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^ortl;  QIarolma  ^tatc  College 

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S00687048   X 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


1Q«1 


Mi\R  1  6  1983 


W)y  5U  v^y 

DEC  0  f  1999 


lOOM/l-77 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Fifteenth  Edition 


CHILEAN  NITRATE  OF  SODA  EDUCAIIONAL  BUREAU 

57  WILLIAM  STREET,  NEW  YORK 


PREFACE 

This  is  the  fifteenth  edition  of  "Food  for  Plants."  The  work 
has  come  to  have  a  standard  place  in  American  Farm  litera- 
ture. It  includes  results  of  experiments  on  Highlands  Experi- 
mental Farms,  under  the  personal  direction  of  the  late  Pro- 
fessor E.  B.  Voorhees,  of  the  New  Jersey  Experimental 
Station. 

Crop  utilization  and  relative  agricultural  efficiency  of  nitro- 
gen in  various  commercial  materials  were  outstanding  points 
of  his  New  Jersey  work.  The  record  of  the  first  twenty  years' 
work  on  the  availability  of  nitrogen  in  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  re- 
produced in  this  volume.  It  includes  the  work  of  Professor 
Voorhees  up  to  the  time  of  his  death.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  most  important  contributions  to  Soil  Science  which  has 
been  made  in  this  country. 

Results  of  experiments  also  set  forth  field  work  intended 
as  demonstrations  in  farm  practice  of  what  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  rational  use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  under  average 
farm  conditions  in  a  typical  hay  and  dairy  section  of  New  York 
State. 

The  results  were  also  published  in  "Grass  Growing  for 
Profit"  and  "Growing  Timothy  Hay  for  Market."  These  prac- 
tical contributions  were  based  on  actual  scientific  data.  Re- 
sults of  studies  of  methods  of  crop  growing,  from  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  land  to  handling  and  marketing,  also  appeared  in 
these  bulletins. 

The  Corn  for  Ensilage  Experiments  recorded  are  regarded 
as  of  first  value.  The  United  States  Government  made  studies 
of  the  ensilage  grown  with  Nitrate  which  was  regarded  as  of 
high  feeding  quality. 

Apple  growing,  which  is  at  present  our  most  important 
money  crop  in  the  northern  states,  is  treated  in  an  up-to-date 
manner  in  a  chapter  by  itself. 

The  use  of  Nitrate  on  Sugar  Cane  is  set  forth  briefly. 

292«o 


a 


Blasting  a  Test  Hole. 


Caliche  Ready  for  Transport  to  Oficina, 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


The  Food  of  Plants  consists  of  a  number  of  ele- 
ments, including  Nitrate,  phosphate,  lime  and  potash. 
Nearly  always  two  of  these  are  lacking  in  adequate 
quantities  to  produce  crops,  especially  is  Nitrate 
wanting  in  the  vast  majority  of  instances.  In  this 
case  the  normal  growth  and  yield  of  the  crop  will  be 
limited  only  by  the  quantity  of  Nitrate  it  can  properly 
assimilate.  There  might  be  an  abundant  supply  of 
all  the  other  elements,  but  plants  can  never  use  other 
kinds  of  food  without  Nitrate. 

Nitrate  Nitrogen  is  the  food  that  is  nearly  always 
deficient.  The  question  that  presents  itself  to  the 
farmer,  gardener  and  fruit  grower  is,  How  can  I 
supply  my  plants  with  Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  in  the  best  forms  and  at  the  least  expense? 
We  will  try  to  throw  some  light  upon  this  question 
in  the  following  pages.  We  will  take  first,  phos- 
phoric acid. 

There  are  several  sources  of  phosphoric  acid,  the 
principal  being  bones  and  rock  phosphate.  Of  these, 
the  rock  phosphate  is  the  cheapest  source.  A  pre- 
vailing impression  exists  that  super-phosphate  made 
from  rock  phosphate  is  not  as  good  as  that  made  from 
bones.  It  has  been  shown  by  many  experiments  that 
this  idea  is  entirely  without  foundation.  What  the 
plants  want  is  available  phosphoric  acid,  and  it  makes 
little  or  no  difference  from  what  source  it  is  derived. 

5 


J^mitTY  LIBRARY 


6  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

The  largest  deposits  of  rock  phosphates  exist  in 
South  CaroHna,  Florida  and  Tennessee.  These  beds 
of  phosphate  are  supposed  to  be  composed  of  the 
petrified  bones  and  excrements  of  extinct  animals. 
When  this  substance  is  ground  and  mixed  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  larger  part 
of  the  phosphoric  acid  which  it  contains  becomes 
available  as  plant  food.  This  fact  was  one  of  the 
greatest  agricultural  discoveries  of  the  age. 

When  the  rock  phosphate  is  thus  treated  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  it  becomes  what  is  commercially  known 
as  superphosphate,  or  acid  phosphate.  The  same  is 
true  if  ground  bone  is  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Good  superphosphate,  or  acid  phosphate,  contains 
about  14  per  cent,  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid. 

The  best  sources  of  potash  are  sulphate  of  potash 
and  unleached  wood  ashes,  which  latter  contain  from 
3  to  5  per  cent,  of  potash  in  the  form  of  carbonate. 
They  also  contain  from  1  to  2j^  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  They  are  valuable  as  plant  food  for  the 
potash  as  well  as  for  the  valuable  lime  they  contain. 

Nitrate  is  the  most  important  and  effective  element 
of  plant  food,  and  at  the  same  time,  as  stated,  is  the 
one  that  is  generally  deficient  in  the  soil. 

Crops  must  have  meals,  that  is,  food  cooked  for 
them  in  advance.  The  sun  will  help  do  this  cooking, 
as  its  heat  and  light  promote  nitration  which  is  really 
a  process  of  cooking  and  also  pre-digestion.  When 
the  nitrogenous  plant  food  is  cooked  and  prepared 
for  use  it  is  Nitrate,  hence  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  in  a 
class  by  itself,  different  from  all  other  plant  foods. 

There  are  a  great  many  sources  of  Nitrogen,  such 
as  dried  fish,   cotton-seed   meal,   dried   blood,   and 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  1 

tankage.  But  none  of  these  furnish  Nitrogen  in  the 
Nitrate  form.  This  can  only  be  furnished  to  plants  in 
the  form  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  contains  the  Nitrogen  that  is 
necessary  for  the  growth  of  plants,  and  is  the  best 
form  in  which  to  furnish  it  to  them.  When  we  say 
the  best  form  we  mean  as  well  the  best  practical 
form.  Nitrate  of  Soda  not  only  furnishes  Nitrogen 
in  its  most  available  form,  but  it  furnishes  it  cheaper 
than  any  other  source,  because  100  per  cent,  of  it  or 
all  is  available. 

No  other  form  containing  so  much  available  plant 
food  is  also  capable  of  unlocking  the  latent  potash 
in  the  soil. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  or  Chile  Saltpetre. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  or  Chile  Saltpetre  occurs  in  vast 
deposits  in  the  rainless  districts  of  the  west  coast  of 
South  America,  chiefly  in  Chile,  from  whence  it  is 
imported  to  this  country  for  use  in  chemical  manu- 
facture and  in  agriculture.  As  imported  into  the 
United  States,  Nitrate  of  Soda  usually  contains 
about  15  per  cent,  of  Nitrogen.  Nitrate  of  Soda  re- 
sembles common  salt,  with  which  and  sodium  sul- 
phate it  is  often  adulterated.  This  salt  is  at  once 
available  as  a  direct  fertilizer.  Whenever  practicable, 
it  should  be  applied  as  a  top-dressing  to  growing 
crops,  and  if  possible  the  dressings  should  be  given 
in  two  or  three  successive  rations. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  is  usually  applied  at  the  rate  of 
from  100  to  200  pounds  per  acre  on  land  previously 
dressed  with  farm-yard  manure.    To  secure  an  even 


8  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

distribution,  the  Nitrate  should  be  well  mixed  with 
from  three  to  five  parts  of  fine  loam  or  sand. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  Nitrate  of 
Soda  exhausting  the  soil.  This  is  all  a  mistake  and 
is  the  outcome  of  incorrect  reasoning.  Nitrate  of 
Soda  does  not  exhaust  soils.  It  promotes  the  de- 
velopment of  the  leafy  parts  of  plants,  and  its  effects 
are  at  once  noticeable  in  the  deep,  rich  green,  and 
vigorous  growth  of  crops.  The  growth  of  plants  is 
greatly  energized  by  its  use,  for  the  Nitrate  in  supply- 
ing an  abundance  of  nitrogenous  food  to  plants, 


General  East  and  West  Section  of  the  Nitrate  District  of 
Chile.    Vertical  Scale  Exaggerated. 

imparts  to  them  a  thrift  and  vigor  which  enables 
their  roots  to  gather  in  the  shortest  time  the  largest 
amount  of  other  needed  foods  from  a  greater  sur- 
face of  surrounding  soil.  The  increased  consump- 
tion of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  is  due  to  the 
increase  in  the  weight  of  the  crop.  The  office  of  the 
Nitrate  is  to  convert  the  raw  materials  of  the  soil 
into  a  crop;  for  we  obtain  by  its  use,  as  Dr.  Griffiths 
has  tersely  said,  "the  fullest  crop  with  the  greatest 
amount  of  profit,  with  the  least  damage  to  the  land." 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  9 

NITRATE:    WHAT  IT  IS  IN  AGRICULTURE. 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  agri- 
cultural chemist,  is  a  substance  formed  by  the  union 
of  nitric  oxide  and  soda.    In  appearance  it  resembles 


coarse  salt.  In  agriculture,  it  is  valuable  chiefly  for 
its  active  Nitrogen,  although  it  is  also  a  soil  sweet- 
ener and  is  frequently  capable  of  rendering  soil 
potash  available. 

Commercially  pure  Nitrate  contains  about  15  per 


10  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

cent,  of  Nitrogen,  equivalent  to  18.25  per  cent,  of 
ammonia,  or  300  pounds  of  Nitrogen  to  the  ton. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  is  found  in  vast  quantities  in  Chile. 
The  beds  of  Nitrate,  or  "Caliche,"  as  it  is  called  in 
Chile  before  it  is  refined,  are  several  thousand  feet 


UNEXPLORED  NITRATE  GfiOUWD  IN  CHILE 

74,976  SQUARE  MILES 

EXPLORED 

NITRATE 

GROUND 

2,244 

SQ.  MILES 

above  the  sea,  on  a  desert  plain  extending  for  seventy- 
five  miles  north  and  south,  and  about  twenty  miles 
wide,  in  a  rainless  region.  The  surface  of  the  desert 
is  covered  with  earth  or  rock,  called  "costra,"  which 
varies  from  three  to  ten  or  more  feet  in  thickness. 
Under  this  is  found  the  "Caliche,"  or  crude  Nitrate. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  11 

The  layer  of  "Caliche"  is  sometimes  eight  or  ten  feet 
thick,  but  averages  about  three  feet.  This  "Caliche" 
contains  on  an  average  from  15  to  50  per  cent,  of  pure 
Nitrate  of  Soda. 


It  is  calculated  there  is  ample  Nitrate  now  in  sight 
to  last  upwards  of  three  hundred  years. 

The  "Caliche"  is  refined  by  boiling  in  water  to 
dissolve  the  Nitrate.  This  hot  water  is  then  run  off 
and  allowed  to  cool  in  tanks,  when  the  Nitrate  forms 
in  crystals  like  common  salt.  The  Nitrate  is  then 
placed  in  bags  of  about  176  pounds  (or  nearly  two 


12  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

bushels)  each  and  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  process  of  refining  is  an  expensive  one. 

How  these  beds  of  Nitrate  were  formed  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  speculation.  The  generally 
accepted  theory  is,  that  they  were  formed  by  the 
gradual  decomposition  and  natural  manurial  fer- 
mentation of  marine  animal  and  vegetable  matter, 
which  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  Nitrogen. 

The  same  wise  Providence  that  stored  up  the  coal 
in  the  mountains  of  Pennsylvania  to  furnish  fuel  for 
people  when  their  supply  of  wood  had  become  ex- 
hausted, preserved  this  vast  quantity  of  Nitrate  of 
Soda  in  the  rainless  region  of  Chile,  to  be  used  to 
furnish  crops  with  the  necessary  Nitrate  when  the 
natural  supply  in  the  soil  had  become  deficient. 

The  enormous  explosive  industry  of  this  country 
could  not  be  conducted  without  Nitrate  of  Soda,  and 
glass  works  are  dependent  upon  it.  In  fact,  glass 
works  and  powder  works  usually  have  Nitrate  on 
hand. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  has  a  special  bearing  on  the 
process  of  modern  agriculture,  being  the  most  nutri- 
tious form  of  Nitrogenous  or  ammoniate  plant  food. 
While  the  action  of  micro-organisms  with  certain 
crops  (legumes)  combines  and  makes  effective  use 
of  the  inert  Nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere,  such  action 
is  far  too  slow  and  uncertain  for  all  the  requirements 
of  modern  agriculture,  for  it  is  not  available  for  use 
for  a  whole  year  or  even  longer.  The  rapid  ex- 
haustion of  combined  Nitrogen  has  several  times 
been  noticed  by  eminent  scientific  men,  with  reference 
to  food  famine,  because  of  a  lack  of  the  needful  Ni- 
trogenous plant  food.  It  has  been  estimated  under  the 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  13 

present  methods  of  cropping  the  rich  lands  of  our 
western  states,  that  for  every  pound  of  Nitrogen 
actually  used  to  make  a  wheat  crop,  four  to  five 
pounds  are  utterly  wasted.  In  other  words,  our  pio- 
neer agriculture  has  proceeded  as  though  fertility 
capital  could  be  drawn  upon  forever. 

This  injudicious  waste  is  already  reducing  the 
yield  of  many  of  the  best  lands,  rendering  the  use  of 
at  least  a  small  application  per  acre  of  Nitrate  both 
profitable  and  necessary.  The  agricultural  value  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  has  had  the  attention  of  the  foremost 
agricultural  and  scientific  specialists  of  the  world,  in- 
cluding such  men  as  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  Sir  William 
Crookes,  Dr.  Dyer,  Dr.  Hall  and  Dr.  Voelcker,  in 
England ;  Professors  Grandeau,  Cassarini,  Migneaux, 
and  Cadoret,  in  France;  Professors  Bernardo  and 
Alino,  in  Spain ;  Dr.  Wagner  and  Professor  Maercker, 
of  Germany;  and  Drs.  Voorhees,  J.  G.  Lipman, 
Brooks,  Duggar,  Ross,  Patterson,  Hilgard  and  Garcia 
in  America.  The  results  obtained  by  these  officials 
may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Nitrate  of  Soda  acts  very  beneficially  and  with 
great  certainty  upon  all  straw-growing  plants. 

2.  It  is  of  special  value  for  forcing  the  rapid  de- 
velopment and  early  maturity  of  most  garden  crops. 

3.  It  is  of  great  importance  in  the  production  of 
sugar  beets,  potatoes,  hops,  fodder  crops,  fiber  plants, 
and  tobacco. 

4.  It  is  exceedingly  valuable  in  developing  and 
maintaining  meadow  grass  and  pasture  lands. 

5.  In  the  early  stages  of  development  it  produces 
favorable  results  upon  peas,  vetches,  lupines,  clover, 
and  alfalfa. 


14  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

6.  It  has  been  applied  with  much  advantage  to 
various  kinds  of  berries,  bush  fruits,  vineyards, 
orchards  and  nursery  stock,  and  small  fruits  gener- 
ally. 

7.  It  provides  the  means  in  the  hands  of  the 
farmer,  for  energizing  his  crops  so  that  they  may 
better  withstand  the  ravages  of  drought,  or  the  on- 
slaughts of  plant  diseases  or  insect  pests,  such  as 
boll  weevil,  and  others. 

8.  It  may  be  used  as  a  surface  application  to  the 
soil,  from  time  to  time,  should  the  plants  indicate 
a  need  of  it  by  their  lack  of  color  and  growth. 

9.  It  is  immediately  available,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  its  effect  upon  many  crops  may  be  noticed 
within  a  few  days  after  its  application. 

10.  It  may  be  used  either  as  a  special  fertilizer,  or 
as  a  supplemental  fertilizer. 

11.  The  best  results  are  obtained  from  its  applica- 
tion when  the  soil  contains  ample  supplies  of  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  it  furnishes  the  one  most  expensive 
and  necessary  element  of  plant  food,  namely.  Nitro- 
gen, and  of  the  various  commercial  forms  of  Nitro- 
gen, Nitrate  is  the  cheapest. 

12.  Its  uniform  action  seems  to  be  to  energize  the 
capacity  of  the  plant  for  developing  growth.  Its 
action  is  characterized  by  imparting  to  the  plant  a 
deep  green,  healthy  appearance,  and  by  also  causing 
it  to  grow  rapidly  and  to  put  out  numbers  of  new 
shoots. 

13.  The  immediate  effect  of  an  application  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda,  therefore,  is  to  develop  a  much 
larger  plant  growth  and  its  skillful  application  must 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  IS 

be  relied  upon  to  secure  the  largest  yields  of  fruits 
and  grain. 

14.  Under  favorable  conditions  of  moisture  and 
cultivation,  these  effects  may  be  confidently  antici- 
pated upon  all  kinds  of  soils. 

15.  All  of  the  plant  food  contained  in  Nitrate  of 
Soda  is  available  and  existing  in  a  soluble  form.  The 
farmer  should  understand  that  it  is  not  economical 
to  apply  more  of  it  than  can  be  utilized  by  the  crop; 
one  of  the  most  valuable  qualities  of  this  fertilizer 
being  that  it  need  not  lie  dormant  in  the  soil  from 
one  season  to  the  next. 

16.  The  best  results  are  secured  when  it  is  applied 
during  the  early  growing  period  of  the  plant.  If 
applied  too  late  in  the  development  of  the  plant,  it 
generally  has  a  tendency  to  protract  its  growing 
period  and  to  delay  the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  as  after 
a  liberal  application  of  Nitrate  of  Soda,  the  energies 
of  the  plant  are  immediately  concentrated  upon 
developing  its  growth.  This  is  true  with  a  few 
exceptions. 

17.  The  farmer  must  not  expect  it  to  excuse  him 
from  applying  proper  principles  of  land  drainage,  or 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  nor  should  Nitrate  of  Soda  be 
used  in  excessive  quantities  too  close  to  the  plants 
that  are  fertilized  with  it.  For  most  seeded  crops,  an 
application  of  one  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre  is 
sufficient  when  it  is  used  alone. 

18.  It  may  be  applied  in  a  dry  state  to  either  agri- 
cultural or  garden  lands  by  sowing  it  broadcast,  or 
by  means  of  any  fertilizer-distributing  machine.  It 
can  be  applied  to  the  surface,  or  it  may  be  cultivated 
into  the  soil  by  some  light  agricultural  implement, 


16  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

such  as  a  harrow,  weeder,  cultivator  or  horse  hoe. 
The  capillary  movement  of  the  soil  waters  will  dis- 
tribute it  in  the  soil,  and  osmosis  of  soil  solutions 
and  the  capillary  attraction  of  the  soil  particles 
when  in  good  tilth  will  retain  it  safely  until  the  plant 
uses  it. 

Accepting  the  conclusions  of  these  scientific  men, 
the  use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  in  agriculture  ought  to 
increase  proportionately  to  the  dissemination  of  the 
knowledge  of  its  usefulness  among  our  farmers.  An 
increase  in  the  consumption  of  Nitrate  among  grow- 
ers of  tobacco,  fiber  plants,  sugar  beets,  the  hop, 
grape,  grass  and  small  fruits,  has  been  most  notable 
of  late.  The  element  of  plant  food  first  exhausted 
in  soils  is  Nitrogen,  and  in  many  cases  a  marked  in- 
crease in  crop  is  obtained  through  the  use  of  Nitrate 
alone.  "Complete"  fertilizers  are  generally  rather 
low  in  Nitrogen,  and  Nitrate  may  be  wisely  used  to 
supplement  them,  as  it  is  practically  the  cheapest 
form  of  plant  food  Nitrogen. 

By  "complete  fertilizers,"  is  meant  fertilizers 
containing  Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
These  fertilizers  are  often  called  "phosphates,"  and 
people  have  fallen  into  the  habit  of  calling  any  com- 
mercial fertilizer  a  "phosphate,"  whether  it  contains 
phosphate  or  not.  Many  so-called  "complete  ferti- 
lizers" are  merely  acid  phosphates  with  insignificant 
amounts  of  other  essential  plant  foods.  They  are 
frequently  ill-balanced  rations  for  all  crops. 

The  value  of  these  "phosphates,"  no  matter  how 
high  sounding  their  names,  consists  in  their  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  in  many  cases. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  17 

The  Nitrogen  contained  in  these  "complete  ferti- 
lizers" is  often  in  a  form  that  is  neither  available  nor 
useful  to  the  plants. 

Statistics  gathered  by  the  Experiment  Stations 
show  that  in  the  United  States  many  millions  of  dol- 
lars are  spent  annually  for  "complete  fertilizers." 

Would  you  not  think  a  man  very  unwise  who 
should  buy  somebody's  "Complete  Prepared  Food," 
at  a  high  price,  when  he  wanted  feed  for  his  horses, 
instead  of  going  into  the  market  and  buying  corn, 
oats  and  hay,  at  market  prices? 

The  "Complete  Prepared  Food"  would  probably  be 
composed  of  corn,  oats  and  hay  mixed  together,  and 
the  price  would  be,  perhaps,  twice  as  much  as  the 
corn,  oats  and  hay  would  cost  separately.  It  is  fre- 
quently more  economical  to  buy  the  different  ferti- 
lizing materials  and  mix  them  at  home  than  to  pur- 
chase "complete"  fertilizers  as  they  are  often  called. 
Some  do  not  wish  to  take  pains  to  get  good  materials 
and  mix  them,  and  prefer  to  purchase  the  "complete" 
fertilizers.  If  this  be  done,  special  attention  should 
be  given  to  ascertaining  in  what  form  the  Nitrogen 
exists.  Many  of  the  manufacturers  do  not  tell  this, 
but  some  of  the  experiment  stations  analyze  all  the 
fertilizers  sold  in  their  respective  states  and  publish 
the  results  in  bulletins,  which  are  sent  free  to  anyone 
asking  for  them.  These  analyses  should  show  in 
what  form  the  Nitrogen  is.  The  "complete  ferti- 
lizers" that  contain  the  most  Nitrogen  in  the  form  of 
Nitrate  are  the  ones  to  use,  and  the  ones  which  do 
not  contain  Nitrate  or  which  do  not  give  information 
on  this  vital  point  should  be  avoided.  If  you  have 
on  hand  a  "complete  fertilizer"  containing  a  small 


18  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

percentage  of  Nitrogen,  and  only  in  organic  form, 
such  as  cotton-seed  or  "tankage,"  it  will  be  of  great 
advantage  to  use  one  hundred  pounds  per  acre  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  in  addition  to  it.  No  fertilizer  is 
really  complete  without  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

It  is  now  known  that  the  Nitrogen  in  organic 
matter  of  soil  or  manure  is  slowly  converted  into  the 
available  form  by  a  minute  organism.  This  cannot 
work  if  the  soil  is  too  cold,  or  too  wet,  or  too  dry,  or 
in  a  sour  soil.  As  a  general  rule,  soils  must  be  kept 
sweet  and  the  other  conditions  necessary  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Nitrogen  into  the  form  are  warm 
weather  and  a  moist  soil  in  good  physical  condition. 

In  the  early  spring  the  soil  is  too  wet  and  too  cold 
for  the  change  to  take  place.  We  must  wait  for  warm 
weather.  But  the  gardener  does  not  want  to  wait. 
He  makes  his  profits  largely  on  his  early  crops. 
Guided  only  by  experience  and  tradition,  he  fills  his 
land  with  manure,  and  even  then  he  gets  only  a  mod- 
erate crop  the  first  year.  He  puts  on  seventy-five 
tons  more  manure  the  next  year,  and  gets  a  better 
crop.  And  he  may  continue  putting  on  manure  till 
the  soil  is  as  rich  in  Nitrogen  as  the  manure  itself, 
and  even  then  he  must  keep  on  manuring  or  he  fails 
to  get  a  good  early  crop.  Why?  The  Nitrogen  of 
the  soil,  or  of  roots  of  plants,  or  manure,  is  retained 
in  the  soil  in  a  comparatively  inert  condition.  There 
is  little  or  no  loss.  But  when  it  is  slowly  converted 
into  Nitrate  during  warm  weather,  the  plants  take  it 
up  and  grow  rapidly. 

How,  then,  is  the  market  gardener  to  get  the 
Nitrate  absolutely  necessary  for  the  growth  of  his 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  19 

early  plants?  He  may  get  it,  as  before  stated,  from 
an  excessive  and  continuous  use  of  stable  manure, 
but  even  then  he  fails  to  get  it  in  sufficient  quantity. 

One  thousand  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  will  fur- 
nish more  Nitrogen  to  the  plants  early  in  the  spring 
than  the  gardener  can  get  from  100  tons  of  well- 
rotted  stable  manure.  The  stable  manure  may  help 
furnish  Nitrate  for  his  later  crops,  but  for  his  early 
crops  the  gardener  who  fails  to  use  Nitrate  of  Soda 
is  blind  to  his  own  interests. 

A  given  quantity  of  Nitrate  will  produce  a  given 
amount  of  plant  substance.  A  ton  of  wheat,  straw 
and  grain  together,  contain  about  1,500  pounds  of  dry 
matter,  of  which  25  pounds  is  Nitrogen.  To  produce 
a  ton  of  wheat  and  straw  together  would  require, 
therefore,  170  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda,  in  which 
quantity  there  is  25  pounds  of  Nitrogen. 

A  ton  of  cabbage,  on  the  other  hand,  contains 
about  ^Yz  pounds  of  Nitrogen.  To  produce  a  ton  of 
cabbage,  therefore,  would  require  30  pounds  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda. 

There  are  no  crops  on  which  it  is  more  profitable 
to  use  fertilizers  than  on  vegetables  and  small  fruits, 
provided  they  are  used  rightly.  Failures  with  chem- 
ical fertilizers  are  caused  usually  by  lack  of  knowl- 
edge. There  is  no  doubt  but  that  stable  manure  is 
available  as  a  fertilizer,  and  in  some  cases  may  be 
indispensable,  but  at  the  same  time  the  quantities 
necessary  to  produce  good  results  could  be  greatly 
reduced  by  using  chemical  fertilizers  to  supply  plant 
food  and  only  enough  manure  to  give  lightness  and 
add  humus  to  the  soil. 


20  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

For  crops  like  cabbage  and  beets,  that  it  is  desir- 
able to  force  to  rapid  maturity,  the  kind  of  plant  food, 
especially  of  Nitrogen,  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Many  fertilizers  sold  for  this  purpose  have  all  the 
Nitrogen  they  contain  in  insoluble  and  unavailable 
form,  so  that  it  requires  a  considerable  time  for  the 
plants  to  get  it.  Another  fault  is  that  they  do  not 
contain  nearly  enough  Nitrogen.  Stable  manure 
contains  on  the  average  in  one  ton  10  pounds 
Nitrogen,  10  pounds  potash,  and  only  5  pounds  phos- 
phoric acid,  while  the  average  "complete"  fertilizer 
contains  more  than  twice  as  much  phosphoric  acid  as 
Nitrogen,  a  most  unnatural  and  unprofitable  ration. 
A  ration  of  2  Nitrogen,  2  potash,  and  8  of  phosphoric 
acid,  is  frequent  in  many  of  the  so-called  ''complete 
fertilizers,"  which  are  really  incomplete  and  unbal- 
anced as  well.  A  fertilizer  for  quick-growing  veg- 
etables should  contain  as  much  Nitrogen  as  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  at  least  half  this  Nitrogen  should  be 
in  the  form  of  Nitrate  of  Soda,  which  is  the  only 
immediately  available  nitrogenous  plant  food. 


Comparative   Availability   of   Nitrogen   in  Various 
Forms. 

Some  interesting  and  valuable  experiments  were 
made  at  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  to  as- 
certain how  much  of  the  Nitrogen  contained  in  such 
materials  as  dried  blood,  tankage,  dry  fish,  and 
cotton-seed  meal,  is  available  for  plants. 

The  experiments  were  made  with  corn,  and  it  was 
found  that  when  the  same  quantity  of  Nitrogen  was 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  21 

applied  in  the  various  forms  the  crop  increased  over 
that  where  no  Nitrogen  was  applied,  as  shown  in  the 
following  table: 

Increase  of  Crop  from  Same  Quantity  of  Nitrogen  from 
Different  Sources. 

Relative 
Sources  of  Nitrogen  Crop  Increase 

Nitrate  o£   Soda 100 

Dried   Blood    73 

Cotton-seed  Meal   72 

Dry  Fish   70 

Tankage    62 

Linseed   Meal    78 


This  table  shows  some  interesting  facts.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  only  about  three-fourths  as  much  of  the 
Nitrogen  in  dried  blood  or  cotton-seed  meal  as  in 
Nitrate  of  Soda  is  available  the  first  season.  The 
Nitrogen  in  tankage  is  even  less  available,  only  a 
little  over  half  being  used  by  the  crop. 

These  experiments  were  made  with  corn,  which 
grows  for  a  long  period  when  the  ground  is  warm 
and  the  conditions  most  favorable  to  render  the 
Nitrogen  in  organic  substances  available,  and  yet 
only  part  of  it  could  be  used  by  the  crop. 

When  it  is  considered  that  Nitrogen  in  the  form  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  can  be  bought  for  as  little  or  less  per 
pound  than  in  almost  any  other  form,  the  advantage 
and  economy  of  purchasing  and  using  this  form  is 
very  apparent. 

Nitration  as  studied  by  means  of  the  drainage 
water  of  6  plots  of  land,  each  300  square  yards  in 
area,  during  4  years,  shows  that  the  loss  of  Nitrogen 
in   the   drainage   water  was  practically   negligible. 


22  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Even  when  Nitrogen  was  applied  in  the  spring  the 
losses  were  not  large  unless  heavy  rains  occurred  at 
the  time.  The  Nitrogen  is  apparently  rapidly  taken 
up  by  the  young  growing  plants  at  this  season  of  the 
year  and  only  a  small  portion  is  free  to  pass  into  the 
drainage.  The  greatest  losses  occur  in  the  fall,  when 
the  soil  is  bare  and  heavy  rains  occur,  the  Nitrates 
having  accumulated  in  large  quantities  during  the 
warmer  period  of  the  year.  Large  losses  at  this 
season  are,  however,  prevented  by  the  growing  of 
cover  crops. 

In  applying  fertilizers  it  should  be  remembered 
that  any  form  of  phosphoric  acid,  such  as  acid  phos- 
phate, dissolved  bone-black  or  bone  meal  is  only 
partially  soluble,  and  will  not  circulate  freely  in  the 
soil.  These  fertilizers  should,  therefore,  be  evenly 
distributed  over  the  soil  and  well  mixed  with  it.  This 
is  usually  best  done  by  applying  broadcast  before 
sowing  the  seed  and  before  the  ground  is  thoroughly 
prepared. 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  on  the  other  hand,  will  diffuse 
itself  thoroughly  throughout  the  soil  if  there  is 
enough  moisture  to  dissolve  it.  It  can,  therefore,  be 
applied  by  scattering  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Since  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  salts  of  potash  are 
brought  to  this  country  by  sea,  and  phosphate  is 
usually  transported  from  the  mines  in  vessels,  all 
these  materials,  as  a  rule,  can  be  purchased  at  the 
seaports  cheaper  than  in  the  interior.  New  York  is 
the  largest  market  for  these  materials,  but  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore,  Charleston,  Savannah,  Mobile,  New 
Orleans,  Galveston,  San  Francisco,  Portland  and 
Seattle,  are  also  ports  of  entry. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  23 

Lower  prices  can  be  obtained  by  buying  fertilizing 
materials  in  carload  lots.  If  you  cannot  use  a  car- 
load yourself,  get  your  neighbors  to  join  with  you. 
Much  money  has  often  been  saved  in  this  way. 

In  buying,  always  consider  the  percentage  of 
availability. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  comparing  gold  ores  of 
the  same  percentages  derived  from  different  sources, 
— one  gold  ore  containing  ten  ounces  to  the  ton 
might  be  worth  a  great  deal  of  money  per  ton, — that 
is  to  say,  if  the  gold  were  extractable  with  ease  and 
without  undue  expense, — whereas  another  ten-ounce 
ore  might  contain  its  gold  in  such  form  as  to 
be  extracted  only  with  great  difficulty  and  at  great 
expense. 


HOW  TO   USE   CHEMICAL   FERTILIZERS   TO 
ADVANTAGE. 


The  form  of  Nitrogen  most  active  as  plant  food  is 
the  nitrated  form,  namely,  Nitrate  of  Soda.  Sir  John 
Lawes  wisely  remarks:  "When  we  consider  that  the 
application  of  a  few  pounds  of  Nitrogen  in  Nitrate  of 
Soda  to  a  soil  which  contains  several  thousand  pounds 
of  Nitrogen  in  its  organic  form,  is  capable  of  increas- 
ing the  crop  from  14  to  40  or  even  50  bushels  of  wheat 
per  acre,  I  think  it  must  be  apparent  to  all  that  we 
have  very  convincing  evidence  of  the  value  of 
Nitrate."  The  Nitrogen  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  im- 
mediately available  as  plant  food,  and  it  should, 
therefore,  be  applied  only  when  plants  are  ready  to 
use  it.  By  such  a  ready  supply  of  available  plant 
food,  young  plants  are  able  to  establish  such  a  vigor 
of  growth  that  they  can  much  better  resist  disease, 
and  the  attacks  of  insects  and  parasites.  The  famous 
experiments  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  at  Rothamsted 
have  demonstrated  that  cereals  utilize  more  than 
three  times  as  much  of  the  Nitrogen  in  Nitrate  of 
Soda  as  of  the  Nitrogen  contained  in  farmyard 
manure;  in  practice,  four  and  one-half  tons  of  farm- 
yard manure  supply  only  as  much  available  plant 
food  as  100  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Catch-crops  are  recommended  to  prevent  losses  of 
available  plant  food  after  crops  are  removed.    Rape 

24 


fugrsffrr  library 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  25 

Italian  rye  grass,  rye,  thousand-headed  kale  and 
clovers  are  suitable.  All  these  should  be  top-dressed 
with  from  100  to  200  pounds  per  acre  of  Nitrate  of 
Soda,  depending  upon  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil.  In 
our  remarks  on  the  use  of  Nitrate,  we  have  taken  it 
for  granted  that  our  readers  fully  understand  that  in 
all  cases  where  Nitrate  has  been  recommended  in 
large  amounts,  potash  and  phosphates  should  be 
used  also  unless  the  soil  already  contains  ample  sup- 
plies of  both. 

The  most  important  material  used  to  supply  Nitro- 
gen in  the  composition  of  commercial  fertilizers  is 
Nitrate  of  Soda.  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  particularly 
adapted  for  top-dressing  during  the  growing  season, 
and  is  the  quickest  acting  of  all  the  nitrogenous 
fertilizers. 

Dried  blood,  tankage,  azotine,  fish  scrap,  castor 
pomace,  and  cotton-seed  meal  represent  fertilizers 
where  the  Nitrogen  is  only  slowly  available,  and  they 
must  be  applied  in  the  fall  so  as  to  be  decomposed 
and  available  for  the  following  season.  Nitrogen  in 
the  form  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  available  during  the 
growing  and  fruiting  season,  possessing,  therefore, 
a  decided  advantage  over  all  other  Nitrogen  plant 
foods. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Soils. 

Sandy  soils  may  be  described  as  soils  containing 
seventy-six  (76)  per  cent,  or  more  of  sand. 

Sandy  loam  is  a  soil  containing  from  sixty  (60)  to 
seventy-five  (75)  per  cent,  of  sand,  and  a  loam  is 
said  to  be  a  soil  containing  forty  (40)  to  fifty-nine 
(59)  per  cent,  of  sand. 


26  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Clay  loam  runs  between  twenty-nine  (29)  to 
thirty-nine  (39)  per  cent,  of  sand,  and  a  clay  soil 
would  be  described  as  a  soil  containing  about  sixty- 
one  (61)  per  cent,  or  more  of  clay. 

A  very  rich  soil  may  be  described  as  a  soil  con- 
taining 2  per  cent,  of  lime  and  1.80  per  cent,  of 
potash  and  from  .02  to  .10  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid, 
in  the  form  of  sulphate,  and  from  .10  to  .30  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid,  in  the  form  of  phosphates,  with 
humus  running  from  1.20  per  cent,  to  2.20  per  cent, 
and  Nitrogen  from  .20  to  1  per  cent. 

According  to  French  authorities  a  good  soil  would 
contain  .20  per  cent,  of  Nitrogen  and  .20  per  cent,  of 
phosphoric  acid,  in  the  form  of  phosphates,  and  .30 
per  cent,  of  potash.  Anything  above  these  figures 
would  be  called  very  rich. 

Very  poor  soil  would  average  about  .08  per  cent,  of 
Nitrogen  and  .08  per  cent,  of  potash  and  .08  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid  with  humus  of  .30  per  cent.  Any- 
thing less  than  these  figures  would  be  very  poor 
indeed. 

The  pounds  of  available  fertility  are  reckoned  to 
be  contained  within  eight  (8)  inches  of  the  surface. 
The  weight  of  an  acre  generally  would  rijn  about 
two  thousand  (2,000)  tons. 


HOW  MONEY  CROPS  FEED. 


The  substance  o£  plants  is  largely  water  and  varia- 
tions of  woody  fiber,  yet  these  comprise  no  part  of 
what  is  commonly  understood  as  plant  food.  More 
or  less  by  accident  was  discovered  the  value  of  farm- 
yard manures  and  general  farm  refuse  and  roughage 
as  a  means  of  increasing  the  growth  of  plants.  In 
the  course  of  time,  the  supply  of  these  manures  failed 
to  equal  the  need,  and  it  became  necessary  to  search 
for  other  means  of  feeding  plants.  The  steps  in  the 
search  were  many,  covering  years  of  careful  investi- 
gation, and  as  a  result,  we  have  the  established  fact 
that  the  food  of  plants  consists  of  three  different  sub- 
stances, Nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphates. 

These  words  are  now  popular  names,  and  are  used 
for  the  convenience  of  the  general  public.  Nitrate  of 
Soda  contains  an  amount  equivalent  to  about  15  per 
cent,  of  Nitrogen,  300  pounds  to  the  ton,  and  cotton- 
seed meal,  for  example,  about  6  per  cent.  More 
than  three  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  are  necessary 
to  furnish  as  much  available  Nitrogen  as  one  pound 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda.  We  value  the  plant  food  on  the 
amount  of  Nitrate  Nitrogen  it  contains,  and  on  this 
account  Nitrate  has  become  a  standard  name  for  this 
element  of  plant  food.  In  like  manner,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  are  standards,  hence  the  importance 
of  farmers  and  planters  familiarizing  themselves  with 
these  expressions.     We  always  should  think  of  fer- 

27 


28  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

tilizers  and  manures  as  just  so  much  Nitrate,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash,  as  we  can  then  at  once  com- 
pare the  usefulness  of  all  fertilizer  materials.  No 
doubt,  other  substances  are  necessary  for  the  proper 
development  of  crops,  but  soils  so  generally  supply 
these  in  ample  quantities  that  they  may  safely  be 
neglected  in  a  consideration  of  soil  needs  and  plant 
foods.  The  food  of  plants  may  therefore  be  under- 
stood to  mean  simply  Nitrate,  Phosphoric  Acid  and 
Potash. 

Farmyard  manure  acts  in  promoting  plant  growth 
almost  wholly  because  it  contains  these  three  sub- 
stances; green  manuring  is  valuable  for  the  same 
reason  and  largely  for  that  only.  Various  refuse 
substances,  such  as  bone,  wood  ashes,  etc.,  contain 
one  or  more  of  these  plant  food  elements,  and  are 
valuable  to  the  farmer  and  planter  on  that  account. 

The  Quality  of  Manures  and  Fertilizers. 

While  plant  food  is  always  plant  food,  like  all  other 
things  it  possesses  the  limitation  of  quality.  Quality 
in  plant  food  means  the  readiness  with  which  plants 
can  make  use  of  it.  In  a  large  sense,  this  is  dependent 
upon  the  solubility  of  the  material  containing  the 
plant  food — not  merely  solubility  in  water,  but  solu- 
bility in  soil  waters  as  well.  Fertilizer  substances 
freely  soluble  in  water  are  generally  of  the  highest 
quality,  yet  there  are  differences  even  in  this.  For 
example.  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  freely  soluble  in  soil 
liquids  and  water,  and  is  the  highest  grade  of  plant 
food  Nitrogen;  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  also  soluble 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  29 

in  water,  but  of  distinctly  lower  quality  because  plants 
in  general  find  it  less  available  than  in  the  Nitrate 
form.  This  change  is  effected  in  the  soil  by  the  action 
of  certain  organisms,  under  favorable  conditions. 
The  weather  must  be  suitable,  the  soil  in  a  certain 
condition;  and  besides  there  are  considerable  losses 
of  valuable  substance  in  the  natural  soil  process  of 
nitrating  such  Nitrogen.  By  unfavorable  weather 
conditions,  or  very  wet  or  acid  soils,  nitration  may  be 
prevented  until  the  season  is  too  far  advanced,  hence 
there  may  be  loss  of  time,  crop  and  money.  The 
quality  of  nitrogens,  such  as  cotton-seed  meal,  dried 
fish,  dried  blood,  and  tankage,  is  limited  by  conditions 
similar  to  those  which  limit  sulphate  of  ammonia. 
Perfectly  authentic  experiments,  and  made  under 
official  supervision,  have  shown  that  100  pounds  of 
Nitrogen  in  these  organic  forms  have  only  from  one- 
half  to  three-fourths  the  manurial  value  of  100  pounds 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Special  Functions  of  Plant  Food. 

As  stated  before,  plants  must  have  all  three  of  the 
plant  food  elements — Nitrate,  Phosphates  and  Potash 
— but  notwithstanding  this  imperative  need,  each  of 
the  three  elements  has  its  special  use.  There  are 
many  cases  in  which  considerations  of  the  special 
functions  of  plant  food  elements  become  important. 
For  example,  a  soil  may  be  rich  in  organic  ammonia 
from  vegetable  matter  turned  under  as  green  manure, 
and  through  a  late  wet  spring  fail  to  supply  the  avail- 
able Nitrate  in  time  to  get  the  crop  well  started 
before  the  hot,  dry,  summer  season  sets  in.    In  this 


Top  of  Caliche  Hopper;  Carts  Tipping  Caliche. 


Crystallizing  Pans  After  Running  Off  Mother-liquor,  show- 
ing Deposit  of  Nitrate  Crystals. 
30 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  31 

case  the  use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  alone  will  force  growth 
to  the  extent  of  fully  establishing  the  crop  against 
heat  and  moderate  drouth. 

Nitrate  as  plant  food  seems  to  influence  more 
especially  the  development  of  stems,  leaves,  and  roots, 
which  are  the  framework  of  the  plant,  while  the 
formation  of  fruit  buds  is  held  in  reserve.  This 
action  is,  of  course,  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the 
maturity  of  the  plant,  and  the  broader  the  frame- 
work, the  greater  the  yield  at  maturity.  The  color 
of  the  foliage  is  deepened,  indicating  health  and 
activity  in  the  forces  at  work  on  the  structure  of  the 
plant.  Nitrates  also  show  markedly  in  the  economic 
value  of  the  crop ;  the  more  freely  Nitrates  are  given 
to  plants  the  greater  the  relative  proportion  in  the 
composition  of  the  plant  itself,  and  the  most  valuable 
part  of  all  vegetable  substances,  for  food  purposes,  is 
that  produced  by  Nitrate  of  Soda.  Nitrate  is  seldom 
used  in  sufficient  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of 
"complete  fertilizers." 

Potash  as  plant  food  seems  to  influence  more  par- 
ticularly the  development  of  the  woody  parts  of 
stems  and  the  pulp  of  fruits.  In  fact,  this  element 
of  plant  food  seems  to  supplement  the  action  of 
Nitrate  by  filling  out  the  framework  established  by 
the  latter. 

Phosphoric  acid  as  a  plant  food  seems  to  influence 
more  particularly  the  maturity  of  plants  and  the 
production  of  seed  or  grain.  Its  special  use  in  prac- 
tical agriculture  is  to  help  hasten  the  maturity  of 
crops  likely  to  be  caught  by  an  early  fall,  and  to  sup- 
plement green  manuring  where  grain  is  to  be  grown. 


Packing    Nitrate    into    Bags. 


Loading  Lighters. 
32 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  33 

It  is  frequently  used  in  altogether  unnecessary  excess 
in  "complete"  fertilizers. 

The  natural  plant  food  of  the  soil  comes  from 
many  sources,  but  chiefly  from  decaying  vegetable 
matter  and  the  weathering  of  the  mineral  matter  of 
the  soil.  Both  these  processes  supply  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid,  but  only  the  former  supplies  Nitrate, 
Whether  the  soil  has  been  fertilized  or  not,  there  are 
certain  signs  which  indicate  the  need  of  plant  food 
more  or  less  early  in  the  growth  of  the  crop.  If  a 
crop  appears  to  make  a  slow  growth,  or  seems  sickly 
in  color,  it  does  not  greatly  matter  whether  the  soil 
is  deficient  in  Nitrate  or  simply  that  the  Nitrogen 
present  has  not  been  nitrated  and  so  is  not  available ; 
the  remedy  lies  in  the  use  of  the  immediately  avail- 
able form  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 


COTTON  AND  FIBER  PLANTS 


Cotton  is  profitably  grown  in  nearly  all  kinds  of 
soil,  but  does  best  perhaps  on  a  strong,  sandy  loam. 
On  light  uplands  the  yield  is  light,  but  with  a  fair 
proportion  of  lint ;  on  heavy  bottom  lands  the  growth 
may  be  heavy,  but  the  proportion  of  lint  to  the  whole 
plant  is  much  reduced. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  must  be  even  and 
thorough.  About  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre  is  the 
usual  allowance. 

34 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  35 

Many  fertilizer  formulas  have  been  recommended, 
and  by  all  kinds  of  authority,  and  green  manuring  is 
widely  advised  as  a  means  of  helping  to  get  a  supply 
of  cheap  Nitrogen;  but,  with  this  crop  especially, 
cheap  forms  of  Nitrogen  are  very  dear. 

Report    on    Alabama    Cotton    Prize    Experiments 
with    Chemical    Fertilizers. 

Extended  experiments  have  been  made  from  year 
to  year  by  all  the  Experiment  Stations  in  the  various 
cotton-growing  states  with  a  view  to  arriving  at  the 
fertilizer  requirements  of  the  cotton  plant  under  the 
varying  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  which  are  met 
with  throughout  the  cotton  belt,  and  the  needs  of 
the  plant  for  the  various  essential  fertilizing  elements 
have  been  determined  with  comparative  accuracy. 

Many  of  the  formulas  for  cotton  and  corn  which 
are  in  use  throughout  the  cotton-growing  states 
supply  proportions  of  Nitrogen,  and,  in  some  cases, 
of  potash,  which  are  far  below  the  fertilizer  require- 
ments of  the  crop,  while  as  before  stated  little  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  matter  of  supplying  these  ele- 
ments in  forms  most  available  for  the  needs  of  the 
plant. 

Analyses  of  the  cotton  piant,  made  at  the  South 
Carolina,  Mississippi  and  Alabama  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, show  the  needs  of  the  plant  for  liberal  supplies 
of  Nitrogen  and  of  potash,  particularly  of  the  former 
element,  since  our  average  cotton  soils  are,  as  a  rule, 
so  poorly  supplied  with  it. 

At  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  in  1899  (Bul- 
letin 107),  analyses  were  made  of  all  portions  of  the 


36  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

cotton  plant  at  various  stages  of  growth,  including 
the  plant  at  full  maturity.  The  weight  of  the  various 
fertilizing  constituents  contained  in  the  whole  plant 
grown  on  one  acre,  and  producing  a  crop  equivalent 
to  300  pounds  dry  lint  cotton  per  acre,  was  also  care- 
fully ascertained  by  analyses  and  calculation,  the 
figures  being  presented  in  the  following  table. 

The  weight  of  Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash, 
and  lime  contained  in  a  crop  producing  300  pounds 
of  lint  is  given,  and  the  relative  distribution  of  these 
constituents  through  different  parts  of  the  plant  is 
also  presented.  The  weights  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  plant  in  a  thoroughly  dried  condition  are  also 
given,  and  it  will  be  noted  that  the  total  dry  weight 
of  the  crop  required  to  yield  300  pounds  of  lint  is, 
2,470.8  pounds. 

Amounts  of  Fertilizer  Constituents  in  Pounds  Required  to 
Produce  a  Crop  of  300  Pounds  of  Lint. 


Lint    300.0  lbs.  . 

Seed    507.1  lbs.. 

Burrs    363.1  lbs.  . 

Leaves     566.2  lbs 12.64 

Roots   130.2  lbs.  . 

Stems  604.2  lbs.  . 


Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lime 

0.54 

0.27 

1.77 

0.21 

17.95 

7.10 

5.73 

1.52 

2.99 

1.74 

11.22 

4.14 

12.64 

2.70 

6.13 

29.90 

0.62 

0.34 

1.17 

0.59 

3.87 

1.27 

5.14 

4.71 

Total  2,470.8  lbs 38.61     13.42     31.16     41.07 

It  appears  from  this  table  that  to  produce  300 
pounds  of  dry  lint  there  are  required  38.61  pounds 
of  Nitrogen,  13.42  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  31.16 
pounds  of  potash  and  41.07  pounds  of  lime. 

The  need  of  the  cotton  plant  for  liberal  amounts 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  37 

of  Nitrogen  being  thus  indicated  by  laboratory  tests, 
the  writer  has  during  the  past  two  seasons  supervised 
and  directed  a  series  of  experiments  upon  the  farm 
of  Mr.  J.  C.  Moore,  near  Auburn,  Alabama,  who  was 
desirous  of  securing  a  formula  adapted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  cotton  upon  the  sandy  soil  of  his  farm  and  of 
the  immediate  section  in  which  he  resided. 

This  soil  is  designated  by  the  U.  S.  Soil  Survey  of 
this  region  as  the  "Norfolk  Sandy  Loam."  It  is 
described  in  the  official  report  of  the  soil  survey  of 
Lee  county  as  follows:  "The  Norfolk  Sandy  Loam 
is  an  easily  tilled  soil  and  the  best  for  general  farm- 
ing of  any  of  the  Norfolk  types  in  this  country.  It 
is  well  adapted  to  cotton  and  when  fertilized  pro- 
duces fair  yields  of  corn  and  oats.  The  lightest 
phase  is  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  potatoes, 
berries  and  truck  crops.  The  soil  needs  organic 
matter  which  may  be  supplied  by  green  or  stable 
manure." 

The  cotton  experiments  conducted  upon  the  farm 
of  Mr.  Moore  were  carried  out  upon  several  plots  ag- 
gregating in  area  two-thirds  of  an  acre. 

The  land,  after  proper  preparation,  was  laid  off  in 
rows  seventy  yards  in  length,  while  the  distance 
between  the  rows  was  so  adjusted  that  ten  rows 
would  constitute  a  plot  of  one-sixth  of  an  acre.  Two 
blank  rows  were  left  between  the  individual  plots  so 
that  the  fertilizers  applied  to  one  plot  would  not  have 
any  undue  effect  upon  the  adjacent  plots. 

Plot  No.  1  was  fertilized  by  the  application  of  an 
acid  phosphate  containing  14  per  cent,  available 
phosphoric  acid  and  4  per  cent,  potash,  this  fertilizer 
being  applied  at  the  rate  of  300  pounds  per  acre. 


38 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


The  remaining  three  experimental  plots  of  ten 
rows  each  (covering  an  area  of  one-sixth  acre  each) 
were  also  fertilized  by  the  application  of  the  same 

Products  of  Auburn  Cotton  Plots,  Group  1, 
1905. 


^_pr^ 

Yields  of  Seed  Cotton. 

Plot  1. 

Plot  3.                          Plot  4 

750  lbs. 

1,272  lbs.                     1,440  lbs. 

Fertilizers 

Acid  Phosphate 

84  lbs.  Nitrate  of      126  lbs.  Nitrate  of 

and  Potash 

Soda,                            Soda, 

Carried  in  300  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate        Acid  Phosphate 

of  a  14-4-0 

and  Potash                 and  Potash 

Mixture 

Carried  in  300  lbs.    Carried  in  300  lbs. 

and 

of  a  14-4-0                   of  a  14-4-0 

Without  Nitrate 

Mixture                        Mixture 

FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


39 


quantity  of  the  above  mentioned  acid  phosphate  con- 
taining potash,  and,  in  addition,  Nitrate  of  Soda  was 
applied  to  plots  2,  3  and  4  in  the  proportions  of  42, 
84  and  126  pounds  per  acre,  respectively,  v^^hile  no 
Nitrate  or  other  form  of  Nitrogen  was  applied  to 
plot  No.  1. 


Kates 

1905 

1906 

Application  of 

Rate  of 

Rate  of 

Nitrate  of  Soda 

Yield 

Yield 

Each  Year 

Per  Acre 

Per  Acre 

Data    on    Yields    of    Cotton    Experiments    m    Lee 

County,  Alabama,  on  Norfolk  Sandy 

Loam,   1905-1906. 

Four  plots  were  employed  on  one-sixth  of  an  acre 
each  and  the  yields  per  acre  are  reported  in  terms  of 
seed  cotton.  In  tabular  form  the  results  are  pre- 
sented as  follows: 


Plot  1 — The  general  fertilizer  on  all 
four  plots  was  a  mixture  carrying 
14%  phosphoric  acid  and  A7o 
potash.  It  was  used  at  the  rate  of 
300  lbs.  per  acre,  without  Nitrate . . 

Plot  2 — Above  mixture  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  and  an  application 
at  the  rate  of  42  lbs.  of  Nitrate 
Soda  per  acre 

Plot  3 — Above  mixture  of  phos 
phoric  acid  and  potash  and  an  ap 
plication  at  the  rate  of  84  lbs.  o: 
Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre 

Plot  4 — Above  mixture  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  and  an  application 
at  the  rate  of  126  lbs.  of  Nitrate  of 
Soda  per  acre 


No  Nitrate     750  lbs.       930  lbs. 


42  lbs.       1116 


84 


126 


1272 


1440 


900 


1284 


1776 


In  1905,  the  fertilizers  were  applied  at  the  time  of 
planting,  the  date  being  April  27th.  In  1906,  the 
date   of   application    of   fertilizers   was   April   21st. 


40 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Nitrate  was  applied  in  the  furrow  along  with  the 
other  fertilizer  materials  all  at  the  time  of  planting. 
As  above  stated,  all  of  these  plots  were  fertilized 

Products  of  Auburn  Cotton  Plots,  Group  2, 
1906. 


Yields  of  Seed  Cotton. 

Plot  1. 

Plot  3. 

Plot  4. 

930  lbs. 

1,284  lbs. 
Fertilizers 

1,776  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 

84  lbs.  Nitrate  of 

126  lbs.  Nitrate  of 

and   Potash 

Soda, 

Soda, 

Carried  in  300  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate 

Acid  Phosphate 

of  a  14-4-0 

and  Potash 

and  Potash 

Mixture 

Carried  in  300  lbs. 

Carried  in  300  lbs. 

and 

of  a  14-4-0 

of  a  14-4-0 

Without  Nitrate 

Mixture 

Mixture 

FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  41 

equally  as  regards  the  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  so  that  the  effects  of  supplying  or  withhold- 
ing Nitrate  of  Soda  could  be  easily  noted. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  increased  yields  are  par- 
ticularly striking  in  the  case  of  the  application  of  84 
and  126  pounds  of  Nitrate.  On  plot  2,  in  1906,  the 
yield  was  practically  the  same  as  that  on  plot  1,  but 
this  was  due  to  the  fact  that  a  few  rows  in  plot  2, 
owing  to  the  stand  on  a  part  of  the  plot  being  not  so 
good  and  possibly  on  account  of  some  other  condi- 
tion, brought  down  the  average  yield  per  row  of  that 
plot.  A  majority  of  the  rows  of  that  plot,  however, 
undoubtedly  gave  a  better  yield  than  plot  No.  1,  and 
it  was  apparent  to  the  eye  that  most  of  this  plot  was 
superior  to  plot  No.  1. 

In  1905  it  was  noted  that  the  cotton  grown  upon 
the  "No  Nitrate"  plot  rusted  quite  badly,  while 
plots  3  and  4,  upon  which  an  abundance  of  Nitrate 
had  been  applied,  were  almost  immune  from  rust. 

Experimental  tests  upon  small  lots  of  the  seed 
cotton  produced  in  1906,  showed  that  the  yield  of  lint 
was  about  34.4  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  seed 
cotton,  but  no  data  were  secured  with  regard  to  the 
proportionate  yield  of  lint  in  1905.  Applying  these 
figures  to  the  excess  yield  of  seed  cotton  by  reason 
of  the  application  of  126  pounds  of  Nitrate,  it  will  be 
found  that  there  was  an  increase  of  about  238  pounds 
of  lint  cotton  (690  pounds  seed  cotton)  over  the  yield 
on  the  "No  Nitrate"  plot  in  1905  and  an  increase  of 
291  pounds  lint  cotton  (846  seed  cotton)  in  1906.  At 
10  cents  per  pound,  the  increased  value  of  the  lint 
cotton  yield  by  applying  126  pounds  of  Nitrate  would 
be  $23.80  for  1905  and  $29.10  for  1906,  to  say  nothing 


42  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

of  the  value  of  the  increased  yield  of  seed  which 
was  worth  from  $3  to  $4  more. 

The  views  given,  herewith,  will  afford  an  idea  of 
the  comparative  yields  from  plots  1,  3  and  4  in  1905 
and  1906.  The  quantities  of  seed  cotton  represented 
therein  are  equal  to  the  yields  of  one-twelfth  of  an 
acre. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  Mr. 
Moore  gave  a  large  amount  of  care  and  attention  to 
these  experiments.  By  his  close  personal  supervision 
of  the  work,  the  details  of  the  experiments  have  been 
secured  and  most  accurately  recorded. 

Purebred  Seed  for  Cotton  and  Nitrate  Fertilization. 

There  is  always  a  big  demand  for  the  best  grades 
of  cotton. 

After  having  selected  the  right  variety  for  your 
locality,  the  best  specimens  of  the  plants  should  be 
saved  for  seed. 

Grow  the  best  lint  from  purebred  seed  and  fertilize 
your  plants  properly  with  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

It  is  just  as  easy  and  twice  as  profitable  to  feed  a 
purebred  cotton  plant  as  it  is  to  feed  a  low  grade  lint 
producer. 

The  use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  does  not  take  the  place 
of  thorough  cultivation. 

The  need  of  the  South,  and  the  whole  United 
States,  in  fact,  is  for  a  more  rational  method  of  fer- 
tilization than  has  ever  been  our  practice. 

The  yields  of  our  staple  crops  in  this  country  do 
not  compare  with  the  yields  of  the  same  crops  in 
Europe,  because  in  Europe  they  use  two  or  three 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  43 

times  as  much  nitrogen  plant  food  per  acre,  and  pro- 
portionately a  vastly  better  balanced  plant  food 
ration. 

In  parts  of  this  country,  even  where  the  most  fer- 
tilizers are  used,  and  the  best  yields  are  obtained, 
such  yields  do  not  compare  with  the  average  yields 
of  Europe,  for  the  reason  that  we  do  not  use  as  much 
available  nitrogenous  fertilizer  per  acre.  We  use 
proportionately  too  much  of  other  ingredients  which 
do  not  compare  with  Nitrate  of  Soda  as  profit  pro- 
ducers. 

Every  cotton  planter  ought  to  grow  more  cotton 
per  acre  of  the  best  quality.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary 
to  diminish  the  acres  of  cotton  you  are  growing;  but 
it  is  highly  desirable  for  you  to  grow  higher  grades 
for  which  there  is  always  a  splendid  market.  Nitrate 
of  Soda  is  the  most  effective  of  all  the  fertilizers  for 
this  purpose,  and  a  few  hundred  pounds  of  it  will  do 
much  more  work  and  is  far  more  profitable  than  the 
low  grade  mixtures  containing  second  grade  ammoni- 
ates,  which  are  not  available  until  a  year  or  two  after 
they  are  applied.  With  proper  cultivation  and  with 
reasonable  rational  fertilization,  which  requires  much 
Nitrogen,  and  which  necessitates  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  Nitrogen  than  has  ever  been  used  in  our  Cot- 
ton Belt,  a  handsome  revenue  return  to  cotton  plant- 
ers is  possible. 

Some  critics  of  Nitrate  have  claimed  that  it  made 
such  a  bushy  growth  of  the  cotton  plant,  that  it  had 
shaded  the  bottom  part  of  the  plant  where  most  of 
the  cotton  is  produced  under  weevil  conditions. 
This  will  not  happen  if  you  put  your  Nitrate  on  early 
at  planting  time. 


44  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Where  any  Nitrogenous  fertilizer  is  used  to  excess, 
too  leafy  a  growth  is  apt  to  result,  and  excessive 
quantities  of  Nitrate,  or  indeed  of  any  fertilizers,  are 
not  recommended. 

Quinine  is  a  wonderful  remedy,  but  no  one  would 
advise  the  use  of  forty  grains  of  it  when  four  grains 
would  be  sufficient  and  satisfactory  in  every  way. 

Practice  early  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil 
so  as  to  get  a  good  seed  bed  for  quick  germination 
and  vigorous  early  growth  of  the  cotton. 

Cotton  should  be  forced  as  rapidly  as  possible  in 
its  early  growth,  to  get  ahead  of  the  boll  weevil. 
Early  applications  of  Nitrate  are  very  helpful  in 
accomplishing  this  result. 

How  Fertilizers  Beat  the  Weevil. 
(Progressive  Farmer.) 

The  fertilization  of  cotton  deserves  to  be  given 
more  serious  thought  since  the  boll  weevil  has  prac- 
tically covered  the  cotton  area  of  the  South.  Every- 
one who  has  given  serious  thought  to  cotton  pro- 
duction knows  that  success  in  fighting  the  weevil 
comes  very  largely  from  means  and  methods  leading 
to  early  setting  of  bolls  and  early  maturity  of  the 
crop.  Early  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil, 
early  planting  of  the  best  varieties,  thick  spacing, 
and  delayed  and  limited  chopping,  together  with 
frequent  and  shallow  cultivation,  are  all  useful. 
They  aid  in  inducing  the  crop  to  get  ahead  of  the 
weevil  by  setting  and  maturing  fruit  before  the 
weevils  have  multiplied  in  numbers  so  great  as  to 
practically  destroy  the  squares.     Another  effective 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  45 

but  indirect  means  of  fighting  the  weevil  is  found  in 
the  use  of  a  fertilizer  that  develops  and  matures  the 
crop  quickly. 

Experiments  conducted  by  the  North  Carolina 
Experiment  Station  throw  valuable  light  on  the 
efficiency  of  fertilizer  in  cotton  production  and  es- 
pecially upon  the  common  carriers  of  Nitrogen  used 
with  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  These  tests  show 
that  Nitrate  of  Soda  was  the  most  efficient  of  the 
six  sources  of  Nitrogen  used  in  the  experiment.  It 
produced  the  most  lint,  as  is  shown  in  the  following 
comparison  of  yields: 

Yield  of 
Seed  Cotton  Relative 

per  Acre  Efficiency 

Nitrate  of  Soda 699  lbs.  91.1 

Sulphate  of  A)nmonia 637  lbs.  85.4 

Nitrate  of   Lime 597  lbs.  85.4 

Cottonseed  Meal   569  lbs.  81.4 

Dried  Blood   550  lbs.  78.7 

Tankage   488  lbs.  69.8 

From  these  results  it  is  shown  that  the  Nitrogen 
furnished  by  Nitrate  of  Soda  has  given  a  larger  yield 
of  seed  cotton  than  Nitrogen  derived  from  any  other 
source  tried.  Under  boll  weevil  conditions  the  late 
or  top  crop  is  destroyed.  Consequently,  all  that  can 
be  done  to  induce  the  setting  and  maturing  of  the 
earliest  possible  crop  is  of  first  consideration.  Phos- 
phoric acid  is  the  element  in  fertilizer  that  induces 
fruitfulness  and  early  ripening,  while  Nitrogen 
makes  the  body  or  frame  of  the  plant  for  carrying 
the  fruit.  Acid  phosphate  is  the  best  source  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  the  quickest  and 
most  efficient  source  of  Nitrogen.    This  is  not  only 


46  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

shown  by  the  North  Carolina  experiment  just  men- 
tioned but  by  many  others  the  world  over. 


Early  Versus  Late  Applications  of  Nitrate  of  Soda 
to  Cotton. 

The  following  figures  of  averages  prove  positively 
that  early  applications  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  to  cotton 
give  the  best  results. 

1919-1920-1921-1922 

Average  increase  of     23  early  applications,  1919..      90.22% 
Average  increase  of     15  late   applications,    1919...     42.02% 

Average  increase  of       8  early  applications,  1920 
Average  increase  o£       4  late  application^   1920. 

Average  increase  of       7  early  applications,  1921 
Average  increase  of       2  late  applications,   1921 . 

Average  increase  of     38  early    applications,    1919- 

1921    115.21% 

Average  increase  of     21   late     applications,      1919- 

1921    31.27% 

April  1-May  11,  inclusive,  are  "Early"  applications. 
May  12-June  26,  inclusive,  are  "Late"  applications. 

Average  increase  of  165  early  applications,  1922..      61.37% 
Average  increase  of     80  late   applications,   1922...     49.0  % 

Date  of  Division:   Early  —  Planting  Time. 

Late  —  Two   weeks   after   planting, 
and  later. 


197.35% 
35.50% 

61.44% 
16.30% 


What  Nitrate  Has  Done  in  the  Planters'  Own  Hands. 

H.  F.  Lyle,  Somerville,  Alabama: 

"Plot  with  Nitrate  produced  207  lbs.  Cotton.    Plot  with- 
out Nitrate  produced  87  lbs.  Cotton. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  47 

"Nitrate  plot  did  not  shed  off  fruit  in  dry  weather  like 
the  other  plot, —  in  fact,  did  not  shed  any.  One-third 
larger  stalk.  Did  not  have  more  than  half  stand  on 
plots." 

B.  F.  White,  Olive  Branch,  Louisiana: 

"Plot  with  Nitrate  produced  90  lbs.  Cotton.     Plot  with- 
out Nitrate  produced  36  lbs.  Cotton. 

"The  Nitrate  of  Soda  Cotton  matured  before  the  boll 
weevil  affected  it.  I  consider  it  the  best  I  ever  used, — 
ahead  of  any  for  this  climate." 

In  Alabama  the  use  of  126  pounds  of  Nitrate  per 
acre  for  two  successive  seasons  gave  an  average 
increased  yield  of  768  pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre; 
or  an  increased  yield  of  lint  of  256  pounds  per  acre 
in  addition  to  the  seed  yield  of  512  pounds  for  the 
same  area. 


Directions  for  the  Use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 
Nitrate  Gives  Best  Results  from  Early 
Applications. 

When  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  applied  early  in  the  season 
to  cotton,  as  it  preferably  should  be,  early  maturity 
results.  Too  late  applications  of  any  nitrogenous 
fertilizer  will  delay  maturity. 

If  the  planter  has  been  badly  advised,  and  in  conse- 
quence applies  his  nitrogenous  fertilizer  too  late,  he 
should  not  blame  the  fertilizer  for  his  cotton  having 
behaved  contrary  to  nature's  intent. 

What  is  needed  most  is  to  secure  a  certain  meas- 
ure of  maturity  of  the  cotton  before  the  boll  weevil 
comes  out  of  hibernation  in  too  great  force. 

It  has  been  alleged  that  the  use  of  Nitrate  causes 


48  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

a  "weedy"  growth  of  the  cotton  plant  without 
proper  fruitage.  This  is  not  true  when  Nitrate  is 
applied  in  proper  amounts  and  at  the  best  time,  viz., 
under  the  cotton  before  planting.  Heavy  applica- 
tions of  Nitrate  put  on  early  will  always  bring  early 
maturity  and  full,  early  fruitage.  Heavy  applica- 
tions of  Nitrate  put  on  late  delay  maturity  and  are 
never  advised.  When  it  is  necessary  to  put  Nitrate 
on  cotton  later  in  the  season,  light  applications  not 
to  exceed  100  pounds  to  the  acre  may  be  made.  This 
necessity  is  not  likely  to  arise  when  enough  Nitrate 
has  been  put  on  early. 

In  the  cases  of  the  cultivated  crops  Nitrate  should 
be  well  covered  or  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil. 

Larger  amounts  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  may  be  used  up 
to  250  pounds  per  acre,  or  even  more. 

Cotton  is  not  an  exhaustive  crop  when  grown  in 
rotation  and  when  properly  fertilized. 

Formula  for  Cotton. 

Nitrate  alone  150  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     200  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate    200  lbs.  per  acre 

The  use  of  sulphate  or  muriate  of  potash  is  advised 
every  other  year  at  planting  time  at  the  rate  of  fifty 
pounds  to  the  acre.  In  case  neither  salt  can  be  se- 
cured an  equivalent  amount  of  other  forms  of  potash 
salts  may  be  used. 


TOBACCO. 

The  value  of  tobacco  depends  so  much  upon  its 
grade,  and  the  grade  so  much  upon  the  soil  and  cli- 
mate, as  well  as  fertilization,  that  general  rules  for 
tobacco  culture  should  not  be  mathematically  laid 
down.  Leaving  out  special  kinds,  such  as  Perique, 
the  simplest  classification  of  tobacco  is  as  follows: 
Cigar. — Tobacco  for  cigar  manufacture,  grown 
chiefly  in  Connecticut  and  Wisconsin.  Manufactur- 
ing.— Tobacco  manufactured  into  plug,  or  the  vari- 
ous forms  for  pipe  smoking  and  cigarettes.  All  kinds 
of  tobacco  have  the  same  general  habits  of  growth, 
but  the  two  classes  mentioned  have  very  different 
plant  food  requirements. 

Cigar  tobaccos  generally  require  a  rather  light  soil ; 
the  manufacturing  kinds  prefer  heavy,  fertile  soils. 
In  either  case,  the  soil  must  be  clean,  deeply  broken, 
and  thoroughly  pulverized.  Fall  plowing  is  always 
practiced  on  heavy  lands,  or  lands  new  to  tobacco 
culture.  Tobacco  may  be  safely  grown  on  the  same 
land  year  after  year.  The  plant  must  be  richly  fer- 
tilized; it  has  thick,  fleshy  roots,  and  comparatively 
little  foraging  power — that  is,  ability  to  send  out 
roots  over  an  extensive  tract  of  soil  in  search  of  plant 
food. 

Fertilizer  for  tobacco  is  used  in  quantities  per  acre 
as  low  as  400  pounds  of  high  grade  and  as  much  as 
3,000  pounds  of  low  grade.  While  the  production  of 
leaf  may  be  greatly  increased  by  the  use  of  Nitrate, 

49 


50 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


the  Other  plant  food  elements  should  also  be  used  to 
secure  a  well  matured  crop.  In  the  case  of  cigar 
tobaccos,  Nitrate  may  be  used  exclusively  as  the 
source  of  Nitrogen  as  it  is  difficult  to  secure  a 
thoroughly  matured  leaf  unless  the  supply  of  digest- 
Virginia  Experiments. 


No  Nitrate.       100  lbs.  Nitrate  o£  Soda  per  Acre. 


ible  Nitrogen  is  more  or  less  under  control,  a  con- 
dition not  practicable  with  ordinary  fertilizers. 

Tobacco  growing  is  special  farming,  and  should  be 
carefully  studied  before  starting  in  as  a  planter.  For 
small  plantations,  the  plants  are  best  bought  of  a 
regular  seedsman.  The  cultivation  is  always  clean, 
and  an  earth  mulch  two  or  three  inches  in  depth 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  51 

should  be  maintained — that  is,  the  surface  soil  to 
that  depth  kept  thoroughly  pulverized. 

At  the  Kentucky  Experiment  Station,  experiments 
were  made  with  fertilizers  on  Burley  Tobacco.  The 
land  was  "deficient  in  natural  drainage,"  so  that  the 
fertilizers  could  hardly  be  expected  to  have  their  full 
effect.  Yet,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  table, 
the  profits  from  the  use  of  the  fertilizers  were 
enormous : 

Experiments    on   Tobacco   at    the    Kentucky    Experiment 
Station. 

Value  of 

, Yield  of  Tobacco  —  Pounds ^  Tobacco 

Fertilizer  per  Acre  Bright     Red       Lugs       Tips     Trash       ToUl     per  Acre 

1.  No    manure 200       360         60       540       1,160       $67.20 

2.  160    lbs.    Nitrate    of 

Soda     230       450       310         90       530       1,610       138.40 

3.  160  lbs  sulp.  of  pot- 

ash; 160  lbs.  Ni- 
trate of  Soda 190       755       605       120       140       1,810       190.45 

4.  320    lbs.    superphos- 

phate; 160  lbs. 
sulp.  of  potash; 
160  lbs.  Nitrate  of 
Soda   310       810       420         10       360       2,000       201.20 

"The  tobacco  was  assorted  by  an  expert  and  the 
prices  given  as  follows:  bright  and  red,  fifteen  cents 
per  pound ;  lugs,  six  cents  per  pound ;  tips,  eight  cents 
per  pound;  trash,  two  cents  per  pound." 

One  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  Nitrate  of  Soda, 
costing  about  $3.75,  increased  the  value  of  the  crop 
$71.20  per  acre! 

Instructions  for  Using  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  Tobacco. 

Just  before  setting  out  plants,  apply  the  Nitrate  of 
Soda  by  broadcasting  it  evenly,  by  machine,  or  by 


52  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

hand,  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  tobacco  field  you 
are  fertilizing,  at  the  rate  of  150  pounds  per  acre. 
One  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  Nitrate  is  equal  in 
bulk  to  about  one  and  one-half  bushels. 

Formula   for   Tobacco. 

Nitrate  alone  150  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     200  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate   200  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  conveniently  be  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  of 
potash  to  the  acre  every  other  year. 


FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN. 


Corn  varies  in  yield  of  grain  per  acre,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  soil  upon  which  it  is  grown, 


^'^'iS'i:.:.  *:i^fc*' 


>A.  i?r: 


''■?.->;■'%•''■  ;q 


m.^^^^ 


Fertilizer,  300  pounds  per 
acre  minerals  and  150 
pounds  per  acre  Nitrate 
of  Soda. 

Rate  of  yield,  100  bushels 
ears  per  acre,  excellent 
quality. 


Fertilizer,  300  pounds  per 
acre  minerals  only. 

Rate  of  yield,  80  bushels 
ears  per  acre,  poor  qual- 
ity. 


the  location  of  its  growth  and  the  variety  used.    Soils 
best  suited  for  corn  culture  are  rich,  deep  loams, 

53 


54  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

naturally  well  drained  and  located  in  those  regions 
where  the  average  temperatures  during  the  growing 
months  of  May  to  September,  inclusive,  reach  from 
75  degrees  to  80  degrees  Fahr.  That  is,  the  best  cli- 
matic conditions  do  not  depend  upon  average  annual 
temperature,  but  upon  the  high  temperature  main- 
tained during  these  growing  months.  The  growing 
season  will,  however,  vary  also  in  different  sections 
of  the  country,  ranging  from  90  to  160  days,  and 
varieties  exist  which  are  adapted  to  these  different 
growing  periods.  The  yield  is  also,  of  course,  in- 
fluenced by  moisture,  depending  again  not  altogether 
upon  the  total  rainfall,  but  upon  the  requisite 
amounts  that  may  be  depended  upon  from  May  to 
September,  the  growing  months.  The  plants  need 
high  temperatures  and  maximum  rainfalls  through- 
out July  and  August,  with  clear,  sunshiny  weather 
between  rains. 

The  variety  also  has  a  direct  influence  upon  the 
yield  of  the  crop,  and  work  done  recently  in  the  mat- 
ter of  corn  breeding  and  selection  has  very  consider- 
ably broadened  the  area  of  profitable  culture.  The 
Flint  varieties  are  more  suitable  for  the  northern  sec- 
tions, and  the  Dent  varieties  for  the  central  and 
southern  sections  of  the  United  States. 


The  Object  of  Growth  —  Grain. 

Corn  is  grown  mainly  for  its  grain,  and  for  this 
reason  the  greatest  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
development  of  varieties  that  will  yield  the  largest 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  55 

proportion  of  grain  to  stalk ;  because,  however,  of  the 
increasing  use  of  corn  as  a  forage  plant,  much  atten- 
tion has  recently  been  given  to  the  varieties  adapted 
for  soiling  and  for  silage. 

In  growing  corn  for  these  different  purposes 
different  methods  are  adopted.  When  the  main 
object  is  to  secure  grain,  varieties  are  selected  which 


One  Hundred   Bushels  of  Ears  of  Corn  per  Acre,  Before 
Harvesting. 


produce  large,  uniform  ears,  with  deep  grains.  In 
order  to  insure  its  proper  development  and  ripening, 
it  is  planted  preferably  in  hills,  at  such  distances  as 
will  permit  a  maximum  amount  of  sunshine  to  reach 
all  parts  of  the  plant,  and  so  cultivated  as  to  en- 
courage the  largest  use  of  food  from  soil  sources. 
In  other  words,  every  precaution  is  taken  to  insure 
the  largest  proportion  of  ripened  grain;  the  stalks 
often  being  regarded  as  a  by-product  of  little  value. 
In  fact,  in  many  parts  of  the  country  the  stalks  are 


56  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

not  Utilized  as  they  should  be,  although  when  well 
cured  they  are  equivalent  in  food  value,  on  the  dry 
matter  basis,  to  good  timothy  hay. 

In  planting  Indian  corn  for  grain  we  doubtless 
often  plant  the  seed  too  thick. 


Silage. 

When  grown  for  silage,  the  object  is  to  secure  the 
largest  amount  of  digestible  matter  per  acre.  Hence, 
varieties  with  larger  stalk  and  leaf  are  generally 
used  and  the  corn  planted  much  closer  together  and 
thicker  in  the  rows,  but  not  so  thick  as  to  prevent 
many  of  the  stalks  from  producing  ears.  When  cut 
when  the  ears  are  beginning  to  glaze,  good  crops  will 
oftentimes  yield  as  much  as  5,000  to  6,000  pounds  of 
dry  matter  per  acre.  Larger  amounts  of  plant  food 
than  for  grain  are  required,  as  a  rule,  in  order  that 
the  vegetative  functions  may  be  increased,  hence  on 
most  soils,  even  in  a  good  state  of  fertility,  applica- 
tions of  fertilizers  are  necessary,  more  particularly 
those  containing  Nitrogen. 


Soiling. 

In  growing  corn  for  soiling,  the  object  is  to  obtain 
the  largest  amount  of  succulent  food  per  acre,  which 
may  be  completely  eaten  by  the  animal.  Hence,  for 
soiling,  quick-growing  varieties,  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  leaf  and  small  stalks,  are  grown  and  planted 
thicker  than  for  silage,  and  still  greater  care  in  the 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  57 

use  of  manures  and  fertilizers  is  required  in  order  to 
enable  the  plant  to  absorb  food  throughout  its  entire 
growth. 

Sweet  Corn. 

When  sweet  varieties  are  grown,  the  object  is  to 
obtain  a  large  number  of  ears  suitable  for  the  table. 
The  sweet  varieties  are  less  hardy  and  vigorous  than 


Corn  and  Oats,  New  York  Experimental  Fields. 

the  ordinary  field  varieties,  and  are  better  adapted 
for  light  soils,  hence  the  treatment  is  still  different; 
from  that  used  when  grown  for  the  purposes  already 
mentioned.  The  grain  is  not  planted  ordinarily  until 
the  soil  is  thoroughly  warm,  and  the  temperature  is 
likely  to  continue  high  and,  because  better  suited  for 
light  soils,  special  fertilization  is  necessary. 


58  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Indian  Corn    (Maize)    Experiments. 
New  York  State,  Seasons  of  1918  and  of  1919. 

Experiments  in  New  York  State  carried  on  with 
maize  ensilage,  or  Indian  corn,  show  that  whilst  the 
return  in  value  of  the  increased  crop  is  not  excessive 
owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  lateness  of  the  fertilizer  ap- 
plication, notable  crop  increases  were  obtained. 

The  late  fertilizer  application  was  used  in  this  case 
advisedly  to  check  up  this  practice  which  is  followed 
by  many  farmers,  and  which  is  rather  against  our 
general  advice  as  to  very  late  dressings  of  Nitrate. 
Earlier  applications  on  corn,  we  are  confident,  will 
prove  to  be  more  profitable. 

Among  interesting  items  secured  are  the  yields  of 
protein  per  acre  as  tabulated  in  the  following  tables. 
It  is  notable  that  the  total  ash  mineral  residue  per 
acre  removed  from  the  plot  on  which  Nitrate  alone 
was  used  is  less  than  on  the  check  plot,  and  that  the 
exhaustion  of  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime  was 
at  a  lower  rate  per  acre  on  the  Nitrate  plot  than  on 
the  check  plot.  Notable  also  is  the  fact  that  the  rate 
of  yield  of  protein  was  lower  on  the  check  plot  and 
also  on  the  acid  phosphate  alone  plot  than  on  the 
Nitrate  plot.  Protein  is,  of  course,  a  factor  of  very 
high  food  value  for  dairy  stock. 

The  results  speak  well  for  Nitrate  not  exhausting 
soil  fertility  as  to  its  mineral  essentials.  It  confirms 
the  idea  that  soil  exhaustion  proceeds  more  rapidly 
when  no  fertilizers  are  used  as  compared  with  their 
rational  use. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  59 

Reports   on   Experimental   Work   on   Maize   Ensilage. 

1918. 
Crop  —  Maize  Ensilage. 

Variety  — Half  State  Corn;  Half  Gold  Nugget. 
Location  —  Chenango  County,  New  York. 
Soil  —  Bottom  land. 
Cultivations  —  Three. 

Climate  —  Short  season;  high  altitude,  1,000  feet. 
Weather — Cool;  latter  part  of  summer,  drought. 
Date  of  Application  of  Fertilizer  —  July  5,  1918. 
Date  of  Harvesting  —  September  16,  1918. 
Size  of  Plots  —  ^  acre. 
Rate  of  Application  per  Acre  —  250  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda; 

400  lbs.  Acid  Phosphate. 
Fertilizers  Used  —  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  Acid  Phosphate. 
Cost  of  Fertilizer  per  Acre  —  Plot  1,  $12;  plot  2,  $8;  plot 

3,  $4. 

Crop   in   Pounds   per   Acre. 

TABLE   NO.   I 

Rate  of  Kate  of 

Application  Yields  Crop  Yields 

Plot  Nos.  per  Acre  per  Plot  per  Acre 

1.  Nitrate    of    Soda 250  lbs.         7,120  lbs.         28,480  lbs. 

and 

Acid    Phosphate 400  lbs. 

2.  Nitrate    alone 250  lbs.         6,610  lbs.         26,440  lbs. 

*3.  Acid  Phosphate  alone 400  lbs.         6,030  lbs.         24,120  lbs. 

4.  Check  —  nothing    6,290  lbs.         25,160  lbs. 

Pounds  per  Acre  of  Essential  Fertility  Removed  by  Crop. 

TABLE   NO.   II 

Plot  Nos.                                                       Phosphoric  Acid        Potash  Nitrogen 

1.  Nitrate   of   Soda  and   Acid 

Phosphate    38.45  lbs.  91.99  lbs.  46.28  lbs. 

2.  Nitrate    alone 34.64  lbs.  82.76  lbs.  42.97  lbs. 

3.  Acid  Phosphate  alone 33.29  lbs.  81.53  lbs.  39.20  lbs. 

4.  Check  —  nothing    37.24  lbs.  94.35  lbs.  40.89  lbs. 

*  Acid  Phosphate  alone  appears  to  have  diminished  the  crop  here  as  it 
did  in  the  case  of  our  sugar  cane  in  Porto  Rico. 


336.1  lbs. 

17.94  lbs. 

290.8  lbs. 

14.81  lbs. 

282.2  lbs. 

18.09  lbs. 

299.4  lbs. 

19.88  lbs. 

60  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Pounds   per   Acre   of    Protein    and    Ash    (Minerals)    and 
Lime  Removed  by  Crop. 


TABLE  NO.   Ill 

Plot  Nos.  Protein 

1.  Nitrate   of   Soda   and   Acid 

Phosphate    506.9  lbs. 

2.  Nitrate    alone 499.7  lbs. 

3.  Acid  Phosphate  alone 465.5  lbs. 

4.  Check  —  nothing    462.9  lbs. 


1919. 

Crop  —  Maize  Ensilage. 

Variety  —  Golden  Nugget. 

Location  —  Chenango  County,  New  York, 

Soil  —  Clay  loam. 

Cultivations  —  Three. 

Climate  —  Temperate;  1,000  feet  above  sea. 

Weather  —  Cloudy;  wet. 

Amount  of  Fertilizer  per  Plot  —  20,  40  and  80  lbs. 

Method    of    Cultivation  —  Horse    cultivator    and    by    hand 

hoeing. 
Date  of  Application  of  Fertilizer  —  June  5,  1919,  for  plots 

1,  2,  3  and  4;  and  June  5  and  24  for  plots  5  and  6,  when 

corn  was  9  inches  high. 
Date  of  Harvesting — September  15,  1919. 
Size  of  Plot —  1/10  acre,  plots  1,  2,  3  and  4;  1/20  acre,  plots 

5  and  6. 
Rate  of  Application  per  Acre  —  200  lbs.,  400  lbs.  and  600  lbs. 
Fertilizers  Used  —  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  Acid  Phosphate. 
Cost  of  Fertilizer  per  Acre  —  $26.40. 
Method  of  Applying  —  Broadcast,  cultivated  in  immediately. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


61 


Crops  in  Pounds  per  Acre. 

TABLE  NO.   I 

Kate  of  Rate  of 

Application  Crops  Yield  Crop  Yields 

Plot  Nos.                                                                 per  Acre  per  Plot         per  Acre 

1.  Nitrate  of  Soda 1 

and                                        [      400  4,180  41,800 

Acid    Phosphate J 

2.  Nitrate     alone 400  4,100  41,000 

3.  Acid   Phosphate   alone 400  2,840  28,400 

4.  Check  —  nothing     2,820  28,200 

5.  NaNOa  and  P.O. 200  each 

June  5, 

1919; 

200   each 

June   24, 

1919..  1,780  35,600 

6.  NaNO.  and  P.O. 200  each 

June  5, 

1919; 
400  each 
June    24, 

1919..  2,040  40,800 

Pounds  per  Acre  of  Protein  and  Minerals  Removed 
by   Crop. 

TABLE  NO.  II 

Phosphoric 
Plot  Nos.  Acid  Potash       Protein    Nitrogen 

1.  Nitrate  of  Soda 1 

and                                        [  47.23  95.30  689.7  110.3 

Acid    Phosphate J 

2.  Nitrate    alone 38.06  109.06  471.5  75.4 

3.  Acid  Phosphate  alone 56.99  77.25  289.4  46.3 

4.  Check  —  nothing     31.58  62.89  377.3  61.1 

5.  NaNOs  and  P.O= 47.70  75.83  585.2  93.6 

6.  NaNOs  and  P.O:, 56.71  102.82  739.7  118.3 

Pounds  per  Acre  of  Minerals  Removed  by  Crop. 

TABLE  NO.  Ill 
Plot  Nos.  Ash  Iiime 

1.  Nitrate   of   Soda 1 

and  456.9  31.77 

Acid    Phosphate J 

2.  Nitrate    alone 468.6  38.54 

3.  Acid   Phosphate   alone 342.2  28.12 

4.  Check  —  nothing     293.0  27.35 

5.  NaNO.  and  P.O., 408.0  45.57 

6.  NaNOa  and  P.O. 472.1  34.68 


62  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Pounds  per  Acre  of  Essential  Fertilizer  Ingredients 

Added   to   the   Soil   in   the    Fertilizers   Used. 

1919. 


PlotNos. 

TABLE  NO. 

Rate  of 

Application 

per  Acre 

IV 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash  in 

Nitrate 

Used 

Estimated 

1.  Nitrate  of  Soda 

400 

56 

8 

and 

Acid  Phosphate    

400 

56 

8 

2.  Nitrate     alone 

400 

56 

8 

3.  Acid  Phosphate  alone. 

400 

56 

4.  Check  —  nothing     .... 

5.  NaNO.  and  P.O., 

400  each 

56 

56 

8 

6.  NaNO.  and  P.O. 

400  each 

84 

84 

12 

The  profit  per  acre  as  between  the  application  of 
400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  alone,  and  of  Nitrate 
and  acid  phosphate  together  shows  that  the  added 
investment  in  400  pounds  of  Nitrate,  which  may  be 
estimated  at  practically  fourteen  dollars  ($14),  gave 
a  rate  of  profit  of  twenty  dollars  ($20)  per  acre,  valu- 
ing ensilage  at  present  at  five  dollars  ($5)  a  ton. 

Since  the  rate  of  yield  per  acre  of  the  Nitrate  and 
acid  phosphate  plot  was  20.9  tons  as  against  a  rate 
of  yield  per  acre  of  14.1  tons  for  the  acid  phosphate 
alone  plot,  —  the  value  in  the  first  case  is  placed  at 
one  hundred  four  dollars  and  fifty  cents  ($104.50) 
per  acre,  and  in  the  latter  case  at  seventy  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  ($70.50)  per  acre.  As  the  crop  increase 
from  the  use  of  400  pounds  of  Nitrate  is  valued  at 
thirty-four  dollars  ($34),  and  the  cost  of  the  Nitrate 
at  fourteen  dollars  ($14),  a  profit  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  dollars  ($20)  per  acre  is  the  result,  as  above 
stated. 

These  figures  are  in  general  in  close  agreement 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  63 

with  those  secured  in  1918,  and  confirm  the  view 
that  rational  fertilizing  with  Nitrate  does  not  appear 
to  exhaust  the  soil  in  the  net  result  as  much  as  does 
doing  without  fertilizers. 

Instructions   for   Using   Nitrate  of   Soda   on   Corn. 

As  soon  as  the  corn  is  planted  in  the  spring,  apply 
the  Nitrate  of  Soda  by  broadcasting  it  evenly  over 
the  entire  surface  of  the  corn  field  you  are  fertilizing 
at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  per  acre,  which  is  equal  in 
bulk  to  about  two  bushels. 

Our   Formula  for  Corn. 

Nitrate  alone   200  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate    300  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate    300  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash  to  the  acre  every  other  year. 


SMALL  FRUITS. 

Under  this  head  we  treat  of  blackberries,  currants, 
gooseberries  and  raspberries.  Strawberries  are 
treated  separately.  All  these  small  fruits  are  com- 
monly grown  in  the  garden,  generally  under  such 
conditions  that  systematic  tillage  is  not  practicable. 
For  this  reason  such  plant  food  essentials  as  may 
exist  naturally  in  the  soil  become  available  to  the 
uses  of  the  plants  very  slowly.  This  is  as  true  of 
the  decomposition  of  animal  or  vegetable  ammoni- 
ates  as  of  phosphates  and  potashes.  Consequently, 
small  fruits  in  the  garden  suffer  from  lack  of  suffi- 
cient plant  food.  All  these  plants  when  planted  in 
gardens  are  usually  set  in  rows  four  feet  apart,  the 
plants  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  rows ;  about  4,200 
plants  to  an  acre.  In  field  culture,  blackberries  are 
usually  set  four  feet  apart  each  way. 

So  far  as  possible,  small  fruits  should  be  cultivated 
in  the  early  spring,  and  all  dead  canes  removed. 
Work  into  the  soil  along  the  rows  300  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  and  50  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash  if 
obtainable;  when  the  plants  are  in  full  leaf,  broad- 
cast along  the  rows  300  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda, 
and  work  in  with  a  rake.  If  at  any  time  before 
August  the  vines  show  a  tendency  to  drop  leaves,  or 
stop  growing,  apply  more  Nitrate.  Small  fruits 
must  have  a  steady,  even  growth;  in  most  cases  un- 
satisfactory results  can  be  directly  traced  to  irregu- 
lar feeding  of  the  plants.  In  field  culture,  the  crop 
must  be  tilled  quite  the  same  as  for  corn;  in  the  gar- 

64 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  65 

den  in  very  dry  weather  irrigation  should  be  used 
if  possible.  The  yield  per  acre  is  very  heavy,  and, 
of  course,  the  plants  must  be  given  plant  food  in 
proportion. 

Raspberries,  Currants,  Gooseberries. 

Sow  broadcast,  in  the  fall,  a  mixture  of  300  pounds 
of  acid  or  superphosphate  and  50  pounds  sulphate  of 
potash  per  acre  if  obtainable.  This  can  be  done,  if 
the  rows  are  four  feet  apart,  by  sowing  a  large  hand- 
ful at  every  two  steps  on  each  side  of  the  row.  Rasp- 
berries and  gooseberries  should  have  a  small  handful, 
and  currants  a  large  handful  to  each  bush.  This 
should  be  cultivated  in,  if  possible,  early  in  the 
spring.  Sow  Nitrate  of  Soda  in  the  same  way.  It 
will  pay  to  put  on  as  much  Nitrate  as  you  did  acid 
or  superphosphate,  but  if  you  do  not  want  to  put  on 
so  much,  use  smaller  handfuls. 

Our   Formula  for  Raspberries  and   Currants. 

Nitrate  alone  200  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     300  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate   300  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  of 
potash  to  the  acre  every  other  year. 

Strawberries. 

This  plant  requires  a  moist  soil,  but  not  one  water- 
logged at  any  time  of  the  year.    A  light  clay  loam, 


66  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

or  a  sandy  loam  is  preferable.  There  are  several 
methods  of  cultivation,  but  the  matted  row  is  gen- 
erally found  more  profitable  than  the  plan  of  growing 
only  in  hills.  While  some  growers  claim  that  one 
year's  crop  is  all  that  should  be  harvested  before 
ploughing  down  for  potatoes,  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
common  practice  is  to  keep  the  bed  for  at  least  two 


In   the   basket,   and   lying  on  To  the  right  back  of 

12-inch  rule,  200  lbs.  Nitrate  rule,  no  Nitrate, 

of  Soda  to  the  acre. 


harvests.  In  selecting  plants,  care  should  be  exer- 
cised to  see  that  pistillate  plants  are  not  kept  too 
much  by  themselves,  or  the  blossoms  will  prove  bar- 
ren. Farmyard  manure  should  never  be  used  after 
the  plants  are  set  out,  as  the  weed  seeds  contained 
therein  will  give  much  trouble,  especially  as  the  horse 
hoe  is  of  little  use  in  the  beds.  Use  200  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate,  applied  broadcast  immediately  after 
harvest.     In  the  spring  as  soon  as  growth  begins 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  67 

broadcast  150  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  to  the  acre. 
In  setting  out  a  new  bed,  broadcast  the  fertilizer 
along  the  rows  and  cultivate  in,  before  the  plants  are 
set  out. 

On  old  beds,  sow  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
broadcast  in  the  fall  and  150  pounds  of  Nitrate  per 
acre  in  the  spring. 

Our  Formula  for  Strawberries. 

Nitrate  alone  150  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     200  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate 200  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash 
to  the  acre  every  other  year. 

The  experiment  was  with  a  field  of  Bubachs.  One 
plot  was  given  200  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  to  the 
acre  when  growth  began.  Another  received  no  Ni- 
trate. On  June  3d  all  the  ripe  fruit  was  picked  from 
equal  length  of  rows  of  each  plot.  The  photograph 
shows  the  result. 

Grapes. 

Grape  vineyards  should  be  located  and  planted  by 
an  expert,  and  one,  too,  who  has  had  experience  with 
the  locality  selected  for  the  site.  The  treatment  of 
the  young  plants  is  a  matter  of  soil  and  climate,  for 
which  there  are  no  general  rules.  When  the  vines 
have  reached  bearing  age,  however,  their  fertilization 
becomes  a  very  important  matter.  The  new  wood 
must  be  thoroughly  matured  to  bear  next  year's  fruit, 
and  an  excess  of  ammoniate  late  in  the  season  not 


68  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

only  defeats  this  object,  but  also  lessens  the  number 
of  fruit  buds. 

Instructions  for  Using  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  Grapes. 

Apply  the  Nitrate  of  Soda  by  broadcasting  it 
evenly  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  vineyard  you 
are  fertilizing,  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  per  acre, 
during  the  early  spring  months,  preferably  just 
before  the  vines  are  in  bud. 

Our   Formula   for  Grapes. 

Nitrate  alone   200  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate    300  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate    300  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained  we 
advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash 
to  the  acre  every  other  year. 

GREENHOUSE  PLANT  FOOD. 

For  flowering  plants  in  greenhouses,  as  long  as 
possible  before  blooming,  apply  one  pound  of  Nitrate 
of  Soda  to  200  square  feet  of  surface.  This  appli- 
cation is  equal  to  200  pounds  per  acre.  If  used  with 
acid  phosphate,  a  larger  amount,  viz:  One  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  with  an  equal  quantity 
of  acid  phosphate  may  be  used  to  each  200  square 
feet  of  surface,  making  300  pounds  per  acre,  provided 
excessive  quantities  of  barnyard  manure  have  not 
been  used.  It  is  important  to  thoroughly  work  these 
fertilizers  into  the  soil. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  69 

The  use  of  rotted  stable  manure  as  a  source  of 
greenhouse  plant  food  has  been  the  custom  for  many 
years.  Manure,  however,  supplies  its  plant  food  very 
irregularly  and  the  Nitrogen  which  it  contains  is  not 
available,  hence  for  forcing  plants  it  cannot  be  fully 
relied  upon.  It  should  be  supplemented  by  the  use  of 
commercial  fertilizers  such  as  Nitrate  of  Soda  and 
acid  phosphate. 

For  Plants  in  Pots. 

Water  once  every  four  days,  during  early  active 
growth,  with  a  solution  of  one-half  an  ounce  of  Ni- 
trate of  Soda  to  one  gallon  of  water  —  avoid  wetting 
the  foliage.  This  will  produce  dark  green  color  in 
the  leaves,  which,  when  obtained,  indicates  that  for 
this  most  important  period,  a  sufficient  amount  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  has  been  used.  Do  not  put  dry 
Nitrate  on  wet  foliage. 

For  young  fruit  trees  in  the  nursery,  from  one- 
quarter  to  one  pound  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre  may 
be  used,  according  to  age.  It  is  important  in  this 
case  that  the  fertilizer  should  be  thoroughly  worked 
into  the  soil. 

LAWNS  AND  GOLF  LINKS. 

Good  lawns  are  simply  a  matter  of  care  and 
rational  treatment.  If  the  soil  is  very  light,  top-dress 
liberally  with  clay  and  work  into  the  sand.  In  all 
cases  the  soil  must  be  thoroughly  fined  and  made 
smooth,  as  the  seed,  being  very  small,  requires  a  fine 
seed  bed.  In  the  South,  seed  to  Bermuda  grass  or 
Kentucky  blue  grass;  in  the  North,  the  latter  is  also 
a  good  lawn  grass,  but  perhaps  a  little  less  desirable 


70  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

than  Rhode  Island  bent  grass  (Agrostis  canina). 
Avoid  mixtures,  as  they  give  an  irregularly  colored 
lawn  under  stress  of  drouth,  or  early  frosts,  or 
maturity.  For  Rhode  Island  bent  grass  use  50 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  Kentucky  blue  grass  40  to 
45  pounds,  and  for  Bermuda  grass  15  pounds.  If  for 
any  reason  the  soil  cannot  be  properly  prepared,  pul- 
verize the  fertilizer  very  fine  indeed.  The  grass 
should  be  mowed  regularly  and  the  clippings  removed 
until  nearly  mid-summer  when  they  are  best  left  on 
the  soil  as  a  mulch.  For  a  good  lawn,  broadcast  per 
acre  in  the  spring  50  pounds  of  sulphate  or  muriate  of 
potash,  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  200  pounds 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda.  Lawns  are  very  different  from 
field  crops  as  they  are  not  called  upon  to  mature 
growth  in  the  line  of  seed  productions,  and  they  may 
safely  be  given  applications  of  Nitrate  whenever  the 
sickly  green  color  of  the  grass  appears,  which  shows 
that  digestible  or  nitrated  ammonia  is  the  plant  food 
needed.  These  applications  of  plant  food  must  be 
continued  each  year  without  fail,  and  all  bare  or 
partly  bare  spots  well  raked  down  and  reseeded.  If 
absolutely  bare,  these  spots  should  be  deeply  spaded. 
On  very  heavy  clay  soils,  and  in  low  situations,  a 
drainage  system  must  be  established. 

Instructions  for  Using  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  Meadows, 
Lawns  and  Golf  Links. 

As  soon  as  the  frost  leaves  the  ground  in  the  spring, 
apply  the  Nitrate  of  Soda  by  broadcasting  it  evenly, 
by  hand,  or  by  machine,  over  the  entire  surface  of 
the  lawn,  or  meadow  you  are  fertilizing,  at  the  rate 
of  100  pounds  per  acre. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  71 

Frequent  rolling  is  of  great  advantage,  as  well  as 
frequent  raking.  Every  lawn  in  the  spring  should 
be  subjected  to  a  searching  inspection  for  weeds. 
Early  spring  is  the  time  for  the  heavy  annual  top- 
dressing  of  fertilizers.    . 

Two  or  three  weeks  after  the  application  of  fertil- 
izers, a  mixture  of  lawn  grasses  may  be  sown  and 
covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  finely  sifted  soil  and  then 
rolled  down.  Rolling  should  not  be  continually  in 
one  direction,  but  should  be  changed. 

If  young  grasses  are  growing  amongst  the  old,  it 
will  be  an  advantage  to  keep  the  lawn  closely  cut. 

By  this  practice  roots  are  strengthened  and  the 
density  of  the  turf  increased.  In  sowing  lawn  seed, 
sow  half  the  quantity  going  north  and  south,  and  half 
east  and  west. 

Grass  which  has  become  brown  or  yellow  may  be 
watered  or  treated  with  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  the 
green  color  thus  restored.  Lawns  may  safely  be 
given  applications  of  Nitrate  whenever  the  sickly 
green  color  of  the  grass  appears,  as  this  shows  that 
Nitrogen  is  the  food  needed.  Finely  sifted  soil  ob- 
tained from  decayed  leaves  is  the  best  treatment  for 
lawns  to  provide  them  with  humus. 

Our   Formula   for   Meadows,   Lawns   and   Golf   Links. 

Nitrate  alone  100  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     200  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate   200  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  or 
muriate  of  potash  to  the  acre  every  other  year. 


FLOWERS. 

Every  gardener  (of  vegetables  or  flowers)  should 
have  at  hand,  all  through  the  season,  a  bag  or  box  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda,  to  be  broadcast  on  any  and  every 

Fertilizer  Experiments  with  Fuchsias, 


Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash     Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash 
without  Nitrate  of  Soda.         with  2^4  oz.  Nitrate  o£  Soda. 


crop  that  grows  in  the  garden.  The  need  for  Nitro- 
gen is  indicated  by  the  pale  green  color  of  foliage  and 
slow  growth.  It  is  quite  easy  to  be  too  liberal  in 
using  Nitrate ;  200  pounds  of  Nitrate  per  acre,  if  used 

72 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


73 


alone,  is  the  quantity  to  be  applied  at  any  one  time. 
One  pound  of  it  would  give  about  30  heaping  tea- 
spoonfuls.     So  1  to  1>1'  such  spoonfuls  to  a  square 

Fertilizer  Experiments  with  Chrysanthemums, 


^  ^^  "^ji^ 


tali;- 

'■W  '  ^fvi  ^l-  ?!     ,"■,.  "i    X 


^•^>^ 


'Mm 


Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash 
with  \y^  oz.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 


yard,  or  3  feet  along  a  row  that  is  3  feet  wide,  would 
be  about  100  pounds  per  acre.  The  quantity,  how- 
ever, may  be  larger  where  the  plants  —  such  as  cab- 
bage— are  half  grown  and  in  good  condition  to  grow. 


74  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Nitrate  of  Soda  is  an  ideal  fertilizer  for  all  kinds 
of  flowering  plants,  especially  roses.  It  is  as  you 
know,  neat  and  cleanly  and  harmless  (not  acid,  nor 
caustic)  and  every  woman  who  cultivates  vegetables 
and  flowers  should  keep  it  on  hand,  to  be  used  as 
occasion  shall  demand  at  the  rate  of  one-half  to  one 
teaspoonful  to  the  square  yard,  or  one  rose  bush. 

Instructions  for  Using  Nitrate  of  Soda  on 
Flowers. 

Apply  the  Nitrate  of  Soda  by  broadcasting  it 
evenly  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  garden  you  are 
fertilizing,  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  per  acre,  before 
you  sow  your  seeds  and  before  you  set  out  your 
plants.  It  may  be  applied  later  by  hand  between 
the  rows  at  the  same  rate  if  you  find  the  earlier  time 
inconvenient. 

Our   Formula   for   Flowers. 

Nitrate  alone 200  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     300  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate    300  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash 
to  the  acre  every  other  year. 


OBSERVATIONS  UPON  THE  LEACHING  OF 
SOLUBLE  FERTILIZER  SALTS  FROM  CRAN« 
BERRY  SOILS. 

By  JOHN  H.  VOORHEES. 

Former  Assistant  in  Charge  Cranberry  Investigations,  N.  J.  Experiment 
Station. 

In  the  spring  of  1913  the  author  was  detailed  by 
the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  to  study^  the 
fertilizer  requirements  of  the  cranberry.  After  a  sur- 
vey of  the  field  it  was  decided  to  locate  the  experi- 
mental work  upon  bogs  owned  and  operated  by  prac- 
tical growers.  Headquarters  for  this  work  were 
located  at  the  bogs  of  J.  J.  White,  Incorp.,  situated 
about  three  miles  northeast  of  Hanover  farms  on  the 
P.  R.  R.  in  Burlington  county.  A  rather  complete 
series  of  plots  was  planned  including  the  separate 
use  of  four  sources  of  Nitrogen,  —  Nitrate  of  Soda, 
ammonium  sulphate,  dried  blood  12  per  cent.,  and 
cotton-seed  meal;  four  sources  of  phosphoric  acid, — ■ 
acid  phosphate,  basic  slag,  phosphate  rock  and 
steamed  bone;  and  three  sources  of  potash, — 
muriate,  sulphate  and  kainit.  These  materials  were 
not  only  used  separately,  but  also  in  complete  mix- 
tures in  which  ammonium  sulphate,  acid  phosphate 
and  muriate  of  potash  were  used  as  constant  factors. 
In  each  case  the  fertilized  plots  received  either  two 
pounds  of  Nitrogen,  four  of  phosphoric  acid,  or  five 
of  potash,  and  in  the  case  of  complete  mixtures  all  of 
the  above  quantities  were  used. 
75 


76  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

On  the  bogs  of  J.  J.  White  the  series  of  plots  was 
laid  out  in  three  distinct  types  of  soil;  the  Savannah, 
a  pure  sand  mixed  with  more  or  less  organic  matter, 
deep  mud,  and  deep  mud  underlaid  with  iron  ore. 
Wherever  possible  the  plots  were  made  one-twentieth 
acre  in  size,  one  rod  wide  and  eight  rods  long. 
(Details  of  the  plan  of  experiment  may  be  found  in 
1913  Report,  N.  J.  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
pages  384-488.) 

On  June  6,  1913,  the  first  application  of  fertilizer 
was  made  to  the  plots  in  these  series  and  observa- 
tions of  the  effect  of  added  plant  food  have  been 
extremely  interesting.  One  occurrence  brings  out 
clearly  how  little  an  abundance  of  water  affected  the 
lateral  movement  of  soil  moisture  and  leaching  of 
plant  food  from  the  soil  stores. 

On  the  nights  of  June  9th  and  10th  danger  of  severe 
frost  caused  the  proprietors  to  flow  the  bogs  for 
protection.  The  series  of  plots  located  in  the  deep 
mud  and  iron  ore  soils  (so-called)  were  completely 
flooded  to  a  depth  varying  from  a  few  inches  to  a 
foot.  The  Savannah  plots,  even  though  located  in 
the  same  bogs,  were  on  a  higher  level  and  the  water 
only  covered  one  end  of  the  plots,  about  one-half  of 
each.  At  first  thought  it  would  appear  that  the  lat- 
eral movement  of  the  soil  water  would  carry  the 
plant  food,  especially  the  soluble  salts.  Nitrate  of 
Soda,  ammonium  sulphate,  and  the  potash  salts,  from 
one  plot  to  another,  and  that  there  would  be  con- 
siderable leaching  of  plant  food  into  the  drainage 
water,  because  the  water  is  drawn  through  the  soil 
into  the  ditches  on  its  way  out ;  but  subsequent  obser- 
vations extending  through  the  remainder  of  the  year 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  77 

showed  a  distinct  line  of  markation  between  the 
fertilized  plots  and  the  check  plots  adjoining.  The 
increased  vine  growth  causing  this  distinct  marka- 
tion became  clearly  defined,  first  with  Nitrate  of 
Soda,  then  ammonium  sulphate,  and  so  on  through 
the  list  of  plots,  showing  more  clearly  upon  the  plots 
which  received  complete  mixtures. 

This  condition  was  more  particularly  true  on  the 
"Savannah"  soils,  and  it  might  be  added  that  yields 
were  greatly  increased.  Record  of  yields  may  be 
found  in  1914  Report  of  N.  J.  Agric.  Experiment 
Station  or  Proceedings  45th  Annual  Meeting  Ameri- 
can Cranberry  Growers'  Association.)  Upon  the 
deep  mud  and  iron  ore  plots  the  differences  and  lines 
of  markation  were  distinguishable  but  not  so  clearly 
defined. 

After  three  years  of  observation  and  experience, 
both  experimental  and  practical,  the  author  is  con- 
vinced that  the  loss  from  leaching  is  so  negligible 
that  he  feels  no  hesitancy  in  advising  growers  to 
apply  fertilizers  composed  of  Nitrate  of  Soda,  acid 
phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash  as  soon  as  the 
winter  water  is  drawn  from  the  bogs,  about  May 
20th,  before  the  reflow  for  insect  control,  which 'is  a 
customary  practice  about  the  second  week  in  June, 
and  before  any  flowing  which  might  be  necessitated 
by  danger  of  frost. 


NITRATE  ON  SUGAR  CANE. 
What  It  Did  for  an  Acre  of  Sugar  Cane  in  Porto  Rico, 

Abstract  from  Facts  About  Sugar,  September  7,  1918. 

(The  results  of  an  interesting  experiment  conducted  at  Central 
Aguirre,  Porto  Rico,  during  the  season  1917-18,  to  check  up  the  relative 
values  of  Nitrate  of  Soda,  of  Acid  Phosphate,  and  of  a  mixture  of  the 
two,  as  fertilizer  for  sugar  cane,  are  described  in  the  following  article. 
The  accompanying  illustrations  and  table  show  the  striking  results 
obtained  from  the  use  of  the  Nitrate. —  Ed.) 

An  Instructive  Demonstration. 

A  recent  experiment  conducted  at  Margarita  field, 
Hacienda  Carmen  of  Central  Aguirre,  Porto  Rico, 
forcibly  brings  out  the  gain  in  sugar  yield,  with  the 
accompanying  higher  financial  return  resulting, 
when  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  acid  phosphate  were  used, 
compared  with  the  returns  when  acid  phosphate  was 
used  alone. 

The  test  was  made  to  determine  the  relative  effi- 
ciency of  acid  phosphate  —  which  is  the  main  con- 
stituent of  the  ordinary  brands  of  mixed  fertilizer  — 
as  compared  with  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

The  cane  was  grown  on  adjoining  one-acre  plots. 
Applications  of  the  fertilizer  materials  were  made  on 
July  23,  1917,  and  the  cane  was  cut  on  May  27,  1918. 
On  one  plot  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  was  ap- 
plied; on  the  second  400  pounds  each  of  acid  phos- 
phate and  Nitrate  of  Soda;  on  a  third.  Nitrate  of  Soda 
alone,  and  on  the  fourth,  a  check  plot,  no  fertilizer 
was  used.  The  results  obtained  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : 

78 


Fertilized    with    400    lbs. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre. 

Yield:     9,600    lbs.    Sugar 

per  acre  (30  bags). 


Fertilized  with  400  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate  per  acre. 

Yield:    6,400  lbs.   Sugar 

per  acre  (20  bags). 


Fertilized  with  400  lbs. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre. 

Yield:  9,600  lbs.    Sugar 

per  acre   (30  bags). 


Check  Plot  —  No  Fertilizer. 
Yield:  7,680  lbs.  Sugar 
per  acre   (24  bags). 


79 


60  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Confirms   Hawaiian   Practice. 

Sugar 

Sucrose        Purity         Cane         yield 

Acre  Plots  per  cent      per  cent    yield  tons     tons 

1.  Acid    Phosphate 18.09  92.50  24.96  3.2 

2.  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  Acid  Phosphate  17.38  91.50  38.00  4.7 

3.  Nitrate  of  Soda  alone 16.45  89.20  41.50  4.7 

4.  Check  Plot  — no  fertilizer 17.55  91.40  30.73.  3.8 

These  figures  speak  for  themselves.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  the  $16  worth  of  Nitrate  used  alone 
produced  an  increase  of  16.54  tons  of  cane,  yielding 
1.5  tons  of  sugar,  over  the  acid  phosphate  plot,  which, 
in  terms  of  cash,  represented  an  increased  market 
value  of  $138.  In  view  of  the  stress  laid  so  frequently 
in  the  past  upon  the  use  of  the  superphosphate  variety 
of  mixes,  the  sources  of  Nitrogen  in  such  brands  be- 
ing as  a  rule  entirely  unknown  to  the  users,  the  above 
experiment  is  illuminating.  This  experiment  sub- 
stantially and  emphatically  confirms  Hawaiian  re- 
sults and  fully  endorses  Hawaiian  sugar  cane 
practice. 


THE  POSITION  OF  NITROGEN  IN  AGRICUL- 
TURE, OUR  LEADING  INDUSTRY 

An  Address  delivered  by  Dr.  William  S.  Myers,  before 
The  American  Railway  Development  Association  at 
their  Annual  Meeting  at  San  Antonio,  Texas. 


In  his  first  inaugural  Washington  said,  "Where 
Agriculture  leads  all  other  arts  follow."  Most  of  the 
annual  additions  to  our  national  wealth  come  from 
farming  and  our  agriculture  is  still  growing.  The 
land  is  the  foundation  upon  which  we  build  our  eco- 
nomic structure. 

The  world  taken  as  a  whole  is  a  great  farm  and  our 
soils  are  filled  with  millions  of  microscopic  animal 
and  vegetable  life  —  vast  colonies  of  living  things 
which  act  and  react  upon  each  other.  Every  square 
yard  is  populated  with  billions  of  workers  and  un- 
known laborers  —  some  helping  as  soil  builders  — 
some  helping  in  the  work  of  unlocking  fertility  — 
some,  under  certain  conditions,  helping  to  destroy  it. 

The  average  soil  is  capable  of  holding  more  or  less 
one-fifth  of  its  weight  in  water.  The  greater  the  soil 
population  of  bacteria  bred  by  proper  farming,  the 
greater  is  its  capacity  for  holding  water  and  soil  solu- 
tions. Good  soils  also  possess  great  holding  capacity 
for  solids  in  solution  owing  to  the  capacity  of  soil 
granules  to  exercise  upon  liquids  what  is  known  as 
surface  tension.  So  far  as  growing  crops  are  con- 
si 


82  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

cerned  a  soil  without  water  is  as  useless  as  a  motor 
car  without  gasoline. 

The  possibility  of  utilizing  the  legumes  has  been 
known  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  although  they 
did  not  know  it  was  nitrogen  that  was  thus  captured. 
The  potency  of  nitrogen  in  agriculture  has  been 
known  for  years  and  has  been  studied  especially 
lately  by  leading  agriculturists. 

The  wide  distribution  of  this  element  in  nature  is 
remarkable.  Its  occurrence  is  universal.  We  may 
fiy  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  and  it  is  still 
with  us.  Throughout  the  world  it  remains  substan- 
tially in  the  same  proportion  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
although  the  atmosphere  is  supposed  to  have  been 
once  all  nitrogen. 

Nitrogen  is  found  free  not  only  in  the  atmosphere 
but  in  certain  mineral  waters  and  in  volcanic  gases. 
It  is  never  absorbed  by  animals  or  plants  from  its 
elementary  state  except  through  the  agency  of  cer- 
tain soil  bacteria  associated  with  leguminous  plants, 
and  when  these  are  located  on  favorable  soils  carry- 
ing sufficient  lime  in  proper  form. 

The  inactivity  of  elementary  nitrogen  is  notable. 
Its  compounds,  on  the  other  hand,  frequently  have 
pronounced  and  unusual  properties,  they  being  the 
essential  components  of  powerful  drugs,  of  brilliant 
dyestuffs  and  of  high  explosives. 

In  its  combined  form  it  is  widely  and  universally 
distributed  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  in 
albuminoid  or  proteid  bodies,  like  the  casein  of  milk 
or  the  gluten  of  wheat.  Vast  quantities  of  combined 
Nitrogen  occur  in  Chile  in  mineral  deposits;  it  is 
found  combined  in  all  arable  soils;  also  in  coal.     In 


Types  of   Characteristic   Rock   Shattering   (1). 


Types  of  Characteristic   Rock   Shattering   (2). 


Types  of  Characteristic  Rock  Shattering  (3). 
83 


84  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

each  of  these  instances  these  forms  are  the  product 
of  bacteria  or  other  life.  The  chemistry  and  physiol- 
ogy of  Nitrogen  is  the  chemistry  and  physiology  of 
living  things.  Without  Nitrogen  there  could  be  no 
life  as  we  understand  it.  It  is  absolutely  essential 
to  all  organized  life.  In  view  of  this  it  is  all  the  rnore 
remarkable  how  completely  inert  the  element  Nitro- 
gen is,  and  how  tremendously  potent  and  active  are 
some  of  its  combinations. 

The  Nitration  or  proper  predigestion  of  plant  nour- 
ishment cannot  occur  without  some  basic  substance 
being  present  and  can  only  best  proceed  at  favorable 
summer  temperatures.  At  these  temperatures,  when 
sufficient  moisture  is  present,  this  action  proceeds 
normally  and  thus  prepares  unavailable  forms  of 
Nitrogen  for  assimilation  by  growing  crops.  It  can- 
not proceed  when  it  is  too  cold  or  too  wet.  In  most 
cases,  it  is  the  process  of  Nitration  of  the  non-Nitrate 
forms  of  Nitrogen  chiefly  into  the  Nitrate  form  that 
makes  them  available  for  plant  growth. 

The  vegetable  world  stores  and  elaborates  avail- 
able Nitrogen  into  forms  suitable  for  animals,  includ- 
ing man,  to  feed  upon  and  the  living  processes  of 
animals  in  turn  utilize  these  forms  of  Nitrogen  for 
their  growth.  Without  Nitrogen  there  can  be  no 
growth,  either  vegetable  or  animal.  The  key  to  suc- 
cessful cattle  feeding,  as  is  well  known,  lies  wholly 
in  adjusting  rations  to  the  gluten  carriers. 

Nature  is  always  prodigal  and  these  processes 
while  subject  to  natural  law,  permit  waste  from  the 
economic  standpoint.  Nothing  from  the  physical 
standpoint,  however,  is  actually  lost.  Matter  merely 
changes  its  location. 


Rock  Before  Blasting:  One  Pound  of  40  Per  Cent.    Dynamite. 


Same  Rock  Shattered  by  the  Explosion  of  Dynamite. 
85 


86  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Nitrogen  returns  to  the  atmosphere  as  generally 
and  continuously  as  water  gravitates  to  the  ocean 
and  remains  there  accessible  to  those  natural  agen- 
cies, capable  of  transforming  it  from  its  completely 
inert  form  into  intensely  active  forms  immediately 
useful  to  man.  On  arable  lands  under  average  con- 
ditions more  Nitrogen  goes  back  to  the  air  than  is 
received  from  the  atmosphere  and  especially  when 
the  lands  are  much  exposed  to  severe  wind  and 
weathering. 

A  portion  of  our  earth,  namely  Chile,  has  by  acci- 
dent or  design  been  set  aside  as  a  storehouse  for 
Nitrogen  in  its  most  available  plant  food  form.  This 
is  capable  of  providing  first  aid  and  continued  nour- 
ishment against  nitrogen  soil  losses.  In  recent  years, 
as  our  soils  have  become  exhausted,  has  this  use  mul- 
tiplied many  fold  here  in  our  own  country. 

Looking  beyond  the  sphere  of  cold  dry  actualities 
and  expressing  imaginative  possibilities,  an  English 
writer  recently  suggested  the  breeding  of  a  new 
strain  of  bacteria  which  would  provide  in  the  soil 
the  means  of  securing  all  the  Nitrogen  needed  for 
crops  —  drawing  it  thus  from  the  atmosphere  and 
thus  greatly  increasing  crop  production.  For  great 
populations  this  would  be  Utopia  indeed.  It  should 
be  pointed  out,  however,  that  bacteria  capable  of 
taking  Nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere  can  only  thrive 
on  soil  well  provided  with  lime,  with  abundance  of 
moisture  and  with  animal  or  vegetable  matter  in  well 
rotted  condition,  also  in  abundance.  Thus  the  Gar- 
den of  Eden  is  not  yet  in  sight  and  man's  destiny  is 
still  to  live  by  the  "Sweat  of  his  brow." 

Thorough  farm  management  is  more  important 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  87 

than  ever  —  no  fertilizer  and  no  legume  can  ever  sub- 
stitute for  the  eye  of  the  Master.  There  is  no  royal 
road  to  farming  any  more  than  there  is  to  learning, 
but  there  are  helps  to  farm  management  and  to  nat- 
ural soil  resources  that  are  of  advantage  even  to  new 
soils.  Plant  food  deficiencies  occur  in  logical  se- 
quence as  natural  as  the  setting  of  the  sun.  The  soil 
must  not  be  treated  as  a  mine  but  rather  as  an  in- 
strumentality for  the  growing  of  crops. 


1.  Without  Nitro-     2.  1/3  Ration  of  Ni-     3.  Full  Ration  of 
gen.  trogen.  Nitrogen. 

All  three  fertilized  alike  with  Muriate  of  Potash  and  Acid  Phosphate. — 
R.  I.  Bui.  103. 


Soil  deficiencies  occur  most  often  as  to  Nitrogen, 
Phosphorus  and  Potash.  Available  Nitrogen  is  most 
often  deficient  in  the  soils  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States,  but  even  in  our  Middle  States  low  crop  yields 
suggest  the  desirability  of  supplying  available  nitro- 
gen for  better  crops. 

According  to  a  recent  United  States  Department 
Year  Book  our  leading  crops  remove  from  the  soil 
much  more  Nitrogen  than  phosphorus  or  potash.  It 
is  comparatively  easy  chemically  to  determine  the 
amounts  of  phosphorus  and  potash  but  not  so  easy 
except  by  practical  crop  growing  to  determine  the 


88  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

most  profitable  amount  of  available  Nitrogen  re- 
quired for  individual  locations.  In  the  last  analysis 
a  practical  trial  in  the  field  is  what  counts.  The 
grower  must  check  for  himself  and  constantly  study 
his  condition  like  a  business  man. 

Looking  at  the  Nitrogen  subject  broadly,  we  find 
that  during  the  last  quarter  century  the  agricultural 
use  of  Chilean  Nitrate  has  increased  in  this  country 
many  times  faster  tfian  the  use  of  mixed  fertilizers. 

Although  the  Chilean  Nitrate  industry  is  now 
nearly  100  years  old,  Nitrate  having  been  first  ex- 
ported in  1820,  there  is  still  enough,  it  is  estimated, 
to  last  300  years.  The  fact  that  the  use  of  this  Ail- 
American  product  has  increased  many  times  faster 
here  in  our  country,  namely,  from  16,000  tons  per  an- 
num in  1899  to  nearly  650,000  tons  at  present,  whilst 
ordinary  fertilizer  consumption  has  not  much  more 
than  doubled  in  the  same  period,  is  not  without  sig- 
nificance as  is  also  the  fact  that  in  1919  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  distributed  150,000  tons 
of  Chilean  Nitrate  for  Agriculture  use  as  such.  This 
did  not  include  what  was  sold  to  growers  through  the 
regular  channels  of  original  trade. 

The  production  and  consumption  of  different  forms 
of  commercial  Nitrogen  has  increased  faster  than  the 
production  of  phosphorus  and  potash  during  that 
period.  From  the  practical  side,  therefore,  we  regard 
the  possibilities  of  increased  crop  production  from  the 
increased  use  of  Nitrogen  as  very  real  and  very 
promising. 

In  Hawaii  where  more  Nitrogen  is  used  per  acre 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  in  the  growing 
of  sugar  cane,  the  average  production  per  acre  is  the 


Crop  of  Grass  Grown  by  the  Use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 


The  Tedders  follow  the  Mowing  Machines  for  rapid  curing 
of  heavy  crops  of  hay. 


90  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

largest  in  the  world  having  been  52  tons  of  cane  per 
acre  in  1923,  and  compares  to  an  average  for  the 
world  of  less  than  one-half  that  amount.  Our  pro- 
duction in  Louisiana  is  about  1 1  tons  per  acre. 

A  comparison  of  our  crop  yields  with  those  of  Ger- 
many has  been  recently  made  by  O.  E.  Baker  of  the 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  yields  per 
acre  in  Germany  were  indicated  as  being  nearly 
double  those  of  this  country.  The  differences  are 
believed  to  be  due  in  large  measure  to  the  greater 
proportions  of  Nitrogen  used  by  German  farmers. 
It  is  calculated  *  that  European  farmers  use  on  an 
average  600  pounds  per  acre  of  a  fertilizer  carrying 
4^  per  cent,  of  available  Nitrogen,  whereas  Ameri- 
can farmers  use  on  an  average  in  their  fertilizer  prac- 
tice about  300  pounds  per  acre  of  fertilizer  containing 
about  3  per  cent,  of  Nitrogen.  The  German  practice 
is  more  logical  since  it  corresponds  more  nearly  to  re- 
storing to  the  soil  the  essential  elements  of  fertility 
removed  by  crops  and  lost  by  means  of  natural  agen- 
cies. Without  doubt  American  practice  is  slowly 
approximating  European  practice  and  ultimately  we 
shall  see  larger  use  by  American  farmers  of  available 
Nitrogen.  Whether  it  will  take  place  to  a  great  ex- 
tent by  increasing  the  content  of  available  Nitrogen 
in  mixed  goods  or  by  the  supplementary  use  of 
Chilean  Nitrate  of  Soda,  remains  to  be  seen. 

It  is  certain  that  our  exports  of  cotton  seed  meal 
and  cereals  carry  out  of  our  country  each  year  a  vast 
tonnage  of  Nitrogen  which  will  have  to  be  replaced. 

*  A  large  proportion  of  European  farmers,  especially  the  more  intelli- 
gent, use  fertilizer  simples  in  preference  to  mixtures.  The  total  con- 
sumption of  fertilizer  simples  and  mixtures  all  told  if  calculated  to  an 
average  would  disclose  an  equivalent  for  comparison  on  an  American 
basis  as  above  indicated. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


91 


We  cannot  get  it  rapidly  or  universally  enough  from 
the  atmosphere  and  unless  we  restore  these  losses  our 
soils  will  become  poorer  and  poorer  and  less  and  less 
productive.  By  the  rational  use  o£  Chilean  Nitrate 
our  plantations  and  farms  could  add  many  thousands 


Quick  and  Luxuriant   Growth  o£   Shrubbery,  Produced  in 
Two  Seasons  by  the  Use  of  Nitrate.    New  Jersey. 


of  bales  of  cotton  and  many  thousands  of  bushels  of 
wheat  to  our  annual  crops.  The  necessary  Nitrate 
tonnage  from  Chile  would  produce  corresponding 
outbound  tonnage  for  our  railways  of  increased  agri- 
cultural products.  The  sale  of  the  products  would 
bring  greater  prosperity  to  our  farmers  and  to  our 
factories  and  incidentally  our  food  supplies  would  be 
helpfully    increased.      The    west    coast    of    South 


92  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

America  needs  the  products  of  our  manufacturers  as 
we  need  the  Nitrate  and  copper  of  Chile.  These 
products  of  All-America  thus  interchanged  would  be 
of  mutual  and  reciprocal  benefit. 

Thirty-four  per  cent,  of  our  population  now  resides 
in  our  sixteen  southern  states  —  the  South  is  becom- 
ing a  region  of  great  development.  Small  holdings 
are  increasing  in  number. 

In  the  early  days  of  our  country  the  southern 
states  were  producing  more  manufactured  products 
than  the  rest  of  the  country  and  it  is  conceivable  that 
a  more  brilliant  future  is  yet  to  come  for  the 
Southland. 

The  growth  of  railroads  has  developed  the  South 
more  than  any  other  single  factor.  In  the  Cotton 
Belt  there  are  96  miles  of  railroad  to  every  1,000 
square  miles  of  land  compared  to  79  miles  for  that 
area  for  the  rest  of  the  country.  The  South  pro- 
duces 58  per  cent,  of  the  American  tobacco  crop. 

Fortunately  diversification  of  farming  is  being  de- 
veloped and  the  Purnell  Bill  passed  last  winter  should 
open  opportunity  and  encouragement  for  the  proper 
economic  development  of  our  individual  farm  homes. 
Our  agricultural  colleges  have  for  years  been  plead- 
ing for  diversification  of  crops.  A  recent  official 
study  of  two  million  five  hundred  thousand  cotton 
belt  farms  made  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture shows  that  23  per  cent,  have  no  gardens;  37 
per  cent,  have  no  milk;  58  per  cent,  raise  no  sweet 
potatoes;  79  per  cent,  raise  no  white  potatoes  and  33 
per  cent,  have  no  chickens.  More  than  half  of  these 
raise  no  forage;  5  out  of  every  100  have  no  stock  of 
any  kind.     If  in  any  season  cotton  should  fail,  these 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


93 


foodless  farms  would  be  in  a  miserable  condition  and 
without  money  to  buy  food  or  the  barest  necessities. 
In  such  cases  there  is  no  adequate  protection  against 
single  crop  failures.  In  past  years  farms  at  least 
provided  the  planter  with  most  of  the  food  his  fam- 
ily required.     The  "Live  at  Home"  project  now  advo- 


Privet  Hedge  at  Left  and  Vines   Showing  Result  of   One 
Year's   Use  of   Nitrate.     New   Jersey. 


cated  by  our  agricultural  authorities  is  a  most  com- 
mendable one. 

Crop  rotations  which  include  legumes,  give  the 
soils  both  humus  and  Nitrogen,  ultimately,  and  in 
such  soils  bacteria  destructive  to  Nitrogen  com- 
pounds of  the  soil  do  not  thrive  so  vigorously. 

The  growing  of  legumes  wherever  conditions  are 


94  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

favorable  and  the  saving  of  manures  are  both  to  be 
encouraged.  These  alone,  however,  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  make  up  for  the  great  losses  of  Nitrogen 
that  occur  every  year  through  weathering,  through 
denitrating  bacteria  and  crop  removals. 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  not  enough 
Nitrogen  in  commercial  form  produced  in  the  world 
to  make  up  for  these  annual  soil  losses,  and  that  the 
soils  of  the  world  will  require  available  Nitrogen  in 
commercial  form  in  increasing  quantities.  This,  in 
my  judgment,  is  consistent  with  sound  agriculture, 
and  the  fertilizer  industry  is  as  sound  fundamentally 
as  agriculture  itself. 

It  may  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  the  rate  of  pro- 
duction of  Nitrogenous  fertilizers  has  increased 
throughout  the  world  as  a  whole  faster  than  have 
the  other  fertilizer  products. 

It  is  a  source  of  great  satisfaction  to  know  that 
programs  for  agricultural  progress  as  proposed  by 
Experiment  Stations  and  Agricultural  Colleges  have 
been  accepted  by  railway  agricultural  representatives 
and  carried  out  so  thoroughly  by  them  in  co-opera- 
tion with  agents  and  with  the  Agricultural  Press. 
Co-operation  along  the  line  of  these  programs  will 
make  for  agricultural  success  in  the  future.  The 
Agricultural  and  Industrial  Departments  of  our  rail- 
ways have  by  their  courage  and  skill  played  a  highly 
honorable  and  effective  part  in  these  developments. 

In  passing  it  should  be  noted  that  in  the  most 
highly  civilized  parts  of  the  world  railway  develop- 
ment is  the  highest.  Before  the  railroads  all  in- 
dustrial development  was  local.  Every  community 
was  like  China — hermit-like,  undeveloped  and  obliged 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


95 


to  be  self-sustaining.  Early  last  century  an  all-land 
haul  of  500  miles  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburg  on 
a  ton  of  goods  cost  $125.00.  Europe  and  the  U.  S. 
have  more  railway  mileage  than  any  other  portions 
of  our  earth.     The  highly  organized  economic  devel- 


Hedge  of  California  Privet  Three  Years  Old,  Fertilized  for 
Three  Years  with  Nitrate.    New  Jersey. 


opment  of  these  portions  of  our  globe  has  been  most 
remarkable.  To  a  large  extent  it  has  been  in  propor- 
tion to  the  development  of  transportation  facilities. 
The  railway  man  has  an  opportunity  for  observa- 
tion wider  by  far  than  the  average  citizen  and  his 
views  by  virtue  of  this  opportunity  are  bound  to  be 
broadminded.  His  opportunities  for  service  are 
therefore    unusual    in    respect    to    public    relations. 


96  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Your  attitude  towards  the  unenforceable  obliga- 
tions in  your  sphere  of  action  has  been  fine  and  ad- 
mirable. Your  service  has  been  unstinted.  Your 
work  more  than  any  other  agency  has  put  souls  into 
the  bodies  of  corporations. 

The  test  of  an  institution  or  of  a  corporation  or  of 
a  nation  lies  in  its  attitude  toward  the  unenforce- 
able obligations  of  life.  I  do  not  mean  merely  in 
respect  to  the  attitude  towards  "scraps  of  paper." 
All  of  us  here  are  aware  of  the  obligations  of  the 
written  word,  but  what  is  our  attitude  toward  the 
unenforceable?  One  of  the  oldest  treaties  in  this 
country  was  between  William  Penn  and  the  Indians. 

This  was  never  sworn  to  and  never  broken,  but  it 
worked  admirably. 

The  measure  of  a  man  in  all  his  relations  in  life 
is  his  attitude  towards  his  unenforceable  obligations. 
In  our  hearts  we  know  that  the  communities  we  serve 
will  measure  us  by  it. 


GRADES  OF  HAY  AND  STRAW. 
Adopted  by  the  National  Hay  Association. 

Hay. 

No.  1  Timothy  Hay:  Shall  be  timothy  with  not 
more  than  one-eighth  (^s)  mixed  with  clover  or  other 
tame  grasses  properly  cured,  good  color,  sound  and 
well  baled. 

Standard  Timothy:  Shall  be  timothy  with  not 
more  than  one-eighth  (>^)  mixed  with  clover  or 
other  tame  grasses,  fair  color,  containing  brown 
blades,  and  brown  heads,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Timothy  Hay:  Shall  be  timothy  not  good 
enough  for  No.  1  not  over  one-fourth  (1:4)  mixed 
with  clover  or  other  tame  grasses,  fair  color,  sound 
and  well  baled. 

No.  3  Timothy  Hay :  Shall  include  all  hay  not  good 
enough  for  other  grades,  sound  and  well  baled. 

Light  Clover  Mixed  Hay:  Shall  be  timothy  mixed 
with  clover.  The  clover  mixture  not  over  one-third 
(Ys)  properly  cured,  sound,  good  color  and  well 
baled. 

No.  1  Clover  Mixed  Hay:  Shall  be  timothy  and 
clover  mixed,  with  at  least  one-half  (I2)  timothy, 
good  color,  sound  and  well  baled. 

Heavy  Clover  Mixed  Hay:  Shall  be  timothy  and 
clover,  mixed  with  at  least  one-fourth  O4)  timothy, 
sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Clover  Mixed  Hay:  Shall  be  timothy  and 
97 


98  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

clover  mixed  with  at  least  one- third  (3/3)  timothy, 
reasonably  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Clover  Hay:  Shall  be  medium  clover  not 
over  one-twentieth  (!i>())  other  grasses,  properly 
cured,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Clover  Hay:  Shall  be  clover  sound,  well 
baled,  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

Sample  Hay:  Shall  include  all  hay  badly  cured, 
stained,  threshed  or  in  any  way  unsound. 

Choice  Prairie  Hay :  Shall  be  upland  hay  of  bright, 
natural  color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  con- 
tain 3  per  cent,  weeds. 

No.  1  Prairie  Hay:  Shall  be  upland  and  may  con- 
tain one-quarter  (j4)  midland,  both  of  good  color, 
well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  8  per 
cent,  weeds. 

No.  2  Prairie  Hay:  Shall  be  upland,  of  fair  color 
and  may  contain  one-half  midland,  both  of  good 
color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  12;^ 
per  cent,  weeds. 

No.  3  Prairie  Hay:  Shall  include  hay  not  good 
enough  for  other  grades  and  not  caked. 

No.  1  Midland  Hay :  Shall  be  midland  hay  of  good 
color,  well  cured,  sweet,  sound,  and  may  contain  3 
per  cent,  weeds. 

No.  2  Midland  Hay:  Shall  be  fair  color  or  slough 
hay  of  good  color,  and  may  contain  12  3/  per  cent, 
weeds. 

Packing  Hay:  Shall  include  all  wild  hay  not  good 
enough  for  other  grades  and  not  caked. 

Sample  Prairie  Hay :  Shall  include  all  hay  not  good 
enough  for  other  grades. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  99 


Sti 


No.  1  Straight  Rye  Straw:  Shall  be  in  large  bales, 
clean,  bright,  long  rye  straw,  pressed  in  bundles, 
sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Straight  Rye  Straw :  Shall  be  in  large  bales, 
long  rye  straw  pressed  into  bundles,  sound  and  well 
baled,  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  1  Tangled  Rye  Straw:  Shall  be  reasonably 
clean  rye  straw,  good  color,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Tangled  Rye  Straw:  Shall  be  reasonably 
clean,  may  be  some  stained,  but  not  good  enough  for 
No.  1. 

No.  1  Wheat  Straw:  Shall  be  reasonably  clean 
wheat  straw,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Wheat  Straw:  Shall  be  reasonably  clean, 
may  be  some  stained,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

No.  1  Oat  Straw:  Shall  be  reasonably  clean  oat 
straw,  sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  2  Oat  Straw:  Shall  be  reasonably  clean,  may 
be  some  stained,  but  not  good  enough  for  No.  1. 

Alfalfa. 

Choice  Alfalfa:  Shall  be  reasonably  fine  leafy 
alfalfa  of  bright  green  color,  properly  cured,  sound, 
sweet,  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Alfalfa :  Shall  be  reasonably  coarse  alfalfa  of 
a  bright  green  color,  or  reasonably  fine  leafy  alfalfa 
of  a  good  color  and  may  contain  2  per  cent,  of  foreign 
grasses,  5  per  cent,  of  air  bleached  hay  on  outside  of 
bale  allowed,  but  must  be  sound  and  well  baled. 


100  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Standard  Alfalfa :  May  be  of  green  color,  of  coarse 
or  medium  texture,  and  may  contain  5  per  cent,  for- 
eign matter;  or  it  may  be  of  green  color,  of  coarse 
or  medium  texture,  20  per  cent,  bleached  and  2  per 
cent,  foreign  matter;  or  it  may  be  of  a  greenish  cast 
of  fine  stem  and  clinging  foliage,  and  may  contain  5 
per  cent,  foreign  matter,  all  to  be  sound,  sweet,  and 
well  baled. 

No.  2  Alfalfa:  Shall  be  of  any  sound,  sweet  and 
well  baled  alfalfa,  not  good  enough  for  standard,  and 
may  contain  10  per  cent,  foreign  matter. 

No.  3  Alfalfa:  May  contain  35  per  cent,  stack- 
spotted  hay,  but  must  be  dry  and  not  to  contain  more 
than  8  per  cent,  of  foreign  matter;  or  it  may  be  of  a 
green  color  and  may  contain  50  per  cent,  foreign 
matter ;  or  it  may  be  set  alfalfa  and  may  contain  5  per 
cent,  foreign  matter,  all  to  be  reasonably  well  baled. 

No  grade  Alfalfa :  Shall  include  all  alfalfa  not  good 
enough  for  No.  3. 

The  Alfalfa,  Cow  Pea  and  Clover  Question. 

This  class  of  plants  has  the  property  of  taking  inert 
Nitrogen  from  the  air  and  transforming  it  into  com- 
binations more  or  less  useful  as  plant  food.  This 
feature  is  of  great  value  to  agriculture,  but  not  so 
much  from  the  plant  food  point  of  view  as  from  the 
fact  that  these  plants  are  rich  in  that  kind  of  food 
substance  commonly  called  "flesh  formers."  Lib- 
erally fertilized,  and  not  omitting  Nitrate  in  the  fer- 
tilizer, we  have  a  crop  containing  more  nitrogenous 
food  (protein  or  flesh  formers)  than  the  Nitrogen 
actually  given  as  fertilizer  could  have  made  by  itself. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  101 

The  most  common  plants  of  this  class  are:  Alfalfa, 
alsike  clover,  crimson  clover,  red  clover,  Japan  clover, 
cow  peas,  lupines,  Canadian  field  peas,  the  vetches, 
etc.  All  these  forage  crops  should  be  sown  after 
clean  culture  crops.  The  best  method  of  fertilizing  is 
to  apply  from  300  to  500  pounds  of  fertilizer  early 
every  autumn ;  in  the  spring  broadcast  200  pounds  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda,  and  repeat  with  about  100  pounds 
after  each  cutting.  It  is  true  that  clovers  may  supply 
their  own  nitrogenous  plant  food,  but  this  is  an  ex- 
periment experienced  farmers  do  not  often  repeat.  A 
fair  green  crop  of  clover,  for  example,  removes  from 
the  soil  some  160  pounds  of  Nitrogen,  while  in  500 
pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  there  are  less  than  100 
pounds.  Undoubtedly,  the  Nitrogen  taken  from  the 
air  is  a  great  aid,  but  we  should  not  expect  too  much 
of  it.  The  method  of  seeding  clovers  depends  much 
upon  locality  and  soil  needs  with  reference  to  previ- 
ous crops.  Crimson  clover  and  Canadian  field  peas 
are  usually  sown  in  August,  after  earlier  crops  have 
been  removed,  or  even  in  corn  fields.  Red  clover  is 
commonly  sown  in  the  spring  on  wheat  or  with  oats. 


WHEAT. 

The  soil  for  this  grain,  fall  planting,  ranges  from  a 
clay  loam  to  a  moderate  sandy  loam.  For  spring 
wheat,  moist  peaty  soils  are  used.  Wheat  is  usually 
grown  in  rotation,  in  which  case  it  nearly  always 
follows  corn,  or  a  clean  culture  crop.  The  nature  of 
cultivation  is  too  well  known  to  require  mention  here. 


102 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Both  spring  and  winter  wheat  are  commonly  ferti- 
lized crops,  particularly  the  latter.  The  average  fer- 
tilizer for  wheat  should  contain  Nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash.    This  fertilizer  is  applied  with  the 

Wheat. 


iii^iB!^- .  ■<^^** 


Wheat  —  14  Bushels. 
Average  product   per  acre 
for  the  U.  S.  of  wheat  with 
average  farm  fertilization. 


Wheat  — 37  Bushels. 
The  product  of  an  acre  of 
wheat  fertilized  with  Nitrate 
of     Soda,     Phosphates     and 
Potash. 


seed,  and  at  the  rate  of  500  nounds  to  the  acre. 
Nitrate  of  Soda  is  also  applied  broadcast  as  a  dress- 
ing, soon  after  the  crop  shows  growth  in  the  spring, 
at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  per  acre.  Like  all  grains, 
wheat  should  have  its  Nitrate  plant  food  early,  and  in 
the  highly  available,  easily  digested  nitrated  form, 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


103 


such  as  is  only  to  be  found  commercially  as  Nitrate  of 
Soda. 

The  plant  food  needs  of  a  crop  of  30  bushels  of 
wheat  per  acre  amounts  to  about  70  pounds  of  Nitro- 

Fertilizer  Experiment  with  Wheat. 


*»" 


Phosphoric  Acid  Phosphoric  Acid  Phosphoric  Acid  and 

and  Potash  with  1  oz.  and  Potash  with  Vi  oz.  Potash  without 

Nitrate  of  Soda.  Nitrate  of  Soda.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Yield:    31/5   oz.    Grain.  Yield:     1%  02.   Grain.  Yield:   i/L-  oz.  Grain. 


104  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

gen,  24  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  30  pounds  of 
potash;  this  includes  the  straw,  chaff  and  stubble. 
One  hundred  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  supplies 
about  15  pounds  of  Nitrogen,  so  that  the  quantity 
mentioned  for  application  is  a  minimum  quantity. 
Much  has  been  said  of  legume  Nitrogen  for  wheat, 
the  crop  being  generally  grown  in  rotation.  What- 
ever Nitrogen  the  clover  may  have  gathered,  a  crop 
of  timothy  and  a  crop  of  corn  must  be  supplied  before 
the  wheat  rotation  is  reached.  In  all  cases  where  the 
acre  yields  have  fallen  off,  a  broadcast  dressing  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  should  be  given. 

Drill  in  with  the  wheat  in  the  fall  a  mixture  of  150 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  50  pounds  of  Nitrate  of 
Soda  per  acre.  If  your  land  is  sandy,  add  50  pounds 
of  sulphate  or  muriate  of  potash  to  the  above.  Early 
in  the  spring,  sow  broadcast  50  more  pounds  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre. 

Land  sown  to  wheat  in  the  fall  and  seeded  down 
with  timothy  and  clover  giving  a  heavy  crop,  fol- 
lowed by  a  heavy  hay  crop  the  following  year,  proved 
the  beneficial  after-effect  of  the  Nitrate  and  that  the 
Nitrate  had  not  leached  away  as  so  many  critics 
claim,  and  further  that  the  soil  had  not  been  ex- 
hausted. 

Professor  Massey  writes  in  regard  to  the  effect  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  on  Wheat,  as  follows : 

"I  have  made  several  experiments  w^ith  Nitrate  of  Soda. 
The  first  was  on  wheat  in  Albemarle  County,  Virginia.  I 
used  200  pounds  per  acre  on  part  o£  the  field  which  had  been 
fertilized  with  400  pounds  acid  phosphate  in  the  fall.  The 
result  was  9  bushels  per  acre  more  than  on  the  rest  of  the 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  105 

field,  and  a  stand  of  clover,  while  none  of  any  account  stood 
on  the  rest  of  the  field." 


Instructions  for  Using  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  Wheat. 

As  soon  as  frost  leaves  the  ground  in  the  spring, 
apply  the  Nitrate  of  Soda  by  broadcasting  it  evenly, 
by  hand  or  by  machine,  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
wrheat  field  you  are  fertilizing,  at  the  rate  of  100 
pounds  per  acre,  which  is  equal  in  bulk  to  one  bushel. 

Formula  for  Wheat. 

Nitrate  alone 100  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     150  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate    150  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  or 
muriate  of  potash  to  the  acre  every  other  year, 

OATS. 

This  grain  does  v^ell  on  nearly  all  types  of  soil,  but 
responds  freely  to  good  treatment.  There  is  a  vast 
difference  in  the  quality  of  oats  v^^hen  grov^n  on  poor 
or  rich  soils.  Perhaps  no  other  crop  so  effectually 
conceals  impoverishment ;  at  the  same  time  the  feed- 
ing value  of  oats  grown  on  poor  soil  is  very  low.  In 
the  North  oats  are  sown  in  the  spring,  and  usually 
after  corn  or  a  turned  down  clover  sod.  In  such  cases 
the  crop  is  rarely  ever  given  fertilizer,  but  shows  an 
excellent  return  from  a  broadcast  dressing  of  100 
pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre.     The  crop  has 


106 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Strong  foraging  powers,  and  will  find  available  min- 
eral plant  food  where  a  wheat  crop  would  utterly  fail. 
On  soils  pretty  badly  exhausted,  an  application  of  400 
pounds  of  fertilizer  will  yield  a  profitable  return, 


Oats. 


,-*■ 

a^.v 

V;-  - 

/  -, 

■  t  / 

Xfc 

^    ----  .^-y-r-T^ 

1 

0 

%yihMrihiiLi:     tfP** 

^__     ;^^di 

1 
n 

pgg  f^_ 

p^   .- 

i 

..->,._ 

.  j!r±z. 

30  Bushels. 
Average  product  per  acre, 
for  the  U.   S.  of  oats,  with 
average  farm  fertilization. 


65  Bushels. 
The  product  of  an  acre  of 
oats  fertilized  with   Nitrate 
of  Soda. 


provided  the  dressing  of  Nitrate  is  not  omitted. 
Under  any  condition  of  soil  or  fertilizing,  a  sickly 
green  color  of  the  young  crop  shows  need  of  Nitrate 
of  Soda  plant  food,  and  the  remedy  is  a  dressing  of 
Nitrate.  In  seeding,  use  two  or  three  bushels  to  the 
acre. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  107 

Autumn  dressings  of  Nitrate  are  used  frequently 
in  Europe,  and  in  connection  with  minerals  a  dress- 
ing of  as  much  as  three  hundred  (300)  pounds  of 
Nitrate  per  acre  is  used  annually. 

Instructions  for  Using  Nitrate  on  Oats. 

As  soon  as  you  sow  the  oats  in  the  spring,  apply 
the  Nitrate  of  Soda  by  broadcasting  it  evenly,  by 
hand  or  machine,  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  oat 
field  at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  per  acre.  In  bulk  this 
is  equal  to  about  one  bushel. 

Formula   for   Oats. 

Nitrate  alone  100  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     150  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate    150  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  or 
muriate  of  potash  to  the  acre  every  other  year. 


RYE. 

This  is  another  illustration  of  the  necessity  of  care 
in  the  use  of  fertilizer  Nitrogen.  Rye  does  best  on 
light  soils  so  long  as  they  are  not  too  sandy,  but  if 
the  soil  is  rich  in  vegetable  matter,  or  if  a  fertilizer  is 
used  containing  much  organic  ammoniate,  the  grain 
yield  will  be  disappointing;  the  crop  fails  to  mature 
in  season  because  the  nitration  of  organic  Nitrogen 
or  humus  is  generally  greatest  during  the  warm  days 


108  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

of  midsummer,  and  a  constant  supply  of  available 
Nitrate  is  being  furnished  at  a  time  when  the  crop 
should  commence  to  mature.  The  crop  needs  Nitrate, 
but  it  should  be  supplied  during  the  earlier  stages 
of   growth.     Use   at  first   a   general   fertilizer,   500 


Rye  —  18  Bushels.  Rye  —  36  Bushels. 

Average   product  per  acre  The  product  of  an  acre  of 

for    the    U.    S.    of    rye    with  rye  fertilized  with  Nitrate  of 

average  farm  fertilization.  Soda,  phosphates  and  potash. 

pounds  per  acre.  As  soon  as  the  crop  shows  growth, 
in  the  spring  apply  100  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  to 
the  acre,  broadcast. 

Instructions   for  Using  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  Rye. 

Just  as  soon  as  growth  starts  in  the  spring,  or  a 
little  earlier  if  possible,  apply  the  Nitrate  of  Soda  by 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  109 

broadcasting  it  evenly,  by  hand  or  by  machine,  over 
the  entire  surface  of  the  rye  field  you  are  fertilizing, 
at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  per  acre,  which  is  equal  in 
bulk  to  one  bushel. 

Formula   for   Rye. 

Nitrate  alone  100  lbs.  per  acre 

or  preferably 

Nitrate     150  lbs.  per  acre 

Acid  Phosphate    150  lbs.  per  acre 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  or 
muriate  of  potash  to  the  acre  every  other  year. 

BUCKWHEAT. 

This  crop  does  well  on  almost  all  kinds  of  soil,  but 
should  follow  a  grain  or  hoed  crop  —  that  is,  a  clean 
cultivation  crop.  On  thin  soils  use  about  400  pounds 
of  general  fertilizer  to  the  acre,  applied  just  before 
seeding,  or  even  with  the  seed.  Heavy  soils  do  not 
require  fertilizing  for  this  crop,  as  it  has  exceptional 
foraging  powers,  and  will  find  nourishment  where 
many  grain  crops  would  starve.  As  soon  as  the 
plants  are  well  above  ground,  broadcast  100  pounds 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre,  both  on  strong  and  light 
soils.  Use  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre  on  thin  soils, 
but  a  heavier  application  on  richer  soils. 

In  many  places  in  Europe  the  cereals,  like  oats  and 
wheat,  are  planted  or  sown  in  rows  and  cultivated  as 
we  cultivate  Indian  corn.  It  is  claimed  that  this  in- 
creases yield  materially,  and  helps  to  avoid  lodging; 
it  also  requires  less  seed  per  acre. 


110 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Buckwheat. 


No  Nitrate. 
Yield,  19  bushels  per  acre. 


Fertilized  with  125  lbs.  Ni- 
trate of  Soda  per  acre. 
Yields :  38  bushels  per  acre. 


Another  method  in  vogue  is  to  sow  less  seed  per 
acre  broadcast  and  use  more  fertilizer,  so  that  the  in- 
dividual stalks  are  stronger  and  bigger. 


ORANGE  GROVES  IN  FLORIDA. 

An  orange  that  weighs  a  pound  would  sell  in  New 
York  for  a  dime.  When  it  takes  as  many  as  six  to 
weigh  a  pound  they  are  almost  worthless. 

Results  at  Highgrove. 

Yields  of  3  plots  of  equal  size. 


Bf^^uH^^&m^^'^'^'' 

" '  J^'''^^'7!Ti  ?*'-;T 

1 

9  Boxes 

15  Boxes 

4  Boxes 

Oranges 

Oranges 

Oranges 

Fertilized 

Fertilized 

with  no 

with  Acid 

with 

Fertilizer. 

Phosphate 

Nitrate  of 

Alone. 

Soda 
and  Acid 
Phosphate. 

Satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained  in  Florida 
by  fertilizing  during  the  cold  season.  About  two 
months  before  the  period  of  growth  begins,  apply  to 


112  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

each  full-grown  tree  a  mixture  of  7  pounds  of  14  per 
cent,  acid  or  superphosphate  and  4  pounds  of  sul- 
phate of  potash,  by  working  them  into  the  soil ;  after 
which  4  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  may  be  likewise 
applied.  The  working  of  the  soil  must  not  be  so  deep 
or  thorough  as  to  start  the  growth  of  the  tree.  An 
excess  of  Nitrate  is  to  be  avoided,  but  the  amount 
mentioned  is  not  too  much.  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  a  pre- 
digested  Nitrogen.  There  is  a  danger  of  loss  of 
Nitrogen  in  other  forms  as  they  must  generally  be 
made  available  as  food,  and  during  this  comparatively 
long  process  much  of  it  may  be  lost  by  rains  and 
leaching,  since  they  suffer  in  fact  from  many  days  of 
long  exposure  to  the  adverse  condition. 

In  the  case  of  your  particular  soil,  it  may  well  be 
that  it  is  sufficiently  rich  in  potash,  and  therefore, 
may  not  require  a  large  application  of  it.  In  any 
event,  the  grower  must  be  governed  by  the  condition 
of  his  grove  and  the  general  character  of  soil  and 
climate  in  his  particular  locality. 

The  early  decay  of  orchards  as  well  as  failure  to  set 
fruit  buds,  is  largely  a  matter  of  lack  of  plant  food. 
Orchards  should  have  Nitrate,  applied  early  in  the 
season,  as  late  supplies  of  Nitrogen  are  liable  to  cause 
a  heavy  setting  of  leaf  buds  at  the  expense  of  next 
year's  fruit.  The  ordinary  ammoniates  are  not  satis- 
factory for  orchard  work,  as  they  continue  to  supply 
available  ammonia  all  through  the  season;  not 
enough  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  to  properly  set 
the  fruit,  hence  severe  dropping ;  too  much  late  in  the 
year  when  none  is  needed  and  which  causes  the  for- 
mation of  leaf  rather  than  fruit  buds.  The  soil  be- 
tween the  trees  should  be  regularly  tilled,  much  as  in 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  113 

corn  growing.  That  it  is  not  generally  done  is  no 
argument  against  the  value  of  such  cultivation 
methods. 


How  It  Was  Done  at  Corona,  California. , 

The  rows  were  trenched  eight  inches  deep,  just 
outside  the  drip  of  the  trees,  and  the  fertilizers  spread 
in  the  trench  opposite  the  whole  width  of  each  tree. 
This  was  done  on  two  sides  of  each  row  in  the  same 
direction,  then  covered  by  the  plow.  This,  the  only 
plowing,  was  done  on  March  7,  1918.  The  applica- 
tion of  fertilizers  in  trenches  is  found  to  give  the  best 
results  in  the  orange  groves  of  this  section. 

Six  after-cultivations  to  a  depth  of  five  or  six  inches 
were  given.  These  six  cultivations  were  made  during 
the  fore  part  of  each  of  the  months  of  March,  April, 
May,  June,  July  and  August.  The  March  cultivation 
consisted  of  a  thorough  disking.  The  other  five 
cultivations  were  made  with  the  ordinary  orchard 
cultivator. 

The  above  trench  fertilizing  was  done  parallel  with 
irrigation  furrows  up  one  side  and  down  the  other, 
nothing  being  applied  on  the  other  two  sides.  This 
has  given  good  results  and  the  above  method  is  rec- 
ommended to  California  citrus  fruit  growers. 

Citrus  Growing  in  California. 

The  one-tenth  of  an  acre  plot  of  orange  trees  at 
Corona  fertilized  with  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  acid  phos- 
phate at  the  rate  of  320  pounds  of  each  per  acre 


114 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


yielded  at  the  rate  of  411  boxes  of  high  quality  fruit. 
A  plot  alongside  fertilized  without  Nitrate  gave  a 
rate  of  yield  of  only  322  boxes  per  acre  of  inferior 
fruit.  This  difference  of  yield  of  89  boxes  per  acre 
due  to  tfie  use  of  Nitrate  sfiows  an  increase  in  value 

Results  at  Corona. 


32.2  Boxes  Oranges. 
Yield  of  1/10  acre 
fertilized  with  Acid 
Phosphate  alone. 


41.1  Boxes  Oranges. 
Yield  of  1/10  acre 
fertilized  with  Ni- 
trate of  Soda  and 
Acid  Phosphate. 


of  produce  equivalent  to  $324.85.  Each  100  pounds 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda  used  in  this  case  added  a  rate  of 
profit  to  the  grower's  income  of  $101.52  per  acre. 

The  best  source  of  Nitrogen  for  citrus  fruits  is 
Nitrate  of  Soda,  because  of  its  instant  availability. 
Growth  is  promoted  at  once  after  application  is  made. 
It  is  taking  chances  to  apply  any  nitrogenous  ferti- 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  115 

lizer  not  immediately  available  because  of  the  tend- 
ency to  prolong  growth  unduly  and  to  delay  matur- 
ity; and  it  is  fatal  to  apply  high  grade  fertilizers  too 
late.  In  California  on  alkaline  soils  or  soils  having 
alkaline  tendencies  the  application  of  Nitrate  of  Soda 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  acid  phosphate  or  super- 
phosphates tends  to  diminish  black  alkali  present. 

Instructions    for    Using    Nitrate    on    the    Citrus    in 
California. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  in  California  —  for  full- 
grown  orange  trees  —  we  advise  applying  Nitrate 
early  in  March  or  even  the  middle  of  February,  and 
following  the  application  immediately  after  by  disk- 
ing or  harrowing  in  the  material  to  the  depth  of  five 
or  six  inches. 

When  it  is  used  alone,  Nitrate  may  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  two  hundred  (200)  pounds  to  the  acre. 

It  can  be  used  more  profitably  at  the  rate  of  four 
hundred  (400)  pounds  to  the  acre  if  four  hundred 
(400)  pounds  of  dry  acid  or  superphosphate  be  used 
with  it.    Both  materials  should  be  dry. 

Four  hundred  pounds  of  Nitrate  is  equal  in  bulk  to 
about  four  bushels. 

We  believe  the  second  procedure  is  the  more  profit- 
able as  a  rule,  and  we  have  no  hesitation  in  recom- 
mending it  in  preference  to  the  use  of  Nitrate  alone. 
The  earlier  the  application,  the  better  the  results. 

After  plowing  in  the  material  in  February,  the 
orchard  should  be  cultivated  every  thirty  (30)  days 
until  August,  preferably  in  the  fore  part  of  each 


116  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

month.     The  last  cultivation  is  done  best  by  a  disk 
harrow. 

Formulas  for  full-grown  citrus  trees  in  tabular 
form  are  as  follows : 

Rates  per  Acre 

Nitrate  o£  Soda  alone 200  lbs.     • 

or  preferably 

Nitrate  of  Soda 400  lbs. 

Acid,  or  Superphosphate 400  lbs. 

When  potash  salts  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
we  advise  the  use  of  fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  of  potash 
to  the  acre  every  other  year. 

These  formulas  it  is  believed  will  also  be  found 
very  satisfactory  for  both  full-grown  lemon  trees  and 
full-grown  grapefruit. 


SOILS  AND  OTHER  FACTORS  IN  RELATION 
TO  CROP  PRODUCTION  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

The  use  of  Chilean  Nitrate  is  increasing  year  by 
year  in  England,  and  it  is  coming  to  be  more  and 
more  appreciated  there,  as  well  as  on  the  continent  of 
Europe. 

In  fact,  everywhere  in  the  world  where  there  is 
progressive  and  enlightened  experiment  work,  the 
unique  qualities  of  Chilean  Nitrate  are  putting  it 
ahead  of  every  other  nitrogenous  plant  food.  No 
reputable  authority  in  the  world  has  ever  advocated 
such  large  quantities  of  Chilean  Nitrate  per  acre  as 
would  result  in  any  abnormal  accumulation  of  alkali. 
Moreover,  the  use  of  acid  phosphates,  associated  as 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  117 

they  are  commercially  with  sulphate  of  lime,  con- 
verts any  black  alkali  residue  into  harmless  forms  of 
soda.  The  vast  majority  of  soils  in  the  United 
States,  probably  95  per  cent.,  have  a  tendency  to 
grow  acid  rather  than  to  grow  alkali;  and  Chilean 
Nitrate  is,  therefore,  highly  beneficial  in  such 
cases. 

The  use  of  potash  salts  tends  to  leave  acid  resid- 
uals, and  when  phosphates  and  potashes  are  used 
rationally,  and  in  quantities  suitable  for  normal 
plant  feeding,  the  question  of  Chilean  Nitrate  leaving 
abnormal  amounts  of  alkaline  residues  becomes  a 
purely  fanciful  one,  and  is  not  worthy  of  the  serious 
attention  of  a  practical  business  horticulturist  or 
farmer. 

In  all  our  literature,  the  rational  and  not  the  irra- 
tional use  of  fertilizers  is  recommended,  i.  e.,  normal 
amounts  of  the  three  elements  of  fertility.  The  use 
of  Chilean  Nitrate  alone  is  not  recommended  except 
at  the  rate  of  100  or  200  pounds  per  acre,  which  is  a 
trifling  tonnage  application;  and  we  always  advise 
when  larger  amounts  are  used,  that  the  horticulturist 
or  farmer  use  as  much  in  quantity  of  acid  phosphate. 

The  vast  majority  of  farm  lands  of  our  country, 
where  so-called  "Complete"  fertilizers  have  been 
used,  have  the  tendency  to  become  sour  and  acid; 
and  Chilean  Nitrate  could  not  only  be  used  indefi- 
nitely with  an  extremely  beneficial  effect  in  this 
particular  connection,  but  there  is  an  immediate  gen- 
eral need  for  it. 

An  acre  of  ground  one  foot  deep  is  the  active  serv- 
ice part  of  the  soil,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  its  chemical 


118  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

composition  determines  its  usefulness.     This  service 
soil  weighs  on  an  average  2,000  tons  per  acre. 

There  is  enough  sulphate  of  lime  or  gypsum  pres- 
ent, as  well  as  acid,  in  the  average  acid  phosphate, 
to  materially  help  the  black  alkali  of  many  alkaline 
soils,  but  gypsum  alone  may  be  used  also  for  correct- 
ing alkali. 

Since  we  never  recommend  the  use  of  Chilean 
Nitrate  alone,  except  at  the  rate  of  from  one  hundred 
to  two  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  this  relatively  small 
amount  could  have  no  material  influence  whatever  in 
increasing  the  alkali  content  of  soils.  The  continued 
use  of  Nitrate  under  rational  methods  of  fertilizing, 
would  not  add  to,  but  rather  diminish  the  quantity 
of  alkali  in  the  soil.  The  associated  gypsum  and 
acid  phosphate  thus  used  would  tend  to  loosen  heavy 
clay  soils  which  need  improvement  in  texture  and 
the  acid  residues  from  these  materials  would  likewise 
benefit  alkaline  soils. 

In  this  connection,  it  is  important  to  observe  that 
care  must  be  exercised,  in  soils  containing  black 
alkali,  to  avoid  materially  increasing  the  content  of 
carbonate  or  bi-carbonate  of  lime,  since  this  would 
help  promote  the  destruction  of  humus.  It  is,  there- 
fore, suggested  for  these  particular  soils,  that  the 
large  and  constant  use  of  lime  be  avoided.  When 
lime  is  needed,  have  your  soil  examined  by  an  expert, 
and  do  not  put  on  any  more  lime  in  any  form  than 
advised  for  your  particular  case.  In  other  words, 
take  good  care  to  preserve  your  humus.  Do  not 
destroy  it  by  excessive  liming  on  any  account. 
Neither  wetness  nor  stickiness  will  result  from  the 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  119 

rational  use  of  Chilean  Nitrate.     The  productivity  of 
all  soils  may  be  increased  by  the  right  use  of  it. 

All  arid  soils  lack  Nitrogen  on  account  of  having 
but  little  natural  humus  in  them,  hence  the  applica- 
tion of  Chilean  Nitrate  should  give  profitable  crop 
increases. 


A  GOOD    SOIL 

AVERAGE  OF  CALIFORNIA  SOILS 


1.5 


1.5         1.5 


SULPt 


SULPH.ACID        MA6Nf5IA 


ORGANIC 
MATTER 


CHART  NO.  1 
Figures  on  California  soils  taken  from  Hilgard's  Book  on  Soils,  and 
from  R.  R.  Snowden.     Figures  on  elements  necessary  in  an  excellent 
soil  taken  from  the  average  of  many  authorities  in  both  United  States 
and  Europe. 


120 


SOME  "CONCRETE  FACTS  ON  FERTILIZA- 
TION" IN  CALIFORNIA. 

Taken  from  "Data  compiled  by  Nitrate  Fertilizer  Com- 
pany,  Inc.,   Los   Angeles,   California." 

Explanation  of  Chart  No.  1,  on  Soils. 

This  chart  is  presented  to  show  the  elements  that 
should  be  in  the  soil  and  their  relation  to  one  another. 
It  is  contrasted  with  the  average  of  a  great  number 
of  soil  analyses  taken  in  various  agricultural  centers 
in  California.  The  chart  is  not  intended  to  show  any 
actual  existing  condition,  but  is  merely  a  guide  to 
show  in  a  general  way  what  elements  are  sufficient 
in  the  soil  and  what  elements  need  to  be  applied  to 
the  soil.  The  grower's  individual  soil  analysis  may 
be  profitably  compared  with  this  chart,  which  will 
show  in  a  fairly  accurate  measure  any  deficiencies 
that  may  occur  in  a  specific  case. 

This  chart  shows  the  total  elements  in  the  soil  — 
not  taking  into  consideration  the  availability  — 
hence  the  greatest  value  of  this  chart  is  to  show  the 
relation  of  one  element  to  another.  The  soil  may 
contain  3  per  cent  lime  and  the  plant  suffer  from  lack 
of  lime,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  lime  is  in  an  unavail- 
able form. 

It  would  be  impracticable  to  determine  the  average 
relation  of  available  plant  food  to  unavailable  plant 
food  because  of  the  extreme  variances  encountered. 
However,  in  individual  cases  this  may  be  determined 
to  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  by  a  study  of  the  past 

121 


122 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


performance  and  treatment  of  the  soil  together  with 
a  soil  analysis. 

This  chart  points  out  the  necessity  of  first  building 
up  the  soil  to  contain  a  sufficient  amount  and  rela- 
tion of  elements.  After  this  has  been  accomplished, 
then  comes  the  problem  of  proper  fertilization,  which 
can  be  successfully  based  on  some  ratio  of  what  the 
crop  being  grown  takes  out  of  the  soil,  at  the  same 
time  considering  the  necessity  of  supplying  elements 
to  the  soil  in  a  proportion  that  will  keep  the  soil  in  a 
perfect  balance  for  continual  maximum  production. 

Table  of   Chart   No.    1. 


Nitro- 
gen 

Phos. 
Acid  Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Sul. 
Acid 

Mag. 

Organic 
Matter 

An   excellent    soil . . 
Average  Calif,  soil. 

.      .2 
.      .06 

.2         .3 
.1          .6 

.5 
.29 

1.5 
1.25 

.02 
.06 

.75 
1.5 

1.5 
.9 

What  Various  Crops  Take  Out  of  the  Soil  in 
Pounds  per  Acre. 

Crops                                      No.  lbs.  Nitrogen    Phos.  Acid  Potash 

Apples    17,000  22.10  1.70  32.30 

Apricots     16,000  30.40  9.60  46.40 

Blackberries  (ea.  1  ton  produced) 3.00  1.80  4.00 

Cranberries  (ea.  1  ton  produced) 3.10  .60  1.80 

Currants  (ea.  1  ton  produced) 3.10  2.20  5.40 

Almonds     1,200  8.43  2.45  11.94 

Cherries    8,000  18.32  5.76  22.16 

Grapes    14,000  22.40  12.60  37.80 

Lemons    22,800  34.20  13.68  61.56 

Oranges    17,500  27.13  11.38  60.38 

Olives    4,000  7.20  4.80  34.40 

Peaches    16,000  16.00  8.00  38.40 

Pears     20,000  18.00  6.00  16.60 

Plums      12,000  21.60  2.40  28.80 

Prunes    6,000  9.60  4.20  18.60 

Raspberries  (ea.  1  ton  produced) 3.00  9.60  7.00 

Strawberries  (ea.  1  ton  produced) 3.00  2.20  6.00 

Walnuts     1,500  8.10  2.10  12.27 

Asparagus    5,000  20.00  6.00  37.50 

Cabbage   30,000  114.00  33.00  129.00 

Onions    30,000  42.00  12.00  30.00 

Peas    7,000  250.60  58.80  70.70 

Potatoes  (White) 15,000  31.50  10.50  43.50 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  123 

Crops  No.  lbs.      Nitrogen  Phos.  Acid  Potash 

Potatoes    (Sweet) 10,000         24.00  8.00  37.00 

Tomatoes     40,000         64.00  20.00  108.00 

Lettuce    aver,  crop     41.00  17.00  71.00 

Cantaloupes    (est.) aver,  crop     57.00  16.00  100.00 

Barley     2,500         44.00  20.50  13.50 

Corn    2,000         37.40  14.00  8.00 

Oats    1,200         24.72  9.84  7.44 

Rice     3,500         37.80  6.30  3.15 

Sorghum     2,500         37.00  20.25  10.50 

Wheat    (Spring) 1,200         28.32  8.40  4.68 

Sugar   Beets 40,000       173.40  116.16  387.44 

Cotton  (total  crop) 1  bale        64.35  22.37  51.33 


EXPLANATION 

This  table  does  not  include  all  the  elements  or  plant  foods,  required  by 
various  crops,  such  as  lim-e,  soda,  sulphur,  etc.,  which  are  just  as  impor- 
tant, even  though  required  in  some  cases  in  lesser  amounts.  Whereas  we 
have  searched  practically  all  sources  of  available  information,  zve  have 
been  unable  to  secure  complete  or  authentic  information  on  the  quantities 
of  plant  foods  required  by  plants  other  than  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid 
and  Potash.  Inco)nplcte  figures  shozv  that  as  a  general  rule  lime  is  required 
in  quantities  similar  to  potash,  and  soda  similar  to  phosphoric  acid. 

With  regard  to  fruits,  the  crop  only  has  been  considered,  as  no  complete 
information  is  available  on  the  quantities  of  plant  food  required  by  the 
leaves  and  it'ood,  but  it  is  known  that  they  require  as  much,  ij  not  more, 
plant  food  than  the  crop.  The  leaves  and  wood  require  more  nitrogen  in 
proportion  to  other  elements  than  taken  out  by  the  crop. 

The  above  figures  are  based  upon  the  finding  of  the  University  of 
California  Agricultural  Extension  Service,  Myers  "Food  for  Plants,"  for 
Cotton — Alabama  Experiment  Station. 


Green  Manure. 

The  growing  of  legume  cover  crops  is  one  of  the 
most  economical  forms  of  supplying  the  necessary 
organic  matter.  Nitrogen  is  also  supplied  by 
legumes  in  two  ways :  First,  through  the  Nitrogen 
constituent  in  its  roughage  which  is  plowed  under; 
second,  through  the  Nitrogen  formed  in  nodules  on 
its  roots. 

According  to  "Feeds  &  Feeding"  by  Henry  the 
average  Nitrogen  content  in  the  green  roughage  of 


124  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

legumes  is  one-half  of  one  per  cent.  In  regard  to  the 
amount  of  Nitrogen  supplied  from  the  nodules 
formed  on  the  roots  it  is  practically  impossible  to 
figure  this  correctly  as  it  depends  upon  the  root  struc- 
ture of  the  plant  and  the  quantity  of  nodules  formed. 
Also  when  figuring  the  Nitrogen  value  of  legumes  it 
must  be  taken  into  consideration  that  legumes  take 
Nitrogen  from  both  the  soil  and  the  air. 

As  soil  Nitrogen  becomes  available  it  is  taken  up 
by  the  legume  and  is  turned  back  to  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  organic  Nitrogen  which  requires  to  be  de- 
composed before  it  can  again  be  used  as  plant  food. 
In  this  transaction  63  per  cent  of  original  soil  Nitro- 
gen is  lost.  Legumes,  however,  take  Nitrogen  from 
the  air  and  by  so  doing  offset  this  loss  of  soil  Nitrogen 
and  supply  a  small  amount  of  organic  Nitrogen  in 
addition. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  main  value  of  cover 
crops  is  the  organic  matter  they  supply.  The  Nitro- 
gen can  be  supplied  and  in  a  more  available  and  eco- 
nomical form. 

There  are  two  main  divisions  of  cover  crops: 
Summer  cover  crops,  which  should  be  of  the  shallow 
root  variety,  and  winter  cover  crops  which  are  of  the 
deep  rooting  variety. 

Summer  cover  crops  should  be  plowed  in  before 
the  second  week  in  July.  After  that  time  they  will 
compete  with  the  fall  growth  of  the  trees — a  danger- 
ous thing  when  quality  and  maximum  production  is 
desired.  This  is  also  true  of  winter  cover  crops, 
which  should  be  plowed  under  by  the  first  of 
March. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  125 

Grain  cover  crops  are  not  desirable  as  they  directly 
compete  with  the  trees.     Wild  oats  do  harm. 

Irrigation  furrows  should  be  constructed  so  they 
are  not  as  deep  as  the  plowed  under  cover  crop. 
This  allows  the  water  to  carry  the  food  to  the  roots. 


Functions  of  Nitrogen. 

1.  Develops  wood  growth,  insuring  healthy, 
strong  trees. 

2.  Develops  leaf  growth,  making  healthy  leaves 
of  a  dark  green  color,  which  enables  the  plant  to  take 
in  the  necessary  supply  of  carbon  dioxide. 

3.  Promotes  quantity,  quality  and  good-sized 
vegetables. 

4.  Makes  up  the  tissues  of  the  fruit,  thus  insuring 
a  good  size. 

5.  Most  of  the  essential  Nitrogen  is  taken  up  by 
the  plant  at  an  early  period  in  the  growth,  hence 
early  applications  of  Nitrogen  hasten  maturity,  and 
late  and  too  great  applications  tend  to  retard  ma- 
turity by  forcing  leaf  and  wood  growth  at  a  time 
when  the  plant  should  be  concentrating  on  develop- 
ing and  sweetening  its  fruit. 


Analysis  of  Various  Nitrogenous  Fertilizers. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  IS^/^Or  Nitrogen,  25''^  Sodium.  Recovery  of  Nitrogen 
by  crop,  dZyz'/c 

Nitrate  of  Lime  12' r  Nitrogen,  26^'r  Calcium.  Recovery  of  Nitrogen 
by  crop,  62i/^9'f. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  ZOYi'/c  Nitrogen,  22'7f  Sulphur.  Recovery  of 
Nitrogen  by  crop,  47^/^%. 

Dried  Blood  l3%Vc  Nitrogen.    Recovery  of  Nitrogen  by  crop,  38^%. 


126  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Fish  Meal  (average)  S%7f  Nitrogen,  V/c  available  Phosphoric  Acid. 
Recovery  of  Nitrogen  by  crop,  38^%. 

Tankage  and  "Brand"  or  Mixed  Fertilizers  are  taken  up  later. 

The  average  Nitrogen  recovery  by  crop  is  38%7c  in  tankage. 

The  average  Nitrogen  recovery  by  crop  is  40%  to  507o  in  mixtures, 
according  to  the  sources  of  Nitrogen. 


Nitrate  of  Soda. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  Potash  with  Nitrate  of 
Soda  in  California,  as  it  is  a  proven  and  accepted  fact 
that  Soda  releases  unavailable  Potash  from  the  soil. 
California  soils  average  extremely  high  in  Potash 
and  low  in  Soda,  hence  applications  of  Nitrate  of 
Soda  are  generally  beneficial  in  balancing  the  bases 
and  making  available  Potash  —  thus  supplying  a 
necessary  plant  food.  In  400  pounds  of  Nitrate  of 
Soda  there  is  146  pounds  of  Soda.  The  average  crop 
requires  from  40  to  100  pounds  of  Soda  and  60  pounds 
will  be  required  and  dispelled  in  releasing  Potash. 

For  example,  refer  to  R.  R.  Snowden's  work  dated 
October,  1923,  wherein  he  quotes  the  University  of 
California  as  follows:  "According  to  California 
Bulletin  No.  93,  page  37,  a  crop  of  12,800  pounds  of 
Oranges  per  acre,  equivalent  to  about  2  boxes  per 
tree,  will  take  out  46.7  pounds  of  Soda.  Ninety-two 
pounds  of  Potash  required  by  this  crop  will  require 
60.5  pounds  of  Soda  to  release  it  from  the  silicates, 
whereby  this  amount  of  Soda  becomes  practically 
insoluble.  Then,  according  to  the  same  authority, 
the  tree  body  and  leaves  contain  a  larger  percentage 
of  Soda  in  the  ash  and  more  ash  than  the  fruit  does. 
According  to  this  estimate,  there  can  be  no  possible 
sodium  residue." 

Through  the  use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  the  eifect  of 
over-nitration  is  practically  impossible,  as  the  Soda 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  127 

element  releases  unavailable  Potassium,  which  in  a 
balanced  soil  insures  the  fruit  of  a  fine  texture,  a  thin 
skin  and  sweet  flavor. 

The  Nitrogen  in  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  in  a  plant  food 
form,  which  permits  the  application  of  Nitrogen  at 
the  time  the  plant  requires  the  food.  There  is  no 
danger  of  the  Nitrogen  becoming  available  at  too  late 
a  date,  which  will  cause  delay  in  maturity,  a  forced 
growth,  with  a  resultant  poor  quality  and  sour  fruit. 

Nitrate  of  Lime. 

When  used  with  superphosphate  especially,  this 
combination  is  not  as  good  a  balance  as  Nitrate  of 
Soda,  as  there  will  be  an  unbalance  between  bases. 
In  certain  cases  calcium  is  very  essential,  but  can  be 
supplied  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  calcium  carbonate 
much  more  economically  and  effectively.  The  cal- 
cium, of  which  there  is  105  pounds  to  each  400  pounds 
of  nitrate  of  lime,  is  in  a  soluble  form.  Calcium  or 
lime  does  not  release  potash  from  the  soil,  therefore 
potash  must  be  added,  as  it  is  an  essential  plant  food. 
The  crop  recovery  of  Nitrogen  is  the  same  from 
nitrate  of  lime  as  from  Nitrate  of  Soda  (62  per 
cent).  It  will  take  515  pounds  of  nitrate  of  lime  to 
supply  the  same  amount  of  Nitrogen  contained  in 
400  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Gypsum. 

Gypsum,  supplying  both  calcium  and  sulphur,  and 
being  neutral  (neither  acid  nor  base)  is  generally  the 
cheapest  and  most  logical  single  soil  builder  to  use 
when  sulphur  is  required  or  when  there  is  any  trace 
of  black  alkali.    In  cases  where  the  calcium  content 


128  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

is  exceptionally  high  and  the  physical  condition  of 
the  soil  is  good,  applications  of  inoculated  sulphur 
might  be  more  economical  and  satisfactory. 

A  mixture  of  inoculated  sulphur  and  lime  in  the 
right  proportion,  however,  will  have  somewhat  the 
same  effect  as  gypsum.  If  sulphur  and  calcium  are 
both  needed,  cost  ought  to  be  the  big  factor  in  de- 
termining whether  to  use  gypsum  or  lime  and 
sulphur. 

Functions  of  Gypsum. 

1.  Gypsum  neutralizes  black  alkali. 

2.  Gypsum  supplies  both  calcium  and  sulphur. 

3.  Improves  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil, 
etc. 

4.  Promotes  the  development  of  beneficial  bac- 
teria through  the  calcium  it  supplies. 

5.  Helps  in  the  decay  of  organic  matter. 

By  comparing  the  functions  of  lime  with  gypsum, 
the  following  main  differences  should  be  noted: 

1.  Whereas  lime  corrects  acidity,  gypsum  does  not. 

2.  Whereas  gypsum  neutralizes  black  alkali,  lime 
does  not. 

A  further  discussion  of  the  value  and  use  of  gyp- 
sum is  given  later. 

Ground  Sulphur. 

Ground  sulphur,  97  per  cent  to  100  per  cent  pure,  is 
in  an  unavailable  form  until  bacteria  change  it  to  a 
sulphate,  hence  it  may  remain  useless  in  the  soil  for 
years.  There  is  now  an  inoculated  sulphur  on  the 
market  which  contains  sulphating  bacteria  and  thus 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  129 

becomes  available  as  plant  food  within  a  very  short 
time,  and  will  give  excellent  results  the  first  year. 

Sulphur  should  not  be  used  continually  unless 
other  fertilizers  are  added.  It  acts  strongly  on  the 
other  elements  and  will  soon  deplete  the  soil.  It  will 
also  cause  a  sour  or  acid  condition. 

Occasional  applications  are  especially  good  on 
leguminous  crops,  which  require  considerable 
amounts  of  sulphur  as  plant  food. 

What  Burbank  Said. 

"After  testing  a  great  variety  of  fertilizers  on  my 
orchard  and  experimental  grounds,  I  find  that  the 
Nitrate  of  Soda  and  Thomas  slag  phosphate  have 
given  the  best  results  at  the  least  expense,  and  I  shall 
not  look  further  at  present,  as  my  trees,  bulbs,  plants, 
flowers  and  fruits  have  been,  by  the  use  of  about  150 
pounds  each  per  acre,  nearly  doubled  in  size  and 
beauty  in  almost  every  instance.  The  above-named 
fertilizers  have  more  than  doubled  the  product  of  my 
soil  at  a  very  small  outlay  per  acre. 

Where  the  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  used,  I  find  a  greatly 
increased  ability  in  trees  to  resist  drought,  and  lack 
of  cultivation." 

"Luther  Burbank  is  the  greatest  originator  of  new 
and  valuable  forms  of  plant  life  of  this  or  any  other 
age,"  says  David  Starr  Jordan,  President  of  Leland 
Stanford  Junior  University,  California. 


Character   in   "Pomona   Uses   White    Magic''    Representing 

Chilean   Nitrate   of   Soda. 

130 


APPLE  GROWING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Apple  is  the  most  important  commercially  of 
American  fruits.  The  annual  average  production  for 
the  five-year  period,  1920-1924,  is  placed  at  181,531,- 
200  bushels,  with  an  annual  average  value  for  the 
corresponding  period  of  $208,370,000,  thus  ranking 
eighth  in  the  value  of  all  crops.  The  value  of  the 
1924  crop  v^as  $212,193,000;  based  on  a  yield  of  179,- 
443,000  bushels.* 

Below  is  given  a  table  showing  the  production, 
average  price  per  bushel,  and  total  value  of  the  crop 
for  the  years  1920-1924: 

Average  Price  Total 

Year  Total  Production  per  Bushel  Value  of  Crop 

1920 223,667,000  $1,148  $256,770,000 

1921     99,002,000  1.680  166,343,000 

1922    202,702,000  .986  199,848,000 

1923     202,842,000  1,022  202,696,000 

1924    179,443,000  1.18  212,193,000 

Commercial  Area. 

In  1924,  the  rank  of  the  seven  leading  Apple  States, 
according  to  production,  was  as  follows : 

state  Production  Value 

1.  New  York   23,800,000  Bus.  $25,704,000 

2.  Washington    23,000,000  "  32,200,000 

3.  Virginia    15,184,000  "  12,755,000 

4.  Ohio    8,325,000  "  10,906,000 

5.  California    7,370,000  "  8,991,000 

6.  Michigan    7,333,000  "  8,360,000 

7.  West  Virginia   7,000,000  "  6,650,000 


*  All  figures  are  taken  from  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
"Agriculture   Year  Book,"  and  from  reports  contained  in  "Crops  and 
Markets,"  published  by  the  Department. 
131 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  133 

It  should  be  noted  from  the  preceding  table  that 
while  in  1924  New  York  had  a  greater  production 
than  Washington,  the  total  value  of  the  crop  was 
less,  being  25,704,000,  as  against  $32,200,000,  for 
Washington. 

It  is  of  interest  that  in  1923  Washington  ranked 
first  in  total  production,  producing  33,000,000  bush- 
els, New  York  being  second  with  25,000,000  bushels. 
In  1922  New  York  was  first  with  36,000,000  bushels, 
Washington  producing  25,775,000  bushels.  Thus 
the  leadership  in  Apple  production  swings  back  and 
forth  between  these  two  States. 

Climatic  Requirements. 

Since  the  critical  period  in  apple  culture  is  at  blos- 
soming time,  it  is  desirable  to  locate  an  orchard  in  a 
region  where  damp  and  cold  weather  is  not  prevalent 
at  this  time.  Rolling  to  hilly  land  is  generally  to  be 
preferred,  because  of  the  natural  air  drainage.  Also 
there  is  less  danger  of  loss  from  frost  on  a  north  or 
northeast  slope.  A  large  body  of  water  near  an 
orchard  provides  some  protection  by  promoting  uni- 
formity of  temperature. 

Soil  Requirements. 

A  deep,  friable,  loamy  soil,  with  good  drainage, 
is  most  suitable  for  apples.  They  are  most  produc- 
tive and  longest-lived  on  a  clay  loam.  Apples  thrive, 
however,  on  a  wide  range  of  soils,  the  different  varie- 
ties being  adapted  to  different  soil  conditions.  In 
planting  an  orchard,  the  grower  should,  as  far  as 


A  Typical  Fertilized  Tree  of  Plot  8  in  the  Brown  Orchard. 
When  Photographed,  in  1912,  This  Tree  Carried  26.6 
Bushels  o£  Fruit,  While  the  Best  Unfertilized  Tree  in 
the  Experiment  Yielded  Only  7.9  Bushels.  Bedford 
County,  Pa. 


134 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  135 

possible,  know  the  adaptability  of  the  varieties  in 
question  to  his  soil,  and  should  make  his  selections 
accordingly. 

The  richer  soils  naturally  produce  better  growth 
than  those  deficient  in  plant  food.  Planting  apples 
on  thin  soils  is  not  advised,  but  excellent  fruit  is 
raised  on  soils  of  only  moderate  fertility,  if  a  sys- 
tem of  regular  culture,  cover  cropping  and  fertiliza- 
tion is  followed. 

Establishing  the  Orchard. 

Before  planting  an  orchard,  the  soil  should  be 
plowed  deep  and  receive  thorough  preparation.  In 
case  hardpan  or  a  stratum  of  rock  is  near  the  surface, 
dynamiting  may  be  advisable.  The  grower  should 
be  certain  that  he  is  buying  good  nursery  stock,  free 
from  insect  or  disease  pests.  Strong,  one-year-old 
"whips"  are  considered  most  desirable  for  planting. 

The  distance  at  which  apple  trees  are  planted 
varies  with  the  different  varieties,  according  to  their 
size,  but  it  is  seldom  less  than  30  feet  apart  for  per- 
manent trees. 

There  are  three  principal  systems  of  laying  out  the 
orchard:  (1)  square,  (2)  hexagonal  and  (3)  quin- 
cunx. In  the  first  the  trees  are  set  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  two  series  of  equidistant  parallel  lines  drawn 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  forming  squares; 
in  the  second  each  tree  is  equidistant  from  the  six 
trees  which  surround  it  in  the  form  of  a  hexagon; 
and  in  the  last  each  tree  is  equidistant  from  the  four 
trees  which  surround  it  in  the  form  of  a  square. 
When  set  30  by  30  feet,  48  trees  are  required  for  an 
acre. 


136 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


In  setting  apple  trees,  other  fruits,  such  as  peaches 
or  early-bearing  varieties  of  apples,  are  often  set  be- 
tween the  apples  that  are  intended  to  be  permanent. 
These  enable  the  grower  to  realize  some  revenue  from 
the  orchard  before  the  permanent  trees  begin  to  bear. 
When  the  trees  begin  to  crowd,  the  fillers  can  be 
removed.    The  grower  must  not  make  the  mistake  of 


Tompkins,  Kings,  and  Other  Varieties  in  the  Johnston  Or- 
chards, Showing  the  Value  of  Our  General  Orchard 
Fertilizer.  These  Trees  Had  Not  Borne  Well  Before 
Fertilization,  but  This  Is  Their  Third  Successive  Crop. 
Lawrence  County,  Pa. 


allowing  these  temporary  trees  to  remain  too  long, 
as  they  will  crowd  the  permanent  trees  and  jeopard- 
ize their  productivity.  An  annual  crop  is  considered 
a  better  companion  crop  for  a  young  orchard.  It 
should  be  a  crop  which  requires  early  cultivation  — 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  137 

that  is,  a  crop  which  does  not  require  stirring  of  the 
soil  after  August  —  for  the  young  trees  make  their 
growth  early  in  the  season  and  from  August  on  are 
maturing  their  wood  and  getting  ready  for  the 
winter. 

In  any  scheme  of  intercropping,  a  certain  portion 
of  the  land  should  be  reserved  for  the  exclusive  use 
of  the  trees  —  no  less  than  eight  feet  along  each  side 
of  each  row  of  trees  when  young  —  and  as  the  trees 
grow  this  area  should  be  increased.  The  annual  crop 
should  receive  its  own  fertilization,  in  order  not  to 
draw  from  the  food  supply  of  the  young  trees. 

Where  the  winters  are  not  too  severe,  planting  in 
the  fall  is  desirable,  since  this  enables  the  trees  to 
become  established  and  get  a  quick  start  in  the  spring. 
In  the  northern  regions  spring  planting  is  advised. 

After  setting,  the  tree  is  "headed  back"  in  order  to 
give  it  a  balanced  top.  One-year-old  trees  are  usu- 
ally cut  back  to  24  inches. 

Cultivation. 

Three  methods  of  cultivation  may  be  followed: 
clean  culture,  tillage  cover-crop  culture,  and  sod- 
mulch  culture.  The  two  latter  are  generally  ac- 
cepted as  the  best  methods  under  the  average  con- 
ditions, but  the  sod-mulch  is  preferable  for  hilly 
sections.  Clean  culture  should  be  practiced  first,  two 
or  three  years  after  which  the  orchard  may  be  thrown 
into  permanent  sod,  or  the  system  of  tillage  with 
cover-cropping  may  be  followed.  In  the  tillage  and 
cover-cropping  system,  the  orchard  should  be  plowed 
in  the  spring  and  cultivated  at  intervals  until  July 


138  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

or  August,  according  to  climatic  conditions,  when  a 
cover  crop  may  be  sown.  Alfalfa,  one  of  the  clovers, 
vetch,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  rye,  oats,  buckwheat  and 
other  crops  are  used  as  covers.  A  leguminous  crop 
is  usually  considered  preferable. 

Pruning. 

Only  a  bare  outline  of  the  principles  of  pruning 
apples  may  be  given  here.  The  purposes  of  pruning, 
briefly  are: 

1 .  To  preserve  the  proper  balance  between  top  and 
root  system  at  the  time  of  setting  out. 

2.  To  prune  to  the  best  size  and  shape. 

3.  To  remove  all  dead,  diseased,  and  injured  wood. 

4.  To  make  the  top  open  in  order  to  admit  sun- 
light. 

5.  To  regulate  the  number  of  limbs  composing 
the  top. 

6.  To  fix  the  branches  at  the  proper  height  above 
the  ground. 

7.  To  do  away  with  a  weak  crotch  and  crossing 
or  interfering  branches. 

8.  To  promote  the  right  amount  of  wood  growth. 

9.  To  regulate  the  number  and  the  distribution  of 
wood  and  fruit-bearing  buds. 

Several  types  of  pruning  are  practiced.  The  Cen- 
tral Leader  type  provides  a  strong  upright  central 
limb  with  side  branches,  uniformly  distributed  about 
it.  The  Open  Center  type  has  no  central  leader,  but 
usually  two  to  four  main  branches  joining  the  trunk 
at  the  crotch,  and  giving  a  vase-shaped  top.  The 
Double  Headed  type  comprises  three  chief  parts: 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  139 

(1)  a  short  central  limb  extending  upright  from  the 
trunk;  (2)  a  tier  of  main  branches  radiating  from  the 
point  where  this  central  limb  joins,  or  rather,  extends 
out  of  the  trunk;  and  (3)  another  tier  of  main 
branches,  radiating  from  the  upper  extremity  of  the 
central  limb  and  above  the  first  tier. 

The  Modified  Leader  is  a  compromise  between  the 
Central  Leader  and  Open  Center  types,  combining 
the  good  features  of  the  two.  It  provides  for  a  main 
central  limb  up  to  a  certain  point,  where,  by  careful 
pruning  over  a  period  of  years,  it  is  diverted  off  to 
the  side  somewhat  and  loses  itself  into  the  side 
branches,  thus  leaving  the  top  of  the  tree  open  for 
the  admission  of  sunlight.  This  promises  to  become 
the  most  popular  type  of  pruning. 

Pruning  is  generally  done  when  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant, the  period  from  November  to  April  being  the 
usual  pruning  time.  Summer  pruning  is  practiced 
only  under  special  circumstances. 


Thinning. 

This  is  an  important  feature  of  commercial  orchard 
management.  Probably  the  greatest  advantage  ob- 
tained by  it  is  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  remain- 
ing apples.  As  a  rule  the  thinning  should  be  done 
in  the  South  as  soon  as  the  May  drop  is  over,  and 
in  the  North  after  the  June  drop.  The  development 
of  seeds  drains  the  energies  of  the  tree.  Hence  thin- 
ning at  a  later  period  will  not  influence  the  size  of  the 
apples  as  greatly.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  thin- 
ning, not  to  injure  the  fruit  spurs.     As  a  general 


140 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


practice  the  apples  should  be  left  from  five  to  eight 
inches  apart. 


Nitrogen  and  Phosphates  vs.  Nothing,  in  Brown  Orchard. 
The  Fertilized  Trees,  to  the  Left,  Have  Averaged  498 
Bushels  per  Acre  Annually  for  Six  Years.  Their  Nor- 
mal Unfertilized  Yield  for  the  Same  Period  Was  208 
Bushels.    Bedford  County,  Pa. 


Insects  and  Diseases. 


Probably  the  most  serious  enemies  of  the  apple  are 
the  codling  moth,  the  plum  curculio,  the  aphis,  scab, 
cedar  rust,  bitter  rot  and  apple  blotch.  A  number  of 
other  insects  and  diseases,  however,  cause  much 
injury. 

Among  the  insects,  the  San  Jose  scale,  oyster-shell 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


141 


scale,  apple  red  bug,  the  tent  caterpillar,  the  apple- 
tree  borer,  the  bud-moth,  canker  worms,  leaf  hopper 
and  the  fruit-tree  loaf  roller  are  the  most  common. 

Other  diseases  include  sooty  blotch,  fly  speck, 
blister  canker,  collar  rot,  fire  blight,  apple  rosette, 
and  Baldwin  spot.  Limited  space  prevents  a  detailed 
description  of  methods  of  control,  but  general  spray- 
ing recommendations  are  given. 


llOO-Acre  Tonoloway  Mountain  Side  Orchard  of  the  Amer- 
ican Fruit  Growers,  Inc.,  at  Hancock,  Maryland. 


Spraying. 


Perfect  apples  cannot  be  hoped  for  from  trees 
which  have  not  been  sprayed.  There  are  five  prin- 
cipal sprays  which  are  generally  used:  the  Delayed 


142  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Dormant,  the  Pink  Bud,  the  Petal  Fall  or  Calyx,  the 
Cluster  Spray  when  the  apples  are  about  the  size  of 
hazel  nuts,  and  the  Mid-Summer  Spray.  In  some 
localities  more  are  required.  The  Horticultural  De- 
partment of  each  State  Agricultural  College  issues  its 
spray  formulae  and  directions  as  to  how  many  sprays 
are  required  for  its  state.  Every  apple  grower 
should  apply  for  these  directions  to  his  local  Experi- 
ment Station  or  Agricultural  College. 


Benefits  to  Be  Secured  by  the  Use  of  Nitrate  of 
Soda  on  Apples. 

The  use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  young  trees  provides 
them  with  strength  to  make  rapid  and  healthy 
growth.  A  well  and  consistently  nourished  tree 
comes  into  bearing  early  in  its  life  without  impairing 
the  productiveness  of  the  mature  tree.  A  mature 
orchard  will  give  heavier  yields,  if  it  has  made  con- 
sistent healthy  growth  each  year  since  its  planting. 

Old,  neglected  orchards  are  generally  deficient  in 
their  supply  of  nitrogen  and  over-supplied  with  car- 
bohydrates. They  can  be  restored  and  put  upon  a 
paying  basis  through  pruning,  spraying,  and  the  use 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Under  such  conditions  Nitrate  may  be  applied 
heavily  —  up  to  15  or  16  pounds  per  tree  —  until  the 
balance  between  the  carbohydrates  and  the  Nitrates 
has  been  restored,  which  will  be  evidenced  by  their 
restored  fruitfulness. 

The  questions  of  proper  pruning,  soil  management 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  143 

and  fertilization  are  all  interrelated  in  their  effects 
on  tree  growth  and  yield,  and  are  big  problems  to  the 
fruit  grower. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  enables  the  trees  to  retain  their 
leaves  for  a  longer  period  and  this  permits  the  tree 
to  continue  its  storing  of  food  for  its  spring  work. 
Nitrate  of  Soda  applied  in  the  spring,  just  as  the 
buds  begin  to  swell,  gives  the  tree  Nitrogen  immedi- 
ately, which  enables  it  also  to  use  the  food  reserves 
it  has  stored  up.  This  strong  application  increases 
the  percentage  of  bloom  set. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  thus  used  early  in  the  spring,  just 
at  the  time  the  tree  needs  it,  will  develop  strong 
blooms.  It  can  be  used  when  the  ground  is  cold, 
as  it  does  not  require  the  action  of  soil  bacteria  to 
make  it  available,  as  do  other  forms  of  nitrogen. 

In  cold  climates,  where  early  heavy  frosts  occur, 
there  is  some  danger  in  making  too  late  spring  appli- 
cations since  so  used  Nitrate  is  apt  to  prolong  the 
growth  of  the  tree  and  an  early  autumn  frost  may 
injure  the  immature  fruit  buds  or  wood  prior  to  the 
time  of  their  settling  down  for  the  winter. 

Trees  which  have  been  kept  in  a  healthy  growing 
condition  by  the  proper  use  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  are 
much  more  resistant  to  disease. 

The  terminal  growth  which  trees  make  is  usually 
a  good  indication  as  to  whether  they  are  properly 
nourished.  Young  trees,  before  they  come  into  full 
bearing,  should  make  a  yearly  terminal  growth  of 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches.  Mature  trees  should 
make  a  growth  of  from  seven  to  eleven  inches. 

The  color  of  the  leaves  is  another  indication  of  the 
condition  of  the  tree.     If  the  leaves  are  not  a  good 


144  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

healthy  green,  it  indicates  that  they  cannot  fulfill 
their  chief  function  of  manufacturing  food. 

To  attain  annual  crops,  the  trees  must  have  suffi- 
cient food  to  make  their  strength  enough  to  produce 
big  healthy  fruit  spurs  and  fruit  buds,  and  to  enable 
the  fruit  spurs  to  set  fruit  buds  for  the  following 
year. 

Harvesting. 

The  ripeness  of  the  apple  is  indicated  by  the  ease 
w^ith  v^hich  it  v^ill  separate  from  the  twig,  its  color, 
its  size,  the  color  of  the  seeds  and  the  tendency  to 
drop.  The  early,  or  so-called  *'summer"  varieties, 
ripen  in  July  in  the  medium  latitudes,  and  the  ripen- 
ing period  extends  well  into  October  for  the  winter 
varieties. 

Much  more  attention  is  now  given  to  the  grading 
and  packing  of  apples  than  in  previous  years,  and 
better  marketing  methods  are  being  perfected.  Me- 
chanical sorters,  or  "sizers,"  are  commonly  used.  In 
the  West  there  are  three  principal  grades:  Extra 
Fancy,  Fancy  and  C  Grade.  Boxed  apples  of  uni- 
form grade  and  attractive  packing  command  a  much 
better  price  than  apples  sold  in  open  baskets,  topped 
hampers,  or  barrels.  Large  quantities  of  apples  are 
kept  in  cold  storage,  thus  insuring  a  more  even  dis- 
tribution on  the  market. 


Varieties. 

No  definite  varieties  can  be  recommended  as  the 
'best"   under   all   circumstances.     Usually   in   each 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


145 


apple-growing  district  there  are  four  or  five  well- 
known  and  established  varieties  that  can  be  relied 
upon.  The  grower  would  do  well  to  select  the  bulk 
of  his  new  plantings  from  this  list,  and  to  plant  new 


Average  Yield  per  Tree  from 
Nitrated  Plot— 13.2  Bushels. 


Average  Yield  per  Tree 
from  Unnitrated  Plot 
—  2.1    Bushels 
A.  C.  Robinson's  Rome  Beauty  Orchard,  Proctorsville,  Ohio. 


varieties  only  in  limited  quantities.  Keeping  quali- 
ties, size,  flavor,  color  and  rate  of  bearing  also  are 
important  points  of  consideration. 


Fertilization. 

On  all  but  exceptional  soils,  some  artificial  fer- 
tilizer will  pay  the  apple  grower.     Of  all  the  essential 


146  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

plant-food  elements,  nitrogen  has  been  demonstrated 
to  be  the  most  important  for  apples. 

The  soil  requirements  vary  so  widely  that  no  gen- 
eral formula  for  fertilizer  applications  can  be  given 
accurately.  To  get  best  results,  the  grower  must 
study  the  growth  of  his  trees;  and  he  can  gauge  his 
fertilization  by  their  behavior. 

Stable  manure,  applied  at  the  rate  of  eight  to  ten 
tons  per  acre  annually,  is  a  good  fertilizer.  How- 
ever, the  supply  of  manure  is  very  limited,  and  com- 
mercial fertilizers  have  given  equally  good  results 
and  their  use  is  becoming  more  common. 

Nitrate  fertilization  should  be  considered  a  neces- 
sity for  orchards.  In  starved  sod  orchards,  increased 
yields  of  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  per  cent  or 
more  are  not  uncommon  following  the  use  of  Nitrate 
of  Soda.  In  orchards  in  fair  condition  of  vigor,  in- 
creased yields  of  fifty  to  one  hundred  per  cent  have 
been  obtained. 

In  cultivated  orchards,  the  cover  crop  is  greatly 
increased  by  the  use  of  Nitrate,  which  benefits  the 
trees  indirectly,  and  there  are  many  cases  on  record 
where  the  crop  yields  are  heavily  increased  by  its  use. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  USING  NITRATE  OF 
SODA  ON  APPLES. 

Apply  the  Nitrate  of  Soda  by  broadcasting  it  evenly 
over  the  area  covered  by  the  outer  two-thirds  of  the 
branches.  With  young  trees,  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  apply  the  Nitrate  close  to  the  trunk.  In  full- 
grown  orchards,  apply  well  out  beyond  the  spread  of 
the  branches  in  order  to  conform  with  the  usual  dis- 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


147 


tribution  of  the  feeding  roots.  The  heaviest  applica- 
tions should  be  made  over  the  area  covered  by  the 
outer  two-thirds  of  the  branches. 


Average  Size  of  Apples  from  Nitrated  and  Checked  Plots, 
A.  C.  Robinson's  Rome  Beauty  Orchard,  Proctorsville, 
Ohio. 


The  Nitrate  should  be  applied  after  the  buds  begin 
to  swell  but  before  they  burst,  as  this  will  give  the 
tree  the  nitrogen.early  enough  to  increase  its  "bloom 
set."  The  tree  also  needs  it  at  this  period  for  mak- 
ing its  fruit-spur  growth,  which  is  generally  com- 
pleted within  three  weeks  after  blossoming  time. 

Rates  of  Application  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  on  Apples. 


1  to 


2  year  old  orchard  —  ^/^  lb.     Nitrate  per  tree 

8  year  old  orchard  —    3  lbs.  Nitrate  per  tree 

12  year  old  orchard  —    5  lbs.  Nitrate  per  tree 

Full  bearing  orchard  —  6  to  8  lbs.  Nitrate  per  tree 


148  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Results  of  Investigation  on  the  Fertilization  of 
Apple  Trees  at  State  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations. 

That  nitrogen  is  the  limiting  element  of  plant-food 
in  many  apple  orchards  is  indicated  by  the  results  of 
investigations  on  the  fertilization  of  apple  trees,  con- 
ducted for  a  number  of  years  past  at  several  state 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations. 

Studies  over  a  period  of  five  years  at  the  Maine 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  are  summarized  in 
their  Bulletin  322  as  follows : 

"Annual  applications  of  a  complete  5-8-7  fertilizer 
to  mature  Ben  Davis  apple  trees  under  cultivation,  at 
the  rate  of  7  and  14  lbs.  per  tree,  over  a  period  of  five 
years  did  not  increase  the  yield  as  compared  with 
check  trees  which  received  no  fertilizer. 

*'Two  annual  applications  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  to 
mature  Ben  Davis  apple  trees  in  sod,  at  the  rate  of 
6  and  12  lbs.  per  tree,  more  than  doubled  the  yield 
of  fruit.  The  use  of  20  cents  worth  of  Nitrate  of 
Soda  per  tree  resulted  in  an  increased  yield  of  more 
than  one  barrel  of  fruit  per  tree.  Six  pounds  of  Ni- 
trate was  as  effective  as  12  pounds  in  this  experiment. 

"These  results  are  in  accord  with  most  fertilizer 
experiments  throughout  the  country.  Applications 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  seldom,  if  ever,  cause 
increased  yields  of  apple  trees. 

"Nitrogen  may  not  increase  the  yield  of  apple  trees 
grown  on  fertile  soil  under  a  system  of  cultivation 
and  cover  crop.  Apple  trees  grown  on  a  poor  soil,  or 
under  the  sod-m^ulch  system  of  culture,  will  usually 
respond   to   applications  of   nitrogenous   fertilizers. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


149 


Mature  trees  should  receive  from  5  to  10  lbs.  of  Ni- 
trate of  Soda  per  tree.  The  proper  amount  to  apply 
will  depend  on  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil,  the 
system  of  culture,  the  age,  size  and  variety  of  the 
trees.  In  general,  the  mature  tree  should  make  a 
terminal  growth  of  6  to  10  inches." 


Trees  from  Nitrated  Row  in  Stewart  Plots  at  Pennsylvania 
State  College. 


At  the  Ohio  Station  *  large  increases  were  pro- 
cured from  applications  of  Nitrate  to  neglected 
orchards  in  sod : 

1.  Nitrogen  was  the  only  element  of  fertility 
which  was  of  direct  benefit  to  the  apple  trees  them- 
selves from  the  standpoint  of  fruitfulness  and  vigor. 


Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Mo.  Bui.,  Vol.  IV.,  No.  1. 


150  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

2.  Applications  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  alone  (five 
pounds  per  tree)  increased  the  average  yield  in  some 
instances  as  much  as  450  per  cent,  and  in  three  ex- 
periments averaged  a  cash  gain  per  acre  of  $125.75 
per  year  for  five  years. 

Ohio  experiments  have  also  shown  more  profitable 
yields  from  a  fertilizer  mixture  containing  5.6  per 
cent  available  nitrogen  than  one  of  only  sy^  per  cent 
available  nitrogen. 

Studies  over  a  period  of  six  years  at  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Agricultural  Experiment  Station  *  brought 
out  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  Applications  of  nitrogen  and  phosphates  and  of 
manure  were  very  beneficial.  Potash  was  of  little 
service. 

2.  Nitrate  of  Soda  alone  gave  a  large  increase  in 
yield  over  the  check  plots,  with  a  still  greater  increase 
when  acid  phosphate  was  applied  with  the  Nitrate. 
The  increase  in  one  case  was  as  much  as  1,100  bushels 
per  acre. 

3.  The  beneficial  effects  of  nitrogenous  fertiliza- 
tion were  evident  by  the  middle  of  the  second  season. 

4.  The  gains  from  fertilizations  have  not  been 
transitory.  In  some  experiments  they  were  greater 
in  the  sixth  and  last  year  of  the  experiment  than  at 
any  other  time. 

5.  Nitrogenous  fertilizers  when  applied  too  late 
in  the  season  retarded  somewhat  the  maturity  of  the 
fruit. 

6.  For  this  reason,  the  apples  on  the  too-late 
Nitrate-treated  tree  did  not  have  so  good  a  color  as 


*  Pa.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  121.     Also  Fertilization  of  the  Apple  Or- 
chard by  John  P.  Stewart, — Pub.  by  Chilean  Nitrate  Committee. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


151 


those  on  the  check  trees,  when  the  latter  were  picked ; 
but  when  left  on  the  trees  until  the  same  degree  of 
maturity  was  reached,  the  Nitrate-treated  fruit 
showed  a  better  color  than  the  checks. 

7.  The  application  of  Nitrate  is  recommended  not 
later  than  the  middle  of  July. 


H\ 

-M 
^^M 

'I.    1 

1 

I 

1 

Method  of  Applying  Nitrate  of  Soda  to  Apple  Trees. 


8.  It  is  concluded  that  more  Nitrogen  and  less  pot- 
ash than  commonly  recommended  should  be  used  on 
the  average  orchard  in  need  of  fertilization. 

9.  When  the  crop  is  light,  smaller  applications  are 
required,  because  of  the  natural  tendency  of  the  trees 
to  develop  a  sufficient  number  of  fruit  buds  in  the  off 
season.     In  the  full  years  the  applications  should  be 


152  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

rather  liberal  to  prevent  the  total  absence  o£  a  crop 
the  following  year. 

Professor  Fred  C.  Sears,  Professor  of  Pomology, 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  in  his  book  on 
Productive  Orcharding,  states: 

"The  best  fruit  men  practice  fertilizing.  Go  into 
any  orchard  section  and  you  will  find  that  the  most 
progressive  and  successful  growers,  as  a  rule,  are  the 
men  who  fertilize  highly.  Usually  the  man  succeeds 
in  proportion  as  he  fertilizes.  The  man  who  ferti- 
lizes year  after  year,  whether  he  has  a  crop  of  fruit 
on  his  trees  or  not,  is  the  man  who  usually  has  a 
crop.  The  man  who  is  noted  in  a  section  as  apply- 
ing fertilizers  in  large  quantity  is  usually  also  noted 
as  a  man  who  harvests  bumper  crops.  This  is  not 
conclusive  proof,  because  these  men  also  care  well 
for  the  orchards  in  other  ways.  But  it  is  very  sug- 
gestive, particularly  the  fact  that  the  generous  feeder 
usually  succeeds  better  than  the*  moderate  feeder." 

In  Cornell  Extension  Bulletin  No.  75,  published  by 
the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cor- 
nell University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  Mr.  Joseph  Oscamp 
says: 

"Fruit  growers  have  been  urged  in  the  past  to 
apply  potash,  phosphorus,  and  lime  to  their  soils. 
However,  there  has  been  no  pronounced  indication 
that  the  application  of  any  of  these  elements  to  the 
orchard  has  been  directly  profitable  on  any  but  the 
most  impoverished  soils.  Nitrogen  is  the  only  ele- 
ment that,  without  question,  has  produced  beneficial 
results  when  applied  to  apple  trees,  and  even  this 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


153 


benefit  is  not  ordinarily  to  be  expected  in  young  cul- 
tivated orchards  where  cover  crops  are  being  used. 
Nitrogen  may  be  applied  in  the  form  of  a  leguminous 
cover  crop,  of  manure  or  of  commercial  fertilizers. 
Nitrate  of  Soda  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  useful 
forms  of  chemical  plant  food.  It  becomes  immedi- 
ately available  to  the  tree,  and  encourages  an  early 
and  vigorous  growth. 


Renovated    Baldwin    Tree   in    Orchard    at    Conyer's    Farm. 
Greenwich,  Connecticut. 


"In  connection  with  all  fertilizing  problems,  in- 
deed, as  well  as  with  other  orchard  matters,  a  close 
observation  of  the  trees  is  desirable.  The  experi- 
enced grower  knows  by  the  length  of  terminal 
growth,  the  color  of  the  bark  and  of  the  leaves,  and 


154  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Other  outward  manifestations  of  the  tree's  health, 
whether  or  not  food  conditions  are  satisfactory.  One 
of  the  first  indications  of  a  lack  of  proper  nourishment 
is  the  character  of  the  foliage.  The  leaves  on  a  well- 
fed  tree  are  numerous,  large,  and  dark  green  in  color. 
They  hang  on  in  the  fall  until  killed  by  freezing 
weather. 

"The  leaves  on  a  tree  suffering  from  lack  of  food 
are  small  in  size  and  rather  pale  green  in  color,  and 
this  is  largely  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  starva- 
tion. The  leaf  fall  of  a  starved  tree  may  be  as  early 
as  August  or  September.  The  new  growth  on  the 
ends  of  the  main  branches  of  a  starved  tree  is  often 
below  eight  inches  in  length,  whereas  eighteen  inches 
is  more  normal  and  gives  earlier  and  better  results. 
Much,  however,  depends  on  the  season,  the  variety, 
the  individuality  of  the  tree,  and  other  obscure  fac- 
tors, so  that  no  arbitrary  figures  can  be  laid  down. 
The  beginner  would  do  well,  however,  to  study  the 
trees  closely  and  early  come  to  understand  these 
symptoms  of  their  well  being.  If  a  satisfactory  con- 
dition of  vigor  exists,  it  is  advisable  to  leave  well 
enough  alone,  but  if  starvation  in  any  degree  is  pres- 
ent, it  is  certainly  worth  while  to  correct  it." 

In  Bulletin  174  of  the  West  Virginia  Experiment 
Station,  it  is  stated  that,  "Of  the  three  common  ele- 
ments of  plant  food,  nitrogen  is  the  only  one  that  has 
been  uniformly  beneficial  in  the  orchard  that  re- 
sponded favorably  to  the  use  of  fertilizers.  It  was 
of  greatest  value  when  applied  in  readily-available 
form,  such  as  Nitrate  of  Soda.  The  value  of  phos- 
phorus seems  to  be  merely  in  its  effects  upon  cover 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


155 


crops    and    sod    coverings.     Potassium    is    rarely 
beneficial." 

In  Oregon,  as  reported  in  Bulletin  141  of  the  Ore- 
gon Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  the  influence 
of  fertilizers  on  devitalized  trees  was  tested.  The 
orchards  were  cultivated  but  had  no  cover  crops. 
Starved  trees  responded  to  the  applications  of  Nitrate 


Seventeen-Year-Old  Mcintosh  Orchard  at   Conyer's   Farm. 
Greenwich,  Connecticut. 


of  Soda  by  out-yielding  the  check  trees  eleven  to  one 
in  one  orchard,  and  twenty-four  to  one  in  another. 
Application  before  blossoms  open  is  recommended  in 
Oregon. 

The  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  An- 
nual Reports  of  1920  and  1921  state  that  experiments 
at  their  station,  begun  in  1917,  have  shown  remark- 
able increases  in  yield  as  a  result  of  the  applications 


156  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

of  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  fertilized  trees  in  1920  pro- 
ducing about  three  times  as  much  as  the  check  trees. 
Trees  in  sod  in  1919  showed  a  greater  response  to 
Nitrate  of  Soda  than  those  under  clean  cultivation. 


Some   Results   Obtained    from    Orchards    Where 
Nitrate  of  Soda  Has  Been  Used. 

At  the  Experiment  Farm  Orchard  in  Clermont 
County,  Ohio,  where  experiments  are  being  con- 
ducted under  tillage,  cover-crop  culture  and  grass- 
mulch  culture,  five  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  per 
tree  for  four  years  under  grass-mulch  culture  yielded 
683  per  cent  more  than  the  trees  in  the  check  plot. 

Year  5  lbs.  Nitrate  Nothing 

Average    1922  206.0  lbs.*  41.2   lbs.* 

yield      1923  176.6     "  37.2      " 

per   tree    1924  328.8     "  12.2      " 

From  a  plot  which  is  under  tillage  and  a  soy-bean 
cover-crop  culture,  the  yield  was,  from  all  varieties: 

Year  5  lbs.  Nitrate  Nothing 

Average    1922  128.5  lbs.*  82.9   lbs.* 

yield      1923  134.5     "  70.0      " 

per  tree    1924  395.2     "  89.5      " 

At  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  at 
Amherst  an  experiment  is  being  conducted  on  12- 
year-old  Mclntoshes  under  sod-culture  as  against 
clean  cultivation,  which  has  run  for  four  years. 

*  The  average  weight  of  a  bushel  of  apples  is  48  lbs. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  157 


Sod  Culture . 
vrith 
300  lbs.  Nitrate  Cultivation 

Year  of  Soda  per  acre       without  Nitrate 


Average      1921  130  lbs.*  77  lbs.* 

yield        1922  371     "  264  " 

in  pounds   1923  259     "  158  " 

per  tree       1924  389     "  168  " 

Four-year  average   287  lbs.*  167  lbs.* 

Per  cent  increase  due  to  Nitrate  of  Soda  —  72%. 

In  the  Round  Hill  Orchard  at  Winchester,  where 
the  Virginia  State  College  Experiment  Station  has 
conducted  experiments  on  25-year-old  York  Im- 
perials for  four  years,  one  tree  which  had  had  seven 
pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  for  four  years  yielded  762 
pounds  in  1924;  one  tree  from  check  plot  yielded  only 
244  pounds. 

Average  Yield  per  Tree  in  Pounds. 

Year 

1923     

1924     


7  lbs.  Nitrate 

Nothing 

356.2* 

174.8* 

456.0 

192.5 

In  a  Rome  Beauty  Orchard  in  Southern  Ohio, 
where  the  Extension  Department  of  the  Ohio  State 
University  is  conducting  experiments  on  plots  which 
have  had  no  fertilizer  for  a  period  of  three  years,  the 
average  response  per  tree  the  second  year  from  the 
use  of  five  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  five  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  was,  from  the  fertilized  plot  13.2 
bushels;  from  the  check  plot  2.1  bushels. 

*  The  average  weight  of  a  bushel  of  apples  is  48  lbs. 


158  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Michigan  Agricultural  College,  at  their  experiment 
plots  in  the  Warren-Farrand  Orchard,  gave  the  fol- 
lowing average  yield  per  tree  from  Nitrate  and  check 
plots : 

Year  Nitrate  Check  Plots 

1921  245.6  lbs.*  86  lbs.* 

1922  184.6  "  113.7   " 

1923  486.   "  181.5   " 

1924  494.5     "  118.6      " 


At  Owensville,  Ohio,  the  Ohio  State  Agricultural 
College  is  conducting  an  experiment  on  12-year-old 
Grimes  Golden  apples  under  cultivation  with  a  cover 
crop  of  soy  beans.  Five  pounds  of  Nitrate  yielded 
an  average  of  13  bushels  per  tree  as  against  the  yield 
of  lj/2  bushels  per  tree  from  the  check  plot  under  the 
same  culture  without  Nitrate. 

The  Tonoloway  Orchard  of  the  American  Fruit 
Growers,  Inc.,  at  Hancock,  Maryland,  has  applied 
five  pounds  of  Nitrate  of  Soda  to  a  unit  of  4573  York 
Imperials  for  four  years.  The  average  yield  per  tree 
was: 

Year  Bushels 

1922 11.29 

1923   8.74 

1924 11.11 

The  acreage  planted  to  York  Imperials  in  the  rest 
of  the  orchard  which  received  no  Nitrate  followed  the 
usual  biennial  habit  of  this  variety. 

*  The  average  weight  of  a  bushel  of  apples  is  48  lbs. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  159 

In  an  experiment  conducted  v/ith  Mr.  C.  L.  Page 
of  Billerica,  Massachusetts,  to  determine  the  increase 
in  size  of  fruit  and  length  of  terminal  growth,  the 
following  results  were  obtained : 

Average  growth  on  Nitrated  trees   . . — 6^2  inches 
Average  growth  on  check  trees   — 4J/^  inches 

The  Nitrated  trees  averaged  per  tree  16.8  bus.  apples  1    a    ^  _„o 

°^^''  2^/^  i"-  ^dd  23  bus 

The  Nitrated  trees  averaged  per  tree  6.2  bus.  apples    f  ^i '"  " 

under  2^  in.  J   ^"  *"^- 

Check  trees  averaged   per  tree  8.8  bus.   apples   over  1    a„~^o„« 
91/  ;„  Average 


214  in. 
Check  trees  averaged  per  tree  7.2  bus.  apples  under 


yield  16  bus. 


21/2  in.  J   P^^  *"«• 

In  Bulletin  No.  87  of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural 
College  Extension  Service,  W.  H.  Darrow  says: 

"Nitrate  fertilization  should  be  considered  a  neces- 
sity in  the  sod  orchard.  Except  possibly  on  the  rich- 
est soils,  nitrogenous  fertilizers  have  been  profitable 
in  all  sod  orchards  where  used.  Increased  yields  of 
100  to  300  per  cent  or  more  are  not  uncommon  follow- 
ing the  use  of  a  quickly  available  nitrogenous  fertil- 
lizer  in  starved  sod  orchards.  Increased  yields  of  50 
to  100  per  cent  have  been  obtained  in  orchards  in  fair 
condition  of  vigor. 

"The  results  obtained  from  fertilization  in  one 
Connecticut  orchard  are  given  below : 

Per  Acre  Yields  With  and  Without  Nitrogen  Fertilization. 

Orchard  of  A.  E.  Johnson,  Bethlehem,  Conn. 
Trees  24-26  years  of  age. 

Check  Fertilized  Gain  for 

Plot  Plot  Fertilization 

1922  144  bu.    568  bu.    424  bu. 

1923  96  "     123  "     27  " 

1924  214  "    553  "    339  " 

3  year  average 151^/3  bu.  414%  bu.  263i/i  bu. 


160  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

The  fertilized  plot  received  Nitrate  of  Soda  at  the 
rate  of  eight  lbs.  per  tree  in  1921,  six  lbs.  per  tree 
in  1922,  five  lbs.  per  tree  in  1923  and  four  to  five  lbs. 
per  tree  in  1924.  In  1923  eight  lbs.  of  acid  phosphate 
per  tree  were  also  applied." 


Addendum. 

The  estimated  five-year  average  value  of  these 
crops,  namely,  tobacco,  potatoes  and  apples,  for  the 
years  1914-18  is  reported  as  follov^s,  cotton  being 
added  for  comparison: 

Apples    $    184,774,000 

Tobacco    208,426,000 

Potatoes   372,239,000 

Cotton     1,097,039,000 


The  largest  single  apple  growing  area  in  the  United 
States  begins  in  York  County,  Pennsylvania,  and 
runs  southwest  in  a  section  perhaps  not  far  from  one 
hundred  miles  down  to  fifty  miles  in  width  through 
Maryland,  western  Virginia  and  western  North 
Carolina. 

Some  apples  are  also  grown  in  eastern  Maryland 
and  southwestern  New  Jersey,  as  well  as  in  the  east- 
ern counties  of  New  York  state  along  the  Hudson 
Valley,  and  also  in  the  heart  of  New  England.  The 
northwestern  counties  of  New  York  state  grow  apples 
commercially  also. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


161 


Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Pounds  of  Nitrogen,  Phos- 
phoric Acid  and  Potash  Withdrawn  per  Acre  by  an 
Average  Crop  (For  U.  S.  1920  Fgures  Supplied  by 
New  Jersey  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
March  14th  and  15th,  1924). 


Crop 

Per  Acre 
Yield 
(lbs.) 

Nitrogen 
(lbs.) 

Phosphoric 
Acid 
(lbs.) 

Potash 
(lbs.) 

Barley 

1,233.6 
642.0 
907.2 
17,400.0 
1,736.0 
170.8 
314.0 

21.6 
25.7 
13.6 
52.2 
36.4 

0.58 
10.0 

9.3 
7.9 
5.4 
17.4 
12.3 
0.17 
3.8 

6  2 

Beans     

8  3 

Buckwheat    

2.7 

Cabbage    

69  8 

Com     

69 

Cotton  Lint   

0  78 

Cotton  Seed 

3  65 

Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Pounds  of  Nitrogen,  Etc. — 
Continued. 


Crop 


Cowpeas    

Flax  Fiber  

Flax  Seed  

Hay    

Hops    

Oats  

Onions 

Peanuts     

Potatoes    

Rice    

Rye     

Soy  beans    

Sugar    Beets    

*Sugar  Cane   (La.)    . 
Sweet    Potatoes    .... 

Tobacco    

Tomatoes    

Wheat    

*Sugar  Cane,  Hawaii 


Per  Acre 
Yield 
(lbs.) 


552.0 
1,736.0 

347.2 
3,140.0 
1,332.0 
1,126.0 
21,278.0 
1,710.0 
6,576.0 
1,809.0 

767.2 

948.0 

17,000.0 

30,000.0 

5,694.0 

796.1 
8,400.0 

840.0 

78,000.0 


Nitrogen, 
(lbs.) 


17.1 
14.6 
15.1 
62.0 
22.6 
22.5 
58.9 
61.6 
23.0 
19.9 
13.0 
50.2 
34.0 
60.0 
14.2 
31.8 
16.8 
16.8 

156.0 


Phosphoric 
Acid 
(lbs.) 


5.5 

3.5 

5.6 

16.0 

14.7 

9.0 

19.2 

12.0 

9.9 

3.6 

6.5 

17.1 

17.0 

30.0 

5.7 

4.0 

5.9 

7.1 

78.0 


Potash 
(lbs.) 


6.6 
17.4 

3.3 
49.9 
20.0 

6.8 
46.8 

7.7 
32.9 

1.8 

4.6 
19.0 
76.5 
135.0 
28.5 
47.8 
29.4 

4.2 

351.0 


The  average  relative  percentages  of  Nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  thus  removed  from  the 
soil  by  these  crops  is  therefore  as  follows: 


162  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Nitrogen    28.6  per  cent. 

Phosphoric  Acid    9.9  per  cent. 

Potash    25.5  per  cent. 

Translated  into  commercial  fertilizer  terms,  the 
comparison  is  as  follows : 

What  the 
What  Average 

Nature  Brand 

Requires  Supplies 

Nitrogen    2.86  2.00 

Phosphoric   Acid 0.99  8.00 

Potash    2.55  2.00 


INCREASED  CROP  YIELDS  DUE  TO  THE  USE 
OF  100  POUNDS  OF  NITRATE  OF  SODA. 

Points  for  Consideration  as  to  Relation  of  Prices  of 
Farm  Products  to  Nitrate  of  Soda  Prices. 

From  the  farmer's  point  of  view,  when  a  reduction 
in  the  price  of  cotton  and  produce  happens,  it  is  to  be 
deplored,  but  in  such  a  case  it  should  be  considered 
whether  abstention  from  the  use  of  Nitrate  is  a  wise 
way  of  meeting  the  situation.  The  utility  of  a  fertil- 
izer obviously  depends  upon  its  productivity,  which 
is  not  affected  by  its  price,  and  an  increase  in  the 
latter  justifies  abandonment  of  the  fertilizer  only 
when  its  productivity  ceases  to  be  profitable.  The 
profit  to  be  reasonably  expected  from  the  use  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  is  not  so  materially  interfered  with 
by  any  ordinary  rise  in  its  price  as  to  economically 
justify  any  substantial  reduction  in  its  consumption. 

Agricultural  authorities  have  established  by  care- 
ful experimentation  that  100  pounds  of  Nitrate  of 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  163 

Soda  when  applied  to  the  following  crops  has  pro- 
duced under  proper  conditions  increased  yields  as 
tabulated : 

Apples   50-75  bushels. 

Apricots    96  lbs. 

Asparagus    100  bunches. 

Bananas 1,167  lbs. 

Barley    400  lbs.   of   grain. 

Beans  (white)   225  lbs. 

Beets 4,900  lbs.  tubers. 

Cabbages 6,100  lbs. 

Carrots    7,800  lbs. 

Castor  Beans  50  lbs. 

Celery    30  per  cent. 

Corn   280  lbs.    of   grain. 

Cotton    200  lbs.  seed  cotton. 

Ensilage  Corn  1.18  tons. 

Grape  Fruit   29  boxes. 

Hay,  upwards  of 1,000  lbs.   barn   cured. 

Hops     100  lbs. 

Mangels     123.7  bushels 

Oats    400  lbs.  of  grain. 

Onions   1,800  lbs. 

Oranges   22  boxes. 

Peaches  (dried)    56  lbs. 

Pecans    37  lbs. 

Potatoes    3,600  lbs.   tubers. 

Prunes    '.  .  975  lbs.  (dried). 

Raisin  Grapes   347  lbs. 

Rye   300  lbs.  grain. 

Strawberries    200  quarts. 

Sugar  Beets   1,330  lbs. 

Sugar  Cane    2.40  tons  of  cane 

(Tropics). 

1.17  tons  of  cane 

(Louisiana). 

Sugar  (from  Sugar  Cane) 322  lbs.  (Tropics). 

224  lbs.    (Louisiana). 

Sugar  Mangels    1.6  tons. 

Sweet  Potatoes   3,900  lbs.  tubers. 

Tobacco  75  lbs. 

Tomatoes    100  baskets. 

Turnips   37  per  cent. 

Walnuts    106  lbs. 


164 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Increased   Yield   by   the   Use   of   Nitrate   of   Soda. 

The  increased  yields  of  crops  resulting  from  a  top- 
dressing  with  Nitrate  of  Soda  are  most  striking.  In 
an  article  recently  published  by  Dr.  E.  J.  Russell, 
Director  of  the  Rothamsted  Experimental  Station, 
the  following  figures  are  given.  On  an  ordinary  farm 
where  the  land,  while  in  fairly  good  heart,  has  not 
been  over  well  done,  a  farmer  may  reasonably  expect 
the  following  increases  from  a  top-dressing  of  1  cwt. 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 


Wheat,  grain 
Wheat,  straw 
Barley,  grain 
Barley,  straw 
Oats,  grain 
Oats,  straw 

Hay    

Mangolds    . .  . 

Swedes     

Potatoes    . .  . . 


Per  1  Cwt.  Nitrate 
of  Soda 

4^/^  bushels    

5  cwt 

654  bushels    

6^4  cwt 

7  bushels    

6  cwt 

8  to  10  cwt 

32  cwt 

20  cwt 

20  cwt 


Per  1  Cvrt.  Super- 
phosphate or  High 
Grade  Basic  Slag 


0  to  1^  bushels, 
i^  to  5  cwt. 
2  to  3  bushels 

0  to  2  cwt. 

1  to  SYz  bushels. 
0  to  2  cwt. 

20  cwt. 

20  to  40  cwt. 

10  cwt. 


For  purposes  of  comparison  the  effect  of  phos- 
phates is  shown  also. 


INVESTIGATIONS  RELATIVE  TO  THE  USE  OF 
NITROGENOUS  FERTILIZER  MATERIALS, 
1898-1907. 

Official  Abstract  of  a  Paper  read  by  Professor  E.  B. 
Voorhees,  before  The  International  Congress  of 
Applied  Chemistry  held  in  London,  June,  1909. 

By  Edward  B.  Voorhees,  Sc.D.  (Director),  and  Jacob  G. 
Lipman,  Ph.D.  (Soil  Chemist  and  Bacteriologist), 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  New  Jersey,  U.S.A. 

Ten  years  ago  denitrification  was  believed  to  pos- 
sess an  economic  significance.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  agricultural  chemists  thought  that  the  destruc- 
tion of  Nitrate  by  denitrifying  bacteria  involved  losses 
of  nitrogen  in  all  cases  where  Nitrate  and  animal 
manures  were  used  together.  The  experiments  re- 
corded here  were  planned,  primarily,  to  determine 
whether  such  losses  of  Nitrogen  really  occur  in  field 
practice.  The  data  collected  in  the  course  of  ten 
years  supply  some  definite  information  in  this  con- 
nection; and  furnish,  moreover,  much  important  in- 
formation bearing  on  other  phases  of  the  nitrogen 
question. 

The  experiments  have  been  carried  on  in  large 
galvanized  iron  cylinders  4  feet  long,  23.5  inches  in 
diameter,  and  open  at  both  ends.  The  cylinders  were 
sunk  in  the  ground  until  only  about  2  inches  of  the 
upper  portion  projected  above  the  level  of  the  sur- 
rounding soil.  Uniform  amounts  of  gravelly  subsoil 
were  placed  in  the  cylinders  and  firmly  tramped  down. 
Weighed  quantities  of  surface  soil  were  then  placed 
165 


166  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

in  the  cylinders.  In  order  to  enhance  the  accuracy 
of  the  data  collected,  each  treatment  was  carried  out 
in  triplicate.  There  were  secured  thus  20  series,  each 
consisting  of  three  small  plats.  Series  1  has  received 
no  applications  whatsoever;  series  2,  applications  of 
acid  phosphate  and  potassium  chloride  repeated  an- 
nually ;  and  the  remaining  series  various  nitrogenous 
materials  in  addition  to  the  acid  phosphate  and  potas- 
sium chloride.  Also  the  nitrogenous  materials  have 
since  been  applied  annually.  The  following  diagram 
shows  the  treatment  for  each  series: 

Diagram   of   Experiment. 

Series 

a 

1.  Check    0 

2.  Minerals    0 

3.  Manure,  solid,  fresh     0 

4.  Manure,  solid  and  liquid,  fresh   0 

5.  Manure,  solid,  leached    0 

6.  Manure,  solid  and  liquid,  leached    0 

7.  Sodium  Nitrate,  5  gms.     0 

8.  Sodium  Nitrate,  10  gms 0 

9.  Manure,  solid,  fresh;  nitrate,  5  gms 0 

10.  Manure,  solid,  fresh;  nitrate,  10  gms 0 

11.  Manure,  solid  and  liquid,  fresh;  nitrate,  5  gms.     ..  0 

12.  Manure,  solid  and  liquid,  fresh;  nitrate,  10  gms.    ..  0 

13.  Manure,  solid,  leached;  nitrate,  5  gms 0 

14.  Manure,  solid,  leached;  nitrate,  10  gms 0 

15.  Manure,  solid  and  liquid,  leached;  nitrate,  5  gms..  0 

16.  Manure,  solid  and  liquid,  leached;  nitrate,  10  gms.  0 

17.  Ammonium  sulphate     0 

18.  Dried  blood     0 

19.  Manure,  solid,  leached;  ammonium  sulphate      0 

20.  Manure,  solid,  leached;  dried  blood    0 


The  Nitrate  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  160  pounds 
and  320  pounds  per  acre,  respectively.  The  ammo- 
nium sulphate  and  dried  blood  were  applied  in 
amounts  equivalent  to  the  larger  application  of  Ni- 


b  c 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  c 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  167 

trate.  The  different  manures  were  applied  in 
amounts  sufficient  to  furnish  about  4  gms.  of  nitro- 
gen per  cylinder.  Calculated  on  the  acre  basis  the 
manures  were  applied  at  the  rate  of  about  16  tons. 

The  crops  were  grown  in  regular  rotation,  and  con- 
sisted of  the  following:  Corn,  oats,  wheat  and  tim- 
othy. The  oats  crops  were  followed  in  each  case  by 
a  so-called  residual  crop  whose  function  it  was  to 
take  up  such  available  nitrogen  compounds  as  were 
not  utilized  by  the  main  crops. 

Analyses  were  made  of  all  of  the  main  crops  and 
residual  crops.  In  the  case  of  the  wheat,  the  grain 
and  the  straw  were  analyzed  separately.  In  the  case 
of  the  timothy,  the  first  cutting  and  aftermath  were 
analyzed  separately.  The  analytical  material  for  the 
ten  years  included,  therefore,  more  than  a  thousand 
crop  samples.  Records  were  made  of  the  yields  of 
dry  matter,  of  the  proportions  of  nitrogen  in  the  dry 
matter  of  each  crop,  of  the  total  nitrogen  in  each 
crop,  of  the  proportion  of  manure  and  fertilizer  nitro- 
gen recovered,  and  of  the  relative  availability  of  the 
several  nitrogenous  materials  employed.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  careful  analyses  were  made  of  the  soil 
samples  drawn  from  the  several  cylinders  at  the  end 
of  each  rotation. 

The  results  secured  may  be  briefly  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  There  was  a  marked  falling  off  in  the  yields 
between  the  first  and  second  rotation,  especially  in 
the  soils  which  had  received  no  applications  of  animal 
manure. 

2.  The  nitrogen  compounds  in  liquid  manure  were 


168  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

much  superior  to  those  in  solid  manure  as  a  source 
of  nitrogen  to  crops. 

3.  Larger  applications  of  nitrogen  were  invariably 
followed  by  larger  yields  of  this  constituent  in  the 
crops. 

4.  Nitrate,  ammonium  sulphate  and  dried  blood, 
when  applied  in  equivalent  amounts,  were  found  to 
possess  an  unequal  value.  Nitrate  was  superior  to 
ammonium  sulphate,  and  the  latter  was  superior  to 
dried  blood  as  a  source  of  nitrogen  to  crops. 

5.  In  the  presence  of  Nitrate,  the  manure  and 
humus  nitrogen  were  utilized  more  thoroughly  than 
in  its  absence. 

6.  Under  certain  conditions.  Nitrate  or  other 
readily  available  nitrogen  compounds,  may  hasten 
the  depletion  of  the  soil  nitrogen. 

7.  Ammonium  sulphate  and  dried  blood  intensified 
the  development  of  acidity  in  the  cylinder  soils. 

8.  The  proportion  of  nitrogen  in  the  crops  was 
readily  affected  by  the  nitrogen  treatment.  It  was 
also  affected  by  the  character  of  the  crop  itself. 

9.  In  the  first  rotation,  the  fresh  manures  produced 
dry  matter  relatively  somewhat  richer  in  nitrogen 
than  that  produced  by  the  leached  manures;  in  the 
second  rotation  this  relation  was  reversed. 

10.  The  solid  and  liquid  manure,  fresh,  produced 
dry  matter  relatively  somewhat  richer  in  nitrogen 
than  that  produced  by  the  solid,  fresh. 

11.  The  smaller  application  of  Nitrate  when  used 
together  with  manure,  produced  dry  matter  rela- 
tively poorer  in  nitrogen  than  that  produced  by  the 
larger  application  of  Nitrate  under  the  same 
conditions. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  169 

12.  The  wide  range  in  the  proportionate  content 
of  nitrogen  in  the  crops,  shows  clearly  that  greater 
care  should  be  exercised  in  measuring  out  the  nitro- 
gen to  our  cultivated  crops. 

13.  Out  of  every  100  pounds  of  nitrogen  applied  in 
the  form  of  Nitrate,  there  were  recovered  in  the  first 
rotation  62.76  pounds,  and  in  the  second  rotation 
61.42  pounds.  The  corresponding  returns  for  ammo- 
nium sulphate  were  49.51  pounds  and  37.01  pounds 
respectively;  and  for  the  dried  blood  47.89  pounds 
and  32.05  pounds  respectively.  This  indicated  that 
the  acidity  in  the  soils  of  series  17  and  18  had  in- 
creased sufficiently  to  interfere  with  the  normal 
growth  of  the  plants. 

14.  Out  of  every  100  pounds  of  nitrogen  applied 
in  the  form  of  animal  manures,  there  were  recovered 
in  the  first  rotation  less  than  25  pounds,  and  in  the 
second  rotation  less  than  30  pounds. 

15.  A  comparison  of  the  crop  yields  in  the  first  and 
second  rotation,  shows  that  the  animal  manures  have 
a  marked  cumulative  effect. 

16.  The  corn  crops  seem  to  have  utilized  a  smaller 
proportion  of  the  nitrogen  applied  than  was  utilized 
by  the  oats  and  wheat. 

17.  The  fresh  manures  were  utilized  better  than 
the  leached  manures. 

18.  The  solid  and  liquid,  fresh,  was  utilized  better 
than  the  solid,  fresh. 

19.  The  solid  and  liquid,  leached,  was  utilized  bet- 
ter than  the  solid,  leached. 

20.  The  smaller  applications  of  Nitrate  were  util- 
ized to  about  the  same  extent  as  the  larger  applica- 
tions. 


170  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

21.  The  equivalent  quantities  of  Nitrate,  ammo- 
nium sulphate,  and  dried  blood  were  utilized  in  the 
order  named. 

22.  The  animal  manures  when  used  together  with 
the  larger  applications  of  Nitrate,  were  utilized  to 
better  advantage  than  when  they  were  used  together 
with  the  smaller  application. 

23.  The  Nitrate  and  ammonium  sulphate  when 
used  together  with  solid  manure,  leached,  were 
utilized  in  the  order  named. 

24.  The  proportion  of  nitrogen  recovered  in  the 
crops  ranged  from  62.09 — 22.31  per  cent. 

25.  With  the  returns  from  the  Nitrate  nitrogen 
taken  as  100,  the  relative  availability  of  the  other 
nitrogenous  materials  was  as  follows: 

First  Second  Both 

Rotation  Rotation  Rotations 

Sodium  Nitrate 100.0  100.0  100.0 

Ammonium  sulphate  78.9  60.3  69.7 

Dried  blood   76.3  52.2  64.4 

Solid  manure,   fresh    32.9  39.0  35.9 

Solid  and   liquid,   fresh    50.4  55.6  53.0 

Solid  manure,  leached    33.8  44.0  38.9 

Solid  and    liquid,    leached     . .  .  36.6  49.7  43.1 

26.  Nitrate,  and  ammonium  sulphate  showed  prac- 
tically no  residual  effect.  Dried  blood  showed  a 
slight  residual  effect. 

27.  The  animal  manures  showed  a  very  pronounced 
residual  effect. 

28.  Notwithstanding  the  annually  repeated  appli- 
cations of  manure,  together  with  relatively  large 
amounts  of  Nitrate,  there  is  no  marked  evidence  of 
denitrification. 

29.  All  of  the  cylinder  soils  lost  considerable  quan- 
tities of  nitrogen. 


TWENTY  YEARS*  WORK  ON  THE  AVAILABIL- 
ITY OF  NITROGEN  IN  NITRATE  OF  SODA, 
AMMONIUM  SULPHATE,  DRIED  BLOOD 
AND    FARM    MANURES. 

J.  G.  Lipman  and  A.  W.  Blair,  New  Jersey  Agricultural 
Experiment    Station. 

(Reprinted  from  "Soil  Science.") 

During  the  last  twenty-five  years  the  fertilizer 
industry  in  the  United  States  has  developed  rapidly. 
From  a  comparatively  small  tonnage  in  the  early 
nineties  it  has  grown  to  more  than  7,000,000  tons  in 
1917. 

As  the  industry  has  grown  the  number  of  materials 
that  go  to  make  up  the  fertilizers  has  also  increased 
greatly.  Many  by-products  that  were  formerly 
allowed  to  go  to  waste  are  now  carefully  saved  and 
worked  up  in  the  fertilizer  factory.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  nitrogenous  materials  which,  under  nor- 
mal conditions,  form  the  most  expensive  part  of  the 
fertilizer. 

The  movement  to  save  these  waste  materials  con- 
taining nitrogen  came  none  too  early,  for  it  was  the 
depletion  in  the  soil  of  this  element  that  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  run-down  and  abandoned  farms 
in  the  older  sections  of  the  United  States.  For  this 
element,  most  crops  show  a  quicker  response  than 
for  any  other,  and  conversely,  a  falling  off  in  yield 
will  come  sooner  with  a  deficiency  of  nitrogen  than 
of  any  other  element.  A  supply  of  available  nitrogen 
aids  the  plant  in  getting  a  good  start  so  that  its  leaves 
may  begin  early  to  elaborate  food  from  the  air  and 

171 


172  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

its  roots  may  reach  out  for  the  water  of  the  soil 
which  holds  in  solution  mineral  plant-food. 

Since  nitrogen  is  supplied  in  many  different  forms, 
it  at  once  becomes  a  question  as  to  which  of  these  is 
most  efficient  in  crop  production.  Far  too  little 
attention  has  been  given  to  this  important  question. 
Too  often  a  certain  material  has  been  chosen  because 
there  was  among  farmers  a  general  impression  that 
this  particular  material  was  better  than  some  other, 
when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  was  no  scientific  basis 
for  such  conclusion.  As  an  example,  nitrogen  from 
organic  sources  has  been  preferred  by  many  because 
it  was  believed  that  organic  matter  thus  supplied 
would  be  of  great  value  in  improving  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil,  but  in  making  this  choice  farm- 
ers overlooked  the  possibility  of  using  a  more 
readily-available  material  which  would  increase  the 
crop  residues  sufficiently  to  more  than  make  up  for 
the  small  amount  of  organic  matter  contained  in  the 
few  hundred  pounds  of  dried  blood,  fish  or  tankage. 
Also,  there  is  a  widespread  impression  that  the  loss 
of  nitrogen  is  greater  when  Nitrate  is  used,  than 
when  organic  nitrogen  is  used.  But  experiments 
both  in  this  country  and  abroad  show  beyond  a  doubt 
that  the  crop  yields  and  the  percentage  of  nitrogen 
recovered  in  the  crop  were  greater  (and  hence  the 
loss  must  have  been  less)  when  Nitrate  was  used 
than  when  organic  sources  of  nitrogen  were  used. 

The  question  of  availability  of  nitrogenous  ferti- 
lizers began  to  receive  serious  consideration  at  sev- 
eral of  the  leading  European  experiment  stations 
some  30  years  ago  and  much  valuable  information 
has  been  accumulated  by  these  stations. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  173 

About  10  years  later  the  subject  began  to  receive 
attention  in  this  country  and  it  is  a  satisfaction  to 
find  that  the  results  obtained  here  are  fairly  in  accord 
with  the  findings  of  the  European  investigators. 

Fairly  complete  revievi^s  of  this  early  work  have 
been  given  in  recent  publications  (2,3)  and  no  at- 
tempt will  be  made  here  to  cover  this  field. 

The  completion  in  1917  of  20  years'  work  in  which 
a  comparison  is  made  of  the  materials  mentioned  in 
the  title  of  this  paper  would  seem  to  justify  the  pub- 
lication at  this  time  of  a  brief  summary  of  the  work. 
A  detailed  account  covering  the  first  15  years  of  this 
work  has  already  been  published  (3).  Much  of  this 
need  not  be  repeated,  but  the  results  of  the  last  five 
years  are  of  value  as  confirming  the  earlier  work. 

Experimental. 

The  work  was  originally  outlined  under  the  broad 
heading  ''Investigations  Relative  to  the  Use  of 
Nitrogenous  Materials,"  and  this  included:  (a)  a 
determination  of  the  yield  of  dry  matter  and  nitrogen 
in  crops  from  soils  receiving  various  treatments 
under  controlled  conditions;  (b)  the  percentage  of 
nitrogen  in  the  crop  as  affected  by  the  treatment; 

(c)  the  utilization  of  nitrogen  in  different  materials; 

(d)  the  relative  efficiency  of  nitrogen  in  different 
materials;  (e)  the  residual  effects  of  nitrogenous 
substances;  (f)  denitrification  and  (g)  the  effect  of 
special  treatment  on  the  income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen 
in  the  soil. 

As  the  work  has  progressed,  more  and  more  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  utilization  and  relative 


174  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

efBciency  of  nitrogen  in  different  materials,  and  it 
is  this  phase  of  the  work  which  is  to  receive  consid- 
eration in  this  paper. 

In  order  that  the  work  might  be  under  more  per- 
fect control,  it  was  carried  out  in  galvanized  iron 
cylinders,  open  at  both  ends  and  having  a  diameter 
of  2311.  inches  and  a  depth  of  4  feet.  These  cylinders 
were  set  on  the  ground  so  that  about  2  inches 
remained  above  the  ground  level.  Thus  the  contents 
of  the  cylinders  are  isolated  so  that  the  roots  of  the 
crops  growing  in  them  are  prevented  from  getting 
mineral  plant-food  from  outside  sources.  The  sub- 
soil is  a  gravelly  sandy  material  such  as  occurs  where 
the  cylinders  are  located,  but  the  top  soil  is  a  loam 
(Penn  loam)  brought  from  another  source,  an  8-inch 
layer  of  which  was  placed  in  each  cylinder  on  top 
of  the  subsoil,  each  cylinder  receiving  the  same 
weight  of  the  thoroughly  mixed  soil. 

When  the  work  was  begun  all  the  soils  were  given 
a  liberal  treatment  of  lime  in  the  form  of  ground 
limestone  and  with  the  exception  of  one  series  which 
does  not  enter  into  this  discussion,  all  have  received 
annual  dressings  of  acid  phosphate  and  potassium 
chloride  at  the  rate  of  640  pounds  and  320  pounds 
per  acre,  respectively.  Thus  nitrogen  is  made  the 
limiting  factor  insofar  as  human  control  can  provide. 
Various  combinations  of  manure  and  fertilizer  were 
arranged,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  report  here  only  on 
the  four  nitrogenous  materials  mentioned  in  the  title. 

One  series  received  the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 
but  no  nitrogen,  in  order  that  it  might  be  used  as  a 
check.  Thus  if  a  certain  amount  of  nitrogen  is  recov- 
ered in  the  crop  from  the  nitrogen-treated  cylinder, 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  175 

and  it  is  desired  to  calculate  the  percentage  of  the 
applied  nitrogen  that  was  recovered,  it  is  necessary 
first  to  deduct  from  the  total  amount  of  nitrogen 
recovered  in  the  crop,  the  amount  recovered  from  the 
check  cylinder,  and  thus  account  for  the  soil  nitrogen 
that  the  crop  used. 

It  is  at  once  obvious  that  this  cannot  be  an  abso- 
lutely correct  method  of  determining  the  percentage 
recovered,  since  in  those  cylinders  to  which  nitro- 
genous fertilizers  have  been  applied,  the  plant  will 
make  a  quicker  start  and  the  roots  go  farther  in 
search  of  the  nitrogenous  materials  of  the  soil  than 
in  the  check  cylinders  where  there  is  a  pronounced 
deficiency  of  available  nitrogen,  and  thus  the  check 
fails  to  be  a  true  check.  In  this  way  it  happens  that 
the  recovery  may  apparently  be  more  than  100  per 
cent,  as  shown  in  Series  8B,  for  the  years  1901  and 
1910.  However,  there  appears  to  be  no  way  of  over- 
coming this  error  so  long  as  the  work  is  carried  out 
in  the  natural  soil  and  if  one  starts  with  an  artificial 
soil,  other  and  more  serious  difficulties  arise. 

In  this  work  no  effort  has  been  made  to  analyze  the 
roots,  since  it  would  be  well-nigh  impossible  to  do 
this  correctly,  and  even  if  it  could  be  done  the  same 
error  would  be  introduced.  The  roots  and  stubble 
are  left  just  as  under  field  conditions  so  that  the 
residual  effects  of  these  may  be  observed. 

To  draw  conclusions  from  1  to  2  years  of  such 
work  would  be  manifestly  unfair,  but  when  it  is  car- 
ried on  for  a  period  of  10  or  20  years,  seasonal  dif- 
ferences, differences  due  to  the  unequal  decomposi- 
tion of  organic  matter  and  differences  due  to  slight 
errors,  which  are  sure  to  creep  in  now  and  then,  are 


176  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

largely  smoothed  out  and  results  are  obtained  which 
can  be  accepted  with  a  fair  degree  of  confidence. 
The  confidence  in  such  results  is  strengthened  when 
it  is  found  that  they  check  with  similar  work  con- 
ducted in  other  places  or  even  in  other  countries. 

The  work  was  started  in  these  cylinders  in  the 
spring  of  1898  with  corn  as  the  first  crop  in  the  rota- 
tion. Four  5-year  rotations  have  been  carried  out  as 
follows : 

First  Kotation  Third  Rotation 

1898  Com      1908   Corn 

1899  Oats  (millet)       1909    Oats   (corn) 

1900   Oats  (corn)       1910   Oats  (corn) 

1901    Wheat      1911    Rye  and  oats 

1902    Timothy      1912    Timothy 

(two  cuttings)  (two  cuttings) 

Second  Rotation  Fourth  Rotation 

1903   Corn       1913     Corn 

1904   Oats   (corn)       1914   Oats   (corn) 

1905   Oats  (corn)       1915   Oats  (corn) 

1906    Wheat      1916    Wheat 

1907    Timothy      1917     Timothy 

(two  cuttings)  (two  cuttings) 


The  corn  following  the  oats  is  grown  as  a  residual 
crop  (without  further  addition  of  fertilizers)  to 
utilize  any  nitrogen  which  the  oat  crop  may  have 
failed  to  get.  All  corn  is  planted  thick  and  harvested 
as  forage  rather  than  as  mature  corn.  Oats  are 
harvested  as  oat-hay  just  before  maturity,  and  wheat 
is  harvested  at  maturity  and  saved  as  grain  and 
straw. 

Nitrogenous  materials  are  applied  for  each  main 
crop  in  the  rotation  as  follows: 

Cylinder  4B,  farm  manure,  at  the  rate  of  16  tons  per  acre. 
Cylinder  8B,  Nitrate  of  Soda,  at  the  rate  of  320  pounds  per 
acre. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  177 

Cylinder  17B,  ammonium  sulfate,  equivalent  to  320  pounds 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre. 

Cylinder  18B,  dried  blood,  equivalent  to  320  pounds  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  per  acre. 

Thus  a  careful  record  is  kept  of  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  applied  each  year  and  of  the  yield  of  dry 
matter  from  each  cylinder.  From  determinations  of 
the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  dry  matter  the  total 
amount  of  nitrogen  removed  by  the  crop  each  year 
is  easily  calculated. 

Yield  of  Dry  Matter. 

The  yield  of  dry  matter  under  the  four  different 
treatments  for  the  20  years  is  shown  in  table  1,  aver- 
ages being  given  for  two  10-year  periods  and  also 
for  the  entire  20  years.  For  each  10-year  period  the 
yield  has  been  largest  with  the  manure,  though  it  is 
less  for  the  second  10-year  period  than  for  the  first, 
which  would  indicate  that  with  manure  at  the  rate 
of  16  tons  per  acre  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  not  being 
fully  maintained.  The  lowest  yield  is  from  18B 
where  dried  blood  is  used  as  the  source  of  nitrogen. 
Here  again  the  average  yield  is  less  for  the  second 
10-year  period  than  for  the  first.  For  plots  8B  and 
17B,  which  receive  Nitrate  of  Soda  and  ammonium 
sulfate,  respectively,  the  average  yields  for  the  first 
10  years  are  essentially  the  same  for  the  two  treat- 
ments, but  for  the  second  10  years  the  average  for 
the  Nitrate  of  Soda  treatment  is  considerably  above 
that  for  the  ammonium  sulfate;  furthermore,  the 
average  yield  with  ammonium  sulfate  is,  like  the 
yield  with  dried  blood  and  farm  manure,  less  for  the 


178 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


second  than  for  the  first  10-year  period.  With  the 
Nitrate  of  Soda,  however,  the  figures  are  reversed 
that  is,  the  average  yield  for  the  second  10  years  is 
somewhat  above  that  for  the  first  10  years. 

The  question  may  well  be  raised  as  to  why  the 
average  yields  on  4B,  17B  and  18B  should  be  less  for 
the  second  10-year  period  than  for  the  first,  while 
the  yield  on  8B  has  been  well  maintained  for  the  20 
years.  Since  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  have  been 
supplied  each  year  in  liberal  amounts,  and  lime  has 
been  used  at  stated  intervals,  it  would  seem  clear 
that  the  falling  off  in  yield  must  be  due  to  a  deficiency 
of  available  nitrogen,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
cylinders  17B  and  18B  receive  each  year  just  as  much 
nitrogen  as  SB,  while  4B  receives  more  than  two  and 
one-half  times  as  much  as  SB. 


TABLE  1 
Yield  of  Dry  Matter  with  Different  Nitrogenous  Materials. 


First  10-Year  Period 

Second  10-Year  Period 

Tear 

1 
s 

4B 

8B 

17B 

18B 

Year 

1 

4B 

8B 

17B 

18B 

1898. 

291.1 

467.1 

gm. 
393.9 

4(?™6 

gm. 
341.8 

1908. 

ilg'.b 

gm. 
326.0 

3^6 

286!6 

228.6 

1899  . 

146.6 

354.1 

184.5 

190.5 

186.3 

1909. 

164.0 

208.0 

244.0 

217.0 

218.0 

1900. 

238.1 

387.2 

317.0 

310.1 

307.9 

1910. 

214.0 

422.0 

338.0 

287.0 

276.0 

1901. 

126.0 

342.2 

331.0 

300.0 

239.4 

1911. 

68.0 

236.0 

160.0 

117.0 

126.0 

1902. 

86.2 

147.8 

150.9 

143.9 

115.6 

1912. 

88.0 

221.0 

187.0 

153.0 

115.0 

1903. 

160.3 

315.0 

183.0 

Sfil.O 

216.0 

1913. 

177.2 

390.5 

312.5 

228.5 

286.5 

1904. 

118.7 

262.0 

170.0 

167.0 

160.0 

1914. 

137.0 

285.8 

222.4 

196.9 

198.3 

1905. 

125.7 

262.0 

226.0 

209.0 

191.0 

1915. 

103.7 

231.2 

211.0 

178.3 

147.5 

1906. 

98.3 

316.0 

244.0 

226.0 

144.0 

1916. 

91.4 

250.9 

217.3 

181.6 

112.9 

1907. 

107.3 

237.0 

168.0 

133.0 

172.0 

1917. 
Aver- 

71.1 

229.0 

208.0 

167.0 

139.0 

Aver- 

age! 

149.8 

309.04 

236.83 

237.15 

207.4 

age* 

128.3 

280.04 

243.12 

201.23 

184.72 

*  Phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime,  no  nitrogen. 
t  First  ten  years. 
t  Second  ten  years. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  179 

Data  presented  heretofore,  and  which  are  con- 
firmed by  results  hereafter  to  be  presented,  show 
that  of  the  four  materials,  Nitrate  of  Soda  is  most 
effective  in  crop  production,  that  is,  the  crop  is  able 
to  utilize  or  win  back  a  larger  percentage  of  nitrogen 
in  this  form  than  in  any  of  the  other  forms.  With  a 
given  amount  of  nitrogen,  therefore,  the  crop  yield 
can  be  better  maintained  over  a  period  of  years  by 
the  use  of  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  Nitrate  of  Soda 
than  in  the  other  forms,  provided  the  soil  is  one  that 
does  not  allow  rapid  leaching. 

This  apparently  is  what  has  happened  in  this  case. 
With  the  gradual  exhaustion  of  soil  nitrogen,  which 
was  made  available  by  the  use  of  lime,  and  the  failure 
of  the  ammonium  sulfate,  blood  and  manure  to  give 
back  in  the  form  of  crops  as  large  a  proportion  of  the 
applied  nitrogen  as  the  Nitrate  of  Soda,  the  yields 
with  the  former  became  gradually  less. 

The  fact  that  cylinder  4B  gave  the  largest  average 
yield  through  20  years  must  not  be  taken  as  mean- 
ing that  the  treatment  given  this  cylinder  is  neces- 
sarily the  best  or  most  effective.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  this  cylinder  receives  cow  manure  at  the 
rate  of  16  tons  per  acre  annually,  the  cost  of  which 
would  be  much  in  excess  of  the  cost  of  320  pounds  of 
Nitrate  of  Soda  or  its  equivalent  in  ammonium  sulfate 
or  dried  blood,  and  therefore  the  larger  yield  does  not 
necessarily  mean  an  efficient  use  of  the  applied  nitro- 
gen. As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  work  shows  this  to  be 
the  least  efficient  of  the  four  forms. 


180 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Percentage   of   Nitrogen   Recovered   in   the   Crops. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  method 
of  calculating  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  that  is  re- 
covered in  the  crop.     The  recoveries  for  the  four 

TABLE  2 

Percentage   of   Nitrogen   Recovered   from   Different 
Materials. 


First  10-Year  Period 

Second  10-Year  Period 

Tear 

4B 

8B 

17B 

18B 

Year 

4B 

8B 

17B 

18B 

1898 

28.15 

63.75 

66.06 

58.18 

1908 

16.97 

42.77 

24.20 

27.38 

1899 

51.48 

48.45 

58.27 

44.58 

1909 

18.25 

80.64 

54.94 

49.04 

1900 

36.18 

77.55 

69.47 

57.25 

1910 

54.74 

110.74 

62.12 

51.22 

1901 

41.78 

110.26 

91.91 

68.71 

1911 

20.98 

64.10 

48.46 

41.59 

1002 

11.48 

32.06 

23.64 

14.32 

1912 

29.11 

49.16 

27.45 

10.96 

1903 

20.20 

30.84 

34.38 

20.97 

1913 

27.63 

32.92 

15.50 

40.26 

1904 

38.91 

46.19 

39.26 

33.68 

1914 

52.46 

74.35 

67.86 

56.55 

1905 

30.10 

68.77 

56.05 

34.01 

1915 

32.13 

64.10 

52.53 

48.12 

1906 

44.94 

81.81 

30.80 

24.78 

1916 

36.60 

68.96 

57.53 

20.26 

1907 

33.85 

45.10 

27.47 

42.48 

1917 

!\.veraget .  . 

27.95 

55.77 

41.75 

29.41 

Average* .  . 

33.71 

60.48 

49.73 

39.90 

31.68 

64.35 

45.23 

37.48 

Average^ .  . 

32.69 

62.42 

47.48 

38.69 

different    treatments  covering    the    20    years    are 

shown  in  table  2.  The  averages  for  the  period  are  as 
follows : 

4B 32.69  per  cent,  (manure) 

8B 62.42  per  cent.  (Nitrate  of  Soda) 

17B 47.48  per  cent,  (ammonium  sulfate) 

18B 48.69  per  cent,  (dried  blood) 


This  means  that  of  100  pounds  of  nitrogen  applied 
in  the  four  different  forms  approximately  one-third, 
three-fifths,  one-half,  and  two-fifths,  respectively,  are 


*  First  ten  years, 
t  Second  ten  years. 
i  Twenty  years. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  181 

recovered  or  won  back  in  the  crop/  As  has  already 
been  mentioned,  these  figures  agree  quite  closely  with 
results  reported  from  European  countries,  and  they 
also  confirm  earlier  work  carried  out  at  this  Station. 
But  even  so,  they  are  not  satisfying  figures.  We  at 
once  ask  why  there  is  this  enormous  loss  of  nitro- 
gen and  especially  why  the  loss  is  so  much  greater 
with  the  organic  materials  than  with  the  Nitrate  of 
Soda  and  ammonium  sulfate.  If  the  loss  is  to  be 
attributed  to  the  leaching  out  of  the  materials,  then 
it  would  seem  that  the  figures  should  be  reversed. 
Unquestionably,  a  certain  amount  of  loss  takes  place 
in  this  way,  but  this  cannot  explain  the  loss  of  over 
two-thirds  from  the  manure  against  a  little  more 
than  one-third  from  Nitrate. 

It  is  well  known  that  organic  materials  must 
undergo  certain  transformations  in  the  soil  before 
the  nitrogen  can  become  available,  and  it  seems  that 
during  these  transformations  nitrogen  as  ammonia, 
Nitrate  or  as  elemental  nitrogen  must  be  lost  in  con- 
siderable quantities.  As  bearing  on  this  it  may  be 
pointed  out  that  Russell  and  Richards  (5)  have 
shown  by  laboratory  experiments  with  manure  that 
in  addition  to  the  loss  of  ammonia  by  volatilization 
there  is  still  a  loss  amounting  to  15  per  cent,  or  more 
of  total  nitrogen,  and  they  have  gone  further  and 
shown  that  during  decomposition  there  is  an  evolu- 
tion of  gaseous  nitrogen.     This  they  believe  com- 

^  Or  if  we  assign  to  Nitrate  nitrogen  a  value  of  100,  then  the  relative 
availability  of  the  four  materials  stands  as  follows: 

Nitrate  of  soda    100.0 

Ammonium    sulfate     76. 1 

Dried    blood    62.0 

Manure     52.4 


182  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

pletes  the  account  of  the  loss.  This  loss,  they  claim, 
does  not  go  on  under  wholly  anaerobic  or  wholly 
aerobic  conditions  but  under  mixed  anaerobic  and 
aerobic  conditions  which  arise  when  manure  is  being 
produced.  They  explain  further  that  in  the  natural 
manure  heap  nitrogen  is  also  lost  as  gaseous  am- 
monia as  well  as  in  the  form  of  nitrogen  gas. 

It  is  very  probable  that  in  a  more  limited  way, 
similar  changes  take  place  when  organic  compounds 
are  placed  in  the  soil  and  that  a  part  of  the  loss  of 
nitrogen  noted  in  our  experiments  must  be  thus  ac- 
counted for.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  an 
organic  substance  like  cottonseed  meal  or  dried  blood 
is  mixed  with  soil  and  incubated  in  the  laboratory  for 
a  few  days,  escaping  ammonia  may  be  detected,  and 
from  this  it  is  a  natural  conclusion  that  when  large 
quantities  of  organic  matter  are  placed  in  the  soil 
under  natural  conditions,  some  ammonia  will  be  lost 
by  volatilization,  especially  when  the  temperature 
and  moisture  conditions  are  favorable.  This  then, 
together  with  the  evolution  of  gaseous  nitrogen, 
would  in  part  at  least  explain  the  heavy  loss  of  nitro- 
gen where  manure  was  used  at  the  rate  of  16  tons  per 
acre. 

A  discussion  of  this  subject  would  not  be  completed 
without  a  brief  reference  to  the  effect  of  cultivation 
on  nitrogen  losses. 

Shutt  ^  for  example  has  shown  that  when  the 
prairie  soils  of  Saskatchewan  were  left  undisturbed 
the  loss  of  nitrogen  was  slight,  but  as  soon  as  cultiva- 
tion was  commenced  losses  set  in. 


Cited  by  RusseU  (4). 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  183 

Russell  (4)  refers  further  to  losses  of  nitrogen  as 
follows : 

One  of  the  Broadbalk  wheat  plots  receives  annually  14 
tons  of  farmyard  manure  per  acre  containing  200  pounds  of 
Nitrogen.  Only  a  little  drainage  can  be  detected  and  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  any  considerable  leaching  out 
of  Nitrates  occurs,  but  the  loss  of  Nitrogen  is  enormous 
amounting  to  nearly  70  per  cent,  of  the  added  quantity. 

The  condition  for  this  decomposition  appears  to  be  copi- 
ous aeration,  such  as  is  produced  by  cultivation  and  the 
presence  of  large  quantities  of  easily  decomposable  organic 
matter.  Now  these  are  precisely  the  conditions  of  intensive 
farming  in  old  countries  and  of  pioneer  farming  in  new 
lands,  and  the  result  is  that  the  reserves  of  soil  and  manurial 
Nitrogen  are  everywhere  being  depleted  at  an  appalling 
rate. 


Russell  refers  to  the  recuperative  actions  that  are 
going  on,  but  says:  "One  of  the  most  pressing  prob- 
lems at  the  present  time  is  to  learn  how  to  suppress 
this  gaseous  decomposition  and  to  direct  the  proc- 
esses wholly  into  the  Nitrate  channels. 

In  a  paper  on  the  Nitrate  content  of  cultivated  and 
uncultivated  soils,  Blair  and  McLean  (1),  have  called 
attention  to  the  loss  of  nitrogen  from  cultivated  soils 
and  also  to  the  low  recovery  from  nitrogen  applied  as 
organic  materials.  They  point  out  that  land  under 
cultivation  is  gradually  being  depleted  of  its  store  of 
nitrogen  even  when  nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  ap- 
plied each  year  and  that  the  average  recovery  of 
nitrogen  applied  in  the  form  of  fish  scrap  for  a  period 
of  nine  years,  was  only  36.36  per  cent. 

With  the  same  nitrogen  treatment  soils  allowed  to 
run  wild  just  about  maintained  their  nitrogen  con- 


184  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

tent,  while  the  carbon  content  of  these  soils  was 
slightly  increased. 

The  recovery  of  nitrogen  in  the  four  different  treat- 
ments for  the  20  years  is  shown  by  the  curves  in 
figure  1.  A  study  of  these  curves  shows  that  the 
high  points  are  generally  reached  in  either  the  first 
or  second  year  of  oats,  and  in  the  wheat  year,  while 
the  low  points  occur  almost  invariably  in  the  corn  and 
timothy  years.  It  is  not  entirely  clear  whether  this 
is  a  seasonal  variation  or  a  crop  characteristic. 

It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  utilization  of  the 
residual  nitrogen  by  the  corn  crop  which  follows  the 
oats,  helps  to  explain  the  high  recovery  for  the  years 
when  oats  are  grown. 

Conclusions. 

In  a  5-year  rotation  on  Penn  loam  soil  well  sup- 
plied with  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime,  crop 
yields  were  better  maintained  over  a  period  of  20 
years  with  Nitrate  of  soda  at  the  rate  of  320  pounds 
per  acre  than  with  an  equivalent  amount  of  ammo- 
nium sulfate  or  dried  blood.  For  several  years  the 
latter  gave  results  about  on  a  par  with  the  Nitrate, 
but  an  average  of  the  second  10-year  period  shows  a 
considerable  falling  off  with  these  materials  as  com- 
pared with  the  Nitrate.  This  is  no  doubt  due  in  part 
to  the  fact  that  the  Nitrate,  being  immediately  avail- 
able, gives  the  plant  an  early  start  which  tends  to 
keep  it  in  the  lead  and  to  the  further  fact  that  in  the 
transformation  of  the  ammonium  salt  and  the  organic 
material  into  nitrates,  there  is  a  considerable  loss  of 
nitrogen,  possibly  as  ammonia  gas  or  gaseous  nitro- 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  185 

gen  or  both.  The  loss  cannot  all  be  attributed  to  a 
leaching  out  of  the  materials,  even  though  the  nitrifi- 
cation of  ammonia  and  organic  residues  may  go  on 
throughout  a  large  portion  of  the  year. 

In  the  above-mentioned  rotation  cow  manure  at 
the  rate  of  16  tons  per  acre  gave  somev^hat  larger 
yields  than  Nitrate  of  Soda,  but  the  increased  yields 
v^^ere  not  sufficient  to  justify  the  increase  in  the  cost 
of  nitrogen. 

Furthermore,  the  average  yield  v^ith  the  manure 
vv^as  less  for  the  second  10-year  period  than  for  the 
first,  while  the  reverse  is  true  with  the  Nitrate  of 
Soda.  Thus  it  is  shown  that  with  16  tons  of  manure 
per  acre  annually,  the  crop  yield  is  not  being  main- 
tained, while  with  Nitrate  of  Soda  at  the  rate  of  320 
pounds  per  acre  annually  it  is  increasing  slightly,  as 
shown  by  the  average  for  the  second  10-year  period. 

The  percentage  of  nitrogen  recovered  in  the  crop 
was  greater  with  the  nitrate  than  with  any  of  the 
other  materials,  the  20-year  average  being  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Nitrate  o£  Soda 62.42 

Ammonium  sulfate   47.48 

Dried  blood 38.69 

Cow  manure   32.69 

The  average  recovery  with  Nitrate  for  the  second 
10-year  period  was  64.35  per  cent,  as  against  60.48  per 
cent,  for  the  first  10-year  period,  whereas  the  average 
recovery  with  the  ammonium  sulfate,  dried  blood  and 
manure  was  all  less  for  the  second  10-year  period 
than  for  the  first. 

This  is  in  agreement  with  the  crop  yields,  and  in- 


186  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

dicates  a  diminishing  efBciency  for  the  ammonium 
sulfate,  blood  and  manure,  and  a  gradual  increase  in 
efficiency  for  the  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

The  work  shows  that  when  properly  used  Nitrate 
of  Soda  alone  as  a  source  of  nitrogen  may  be  depended 
upon  to  maintain  crop  yields  over  a  long  period,  and 
that  a  given  amount  of  nitrogen  in  this  form  is  more 
effective  than  an  equivalent  amount  in  the  form  of 
ammonium  sulfate,  or  organic  materials. 

Its  effect  is  to  produce  larger  crops  per  unit  of 
nitrogen,  and  these  crops,  in  turn,  leave  behind  in  the 
soil  larger  crop  residues,  and  with  carbonate  of  lime 
to  aid  in  their  decomposition  these  furnish  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  organic  matter  to  keep  the  soil  in  good 
physical  condition. 

References. 

(1)  Blair,  A.  W.,  and  McLean,  H.  C.     1917.    Total  nitrogen 

and  carbon  in  cultivated  land  and  land  abandoned 
to  grass  and  weeds.  In  Soil  Sci.,  v.  4,  no.  4,  p. 
283-294. 

(2)  Coleman,  D.  A.    1917.    The  influence  of  Sodium  Nitrate 

upon  transformations  in  soil  with  special  reference 
to  its  availability  and  that  of  other  nitrogenous 
manures.     In  Soil  Sci.,  v.  4,  no.  5,  p.  345-432. 

(3)  Lipman,  J.  G.,  and  Blair,  A.  W.     1916.     Investigations 

relative  to  the  use  of  nitrogenous  plant  foods: 
1898-1912.     N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  288. 

(4)  Russell,  E.  J.     1915.     Soil  Conditions  and  Plant  Growth, 

new  ed.,  p.  83,  Longmans,  Green  and  Co.,  New  York. 

(5)  Russell,  E.  J.,  and  Richards,  E.  H.     1917.     The  changes 

taking  place  during  the  storage  of  farmyard  manure. 
In  Jour.  Agr.  Sci.,  v.  8,  p.  495-563. 


COST  OF  TRANSPORTATION  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

A  striking  illustration  of  the  difference  in  the  cost 
of  transportation  by  four  different  ways  is  given 
below : 

To  transport  a  ton  by 

Horse  power,  5  miles; 

Electric  power,  25  miles; 

Steam  cars,  250  miles; 

Steamships  on  the  lakes,  1,000  miles; 

costs  the  same  amount  in  each  case  and  the  same  amount  of 
money  will  haul  a  ton 

5  miles  on  a  common  road, 

15  miles  on  a  well-made  stone  road, 

25  miles  on  a  trolley  road, 

250  miles  on  a  steam  railway, 

1,000  miles  on  a  steamship. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  same  amount  of  money  it 
takes  to  haul  a  given  amount  of  produce  five  miles  on 
a  public  highway  of  the  United  States  will  pay  the 
freight  for  250  miles  on  a  railroad  and  1,000  miles  on 
a  steamship  line  on  the  lakes.  This  is  too  great  a 
difference,  as  will  be  admitted  by  all,  and  when  we 
think  of  the  fact  that  the  railroad  companies  are  ever 
at  work  repairing  and  improving  their  highways 
while  the  farmer  is  apparently  so  little  awake  to  his 
own  interests  in  regard  to  furnishing  himself  with 
better  roads,  we  wonder  why  it  is.  The  lesson  seems 
plain  and  clear,  and,  as  progressive  farmers,  let  us 
continue  to  aid  the  good  road  movement  throughout 
the  country. 

187 


188  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Nitrate  of  Soda  is  essentially  a  seaboard  article; 
supplies  at  interior  points  are  not  always  available, 
hence  the  ports  of  entry  are  as  a  rule  the  best  sources 
of  supply. 

The  improvement  of  our  water-v^ays,  so  long  urged 
by  us,  seems  at  last  to  be  in  sight ;  and  farm  chemicals 
at  lower  rates  should  ultimately  be  expected,  even  at 
interior  points. 

It  has  been  the  custom  of  the  railroad  companies 
to  discriminate  heavily  and  unfairly  against  Nitrate 
of  Soda  by  charging  almost  prohibitory  chemical 
rates,  instead  of  equitable  fertilizer  rates,  and  it  is 
hoped  by  correctly  designating  the  material,  the  dis- 
crimination will  not  be  practiced. 

Farm  newspapers,  generally,  are  quite  willing  to 
publish  wholesale  quotations  on  all  those  things 
which  the  farmer  has  to  sell,  and  they  have  not,  as  a 
rule,  published  wholesale  quotations  on  those  articles 
which  he  has  to  buy.  Among  the  latter,  agricultural 
chemicals  occupy  a  position  of  prime  importance,  not 
only  as  to  actual  effect  on  farm  prosperity,  but  as  to 
the  actual  amount  of  cash  which  the  farmer  has  to 
spend,  for  his  produce  cpmes  out  of  the  soil  and  its 
amount  and  quality  is  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  chemicals  he  puts  into  it.  Agricultural  jour- 
nals generally  should  make  a  continued  effort  in  the 
direction  of  enhancing  his  purchasing  power,  by  en- 
deavoring to  make  him  more  prosperous. 


OF  GENERAL  INTEREST. 


Average  Annual  Rainfall  in  the  United  States. 

Place  Inches       Place  Inches 


Neah  Bay,  Washington 123 

Sitka,  Alaska   83 

Ft.  Haskins,  Oregon 66 

Mt.  Vernon,  Alabama 66 

Baton  Rouge,   Louisiana    60 

Meadow  Valley,  California   . .  57 

Ft.  Towson,  Oklahoma   57 

Ft.   Meyers,  Florida   56 

Washington,  Arkansas   54 

Huntsville,  Alabama   54 

Natchez,  Mississippi   53 

New  Orleans,  Louisiana   51 

Savannah,  Georgia  48 

Springdale,  Kentucky   48 

Fortress  Monroe,  Virginia   . .  47 

Memphis,  Tennessee  45 

Newark,  New  Jersey 44 

Boston,  Massachusetts   44 

Brunswick,   Maine    44 

Cincinnati,  Ohio   44 

New  Haven,  Connecticut 44 

Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania    . .  44 

New  York  City,  N.  Y 43 

Charleston,  South  Carolina  .  .  43 

Gaston,  North  Carolina   43 

Richmond,   Indiana    43 

Marietta,   Ohio    43 

St.  Louis,  Missouri   43 

Muscatine,  Iowa 42 

Baltimore,  Maryland   41 

New   Bedford,    Massachusetts  41 

Providence,    Rhode   Island    . .  41 

Ft.  Smith,  Arkansas   40 


Hanover,  New  Hampshire   . .  40 

Ft.  Vancouver  38 

Cleveland,   Ohio    37 

Pittsburgh,    Pennsylvania    ...  37 

Washington,  D.   C 37 

White  Sulphur  Springs,  Va..  37 

Ft.  Gibson,  Oklahoma    36 

Key  West,  Florida 36 

Peoria,   Illinois    35 

Burlington,  Vermont 34 

Buffalo,  New  York  33 

Ft.   Brown,  Texas    33 

Ft.    Leavenworth,    Kansas    . .  31 

Detroit,    Michigan    30 

Milwaukee,  Wisconsin   30 

Penn  Yan,  New  York   28 

Ft.  Kearney  25 

Ft.  SneUing,  Minnesota   25 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah   23 

Mackinac,   Michigan    23 

San  Francisco,  California    ...  21 

Dallas,  Oregon   21 

Sacramento,  California   21 

Ft.  Massachusetts,    Colorado.  17 

Ft.  Marcy,  New  Mexico    ....  16 

Ft.   Randall,  Dakota    16 

Ft.  Defiance,    Arizona    14 

Ft.  Craig,  New  Mexico   11 


San  Diego,  California  .  .  . 
Ft.  Colville,  Washington 

Ft.  Bliss,  Texas   

Ft.  Bridger,   Utah    

Ft.  Garland,  Colorado  . . . 


Amount  of  Barbed  Wire  Required  for  Fences. 

Estimated  number  of  pounds  of  Barbed  Wire 
required  to  fence  space  for  distances  mentioned,  with 
one,  two  or  three  lines  of  wire,  based  upon  each  pound 
of  wire,  measuring  one  rod  (16>1>  feet). 

189 


31i 

Ines 

152 

lbs. 

38 

lbs. 

108 

lbs. 

3,840 

lbs. 

690 

lbs. 

3 

lbs. 

300 

lbs. 

190  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

1  line  2  lines 

1  square   acre    50>j  lbs.  lOlJ-j  lbs. 

1  side  of  a  square  acre    . .         12;  j  lbs.  25^  lbs. 

1  square  half -acre    36       lbs.  72      lbs. 

1  square   mile    1,280       lbs.  2,560      lbs. 

1  side  of  a  square  mile   . .      230       lbs.  460     lbs. 

1  rod  in  length    1       lb.  2      lbs. 

100  rods  in  length   100       lbs.  200      lbs. 

100  feet  in  length   6i/io  lbs.  uy^  lbs.             18-yi6  lbs. 


Business  Rules  for  Farmers. 

The  way  to  get  credit  is  to  be  punctual  in  paying 
your  bills.  The  way  to  preserve  it  is  not  to  use  it 
much.     Settle  often;  have  short  accounts. 

Trust  no  man's  appearances  —  they  are  deceptive  — 
perhaps  assumed,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  credit. 
Beware  of  gaudy  exterior.  Rogues  usually  dress 
well.  The  rich  are  plain  men.  Trust  him,  if  any, 
who  carries  but  little  on  his  back.  Never  trust  him 
who  flies  into  a  passion  on  being  dunned;  make  him 
pay  quickly,  if  there  be  any  virtue  in  the  law. 

Be  well  satisfied  before  you  give  a  credit  that  those 
to  whom  you  give  it  are  men  to  be  trusted. 

Sell  your  goods  at  a  small  advance,  and  never  mis- 
represent them,  for  those  whom  you  once  deceive  will 
beware  of  you  the  second  time. 

Deal  uprightly  with  all  men,  and  they  will  repose 
confidence  in  you,  and  soon  become  your  permanent 
customers. 

Beware  of  him  who  is  an  ofiBce  seeker.  Men  do  not 
usually  want  an  office  when  they  have  anything  to 
do.  A  man's  affairs  are  rather  low  when  he  seeks 
office  for  support. 

Trust  no  stranger.     Your  goods  are  better  than 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  191 

doubtful  charges.     What  is  character  worth,  if  you 
make  it  cheap  by  crediting  everybody? 

Agree  beforehand  with  every  man  about  to  do  a 
job,  and,  if  large,  put  it  into  writing.  If  any  decline 
this,  quit,  or  be  cheated.  Though  you  want  a  job 
ever  so  much,  make  all  sure  at  the  outset,  and  in  case 
at  all  doubtful,  make  sure  of  a  guarantee.  Be  not 
afraid  to  ask  it  —  the  best  test  of  responsibility  —  for, 
if  offence  be  taken,  you  have  escaped  a  loss. 

How  Deep  in  the  Ground  to  Plant  Corn. 

The  following  is  the  result  of  an  experiment  with 
Indian  Corn.     That  which  was  planted  at  a  depth  of 

1  inch,  came  up  in Sy^  days. 

ly^  inches,  came  up  in 9^  days. 

2  inches,  came  up   in 10       days. 

2%,  inches,  came  up   in 11 1/^  days. 

3  inches,  came  up   in 12       days. 

3%,  inches,  came  up   in 13       days. 

4  inches,  came  up   in 13^  days. 

The  more  shallow  the  seed  was  covered  with  earth, 
the  more  rapidly  the  sprout  made  its  appearance,  and 
the  stronger  afterwards  was  the  stalk.  The  deeper 
the  seed  lay,  the  longer  it  remained  before  it  came  to 
the  surface.  Four  inches  was  too  deep  for  the  maize, 
and  must,  therefore,  be  too  deep  for  smaller  kernels. 

How  Grain  Will  Shrink. 

Farmers  rarely  gain  by  holding  on  to  their  grain 
after  it  is  fit  for  market,  when  the  shrinkage  is  taken 
into  account.     Wheat,  from  the  time  it  is  threshed. 


192  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

will  shrink  two  quarts  to  the  bushel  or  six  per  cent,  in 
six   months,   in  the  most   favorable   circumstances. 

Hence,  it  follows  that  ninety-four  cents  a  bushel  for 
wheat  when  first  threshed  in  August,  is  as  good,  tak- 
ing into  account  the  shrinkage  alone,  as  one  dollar 
in  the  following  February. 

Corn  shrinks  much  more  from  the  time  it  is  first 
husked.  One  hundred  bushels  of  ears,  as  they  come 
from  the  field  in  November,  will  be  reduced  to  not  far 
from  eighty.  So  that  forty  cents  a  bushel  for  corn 
in  the  ear,  as  it  comes  from  the  field,  is  as  good  as  fifty 
in  March,  shrinkage  only  being  taken  into  account. 

In  the  case  of  potatoes  —  taking  those  that  rot  and 
are  otherwise  lost  —  together  with  the  shrinkage, 
there  is  but  little  doubt  that  between  October  and 
June,  the  loss  to  the  owner  who  holds  them  is  not  less 
than  thirty-three  per  cent. 

This  estimate  is  taken  on  the  basis  of  interest  at 
seven  per  cent.,  and  takes  no  account  of  loss  by 
vermin. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  Indian  meal  is  equal  to  76 
pounds  of  wheat,  83  of  oats,  90  of  rye.  111  of  barley, 
333  of  corn  stalks. 

Carrying   Capacity  of   a   Freight   Car. 

This  Table  is  for  Ten-Ton  Cars. 

Whiskey    60  barrels      Lumber    6,000  feet 

Salt   70  barrels 

Lime     70  barrels 

Flour    90  barrels 

Eggs     130  to  160  barrels 

Flour    200  sacks 

Wood     6  cords 

Cattle  18  to  20  head 

Hogs  50  to  60  head 

Sheep  80  to  100  head 


Barley    

300  bushels 

Wheat    

340  bushels 

Flaxseed    

360  bushels 

Apples    

370  bushels 

Corn    

400  bushels 

Potatoes    

430  bushels 

Oats    

680  bushels 

Bran    

1,000  bushels 

Butter    

20,000  pounds 

FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


193 


Length  of  Navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

The  length  of  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River 
itself  for  ordinary  large  steamboats  is  about  2,161 
miles,  but  small  steamers  can  ascend  about  650  miles 
further.  The  following  are  its  principal  navigable 
tributaries,  with  the  miles  open  to  navigation : 


Siiles 

Minnnesota    295 

Chippewa     90 

Iowa    80 

Missouri     2,900 

Big  Horn  50 

Allegany     325 

Muskingum   94 

Kentucky     105 

Wabash    365 

Tennessee    270 

Osage    302 

White    779 

Little  White   48 

Big  Hatchie    75 

Sunflower    271 

Tallahatchie    175 

Red    986 

Cypress    44 

Black    61 

Bartholomew     100 

Macon    60 

Atchafalaya     218 

Lafourche    168 


Idiles 

Wisconsin    160 

Rock   64 

Illinois    350 

Yellowstone    474 

Ohio    950 

Monongahela     110 

Kanawha    94 

Green    200 

Cumberland     600 

Clinch    50 

St.   Francis    180 

Black     147 

Arkansas    884 

Issaquena    161 

Yazoo    228 

Big   Black    35 

Cane    54 

Ouachita     384 

Boeuf    55 

Tensas    112 

Teche    91 

D'Arbonne     50 


The  other  ten  navigable  tributaries  have  less  than 
fifty  miles  each  of  navigation.  The  total  miles  of 
navigation  of  these  fifty-five  streams  is  about  16,500 
miles,  or  about  two-thirds  the  distance  around  the 
world.  The  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  may  be 
estimated  to  possess  15,500  miles  navigable  to  steam- 
boats, and  20,221  miles  navigable  to  barges. 


194  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Number  of  Years   Seeds   Retain   Their   Vitality. 

Vegetables  Years  Vegetables  Years 

Cucumber    8  to  10      Asparagus     2  to  3 

Melon     8  to  10      Beans    2  to  3 

Pumpkin    8  to  10      Carrots     2  to  3 

Squash     8  to  10      Celery     2  to  3 

Broccoli     5  to    6      Corn   (on  cob)    2  to  3 

Cauliflower      5  to    6      Leek     2  to  3 

Artichoke    5  to    6      Onion     2  to  3 

Endive    5  to    6      Parsley     2  to  3 

Pea 5  to    6      Parsnip    2  to  3 

Radish    4  to    5      Pepper    2  to  3 

Beets    3  to    4      Tomato    2  to  3 

Cress    3  to    4      Egg-Plant     1  to  2 

Lettuce 3  to    4 

Mustard     3  to   4  Herbs, 

Okra     3  to    4      Anise    3  to  4 

Rhubarb    3  to    4      Caraway     2 

Spinach    3  to    4      Summer   Savory    1  to  2 

Turnip    3  to    6  Sage      2  to  3 


How  to  Measure  Corn  in  Crib,  Hay  in  Mow,  Etc. 

This  rule  will  apply  to  a  crib  of  any  size  or  kind. 
Two  cubic  feet  of  good,  sound,  dry  corn  in  the  ear 
will  make  a  bushel  of  shelled  corn.  To  get,  then,  the 
quantity  of  shelled  corn  in  a  crib  of  corn  in  the  ear, 
measure  the  length,  breadth  and  height  of  the  crib, 
inside  of  the  rail ;  multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth 
and  the  product  by  the  height ;  then  divide  the  prod- 
uct by  two,  and  you  have  the  number  of  bushels  of 
shelled  corn  in  the  crib. 

To  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  apples,  potatoes, 
etc.,  in  a  bin,  multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  thick- 
ness together,  and  this  product  by  8,  and  point  off  one 
figure  in  the  product  for  decimals. 

To  find  the  amount  of  hay  in  a  mow,  allow  512 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  195 

cubic  feet  for  a  ton,  and  it  will  come  out  very  gen- 
erally correct. 


How  to  Treat  Sunstroke. 

Take  the  patient  at  once  to  a  cool  and  shady  place, 
but  don't  carry  him  far  to  a  house  or  hospital. 
Loosen  the  clothes  thoroughly  about  his  neck  and 
waist.  Lay  him  down  with  the  head  a  little  raised. 
Apply  wet  cloths  to  the  head,  and  mustard  or  tur- 
pentine to  the  calves  of  the  legs  and  the  soles  of  the 
feet.  Give  a  little  weak  whiskey  and  water  if  he  can 
swallow.  Meanwhile,  let  some  one  go  for  the  doctor. 
You  cannot  do  more  without  his  advice. 

Sunstroke  is  a  sudden  prostration  due  to  long  ex- 
posure to  great  heat,  especially  when  much  fatigued 
or  exhausted.  It  commonly  happens  from  undue  ex- 
posure to  the  sun's  rays  in  summer.  It  begins  with 
pain  in  the  head,  or  dizziness,  quickly  followed  by 
loss  of  consciousness  and  complete  prostration. 


Business  Laws  in  Brief. 

Ignorance  of  law  excuses  none. 
It  is  a  fraud  to  conceal  a  fraud. 
The  law  compels  no  one  to  do  impossibilities. 
An  agreement  without  consideration  is  void. 
Signatures  made  with  lead-pencil  are  good  in  law. 
A  receipt  for  money  paid  is  not  legally  conclusive. 
The  acts  of  one  partner  bind  all  the  others. 
Contracts  made  on  Sunday  cannot  be  enforced. 


196  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

A  contract  made  with  a  minor  is  invalid. 

A  contract  made  with  a  lunatic  is  void. 

Contracts  for  advertising  in  Sunday  newspapers 
are  invalid. 

Each  individual  in  a  partnership  is  responsible  for 
the  whole  amount  of  the  debts  of  a  firm. 

Principals  are  responsible  for  the  acts  of  their 
agents. 

Agents  are  responsible  to  their  principals  for 
errors. 

A  note  given  by  a  minor  is  void. 

It  is  not  legally  necessary  to  say  on  a  note  "for 
value  received." 

A  note  drawn  on  Sunday  is  void. 

A  note  obtained  by  fraud,  or  from  a  person  in  a 
state  of  intoxication,  cannot  be  collected. 

If  a  note  be  lost  or  stolen,  it  does  not  release  the 
maker;  he  must  pay. 

The  indorser  of  a  note  is  exempt  from  liability  if 
not  served  with  notice  of  its  dishonor  within  twenty- 
four  hours  of  its  non-payment. 


How  to  Rent  a  Farm. 

In  the  rental  of  property,  the  greater  risk  is  always 
on  the  landlord's  side.  He  is  putting  his  property 
into  the  possession  and  care  of  another,  and  that 
other  is  not  infrequently  a  person  of  doubtful  utility. 
These  rules  and  cautions  may  well  be  observed: 

1.  Trust  to  no  verbal  lease.  Let  it  be  in  writ- 
ing, signed  and  sealed.  Its  stipulations  then  be- 
come commands  and  can  be  enforced.     Let  it  be 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  197 

signed  in  duplicate,  so  that  each  party  may  have  an 
original. 

2.  Insert  such  covenants  as  to  repairs,  manner  of 
use  and  in  restraint  of  waste,  as  the  circumstances 
call  for.  As  to  particular  stipulations,  examine  leases 
drawn  by  those  who  have  had  long  experience  in 
renting  farms,  and  adopt  such  as  meet  your  case. 

3.  There  should  be  covenants  against  assigning 
and  underletting. 

4.  If  the  tenant  is  of  doubtful  responsibility,  make 
the  rent  payable  in  installments.  A  covenant  that 
the  crops  shall  remain  in  the  lessor's  till  the  lessee's 
contracts  with  him  have  been  fulfilled,  is  valid  against 
the  lessee's  creditors.  In  the  ordinary  case  of  rent- 
ing farms  on  shares,  the  courts  will  treat  the  crops  as 
the  joint  property  of  landlord  and  tenant,  and  thus 
protect  the  former's  rights. 

5.  Every  lease  should  contain  stipulations  for  for- 
feiture and  re-entry  in  case  of  non-payment  or  breach 
of  any  covenants. 

6.  To  prevent  a  tenant's  committing  waste,  the 
courts  will  grant  an  injunction. 

7.  Above  all,  be  careful  in  selecting  your  tenant. 
There  is  more  in  the  man  than  there  is  in  the  bond. 


Philosophical  Facts. 

The  greatest  height  at  which  visible  clouds  ever 
exist  does  not  exceed  ten  miles. 

Air  is  about  eight  hundred  and  fifteen  times  lighter 
than  water. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  every  square 


198  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

foot  of  the  earth  amounts  to  two  thousand  one 
hundred  and  sixty  pounds.  An  ordinary  sized  man, 
supposing  his  surface  to  be  fourteen  square  feet,  sus- 
tains the  enormous  pressure  of  thirty  thousand,  two 
hundred  and  forty  pounds. 

The  barometer  falls  one-tenth  of  an  inch  for  every 
seventy-eight  feet  of  elevation. 

The  violence  of  the  expansion  of  water  when  freez- 
ing is  sufBcient  to  cleave  a  globe  of  copper  of  such 
thickness  as  to  require  a  force  of  27,000  pounds  to 
produce  the  same  effect. 

During  the  conversion  of  ice  into  water  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  degrees  of  heat  are  absorbed. 

Water,  when  converted  into  steam,  increases  in 
bulk  eighteen  hundred  times. 

In  one  second  of  time  —  in  one  beat  of  the  pendu- 
lum of  a  clock  —  light  travels  two  hundred  thousand 
miles.  Were  a  cannon  ball  shot  toward  the  sun,  and 
were  it  to  maintain  full  speed,  it  would  be  twenty 
years  in  reaching  it  —  and  yet  light  travels  through 
this  space  in  seven  or  eight  minutes. 

Strange  as  it  may  appear,  a  ball  of  a  ton  weight 
and  another  of  the  same  material  of  an  ounce  weight, 
falling  from  any  height  will  reach  the  ground  at  the 
same  time. 

The  heat  does  not  increase  as  we  rise  above  the 
earth  nearer  to  the  sun  but  decreases  rapidly  until, 
beyond  the  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  in  void,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  cold  is  about  seventy  degrees  be- 
low zero.  The  line  of  perpetual  frost  at  the  equator 
is    15,000    feet    altitude;    13,000    feet    between    the 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  199 

tropics;  and  9,000  to  4,000  between  the  latitudes  of 
forty  and  forty-nine  degrees. 

At  a  depth  of  forty-five  feet  under  ground,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  earth  is  uniform  throughout  the  year. 

In  summer  time,  the  season  of  ripening  moves 
northward  at  the  rate  of  about  ten  miles  a  day. 

The  human  ear  is  so  extremely  sensitive  that  it  can 
hear  a  sound  that  lasts  only  the  twenty-four  thou- 
sandth part  of  a  second.  Deaf  persons  have  some- 
times conversed  together  through  rods  of  wood  held 
between  their  teeth,  or  held  to  their  throat  or  breast. 

The  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  two  thousand  one  hundred  and 
sixty  pounds  to  each  square  foot,  or  fifteen  pounds  to 
each  square  inch ;  equal  to  thirty  perpendicular  inches 
of  mercury,  or  thirty-four  and  a  half  feet  of  water. 

Sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  one  thousand  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-two  feet  per  second  —  about  thirteen 
miles  in  a  minute.  So  that  if  we  hear  a  clap  of 
thunder  half  a  minute  after  the  flash,  we  may  calcu- 
late that  the  discharge  of  electricity  is  six  and  a  half 
miles  off. 

^  Lightning  can  be  seen  by  reflection  at  the  distance 
of  two  hundred  miles. 

The  explosive  force  of  closely  confined  gunpowder 
is  six  and  a  half  tons  to  the  square  inch. 

Facts  for  the  Weatherwise. 

If  the  full  moon  rises  clear,  expect  fine  weather. 

A  large  ring  around  the  moon  and  low  clouds  in- 
dicate rain  in  twenty-four  hours;  a  small  ring  and 
high  clouds,  rain  in  several  days. 


200  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

The  larger  the  halo  about  the  moon  the  nearer  the 
rain  clouds,  and  the  sooner  the  rain  may  be  expected. 

When  the  moon  is  darkest  near  the  horizon,  expect 
rain.' 

If  the  full  moon  rises  pale,  expect  rain. 

A  red  moon  indicates  wind. 

If  the  moon  is  seen  between  the  scud  and  broken 
cloud  during  a  gale,  it  is  expected  to  send  away  the 
bad  weather. 

In  the  old  of  the  moon  a  cloudy  morning  bodes  a 
fair  afternoon. 

If  there  be  a  general  mist  before  sunrise  near  the 
full  of  the  moon,  the  weather  will  be  fine  for  some 
days. 

Farmers*  Barometers. 

If  the  chickweed  and  scarlet  pimpernel  expand 
their  tiny  petals,  rain  need  not  be  expected  for  a  few 
hours,  says  a  writer. 

Bees  work  with  redoubled  energy  before  a  rain. 

If  flies  are  unusually  persistent  either  in  the  house 
or  around  the  stock,  there  is  rain  in  the  air. 

The  cricket  sings  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather. 

Squirrels  store  a  large  supply  of  nuts,  the  husks  of 
corn  are  usually  thick,  and  the  buds  of  deciduous 
trees  have  a  firmer  protecting  coat  if  a  severe  winter 
is  at  hand. 

Corn  fodder  is  extremely  sensitive  to  hygrometric 
changes.  When  dry  and  crisp,  it  indicates  fair 
weather;  when  damp  and  limp,  look  out  for  rain. 

A  bee  was  never  caught  in  a  shower;  therefore 
when  his  bees  leave  their  hive  in  search  of  honey,  the 
farmer  knows  that  the  weather  is  going  to  be  good. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  201 

How  to  Preserve  Eggs. 

To  each  pailful  of  water,  add  two  pints  of  fresh 
slaked  lime  and  one  pint  of  common  salt;  mix  well. 
Fill  your  barrel  half  full  with  this  fluid,  put  your  eggs 
down  in  it  any  time  after  June,  and  they  will  keep 
two  years,  if  desired.  A  solution  of  silicate  of  soda, 
commonly  known  as  water  glass,  is  also  used  for  the 
same  purpose. 

Estimating  Measures. 

A  pint  of  water  weighs  nearly  1  pound,  and  is  equal 
to  about  27  cubic  inches,  or  a  square  box  3  inches 
long,  3  inches  wide  and  3  inches  deep. 

A  quart  of  water  weighs  nearly  2  pounds,  and  is 
equal  to  a  square  box  of  about  4  by  4  inches  and  3}4 
inches  deep. 

A  gallon  of  water  weighs  from  8  to  10  pounds,  ac- 
cording to  the  size  of  the  gallon,  and  is  equal  to  a  box 
6  by  6  inches  square  and  6,  7  or  7l^  inches  deep. 

A  peck  is  equal  to  a  box  8  by  8  inches  square  and  8 
inches  deep. 

A  bushel  almost  fills  a  box  12  by  12  inches  square 
and  15  inches  deep.  In  exact  figures,  a  bushel  con- 
tains 2150.42  cubic  inches. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  nearly  64  pounds 
(more  correctly  62 >^  pounds),  and  contains  from  7 
to  8  gallons,  according  to  the  kind  of  gallons  used. 

A  barrel  of  water  almost  fills  a  box  2  by  2  feet 
square  and  1  Yi  feet  deep,  or  6  cubic  feet. 

Petroleum  barrels  contain  40  gallons  or  nearly  5 
cubic  feet. 


202  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Square  Measure. 

144  sq.  inches  =  1  sq.  foot.        160  sq.  rods  =  1  acre, 
9  sq.  feet  =  1  sq.  yard.  43,560  sq.  feet  =  1  acre. 

3034  sq.  yards  =  1  sq.  rod.        640  acres  =  1  sq.  mile. 
2.47  acres  ==  1  hectare. 


Facts  for  Builders. 

One  thousand  shingles,  laid  4  inches  to  the  weather, 
will  cover  100  square  feet  of  surface,  and  5  pounds 
of  shingle  nails  will  fasten  them  on. 

One-fifth  more  siding  and  flooring  is  needed  than 
the  number  of  square  feet  of  surface  to  be  covered 
because  of  the  lap  in  the  siding  and  matching. 

One  thousand  laths  will  cover  70  square  yards  of 
surface,  and  1 1  pounds  of  lath  nails  will  nail  them  on. 
Eight  bushels  of  good  lime,  16  bushels  of  sand,  and 
one  bushel  of  hair,  will  make  enough  good  mortar  to 
plaster  100  square  yards. 

A  cord  of  stone,  3  bushels  of  lime  and  a  cubic  yard 
of  sand,  will  lay  100  cubic  feet  of  wall. 

Five  courses  of  brick  will  lay  one  foot  in  height  on 
a  chimney;  16  bricks  in  a  course  will  make  a  flue  4 
inches  wide  and  12  inches  long,  and  8  bricks  in  a 
course  will  make  a  flue  8  inches  wide  and  16  inches 
long. 

Cement  1  bushel  and  sand  2  bushels  will  cover  3^ 
square  yards  1  inch  thick,  43^  square  yards  ^  inch 
thick,  and  6/4  square  yards  >2  inch  thick.  One 
bushel  cement  and  1  of  sand  will  cover  2'4  square 
yards  1  inch  thick,  3  square  yards  -ji  inch  thick,  and 
4>^  square  yards  3/2  inch  thick. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


203 


Number  of  Brick  Required   to   Construct   Any   Building. 
(Reckoning  7  Brick  to  each  Superficial  Foot) 


Superficial 

Feet 

ofWaU 

Number  of  Brick  to  Thickness  of 

4  Inch 

8  Inch 

12  Inch 

16  Inch 

20  Inch 

24  Inch 

1  

7 
15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

53 

60 

68 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

525 

600 

675 

750 

1,500 

2,250 

3,000 

3,750 

4,500 

5,250 

6,000 

6,750 

7,500 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

105 

120 

135 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

1,050 

1,200 

1,350 

1,500 

3,000 

4,500 

6,000 

7,500 

9,000 

10,500 

12,000 

13,500 

15,000 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

158 

180 

203 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1,125 

1,350 

1,575 

1,800 

2,025 

2,250 

4,500 

6,750 

9,000 

11,250 

13,500 

15,750 

18,000 

20,250 

22,500 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

210 

240 

270 

300 

600 

900 

1,200 

1,500 

1,800 

2,100 

2,400 

2,700 

3,000 

6,000 

9,000 

12,000 

15,000 

18,000 

21,000 

24,000 

27,000 

30,000 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

263 

300 

338 

375 

750 

1,125 

1,500 

1,875 

2,250 

2,625 

3,000 

3,375 

3,750 

7,500 

11,250 

15,000 

18,750 

22,500 

26,250 

30,000 

33,750 

37,500 

45 

o 

90 

3  

135 

4      .  . 

180 

5  

6  

225 
270 

7  

315 

8  

9  

10  

20  

30     ... 

360 
405 
450 
900 
1,350 

40  

50  

1,800 
2,250 

60  

2,700 

70  

3,150 

80 

3,600 

90  

4,050 

100  

4,500 

200  

9,000 

300  

13,500 

400  

18,000 

500  

22,500 

600  

27,000 

700  

31,500 

800  

36,000 

900  

40,500 

1000  

45,000 

Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  of  Earth,   Stone,   Metal,   Etc. 


Article 

Alcohol  

Ash  wood    

Bay  wood    

Brass,  gun  metal   . 

Blood     

Brick,  common  .  . . 

Cork    

Cedar    

Copper,  cast    

Clay  

Coal,  Lackawanna 
Coal,  Lehigh   


Pounds       Article 


49 
53 
51 

543 
66 

102 
15 
35 

547 

120 
50 
56 


Cider     

Chestnut     

Earth,  loose    . . 
Glass,  window 


64 

38 

94 

165 


Gold     1,203^ 


Hickory,  shell  bark 

Hay,  bale   

Hay,   pressed    

Honey     

Iron,  cast  

Iron,  plates   

Iron,  wrought  bars   . 


43 

9 

25 

90 

450 

481 

486 


204  POOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  of  Earth,  Stone,  Metal,  Etc. 

Article  Pounds  Article  Pounds 

Ice     SJYz  Pine,  red    37 

Lignum  Vitae  wood    ....  83  Pine,  well  seasoned 30 

Logwood    57  Silver     62534 

Lead,  cast   709  Steel,   plates    48734 

Milk     64  Steel,   soft    489 

Maple    47  Stone,  common,  about  . .  158 

Mortar    110  Sand,  wet,  about   128 

Mud     102  Spruce     31 

Marble,  Vermont 165  Tin     455 

Mahogany    66  Tar     63 

Oak,  Canadian   54  Vinegar    67 

Oak,  live,  seasoned 67  Water,   salt    64 

Oak,  white,   dry    54  Water,  rain   62 

Oil,  linseed   59  Willow    36 

Pine,  yellow    34  Zinc,    cast    428 

Pine,  white    34 

What  a  Deed  to  a  Farm  in  Many  States  Includes. 

Every  one  knows  it  conveys  all  the  fences  standing 
on  the  farm,  but  all  might  not  think  it  also  included 
the  fencing  stuff,  post  rails,  etc.,  which  had  once  been 
used  in  the  fence,  but  had  been  taken  down  and  piled 
up  for  future  use  again  in  the  same  place.  But  new 
fencing  material,  just  bought,  and  never  attached  to 
the  soil,  would  not  pass.  So  piles  of  hop  poles  stored 
away,  if  once  used  on  the  land  and  intended  to  be 
again  so  used,  have  been  considered  a  part  of  it,  but 
loose  boards  or  scaffold  poles  merely  laid  across  the 
beams  of  the  barn,  and  never  fastened  to  it,  would  not 
be,  and  the  seller  of  the  farm  might  take  them  away. 
Standing  trees,  of  course,  also  pass  as  part  of  the 
land;  so  do  trees  blown  down  or  cut  down,  and  still 
left  in  the  wood  where  they  fell,  but  not  if  cut  and 
corded  up  for  sale;  the  wood  has  then  become  per- 
sonal property. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  205 

If  there  is  any  manure  in  the  barnyard  or  in  the 
compost  heap  on  the  field,  ready  for  immediate  use, 
the  buyer  ordinarily,  in  the  absence  of  any  contrary 
agreement,  takes  that  also  as  belonging  to  the  farm, 
though  it  might  not  be  so,  if  the  owner  had  previously 
sold  it  to  some  other  party  and  had  collected  it  to- 
gether in  a  heap  by  itself,  for  such  an  act  might  be  a 
technical  severance  from  the  soil,  and  so  convert  real 
into  personal  estate ;  and  even  a  lessee  of  a  farm  could 
not  take  away  the  manure  made  on  the  place  while  he 
was  in  occupation.  Growing  crops  also  pass  by  the 
deed  of  a  farm,  unless  they  are  expressly  reserved; 
and  when  it  is  not  intended  to  convey  those,  it  should 
be  so  stated  in  the  deed  itself;  a  mere  oral  agreement 
to  that  effect  would  not  be,  in  most  states,  valid  in 
law.  Another  mode  is  to  stipulate  that  possession  is 
not  to  be  given  until  some  future  day,  in  which  case 
the  crops  or  manures  may  be  removed  before  that 
time. 

As  to  the  buildings  on  the  farm,  though  generally 
mentioned  in  the  deed,  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
they  should  be.  A  deed  of  land  ordinarily  carries  all 
the  buildings  on  it,  belonging  to  the  grantor,  whether 
mentioned  or  not;  and  this  rule  includes  the  lumber 
and  timber  of  any  old  building  which  has  been  taken 
down,  or  blown  down,  and  packed  away  for  future 
use  on  farm. 

Hints  for  Farmers. 

Vincent's  Remedies  for  farm  animals  have  been 
used  with  considerable  success  for  several  years,  and 
they  are  recommended  here  as  being  worthy  of  trial. 


206  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

First  for  Horses.  When  horses  have  chills,  or  have 
taken  cold,  or  have  colic,  15-20  drops  of  Aconite  in  a 
teacup  of  warm  water  will  start  perspiration,  and  if 
the  horses  are  kept  heavily  blanketed,  if  the  ailments 
are  not  more  than  ordinary,  they  will  come  out  of 
them  in  good  condition. 

For  Cattle.  When  cows  get  chilled,  and  if  for  any 
reason  after  dropping  calves,  the  cows  appear  to 
shake,  15  drops  of  Aconite  in  a  teacup  of  warm  water 
will  start  perspiration,  and  if  the  cows  are  kept  well 
blanketed,  they  will  come  out  of  the  trouble  without 
further  treatment,  unless  the  ailments  are  more  than 
usual. 

For  Calves.  A  disease  which  has  killed  many  fine 
young  animals,  even  under  the  best  conditions,  is 
known  as  "scours."  Vincent's  cure  in  this  case  is  a 
teaspoonful  of  Essence  of  Peppermint  in  half  a  tea- 
cup of  warm  water.  This  is  to  be  administered  after 
feeding  night  and  morning,  and  is  almost  a  certain 
cure,  having  saved  the  lives  of  many  valuable 
calves. 

For  Sheep.  A  disease  known  as  "stretches," 
caused  by  some  stoppage  in  the  bowels,  can  be  fre- 
quently remedied  by  raising  the  sheep  by  its  hind 
legs  and  holding  it  in  that  position  for  some  minutes. 
In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  a  permanent  cure  is  effected. 
This  is  worth  remembering  on  account  of  many 
sheep  having  died  from  this  cause. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


207 


Relative  Value  of  DiflFerent  Foods  for  Stock. 


One  hundred  pounds  of  good  hay  for  sto-.k  are  equal  to: 

Articles  Pounds       Articles 


Beets,  white  silesia    669 

Turnips    469 

Rye-Straw     429 

Clover,  Red,  Green   373 

Carrots     371 

Mangolds    3681/4 

Potatoes,  kept  in  pit  350 

Oat-Straw     347 

Potatoes    360 

Carrot  leaves  (tops)    135 

Hay,    Ei.glish    100 


Pounds 
89 


Lucern     

Clover,  Red,  Dry  88 

Buckwheat     785^ 

Corn     621^ 

Oats    59 

Barley    58 

Rye     53y2 

Wheat    441/4 

Oil-Cake,  linseed    43 

Peas,  dry    37^^ 

Beans     28 


To  Revive  Ferns. 

Nitrate  of  Soda  dissolved  in  water  should  be  given 
to  ferns  that  are  small  or  weak,  one-quarter  of  an 
ounce  of  Nitrate  to  a  gallon  of  water.  One-half  an 
ounce  of  Nitrate  to  a  gallon  of  water  should  be  used 
on  plants  that  are  large  and  vigorous.  Soot  and  salt 
are  also  good  to  use  occasionally. 


Capacity  of  Cisterns  for  Each  10  Inches  in  Depth. 


feet 
feet 
feet 
feet 
feet 
feet 
feet 
feet 
feet 
8  feet 
7  feet 
61/4  feet 
6  feet 
5  feet 
41/4  feet 
4  feet 
3  feet 
21/4  feet 
2       feet 


n  diameter  holds 3,059 

n  diameter  holds 1,958 

n  diameter  holds 1,101 


n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds, 
n  diameter  holds. 


959 

827 

705 

592 

489 

396 

313 

239 

206 

176 

122 

99 

78 

44 

30 

19 


gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 
gallons 


208  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Surveyor's  Measure. 

7.92  inches  1  link,  25  links  1  rod,  4  rods  1  chain,  10 
square  chains  or  160  square  rods  1  acre,  640  acres  1 
square  mile. 

Strength  of  Ice  of  Different  Thickness. 

Two  inches  thick  —  will  support  a  man. 

Four  inches  thick  —  will  support  a  man  on  horse- 
back. 

Five  inches  thick  —  will  support  an  eighty-pound 
cannon. 

Eight  inches  thick  —  will  support  a  battery  of  artil- 
lery, with  carriages  and  horses. 

Ten  inches  thick  —  will  support  an  army;  an  in- 
numerable multitude. 

Amount  of  Oil  in  Seeds. 

Kinds  of  S&ed  Per  Cent  Oil  Kinds  of  Seed  Per  Cent  OU 

Rapeseed 555  Oats   6^ 

Sweet  almond   47  Clover  hay  3 

Turnip  seed   45  Wheat  bran   4 

White  mustard   37  Oat  straw  4 

Bitter  almond    37  Meadow  hay    3y2 

Hempseed     19  Wheat  straw   3 

Linseed    17  Wheat  flour   3 

Indian  com    7  Barley    2% 

How  to  Kill  Poison  Ivy. 

Spraying  with  arsenate  of  soda  (one  pound  to 
twenty  gallons  of  water)  will  kill  all  vegetation. 
One  application,  if  the  plants  are  young  and  tender, 
will  do  this.  In  the  middle  of  the  summer,  however, 
they  should  be  cut  down  first,  and  more  than  one 
application  given. 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  209 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Plants  to  the  Acre. 

Divide  the  number  of  square  feet  in  an  acre,  which 
is  43,560,  by  the  multiplied  distance  the  plants  are  set 
each  way.  For  instance :  Suppose  the  plants  are  set 
two  feet  apart  and  the  rows  are  four  feet  apart. 
Four  times  two  are  eight;  dividing  43,560  by  eight 
we  have  5,445,  the  number  of  plants  to  the  acre  when 
set  2  feet  by  4  feet.  If  set  5  by  1,  there  are  8,712 
plants  to  the  acre,  etc. 

Savings  Banks   Compound   Interest  Table. 

Showing  the  amount  of  $1.00,  from  one  year  to 
fifteen  years,  with  compound  interest  added  semi- 
annually, at  different  rates: 


One  year 

Two  years    

Three    years    

Four   years    

Five  years    

Six  years    

Seven  years   

Eight  years    

Nine   years    

Ten   years    

Eleven  years    

Twelve   years    

Thirteen  years    

Fourteen    years    

Fifteen   years    

Results  of  Saving  Small  Amounts  of  Money. 

The  following  shows  how  easy  it  is  to  accumulate 
a  fortune,  provided  proper  steps  are  taken.     The 


Three 
'er  Cent 

Four 
Per  Cent 

Five 
Per  Cent 

$1.03 

$1.04 

$1.05 

1.06 

1.08 

1.10 

1.09 

1.12 

1.15 

1.12 

1.17 

1.21 

1.16 

1.21 

1.28 

1.19 

1.26 

1.34 

1.23 

1.31 

1.41 

1.26 

1.37 

1.48 

1.30 

1.42 

1.55 

1.34 

1.48 

1.63 

1.38 

1.54 

1.72 

1.42 

1.60 

1.80 

1.47 

1.67 

1.90 

1.51 

1.73 

1.99 

1.56 

1.80 

2.09 

Daily  Savings 
One  cent 

The  Result 
$        950 

Ten  cents 

9,504 

Twenty  cents   

19,006 

210  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

table  shows  what  would  be  the  result  at  the  end  of 
fifty  years  by  saving  a  certain  amount  each  day  and 
putting  it  at  interest  at  the  rate  of  six  per  cent. : 

Daily  Savings  The  Besult 

Sixty  cents    $  57,024 

Seventy  cents   66,528 

Eighty  cents   76,032 

Thirty  cents    28,512      Ninety  cents   85,537 

Forty  cents   38,015      One  dollar   95,041 

Fifty  cents 47,520      Five  dollars 4:5,208 

Nearly  every  person  wastes  enough  in  twenty  or 
thirty  years,  which,  if  saved  and  carefully  invested, 
would  make  a  family  quite  independent ;  but  the  prin- 
ciple of  small  savings  has  been  lost  sight  of  in  the 
general  desire  to  become  wealthy. 

Time  in  Which   Money   Doubles  at   Interest. 

Rate  Simple  Interest  Compound  Interest 

Two  per  cent   50  years    35  years,       1  day 

Two  and  one-half  per  cent 10  years    28  years,    26  days 

Three  per  cent  53  years,  4  months  23  years,  164  days 

Three  and  one-half  per  cent  ...  28  years,  208  days  20  years,    54  days 

Four  per  cent  25  years    17  years,  246  days 

Four  and  one-half  per  cent   ...  22  years,  81  days.  15  years,  273  days 

Five  per  cent   20  years    14  years,    75  days 

Six  per  cent 16  years.  8  months  11  years,  327  days 

One  dollar  loaned  one  hundred  years  at  compound 
interest  at  three  per  cent,  would  amount  to  $19.25, 
at  six  per  cent,  to  $340.00. 

How  to  Measure  an  Acre. 

In  measuring  an  acre  by  yards,  the  usual  practice 
is  to  lay  off  70  yards  in  length  by  70  yards  in  width. 
This,  though  only  approximate,  may  be  considered 
near  enough  for  practical  purposes;  but  as  70  yards 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  211 

each  way  encloses  4,900  square  yards,  this  area  ex- 
ceeds one  acre  by  60  square  yards. 

To  determine  an  accurate  acre  it  may  be  measured 
70  yards  in  length  by  69  ^/^  yards  in  width.  The  same 
result  will  be  obtained  by  measuring  220  feet  in 
length  and  198  feet  in  width,  or  by  measuring  73^/4 
yards  in  length  by  66  yards  in  width. 

Laying  Out  Plots. 

In  laying  out  an  acre  in  the  manner  described 
above,  the  sides  of  the  area  would  be  of  equal,  or 
approximately  equal  length. 

If  the  length  or  width  of  any  field  or  plot  be  known, 
the  required  width  or  length  to  enclose  an  acre  may 
be  ascertained  simply  by  dividing  the  known  distance 
in  yards  or  feet  into  the  number  of  square  yards 
(4,840)  or  square  feet  (43,560)  contained  in  one  acre. 

A  forty-rod  field  is  220  yards,  or  660  feet,  in  length. 

Dividing  4,840  by  220,  we  obtain  22,  the  width 
in  yards  required  to  give  one  acre.  Therefore,  20 
rods  (110  yards)  by  22  yards  would  represent  half 
an  acre;  10  rods  (55  yards)  by  22  yards,  one-quarter 
acre,  and  so  on. 

A  Planter's  Guide. 

Showing  the  number  of  plants  required  to  plant  one  acre 


at  various 

distances  apart. 

Distance 

No.  of 

Distance 

No.  of 

Feet. 

Plants. 

Feet. 

Plants. 

1 

43,560 

9 

537 

154 

19,360 

10 

435 

2 

10,890 

12 

302 

2^2 

6,969 

15 

193 

212  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Distance  No.  of  Distance  No.  of 

Feet.  Plants.  Feet.  Plants. 

3  4,840  18  134 
3^  3,556  20  108 

4  2,722  24  75 

5  1,742  25  69 

6  1,210  28  55 

7  889  30  48 

8  680 

Tables   of   Weights   and    Measures. 

Avoirdupois  Weight. 

16  drams    =1  ounce 

16  ounces     =  1  pound 

7,000  grains    ==1 

14  pounds    =1  stone 

100        "  ^1  hundredweight 

or  central 
20  hundredweight     =1  ton 

Dry  Measure. 

2  pints     =1  quart 

8  quarts    =1  peck 

4  pecks    =  1  bushel 

Liquid  Measure. 

4  gills    =1  pint 

2  pints    =1  quart 

4  quarts     =1  gallon 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  almost  1,000  oz.,  and  con- 
tains almost  6^4  gallons. 

Surface,  Square  or  Land  Measure. 

144       square  inches  ==  1  square  foot 

9       square  feet    =1  square  yard 

30^4  square  yards     =1  square  rod 

160       square  rods  or  4,840  sq.  yards =1  acre 

10       square  chains   ==1  acre 

640       acres    =1  square  mile 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  213 

Cubic  or  Solid  Measure. 

1,728  cubic  inches    =1  cubic  foot 

27  cubic  feet   =:  1   cubic  yard 

128  cubic    feet    =1   cord 

Measures  of  Length. 
Mile  Geographical,  Admiralty  Knot,  or  Nautical 

Mile,  6,080  Feet =  1.15  Mile  Statute. 

League =  3  Miles. 

Degree   ==60  Geographical,   or   69.121 

Statute  Miles. 

Inch,  in =72  Points  or  12  Lines. 

Nail,  1/16  yd ==2^  Inches. 

Palm =3  Inches. 

Hand     =4  Inches. 

Quarter  (or  a  Span) ==9  Inches. 

Foot    =  12  Inches. 

Cubit    =  18  Inches. 

Yard   =  36  Inches. 

Pace,  Military  =2  Feet  6  Inches. 

Fathom    =6  Feet. 

Rod,  Pole,  or  Perch =  5^  Yards. 

Chain  (100  Links) =22  Yards  (4  Poles). 

Link    =  7.92  Inches. 

Cable's  Length   =  100  Fathoms,  600  Feet. 

Furlong   =40  Rods,  220  Yards. 

Mile    =8  Furlongs,   80    Chains,   320 

Rods,  1,760  Yards,  5,280 
Feet,  63,360  Ins. 

Weights  of  Agricultural   Commodities  by  the  Bushel. 

Unless  a  bushel  by  measure  is  specially  agreed  upon,  it 
must  weigh  the  number  of  pounds  set  opposite  each  article. 

Weight  in 
Dominion 
Standard 
Bushels  Lbs. 

Barley    48 

Beans    60 

Buckwheat    48 


214  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Weight  in 
Dominion 
Standard 

Bushels  Lbs. 

Bituminous   Coal    70 

Blue   Grass   Seed 14 

Castor  Beans  40 

Clover  Seed    60 

Hemp  Seed     44 

Indian  Corn   56 

Lime     70 

Malt    36 

Mangels     50 

Oats    34 

Peas    60 

Potatoes     60 

Rye     56 

Timothy   Seed    48 

Turnips    50 

Wheat    60 


Methods  Used  in  the  Application  of  Nitrate. 

In  orchards,  gardens  and  comparatively  small  field 
areas,  Nitrate  may  be  conveniently  broadcasted  by 
hand  from  a  pail,  hand-sowing  hopper  or  directly 
from  the  wagon  box  in  which  the  Nitrate  has  been 
brought  to  the  scene  of  operations. 

On  larger  areas  —  no  special  fertilizer  sowing  ma- 
chine being  available  —  the  Nitrate  may  be  rapidly 
and  efficiently  distributed  by  means  of  the  fertilizer- 
sowing  attachment  of  a  modern  grain  drill.  In  this 
way  the  Nitrate  —  alone  or  mixed  with  phosphate,  or 
potash,  or  both  —  should  be  drilled  in  usually  prior  to 
seeding  or  planting.  Subsequent  applications  of 
Nitrate  —  if  required  —  to  the  growing  crops  may  be 
topdressed  by  means  of  the  same  machine  with  disks 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  215 

raised  sufficiently  to  avoid  interference  with  the 
young  growing  plants. 

In  very  light  applications  of  Nitrate  greater  ease 
and  uniformity  in  its  distribution  may  be  attained  by 
first  mixing  it  with  an  approximately  equal  bulk  of 
dry,  loamy  soil. 

The  importance  of  applying  the  Nitrate  early  can- 
not be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

How  to  Use  Nitrate  in  the  Vegetable  Garden. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  full  benefit  from  its  use,  the 
Nitrate  should  be  applied  early  —  preferably  by  scat- 
tering it  broadcast  over  the  surface  soil,  just  before 
planting  —  and  lightly  worked  in  by  rake  or  hoe. 

For  application  around  growing  plants  the  Nitrate 
should,  first  of  all,  be  mixed  with  equal  or  double 
its  bulk  of  dry  loamy  soil.  This  will  permit  its  more 
uniform  distribution  and  prevent  scorching  of  wet 
foliage. 

For  leafy  crops  —  especially  cabbage  and  spinach 
—  further  applications  of  Nitrate  may  be  made  at  in- 
tervals of  a  week  or  ten  days  during  the  early  part  of 
the  season  of  growth,  the  frequency  and  rate  of  appli- 
cation desirable  being  indicated  by  the  appearance  of 
the  crop. 

Rates    of    Application    per   200    Square    Feet. 

For  cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery,  lettuce,  spinach, 
and  Swiss  chard.  Nitrate  may  be  applied  at  planting 
time  at  the  rate  of  1><  pounds  per  200  square  feet, 
with  subsequent  application,  if  and  when  required. 


216  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

For  beets,  carrots,  onions,  parsnips  and  radishes 
a  single  application  of  Nitrate  at  the  rate  oi  V/z 
pounds  will  suffice. 

For  corn  and  tomatoes  apply  one  pound  of  Nitrate 
per  200  square  feet. 

For  citrons,  cucumbers,  squash,  melons,  etc.,  apply 
one  pound  of  Nitrate  at  planting,  followed,  if  re- 
quired, by  occasional  smaller  applications. 

For  beans  and  peas,  one-half  to  three-quarters  of 
a  pound  of  Nitrate  may  be  applied  at  planting  time. 

Weights  and   Measurements. 

1  oz.  per  square  yard  equals  300  lbs.  per  acre. 

1  lb.  per  200  square  feet  equals  220  lbs.  per  acrs. 

2  lbs.  per  sq.  rod  (I614  ft.  x  16^  ft.)  equals  320  lbs.  per  acre. 

If  planted  twelve  (12)  inches  apart,  3  rows  3  feet 
long  would  equal  one  square  yard;  or  10  rows  20  feet 
long  would  equal  200  square  feet;  or  8  rows  34  feet 
long  would  equal  one  square  rod  (16>4  ft.  x  16>^  ft.), 
of  which  there  are  160  in  an  acre. 


Analyses   of   Commercial    Fertil 

izing 

Materials 

. 

£ 

1 

o 

1  1  . 

Phosphoric  acid 

Name  of  substance 

s 

5 
£ 

AvaU- 
able 

Insolu- 
ble 

Total 

I.  Phosphatic  Manures 
Apatite    

36.08 

7.00 
4.60 

35.89 

Bone-black 

28.28 

Bone-black   (dissolved) 

16.70 
8.28 

0.30 
15.22 

17.00 

7.47 

4.12 
6.20 
1.70 
2.60 

23.50 

Bone  meal  (free  from  fats) 

20  10 

29.90 

Bone  meal  (dissolved)               .  . 

13.53 
0.60 

4.07 
27.43 

17.60 

S.  Carolina  rock  (ground)    

S    Carolina  rock  (floats) 

1.50 

28.03 

27.20 

11.60 

3.60 

15.20 

II.  Potash  Manures 
Carnallite 

13.68 
23.80 
13.54 

8.42 
52.46 
45.19 

2.04 
38.60 
23.50 
16.65 
18.00 

5.50 

1.10 

1.12 
1.62 

Cotton-seed  hull  ashes 

7.33 
3.20 
4.82 
2.00 
1.93 
6.31 
1.25 
4.75 
7.25 
2.75 
12.0C 

■l3.09 


'  '2.43 

8.50 

Muriate  of  potash 

Nitrate  of  potash 

Spent  tan-bark  ashes 

1  61 

Sulph.  potash  (high  grade) 

Sulph.  potash  and  magnesia  .... 
Sylvanite 

Waste  from  gunpowder  works.. 

Wood-ashes    (unleached)    

Wood-ashes  (leached) 

1.85 

1.40 

III.  Nitrogenous  Manures 

9.98 

6.80 

12.50 

12.75 

10.17 

7.27 

12.09 

7.40 

1.25 

6.00 

8.54 

1.00 

13.20 

10.61 

9.27 

5.56 
6.66 

10.52 
7.25 

13.25 
4.50 

10.44 
4.04 

15.65 
2.30 

12.12 

20.50 
6.82 
2.29 
5.64 

2.16 

Cotton-seed  meal 

1.45 

Dried  blood 

1.91 

Dried   fish          

0.45 

0.35 

5.20 

8.25 

1.83 

3.52 

Meat   scrap 

2.07 

2.20 

1.70 

Nitre-cake 

0.40 

Oleomargarine  refuse 

0.88 

Sulphate  of  ammonia   

6.44 
1.30 

0.10 
0.40 
23.20 
0.86 
0.70 

5.02 

6.23 

11.25 

Tobacco  stems   

0.60 

0.29 

IV.  Miscellaneous  Materials 

0.10 

Ashes  (bituminous  coal) 

0.40 

Ashes    (lime-kiln)    

Ashes  (peat  and  bog) 

15.45 
5.20 
4.40 

'  0.30 

1.18 

0.50 

Gas   lime 

217 


Analyses  of  Commercial  Fertilizing   Materials  —  Cont. 


Name  of  substance 


Phosphoric  acid 


IV.  Miscellaneous  Materials 
— Cfliitinurd 

Marls  (Maryland)    

Marls   (Massachusetts)    

Marls   (North  Carolina)    

Marls   (Virginia)    

Muck  (fresh)    

Muck    (air-dry)    

Mud  (fresh  water)    

Mud  (from  sea-meadows) 

Peat 

Pine  straw  (dead  leaves  or  pine 

needles)     

Shells    (moUusks)    

Shells  (Crustacea)    

Shell  lime  (oyster  shell)   

Soot     

Spent   tan    

Spent  sumach  

Sugar-house  scum  

Turf     


1.73 
18.18 

1.50 
15.98 
76.20 
21.40 
40.37 
53.50 
61.50 

7.80 


19.50 
5.54 
14.00 
30.80 
50.20 
19.29 


0.30 
1.30 
1.37 
0.20 
0.75 

0.30 
0.10 
6.20 


0.20 
1.00 
2.10 
1.94 


1.2£ 


0.C4 
0.4£ 


0.22 
0.20 


0.10 
0.C4 
0.20 
0.04 
1.83 
0.10 
0.30 


0.38 
1.05 
0.56 
0.09 


0.26 
0.10 


0.20 
0.03 
2.30 
0.20 


0.04 
0.10 


Analyses   of   Farm   Manures. 

Taken  Chiefly  from  Reports  of  the  New  York,  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut   Experiment  Stations. 


Name  of  SubsUnce 

Moisture 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 

Cattle  (solid  fresh  excrement)   . . . 

*  77'.20 
95.90 

'  73.27 

0.29 
0.58 
1.63 
0.44 
1.55 
1.00 
0.60 
0.80 
0.55 
1.95 
0.50 
0.60 
0.43 

0.10 
0.49 
0.85 
0.35 
1.50 
0.25 
0.20 
0.30 
0.15 
2.26 
0.60 
0.13 
0.83 

0.17 

Hen  manure  (fresh)    

1.54 

Horse  (solid  fresh  excrement)    . . 

0.17 

Human  excrement  (solid)   

Human  urine 

1.09 
0.17 

1.40 

Sheep  (solid  fresh  excrement)    . . . 

0.31 
0.01 

Stable  manure  (mixed)     

0.30 

Swine  (solid  fresh  excrement)   . .  . 

0.41 
0.07 

218 


Analyses   of   Fertilizing   Materials   in    Farm    Products. 


Name  of  Substance 


Hay  and  Dry  Coarse  Fodders. 

Blue  melilot   

Buttercups    

Carrot  tops  (dry)   

Clover   (alsike)    

Clover    (Bokhara)    

Clover  (mammoth  red)    

Clover  (medium  red)    

Clover   (white)    

Corn  fodder   

Corn  stover    

Cow-pea  vines   

Daisy  (white)    

Daisy  (ox-eye)    

Hungarian  grass 

Italian  rye-grass  

June  grass    

Lucern   (alfalfa)    

Meadow  fescue   

Meadow  foxtail  

Mixed  grasses   

Orchard  grass   

Perennial  rye-grass   

Red-top   

Rowen   

Salt  hay    

Seradella   

Soja  bean   

Tall  meadow  oat    

Timothy  hay    

Vetch  and  oats   

Yellow  trefoil    


Green  fodders. 

Buckwheat    

Clover    (red)    

Clover   (white)    

Corn  fodder   

Corn  fodder   (ensilage)    .  . 

Cow-pea  vines  

Horse   bean    

Lucern   (alfalfa)    

Meadow  grass  (in  flower) 

Millet    

Oats  (green)    

Peas    

Prickly  comfrey   

Rye  grass   

Seradella    

Sorghum    

Spanish   moss    

Vetch  and  oats   

White  lupine    

Young  grass    


8.22 


9.76 

9.93 

6.36 

11.41 

10.72 


28.24 
9.00 
9.65 

'  7.15 
8.29 

'  6.26 
9.79 

Vl'.26 


Nitrogen 


1.92 
1.02 
3.13 
2.33 
1.77 
2.23 
2.09 
2.75 
1.80 
1.12 
1.64 
0.28 
0.80 
1.16 
1.15 
1.05 
2.07 
0.94 
1.54 
1.37 


8.84 

1.31 

9.13 

1.23 

7.71 

1.15 

12.48 

1.75 

5.36 

1.18 

7.39 

2.70 

6.30 

2.32 

1.16 

7.52 

1.26 

11.98 

1.37 

2,14 

82.60 

0.51 

80.00 

0.53 

81.00 

0.56 

72.64 

0.56 

71.60 

0.36 

78.81 

0.27 

74.71 

0.68 

75.30 

0.72 

70.00 

0.44 

62.58 

0.61 

83.36 

0.49 

81.50 

0.50 

0.42 

70.00 

0.57 

82.59 

0.41 

0.40 

60.80 

0.28 

86.11 

0.24 

85.35 

0.44 

80.00 

0.50 

2.80 
0.81 
4.88 
2.01 
1.67 
1.22 
2.20 
1.81 
0.76 
1.32 
0.91 
1.25 
2.23 
1.28 
0.99 
1.46 
1.46 
2.01 
2.19 
1.54 
1.88 
1.55 
1.02 
1.97 
0.72 
0.65 
1.08 
1.72 
1.53 
0.90 
0.98 


0.43 
0.45 
0.24 
0.62 
0.33 
0.31 
1.37 
0.45 
0.60 
0.41 
0.38 
0.56 
0.75 
0.53 
0.42 
0.32 
0.26 
0.79 
1.73 
1.16 


phoric 
acid 


0.54 
0.41 
0.61 
0.70 
0.44 
0.55 
0.44 
0.52 
0.51 
0.30 
0.53 
0.44 
0.27 
0.35 
0.55 
0.37 
0.53 
0.34 
0.44 
0.35 
0.41 
0.56 
0.36 
0.46 
0.25 
0.78 
0.67 
0.32 
0.46 
0.53 
0.43 


0.11 
0.13 
0.20 
0.28 
0.14 
0.98 
0.33 
0.15 
0.15 
0.19 
0.13 
0.18 
0.11 
0.17 
0.14 
0.08 
0.30 
0.09 
0.35 
0.22 


219 


Analyses  of  Fertilizing  Materials  in  Farm  Prod. —  Cont. 


Name  of  Substance 


Straw,  Chaff,  Leaves,  etc. 

Barley  chaff   

Barley  straw    

Bean   shells    

Beech  leaves  (autumn)   

Buckwheat  straw   

Cabbage  leaves  (air-dried)  .  .  .  . 
Cabbage  stalks  (air-dried)  .  .  .  . 
Carrots  (stalks  and  leaves)   .  .  . 

Corn  cobs   

Corn   hulls    

Hops     

Oak    leaves    

Oat   chaff    

Oat  straw   

Pea    shells    

Pea  straw  (cut  in  bloom)    

Pea  straw   (ripe)    

Potato  stalks  and  leaves   

Rye   straw    

Sugar-beet  stalks  and  leaves  .  . 

Turnip  stalks  and  leaves   

Wheat  chaff  (spring)    

Wheat  chaff  (winter)    

Wheat  straw   (spring)    

Wheat  straw   (winter)    


Roots  and  Tubers. 

Beets    (red)    

Beets   (sugar)    

Beets  (yellow  fodder)   

Carrots     

Mangolds    .' 

Potatoes    

Rutabagas     

Turnips    


Grains  and  Seeds. 

Barley    

Beans     

Buckwheat    

Corn  kernels    

Corn  kernels  and  cobs  (cob  meal) 

Hemp  seed  

Linseed    

Lupines    

Millet   

Oats    

Peas    

Rye     

Soja  beans    

Sorghum    

Wheat    (spring)    

Wheat    (winter)    


13.08 
13.25 
18.50 
15.00 
16.00 
14.60 
16.80 
80.80 
12.09 
11.50 
11.07 
15.00 
14.30 
28.70 
16.65 


77.00 
15.40 
92.65 
89.80 
14.80 
10.56 
15.00 
10.36 


87.73 
84.65 
90.60 
90.02 
87.29 
79.75 
87.82 
87.20 


15.42 


Nitrogen 


14.10 
10.88 
10.00 
12.20 
11.80 
13.80 
13.00 
20.80 
19.10 
14.90 
18.83 
14.00 
14.75 
15.40 


1.01 

0.72 

1.48 

0.80 

1.30 

0.24 

0.18 

0.51 

0.50 

0.23 

2.53 

0.80 

0.64 

0.29 

1.36 

2.29 

1.04 

0.49 

0.24 

0.35 

0.30 

0.91 

1.01 

0.54 

0.82 


0.24 
0.25 
0.19 
0.14 
0.19 
0.21 
0.21 
0.22 


2.06 
4.10 
1.44 
1.82 
1.46 
2.62 
3.20 
5.52 
2.40 
1.75 
4.26 
1.76 
5.30 
1.48 
2.36 
2.83 


0.99 
1.16 
1.38 
0.30 
2.41 
1.71 
3.49 
0.37 
0.60 
0.24 
1.99 
0.15 
1.04 
0.88 
1.38 
2.32 
1.01 
0.07 
0.76 
0.16 
0.24 
0.42 
0.14 
0.44 
0.32 


0.44 
0.29 
0.46 
0.54 
0.38 
0.29 
0.50 
0.41 


0.73 
1.20 
0.21 
0.40 
0.44 
0.97 
1.04 
1.14 
0.47 
0.41 
1.23 
0.54 
1.99 
0.42 
0.61 
0.50 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid 


0.27 

0.15 

0.55 

0.24 

0.61 

0.75 

1.06 

0.21 

0.06 

0.02 

1.75 

0.34 

0.20 

0.11 

0.55 

0.68 

0.35 

0.06 

0.19 

0.07 

0.13 

0.25 

0.19 

0.18 

0.11 


0.09 
0.08 
0.09 
0.10 
0.09 
0.07 
0.13 
0.12 


0.95 
1.16 
0.44 
0.70 
0.60 
1.75 
1.30 
0.87 
0.91 
0.48 
1.26 
0.82 
1.87 
0.81 
0.89 
0.68 


220 


Analyses  of  Fertilizing  Materials  in  Farm  Prod.- —  Cont. 


Name  of  Substance 


Moisture 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

13.52 

2.05 

0.44 

13.43 

1.55 

0.34 

8.93 

1.63 

0.49 

8.85 

3.08 

0.99 

14.20 

1.68 

0.65 

9.83 

2.21 

0.54 

80.50 

0.23 

0.13 

10.63 

0.75 

1.08 

6.52 

1.89 

8.10 

2.62 

0.15 

8.53 

5.43 

0.05 

8.98 

0.98 

0.11 

6.12 

5.40 

1.16 

7.79 

6.02 

1.16 

10.28 

3.67 

1.60 

8.19 

2.25 

0.66 

12.54 

1.84 

0.81 

6.98 

3.05 

1.55 

75.01 

0.89 

0.05 

11.01 

2.88 

1.62 

9.18 

2.63 

0.63 

87.20 

0.58 

0.17 

68.80 

0.58 

0.09 

90.20 

0.58 

0.19 

13.60 

0.12 

90.10 

0.64 

0.09 

38.00 

4.05 

0.29 

39.80 

4.75 

0.29 

46.00 

5.45 

0.20 

77.00 

3.60 

0.52 

66.20 

2.50 

0.24 

59.70 

2.66 

0.17 

52.80 

2.00 

0.90 

59.10 

2.24 

0.15 

0.32 

0.12 

0.30 

0.43 

0.16 

0.24 

0.20 

0.25 



0.27 

0.25 

Phos- 
phoric 
acid 


Flour  and  Meal. 

Corn   meal    

Ground  barley  

Hominy  feed   

Pea    meal    

Rye   flour    

Wheat  flour   

By-products  and  Refuse. 

Apple  pomace    

Cotton  hulls   

Cotton-seed  meal   

Glucose    refuse    

Gluten  meal 

Hop  refuse   

Linseed  cake  (new  process)   

Linseed  cake  (old  process)   

Malt  sprouts    

Oat  bran  

Rye  middlings   

Spent  Brewers'  grains   (dry)  .... 

Spent  brewers'  grains  (wet)   

Wheat  bran    

Wheat  middhngs    

Dairy  Products. 

Milk    

Cream    

Skim-milk   

Butter    

Butter-milk     

Cheese  (from  unskimmed  milk) .  . 
Cheese  (from  half-skimmed  milk) 
Cheese  (from  skimmed  milk)   . .  .  . 

Flesh  of  Farm  Animals. 

Beef    

Calf   (whole  animal)    

Ox     

Pig    

Sheep   

Garden  Products. 

Asparagus     

Cabbage     

Cucumbers    

Lettuce    

Onions     


221 


222 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 


Fertilizer   Experiments   on   Meadow   Land. 

(Kentucky   Agricultural   Experiment   Station,   Bulletin   No.   23, 

February,  1890.) 

On  low  and  decidedly  wet  land : 

English  Blue  Grass. 

Yield  of 

Amount  Hay  in 

Per  Acre  Pounds 

Fertilizer  Used  per  Acre                                                                in  Pounds  Per  Acre 

Sulphate  of  potash    160  3,000 

Muriate  of  potash   160  2,950 

Nitrate   of  soda    160  3,100 

Sulphate  of  ammonia   130  3,600 

No   fertilizer    2,850 

Stable    manure    20  loads  2,970 

Tobacco  stems    4,000  4,700 

Fertilizer   Experiments   on   Meadow   Land. 

Timothy. 

Yield  of 

Amount  Hay  in 

Per  Acre  Pounds 

Kind  of  Fertilizer  Used                                                                     in  Pounds  Per  Acre 

Sulphate  of  potash    160  1,900 

Muriate  of  potash    160  2,320 

Nitrate  of  soda  160  2,670 

Sulphate  of  ammonia   130  2,520 

No   fertilizer    1,620 

Stable   manure    20  loads  2,200 

Tobacco  stems    4,000  3,350 

Time  Required  for  the  Complete  Exhaustion  of  Available 
Fertilizing  Materials  and  the  Amounts  of  Each  Re- 
maining in  the  Soil  During  a  Period  of  Seven  Years. 

(From  Scottish  Estimates.) 
On   Uncultivated   Clay   Loam. 

Exhausted     Per  cent  remaining  in  soil  unex- 
Kind  of  Fertilizer  Used  (in  years)        hausted  at  the  end  of  each  year 

12        3        4        5  6        7 

Lime      12         80     65     55     45     35  25     20 

Bone  metal   5         60     30     20     10     00  00     00 

Phosphatic  guanos    5         50     30     20     10     00  00     00 

Dissolved  bones  and  plain  super- 
phosphates                 4         20     10       5     00     00  00     00 

High  grade  ammoniated  fertilizers, 

guano,    etc 3         30     20     00     00     00  00     00 

Cotton-seed   meal    5         40     30     20     10     00  00     00 

Barnyard  manure    5         60     30     20     10     00  00     00 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

10 

75 

60 

40 

30 

20 

15 

4 

60 

30 

10 

00 

00 

00 

4 

50 

20 

10 

00 

00 

00 

3 

20 

10 

5 

00 

00 

00 

00 

3 

30 

20 

00 

00 

00 

00 

00 

4 

40 

30 

20 

10 

00 

00 

00 

4 

60 

30 

10 

00 

00 

00 

00 

FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  223 


On   Uncultivated    Light    or    Medium   Soils. 

Exhausted     Per  cent  remaining  in  soil  unex- 
Kind  of  Fertilizer  Used  (in  years)        hausted  at  the  end  of  each  year 

Lime      

Bone  meal  

Phosphatic  guano    

Dissolved  bones  and  plain  super- 
phosphates      

High-grade  ammoniates,  guanos. 

Cotton-seed   meal    

Barnyard  manure    


On   Uncultivated    Pasture   Land. 

Exhausted     Per  cent  remaining  in  soil  unex- 
Kind  of  Fertilizer  Used  (in  years)        hausted  at  the  end  of  each  year 

Lime      

Bone    meal    

Phosphatic  guano   

Dissolved  bone,  etc 

High  grade  ammoniated  guanos. 

Cotton-seed   meal    

Barnyard  manure    


The  figures  given  above  are  used  in  fixing  the 
rental  for  new  tenants.  In  this  country  no  such  care- 
ful estimates  have  been  made. 

Amounts  of  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid,  and  Potash 
Found  Profitable  for  Different  Crops  Under  Average 
Conditions  per  Acre. 

(Taken  Chiefly  from  New  Jersey  Experiment   Stations    Reports.) 

Nitrogen 
Pounds 

Wheat,  rye,  oats,  corn   16 

Potatoes  and  root  crops   20 

Clover,  beans,  peas  and  other  leguminous  crops 

Fruit  trees  and  small  fruits    25 

General  garden  produce   30 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

[5 

80 

70 

60 

50 

45 

40 

35 

7 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

00 

6 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

00 

80 

4 

30 

20 

10 

00 

00 

00 

00 

4 

30 

20 

10 

00 

00 

00 

00 

5 

40 

30 

20 

10 

00 

00 

00 

7 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

00 

Phosporic 
Acid 
Pounds 

Potash 
Pounds 

40 

30 

25 

40 

40 

60 

40 

75 

40 

60 

224  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Rotation  in  Crops. 

In  the  changed  conditions  of  agriculture  elaborate 
systems  of  crop  rotation  are  no  longer  necessary. 
With  the  help  of  chemical  fertilizers  and  the  judicious 
use  of  renovating  crops  farmers  are  no  longer  subject 
to  rigid  rule,  but  may  adapt  rotations  to  the  varying 
demands  of  local  market  conditions. 

Some   American   Rotations. 


1.  Potatoes. 

1.  Potatoes. 

2.  Wheat. 

2.  Wheat. 

3.  Clover. 

3.  Grass,  timothy  and  clover. 

4.  Clover. 

4.  Grass,  timothy  and  clover. 

5.  Wheat,  oats  or  rye. 

5.  Corn. 

1.  Roots. 

1.  Roots. 

2.  Wheat. 

2.  Wheat. 

3.  Clover. 

3.  Clover. 

4.  Clover. 

4.  Clover. 

5.  Corn,  oats 

or 

rye. 

5.  Wheat. 

6.  Oats. 

Plan  for  T op-Dressing  Experiments. 


The  above  simple  plan  for  Top-Dressing  Experiments  has  been  in 
satisfactory  use  in  Europe  for  several  years.  The  plots  may  be  of 
any  size  from  a  square  20  feet  x  20  feet,  and  upwards.  The  squares 
marked  O  are  not  fertilized,  and  serve  as  check  plots.  The  Nitrate 
application  recommended  for  a  square  20  feet  x  20  feet  is  one  pound, 
which  is  equivalent  to  one  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre. 


225 


Table  of  Quantities  of  Seed  Required  per  Acre. 

Sow   (if  alone) 
per  Acre 

Agrostis  stolonifera  —  See  Creeping  Bent 2  bushels 

Agrostis  canina  —  See  E.  I.  Bent 3  bushels 

Agrostis  vulgaris —  See  Red  Top 3  bushels 

Agrostis  vulgaris  —  Fancy    20   lbs. 

Alopecurus  pratensis  —  See  Meadow  Foxtail 3  to  4  bushels 

Arrhenatherum  avenaceum  —  See  Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass 4  to  5  bushels 

Avena  elatior  —  See  Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass 3  bushels 

Awnless   Brome    Grass 20  to   25  lbs. 

Alsike  or  Hybrid  Clover 8  lbs. 

Alfalfa   Clover    20  to   25  lbs. 

Artichokes    8  to  10  bushels 

Australian  Salt  Bush 2  lbs. 

Barley Broadcast,  2  to  21/2  bushels;  Drilled,  IVb  to  2  bushels 

Beet    Sugar    6  to   8  lbs. 

Bermuda  Grass     6  lbs. 

Bromus  inermis  —  See  Awnless  Brome   Grass 20  to  25  lbs. 

Bokhara  Clover     10  lbs. 

Broom  Corn   8  to   10  lbs. 

Buckwheat    1  bushel 

Bean,  Field    Drilled,   1  bushel 

Canada  Blue  Grass 3  bushels 

Cynodon  dactylon  —  See  Bermuda  Grass 6  lbs. 

Creeping  Bent  or  Fiorin 2  bushels 

Crested  Dog's  Tail IV2   bushels 

Cynosurus  cristatus  —  See  Crested  Dog's  Tail I1/2   bushels 

Cow  Grass  —  See  Mammoth  Red  Clover 10  to   12  lbs. 

Crimson  or  Carnation  —  See  Scarlet  Clover 14  lbs. 

Corn,   Dent  and  Flint 8  to   10   qts. 

Corn,  Fodder Broadcast,  2  bushels;  Drilled,  1  bushel 

Corn,  Pop 6  to  8  qts. 

Carrots     4  lbs. 

Cotton    15  lbs. 

Dactylisglomerata  —  See   Orchard  Grass 3   bushels 

Douras 8  to  10  lbs. 

English  Blue  Grass  —  See  Meadow  Fescue .' 2V2   bushels 

English  or  Perennial  Rye  Grass 21/2  to  3  bushels 

Festuca   elatior  —  See   Tall  Meadow  Fescue 21/2  bushels 

Festuca  heterophyUa  —  See  Various  Leaved  Fescue 3  bushels 

Festuca  ovina —  See   Sheep's  Fescue 2^/2  bushels 

Festuca  ovina  tenuifolia  —  See  Fine  Leaved  Sheep's  Fescue 3  bushels 

Festuca  pratensis  —  See  Meadow  Fescue 21/2  bushels 

Festuca  rubra —  See  Red  Fescue 21/2  bushels 

Festuca  duriuscula  —  See  Hard  Fescue 21/2  bushels 

Fine  Leaved  Sheep's  Fescue 3  bushels 

Flax  Seed    1/2  to   %   bushel 

Fiorin  —  See  Creeping  Bent 2  bushels 

Grasses,  Permanent  Pasture  Mixtures 3  bushels 

Grasses,  Permanent  Pasture  Clover  for  above 10  lbs. 

226 


FOOD  FOR  PLANTS  227 

Sow  (if  alone) 
per  Acre 

Grasses,  Renovating  Mixture 1  bushel 

Grasses,   Lawn    5  bushels 

Herd's  Grass  (of  the  South)  — See  Red  Top 3  bushels 

Herd's  Grass   (of  the  North)  —  See  Timothy Vi   to   1  bushel 

Hungarian   Grass  —  See  Hungarian  MUlet 1  bushel 

Hard  rescue   21/2   bushels 

ItaUan  Rye  Grass 3  bushels 

June  Grass—  See  Kentucky  Blue 2  to  3  bushels 

June  Clover  —  See  Red  Clover 10  to  12  lbs. 

Japan  Clover 14  ll>s- 

Johnson  Grass 1  l^ushel 

Jerusalem  Corn    ^   J^^^- 

Kaffir  Corn 8  to  10  lbs. 

Kentucky  Blue   Grass 3  bushels 

Lupines    2  to    3  bushels 

Lolium  itaUcum  —  See  Italian  Rye  Grass 3  bushels 

Lolium  perenne  —  See   English   Rye   Grass 2V2   to  3  bushels 

Lucerne —  See  Alfalfa     20  to  25  lbs. 

Lespedeza  striaU  —  See  Japan  Clover 14  l^s- 

Meadow  Foxtail    3  to   4  bushels 

Meadow  Fescue    21/2   bushels 

Mammoth  or  Pea  Vine  Clover 10  to   12  lbs. 

Medicago    sativa  —  See   Alfalfa 20  lbs. 

Millo   Maize  —  See   Douras 8  to   10  lbs. 

MiUet,  German  and  Hungarian 1  bushel 

Millet,  Pearl,  Egyptian,  Cat-Tail  or  Horse  Millet 

Drills,  5  to  6  lbs.;   Broadcast,   8  lbs. 

Millet,  Japanese Drills,  10  lbs.  per  acre;  Broadcast,  15  lbs. 

Mangels    6  to    8  lbs. 

Melilotus  alba  —  See  Bokhara  Clover 10  lbs. 

Onobrychis  sativa  —  See  Sainfoin 3  to  4  bushels 

Orchard  Grass    3  bushels 

Oats 3  bushels 

Parsnips    6    lbs. 

Poa  nemoralis  —  See    Wood   Meadow   Grass 2  bushels 

Poa  pratensis  —  See    Kentucky    Blue 2  to   3  bushels 

Poa  trivialis  —  See  Rough  Stalked  Meadow   Grass 1  Vi  bushels 

Poa  arachnifera  —  See  Texas  Blue  Grass 6  lbs. 

Poa  compressa    3  bushels 

Phleum  pratense  —  See  Timothy Vi  to  1  bushel 

Potatoes 12  to  14  bushels 

Peas,  Field   3  bushels 

Peas,   Cow     2  bushels 

Pea  Vine  Clover  —  See  Mammoth  Clover 10  to  12  lbs. 

Perennial  Red  Clover  —  See  Mammoth   Clover 10  to   12  lbs. 

Rape,    EngUsh 2  to   4  lbs. 

Red   Top 3  bushels 

Red  Top,  Fancy 20  lbs. 

Rhode   Island  Bent 3  bushels 

Red  or  Creeping  Fescue 21/2   bushels 

Rough    Stalked   Meadow    Grass 1 V2   bushels 

Red  Clover   (Common  or  June  Clover) 10  to   12  lbs. 

Reana  luxurians  —  See    Teosinte 6  to  8  lbs. 


228  FOOD  FOR  PLANTS 

Sow  (if  alone) 
per  Acre 

Rye    1  Vi  bushels 

BuUbaga    2    to    3    lbs. 

Sorghum  Halapense  —  See   Johnson   Grass 1  bushel 

Sweet  Vernal  —  true  perennial 3  Vi   bushels 

Sheep's    Fescue 21/2  bushels 

Smooth  Stalked  Meadow  Grass  —  See  Kentucky  Blue 2  to  3  bushels 

Sweet  Clover  —  See   Bokhara   Clover 10  lbs. 

Scarlet    Clover 14  lbs. 

Sainfoin    3  to  4  bushels 

Sorghums    8  to   10  lbs. 

Sugar    Beet 6  to   8  lbs. 

Sugar    Canes 8  to   10  lbs. 

Sunflower    4  qts. 

Swedish    Clover  —  See    Alsike 8  lbs. 

Soja  Bean %  bushel 

Texas  Blue  Grass 6  lbs. 

Tall  Meadow  Oat   Grass 4  to  5  bushels 

Tall  Meadow  Fescue -.2V2   bushels 

Timothy  or  Herd's  Grass  of  the  North V2   to   1   bushel 

Trifolium  pratense  —  See  Red  Clover 10  to   12  lbs. 

Trifolium  pratense  perenne  —  See  Mammoth  Clover 10  to  12  lbs. 

Trifolium  repens  —  See   White   Clover 8  lbs. 

Trifolium   incarnatum  —  See    Scarlet   Clover 14  lbs. 

Trifolium  hybridum  —  See   Alsike    Clover 8  lbs. 

Teosinte     6  to  81/2  lbs. 

Turnips     2  to  3  lbs. 

Turnips,  Rutabaga,   Russian  or   Swedish 2  to  3   lbs. 

Vetch,   Spring   (Tares) 2  bushels 

Vetch,  Sand  or  Winter 1  bushel 

Various  Leaved  Fescue 3  bushels 

Wood  Meadow  Grass 2  bushels 

White  or  Dutch  Clover 8  lbs. 

Wheat    1  Vi  bushels 


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INDEX 

PAGE 

Acre,  How  to  measure  an 210 

Agricultural  commodities  by  the  bushel,  Weight  of . . .  .  213 

Alabama  cotton  prize  experiments,  Report  on 35 

Alfalfa 100 

Alfalfa,  Grades  of 99 

Amount  of  barbed  wire  required  for  fences 189 

Amounts  of  available  fertilizing  materials  remaining  in 

soil    222 

Amounts  of  nitrogen  found  profitable  for  different  crops  223 
Amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  found  profitable  for  differ- 
ent crops 223 

Amounts  of  potash  found  profitable  for  different  crops  223 

Analyses  of  commercial  fertilizing  materials 217 

Analyses  of  farm  manures 218 

Analyses  of  fertilizing  materials  in  farm  products 219 

Appearance  of  nitrate  of  soda 7,  9 

Apple  growing  areas  of  U.  S.  A.  Commercial  (Map) ....  132 

Apple  growing  in  the  United  States 131 

Apple  trees  at  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations, 

Results  of  investigations  on  fertilizing  of 148 

Apple  trees,  Pruning  of 138 

Apple  trees.  Spraying 141 

Apples  and  apple  trees,  Diseases  of 140 

Apples  and  apple  trees.  Insects  infesting 140 

Apples,  Benefits  to  be  secured  by  the  use  of  nitrate  of 

soda  on 142 

Apples,  Climatic  requirements  of 133 

Apples,  Cultivation  of 137 

Apples,  Establishing  the  orchard 135 

Apples,  Fertilization  of 145 

Apples,  Harvesting 144 

Apples,  Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on 146 

Apples,  Productive  orcharding 152 

Apples,  Soil  requirements  of 133 

Apples,  Thinning 139 

Apples,  Varieties  of 144 

Application  of  nitrate,  Methods  used  in  the   214 

Applications  of  nitrate  to  cotton.  Early  versus  late 46 

230 


INDEX  231 


PACE 


Available    fertilizing  materials    remaining   in   the   soil. 

Amounts  of 222 

Available  fertilizing  materials,  Time  required  for  com- 
plete exhaustion  of 222 

Availability  of  nitrogen  from  different  sources,  Twenty 

years'  work  on 171 

Availability  of  nitrogen  in  various  forms,  Comparative     20 

Average  annual  rainfall  in  the  United  States 189 

Avoirdupois  weight 212 

Barbed  wire  required  for  fences,  Amount  of 189 

Barometers,  Farmers' 200 

Benefits  to  be  secured  by  the  use  of  nitrate  of  soda  on 

apples 142 

Blasting  caliche.  Method  of  (Diagram) 9 

Bricks,  Number  required  to  construct  any  building.  .  .  .   203 

Buckwheat    109 

Builders,  Facts  for 202 

Burbank,  What  he  said 129 

Bushel,  Weights  of  agricultural  commodities  by  the.  .  .  .   213 

Business  laws  in  brief 195 

Business  rules  for  farmers 190 

Buy  fertilizing  materials,  How  and  where  to 22 

Calcium   125,  127,  128 

Caliche,  Unrefined  nitrate  of  soda 10 

California,  Soils  and  other  factors  in  relation  to  crop 

production  in 116 

California,  Some  concrete  facts  on  fertilization  in 121 

Capacity  of  cisterns  for  each  10  inches  depth 207 

Carrying  capacity  of  a  freight  car 192 

Catch  crops 24 

Chemical  composition  of  soils 25 

Chemical  properties  of  nitrate  of  soda 9 

Chile,  "Caliche"  or  nitrate  found  in 10 

Chile  saltpetre,  another  name  for  nitrate  of  soda 7 

Cisterns,  Capacity  of  for  each  10  inches  depth 207 

Citrus  growing  in  California 113 

Citrus  in  California,  Formula  for 116 

Citrus  in   California,  Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of 

soda  on 115 

Classification  of  Tobacco 48 

Clay  loam,  Chemical  composition  of 26 

Clay  soil.  Chemical  composition  of 26 

Climatic  requirements  of  apples 133 

Clover 100 

Commercial  apple  growing  areas  of  U.  S.  A.  (Map) 132 


232  INDEX 

PAGE 

Commercial  fertilizing  materials,  Analyses  of 217 

"Complete  Fertilizers"  16 

Composition  of  soils,  Chemical 25 

Concrete  facts  on  fertilization  in  California,  Some 121 

Constituents  in  cotton  crop,  Fertilizer 36 

Content  of  food  for  plants 5 

Content  of  nitrate  of  soda 7,  9 

Contents  of  explored  and  estimated  contents  of  unex- 
plored deposits  of  caliche  (Diagram) 11 

Corn  experiments,  New  York  State 58 

Corn,  Fertilizers  for 53 

Corn,  How  deep  in  the  ground  to  plant 191 

Corn  in  crib.  How  to  measure 194 

Corn,  Sweet   57 

Cost  of  transportation  of  fertilizers 187 

Cotton  and  fiber  plants 34 

Cotton  prize  experiments.  Report  on  Alabama 35 

Cotton,  Purebred  seed  for 42 

Cotton  weevil.  How  fertilizers  beat  the 44 

Cow  peas 100 

Cranberry  soils.  Leaching  of  soluble  fertilizer  salts  from     75 
Crop  production  in  California,  Soils  and  other  factors 

in  relation  to 116 

Crops  take  out  of  the  soil  in  pounds  per  acre,  What 

various 122 

Crop  yields  due  to  the  use  of  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of 

soda.  Increased 162 

Cubic  or  solid  measure 213 

Cultivation  of  apples 137 

Currants 65 

Data  on  yields  of  cotton  experiments  in  Alabama 39 

Deed  to  a  farm  in  many  states  includes.  What  a 204 

Diseases  of  apples  and  apple  trees 140 

Dried  Blood 125 

Dry  measure 212 

Early  versus  late  applications  of  nitrate  to  cotton 46 

Eggs,  How  to  preserve 201 

Elements  in  food  for  plants 5 

Elements  of  plant  food.  Principal 27 

Establishing  the  apple  orchard 135 

Estimating  measures 201 

Exhaustion  of  available  fertilizing  materials.  Time  re- 
quired for  complete 222 

Experiments  at  Corona,  California,  on  oranges 113 

Experiments,  New  York  State  on  corn 58 


INDEX  233 

PACE 

Experiments  on  meadow  land,  Fertilizer 222 

Experiments  on  sugar  cane  in  Porto  Rico 78 

Experiments,  Plan  for  top-dressing 225 

Facts  for  builders 202 

Facts  for  the  weatherwise 199 

Facts  on  fertilization  in  California,  Some  concrete 121 

Farm,  How  to  rent  a 196 

Farm  manures.  Analyses  of 218 

Farm  manure  and  other  products  are  valuable,  Why.  ...  28 

Farm  products.  Analyses  of  fertilizing  materials  in.  .  .  .  219 
Farm  products,  Relation  of  prices  to  prices  of  nitrate  of 

soda 162 

Farmers'  barometers 200 

Farmers,  Business  rules  for 190 

Farmyard  manure  compared  with  nitrate  of  soda 24 

Fences,  Amount  of  barbed  wire  required  for 189 

Ferns,  To  revive 207 

Fertilization  of  apples 145 

Fertilization  in  California,  Some  concrete  facts  on 121 

Fertilization  of  apple  trees  at  State  Agricultural  Exper- 
iment Stations,  Results  of  investigation  on 148 

Fertilizer  constituents  in  cotton  crop 36 

Fertilizer  experiments  on  meadow  land 222 

Fertilizing  materials.  Analyses  of  commercial 217 

Fertilizing  materials  in  farm  products.  Analyses  of 219 

Fertilizing    materials    remaining    in    soil.    Amounts    of 

available 222 

Fertilizing  materials.  Time  required  for  complete  ex- 
haustion of  available 222 

Fibre  plants.  Cotton  and 34 

Fish  meal 126 

Flowers    72 

Food  withdrawn  by  crops.  Plant 161 

Foods  for  stock.  Relative  value  of  different 207 

Formula  for  citrus  in  California 116 

Formula  for  corn 63 

Formula  for  cotton 48 

Formula  for  currants 65 

Formula  for  flowers 74 

Formula  for  golf  links 71 

Formula  for  grapes 68 

Formula  for  lawns 71 

Formula  for  meadows 71 

Formula  for  oats 107 

Formula  for  raspberries 65 


234  INDEX 

PAGE 

Formula  for  rye 109 

Formula  for  strawberries 67 

Formula  for  tobacco 52 

Formula  for  wheat 105 

Freight  car,  Carrying  capacity  of  a 192 

Functions  of  gypsum 128 

Functions  of  nitrate,  of  potash  and  of  phosphoric  acid.  .  31 

Functions  of  nitrogen 125 

Garden  crops.  What  fertilizers  to  use  on 20 

Garden,  How  to  use  nitrate  in  the  vegetable 215 

Golf  links  69 

Golf  links,  Formula  for 71 

Golf  links,  Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on.  . .  .  70 

Gooseberries 65 

Grades  of  alfalfa 99 

Grades  of  hay 97 

Grades  of  straw 99 

Grain  will  shrink,  How 191 

Grapes    67 

Greenhouse  plant  food 68 

Green  manure 123 

Guide,  A  planter's 211 

Gypsum    127 

Gypsum,  Functions  of 128 

Harvesting  apples 144 

Hay,  Grades  of 97 

Hay  in  mow.  How  to  measure 194 

How  deep  in  the  ground  to  plant  corn 191 

How  grain  will  shrink 191 

How  money  crops  feed 27 

How  to  measure  an  acre 210 

How  to  measure  corn  in  crib,  hay  in  mow,  etc 194 

How  to  preserve  eggs 201 

How  to  rent  a  farm 196 

How  to  treat  sunstroke 195 

How  to  use  nitrate  in  the  vegetable  garden 215 

Ice  of  different  thicknesses.  Strength  of 208 

Increased  crop  yields  due  to  the  use  of  100  pounds  of 

nitrate  of  soda 162 

Insects  infesting  apples  and  apple  trees 140 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  apples 146 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  citrus  in  Cali- 
fornia    115 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  corn 63 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  cotton 47 


INDEX  235 

PAGE 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  o£  soda  on  flowers 74 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  golf  links.  ...  70 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  grapes 68 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  lawns 70 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  meadows 70 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  oats 107 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  rye 109 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  tobacco 51 

Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on  wheat 105 

Investigation   on   fertilization   of   apple   trees   at    State 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations,  Results  of 148 

Investigations  relative  to  the  use  of  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izer materials 165 

Land  measure,  Surface,  square  or 212 

Late  applications  of  nitrate  to  cotton.  Early  versus.  ...  46 

Lawns 69 

Laws  in  brief.  Business 195 

Laying  out  plots 211 

Leaching  of  soluble  fertilizer  salts  from  cranberry  soils  75 

Legumes,  Action  of  micro-organisms  with 12 

Length  of  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  River 193 

Length,  Measures  of 212 

Liquid  measure  212 

Loam,  Chemical  composition  of 26 

Manure,  Green 123 

Manures,  Analyses  of  farm 218 

Manures  and  fertilizers,  Quality  of 28 

Meadow  land.  Fertilizer  experiment  on 222 

Measure  an  acre,  How  to 210 

Measure,  Cubic  or  solid 213 

Measure,  Dry 212 

Measure,  Liquid   212 

Measure,  Surface,  square  or  land 212 

Measure,  Surveyor's 208 

Measures,  Estimating  201 

Measures  of  length  213 

Measures,  Tables  of  weights  and 212 

Methods  of  refining  nitrate  of  soda 11 

Methods  used  in  the  application  of  nitrate 214 

Micro-organisms,  Action  of  with  legumes 12 

Mississippi  River,  Length  of  navigation  of  the 193 

Money  crops  feed,  How 27 

Money  doubles  at  interest.  Time  in  which 210 

Money  on  fertilizers.  How  to  save 17 

Money,  Results  of  saving  small  amounts  of 209 


236  INDEX 

PAGE 

Most   important   and   effective   element  o£   plant   food, 

Nitrate  is  the 6 

Natural  plant  food,  Sources  of 33 

Nitrate  in  the  vegetable  garden.  How  to  use 215. 

Nitrate  of  lime   125,  127 

Nitrogen  found  profitable  for  different  crops,  Amount  of  223 
Nitrogen  from  various  sources.  Twenty  years'  work  on 

the  availability  of 171 

Nitrogen    in    agriculture,    our    leading    industry.    The 

position  of   81 

Nitrogen,  Percentage  in  nitrate  of  soda 7 

Nitrogen  recovered  in  crops.  Percentage  of 180 

Nitrogen  withdrawn  per  acre  by  an  average  crop,  Num- 
ber of  pounds  of 161 

Nitrogenous  fertilizer  materials,  Investigation  relative 

to  use  of  165 

Number  of  plants  to  the  acre.  To  find  the 209 

Number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen  withdrawn  per  acre  by 

an  average  crop 161 

Number  of  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  withdrawn  per 

acre  by  an  average  crop 161 

Number  of  pounds  of  potash  withdrawn  per  acre  by  an 

average  crop 161 

Number  of  years  seeds  retain  their  vitality 194 

Oats    105 

Oats,  Formula  for 107 

Oats,  Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on 107 

Occurrence  of  nitrate  of  soda 7 

Oil  in  seeds.  Amount  of 208 

Orange  groves  in  Florida Ill 

Oranges,  Experiments  at  Corona,  California  on 113 

Orchard,  Establishing  the  apple 135 

Orcharding,  Productive  152 

Percentage  of  nitrogen  in  nitrate  of  soda 7 

Percentage  of  nitrogen  recovered  in  crops 180 

Philosophical  facts 197 

Phosphate  rock,  Where  found 6 

Phosphates   16 

Phosphatic  fertilizers.  How  to  apply 22 

Phosphoric    acid    found    profitable    for   different    crops. 

Amount  of   223 

Phosphoric  acid  in  superphosphate  or  acid  phosphate. 

Soluble  content  of 6 

Phosphoric    acid    withdrawn    per    acre   by    an    average 

crop,  Number  of  pounds  of 161 


INDEX  237 

PAGE 

Plan  for  top-dressing  experiments 225 

Plant  food  withdrawn  by  crops 161 

Planters  guide,  A 211 

Plants  to  the  acre.  To  find  the  number  of 209 

Plots,  Laying  out 211 

Poison  ivy.  How  to  kill 205 

Position    of    nitrogen    in    agriculture,    our    leading    in- 
dustry    81 

Potash  found  profitable  in  different  crops.  Amount  of.  .  223 

Potash,  Percentage  in  wood  ashes 6 

Potash  withdrawn  per  acre  by  an  average  crop,  Number 

of  pounds   161 

Predigested  nitrogen.  Nitrate  is 28 

Preserve  eggs.  How  to 201 

Prices  of  farm  products.  Relation  to  prices  of  nitrate  of 

soda 162 

Principal  elements  of  food  for  plants 27 

Productive   Orcharding    152 

Pruning  of  apple  trees 138 

Purebred  seed  for  cotton 42 

Quality  of  manures  and  fertilizers 28 

Quantities  of  seed  required  per  acre 226 

Rainfall  in  the  United  States,  Average  annual 189 

Raspberries 65 

Reference  table  for  vegetable  seed  sowers 229 

Relation  of  prices  of  farm  products  to  prices  of  nitrate 

of  soda 162 

Relative  value  of  different  foods  for  stock 207 

Rent  a  farm.  How  to 196 

Report  on  Alabama  cotton  prize  experiments 35 

Results  obtained  by  scientists.  Summary  of 13 

Results  of  investigation  on  fertilization  of  apple  trees 

at  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations 148 

Results  of  saving  small  amounts  of  money 209 

Rotation  in  crops 224 

Rules  for  farmers,  Business 190 

Rye  107 

Rye,  Formula  for 109 

Rye,  Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on 108 

Sandy  loam,  Chemical  composition  of 25 

Sandy  soils,  Chemical  composition  of 25 

Save  money  on  fertilizers.  How  to 17 

Saving  small  amounts  of  money.  Results  of 209 

Savings  bank  compound  interest  table 209 

Scientists,  Summary  of  results  obtained  by 13 


238  INDEX 

PAGE 

Seed  for  cotton,  Purebred 42 

Seed  required  per  acre,  Quantities  of 226 

Seed  sowers,  Reference  table  for  vegetable 229 

Seeds,  Amount  of  oil  in 208 

Seeds  retain  their  vitality.  Number  of  years 194 

Silage  56 

Small  fruits 64 

Small  fruits,  Fertilizer  for 19 

Soiling 56 

Soil  requirements  of  apples 133 

Soils  and  other  factors  in  relation  to  crop  production  in 

California   116 

Soils,  Chemical  composition  of 25 

Solid  measure,  Cubic  or 213 

Sources  of  natural  plant  food 33 

Sources  of  nitrogen 7 

Sources  of  phosphoric  acid 5 

Sources  of  potash 6 

Spraying  apple  trees 141 

Square  measure 202 

Square  or  land  measure,  Surface 212 

Stable  manure,  Content  of .  20 

Stock,  Relative  value  of  different  foods  for 207 

Strawberries 65 

Straw,  Grades  of 99 

Strength  of  ice  of  different  thicknesses 208 

Sugar  cane  in  Porto  Rico,  Experiments  on 78 

Sugar  cane  in  Porto  Rico,  What  nitrate  did  for  an  acre  of  78 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 125 

Sulphur   125,  128 

Sulphur,  Ground 128 

Sunstroke,  How  to  treat 195 

Surface,  square  or  land  measure 212 

Surveyor's  measure   208 

Sweet  corn  57 

Thinning  apples  139 

Time  in  which  money  doubles  at  interest 210 

Time  required  for  complete  exhaustion  of  available  fer- 
tilizing materials 222 

Tobacco 48 

Tobacco,  Classification  of 48 

Tobacco  at  Kentucky  experiment  station,  Experiment  on  51 

To  find  the  number  of  plants  to  an  acre 209 

Top-dressing  experiments.  Plan  for 225 

Transportation  of  fertilizers,  Cost  of 187 


INDEX  239 

PAGE 


Twenty  years'  work  on  the  availability  of  nitrogen  from 

various  sources   171 

Unexplored    and    explored    nitrate    ground    in     Chile 

(Diagram) 10 

Value  of  different  foods  for  stock,  Relative 207 

Varieties  of  apples 144 

Vegetable  garden,  How  to  use  nitrate  in  the 215 

Vegetable  seed  sowers,  Reference  table  for 229 

Vegetables,  Fertilizers  for 19 

Weevil,  How  fertilizers  beat  the  cotton 44 

Weight,  Avoirdupois    212 

Weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  earth,  stone,  metal,  etc 203 

Weights  of  agricultural  commodities  by  the  bushel 213 

Weights  and  measures,  Tables  of 212 

What  a  deed  to  a  farm  in  many  states  includes 204 

What  nitrate  did  for  an  acre  of  sugar  cane  in  Porto  Rico  78 
What  various  crops  take  out  of  the  soil  in  pounds  per 

acre 122 

Wheat 101 

Wheat  crops,  How  increased  by  nitrate  of  soda 24 

Wheat,  Formula  for 105 

Wheat,  Instructions  for  using  nitrate  of  soda  on 105 

Wood  ashes.  Percentage  of  potash  in 6 

Yields  due  to  the  use  of  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

Increased  crop 162 

Yields  of  cotton  experiments  in  Alabama,  Data  on 39