Full text of "Lettering for draftsmen, engineers and students; a practical system of freehand lettering for working drawings"

'QRTIETH THCU -AND

SYSTEM

REINHARDT.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

ARCHITECTURAL DEPARTMENT LIBRARY

LETTERING

FOR

DRAFTSMEN, ENGINEERS AND STUDENTS

A PRACTICAL SYSTEM
OF FREEHAND LETTERING FOR WORKING DRAWINGS.

CHAS. W. KEINHARDT

(Former Chief Draftsman, Engineering News.)

THIRTEENTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

FORTIETH THOUSAND.

NEW YORK:

D. VAN NO STRAND COMPANY,
1913.

"371

[113

E F^V C

IN looking over the books on lettering, which have come under the writer's notice, he has found, that while
doing full justice to the principle of ornamentation and the theories governing the shaping of each letter, no author
has as yot attempted to treat lettering from a purely practical point of view. The need of a practical work on lettering,
however, has been and is daily experienced by many draftsmen, and in the following pages the writer has endeavored to s
set forth the proper methods of forming purely free-hand lettering in a simple, easily acquired way, giving, at the same
time, the proper safeguards against the errors most commonly committed. The letters exhibited are actual free-hand
work and can readily be copied. In this respect the writer has made a radical departure from works of a similar charac-
ter which generally give ornate, carefully engraved alphabets, being of little more use to the average draftsman than
ordinary printed type, i. e., they can only be copied with a great sacrifice of time and patience. The whole system out-
lined is the result of the writer's experience during years of practice on the staff of a leading technical journal and is in-
tended to be a thoroughly practical guide for doing the best class of work in the shortest possible time.

BBOOKLYN, September, 1895.

CHAS. W. EEINHAEDT.

271359

PREFACE TO TWELFTH EDITION.

The encouraging reception given to former editions of this book has convinced the writer of the practical use-
fulness of the system of lettering which he advocates, and has induced him to add material which tends to enlarge
the scope of the book, making it complete in every respect.

The subject of lettering, as applied to working drawings and the construction of titles, has been taken up
more in detail, and the chapter devoted to lettering for purposes of photo-reproduction will be found interesting and
useful by many readers. Besides the extension of the text some twelve illustrations and four full page plates
have also been added, thus considerably enlarging the work, which, it is hoped, will continue to prove a desirable
hand-book to those wishing to acquire the art of freehand lettering in a simple and rational way.

C. W. B.

INCLINED LETTERING.

TN the following system of lettering no attempt has
been made to imitate any special form of printed
alphabet, and for all ornate and elaborate lettering the
draftsman is referred to some one of the many published
collections of this character. What is here intended is
to illustrate and describe a type of lettering that looks
well upon working drawings ; is reduced to its simplest
form ; one that is rapidly made and is clear and distinct
under almost any reduction by photography. It is, in
fact, especially designed for photo-reproduction. With
the purpose of fairly treating the subject, the lettering
here illustrated has been reproduced without any attempt
at touching up or cleaning; it is actual freehand work,
such as should be used in general practice.

The ordinary slanting and, further on, the upright
lettering are described in a somewhat detailed manner,
as when the draftsman once becomes proficient in form-

ing these two types properly, it will then be a very easy
matter for him to form also the more ornamental letters
satisfactory. The first requisite is to produce sharp,
clean corners and bold lines of uniform strength, and
this is especially necessary in work for photo-reproduc-
tion, as usually such apparently unimportant things as
filled in corners and uneven lines are greatly exaggerated
on the plate. In Fig. i the correct and incorrect ways
of doing this are shown. It will be well at first, for the
purpose of obtaining clean corners, to resort to the

artifice of slightly curving
Incorrect ~* the lines outwards at their

One. Stroke Lettering ends - as exhibited n th

Correct third line of Fig. i. For

One Stroke Lettering very large letters the writer

Fig. 1 finds a " ball-point " pen

(Leonardt's 5 1 6 F.) most satisfactory ; for medium sized

One Stroke Lettering

Inrnrrpfh J

letters, not less than 2 millimeters high, he uses Soen-
necken's No. 108 or 208, and for small sized letters, Gil-
lott's No. 303, or the " Lithographic " pen. Esterbrook's
pens; "Fine Business 97," "Double Spring 126" or
" 127" have also been found serviceable for coarser work.
All of these pens should be "broken- in " somewhat be-
fore being applied to lettering ; they should also be fre-
quently cleaned when using waterproof ink, especially
the "Soennecken" pens. The nibs of the pen should,
while doing this, be worked back and forth gently against
a soft rag, which process will cause the dried up parti-
cles of the ink to drop out from between them.

As to the type of lettering to be employed, the slant-
ing letter is well adapted to descriptive matter, dimensions,
etc., while the upright letter will contrast well with the
former type used as reference letters or sub- captions. A
uniform pressure should be brought to bear upon the
pen a trick only acquired by practice. The pen should
be held pointed forward, as in ordinary writing, and not
sideways, as in " round writing." In lettering on tracing
linen a sheet of black cross-section paper divided to
millimeters, such as given on detached plate (XIII) ac-
companying this book, will be found useful for indicating

the proper spacing, slant, etc. On drawing paper, pen-
cil guide-lines will be indispensable to the beginner.

A slope of i to 2 y z is sufficient for the stems or
down-strokes of the letters, and ordinarily an angle of
45 with the horizontal will suffice for the upstrokes and
the axis of ellipses, excepting that of the letter " o."
The latter angle will have to be increased, of course,
when the lettering is compressed, as shown in Fig. 2.
In lower case letters, like " b" or " p" with part extend-
ing above or below the

wj main body of the letter-

compressea-

Fig. 2.

the length of these parts
I should be about 2-=; the

/ ^

E total height ; the body of
the letter representing 3
parts of the total height-
The exception is the lower case "t" which is one
part less in total height than " b " or " h," for
example. In the illustrations following, the incor-
rect forms of letters, as being constantly observed
by the writer, are shown in brackets, and the
correct method of forming each letter is shown
beneath.

Lower Case Letters.

The letters " n " and " m," Fig. 3, should be made
with almost sharp upper

corners ; '< u " is best j

formed by three strokes, .Lg 1*43 .i?.

., . r MMM MJf

as in this way parallel :

positions are secured for Fig. 3.

the straight lines, which should be made first, and these

can be then joined by a lower curve. In forming the

letter " v," Fig. 4, make the first stroke nearly vertical,

. and the second at an anele of

about 45 with the horizontal.

' g ; * ; The common error in making

: this letter lies in curving the two
Fig. 4 lines and giving the letter the

appearance of a "y." The letter "w" is formed on the
same principle as the " v." In putting in the short hori-
zontal cross-line of the
"t," Fig. 5, great care

should be taken to use

Fig. 5.

very little pressure upon the pen, as otherwise the ink

h h

1 1 \ if-.

i u.

will spread at the intersection of the two lines and make
clean corners impossible. The second part of the
letter " r " should be purely an up-stroke, slightly
curved at its end. In making the letter " f," start with
a curve extending down about one space ; the "f " shown
in brackets would come out with a heavy black knob

at top in any considerable re-
duction. The rule laid down
Fig. 6. for forming the " n" may also

be applied to the letter " h," Fig. 6, and the down-stroke
for the "j " is practically the same as for the " f " revers-
ed. Make bold, oblong dots over the "i " and "j."

The third stroke of the letter " k," Fig. 7, should be
vertical and begin at about the / >. .1.
middle of the second stroke. In
constructing the letter " x," care Fig. 7.

should be taken to have the first stroke either verti-
cal or leaning slightly backwards, and the second stroke
ought to cross the first a little above its centre ; in order
to produce a clean intersection it may be well to make

the latter stroke in two parts. The letter " y,"
Fig. 8, should be drawn on the lines of the " v," and

. from the point of the angle

the tail should be drawn
pi g in exact line with the

upper down-stroke, terminating, if desired, in a slight
curve to the left, to avoid the little blot of ink which
would otherwise form at the bottom of the stroke.
In this letter the second stroke may be modified as
shown. The "z" is best drawn in one stroke, stop-
ping the pen every time before changing direction. The
letter " o," Fig. 9, is produced by two curved strokes,
with their ends sufficiently bent, forming a perfect ellipse,
the axis of which lies in the direction of the down-stroke.
The joining of these two curves, in this and similar let-
ters, can be effected very neatly after a little practice.

The ovals of the following letters should be made
somewhat narrower at the top than at the bottom, for
obvious reasons ; and especial care must be taken to
have the axis of these ovals lie at an angle of 45 with
the horizontal. For the purpose of increasing the width
of the enclosed space at the bottom of the down -stroke
and the oval, the right-hand curve should be somewhat

flatter than the opposite one. For the advantages of

so doing see Fig. 9.
should be at ex-
actly the proper I
angle, rather in- ===
creasing this =
angle at the be-

In these letters the down -stroke

Fig. 9.

ginning, for the learner almost invariably makes the mis-
take of drawing this stroke too slanting. To further guard
against this error, the beginner may slightly curve the
end of the down-stroke towards the left, thus widening
the angle at the bottom of the " a " and " d," and the down-
stroke of the " g " should be made as long as possible in its
straight part by turning very short with the lower left-
hand curve. The letters " p " and "b," Fig. 10, should

be siiaped exactly as in-

' U f

fi-

fn\ rr^h /hi

f U/ IS ffl-l-UJ-

vertecl letters "d" and
" q." With practice
these letters can also
be made to look well by

Fig. 10.
using the oval of the letter " o."

The letter " c," Fig. 1 1 , is formed with one stroke,
care being taken to have its general direction parallel to

the down-stroke. The "e" is commenced in the same
way, and the upper loop is formed by a second stroke

with the axis of the loop

again at an angle of 45.

^ The beginning of the

.if- ^fM f& X D

" s " is a very short curve

F 'g- 11 - from left to right at its

apex ; the rest is carefully joined on, turned down into
a neat ogee curve and finished by a little crook upwards.
The middle part of this letter should be nearly horizontal.
If a very narrow letter is to be produced, it may be
constructed with one stroke and a flatter curve, making
the upper curve somewhat shorter than the lower one.
In the ordinary letter a first separate stroke at the top is

made necessary by the fact, that while turning in a hori-
zontal direction from right to left and then descending
into the ogee curve, the pen will either clog up and not
give the required strength of line at one stroke or other-
wise will in turning detach minute particles of paper or
tracing-cloth saturated with ink and deposit them at the
side of the stroke, necessitating erasures. The method
outlined (employing two strokes) is therefore by far the
simplest and quickest way of producing a clean letter, as
experience will show. It will at first be a somewhat
difficult matter to the beginner to lay the main axis of
this letter parallel with the down-stroke, but this is
nevertheless an essential point and should not be lost
sight of.

Capital Letters.

As in the rule laid down for the lower case letters,
the capital letters will generally be nve spaces high.
Sharply defined clean corners are again necessary, and
to secure this the beginner may find it advantageous to
curve the upper and lower ends of the down -strokes a
little outwards.

The letter "A," Fie. 12, should be made in three
strokes, with the second
almost vertical. The cross-
stroke should be placed low
about the middle of the

A (Hi LL (L. i r~rr~

second space from the bottom.

Fig. 12.
The short

third

stroke of the " E " should be slightly above the center
of the letter, and should not be too short. The two
down-strokes of the letter " H," Fig. 13, should be ex-
actly parallel, and the horizontal stroke should be made
as directed for the third stroke of the " E." If the capi-
tal " I " is to be followed by a lower case ' 1," two short
horizontal strokes of even length and projection may be

added to the top and
bottom. The second

V 1 ^ '- stroke of the letter

Fig. 13. "K" should join the

first at the top of the second space from the bottom, and
the third stroke should join the second nearly one space
higher up. The letter " L" can easily be made with one
stroke, analogous to the forming of the same stroke of
the letter " E."

The "J," Fig. 14, is commenced as a perfectly
straight down-stroke to the top of the lower space; then
it turns to the left in
a gentle curve, tangent
to the base line, and
finally rises to the top

ate strokes, putting in the two parallel lines first; the two
other strokes should join at the top of the first space. If
desired, this letter may be made slightly wider at the
bottom than at the top. The letter " N " is also formed
by drawing the two parallel strokes first. The horizon-
tal stroke of the " T " should be neatly balanced on top
of the down-stroke, and if it is not perfectly straight, as
often is the case, a hardly noticeable crook downwards

, , at both ends will

improve it.

i7 The letters

shown in Fig. 1 5
are to be con-
structed precisely upon the lines laid down for the cor-
responding lower case letters, with the exception that
they should be a trifle narrower in proportion. The " Y"
is formed with two strokes without any lower crook to
the left ; the " Z" is made in one stroke, with the axis
of the letter in
the direction
of the down-
stroke.

Fig. 15.

n / n\ n

M-v

7 Jr 1

of the first space. The " M " is made with four separ- found easier, this

Fig. 6
Z " can be made with three strokes.

With practice the letters "P," "B" and "D"can each
be formed with two strokes, with the curves terminating
as shown. In forming the two curves of the letter " B,"
begin at the top, and after joining the stem, return exactly
on the horizontal while the ink is yet moist and complete
the lower curve. The space enclosed by the lower curve
should be somewhat larger than that in the upper ont.
The curve of the " D " should be parallel with the down-
stroke in its middle third, but it may sometimes be ad-
visable to make the lower part of the " D " a shade wider
- than the upper part. The first and second strokes of the
" R " are identical with the letter " P."

The "C," Fig. 17, is formed with one stroke, nearly
completing the ellipse of the letter " O," though this let-

ter should be proportionately narrower than the lower
case " c." In making the " G," a somewhat wider ellipse
is required, and this letter is most easily made with two
strokes ; the second horizontal stroke should be about

-j one-half of the
I total width of
I the ellipse.
The capital

g. 17.

" O " should be an almost perfect ellipse, special care being
taken in joining the two curves. The third stroke of the
" Q " should begin about the middle of the second space,
and extend one space below the base. The letter " S "
can be formed, for small-sized lettering, in two strokes,
or with an additional stroke, as shown, for larger letters.

Numerals.

/ /

As a rule, numerals should occupy the same height is used in proximity with " I " or " 1," it is well to use a
-]- A=z-?r\ /-f~?\ ~Z /7)~? - as ca pital letters, short up-stroke at the top ; otherwise, it may be repre-
sented by a simple down-stroke. The " 4 " is commenced
with the stroke inclined at an angle of 45, terminating
at the second space from bottom and then turning sharply

or five spaces,
though the use of
fractions may

Fig 18.
slightly modify this rule. When the numeral "i," Fig. 18,

into the horizontal. The down-stroke should intersect

the horizontal in such manner as to leave about 3-5 of the
horizontal to the left of the down-stroke The " 7 " is best
formed with one stroke, the down-stroke being on an
angle of 45. The " 3 " should be drawn in one stroke,
beginning as with the " 7 " to a point a little below the top
of the third space, and then curving into a portion of an
ellipse, with an axial angle of 45. Another type of the

numeral " 3 " is shown, -. o O / O I /"" / Cf=

1-1 i (j C- f- \ ^Lr tl? t<~s /

which can be made in one ==

= ,p > /^^=

stroke also. f- 't~- 3*^

^ /

The (f o " Fig. 19, Fig. 19.

ought to be a perfect ellipse, like the capital " O." The
" 5 " is commenced with the down-stroke, ending in the
ellipse of the " 3 " and the horizontal upper stroke. The
" 2 " can be constructed by one stroke, beginning at the
top of the fourth space, nearly completing an oval with
an axial angle of 45, and then turning shortly into a
down-stroke running into the base line, where a sharp

/.-'.-/*) & /ft] SJ /}) turn ' s ma de in a horizontal

direction. The " 6," Fig. 20,

nO' aij" l ^y>i- i j s commenced like the "o,"

Fig. 20. except that its initial point is

somewhat beyond the axis of the ellipse. For that rea-

son the first stroke is very short, curving to the right ;
the second stroke descends nearly to the base, where a stop
is made, and the pen then returns in the same stroke,
and, gradually turning to the right, nearly completes an
ellipse with an axial angle of 45, joining its lower part
with the bottom of the incomplete second stroke. The
figure " 8 " is commenced with an ogee curve, using a
slight crook at its lower end, and is finished by two other
curves, as shown. The lower loop should always be
somewhat larger than the upper one. The numeral " 9 "
is made in two strokes. The ellipse at the top is nearly
finished in one stroke when the down-stroke is assumed,
which, beginning at the initial point of the ellipse and
completing the latter, terminates with a somewhat fuller
curve then that employed in lower case l 'g."

Though Roman numerals are seldom employed
on working drawings, they may sometimes be re-
quired. The chief requisite is to so form them that
they are neat in ap-
pearance and easily =
distinguished from the Fig. 21.

rest of the text. They should be of the same height
as the Arabic numerals, and short horizontal strokes

should be used with them, as indicated in Fig. 21.
In the modified forms shown in Fig. 22 it will be
noticed that all the letters and numerals are based upon
the general form of the letter " o," modified to suit de-
mands. The second stroke of the _
" r " is really a part of the elemen- flPflt U ==
tary ellipse, as are also the second
stroke of the " n " and the second
and third strokes of the

'm." The

" u " is here made in two strokes
the first, a down-stroke with the curve attached, and the

Fig 22.

second a straight down-stroke, tangent to and touching
the curve.

The numerals follow similar lines of construction.
The " 2 " begins at the upper part in an ellipse and ends
in a down-stroke, laid at an angle of 46, turning sharply
to the right in a horizontal line. The " 3 " is formed
with one stroke, with its lower curve, as also that of the
" 5 " and " 6," encircling somewhat more than half of the
ellipse. In the " 6 " and " 9 " care must be taken to have
the curved down-strokes only tangent to the respective
ellipses, and not cutting off a portion of the latter.

UPRIGHT LETTERING.

Upright lettering is employed most advantageously
for reference letters, designating lines of section, and
for captions. In some instances however, it may be
deemed advisable to use uprights also for such descrip-
tive matter, dimensions, etc., to which some prominence

is to be given, though, as a rule, the slanting lettering
will answer this purpose very well.

The relative height of the letters ought to remain
the same as that of the inclined lettering. The down-
strokes should be perfectly vertical, and in order to pro-

duce this effect properly, it will be best for the beginner
to form the habit of making the letters at first lean over
somewhat to the left at the top, as the natural tendency
would be to have them lean the opposite way. It will
be noticed that in some of the uprights a comparatively
greater number of strokes is required, as many portions of

these letters are being executed in a horizontal direction
or nearly so. The letters are again simplified as much
as possible, a fact which will be especially notice-
able in the lower case "a" and " g," which, though
at variance with the ordinary gothic print, look fully
as well.

Lower Case Letters.

In the letters shown in Fig. 23, the same number
of strokes is employed as in the slanting lettering pre-
viously described. The letters are as a rule made wider
than those of the slanting type. The second stroke of
the " n " and the two last strokes of the letter " m " are
started with a very slight curve in an upward direction
rounding off the corner at the top, making it somewhat
more full than in the corresponding slanting letters.

The letter " u "
V \YI W \W] j s mac i e i n three

^= VV : strokes as usual,
Fig. 23,. connecting the

two down-strokes with a well shaped curve. If preferred,
however, the ordinary form of gothic lower case " u," as

U U

shown, may also be employed. In constructing the
letter " v," the two slanting strokes ought to make the
same angle with the vertical. The beginner will in-
variably construct the second stroke at a greater incline
than the first, and will do well to guard against this
habit, until after some practice the hand wjll become
accustomed to form the point of juncture of the two
strokes equidistant from their starting point. The letter
" w " is composed practically of two somewhat narrowed

v s.

The letter " 1 " (Fig. 24) is sometimes constructed
with a lower crook to the right, when used at the side of
capital letter " I," otherwise it is made as a down -stroke
pure and simple. The second stroke of the " r " starts

from the top of the second space upwards as a very
slight curve, similar to the one forming first part of the
second stroke of letter " n." Letter "f" is best formed
by three strokes ; the first a very short curve to the
right, being joined by the second or main stroke. The

horizontal third
stroke should be

Fig. 24.

made sufficient-
ly prominent.
The letter "j " ought to extend two spaces below the
base line and should be made in one stroke, being
perfectly straight until the point of curve is reached. If
found easier, however, a second right hand stroke, form-
ing the curved portion, may be employed. The latter
should be almost a semicircle and one space high.

The second stroke
of letter " k " (Fig. 25)
should extend down to
nearly the first space.
The third stroke be- F 'g- 2 5'

gins at about the centre of the second one. The letter
" x " is constructed with two strokes, making the first
one apparently more inclined than necessary for reasons

explained above. When the pen is very full, the second
stroke may be made in two parts, as shown, thereby
preventing the forming of a clot of ink at the intersection
of those two strokes. The upper part of letter " y "
forms a perfect " v." The second stroke may either be
executed with a slight angle terminating in a vertical
direction, or in a perfectly straight inclined line, according
to the draftsman's individual taste. Letter " z " is as
usual formed in one stroke ; its starting point should
be vertically above the point of turning into the horizontal.
The ellipses of the letter shown in Fig. 26, are as
usual constructed in two strokes, joining the respective
initial and terminal
points carefully. The

first curve starts in an - *.J(

<(^j+

almost horizontal di-
rection towards the

^'2-

left and terminates similarly at the right, thus prevent-
ing the forming of a point at the top and bottom
junctures. The second (right hand) stroke of the ellipse
ought to be made apparently more curved than necessary,
as that portion is invariably made too flat by the beginner.
The ellipses should be made quite full. The vertical

down-strokes of letters " a," " cl " and " g " ought to run
tangent to their ellipses so that the thickness of the
second curve at the joint of juncture is not increased.
The curved portion or the fourth stroke of letter "g"
extends to the left almost or nearly the full width of the
oval of this letter.

The mode of construction of letters " q," " p " and " b "
(Fig. 27) offers no novel features. If the pen, while
rounding in the lower part
of the curve of letters " p "
and " b," should contain too 3
much ink, the curve may be

completed by a third stroke,

Fig. 27.

running in an opposite direction, as shown, as in turning
into the lower portion of the curve a somewhat greater
pressure is involuntarily brought upon the pen, resulting
if too full, in a badly proportioned lower end.

Letters " c " and " s " (Fig. 28) are started with a short
curve towards the right ; the upper end of letter " c "
should be slightly more curved than the lower one ; still,
the form of the perfect oval should be predominant in this
letter. The letter "e" is constructed in three strokes.
If, as is sometimes the case, the upper part of letters " c "
and " e " should not precisely fill the allotted space, or
otherwise they should appear too narrow, a slight flat-
tening of the lower _

C C. (CA P. P. (P. P^ ^ (*? c.'T
portions of the curve, ^ w ^ v * ^ Q \^-^l oyjop

making those letters *C C S&l 6 Xp 3 =

appear leaning back- Fig. 28

ward ; will help matters and otherwise not at all injure
their appearance, as shown. The completed ovals of
letter " s " should, as in the inclined one, form a perfect
figure "8." If at all uneven, the lower oval should be
made more prominent than the upper one.

Capital Letters.

Upright capitals are, as a rule, 5 spaces high, with the
exception of the " Q," the appendix of which ought to
reach one space below the base line. These letters

should be made narrower in proportion than the cor-
responding lower case letters.

The second stroke of letter "A" (Fig. 29), should

be made rather more inclined than the first one by
the beginner. The first strokes of letters " E " and
" F " must be made perfectly vertical or leaning back-
wards, as even the slightest inclination forward in these
two letters will be painfully noticeable, especially in the
" F." The length of the short third stroke in the " F,"
is generally depending on the shape of the succeeding
. . ,_ . .,. -, -TY- (lower case) letter ;

shorter, if the latter
j/v? t r~_ !i~ h/\ E

T& 3 ? ip? h 3 ;vLi begins with a verti-

Flg. 29. cal stroke, longer,

if an oval or inclined stroke is to follow. We will not
attempt, however, to lay down any definite rule on this
point, as the determining factor in each case should be
the draftsman's eye and good taste. Letter " Z " is
best formed in one stroke, care being taken to make
especially the inclined portion perfectly straight.

The letters comprising Fig. 30 are constructed upon
nearly the same :
principles given in :
the case of the cor-
responding slanting
capital letters. The

Fist. 30.
termination of the last stroke of

letter " K " should in a well formed letter be vertically
below the initial point of the second stroke. The length of
the horizontal portion of the " L" is again, as in the case
of the " F," determined by the succeeding (lower case)
letter. It is obvious, that by unduly lengthening that
portion of the letter, an unproportionally wide space will
result between its vertical part and the succeeding letter.
The curved part of letter "J " (Fig. 31) ought to be a
well shaped semicircle, beginning and ending not above
the middle of the second space. The second and third
strokes of letter "M" converge at the second line, and
this point should, of course, be at an even distance from the
vertical stroke,

To attain this end _

exactly, some;

draftsmen will per- Fig. 31.

haps find it easier to put in the two verticals first and the

oblique strokes afterwards, as in the construction of the

letter " N." The angles in those two letters should be

sharply defined, the strokes forming them ending in a

clearly cut, though somewhat blunt point. The second

horizontal stroke of letter " T " ought to be evenly

balanced upon the main or down-stroke.

The construction of the letters shown in Fig. 32 is
chiefly guided by the principle that the rate of inclina-
tion of the slanting strokes should be uniform in each

In the case of

32.

the "V" and " W"
care should be taken
that only the center
lines of the inclined strokes join at the base or top
lines of the ruling, thus avoiding two extremes, either
the formation of a vertical short end or the reverse, a
flattened-out point. This is made apparent in the
small illustration, Fig. 320. The
first and fourth strokes of letter
" W" ought theoretically to be made
parallel to the second and third; p ig

Incorrect^,

but as the latter two strokes are involuntarily made
more upright than the first one, the fourth stroke should
again be made more slanting to correspond with the first.
The reverse mode of procedure would result in a badly
shaped letter, as shown in brackets. Letter " X " is
usually made in two strokes, or, if preferable, a stop may
be made in the second stroke shortly before crossing the
first, continuing it on the other side, avoiding thus the

forming of a lump of ink at the point of intersection.
The two inclined parts of letter " Y " should join on the
top of the second space ; from there the second stroke
is continued in a vertical direction down to the base line.
Letter " P " (Fig. 33) is constructed in two strokes,
the second one beginning at the top of the first, care-
fully round-

ingthe curve

ni "v? '.r?)3 il"^V" H!^) a \\ \

and joining = =^j>s= *U zJEfen U;

the fi r s t Fig. 33.

stroke again at right angles as a perfectly straight
line. The third stroke of letter "B" begins at the
point of curve of the second, enclosing a slightly
larger area than the second one. The second stroke
of letter " D " should begin and terminate in a hori-
zontal direction. If a slight " sagging " should happen
in the curve, it ought to be near its lower portion.
The rule given for the forming of the second stroke of
letter " B " applies also to letter " R;" its third inclined
stroke begins at the point of curve of the second.
The two vertical strokes of letter " U " are made first ;
a right hand carefully formed semi-circular curve con-
nects the two.

Letter " C" (Fig. 34) is made with two strokes, and is
simply a repetition of the lower case letter, relatively
narrower. The second stroke of letter " G " follows the
outline of the
ellipse

wards near- ^t/^S ,'^, V"Vf [Qf *.QziI

ly a space ; ~ ^^

there a short

stop is made and the pen point is carefully pushed up-
wards in a vertical direction, terminating that stroke as
shown. The final horizontal stroke should not be made
too short. To those who might find it difficult to exe-

cute the second stroke neatly in the way outlined the
suggestion of a separate vertical downward stroke is
made. The mode of construction of the ellipses of the
"O" and "Q" differ somewhat from that of the lower
case letters ; the point of juncture is shifted diagonally in
order to lessen the chance of a point forming at the top
and bottom of the oval. The third stroke of letter
"Q" begins as shown, and extends one space below.
The second stroke of letter " S " should for a very short
space run perfectly horizontal. The rules given for the
forming of the lower case letter otherwise apply to this
letter also.

Numerals.

Upright numerals ought to be like the inclined ones,
five spaces high. Figure " i " may again, if used in
proximity with
capital letter "I"

i = P = -yzif :-" r !/ ""rf^ v< :

or lower case I ^fr / / &<_:'

"1," be con- Fig. 35.

structed with a very short upstroke. Numeral " 4 " is

started with a perfectly straight inclined downstroke, as

shown, whence it assumes a horizontal direction. The rule
given above and illustrated by Fig. 32^ on the forming of
a clear cut angle, applies to the top part of this figure espec-
ially. The lower terminal point of numeral " 7 " should,
in a perfectly formed figure, be vertically below the center
of the horizontal portion. The upper part of numeral "2"
ought to form portion of a flattened oval. The mode of
its construction is clearly shown in the illustration, Fig. 36.

Numeral " 5 " (Fig. 36) begins with a vertical stroke
to nearly the middle of the third space; from there
the stroke follows the outline of the ellipse, which is to
be three spaces high. The middle portion of the second
stroke of numeral "6" ought to follow the vertical
direction a short
distance, as the
general tendency
in constructing this Fig. 36

figure is to have that part too much curved. The third
stroke ought to enclose a perfect ellipse. Numeral " 8 "
is formed in three strokes ; its first a well-shaped ogee
curve, with its middle portion running very nearly
horizontal. The first stroke of numeral " 9 " ought to

be part of a perfect ellipse and comprising as it does,
nearly two-thirds of its -circumference, is somewhat
difficult to construct. The middle portion of the second
stroke should for a short distance, run almost vertical.
The upright -

Roman num- -
erals, Fig. 37, Fig. 37.

are constructed, analogous to the inclined ones, with
upper and lower short horizontal strokes. After explain-
ing the mode of forming of capital letters " V " and " X,"
nothing new can be said concerning these, except that
as a general rule it will be well to make them a trifle
narrower in proportion.

Extended Form of Upright Lettering.

In the following illustration, Fig. 38, the upright letter-
ing is shown in extended form. It will be noticed that
for the construction of some of those letters a compara-
tively greater number of strokes is required. The axes
of the ellipses lie in a horizontal direction in every case,
and it will be well to shape parts of the curves, composing

them, decidedly flat, sometimes going to the extreme to
have the top and bottom parts of the ellipses running
perfectly straight for a certain distance.

The complete alphabets of the slanting and upright
type are shown in Plate I., together with samples of
lettering as used on working drawings. The single

letters, composing a word, should, especially in slanting Sufficient space should be allotted between different
lettering, be placed as close as possible, so close, in fact, words. Of all the theories set forth upon the spacing

Jk. .i

1 1 ia i -n- - 1 1 ,\f - ,-

-x ^T> m

v V

Fig. 38.

that they sometimes nearly touch each other. If this of lettering the writer has found that no one really

principle is followed out at first, the golden middle gov- " works " in practice ; therefore he would advise the

erning the spacing of letters will soon prevail. The draftsman to depend solely upon his eye in determining

beginner generally spaces his letters too far apart. the proper space. The spacing of a word for instance,

should be so arranged that, when the drawing is held at

some distance, or is looked at with half closed eyes,

no unusually large

white space appears

between letters, as

shown for example ONLY STANDARD,

in Fig. 390, Which, (Corrected.)

an actual specimen Fig. 39.

of printed type, demonstrates the fallacy of one of

the theories upon spacing, and should appear corrected
as in Fig. 39^, showing, as it were, a more even tone
of coloring.

In expressing fractions, the accepted custom is to place
a horizontal dash between numerator and denominator,
excepting the instance when numeral " 4 " happen to be
the latter, in which case, for obvious reasons, a slanting
dash is employed. The several lines of lettering compos-
ing a sentence, for instance, should be placed rather close.

Freehand Lettering applied to Working Drawings.

Lettering as applied to working drawings, should be side, and a dotted reference line with arrow head point-
bold, clear and uniform in size, with
the exception of the sub-captions, which
may be a trifle larger. Diminutive and t .35/|>|"
cramped lettering on a drawing will 15;
If possible, the letter-

never look well,
ing should be kept distinctly by itself and
never be allowed to run across line?.
If some words can not be put on the ob-
ject itself, which they are intended to des-
cribe, they should be boldly placed out-

Ends.

ing to the subject attached, as shown especially in Figs. dimension lines, and an appropriate space left

40, 41 and 42. The lettering
read from the base
and right hand side
of the sheet, that
is to say, lettering
running at an angle
of 90 to the base
line should be made
to read from the
right hand side, if
at a greater angle,
its base should be
reversed in such a
way that it can be
read from the lower
left hand corner; if
the angle be small-
er, one should then
be enabled to read
it from the lower

should be placed so as to while drawing those.

rT.!fo"i

Details of Long Raising Girder
and Truss Connection.

Fig. 41.

open

If the space allotted for a dimen-
sion is too small
to place the same
comfortably be-
tween arrow heads,

Dislriliuling Girder, eKlvsiw , i r i 11

the figures should
be written outside,
parallel to dimen-
sion line, and refer-
ence line used.
Arrow heads
should be bold,
with even sides,
the two strokes
composing them
tapering in thick-
ness from the point;
" lop sided " ones
should be avoided.
The length o f

\i ] ^^

^ I

o :; 3

F/oorTrvtafff\.
WutfKISLii't

1 N*S

TsflBott^f-i^S.

Amwf>^
^

f. , n

-K

,7T
Xiru

i_ .y.

Cross Section,

right hand corner, as Fig. 44 demonstrates. the arrow heads depends upon the size of the dimension

Dimensions should be placed between, not on top of numerals, which are to go between them ; at any rate,

the numerals themselves should stand out free and not
touch the former. Where the space does not permit
this, the reversed arrow heads may be. used, so as to
leave a clear space between them, as shown, for instance,
at left of Fig. 40, in second row of dimensions from be-
low. In the same figure the relative size of upright

an inset sheet in "Engineering News'" and yet shows
the lettering of the strain-sheet legible, sharp and clean
cut, even under a magnifying glass. The pin points, as
shown, are also made prominent by using upright refer-
ence letters. Similar prominence may be given, for in-
stance, to portions of a building, as shown in Plate XI

a*r S "'* "'* ^ P! ' M S'

V * fr . ^^^^^JH^B^^^^^H

**!*. E i22'iok"overall(B<xktvB<KkofEnal5Hff.L s .)

Fig. 42.

lettering, as used for captions and sub-captions is shown.
In Fig. 44 and on Plate III, upright lettering is also em-
ployed to denote the strains for the respective members,
in order to have same appear distinctly different from
ordinary dimensions or descriptive matter. This plate
has been considerably reduced in size from a drawing for

on plan of station building. Notes referring to draw-
ings should run parallel to base of sheet and be used as
" fillers."

In Fig. 43 and Plate II, lettering as used on sketch
maps is shown. Here four distinctive styles, composed
of the two alphabets above described, are employed.

The writer recommends, in such a case, to have the

physical features of a map, such as creeks, rivers, lakes,

mountains, bays, inlets, denoted by " all cap " slanting

letters ; proposed engineering works in " caps and lower

case " of the same type ; villages, railway lines, stations

in " cap and lower

case " upright let-

tering ; finally,

counties, townships

or cities in " all

caps," upright.

These rules are

all, of course, sub-

ject to more or less

modification, as oc-

casionally contour

lines, soundings,

etc., may also be designated in small upright numerals.

Plate II illustrates the above said very well. Letters

relating to rivers and railway lines should be placed

parallel to those objects. Otherwise, lettering in straight

lines is resorted to. If this should, however, be imprac-

ticable, lettering in neat curves is used.

Profiles of railway lines, etc., may be treated in a sim-
ilar manner ; the margin figures denoting vertical and
horizontal scales, should, however, be placed in uprights
and be written outside, not upon the lines of the scale.
The use cf the four distinct types of lettering will at

once allow an easier
reading of the pro-
file. A good ex-
ample of this kind
is given in Fig. ^5.
The arrange-
ment of margin
figures here will
permit the approx-
imate elevation of
any desired point
easily to be ascer-
tained by laying a rule across the vertical scales, its
upper edge touching the point in question. In Fig.
46, the general style of lettering a diagram is shown.
The margin figures again are uprights, set opposite, not
upon the lines, which they are to designate. The letter-
ing of the curves, being of a descriptive character, is

done in the slanting type. Since this lettering has to run
across the ordinates and abscissae of the diagram, great
care has to be exercised to keep same open and clear,
especially avoiding filled in corners.

Examples of simple and also slightly more elaborate
meridians and scales are given on Plate XII. All of the
former are easy to construct and will look neat on any

well finished map. The lower two scales are best
adapted for map work, although the upper one, in-
tended for ordinary working drawings, can also very
well be used for that purpose. In constructing the
simpler type of scales it is advisable to employ four
different heights of graduation lines, a method which
will materially increase its clearness.

VARIOUS FREEHAND ALPHABETS.

The principles of construction of the shaded inclined
(Italic) lettering, shown on Plate IV, which is occasion-
ally used on working drawings and maps, are practically
the same as given for the ordinary (Gothic) slanting let-
tering. The relative height of letters and inclination
of down-stroke remain unchanged. A fairly fine point-
ed rather flexible pen should be used, such as Gillott's
No. 303 or No. 290 (Gillott's lithographic pen). The
lower case letters are very much like common English
shaded script. The shading is produced by an even
pressure exerted upon the pen, which in turning into
curves, is gradually released at the proper moment. In
shading letters " S " and numerals " 2," " 7 " and " 8 "

the pen has to outline and shade the curves at the same
time, necessitating a slight turning motion of the holder,
to the beginner a somewhat delicate operation at first.
It will be noticed, that every second row in the upper
portion of this plate is devoted to demonstrating the
proper method of forming each letter and the sequence
of strokes. Italic lettering, in order to look well, re-
quires a considerably wider spacing than the ordinary
slanting lettering, the hair line upstrokes in most of the
lower case letters adding to their width. After all that
has been said about slanting lettering in general, no
trouble will be experienced in constructing these letters
satisfactorily.

When reduced considerably, Italic lettering, as a rule,
does not show up so well as the same size of the slanting
Gothic type described before, the light lines in that case
dropping out, thus leaving only the shaded portions vis-
ible.

The type of lettering shown in lower part of Plate IV,
is in fact only a modification of the ordinary upright

shown on Plate V. As is known to every draftsman, a
lump of ink is apt to form at the end of a straight stroke,

Oiasef

520 "0"

Half Side Elevation .
Fig. 44.

freehand lettering, and used as a part of title looks very when the pen is fairly full. This propensity of the ink
well when used with the black faced Gothic lettering, is made use of in constructing this type of lettering and

the flow of ink thus diverted. The relative number of
strokes remains the same, as with the ordinary upright
style. A few modifications are introduced in the shape

+JOO-J
+150-
+100'-
+50-

-lOO'-i

-ax>-

-2SK

-300'^

/Bulls Ferry Rood

Rxkor Boulder'*,

..., EI.-IS}.--'
KtxkorKaalcler

of which have been exhaustively explained in the fore-
going, will experience no trouble whatever in sketching
these letters in good shape. As shown, the relative
height of lower case and capital letters
remains unchanged ; the width of the
stem of the capital maybe taken as 4-5,
in some cases 7-8, that of the lower
case letters as 3-5 the width of a square.

'ft

-*!00

. NEW YORK, i -*I50'
I -*IOO'

--100'
ISO'
-200'
--Z50 1
-300'

1000'

Fig. 45.

of lower case " a " and " g." This lettering is best pro-
duced with a ball point pen, insuring a stroke of almost
uniform strength. As a precaution, it may be said that
the pen should never be too full while making this type
of lettering.

Plates V to VII inclusive, contain Freehand Letter-
ing suitable for main titles, which may easily be con-
structed by dividing the space to be lettered into squares
and sketching in the letters in outline afterwards, as
shown ; on tracing linen, cross-section paper may of
course be used for this purpose. A draftsman able to
satisfactorily construct the upright lettering, the principles

Doll.

6000' 7000'

On Plate V sug-
gestions are
made as to sev-
eral methods of
shading these
letters, although,
as a rule, they
look very well
without it.
When this kind
of lettering is de-
sired to be of medium or small size, it can neatly and

e s

cJ o: "Z.

Dollars

.,'

J ?BO

'-'

- -bO.

-""

" -M

;

'-.

1880. 1895.

Metal Prices 1879, I860 and 1895.

Fig. 46.

expeditiously be constructed in the way shown by Fig.
470 : Throw in the stems of the letters with a broad
nibbed pen, insuring a bold

stroke analogous to ordinary WAY IN L,

Gothic upright lettering, with TXTR-V./'XTT-'

< Spurred bat,k.) \A/AYNr

the exception of the horizontal X/T.I i it-

strokes, which, together with (Plain 6otf ,/^ \/\^YN E

the tops and bottoms of the

Fig. 47a.
letters, rule in, and fill in the

corners freehand, as shown enlarged in 47*5. As is well
known, short freehand strokes are somewhat difficult to
draw horizontally, therefore this method is certainly pre-
ferable to that of turning the paper, so as to permit the
draftsman to draw these strokes in the direction towards
him. If, as the case may be, the draftsman should desire
more ornamental letters, he will be able, by the aid of
his eye, and the exercise of some originality, to devolve
the letters desired out of the types given. It should,
however, be borne in mind, that a title, composed of
highly ornamented letters, does not atone for any poorly

drawn and lettered sheet to which it may be attached,

but on the other hand, a simple

W*^ ~Y ~T"
\\
V V

several lines composing it, centered,

will make an ample heading for any well executed draw-
ing, and conform in style with the subject represented.
The draftsman is occasionally called upon to employ the

Greek Alphabet

in his work. There seems to be a lack of uniformity in
the construction and shaping of these letters, so that at
times the "alpha" cannot be distinguished from lower
case "a," or the "gamma" from the "y," etc. Therefore
a plate (VIII) representing the principles of construc-
tion, of the slanting Greek letters, analogous to the
Italian Script, shown upon a preceding plate, has been
added. Remember, these letters are all shaded charac-
ters and must therefore be drawn with a flexible, well
pointed pen.

LETTERING OF TITLES.

On Plates IX and X and the accompanying text
figures, reduced specimens of freehand titles are given,

..as".

Bridge 720 B/g /fun, Evansi////e, Arizona.

M. K. and 77/?y. M/DDLED/V.
3 Spans, 5/ng/e Track, Throt/yh '7S-o'c.c.F/7c/P/ns.

TOP CHORDS />ND END POSTS.

Sco/e,

AMERICAN BRIDGE CO.,

A.B.CO. Contr. No
Mtdeby.kZ^T.

EDGEMOOR PLANT.

In Charge

v Ink Border

ORDER No..>2.3a .'JBHEET NQ.../.2.

V Gist e/ua Print onftij //at

Fig. 48.

and pains have been taken to present, as much as pos-
sible, different types of easily formed and fairly well bal-

anced titles, such as could be selected during the daily
routine work in the drafting office of a technical journal.
These samples, as given here, represent reductions
from originals which range in size from one-half to
nearly one-fifth linear measure.

These specimens exhibited on those two plates
show more or less clearly, that the prominence which
is to be given to different portions of a title, depends
upon the relative importance of the lines. The
draftsman is generally given considerable latitude in
regard to this matter. The title given under Fig.
4g is one of the standard arrangements of the con-
cern named and shows good points. The lower part,
as noticed, is stamped on the drawing, and the
blanks are subsequently filled in by hand.

A style of title seldom used nowadays is that
shown in Fig. 49. The letters are arranged in

curved lines and an ornamental, flourished effect is
sought after. Where such is desirable, the general
scheme is a fairly satisfactory one. -

A few words in regards to centering of titles may here
be added. A title should in nearly all cases, be arranged
systemetically about a vertical center line. After the
location of this line and the height and spacing of the
different lines of letters have been determined, the spaces
equal to the width of the letters can be marked off with
pencil on the edge of a strip of paper and the center of
a strip placed on the vertical center line of the title, with

OUtl et Sewer

All" INDEX TO MAP

IN SHEETS ATTACHED

Fig, 49.

its edge just below the line of letters to be sketched.
The letters can then be penciled in very readily.

A space between words counts as a letter in spacing,
therefore, a line containing three words of 7, 3 and 6
letters represents 18 divisions, so that 9 divisions, or the
first word, one space and one letter of the second word
are to come to the left of the center line, and the re-

mainder of the line to the right. If, after all, the spacing
of a line of letters needs re-adjustment after the letters
are penciled in, the draftsman may easily rectify the
matter by going over that line again, working first to the
left and then to the right of center.

In Fig. 50, an actual fac-simile of a title once met with
is exhibited. It explains in short how not to do it, and
shows the drafts-
man's lack of prac-
tice in freehand
work, while rely-
ing solely upon his
skill with bow pen
and ruling pen.
The writer would
not consider this

END

ECTTIONAIL VGEW

EUREKA DRIER

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

Fig. 50,

work complete without giving passing notice to

Round Writing,

the principles of which are shown on Plate XI. For the
production of this kind of lettering regular round writ-
ing pens are used, although very satisfactory lettering of
this type can be produced with goose-quills cut by the
draftsman, and the writer even yet prefers the latter.

LETTERING FOR PHOTO-REPRODUCTION.

The lettering and drawing for reduction purposes may
be made on any quality of drawing paper, tracing linen
or paper. Yellowish tinted papers however, will as a
rule, not give as good results as the pure white or blue-
ish ones. In order to insure good, unbroken lines on
tracing cloth the writer would recommend the thorough
rubbing of the surface with purnice powder. The other
materials mentioned, of course, require no special prepa-
ration. Erasures on tracing cloth are also best made
with the same agent ; the powder is sprinkled upon the
part to be erased, and a little brisk rubbing with the end
of the finger or a hard rubber, while replacing the dis-
colored pumice with fresh powder, will thoroughly clean
the effected surface, which may be lettered over again
without danger of the ink spreading. Where, however,
erasures have otherwise been made, Chinese white may
be applied with a soft brush over the discolored parts.
Letters and lines must be made perfectly black ; if very
fine lines are used on a drawing, they will still reproduce

at considerable reduction, provided each is formed by a
solid ridge of ink.

A good standard to adopt for lettering for reproduc-
tion is to have the smaller lower case letters, such as
" a," " e," etc., reduce to not less than one millimeter
(slightly more than -sV in.) in height ; therefore, if a
drawing is to be reduced three-fourths, (i. e., to one-
fourth its original length) make those letters 4 times

Freehand Lettering

Fig. 51a.

ORIGINAL FOR THKEE-FOUETIIS REDUCTIONS.

ters (about
A in.) high
with the
strength of
body in pro-
portion ; the height of the capitals and numerals must be
in accordance. A drawing to be reduced to one half
size (one-half its length) has to contain lettering just
twice the standard given above. The lettering on draw-

ings to be reduced to a size about halfways between
three -fourths and two- thirds reduction, should be made

Freehand Lettering- 2 * millimeters ( aboilt * in.)

high, minimum size. All
the foregoing is sufficiently
made clear by the illustra-

Fig. 51&.

OEIGINAL FOR REPRODUCTION BETWEEN
ONE-HALF AXt> TWO-THIRDS.

tions, Fig. 5 1 a, b and c.

The two illustrations shown on Plate XII (details o
rail-joint and section of reservoir) have been reproduced
from originals five and

"&'
r \o

CAST

four times their re-
spective sizes. Al-
though the draftsman
is supposed to know
the exact rate of re-
duction, the directions
to the engravers are
better given in inches
or fractions thereof,
placed in pencil un- Fig. 52a.

clerneath ; they are for our puposes reproduced on Fig.
5ia and b, but would, of course, not be reproduced by
the engraver ordinarily.

Freehand Lettering-

Fig. 51c.

BEFIiODUTICS FROM

EITHEB OF THE
ABOVE ORIGINALS.

reduction is
one-third its
condensed
on drawings

A drawing should never be reduced at a lesser rate
than to three-fifths of its original length. What may be
called a good average
the two-thirds (i. e., to
length.) When the
type of lettering is used
ior reduction purposes a proper safeguard to adopt is to
exaggerate somewhat the width of ovals or small loops,
such as for instance of the letter " e," to guard against
the " filling in " of
those parts. A close
study of the three
types of lettering
given on Fig. i of
this work, which tend
to illustrate the same
principle, will also be
useful. The reason
for giving a limit of
reduction (i. e., one

Nate:- 77w Top af~Cap tvitt
bt sh'ghtfy oval, and rhiCttj-
tral squart, triangle, and
circle will ot raised about
ering.

Section of
Cost Iron Cap.

Fig. 526.

millimeter height for smaller lower case letters) and the
employment of gothic letters of uniform strength, is
made evident by referring to the illustrations, Fig. 52a,

which presents an example of engraving, such as is
sometimes indulged in, and Fig. 5 26, redrawn and
reduced to some scale.

The strength of the lines of a drawing to be repro-
duced depends of course altogether upon the rate of re-
duction. For larger reductions it will be quite essential
to show as much of a white space between lines as possi-
ble, for instance such as designates the thickness of flange
of an I-beam in elevation. The work should in all cases
be clear and open, and this detail, immaterial as it may
appear, not be overlooked.

The processes of photo-reproduction ordinarily em-

ployed are the photo- lithographic and zinc etching pro-
cess. Both require a similar grade of preparation of the
drawing. The writer uses on such drawing the water-
proof ink, which is perhaps blacker than the ordinary
kind and possesses more body, Any kind of black
drawing ink, however, is suitable for the purpose ; well
rubbed stick India ink will permit of very fine black
lines. The main objection to the use of ordinary inks,
however, is their liability of blurring, when handled,
or the ink mixing with the Chinese white, render-
ing the application of the color sometimes very
difficult.

abcdefqhijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.; I 23456789 10. 1894.
ABCDEFOHIJKLMNOPQR5TUVWXYZ. Ordinary Type.
III1YVWW WJKI. Details of Cross Framing. CROSS SECTION OF OIRDER.
Extended Lettering. LONGITUDINAL SECTION. &.

Compressed Type. INTERSTATE BRIDbE. 5/^A^#'2fe^

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ABODE FOHIJ K LM N OPQ RSTUVWXYZ. IIINVVIVIIWKX..
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Compressed. I, ie"C,-lbs.peryd. NEW YORK CENTRAL. 2V 5'7|', l"Bolt ; Outer Elevation. &

Material for Reenforcinq Bottom Chord : Material for 1 Chord Section : The samples of Letter,^ on Lower
IReenf.PI. 24"* "* 6 ft" OUTS above Chord ' ^ Wa ^ p/s ^-" y -" y ?/r//7 " Portion of MS piateshowappwimM

I '' ,72^4 *8'0" next to Web.

,72"* I"

Outs. St/ffeners,frL s ,4"x5"x%'x3'IOl
'' 3

Fillers;
Diaphragm5(lnsj,l> 'PI* % "thick.

ZWebPI;

2. " " Ifri" >( iz"x25'0" Crowding in Fraction Numerals.

5 ofunes and also Mode of

" l" r '/i " It will also beseen that it becomes

l 77 " & n "

, .)/ *2 x v V necessary to occasionally shorten a

? v if PI 5 ll-'y-L'^l'in 1 " Capital or longer Lower Case Letter.

., c ; "?*2 , Occasional Brackets orHorizontal

4 Batten Pff. 15*1 *2 1 D "shes are best made Free Hand,

/i iS j" 7 /" 5" o/-'/i" the latter with a slow, "wobbling"

4L, 4 *3$ *j x 250 Stroke of the Pen.

PLATE I.

Island

Parts of System not yet begun- '.

ton factSectiQnsvre indicated by Upright Letters and Fiqwts

PLATE

Highest Point gf_R0fff_

*i I'fl, _ _ . -^ %ftf Point of Root
'

^* Vertical Section
at fbirrt-31,

Enlarged.

Detail Showing

Elevation of Girders and Bracing

at Center of Trusses.

Connections of Fbnel Points 28-3],

Section on LineA-B,
Showing Connection of ISXhannels
to Strut 5-8.

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Freehand ' '/ ' Printing

Shaded Inclined (Italic) Lettering, Used for Working Drawings.

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ABCDEFG HIJKLMNOPQKSTUVWXYZ

. , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10.

Freehand Lettering for Captions, Produced very Fast.

- THROUGH PASSENGER SERVICED etc.

PLATE IV

PLATE V

PLATE VI.

PLATE VII

o Jt

v (j)

ABFAEZH 61 KAMJVZOTTP Z T Y$ X <P ft

jf^M $ fj&

GREEK ALPHABET.

(SCRIPT)

Application dg

of
Alphabet.

-6%

Posi"hi on o. Stream O

PLATE VIII.

Suspended Car Tycms^er
5V\\p CarvaX -

Appsira-t-us for the.
Aeration of Water.

C . K ,?.Turv\er

June I4-J9OO.

scale ii='-

WiHiam Wheeler,

Consulting Engineer,

NORTH GERMAN LLOYD,

PLANS FOR

PROPOSED PI ER N? 3,

( 9O FT WIDE.)

HOBOKEN, N.J.

OCT. 1900.

W.f\W. ..OV/I Engineer.

Hoboken, New Jersey.

Commonwealth of Massachusetts.

Metropolitan Water Works.

STANDARD DETAILS
LIFTERS FOR SCREENS

- AND -**

STOP- PLANKS.

Full Size

JZP&INGEMENT Of

INSIDE <SHOP//VO

U.S. S. OREGON.

TESTING STATION

OF THE

'COLUMBIAN fIREPROOFING CO;

BOSTON, MASS.

PLATE IX.

COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.

METROPOLITAN WATER WORKS.

WACHUSETT DAM,

GENERAL PLAN OF DAM
AND APPURTENANCES.

New York 8c Brooklyn Bridqe

Present. Details of Bottom Connections-

Suspenders 6>c Stays.

ROUND CORNER DETAILS.

SC/JLE /2 INCH-=IFT.

These details fbr<5.E.Corner-Similar construction at N.E.comer.

ffoowf Oov/vrr /f Y.

G&nero/ E/erof/on, Cross -S&c-hons
sco/e *'/*'=/&.

Office.
Chi'coffo

Cfy/coyo. 0ec.30*99.

Scale >^in.to I ft.

Sept. I9OI.

Approved

PITTSBURGH, PA.

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS
BUREAU OF FILTRATION

CONTRACT NO. I
FILTERS.BASINS AND APPURTENANCES

INTERIOR DRAINS
DETAIL PLAN OF ONE FILTER

PLATE X.

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. 12/3456789 10^ So.

Setter

AVI/

1S92/.

PLATE XI.

O 1 10' 20' 30'

Baggage Room
H finish M
,- floor

6 12

..... i ..... I

10' 0' 30' 40' 50' 60'

10' 20' 30' 40' 50' 60*

Plan of Joint.

O' 10' 20' 30' 40' 50'

Meridians.

- PLATE XII.

- ;

-::. t::

PLATE XIII.
Cross Section, Millimeters.

STANDARD TEXTS FOR DRAFTSMEN

PUBLISHED BY

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 25 Park Place, New York

A PRACTICAL COURSE IN

MECHANICAL DRAWING

By \\ I I.I.I V <l FOX, i. E.

Assistant Professor of Applied Mathematics,
College of the City of New York, and

CHARLES W. I no <| \s. OT. E.

Instructor in Descriptive Geometry and Drawing,
College of the City of New York

The object of this work is to provide
a simple, practical course of progressive
lessons in Mechanical Drawing. It will
be noticed that all instructions are given
in connection with a special, concrete
exercise.

No practical draughtsman will criti-
cise us for not starting with the tradi-
tional geometric problems. We have
reason to believe that the average
student does not appreciate these sub-
jects if introduced before their bearing
and practical application are understood.

Contents : USE OF INSTRUMENTS,
DIMENSION LINES, DRAWING TO SCALE,
CENTER LINES, DIVIDERS, BOWPEN,
SECTIONS, SHADING, LETTERING, SCREWS,
COG-WHEELS, READING OF DRAWINGS,
MISCELLANEOUS.

THkKI) EDITION REVISED
98 Pages, S'OJT* 87 Illustrations

Price. $1.25 Net

PART I NOW READY

7O Pages, 6x9 Illustrated

MACHINE DRAFTING AND
EMPIRICAL DESIGN

A Text Book for Students in Engineering

Schools, and others who are Beginning

the Study of Drawing as Applied

to Machine Design

WALTER KXiriNVIKMIH

Adj. Prefessor Columbia University

AND
JOHN T. \\ 1 1. 1,1 % l>

Instructor Cornell University
Complete in Two Parts

Parti. BEGINNING DRAFTING,
SKETCHING.ETC. The aim of the first part
is to not only give the student practice in the
making of good line drawings, intersections,
the principles of construction, etc., but by a
proper selection of practical examples to im-
part to him information of a practical nature,
such as every designer should know. A defi-
nite system of standards is arranged with a
view to its being followed throughout the
course.
ii "" "'* """" Ml

Part II. EMPIRICAL DESIGN The
second part is intended to give the student an
idea of proportion. Numerous tables of pro-
portions of parts that have become standard,
formulas, etc., are provided as well as many
problems from which a course of study may
be arranged. It is arranged to thoroughly
train the student to take up "Advance
Machine Design."

Price, each, $1.25 Net

MECHANICAL DRAWING

FOR TRADE SCHOOLS

CHARLES C. LEEDS

Assistant Professor of Mechanical Drawing,

Carnegie Technical Schools. School

of Applied Industries

The author's conviction that the use
of models serves to develop copyists,
and often tends to stunt or destroy a
draftsman's creative faculties, has led
him to discard entirely the use of models
in teaching mechanical drawing, and he
has arranged these lessons in a manner
which he believes will attract and hold
the attention of the student. Each
lesson will guide the student by easy
steps, illustrate some fundamental point
in mechanical drawing, and work as a
whole towards the development of the
creative draftsman.

MACHINERY TRADES EDITION

58 Lessons to . xj Inches Illustrated

Price. $2.00 Net

HIGH SCHOOL EDITION

4O Lessons lo'\ x7 Inches Illustrated

Price, $1.25 Net

PERSPECTIVE

Jtff ELEMEMTMRV TEXTBOOK
By BEN J. LUBSCHEZ

Member of the American Institute of Architects

This book is a concise treatise on Perspective primarily
intended for home study by the beginner or draftsman
without the aid of a teacher, but also of great value to the
experienced draftsman and to the layman wishing to in-
form himself regarding the general principles of the
science. It contains a chapter on Short Cuts and Special
Manipulations of great value to any worker. The whole
subject is very clearly and simply presented in a unique
way, the text being the result of manv years of experience
in the drawing of Perspectives in an architect's office, as
well as in teaching the subject to beginners.

CONTENTS

I. Introductory. Scope and Plan of the Book. II.
Preliminary. Seeing in Perspective. Picture Plane.
Definition of Perspective. Photograph and Perspective.
Vanishing' Points. Horizon. Foreshortening. Size of
Image. Vanishing Points of Horizontal lyines. Position
of Picture Plane. III. Making a Drawing in Perspec-
tive. Elevations and Perspectives. The Problem. Dia-
gram of Working Points. Location of the Point of Sta-
tion. Finding the Vanishing Points. Finding the
Measuring Points. The Perspective Plan. The Perspec-
tive Projection or Picture. Redrawing Without Instruc-
tions. IV. Second Problem in Perspective. (To be
solved in the s;ime general way as the first problem.)
Statement of Problem and Discussion of New and Diffi-
cult Points. The Perspective of Points in Front of the
Picture Plane. Any Problem in Perspective may be
Solved if the Perspective of any Point in Space can be
found. Different Methods of Finding the Persoective of
the Same Point. V. Vanishing Points and the Point of
Station. -locating the Point of Station. Obliquity of
View and Foreshortening. Crowding of I^ines as they
Approach the Horizon or Vanishing Points. Planes and
their Vanishing Lines. Horizontal Planes and the Hori-
zon. Oblique and Inclined Planes and their Vanishing
Lines. Vanishing Lines and Vanishing Points. Vanish-
ing Points of Oblique Lines. The Vanishing Point of any
Line and Explanation of Construction for Finding Van-
ishing Points. Two Vanishing Points for Every Line.
Conjugate and Reciprocal Vanishing Points. Tri-Con-
jugate Vanishing Points. VI. Measuring Points and
Scales. Scales. Front Lines. Measuring Points, what
they are, how they are found, and why. Special Cases.
VII. Parallel and One Point Perspective. Conditions of.
Vanishing Points and Measuring Points. Definition and
Limits of. Special Case of Ordinary Perspective with
Conjugate Vanishing Points. Problems in Parallel Per-
spective. Use. VIII. Special Manipulations and Short
Cuts. Perspective Centers. Plotting and Craticulation.
Circles and Curves. Mitre Points and Lines. When
Vanishing Points are Off the Board. When Measuring
Points are Off the Board. When the Point of Which We
Wish to Find the Perspective is Off the Board. When the
Distance between Vanishing Points is Limited. Discus-
sion of So-called Distortion.

IN PRESS

tOO Pages, .5x7 3O Illustrations

THEORY OF

Engineering Drawing

By ALPHONSE A. ADLER, B.S., M.E.

Instructor in Mechanical Drawing and Designing,
Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn

J4n unusually complete, thorough course,
treating the subject matter in a radically and.
rationally new way.

The text is divided into four parts as follows :

PART I. "Principles of Parallel Projecting -Line
Drawing," also printed and bound separately. (See
book below.)

PART II treats of the usual problems found in the
various Descriptive Geometries ; the Classification of
Lines and Surfaces ; and Intersections and Developments.
The problems are numerous and cover nearly every phase
of the subject. "Warped Surfaces are not included, as the
author did not think these essential in view of the more
important material which is usually omitted.

PART III treats of Perspective Projection and gives
this subject in much better form than is now obtainable.

PART IV treats of the Pictorial Effects of Illumination
and is that part which is usually headed, "Shades and
Shadows."

328 Pages, 6x9

275 Illustrations

Price, $2.00 Net

THE PRINCIPLES OF

Parallel Projecting-
Line Drawing

By ALPHONSE A. ADLER, II. S., M.E.

Instructor in Mechanical Drawing and Designing,
Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn

A complete and concise discussion of the rapid
methods of making drawings that find wide application
in drafting rooms. Arranged by topics so that reference
to a particular type of projection is easily accomplished.
The complete classification of the types of projection
makes an excellent survey of the entire subject. It is a
book that teaches principles rather than methods, and
for this reason it should be useful as a text for elementary
instruction in drawing, since it approaches the subject
in an interesting manner. The book contains four
chapters as follows: - -1. Introductory. 2. Oblique Pro-
jection. 3. Orthographic Projection. 4. Axonometric
Projection. Kach chapter shows the commercial appli-
cation of the type of projection considered, and gives a
set of questions which thoroughly cover the text. A
complete index is also included.

72 Pages, 6x9 48 Illustrations

Price, $1.00 Net

ELEMENTARY COURSE IN

PERSPECTIVE

By SHERMAN M. TVRRILL

Civil Engineer. Assoc. Am. Soc. C. E.

This book shows the mechanical application
of the principles of descriptive geometry to
the making of a perspective drawing. Two
methods are explained the ' ' Method by the
Use of the Plan," which requires the use of
instruments and is intended for the mechanical
draftsman, while the "Method by Scale" is
the quicker process where the accurate location
of the leading or important points only is de-
sired, and is helpful for the freehand drafts-
man and artist. There are eighty-eight problems
for solution by either method covering the
principles as applied to the illustrated subject
in a variety of position.

CONTENTS

METHOD BY, ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION : Defini-
tions and Descriptions. Notation. Pictorial Perspec-
tive of a Pyramid. Perspective of: a Pyramid ; a Build-
ing; a Cube and Parallelepiped ; a Plane Curve ; a Cylin-
der ; the Shadow of the Frustrum of a Pyramid by Use of
the Horizontal Projection ot the Shadow ; the Shadow of
the Krustrum of a Pyramid by the Method of the Vanish-
ing Point of Rays; a Shadow of a Cube and Parallel-
opiped ; the Shadow of the Fmstrum of a Pyramid on an
Oblique Plane. Problem. METHOD BY SCALE: Com-
parison of the Two Methods. Perspective of: a Pyra
mid ; a Building ; a Cube and Parallelepiped ; a Cylinder ;
the Shadow of a Cube and Parallelepiped . Problems.

81 Pages, 5x7}& /6~ Illustrations and
Folding Plates

Price, $1.25 Net

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

Publishers

25 Park Place, New York

THIRD EDITION

" While deprecating any need-
lessly elaborate finish, the writer
advises the use of just sufficient
shading and finishing touches
to render a drawing thoroughly
comprehensible and to preclude
any possible ambiguity. '

" The illustrations in this work,
quite a number of which have
appeared in the columns of
'Engineering News," are in-
serted to demonstrate the points
involved and have been reduced
more or less in size so as to save
space. They may however be
copied by enlarging to about 3 or
4 times their linear dimensions."

REINHAUDT'S

/ TECHKK

^ OF MECHA1N1C41
FPI

A PDACTICAL GUIDE

TO NEAT.CODRECTAND

LEGIBLE DRAWING.

Third, Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged Edition
JO Text Illustrations, 11 Plates. Price, 81.OO

TESTIMONIALS

Price, $1.00

" It is of course to be under-
stood, that this book is not a
manual for beginners exactly ;
it serves its purpose best, where
used by the draftsman who is
familiar with the mathematical
principles of mechanical drafting.
It will then, as the writer hopes,
prove a valuable aid to the rapid
production of neat, correct "and
legible drawings."

(PREFACE.)

"I have examined the book carefully and am much pleased with it. Mr. Rein-
hardt is to be congratulated on having clearly, simply and briefly explained the
methods he has used in making his drawings remarkable for their great clearness
and legibility. It is a book that should be on the desk of every draftsman."
Prof. C. B Wing. Leland Stanford. Jr.. University.

"I find it most excellently adapted to the purpose for which it is intended."
Prof. Walter Flint, University of Maine.

"Am greatly pleased with it: itoccupies a fleid of its own among books on draft-
ing." Prof. Robt. L. Lund, Vanderbilt University.

"It should be in the library of every draftsman." Prof. C. W. Marx. Missouri
State University.

"It admirably fills a long-felt want." Prof. John L. Mann. Thayer School of
Civil Engineering.

"It is certainly the best compendium of instruction and elegant examples that
I have seen." Prof. Robert Fletcher, Ph.D.. Director Thayer School of Civil Engi-
neering.

"It will form a useful supplement to Mr. Reinhardt's 'System of Lettering.' "
Prof. E. H. Lockwood. Sheffield Scientific School.

"Have adopted it as a reference book for our civil engineering students. Your
'Lettering' has been the means of bringing about a distinct lift in the standard of
freehand lettering, anfl 1 predict a like result in the field covered by your new
work." Prof. W. D. Pence, Purdue University.

"Reinhardt's 'Technic of Mechanical Drafting.' is a book that should be in the
drafting department of every engineer's office. H describes those subtle details in
execution which constitute the essentials of effective expression in a drawing, both
as to truthfulness in its representation as well as its artistic finish. This state-
ment is admirably illustrated by the contrasts shown in Figs, (i, 7, 22 and 46. In
view of the important part of detail drawings in all kinds of construction, it is an
important service to show how the element of thorough legibility may be assured
without necessarily increasing the cost of the drawing. My early experience of six
years in a drafting-room leads me to appreciate the importance of manyhints which
might otherwise appear to be of little, if any, value. Each of the chapters on
'Outline Shading,' and on "Section Lining.' are alone worth the price of the book."
Prof. Henry S. Jacoby, Cornell University.

FOR SALE
BY

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 25 ParR Place, New York

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY

Return to desk from which borrowed.
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.

LD 21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476

/o,

YE 01982