fats,
and carbohydrates, and the number opposite each name rep-
resents the weight (in ounces) of a 'standard portion.' * * *

COMBINATIONS

"The combination of two foods equal in calories is rep-
resented by a point midway between them. Thus, to com-
bine one ' portion ' of bread and one ' portion' of butter (Fig. 9)
draw a straight line between their points and at the middle
of it mark a cross and label it ' 2 ' ; this point will represent
two ' portions' of bread and butter.

" If the calories of the two foods are unequal, the point
representing the combination will be proportionately nearer

DIET CALCULATIONS

205

the point with the -larger number. Thus, if one portion of
bread is combined with one-half portion of butter, the bread
and butter point will be midway between the points for bread
and for butter, but will lie twice as near the bread point as the
butter point.

"When three foods are combined, the point representing
the combination is, in like manner, the 'center of gravity' of

Butter

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

I'ig. 9. Food Map Showing Combination of one "Por-
tion" of Bread and one "Portion" of Butter.

the three, and may be found by first ol^taining the center of
gravity of two, and then obtaining the center of gravity of
the point thus obtained, and the third. Thus if, as in Fig. 10,
we have three points representing respectively, 3, 4 and 5
calories of three separate foods, shown by the attached num-
bers 3, 4 and 5, the point representing the combination may
be found by joining the points labeled 3 and 4, and finding
their center of gravity 7, situated nearer the point 4 than point

206

FOOD AND DIETETICS

3, and dividing the line between them in the ratio of 3 to 4.
The first two points, 3 and 4, may be considered as concen-
trated at 7 with their combined weight, 7. We then find the
center of gravity of this new point 7 and the remaining point, 5.
The center of gravity at this point 7 and point 5 will be a
point 12, on the straight line between them, situated nearer
the 7 than the 5, and dividing the distance between in the

70 80 90 100

Fig. 10. Showing Method of Combining Three
or More Foods.

ratio of 5 to 7. At point 12 the whole combination of 12
portions may be considered to be concentrated. It is evi-
dent that we could find the center of gravity of the same three
points by combining them in a different order, but the result
would be the same.

"It is evident that more than three points may be com-
bined on the same principles by combining them by twos and
threes and then combining the combinations. * * * *

DIET CALCULATIONS

207

" If we accept Professor Chittenden's results as to proteid
requirements, a well balanced daily ration for the average
person will be represented by a point lying within the ' normal
rectangle/ as shown in Fig. 11. This shows that proteid
should be near 10 per cent. * * * *

" Since the resultant point, representing the ration, is the
center of gravity of the points representing its constituents,

100

90
80

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Fig. 11. Food Map with "Normal Rectangle."
Chittenden's Standard, of Well Balanced Ration.

it is evident it can be obtained by mechanical as well as by
geometrical methods. For this purpose a mechanical diet
indicator has been devised, as shown in Fig. 12.

" The essential feature of this apparatus is a card on which
is drawn the right-angled triangle with which we have already
become familiar. Points on this card may be located to
represent the various foods employed. These points may be
easilv found from table given at the end of this article. . . .

208 FOOD AND DIETETICS

At points representing foods eaten, pins with heavy heads
are thrust through the cardboard, the weight of each repre-
senting one 'standard portion.' Similar pins but one-half
and one-quarter as heavy are also provided to represent half

Fis. 12. Mechanical Diet Indicator.

and quarter 'portions.' When these pins are placed the
total ration which has been consumed is easily found, simply
by counting the 'portions' thus represented. In order to find
the precentages of proteid, fat and carbohydrate in this
rations it is only necessary to obtain the center of gravity
of all the pins. For this purpose the card is placed in a basket

DIET CALCULATIONS

2og

and suspended on a standard so that the center of gravity is
easily indicated on the card by means of a vertical pricker,
which may be pressed on the card. Thus, almost instan-
taneously, the center of gravity is found. The total time
consumed in placing the pins, adjusting the card and basket,
and finding the center of gravity, is found to be, for accurate
work, about five minutes."

Professor Fisher's mechanical diet indicator is now manu-
factured and may be obtained through the Purchasing De-
partment of this School for $25.00, express collect.

Further details are given in the original article, reprint of
which will be loaned to Members of the School for Ic. postage.

Aside from the "food map" and the diet indicator, the
table will repay careful study in making clear the real com-
position of foods as eaten.

The proportion of proteids given in the table for some of the
foods is not absolutely correct, as proteid-like substances like
gelatin and also the so-called ''extractives," the latter having
no food value, are calculated as proteids. The error is not seri-
ous, for the proportion of such substances is usually very small.

The table is particularly valuable in showing equivalent
total food values. After weighing out a few "portions" of
various foods it is very easy to tell by the eye the amount of
food being served and so obtain a fairly accurate idea of the
total food value of one's diet. An ordinary postal scale will
serve for weighing.

An educated appetite is the best guide for diet in health.
In a diet for an invalid, foods may easily be served in " stand-
ard portions" or multiplies or fractions thereof, so that a
physician's prescription as to food may be followed. It would,
of course, be necessary to deduct food served but not eaten.

FOOD AND DIETETICS

If it is desired to add further items to the table, the weight

of a "standard portion" and the calories per cent is found

from the percentage composition given in the Department of

Agriculture Bulletin No. 28, Chemical Composition of Ameri-

Classes of Foods-.

can Food Materials,* as follows: The weight in ounces of a
"standard portion" is found by dividing 1,600 by the number
of calories per pound given in the table.

The " calories per cent" of proteid is found by multiplying
the percentage of proteid in the Bulletin table by 1,860 and
dividing the result by the figure giving the numbers of
calories per pound. The same calculation and the same factor
1,860 applies to carbohydrates. For fat the same calculation
applies, but with the substitution of the factor 4,220 in place
of 1,860. The three results may be verified by adding the
resulting figures for proteid, fat and carbohydrate, the sum
of which should be 100 per cent.

* For this Bulletin send 5 cents {coin) to the Supt. of Documents, Washing'
ton, D. C.

TABLE OF 100 FOOD UNITS

Name of Food

"Portion" Con-
taining 100 Food
Units (approx.)

Wt. of 100
Calories

COOKED MEATS

tBeef.r'nd, boiled (fat) 1099t.. Small serving. . 36 1.3

fBeef, r'd, boiled (lean) 1206t Large serving . . 62 2.2

fBeef, r'd, boiled (med.) IISSJ Small serving . . 44 1.6

tBeef, 5th rib, roasted, 1538|: Half serving. . . 18.5 .65

tBeef, 5th rib, roasted, 1616t. Small serving . . 32 1.2

fBeef, 5th rib, roasted, 1615i. Verv small s'v'g 25 .88

JBeef, ribs boiled, 1169t Small serving . . 30 1.1

S-Beef, ribs boiled, 1170t Very small s'v'g 25 .87

*Calves foot jelly 112 4.

♦Chicken, canned One thin slice.. .27 .96

*Lamb chops, boiled, av One small chop 27 .96

*Lamb, leg, roasted Ord. serving ... 50 1.8

tMutton, leg, boiled, 1184t. . . Large serving . . 34 1.2

tPork, ham, boiled (fat) 1174t Small serving. . 20.5 .73

vPork, ham, boiled, 11921. .. . Ord. serving .. . 32.5 1.1

tPork, ham, r'st'd, (fat) 14841 Small serving . . 27 .96

tPork, ham, r'st'd, (lean), 151 It Small serving . . 34 1.2

*Turkey, as pur., canned Small serving . . 28 .99

tVeal, leg, boiled, 1 182 J Large serving . . 67 . 5 2.4

(i7

UNCOOKED MEATS, EDIBLE PORTION

*Beef, loin, av. (lean)

*Beef, loin, av. (fat)

*Beef, loin, p'house steak, av..
*Beef, loin, sirloin steak, av. . .

*Beef, ribs, lean, av

*Beef, round, lean, av

*Beef, tongue, average

*Beef, juice

*Chicken (broilers), av

*Clams, r'nd in shell, av

*Cod, whole

*Goose (young) av

♦Halibut steaks, av . .

*Liver (veal) av

*Lobster, whole, av

♦Mackerel (Span.), whole, av.
♦Mutton leg, hind, lean, av....

♦Oysters, in shell, av

♦Pork, loin chops, av

♦Pork, ham, lean, av

♦Pork, bacon, med. fat, av

♦Salmon (Cal.), average

Shad, whole, average

♦Trout, brook, whole, av

♦Turkey, average.

Ord. serving... .

1.8

Small serving . .

1.1

Small steak

1.3

Small steak

1.4

Ord. serving . . .

1.8

Ord. serving. . .

2.2

Ord. serving . . .

2.2

395

14.

3.2

Twelve to 16...

210

7.4

Two servings . . .

138

4.9

Half serving . . .

.88

2.8

Two small s'v'g

2.8

Two servings . . .

117

4.1

Ord. serving . . .

1.8

193

6.8

Verv small s'v'g

.97

Small serving . .

1.3

.53

Small serving . .

1.5

Ord serving . .

2.1

Two small s'v'g

100

3.6

Two small s'v'g

1.2

Ul»

Name of Food

"Portion" Con-
taining 100 Food

Units (approx.)

Wt. of 100
Calories

O 03

•e-s
6^

♦Artichokes, av. canned.
♦Asparagus, av. canned.
♦Asparagus, av. cooked .
*Beans, baked, canned. .
♦Beans, Lima, canned . .
•"Beans, string, cooked.

VEGETABLES

430

540

206

Small side dish.. 75

Large side dish. 126

Five servings. . . 480

♦Beets edible portion, cooked. Three servings . 245

♦Cabbage, edible portion 310

♦Carrots, edible pt., fresh 215

Carrots, cooked Two servings. . 164

♦Cauliflower, as purchased 312

♦Celery, edible portion 540

Corn, sweet, cooked One side dish . . 99

♦Cucumbers, edible pt 565

♦Egg plant, edible pt 350

Lentils, cooked 89

♦Lettuce, edible pt 505

♦Mushrooms, as purchased 215

♦Onions, fresh, edible pt 200

♦Onions, cooked Two large s'v'gs 240

♦Parsnips, edible pt 1 J-^ serving. . . . 152

Parsnips, cooked 163

♦Peas, green, canned Two servings. . . 178

♦Peas, green, cooked One serving. ... 85

Potatoes, baked One good sized . 86

♦Potatoes, boiled One large sized. 102

♦Potatoes, mashed (creamed). One serving. ... 89

Potatoes, steamed One serving. . . . 101

♦Potatoes, chips One-half s'v'g. . 17

♦Potatoes, sweet, cooked Half av. potato. 49

♦Pumkpins, edible pt 380

Radishes, as purchased 480

Rhubarb, edible, pt 430

♦Spinach, cooked Two ord. s'v'g. . 174

Squash, edible pt 210

♦Succotash, canned Ord. serving ... 100

♦Tomatoes, fresh as purchased Four av 430

Tomatoes, canned 431

♦Turnips, edible pt Two large s'v'g 246

Vegetable oysters 273

FRUITS (DRIED)

♦Apples, as purchased

Apricots, as purchased

♦Dates, edible portion Three large.

♦Dates, as purchasetl

♦Figs, edible portion One large. . .

♦Prunes, edible portion Three large.

♦Prunes, as purchased

♦Raisins, edible portion

♦Raisins, as purchased

7.6

5.81
11
19

3.5
20
12

7.6

7.1

8.4

5.3

5.84

6.3

3.05

3.62

3.14

3.57

.6
1.7

6.1

. 7.4

3.5

15.2
8.7
9.62

1.2
1.24
.99
1.1
1.1
1.14
1.35
1.
1.1

212

Wt. of 100
Calories

Name of Food

" Portion " Con-
taining 100 Food
Units (approx.)

Per cent of
o ca

- -2-5
fa 6^

FRUITS (FRESH OR COOKED)
206 7.3
3.3
3.9
5.92
4.61
One large

170

Blueberries }28

♦Blueberries, canned -^ , ■• ■ ioo

Cantaloupe.. ; Half or. serv g . 243

* Apples, as purchased Two apples.

Apples, baked • • ■• .• - -

Apples, sauce Ord. serving. . . Ill

*Apricots, edible pt ■ : |oS

Apricots, cooked Large serving. . 131

- 'iblept One large 100

"Blackberries .

♦Cherries, edible portion.. 1-4

♦Cranberries, as purchased ^i"

♦Grapes, as purchased av i^o

Grape fruit.

Small glass.

Grape juice »mau giass i^o

Gooseberrries ■^"^

Lemons

Lemon juice

• Nectarines vv ■ ' i

Olives, ripe About seven. . .

Oranges, as purchased, av.... One very large.
♦Oranges, juice Large gl^s. . . .

Peaches, as purchased av.. . . Three ordinary.
*Peaches, sauce Ord. serving. . .

Peaches, juice Ordinary glass .

Pga,rs One large pear .

*Pears, sauce

Pineapples, edible p't'n, av..

215
246
147
37
270
188
290
136
136
173
113
226

♦Raspberries, black j*^

Raspberries, red.

Strawberries, av Two servings .

260

"Watermelon, av '"^

DAIRY PRODUCTS

3.5
5.9
4.6

5.8
8.6
4.4
7.5
4.8
7.57
4.2
9.2
7.57
8.77
5.18
1.31
9.4
6.62
10.
4.78
4. SO
5.40

5.18
6.29
9.1

27.

12.5
275
22

♦Butter Ordinary pat.

♦Buttermilk 1 J-2 glass. . . . .

♦Cheese, Am., pale 1 J^ cubic in..

♦Cheese, cottage 4 cubic in. .

♦Cheese, full cream 1 H *="PJ° l"^" '

♦Cheese, Neufchatel 13^ cubic in. .

♦Cheese, Swiss 1 J^ cubic in..

♦Cheese, pineapple 1 J4 cubic in. .

♦Cream J4 ord. glass

Kumyss •

♦Milk, condensed, sweetened ^"

♦Milk, condensed, unsweet d . . . . o»

♦Milk, skimmed 1 H glass j^^

♦Milk, whole Small glass 140

Milk, human, 2nd week i^-

Milk, human, 3rd month • • ■ i,'

♦Whey Two glasses .... 3bU

213

.44
9.7

7
3.12
23 .82
29.5 1.05
23 .8
20 .72
49 1.7
188 6.7
30 1.06
59 2.05
255 9.4
140 4.9
162 5.7
6
13

100
95

77
100

96
7

91
100

99 . 5 00

12 54

73 2

8 16

73 2
76 2

74 1
73 2
86 9

5(j

Name of Food

" Portion " Con-
taining 100 Food
Units (approx.)

Wt.of 100
Calories

Per cent of

Oj3

CAKES, PASTRY, PUDDINGS AND DESSERTS
*Cake, chocolate layer Half ord. sq. pc

. . 28

*Cake, gingerbread Half ord. sq. pc 27

Cake, sponge Small piece .... 25

Custard, caramel 71

Custard, milk Ordinary cup . . 122

Custard, tapioca Two-thirds ord. 69.

*Doughnuts Half a doughn't 23

*Lady fingers Two 27

♦Macaroons Four 23

*Pie, apple One third piece 38

*Pie, cream One-fourth pc. . 30

*Pie, custard One-third piece 55

*Pie, lemon One-third piece 38

*Pie, mince One-fourth pc. . 35

*Pie, squash One-third piece 65

Pudding, apple sago 81

Pudding, brown betty Half ord. s'v'g . 56.

Pudding, cream rice Very small s'v'g 75

Pudding, Indian meal Half ord. ser'g. . 56.

Pudding, apple tapioca Small serving . . 79

Tapioca, cooked Ord. serving . . . 108

2.51
4.29
2.45

.82
1.3

1^9

1.35

1.2

1.9

3.02

2.65

2.8

3.85

SWEETS AND PICKLES
170

♦Catsup, tomato, av

Candy, plain

Candy, chocolate

*Honey Four teasp'ns,

♦Marmalade (orange)

♦Molasses, cane

♦Olives, green edible portion . .Five to seven.
♦Olives, ripe, edible portion . . .Five to seven.

♦Pickles, mixed

♦Sugar, granulated Three heaping tsp

or 1 3^ lumps. 24

♦Sugar, maple Four teaspoons 29

♦Syrup, maple Four teaspoons 35

28.3

415

.9
1.1
1.05
1

1.2

1.1

1.3

14.6

1.03

1.2

2.5

0
84
91
15

87
100
95
99
97

99.5

0 100
0 100
0 100

NUTS, EDIBLE PORTION

♦Almonds, av Eight to 15 15 .53 13 77 10

♦Beechnuts 14.8 .52 13 79 8

♦Brazil Nuts, Three ord. size. 14 .49 10 86 4

♦Butternuts 14 .50 16 82 2

♦Cocoanuts 16 .57 4 77 19

♦Chestnuts, fresh, av 40 1.4 10 20 70

♦Filberts, av Ten nuts 14 .48 9 84 7

♦Hickory nuts 13 .47 9 85 6

♦Peanuts, av Thirteen double 18 .62 20 63 17

♦Pecans, polished About eight 13 .46 6 87 7

♦Pine nuts, (pignolias) About eighty. . . 16 56 22 74 4

♦Walnuts, California About six 14 .48 10 83 7

214

" Portion " Con-
Name of Food taining 100 Food
Units (approx.)

Wt. of 100
Calories Per cent of

CEREALS

*Bread, brown, average Ord. thick slice. 43 1.5 9 7 84

♦Bread, corn (johnnycake) av.. Small square. ... 38 1.3 12 16 72

*Bread, white, home made. . . Ord. thick slice 38 1.3 13 6 81

*Cookief>, sugar Two 24 .83 7 22 71

Corn flakes, toasted Ord. cer. dish f'l 27 .97 11 1 88

*Corn meal, granular, av 2!^ level tbsp. . 27 .96 10 5 85

Corn meal, unbolted, av Three tbsp. 26 .92 9. 11. 80

*Crackers, graham Two crackers . . 23 .82 9.5 20 5 70

*Crackers, oatmeal Two crackers . . 23 .81 11 24 65

♦Crackers, soda 3^ "Uneedas" 24 .83 9.4 20 70.6

*Hominy, cooked Large serving. .120 4.2 11 2 87

♦Macaroni, av 27 .96 15 2 83

♦Macaroni, cooked Ord. serving. . . 110 3.85 14 15 71

♦Oatmeal, boiled Unserving.... 159 5.6 18 7 75

♦Popcorn, 24 .86 11 11 78

♦Rice, uncooked 28 .98 9 1 90

♦Rice, boiled Ord. cereal dish 87 3.1 10 1 89

♦Riceflakes Ord. cereal dish. 27 .94 8 1 91

♦Rolls, Vienna, av One large roll. . 35 1.2 12 7 81

♦Shredded wheat One biscuit. .. . 27 .94 13 4.5 82.6

♦Spaghetti, average 28 .97 12 1 87

♦Wafers, vanilla Four 24 .84 8 13 71

♦Wheat, flour, e't'e w'h't, av.. Four tbsp 27 .96 15 5 80

♦Wheat, flour, graham, av. .. . 4}^ tbsp 27 .96 15 5 80

♦Wheat, flour, patent, family

and straight grade spring

wheat, av Four tbsp 27 .97 12 3 85

♦Zweiback Size of thick slice

of bread 23 .81 9 21 70

MISCELLANEOUS

♦Eggs, hen's boiled One large egg. .59 2.1 32 68 00

♦Eggs, hen's whites Of six eggs 181 6.4 100 0 00

♦Eggs, hen's yolks Two yolka 27 .94 17 83 00

♦Omelet 94 3.3 34 60 6

♦Soup, beef, av 380 13. 69 14 17

♦Soup, bean, av Very large plate 150 5.4 20 20 60

♦Soup, cream of celery Two plates ISO 6.3 16 47 37

♦Consomme 830 29 . 85 00 15

♦Clam chowder Two plates 230 8.25 17 18 65

♦Chocolate, bitter Half-a-square. . . 16 .56 8 72 20

♦Cocoa 20 .69 17 53 30

Ice Cream (Phila) Half serving ... . 45 1.6 5 57 38

Ice Cream (New York) Half serving .... 48 1.7 7 47 46

♦Chemical Composition of American Food Materials, Atwater and Bryant, U. S.
Department of Agriculture Bull. No. 28.

tExperiments on Losses in Cooking Meats. (1900-03), Grindley, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture Bull. No. 141. , . „

JLaboratory number of specimen, as per Experiments on Losses in Cooking Me^t.

?15

FOOD VALUES IN CALORIES PER OUNCE

In some respects Dr. Kellogg's method of giving the com-
position of foods in food units (calories) per ounce is simpler
and more useful in the actual calculation of dietaries. By
having a table with composition in food units, the day's
ration may be calculated by simple addition, combined with
a little mental multiplication. If the results are wanted in
ounces, the calories of proteid or carbohydrate are divided
by 116, and calories of fat by 264. For grams, the factor is
4. 1 for proteids and carbohydrate and 9 . 3 for fats.

Such a table is given in the Battle Creek Sanitarium Diet
List which contains the composition of all foods served at
that institution in calories per ounce. Dr. Fisher's method
of serving the food in "standard portions" has been adopted
and the figures by that method of calculation are also given
in the last edition of the booklet.

The Diet List also contains tables giving normal height,
weight, skin surface and calories required, on the average,
for men and women, boys and girls, per day. Some of these
tables are given in the following pages, also the calculation
of a dietary with the figures in calories per ounce and one
with food served in 100 calorie portions.

These tables are based on Professor Chittenden's
standards and so are lower in proteid requu-ements and total
food value than the Atwater standard dietaries. For exam-
ple, the diet for an average man, 5 feet 8 inches tall and
weighing 157 pounds, is given as 236 calories of proteid, 708
calories of fat, 1,416 calories of carbohydrates, with a total of
2,360 calories per day.

216

DIET CALCULATIONS

217

The Atwater standard for man with light exercise is 100
grams of proteid, 100 grams of fat, 360 grams of carbohy-
drate, or on a calorie basis: 410 calories of proteid, 930
calories of fat, 1,476 calories of carbohydrate, total 2,816
calories or nearly 20 per cent higher in total food value.

Under the Chittenden standard, of every 100 food units
about 10 should be proteid, 30 fat and 60 carbohydrate. Based
on the Atwater standard, of 100 food units, about 14 are
proteid, 32 fat, and 52 carbohydrate.

It must be remembered that no one in formulating a "stand-
ard diet " attempts to give anything more than a possible
average, from which to vary, according to conditions. It is
recognized that health may be maintained on various pro-
portions of proteid and that the ratio of fat to carbohydrates
is immaterial, provided digestion remains perfect.

The following table has been taken from some of the figures
in the Diet List. The figures based on standard portions are
omitted.

Note — Members of the School are expected hereafter to solve
question No. 21, Part I, Food and Dietetics — "Calculate the amount
of proteiu, carbondrate and fat in your own diet for one day," in the
usual way, as shown on page 193, and by the " calories per ounce"
method, using the following figures. The total calories should be
found by each method. The two figures will not come out exactly
the same, but should be approximate.

Also plot one of these meals on the enlarged "Food Map "on
page 223. Find the "center of gravity" by the method shown in
Figs. 9 and 10. This is most easily done by marking and folding a
strip of paper to find halves, thirds, etc. Say what the resulting
point represents in terms of calories and of ounces of proteids, fats
and carbohydrates. Give full details.

These "Food Maps" may be obtained of the School in quantity,
printed on good paper— 25 for 10 cents, 100 for 30 cents (in stamps).

FOOD VALUES IN FOOD UNITS PER OUNCE

Calories Per Ounce

S"^

pti

1.3

28.4

30.3

.75

7.15

91.3

101.1

20.6

21.7

15.6

16.9

4.9

24.7

1.6

25.7

28.8

.97

.87

27.24

31.08

2.9

2.2

8.6

11.6

27.5

49.6

87.5

21.56

18.6

44.4

12.3

72.8

4,8

60.8

1.6

62.1

74.2

3.7

63.4

76.4

2.4

71.7

17.3

66.8

91.4

226.6

227.8

1.3

5.6

10.4

74.9

105.7

45.1

76.5

130.6

14.2

94.2

120.8

3.8

85.2

10.9

11.6

7.5

10.3

19.8

125.7

28.24

182.81

3.9

5.5

12.4

5.1

37.3

25.1

86.1

122.9

29.6

80.5

123.8

49.3

5.3

57.5

22.9

35.6

11.4

23.6

40.2

12.5

31.2

7.5

91.5

101.5

48.3

41.9

68.2

16.1

),8

41.3

52.1

86.6

92.4

11.8

13.2

Ifi

3.2

16.6

20.9

.48

10.2

12.39

1.4

5.8

8.5

94.7

95.2

3.86

17.16

.87

S7.1

2.85

76.8

Apples, baked

Apples, fresh 2

Apple sauce

Apricots 1 .

Asparagus in cream 2 .

Bananas 1 .

Barley, pearl 2 .

Beans, string, (cooked)

Beets, (cooked) 2 ,

Biscuit, cream 10 ,

Blanc Mange, Farina 4 ,

Bread, corn 8 .

Bread, graham 10,

Bread, rye 10 ,

Bread, white 9

Bread, whole wheat 11

Buns 7 ,

Butter, (dairy) 1

Buttermilk 3,

Cake, frosted 6

Cake, layer 8

Cake, sponge 12

Candy, (Sanitas chocolates) 1

Canteloupe

Carrots, creamed 2

Cashew nuts 28

Celery 1

Cheese, cottage 19

Crackers, graham 11

Crackers, oatmeal 13

Cream 2

Cream sauce 3

Custard, caramel 5

Custard, plain 5

Dates, 2

Eggs, poached, etc 16

Eggs {each, whole, a'v'g.) 26

Eggs (while) each 15

Eggs (yolk) each 10

Figs

Grape fruit

Grapes 1

Gruel, barley 1

Gruel, oatmeal 1

Honey

Macaroni and tomato 5

Maple syrup

Mayonnaise, cooked 6

218

Calories Per Ounce

Milk, skimmed 4 .8 6 10.8

Milk, whole 3.8 11 5.8 20.6

Nut butter 34.2 124 20 178.2

Nuts, almonds 24.5 146.4 20.2 101.1

Nuts, Brazil 19.8 178.1 8.2 206.1

Nuts, Filberts 18.2 174.1 15.2 207.5

Nuts, Pecans 11.2 188 17.8 217.8

Nuts, walnut, Eng 19.4 169.2 18.2 206.8

Oats, rolled (cooked) 3.3 1.3 13.4 18

Olive oil 0 264.1 0 264.1

Olives, ripe (7) 2 69.1 5 76.1

Onions, boiled 1.13 4.29 5.1 10.52

Oranges 9 .5 13.5 14.9

Parsnips, creamed 2.56 6.5 17.29 26.35

Peanuts 30.1 102.9 8.5 161.5

Pears 7 1.3 16.5 18.5

Peas, green 7.8 9.1 17.5 34.4

Pie, apple 7.5 18 37.2. 62.7

Pie, custard 4.9 16.8 30.5 52.2

Pie, squash 4.27 22.7 36.5 63.5

Potatoes, baked 3.4 .4 28.9 32.7

Potatoes, boiled 2.9 .3 24.4 27.6

Potatoes, mashed 3 8 20.8 31.8

Potatoes, sweet, browned 4.11 11.25 69.7 75

Prunes (cooked) 8 .3 26.4 27.5

Pudding, baked Indian 4.8 21.8 20 46.6

Pudding, bread custard 6.44 32 19.12 37.56

Pudding, snow 4.78 9.22 16.37 30.38

Pudding, apple tapioca 4.5 17.58 26.44 48.5

Raisins 3 8.8 88.8 100.6

Rice, boiled 3.3 .3 28.5 32.1

Salad, apple and celery 2.26 4.27 26.16 32.7

Salad, egg mayonnaise 13.37 30.66 1.46 44.5

Salad, potato 4.56 25.77 15.06 45.39

Sandwich, cottage cheese 11.2 33.9 37.6 82.8

Soup, cream of celery 2.8 19 4.7 26.5

Soup, cream of potato 2.7 19.2 .9 30.9

Soup, split pea 7.18 1.85 18.07 27.1

Soup, tomato bisque 3.1 10.5 2.4 16

Soup, vegetable 96 5.71 6.9 13.5

Spinach 3.3 1 4.93 9.3

Squash, steamed or canned 1 1.3 12.3 14.6

Sugar (granulated) 0 0 116.6 116.6

Toast, breakfast 11.4 27.5 86.2 125.15

Toast, cream 4.15 29.9 13.6 47.6

Tomatoes, stewed or canned 1.4 .5 4.7 6.6

Wheat flakes, toasted 11 3.9 88.9 103.8

Zwieback , 11.4 26.4 85.8 123.6

Calories Per Ounce

.Sf,

■3

fe"^

136.85

155.26

4.54

45.6

6.56

31.16

1.02

20.32

95.4

113.5

13.9

35.68

79.7

105

33.3

55.5

13.9

35.68

4.8

23.82

54.1

83.2

3,23

10.43

177.3

188.6

65.4

90.3

84.5

103

46.6

66.6

25.71

47.61

55.5

77.7

59.1

83.2

11.2

41.6

2.9

90.8

103.6

4.8

69.5

100.6

77.1

44.0

146.3

2.9

23.0

29.5

5.1

87.9

103.7

195.0

105.0

5.9

83.3

104.7

2.4

91.8

102.1

5.1

83.8

105.0

2.9

87.7

103.2

11.4

4.0

18.4

25.9

19.2

78.8

116.8

19.5

77.2

116.2

2.7

72.3

100.7

1.3

19.7

29.2

21.5

24.4

92.0

101.8

1.9

32.0

36.0

4.3

88.1

106.6

FLESH FOODS

Beef, roasted (fat) 18.14

Beef, round (boiled, lean) 40 . 9

Bouillon 2.3

Chicken (broilers) 24.6

Cod fish 19.3

Goose 18.1

Halibut (steak) 21 . 78

Lamb chops (boiled) 25 . 3

Lamb (leg, roast) 22.2

Liver (veal) 21 . 78

Lobsters 19

Mutton (leg, boiled) 29 . 1

Oysters 7.2

Pork (bacon, smoked medium fat) 11.3

Pork (ham, boiled) 25 . 4

Pork (loin, chops) 18.5

Salmon (California) 20 . 4

Shad 21.9

Trout (brook) 22.2

Turkey 24.1

Veal (leg. boiled) 30 . 4

UNCOOKED FOODSTUFFS.

Barley, pearled 9.9

Beans (dried) 26 . 3

Cocoa 25.2

Corn, green 3.6

Cornmeal 10.7

Cornstarch

Flour, graham 15.5

Flour, rye 7.9

Flour, wheat (entire wheat) 16 . 1

Flour, wheat (patent) 12 . 6

Lemon juice 0 ■

Macaroni 3.5

Oatmeal 18.8

Oats, rolled 19.5

Peas (dried) 28 . 7

Peas, green 8 2

Potatoes 2.6

Rice 9.0

Sweet potatoes 2.1

Wheat, cracked .- 13.0

Tables Showing Average Height, Weight, Skin Surface and Fooa
Units Required Daily With Very Light Exercise

BOYS

Age

Height in

Weight in

Surface

Calories or

Inches

Pou

Uds

Square Feet

iood Units

7.9

816.2

43.75

8.3

855.9

49.07

8.8

912.4

47.76

9.4

981.1

9.9

1,043.7

10.5

1,117.5

11.0

1,178.2

11.6

1,254.8

12.4

1,352.6

94.01

GIRLS

13.4

1,471.3

Age

Height in

Weight in

Surface

Calories or

Inc

hes

Pounds

Square Feet

Food Units

7.7

784.5

8.1

831.9

8.5

881.7

52.04

9.2

957.1

9.7

1.018.5

10 .

10.2

1.081.0

53.42

10.7

1.148.5

1-2

MEN

11.8

1,276.8

Height

Weight

Surface in

Calories or

Food Units

•

in Pounds

Square Ft.

Proteidd

Fats

Carbohydrates Total '

131

15.92

197

591

1,182

1,970

133

16.06

200

000

1,200

2,000

136

16.27

204

612

1,224

2,0-40

140

16.55

210

630

1,260

2,100

-143

16.76

. 215

645

1,290

2,150

6(5

147

17. U6

221

663

1,326

2,210

152

17.40

228

684

1,368

2.280

157

17. 76

236

708

1.416

2.360

- 69

, 162

.18.12

. 243

729

1,458

.2,4.30

167

18.48

251

' 753

' 1.50(5

2,510

173

18.91

260

780

1,560

2,600

179

19.34

269

807

1,614

2,690

185

19.89

278

834

1,668

2,780

192

20.33

288

864

1,728

2,880

200

20.88

300

900

1,800

3.000

WOMEN

Height

Weight

Surface in

Calories or Food Units

in Pounds

Square Ft.

Proteids

Fats

Carbohydrates Total

119

14.82

179

537

1,074

1,790

122

15.03

183

549

1,098

1,8.30

124

15 29

186

558

1,11(5

1.860

127

15.50

191

573

1.146

1,910

131

15.92

197

591

1.182

1,970

134

16.13

201

603

1.206

2.010

139

16.48

209

627

1.254

2,090

,66

143

16.76r

-215

• 645

vl.290

,2,150

147

17.06

021

663

1,3;.'0

2.210

151

17.34

227

681

1,362

2,270

155

17.64

2.32

696

1,392

2,320

159

17.92

239

717

1,4.34

2.390

NOTE-\V

ith active exercise an

increase of about 20 per

cent total

food units

ma J

be needed.

Dietary Calculation with Food Values in Calories
per Ounce

Breakfast

Gluten Gruel 5 oz.

(each)
Soft-Boiled Egg

Protcids
4.7

23.5

26.3

Fats

1.0

41.9

Carbohydrates Total

6\0

30.0

Malt Honey 1 oz.
Creamed Potatoes 5 oz.

3.0

15.0

40.0

86.2

20. S

104.0

Zwieback 2 oz.

n.4
22.8

2G.4

52.8

85.8

171.6

Pecans 3^ oz.

n.2
8.4

ISS.O

141.0

17. S

13.4

Apple 5 oz.

2.5

1.3

6.5

16. a
83.0

98.5

283.2

488.2

869.9

Dietary Calculation with Food Served in 100 Calories
Portions

Dinner Portions Proteins Pats Carbo- Total

in serving hydrates

French Soup y, 10 20 20

Nut Sauce 1 "" 29 55 16

Macaroni, Egg 1 15 59 26

Baked Potato 2 22 2 176

Cream Gravy }/^ 5 33 12

Biscuit 11^ 20 2 128

Butter 1 " 1 99

Honey 2 200

Celery i^ 4 21

Apple Juice i^ 50

10}4 106 270 649 1,025

Hourly Outgo in Heat and Energy from the Human Body as
Determined in the Respiration Calorimeter by the
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
Average (154 lbs.) Calories

Man at rest (asleep) 65

Sitting up (awake) 100

Light exercise 170

Moderate exercise 190

Severe exercise 450

Very severe exercise 600

222

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

DR. FISHER'S FOOD MAP
Normal Rectangle for a Balanced Diet, Chittenden's Standard

PROTEIN METABOLISM IN ITS RELATION
TO DIETARY STANDARDS*

Otto Folin, Ph. D, McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass.

Present views concerning the role of fats, carbohy-
drates, and proteins in the animal organism are not
essentially different from views that prevailed a
generation ago. An earlier theory, brilliant but
untenable in the light of later more exact experi-
ments, was advanced by Liebig about the middle of
the igth century. This theory held that the protein
taken with the food constitutes the sole source of
muscular energy and that fats and carbohydrates serve
only to maintam the body temperature.

LIEBIG'S THEORY

Voit, in the course of experiments undertaken to
test the validity of Liebig's theory, established the
remarkable fact that severe physical work is not
accompanied by any material increase in the
destruction of protein within the animal organism,
as of course would be the case if protein were the sole
or even the chief source of muscular energy. The
destruction of Liebig's erroneous but definite theory
of metabolism naturally led to renewed investigations
concerning the function of fats, carbohydrates, and

♦Paper read at the Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics, June,
1905.

224

PROTEIN METABOLISM 225

protein; and in this necessary constructive work,
Voit became the recognized leader. From his labor-
atory came investigations and deductions which
have since been almost universally accepted as
final.

Voit's dietary standards, the practical outcome
of all this work, are intended to represent a few
fundamental facts. A man of average size gives off
in a day a certain quantity of energy (in the form of
work and heat). This energy can be measured and
often has been measured, 'with a fair degree of ac-
curacy. The more physical work a man does the
more energy both in the form of work and of heat
is given off, and the increase in energy consumption
due to work or exercise has also been measured.
The daily consumption of energy in the animal
organism is obtained at the expense of food.
And since it is known just how much energy
can be obtained from burning a given quantity
of fat, starch, or protein, it becomes theoreti-
cally simple, and practically quite possible, to
calculate the amount of food that a given individual
doing a certain work must consume in order to main-
tain the equilibrium of the intake and outgo of energy.
Such calculations are based on the assumption that
food materials when oxidized within the animal
organism liberate the same amount of energy as when
burned in ordinary air or oxygen, and there is no
reason to doubt the correctness of this assumption.

226 FOOD AND DIETETICS

VOIT'S DIETARY STANDARDS

In so far as Voit's dietary standards prescribe the
amount of dry food material, of available energy-
giving material necessary under given conditions,
they have undoubtedly been of very great service.
The dietary standards, however, prescribe not only
how much available energy the daily food must con-
tain, but also how much of that energy can be most
profitably supplied in the form of protein and how
much in the form of fats and carbohydrates. Voit's
well known average diet, for example, calls for 56
gm. fat, 500 gm. carbohydrates, and 118 gm. protein.

The justification and probable value of such more
specific standards of diet is the subject of this paper,
and it is a subject on which I think there is room for
differences of opinion. It should, however, at once
be stated that such differences of opinion do not
concern the non -nitrogenous part of the dietary
standards. Voit, and with him all competent to
have an opinion, are agreed that the fats and carbo-
hydrates need not at all be provided in the ratio of
56 to 500.

PROPORTION OF FATS TO CARBOHYDRATES

It is a well-known fact that if more fat than the
animal organism can advantageously oxidize is sup-
plied, such fat, in so far as it is absorbed, is stored
as fat in the body. If an excess of carbohydrates is
taken, such excess is also converted into fat and is

PROTEIN METABOLISM 227

likewise stored as fat for future use. Further Pfliiger
has recently advanced the not improbable hypothesis
that fats are not completely oxidized as such within
the animal organism, but are first converted into
carbohydrates. The animal organism is then able
to convert carbohydrates into fat and fat into car-
bohydrates according to its needs, and the logical
conclusion therefore is quite in harmony with the
accepted view that it is theoretically a matter
of relatively small importance what ratio is selected
for the fats and carbohydrates. The two taken
together must of necessity furnish the greater part
of the fuel value of the food, but upon individual
peculiarities, relative cost, and a number of other
accidental factors depends what ratio between the
two may be most suitable in any given case.

PROTEIN IN THE DIETARY

With regard to the protein prescribed by the die-
tary standards the case is different. The animal or
human organism, while able to convert carbohydrates
into fat and probably also fat into carbohydrates, can
effect no such transformation of non-nitrogenous
food into the highly nitrogenous proteins. It may
be able to produce carbohydrates, and therefore also
fat, out of protein, but it certainly can not produce
protein out of fat or carbohydrates. The protein of
the food not only furnishes energy and heat, as do
the fats and carbohydrates, but it, and it alone,

228 FOOD AND DIETETICS

furnishes the material which replaces the constant
loss of living protoplasm. It is therefore clearly-
necessary that the daily food should contain enough
protein to protect the organism against loss of body
tissue. On the other hand, it is generally believed
that instead of being advantageous it is probably
detrimental to the full-grown organism to have to
take care of more protein than is needed for the re-
placement of lost tissue material. An excess of fat
or carbohydrates, the human organism can to a very
great extent take care of by adding it to its store of
body fat, but it has not the power similarly to in-
crease its supply of reserve protein. Any excess of
nitrogenous material supplied with the food leads at
once to a correspondingly increased destruction of
protein. And the formation of excessive quantities
of nitrogenous katabolism products within the body
is supposed to be more or less a source of danger.
I think all are agreed that gout at least is largely the
result of "high living."

MINIMUM PROTEIN

The important question then is, How much pro-
tein must the diet of normal persons contain ? Voit
came to the difinite conclusion that ii8 grams are
needed for a man weighing 70 kilos (150 lbs.), and
for more than a generation this figure has been gen-
erally accepted as substantially correct. But is it ?
Since the publication in 1881 of Voit's great mono-

PROTEIN METABOLISM 229

graph on metabolism it has been shown by Hirsch-
feld, Klemperer, Pechsel, and Siven that the daily
protein destruction in men of average size can be
reduced to 40 grams or less, and that nitrogen equi-
librium can be maintained by furnishing such small
amounts of protein with the food. The experiments
by means of which Voit secured the almost universal
acceptance of his standard minimum protein re-
quirement are essentially similar and in no way
superior to these more modern experiments which
seem to prove that 40 grams of protein, or less, are
enough to maintain nitrogen equilibrium. One
might therefore suppose that the later experiments
would have been accepted as proving the erroneous-
ness of Voit's figures, or that they would at least have
been deemed sufficiently important to lead to a gen-
eral reopening of the whole question. But the earlier
conclusions and generalizations of Voit had in the
meantime, so to speak, survived the probation period,
and had become the accepted doctrine, not to say
tradition, of the scientific public. In addition,
it must be remembered that Voit's standard
comes much nearer the average common usage.
The widespread and earnest acceptance of Voit's
figure is undoubtedly in a great measure due to the
fact that it agrees tolerably well with the protein
consumption actually prevailing among the people,
specially among those not too poor to procure the
more expensive articles of food.

230 FOOD AND DIETETICS

AVERAGE CONSUMPTION

It has frequently been asserted that the people
at large do as a matter of fact consume on the
average about ii8 grams of protein per 70 kilos of
weight. But I venture to insist that the question of
average protein consumption has little or nothing
to do with the problem before us. To argue that
the customary or the average consumption of pro-
tein is the necessary consumption suggests that the
necessary potein consumption is after all far more
flexible than is indicated by the standard diets. It
also implies that the people have solved the problem
without the aid of science, and further that their
average health and vigor is now all that we can hope
for in so far as the protein contents of the food have
anything to do with it.

Voit, himself, remained, I think, somewhat under
the strong influence of Liebig's teachings concerning
the peculiar value of protein as a food. It is diflEi-
cult to see how he could otherwise have failed to
find that it is possible to maintain nitrogen equili-
brium on a comparatively small fraction of the pro-
tein which he declared to be the minimum. It was
right and natural that Voit should not put the nec-
essary protein requirement at too low a figure; its
great practical import demanded cautiousness. But
the minimum protein requirement for man could of
course not be found except by studying the meta-
bolism of man under the influence of smaller an(J

PROTEIN METABOLISM 231

smaller quantities of protein. This is clearly demon-
strated by the results of the modem low nitrogen
equilibrium experiments.

The disciples of Voit can not and do not question
the accuracy of the results recorded from the low
protein feeding experiments. But it is now rightly
enough held that to prove that a person can main-
tain nitrogen equilibrium for a limited length of time,
as for a few days, on a very small amount of protein
does not at all prove that he can permanently do
so with advantage or even with impunity. The
correctness of this position must be granted, and it
is, in fact, the position taken by the more conserva-
tive experimenters on low nitrogen equilibrium, as
for example by Siven. But while freely admitting
this, it must, in my opinon, be insisted that the low
protein experiments of even such short duration, as
a few days, have completely destroyed the scien-
tific basis on which the protein prescriptions of Voit
and his disciples are supposed to rest.

LOW PROTEIN EQUILIBRIUM

As far as we yet know there is no reason for assum-
ing that a diet capable of maintaining nitrogen equi-
librium for a week should fail to do so at the end of
a month or any other time. In fact, investigations of
the last three or four years clearly indicate that nitro-
gen equilibrium can be maintained for long as well as
for short periods on very small quantities of protein.

232 FOOD AND DIETETICS

In 1902 Dr. R. 0. Neumann, privatdocent in the
Hygiene Institute at Kiel, published an account of
metabolism experiments with himself covering a
period of over two years. The average composition
of his diet during that time corresponded to 117
grams fat, 213 grams carbohydrates, and 74.2 grams
protein per 70 kilos of body weight. Neumann's ex-
periments covering such a long period would cer-
tainly seem to constitute definite proof that Voit's
so-called minimum protein requirement is at least
half again as large as is really necessary for the per-
manent maintenance of nitrogen equilibrium, physi-
cal vigor, and efficiency.

More striking still are the metabolism records pub-
lished last year by Professor Chittenden. I shall
not go into details of this work, as Mrs. Richards is
on the program for a report on it. But I must cite
the fact that Chittenden maintained a body weight
of 57 kilos as well as nitrogen equilibrium from July,

1903, until the publication of his book in the fall of

1904, on an average protein consumption of less
than 35 grams a day.

DR. FOLIN'S STUDIES

My own studies of protein metabolism in man,
though pursued in a different way and for a different
purpose, have a direct bearing on the problem of the
necessary minimum protein consumption. The
specific waste products formed from the destruction

PROTEIN METABOLISM 233

of protein within the human organism are ehminated
in soluble form with the urine. They are therefore
easily available for detailed chemical investigations,
and as the result of innumerable studies much exact
knowledge has been gained concerning the normal
katabolism products of protein. My investigations
lie within this field.

The views that have till recently prevailed con-
cerning the chemistry of urine, in so far as it relates
to the problem of protein metabolism, may be con-
cisely stated as follows: All the nitrogen of the protein
destroyed in the body is eliminated with the urine,
and almost 90% of it appears in the form of urea.
From 95% to 98% of the nitrogen is eliminated as urea,
kreatinin, ammonia, and uric acid. The absolute
amount of each of these nitrogenous products depends
upon the amount of protein katabolized, but changes
in the amount of protein destroyed affect them all
equally, thus leaving them always in about the same
proportion to each other and to the total nitrogen.
This fact, if correct, is very important, because it
clearly indicates a certain unity in the chemical pro-
cesses concerned with the use and destruction of
protein within the body. It indicates that the pro-
tein of the food and the protein of the living tissues
are essentially alike and in the same condition with
reference to the organism at the time of their final
destruction. The two rival theories concerning
this subject accordingly agree in assuming the essen-

234 FOOD AND DIETETICS

tial unity of the chemical processes involved in pro-
tein katabolism, and the only point of difference
between the two is that one, the theory of Voit,
holds that the protein must be in solution and dead
before being oxidized and destroyed, while the other,
that of Pfiiiger, assumes that it is only actually liv-
ing protoplasm that is destroyed.

It would be useless in this connection to go into
a detailed discussion of these two theories, because
I think it can be shown that the fundamental pre-
mise of both, namely, the supposed constancy in
the relative distribution of the urinary nitrogenous
products, is no longer tenable.

RELATIVE PROPORTION OF NITROGEN WASTE PRODUCTS

The fact that the relative proportions of the vari-
ous nitrogenous constituents of normal human urine
have so long been supposed to be approximately
constant is in a measure directly the result of
Voit's teachings concerning the minimum protein
requirement. The destruction of loo grams pro-
tein or more within the organism, as demanded by
the dietary standards, rendered it well nigh impos-
sible to discover the laws that govern the formation
and elimination of each product. About a year and
a half ago I discovered accidentally that the urine
corresponding to a very low protein katabolism has
a chemical composition which is very different from
that of urine derived from the standard diets. This

PROTEIN METABOLISM 235

led to numerous attempts to reduce the daily pro-
tein destruction in normal persons to the lowest pos-
sible level.

Nearly all preceding attempts to reduce the pro-
tein katabolism have also been attempts to main-
tain at the same time nitrogen equilibrium. In
mine the question of nitrogen equilibrium, or loss
of protein, was not considered, and I have as a matter
of fact used a diet containing almost no protein. I
have kept several normal persons for a week or more,
two or three persons for two weeks, and one for 17
days on a diet consisting exclusively of pure arrow
root starch and 300 ec.' of cream. In this way the
daily protein katabolism has repeatedly been reduced
to about 20 grams a day.

Detailed chemical studies of the urines correspond-
ing to such greatly reduced protein katabolism have
shown that the relative proportion which the nitro-
genous products bear to each other and to the total
nitrogen does change and very greatly. For ex-
ample, the kreatinin elimination is entirely inde-
pendent of the total amount of protein katabolized.
It is just as great on a diet containing no protein as
on one containing 118 grams of protein. In the one
case it represents from 17% to 20% of the total nitro-
gen, in the other from 3% to 4%. The urea, on the other
hand, is peculiarly a product of excessive protein
katabolism. When the urinary nitrogen represents
a katabolism of 100 grams of protein, 90% of that

236 FOOD AND DIETETICS

nitrogen is present as urea, while when the protein
kataboHsm has been reduced to 20 grams, only from
50% to 60% of its nitrogen appears in the form of
urea.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF PROTEIN METABOLISM

These facts concerning urea and kreatinin suffice
to show how entirely erroneous has been the assump-
tion that the nitrogen of katabolized protein is
always distributed in the same proportion among
the different waste products. It may therefore be
superflous now to go into further details concerning
the laws that govern the formation and elimination
of the different products. The fact that these laws
are widely different for different products, as for
urea and kreatinin, demonstrates with a fair degree
of certainty that protein metabolism is not all of
one kind.

The true minimum katabolism or protein, as ob-
tained in my feeding experiments with starch and
fats, is clearly very different from the katabolism
of the large quantities of protein demanded by the
dietary standards. The former converts not over
60% of the protein nitrogen into urea, and is the
source of all the kreatinin eliminated with the urine.
The katabolism of that food protein which is not
absolutely needed for the maintenance of nitrogen
equilibrium, on the other hand, yields probably at
least 95% of its nitrogen in the form of urea and
yields no kreatinin whatever. The katabolism

PROTEIN METABOLISM 237

which yields the kreatinin clearly tends to be con-
stant and independent of the food protein; it can
therefore fairly be said to represent the tissue meta-
bolism. The katabolism which yields chiefly urea
is the katabolism of the excessive food protein, and
its amount depends directly upon the amount of
protein contained in the food. This I have called
the exogenous metabolism.

EXOGENOUS METABOLISM

Since the exogenous metabolism seems to have
nothing to do with the tissue metabolism, and since
it increases immediately with every increase of pro-
tein furnished with the food and in porportion to
such increase, it represents nothing else than the
effort of the organism to get rid of nitrogen that it
does not need and can not use. The remarkable
ability of the human organism to establish nitrogen
equilibrium on almost any quantity of protein does
therefore not mean, as has been believed, that the
organism uses protein by preference instead of fats
and carbohydrates. This phenomenon is merely
the result of our habitual consumption of more pro-
tein than can be used in the tissue metabolism.
Being always supplied with an excess, we have al-
ways with us the maximum amount of reserve pro-
tein that we can advantageously carry, and any
further increase in the supply simply leads to an in-
creased elimination.

238 FOOD AND DIETETICS

CONCLUSIONS

Such, in brief, are the conclusions which I have
drawn from detailed studies of the waste products
of protein katabolism.

To recapitulate: We have learned from Voit that
protein is not needed to supply energy ; and the work
of more recent investigators has demonstrated that
nothing like loo grams of protein is needed to
maintain nitrogen equilibrium in a man of average
size. Further, from detailed analytic studies, we
have learned that some waste products, like kreatinin,
represent tissue metabolism, and others, like urea, the
metabolism of that food protein which is destroyed
as rapidly as it is taken in. The two kinds of meta-
bolism are independent. The tissue ' metabolism
is for each individual a constant quantity, irrespec-
tive of the amount of protein contained in the food.
Obviously, therefore, there is a constant minimum
protein requirement to prevent loss of tissue material.
The amount of protein needed for this purpose is
very small, probably not over 25 grams a day. It
does, however, not necessarily follow that 25 grams
protein should be prescribed instead of 118 grams.
The prevailing idea that consumption of more than
the minimum amount of protein is detrimental to
health may not be true. The minimum may not
be the optimum. But what has been considered
the minimum, 118 grams, may be beyond the opti-
mum, possibly even above the maximum amount
of protein that any normal person should consume.

PROTEIN METABOLISM

239

DISCUSSION

Mrs. Abel — I should like to ask Dr. Folin if he
would recommend for tuberculosis patients a great
deal of milk and eggs.

Dr. Folin — Any opinion I give must simply be
my own. I should be inclined to think it unneces-
sary to prescribe any quantity of protein whatever.
By that I do not mean to say how much should be
consumed, because in our food products, say bread
and butter, there is enough to meet all requirements
as shown by these investigations, but at the same
time the experience of past generations shows that
we can at least, without any noticeable disadvan-
tage, consume considerable quantities of protein.
For instance, I should not advise stopping all use of
meat. I should be inclined to take the same atti-
tude toward protein as toward fats and carbohy-
drates. We must have enough food to maintain
the energy that is consumed, and I think the same
liberty can be taken toward protein as toward the
other two. We do not quite know just what is
the effect of compelling the system to eliminate
large quantities, and so long as we do not know I do
not believe we can take a very definite standpoint
on the question. It is generally believed that such
diseases as gout are more or less directly due to high
living, but we can not prove it, and moreover it is
a question whether protein consumption and meat
eating are at all identical. Such products as uric

240 FOOD AND DIETETICS

acid are formed in large quantities by meat eaters,
but they are not formed when such products as
milk and eggs are taken; consequently, I should say
that we do not know.

In regard to such disease as consumption, I have
no personal experience, but if the point is merely
to build them up and give them a laige amount of
reserve material, we can see that it is entirely unneces-
sary to feed large quantities of milk and eggs, be-
cause the nutrition of milk and eggs is at once
eliminated, and presumably the rest of that food is
stored as fat and carbohydrates, and so I should be
inclined at least to consider it worth while to try
whether fat and carbohydrates would not produce
just as good results.

Mrs. Abel — There are several here I think who
have to do with feeding people in hospitals, and one
lady with tuberculosis patients, and I should like
very much for my own information to know whether
these patients take and digest and seem to flourish
under this high feeding of eggs and milk. I myself
have to visit a poorhouse where there are loo tuber-
culosis patients. Eggs are 40 cents a dozen in winter,
and the state must pay for them. Still the prescrip-
tion is 3 and 4 eggs a day and a large quantity of
milk. If it is not necessary, it is of immense im-
portance to the whole country to know it, for other
patients need the money which now goes for this
purpose.

PROTEIN METABOLISM 241

Miss Eraser — I am trying to feed consumptive
patients as economically as possible, to give them
the things they like and must have and to do it all
on a certain sum. Our patients are fed in the fol-
lowing way. They have breakfast at 7.30. We
expect them to take half an hour for that meal, and
they may stay as much longer as they like. At 10.30
they have their lunch of milk and eggs, no limit to
the quantity of milk and eggs or egg nog. At 12.30
we have dinner. A number of patients at that
meal take a raw egg and m.ilk. At 3.30 they are
called to lunch, milk and eggs. At 5.45 supper,
milk and eggs again and just as much as they can
eat besides. At 8.30 milk and eggs again. Some
of those patients during the night take milk and eggs.
We give them cereal twice a day, for breakfast and
supper, cooked eight hours in a double boiler. They
are very fond of that, but we find that if they know
there is steak they do not take so much. The same
at dinner Avith soups. I find they do not take as
much, for they think they must save space for roast
beef. Vegetables they are fond of. I try to give
them as much as they can eat. They seem to have
an idea that they must eat plenty of rare beef and
milk and eggs. I have heard patients who have
been cured, come back and say to the others "Now
eat all the meat and milk and eggs that you can and
never mind the other things.' ' Farther than that
I cannot tell. The patients look healthy and no

242 FOOD AND DIETETICS

one would have any idea that they were a lot of sick
people.

Miss Bevier — Would Dr. Folin say that we can
not help getting from any food as much protein as
the systerri needs and so there is no such thing as
balanced rations?

Dr. Folin — If you eat enough bread and butter
to give 2500 calories, I believe you would get enough
protein. Be sparing of the butter if fat is too great.
It is exceedingly difficult to get any diet that does
not contain nutrition that is equal to the metabo-
lism.

The one point that you would need to consider
would be fuel value and in regard to that there is
now perhaps a little difference of opinion. The
work done by the department of agriculture is prob-
ably the safest guide at preseiiu.

Dr. Langworihy — Dr. Folin's is the most impor-
tant contribution to the subject made in a long time.
It clears up some matters, throws light on others,
and I think when work has gone on for a time
longer we shall know a great deal more about this
subject. I like his attitude in not drawing frenzied
conclusions from so many and interesting results.
I never want to forget that whenever we find a race
living on a small amount of food, or largely on vege-
table diet, it is not a capable race. The Italian
peasants who live on com meal and a little fish do
little work, yet bring them to this country and give

PROTEIN METABOLISM 243

them better diet and they do a great deal more and
better work in a day. The second and third gener-
ation develops a larger man than his father or grand-
father. We find that the Japanese eat just about
the same amount of protein as the standard covers.

Mrs. Ridiards — One point which every one has
very carefully left out of this discussion is the food of
the child. All these experiments in lowering the
food protein must be practiced on our own and not
on the children's diet at present.

SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR
CLASS STUDY ON

FOOD AND DIETETICS

MEETING I

(Study pages i - 29)
The Food Problem

Food materials and their Adulteration, by Ellen H. Richards.

Chapter I. ($1.00, postage loc.)
Cost of Food, by Ellen H. Richards. Pages 1-7. ($1.00,

postage I2C.)
Sanitary and Economic Cooking, by Mary Hinman Abel.

Pages 1-5. (40c., postage loc.)
Cost of Food

Cost of Food, by Ellen H. Richards. Chapters XI-XIV.
Bulletin No. 129 (Ofhce of the Experiment Stations), Dietary

Studies in Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia, and Chicago.

Price IOC. (coin), of the. Supt. of Documents, Washington,

D. C.
Sanitary and Economic Cooking — Some Cheap Dishes.

Pages 25-33.
Ru,mford Kitchen Leaflets — Good food for little Money,

by Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 10c.)
Principles of Nutrition and the Nutritive Value of Food.

Farmers' Bulletin No. 142. (Free of Dept. of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.)
Topic: Food in Relation to National Character.

MEETING II

(Study pages 30-49.)
Food and the Body

Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. Farm-
ers' Bulletin No. 142.
Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Chapter I. ($3.00,
postage 30c.)

244

FOOD AND DIETETICS 245

Food Principles

Make experiments on proteids described on pages 41 and 42.

Clean and grate a small potato under slowly running water,
pour through muslin to collect fibers, let starch settle.

Exhibit: Make up an exhibit showing quantities of food hav-
ing the same fuel and energy value — say 800 calories,
which is a little over one-third the daily requirement for
a woman at moderate work according to dietary standards.
Show bread, meat, butter, milk, eggs, sugar, potatoes,
apples, etc., and label each food with the weight in ounces
and cost.

Calculation. Bread furnishes about 1650 calories per pound;
to furnish 800 calories would require 800 divided by 1650;
which multiplied by 16, equals 7.75 oz. — about half a
loaf. Milk furnishes 325 calories per pound. 800 divided
by 325 and multiplied by 16 equals about 40 oz., or a
quart and half a pint, and so on.

Exhibit: Make an exhibit of foods containing 1.126 oz.,
of proteid, — one-third the daily ration for a woman —
labeling each with the weight and cost.

MEETING III

(Study pages 50-61)
Dietary Standards
Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Chapters II and III.

($3,00, postage 26c.)
Dietary Computer, by Ellen H. Richards. ($1.50, postage

I2C.)

Bulletin No. 28, American Food Materials. Price 5 cents
(coin), of the Supt. of Documents, Washington, D. C.

Physiological Economy in Nutrition, by Chittenden. In-
troduction, Chapters IV, V, and Conclusion. ($3.00,
postage 20c.)

Article in Century Magazine, February, 1905, by Chittenden,

246 PROGRAM

Protein Metabolism in Relation to Dietary Standards, by
Folin. See Supplement, pages 196-215. See " Notes on the

Questions," pages 191-195.

Send to the Battle Creek Sanitarium, Battle Creek, Mich.,
for some of their menus gi\dng fuel value of food served.

See articles in Good Housekeeping, — August, 1906, " Fletch-
erism as Household Economy," and October, 1906, " Sense
and Science in Dietetics," by Dr. Stedman.

Exhibit: Make up exhibits showing a standard day's
ration for a woman with light exercise — 80 grams (about
3 oz.) of proteid — with sufficient fats and carbohydrates
to bring the total fuel value up to 2300 calories. See
Bulletin No. 28, American Food Materials, for composi-
tion of any foods not given in the lesson books.

(Select answers to Test Questions on Part I and send them
to the School and report on exhibits and supplemental
work.)

MEETING IV

(Study pages 63-116)
Special Foods

Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison, and other standard

books.
Food Products of the World, by Green. ($1.50, postage

14c.)
Meat and Fish

Meats, Composition and Cooking. Farmers' Bulletin No. 34.
Fish as Food. Farmers' Bulletin No. 85.
Poultry as Food. Farmers' Bulletin No. 182.
Meat on the Farm, Butchering, Keeping, Curing. Farmers'

Bulletin No. 183.
Roasting of Beef, Circular 71, University of Illinois. Isabel

Bevier. (Postage 2c.)

FOOD AND DIETETICS 247

Eggs, Milk, and Milk Products

Eggs and their use as Food. Farmers' Bulletin No. 128.

Milk as Food. Farmers' Bulletin No. 74.

Facts about Milk. Farmers' Bulletin No. 42.

Food Value of Cheese, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 244.

Milk Supply of Two Hundred Cities and Towns. Bulletin

No. 46. Price 10 cents (coin), of the Supt. of Documents,

Washington, D. C.
Milk and its Products, by Wing. ($1.00, postage loc.)
Cereals and Cereal Products

Bread and the Principles of Bread Making. Farmers' Bul-
letin No. 112.
Wheat, Flour, and Bread. Extract No. 324.
Macaroni Wheat. Extract No. 326.
Studies in Bread and Bread Making. Bulletin No. 10 1.

Price 5 cents (coin), of Supt. of Documents, Washington,

D. C.
Cereal Breakfast Foods. Farmers' Bulletin No. 249.
Cereal Breakfast Foods. Bulletin No. 84 and 118, Maine

Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine.
Pop Corn, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 202.
Corn Plants, by Sargent. (75c., postage be.)
Story of Grain of Wheat, by Edgar. ($1 . 00, postage loc.)
Sugar

Sugar as Food. Farmers' Bulletin No. 93.
Maple Syrup and Sugar, in Farmers' Bulletin No 124.
(Select answers to Test Questions on Part II and report on

supplemental work.)

MEETING V

(Study pages 119 -157)
Vegetables, Fruits, and Nuts

Beans, Peas, and other Legumes as Food. Farmers' Bul-
letin No. 121.

248 PROGRAM

Sweet Potatoes. Farmers' Bulletin No. 127.

Peanuts: Culture and Uses. Farmers' Bulletin No. 25.

Value of Potatoes as Food. Extract from Year Book, 1900,

Losses in the Cooking of Vegetables. Farmers' Bulletin
No. 73.

Mushrooms as Food, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 79.

Banana Flour; Canned Tomatoes, in Farmers' Bulletin
No. 119

Chestnuts, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 114.

Coffee Substitutes, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 122.

Food Value of Beans, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 169.

Nuts as Food. Bulletin No. 54, Maine Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Orono, Maine.

Coffee Substitutes. Bulletin No. 65, Maine Agricultural
Experiment Station, Orono, Me.

Nutrition Investigations among Fruitarians and Chinese,
Bulletin No. 107. Price 5 cents (coin,) of the Supt. of
Documents, Washington, D. C.

Further Investigations among Fruitarians, Bulletin No. 132.
Price 5 cents (coin), of the Supt. of Documents, Washing-
ton, D. C.

Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Chapters XIV and
XVIII.

Cocoa and Chocolate. Walter Baker Co., Dorchester, Mass.
(Postage 6c.)

MEETING VI

(Study pages 15S - 180)
Adulteration of Food

See Articles on "Safe Food" in the Delineator, January to

July, 1906, by Mary Hinman Abel.
Pood Materials and their Adulterations, by Ellen H.

Richards. ($1.00, postage loc.)
Standards of Purity for Food Products. Circular No. 17.

FOOD AND DIETETICS 249

Use and Abuse of Food Preservatives. Extract No. 221.

Some forms of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods for
their Detection. Bulletin No. 800, Bureau of Chemistry.
Price 10 cents (coin), of the Supt. of Documents, Washing-
ton, D. C.

Make some of the tests described in the text and above
bulletins.

Officials Charged with Enforcement of Food Laws. Circular
No. 16.

The food laws of your own state. Write to the officer given in
Circular No. 16 for them and send for the part of bulletin
of Bureau of Chemistry containing them.

Topics: Laws, if any, in your own town. Are they en-

forced ?

The Local Milk Supply, — mvestigate.
Condition of the Local Slaughter Houses.

Special Diet

Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Diet in Disease, Chap-
ter xxvn.

Diet in Obesity and Fattening Diet. Chapter XXVIIL
Food as a Factor in Student Life, by Richards and Talbot.

(25c., postage 2c.)
Diet in Relation to Age and Activity, by Thompson.

($1.00, postage 8c.)
A, B and Z of our own Nutrition, by Fletcher. ($1.00,

postage IOC.)
Vegetarianism, by Kellogg.
(Select answers to Test Questions on Part III and report on

supplemental work.)

INDEX

Adulteration of butter, 93

of coffee, 147

of food, 158

of milk, 91

of tea, 142
Albumin, 68
Albuminoids, 43
Animal food, 63
Apple, composition of, 131
Atwater's experiments, 52

Bacon, digestibilit}^ of, 69
Bacteria in butter, 92

in cheese, 96

in milk, 89
Balanced ration, 56, 194,
Beef, 70

digestibility of, 70

juice, 72
Bibliography, 181
Bomb calorimeter, 35
Borax experiment, 165
Boric acid, 91
Bread, 106

corn, 108

graham, 11 1

making, no

nutritive value of, 112

rye, 108

white, 112

whole wheat, in

yeast, 109
Breakfast foods, 103
Broth, nutritious, 72
Butter, 92

adulteration of, 93

efifect of cooking, 93

rancid, 93

Butter, renovated, 93

Butterine, 94

Buttermilk, 86

Cabbage, composition of, 125

Caffeine, 155

Calculations of dietaries, 56,

191
Caloric, 34
Calorimeter, bomb, 35

respiration, 32, 52
Carbohydrates, 64

classification of, 45

composition of, 44

in nuts, 136

in vegetables, 120
Carrots, composition of, 124
Casein, 41, 87
Cellulose, 47

effect of cooking on, 121

in vegetables, 120
Cereal coffee, 156
Cereals, 98

composition of, 99

cooking of, 105

digestibility of, 104
Chart, composition of foods,

28,37

division of income, 8

heat and energy, 36

of economy of foods 29, 84
Cheese, 95

digestibility of, 96

effects of cooking on, 96
Children, food for, 174
Children's parties, 175
Chittenden's experiments, 54
Chocolate, 153
Clams, 75

250

INDEX

251

Coal tar dyes, 164
Cocoa, 148

digestibility of, 155

food value of, 154

nibs, 152

physiological effects of,

shells, 152
Coffee, 143

adulterants, 147

cereals, 156

composition of, 144

physiological effects of, :

tests, 147
Collagen, 43
Coloring matters, 163
Composition of apple, 131

of carbohydrates, 44

of cereals, 99

of coffee, 144

of eggs, 77

of fats, 48

of fish, 74

of food, 28, 30

of meat, 67

of milk, 81, 87

of nuts, 136

of potato, 126

or proteids, 42

of tea, 141

of the body, 31

of vegetables, 120
Condensed milk, 90
Cookery, economical, 13
Cooking, cost of, 10

effect on meat, 70
Cost of cooking, 10

of eggs, 80

of fish, 73

of food, 7,25

of labor, 1 1

of meat, 71
Cucumber, composition of.

Dextrin, 47

Diet, 173

for children, 174

for old age, 179

students', 178

to reduce fat, 179
155 Dietaries, 50, 52 , 197

calculations of, 56, 191

estimating, 59, 173

experimental, 52

standard, ."^o, 52, 54, 194,
221, 225, 242
:55 Dietaries, statistical, 53

use of, 58
Digestibility, 36, 65

of cereals, 104

of cheese, 96

of eggs, 79

of fruits, 133

of meat, 69

of milk, 85

of nuts, 137

of vegetables, 65, 127
Dyes in food, 164

Eating between meals, 177

manner of, 175
Economy, food, 26, 29

in cookery, 13
Eggs, 77

composition of, 77

cost of, 80

digestibility of, 79
Energy, 33

kinetic, 34

potential, 33

source of, n

unit of, 34
Engel's laws, 7
Extractives, 43, 71
Extracts of meat, 72

1 28 Factors in dietary calculations,
61
Fats, 48

252

Fats, in child's diet. 176

in milk, 88
Fibrin, 67
Fish, 72

cooking of, 76

cost of, 73

digestibility of, 72

dried, 76

shell, 74

smoked, 76
Flour, 10 1

bolting, 101

seal pings of, 102

standard, 103

testing of, 102
Folin's experiments, 55

studies, 204
Food, 30

adulteration of, 158

amount required, 50

animal, 63

building, 31

classification of, 49

composition of, 30

cost of, 7, 64

digestibility of, 36, 38

economy, 10

energy in, 32

for children, 174

for different ages, 50

fuel value, 32

functions of, 30

nutrients of, 49

preservatives, 161

principles, 41, 49

vegetable, 63

waste of, 12
Formaldehyde, gr
Fruits, 130

canned, 131

digestibility of, 133

dried, 131

unripe, 133
Fuel foods, 39

INDEX

Gelatine, 43

test, 172
Gelatinoids, 43
Glucose, 114, 160
Gluten, 41, 107
Glycogen, 47
Government bulletins, 182

Heat, 32

in body, 32

mechanical equivalent of, 3 f

unit of, 34
Hydration of starch, 122

Income chart, 8

Kinetic energy, 34
Koumiss, 86

Labelling, correct, 162
Labor, cost of, 1 1
Lact-albumin, 87
Lactic acid, 89
Lactose, 87
Leavening agents, 108
Legumin, 42
Liebig's theory, 196
Lobsters, 75

Meat, 66

cost of, 71

digestibility of, 69

effect of cooking, 70

extracts of, 72

fat of, 68

flavor of, 68

losses in boiling, 70

proteids of, 67
Mechanical equivalent of lieat,

35
Menus, 24
Metabolism, 224
exogenous, 237
protein, 224

L\DEX

253

Milk, 80

adulteration of, 91

boiled, 86

composition of, 81, 87

condensed, 90

cost of, 82

digestibility of, 85

fats, 88

mineral matter in, 88

powder, 91

preservatives, 91

products, 92

pure, 90

sour, 89

sugar, 87
Mineral matter, 48
Molasses, 116
Mushrooms, 127
Mutton, digestibility of, 70
Myosin, 42, 67

Nutrient ratio, 48, 51, 81
Nutrients of food, 49
Nuts, 136

Oleomargarine, 94
Omnivorous tastes, 176
Ossein, 43
Oysters, 75

Pectin, 48, 130

Pectose, 48

Pork, digestibility of, 69

Potato, composition of, 126

Potential energy, 33

Preservatives, 165

milk, 91
Program for supplemental

study, 244
Proteids, 41

composition of, 42

equilibrium, 203

in nuts, 136

minimum, 200

Proteids, nomenclature of, 43
of meat, 67

requirements in the body. 55
requirements for children,

174, 215
source of, 66
Protein, 43

metabolism in relation to
dietary standards, 244 ,
243
Pure food, 158

food bulletins, 186

Ration, balanced, 56, 194, 214
Renovated butter, 93
Respiration calorimeter, 32

Salts, 48

of vegetables, 126
Serving, dainty, 26
Shell-fish, 74
Skimmed milk, 86
Soup meat, nutritive value of,

71
Soups, 71

nutritive value of, 7 1
Sour milk, use of, 89
Special diet, 173

food stuffs, 63
Standard dietaries, 52, 54, 194,

225, 242
Starch, 45

com, 45

hydration of, 122

in fruits, 130

structure of, 46
Starchy vegetables, 124
Students' diet, 178
Sugar, 113

beet, 114

cane, 115

digestibility of, 114

effect on diet, 116

granulated, 115

254 INDEX

Sugar, in vegetables, 123
maple, 115
powdered, 115
test of, lis
value as food, 113

Table of comparative diges-
tibility, 39

of comparative food value
of milk, 82
Table of composition of cere-
als, 99

of cocoa, 153

of coffee, 146

of common foods, 57

of dried fruits, 135

of fish, 74

of fruits, 134

of meats, 57

of nuts, 137

of oysters, 75

of soup, 20

of starches, 22

of sugars, 22

of tea, 146

of vegetables, 23, 129
Table of cost of food, 17, 19,

27. 77

of digestibility, 38

of nutritive value, 15
Tannic acid, 156
Tea, 138

adulteration of, 142

composition of, 141

names of, 140

Tea, physiological effects, 155

tests, 142

varieties of, 138
Tests for aniline colors, 171

for butter, 168

home, 168
Theobromine, 153
Turnip, composition of, 124

Veal, 70

Vegetable dyes, 164

foods, 63
Vegetables, 119

cellulose of, 120

classification of, 119

composition of, 1 20

digestibility of, 127

proteids of, 124

salts of, 126

starchy, 124

sugar in, 123
Vegetarian diet, 66
Voit's dietary standards, 225

Waste of food, 12
Water, 48

in meat, 69
Wheat, 99

varieties of, 99

whole, 103

winter, 10 1
Work, external, 33

internal, 33

Yeast, kinds of, 109

YC 97515

igi=r=-;riT~Sii a" ,2^

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Food and dietetics"

See other formats