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THE FORESTER
PRINTED EV WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH
THE FORESTER
A PRACTICAL TREATISE
ON THE PLANTING, REARING, AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT OF FOREST TREES
WITH
AN IMPROVED PROCESS FOR TRANSPLANTATION
OF TREES OF LARGE SIZE
BY
JAMES BROWN
FORESTER, A.BNISTON
SECOND EDITION" ENLARGED
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
MDCCCLI
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
University of British Columbia Library
http://www.archive.org/details/foresterpracticaOObrow
TO
ROBERT DUNDAS, ESQ
OF ABNI8T0H
SIR.
THE OBJECT OF THE FOLLOWING BOOK IS THAT
OF DIFFUSING, AS FAR AS IN MY POWER LIES, A SOUND AND
EXTENDED KNOWLEDGE OF ARBORICULTURAL OPERATIONS ; AND
AS I AM NOT AWARE OF ANY LANDED PROPRIETOR WHO HAS
THIS OBJECT MORE AT HEART THAN YOURSELF, I BEG TO
DEDICATE MY WORK TO YOU, AS AN HUMBLE EVIDENCE OF MY
RESPECT AND ESTEEM.
I HAVE THE HONOUR TO BE,
SIR.
TOUR MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT,
JAMES BROWN.
PREFACE
The Author desires to express to the public his gratification
at the rapid sale of the First Edition of " The Forester,"
as it indicates that the spirit of improvement is rapidly
progressing among all interested in Arboriculture. In
order to render the book worthy of continuance in public
favour, it has been entirely re-written, a number of new
sections upon important subjects added to it, and the whole
brought out more in detail, for the purpose of making it
better adapted as a complete guide in all forest operations :
in short, it has been so much enlarged and improved, that
it may be considered altogether a new book.
Since the appearance of the First Edition in 1847, the
Author has been extensively employed by landed proprietors,
in various parts of England and Scotland, in surveying and
reporting on the present state and future management of
plantations, and of grounds adapted for planting. His
observations and experience have thereby been much
extended, inasmuch as each district usually presents some
distinctive features, depending on the nature of the soil,
aspect, and elevation above the sea. The ordinary con-
ditions of such lands, their capability of improvement.
PREFACE.
and the views of proprietors as to the extent and position
of woodlands on their estate, are matters rather of private
business than of public interest, and hence the instruction
to be gained by such surveys, and from the details of
any practical report thereon, is interwoven with, and forms
a part of, the general contents of the book. But, as
regards districts which are of great 'extent, and which
correspond in the great features of geological structure,
and elevation from the sea, it has been suggested
that, as a considerable portion of the high-lying parts
of the kingdom is implanted, and in a great measure
unproductive, some specific information might be useful
as regards the fitness of such lands for the profitable
growing of timber. The Author having, in his recent
surveys, examined several mountainous districts, where
planting has not hitherto been adopted on a large scale,
has been led to consider this subject as one of peculiar
interest and importance. It embraces several considerations
which admit of wide application — such as the employment
of the industrious inhabitants of the respective districts —
the improvement of adjacent lands by the draining which
is often indispensable for new plantations — the shelter
afforded to the land generally, and the consequent ameliora-
tion of climate, to say nothing of so ornamental an addition
to the landscape beauty of a mountainous district. In
many parts of both England and Scotland, the value of
timber for mining purposes is a further and great induce-
ment for planting ; and one reason why so obvious an
improvement has not been carried out, seems to be a
distrust whether trees can be profitably grown in moorlands
PBEFAI ix
of great elevation. Another and still greater discourage-
ment arises from the want of that plaiu and practical
information which it is the object of this book to supply;
and here it is that detailed examples are of use in showing
the several points to be observed, and the right course
to be pursued, in adapting the various kinds of trees to
the proper soil and' situation. In an Appendix, therefore,
the Author has now added some extracts from his Notes
on Lands so situated, (omitting merely local descriptions
and names,) and trusts they may be found useful as
examples for surveying and reporting on other districts
corresponding in their general features to those which are
described in the several Notes.
In the present Edition of " The Fokester," as also in
the former one, the Author has confined himself entirely
to a detail of the results of his own experience in forest
operations ; and, in doing so, his whole aim has been that
of making his work plainly useful as a forester's guide.
He is of opinion that every book pretending to be practical
should be written in the plainest and most simple language,
so that the most common workman may understand.
It may by many be considered that a practical work,
such as the present, is incomplete without a chapter being
devoted to the most successful method of growing the differ-
ent kinds of Conifers recently introduced into Britain.
Relative to this point the Author begs to remark, that he
has, dining the last six years, been planting out the most
approved kinds on a variety of soils aud situations between
five hundred and a thousand feet elevation ; but as he has
not as yet had his views fully brought out with regard to
PREFACE.
these, and as he does not wish to lay before the public any
part of tree culture which he cannot treat of with confirmed
experience, he has deferred such a chapter till another
opportunity, which he hopes yet to have in due time.
January 1851.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
Sect.
I. Importance of Woodlands in Great Britain,
II. Present Prospects of Forestry in Britain,
III. The Value of Wood as a Crop upon Land,
IV. Laying out of Ground for New Plantations,
V. Utility of fencing and enclosing of Ground for Young Trees,
VI. Management of Hedge Fences,
VII. The Management of Whin or Furze Hedges,
VIII. Stone and Lime Walls as applied to making Sunk Fences,
IX. The building of Dry Stone Dykes,
X. The building of Turf Dykes,
XI. The Method of erecting Various Sorts of Wooden Palings
XII. The erecting of Wire-Fences upon Wooden and Iron Posts,
XIII. The Purpose and Situation for which each sort of Fence is most
properly adapted,
XIV. The making and hanging of Gates upon Fields and Plantations,
CHAPTER II.
I. Prepai-ing of Ground for the growing of Young Trees,
II. Draining of Plantation Ground, ....
III. Laying out of Roads in New Plantations,
IV. Making of Close or Shut Drains in land occupied by Forest Trees,
V. S< aeon of the Year best adapted for Planting Operations,
VI. Distribution of Young Trees so as to suit different Situations in a
New Plantation, .....
VII. Descriptive Character of the Elm : its Habit and Peculiarities,
VIII. The Beech: its Habit and Peculiarities,
IX. The Aah : its Habit and Peculiarities,
X. The Great Maple or Sycamore,
Xf. The Norway Maple,
XII. The Poplar",
XIII. The Willow,
XIV. The Birch,
XV. The Alder, ....
r*.*iiK
1
G
9
21
36
39
54
57
64
68
73
82
99
104
111
115
127
129
134
136
144
153
158
164
168
171
178
184
188
xu
CONTENTS.
Sect.
XVI. The Oak,
XVII. The Sweet Chesnut,
XVIII. The Horse Chesnut,
XIX. The Lime Tree,
XX. The Scots Pine,
XXI. The Spruce Fir,
XXII. The Larch, .
XXIII. The Silver Fir,
XXIV. The Pineaster, or Cluster Pine,
XXV. The Weymouth Pine,
XXVI. General Kcinarks,
Page
190
199
201
203
205
212
215
221
222
229
230
CHAPTER III.
Ill
Different Methods of planting young Forest Trees, . . 234
Distances at which Young Trees should be planted one from
another, ........ 237
How to choose young Forest Trees, when buying them from
Public Nurseries, ...... 242
IV. Utility of Proprietors having their own Home Nurseries, . 244
V. Manner of proceeding with Planting Operations, . . . 247
VI. Kinds of Forest Trees which may be most profitably planted in
any given District of the Country, . . . .278
Kinds of Trees best fitted for Hedge-row Timber, and Management
of the same, ....... 284
Expenses of laying down Ground under Plantations, . . 291
IX. The Keeping of Trees in a Young Plantation clear from Grass and
AYeeds, ........ 293
VII
VIII
CHAPTER IV.
I. The Nature and Necessity of thinning Plantations,
II. The Nature and Practice of pruning Trees,
III. System of thinning and rearing up of Fir Plantations,
IV. System of thinning and rearing up of mixed Hardwood Planta-
tions, .......
V. Rearing up and thinning of Oak Plantations,
296
300
317
328
354
CHAPTER V.
I. Management of general Coppice Plantations, . . . 367
II. Management of Oak Coppice, ..... 385
III. The peeling and drying of Bark used for Tanning, . . 390
CHAPTER VI.
I. Trees best adapted for growing to useful size upon land termed
Moss, ........ 403
II. Causes of Disease among Larch Plantations, . . . 407
III. External Symptoms of Disease in Trees, and general causes of the
same, ........ 413
IV. Periodical Increase of Timber in the different Species of Forest
Trees, ........ 426
V. How to find the Value of growing Plantations, and of full-grown
Timber Trees, ....... 434
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.
I. Effects of Transplanting on the Constitution of Trees, as that has
hitherto been practised, .....
II. Method of preparing Large Trees for transplanting,
III. Method of transplanting Large Trees, and description of Machine
for performing that operation, ....
IV. Method of renewing the Health of old or decaying Trees,
V. Fencing of Park Trees, so as to protect them from Deer, Horses
Cattle, &e., ......
Effects of Underwood on the Health of Trees in a Plantation,
Kinds of Plants best fitted for Underwood, and how they may be
planted in a Wood so as to produce Useful and Ornamental
Effect, ..... .
Rules and Regulations necessary to be observed in the Cutting
down and Selling of Timber, .....
Hints to young Foresters relative to the Nature and Amount of
Education necessary for them, .....
VI
VII
VIII
IX.
442
441'
470
482
484
489
450
494
505
APPENDIX
REPORT ON THE STATE OF BUSTING PLANTATIONS, AND GENERAL EXPE-
DIENCY OF PLANTING ON AN EXTENSIVE SCALE.
No. Pa ob
I. Plantation, 1 500 feet above the Sea, 30 years old. — Detailed direc-
tions for thinning and partial Replanting, . . . 511
II. Plantation, 1550 feet elevation, 25 years old. — Draining, shelter
from winds, &c., . . . . . .513
III. Plantation, 1400 feet elevation, 28 years old. — Injurious effects of
Dampness on the growth of Larch, &c, . . . ib.
IV. Plantation, 1400 feet elevation, 40 years old. — Importance of
breadth in exposed situations, . . . . .514
V. Plantation, 1480 feet elevation, 18 years old. — Thinning and
Draining, . . . . . . .515
VI. Plantation, 1370 feet elevation, 1G and 20 years old. — Injurious
effects of pruning live branches from Firs, &c, . . 516
VII. Plantation, 1500 feet elevation. Newly planted. — Effects of
ct of draining, and proper selection of 1 . . 517
VIII. Plantation, 1200 feet elevation. 20 years old. — Importance of
timely thinning to hardwi ... . . . ib.
IX. Plantation, 1050 feet elevation, 36 years old. — Thinning, shelter
fr'.in prevalent winds, and advantages of trees having room to
grow, &.c, . . . . . . .518
xiv CONTENTS.
No. Pagb
X. Plantation, 1000 feet elevation, 18 years old. — Selection of trees
for ultimate crop, and importance of planting each kind of
tree in a suitable soil, . . . . . .518
XL Plantation, 1070 feet elevation, 45 years old. — Removal of
diseased trees, and cause of disease, &c, . . . 519
XII. Proposed plantation at an extreme elevation of 1700 feet. —
Production of shelter. — Draining. — Selection of trees, &c, . 521
XIII. Proposed plantation at an elevation of 1350 feet. — Species of
trees for different localities, &c, . . ... 523
XIV. Proposed plantation, 1100 feet elevation. — In planting, depth of
Moss on surface to be taken into consideration, . . 524
XV. Proposed plantation, 1500 feet elevation.— Scotch fir as a break-
wind, &c, ....... ib.
XVI. Proposed plantation, 1700 feet elevation. — Not advisable to plant
trees on Moss land above that elevation, . . . 525
XVII. Proposed plantation, 1700 feet elevation. — Trees will succeed at
that elevation if not on deep Moss land, ib.
XVIII. Proposed plantation, 1400 feet elevation. — Draining and distribu-
tion of trees according to the nature of soils, . . . 526
DIRECTION TO BINDER.
The Diagram to be Inserted at page 328.
THE FORESTER
CHAPTER I.
Importance of "Woodlands in Great Britain — Present prospects of Forestry in
Britain — Value of Wood as a Crop upon Land — Laying out of Land for new
Plantations — Utility of Fencing and Enclosing of Ground for young Trees —
Management of Hedge Fences — Whin Hedges — Making of Walled sunk Fences
— Building Dry-stone Dikes — Building of Turf Dikes — Wooden Palings —
Wire Fences — Gates and Wickets.
SECTION I. — IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN.
The cultivation of woodlands, as a source of profit to the pro-
prietor, is not of equal importance to the welfare of every coun-
try. In any country thinly inhabited by man, or in a country
but newly taken possession of by civilised man, such as America,
New Zealand, or Australia, natural forests prevail in great abun-
dance ; indeed, often to such an extent that the new settlers find
forests of timber trees to be a mere nuisance, and are very fre-
quently obliged to destroy them, in order to have the land put
under a crop more profitable for their purpose for the time being.
We are aware that this is frequently the state of things relative
to forestry in many newly settled districts of a newly discovered
country, but it is ultimately a very unprofitable way of going to
work, even in a country where natural forests prevail; for, were
forestry maintained as an art among new settlers in such countries,
much profitable ami useful timber might be retained upon the
newly improves lands, which might prove of great advantage to
A
2 IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN.
generations coming after, as well as to the settlers themselves;
and, as an example of this, witness the scarcity of useful wood
in some parts of the United States of America at the present day.
And from this I mean to infer, that the raising of artificial
forests in any newly inhabited country is not of primary importance
to the settlers ; but the retaining a part of the natural forests is
of great ultimate importance to them, and provision should be
made by the laws of such a country for preserving a proper quan-
tity of the natural forests for ultimate good. But the case is alto-
gether different in an old-established country like Britain, where
the natural forests have for centuries disappeared, and where the
inhabitants must either buy timber from other countries, or raise it
upon the land in the form of a crop.
There is no country upon the face of the earth which would
be more benefited by an extended system of forestry than Britain.
The navy demands skilful forestry and extending of woodlands in
order to support it ; the present advanced state of agriculture
demands the same thing; and the general welfare of the whole
country has a right to it. Relative to each of these heads
it will be necessary to make a few observations. First, The navy
of Great Britain demands skilful forestry and extending of wood-
lands in order to support it. Many have argued that " there is
no need of being apprehensive of wood becoming scarce for the
supply of the navy, so long as we can procure plenty of the best
of wood for shipbuilding from foreign countries, in addition to the
large supply growing in the Government forests in the different
parts of England." I cannot agree with those who reason in such
a superficial manner. When we reflect upon the enormous quan-
tity of oak wood consumed in the building of one man-of-war ship,
the conclusion is forced upon us, that, as a nation, we Avould soon be
wrong in the extreme, were we to neglect the rearing of a supply of
timber for the purpose, and to depend upon foreign supplies, which
at best must always be precarious. It takes fully one hundred and
fifty thousand cubic feet of timber to build a seventy-four gun-ship;
and allowing, upon an average, that the trees in an oak forest, when
arrived at maturity and ready for shipbuilding, stood at the distance
of about thirty feet from each other, we could only have about fifty
IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 3
trees from an acre: and supposing- that the same trees were from
one hundred to one hundred and twenty years old, there would
probably be about seventy feet of timber in each at an average ;
consequently, we see from this calculation, which is pretty near
the truth, that no less than the matured crop of forty-four acres
of woodland, or two thousand two hundred full-grown trees, are
required for one such ship.
It is stated upon good authority, that there is very little more
than one-sixteenth part of the timber used at the royal dockyards
supplied by the Government forests, extensive as they are con-
sidered to be ; consequently the remaining quantity, excepting
what may be purchased from private landholders in the country,
must be furnished from abroad ; and from this it is evident to every
man who has the welfare of his country at heart, that the produce
of the Government forests, in order to answer the end in view,
ought to be increased tenfold.
The policy of depending upon foreign countries for the supply
of timber for such a great work as our navy is therefore ridiculous
in the extreme, and more particularly when we have so much
waste land in the country, of excellent capabilities for the grow-
ing of timber, the greater part of which is inaccessible to the
plough of the farmer, and therefore would by no means diminish
the available quantity of land which might be improved for the
increase of food for our population.
Another important question naturally arises here — namely,
Are the natural forests abroad in a state likely to supply the
great and increasing demands for the British navy? "We must
answer in the negative. Every country upon the face of the
globe, with which England has ready communication, is rapidly
progressing in the march of improvement ; and it is well known
that, as civilisation makes progress, and agricultural pursuits
nd, natural forests diminish and eventually become extinct,
— as is the case with ourselves at the present day; and at the
same time as civilisation increases, the demand for timber
increases also. Now we must infer from this, that each country,
M it becomes more refined in the arts and comforts of life, will
have at least enough to do with its own home timber, and will
4 IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN.
require to encourage forestry in order to keep good its own
supply. Let us consider the state of America relative to timber,
as an example of what I have above asserted, and I am of
opinion that in a very short time many other countries will be
in like condition. A. H. Hillhouse, in his translation of Michaux's
North American Sylva, says — " Though three-fourths of our soil
(North America) are still veiled from the eye of day by primeval
forests, the best materials for building are nearly exhausted.
With all the projected improvements in our internal navigation,
whence shall we procure supplies of timber fifty years hence for
the continuance of our marine ? The most urgent motives call
imperiously upon Government to provide a seasonable remedy for
the evil."
I may farther add, under the present head, that, at the present
day, the United States are depending upon the wooded regions in
Canada for the supply of their useful timber; and in that country,
where so much wood is necessarily consumed for fuel, the supply
cannot meet the demand for a great many years ; and it is now
the opinion of many practical men, that in a few years wood will not
only be very scarce, but at the same time very dear — much beyond
any price we can form any adequate idea of at the present day.
But it is to be hoped that these matters will undergo serious con-
sideration, in order that such a state of things may be in a great
measure avoided ; and the remedy is, an improved and extended
system of forestry throughout the whole of our island.
Second, The present advanced state of agriculture in Great
Britain demands a skilful and extended system of forestry.
It is allowed by all who have laid their attention to the improve-
ment of waste lands in our country, that the rearing up of healthy
plantations improves the general climate of the neighbourhood ;
and not only is the climate improved to a great degree, but the
very soil upon which forest trees grow is much improved by the
gradual accumulation of vegetable matter from them.
I would ask this plain question, What is the natural cause of so
much waste land being found in the north of Scotland, and in
many parts of England ? Can it be denied that it is the want of
trees to give shelter ? Why is it that proprietors of land com-
IMPORTANCE OF WOODLANDS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 5
plain so much of great tracts of it being- worthless, growing
nothing but the inferior grasses, mosses, rashes, and heaths, upon
which even one sheep cannot find food upon two acres ? Is it not
for the want of plantations to give shelter '? It is. And now that
Government is very wisely granting loans of money for the
improvement of such lands, we may naturally expect to see great
things done in this department in the course of a very few years.
Xow that the agriculture of our country is improving rapidly,
forests ought to go on in the same degree — not keeping behind,
but rather in advance ; for what profit will be derived from a supe-
rior system of cultivation in the land, if the fields we cultivate be
not sheltered from the evil effects of our uncongenial climate by
healthy and judiciously laid out plantations *? In the improvement
of all waste lands there ought to be at least one-tenth part of the
same planted, in order to give shelter; and wherever this is not
attended to, disappointment is the natural result : for if this be not
done a3 the improvement of waste lands advance, such will, with-
out doubt, be unproductive ; and very likely, from the holder of
such land finding that it will not pay him, he will allow the same
to fall back into its original state of nature.
Third, The general welfare of the country demands an extended
and improved system of forestry.
If the population of Britain is doubling itself every fifty years,
where is our supply of food to come from, in one hundred years
hence, if the waste land be not improved by forestry ? This is a
question which demands serious consideration, and must, upon
reflection, point out the influence of planting upon the general
welfare of the country. If any piece of waste land, after being
drained and ploughed, will yield six bolls per acre, in a state
unsheltered by forest trees, the same land will yield at least ten
bolls per acre if judiciously sheltered by them ; and from this we
are bound to conclude, that the inhabitants of the country have
a right that such a state of things should exist, seeing that in
so many cases they are compelled to leave their native country
tin m the want of such a state of things, and expend their money
upon works of the very same nature in a foreign country. Were
proprietors of waste land to lay off the same in a judicious manner
6 PRESENT PROSPECTS OF FORESTRY IN BRITAIN.
with plantations, the money which is now carried away by indus-
trious men to America, &c. would be spent at home upon their
estates. And not only is the community at large benefited by an
extended system of improvement, but every proprietor who will
plant forest trees, not only gives shelter to his fields, but, at the
same time, greatly enhances the value of his estate, as shall be
treated upon in the proper place.
SECTION II. — PRESENT PROSPECTS OF FORESTRY IN BRITAIN.
'Considering the present rapid advances which agriculture is
making towards perfection, it appears very evident that forestry
will, and indeed must, follow at the same rate.
It is very observable that the principal improvements which
have, for the last twenty years, taken place in the science of farm-
ing, have, for the greater part, been confined to the draining and
manuring of the best lands upon proprietors' estates, where,
indeed, plantations for the greater part do exist, or are not, in
consequence of superior locality, much needed in order to produce
shelter. But, now that the improvements in farming are becoming
of a more extended nature, even to the cultivation of the bare
moor and ban-en moss — which cannot, properly speaking, be made
fruitful without the influence of shelter — we must, and indeed will,
ere long see plantations spreading wide in all such districts. We
now observe that landed proprietors are becoming aware of this
fact, and are wisely acting upon it. They see that the bringing in
of moorland will not pay them, until shelter be produced by plan-
tations. Several extensive proprietors of land of the description
above alluded to have, within the last ten years, gone on exten-
sively in making plantations in such districts ; and this at once
points out that a grand era in the history of arboriculture is about to
take place throughout the whole island of Great Britain. More-
over, I am convinced that, ere another period of fifty years shall
have elapsed, there will be as much attention paid to the rearing
of timber trees as there is now bestowed upon the rearing of farm-
cropping; for, in all high-lying districts of a country, the rearing
PRESENT PROSPECTS OF FORESTRY IN BRITAIN. 7
of plantations will become, not a secondary object, as at present,
but a primary one, seeing that the land will not produce abundance
by any other means.
I am aware that there are not a few who entertain the unna-
tural opinion, that, by and bye, the art of arboriculture will be so
well understood that timber trees will be made to grow much
more rapidly than at present; and, as this appears to me to be a
false notion, I shall here speak my mind upon the subject, because
I am anxious that no false estimates should be made by people
who may indeed be enthusiasts in the matter of tree-growing, but
who want the practical knowledge to enable them to speak soundly,
and with experienced judgment, upon the matter.
Relative to the above opinion, I lately read the following para-
graph in a public print: " In an age when everything useful
and ornamental becomes the subject of scientific investigation
and general study, it seems singular that arboriculture should
be at once so universally practised, and in its principles so
utterly neglected. We may reasonably expect that the time is
not far distant when arboriculture, being of the same family as
agriculture and horticulture, will at length share the same dis-
tinction— that it will be taken out of ignorant hands, and engage
the attention of the ingenious and scientific. Nothing seems
wanting to this charming art but some successful method of
giving a speedy effect to wood, and of bringing the enjoy-
ment of it, in some sort, within the lifetime of the planter —
that is, giving it at once a magnitude sufficient for picturesque
purposes."
With regard to the above quotation, I have to remark, that I
perfectly agree with the author in his opinions relative to forestry,
M contained in the two first sentences; but his enthusiasm for
forest improvement, as expressed in the last sentence, betrays the
want of sound practical knowledge upon the subject in question;
and, as I have already said that 1 am aware of several men of
influence and character who hold the same opinion, I hereby beg-
to give my advice, as a practical man, not to hold by the same, as
it is not founded upon sound scientific principles; and my real
for differing from such men arc as follows ;
8 PRESENT PEOSPECTS OF FORESTRY IN BRITAIN.
Every individual species of tree has, by the laws of nature, a
tendency to grow at a rate peculiar to itself; and if any tree should
be urged to grow at a rate beyond what nature has allowed it to
do in general circumstances, the same tree will be unhealthy and
soft in the quality of its wood ; and although it may appear healthy
and large in bulk of timber, it must be, and always is, worthless
for any permanent purpose. For let it be here particularly under-
stood, that, in the cultivation of every vegetable substance what-
ever, the cultivator, in adding unnatural bulk to it, as in the case
of the turnip, does not add woody matter or carbon to it in the natural
proportion which exists in the plant as found in a state of nature; but,
upon the contrary, he adds merely a watery half-prepared matter,
which is liable to perish quickly after the life of the plant has become
extinct. And this is exactly the case in the growing of trees, as in
the growing of turnips or potatoes. Let us take another example
in illustration of the point. The poplar is the fastest growing
of all our forest trees ; and I may say that the oak is the slowest
in coming to useful bulk. The poplar, at forty years of age,
agreeably to its common nature, will often contain sixty cubic feet
of timber ; while the oak, at the same age, will not, agreeably to
the same law, contain more than the third part of that quantity.
Now, if it were even possible to urge the oak to grow at the same
rate as the poplar, what would be the natural consequence ? Would
it not be that of deteriorating the quality of the wood, and con-
sequently lessening its value as useful timber? And yet this is the
state of things, relative to forestry, which the author, in the above
sentence, wishes to see speedily brought about, where he says,
" giving it (wood) at once a magnitude sufficient for picturesque
scenery." I have always observed, in the case of making fences,
gates, &c, both with oak and larch wood, that the trees which had
been grown rapidly, of either sort, when converted into those pur-
poses, never last more than half the time that the wood of the
same age does, but of a slower growth. Moreover, I have also had
occasion to observe, that of two trees of equal age, and of the
same sort of timber — if grown, the one exposed freely to the air,
and upon a moderate soil, and the other confined and drawn up
weakly in the heart of a plantation, in a rich soil — the wood of the
PRESENT TROSPECTS OF FORESTRY IN BRITAIN. 0
tree which was exposed to the free air, and grown upon a moderate
soil, will last a great deal longer, for any purpose, than the wood
of the one which was confined, and grown upon a rich soil. And
this at once points out to us, that, if we wish to have valuable
timber trees, we must not urge them to grow at a rate much beyond
what nature has allowed them ; neither must we confine them too
much, but give them a free circulation of air in the plantation.
In conclusion upon this head, I beg to say, that the prospects of
forestry are at the present day very encouraging in Britain ; but
too sanguine expectations must not be entertained relative to the
future, in so far as relates to the quickening of the growth of trees;
for if we wish to have healthy plantations, and if we wish the same
to produce sound and healthy timber, we must study nature, and
do our work along with her, and not try to outdo her, as many
would wish to do.
SECTION III. — THE VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAXD.
The value of wood, as a crop upon any given piece of ground,
depends much upon the treatment it may have received in its cul-
tivation. Trees, like every other useful product of the soil, may
be considerably deteriorated in value by unskilful and careless
management ; and they may also be greatly enhanced in value by
skilful and careful management. Besides, the value of wood varies
according to the nature of the land planted, and also according as
the locality may, or may not be, conveniently situated as regards
a ready market for the sale of timber.
A plantation of trees, of whatever species it may be composed,
is always of more value to the grower when in the neighbourhood
of a thriving seaport, than the same plantation would be in a far
inland district. The reason of this is obvious; for in the neitrh-
bourhood of a ready market tor timber, the distance for cartage is
nut aecessarily much calculated upon by the purchaser, consequently,
he is enabled to give a fair price to the seller. For example, were
I to purchase good ash timber from a proprietor whose plantations
were within two miles of a shipping port, I would be enabled, upon
10 VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND.
consideration of the short distance, to give him 2s. per cubic foot :
in this case, I would calculate upon selling the same wood at 2s. 6d.
per foot, allowing the 6d. which I would receive extra for the
covering of all necessary expenses and mj own profit. Again,
were I to buy the same quality of ash timber from a proprietor
whose plantations were thirty miles from a shipping port, I could
not give in this instance more than Is. 3d. per cubic foot, because
I would have to calculate that, although I got 2s. 6d. for this wood,
it would take Is. 3d. per foot to cover my expense of conveying
the timber to the market, and at the same time to have a little
profit for my own labour. And thus it is in all cases, that, for
every mile of distance from the market, the purchaser of wood is
obliged to give less to the seller ; and this because he has to meet
the extra expenses incurred in each mile of cartage, previous to
getting it brought to market.
However, I may here state as a general rule, which I have
verified from my own experience, both in the Lowlands and High-
lands of Scotland, that land under wood will, at the end of sixty
years, under good management, pay the proprietor nearly three
times the sum of money that he would have received from any
other crop upon the same piece of ground.
This assertion, I am aware, will be considered extravagant by
many proprietors ; but to those who may consider what I have
here said as beyond the truth, I beg to say, that although it may
be in reality beyond what they have themselves experienced as to
profits arising from their plantations, yet I must say, that in all
cases where good management has been introduced, what I have
said will be found a practical truth ; and in order to illustrate the
point, I shall here give two examples, exactly in detail as I have
them in my note-book, of the different transactions as they took
place under my own experience in the felling of wood upon gentle-
men's estates, both in the Lowlands and Highlands of Scotland.
Upon the estate of Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, where the planta-
tions are for the most part of larch, Scots and spruce fir, I have
thinned them at all stages, from that of sixteen years old up to that
of sixty, when they were cut down as ripe. And having taken a valua-
tion of the trees, as taken from an imperial acre of plantation
VALUE OF "WOOD AS A CROP UTON LAND. 11
ground, at the different stages when thinning was required among
the different plantations between sixteen and sixty years, I make
the average value of wood as a crop, upon an imperial acre of land
in the district of country mentioned, as undcrnoted : —
£ s. (/. £ s. d.
At first thinning, which was at 14 years old, I took
from one acre of mixed firs 600 trees at ^d. each, .15 0
Deduct expenses of cutting the same, . .050
1 0 0
At second stage, which was at twenty years old, I
took from an acre of mixed firs 800 trees at 2d. each, 6 13 4
Deduct expenses of cutting the same, and also that of
keeping good the plantation, <fcc, . .200
At third stage, which was at 28 years old, I took from
an acre of mixed firs 500 trees at 8d. each,
Deduct expenses, as above, ....
At fourth stage, which was at 35 years old, I took
from an acre of mixed firs 300 trees at Is. 6d.,
Deduct expenses, as above, ....
16 13
4
4 10
0
22 10
0
6 0
0
30 0
0
8 10
0
4 13 4
12 3 4
- 16 10 0
At fifth stage, which was at 45 years old, I took from
an acre of mixed firs 200 at 3s.,
Deduct expenses, as above, and of sales, &c., .
At final cutting, when about 60 years old, I have taken
from an acre of Scots firs and Spruce 180 trees, at
12s. 6d. each, . . . . . 112 10 0
Deduct from this, expenses of sales, L.12 10 0
Do. original expenses of planting, 3 0 0
Do. expenses of trenching an acre of
ground, and making the land good
as at first, . . .800
23 10 0
21 10 0
89 0 0
N\t produce of an acre of woodland in 61 years, . . 144 16 8
In making the above statement of the value of fir plantations,
as I had experience of them in Aberdeenshire, it is but fair to
Bay, that the woodlands ujm.ii the estate mentioned had been verv
badly managed — consequently, their value was under many others
in the Bame county. They had not been attended to in the way of
properly thinning them in 'Uw time, which neglect had very much
lessened the value of the whole per acre. I may remark that,
12 VALUE OP WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND.
upon the Earl of Fife's estate at DufFhouse, I have frequently
observed, that many of the fir- woods, of like standing with those
on the estate of Craigston in so far as soil and situation could affect
them, were much better, and far more valuable, and that occa-
sioned by superior management ; and I could point out many
other estates in the same district, the wood of which, from better
management, was worth one half more per acre at the different
stages, as stated above. But as I had these from observation
only, and not from actual experience, I merely wish to observe, as
to this matter, that instead of exaggerating the value of wood-
lands in the north, I have given a low statement, and one the
truth of which I can vouch for.
Upon the estate of Craigston, there were generally planted upon
the acre four thousand trees. Now, from looking over the above
statement as to the number of trees thinned from the acre at all
the different periods mentioned, from first to last, it will be
seen that many of them had never come forward to any value —
these, no doubt, having died from the want of attention. Thus
we see that, instead of the number of trees which were planted,
we can only account for two thousand five hundred aud eighty ;
the remainder, about one thousand four hundred, having failed in
some way or other ; and that, no doubt, resulted from the previous
bad management, which prevailed upon the place in the growing
of woods.
The annual rent of the land, at an average, upon which those
plantations grew, was reckoned at about 10s. per acre ; and had it
been occupied by a tenant for the purpose of grazing, the pro-
prietor would have received only <i?30 for an acre during the
period of sixty years ; but being occupied by trees, we see that he
received by the end of the period of sixty years, when the crop
was cleared off, no less than 48s. for each year of the period — and
this, too, after deducting every necessary expense which the pro-
prietor was put to. And even after deducting compound interest
upon the original outlay and rent, progressively, during the
periods when no return was received, it will be found, as I have
formerly stated, that such land, when planted with trees, will pay
fully three times the amount of money that it could do under the
VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND. 13
hands of a farmer ; and this points out that wood, as a crop, even
when very indifferently managed, is exceedingly profitable to the
proprietor, and adds greatly to the value of his estate.
Again, in the county of Mid-Lothian generally, I have cut down
and thinned woods to a great extent, upon a number of landed
properties : these consisted of mixed hard-wood plantations, oak
plantations, larch plantations, as also Scots and spruce fir planta-
tions. Upon these estates, I have thinned the various kinds of
plantations, at all stages, from eight years up to seventy, eighty,
and even one hundred years. And in order to point out clearly
and intelligently the value which I have found derived from the
different sorts of timber, at a given age, I shall give a statement
of the thinnings which I have taken from an acre of wood, of
each of the kinds above mentioned ; and in doing this, I beg here
to be understood, that, in the greater number of the plantations of
each of the kinds I have taken my data from, they were not in
good state, having been much neglected before I had occasion
to visit them : consequently, I must say, that their value, in most
cases, might have been about one-third more had they been well
attended to ; but my object, in the mean time, is to give their
value as I found them.
The following statement shows the medium value of a mixed
hard-wood plantation, with firs to act as nurses, and is taken
from the thinnings of plantations which I have made upon eleven
different estates in Mid-Lothian.
At the first thinning, which was at an average 10
years from the time of planting, I have taken
generally 700 larches at l£d.,
Deduct from this expenses of cutting, <kc, .
At second thinning, being on an average when the
trees were 16 years old, I have taken 600 larch and
Scots firs at 3d. each, ....
Deduct expenses as above, ....
At third thinning, when the trees were 20 years old,
I have taken 700 larch and Scots firs, averaging
6d. each, . . . . . 17 10 0
4 7
6
0 10
0
7 10
0
1 8
0
3 17 6
6 2 0
Carry forward, . . . . 17 10 0 9 19 6
14 VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND.
Brought forward, ....
Deduct expenses, .....
At fourth thinning, when 25 years old, I have on an
average taken 600 firs at Is. each, . . 30 0 0
Deduct expenses, for keeping up the fences, cutting, &c. 3 10 0
£ s. d.
£ s. J.
17 10 0
9 19 6
2 15 0
14 15 0
At fifth thinning, when 30 years old, I have taken
80 firs at 2s. 6d., . . . . 10 0 0
Deduct expenses for pruning, &c, . . .300
At sixth thinning, when 35 years old, I have taken
110 hard-wood trees of various sorts, averaging
8s. each, . . . . . 44 0 0
Deduct expenses, . . . . .6180
At seventh thinning, when 40 years old, I have
taken 100 hard-wood trees at 15s., . . 75 0 0
Deduct expenses, . . . . .950
At eighth thinning, when 50 years old, I have taken
100 trees at 30s. each, . . . . 150 0 0
Deduct expenses, . . . . . 10 6 0
26 10 0
0 0
37 2 0
65 15 0
139 14 0
At ninth thinning, when the trees were about 60
years old, I have taken 30 hard-wood trees at
40s., . . . . . . 60 0 0
Deduct expenses of sale, &c. . . .600
54 0 0
At final cutting, when the trees were about 70 years
old, I have cut from an acre of land 50 hard-
wood trees, at 60s. each, . . . . 150 0 0
Deduct from this expenses of sale, &c, £\.5 0 0
Original expenses of planting and en-
closing, . . . .500
Expenses necessary for trenching an acre
of woodland for agriculture, . . 15 0 0
35 0 0
115 0 0
Net produce of an acre of mixed hard wood, in 70
years, . . . . . . . 469 15 6
The average rent of the land from which I have taken the
trees, as above mentioned, may be about 30s. per acre ; and if we
divide £469, the value of wood, as taken from an acre in 70 years,
by seventy, the number of years, we have £6, 14s. as the yearly
rent for that time, instead of £1, 10s.; and this, too, after
VALUE OF WOOD AS A CEOr UPON LAND. 15
deducting every necessary expense which could be incurred by
the proprietor. And even if we deduct compound interest pro-
gressively, it will be found that the proprietor has fully three
times the income from a crop of wood that he could have
received, had the land on which it grew been in the hands of a
farmer.
The following statement shows the medium value of an acre of
oak plantation, at the end of one hundred years, as I have found
them in Mid-Lothian, with firs to act as nurses : —
£ s. d. £ s. d.
At 8 years, being first thinning, 800 larches at l^d, .500
Deduct expenses of cutting, pruning, etc., . .15 0
3 15 0
At 12 years, being second thinning, 500 larch and Scots
lii-, lit -2 Id, . . . . .542
Deduct expenses of cutting, pruning, &c, . . 1 15 0
3 9 2
At 18 years, being third thinning, 900 mixed firs,
at 4d.', . . . . . . 15 0 0
Deduct expenses of cutting and pruning, and of keep-
ing good the fences, ifcc, . . . .350
11 15 0
8 0 0
8 10 0
12 15 0
At 23 years, being fourth thinning, 200 firs, at Is, . 10 0 0
Deduct expenses, as above, . . . .200
At 27 years, being fifth thinning, 100 firs, at 2s. . 10 0 0
Deduct expenses, as above, . . . . 1 10 0
At 31 years, being sixth thinning, 100 firs, at 3s, . 15 0 0
Deduct expenses, as above, . . . .250
At 32 years, being seventh thinning, 150 oaks, at 5s, 37 10 0
Deduct expenses of peeling, cutting, &c, . .050
31 5 0
At 36 years, being eighth thinning, 40 oaks, at 10s, . 20 0 0
D duct expenses, as above, . . . 2 10 0
17 10 0
At 40 years, being ninth thinning, 50 oaks, at 15s, . 37 10 0
Deduct expenses, as above, . . . .400
33 10 0
At i") yean, being tenth thinning, 30 oakn, at 26&, . 37 lo 0
Deduct expens* s, -i- above, . . . 3 10 0
34 0 0
Carry forward, . . . . £164 9 2
16 VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
Brought forward, .... 164 9 2
At 50 years, being eleventh thinning, 25 oaks, at 35s., 43 15 0
Deduct expenses of sale, &c, . . . 5 15 0
38 0 0
At 60 years, being twelfth thinning, 20 oaks, at 50s., . 50 0 0
Deduct expenses, as above, . . . . 4 10 0
45 10 0
At 70 years, being thirteenth thinning, 15 oaks, at 80s., 60 0 0
Deduct expenses of sale, &c, . . .6100
53 10 0
At 100 years, being final cutting, 35 oaks, at 140s., . 245 0 0
Deduct expenses of sale, . . ,£24 0 0
Original outlay in planting per acre, . 5 10 0
Expenses of trenching the land and the
crops, . . . 15 0 0
44 10 0
201 10 0
Net produce of an acre of land in 100 years, as
found under oak wood, .... £502 19 2
From this last statement it will be seen that the oak plantation,
at the end of one hundred years, pays the proprietor £5 an acre per
annum ; whereas the mixed hard-wood plantation pays nearly £7 an
acre at the end of seventy years; and this is actually the case, as I
have the result from my own experience. I have, indeed, in several
instances, found the oak much higher, per acre, than here stated ;
and I have also found it much lower : my object here has been to
give the medium in both cases ; and, generally speaking, a mixed
hard- wood plantation will be found more profitable than oak alone ;
and the reason I have found to be this — plantations are generally
badly managed, and oak trees suffer from bad management more
than most other trees. Oaks, when much confined in their
young state, soon become tall and slender, and will not readily
recover themselves again — at least as compared with ash, elm, or
sycamore, ecc; consequently, it is generally from bad management
that the oak is found under the value of mixed hard-wood per
acre. But in most cases, where the soil is well adapted for
the growth of the oak, and where attention has been properly
bestowed upon it, it will be of considerably more value from eighty
to one hundred years than any other tree — all depending upon the
nature of the soil and the management.
VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND.
17
The following is a statement of the value of an acre of larch
plantation, upon favourable soil, at the end of sixty years, when
it may be considered at its highest value : —
At 10 years, thin out 500 trees, at Id. each,
Deduct expenses, .
At 15 years, thin out 500 trees, at 2id.,
Deduct expenses, .
At 20 years, thin out 600 trees, at 8d.,
Deduct expenses, .
At 25 years, thin out 300 trees, at Is.,
Deduct expenses, .
At 30 years thin, out 200 trees, at 3s.,
Deduct expenses, .
At 35 yean, thin out 150 trees, at 5s.,
Deduct expenses, .
At 40 years thin, out 100 trees, at 10s.,
Deduct expenses,
At 45 years, thin out 100 trees, at 20s.,
Deduct expenses, .
At 50 years, thin out 50 trees, at 30s.,
Deduct expenses, .
At 60 years, or final cutting, 100 trees, at 50s.,
Deduct expenses of sales, Arc, . £25 0 0
— original expense of planting, 3 0 0
— expense of trenching the land, 8 0 0
£ s. d. £
2 1 8
10 0
1
S. (/.
5
4
2
1
8
6
20
0
0
2
10
0
15
0
0
3
0
0
30
0
0
3
15
0
37
10
0
4
5
0
50
0
0
5
10
0
100
0
0
10
0
0
75
0
0
7
10
0
3 15 8
17 10 0
12 0 0
26 5 0
33 5 0
44 10 0
90 0 0
67 10 0
250 0 0
36 0 0
Net value yielded by an acre of larch in 60 years,
214 0 0
£509 17 4
From this statement of the value of an acre of larch plantation,
it will be seen that at the end of sixty years, under favourable
circumstances, the proprietor will receive i?8, 10s. as the rent of
hi- land [nr acre ; and so it is. Larch, when it thrives well, pays
better than any other crop of wood in a given time. Nearly two
crops of larch could be had off land by the time that the oak had
B
18 VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND.
arrived at its maturity ; and the larch will generally be found
at its full value at or about sixty years.
The Scots pine and spruce fir take much longer in coming to
maturity than the larch does ; the Scots pine in particular cannot
be said to have arrived at maturity under eighty years; and upon
the same principle of calculation as already shown in the three
statements given, the average value of an acre of Scots pine, at
the end of eighty years, may be taken at about £300 ; and spruce
fir at about £260. The reason of the inferiority of the value of
these is, that the Scots pine is not so much sought after in its
young state as the larch is ; neither is the spruce fir ; both being
much inferior in the value of their wood till of full age, and even
then the larch sells at one fourth more than either of them.
What I have said above refers to the value of a crop of wood
when trained up as timber trees. There are, however, many pro-
prietors, both in England and the west of Scotland, who cultivate
their wood lands upon the principle of coppice-woods, without
allowing almost any of the plants to become timber of useful size.
This system of rearing what may be termed general coppice-
woods, is indeed very profitable near large manufacturing towns,
such as Liverpool and Manchester ; for near such markets
young growths of almost all sorts of hardwood meet a ready sale,
and at high rates ; and as this method of cultivating woodlands is
attended with very little trouble, and requires very little practical
knowledge in the grower, it is much resorted to in many parts of
England, even where the cultivation of large timber would ulti-
mately pay the proprietor three or four times the amount he
receives for his crops of coppice-wood. Now this is certainly an
error much to be regretted, and which ought to be exposed; and in
order to this, I beg to make a few remarks, that proprietors pos-
sessing such coppice-woods may be able to judge for themselves
whether their woodlands, so managed, pay them or not.
This year (1848) the Earl of B requested me to visit his
woodlands upon his estate at II , in Lancashire, which I did ;
and upon looking over his lordship's woodlands there, I found
them to consist mostly of oak, ash, hazel, and mountain-ash cop-
pice, with only a very few young timber plantations, which had
VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND. 19
by no means been well managed, Laving been much neglected
both as regards thinning and pruning, His lordship being a most
active-minded and improving nobleman upon his estates, saw that
the system of management Avhich had hitherto been pursued among
his woodlands was not as it ought to be ; many of his coppice-
woods had been cut, from time immemorial, at periods of about
fifteen years, and were now becoming worthless from age ; and
he wished to introduce a new system of management in this
department, which he would have done at an earlier period, but
was disadvised from doing so by many who maintained that his
estate of IT was not adapted for the growth of heavy tim-
ber. Upon examining the nature of the soil and situation upon
the estate, I was thoroughly convinced that few estates in the
north of England were better adapted for the growth of heavy
oak timber, and I advised his lordship accordingly. Now, here
is an estate, the woodlands of which, as now found under mixed
coppice, and cut down at periods of fifteen years, have paid
the proprietor no more than twenty shillings per annum of
rent. These woodlands have indeed served to supply the market
with cheap hoops and bobbin-wood, but it is a profitless specu-
lation to the proprietor; for had the same land been planted with
oaks and a mixture of larch and Scots firs, the proprietor would,
instead of twenty shillings per annum per acre, have received at
least £5 per annum ; and if his lordship proceed as I have advised
him in this matter — that is, to do away with the coppice-wood
gradually, and replant with oaks fur a permanent crop, and make
up with larch and Scots firs for nurses — he will ere long not only
receive five times the present amount of rent for his woodlands,
but he will also beautify his estate in a tenfold degree. And
besides this, his lordship will at the same time be setting an
example of improvement to his neighbour proprietors, who appear
to be against the doing away with the old system, however profitless
it may be. It is my opinion that there are very many landed
proprietors in England situated in the same manner. They have
a great extent of woodlands, growing coppice of the description I
have described — for the produce of which they receive a ready
market, but at a very low price: therefore it is that they are
20 VALUE OF WOOD AS A CROP UPON LAND.
not inclined to enter deeply into the improvement of their wood-
laud, thinking that it is not a profitable business to grow wood,
not having experienced a better system of management, and
seeing they can seldom realise more than thirty shillings per
acre for its produce ; whereas, were such proprietors to replant,
as I have said above, they would eventually derive about five times
the income from their woodland that they now do by their present
system of management under coppice.
As I have already said, if the proprietor can sell his coppice at
a fair price — which can generally be done in the neighbourhood of a
market for such wood — it is proper and right that he should do so,
in order to supply his neighbourhood with the sort of wood most in
use ; but where a proprietor cannot get for his wood crop at least
three times as much money as he could from the same land were
it under agricultural crops, he has a right to say that there is
something wrong in his district as regards the value of his woods.
No proprietor of woods is called to grow any sort of wood-pro-
duce for his neighbours, and sell it to them at a cheap rate, while
he can, by altering his system of wood management, sell his pro-
duce to a greater advantage at some other place, and in another
form.
From what has been stated above, it will be seen that, in order
to make wood come out as a valuable crop upon any piece of
land, much depends upon the management of the parties who have
the superintendence of the same ; and this not only as regards the
training up of the crop, but also in the choice of the kinds of wood
planted, whether these are adapted to the wants of the wood-
market in the neighbourhood. For example, in the county of
Aberdeen, where all sorts of hard-wood are scarce, I have sold ash
for 4s. a foot ; while in the Lothians, where ash-wood is plenty, I
could not get more than 2s. a foot for the same quality of wood ;
therefore, in the northern counties of Scotland, the proprietors who
pay attention to the growing of ash-wood will find a high price for
it ; while, upon the other hand, fir, which is very plenty in the
same parts, sells at a very low rate.
Again, in Mid-Lothian, where hard-wood is plenty, it is bought
at a moderate rate ; while good fir, which is comparatively scarce
LAYING OUT OF GROUND FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 21
as compared with the north, is generally sold at a good price in
the Lothians.
These examples I consider quite sufficient for the present pur-
pose. And further, upon the same point I beg to say, that it is
not alone the simple value of the timber that makes plantations of
so important a nature upon a gentleman's property — there is the
shelter that they afford to all agricultural purposes ; for where no
plantations are, there is invariably an inferior crop of grain upon
the fields, as well as an ill-fed live stock, which should all be taken
into account ; and in doing so, I am of opinion that, upon any
landed property, well-managed plantations are incalculably of
more value than land three times their extent in the hands of a
farmer, but without trees to give shelter ; and it is well known by
every proprietor of land, that he receives by far the highest rent
for those parts of his lands which are most sheltered by his best
plantations. And further, of whatever value land may be in the
hands of a farmer without plantations to give shelter to the same,
it is of very much greater value when properly sheltered by them.
SECTION IV. — LAVING OFT OF GROFND FOR NEW PLANTATIONS.
It is admitted by every person of a refined taste, that no
object is so ornamental upon a gentleman's estate as an extensive
healthy plantation, situated upon a well-chosen spot, and having
a well-defined tastefully bending outline ; and this being a
point of the first importance in arboriculture, it ought to be well
considered by all who would wish to excel in the profession. I
am aware that many think, and indeed say, that forest-trees
will grow as well in an imtastefully-defincd plantation as they
will do in one laid out upon the first principles of refined taste,
provided that the soil be good enough, — which is a false estimate
of what good taste is capable of doing. And in order to contradict
this erroneous opinion, 1 do assert, that a young plantation laid
out according to scientific principles, combined with good taste,
will succeed much better than one laid out in a careless manner,
as will be shown by-and-by, under the present head.
22 LAYING OUT OF GROUND
As the future welfare of a plantation is considerably affected
by the manner in which it is laid out, no man ought to attempt
the laying out of ground for one, who is not naturally possessed
of good taste for that sort of landscape-scenery which is based
upon the laws of nature, which will enable him to lay out the
proposed plantation in such a manner as to give the greatest
possible effect in ornamenting the neighbouring country. It is
also necessary that the person who would lay out ground for a
new plantation should be possessed of a knowledge of the nature
of the growth of each sort of tree when planted upon any given
soil or situation ; which knowledge will enable him to judge
rightly as to the effects that certain trees will have when planted
in any given spot; and he will also be enabled from such know-
ledge to say truly, whether or not trees will grow well in the
situation chosen for a new plantation. And it is further neces-
sary that the party, in the laying out of a new plantation, should
be acquainted with, or at least have in view, any local peculi-
arities of the district, relative to cold and destructive winds from
certain points. From such knowledge he will be able to lay out
the proposed plantation in such a manner, that it shall have
the greatest possible effect in giving shelter to the surrounding
fields, which is the principal end a proprietor aims at in having
woods upon his estate.
The larger that any piece of plantation is, the sooner will the
trees therein come to useful size, and answer the desired end ;
and the smaller it is, the more likely are the hopes of the planter
to be disappointed. And the reason of this is obvious : — for the
young trees growing in an extensive plantation, as soon as they
rise a little above the surface of the grass or heath, begin to
shelter one another; whereas, if the plantation be narrow, the
young trees can hardly be said ever to come the length of shelter-
ing one another — for every breeze of wind blowing through the
whole breadth, acts upon every single tree almost as powerfully
as if each tree stood singly and alone. Therefore, it is most
profitable for proprietors always to plant in large masses.
Trees planted in a mass of one hundred acres extent, will be
more healthy, and come sooner to profitable size, both as affording
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 23
timber and shelter, than they would if planted in a mass of ten
acres. From this it follows, that if a proprietor wishes to plant
one hundred acres upon his estate, he will raise more healthy
timber by planting in one mass, than he would do by planting the
same extent in four masses of twenty-five acres each.
Xo young plantation, upon an exposed situation, should be
less than one hundred yards broad at any given point ; and,
where the soil is of a light, thin, mossy nature, and not apt to
raise trees to good size, one hundred yards may even be too little
for breadth. If there be much mossy ground upon the site
intended for a new plantation, or if there be much of it consisting
of poor, thin, gravelly heights, as is often the case in unimproved
districts, a narrow or small plantation will not succeed profitably.
A -mall plantation may succeed upon a good loamy soil in a
sheltered situation ; but upon a bad soil, and an exposed situation,
I would advise not to plant at all, unless it be done in large masses.
Almost every gentleman's estate lies in a manner peculiar to
itself: the wind that might prove hurtful to one estate, might not
do so to another marching with it : therefore it is, that the par-
ticular winds which prove most hurtful to an estate, should
always be taken into consideration in the laying out of a planta-
tion upon it.
By referring to Fig. 1, this peculiarity in the difference of
situation affecting landed property will be at once evident.
Fig. 1.
AdHreD Estate.
Whitelands Estate.
Hucklanrl Estate.
24 LAYING OUT OF GROUND
The estate of Whitelands being situated upon the west side of
the hill a, which runs nearly south and north, would be greatly
sheltered from all storms of wind from the east and south-east ;
consequently, in laying down plantations upon the estate of
Whitelands, the greater length of the same, in order to protect
the land from the north and south winds, would require to be
made from east to west ; and if the situation were exposed to
destructive west winds, plantations meant to protect the lands
from it would require to be made from north to south. Again,
Newbury estate, being situated upon the east side of the hill a,
the lands upon it would be sheltered from the west and south-
west winds, but would be much exposed to the north and
east winds; consequently, the same estate would require to
be sheltered by plantations, extending their greater length from
east to west, which would protect the lands from the north
winds ; or from north to south, in order to protect from the east
winds.
There being a considerable opening between the south end of
the hill a and the north end of the hill &, as indicated in the
figure, the north part of the lands of Ashwell occupying the
west side of this opening, and those of Bucklands occupying the
east, great care is necessary in laying down plantations under
such circumstances ; for either the east or west wind passing
through such an opening, gathers force from being confined in its
passage between the two hills; therefore, in order to protect each
estate from the effects of winds passing through unchecked to
either side, a mass of plantation would require to be situated right
in the opening, having a convex side turned to the east, and
another to the west, which would naturally turn the wind to
either side, and cause it to spread along the hills.
Again, in order to protect the lands upon the west of Ashwell
from the north, plantations would require to be laid off from
east to west ; and in order to protect them from the west, they
should be laid off from north to south.
Upon the estate of Bucklands, again, the land requires to be
sheltered more particularly from the north and east winds;
therefore, plantations laid out upon it with the view of protecting
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 25
from these winds, would require to be made from east to west in
the one case, and from north to south in the other.
From what has been said, it will appear plain why one estate
may be injured by the wind from a certain point, while another
marching with it may not be injured by the same at all ; thus
the estate of Whitclands, from being situated upon the west side
of the hill a, is completely sheltered from the east wind ; while,
upon the contrary, the lauds of Newbury are naturally exposed to
the cast. The northern parts of both the estates of Ashwell and
Buckland are, from their natural situation upon the opening
between the two hills, nearly alike exposed to the east and west
winds ; while the southern parts of these estates are sheltered by
the hill b differently : therefore it is that, in the laying out of
plantations upon any landed property, those matters, which I have
here endeavoured to explain by reference to Fig. 1, must in all
cases be kept in view by the intelligent forester.
I have already said above, that the welfare of a young planta-
tion depends in a great measure upon the manner in which it is
laid out. I also said that a plantation laid out according to
scientific rules, combined with good taste, will succeed much better
than one laid out in a careless, unscientific manner. The following-
are the rules by which I generally guide myself in the laying out
of a new plantation : —
First, — In laying out its boundary line, avoid all straight
lines upon the exposed sides; and, if possible, make no straight
lines upon any side : they are disagreeable to the eye of taste,
and arc without meaning when applied to natural objects : in
nature there are no straight lines, and that for a wise end, for
they are without strength to resist outward pressure.
cond, — The greatest extent of a new plantation should be laid
off against the prevailing wind of the district ; and, at the same
time, the greatest extent should be kept along the highest part of
the ground to be planted.
Third, — The best possible form of boundary line which can be
thrown ont against the wind, upon the most exposed side of a
plantation, is the convex. Such a form of boundary line weakens
the strength of the wind when it hits upon it : the strength of the
26
LAYING OUT OF GROUND
Fig.
storm is, as it were, divided when it hits upon the projecting
bend of a well-defined convex.
Fig. 2 is a sketch of the outline of a plantation with its
exposed sides a to the north, and b east, representing two convex
bends thrown out
against the storm from
those points.
Now, from consider-
ing this attentively, it
will at once appear
evident, that trees
gi'owing behind a bend
of this description, and
the outer trees forming themselves the bend, are, from the position
in which they are arranged, proof against the effects of storm,
as compared with others forming a straight line, or a concave
bend. Upon the convex bends, as at a and 5, Fig. 2, when
the wind hits, its force is weakened, because the line of fence
recedes from the wind, as it were, at any given point ; and in
proof of this, I may refer to the action of the sea upon the dif-
ferent-shaped bodies which may be made to pass through the
water. For example, the forepart of a ship is nearly of the con-
vex form, and when the water hits upon it, it spends itself along
each side of the vessel. Again, were a ship to have its fore-
part made flat, it could not be urged through the water at all ;
and again, were the forepart of a ship to be made concave,
instead of the vessel being made to go forward, it would be driven
back, and this is exactly the principle of the action of the wind
upon the different forms of fence-lines ; and from this we see that
the concave bend is the worst for the purpose of protecting from
the storm anything behind it: consequently, in making such a
bend in the line of a plantation fence, great discrimination is requi-
site to know when it should be made.
Fourth, — Upon the most sheltered sides of a plantation, the
boundary line may be made to bend one way or another, as good
taste may direct ; but in all cases making a concave bend only
where there is a good breadth of planting immediately behind it.
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 27
By glancing at the concave bend 2 in Fig. 2, it will be observed
that it is backed by a great breadth of planting from the north
a, and is also well protected by the convex bend b upon the
east ; besides, its situation is upon the most sheltered side of the
plantation — namely, the south ; and such concavities may be
made upon the same principle, few or more, according to the
extent of the ground planted, and also as the private taste of the
proprietor may suggest ; but in general cases, the fewer of them
the better, for the welfare of the plantation ; but where stock are
to be sheltered, it is often necessary to make them. For example,
if in Fig. 2 there was no concavity at 2, the storm blowing
from the east, cattle could have no real shelter along the edge
of the wood at that point ; but in such a bend in the outline of a
wood as shown at 2, stock could not receive any injury excepting
from the south, which is, generally speaking, not subject to stormy
weather in this country.
Fifth, — The highest parts in a neighbourhood ought to be
chosen for the site of a plantation. By choosing such a situation,
the greatest possible shelter is likely to be attained for the
neighbouring fields ; and, at the same time, a plantation situated
upon a height always forms a prominent and a pleasing object
to the proprietor. A bare height always carries along with it
the idea of barrenness ; but when planted with trees, it forms
one of the most pleasing objects in the landscape of a gentleman's
estate.
Sixth , — In the laying out of a new plantation in a high
exposed country, intended principally for the protection of live
stock, there ought to be several rather deep sinuosities upon
the most sheltered sides. These sinuosities ought to be upon a
bold wide scale, so as not to cause any weak point to project from
the body of the plantation ; for if this be the case, such weak
points would not thrive, and consequently always have a mean
appearance.
Seventh, — If in the general arrangement of the boundary line
it should be found necessary to make a bend, having its concavity
to the storm side, care should be taken to construct such a bend
in a hollow part of the ground, or at least as low as possible; and
28 LAYING OUT OF GROUND
it should be backed b)T a good breadth of planting behind. See
Fig. 2 at 1.
In the laying out of a new plantation, there is much room for
the display of good taste. Every person is pleased with the effect
of well-arranged figures upon grass in a flower-garden ; and the
several plantations upon a gentleman's estate ought, in like
manner, to be well-laid out figures, upon a large scale. Many
have told me, when speaking upon this point, that it is super-
fluous to lay out a piece of plantation with as much view to taste
as is necessary in garden and pleasure-ground scenery ; but I
have always maintained that taste is as necessary in the one case
as in the other, and that any proprietor has a right to tasteful
arrangements, and is pleased therewith when surveying his farms,
as much as with the other when surveying his pleasure-grounds.
If in the general arrangement of a young plantation, a display of
taste were to be injurious to the welfare of the same, then I
would say, let taste have nothing to do in the matter ; but the
truth is quite the reverse of this. All true taste is based upon the
works of nature ; therefore, when we make the bendings and
turnings of the boundary line of a plantation in conformity with
the securing natural strength to resist the storm, we at the same
time give the most pleasing effect to the mind of the person who
looks upon it.
The bendings in the outline of a plantation should always be
made to follow the natural rising and falling of the ground ; that
is, where any lateral heights may project from the main body of
the ground laid out for a plantation, make the fence-line take a
bold convex turn in the same direction, and that just so far as may
be considered necessary for the extent in view ; and where a hol-
low of the ground occurs, make a fence-line take a bold concave
turn there, coming up again in the form of the convex Avhere the
ground begins to rise.
This will be more fully understood by referring to Figs. 3
and 4.
Fig. 4 represents the side of a hill as laid off by me for
a plantation, and the dotted line represents the fence. The con-
cave bend a is made in a hollow, sheltered part ; and the convex
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS.
29
bend b rises over the high ground adjoining, but is not extended
to the extreme tail or bottom of the hill ground; because it may,
Fig. 3.
b
Fig. 4.
8
and often is, found extremely advantageous to retain a part of such
high ground in the field, in order that sheep and other stock may
have the benefit of the same for lying upon at certain seasons of
the year when the lower grounds may be in a damp state ; and
besides, I have already said that the bends need only be extended
so far as may be considered practicable fur extent and general
purposes, but in all cases the retaining of the form of the natural
ground should be kept in view. The concave bend c, it will be
observed, is made to extend far back into the hollow ground ; for
such a hollow part, when sheltered by plantations nearly all round,
30 LAYING OUT OF GROUND
is one of the greatest benefits possible for stock at all seasons,
both as regards storm in winter and shade in summer, and more
particularly if the bottom there be dry.
The convex bend d is again extended beyond the tail or bottom
of the hill ground, and that in order the more effectually to add
shelter to the adjoining hollow part c; and the same remarks
apply to the concavity e, which is also much sheltered by the
bends cl and f. Now, these points are most necessary to be
attended to in the laying out of woodlands upon hill countries,
where, indeed, the welfare of stock is often more to be taken into
consideration than the giving of mere shelter to field-cropping.
Fig. 3 is the representation of a high knoll of ground which
it is wished to form into a plantation in an exposed district. At
a the hill-ground runs out to something like a mere point, and in
this case the line of fence is kept a little higher, in order to give
the convex bend a bolder and wider turn ; for I have already said
that all weak projecting points ought to be avoided in the proper
laying out of a plantation boundary ; and had the fence line at
a been brought out in the exact natural form of the tail of the
hill, a mere point would have been made, which should, in all cases
of this nature, be avoided. And the very same remarks apply to
the projecting point of the hill at b: where the fence is also kept
back in order to strengthen the interior ; and by the same being
thus kept a little back, the appearance is improved, and yet in all
these cases the natural form of the hill is retained.
In the laying out of a new plantation, if it is at all to be seen
from the windows of the proprietor's mansion, or from any part of
his pleasure-grounds, great care should be taken to make it have
the most pleasing effect when viewed from such points ; for if it
should be badly laid off it will prove a continual eye-sore, and if
well laid off it will prove a constant source of pleasure.
Besides the converting of hill-ground into plantations, there is
also to be considered the planting of glens and other local hollows,
which would be otherwise of very little value to the proprietor for
any agricultural purpose, but which, if at all adapted to the growth
of trees, under skilful forestry may be made the most profitable of
all situations for the growing of timber. And, relative to this, I
FOR NEW PLANTATIONS. 31
must say, that even upon a very inferior soil, trees will succeed
far better upon slopes and iu hollow parts than they will do upon
a rich piece of land situated upon a level country. This appears
to be most natural to the welfare of trees in general, which is a
wise provision of nature, seeing we cannot cultivate such land
profitably in the rearing of any other crop.
In the laying out of such hollows or glens for the rearing of
plantations, I may remark here that the fence or boundary line
ought to be made for the greater part to follow the undulations of
the brow of the glen ; that is, the boundary line of the ground to
be planted in the hollow should be made to correspond, as far as
other local circumstances will allow, with the natural line of the
tail of the background above and the head of the slope ; for this is
the system which gives the most pleasing effect. But in saying
this, I by no means wish to be understood as advocating that
nothing ought to be done in order to improve upon the natural
appearance of such irregularities as we often find existing along
the edges of hollows or glens; on the contrary, there is no part
of forest architecture in which there can be more taste displayed,
not only with the view of giving effect, but with the more
important view of giving the benefit of increased shelter from
storm to the cultivated grounds along the sides of such parts.
It is well known to all country people, that in glens or
hollows of any extent there is generally a draught of cold wind
rushing along when the same is not sensibly felt upon the higher
grounds above — at least at any considerable distance back from
the brow of the hollow ; and such cold winds are often very hurt-
fid to crops in the adjoining fields, particularly in the case of frost
and cold damp in the spring months. Now, in order to prevent
the evil effects of such draughts of damp and frost winds in the
spring, it is very proper to have convex bends rising out of the
glen or hollow, at well-chosen points, and extending a considerable
way upon the level ground above, and always endeavouring to
bring up such a bend at a part most likely to intercept the rush of
wind from the glen to the higher grounds; and such bends should
not be made upon a small contracted scale, but to a considerable
extent, by which means the ground above is greatly protected from
32 LAYING OUT OF GEOUND
the effects of sudden gusts of wind, which are very apt to arise
from such parts, and which are almost always hurtful.
Many maintain that the planting of hollows with trees adds very
little to the shelter of the neighbouring country ; but in this I am
decidedly of a different opinion ; for the very existence of trees in
a hollow sifts the wind passing through it, and very much impedes
its passage and softens its temperature ; and more particularly,
when projecting parts are made to jut out at proper and judiciously
chosen parts upon the leyel country, much good is done. And not
only do such juttings prove beneficial as regards shelter, but they,
in my opinion, add greatly to the general effect of the whole, as
appearing most natural, and agreeing with a refined taste.
The method of laying out plantations in the form of strips, so
often to be met with in Scotland, gives a poor and mean appear-
ance to a gentleman's estate, particularly when found about the
home grounds. The form in which they have generally been made
is in straight lines, from twenty to thirty yards broad. In such
narrow belts of wood the trees are very seldom found in good
health ; and, upon a little consideration of the matter, this is not
to be wondered at — because, from the narrowness of such strips,
the proprietors were always afraid to thin them, wishing to keep
them in a thick state, in order to give as much shelter as possible ;
and the natural consequence is, from being left too thick, the one
tree soon kills the other. And even where such strips have been
well managed, it cannot be expected that they could produce either
good healthy timber or make a good shelter ; for, being so narrow,
the trees never come to shelter one another. But it is a happy
circumstance in the history of arboriculture, that few such strips
are now planted. Gentlemen are now beginning to see the impro-
priety of such a method of raising plantations ; and now, almost in
all cases of good management, we see the old-fashioned narrow
strip giving place to the well-defined extensive plantation, which
is, indeed, the only profitable way of rearing trees for any useful
purpose.
The above assertion, I am aware, will be considered by many
too sweeping a condemnation, and as having reference to all plan-
tations in the form of strips ; but in what I have said above upon
FOK NEW PLANTATIONS. 33
this point, I have simply stated the objections which I have as a
practical forester to the system of planting- trees in too narrow
strips, with the idea of growing useful timber in them ; and I do
further assert, that narrow strips are, above all other forms of
plantations, the least likely for the rearing of timber to a profitable
and useful size. However, there are many proprietors who, from
circumstances of a local nature, are inclined — and I may say are
often obliged — from the want of space, to plant in the form of strips ;
and, for the guidance of such proprietors, I beg to submit the
following observations upon this point, which may, in many cases,
be found useful : —
In all cases of planting strips in a moderately exposed country,
it' they are made nothing less than forty yards in breadth, they
may, if well managed in the after-rearing, be made to produce
good and useful timber ; but much under forty yards, I think, it
i- not advisable to plant strips, at least with the view of ever pro-
ducing cither valuable timber or permanent shelter.
It often happens that upon small landed properties it is deemed
of the first importance to have the greatest possible extent under
farm-cropping ; and, at the same time, it is also a matter of great
importance to have the land subdivided by narrow strips of wood,
in order to produce shelter. In cases of this nature there is,
indeed, necessity for taking up little room or space in the form of
plantations ; and in such cases I would recommend the following
profitable method of rearing hedgerow timber upon small proper-
ties : —
AYherever it is found of importance to have a strip of planta-
tion much under forty yards to shelter a part of an estate, and
where the land is considered too valuable to have much of it con-
verted into plantation ground, let the strip of land intended for
the same be laid out and fenced in the usual manner. In planting
this strip, let it be considered what sort of hard-wood trees will
thrive best as a permanent crop upon the land; and if the soil be
of a moderate quality, we will say a mixture of oak, ash, and
plane. Let a row or line of these be planted immediately behind
the fence, upon the most sheltered side of the strip, mixing them
regularly, and at distances — say fifteen feet apart ; or plant one sort
C
34 LAYING OUT OF GROUND
continuously for a certain distance, if that should be considered
necessary, upon consideration of a variety of soil occurring in the
line, and, having done this, make up the body of the strip with such
trees as may be considered proper upon account of soil and situa-
tion, and of kinds that will be most likely to produce shelter
quickly, and be profitable in the cutting down entirely as thin-
nings. Let such a strip of plantation be carefully managed, and
as directed for other plantations in another part of this book, pay-
ing particular attention to the proper pruning of the line of hard-
wood trees behind the fence, keeping the others well off them as
they advance ; and, in due time, if they be attended to, they will
make rapid progress, being situated upon the sheltered side. I
may say that, by the time they may attain thirty years old, they
will be strong, spreading, vigorous, and hardy trees ; and at this
stage, if the body of the strip have been kept rather thin of trees,
in order to make the row of hard-wood upon the sheltered side
hardy by degrees, the whole of the trees in the strip, excepting
themselves, may be cut down, and the hard-wood alone left as a
line of hedgerow timber.
Now, relative to this, it may be asked, why plant a strip at all,
when only a row of hedge timber is intended to remain ultimately ?
In answer to this, I have to say that, had the hard-wood trees
been planted alone, without other trees in the form of a strip to
shelter them for a time, they would have made but slow progress,
and possibly might have been as long again in attaining a size fit
for shelter ; besides, the proprietor has, in this case, the benefit of
early shelter by planting in the form of a strip in order to nurse
his permanent trees, which shelter is continued, by the advanced
state of the hard-wood trees, after all those in the strip have been
removed ; and he also has the value of the nurses to pay him at an
early stage. Now, the advantages of this system over the common
way of rearing up strips are these : Where narrow strips are
planted with the intention of remaining as such for an indefi-
nite period, we in most cases find the trees in them weakly and
worthless, from being too much drawn up, and this state of the
trees is occasioned by the want of space in the breadth of the
ground allowed ; and, generally speaking, by the time that the
FOK Xi:\Y PLANTATIONS. 35
trees in such narrow strips have attained forty years, they begin
to decline, and the strip becomes a mere waste. Whereas, when
there is one line of hard-wood trees planted upon the sheltered
side of such a strip of plantation, it is at once understood that they
are to be the object of the cultivator's attention for permanent
shelter ; and, seeing- this, he is not afraid to cut and thin other trees
near them, which is the very state of things wished for; and if the
row of hard- wood trees be allowed ample space, and paid attention
to, they will, by the time that the trees in the other part of the
strip are failing, be in a healthy and most useful state for remain-
ing as valuable hedgerow timber, and will prove a beneficial
shelter to the fields for generations after their nurses have been
taken away. Another advantage of this system is, that the pro-
prietor reaps a good rent for his land from the sale of the trees cut
down, independent of leaving a row of permanent timber trees,
which will act better as a shelter to his fields than his strip ever
could have done as treated in the usual manner ; and he has also
the double advantage of again bringing his land under the plough,
after the crop of wood has been removed, which he could not have
done had he allowed his strip of plantation to remain in the usual
manner. And in conclusion upon this head, I beg to say, that I
have, in all cases of good management, found hedgerow timber
infinitely superior, in every respect, to narrow strips of plantation,
even where such were under what might be considered fair
management. Trees in narrow strips seldom live to great age, from
the want of space, even when tolerably managed ; whereas hedge-
row trees, when reared in the manner I have stated — which is
applicable to high parts — attain, from having ample space, their
full natural vigour and dimensions, and live to double the age of
trees found in a strip ; and when allowed to grow rather closely
together, they make a much better shelter than an unhealthy strip.
Therefore it is, that in all cases where land is considered of great
value for farm-cropping, and where strips cannot be made of suf-
ficient breadth, I would recommend the planting of hedgerow
trees in preference to the usual method of planting narrow strips,
and that either in the way 1 have recommended, or in a fence-row
at once, if the climate and soil be good.
36 UTILITY OF FENCING AND INCLOSING OF
SECTION V. — UTILITY OF FENCING AND INCLOSING OF GROUND FOR
YOUNG TREES.
It is absolutely necessary that every piece of ground laid out for
a plantation should be fenced in some way or other previous to its
being planted. A fence not only prevents the inroads of sheep
and cattle, but it, at the same time, tends very much to shelter the
young trees, and to bring them on rapidly. It is, indeed, surpris-
ing to observe the difference that a very low fence makes upon the
growth of young trees, as compared with those which are not pro-
tected by one. Any proprietor or forester, upon looking through
his several plantations, will observe that, in all young plantations,
the most rapid growing, and, at the same time, the most healthy
trees in it, are to be found immediately behind the outer fence ;
and, on the other hand, in all older plantations, the best grown,
and, at the same time, the most healthy trees, are to be found in
the centre of the same, or, at least, a considerable distance back
from the fence. Now, it maybe asked, what is the reason that the
best wood is found in the inner parts of old plantations, while the
most rapid growing trees are to be found, when young, behind the
boundary fence ? The reason, as proved from experience, is
this : —
During the first eight or ten years of the age of any young plan-
tation, the boundary fence is the only shelter that the young trees
have ; and it is evident that those trees which grow immediately
behind the fence will receive most of the benefit of its shelter;
consequently, from the circumstance of their receiving more shelter
than their neighbours further off, they must grow more rapidly,
until such time as their tops begin to rise above the level of the
fence, when they are considerably checked by the cold winds. At
this stage they begin to grow thick and bushy, rather than advance
in height ; and immediately upon their becoming so, they begin to
shelter all their neighbours inside, which again begin to have-
double the advantage of their neighbours outside ; for the trees
upon the outside had shelter only so long as they were below the
level of the top of the fence; whereas those inside have now a
GROUND FOR YOUNG. TREES. 37
shelter, which every year increases upon them for their advantage,
in height as well as in thickness. All this comes in to prove that
a fence is a great mean of furthering the healthy development of
a young plantation, independent of its protecting from the inroads
of cattle at the same time. I always calculate that a plantation
with a good fence is ten years in advance of one without such pro-
tection.
It may not be out of place here to state the great necessity
there is for keeping good all fences which surround planta-
tions, to a period beyond which it is likely that the trees will not
be injured by the access of sheep and other cattle ; and more
especially, as I have often had occasion to remark the evil effects
of sheep in particular being allowed to have access to plantations
at an early period, I find it the more incumbent upon me to point
out the evils arising from such a habit being allowed upon many
esta;
Upon many gentlemen's estates I have observed sheep and
other cattle grazing in hard-wood plantations not above twenty-
five years old, and this was allowed under the impression that the
rent which was received for the grazing did more than any addi-
tional benefit which could be derived from an opposite system of
preserving the trees by fences. This, however, I beg to say, is a
practice very much injurious to the welfare of any young planta-
tion ; for sheep, in particular, when allowed to have free access
into any plantation composed of trees in a growing state, and
having their bark smooth, are certain to injure the same, from the
greasiness of their wool coming in contact with the bark and
impeding the action of light and air; and, under such circum-
stances, I have frequently had occasion to sec many fine and appa-
rently healthy trees die suddenly. Upon the other hand, heavy
cattle, when allowed to graze in a wood of small extent, among
growing trees, are always inclined to hang about under their
shade in the wanner part of the day, at which periods they inva-
riably commence gnawing the bark, which is smooth upon such
young tree-, a- will as the Bhootfl of the tender branches where
they can reach to them. Therefore 1 would advise all proprietors,
as they value the welfare of their woods, never to allow cattle
38 FENCING OF GROUND FOR YOUNG TREES.
of any description to have access into a wood, unless the trees in it
are considerably advanced towards maturity, when the bark of the
most of forest-trees becomes hard and covered with rough scaly
protuberances, which resist the action of either the greasiness of
the sheep, or the teeth of large cattle. It may be asked, at what
stage would it be safe to allow the grazing of cattle to take place
where trees are? In answer to this, I give it as my opinion, that
after trees have attained the age of forty years, and have received
their final thinning, they may, in the generality of cases, be consi-
dered safe from the inroads of cattle.
Many different methods of fencing have been adopted for the
inclosing of young plantations, &c, upon landed property; and, no
doubt, different methods will still continue to be adopted, accord-
ing to the different sorts of materials to be had in abundance iu
the neighbourhood of the plantation or other inclosure which may
require to be protected ; and as fencing is very often a very im-
portant part of a forester's duty, I shall, in the following sections
upon fencing, enter rather minutely into detail upon the method of
erecting the different sorts of fences, and shall show the advantages
of one sort of fence over another, in so far as they are suited for
different purposes, and for different situations, with any other
particular relative to them that may be useful to the practical
forester. And before leaving this section, which is merely meant
to point out the advantages of fencing, I may be allowed to say,
that every practical forester ought to make himself, as nearly as
possible, master of the art of fencing in all its most useful parts ;
and having myself, in the act of visiting gentlemen's estates, seen
much of the great advantages derived from men, acting as over-
seers upon estates, being well up to this sort of work, as well as
the disadvantages to proprietors of having men as overseers who
were not well acquainted with it, I am now the more anxious
that the art of fencing should be properly understood both by
foresters and land-stewards ; because, from possessing such know-
ledge, they are the better able to be intrusted with the improve-
ments which may be carried on by the proprietor in whose service
they may be employed. I shall not confine myself strictly to the
description of fences which may be considered adapted to the
MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES. 39
inclosing of woodlands : I shall also point out the method of
erecting fences adapted for parks and pleasure-grounds, the know-
ledge of erecting which is often as essential to the forester and
land-steward as that of cultivating the soil for their respective
crops.
There are seven sorts of fences in general use in this country, —
namely, 1st, The thorn and beech hedge ; 2d, The whin hedge ; 3d,
The stone and lime wall, as applied to sunk fences ; 4th, The dry
stone dyke ; 5th, Turf dykes ; 6th, Wooden palings ; and 7th,
AVire-fences upon wood and iron posts.
Each of these fences is more particularly adapted for some
particular purpose or situation more than for another ; therefore,
after devoting a separate section to the method of erecting each
of the above sort of fences, I shall devote a separate section in
order to point out the advantage of using one fence rather than
another in any given situation.
SECTION VI. — MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
There is no fence more generally in use in the cultivated districts
of Britain than the thorn hedge ; and considering its permanent
nature as a fence upon good land, it is certainly the best adapted
for all purposes where a neat and clothed appearance is the object.
The hedge is very much improved by having one-third of beech
plant- mixed among the thorns in planting, and this, more par-
ticularly upon high situations with a light soil. There the thorns
are very apt to die early ; but when mixed with a proportion of
beech plants, which thrive well in a light soil, the fence is much
improved both in health and appearance. The soil upon which I
have found the thorn thrive best as a hedge fence, and in which it
IB likely to live to a great age, is a heavy loam upon a dry bottom.
In all light soils, such as moss, sand, or gravel, thorns are very apt
to die suddenly if not attended t<> very carefully in the way of
regularly cutting and cleaning once a year at least ; and it is in
order to prevent this tendency of the thorn to die prematurely in
such situations that I recommend a mixture of beech to be planted
40 MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
among thorns in a hedge. I have frequently had occasion to
observe, that even where a thorn hedge had failed to succeed in a
high situation upon a light soil, (being a mixture of gravel and
moss,) when I had it repaired by a mixture of beech plants, the
thorns recovered, and made an excellent fence along with the
beech ; and this I believe to be principally owing to the effects of
shelter produced by the beech retaining its leaves during winter
and sheltering the thorns ; besides, the beech being fond of a light,
dry soil, throve well, and supported the thorns.
Many recommend the practice of manuring poor light soils, for
the reception of thorn plants, in the forming of a hedge fence ;
but this I can by no means approve of; and I mention this circum-
stance in order to put the inexperienced upon their guard. I
have often had occasion to observe, that those hedges which were
planted with manure in a light poor soil, and upon a high situa-
tion, did indeed grow freely for the first two or three years after
planting ; but as soon as the manure had lost its effects upon the
plants, they fell into a state of bad health; and in the course of five
years from the time of planting, such a hedge was much inferior
to others which had received no manure upon the same soil and
situation. The best manure for thorns in a light soil is a good
dressing of clay or heavy loam, if it can possibly be had; and if
tli at cannot be got, plant them in the natural soil, and pay strict
attention to keeping clean in summer, and cutting in autumn or
spring.
In the planting of mixed thorn and beech hedges, two methods
are practised, according as the soil may be damp or dry. The one
method is, that of planting the hedge on the brow of an open
ditch, made at the same time, for the purpose of keeping the roots
of the hedge dry, and for collecting and carrying off water from
the field or plantation which it surrounds. The other method is
that of planting the hedge upon the surface of the soil, without
any ditch whatever ; and either of these methods may be adopted
according to circumstances ; although, for my own part, I am
decidedly in favour of the latter method, as being the most neat
and least expensive in erecting, as well as taking up much less
room in the field; and where the soil is dry, it thrives equally well.
MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
41
Fig. 5 is a section of a hedge planted upon the brow of a
ditch ; and by referring- to it, the method of planting the same will
be easily understood.
Fig. 5.
In executing the work of planting a hedge of the description
shown in the above figure, the operator first stretches his line along
the run of the ground where the hedge is to be planted, and
which it is understood has been previously set off by pins driven
into the ground ; but instead of placing the line in the exact run of
where the hedge is to be planted, the operator pins it down about
five inches to that side of the run upon which the open ditch is to
be made. He next proceeds to level, and clean from all weeds, &c,
with the common spade which is used in doing this work, the sur-
face of the ground, all along upon the run or hedge line, as far as
his line has been stretched, to the breadth of about twenty-four
inches back from his line ; and having done this, in a manner to
correspond with the rising or falling of the ground in the run of
the hedge, observing to level up or reduce any sudden inequality,
he next proceeds to natch off carefully the edge of the ditch upon
which his line was first stretched ; and in doing this, the operator
turns his face to the side where the ditch is to be, and with his foot
he forces the spade pretty deeply into the ground, cutting the sur-
face exactly all along by the line ; but he must observe not to cut
perpendicularly with the spade, but to cut with a considerable
slope to the ditch, in order to form part of its side, as maybe
seen by glancing at Fig. 5, where h represents the point upon
which tlr- line rests, with the slope of the ditch under; and when
42 MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
he has finished the cutting of the one side as directed, he will lift
his line four feet to the opposite side, in order to form the other
side of the ditch, as at g ; observing to make the second cut
exactly parallel with the first. And in the act of cutting, he must
turn his face again to the ditch, in order to form the opposite slope.
Both sides of the ditch being marked off, the operator with his
spade next raises the turf, or whatever the surface may be, but
which should be always cleaned from weeds, the outer edge of
which he first marked off at b ; and lifting it up, he turns it upside
down upon the part which he formerly levelled for the planting
of the hedge, which part is now termed the bed, as at e, upon
which the roots of the young plants are to be laid ; and in doing
this part of the work, five inches of the level part must be left
between the side of the bed and the edge of the ditch, which is
termed the scarcement^ and is meant to support the bed firmly, as
well as to prevent the rolling down of loose earth from the bank
a into the ditch c ; therefore the operator, in lifting the soil from
the edge of the ditch in order to make up the plant bed, must
keep it regularly five inches back from the edge ; and in preparing
the bed for the reception of the roots of the young plants, it must
be made three inches above the level part, or scarcement, upon the
outside, and this in a compact level manner, and must slope back-
wards from the outer edge at an angle of about forty-five degrees.
(See Fig. at e.) And this in order that the roots of the plants
may not be flat, but dip into the earth, and that their tops may
incline a little upwards.
The bed and scarcement being finished, as has been directed
above, and made perfectly clean from weeds, the next part of the
work is to have the plants prepared for putting in ; and as it is pre-
sumed that the plants — say thorns and beeches — have been brought
forward in due time and put into the earth by the roots in a dry part
near the work, the operator will bring them forward, and before
putting them into their bed, he will, with a priming-knife, and not
with an axe, as many carelessly do, cut every thorn plant down to
within about four inches of the top of the root — or in other words,
leaving only four inches of the stem of each plant. But with
regard to the beech plants, if any are to be planted among the
MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES. 43
thorns, they must not he cut at all, not even the tops ; for they do
not succeed well if cut at this stage ; and heech plants for this pur-
pose may he from eight to twelve inches high. Having the plants
thus prepared, the principal operator will take a few plants, both
of thorn and heech, in his left hand, and with his right he will lay
the plants upon the slope or bed prepared for them, putting in
successively two thorns and one beech, at the distance of about
seven inches, plant from plant. In laying the plants upon the bed,
the top or cut part of the thorn may be made to project over the
outer edge of the bed about two inches, which part will set away
young shoots to form the hedge ; but the beeches must be allowed
to have all their top part lying out, with their roots upon the same
level with those of the thorns.
the principal operator or workman proceeds in thus laying
out the plants upon their bed, another careful person follows
him, and, collecting the finest of the soil from the part of the
ditch opened in making the bed, he puts it upon the roots of the
plants, covering them very carefully, and using caution in order
not to displace any of the plants while lying in their uncovered
state ; a third man follows, who puts on another spadeful of earth
from the surface of the ditch all along upon that put on by the
second man, which second spadeful will be enough to cover the
roots securely ; and when this is finished, the whole of the soil
thus put upon the roots of the plants should get a firm tramping
with the feet, in order to make the plants firm in their place, and
exclude the drought from the roots. This being done the whole
length of the line, the whole of the earth contained in the ditch
c is then thrown out and made to form the bank above the roots
of the plants, in the shape as seen in the figure at a. The
Btze of the ditch is generally made four feet wide at top, and fifteen
inches at bottom, and two feet deep ; and the size of the newly
formed bank which is made from the earth taken out of the ditch,
will be nearly two and a half feet deep at the point above the plants
at a, and from four to four and a half feet wide at the base. After the
earth has been all thrown out of the ditch, and it is properlv formed,
smooth upon each side, and level in the bottom, the bank should
next be formed to nearly the same slope as the edge of the ditch
44 MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
under it ; but as it is formed of loose earth, it is better to keep the
slope of the bank a little flatter than that of the ditch under ; and
in order to prevent any of the loose earth tumbling into the ditch
from the bank, it should be tramped and made firm as the work
proceeds. And when the whole is finished, it should receive a firm
clapping by means of the back of the spades, which keeps it all
firm and smooth above.
In the finishing, the level scarcement ought to be left in a clean
and neat manner, without any roughness lying upon it ; and the
tops of the thorns should all project regularly, and the soil be
made firm about their necks. In this manner the whole line of
hedge is to be done, one line-length after another ; and when the
whole is finished, a three-barred paling ought to be put up upon the
outside of the ditch, in order to protect the young hedge from the
inroads of cattle. The paling when put up will require to be kept
good until such time as the hedge becomes a proper fence of itself,
which upon an average may not be till it has grown nine or ten years.
The method of growing hedges, as has been directed above, is
excellently adapted for land of a wet character, or rather where
the draining of the land has not been attended to ; for no thorn
hedge will succeed unless the ground upon which it is planted be
rendered dry ; therefore, if the ground where a hedge fence is to
be planted is not either naturally dry, or made so by artificial
drainage, the plan as above detailed must be resorted to. Besides,
it often happens that, in the laying out of ground for a new plan-
tation, the drains in it require to be run into some large ditch, in
order to act as an outlet for the water ; and in this case the system
of fencing with a ditch answers well — that is to say, all other cir-
cumstances corresponding ; — and in such a case, the ditch requires
to be placed next the wood, with the hedge and bank outside,
with the paling upon the outer tail of the bank, as at /in Fig. 5.
In Mid-Lothian I get hedges of the description above specified
planted, and every part of the work done in a complete manner,
for lOd. per rood of six yards ; and the plants for the same length
will cost about 6d., reckoning thirty-two plants to the rood.
I shall now refer shortly to the other method of planting hedges,
namely, that of planting in the surface soil without any ditch
MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES. 45
whatever. In all cases where the soil is either naturally dry, or
has been rendered so by artificial drainage, and where there is at
the same time no necessity for any ditch as an outlet for water
from drains, &c, made in the neighbourhood, whether that may
be in the case of an adjoining field or plantation, I would advise
not to plant hedges in the form of ridge and ditch, but simply in
the common soil of the line of fence required. In planting a hedge
in this manner, I have the ground dug, in the line of the hedge to
be planted, three feet wide by fifteen inches deep ; and in the act
of digging, I have all root-weeds carefully picked out, which ought
to be particularly attended to in the planting of all hedges, seeing
that the eradicating of such afterwards has a tendency to disturb
the root of the plants too much, and check their growth by
admitting too much, drought. When the whole length of the
ground for the intended hedge has been thus prepared by deep
digging and cleaning, I have it very nicely levelled by the eye, in
the first place; and when I consider the ground to be nearly as
level as I wish it, I next stretch the line along the middle of the
ground, stretching it pretty tightly, in order that it may tell the
level by its tightness ; for where the ground is hollow, the line will
be above it ; and where the ground is high, the line will be lying
too close upon that part. And having the line thus tightly set, I
go upon it with my feet, keeping it right under the middle of the
soles of my shoes ; and in this position I tread the earth firmly,
walking sideways all along the length of the line ; and by doing
this, I have the soil firm about five inches upon each side of the
line. Coming off at the end of the line, which I allow to remain,
I make up with fresh soil, from one side of the line, any inequali-
ties caused by my feet in walking along; and in doing this, I beat
the new surface with the back of the spade as I proceed, keeping
about seven or eight inches in breadth level on the one side of the
line, and only about two or three upon the other. This being
doin ■. I next take out an opening with the spade upon that side of
the line which has the least level ground upon it, and this opening
1 make about nine or ten inches deep, according as the roots of the
plant- may require, and taking care to have the opening neatly
cut by the run of the line. I next have the plants prepared a-<
46 MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
formerly stated, and put them in along the side of the firm level
edge, observing to keep the stalks of the thorns about two inches
above the surface, and the beeches all the height, as formerly stated ;
then fill in the earth, and make the whole firm and level, wThich
concludes the work of planting the hedge.
I may further add, relative to the two methods of planting hedges
just detailed, that by the last-mentioned system I have found the
plants so dealt with come much sooner to full size than those
planted upon the edge of a ditch ; therefore I am much in
favour of the same ; and there is another advantage attending this
system of hedge-planting without a ditch, which gives it great
preference as compared with the other, namely, the taking up of
very little room in the subdividing of any inclosure ; for it must be
observed, that where there is a hedge and ditch, much useful land
is occupied ; but where there is no ditch, the least possible quantity
of land is occupied by the fence. But in choosing or refusing the
one or the other, much depends upon the circumstances to be over-
come, which must all be taken into consideration. Upon the estate
of Arniston, where most of the hedge-fences have been reared
upon the ditch system, we are now putting a drain-tile into the ditches
and filling them up ; and in doing this, many of the hedges which
formerly were stunted in appearance are, from the receiving of an
additional supply of soil about their roots, improving much in appear-
ance; and this work promises altogether to be a great improvement.
The cost of digging the ground and putting in the plants for
the last-mentioned kind of hedge, will be about 4d. per rood; and
if we include the price of the plants also, the whole may cost about
lOd. per rood.
We now come to speak of the after-management of the hedge-
fence, which is a matter of the very greatest importance to the
welfare of such fences, seeing that many of them die from the
wTant of due care being bestowed upon them; and, as I have already
said, the great points in their management are regular cut-
ting and cleaning. Supposing that a young hedge of beech and
thorns has been planted any time between the first of February
and the end of March, it will during the following summer make
considerable shoots. The thorns will at least have made shoots of
MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES. 47
nine inches at an average, but tlie beech plants will have made
comparatively little progress, because they naturally require a
longer period to establish themselves in the soil ; but if they have
appeared fresh in the leaf, and only made from two to three inches
of young wood upon the top shoots, it is quite satisfactory ; and
indeed, had the thorn plant not been cut down, they very possibly
would not have made a greater growth than the beeches; and had
the beeches been cut down in the same manner as the thorns, it is
very possible that the one half of them would have died. This
explains the reason for cutting the oue and not the other ; that is,
the growth of the thorn plant is encouraged by severe cutting,
while that of the beech in its young state is the reverse, particu-
larly as regards the old wood.
I am aware that many foresters are in the habit of cutting over
in autumn the shoots of the first year in young thorn-hedges ;
but to this practice I beg to object ; because I have found, from
observation and experience, that it is an error. I, in all cases of
hedge-culture, allow the plants to remain uncut until they have
two years' wood upon them ; and when they have arrived at this
stage, I cut them over to about nine inches high, and dress in the
sides also pretty closely, say in the month of November; therefore,
ilming the first two summers after the hedge has been first planted,
all the attention necessary to be bestowed upon it, is that of keep-
in g it clear of weeds, which is simply done with a small spade,
termed the hedge-cleaner, (Fig. 6,) which is about four feet in
length, including the handle, and the spade itself is three FrG- *>•
and a half inches broad by about seven inches long, ex-
cluding the hose, which is about the same length as the
spade. This spade is kept pretty sharp upon the edge.
and is wrought much in the same manner as a gardener
does a Dutch hoe. The hedges should be cleaned twice
in the season — namely, in the months of June and August.
Before entering further into the management of
hedges a- a fence, it may be necessary for me here to
explain the nature of my objection for not cutting over
thorn-hedges of one year's growth as many do. It is
this : Having from experience found that a young hedge
48 MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
not cut the first season after planting, is much superior
two years afterwards to one that is cut in the usual way, I
two years ago set myself to prove the matter upon practical
principles. I therefore planted two pieces of hedge, and left the
one cut, and the other uncut, during the following winter ; and
during the second summer I watched the progress of each
minutely : the hedge that was left uncut, came away much earlier
in the season than the one that was cut over ; and during the sum-
mer I found the leaves and shoots of the uncut hedge much
stronger and healthier in appearance than those of the cut one ;
and in the month of October, when the wood of both was fully
ripened, upon comparing them together, I found the older shoots
of the uncut plants decidedly superior to those that had been cut.
From this I concluded that, when the shoots of the first year's
growth are left upon the plants during the second year, they, from
having a great surface of leaves and prepared young wood upon
them, are enabled to carry on the vital functions more early and
readily ; consequently, much nourishment is drawn up from the
soil, and a regular proportion of woody matter made in the plant ;
whereas, in the case of the cut plants, I considered that, in the early
part of the second summer, when the uncut plants were expanding
their leaves and drawing nourishment both from the soil and air,
the cut ones, from the want of young wood, had to make new
leaves, and young wood also, before they could grow as rapidly as
the others. But after the plants are two years old, and properly
established in the soil, I have always found that they grow more
vigorously from being well cut ; therefore it is that I object to
the cutting of thorns until they have their roots properly estab-
lished ; and that is, after they have been two years in the soil.
In the training up of a hedge, where the object is that of having
a firm and compact fence, capable of resisting the ordinary efforts
of cattle of any description, the best mode is that of keeping the
ground, immediately under the hedge plants, clean from all weeds,
as this secures the health of the hedge in the under part, and
allows it to spread down to the very ground ; whereas, when
weeds are allowed to grow under the hedge, it soon becomes
bare and naked of branches, and proves open and weak there.
MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES. 49
In the cleaning of hedge fences, it is also an object of great
importance to dig the ground and keep the same clear of weeds at
least one foot beyond the drij) on each side ; for this secures a free
current of air passing through, without which a hedge fence is
sure to become bare under. This cleaning, once the ground has
been a few years regularly kept, may be done for one halfpenny a
rood per year throughout the whole period ; but if the hedges have
been allowed to become dirty from the want of attention, and if
they have not been cleaned for several years, as is too often the
case, they may cost four or five pence a rood to put them in order,
even for one cleaning, besides the injury done to the fence.
These observations I make here in order to point out the great
necessity and propriety of keeping all hedge fences clean ; for
although it may indeed cost a proprietor a few pounds each
year to do so, still, if the work be neglected only for three or
four vcars, a much larger sum is eventually required to put them
right, independent of in a great measure ruining his property.
Having said this much as to keeping clean all hedge fences, I
in the next place have to say, that in the training up of a hedge,
where the object is that of having a firm and compact fence
capable of resisting cattle, the great point is, after that of keeping
clean, to cut the fence yearly according to a given form ; and this
form must in all cases be regulated by the situation in which the
fence grows, by the object in view, and in a great measure by
the taste of the proprietor. In order to illustrate my meaning
more fully, I shall make a few remarks upon each of these points.
I said that it is necessary to cut hedge fences yearly; and I believe
that there are very few practical foresters who will not agree with
me upon this point ; for every one who has had his attention
directed to the rearing of such fences, at once sees the difference
between a hedge not cut yearly and one that is cut yearly. In the
first case, the hedge soon begins to get bare at bottom and over-
bushy at top; besides, it very soon becomes loose and open, and
without firmness or compactness to resist as a fence ought to do.
In the latter case, the hedge, from being regularly cut, is kept
close in texture from bottom to top, and is healthy and long-lived
ompared with one not regularly cut.
D
50 MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
In cutting young Ledges and training them up to maturity, I
in all cases allow the plants to remain uncut till the end of the
second year, when, for the first time, I cut them over about nine
inches from the surface, and at the same time I cut in the sides
pretty closely also, using for the purpose what is termed the
hedger's switching-bill, (see Fig. 7,) and never the shears, as some
do in cutting young hedges. The shears, in all cases where FlG ^
they are used for cutting a hedge, make a rough wound, |-^
which is generally attended with the loss of a bud or two
under the wound ; but the switching-bill, upon the contrary,
makes a clean cut, and no bad consequences follow. Besides,
a hedge that is cut by using the bill is in all cases trained
up more closely and firm than one cut with the shears. In ■
cutting a hedge for the second time, which will be when it
is three years old, I cut it down to about twelve inches in
height, making it regular on the top level; and in the side cut-
ting I leave only about one inch of a spur of the last year's
growth. This I continue to do each year successively
until I have the fence of full size: that is, in each successive
cutting that I give a young thorn-hedge annually, I leave it four
inches higher, and one broader on each side, than it was the pre-
vious year, until I have it four feet high, after which period I keep
it down each following year as nearly to the old height as pos-
sible. For every forester must be aware that, in cutting hedges,
they will increase in height and breadth of their own accord
under the best system of cutting ; seeing that, in the act of
cutting off the annual shoots, there is always a short piece left,
called a spur, at the base of every young shoot cut. So much,
indeed, does this increase the bulk of the best-kept hedges, that
in course of time it is found necessary to reduce them in bulk,
and to allow them to come away anew again, which yet remains
to be explained. A hedge, in course of a number of years,
however well kept, generally outgrows itself, from the cause
above stated ; and this state of a hedge is easily known by its
becoming loose in habit, and of an open, overgrown appearance.
Now, there is no way of renewing a hedge in this state but that
of cutting it in, or what is termed ribbing ; and this ribbing con-
MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES. 51
sists in stripping the hedge of its side branches, and allowing
it to make new wood all over. But in doing this, caution must be
used ; for I have more than once seen, where hedges had been
ribbed without due caution, that they died down to the surface,
and consequently had to be cut over at that part, and allowed to
grow up anew from the old roots. Therefore, in the ribbing of a
hedge, the following points must be kept in view : — "When it is
found necessary to ribb in a hedge, let it be considered whether
or not the situation be an exposed one ; and if the situation be not
an exposed one, nor in a part of the country exposed to the sea,
nor more than six hundred feet above the level of the sea, the
ribbing may be done from November to the first of April, as may
best suit. In doing the work, the operator will use what is
termed the ribbing-bill, which is much stronger and heavier than
the switching-bill, and has less hook upon the point. In ribbing
the hedge, the operator cuts off all the lateral branches upwards^
to within about four inches of the main stems upon each side ;
and the hedge over all should also be reduced in height to about
three feet. It should also be kept in view, in the case of ribbing in
a hedge, that if sheep or cattle are in the habit of grazing in the
field adjoining, the ribbing should be done at a period when the
field is under farm-crop, and when there is to be no stock grazing for
a year or two after ; for if it should be done at a period when sheep
or other animals are in the field where the hedge is, they are sure to
injure it by eating the young shoots as they grow; besides, their
hair and grease are injurious to the welfare of a hedge so closely
cut in. Again, where the situation of a hedge to be ribbed is
much exposed, do not ribb it before the month of March or
April, when any severe check from the effects of exposure is
likely to be over for the season. From this rule not being
observed, I have frequently seen hedges die down to the ground
when they were ribbed in the winter season upon a high and
exposed part.
Switching hedges is generally done for a halfpenny per rood,
and ribbing for twopence; that is to say, when such work is con-
tracted for by hedgers.
There is also the renewing of old and neglected hedge fences to be
52 MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
taken into consideration ; and as work of this kind often comes
under the management of the land-steward and forester, I shall
make a few remarks upon the same. It very often happens that
where hedge fences have been badly managed for a few years
successively, they begin to die out by degrees : this is evi-
denced by many of the plants becoming stunted in appearance,
and by gaps occurring here and there from deaths among the
plants, and the more healthy of them becoming tall and spreading.
A hedge in a state of this kind would not be sufficiently renewed
by ribbing in. In order to renew such a hedge, the plants require
to be all cut down to within about six inches of the ground,
observing to make the cuts upwards. When this is done, and
the rubbish removed, the ground should be well cleaned, and dug to
the extent of about eighteen inches upon each side of the hedge line,
and all gaps among the old stumps made up with new or young
plants. In making up with young plants, I have to observe,
that thorns should never be used in such cases, as they never suc-
ceed well where old thorns have been growing : but in all cases of
this nature, use beech plants, for they thrive well among old
thorns. Work of this kind may be done during fresh weather any
time during winter ; and in order to have the hedge continue
sound and prove a good fence afterwards, it must be kept clean,
protected, and regularly cut, as has been already stated.
We now come to consider the form in which hedge fences
should be trained up ; and, as I have already said, this form
must be regulated by the situation in which the fence grows, by
the object in view, and in a great measure by the taste of the pro-
prietor.
There are four forms of hedge fences as generally adopted in
different districts of Scotland ; namely, the wedge-shaped, the full-
sided, the square-shaped, and the upright. The form of each of
these will be better understood by referring to Figs. 8, 9, 10, and
11, which represent an end section of each of the four different
forms mentioned.
A few remarks upon each of these forms of hedges will be
enough under the present head.
The wedge-shaped hedge, an end section of which is represented
MANAGEMENT OF HEDGE FENCES.
53
by Fig. 8, is of all others the best form for a high-lying district
where snow is apt to prevail ; and it is, moreover, the form which
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. ML
Vic,. 11.
is by far the simplest to keep in order in the way of cutting.
In high-lying parts of the country, hedges are often much injured
by heavy falls of snow resting upon them; and in a case of this
nature the wedge form is the best for a hedge that can be adopted,
seeing that much perpendicular pressure cannot lie upon any part
of it. It is this shape of a hedge that we have upon all the
high-lying farms upon the estate of Arniston ; and although snow
often lies there pretty heavy, none of our hedges are ever hurt
by it.
The full-sided hedge, an end section of which is represented by
'.». is the most common form to be found in all agricultural
district-, for which it is very well adapted; for, by its bulging
sides, it is not easily approached too close or injured by stock of
any kind ; but it is very apt to go out of order, and to overgrow
itself, if not under skilful and good management. Excellent speci-
mens of this form of hedge arc to be seen in the Lothians of
54 MANAGEMENT OF WHIN OR FURZE HEDGES.
Scotland, where the soil is well adapted for its healthy develop-
ment. It is not, however, adapted for a high-lying county where
snow is apt to prevail, for its bulging sides are very apt to be
crushed and broken by the weight of snow lying upon it ; and this
I have had frequent proof of, in Aberdeenshire particularly.
The square-shaped hedge, an end section of which is repre-
sented by Fig. 10, is solely adapted for gentlemen's home or policy
grounds, and ought never to be introduced either as a Avood or a
field fence ; and I merely advert to it in order to point out its
impropriety for general use. It is all very well to have a fence of
this kind round a garden, where it may be well kept ; but as a
general county fence, it is the most liable of all to become over-
grown and useless.
The upright hedge is an admirable fence, and is well adapted
for pleasure-ground scenery, or about home parks, but not at
all for a farm or field fence. Now I think it is plain, from
what I have said, that, in choosing the form of a hedge, it is
always of the first importance to consult what is most useful
rather than that which is most ornamental. It would be foolish to
rear up a hedge in the square form upon a high-lying district,
merely for the sake of gratifying the taste, when it is well
known that such a form would not answer. In short, such a
state of things would be bad taste ; yet it is very often to be
observed. For my own part, I consider the wedge-shaped
and the full-sided forms the best that can be adopted for useful-
ness ; and the other two I consider merely as ornamental forms,
but well adapted for the producing of extra shelter upon home
grounds.
SECTION VII. — THE MANAGEMENT OF WUIN OR FURZE HEDGES.
The whin or furze hedge is one which prevails much in many
parts of the north of Scotland as a plantation fence ; but it does
not, in my opinion, make a fence worthy of being recommended,
seeing that the whin is extremely apt to be injured by a winter
of severe frost; and, in their best condition, the whin hedges form
MANAGEMENT OF WHIN OE FURZE HEDGES.
55
such harbours for rabbits, that they are extremely objectionable as
a feuce for young plantations. I do not know of any case in which
whin hedges have been planted where a properly-managed hedge
of thorn or beech would not do much better in every sense of the
word, it being longer lived and more ornamental.
I am aware that in many parts of the north of Scotland where
whin hedges are, it is considered that any other sort of hedge
would not thrive nor make a useful fence nearly so well. But as to
this I am decidedly of an opposite opinion ; for in many parts of
the north of Scotland, not more than four hundred feet above the
level of the sea, Avhin hedges may be found in abundance,
forming miserable, half-dead looking fences, where, if thorn and
beech had been planted instead, a permanent, good-looking fence
would no doubt have been reared. Again, and in opposition to
this, upon the estate of Arniston we have excellent thorn and
beech fences fully eight hundred feet above the level of the sea,
which at once shows that even in a high district a thorn and beech
hedge is much to be preferred to any other. Notwithstanding
this, many are much in favour of whin hedges as a plantation
fence; and upon this account I shall give a few directions as to
the method of rearing them.
By referring to Fig. 12, the method of rearing whin hedges,
Fig. 12.
as generally practised in the north of Scotland, will be easily
understood, d is an open ditch, broken about four feet wide at
56 MANAGEMENT OF WHIN OR FURZE HEDGES.
top, and sloped in to about one foot wide at bottom. It will
also be observed, that the slope of the ditch upon the field side
is more flat than that of the plantation side, and this is in order
to make the plantation side of the ditch act better as a fence.
The ditch is made about three feet deep from the ground level, and
the turf, as taken from the surface of the ground in making the
ditch, is built upon the plantation side to about the height of other
two feet above the surface, making the fence altogether, from the
bottom of the ditch, five feet high. In order to make the turf-
built part of the fence secure, it is made about two feet thick,
with the same slope backwards as the side of the ditch under, and
founded firmly upon the surface. The earth, as taken from the ditch,
is banked firmly behind and a little over the top of the turf, in
order to form a bed for the sowing of the whins, as at b. The
whole being finished, the seed of the whins is sown in a line along
the top of the bank, as at a, about eighteen inches back from the
upper edge of the fence.
When the young plants appear above ground, the seed being
sown in April, they are kept clean during the first and second
years, and thinned when too thick ; and the third summer, when
they have become pretty strong, they receive a dressing with the
switching-bill. In doing this, they are cut in the direction of
the field — that is to say, the bill is entered at the back or plantation
side of the whins, and brought forward, cutting towards the ditch,
or downwards ; and by this means the young shoots are made to
grow out in that direction, presenting all their points to the field,
and consequently forming the best position for a fence. Whin
hedges ought never to be cut at any time of the year but when they
have newly shed their flowers, which is about the middle of June;
for it is then that they form their young wood, and are conse-
quently most improved by cutting. I have seen many whin
hedges die from being cut in spring or autumn; consequently they
ought never to be cut but in the beginning of their growing sea-
son. In the training of a whin hedge, they are made to lie over
the slope, as at c, and not allowed to spread much back into the
wood. The best fences of this description that I have seen are
upon the Earl of Fife's estates in Aberdeenshire.
STONE AND LIME "WALLS. 57
SECTION VIII. — STONE AND LIME WALLS AS APPLIED TO MAKING
SINK FENCES.
The building of stone and lime walls Is, properly speaking,
more a part of masonry than of forestry ; but it must be admitted
that foresters and land-stewards, who have to superintend country
business generally, are often called upon by their employers to
give an estimate of the expenses of buildings of this nature.
And more especially as I have frequently to produce estimates of
masonry in so far as it is applied to fencing, it is more than likely
that other foresters may have to do the same ; and it is for this
reason that I advert to it.
Stone and lime walls are most frequently built for the purpose
of policy-fences, or for sunk fences. As to the erecting of walls
for the protecting of home or policy grounds, the dimensions of
such must in all cases be regulated by the view of the proprietor:
that is, if the proprietor merely wish to have a wall erected in
order to protect his home grounds from the inroads of cattle, the
same may be built sixteen inches thick at bottom, twelve inches
at top immediately under the cope ; the cope may be ten inches
high, pick dressed, and project two inches over the building on
each side ; and the whole height of the wall may be made, includ-
ing the cope, live and a half feet. A stone and lime wall of these
dimensions may in general be got done for 2s. 9d. per lineal
yard, calculating that the stones have to be quarried and carted a
distance of about a mile.
If the proprietor wish to have a stone and lime wall erected,
sufficient to protect from the inroads of people who may be apt
to transgress in the neighbourhood, as well as to retain deer that
may be kept in the home parks, he would require to build it at least
about seven feet high ; and a wall of this height would require to
be eighteen inches thick at bottom, and fifteen inches at top of
building immediately under the cope, which would require to be at
Least twelve inches high. A wall of such dimensions may in
general cases be got done for about 4s. 9d. per lineal yard,
including carting of stones as above. A great point to attend to
58 STONE AND LIME WALLS
in the building of stone walls for fences is, to see that no soft or
bad stones be used, particularly in the outer part of the building;
for if such be used, the wall is sure not to last long, nor give any-
thing like permanent satisfaction ; therefore, the forester or land-
steward who may be intrusted with the inspection of such work,
should be most careful to see that this point be enforced upon the
contractor. There is another point to be observed in the erecting
of all stone walls, whether these may be built with lime or not ;
and that is, to see that all the stones used in the building be laid
upon what is generally termed their natural bed ; that is, the
natural seams in the stones should lie horizontally in the building,
and not vertically.
Having said this much as to the building of stone and lime
walls as they are generally applied to the fencing of policy
grounds, I now come to treat of them as they are generally applied
in the making of sunk fences. But previous to giving directions
as to the manner of doing this sort of work, I will say a little as
to the propriety or impropriety of making sunk fences.
The sunk fence is one which, from its very name, is meant to
be hidden. It is a fence often to be met with upon noblemen's
and gentlemen's estates of old standing, and was a hundred
years ago very much introduced in the laying out of grounds and
home parks ; but now since wire fences have come to be so much
used, the erecting of sunk fences is fast giving way, and they are very
seldom introduced; excepting, indeed, where they may answer
some particular purpose, as on the slope of a hill or brae, for which
situation the sunk fence is admirably adapted, and is of all others
the most fit and suitable. No doubt, "taste is everything;" but,
in my opinion, in the matter of fencing, that taste is always the
most pleasing to all parties which can produce something light
and airy, and of the most natural appearance, and at the same
time at the least amount of expense. Now, in applying this to
the erecting of sunk fences near or about home parks — where, in-
deed, taste should always be taken into consideration — we at once
see that a sunk fence is, in regard to lightness, airy and natural
appearance, much inferior to the wire fence, and is, at the same
time, much more expensive in the first erection ; therefore, in my
AS ArrLIED TO MAKING SUNK FENCES. 59
opinion, sunk fences ought never to be made upon any level piece
of ground, but instead, the wire-fence should be erected. But
upon any steep, sloping bank, where it is desirable to have a fence,
I would recommend the sunk fence, with a low wire fence on the
top, as a complete and answerable thing. As I am aware that
many proprietors are much in favour of sunk fences as generally
made, I shall here, in order to assist superintendents of such work,
give a detail of the manner of erecting them.
There are two sorts of sunk fences — namely, the angular and
the trapezoid. The angular is made with a wall upon one side,
and a paling fence upon the top ; and the trapezoid is made with-
out any wall, but having a paling fence in the centre. The con-
struction of these will be better understood by referring to the
following Figures.
Fig. 13 is an end section of an angular sunk fence, as
often met with in the home grounds of old seats. The dis-
Fig. 13.
tance from a to f is generally eight feet, being the surface
of the opening or ditch ; the height of the wall, including the
cope from / to b, is generally about five feet six inches ; and
the breadth of the ditch at b, being the bottom, is generally
from eighteen to twenty-four inches. But in the act of
excavating a sunk fence of this description, it is always neces-
sary to calculate upon the thickness of the wall; that is to
if it be required to make the sunk fence eighteen inches
wide at bottom and eight feet wide at top when finished, and if the
wall is to be eighteen inches thick, it will be necessary to make
60 STONE AND LIME WALLS
the opening at least three feet wide at bottom in the first place,
and nine and a half feet wide at top. In building the wall
upon a sunk fence, it ought to be founded upon large flat stones,
laid upon their natural bed, as at c; and these ought to extend at
least three inches wider than the bottom of the wall. The wall
ought to be at least sixteen inches broad at bottom, and thirteen
at top immediately under the cope ; the cope-stones ought to
project two inches over the wall upon the ditch side ; and the wall
should be built of the best stones in the neighbourhood, and
well-prepared lime. The cope-stone should always be above the
surface of the ground, as shown at f in the Figure. I have fre-
quently observed sunk fences of this description tumbling down at
a very early period after being built : this was occasioned by
the damp ground behind the wall not allowing the lime to adhere
to the stones — the wall, as it were, being always kept in a moist
state. In order to prevent this effectually, a space of about eight
inches wide should be filled up with dry stones immediately upon
the back of the wall, about three feet high from the bottom, as
represented at e in the Figure. This acts as a drain for the conduct-
ing away of the water ; and, consequently, the building is kept
dry and good. In order to carry off the water from behind
the wall into the ditch &, holes about three inches wide by six
inches deep may be left at convenient distances all along the bot-
tom of the wall ; and these holes should go right through the
thickness of the wall at bottom, and should communicate with the
drain behind.
In order to make the fence more effectual for the field upon the
side of which the wall is built, a low paling ought to be erected
immediately behind the cope, and made to project over the top of
the wall, as seen at g in the Figure ; which paling may not be
more than two feet high, and it may be either made of wood or
iron, as may be found most expedient. Many have a hedge
planted upon the top wdiere the paling is shown in the Figure,
which is, indeed, a great improvement where shelter is wanted
upon a high part ; but this is not generally necessary with sunk
fences upon level ground — where, indeed, they are not meant to be
seen — but only upon slopes where the situation is an exposed one.
AS APPLIED TO MAKING SUNK FENCES. 61
Fig. 14 will explain the nature of the sunk fence with a hedge, as
it is adapted for a high unlevel part, where immediate shelter is
found of the greatest importance.
I consider the sunk fence, as represented in Fig. 14, to be one
excellently adapted for a high-lying county, upon the slopes of
Fig. 14.
Surface
rising and unequal ground. The Avail «, which is four feet high
with cope, may be very properly built of stones, without the addi-
tion of any lime if thought necessary, excepting the cope, which
should in all cases be put on with lime ; and in such a case the
wall need not be more than fourteen inches through at bottom, and
ten inches at top ; and if the wall be built without lime, it will not
be necessary to make a drain behind, as formerly advised, seeing
that the water can perfectly well escape without it. The hedge b
should be planted about sixteen inches back from the top of the
wall. In order to protect the hedge, while in its young state, from
cattle upon either side, it is necessary to have a two-barred paling, c,
upon the ditch side of the hedge, and a three-barred one, d, upon the
upper side. We have some of these sunk fences upon the high farms
upon the estate of Arniston, which answer the purpose excellently,
few fences being better adapted for a hilly country — that is to say,
where the line of fence runs at right angles with the slope of the
ground. In the first instance, there is shelter produced for stock
by the wall itself, which is yearly increased as the hedge grows :
and ultimately, when the hedge has arrived at perfection, a clothed
appearance is produced, which gives a very pleasing effect.
I may further state, relative to the building of sunk-fence walls,
that it adds much to their strength to have them secured by what
62 STONE AND LIME WALLS
is termed through-band stones, as shown in Fig. 13 at d: and in
Fig. 14 at e. These through-band stones should be put on about
two-thirds of the height of the wall, with at least one to every
six feet in length, and should consist of large' flat stones about
three inches thick, and of a length sufficient to reach from
the front of the wall to at least one foot into the solid earth
behind, into which they should be firmly bedded, in order
to prevent the weight of the bank, if it should give way above,
from pressing forward the building. Another point to attend to
in the building of sunk fences, and which adds much to the
strength of the whole, is, instead of building the front of the wall
perpendicularly, to make it lie back about three inches at the top ;
or, as masons term it, " the top should be three inches backwards
off the plumb:" this is indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 13,
which shows the true perpendicularity — the wall standing three
inches back from it at top.
We now come to speak of the cost of erecting sunk fences with
walls ; and the undernoted calculation will show this, as it is taken
from my own note-book, containing an account of work of the
same nature per lineal yard : —
Cost of erecting a Sunk Fence as shown in Fig. 13.
To excavating and removing earth 100 yards distant — say
3 cubic yards, at 6d. per yard,
.. quarrying 2 carts stones, at 3d. per cart,
.. cartage of do. one mile, at Is. per cart,
.. building 1 yard in length, including lime,
.. laying turf on the slope,
.. wood-paling on top,
Cost of erecting a Sunk Fence as shown in Fig. 14
To excavating and removing earth 100 yards distant — say
2 cubic yards, at 4d. per yard,
.. quarrying and carting stones one mile,
.. building 1 yard in length, including lime for cope only,
.. laying turf on the slope, ....
.. putting up double paling, ....
.. digging ground and planting hedge, including plants for
same, .....
£0
1
6
0
0
6
0
2
0
0
1
4
0
0
3
0
0
3
£0
5
10
L4.
£0
0
8
0
1
3
0
0
5
0
0
1
0
0
7
0
0
3
£0
3
3
AS APPLIED TO MAKING SUNK FENCES.
63
In giving the above estimates, I beg to be understood that, in
many cases where materials are easily attainable, the work may
be got done for much less money.
The trapezoid sunk fence, as I formerly mentioned, is made
without any wall, having a paling in the centre. It is not so
generally in use as the angular sorts which I have already
described, being only introduced into low marshy parts of the
country, where walls cannot well be had on account of the
want of stones ; and in such districts it answers a double purpose —
namely, that of an outlet for the carrying away of water from the
adjoining fields, as well as forming a fence.
The construction of the trapezoid sunk fence will be understood
from the undernoted Figure, which is an end section of the same.
Fie. 15.
Ground
level
Jk
These fences are generally made fifteen feet wide at top, as
from a to b ; five feet deep, and three feet wide at bottom; and
are in most cases excavated at the rate of 8d. per cubic yard —
removing the earth to the distance of one hundred yards. A
paling is generally erected along the bottom of the sunk fence, as
at c, in order to keep back cattle from either side ; and when the
slopes are finished and properly levelled, the turf from the top should
be laid down upon the sides again. When this is insufficient,
both sides should be turfed from bottom to top, by carting it from
a distance ; because, if not turfed, the slopes arc very apt to crumble
down into the water-course, and set the water to work in under-
mining the sides. Besides, where cattle arc to be pastured upon
either side, it is absolutely necessary to have it laid with turf.
Work of this description ought to be done in the spring, or at least
64 BUILDING OF DIJY STONE DYKES.
iii the early part of summer, so as to have the turf growing and
bound to the soil before the floods of autumn set in.
Fences of this description are not now much in use, it being old-
fashioned, and, in my opinion, unsightly. However, as there are
many of them both in England and Scotland, particularly in the
flat-lying mossy districts, I have considered it but right to advert
to the making of them. I have even assisted in the making of
such a fence myself in the Lowlands of Scotland, particularly in
Fifeshire, in wet undrained districts, where it answers well both as
a fence and an outlet for superfluous water; but in high-lying,
drained, or well-improved districts, it is a fence of no importance.
SECTION IX. — THE BUILDING OF DRY STONE DYKES.
The most extensively used fence in the high inland districts of
Scotland and the north of England, is the dry stone dyke. From
the nature of the country in those high districts, stones are plenti-
ful, and of course easily attainable ; from which circumstance it
is a fence much in use for all purposes. Stone dykes have the
effect of affording considerable shelter both to young plantations
and agricultural cropping as soon as they are erected for that pur-
pose ; and are also of great importance in high countries, as giving
immediate shelter to cattle in the adjoining fields, which is a great
point in favour of their extensive use. This, of course, is not the
case with a young hedge fence, which requires from nine to twelve
years to produce shelter of great importance.
The dry stone dyke used to be built entirely without the addi-
tion of any lime or mortar to bind it, and consequently it was
always apt to be broken down by cattle or any other strong pres-
sure coming in contact with it ; but, within twelve years past, a
great improvement has been effected in the building of them, by
having the top, or cope stones, all put on and bedded in lime,
which keeps the dyke altogether in a more firm and compact state
than that built upon the old principle of having no lime upon any
part of the dyke.
Dry stone dykes are built of various heights, from four to six
BUILDING OF DRY STONE DYKES. 65
feet ; but the most approved height for general purposes may be
said to be five feet over all. In giving directions as to the proper
manner of executing the work of building dry stone dykes, I
.-hull here give what are termed Specifications for building dykes of
the description mentioned ; and as they are of the most approved
sort for work of this kind, such a copy of specifications may no
doubt prove useful to foresters and land-stewards in general who
may have occasion to superintend such work. The following is a
copy of the specifications which I use in erecting our dykes upon
the estate of Arniston : —
MINUTE of AGREEMENT between Robert Duxdas, Esq. of Arniston,
on the one part, and Thomas Prixgle, residing at Stow, on the other
part — for erecting a March Fence between the farm of Yorston and
the farm of Outcrston, upon the estate of Arniston.
Ftrrt, — The stone dyke to be erected under the present agreement
is on that part of the line of march beginning at the present
shepherd's house, and from said shepherd's house to the extreme
summit of the hill.
S cond, — The said dyke shall be built according to the following spe-
cifications : —
The dyke is to be five feet high. The foundation must be
laid with large flat stones, which foundation must not be less
than thirty-four inches over. The setting-off of building upon
the said foundation must be twenty-eight inches, leaving a scarce-
ment of three inches upon each side. At twent}'-seven inches
in height, the dyke to have a row of through-hand stones, six at
least to the rood of eighteen feet The dyke to be built forty-
five inches of double, and the cope and coble to stand fifteen
inches. The coble stones to project at least two inches over the
doubles. The cope and coble to be properly bedded, built and
pointed with lime, which must be mixed with the regular and
proper quantity of Band. The whole to be finished in a sufficient
and workman-like manner, to the satisfaction of A. B., who is
appointed inspector of the work
Third, — The said Thomas Pringle binds and obliges himself to exe-
oute the whole of the work, in terms of the above specifications,
at the price of twelve thillingt per rood of eighteen feet, lineal
sure : and to complete the same before the first day of
next, but with power to the inspec-
E
6B BUILDING OF DKY STONE DYKES.
tor above named to extend the time for building as he may see
proper and right.
Fourth, — The said Thomas Pringle further binds himself to uphold
the said dyke for five years froni the time that the work is
finished, and at the expiry of that period to deliver it over to the
proprietor in a proper state, and to the satisfaction of the said
inspector, or any qualified person who may be appointed by the
proprietor.
Fifth, — The whole of the stones used in building the dyke must be of
good quality, and approved of by the inspector above named. And
no crop of rock or wasting stones shall be used ; and the contractor
shall pay the tenants of Yorston or Outerston for any damage they
may sustain from quarrying or driving the stones through their
fields or over their grass lands.
Sixth, — The contractor, on receiving full payment of the price, shall
either find good security for implement of the contract, or leave
in the hands of the proprietor the sum of sixpence per rood for
the said period of five years. In witness thereof, these presents,
written by A. B., are subscribed by the said Robert Dundas,
Esq., at Arniston, the twenty-third day of May, in the year
eighteen hundred and forty-eight, before these witnesses, P. S.,
W. M., and R. S. ; and by the said Thomas Pringle, at Stow,
upon the day last mentioned, before these witnesses, J. P. and
A. H.
P. S Witness. R. Dcxdas.
W. M. „
R. S. „
J. P. Witness. Thomas Pringle.
A. H. „
Having given the above form of specification for the erecting of
stone dykes, I consider it superfluous to add more upon that point,
as any intelligent man may, from consulting the same, be perfectly
qualified to take charge of such work. A dyker is, properly
speaking, a business separate from that of a forester. No forester or
land-steward can be expected to be an adept in building stone dykes
himself: all that is required on their part is to know how the work
ought to be conducted upon right principles, and to be so far a
practical judge of the matter as to detect what is wrong from what
is right as the work proceeds. There are dykers enough in
most districts where such fences are in general use who can be
BUILDING OF DRY STONE DYKES. G7
got to do the work at a fair rate ; and all that is required of the
inspector is to see and to be able to know how the work should be
done. I may, however, here state, that in building stone dykes
the inspector should examine minutely, as the work goes on, if the
same be well built together ; that is, he must see that no open
spaces be left in the body of the dyke, which should in all cases
be firmly packed with the smaller stones ; and the method which I
take, when suspicious in this matter, is to give the dyke a stroke
with my foot about half height on the one side, and if opposite to
this part where I strike the dyke it come out a little, just in pro-
portion to the stroke given, as may be observed by another person
on the opposite side, the dyke may be considered well packed] but
if the stroke of the foot does not tell upon the opposite side, and
cannot be observed by the eye, it is certain that the dyke is hollow
within, there being no due solidity throughout so as to cause one
stone to press upon another from side to side when the stroke is
given. The inspector ought also to see that all the stones used be
put or laid on their natural bed, and that every individual stone
rest upon two lying under it, and never upon one.
The cost of erecting stone dykes is various in different parts of
the country, that depending entirely on the price of labour in
the neighbourhood where the dyke is to be erected, as well as upon
the conveniency of getting stones for the purpose. If stones are
to be carted far for the line of fence, the expense becomes con-
siderable ; but the stones being laid down, it is generally got done
fur two shillings and ninepence per rood of six yards, including
the cope and coble well put on with lime. In Mid-Lothian I have
>i'ii dykes put up for five shillings per rood, including every item
ot expense) and in this case the stones were plenty in the adjoin-
ing tidds, consequently the cartage was easily executed. In other
instances, where the stones were difficult to quarry, and where the
stance of the dyke was about a mile from the quarry, 1 have seen
fourteen shillings per rood paid ; therefore, in calculating the
expenses of erecting dry stone dykes, the distance of cartage for
the stones is the most material point of consideration. A dyke
five feet high, as I have specified above, requires about ten cart-
loads of stones to the rood ; and when the quarry is opened, and
G8 BUILDING OF TURF DYKES.
the nature of the stones observed, it will not be a difficult matter
to calculate the quarrying, cartage, and building, in any particular
district.
SECTION X. — THE BUILDING OF TURF DYKES.
In many high-lying parts of Scotland, where stones are not
easily got at, and where, upon account of the nature of the soil,
it would not be advisable to plant hedges, a very neat and
answerable fence is often put up for the purpose of enclosing
both young plantations and agricultural fields, termed the turf
dyke.
The nature and dimensions of turf dykes, as I generally build
them, will be at once understood by referring to Fig. 16, which
Fig. 16.
Surface
1 b e*i
■ -- ■
is an end section of a turf dyke ; and as they are not, like stone
dykes, built by a class of men making such work their business,
but must be built entirely under the eye of the forester or land-
steward, I shall enter rather minutely into detail of the method
of erecting them, so that any intelligent man, from consulting the
Figure and directions herein given, may be enabled to erect turf
dykes in any part.
The line for the erecting of a turf dyke being laid off by a set
of pins running along the tract of the ground upon which the fence
is to be, the operator, in beginning the work of building, first
measures eighteen inches from the centre of the line of fence as
at o, to one side as at a, where he fixes the end of his line into
BUILDING OF TURF DYKES. 69
the ground, and, stretching it along the run of fence as far as his
line will reach, he fixes the other end of it eighteen inches from
the centre, in the same manner as at the end where he first started,
and of course upon the same side of the fence ; and having his
line tightly stretched and pinned exactly eighteen inches from the
centre at any given point, he next proceeds to edge off with a
spade the whole length of the line, in order to form one side of
the foundation-stance of the dyke. In edging off the side of the
stance along the line as has been stated, the operator must cut the
surface or turf, standing with his face to the field and his feet
upon the foundation part of the intended dyke, and this in order
that the edge of the stance, as at a, may be cut with a considerable
slope outwards, as shown in the Figure at a, upon each side. This
sloping of the edge of the stance or foundation is meant to answer
a two-fold purpose, namely — the turf when cut from the ground
with a slope, when laid on in the building of the dyke, corresponds
with its sloping upwai'ds ; and the edge of the stance, when
finished in a sloping manner, lasts much longer than it could do
if it were cut perpendicularly. In the same manner the other
side of the stance should be cut or edged, as has been directed
for the first ; measuring also the other side eighteen inches from
the centre to the opposite side, making the foundation three feet
wide over all, as seen from a to a. The foundation having been
marked off as has been directed, the operator next proceeds to
measure outwards from the edge of it, as from a to 6, upon each
side, a turf fifteen inches broad at top ; and placing his line to the
same measurements, he edges off with his spade — which should be
an old half-worn one, kept pretty sharp — a line of turf fifteen
inches broad, the whole length of his first line on each side of
the stance ; and it must be observed here that, in edging off
these turfs upon each side, the operator must cut them with his
face to the stance of the dyke, in order to make the outer
edges of the turf slope contrary to the inner edges, as shown
in the Figure at b b ; consequently the two turfs, when cut and
turned upside down and laid along the side of each other upon
the foundation, will appear thus / \ . This
answers a two-fold purpose as the work proceeds — namely, the
70
BUILDING OF TURF DYKES.
Fig. 17.
turfs are at once prepared to answer the sloping of the dyke as it
progresses upwards ; and as the turfs, in the case of joining them in
the centre of the building, are much improved by having a por-
tion of earth put between the seams, this can at once be done by
filling up the opening caused by the contrary slopes meeting in
the centre, which opening is at once readily filled from par-
ing the bottoms of the turfs when lying as turned up out of the
earth, and levelling them for another layer of turf coming above
progressively.
The two lines of turf being formed by edging them off with an
old sharp spade, as directed above, a second man follows with what
is termed the flaughter-spade, (see Fig. 17,) with which spade he
cuts the turf line, now formed by the man before him, right across
into convenient lengths — say eighteen inches;
and as he cuts the turf into those lengths,
proceeding backicards, he by a jerk of the
implement turns each turf as it is formed
with its grass side uppermost. Each turf,
as it thus turned up, is laid hold of by a third
man, who lays it upon its bed in the forming
of the dyke, &c, always taking care to lay
the first course of turf three inches within
the outer edge a, on each side, which is meant
to form the margin, in order to support the
dyke the more firmly. When the three work-
men have got the first course of turfs laid on
the stance, they all proceed to have them
properly placed, joined in the seams, levelled,
and made properly firm ; and in the same manner they pro-
ceed throughout, one edging off the turfs with a line to an
exact measurement corresponding to the width of the dyke as it
advances ; consequently each succeeding layer of turf, as it is laid
on above another, will be proportionally narrower than the one
under : a second cuts the turf across into convenient lengths, and
heaves them up for his neighbour in order to lay hold of them the
more readily and put them upon their place in the building.
From the Figure representing the turf dyke, it will be observed
BUILDING OF TURF DYKES. 71
that the same is built from materials taken equally from each
side; and this is necessary in order to the more speedy building of
the whole, as well as taking an equal proportion of the surface
from each side, which will not cause the making of the one field
poorer than the other, as would be the case were the turf taken
all from one side.
The thickness of the turfs must in all cases be determined by
the nature of the soil. If the soil which forms the turf be light
and sandy, the less of such material that is taken up the better,
as it is extremely apt to moulder down quickly ; therefore, in a
light sandy soil, do not pare the turfs thicker than three inches;
and if the soil be heavy, four or five inches may answer ; but as a
general rule in this matter, do not take the turf thicker than you
have plenty of the fibrous roots of the grass in it.
It will be observed from the Figure that the first four layers of
the turf are double — that is to say, two in breadth ; and this is
necessary, for the great breadth of those under-turfs would render
the work necessarily difficult were they put on whole. My rule
in this case is to make the under half double turf, and the upper
half single ; and in all cases I put on the upper turf with the
grass up.
These dykes are generally made about thirty inches broad at
the bottom, and tapering regulai'ly upon each side to twelve or
fourteen inches at top.
In the erecting of all turf dykes, it is of the greatest importance
to the future welfare of the same as a fence, to build them at the
offset a few inches higher than it is ultimately intended they
shall be; because they in almost all cases subside a few inches
shortly after being put up. This is the more necessary to be
kept in view where the soil or turf of which the fence is built is
of a mossy or soft nature ; and of this I have, indeed, had ample
experience, which makes me desirous of guarding others against
mistakes of the same kind. And in order to make provision
against too much subsiding, I here recommend the following hints :
— Where the natural surface is very rank of grass or weeds of
any sort, cut the same as bare as possible with a scythe previous
to cutting the turf; and in the building of the same, if they are
72 BUILDING OF TURF DYKES.
damp and spongy, make the dyke at least nine inches higher than
you wish it to be ; that is to say, if you wish your turf fence to be
thirty inches ultimately, make it thirty-nine or forty ; but if the
turf used be off a moderately firm, loamy soil, three inches may be
quite enough to allow for subsiding. Where it is intended to have a
paling fence upon the top, as is always necessary unless the dyke
be made very high, such a paling should not be put up until the
fence has well subsided, else it would fall considerably under the
paling afterwards.
In all cases of erecting turf dykes, I recommend putting a
paling on the top, (see Fig. 16 at c,) in order to prevent sheep
or cattle of any description from getting over into a planta-
tion or adjoining field. If the fence is placed upon the edge of a
wood, and meant to protect it only, the paling may be put up as
represented in Fig. 16 at d; but if it is put up for the purpose of
dividing two fields, then the paling must be put up as represented
in the same Figure at c.
These palings should be of larch-wood, two bars deep, well
nailed to larch stobs driven into the dyke so deep as to go
through it into the solid ground. These turf dykes can be got
done for one penny per yard ; and if we include a two-barred
paling, with five stobs to the rood of eighteen feet, and include
also men's time in putting it up, with nails, the whole may be got
done for 5d. per yard.
There is another form of turf dyke often to be met with in
high parts of the country, made after the same manner as the
tckin-hedge fence, (Fig. 12,) which is an exact representation of the
same thing ; therefore I need not say more upon it here, only
that in general, instead of whins being sown upon the top,
one or two bars of paling are put on the top according to the
height.
Where much water prevails upon the ground, and where it is
likely by any sudden run to injure a turf fence of the description
mentioned, an open drain twenty-four inches by fourteen may be
made along the outer edge of the pared ground, as at e ; and the
earth taken out of it may be thrown in towards the bottom of the
dyke in order to keep that part high and set the water the more
METHOD OF ERECTING WOODEN PALINGS.
73
decidedly into the drain. The building of turf dykes should
always be done in the spring or the early part of summer, in order
that the turfs may be well grown together before winter sets in.
Upon the estate of Arniston we have several miles of turf fences
such as I have described above, and they answer the pur-
pose excellently. Sheep are, indeed, apt to rub them much
away at the bottom ; but in order to prevent this, a few stobs
should be driven into the ground upon the sheep walk, to act
as rubbing posts, which will in all cases entice the sheep from
the fence.
SECTION XI. — THE METHOD OF ERECTING VARIOUS SORTS OF
WOODEN PALlMo.
The variety of designs for wooden palings is endless ; and for
me to give, in a work of the present nature, anything like a
description of those termed ornamental palings, would be super-
fluous; therefore in the mean time I shall confine myself to the
description of a few only, and those such as are considered the
most useful for general purposes.
The most generally useful of all wooden palings as a structure
for a fence, is the horizontal, (see Fig. 18 ;) and this is, when well
Fig. 18.
__, , , 1 — /w/wrjm.
put up, a fence by no means void of ornament. The wooden
paling, as shown in the above Figure, consists of strong posts or
stobs, generally about three inches diameter, driven into the
ground at intervals of three and a half feet in the line of fence,
74 METHOD OF ERECTING
upon which stobs the bars are nailed horizontally at regular dis-
tances from, and parallel 1o, each other. As there is no fence
more commonly in use than the above, it will be of importance to
make a few practical observations as to the manner of putting
it up.
Having fixed upon the exact line upon which a wooden paling
is to be erected, ascertain the height that will be necessary for
the purpose in view ; and having decided upon this — say a three-
barred paling — then in this case the fence will require to be about
three feet high above ground when finished. Next ascertain if
the ground be of a hard or soft nature in the line of fence to be
erected. If soft, the stobs for the paling will require to be put at
least two feet into the ground, in order to make them properly firm
in their place, and to resist the presure of cattle ; if hard, then
eighteen inches in the ground will be sufficient for the depth of
the stobs in the ground. And, for one example, in the present
instance we shall say the ground upon which the paling is to be
erected is hard ; consequently, if the height of the paling, three
feet, be added to the necessary depth of the stob into the ground —
namely, eighteen inches — we have four and a half feet as the length
of the stobs required for the fence ; therefore let stobs of that length
be brought forward and laid all along the line of fence, laying
down one stob for every three and a half feet in length of the
fence, which is quite sufficient ; and upon having the stobs laid
down as directed, have the horizontal rails laid down also, begin-
ning at the one end of the fence line, and laying down three bars
together continuously to the other end, observing at the same
time, in laying out the stobs and rails, to keep them a little to one
side of the exact line of fence, in order that the men in working
may not be continually interrupted by them lying in their way ;
also observing not to lay the rails down carelessly upon the top
of the stobs, but to have both so distinct that the workmen can
have it in their power to lay hold of either stobs or rails without
them coming in contact with each other. I may here state, that
the general size of stobs used for this purpose is about three inches
diameter, and they may be either round wood, halved, or quartered
as the size of the wood may answer in making them. The best
WOODEN PALINGS. 75
sort of wood for stobs, which have to be driven into the ground,
and which are continually exposed to the extremes of both wet-
ness and dryness in the soil, is the larch. As far as my expeinenee
goes in this matter — and I have had much of it — I find that even
oak itself, when driven into the ground as a common stob, will
not last nearly so long as larch of the same age ; and I may
further state here, that of all the sorts of wood which I have used as
stobs to a fence, Scotch fir and alder are of the shortest duration ;
and' next to these, beech. The horizontal rails for paling are
generally made eighteen feet or a rood in length. These are
sometimes made of larch, and sometimes of spruce or Scotch fir.
Larch is out of all question the best for this purpose, and is gene-
rally sawn to the size of three and a half inches by seven-eighths of
an inch. Spruce fir is, in ray opinion, the next in quality for
paling rails, Scotch fir being inferior to it for lasting. Both these
are generally cut four inches by one inch.
The stobs and rails being all laid out as directed, the operator
will next provide himself with a garden-line for stretching along the
run of the fence ; also a common nail-hammer, or what is termed
No. 3 paling-hammer, with claws for pulling out nails, (see Fig.
19.) He will also require a bag for holding the
nails, and not have them Iving and scattered about, _ ._
J ° Fig. 19.
as many carelessly do; and this bag may be of leather
or of coarse sail-cloth, as may be most conveniently
had ; and as there are two sizes of nails used in the
putting up of paling, this bag ought to be divided
into two apartments, by being simply sewed up
the middle. Another important tool in the opera-
tion of fencing is what is commonly termed the
gtob in'//. Many use merely a block of ash-wood about ten
inches long and six inches in diameter for this purpose, having
of course a handle to it ; but a mell of this description never
answers well, nor can a workman do much execution with it :
tiny ought all to be made of iron, and may be about 12 lb.
freight. Fig. 20 represents the iron stob-mell which we use at
Arniston, which in the hands of an expert workman is a powerful
implement.
76 METHOD OF EKECTING
If the ground be very hard, and it be considered difficult
to get the stobs driven into the ground, not only upon
the consideration of the loss of time that would be
occasioned by having the men toiling and beating upon
a stob for some minutes before they could get it the
desired depth into the ground — but upon the consider-
ation also of the waste of the stobs that would be
occasioned, it will be proper and necessary to be
provided with what is termed a borer, (see Fig. 21.) This
implement consists of a heavy piece of iron, a, which is
pointed, round, and hollow in the centre, in order to
receive the handle b. This pointed piece of iron — or
shod, as it is termed by the workmen — may be made te, .
about twelve inches long, and about three inches
diameter at the top where the handle is inserted. The
handle should be about four feet long, in order that
the operator may have the more lever power upon it;
and in making a hole for a stob with it, it is forced into
the ground by repeated strokes downwards from the
workman, who holds it by the top, c, in his hands, and
is found very powerful in making holes in hard
ground.
These implements, as described, together with the
nails, are all that are necessary for the putting up
of a paling fence ; and having described them, we
shall now proceed to show how they are used in the
work.
In commencing to put up the paling, all the mate-
rials being laid down, first stretch the line along
the run of the intended fence, and pin it down about
two inches to the one side, in order that the stobs may be put
in the exact run intended for them ; and having done this, cut a
piece of wood the exact length that you wish the height of
your stobs to be above ground when driven in ; then, if the
ground be hard, take the borer and make a hole with it for
the first stob ; which being done, send the stob down by the mell
to the desired depth, measuring the proper height of it above with
WOODEN PALINGS. 77
the stick ; or, which may be more handy, the height may be
marked upon the handle of your mell and applied at once to the
stob. If your rails are of unequal lengths, next proceed to lay a
single bar along upon the ground by the side of your line, allowing
an overlap of about five inches at each joining ; and having this
done, proceed first to put in a stob at the joinings of the rails,
without regard to exact distances in this case. Upon having
a stob driven into the ground at each joining of the rails, next
proceed to put in the stobs between these, to as nearly three and
a half feet as the spaces will permit ; and after you have the stobs
driven in regularly as far as your line is stretched, look over them
and see that they are regular both on the top level and in a line
upon the side view ; and this can be readily done by beating down
one where too high, or beating with the mell to a side any that
may be a little out of the line. And having the stobs all properly
in, and in proper state, let two men take hold of a rail and place
it along the top, forming the upper bar, (see Fig. 18, a a) and
observe to have the end of the rail commencing upon the first stob
nearly flush with the perpendicular of the same ; that is to say,
merely covering the breadth of the stob, as seen at a upon the left
hand side of the Figure ; and the man upon the other end of the
rail will observe to have it about two inches over the breadth of
the stob upon which he nails it, as shown at a upon the right-hand
side of the Figure ; and this in order to form a splice or joining to
secure strength in the part ; and in this state let the first bar at
top be nailed on, observing to keep it rather under the top of the
stobs, as shown in the Figure. Upon lifting the second bar, which
should be a continuation of the upper one, let the man who is
hindmost keep his end of the bar about two inches behind the
stob upon which his neighbour nailed his last joint, as represented
at tin the Figure; and in this manner the two men will goon with
the putting on of the top bar the whole length of the line of stobs
put in, and in the same manner return with the second bar, which
should be about nine or ten inches under the upper or first one.
In putting on the second and third bars, it is not so necessary to
have the joints of these made upon the stobs as directed for the
upper bar: they may be joined in the middle, or where it may
78 METHOD OF ERECTING
chance to happen, according to different lengths of the rails ;
because the two under bars are not likely to require to have so
much strength as the upper one, which is always pressed upon by
cattle, &c. The second bar being nailed on, the third or under
one should be put on about seven inches under it ; and the reason of
thus making the bars closer as they come down upon the stobs, is
the more readily to keep back sheep or lambs, those spaces being
most on a level with their bodies.
In the same manner the whole of the length of the fence is put
up, one line-length after another ; and in this manner two active
expert men will put up twenty-five or thirty roods in one day,
where the soil is moderately easy.
The cost of erecting a three-barred paling may be calculated
thus : —
To 3 roods of rails, at 7d. per rood,
To 5 stobs, 4| feet, at 2d. each,
To 20 nails, at 7^1. per 100, .
To men's time putting up one rood, .
In erecting wooden palings, it will not be always found that
three bars will answer every purpose ; for where cattle, sheep, and
lambs are grazing, four bars will often be found necessary to keep
them in ; as also it may often happen, that Avhere there is a height
upon the line of the ground upon which the fence is to be run,
two bars may in such a situation prove as effectual a fence as three
or four in other situations. And as I have frequently been asked
by proprietors as to the expenses of erecting palings according to
the number of bars in them, I shall here give a statement of the
different prices of each, which I consider enough upon this head,
seeing that whether two, three, or four bars are to be erected, the
description given as to the manner of erecting the three-barred
is equally applicable to the whole.
In the following valuation, I calculate upon larch-wood being
used : —
s.
d.
1-
9
0
10
0
H
0
32
3
0
WOODEN PALINGS.
79
Cost of a 1-bar paling with 3 feet stobs, per rood of 18 feet,
s. d.
Do.
2
do.
4 feet do. per do.
2
1
Do.
3
do.
4 feet G inches do. per do.
3
0
Do.
4
do.
5 feet 6 inches do. per do.
4
2
Do.
5
do.
7 feet do. per do.
6
0
Do.
6
do.
8 feet do. per do.
7
6
In erecting a paling above four feet high, if the ground be of a
soft nature and not likely to hold the stobs firm, three ranees may
be required extra for the rood, with a foot-pin each. The value of
each, with pins, may be stated at 4d., or Is. extra per rood.
Next to the horizontal paling which has been described above,
the most important and generally useful is the upright, which is
made of various heights in order to suit different purposes. It
will be enough for me to give an example of the manner of
putting up one of these; and by referring to Fig. 22, this will
be readily understood.
Fig. 22 is a sketch of an upright fence made of larch-wood.
The upright spars, as shown from a to a, may be either sawn wood,
Fig. 22.
,A\AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
J
■I
Surface
Surface
three inched by three-quarters of an inch, or small larch trees,
three inches diameter, cut up the centre by a saw-mill according
to taste. I shall here suppose that we have to erect a fence of the
description above stated, and that the same is required to be five
feet high.
I:i the first place, have all materials brought forward, and
80 METHOD OF ERECTING
the line stretched along the run of the intended fence, in the same
manner as directed for the putting up of the horizontal fence; and
put the stobs into the ground in the same manner as there advised,
observing to keep them about four feet distant from each other,
and allow the tops of them to be twelve inches under the extreme
height of the uprights ; consequently the stobs for a five-feet spar
fence will require to be four feet high above ground when driven
in. The stobs being put in along the whole length of the first
line, and carefully levelled along the tops, at least in such a manner
as to correspond with the nature of the ground, the next part of
the work is to have the upper rail nailed on to the exact height of
the tops of the stobs, observing to join the rails upon the stobs
in the same manner as formerly advised ; and the upper rail being
nailed on, the second (there being only two horizontal bars in the
fence at present under notice) must be nailed on and joined upon
the stobs in the same manner, keeping about sixteen inches from
the surface of the ground, or two feet under the upper one. In
putting on the upright spars upon the frame-work now formed by
the stobs and two horizontal rails, have one of them nailed on at
the extreme end where you intend commencing, observing to keep
the top of this upright twelve inches above the upper rail b, and
place it at the same time so as to cover the stob forming the
extreme end, as at c — the stob appearing at bottom only ; and in the
same way go on putting on an upright upon the face of every
third stob the whole length of your line of stobs, being very exact
in measuring the top of each to twelve inches above the upper bar;
and when these are done, put a nail into the top of each of these
uprights, but only so far into the wood as not to be taken out
easily without the aid of the hammer. On having put a nail into
the top of each, have your line tied to the one upon the extreme
end, and go along with it in your hand, making one turn of it
round each nail as you pass along, keeping the line tight as you
proceed; and having stretched it along the tops of the spars
tightly by the use of the nails, the line will now act as a top
guide for putting on all the rest of the spars between to their
proper height, which could not have been done easily otherwise.
The fence being five feet high, the uprights will require to be only
WOODEN PALINGS. 81
four feet nine inches in length, they being kept three inches up
off the ground or surface, as seen in the Figure. In putting on
the spars, pay no attention particularly to their regularity at
bottom, but be very particular as to how they range and take the
eye at the top. In nailing on these spars, be careful to have them
put on as near the perpendicular as possible, keeping from two to
three inches of open space between each two ; and always endea-
vour to have an upright put on so as to cover each stob from the
view, which can be easily done by a little attention in regulating
them. A fence of this description should always have the spars
nailed upon that side which is to be most seen ; consequently, this
point should always be taken into consideration before commencing
the work.
The cost of erecting, per rood of six yards, an upright larch
fence five feet high, such as I have just described, may be cal-
culated as under: —
To 4^ stobs, 6 feet long, at 4d. each,
... 2 roods rails, at 7d. per rood,
... 48 upright spars, (small larches halved,) at l^d.,
... 100 nails, at 7|d., .....
... men's time putting up 1 rood,
There is another description of paling fence, which until
lately was much used throughout Britain — namely, the stob
dyke, as it is termed in Scotland. This fence is still often to
be met with in many parts of the country, and consists of a con-
tinuous row of wooden stobs driven into the ground as nearly as
close as they can be got to one another, and bound together at the
top by one bar or rail, with a nail through it into the head of each
stob. This sort of paling, from the great quantity of wood used
in it, is expensive at the outset, and is now, in all cultivated dis-
tricts, superseded by the horizontal paling, which is^superior in
every respect, being more durable, and cheaper in the first instance
also. It [fl not, in my opinion, worthy of being continued as a
fence ; for even where it is thought much of on account of its
closeness in producing shelter, a much better fence is produced by
F
s.
d.
1
6
1
2
6
0
0
H
1
0
10
h
82
ERECTING OF WIRE-FENCES UPON
the upright spar, which will last double the time of the stob dyke,
and is infinitely more elegant. From the stobs which form the
stob-dyke fence being all inserted into the ground, they soon waste,
and, in fact, all waste at once, and must be entirely renewed ; but
the upright spar, or the horizontal paling, having only a few
stobs in the ground, these can be renewed, and the rails answer a
second set of stobs ; as I have often experienced.
SECTION XII. — THE ERECTING OF WIRE-FENCES UPON AVOODEN AND
IRON POSTS.
The wire-fence, from the nature of the materials of which it
is made, is decidedly the most ornamental of all ; but although it
must be admitted to be the most ornamental of all other fences,
and although, from the nature of the material, it will last much
longer than a mere wooden fence, great caution is necessary
in adopting it in many situations. As I intend to give a few
remarks, when done with this section, as to the propriety of
using a particular fence in a particular situation, and for a parti-
cular purpose, I shall not, in the mean time, enlarge upon the
utility or non-utility of the wire-fence, but proceed directly to
the practical part of erecting them. In this I hope to be able to
give such directions as may enable any intelligent man to erect
them in a perfect manner upon any gentleman's property.
Figs. 23 and 24 represent the extreme ends of a wire-fence
Fig. 23.
r-i fj-
WOODEN AND IKON POSTS.
83
upon wooden posts, nearly four feet high, and adapted for sheep
and cattle.
Fig. 24.
— /^ ►
The exact line for a wire-
fence being fixed upon,
have the first post or
strm'itiiuj -pillar, «, Fig.
23, made as there repre-
sented. Have it made of
the best larchwood, taken
from a full-grown tree,
the wood of which may be considered ripe and full of resinous
sap ; and not of the wood of a young tree, as is too often done,
the quality of which, although apparently as good, will not endure
nearly so long as that of a full-grown tree. The wire-fence for
sheep and cattle, as here represented, is in general made three feet
nine inches high from the surface of the ground to the top wire d ;
consequently the post a, which is sunk three feet into the ground,
will require to be made seven feet long, allowing four inches for
the round upon the top above the level of the upper wire, as at
c / and if it is to be made octagonal in shape, as is generally the
case, it will require to be at least seven inches diameter, measuring
from any two opposite sides. In preparing the straining-post,
it is advantageous to the strength as well as the duration of
it, not to take any of the outer wood off the part which
is to be sunk in the ground ; for the more bulky that part is,
so much the greater, in every respect, will be the stability of the
work. Therefore, in dressing the straining-post, only do so to the
part which is to be above ground, and, if possible, put the lower
part in with the bark upon the wood, as in the natural state,
which will preserve it from rot better than either charring or tar
could do. Having the post made with half-inch holes bored
through it at proper distances for the reception of the wires, as
shown in the Figure, have another piece of larch prepared, six feet
long, eight inches by six inches, to act as a sole for the post to
rest upon in the ground, as indicated in Fig. 23 by the dotted lines
at e e. In this sole cut out a part, upon the broadest side, about two
and a half inches deep, the whole breadth of the wood, large
84 ERECTING OF WIRE-FENCES UPON
enough as to hold the bottom of the post in it, as at/, — observing
to leave about four inches upon the end for a heel ; into this
groove fix the bottom of the post, as shown in the Figure, and
secure its firmness by two garron nails driven through the post
into the sole. This being done, have another piece of larch-
wood, <7, so long as to have the one end fixed in another
groove to be made near the point of the sole, as at h, and the
other end in another groove, to be made only one inch deep, upon
the post a little under the surface of the ground, as at i. This
piece of wood, which should be about six by three inches, is
called the underground stay, and is meant to act as a support
against the strain of the wire ; while, at the same time, it is not
seen above ground, and consequently gives the fence a light and
neat appearance when finished.
The first straining-post having been completed in the manner
stated, the next step in the work is to have a pit dug in the ground
for its reception, observing to make the one end of it exactly where
the fence is meant to begin, extending it in the direction of the
line of fence very exactly, so far as to hold the sole when put in,
and about three feet deep. In making these pits for the reception
of the posts, the ground is in almost all cases found so hard as to
require picking, in the under half at least ; and as it is highly
necessary to make the pits as near the exact dimensions of the
wood to be put in as possible, in order to have the more solid
ground about the posts, it is often a work of con- FlG- '-'5-
siderable difficulty to make them without proper
implements. This I wish to draw particular atten-
tion to, having frequently had occasion to see a
man work half a day in the making of a pit for a
post with improper tools, who, had he had proper
ones, could have done the same work in one hour.
The implements I use in the making of the pits for
wire-fence posts, as also for gate-posts in general,
are the common garden-spade, for digging off the
surface turf and upper soil, and the foot-pick, Fig.
25, which I use instead of the common hand-
pick. There being no sufficient room for a man
WOODEN AND IRON TOSTS.
85
using the hand-pick bnt with great disadvantage in the making
of pits, I in all cases of this nature use the foot-pick, which is a most
efficient instrument in the
hands of a powerful man,
enabling him with great
ease to loosen the hardest
subsoil or stones in the
making of a pit. The
horizontal spade. Fig. 26,
I in all cases use when
eighteen inches under the
surface, with a handle
about two feet long. With this implement a man can work with
great freedom in the pit, where he is much confined for the want
of room ; and with it he can do more than double the work, in
such cases, that he could do with the common spade.
The pit having been thus made, and properly levelled in the
bottom, put the straining-post down into its place, observing
to place it perfectly upright. For the purpose of Fig. 27.
ascertaining this correctly, use a piece of cord with a
weight upon the one end of it, (see Fig. 27,) which take
in your hand by the one end, as at a; and holding it up
hanging between your eye and the post, standing about
three yards distant from it, allow the plumb b to settle,
when you will in a moment observe if the post corre-
spond with the perpendicular line or not : when
taking this observation, have one man holding the post
to the spot you desire him, and another putting in a
little earth to keep it in its place. As soon as you
have the post placed upright, have two wedge-shaped *
pieces of larchwood, something in the form of the pointed end of
a strong stob — say about eighteen inches long. Beat one of
these obliquely into each end of the pit, as at e e, in Fig. 23,
between the solid earth and each end of the sole. This is meant to
secure the stability of the sole in its place, and, consequently, they
ought to be well driven home. Being satisfied as to the erect
position of the post, have the earth which comes out of the pit
86 ERECTING OF WIRE-FENCES UPON
well broken down, and filled very gradually Into it again. In this
filling never put in more than three inches deep of the loose soil
at once into the pit, without having it properly beat to a perfect
solidity with what is termed a rammer, which is merely a piece of
wood in the shape of a common stob, about four and a half feet
long, having an iron shod upon the under end in order to make
it more heavy for beating the earth. By alternately laying in
about three inches of loose earth into the pit, and beating
it firmly as directed, and observing at intervals, by the plumb-
line, if the post stands right, and is not put out of its posi-
tion by the beating, the securing the necessary resistance to the
strain of the wire is attained. I may observe here, that pre-
vious to putting in the post with its sole, all that part which is to
be under ground, if the natural bark be not upon it, should be
well painted over with hot tar, which has a great tendency to
preserve the wood ; but by no means char the wood, as many do.
I must say that the charring of larch wood, in particular, is
injurious to its duration ; and this I have had many proofs of.
It carries off the resinous matter, which is so plentiful in this
wood, and which resists the action of the water. Charring, again,
makes the wood more porous, retains the water, and of course
encourages rot.
Having got the first straining-post put in, observe next if the
ground upon the line of the proposed fence is level or unlevel ;
for a great deal depends upon this, and the manner of going to
work must be regulated accordingly. In order to illustrate this
clearly, we shall now be assisted by referring to Fig. 28, which is
meant to represent a continuation of a line of wire-fence both
upon level and unlevel ground.
Fig. 28.
WOODEN AND IRON POSTS. 87
AVe shall now suppose that the first straining-post «, in Fig.
23, is represented by the post at a in Fig. 28, and is now
properly secured into the ground, agreeably to the directions
given. Now, the ground from the post a to the post c, being per-
fectly level, we shall suppose to be about one hundred and sixty
yards in length ; therefore this space is too great in order to
be properly tightened up between the two posts a and c; we
must therefore have another post between them, as at b. I beg to
observe here, that in all cases of putting up wire-fences, never
have straining-posts, if possible, wider than eighty yards from
each other. If they are wider, the proper tension of the wire can-
not be attained so as to make a secure fence ; consequently the
next step in the progress of the work before us is to put up
another post at J, nearly half distance between a and c. This post
is put in exactly in the same manner as has already been described
for the first one ; only it must be observed to put the underground
stay of the second post in such a position as to resist the strain of
the wire from the post at a. This is effected by placing the
stay the contrary way of the first one, as seen and represented
in Fig. 28 at b, the stay upon the post there not lying in the
same direction as at the post «, but the contrary, thus mak-
ing each pair of posts complete in themselves, and independent
of another, which is the point required. This second post being
secured, the next thing to do is to have the intermediate uprights
or standards brought forward, which are represented in Fig. 23,
b b. These should be of the best larchwood, six feet long, and
three and one half inches, by two and one half. Before putting
them into the run of the fence, have one line stretched tightly
between the bottoms of the two straining-posts upon the surface
of the ground, and another between the tops, or in the exact posi-
tion of the intended top wire, running each end of it through the
upper hole in each post, which has been prepared for the reception
of the upper wire : and upon having both lines stretched as a guide
for top and bottom, in putting in the intermediate uprights, have
them put in five tret apart, upon the opposite side of the line that
it is intended the wire shall be put on ; or in other words, let it be
understood that the hempen line is in the exact place where it ie
88 ERECTING OF WIEE-FENCES UPON
intended the upper wire shall be; and upon a due consideration of
this matter, it can at once be decided upon which side of the line
the stobs ought to be placed. Another point necessary to be
considered at this stage of the work is, to put the wires upon that
side of the stobs where it is known there will be most necessity for
strength on the part of the fence ; for if heavy cattle be upon the
opposite sides of the wires, they are very apt to press out the
staples which hold the wires to the wood ; while upon the other
side they can have no effect whatever upon it : therefore it is that
this point must be considered.
With regard to the method of putting in the intermediate
uprights into the ground, some make holes for them with the spade,
and place them in. Some years ago, I adopted the same plan, but
found that uprights put in in this way were very apt to become loose
afterwards, seeing that it is not an easy matter to have men always
so faithful as to attend to beating them firmly into the ground.
Besides, I have found this method very expensive, occupying much
useful time ; and, in fact, I never found it preferable to beating in
the uprights in the same manner as I do stobs in a common
paling. And now, after ten years' experience in the putting up of
wire-fences, I in all cases drive them into the ground by the
paling mell, using the borer in order to open the ground for their
points. By this method I in all cases find the uprights stand more
firmly than when put in by the spade entirely. In putting in the
uprights, I have them well painted with tar in the under part
before putting them in, more particularly about six inches under
and above the surface.
In order not to spoil the heads of the uprights in beating them
into the ground with the mell, I have an implement Fig. 29.
made of iron, the exact shape of the top of the uprights,
three and one half inches by two and one half inches
inside measure, which fits exactly, and indeed rather
tightly, upon the tops. (See Fig. 29.)
In beating in the stobs or uprights, a man lays hold
upon the top of each by the article as shown in the
Figure ; by using it, the stobs are not hurt upon the top by
the action of the mell ; and, besides, the man holding them by this
WOODEN AND IRON POSTS. 89
instrument at the top has a great power over them, and can turn
them whichever way he pleases if they happen not to go in right :
on this account I term it the stob guide.
The stobs or uprights having been put in five feet separate from
each other the whole length of the line between the two first
straining-posts, very exactly with the run of the line both at
bottom and top, and three inches of the top of each upright being
left above the line or run of the upper wire, in order to strengthen
the fixature of the wire at top, as may be observed by glancing at
Fig. 23, where it will be seen that the top of each upright is a
little above the top wire, the next thing will be to have the wire
prepared or drawn for putting on between the two posts now in
readiness to receive it. The wire, as it comes from the manufac-
turers, is in general rolled up into bundles, each containing from
forty to eighty yards in length ; in these bundles the wire keeps
its circular form, and consequently will not answer the pur-
pose of lying along between the posts until it be drawn out in the
form of a straight line, and that in such a manner as to make it
keep the straight form when it has received it. In order to do
this, an instrument containing a set of pegs is used, in the form of
Fig. 30, which consists of a block
of hardwood, about two feet
long by six inches broad and
three deep. Upon the upper sur-
face of this are set two rows of
iron pegs, about two inches long,
well driven in, and about three inches separate from each other in
the line. I have said that there were two rows of pegs set into this
instrument, but these two rows are set in a particular alternate man-
ner; and, to a person unaccustomed to it, my explanation, as above
given, may not be explicit enough. The following sketch will, how-
ever, make it clear: the two rows of pegs are set alternately upon the
piece of wood thus: — - — -• — - — : — : — •— the distance between the two
rows of pegs being exactly that of the diameter of the wire to
be drawn through between them, which is represented in the
above cut : consequently, in making the instrument, a piece of the
wire which is to be straightened should be laid upon the wood, and
90 EEECTING OF WIRE-FENCES UPON
the pegs driven in upon each side to answer it. In the act of
straightening the wire by the use of the pegs, the instrument is
laid upon a small bench about two and a half feet high, of any-
rough description. Let this bench be placed close to the side of one
of the straining-posts, and lay the peg-block flat upon it ; and, by
a piece of rope passed through a staple which may be inserted at a,
attach it firmly to the post. Then bring forward one of the bundles
of wire; loose out one end of it, pass it round the small upright, as
seen upon the face of the block, and bring the end of the wire
through between the two rows of pegs as represented in the
Figure. On having the end of it passed through, make a turn
upon this end, and pass a good strong stick through it, by which
two or three men may pull and draw the whole length of the wire
through ; as the men pull at the first end of the wire which was
put between the pegs, another man must attend to unroll the
bundle before it passes through the staple ; or, if this is not strictly
attended to, the wire will not come out from between the pegs
straight ; and in this manner draw out as much wire as will be
required for six lengths between the two straining pillars, which
is the number required for the fence now under our notice. Before
taking down the line which was stretched between the tops of the
two straining pillars for the purpose of regulating the tops of
the uprights, and which of course will be in the exact place
where the top wire of the fence is intended to be, have it
stretched very tightly ; when properly tightened, mark with a
piece of black coal (as used by carpenters) the exact track of
the line along the top of the uprights, and then take the
line down. On its being removed, have staples prepared
for nailing the wire to the posts or up-
rights : they are made of the same mate-
rial as the wire itself; are about two inches ^|\
long, (see Fig. 31,) and generally made i \*
without points.
Have one of those staples nailed or driven into each upright
upon the mark made by the black coal, and right in the middle
of the wood ; and upon having them driven in about half length
all along, one upon each post for the upper wire, have the latter
WOODEN AND IRON POSTS.
91
Fig. 33.
then run through the upper hole of the first pillar, and through
each of the staples in the uprights. One end
of the wire is fastened to the post a, Fig. 23, by
being brought half round it, and twisted by
means of the turnkey (see Fig. 32) round the
wire inside of the pillar or post. Should it be
too short to reach the next straining-post, it must
be joined to another piece of wire of the same
description, and brought up to it. In joining
one piece of wire to another, it is done by form-
ing an eye or loop upon the end of one of the
wires: in forming this eye, the end of the
wire is held bv means of the clams, (see Fig.
33 ;) and while one man holds the wire by
means of this instrument, another assistant turns
or twists the end round the wire, in the same way
as at the post, by means of the turnkey, which
has holes in it for receiving the end of the wire.
An eye being made upon the end of one of the
wires, the end of the other wire which is to
be joined to it is then passed through it, and
twisted in the same manner as the other; thus
completing the joint or knot, which, when
finished, will have the appearance shown in
Fig. 34.
The joining being finished, and the
wire brought up to the second straining-
post, it is then cut a foot beyond the post, _
where it is now to be finished. In fixing
the wire upon this second straining-post,
piss it through the upper
hole prepared for it, cor-
responding to that on the
first post ; then attach the
strain in j-screw (see Fig.
35) to it. This straining-
screw is attached to the wire
Fig. 34.
Fig. 35
92 ERECTING OF WIRE-FENCES UPON
by means of a jointed vice, as at a, which is opened or closed at
pleasure by means of a screw and nut wrought by a screw-key,
and can be made to hold as tightly as if it were all a solid piece ;
the wire being passed through the upper hole of the post, as already
directed, it is taken hold of by opening the vice at a and screwing
it tight upon the end of the wire. But before beginning to tighten
or screw up the wire, place a piece of wood, (see Fig. at J,) about
two inches thick, between the end of the screw and the post, close to
the under side of the wire: this, after the wire is sufficiently strained,
allows the collar vice (see Fig. 36) to be
applied. Having the straining-screw
all in readiness, screw up the wire by
turning round the handles e, till the de-
sired tension is gained, which may be
known from the wire in its whole length
between the straining-posts being tight
as a string upon a musical instrument.
The collar vice, Fig. 36, is now opened by unscrewing the
vice at a, when it opens freely before the joint b. It is then
put round the post, close to the upper side of the wire, an d
screwed again upon the wire inside of the pillar, the part b resting
upon it. The straining-screw is then slackened and removed, the
collar vice holding the wire in its position. The wire which projects
or hangs out behind the post is now taken half round the same,
the end being passed over the upper side of the wire between the
jaws of the collar vice and the post. It is then fastened in the
same manner as at the other end, when the collar vice can be
removed.
In putting up our wire-fences upon the estate of Arniston,
instead of tying the wire round the second post as I have described,
which is the usual way, I have it attached to a screw-bolt,
through an eye upon the one end ; and passing it through the hole
in the post, I have a screw-nut upon it outside the post. By
this means I can at any time, when the wire becomes slack, tighten
it up ; whereas when it is tied at both ends, it cannot at any time
be made tighter without undoing the tie and tightening it up anew
by the aid of the straining-screw. These screw-bolts I get made
WOODEN AND IRON POSTS. 93
sixteen inches long, which leaves, after passing through the thick-
ness of the post, five inches next the wire, and three inches behind
the post where the screw-nut is upon. There should be at least
five inches of the end with a screw upon it, so that the wire may be
either slackened or tightened at pleasure as necessity may require.
In putting on these screw-bolts upon the wires, the same operation
as above stated is gone through until the collar vice is fixed ; and
then, instead of tying the wire round the post as has been directed,
attach it to the screw-bolts, and secure them by means of the nut,
when the collar vice can be taken away.
This is represented in Fig. 24, which is meant to represent the
one end of a wire-fence tightened up by the screw-bolts and nuts ;
and in this case Figs. 23 and 24 represent the two ends of one
wire-fence, the wires upon the post in 23 being tied, and those
upon 24 being secured by the screws.
In the same manner as has been detailed for the putting on of
the upper wire of a wire-fence, all the others also are put on ; in
all cases observing to keep the distance between the wires closer
at bottom than at top. In general, where sheep or lambs are, I
keep the distance of the two lower wires five inches, widening
them gradually to ten inches between the two upper ones.
Fences of this description can be made of any convenient height.
We have them at Arniston, for deer, six feet high ; those having
ten wires in depth, instead of six as is generally allowed for sheep
and cattle. But, however high those fences may be erected, the
work is all done upon the same principle, save with this difference :
In electing a wire-fence above four feet, it is always necessary to
have an iron stay put to the straining-posts above ground, as well
as a wood one under, in order to secure them the more perfectly
against the strain of the wire. These stays are sunk into stones
and batted with lead ; the stone for one of such stays ought not
to be less than eighteen inches cube, and sunk about three inches
under the surface.
The higher the fence the deeper also ought the post to be
sunk into the ground. In erecting a fence of this description six
feet high, the sole of the ground stay would require to be four
feet under the surface. Where the wire is tightened by the aid
94 ERECTING OF WIRE-FENCES UPON
of screwed eye-bolts at the one end, the staples should not be
driven home in the uprights; but there should be room left for the
wire to move through them, else the screw will not have the
effect of tightening the wires when it is found necessary. As
soon as a wire-fence is finished, the posts ought to be painted with
hot tar, and the wires with common oil-paint ; for if it is allowed
to remain any time without being painted, the wire will soon
become rusted, and will be apt to break if weakened by being
corroded.
What I have now said relative to the putting up of wire-fences,
is only applicable to a length between two posts, and that upon
level ground ; and in order to make this branch of fencing more
properly understood, I shall continue my observations a little
further. When I last referred to Fig. 28, I said that from the
post a to the post c was all level ground, being one hundred
and sixty yards in length : we have now finished the half of
this space — namely, from a to b — in the above details of the manner
of erecting the wire-fence. We shall now suppose that we are to
erect the other stretch, from b to cl: in this part it must be
observed that the posts c and cl are erected upon points from which
the ground falls away suddenly ; and in this case it is necessary
to have either double wood stays under ground, as shown at e and/,
or an iron stay to each above ground, upon the sides of the posts
opposite to those upon which the under ground wood ones are.
The reason for having these extra stays at these two posts is,
that supposing the wire were to be suddenly broken between c and
c?, the great strain acting upon these two posts, from a on the one
hand, and from e on the other, would very likely pull them sud-
denlv backwards, and disarrange a considerable part of the fence.
Now, the simple precaution of having another stay put up at
each, prevents this from taking place under any ordinary circum-
stances ; but, in every other respect, the wire-fence is put up in
the same manner as has already been detailed. In all hollow parts
of the ground upon which a wire-fence is erected, the posts at such
parts should be sunk deeper than upon level or prominent parts ;
and the soles used there should also be much heavier than those
commonly used, and with heavy ground stays, one on each side of
WOODEN AND IRON POSTS. 95
the post, as shown at e and /, where these posts are in hollow
parts of the line of fence. The reason for this is, that were these
posts put in in a manner which would answer perfectly well at c or
d, the great strain of the wire upon each side of them would not
only endanger their security as a permanent fence, but it would
draw them entirely out of the ground — a result I have Avitnessed
several times. On a little reflection, it will appear evident that the
strain of the wire at c and d tends to press the posts downwards
into the earth ; while, on the contrary, at e and /the strain tends
to lift them out of the earth; which at once points out the necessity
there is for attending to this point very minutely.
We shall now suppose that we have the fence finished as far
as the post g, from which it takes a bend. Now, all the difference
in erecting a wire-fence upon a bend from erecting it upon a straight
line, is, that the posts forming the angles of the bend g and *
require to have an extra stay above ground upon the inside of the
curve ; and every intermediate upright must also have a stay either
under or above ground, in order to resist the pressure of the strain
inwards ; but if the curve be moderate, a stay at each second or
third upright may be quite sufficient. In all cases where a gate
occurs in the line of a wire-fence, that should be made to have the
same appearance as the fence itself, putting in the same number of
horizontal wires in it that there are in the fence.
We now come to speak of the cost of erecting wire-fences upon
wooden posts ; and of course the price must in all cases vary
according to the strength of the wire used, as well as according to
tin- height of the fence to be erected. There are five sorts of wire
naed in the erecting of those fences, — those wires being known
according to their number respectively, thus: Xo. 4 is fully 3-12ths
of an inch in diameter, and is the sort used for red deer or horses;
No. 5 is exactly 3-12ths of an inch in diameter, and is the sort
generally used for fallow-deer, heavy cattle, and horses ; No. 6
i- tii 11 v 2-lOths of an inch in diameter, and is the sort generally
used for sheep and small cattle; and Nos. 7 and 8 are nearly
5-2 ttha of an inch in diameter, and are used for sheep and lambs
only.
I shall here give the cost, as I have put them up myself, of
96
ERECTING OF WIRE-FENCES UPON
three kinds of wire-fences upon wooden posts ; the latter being of
the best larch timber, cut at a saw-mill to the exact sizes.
Cost of erecting a wire-fence six feet high, for deer, with No. 4 wire, per eighty
yards in length.
To 2 straining-posts, 10 feet long, 9 by 9 in., at 8s.,
... 2 soles for do., 6 feet „ 9 by 5 in., at 3s.,
... 2 underground stays, 5 feet long, 7 by 4 in., at Is. 6d.
. . . workmen's time putting in tbe above,
... 48 uprights, 8 feet long, 3 by 3 in., at 8d.,
... 80 yards of 10 horizontal wires, at Is.,
... 2 additional iron stays for pillars, at 10s.,
... painting wire, at 2d. per yard,
... men's time erecting fence, .
... tarring posts and all wood-work,
£0
16
0
0
6
0
0
3
0
0
3
0
1
12
0
4
0
0
1
0
0
0
13
4
0
6
0
0
3
0
£9 2 4
Total cost of erecting 80 lineal yards,
Being about 2s. 3d. per lineal yard.
The cost of erecting a wire-fence upon wooden posts, six wires
deep, for sheep and cattle, of the same description as I have detailed
in the former part of this section, being three feet nine inches high,
and calculating upon the same principle as above, is about Is. 2d.
per yard ; and the cost of one erected with No. 7 wire, for sheep
only, three feet high, will be about lOd. per yard.
We now come to refer a little to the putting up of wire-fences
upon iron posts or uprights. But having said so much relative to
putting up those with wooden posts, it will not be necessary for
me now to enter minutely into detail upon the erecting of iron
ones, seeing that they are both put up upon the same principle. I
will therefore only state under this head what I consider peculiar
to it as compared with the other.
Fig. 37 represents a wire-fence upon iron uprights, having seven
horizontal wires, and four feet high. The straining-posts or
pillars may be made of either round cast-iron, or of square wrought-
iron, according to taste. The straining-post a is sunk and batted
well into a large stone at least three feet square on the surface
and eighteen inches deep. The stay d is also well sunk and
batted into a large stone eighteen inches square and fifteen
inches deep ; and in putting in these stones, they should be firmly
"WOODEN AND IRON TOSTS.
97
bedded into the ground, so as not to yield afterwards by the strain
of the wire. The straining-post a is generally made of two-inch-
Fig. 37.
square iron, and the stay d of double iron, each piece half an inch
by one inch, allowing the wires to pass through between. The
upright b is generally one inch by a quarter or half inch, accord-
ing to height or strength required, and is also sunk into a stone
about twelve inches cube, well batted with lead. These are the
only differences worthy of notice between the erecting of a wire-
fence upon wooden posts and one upon iron ; for in the actual
erecting of the one as well as the other the same implements are
used, and the same method of working from beginning to end is
pursued. Having said, therefore, so much upon the method of
erecting the fence upon wood, it is unnecessary for me here to
say much more, as it would merely be a repetition of the same
thing ; the only difference being, that in the erecting of a wire-
fence upon iron posts, these are sunk in stones, the surface of
which must be covered by three inches of earth, whereas with
wooden posts these are merely driven into the ground. I may,
however, remark, that instead of the horizontal wires upon the
iron fence being fixed by staples upon the side, as is the case in
the wooden uprights, they are run through holes bored in the
ctiitre part of the iron uprights; and in order to prevent strong
animals from pressing the iron uprights to a side, they are what is
termed wedged : tins being done by inserting a small iron wedge,
or nail without a head, into two of the holes in each standard —
say one at the top wire, and one in the middle and immediately
G
98 WIRE-FENCES UPON WOODEN AND IRON POSTS.
above the wire ; but this should not be done until the standards
are made perfectly plumb and the fence finished, when the wedges
should be driven as firmly as possible. In a wire-fence upon
iron standards where curves occur in the line, it is also necessaiy
to have stays of iron put to the standards on the inside of the
curve and against the strain.
It now only remains for me to state the prices of wire-fences
upon iron posts : in this case, as well as in the other, much depends
upon the strength of the fence required, as well as upon the price
of iron at the time ; and moreover, much depends upon the conve-
niency of getting stones. Indeed, where stones are not to be had
conveniently, I have used blocks of larchwood instead. These
may be round timber, about eighteen inches long by nine inches
diameter ; but in all cases stones are preferable if they can be got
conveniently. The following quotations are the prices per lineal
yard, including all expenses of stones, labour, iron, &c, of three
different heights of wire-fence upon iron posts, as I have had
them made in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh : —
s. d. s. d.
Cost of fence 6 feet high, for deer, from . 4 6 to 5 0
Do. 4 feet high, for sheep and cattle, from 2 6 to 3 0
Do. 3 feet high, for sheep only, from 1 9 to 2 3
In giving the above quotations as to the prices of wire-fences,
whether upon wood or iron uprights, I am aware that many do
them more cheaply ; but, at the same time, I presume to say, not
nearly so efficiently. Many, with the view of erecting a cheap
fence, put in their posts from seven to nine feet apart, and the
consequence is, that the whole soon becomes slack and unservice-
able. I never have the distance more than five feet, and in all
cases endeavour to make efficient work : in proof of this, our
wire-fences at Arniston may be referred to.
I may further add, that all wire-fences, whether upon wooden
or iron posts, should have the iron-work painted each year for
the first two years after being erected ; after that period, each
second year will be enough. In the summer season the wires
of all these fences are apt to expand in warm weather, and con-
sequently become slack : in such cases the screwed eye-bolts, for-
ADAPTATION OF DIFFERENT FENCES. 99
merly referred to, are most useful for having them tightened up
again. In the winter season, particularly during frost, the wire
always contracts to a considerable extent, causing the wires to
become over tight, and consequently in such cases they require to
be slackened ; and this I have experienced so often, that I think it
proper to refer to it here ; because if these points be not attended
to, the wire will break in the winter and allow cattle to escape, and
become too loose in summer.
SECTION XIII. — THE PURPOSE AND SITUATION FOR WHICH EACH
SORT OF FENCE IS MOST PROPERLY ADAPTED.
Having now given in detail the method of erecting the seven
most useful fences for country purposes — namely, the thorn hedge,
the whin hedge, the stone-and-lime wall, the dry-stone dyke, the
turf dyke, wooden paling, and wire-fence both upon wooden
and iron uprights — it still remains for me to point out in what
situation, and for what purpose, each of the above-named fences is
most suitable. In the present section I shall endeavour to do this ;
and shall commence with the first in order — namely, the thorn
hedge.
The thorn hedge, with a mixture of beech plants, is of all other
fences the best adapted for a situation where a neat and clothed
appearance is the object ; and this it always has unless carried to a
situation more than one thousand feet above the level of the
sea, and unless at such an altitude planted in a mossy or very
light soil ; for there it will not live long unless upon a sandy
loam.
In high and exposed situations, hedge-fences are not the best
adapted for surrounding young plantations, which require a fence
that will produce shelter in the first instance if possible. It is,
however, there excellently adapted for the division of fields ; and
even in such situations, where immediate shelter for the rearing
of young plantations is not a primary object, no fence ulti-
mately answers better; for such a fence, under good manage-
ment, will keep good and be an oruament when dykes and palings
100 PURPOSES AND SITUATIONS FOR WHICH
of the same age are tumbling down and useless. I am aware
that many object to the raising of hedges with beech and thorn
in high parts of the country, asserting that they will not succeed.
As to this I can assert thus far, that upon the estate of Arniston
we have good hedges of beech and thorn more than nine hundred
feet above the level of the sea, and at the same time in excellent
health. I am not an advocate for planting hedges about the home-
grounds and parks of proprietors' seats, because there they are
in a considerable degree unsightly and out of character : there, in
short, no fence ought to be prominent, and for these sites the wire-
fence is best adapted ; but in all cases without the bounds of the
policy walls, no fence looks better, or is more worthy of a pro-
minent place, than the hedge, whether as a fence for a plantation
or a field ; but where it is desirable to have them thrive well,
avoid planting them in a very light soil, else disappointment will
be the result ; and this cause of unhealthiness has often been
attributed to too high a situation.
Second, — The whin or furze hedge is unquestionably one which
should be kept out of all cultivated districts. There is no
situation where the whin is found growing as a fence, in which
the thorn and beech would not thrive much better. I am aware
that many are of the opinion that whins are more hardy than
thorns ; but this I never could find. Upon the west coast of
Scotland, between Portpatrick and Stranraer, I have seen the
whins most severely cut down by a hard winter's frost, while
the thorns were not in the least injured ; and I have witnessed the
same thing in Aberdeenshire.
Whins for a hedge-fence may, indeed, be recommended by
those who have a regard for old customs, but in my opinion they
are decidedly inferior in every respect to the thorn and beech ;
therefore, I in all cases recommend the latter in preference to
them.
Third, — The stone-and-lime icall is of all others the most sub-
stantial fence that can be erected ; but as it is an expensive one,
it cannot properly be carried to any great extent. However, no
gentleman's policy grounds can be said to be complete, as regards
general security, unless they be surrounded by a stone-and-lime
DIFFERENT FENCES ARE ADAPTED. 101
wall of from six to eight feet high. In fact, a gentleman's park
surrounded by a good high wall gives us a confident feeling that
there is something within the bounds of it worthy of being pro-
tected ; and we always find the best of seats surrounded by such.
But in no other case is it necessary to erect a stone-and-lime wall
as a fence, unless we except the case of sunk fences. In a former
section, when referring to the making of sunk fences, I said that
they were only adapted for a particular situation — namely, upon
the slopes of rising ground ; and by no means upon level ground,
for there, if it is meant to have an invisible fence — as the sunk
fence is meant to be — the wire-fence is infinitely superior in every
respect, and is now at the present day what sunk-fences were a
hundred years ago. A. sunk fence is excellently adapted for any
purpose whatever, when built upon the slope of a hill or brae, as
shown in Section vni.; but in any other, I am not aware of its
utility.
Fourth, — The dry-stone dyke, of all other fences, is the best
adapted for giving immediate shelter to young plantations and
other crops upon high and exposed parts of the country. Unlike
any other fence, it is both a fence and a shelter at once ; hence the
reason that it is so much in request in all bare uncultivated dis-
tricts. I have had frequent occasion to observe, that in high and
bare districts, young plantations surrounded by a good dry-stone
dyke were ten years in advance of others which had been sur-
rounded by a young hedge with paling to protect it ; therefore it
is that in all cases upon high parts, where stone dykes can be had
at all conveniently, I recommend them for young plantations, and
for every other rural purpose.
I have heard many assert that it would be a great improvement
to build dykes upon high situations altogether with lime, making
them, in short, stone-and-lime walls; but I beg to observe that
this would by no means he an improvement; for a dry-stone dyke
will give more shelter to trees, or any other crop growing inside of
it, than a wall of the same height built closely with lime. A dry-
stone wall silts the wind and softens its power for a great distance ;
whereas the wind striking upon a close stone-and-lime wall is at
once resisted : and the consequence is, that the wind, when it rushes
102 PUEPOSES AND SITUATIONS FOE WHICH
over the top of the wall, has gained strength, and strikes with greater
force upon the ground beyond ; and this is the reason that a hedge
is in all cases a better fence than a wall for shelter : the hedge sifts
and softens the force of the wind more than a wall of any kind
does. Dry-stone dykes are, from their outlandish appearance, not
to be recommended as a fence where fine taste is meant to be kept
up ; therefore they should not be built near the home-grounds of
a gentleman's property ; but upon high-lying parts of the country
where improvements are in infancy, no fence is more commend-
able, both as regards security and shelter.
Fifth, — The turf dyke is next in importance to the stone dyke,
in high-lying districts, as a fence ; that is to say, in so far as regards
immediate effect in the producing of shelter to young plantations
or land under any other crop. Upon the estate of Arniston we
have a considerable extent of turf dykes, both as fences for young
plantations and division fences upon the farms : these fences,
let it be understood, are upon the high-lying part of the estate,
where stones for a fence are not easily got ; and, as a fence for the
protecting of young plantations, I find them answer very well
indeed. They should not be put up where heavy cattle are to
be grazed alongside of them, for they are always inclined to
burrow about them with their horns, which tends much to injure
the fence ; but in all cases where stone dykes are not easily
attainable from the want of material, and where heavy cattle
are not grazed, they form a very good fence, and will last for a
great many years by a little attention to mending when any break
occurs.
Sixth, — Wooden palings are, in general, only considered
as temporary or assistant fences. In all cases where young
hedges are planted, and where cattle of any description are to
be grazed in the fields adjoining, they must be protected by a
wooden paling until they have attained a size and strength
sufficient to insure their being exposed with safety ; and this is
one use for which palings are in continual demand.
In high-lying situations, palings are not often used as a fence
alone, because they produce no shelter; and where they are erected
in such a situation, it is merely to answer a temporary purpose, or
DIFFERENT FENCES ARE ADAPTED. 103
to act as an assistant fence upon a turf dyke, or along the
side or sides of a young hedge. But in low-lying situations, where
shelter is not deemed of great importance, the wooden paling is
extensively used for all purposes, both as a useful and ornamental
fence. The horizontal paling is used principally for agricultural
purposes; such as the protecting of hedge-fences in their young
state, or for the mending of gaps in old hedges, &c. ; but the
upright paling, as well as an endless variety according to the taste
of the proprietor, are mostly used as ornamental fences about
gardens, cottages, &c, and they form excellent and useful fences
when made of good larchwood, which will last longer than any
other sort for this purpose.
Seventh, — The ivire-fence upon wooden posts has often been
recommended as a substitute for other materials where those are
scarce ; but I can by no means agree with those who recommend
wire-fences for young plantations or any field crop upon a high
and exposed situation, where shelter is of primary importance.
No fence is better adapted for ornament than the wire-fence;
therefore it is that I recommend it for all purposes without excep-
tion within the policy walls of a gentleman's property ; and it may
even be very properly extended beyond this where the estate is
in a sheltered part of the country, and where artificial shelter from
fences is of little importance ; but as a fence where shelter is an
object, the wire-fence is by no means to be recommended. Even
where wood is scarce, the wire-fence may very properly be used
instead of palings upon the top of turf dykes ; for this, if put on
with good larch stobs, will last much longer than any common
paling could do. Where the greatest possible degree of invisibility
is wanted, as well as the greatest possible degree of permanency
as a fence, the wire-fence upon iron uprights is to be used ; and
this sort, when painted green, and as near the shade of the grass
as possible, is n«>t observable by a person till within a few yards of
it; bat where heavy cattle are, the wooden fence upon uprights
is preferable, because the iron uprights arc very apt to bend
and be misplaced when a heavy animal comes in contact with
them, while the wooden uprights are not apt to be disturbed in
the least.
104 MAKING AND HANGING OF GATES
Having said thus much relative to the sorts of fences in most
common use, both for the protection of young plantations and
fields under agricultural cropping, I may further state, relative
to plantations in particular, that the proprietor who plants
extensively must judge for himself how far he is to adopt one
sort of fence in p reference to another. This of course must
always be decided by the nature of the soil and situation, and the
conveniency as regards materials ; observing in all cases to erect
a fence that will combine shelter with durability upon high and
exposed situations ; and where the situation is low and naturally
sheltered, the taste may more reasonably be consulted. In all
cases of fencing for the protection of young plantations, the work
should be particularly well done ; for if it be badly executed, and
a part of the fence be broken down by any slight accident, cattle
may get in, and do more damage in one night than could be well
recovered in the course of some years. This I have experienced
so frequently, that I here beg to advise all proprietors to be most
strict in the executing of such a piece of work, where, in fact, no
small part of the wealth of their estate is at stake. In the case of
erecting stone and turf dykes by contract, as is the general way of
having these done, the contractor should be bound to keep his
work good for at least three years after it is finished. Under this
engagement he will, for his own sake, be anxious to do his work
well.
All wooden palings should be erected by the proprietor's own
people upon the estate ; as also all wire-fences, if possible, and the
planting of hedges ; and it is for the gaining of this end that I
have written the above observations on the erecting of fences, that
every forester may be as nearly as possible a complete erector of
fences.
SECTION XIV. — THE MAKING AND HANGING OP GATES UPON FIELDS
AND PLANTATIONS.
As the making and hanging of gates is a branch of rural
economy most frequently devolving upon the forester, I consider
UPON FIELDS AND PLANTATIONS.
105
it necessary, and of importance, to dedicate a section to the expla-
nation of the most approved method of making and hanging of
field and plantation gates; and moreover, having said so much
upon the nature of fencing in general, this chapter will be incom-
plete without a few observations on this point.
Every field and plantation of any consequence must have one
or more entrances into it in the form of one or more openings in
the fence which surrounds it, and which again must be made to act
either as a fence or as an opening as occasion may require. These
openings are termed gateways ; and svhatever may be put upon
them to act as a fence, as occasion may require, are termed gates.
There are many forms of gates in use in different parts of the
country, from the most rude horizontal spar, made to fall into a
post at each end, to the fine massy iron gate hung upon hinges.
It would be entirely out of place for me here even to attempt to
enumerate the many different sorts of gates that maybe considered
of useful designs ; I shall, therefore, confine myself to the des-
cription of one sort of field-gate, which is also, in my opinion,
the best possibly adapted for a plantation-gate, and which I
consider the most complete for all field and plantation purposes.
Fig. 38 is a sketch of the gate referred to ; upon the estate
of Arniston we
i ,i Fit;. 38.
have all gates,
both upon field
and plantation
fences, made of
the same con-
struction. These
gates are all made
of the best old
larchwood, which,
when painted, last for a great number of years; and as
larchwood is very apt to twist in the heat of the sun, to which
it ia exposed when converted into a gate, it ought to be
well Beasoned before being used for this purpose. The follow-
in-- are the dimensions of the gate referred to in Fig. 38.
The back post, Z>, is five feet high from bottom to top, and the
f
106 MAKING AND HANGING OF GATES
scantling four and a half by two and a half inches. The front
post, a, is also five feet high from bottom to top, and the scantling
three by two inches. The bottom and top horizontal bars, c and
dj are each of equal dimensions — namely, length within the back
and front posts about nine feet. These are four inches broad at
the joinings upon the back-post a, and three inches broad at the
joinings upon the front-post ft, by two and a half inches thick.
The horizontal intermediates eee are of course of the same length
as the bottom and top bars, and of the same breadth, but they are
only one and a half inch thick. The diagonal bar g, which reaches
from the heel of the gate to within two feet of the point of the top
bar, is of the same strength as the upper and lower bars, and, like
them, tapering from four inches at heel to three inches at point ;
and the upright piece, f, is of the same dimensions as the interme-
diates, and reaches from the bottom bar to the diagonal at its
junction with the second bar from the top. This gate is furnished
with double hinges, which greatly strengthen the back part by
clasping the joints both at bottom and top, h h. See Fig. 39, which
is a representation of this double hinge. The pe-
culiar properties of this form of gate are, first, the FlG- 39-
back-post, 5, is much heavier than the front one, a, ^>
which tends to throw the centre of gavity upon
the hinges ; second, all the horizontal bars, from bottom to top,
are made heavier behind than in front, and all with the intention
of lightening the gate in front, and throwing the centre of gravity
as much as possible upon the hinges ; and, third, the diagonal, g,
is so placed that it acts completely the part of a lever against any
weight that may be thrown upon the front part of the gate ; and
even its being lighter as it recedes from the heel, is a great means
of supporting the whole of the gate, and of keeping it in a well-
balanced state. It appears to me, that any gate made upon these
principles must approach the model of perfection in such a structure ;
and it is upon this account that I consider the gate now described
to be of the best description possible, seeing that it combines strength
and lightness in a very perfect manner. In making the description
of gates mentioned, it is necessary, in order to have them to last as
long as possible, to have them very neatly jointed, planed smoothly,
UPON FIELDS AND PLANTATIONS. 107
and painted with two coats of oil-paint before being hung ;
and even after they are hung in their place, they are much
improved by being painted at least once in three years. The wood
and workmanship of a gate of this description may be valued at
10s. ; the hinges generally weigh about 20 lb. weight, which, at
4d. per lb., will be 6s. Sd. additional ; making the entire cost of the
gate with iron mounting, 16s. Sd.
A\ e now come to make a few observations upon the nature of
hanging gates upon fences, both in fields and plantations ; and
as I have frequently seen a great deal of error committed in
this branch of the business of fencing, I shall state the manner
in which we hang our gates upon the estate of Arniston,
which is considered, by all who have examined it, an excellent
way of doing the work. The common way of erecting gates
is to hang them right between the two posts put up for the
purpose ; and by this method, when the gate is set open, it
stands at right angles with the fence upon which it is placed ;
(sec Fig. 40, b ;) consequently it is in this state always liable to
be injured by carts, &c. coming into
... ' . . Fig. 40.
contact with it when going into or a
returning: out of the field. Another ^ .= .=—
evil which almost invariably attends
this old-fashioned method of hanging
field-gates is, that the gate being hung
from centre to centre of the two posts,
as indicated by the dotted line between the two posts a a, when any-
thing goea wrong with either post, the gate must be left too slack
between tliem, or otherwise confined too tight between them,
according to the direction in which the post may have been driven.
Consequently the gate has a great chance to be injured in some
way or other; besides, the posts are seldom put into the ground
with the addition of any simple fixture whatever, being merely
put into a hole, and the earth again beat down about them; and,
from this circumstance, if the earth has been put in about the posts
in a wet state, the certain consequence is that they become slack in
a short time, when the gate' falls down in front, and, in consequence
of coming in contact with the ground, it is soon either broken or
108 MAKING AND HANGING OF GATES
much injured in the joints. Having seen this often happen from
bad management, I beg here to recommend the following method
of hanging plantation and field gates : — Let the post upon which
the gate is to be hung be pretty strong — say eight inches on the
side of the square, and let the part of it which is to be put into the
ground be left round with the bark upon the wood, and have it put
into the ground two and a half feet deep, and fixed upon a
sole with a diagonal or stay, as has been already advised for wire-
fence posts. Having the post made with its sole and stay on the
under part, put it into the hole prepared for it, with the sole and
stay projecting in the direction of the gateway, which will insure
its stability against the weight of the gate or any other ordinary
pressure in that direction, and have the post well firmed into the
hole : if the earth taken out be of a soft nature, keep it out,
and fill up the pit with small stones mixed with earth, or any other
thing of a hard and binding nature ; and be most particular not to
fill in with earth in a soft or wet state, else the work will be insuffi-
cient, and will not give satisfaction. The post upon which the
gate is to be shut may be considerably smaller, if thought neces-
sary, than the other : it will not require to have any sole or
stay attached to it, but may very safely be put into the earth at
the same depth recommended for the other; observing to make
it equally as firm, putting a very large stone or two into the
pit near the surface, which will add much to the stability of the
post.
Having put the posts in plumb, and at the desired distance,
which should always be the exact length of the gate to be put on,
next have the crooks, upon which the gate is to be hung, put into
the post on the angle of the same, instead of on the centre as in
the former case. See Fig. 41, where the gate a is hung upon the
corner or angle of the post
b ; the effect of this being, FlG- 41-
that the gate, when hung in j h
this position, has full play ====—== «
upon the hinge to fold back
upon the fence c, and is not hindered in its motion by the corner
of the post, as is the case in the other method ; consequently,
UPON FIELDS AND PLANTATIONS. 109
from the gate having room to fold back upon the fence, it is,
when open, entirely out of the way of any cart coming into or
going out of the field. Xext, instead of the gate being made to
shut right between the posts, it ought to be shut upon the face
or outside of the shutting-post d ; this is represented by the
dotted line, which shows the position of the gate when shut :
and in this case, whatever accident may befall the post upon
which the gate shuts, the gate cannot itself be injured. The
upper crook of all gates of this description should be made so
long as to go through the post, and have about two inches of a
screw upon the end of it, upon which a large nut, made to fit,
is screwed ; by this means the crook will keep its position, and
will cause the gate to do the same.
It is often found convenient to have small wickets upon certain
parts about gentlemen's seats, particularly upon the edges of planta-
tions through which pleasure-walks are made ; and as it is often
inconvenient to have such wickets to open and shut in the same
manner as common gateways, it is desirable they should be con-
structed so as to be what may very properly be termed self-shutting.
Of this description of self-shutting wickets I know of none more
simple and effective, both as a fence and a gate, than that shown
in Fig. 42, which is generally termed the angular wicket.
The opening in the feuce,
from a to a, may be about Fl<i< 4"'"
four feet wide ; the angular
part of the wicket, ace, may
be about three feet wide be-
tween e and e, and may be
made up with any convenient
sort of wood, according to
taste : observing to have a
post upon each of the extremities, one at e upon each side,
in order that the wicket, a dt may hit upon one as it folds to
either side in the act of opening or shutting. The wicket, a d,
may be made of light wood, and hung with a hinge upon a post
at '/. The particular properties of this sort of wicket are,
first, that it is of a most simple and easy construction ; second,
110 MAKING AND HANGING OF GATES.
it is easy for any person to have access through it, and that
"without the trouble of shutting or locking ; and, third, whatever
description of cattle may be in the adjoining fields, they can
have no access through, seeing that if they do attempt it,
the wicket as they go in shuts upon the opposite side before
them.
CHAPTER II.
Preparing of Ground for the growing of young Trees — Draining of Plantation
Ground — Laying out of Roads in new Plantations — Making of Close or Shot
Drains in Land occupied by Trees — Season of the year best adapted for Plant-
ing Operations — Distribution of young Trees so as to suit different situations —
Descriptive character of the Elm — Of the Beech — Of the Ash — Of the Sycamore
—Of the Norway Maple— Of the Poplar— Of the Willow— Of the Birch— Of the
Alder— Of the Oak— Of the Sweet Chestnut— Of the Horse Chestnut— Of the
Lime-tree — Of the Scots Fir — Of the Spruce Fir — Of the Larch Fir — Of the
Silver Fir — Of the Pineaster— Of the 'Weymouth Pine.
SECTION I. — PREPARING OF GROIND FOR THE GROWING OF YOUNG
TREES.
Some practical foresters have maintained that all ground, pre-
vious to its being planted with young forest-trees, ought to undergo
a course of preparation by trenching or ploughing, and by having
lime or manure in some way or other applied to the land. Such
a course of preparation as either of the above may be very proper
in some cases, but it is attended by the very worst effect in others.
As I have been very often cmestioned by proprietors relative to
the utility of trenching, ploughing, or manuring of land previous
to its being put under a crop of young forest-trees, I shall here
give an example or two from my own experience upon these
points, with a few observations upon each head.
When I went to be forester at Craigston in Aberdeenshire, I
found that some parts of the old woodlands, from which a crop
of fir timber had been lately cleared, were trenched in the com-
mon way, and had again been planted with a crop of trees of
various sorts about four years previous to my going there.
The ground which had been thus trenched was situated in a
112 PEEPAEING OF GEOUND FOR THE
pretty sheltered part of the estate, and mostly surrounded by old
plantations : consequently the situation was one rather favourable
for such an experiment. Upon examining the nature of the top
and sub soils, I found the former to be a dry sandy moss, well
mixed with fresh vegetable matter, and in all from six to ten
inches deep ; the sub-soil was a tilly gravel of a dark brown colour,
in many places several feet deep, and resting in many places
upon a hard free-stone rock of a reddish colour, and in others
upon a deep bed of pure gravel. In the act of trenching this
ground, the surface had been paired off and thrown into the bottom
of each opening, and covered by about a foot of the sub-soil :
where old roots had been taken out, the trenching was no doubt
in those parts deeper, but, on an average, the ground might be
said to be twenty inches deep.
I said that this ground had been planted with another crop of
trees about four years previous to my going there, and the kinds
planted were ash, elm, Scots pines, and larch firs. When I first
saw this crop of young trees upon the trenched ground, their
appearance indicated that they had been planted only the previous
year. They were alive, but had made no shoots of young wood
since they had been planted ; and upon learning the nature of
their situation, I had the hardwood all cut over ; but this of course
I could not do with the firs, consequently I allowed them to do their
best with the circumstances under which they were. I watched
the progress of those trees minutely during the two years that I
was on that place. The hardwood set up two and three sickly
young shoots from each stock ; but during the time I was there I
found them very little improved, the whole of the plants remain-
ing in a languid state. The firs were in a state very little better
than the hardwood. When I first went to the place, I had the
ground made up with many fresh plants of the fir tribe, because
many blanks had occurred ; and after watching their progress for
two summers, I found that those which had been in the soil for
six years were only making annual shoots of about two inches,
and those that I had myself planted upon the same soil,
being two years in the ground, had scarcely made any wood what-
ever.
GROWING OF YOUNG TEEES. 113
Now, I had occasion to plant a few acres in the same old
plantation the first year I went to Craigston, and I planted it
with oak, ash, and elm, Scots pines and larch firs ; but instead of
trenching the ground, I planted them on the surface, and in the
usual manner ; and before they were twenty months in the ground,
those trees were far superior to the others which had been six
years planted.
Upon the estate of Dunskey, in Wigtonshire, the property of
General Hunter Blair, there was a tract of ground trenched for a
young plantation on a high and exposed part of the estate, and
within one mile and a half of the sea. When I examined it, I
learned that the trees had been planted upon it about six
years ; yet, generally speaking, they were not more than ten
inches high, and standing at very wide distances. The
greater half of the trees planted having died out, and the pro-
prietor finding it a hopeless task, had abandoned the attempt
of growing trees upon the ground ; and in this state I found
them.
The ground was a very light, sandy loam, resting upon a rough
gravel of considerable depth, and it had been trenched much in
the same manner as in the former case. The consequences
were apparently much the same in the one case as in the other ;
that is to say, the trenching of the ground in both cases
disappointed the views of the proprietors. Here, now, we
have two examples of trenching ground for young forest trees
both attended with bad effects, and I vouch for the truth of both
the examples given. The blame could not be attributed to the
soil itself, seeing that trees grow well upon the same nature of soil
when planted on the natural surface : the failure was altogether
attributable to the trenching of the soil ; for the best of the soil
was thrown undermost in the act of trenching, and the bad soil
brought up in both cases; but had this soil been simply trench-
ploughed, and the top and subsoils mixed together and allowed to
rest for a year or two, the results would no doubt have been very
different. These two examples have quite determined me as
to the effects of trenching light land for young trees upon any
situation ; and in no case of forest management do I ever attempt
H
114 PREPARING OF GROUND FOR THE
trenching, knowing that the young trees are more sure of doing
well when planted in the soil in its natural state.
Now, even allowing that those who advocate the trenching
of forest land have in many instances been so far successful in
their management, upon a good soil, as to grow trees rapidly, the
expense necessary to be incurred is too important a point to be
passed over.
It is evident that, however much good might arise to trees from
the trenching of the ground upon which they might be planted, it
could not in practice be carried to any useful or great extent. In
ordinary cases, land cannot be trenched under £8 an acre ;
and where trees have been formerly, and huge roots have to be
taken out of the ground, even £15 an acre would not be too much
for the trenching of ground in such a condition. Therefore in
general practice it is entirely out of the question.
The trenching of ground as a preparation for young trees may
be very proper, and even necessary, upon a small scale, near or
about a proprietor's policy grounds, in a good heavy loamy soil,
and in a sheltered situation, particularly where large trees may
have been newly taken down, and where, for the sake of appear-
ance, it is desirable to have old roots taken out previous to replant-
ing ; but it is only in such a case that trenching, in my opinion,
ought to be recommended in the cultivation of forest trees ; and
even then, only if the subsoil be naturally good. There is no
advantage gained by the trenching of ground for forest trees
which is not decidedly better attained by a well-conducted system
of drainage.
The ploughing of land has been much recommended as a prepa-
ration of the ground for young trees. In my opinion, where the
subsoil is naturally open and easily drained, there is no necessity
for the ploughing of it previous to its being planted ; but where
the upper stratum of soil is naturally thin and poor, with moor-
band-pan under, a deep ploughing is absolutely necessary, in
order to break the pan and mix a portion of the subsoil with the
upper. The fact is, that a soil of the nature of moorband-pan is
naturally unfit for the growing of forest trees; but where the
proprietor of such a soil, in the general arrangement of his
GROWING OF YOUNG TREES. 115
improvements upon his estate, may wish to plant such a piece of
ground with forest trees, the trench-plough must first be used in
order to open up the soil and break the pan. I am not aware that
ploughing is advantageous to the growth of forest trees in any-
other case. I am aware that /?r trees, planted and growing upon
land which has been frequently ploughed previously, seldom live
long, or attain to any considerable size free from disease ; which
at once points out that nature wishes no interference of the kind.
A few months ago, when passing along the Lammermoor hills in
Berwickshire, my attention was much engaged by observing a
young plantation at a distance having a strange chequered appear-
ance ; and when I came up to it and examined the cause of such
an appearance, I found that each five yards in breadth of the
ground had been ploughed previous to the trees being planted, and
other five yards in breadth left unploughed alternately. It appeared
to me that the trees had been planted about seven years, and
they consisted entirely of larch and Scotch pines. Those on the
ploughed land were about five feet high, and those on the un-
ploughed were not more than two and a half feet. In the un-
ploughed land, the Scotch pines were proportionally stronger than
the larches ; and upon the ploughed parts, the larches were by far
tin' strongest, and had made generally great progress, the situation
being very high and exposed — more than a thousand feet above
the level of the sea ; and the Scotch pines giving a dark colour to
the unploughed ridges, and the larch firs giving a light colour to
the ploughed ones, was the cause of the appearance which first
attracted my attention and led me to examine the plantation.
lb n . DOW, we have an example of the effects of ploughing
land fur the reception of young trees ; and it is decidedly remark-
able, in the first instance, as compared with trees grown on the
natural surface. In this case, the trees upon the land which had
been ploughed were twice the height of those planted upon the
unploughed ; and it is the same in almost all cases of ploughing
moorland fur forest trees: this is occasioned by the decom-
position <>f the grassy turf, and also by the roots of the plants
having free and unchecked .scope for the spread of their roots in
search of food, which they cannot BO readily do when the turf is
116 DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND.
of a close and compact nature, and in an undisturbed state.
Upon all our woodlands upon the estate of Arniston I have had
occasion to observe, when thinning and cutting among them, that
wherever the land had been under the plough previous to its being
planted with trees, the wood there is of greater dimensions in a
given time than it is where the trees had been planted upon the
undisturbed soil ; but it is not nearly so sound in quality,
and does not live nearly so long, more particularly the larch
timber. Therefore, from my own experience, I beg to say, that all
artificial cultivation of the soil ought to be avoided where it is
desirable to have healthy and long-lived timber trees ; for the
quicker that any sort of wood is made to grow, the softer is its
structure, the more liable to become decayed, and the less valu-
able the timber.
Liming and otherwise manuring the soil for young trees has
been recommended by some and disapproved of by others. In
my opinion — and I speak from experience — all artificial excitement
of a young tree by the application of manure is ultimately
injurious to it. I have seen small plantations grown upon the
system of trenching, liming, and otherwise manuring ; and in
such cases I have generally had occasion to observe that the trees
grew rapidly for a few years at first, but as soon as the exciting
influence of the manure had begun to fail, the trees fell into a bad
state of health, and seldom attained that confirmed state of matu-
rity which is found when Nature has her own way. However,
I cannot say as to what state of perfection trees might grow were
manure added to their roots at stated intervals : nor do I think it
necessary that we should know the results of such a system of
management, seeing it would be of no real use to grow trees upon
such an expensive system, and one which would cause the timber
so raised to be of an inferior quality.
SECTION II. — DRAINING OP PLANTATION GROUND.
There is no preparation of the soil so advantageous to the
welfare of young forest trees as draining. Draining not only
DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND. 117
dries the soil from all superfluous moisture, but it also cleanses it
of many bad ingredients, which might otherwise prove injurious to
the health of trees and prevent their full development. To the
want of draining may be attributed most cases of unhealthiness
in plantations for forty years past. The disease in the larch,
which has been so prevalent in Scotland for some years past,
may be almost entirely ascribed to the neglect of this precau-
tion, as shall be particularly explained when I come to treat
upon that subject. I have, within these last ten years, seen
very many plantations in Scotland fast going back from the
want of draining ; and having been often called upon to give
my opinion relative to the unhealthy state of such plantations,
J have, in almost all cases, found damp to be the principal cause,
and therefore recommended an efficient course of open draining
as the only means by which they could be recovered ; and
wherever my plan for the recovery of the health of such planta-
tions has been put into operation, restoration has been the result,
excepting in some cases where the trees were too old and stunted
to indulge any hope of their recovery. Since I came to be
forester at Arniston, I have, by draining alone, brought several
young plantations into health, which before that operation were
fast going back ; and from experience I find, that if the
constitution of trees under twenty years old be not too much
injured by the effects of dampness, they will show signs of
recovery the second year after the ground is drained about them ;
that is to say, as soon as the young roots begin to draw nourish-
ment from the dry and improved soil.
Draining is quite as necessary for the profitable rearing of young
trees as it is found advantageous in the profitable growing of
corn, which we now see so much improved everywhere by that
most excellent art. What our corn-fields were fifty years ago,
such are the most of our plantations of the present day.
'1 weaty yean ago it was considered superfluous to drain
land where young tiers were to be put in ; therefore it is
not to be wondered at that we have at the present time so
many unhealthy young plantations. During my apprenticeship
I have planted young trees in ground where, when I made a
118 DRAINING'OF PLANTATION GROUND.
pit for a young tree, I had to plant it immediately, for fear of the
pit filling with water ; yet the person who had the manage-
ment did not appear to think that draining was necessary. And
such was the case with foresters generally at that time. How-
ever, the foresters of that period are not to be blamed for not
draining their ground previous to its being planted, any more
than farmers were to blame for the same neglect before they
became aware of the advantages of draining. But the case is
altogether different now. Every farmer and forester is now
aware of the advantages of draining land, whether it may be
for the growing of corn or of trees ; yet we have often occasion
to see this knowledge taken no advantage of, both among
farmers and foresters.
Any farmer who now sows his fields without first draining
them, is by his more intelligent neighbours considered unworthy
of holding his land ; so, in like manner, the forester who would
attempt planting a piece of ground naturally wet, without first
having it thoroughly drained, would certainly be unworthy of
holding a situation as forester in any gentleman's establish-
ment.
The land intended for a new plantation being all well fenced,
the next important step to be taken, in order to fit it for the
reception of young trees, is the draining it, which draining must
be executed in such a manner as to free the land from all super-
fluous moisture, and to keep it in a free, open, healthy state. I
may here remark, that all drains made in plantations among
trees, whether these may be old or young, ought to be left open.
To cover drains where the roots of trees have access to them is
the most effectual way of ultimately rendering them useless.
They might, indeed, answer the purpose for a very few years ;
but as soon as the roots of the trees began to spread themselves
firmly into the soil, they would collect about the drains more than
any other part, and the consequence would be, that in a very
short time covered drains would be entirely choked up with the
roots, and rendered useless.
It is seldom found necessary to drain every part of the ground
that may be laid out for a new plantation. There are, it is most
DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND. 119
reasonable to suppose, many spots quite dry enough for the rear-
ing- of healthy timber trees in almost every district of any con-
siderable extent, which spots the experienced eye can at once
detect by the general appearance of the plants growing upon the
surface; but for the guidance of those who may not have had
experience enough for this purpose, it may be necessary here to
lay down something like a rule, by which they may distinguish
land in want of draining from land not requiring it. Attend,
then, to the following hints : — At certain distances throughout the
whole of the intended plantation, say at twenty yards, cast pits
rather more than twelve inches deep: if in those pits water
should appear to gather within ten hours after being made, the
land there is unfit for the growing of healthy trees without being
drained ; and where no water appears in the pits, the land there
may be reckoned dry, and may be safely planted with forest trees
without draining.
The distance at which drains should be put on the ground,
depends entirely upon the nature of the soil to be dried ; that is,
if the soil be a stiff clay or a retentive moss, the drains may require
to be laid on as close as twenty-five feet apart ; and if, on the
contrary, the soil to be dried be of an open sand or gravel, through
which the water can pass freely, fifty feet distant may not be
too far separate. In all cases where I drain for the planting of
forest trees, of whatever nature the soil may be, I never now put on
drains closer than twenty-five feet, nor wider than fifty, if the soil
require draining at all. If the soil for a plantation of trees be
drained more frequently than at twenty-five feet, the trees are very
apt to be blown up by the roots when they come to be heavy topped,
particularly if the drains arc not kept in a clean state ; and if
land requires draining at all for the growing of trees, it is my
opinion that fifty feet should be the greatest distance ; for beyond
that distance between drains, land cannot be said to be drained
efficiently.
The depth and general size of the drains must in a great
rare be regulated by the nature of the soil to be dried. In a
heavy clay soil I have found that wood drains should be at
twenty-four inches deep j upon a light friable soil, fourteen
120 DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND.
inches may be quite deep enough ; and according as the soil may
be inclined to be light or heavy, any intermediate depth between
the two extremes above specified may be fixed upon — always
observing, that the more the soil is inclined to clay or moss, the
deeper the drains should be made.
The breadth of all such drains, at the surface of the ground,
must of course vary according to the depth required. The rule
which I have laid down for my own practice as regards this is, to
make all open forest drains one-third wider at the top than the
depth intended ; that is, if the depth of a drain be fixed upon as
fifteen inches, the breadth of the opening at top will require to be
twenty inches ; and so on with any other depth. The breadth of
all forest drains at bottom ought to be sufficient to allow a com-
mon spade free room to pass along for the purpose of cleaning.
The cost of making such drains as have been above specified,
must always be regulated by the nature of the soil, and the price
of labour in the neighbourhood where the work is to be done.
In Mid-Lothian I have got drains fourteen inches deep, and
requiring to be picked in the under-half, done for one farthing per
yard ; and drains twenty inches deep, requiring extra picking,
for two farthings per yard. A particular point to attend to in the
draining of moor or waste land, for the planting of young forest
trees, is the manner of laying on the drains upon the ground :
they must be laid on in that position which is found to be the
best adapted for drawing off and intercepting the superfluous water
in its natural descent. I have seen several plantations of late, and
those of considerable extent, drained in a very inefficient manner,
the drains not having been properly laid down upon the ground.
To those who may be unacquainted with the art of making open
drains upon moor or waste land, the following hints may be useful: —
It is a very simple process to drain any piece of land having a mode-
rate natural descent to one side. In such a case nothing is necessary
but to make the drains in that direction which is indicated by the
fall of the ground ; but where the ground may be what is termed
a dead level — that is, having no perceptible fall to any side — the
case is altogether different, and requires both experience and con-
sideration to drain such a piece of ground properly. Again, where
DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND.
121
the surface to be drained is a steep slope with many inequalities,
much caution and consideration is necessary in order to lay on the
drains upon the ground in that position which is most likely to be
effective in intercepting the water as it falls from the various high
parts into the various hollows ; and in order to make all this as
plain as possible, I shall illustrate the manner of going to work by
reference to a few figures.
The operator, in making open drains upon moorland, must be
provided with common tools as FlG 43-
generally used for that purpose,
— namely, the line upon a reel,
with iron pin attached to the
other end, for marking off the
drains ; a rlaughtcr spade, (see
Fig. 17. for the purpose of
cutting up the surface or turf;
a common pick, (see Fig. 43,)
for loosening the subsoil and
taking out stones where they
occur ; and the common spade,
f >r throwing out the earth and clearing up the
bottom of the drains. The most necessary im-
plement for the superintendant of draining
operations is the spirit-level, (see Fig. 44,)
which no drainer ought to be without, and
which can be bought for los. This is an
instrument that I use myself in the case of
taking levels for drains ; and in using it I
put the instrument, with appendage, into a
hole bored by a gimblet in the top of my
walking-staff, as shown in the Figure.
\\ hen in use, the spirit-level is placed into a
frame of brass, a part of which operates by
pressure against the bottom of the instru-
ment, as a spring to adjust it to the level
position '/. by turning the large headed
brass screw c.
Fig. 44.
122 DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND.
A perpendicular stud is fixed to the under part of the framing,
and placed firmly into the gimblet-hole in the top of the staff e,
which is pushed into the ground at the spot from whence the level
is desired to be taken. There are two eyesights, a and b ; a being
merely a small hole for the eye to be placed against, and b a square
opening, with a hair-wire crossing it in the middle.
Being furnished with the implements above mentioned, and
having a spirit-level of the description referred to, if it is required
to drain a flat bog for the purpose of planting trees in it, the
drainer will proceed as follows : — Look for the lowest part of the
ground to be drained, and if this cannot be decidedly ascertained
by the eye, set up the spirit-level about the centre of the flat
ground, and take sights from it all round in order to find out this
point. In using the instrument, it may be unnecessary for me
to observe, that the height of the eyesight a from the ground must
be deducted from the point observed — that is, if the object-pole
used be marked in feet and inches, and the hair-wire, in taking a
sight, hit the same at six and a half feet — then, if your eyesight be
three feet from the ground, the difference of level between the two
stations will be exactly three and a half feet ; that is to say, there
would be three and a half feet of descent from the spirit-level
station to that of the station where the object was placed. On
the other hand, if, in looking through the eyesight, the hair-wire
hit the object-pole at twelve inches from the ground, this twelve
inches must be deducted from the height of the eyesight ; and sup-
posing that to be three feet, then the ground at the station-pole
must be two feet higher than that at the spirit-level. Hav-
ing ascertained, by the use of the spirit-level, the lowest part of
the ground to be drained, and being aware how deep a main drain
can be got made there in order to carry off the water from it, cut
a main drain along the lowest part of the ground all through, and
make it empty itself at the lowest point possible. This main drain
must be made of a size correspondent to the quantity of water it is
likely to be required to contain, which must depend upon the
extent of ground to be drained : in the present case, the main
drain must be deeper than ordinary, in order to give fall to the
smaller ones into it ; but, in a moderate case, we may say three
DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND. 123
feet deep, and five feet wide at top. Now let Fig. 45 represent
this main drain upon a flat piece of ground : from a little expla-
nation on it I will be better able to make myself properly
understood in reference to the smaller drains which are to be led
into it.
Having made the main drain of the form shown in the Figure,
lav off your smaller or common drains at proper distances — say
thirty feet from each other, and at nearly right angles to the main
drain ; and in making these — say that you wish to have them
twenty inches deep, make them that depth at the top, or the end
furthest from the main drain, as at c c, and proportionally deeper
as vim approach it ; and when you finish the small drains into the
main one, you can have one foot and a half of descent between the
two ends of your drains, which is quite enough for a drain of any
ordinary length in a plantation, where they are left open, and of
course can be scoured in order to keep a clear run. The run of
these small drains is represented by the two lines c d on each side
of the main drain b in the Figure. From the surface at a, to the
bottom of the upper end of the drains at c, is twenty inches ; and
from tin- surface upon the side of the main drains at ^7, to the bot-
tom of the lower end of the small drains at (/, is thirty-eight
inches: giving eighteen inches of a fall upon the small drains
from c to d. It will be observed that the small drains at </, the
lower eml, are kept a few inches above the bottom of the main
drain at e : this precaution should in all cases be used where
there i> aot much descent for the water. Were the smaller drains
made to terminate in the very bottom of the main one, the accu-
mulation of mud from the different small ones would soon be so
great as to check the progress of water at the ends, and cause the
124 DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND.
main drain to become stagnated ; but by keeping the bottom-level
of the main drain a few inches under the bottoms of the small ones,
although mud should accumulate in the former to a consider-
able extent, the others are not affected by it ; and if the main one
be cleaned once a-ycar, all is kept right with regard to the small
ones.
It is a point of wisdom in draining not to have too many smaller
drains running into a main one, unless, indeed, it be of very great
dimensions ; but if it should be found necessary to continue all
small drains into one main drain for a great length — which will
depend upon the nature of the ground — the main drain should
be made larger as it increases in length, with the view of
containing the increase of water from the small drains upon its
sides. When water increases to a great quantity in a main drain
made upon soft soil, it is very apt to be injured, and to have its
sides broken down or wrought in upon ; in order to avoid this,
it is a better plan not to allow the small drains to run above
one hundred and fifty yards without falling into a large one, which,
if possible, should be made to have an outlet for itself without
the bounds of the plantation, or into a stream, if the ground con-
tain one ; for a natural stream or burn makes at all times the
best outlet for water from main drains ; and, if possible, this should
always be done.
In putting open drains upon land having a steep declivity, they
should be run nearly at right angles with the descent of the
ground ; but, at the same time, care must be taken to make every
drain with a slight fall downwards ; for if they have not at least
one foot in a hundred of descent, they will be apt to become
choked up with mud and other vegetable matter, which is sure to
accumulate if not carried away by a brisk run of the water in the
drains. I have already said that where the ground has a slight
natural fall — say of about three or four in the hundred — the drains
may very properly be made to run in the direction of the same ;
but beyond this the fall would be too much, and would certainly
prove injurious to drains. Caution therefore is necessary upon
this point, in case of overdoing the thing: for if the drains were
to be made with the natural fall of the ground, that being
DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND. 125
say six in the hundred, the effect of such a rapid descent of the
water during a flood would ruin the drains ; and if the soil were
of a sandy or gravelly nature, the undermining of their sides
could not but take place, and the whole work would prove
a ruin. It should in all cases be observed, where the soil is
of a light, sandy, or gravelly nature, to give no more descent to
the drains than will carry the water briskly along and prevent
stagnation ; and where the soil is stiff, a quicker descent may be
given without doing damage so quickly as in light soil. In order
to make the method of draining upon steep slopes as easily
understood as possible, I shall illustrate the same by reference
to Fig. 46, which is a representation of my method of drain-
ing a hill-side with open drains for a young plantation, and which
Fig. 4C.
I consider the best method possible for intercepting water in such
situations; and as I find that Mr Stephens, in his Manual of Prac-
tical Draining, lias an illustration of the same kind, I shall here
give the same, with his explanation. In speaking of making open
sheep-drains upon hill-pasture land — which is equally applicable
to plantation-ground in like circumstances — Mr Stephens says:
"Open surface-drains in permanent pasture (or plantation-ground)
exhibit the form represented in Fig. 46, where the leaders (or sub-
main drains] e / and g h arc cut with the greater slope down the
hill tin- steeper the face of the acclivity is, and the feeders (or small
drains) are cut across the face, nearly in parallel lines, into their
respective Leaders. In this way the water is entirely intercepted
126 DRAINING OF PLANTATION GROUND.
in its passage down the hill. Where one drain enters another, the
line of junction should never be at right angles, but always at an
acute angle with the line of the flow of water, as at b. And where
small drains enter a large, they should not only enter with such an
inclination, but where they come from opposite sides, as in the case
above, they should enter at alternate points, as shown by the three
drains above /, and not as represented by the three pairs of drains
above these towards e." The large drain c b d may either form a
part of the lower fence of the plantation, or run along the bottom
of the hill-ground ; and the main drain, from b to a, be made to run
out in the direction of the outlet ; and other small drains, as at a iy
be made into it upon the level ground, if required.
With regard to the method of making open drains upon hill-
land, such as has been described above, I may add from that
excellent author, Mr Stephens, upon this head as follows : —
" There are various ways of making drains upon grass : one is to
turn a furrow-slice dowTn the hill with the plough, and trim the
furrow afterwards with the spade. When the grass is smooth, and
the soil pretty deep, this is an economical mode of making the
open drain. Every line of them should be previously marked off
with poles when the plough is to be used. But where the grass is
rough and strong, and swampy places intervene, the plough is apt
to choke and come out of the ground, by the long grass accumu-
lating between the coulter and the beam ; and it makes at best
very rough work, while the horses are apt to strain themselves in
the swampy ground.
" A better, though more expensive, mode is to form them alto-
gether with the spade.
Let a, Fig. 47, be a
cut thrown out by the
spade, nine inches wide =
at bottom, sixteen J
inches of a slope on ~%
the high side, and ten J|
on the low, with a
width of twenty inches |S
at top along the slope
Fig. 47.
LAYING OUT OF EOADS IN NEW PLANTATIONS. 127
of the ground. A large turf, b, is removed by the spade, and
laid with its grassy side down the slope, thus preserving the
grass on the lowest side of the cut, the shovellings being thrown
on the top of the turf to finish the bank neatly. Such a drain
catches all the water descending the space between it and the
drain above, and leads it to the sub-main drains, as efor rj Ji:
Fig. 46, which are of similar construction, but of larger dimensions,
running more perpendicularly clown the hill, with their lower end
joining the large main drains, b c and b d." Such is the method
advised by Mr Stephens for the making of sheep-drains upon pas-
ture-lands, and it is equally applicable to the draining of land for
a new plantation, only with this difference, that drains for wood-
lands are generally made rather deeper than those for sheep-pas-
ture ; and I have epioted the above from Mr Stephens, as it exactly
corresponds with my own method of going to work in draining for
wood upon steep sloping banks. In conclusion upon draining, I
beg to remark, that all main drains should be made in the lowest
part of the ground to be dried : they should increase in size
as they increase in length, and according to the quantity of water
likely to be poured intc them ; and this not only in the time of
general rainy weather, but the time of a flood must be taken into
consideration, seeing it is then that the drains are mostly required.
All sub-main drains should be made in a position between the
main drains and the smaller ones ; and as they arc intended to
collect the water from the smaller drains and convey it to the main
ones, they should be of a convenient size between the two. All
open drains in a wood ought to be examined and cleared out
once in two years; for if they are not attended to in this respect,
they are apt to choke by vegetable matter lodging in them, more
particularly if the ground be level.
SE< PIOM III. — LATINO OUT OP ROADS IN NEW PLANTATIONS.
In all plantations of any considerable extent, it is absolutely
ssary to have vacant tracts left through them implanted, in
128 LAYING OUT OF EOADS IN NEW PLANTATIONS.
the form of roads; and in laying these off in a new planta-
tion, care should be taken to see that no part of the Avood is
above one hundred and fifty yards distant from some one of such
roads. The necessity of this precaution will appear evident, when
it is taken into consideration that the trees, when grown to any
considerable size, will have all to be carried from the interior to
some one of such roads, in order to have them taken away in
carts ; and when the trees become large, and require to be carried
a considerable distance, much valuable labour must be wasted
before they can be laid down cart-free by the men.
The roads in a plantation need not be made more than fifteen
feet wide. In all cases, however, they ought to be so broad as to
allow two carts to pass one another with freedom when laden
with wood.
When the roads are marked off, which of course ought to be
done previous to the ground being planted, they ought to be
divided from the rest of the ground by a drain of sixteen inches
deep, running along each side of them throughout their whole
extent, whether the ground may be wet or not. These are meant
not only to keep those roads in a dry, firm state, but to give
them an appearance distinct from the rest of the plantation ;
being thus drained on each side, they are not apt to be cut or
damaged by a cart or any other wheeled carriage passing along
them ; and when thus kept dry, they form a fine ornamental
green ride for the proprietor and his friends at all times, as
well as answer the purposes of accommodation in wood opera-
tions.
If there be any particularly romantic-looking spot within the
bounds of the plantation, the road should be made to take a turn in
that direction ; or if there be any particular height from which a
distinct view of the surrounding country may be had, make a road
to pass by it, with a narrow footpath leading to such a height.
In short, in making roads through a plantation, as well as in mak-
ing walks through pleasure-grounds, good taste and ornament
should be kept in view ; and it is as easy to do any piece of work
well as otherwise.
In plantations where good taste is kept particularly in view,
SHUT DRAINS IN FOREST LAND. 129
it is very requisite to have holly trees planted along the sides of
the roads ; as also privets, rhododendrons, Portugal laurels and
bays, all which thrive well although a little shaded by trees ; and
in the winter season particularly, they give a fine effect when con-
trasted with the leafless hardwood trees. Indeed, those ornamental
points in forest scenery are by far too little attended to. Our woods
might be made even more interesting than the best-kept gardens,
in the winter season, were this kept in view; for what is prettier
than a holly, with its clustering red berries, in the winter months,
when the birds delight to congregate and feed upon them ? And
even in the month of June, what is more beautiful than the rhodo-
dendron, with its dark purple flowers? Such objects, when found
in a forest footpath, give rise to reflections unknown upon
beholding the same plants in a flower-garden.
BB4 HON IV. — MAKING OF CLOSE OR SHUT DRAINS IN LAND OCCUPIED
BY FOREST TREES.
Are there no means whereby drains in forest land can be kept
shut, and yet be secure from the roots of the trees? is a question
which has very frequently been put to me within the last twelve
months ; and on this account I have devoted this as a separate
section, in order to answer this important question as far as my
experience relative to this point will permit me to speak pro-
fitably.
It often occurs about the home-grounds of landed proprietors'
seats that open drains are an eye-sore, although they may be
actually necessary fur the welfare of the trees which may be grow-
ing upon the ground in such situations ; and it is in cases of this
nature that proprietors are anxious to be made aware of the
best method for preserving shut drains in such situations.
It is a well-ascertained fact that the roots of all trees incline
more to spread about the sides of drains than any other part of
the soil they may grow in, whether those may be shut or open
drains; and of this I have had ample proof in the case of covered
drains in fields along the margin of woods. At Craigston, in
1
130 CLOSE OE SHUT DEAINS IN
Aberdeenshire, a low-lying meadow of pasture land, which had
been drained effectually, was observed to become gradually covered
with rushes and several other plants which are found luxuriating
upon damp soil : the cause of this was undiscovered for several
years, until at last some particular parts of the meadow were
covered with stagnated water the greater part of the winter months.
The inefficiency of the drains was at once suspected as the cause
of the water lying upon the surface ; and as this was about the
time that I went to be forester upon the place, Mr Urquhart, the
proprietor, requested me to make an examination of the state of
the drains in the meadow. On ascertaining from an old man
upon the place, who had assisted in the making of the drains, the
particular direction of the main or leading ones, I found that the
principal drain ran along one side of the meadow, and the greater
part of the smaller ones fell into it from the other side. This
principal drain, into which the greater part of the small ones
emptied, ran along the edge of a wood, there being merely a cart-
road, of about eighteen feet width, between the main-drain along
the side of the meadow and the edge of the wood, where several
ash trees were growing. On being made aware of the position
of this drain, my mind was at once made up as to the cause of the
dampness in the meadow. I concluded that the roots of the ash-
trees had penetrated into the drain and choked it up. After
reporting this to Mr Urquhart, I. had men immediately set to
work to open up the drain, beginning at the lower end.
We had not got far on with the opening of the drain, which
was about five feet deep, until we found its conduit, which
was made of stones, blocked up with the roots of the ash-
trees ; and so completely was it choked, that not a drop of
water could pass along, the roots having the appearance of
large balls of horse-hair rolled up confusedly into bundles.
As soon as the main-drain was cleared as far as the roots of
the ash-trees were, the drains were quite clear, and the water ran
out from the field in every direction. And the main-drain being
afterwards left open, the field soon became dry enough, although,
indeed, the smaller drains had been considerably injured from the
effect of the water having been pressed back upon them. Now,
LAND OCCUPIED BY FOREST TREES. 131
in this instance we have an example of the roots of trees proving
injurious to drains at no less than five feet deep ; and not only
this — I have had occasion to observe the roots, both of ash and elm
trees, coming through into a garden under the foundation of a wall
in search of moisture, which they found in a drain about twelve
yards from the wall in the garden. At Gogar House, near Edin-
burgh, I was witness to a case even more extraordinary than this.
In the garden there, there was a well about fifteen feet deep,
for supplying the garden with water, which was situated about
thirty-five yards from the wall, and within the garden. On
the outside of the garden wall there were several large elm-trees
growing about the distance of ten yards from it : yet I observed
roots of these trees lying upon the water in the well within the
garden at eight feet from the surface ; and we have thus an example
of the roots of trees travelling nearly fifty yards in search of water,
and which they got at the depth of eight feet from the surface.
These two examples are, I think, sufficient to show that, in
order to keep the roots of trees from injuring close drains, their
depth will not avail ; and this I observe, because I have heard
several well-informed gentlemen state that they thought if drains
were placed sufficiently deep, that the roots of trees will not
prove injurious to them. But of the error of such an opinion I am
perfectly assured, and could give more examples in order to prove
this. Happening to meet with a very intelligent forester not
long ago, and wishing to have, if possible, from him some informa-
tion relative to the point in question, he mentioned that if drains
were filled to the surface with stones, so as to cause a dry vacuum
to exist in the ground, the roots of trees in the neighbourhood
would not enter them. This I can by no means believe nor agree
to ; for it is well known that moisture will trickle along the side
of a drain filled with stones ; consequently the roots of trees in the
ntighbourhood of such drains will very readily seek in that dircc-
ti"ii. and will follow the moisture to the very bottom of the drain,
however deep it may be made, seeing that air must be present
among the stones and in the drain also ; I accordingly at once con-
demn this plan as being without effect, and assume that some other
method must be adopted. I am not aware of any description of
132 CLOSE OR STIUT DRAINS IN
drain which will act properly as such, and into which water will
find its way, that will not be affected by roots of trees in its
neighbourhood. I am well aware that where water, followed by
air, will penetrate into the soil, the roots of the greater part of
our hardwood trees will follow in search of food ; and as the
soil in the immediate vicinity of drains is in a more healthy and
attractive state than any other part of the soil to which the roots
may have access, they will, without doubt, congregate much in
those parts: this is the cause of drains being injured by the
roots of trees. Seeing that the roots of trees incline much to
draw nourishment from drains, whether these may be open or
covered, and knowing that the keeping of their roots from having
access to such is injurious to their health, it is, in my opinion,
bad management, in the growing of trees, to keep their roots from
having that nourishment which nature has provided for them in
the soil ; therefore a plan must be adopted which will not hinder
the roots of the trees from having access to the drains, but, on
the contrary, one by which the roots may be encouraged, seeing
that trees in such a condition are more healthy than in any other
state.
The following is a plan which I beg to recommend to those who
may have occasion to require shut drains among trees, which
secures the safety of the drain, and allows the roots to have
access to the water in it at the same time. This is the only
rational method of proceeding, and will be understood by hav-
ing reference to Fig. 48. The depth of this
drain, from a to 5, may be forty-eight inches,
nine inches wide at bottom, and twelve at top.
In filling this drain, I would first put in about
eight inches of rough gravel into the bottom,
as from b to c, above which I would lay a sole
of slates, as at c, for the drain-tiles d to rest
upon. Between each sole I would leave a va-
cancy of an inch, in order to allow the water to
rise up into the tiles from the gravel. The tiles
being laid, I would surround them with a puddle of good clay, three
inches thick on each side, and the same on the top e.
LAND OCCUPIED BY FOREST TREES. 133
This plan of making drains in ground occupied by trees, with
the view of securing them from being easily injured by their roots,
occurred to me on seeing an old drain opened in the garden at
Craigton, near Glasgow. The garden there was a very old one ;
and on making some new drains in it, I came upon one of the
description mentioned along the edge of one of the walks. When
the walk had been made, some gravel had, no doubt, been flung
into the drain to answer some purpose, and above the gravel a
sole of flags had been put with an angular conduit of stones upon
them. "When I opened this drain in order to set the water from
my new ones into it, I found the roots of the pear-trees, which
were at least eighty years old, in excellent health, and in fibrous
masses among the gravel under the stones; while among the stones
above the gravel there were scarcely any roots whatever, but the
drain was in good state.
Now, from what I have observed in the case of several old
drains which I have had occasion to lift in gardens among apple
and pear trees, the roots of which, it is well known, go down very
deep, and travel a great length in search of food, I am perfectly
persuaded that any drain made in the way I have pointed out
will answer the purpose in question ; and my reasons for being con-
fident of this are — Jirst, The roots of all trees in the vicinity of
drains, when they come in contact with them, travel along the
sides of the drains, following the descent of the water to the
bottom. Now, when there is much gravel put into the bottom of a
drain, the water will gather there from each side of the drain, and
filter along through it ; consequently the roots of the trees will lodge
there also. Xow, as this gravel would not in all cases be able to
contain the quantity of water that might lodge in the drain, a
provision is made for any extraordinary flow, by having the tile
placed above upon soles set a little apart, in order to allow the
water the more readily to ascend into the tile and find egress
thus when it might att;iin this height. In general, however,
the water would lodge at the bottom of the gravel, and seldom
rise to the top; consequently the roots of the trees would not
incline to rise upwards into the tiles, seeing there was no food for
them there, nor any moisture to attract them. By placing a band
134 SEASON BEST ADAPTED
of clay over the tile, the roots of trees are prevented from going
downwards into the tiles ; and before they can enter the drain,
they must run to the bottom, where they are retained among the
moisture. Supposing that the gravel were to become so full
of the roots of the trees that the water could not pass through
it, it could have a passage in the tiles which have been pro-
vided for this purpose ; and as the water would still lie to a con-
siderable extent among the gravel, the roots would be detained
there, and would not increase upwards for a great length of
time. In short, I am persuaded that such a drain, if well
done, would keep good for a period of not less than fifty
years, which is longer than many do with no roots of trees near
them.
SECTION V. — SEASON OF THE YEAR BEST ADAPTED FOR PLANTING
OPERATIONS.
Many practical planters have laid down that the months of
March and April are the only proper months or season of the
year adapted for planting operations. For my own part, I have
planted extensively at all times between the months of November
and April, both included, while the weather was fresh, and have
had equal success from planting in all the different months. I
may, however, say, that I always prefer the months of November
and December for the planting of hardwood, and those of
February, March, and April for the planting of the fir and pine
tribes. If the ground intended to be planted be naturally dry,
I put in both hardwood and firs in the months of November
and December ; but if naturally wet, and the drains only recently
made, I delay planting such ground till the spring months.
Where planting operations are not carried on extensively, it
may be an easy matter to delay till a certain time in the year, as
the private opinion of the party intrusted with the work may
suggest to him; but where three or four hundred acres are intended
to be laid down in wood in one season, it is always found neces-
sary to take advantage of the whole season from November till
FOR PLANTING OPERATIONS. 135
April, whenever the weather will permit, in order to have the
work all done before the growth of the plants begins, which is
generally about the middle of April. Those who advocate
planting in the spring months only, say, where planting operations
are to be executed upon an extensive scale, u put on the greater
number of men, and have the work done in the shorter time."
But those who advise to put on a great number of men in order
to have the planting of a piece of ground quickly accomplished,
are not worthy of the name of practical foresters, and cannot
have had much experience in the results of such operations
as performed at different times and under different circum-
stances.
Every experienced planter who has had occasion to employ a
considerable number of men, in order to get through his work as
fast as possible, is aware of the difficulty there is in getting a large
number of labourers, from any neighbourhood, properly qualified
to conduct the operation well, and as it ought to be done. Com-
mon country labourers are seldom acquainted with planting
operations, and require at least a few weeks1 pi'actice before they
can be safely trusted ; therefore it is, that when a number of inex-
perienced men are brought together to plant, the work is always
badly done ; and, consequently, is seldom attended with success in
the end. In planting extensively, my method has always been, to
prolong the season of operations, and with a few experienced men
to do the work in a proper manner ; and by so doing, I have
generally been very successful.
In reading the above assertion, many may be inclined to say,
that if the weather wrere to prove unfavourable, it would be im-
possible to get through an extensive piece of planting with a few
men in one season ; and at first sight there appears, indeed, some
reason in this objection ; but I answer, that very much depends
upon the proper management of the work in hand. In planting
extensively, with a few good hands, I do not generally begin at
one end or side of the plantation, and make good all the ground
as the wrork proceeds, as is the custom with many planters who
employ a great number of men at once. In almost every piece
of ground laid out for an extensive new plantation, there is gene-
136 DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG TREES
rally a variety of soils and situations in it ; and of this variety of
soils and situations I always take the advantage thus : — When the
weather is fine and fresh, I set the men to plant upon the most
exposed sides or parts of the ground, and also to plant any piece
naturally wet ; and wThen the weather is cold or wet, I set them
to plant upon the most sheltered parts, or where the ground is
naturally dry ; while in the case of frost coming on, I always
reserve for this the making of pits for hardwood, which can be
done during frost, and is still carrying on the work, and at the
same time keeping the workmen in employment. In short, by
conducting planting operations in the manner above referred to,
ten good experienced men will do far more work in four months
than twenty inexperienced ones in two months ; and, what is of
more importance, the work by the few hands will be much better
done, and prove far more satisfactory in the end. Xot long ago
I had an interview with an old forester of fifty years' extensive
and successful practice, who, while conversing with me upon the
point now under consideration, told me, that his rules for planting,
for the last twenty years, had been, to plant dry ground in autumn,
either with hardwood or firs, and to plant ground naturally wet
in spring ; also to plant dry ground in wet weather, and ground
naturally damp in dry weather : to the advantages of which
method I can myself bear testimony from my own experience ; and
any planter who will go to work upon these principles, will find
the happy results arising therefrom.
SECTION VI. — DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG TREES SO AS TO SUIT DIFFERENT
SITUATIONS IN A NEW PLANTATION.
Next to the draining of the soil, nothing is of more importance,
in order to insure the future welfare of any young plantation, than
the proper adaptation of the different sorts of trees to the various
soils and situations therein. This is a point in arboriculture which
has all along been too little attended to by planters in general ;
and the not attending to this point is in a great measure the
reason that we at the present day see very many of our home
IX A NEW PLANTATION. 137
plantations in Scotland mere eye-sores rather than ornaments.
I have often regretted very much to see larch and Scots firs of
thirty years1 standing in an unhealthy and dying state ; where if
beech, or any other of the native sorts of hardwood trees, had
been planted, they would undoubtedly have proved both useful
and ornamental: and again, as often have I seen stunted-looking
hardwood trees striving for existence, where if firs or pines had
been planted instead, all would have been well ; which at once
shows the low state of arboricultural knowledge among us. Upon
a little reflection, it must appear evident to every inquiring man
interested in the welfare of our home plantations, that a forester,
in order to be one profitably, must be perfectly acquainted with
the natural habits, constitution, and peculiarities of every tree
that he attempts to cultivate ; for if he is not so, the ultimate
result of his work must in a great measure be left to chance. I
by no means wish to say anything lightly of the qualifications of
foresters ; but, at the same time, I feel in duty bound to say the
truth, and that is, that taking foresters as a body of men, there is
extremely little of useful practical information among them ; and
in order to prove the truth of this assertion, I may say, that
foresters in general are not so able to cultivate the trees which
grow under their notice, upon natural principles, as we find
gardeners do the plants under their notice. And, admitting this,
what is the reason of such a deficiency in their professional character?
So far as I have been able to trace the cause of this defect among
my brethren, I am led to think that it is the want of having
proper sources of information upon their business. Gardeners
have been assisted by the advice of many able and scientific men,
who have written much for their instruction ; while the forester
has had very little indeed written for his information. It has
often been observed, that gardeners make better farmers and
foresters than any other class of men ; and it is the truth ; but the
reason is, that they have, or rather are obliged to have, a closer
acquaintance with the nature of plants than any other class of
men. A gardener cultivates several thousand of distinct species
of plants ; yet he is generally able to adapt each species to
that sort of soil which is found to be best suited to its nature.
138 DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG TEEES
The gardener, in cultivating a heath, for instance, gives it a light,
sharp, mossy soil and a cool dry situation ; he does so because
he knows that the heath, in its native country, is an inhabitant of
a light dry soil, and hilly or mountainous situation : and so on
with every other plant he cultivates. Now, the principal thing to
be observed here is, that the gardener who cultivates his plants
with the most success is he who can by his art give his plants most
nearly that soil and situation which is found to be their condition
in a state of nature ; which is just the point that the forester
ought to attend to also.
Foresters, knowing that trees in the natural forest develop
themselves to the greatest magnitude there, ought to make them-
selves aware of the particular circumstances which induce or assist
that full development ; and upon knowing the peculiar circum-
stances attending the full development of each species in the
natural state, they ought to make their practice agree therewith ;
which is the only way that any man can arrive at perfection as a
forester.
Before entering into detail upon the habits and peculiarities of
the various species of our forest trees, which will be done in the
following sections of the present chapter, it will be of importance
to take a view of their geographical distribution over the continent
of Europe. Such a statement I know to be necessary in order
to a right understanding of the distribution of young trees in new
plantations of any considerable extent, and will also prepare the
way for a better understanding of the following sections of this
chapter.
Indeed, every forester ought to look upon the estate of the
woodlands on which he may have the management, with the eye of
a geographer. He ought to consider it as a continent in itself:
each plantation may be looked upon as a separate kingdom accord-
ing to its altitude ; and each of these, again, may, in the mind
of the forester, be divided into provinces according to aspect or
altitude, and planted with those trees which are known from
nature's own rules to be the best adapted for it. This I in all
cases do myself in the laying out and planting of ground with
forest trees ; and as I am aware that such a method of procedure
IN A NEW PLANTATION. 139
is agreeable to nature, I think it of the greatest consequence in
bringing forward healthy plantations : on which account I shall
here lay down the rules by which 1 conduct myself in the case
of suiting the young trees to the different situations in one or more
new plantations.
All our forest trees of known worth are natives of the tempe-
rate or frigid zones. The temperate zones are inhabited by the
various species of our hardwood trees, and in the extremities
of the temperate zones, and under those of the frigid, we find the
different species of the pine, fir, birch, and alder. The trees
natural to each of these zones are not, however, always bounded
by a certain degree of latitude ; for the temperature of any given
place does not always depend upon its distance from the equator.
Various causes have a tendency to modify the heat both of the
earth and the air ; such as large extent of continent, nearness to
the sea, and locality as regards the east or west sides of con-
tinents or islands. The height of any given place above the
nearest sea-coast also greatly affects its temperature. Elevated
situations are in all cases colder than others under the same
latitude near the level of the sea ; and the higher that we ascend
upon any mountain or hill, the lower the temperature becomes,
till at last we find its summit covered with snow. This may
occur upon any part of the surface of the globe, provided the
mountain rise high enough ; and from this we see that a change
of climate does not always depend upon the degree of latitude we
may be in, much depending upon the elevation of the ground ;
consequently, in all these places a change of vegetation takes
place. For example, about the base of the Pyrenees the vine
and the oak grow luxuriantly ; and on going a little way up
those mountains, these disappear altogether; but the pine, the
birch, and the alder are found. On proceeding still further up,
the pines disappear also, and nothing is found in the shape of
vegetation but dwarfish willows, heath, and mosses. And the
same thing is observable in our own country, although not to the
same extent. In all the lowland countries of Scotland, the oak,
ash, elm, and sycamore thrive well, while upon the high moun-
tainous districts of the northern counties they will not succeed ;
140 DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG TKEES
at this height the fir and the pine tribes are found in excellent
state ; while there is an altitude beyond which the fir and pine will
not grow to useful size, and in their place dwarfish birch, heath,
and moss are to be seen. There is one point relative to the alti-
tude of a place which is worthy of being noticed here ; and that is —
supposing two situations, each one thousand feet above the level of
the sea : if the one situation is the top of a hill, and the other a
flat table-land of some extent, the situation upon the top of the
hill will be much colder than the other, although both are of the
same height ; and supposing the soil to be of equal quality upon
both, trees would succeed much better on the flat table-land than
they would do upon the top of the hill, although the one is as high
as the other: — all this pointing out that the intelligent forester
must not only take into consideration the altitude of a situation
before planting upon it, but also the very shape of the surface of
the ground, in order to succeed aright; or if he do not, he
will be certain to commit errors in his profession. And as
I have already said that much of the forester's success depends
upon properly adapting the trees in a plantation to the different
situations in it, the above observations are necessary to be kept
in view.
The healthy growth of trees is also much affected by the
peculiar locality of the part of the country in which they grow ;
for instance, in Xorway, on the coast of the Atlantic ocean, the
oak is found growing in latitude sixty-three degrees ; while in the
eastern parts of Europe, on the confines of Asia, it will not grow
in latitude fifty-seven degrees ; this showing out that the west
of the continent of Europe is much milder than it is inland, and
also that the sea-coast is much more temperate than a country
inland upon the same latitude. Again, relative to the oak — in
Asiatic Russia, upon the river Argoun, in the same latitude as
London, the oak is said scarcely to exist from the extreme cold-
ness of the country ; proving the mildness of a maritime country
such as Britain, and its better adaptation for growing trees as
compared with the extensive regions on the north of the Asiatic
continent, and that the west of Europe is much milder than the
continent of Asia under the same latitude.
IN A NEW PLANTATION. 141
It is generally remarked that the west side of an island or
continent is milder than its east side ; but this does not always
hold good in regard to our own island ; for it is well known that
the east coast of Britain is warmer than the west. The west coast
may indeed be reckoned more equal in temperature throughout
the year, but our principal corn-growing counties are situated
upon the east side of the island, from the Lothians in Scotland to
Kent in England. The east side of Ireland is much warmer than
the west of Scotland which is opposite to it ; and this is occasioned
by the storms from the Atlantic beating upon the west side of
Scotland ; while the east side of Ireland is sheltered from them.
Upon the east side of Ireland, about Donaghadee, the most tender
of our forest trees grow with great luxuriance ; while upon the
west coast of Scotland, about Portpatrick, which is only eighteen
miles distant from the latter place in Ireland, not a forest tree of
any consequence can be made to grow for a considerable distance
back from the the sea-shore ; which proves that even in places of
the same altitude, in planting trees upon them, the kinds to be
chosen must also depend upon aspect and exposure to storm from
prevailing winds.
With regard to the Pine and Fir tribes : In Norway and Lap-
land the Scots pine is said to attain the height of sixty feet in
latitude seventy degrees ; and Yon Buch says, that in Tornea, at
the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, the birches are magnificent. Now,
let us compare this with the northern parts of Britain. In the
Orkney islands, about latitude sixty degrees, scarcely anything
having the form of a tree is to be met with but the hazel, which
bears the winds of the Atlantic better than either the Scots pine
or the spi'uce ; this is occasioned by the extraordinary rush of
storm passing along the Atlantic among the northern islands,
which prevents trees from growing to any useful size. On the
other hand, it is very remarkable that the spruce fir, in Sweden, is
found eight degrees farther north than the hazel, and this occurs
on the coast of the Baltic.
In Scotland we have extensive natural forests of the Scots pine,
but none of the spruce fir, which at once points out to us that the
Bpruce fir in our country is not nearly so hardy as the Scots pine;
142 DISTRIBUTION OF YOUNG TEEES
and in order to grow it to advantage, it must be planted in a much
more sheltered situation than the Scots pine requires. Now, this
is the more remarkable, when we take into notice that there are
forests of the spruce fir in Norway as far north as latitude sixty-
seven degrees, which is much colder than the climate of Scotland ;
but this can be accounted for by the extreme humidity of the
climate. In Norway the spruce fir is found at an elevation of
two thousand feet, and the silver fir at an elevation of nearly three
thousand feet, pointing out to us that the silver fir is more hardy
in Norway than the spruce fir.
Again, in Norway and Sweden it is said that the larch is not
found at all in a state of nature — just as the spruce fir is not found
with us ; yet we find the larch and spruce in Siberia, much far-
ther north than either the Scots pine or the birch, which is a
remarkable characteristic of the country in the north of the Russian
empire, and points out the larch as being more hardy than even
the Scots pine in inland districts.
In Asiatic Russia, the tree found farthest north, upon the
Arctic ocean, is the larch; next to it, in progressing south-
ward, is the spruce fir ; next the Scots pine ; and still pro-
gressing south, we meet successively the lime, the ash, the oak, the
beech, the elm, and the poplar.
Now, if we will apply the above observations as to the natural
distribution of our forest trees over the continent of Europe and
Asia, we will at once see that the same natural laws, to a great
extent, guide their development in our island ; at least in so far
as our experience leads us to form a correct judgment in the case
of our artificial forests; with, of course, different modifications,
according to the aspect of different parts of the country upon which
they are planted. In many high-lying inland parts of Britain, the
larch is well known to be more hardy than the Scots pine ; while,
again, in the northern parts, bordering more upon the sea, the
Scots pine is found more hardy than the larch. The spruce, again,
in Britain is more tender than either the Scots pine or the larch ;
but in this it is not so much affected by the degree of cold as by
the situation it may be planted in ; for example, it will bear more
cold in a flat part of the countiy than it could do upon a high part,
IN A NEW" PLANTATION. 143
where it would be exposed to winds and sudden storms ; and that
is exactly its nature in the countries in which it is found growing
natural upon the continent. The oak is also found to succeed
much better in a moderately level part of the country than when
exposed to sudden and frequent storms of wind: it is like the
spruce fir, not so much hurt by any degree of cold as by exposure
to high winds : therefore, in general, we are led to remark, that
the more equal and level that any pai't of a country is, the farther
north will the spruce fir and hardwood trees be found to succeed ;
and the more mountainous that any part of a country is, just in the
same proportion will these trees be checked in extending northward.
At the same time, however, in making calculations of this nature,
it must be kept in view that the air upon any mountain one thou-
sand feet above the level of the sea will, in the neighbourhood of
the sea, be much more temperate than a height of one thousand
feet upon a mountain far inland and away from the influence of
the sea.
Now, what I desire to draw from these observations relative to
the geographical distribution of our forest trees is, that a forester,
in planting any part of an estate, must keep all these peculiarities
of the ditferent kinds of trees in view, and plant that sort of tree
which is found to answer according to altitude or aspect. As I
have already said, the forester should view the estate he may
have to manage as a continent in miniature, and manage all his
wood operations accordingly ; planting firs and pines upon all the
highest parts, and hardwood in all the lower parts: and not only
should he view the whole estate in this light, he should view any
single plantation he may have to make in the light of a kingdom,
and plant the most prominent parts with pines, and all the lower
parts, having a good soil, with the more valuable sorts of hard-
wood. As this is according to nature, it not only gives the best
possible effect to the plantation as an object, but it adds also consi-
derably to the healthy growth of the whole as a plantation ; for
when heights are planted with firs, the hardwood under them are
sheltered by them ; and from being sheltered they grow quicker,
ami come sooner to answer the end in view.
144 DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE ELM
SECTION ArII. — DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE ELM I ITS HABIT AND
PECULIARITIES.
The Elm (Ulmus) belongs to the natural order Ulmace^E ;
and according to the Linn. System, to Pentandria Digynia.
There are several species of the Elm, from the dwarf sort,
Ulmus Pumela, a native of Siberia, which grows only two feet
high, to the Ulmus Gampestris, or English elm, which often attains
the height of one hundred feet. There are also several species,
natives of North America, which are timber trees of an inferior
size, and are not cultivated in Britain for the sake of their timber,
but merely kept in the shrubberies as ornamental plants.
Sir J. E. Smith enumerates five species of our British elms,
namely, U. Campestris, U. Tuberosa, U. Major, U Montana, and
U. Globra. But as many botanists differ upon this point, it may
be very proper to refer them to two distinct species — Ulmus Cam-
pestris, and U. Montana ; the rest being merely varieties of these
two distinct species. Therefore we will commence our observa-
tions with the U. Campestris, or English elm.
It is a timber tree of the first magnitude, and supposed by some
a native of England, where it is found in great perfection, adorning
the parks and lawns of proprietors. It is also a very common
hedgerow timber in many parts of England ; as, for instance, in the
valley of the Severn, where it may be seen in great perfection. It
is generally admitted to be one of the tallest and finest of our
European timber trees for park scenery, and lives to a considerable
age. There are a number of them upon the park at Arniston
considerably above one hundred years of age, and some of them
containing above one hundred and fifty cubic feet of timber. How-
ever, it appears to me that the most profitable age of the tree for
timber is from seventy to eighty years : the wood of the tree is
then in its best condition, and after that age it will not increase
materially in the bulk of its timber. The English elm is of a tall,
straight habit of growth, generally maintaining that habit to the
very top of the tree, and by no means apt to spread out into
large limbs, as is the case with the U Montana ; and this consti-
ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES. 145
tutes its fine effect when grown singly upon a lawn. However, I
have seen instances of this tree spreading very much to branches,
particularly if it be grown upon an exposed situation ; and I may
refer to one upon the lawn at Arniston, which contains nearly
two hundred cubic feet of timber, which rises with a bole only
about eight feet high and four feet in diameter, and then diverges
off into branches of large dimensions, making a tree of most pic-
turesque beauty and singular appearance, but out of character
of the general habit of the species, and more resembling a massive
oak at a distance than an elm. The English elm is a rapid-grow-
ing tree, and frequently reaches the height of eighty feet in as
many years. I am surprised that this tree is so little cultivated in
Scotland ; indeed there exists a strong prejudice against the
quality of its wood, which in Scotland is reckoned inferior and
worthless as compared with the Scots elm, or U. Montana ; and,
for many purposes, this must be admitted to be the case. This
year (1S48) I sold some of it in Edinburgh, where I could not get
more than Is. Gd. per foot for it; while for Scots elm of the same
age I readily got 2s. 3d. per foot. The reason that wrood-mer-
cliants give for the low value set upon the wood of this tree is,
that it is what they term cross-grained — or, in other words, it is
not tough in longitudinal fibre : this is decidedly the case as
compared with the Scots elm, and indeed constitutes the most
striking difference between the wood of the two trees; that is,
the wood of the English elm is particularly strong in what is
termed lateral fibre, but deficient in what is termed longitudinal
adhesion of fibre ; while the Scots elm is the contrary ; and in this
peculiarity the Scots elm resembles the quality of the wood of the
ash' more than any other tree, being easily split up longitudinally.
During my own experience as a forester in Scotland, I have never
been able to sell this sort of wood to any extent, although I have
frequently had it fur sale; the only purpose to which it is applied
in Scotland being in the making of blocks, and naves for wheels.
From its great length it is very frequently used in England for the
la of large ships, as well as for country purposes in general ;
and, indeed, there it is a great favourite for its timber, as well as
for its ornamental appearan
K
14G
DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE ELM :
Fig. 49.
The English elm Is easily distinguished from the Scots by hav-
ing the young shoots of a slender form, and those of the last year
springing alternately upon each side of the preceding young
shoots. See Fig. 49. The
leaves also all spring from the
young shoots in an alternate
manner; and where these are
off in the winter season, the
weak, slender, and regular ap-
pearance of the young wood
contrasts beautifully with the
rugged appearance of the bark
upon the old wood, and gives
the branches altogether a light
and airy appearance. The
leaves (Fig. 50) are small as
compared with those of the
U. Montana: they are doubly
toothed or serrated, rough and
hard to the touch, and of a beau-
tiful dark-green colour, and un-
equal at the base, which is a par-
ticular characteristic of all the
different species of the elm. It
is very seldom that this tree
ripens its seeds in Britain, that
occurring only in favourable sea-
sons. For my own part, I have
never seen it ripen its seeds in
Scotland, which, to me at least,
is an evident proof of its not
being a true native of Britain, as
many suppose. A s the English
elm very seldom ripens its seeds
in Britain, the tree is propa-
gated by suckers from the roots
of old trees, which arc had in
Fig. 50.
ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES. 147
abundance, or by layers, -which is the method by which the best
plants are procured, and is the plan adopted in all public nurse-
ries for the propagating of this tree. And in this place it may
be proper to show how the work is done.
The process of layering consists in having, first, a piece of ground
planted at about six feet distance with plants of the English elm,
or any other tree that it may be desirable to propagate in this
way. "When these have stood for two, or perhaps three years, in
order to gain sufficient strength, they are cut over to within three
or four eyes of the ground, in the same manner as a bed of osiers
when the eyes have pushed out shoots of one year's growth. They
are in the autumn, when these shoots are ripe, fit for layering. In
layering the shoots which are meant to become young plants or
trees, all the ground round about the plants is finely dug, and made
perfectly clean from weeds of every description, all stones being
also taken out. When the ground has been thus prepared, the
young shoots are bent down regularly round the parent stool (see
Fig. 51) into the earth,
and are kept in their place
by small wooden pegs, a a,
and covered with soil about
four inches deep at the part
bent mto the ground. The
top part of each shoot, b b,
is turned up in an upright
direction out of the soil, and in a few months the part which
is buried in the soil, c c, takes root, when of course each shoot
becomes a perfect plant in itself, and may be removed in the
autumn following with all the fibrous roots attached, when
they arc planted out into nursery lines in order to gain more
strength before being put out into the forest ground. Great care
most be observed in cutting away the young and newly-rooted
plants from the parent stem ; and before the spade is put into the
ground in order to loosen their roots from the soil, they should all
be cut away from the parent by using a sharp knife, taking care
not to pull up the shoot in the act of cutting. When the young
plants have been all taken away, the stools should have all the
148 DESCKIPTIYE CHARACTER OF THE ELM :
stumps of the branches which were cut off taken away, and young
shoots will proceed from the cut parts the following spring, which
again will answer for layers in the autumn, as at d: this pro-
cess goes on successively ; each summer's shoots which rise
upwards are in the autumn laid down in order to become new
plants ; and while these are in the act of making roots, the parent
stool is again employed sending up a new supply of shoots
to succeed them. A particular point to attend to in the raising of
young trees by layers is to keep the ground particularly clear of
weeds ; and when a severe drought sets in, the ground should be
liberally watered, in order to encourage the rooting of the young
plants. This tree, on account of not ripening its seeds in this
country, is always sold at a high price as compared with our other
forest trees; which is a great reason why it has never been
extensively planted in Scotland, even laying aside the prejudice
that exists as to the quality of its wood. It is seldom introduced
as a forest tree into any of our profitable plantations in Scotland ;
for although it is of an upright habit, and would answer well as
a nurse among others, its place in that respect is better and more
profitably occupied by the larch, which is a wood much sought
after, and which will pay the planter better than any other tree
when used as a temporary nurse.
The English elm is not a tree that requires a rich soil to bring
it to a large size. I have seen them of considerable dimensions
upon a very light gravelly soil ; and I have also seen good trees of
this species upon a strong clay; but a strong sandy loam appears
to be the soil in which the tree attains its greatest dimensions.
The Ulmus Montana, Scots OR Wych Elm, is without dis-
pute a native of Scotland, and, indeed, of Britain generally.
This tree is found delighting in deep glens, among decaying
rocks, by the sides of water-courses, where it forms trees of the
first magnitude. This tree, when left to itself in an open park or
lawn, forms one of the most picturesque and beautiful imagin-
able. It may, indeed, often be surpassed by its neighbour the
English elm, in regard to its height and cleanness of trunk ;
but it cannot be surpassed in the general effect of its outline.
It in all cases stands unrivalled upon the lawn, its appearance
ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES.
149
being altogether natural, light, and easy. The English elm
has a stiff, unbending outline : the Scots elm is the opposite of
this.
When not confined by its neighbours, the Scots elm forms a
large-headed spreading tree, having its limbs strong and diverg-
ing, which gives it a magnificent appearance among other trees of
a more stiff character; and when the tree has arrived at full
maturity, the branches, from their great weight, incline to hang
down in a drooping position at the extremities, forming rich fes-
toons when in full life. This is the habit of the tree when grown
upon an open park, with free air to develop its branches; but in
such a position it seldom attains to its greatest height and magni-
tude as a timber tree. When grown in the forest, and where it
has not so much free room to extend its side branches, its diverg-
ing habit is checked ; but in such a position we almost always find
it contains the greatest quantity of available timber, and forms a
tree of first-rate magnitude. There is one particularly good
tree of this sort upon the lawn behind Arniston house, which has
arrived at full maturity, and has been rather drawn up in its
growing state among other trees. It is eighty feet high, and
three feet four inches diameter, six
feet from the ground; and contains
about two hundred cubic feet of
timber.
The Scots elm is easily distin-
guished from the English by the greater
size of its leaves : these are what
is termed by botanists broadly ellip-
tical, with a longer point, and are
more deeply serrated than in the other >
species : the upper surface is also
rough with small hairy tubercles^ and
the under surface downy (see Fig. 52.)
The size of the leaves of this tree varv
much according to the healthy state
of the plant. I have very frequently
seen them seven inches long from base
Fig. 52.
150
DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE ELM :
Fig. 53.
to apex; and this occurred upon frees growing in a deep rich
loam; but in general cases the leaves are not more than from
three to four inches long, and, when handled, feel rough and rather
bristly.
The young shoots are much stronger, and altogether more
massive than those of the English elm, (see Fig. 53,) and are
slightly downy. Another
distinguishing character
of the Scots elm is, its
producing no suckers
from its roots, which
all the varieties of the
English elm constantly
do ; by this it is easily
known, independent of
any other peculiarity.
However, we often see
trees of this species send
up shoots from the junc-
tion of the bole and the
roots ; but these are not
suckers, properly speak-
ing. Suckers are shoots
which are emitted from
the roots at a distance
from the bole of the tree ; and I merely advert to this in order
that my meaning may not be misunderstood. Those trees of the
Scots elm which have shoots rising from the junction of the roots
and bole, are generally in a bad state of health ; such shoots are,
in fact, a symptom of disease.
In Scotland the wood of this tree is much sought after for all
country purposes ; such as cart-trams, plough-beams, cart-naves,
wheel-barrow and cart framing, &c. &c. ; indeed, there is scarcely
a purpose to which ash is generally applicable, for which elm is
not used instead when that wood cannot be got conveniently ; and
for these it is well adapted from the toughness of its longitudinal
fibre. At present, while so much handle wood is daily in demand
ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES. 151
for railway purposes, I have sold very much of it in the form of
pick handles, for which purpose it is reckoned equally as good
and as durable as the ash ; except that, from the wood being hard
and closer in the grain thau the ash, the workmen complain of
it, when made into handles, as being bad for their hands, the
friction of the wood causing them to blister ; but I have never heard
any complaints from the contractors as to the wood not answering
•well as a handle in place of ash. When converted into this
purpose at our saw-mill, we get 3s. Gd. per cubic foot for the
wood, which, let it be understood, is only young thinnings of six
inches diameter, cut up roughly at the mill for the purpose. The
Scots elm, from the close adhesion of its longitudinal fibre, is well
calculated for any purpose where a severe cross strain is neces-
sary, such as beams upon which a great weight may have to be
placed; and indeed it is often used for different purposes in ship-
building, particularly for the floor timbers : but as a wood where
long endurance may be required, it is by no means adapted; and
however good it may be as a tough wood for many country pur-
poses, it is by no means one that will last long, particularly if
exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather. This deficiency of
the Scots elm I have often had occasion to observe, more par-
ticularly in the case of gate-posts; and in this respect I am, from
experience, now aware that it is much inferior to the U. Campes-
trig) or English elm, taking the two at the same age. Again, as
a stub for a fence, 1 have found the Scots elm, in its young state,
very little superior to the beech, the wood of which is prover-
bially of short duration when much exposed. Still, however,
the Scots elm is, when of good age, a very useful wood, and
adapted for a great variety of purposes; and when used for a pur-
pose where the wood can be kept painted, it will last a long time ;
but even when bo treated, I am convinced that it is inferior to
U. CaiDprstris. As 1 am aware that there are many who say
that the U. Montana^ or Scots elm, is in every respect supe-
rior to the U. Campcstris, or English elm, I may state far-
ther, that the quality of both depends to a great degree upon
the nature of the soil and situation upon which they may be
grown.
152 DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE ELM :
When either of them is grown in a low-lying, sheltered situa-
tion, and upon a heavy, yet dry and deep soil, they attain their
greatest bulk as timber; but then the wood of trees grown in
such a condition is generally brittle, and is soon affected by rot ;
in fact, few elm trees grown in such a condition are found sound
in the heart if they have attained any considerable age. Where
the elm is found growing in a low sheltered situation, and upon a
light, deep, and rather moist soil, the tree grows very rapidly, and
attains its greatest perfection as a tall, spreading, ornamental
tree ; but under such conditions it seldom lives long, and gene-
rally is found to die suddenly when rapidly grown, unless,
indeed, its roots may get into the banks of a water stream:
in this case it will thrive well and live long in almost any soil,
provided that there is no stagnant water about the roots. The
Scots elm, in order to have it in greatest perfection as a timber
tree, requires to be grown in a soil where it can have a constant
supply of fresh and pure water percolating through the soil : such
is the case upon the steep banks of rivers ; and if the tree has
been grown up to a large size under these circumstances, and the
water be suddenly drained off the ground upon which it is grow-
ing, the tree will immediately fall into bad health, and will very
possibly die suddenly ; this I have frequently observed.
Another peculiar circumstance attending elm trees grown in a
sheltered place and upon a light soil, is, that they are generally
found what is termed "shaken;" that is, the heart wood of the
tree is all split into longitudinal pieces ; consequently the wood of
such trees is of little value. In situations twelve hundred feet
above the level of the sea, I have seen good elms growing upon a
light and- rather sandy soil ; but at the same height, when the
soil was inclined to clay, I have always seen the elm assume a
low, spreading habit, and very apt to become knotty, and of little
value as regards its timber.
The circumstances which appear most favourable to the healthy
growth of the Scots elm are, a light loamy soil upon a dry bottom,
rather deficient in vegetable matter, which would produce too keen
an excitement in the growth of the tree, a free exposure to the
air, and a situation upon a slope rather than upon a level, where a
ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES. 153
regular supply of moisture is likely to be. Generally speaking,
the English and Scots elms will both thrive nearly alike under
the same circumstances ; but the Scots elm is more inclined
to a light soil than the English is. The Scots elm is not a tree
that should be planted among other hardwood trees in a forest,
unless, indeed, it may be meant to stand as the ultimate crop.
From its spreading habit it is very apt to hurt other valuable trees;
therefore, in planting this tree in any plantation, either plant it in
a mass by itself, with firs to act as nurses for a time ; or if it
should be wished otherwise, for the sake of young thinnings, plant
it but sparingly among others, and cut it away timely as the
others advance.
The Scots elm is propagated from seed, which is found very
plentifully upon old trees from the middle of May to the begin-
ning of June. The seed being very light, and easily blown
about by the wind when fallen, it should be gathered by the
hands from the tree, and not allowed to fall; and when it is
gathered, it should be sown immediately, as it will not keep
long. It should be sown in beds in the nursery, upon a fine
light soil, and should not be covered to a greater depth than half
an inch. The seeds spring up very freely and quickly, and
will be ready for planting out into nursery rows in the following
spring : in planting them into rows, there may be twenty inches
between each, and the plants may stand in the rows about four
inches one from another. When they have stood two years, they
will be ready for the forest ground.
SECTION VIII. — THE HEECII : ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES.
The beech (Fag us) belongs to the natural order Cupulifer.e; and
according to the Limwean system, to Moncecia Polyandria. There
are Beveral distinct species of the beech, a few of which arc very
ornamental in our .shrubberies — such as the purple, golden, and cop-
per leaved varieties; but all these are merely for ornament ; and the
only species which is worthy of our notice here, is the common
154 DESCEIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE BEECH :
beech, or Fagus Sylvatica, which is generally reckoned a native
of Britain ; and, indeed, it is found growing naturally in many
old plantations, particularly in Dorsetshire and Berkshire in
England. In Scotland, its being indigenous is doubtful ; but in
old woods in Scotland where it has been planted, young trees
rise up most freely. Large plantations of it have been made by
the Earl of Fife in Morayshire, where it grows most luxuriantly.
The beech is one of the most hardy of all our hardwood forest
trees. In Devonshire, which is much exposed to severe west
winds, no tree appears to stand better, and that in high exposed
situations upon a poor thin gravelly soil.
In many high-lying parts of Scotland, where even the Scots pine
has failed upon a thin gravelly soil, I have seen the beech grow,
and make an excellent shelter, and that near the sea-shore ; which
points out that it makes an excellent tree for planting along the
sea-shore as a protection for the more valuable forest trees.
Besides the useful property of being a hardy tree, the beech is
also an extremely ornamental tree, and is often found of dimen-
sions far surpassing the oak. It rises generally with a clean stem
or bole, with massy branches spreading almost horizontally ; and
when in full leaf, the tree has altogether a light and airy appear-
ance, contrasting beautifully with the sycamore or horse-chesnut,
which have a heavy sombre appearance. In duration as a tree,
the beech is much inferior to the oak, sycamore, or chesnut ; but
in this respect it may be classed with the elm and ash ; and I
could point out many beech trees about two hundred years old
still in good health. Upon the estate of Arniston there are now
growing many fine old beech trees of large dimensions, several
containing above two hundred cubic feet of timber.
The beech is not considered a valuable timber tree, although it
has a strong massive appearance. The wood is very brittle and
short-grained, and not well adapted for purposes where strength
and durability are required. At one time the wood of the beech
was much used for machinery, particularly by millwrights ; and,
indeed, a good deal of it is used by them still for cogs to water-
wheels. But since the extensive use of iron in all machinery, the
beech is little used for that purpose ; and seeing that it is not a
ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES.
155
wood in demand, it cannot be recommended as a profitable forest
tree. The wood of the beech, when in a young state, is prover-
bially of short duration. I have frequently used it for paling stobs,
and found such not to last above two years ; therefore it should
never be planted as a nurse, to be cut down as thinnings in a young
state, for no tree is then less profitable. However, the beech
wood, when kept constantly wet, is remarkably durable ; as is the
case when it is made into water-wheels ; but if it is kept con-
stantly dry, as In the case of roofing in a house, it lasts but a short
time as compared with many other sorts of timber.
Until within three or four years past I could not sell, in our
neighbourhood, above from two to three hundred feet of beech in
a whole year, and that at Is. per foot; but since railway opera-
tions have been carried on to a considerable extent, I have
been able to sell several thousand feet of beech per annum, at
Is. 6d. per foot. Railway contractors use this wood for making
their waggons and temporary sleepers, for which it answers very
well. Beech is yet much used for the following purposes : — Com-
mon bedsteads, panels of carriages, carpenters' planes, masons'
mells, wooden bowls, granary shovels, and many small articles
in turnery. It also makes excellent firewood. Upon the estate
of Arniston I have made a considerable quantity of charcoal from
the beech, which I sell to colour manu-
facturers. The tops or smaller branches
are also much sought after for the curing
of herrings ; and I may also observe,
that as a sole for drain-tiles in moss
land, nothing is so suitable, it being
extremely durable in moss.
The beech is a tree easily known
from any other in the forest by its
smooth bark and light-green silky
leaves. The leaves arc what is termed
ovate ami obeoletely serrated, being
fringed on the margin. See Fig. 54.)
The beech in its young state keeps
its leaves all winter, and they do not
Fig. 54.
156 DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE BEECH:
fall off till the sap rise in the tree in the month of April,
when they are again replaced by the new leaves. I have
observed that young beech trees generally retain their leaves
all winter till they are from twenty to twenty-five years old,
when they drop them in the winter in the same manner as
any other deciduous tree ; but if the beech be kept cut down
in the form of a hedge, it retains its leaves all winter, so long
as the plant exists in a healthy state. I could point out beech
hedges fifty years old, which retain their leaves the whole
year, while trees of the same species, and of the same age, and
in the same neighbourhood, lose them ; — a remarkable feature
in the nature of the tree, and one which characterises the
beech as the best of all plants for a hedge where shelter is the
object.
The young shoots of the beech are numerous upon the larger
branches, and are rather slender in appearance, FlG 55
and of a somewhat brittle texture. (See Fig. 55.)
The beech is of a slow growth for the first
three or four years after being planted, and is
indeed rather of a shy nature to come away at
first, unless, indeed, the soil be particularly
dry and favourable for it ; and if there be much
damp retained in the soil into which the beech is
planted, the young trees will in most cases
die altogether ; but where the soil is dry and
open, as soon as the plants have got their roots
established in the soil, they grow with extraordi-
nary rapidity, and soon become trees of consider-
able dimensions. The beech is propagated from
the seeds, or nuts, which are well known : these
are gathered when they fall from the trees in
the months of October and November. Some
foresters sow the nuts immediately in beds when
they are gathered ; but, in my opinion, this is
a bad plan, — at least I have found it to be so ;
for when sown in the month of November, and lying in the earth
all winter, the seeds are exposed to the attacks of mice and other
ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES. 157
vermin, which thin them very much, and of course cause a great
deal of extra trouble in preserving them unhurt. My method is, to
mix the seed, when gathered, with a quantity of dry sand, pre-
viously prepared, and allow it to lie in that state till the month of
March, when it may be sown upon a light soil, and covered with
about an inch of earth ; and in this state the seeds will vegetate
quickly, and be free from injury from vermin. The plants require
to remain two years in the seed-bed before being transplanted out
into nursery rows, which may be done any time from November
to March when the weather is open. The distance between the
rows in the nursery may be about two feet, and the plants may
be put in about four inches one from another, if they are to
be raised for hedges ; but if meant for the forest ground, they
should have six inches one from another, in order to make them
more hardy and robust to stand upon an exposed situation.
When the plants have stood one year in the nursery rows, they
will answer well for mixing among thorns in a young hedge ; but
if intended for forest trees, they will require to remain in the
nursery rows at least two years, by which time they will be well
rooted and strong bushy plants.
The beech is a tree which, from its accommodating habits, is
well fitted for growing in a forest among others: but, on account
of the little value now set upon its wood, it is by no means proper
that it should be extensively introduced among other more valuable
trees, particularly if the soil be adapted for others of more value
than it. However, few trees suffer less from bad management
than the beech : although it may have been overburdened and
crushed down among other trees, yet, when it is once relieved, it
will shoot up again, and in a few years make good its position
among its neighbours.
In modern forestry the beech is not a tree for a permanent crop,
unless, indeed, upon a poor soil where nothing more valuable
would grow: where the beech would at best make a respectable
cover or shelter, and as a nurse, its place is always better occupied
by larch, Scots pines, or spruce firs.
I have frequently had occasion to observe upon poor, thin,
sandy soils, and upon a high exposed situation, where, indeed,
158 DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE ASH :
scarcely any other hardwood tree could make any respectable
progress, that the beech had attained a fair size of timber ; and in
such situations the firs, which had been intended to nurse them,
had died out, the soil being almost a pure sand or gravel : this
points out that the beech is more to be depended upon than even
the fir on a poor soil and high site. In a moderately high-lying
situation, upon a dry bottom, with a free circulation of air, the beech
lives to its greatest attainable age ; and in a low situation, with a
good soil and humid atmosphere, the tree reaches its greatest
size ; but in such a state it generally dies quickly after attaining
its full size.
The circumstances which appear most favourable to the healthy
development of the beech, are a dry and rather light soil, having
a considerable proportion of lime or chalk. Notwithstanding that
we generally find the beech luxuriating and forming its best qua-
lity of timber upon a light and friable soil, I have often had occa-
sion to remark healthy plantations of this wood in almost all sorts
of soil. I could point out upon many estates excellent beech
timber growing upon a stiff clay soil, and also good timber upon
a very light sandy soil. This accommodating nature of the tree
seems to be the reason why we so often see at the present day so
many old beech trees about the seats of proprietors both in Eng-
land and Scotland ; and this is also the reason that I have recom-
mended so much the planting of beech for hedges, particularly as a
mixture among thorns.
SECTION IX. — THE ASH : ITS HABIT AND PECULIARITIES.
The Ash (Fraxinus) belongs to the natural order Oleace^e; and
according to the Linn, system, to Polygamia Diozcia. There are
many distinct species of the ash, several of them being natives of
North America, and others of the continents of Europe and
Asia ; but all of them, in our country, attain, under the most
favourable circumstances, only trifling dimensions as compared with
the Fraxinus Excelsior, or common ash, which is a native of Bri-
ITS HABIT AND PECULIAKITIES. 159
tain, and perhaps the most useful of our hardwood timber trees, for
general purposes, if we may except the oak.
In duration, the common ash tree is superior to many of our
hardwood trees, there being- instances of them nearly three hundred
years old in Scotland ; and upon the estate of Arniston there are
several ash trees known to be above two hundred years old, and
yet in good health apparently.
Many object to the ash being introduced into modern landscape
on account of the lateness of the tree in coming into leaf, that
being generally about the first week of June, by which time
most other trees are in almost full leaf, itself standing alone
bare, and apparently in the midst of winter. This objection is, in
my opinion, very superficial, and unworthy of being of any weight ;
for this very peculiarity of the tree gives it an interest in the eye
of refined taste, which is not to be found in any other tree ; for
what is more pleasing than to see, at a time when all other trees are
in full leaf, the ash first swelling its large black buds, and unfurling
its leaves to the summer's sun ? Another objection formed against
the introduction of the ash into the park is, that it is the first tree
to lose its leaves in the autumn. This is indeed true, for the
first frost of winter causes its leaves to undo their hold and to fall
to the earth ; but in this also there is more pleasure than disap-
pointment, for while most other trees upon the lawn have had
their leaves deadened and hardened by the approach of winter,
the ash retains the verdure of its foliage to the last, and throws it
off at once, rather than submit to have it dangling of a sickly
hue. And even when the tree is newly stripped of its leaves, its
appearance here and there, as a leafless naked tree, contrasts well
with the other different masses of sickly foliage upon the adjoin-
ing trees ; therefore I must say that I admire the ash as a lawn
tree for the very reasons that others object to it. Apart, however,
from the lateness of the tree in coming into leaf, and its being
suddenly stripped of its foliage in the autumn, the ash is admirable
stately proportionable tree, and is well worthy of a place, to
a certain extent, in every British landscape.
The natural habit of the ash is that of a tall tree of first-rate
magnitude, but inclined to grow tall rather than to great girth of
160 DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTER OF THE ASH :
bole. In plantations of a very moderate thickness, this tree is
extremely apt to run up to a great height without taking a pro-
portionable girth along with its height ; but when the plantation
in which it grows is kept rather thin and airy, the side branches
are easily checked, and excellent tall timber is formed. When
growing in a park or open lawn, the ash forms a large-headed
tree of imposing effect ; and in this case a large bole is generally
formed, quite in proportion to the massy top. At first the
branches of the ash grow from the body of the tree at an acute angle ;
but the branches, as they increase in weight, incline gradually to
hang down towards the extremities, — giving the tree, when of
mature age, a very graceful outline.
There are instances of the ash attaining a very great size.
There is one still growing at Camoch House, in Stirlingshire,
said to be about ninety feet high, with a circumference of thirty-
one feet at the ground ; and upon the estate of Arniston there are
ash trees fifteen and sixteen feet in circumference. But trees
of such large dimensions are not numerous ; neither is it necessary
that the ash should attain such a large growth, considering that
smaller trees always yield much better timber. A peculiar charac-
teristic of this tree is, that the quality of the wood is always the
better from being rapidly grown ; at least in so far as regards its
immediate use, it being always increased in toughness of fibre
by the rapidity of its growth, (but perhaps not in the durability
of its timber,) the opposite of which is the case with most other
trees. I have often had occasion to observe, in the cutting up of
ash timber, that the wood of trees which grow upon very poor
soils, and which of course had grown slowly, was brittle in the
grain ; and I have been informed by carpenters, that when such
wood is used for any purpose, it is much sooner affected by rot
than the wood of trees grown with moderate rapidity upon a good
soil ; but where the growth has been maintained vigorously
throughout, the timber will be found tough, elastic, and durable ;
and this more particularly if it has been freely exposed to the
air, and not drawn up too much in the heart of a plantation.
There is none of our forest trees, the wood of which can be
applied to so many different useful purposes as that of the ash. As
THE ASH. 1G1
to its toughness and elasticity, no tree grown in our woods can
be compared to it : as an example of this property, it is only
necessary to look to the articles made from it by the sieve-wright
and the basket-maker, in whose hands the ashwood bends like a
piece of wire.
No wood can answer the purpose of handles for agricultural
and other implements so well as the ash. The coach-maker and the
wheelwright could not have it properly replaced in their busi-
ness by any other of our home timber ; nor is any wood so well
adapted for boat-oars. For all these purposes tradesmen find the
wood in its best state when from forty to sixty years old ; but
this of course must in a great measure depend upon the nature of
the soil upon which the wood may be grown. In general cases,
however, I have myself observed, that an ash tree much above
sixty years old has considerably lost its toughness, and is not com-
mendable for purposes requiring elasticity.
Next to the larch, I consider the ash the tree which comes in
to pay the planter at the earliest date. I have myself cut down
young thinnings of ash under thirty years of age, for which I
received 2s. 6d. per foot for handle wood ; and I may observe,
that ash in its young state is equally answerable for handles as
the tree of sixty years of age ; this being a particular property of
the wood. There is no sort of coppice-wood more profitable at
the present time than that of ash. This season (1848) I sold
young ash-suckers, of two years old, for Is. 6d. per hundred:
these were used for baskets, cretes, and barrel-hoops : and from a
coppice of seventeen years old I have taken a vast number of
pick-handles — which at once shows that the ash as a coppice-wood
alone is a very profitable timber, in which form it is in many dis-
tricts of England much cultivated, it being there cut over at stated
intervals and sold for walking-sticks, hop-poles, hoops, cretes,
hurdles, handles, &c. &c. In order to keep up a supply for these
different purposes, which of course require different sizes, the cop-
pice plantations are laid off into separate portions, each portion
being cut over at a certain period as may be found to answer a
demand for a certain purpose, the proprietor selling each portion to
the highest bidder.
L
162
THE ASH.
I have calculated that, upon the estate of Arniston, where cop-
pice sells but moderately as compared with many districts in
England, an acre of ash coppice at four years old, from the
stool, is worth £12, making the value of the crop per acre, per
annum, £3 ; and that upon a soil of very moderate capabilities.
None of our forest trees make so good fire-wood as the ash ;
and, what is remarkable, it bums well, although wet and full
of sap.
The foliage of the ash is of a beautiful light-green colour, and
is what is termed by botanists pinate, or winged ; and each leaflet
is lanceolate, and serrated upon the edges. (See Fig. 56.)
The young shoots are flattened, of a very brittle texture, and
are furnished with very prominent dark-coloured buds. (See
Fig. 57.)
Fig. 56. Fig. 57.
THE ASH. 1G3
The ash is propagated by seeds, which are enclosed hi what is
termed someras, or keys, which are generally ripe for gathering in
the month of October. When gathered for the purpose of sowing,
the seeds should be mixed with a quantity of dry sand or light
dry earth, in which they should be kept all winter, in order to
rot off the outer coat ; and in order the more effectually to
insure the rotting of the outer coat, the whole mass of seeds
and sand should be turned several times during the winter. In
March, the seeds should be sown in beds rather thinly, as they
are sure to come up thickly and confine one another if this
point be not attended to. In the following spring the plants
will be ready for being transplanted into the nursery-rows, which
may be done at the same distance as has already been recom-
mended for the elm. When the plants have stood two years in
the nursery-rows, they will be ready for planting out into the
forest grounds. The circumstances which are found favourable to
the healthy and full development of the ash, are, as regards soil,
a good strong loam, rather rich than otherwise, and rather moist
than dry ; that is, the ash does not disagree with a little moisture,
provided that this moisture have free and ready access away from
the roots, and is not liable to remain in the least degree stagnated.
I have often seen the ash of considerable dimensions upon bare rocks:
in such cases the roots of the tree get into the seams of the rock,
and are watered by the moisture which descends between the strata.
Until lately, when I have turned my attention very particularly
to the different soils most suitable to the growth of the different
species of our hardwood trees, I used to think that ash, and indeed
any other hardwood tree, would not succeed to any profitable pur-
pose upon a moss soil. But now that I have examined plantations
upon very many estates, I find that ash, as a coppice, succeeds
well upon a soil of very deep moss. I have never, indeed,
I the ash attain a good timber size in a moss soil; but as a
coppice, cut down at periods of from ten to twenty years, 1 have
B66I1 the ash in excellent condition; and when not allowed to
remain uncut above fifteen years, the parent stocks keep in very
good health, and will produce many crops in succession; but I
have observed that, if the ash is allowed to grow uncut to a period
164 THE GREAT MAPLE OR SYCAMORE.
much beyond fifteen years, the parent stocks are very apt to
become exhausted, and fail to produce a profitable return.
Another point relative to this is, that I have observed that, if
ash be planted upon a moss soil, in an exposed situation, it will not
succeed well even as a coppice ; but if the situation be one mode-
rately sheltered, the success will be good. This suggests to us
that, in order to convert a moss into a profitable ash coppice, it
is only necessary to produce shelter by having the moss ground
surrounded by other trees in order to produce this ; and if a few
spruce firs, which also grow well in mossy soil, be planted among
the ash to act as nurses, the coppice will be got the sooner to
succeed. The ash is fonder of shelter than most of our hardwood
trees, although I do not mean to say that the ash is not a
hardy tree : I mean that, in order to have it of tall and large
dimensions, it is necessary to give it a sheltered situation; for
when on an exposed site it is more apt to become branchy
and large-topped ; therefore, to grow it well, it is an advantage
to plant in a glen or hollow, or in the interior of a large plan-
tation. Many object to the ash being introduced into a forest
among other trees, because they say that it is so apt to lash other
trees by its branches and top ; but from this I have never seen
any evil arise. And it is my opinion, that even among oaks, which
may be planted as a permanent tree, the ash answers well as a
secondary — being, when thinned out from among the oaks under
thirty years old, of infinite advantage for many purposes, and,
moreover, paying well.
SECTION X. — THE GREAT MAPLE OR SYCAMORE.
The Sycamore (Acer pseiido-platanus) belongs to the natural
order Acerace^e; and according to the Linn, system, to Polygamia
Monoscta. It is reckoned a native of Britain, and is a tree of first-
rate magnitude, and lives to a great age. In Scotland it is more
generally known by the common name of plane tree. This, however,
is the platanus of botanists, and is originally from the Levant.
When grown under favourable circumstances, few trees live to a
THE GREAT MAPLE OR SYCAMORE. 165
greater age than the sycamore. There is still growing in the park
adjoining the palace of Scone, in Perthshire, a sycamore said to
have been planted in the time of Mary Queen of Scots. The tree
is at present apparently in perfect health, and must be about three
hundred years old.
Many consider the sycamore a tree of a heavy and gloomy
aspect, and not fit to be introduced into a park where a lively
natural appearance is desired. My opinion is quite of an oppo-
site nature. Only let the fine effect that this tree has upon our
lawns and parks about the end of April and 1st of May be con-
sidered : it is then that the sycamore appears to best advantage ;
its light green leaves have then a freshness and a lightness inde-
scribable, and give the park upon which the trees stand quite an
oriental appearance. The very circumstance of the sycamore coming
into leaf earlier than almost any other tree upon the lawn, makes
it a favourite with the lovers of natural scenery ; and even in the
midst of summer the tree presents a grand unbroken mass of foliage,
which contrasts beautifully with other trees of a more airy character,
particularly if the situation be prominent. The sycamore is not
a tree that carries height along with its girth compared with
many other forest trees ; and this is particularly the case when it
is found growing free in an open park or lawn. In such a
situation it forms a short massive trunk, with a spreading head of
frequently very great magnitude. Upon the lawn in front of
Arniston House there is growing a sycamore tree with a trunk
above five feet in diameter, four feet from the ground. The trunk
is not more than eight feet high, when it diverges into limbs of
large dimensions. The tree is not more than sixty-five feet in
height, and contains about thi-ee hundred cubic feet of timber, and
is at least two hundred years old, and in a perfectly healthy state.
The sycamore, when of large dimensions, is a very valuable tree.
About ten years ago I sold it at 4s. per cubic foot; but this year
(1848) I have sold a considerable quantity at 2s. 4d. per foot,
being now little more than one half what it was ten years ago.
At that time there was a great demand for this sort of wood for
the print and bleach fields about Glasgow and other manufacturing
places ; but now that metal is introduced instead of wood for these
1G6
THE GREAT MAPLE OE SYCAMOEE.
purposes, it does not, of course, sell so well ; but even yet, when of
large scantling and clean grown, 3s. per foot can be had.
The wood of the sycamore is reckoned of excellent quality, and
fit for many purposes ; such as tables and other articles of house-
hold furniture, mangles, and wooden dishes ; and a considerable
quantity of it is still used in different parts of machinery. It is also
well adapted for heading to herring barrels. For this purpose I
sell a great quantity of it, sawn up into small boards five-eighths
of an inch in thickness, and eighteen inches in length. For this
purpose, however, a small price is given ; but as wood of small
dimensions answers the purpose — generally, indeed, the limbs of
large trees — a large price cannot be expected. For the last four
years the price of plane-tree heads for herring barrels, five-eighths
of an inch thick, has not been more than 70s. per thousand super-
ficial feet, laid down in Leith ; and as it takes about sixty-five cubic
feet of round timber to produce one thousand superficial feet of sawn
heads for barrels, it will be observed that little more than Is. per
foot is received for the round timber, exclusive of the expenses of
cutting up and cartage ; and, according to calculations that I have
made upon this point, even with a good saw-mill, not more than
8d. per cubic foot can be cal-
culated upon for the round tim-
ber, after deducting every item
of expense in converting it
into heading. But, as I have
already observed, wood of small
dimensions answers the pur-
pose : it generally pays much
better for this purpose than
selling it for fire-wood. The
sycamore is very easily distin-
guished by its beautiful five-
angled leaves ; or, as botanists
describe them — palmate, with
Fig. 58.
five acuminated,
serrated
58.)
lobes.
unequally
(See
Fig.
THE GREAT MAPLE OR SYCAMORE. 167
The sycamore is propagated entirely by seeds, excepting,
indeed, the variegated sorts, which are increased by budding or
grafting. "When the seeds are ripe, they should be sown imme-
diately after being gathered, because they are extremely apt
to lose their vegetative powers: this may be done about the
middle of October ; or, if it should be preferred to keep the seed
till spring, it should be mixed up with a quantity of dry sand, and
sown as early as possible in the spring. \Ylien the seedlings are
one year old, they should be planted out into the nursery rows,
where they should remain two years before being removed to the
forest-ground; and for the distance at which the plants should
stand in the nursery rows, see that already given for the ash and
elm.
One particular point to attend to, in the rearing up of healthy
sycamore trees, is the proper pruning of the plants ; that is, if the
young trees be cut and primed in the winter or spring months, they
are sure to bleed profusely at the wounded parts, and will very
probably remain stunted, miserable-looking things for many years
after: therefore, when it is found necessary to prune the syca-
more, let that be done in the summer months, or in the growing
season of the tree, when, instead of being injurious, judicious
pruning becomes beneficial to it, because the sap at this season is
quickly formed into proper woody matter, and the wound heals up
in a very short time, causing the stem to become strong and
healthy by having the sap directed towards it.
There are few trees more hardy than the sycamore. Mr Loudon
speaks of it growing as high as three thousand feet above the level
of the sea in Switzerland] where it much abounds : of this hardi-
ness of the tree there is no doubt, for I have myself seen the
sycamore in this country attain a considerable size upon elevated
spots along the sea-shore, where scarcely any other tree could exist
along with it but the pineaster; therefore I recommend it as a most
useful tree in all exposed situations, if the soil be dry, and not too
much inclined to stiff clay or moss.
The circumstances which arc found most favourable to the healthy
development of the sycamore are — as to soil, dry sandy loam,
with a free exposed situation, as in the open parks about gentle-
168 THE NORWAY MAPLE.
men's hoine-grounds ; and, as a general rule, this tree may very
profitably be planted in almost every situation where the beech
will thrive.
The sycamore, from its being easily checked in the side
branches, is well adapted as a nurse for other more valuable trees
in a forest. It also makes an excellent coppice-wood, the young
shoots growing exceedingly rapidly from the stock, and making
from three to five feet of length in one season. Being an exceed-
ingly hardy tree, and of a peculiarly stiff and unbending habit, it
is well adapted for hedge-row timber ; and, moreover, being a tree
which comes very early into leaf in the spring, it has the advan-
tage of producing considerable shelter to the fields by its large
leaves, as well as giving a healthy and clothed appearance to the
country. Many, indeed, object to it as a tree adapted for hedge-
row timber, upon account of its wide-spreading branches ; and, no
doubt, it must be confessed that its wide-spreading branches will,
under careless management, cast a great shade upon the land
on each side of the hedge-row; but if it be properly trained
up by judicious and early pruning, it may be made not a wide-
spreading tree, but a tall closely-branched one, of the best descrip-
tion possible for producing shelter to the adjoining fields. (See
chapter upon hedge-row timber.)
SECTION XI. — THE NORWAY MAPLE.
The Norway Maple (Acer Platanoides) belongs to the same
natural and Linneean orders as the preceding. It is not a
native of Britain, but is found very plentifully upon the con-
tinent of Europe. Loudon, in his Arboretum Britannicum, page
410, says that he observed it " in all woods bordering the public
road from Wilna to Mittau, and from Moscow to Galiicia ; "
and again he says — " Next to the birch and trembling poplar,
it seemed to us the most abundant tree in the Russian woods."
From the tree being named the Norway maple, it would appear
to be found plentifully in that country also, making it equally
THE NORWAY MAPLE.
169
as hardy as the pines which are found there: and this is
indeed the case ; for there are few, if any, of the forest
trees introduced into Britain so hardy as the Norway maple.
It is a tree of first-rate magnitude, attaining equal dimensions
with the sycamore in a given period, and is by far too little
cultivated in Britain. The Norway maple, as a lawn tree, is
perhaps not surpassed by any other : a particular recommen-
dation of it is, that it comes early into leaf; and in the autumn the
leaves of this tree give an extremely rich and varied effect, from
their bright yellow colour contrasting with the dark-green and
russet tints of the other trees. The form of the tree, although much
resembling that of the sycamore, is more open and light, and it
does not form so heavy nor so massive an appearance, being easily
distinguished at a distance by an outline more natural, easy, and
light, than the sycamore. I have never as yet had the oppor-
tunity of seeing the wood of the maple cut up under my own
observation, it being by no means plentiful enough in Britain to
be used for common purposes, as is the case with the sycamore ;
but, from the specimens of the trees that I have seen pruned, and
from articles of furniture that I have seen made of the full-grown
wood, it appears to me to be a wood of far more real value than the
sycamore, being more
close in the grain, and
taking on an excellent
polish. I am there-
fore inclined to think
that, taking it simply
in the light of a timber
tree, it isof more value
than the sycamore,
and may be adapted to
many more purposes.
The leaves somewhat
resemble those of the
sycamore, but are
more acute in the an-
gles. (See Fig. 59.)
Fig. 59.
170 TIIE NORWAY MAPLE.
They are also fully as large as those of the sycamore, but of a lighter
green, and more transparent in the texture ; and a particular char-
acter of the leaves is, that they are never apt to be eaten or injured
by insects, as is the case with most other trees; hence they
always present a sound healthy appearance. The young shoots of
this tree are at first of a greenish colour; but as the season
advances, and the wood becomes more ripened, they become of a
brown colour, with white spots upon the surface of the bark. In
the winter season this tree is easily distinguished from the syca-
more by the bark upon the old wood or body of the tree, which is
of a brownish-grey colour, the buds being of a deep red, very
prominent and large.
The Norway maple is propagated by seeds in the same manner
as the sycamore, and in every respect the method of culture stated
for the sycamore is applicable to this tree ; and I may add further,
that this tree bears seed at a very early period. I have gathered
good seed from trees of thirty-five years of age.
Being a native of the colder regions of Europe, it is well
adapted, as a useful timber-tree, for British plantations. It is
found growing in Norway down to the very sea-shore, and is
there found to stand the blasts of the sea excellently — so much so
as to become timber of large dimensions ; it is, therefore, remark-
able that it has not been more cultivated in this country, particularly
upon estates along our sea-coast. Upon the west coast of Scot-
land— as, for instance, along the Galloway shores — I have seen it
thrive well ; and from specimens that I have seen growing there, I
am convinced that, were its cultivation extensively put into practice,
the Norway maple would there supersede every other forest tree ;
and instead of that barrenness which at present characterises the
coast of Galloway all along from the mouth of Loch Ryan to
Maidenkirk, a beautiful woodland aspect might be given to the
whole, were this valuable tree introduced there as its merits
demand. In order the more quickly to bring about this state
of things there, the Norway maple should be planted at about
twelve feet apart, and the ground made up with the pineaster to
the thickness of four feet. By this method, the pineaster being
an exceedingly hardy tree in withstanding the sea-breeze, the
THE POPLAR. 171
Norway maple would, from being sheltered by it, assume a
rapid growth in a very short time ; and as they advanced, the
pineasters which nursed them could be thinned out gradually,
and made use of in fencing purposes, in order to give the
more space to the maple, it being meant to remain as the perma-
nent crop.
That the Norway maple is a rapid-growing tree is beyond
dispute, although many deny this property of it. I could myself,
upon the estate of Arniston, point out shoots of this tree, and
that of the present year's growth, (1848,) three feet long, with
a diameter of half an inch, and that upon young trees not more
than twelve years old, which is equal to growths of the syca-
more upon trees of the same age. Being well aware of the
hardy nature of the tree, I here beg to advise proprietors to
plant it plentifully, not in the form of a temporary nurse, but in the
form of a permanent tree ; for I am persuaded that, ere many
years pass by, its usefulness will be appreciated, and it will become
a very prominent tree in our forests, and more particularly upon
high and exposed parts along our sea-coasts.
The soil most favourable for the growth of this tree is found to
be a free, open, sandy loam ; but although under such circum-
stances it does, no doubt, grow most rapidly, and develop itself to
greatest advantage, it will, nevertheless, grow freely upon very
inferior soils, provided that such be dry and properly drained ; and
upon the estate of Dunsky, in Wigtonshire, I have seen young
trees make good progress upon a surface of rock, with here and
there a little soil, into which the plants were put.
SECTION xii. — Tin: POPLAR.
The Poplar (Populus) belongs to the natural order Amentack.i. ;
and according to theLinxuean system, to Dicccia Octandria. There
are several species of this tribe which arc well adapted for forest
timber trees : the sorts which arc most worthy of our notice
here, are the black poplar, Popuhu nigra ; the white poplar,
172 THE POPLAR.
Populus alba ; and the gray poplar, P. canescens ; and we may
also mention the aspen poplar, P. tremula ; all which are found
natives of Britain. There are several species from North Ame-
rica and the continent of Europe, which are allowed to be good
timber trees ; but as our own native species yield more valuable
timber than any of them, we shall here confine ourselves to a
description of the four above-named species, these being, strictly
speaking, British forest trees. They are all rapid-growing trees
when found in a soil congenial to their nature, and attain very
large dimensions.
The P. Nigra is a tree which attains large dimensions of
timber in a very short time, but does not endure long when it has
arrived at maturity, which may be reckoned at fifty years of age.
When planted in a low-lying situation, where it has the advantage
of shelter, it forms a very prominent tree in the landscape ; but if
planted among trees of a slow growth, it soon overtops all others,
and has by no means a fine effect ; but where it is planted in a
situation adapted to its rapid growth, it forms a magnificent tree,
having a large spreading top, with an extremely massive trunk.
Upon the estate of Arniston I cut down a tree of this sort the
other day, which was only thirty-five years old. It was, Avhen
stretched upon the ground, seventy-eight feet in length, and three
feet in diameter at the base of the trunk ; and, altogether, this
tree contained sixty-six cubic feet of timber. It was sold for 2s.
per foot; thus giving, as the produce of a single tree in thirty-five
years, <£*6, 12s. This example is enough to point out the
advantages arising from planting the black poplar in a good
soil and situation. The soil upon which this tree was grow-
ing was a sandy loam, in a sheltered situation upon the lawn ;
and it was cut down in consequence of interfering with an oak
near it.
The wood of this tree is much sought after by cart-wrights for
bottoming, and is also used for light turners' work. It is said to
be much sought after upon the continent of Europe for wooden
shoes. I have sold a great deal of it this year for drags for rail-
way waggons.
Many of the poplars much resemble one another in the appear-
THE rorLAR.
173
Fig. 60.
ance of their leaves, but the black is easily distinguished from the
others by having its leaves of a pale-green shining colour;
their shape is termed by botan-
ists deltoid, or trowel-shaped,
pointed and serrated, and smooth
on both sides. (See Fig. 60.)
The leaf-stalks of this sort are
thin and slender at their inser-
tion upon the leaf, which gives
them a vibrating motion upon
the tree from every breath of
wind.
This species is generally
propagated by cuttings of the
young wood, (see Fig. 61,)
which are rooted in the
nurserv-ground with extremely
little attention ; and after remaining one year in the
cutting state in the nursery, they are fit for transplant-
ing out into the forest ground.
In order to grow this species profitably, they should
be planted in a good strong loam, having rather a
tendency to dampness, though I have seen trees of a very
large size growing upon a poor and sandy soil, situated
upon a sloping bank, where water percolated freely
down the slope ; but none of the poplars will succeed
profitably upon a dry, thin, high-lying soil. The pojmhts
nigra is well suited as a forest tree either in a mass or
mixed among spruce firs in any low-lying part of forest
ground ; and as a coppice-wood tree, few are more
profitable. When cut down, the stools in a few
years send up shoots of great size, -which may be used
for basket-rods, flower-sticks, crate-stuff, or poles of
any description ; but when cut young, they do not last
long.
The Populus Alba, or Abele tree, is another of the
tribe which, under favourable circumstances, attains
174
THE POPLAR.
large dimensions. This is a tree of a beautiful upright
habit, and upon a lawn or park it makes a very fine contrast
by its white, waving, downy leaves, glittering among others of
a darker colour : like the P. nigra, it delights in a sheltered
situation upon a dampish loamy soil. The wood of this species
is very light and spongy, but is as durable as the former
when cut up. I have cut up a considerable quantity of it for
planking, which is used for flooring, cart and waggon bottoms,
&c, and it sells for these purposes readily ; in fact, I have never
been able to supply the demand which I have for this sort of
wood, which
such purposes
is much sought
; and, consider-
after for cart-bottoms, and all
ing its rapid growth, it is a
tree far too little planted in our
home forests. I have begun
to plant it in damp hollow parts
upon the estate of Arniston,
in situations such as I used
to plant with spruce firs for-
merly ; and I find that, next
to the black poplar, it is the
most rapid-growing of the
genus, and well worthy of
extensive culture for country
purposes.
The leaves of this species are
upon young plants almost pal-
mate, and larger than those taken
from an oldertree. (See Fig. 62,
which shows them as taken from a coppice of the
second year's growth.) In the young state the
leaves are covered with a white down beneath,
and on the upper surface but slightly. Upon
plants a few years old the leaves are much
smaller, and also dark-green, and smooth on
the upper surface, and not palmate, but merely
lobed, and somewhat toothed. (See Fig. 63.)
Fig. 62.
Fig. 63.
THE POrLAR.
175
The young branches are also thickly covered with down, and
are of a more spreading and ramifying habit than those
of the last-mentioned sort,
(see Fig. 64,) and also
more slender and tough.
The young plants of this
species are furnished by
cuttings, layers, and suck-
ers, which rise freely from
the roots wherever they
are growing ; and if put
into the nursery-ground
in the spring, they will be
ready for transplanting out
into the forest ground in the
autumn or spring following.
This species, as well as the
P. nigra, thrives best in a
loamy dampish soil; but I have frequently seen good large trees cut
down upon a rather dry and poor soil ; and in any moderately
sheltered situation, where it may have the advantage of a supply of
fresh running water, as upon the banks of a stream, it forms a
very profitable forest tree, and might be turned to advantage in
many places where the elm has been planted and is not succeeding
well. I could point out many plantations upon estates in Scot-
land, where the ash, elm, and firs have been planted, which,
on account of the soil and other circumstances being unfavour-
able to them, are at present in a very unhealthy and unproductive
state, upon which, had the Abcle poplar been planted, a tenfold
return would have been realised, independent of proving a most
pleasing object to look upon.
This is a most excellent tree for coppice-wood, and produces a
crop very quickly; and the young shoots, when arrived at from ten
to twelve years old, arc extremely useful for many country pur-
poses; such as paling-rails, stobs, gates, &c. In 1843 I cut down
a coppice of this description upon the estate of Arniston, and this
year (1848) the shoots have risen to the height of fifteen feet, and
176
THE POPLAR.
stout in proportion ; this showing the fast-growing nature of the
tree when treated as a coppice.
The Gray Poplar (P. canescens) very much resembles the last-
mentioned species, but is easily distinguished from it by its greater
propensity for sending up suckers, and that at a great distance
from the tree. In favourable situations it grows as rapidly and to
as great a size as the P. alba, but has its branches thrown out more
uprightly than it ; and, in my opinion, it forms a veiy ornamental
tree in a low-lying situation upon a soil adapted to its nature. Upon
the home-parks about Arniston we have several trees of this
species of a considerable size, upon a rather dry soil, and rather
an exposed situation. It is a very hardy tree, and attains a
timber size upon a greater variety of soils and situations than any
other of the poplar tribe. But, notwithstanding, its favourite
locality is upon a good loam, near to a supply of running water.
In such a situation it forms a very large spreading-topped tree,
frequently rising to eighty and ninety feet high.
The quality of the wood very much resembles that of the last-
mentioned species, and is sought after for the same purposes. I
have this season cut up a considerable quantity of it into planks
for millwright purposes, it being considered very durable for
water-wheels ; and, as a timber tree, it pays the planter well — I
having got this year 2s. 6d. per foot for the squared timber, which
is a higher price than I can
get for larchwood. This arises
from the scarceness of the poplar
tribe as a timber tree ; and this
is to be regretted, as I am aware
that, were it more cultivated, it
would be much sought after, and
make a very profitable return.
The leaves of this species are
easily distinguished from the P.
alba by their lobes not being so
deep, and the down being almost
awanting upon the under side
of the leaf. (See Fig. 65.)
Fig. C5.
THE POPLAR. 177
This species also makes an excellent coppice, and is very pro-
ductive in young shoots, which rise up freely in a very indifferent
soil, and might be made very profitable if cultivated to a good
extent near any market for hoop-wood, for which it answers well
when young. Coppice of this description is also much sought
after for crates and other coarse basket manufacture ; and as a
coppice it is very easily kept up, on account of the great ten-
dency the tree has to throw up suckers all over the ground upon
which it grows.
It is propagated in the same manner as the last-mentioned sort,
but very seldom from cuttings ; the suckers in all cases making
the preferable trees : therefore these are almost in all cases pre-
ferred for a supply of young trees. And when they are lifted from
the roots of the parent plant, and put into rows in the nursery
ground for one year, they will then be ready for transplanting out
into the forest.
The Aspex, or P. tremula, is a very interesting species of this
family, on account of its leaves being put into motion by the
slightest breeze ; and, indeed, few objects are more attractive in
nature than the motion of the trembling poplar in a calm evening.
Upon the end of the house which I now occupy, there stands a
group of fine aspen poplars, about sixty feet high, with their clean
grey stems and rugged horizontal branches stationary as the
earth upon which they stand ; with leaves all in motion, like an
agitated sky, without a breeze of wind below. I have not indeed,
hitherto, entered into feelings of a poetical natui-e in describing
the character of the different trees; but when I now come to
speak of the character of the aspen, I am, as it were, involun-
tarily led to say, that as regards my own private feelings, it is the
only tree that recalls to my mind " days bygone," and makes me
forget that I am writing a praetical work. W itli the aspen there
are associated scenes of early life : and at the present moment,
although the evening is so still that the sound of a burn a full mile
off is easily heard, the leaves cannot remain quiet ; and now
and again, as the air rises into the most gentle breeze, and
almost brings with it the sound of the vcrv minnows' flip upon
the surface of the water in the far-off pool, the leaves of the aspen
M
178
THE WILLOW.
Fig. 66.
vibrate to the sound, and their rustling falls upon the ear sweeter
than any music.
Although this is a very interesting species of the poplar, and is
worthy of a place in a well-chosen part upon the park, yet
as a timber tree it is of a secondary rank, and does not pro-
duce timber of so good a quality as the other poplars already
described. The wood when cut up is
in all cases short-grained, and very
easily broken when applied to any
useful country purpose. The leaves
of this sort very much resemble those
of the gray poplar; but they are
easily distinguished from them by
being more round, and also smooth
on both sides. (See Fig. 66.) This
tree is propagated in the same man-
ner as the gray poplar, being prin-
cipally from suckers, and sometimes
from layers in the nurseries; and from its tendency to throw
up suckers, it also makes a profitable coppice-wood.
SECTION XIII. THE WILLOW.
The Willow (Salix) belongs to the natural order Salic ace.e ;
or according to the Linn, system, to that of Dtoecia Diandria.
There are many species of the willow family, many of them not
growing to a size yielding useful timber. We shall therefore at
present confine our description to those sorts which are, properly
speaking, forest trees. Of these there are three species deserving
our attention — namely, The Salix alba, or Huntingdon willow ;
the Salix Russelliana, or Bedford willow ; and the Salix fragilis,
or red-wood willow. All these are timber trees of first-rate mag-
nitude, and are well deserving of a place either upon a lawn, or in
a forest where profit may be the object.
The Salix alba, or Huntingdon willow, in a situation congenial
THE WILLOW. 179
to its nature, attains the dimensions of a first-rate tree, with an
outline as agreeable and as elegant as can be imagined ; and it is
a tree well worthy of a place in any extensive park or lawn, where
the soil is not too thin and dry, nor the situation too exposed. Its
growth is very rapid ; and it is thus well adapted to plant in any
situation upon the park where it may be wished to hide any dis-
agreeable object. Upon the estate of Arniston I have planted
this tree rather extensively, and find it grows well in almost any
soil, provided it has a little shelter and moisture. I could point
out young trees, only three years planted, standing from twelve
to fifteen feet in height ; and I believe that, were it introduced
extensively into all hollow parts of forest ground, the planter
would have a return from his crop which is but seldom realised
by the planting of our common hardwood and fir trees in such
situations.
The wood of all the tree willows is much sought after, and pre-
ferred in all cases to that of the poplar. It is reckoned more tough
and durable than the latter, and is used for a great variety of
country purposes. It makes excellent charcoal for powder manu-
facturers, and is much sought after for this purpose ; but it is not
easily procured in sufficient quantity. It is also particularly
adapted for clcading to stone carts and coal-waggons ; for which
purposes I have cut up and sold a considerable quantity of it.
When struck by a stone, or any other heavy body, the deal pro-
duced from the willow is not readily injured nor split as is the case
with deals made from the fir and pine trees ; and this quality of the
wood makes it so valuable for the purpose. In making harrows
for agricultural purposes, the wood of the saugh or willow is much
used ; and as a paling rail it will last much better than the young
wood of the Scots pine or spruce fir. Its branches make excel-
lent stobs for palings ; but they are very apt to grow, and set out
young shoots. In order to prevent this tendency of the wood, the
stobs should be made and laid aside to dry for a few weeks before
they arc used.
In order to have the wood of the willow clean and tall for
useful purposes, the trees should be planted in a mass, and drawn
up considerably, either among themselves, or planted at twelve
180
THE WILLOW.
feet distance, with a few larch or spruce firs among them as nurses
for a time. This is particularly necessary with the Huntingdon
willow, which is extremely liable to set off into large branches if
left to itself in any open part without confinement ; but where
planted close together, or mixed with a proportion of firs, it rises
to a great height before branching off; and when timeously thinned,
excellent timber is produced. As its wood is soft and open in the
grain, the willow, and indeed the poplar too, should never be
pruned except in the young state. If any branch of considerable
size be taken from a full-grown tree, the wound never heals up ;
the weather takes effect upon the cut part at once, and soon pro-
duces rot, rendering the timber near it useless. Therefore, in
pruning the willow, let them be put into proper shape while
young ; and in order to do away with pruning altogether, grow
them for a few years closely together, which will prevent the side
branches spreading to any undue proportion. The leaves of the
different sorts of willows have a close resemblance to one another,
and, indeed, can only be detected and distinguished by a careful
examination of their tex- Fig. 67.
ture, more than any differ-
ence of shape. The Hun-
tingdon willow has the
leaves lanceolate and ser-
rated, the lower serra-
tures bearing small glands.
Both sides of the leaves are
covered with very fine
silky hairs, which lie close
upon the body of the leaf,
giving the leaves a whitish
appearance, and causing a
beautiful effect when they
are slightly moved by
the wind. Fig. 67 is an
exact representation of the
leaves and young wood,
as taken from the plant
THE WILLOW. 181
in the month of August. Xo plant is easier of propagation
than the willow ; indeed, this characteristic is proverbial among
practical men. All that is necessary in propagating this species,
is to put a cutting of young wood into the soil in the spring,
and in the autumn following it will be ready for transplanting out
into the forest ground. Indeed, many advise the using of pieces of
the older wood for cuttings in propagating the willow ; but, for my
own part, I have tried both ways, and have always found the
cuttings made from the last year's wood make the surest and best
plants, and ultimately come to be the finest trees. Some foresters
also recommend the putting of the cuttings at once into the forest
ground without having the plants reared at all in the nursery ;
but, as regards this plan, there seems to be nothing gained by it in
the end. The plants in such a state do not come away so quickly:
they are generally two years behind those reared in a nursery,
and they are more apt to become branchy. The best method is to
raise the cuttings from the young wood, and, when they have stood
one year in the nursery-rows, have them put out, and they will
immediately grow freely, having roots to seek food for themselves
at once.
I need scarcely say that the willow makes one of the best of all
trees for coppice-wood. Every forester or gardener is aware of
the nature of a willow bed, and there is scarcely one who has
not a bed of this useful plant reared under his own notice for the
making of baskets, &c. : for this purpose a great many varieties
are in cultivation. In planting willows, whether for large coppice,
to be cut over at periods of from three to twelve years, for poles
of various sizes, or for cutting over every year for the basket-
maker, the ground should be previously well cleaned by the
plough, and a crop of some sort taken off it, in order properly to
break down the old surface. Where it is intended to cut over the
plants every year, the ground must be kept clean always; but
where the plants are cut over at periods beyond two years, the
ground may be cleaned at each period of the cuttings only.
The BEDFOBD Willow (Salix RtuseUiana) is another tree
which is well worthy of a place in pleasure-grounds of any extent.
It is one which gives a much h tter (fleet upon a lawn than any
182
THE WILLOW.
other of the willow tribe, having a bold outline, and rather a
rugged habit, which gives it, when viewed from a distance, the
appearance of an ash more
than that of a willow. In
every other respect, what
I have already said regard-
ing the Salix alba is
equally applicable to the
one now under our notice.
There is, indeed, so far as
I have been able to notice,
scarcely any difference in
the quality of the wood
of the two sorts. In similar
circumstances they both
appear to arrive at the
same magnitude of tim-
ber, and the wood of the
Bedford willow may be
used for the same pur-
poses as that of the Hunt-
ingdon. When planted
upon an exposed situation, the branches of the Bedford willow are
very apt to be broken down by high winds ; but in other respects,
it is, in my opinion, a more hardy tree than the before-men-
tioned one.
The leaves of the Bedford are also lanceolate, tapering at each
end, and serrated throughout, but without hairs, being smooth on
both sides. They are also larger than those of the Huntingdon.
Fig. 68 is a representation of the leaves and young wood, as in
the month of August.
The Ked-WOOD Willow (Salix fragilis) is a tree more com-
mon in many parts of Scotland than either of the two former;
and in the north of Scotland it prevails more than in the southern
or midland counties. It is there much prized for the usefulness of
its timber; and, indeed, in many cold damp parts of the north, it
grows to a good timber size, and this too upon a very poor soil.
THE WILLOW.
183
The wood of this sort is, in the estimation of most intelligent country
carpenters, more durable and tough than that of either of the others ;
and I have found that „ rn
Fig. 6.0.
I can sell more of it for
country purposes than
any other wood of the
willow kind. Practical
builders say, that as a
timber for flooring it
can scarcely be sur-
passed, being extremely
light, and lasting for a
long time. This is also
a very fast-growing
tree. Upon the estate
of Arniston I have to-
day measured a tree of
this species, growing
upon a good loamy soil,
which is nearly seventy
feet high, and eight feet
in circumference four feet from the ground, though only about
thirty-five years old.
The leaves of this sort very much resemble those of the Hunt-
ingdon willow, being slightly downy when young. Fig. 69 is
a drawing of the leaves and young wood. It is propagated
by cuttings in the same manner as the other varieties, and is,
like them, very easy of propagation. There is one particular
feature in this tree, which I may here notice — viz., its aptitude to
become what is termed stag-headed when found growing upon a
soil not very favourable to its constitution. This is the principal
mi that it is so much kept out of lawns and parks, as it thus
becomes very unsightly. But as it is a tree bearing as fine
a form, when well grown, as the Huntingdon willow, which
we often find in extensive parks, it is an unfair estimate of
the tree t<> keep it out of all park-scenery, even when the
soil is capable of rearing it properly; and* so far as my expe-
184 THE BIRCH.
rience of it goes, I believe that, wherever it is planted upon a
loamy soil, in which it can have a sufficient supply of nourishment,
which is generally the case in hollow parts of a gentleman's lawn
or home park, it will not only grow rapidly, but will maintain its
health in all its parts as well as any of the two other species. It
is only when found growing upon any thin, sandy, or gravelly soil
that this tree is certain to become stag-headed. This I have often
had occasion to observe, even when the tree was but young ; and
even in such cases I have also observed that, although the head
of the tree did die, the lower part and all the branches, as far as
healthy, continued to make wood as if nothing had happened to
the head of the tree. In this case, when the tree is pollarded, the
effect is by no means bad ; it may, even under skilful management,
be made an improvement in the scenery. I have also to observe,
that where this tree is found as a hedge-row plant, and where the
water is too much drained off the ground by any ditch running
along the side of the fence, it is sure to become stag-headed at a
very early period, in which case the tree is objectionable.
SECTION XIV. — THE BIRCH.
The Birch Tree (Betula alba) belongs to the natural order
Amentac^e ; and according to the Linnasan system to Moncecia
Polyandria. This tree is indisputably a native of Britain, and
forms, even at the present day, considerable natural forests in the
north of Scotland. It is one of the most graceful of all our
native trees, and is in consequence generally found in all well-laid-
off landscape-scenery. As compared with many of our forest
trees, it attains at best but very ordinary dimensions as a timber
tree ; but it is not so much on account of the value set upon its
timber that the birch is generally a favourite as on account
of its gracefulness ; in which respect no forest tree surpasses it.
This is particularly the case with the true weeping variety,
which also is found wild in many of the higher districts, both in
England and Scotland. A particular recommendation of this
variety is, its being of a more rapid growth than the common
THE BIRCH. 185
sort ; and on this account the generality of young plants are
now raised from the seed of the weeping variety, which is easily
known by the drooping tendency of its branches, and also by
small white rough spots upon the bark of the young trees. In
duration as a tree, the birch is not to be compared with the oak
or sycamore ; but in a good dry soil suited to its constitution,
it lives to a great age. I could point out more than one tree
about a hundred years of age, in perfect good health, and likely
to live for many years to come. Upon the estate of Arniston we
have one particularly good specimen, it being about two feet in
diameter at bottom, and fifty feet high ; and from its appearance
it is likely yet to be much larger. This example shows that,
under favourable circumstances, the birch attains dimensions of no
mean character, being equal to many trees of the second rank.
The wood of the birch is by no means of great durability, in
whatever situation it may be placed. I have seen it used in a great
variety of ways, both for outside and inside work, and find it, in
the open air, as in the case of a paling stob, of very inferior dura-
bility, not lasting more than three years ; — in this respect resem-
bling the beech. Even when used for furniture, it is very soon
affected by rot. I have cut up a great deal of this wood for
herring-barrel staves, for which purpose it requires to be from
four to six inches in diameter ; but since the price of barrel
staves has fallen so low — they being in 1848 only GOs. per
one thousand superficial feet — a better return is obtained for the
wood by peeling it, and selling it to the powder manufacturers.
From them I have this same year got 24s. per ton ; and as they
take the smallest size of wood as well as the coarsest or largest,
this price gives a better return to the proprietor than having all
the trouble of cutting the wood into staves, and only getting GOs.
fur the thousand feet of these.
The foliage of the birch is small ; and in spring it has a pecu-
liar sweet smell, particularly after a shower of rain. The leaves
arc what botanists term ovate, acute: and somewhat deltoid;
unequally serrated^ and nearly smooth. Fig. 70 is a represen-
tation of these. This tree is raised from seed, which is gene-
rally ready for gathering about the first week in October. When
186
THE BIRCH.
Fig. 70.
gathered, it should be kept in a dry and airy loft or room all the
winter, and should be sown in the month of March. In sowing it,
care should be taken that
the earth upon which it
is sown be very finely
wrought by the spade and
rake. The soil ought to
be light, and the surface
made as fine as oatmeal,
before sowing; and even
in the act of covering in
the seed, great care is ne-
cessary to see that it is not
covered too deep; in fact,
the slightest covering of
earth is sufficient ; and this,
too, should be of the finest
quality. I have fre-
quently seen in nurseries
of rather a stiff soil, which
could not be easily brought
down fine enough to a
mould, the surface made as smooth as the soil would admit of,
and finer soil brought from another part for the purpose of cover-
ing in the seed after sowing. Indeed, when the soil cannot be got
of a nature fine enough, a very good plan is to sow upon the pre-
pared surface, and give the seed no covering at all, but merely a clap
with the spade, in order to keep the wind from blowing it about.
By this plan I have seen an excellent crop of young birches raised.
AJbout the first week of June the plant will be seen to come up
in abundant thickness upon the beds ; and as they are easily hurt
by weeds, they should receive very particular attention in the way
of keeping them clean.
One year after the seeds have been sown, the young plants may
be lifted and transplanted out into rows in the nursery ground ;
and when they have stood two years in that state, they may with
safety be put out into the forest grounds.
THE BIltCH. 187
The birch is a tree by no means particular as regards soil and
situation ; in fact, it is one of the most hardy trees we possess, being
found to exist as a low tree in the mountainous districts of Scot-
land, at an elevation of fully three thousand feet above the level
of the sea. But notwithstanding this hardihood, it does not attain
respectable dimensions unless planted upon a fair soil, and at an
elevation something under two thousand feet above the sea-level.
This tree delights naturally in a dry sandy or stony soil, which is
generally of the poorest quality ; but the largest specimens of it
that I have seen, grow upon a sandy loam, having a bottom by no
means of the driest nature ; and as far as I have observed the
natural habits of this tree, it does not disagree with a little mois-
ture, provided this docs not remain stagnated about the roots.
As a forest tree, I have found the birch very profitable when
mixed among Scots and spruce firs in any high-lying part inclined
to moss, and which had been newly dried of moisture. In such
places of a new plantation I generally mix from one-third to
one-half of birch plants among the firs; and when, as is most likely
to be the case, a number of the firs do go back, the birches, being
regularly mixed among them, keep good to a certainty, and may
be relied upon for a cover. Near to a powder manufactory I
have seen a hag of birch of this description pay much better than
the firs could do upon the same situation. In high situations
I make it a practice, in the marking out of new woods, to plant
along the most exposed margins birch among firs, where I suspect
these latter have a chance not to succeed healthily. By doing so,
I am sure to have ultimately something useful upon the soil, when
otherwise there might have been complete failure.
As a coppice-wood the birch answers well ; indeed, in several
instances, I have found a hag of birch coppice more profitable than
one of oak, at the present time when oak bark sells at £5 per
ton. Where there is not much demand for small oak coppice-
wood, a hag of birch at the same age is decidedly superior in value
to one of oak ; seeing that in the case of the birch we can sell
both bark and wood, however small, to advantage.
188 THE ALDER.
SECTION XV. — TIIE ALDER.
The Alder (Alnus Glutinosa) belongs to the natural order
Amentace^e ; and according to the Linn, system, to Moncecia Te-
trandria. It is another of our truly native trees, being found wild
along the banks of rivers and marshy parts of our waste lands.
In these cases it is seldom found of large dimensions, but generally
as a large bush, or at best as a small deformed tree ; but where
attention has been paid to it, and it has got the same management
as other forest trees, it attains a size by no means despicable, being
frequently found, upon a good loamy soil, from forty to fifty feet
high, and of proportionable scantling ; but in no case will it attain
a large size unless it have a considerable degree of moisture for
its roots, which is always found by it upon the margins of rivers.
The wood of the alder is by no means valuable, nor is it gene-
rally applied to many purposes. It is reckoned one of the most lasting
of all woods for aoy underground work, such as piles for bridges ;
and it is even alloAved to stand a long time when covered from
the effects of change of dry and moist. So far as my own expe-
rience goes, this wood is the one which of all others I incline to
reject in the making of any common out-door work, such as fen-
cing ; in fact, I have found stobs of this wood useless in less than
one year, they being rotten at the part between the earth and
air. Still, as a coppice-wood I have found it very valuable ;
and that either for the purpose of making charcoal for the pro-
prietor's own use, or for selling for powder-wood, for which pur-
pose it sells at the same rate as the birch, — that is, twenty-four
shillings per ton for the peeled wood. But unless in districts
near to a powder manufactory, I am not of opinion that it could
be made profitable, even as a coppice-wood, for any other purpose,
unless, indeed, for herring-barrel staves, which do not now pay
well.
The leaves of this tree are roundish, and cuneiform 1 wavy, or
obtuse-lobed on the margin, serrated, and sometimes of a clammy
nature on the surface : they are also somewhat downy on the
angles of the veins.
THE ALDER.
189
Fig. 71.
Fig. 71 represents the leaves of this tree, and also the catkins
containing- the seeds. The alder is propagated sometimes hy cut-
tings of the young wood, but
principally from the seed. In-
deed, although the method of
propagating it by cuttings is
sometimes resorted to, the plants
raised by such means are of little
real worth, and never arrive at
the character of a tree as
those do which are raised from
the seed. The young plants
ought, therefore, in all cases
where healthy young trees
are desired, to be raised from
the seed. The seed should be
gathered in the month of October, or at least as soon as the
scales of the catkins or seed-vessels begin to open a little. "When
the catkins are gathered, they should be well exposed to the sun
upon a sheet for a few days, in the open air, when the scales will
open widely, and allow the seed to be separated by a slight rub-
bing and turning with the hands. Many seedsmen, when they
gather the seed of the alder, simply lay it past in a dry room, and
torn it frequently till the seeds fall out of their own accord. It
should be sown in the month of March, and slightly covered.
"When the plants have stood one year in the seed-bed, they may
be planted out into rows in the nursery ground, and there they
may be allowed to remain one or two years, according to the
strength that the plants may be required to be. The alder is by
no means particular as regards quality of soil, but moisture is
indispensable. In travelling through the Highlands of Scotland,
we often meet with large tracts of this plant, which is always found
luxuriating in the swampy low-lying grounds ; and this at once
point- out the circumstances favourable to its growth. The alder
ought never to be mixed with other trees in a plantation, unless,
indeed, we may except the spruce fir. These may, under peculiar
circumstances, be planted together; that is to say, where it may be
190 THE OAK.
intended to raise up a hag of alder coppice, spruce firs may be
planted as nurses among them, and thinned out for paling, &c,
as they advance. Wherever alder has been planted in the form
of coppice, it is a tree not easily rooted out of the ground again,
and it generally renders the soil upon which it grows more injured
than improved ; for it is always observable that the alder, if once
it gets a footing upon a moderately damp soil, will very soon make
it a complete morass. Therefore I am not in favour of planting
alder at all, unless it be upon some waste unimprovable piece of
land ; and perhaps even then, under good management, the birch
may be more profitable.
SECTION XVI. — THE OAK.
The Oak (Quercus) belongs to the natural order Corylace^e ;
and according to the Linn, system, to Moncecia Pohjandria. The
oak is generally allowed to be the most durable of all our forest
trees. Many have maintained that it is the most profitable tree
that can be planted upon a fair soil and site ; but as to this I am
now convinced to the contrary. I at once admit that where the
oak is allowed to arrive at perfect maturity, and cut down for use
neither too young nor too old, but say at from eighty to one hun-
dred years, it is the most valuable wood we have as to durability ;
but as to making a profitable return to the grower of wood, it is
far surpassed by that most useful tree, the larch. This I am pre-
pared to prove to any who may be of a contrary opinion ; for
having cut down both oak and larch at all stages of their growth,
I have invariably found that, under good management, and giving
both trees a proportionate number of years upon a given soil, the
larch is by far the most profitable for the planter. There is an old
saying among foresters — and it is indeed a true one — that " a larch
will buy a horse before an oak will buy a saddle.'''1 But notwithstand-
ing that the oak, in point of profit, must yield to the larch, it is,
and will be, an indispensable tree in British forests, and will likely
remain so as long as the British navy has to be maintained, and as
THE OAK.
191
long as our landed proprietors retain a taste for the ornamenting
of their grounds upon anything like a scale of grandeur and
natural effect.
As to the oak being a tree well adapted for the park, it would
be superfluous to attempt setting forth its merits in this
respect. This has already been done by many able writers upon
the subject ; and I admit that the tree is indeed, in an ornamental
point of view, worthy of all the praise that has been bestowed upon
it ; and as to grandeur and effect, it may indeed be styled " the
king of the forest."
There are two distinct species of oak found growing in our
forests, namely, the Quercus pedunculate, and the Q. sessiliflora.
The botanical characters of each of the species are these : The
Q. pedunculated has its leaves oblong, smooth, dilateel vptDards,
sessile, or with very short petiols or foot-stalks ; the lobes obtuse,
with rather acute sinuses ; the stalks of the fruit elongated, and
acorn oblong. Fig. 72 represents the leaf of this species, and
Fig. 73 the fruit upon its elongated stalks.
Fig.
Fig. 73.
The Quercus sessiliflora has its leaves on elongated foot-stalks,
smooth and oblong; the sinuses opposite, and rather acute ; tin-
192
THE OAK.
lobes obtuse ; the fruit sessile or sit-
ting, and ohlong. See Figs. 74 and
75.
The above are the distinguishing
characters of the two species, as given
b y botanists; but such descriptions are
not at all sufficiently distinct for the
distinguishing of the two species, when
laid before a person who may be unac-
quainted with botanical terms ; and
for the guidance of such, I shall here
give the distinguishing marks of the
two species, as observed by some of
our most intelligent practical forest-
ers who have for many years paid
attention to the habits of each, and
who, with myself, are decidedly of
opinion that the one sort is unques-
tionably superior to the other.
It will be observed that the two
most distinguishing characters of each
of the two species of oak, as men-
tioned above, are — Q. pedunculate
has no petiols, (see Fig. 72,) and the
fruit has pretty long foot-stalks, (see
Fig. 73 ;) again, Q. sessiliflora has
its petiols pretty long, (sec Fig. 74,)
and the fruit is entirely without
stalks, (see Fig. 75.) These, let it be understood, are the most
prominent distinguishing characters of the two species, as generally
given by botanists, but they are not always to be relied upon ; for
even in examining a number of leaves upon the same tree, we may
find some of them that will answer to both species. But generally
speaking, these differences between the two kinds do hold good to
a great extent ; and an experienced person, who has been long in
the habit of examining the leaves of each species, can at once,
even from the. forms as already explained, point out the different
Fig. 75.
THE OAK. 193
sorts. But besides this, there is another mark of distinction, which
is even more decided than the marks taken from the fruit and leaves
— namely, that from the buds upon the young wood. The buds
upon the Q. sessilijiora are more prominently brought out upon the
wood than those of the peduncidata ; and the wood at the base of
the buds is also more fully developed. See Fig. 74, where a piece
of the young wood is shown ; and compare the buds as shown
there with those shown upon the young shoot in Fig. 72, which
represents a piece of the young wood of the peduncidata. As in Fig.
72, the young wood swells but slightly at the base of the buds,
and this is generally the case with the pedunculata ; whereas in
Fig. 74 the young wood swells boldly at the same point ; and this
is generally the case with the sessilijiora.
There are, indeed, many who deny that there arc two species of
the oak found in our forests ; for, say they, " the distinguish-
ing characters of each do not always hold good." This I readily
admit ; for I am daily in the habit of seeing oak trees, and of examin-
ing them, and I daily see that, so far as the distinguishing characters
that have been pointed out go, they are very often blended toge-
ther in one tree. But this is easily accounted for by the two spe-
cies having been long growing in the country together, from which
have arisen many trees, which are no doubt what may properly
be termed hybrids between the two. When, however, we do find
the trees distinctly developing each its own characters, the marks
given will hold good, and point out which are the true original
sorts, and which are hybrids. And further, upon this point, the
Q. peduncidata is, to appearance, not such a free or rapid growing
tree as the sessilijiora. At all the stages of the growth of both
trees, the pedunculata has always a more stunted, and, as it were,
a more unhealthy appearance than the sessilijiora ; in fact there
is, to the experienced eye, an expression in each tree which at
once distinguishes the one from the other, and which at the same
time cannot be explained, although quite evident to the mind and
eye of a practical man. 1 could, myself, at first sight of an oak
tree, say which of the kinds it was ; and yet I could not explain
to a person with me the marks of distinction which led me to say
that this tree was one sort and not the other.
N
194 THE OAK.
With regard to the quality of the wood of each of these kinds,
I am aware that many say that the wood of the one sort is as
good as that of the other, and that it is superfluous to make any
distinction between the two. Some have even gone the length of
asserting, that the sort which is generally esteemed as the best in
the quality of its wood, is in reality the most worthless ; but this
has been said by men who had no knowledge of the truth of the
matter, and has been at all times contradicted by men who have
had ample experience in the cutting up and using the trees of
both sorts. For my own part, I am so thoroughly convinced of
the superiority of the wood of the Q. pedunculata, that in planting
I reject every young plant that has the appearance of the other
sort; and this in order that I may decidedly introduce the jjedun-
culata, and exterminate, if possible, the sessiliflora, the wood of
which is decidedly of an inferior quality as compared with the
other. As to the truth of what I have asserted, I shall state one
example, among many others which I could give, of the compara-
tive worthlessness of the sessiliflora oak. Since I came to Arniston
to act as forester, I have cut down several of that species, of
full age, and of pretty large dimensions. In the year 1843 we
had occasion to cut up a considerable quantity of oak for colliery
waggons, for which purpose I sent to the saw-mill, among several
of the pedunculata sort, three trees of the sessiliflora, which were
all cut in the month of June for the sake of their bark. In the act
of cutting up the wood, the men remarked that there was a great
difference in the quality of the wood in some of the trees as com-
pared with that of others ; and that those which had the gx'eatest
portion of red or heart-ioood, were the trees which were easiest to
saw. This was exactly what I wanted to ascertain. I wanted to
see if the men, who were not even aware that there were two sorts
of the oak, they being merely sawyers and not foresters, in their
own simple way could detect the difference between the two spe-
cies in the act of cutting them up ; and they did so very readily. I
stood in the mill and saw them cutting up one of the sessiliflora,
and found that the saws went through it much in the same man-
ner that they would do when cutting up a piece of elm. But
when they put on a tree of the pedunculata sort, the saws became
THE OAK. 195
heated in a very short time ; and before they could go from end to
end of the tree, the men had to pull back the tree for a time, and
allow the saws to cool. This at once points the hard and solid
nature of the one tree as compared with the other. In the above
example, the trees in question were distiuct specimens of the two
sorts, being- very true to the general marks previously given.
It is, in my opiniou, a point well worthy the consideration of all
interested in the welfare of our home woods, to see that the pedum-
cuhva sort be introduced in a decided manner, and the sessili-
jiora rejected. It is, indeed, fortunate that the latter sort is by no
means plentiful as compared with the other ; but as it will no
doubt have a tendency to increase if not watched, it will be wis-
dom in those who have the management of woods to see that
it Lb kept as much down as possible.
It is well known that the wood of the oak is used for a great
variety of purposes, even to name which would be superfluous ;
but the principal purpose for which the largest of our oak trees
are used, is shipbuilding. From the Government forests in
England a considerable quantity of oak is cut for the supply
of the navy ; but not the tenth part required is produced from
that quarter. A large quantity is supplied from the different
proprietors in the kingdom, who, of course, rear it upon their
estates for sale ; and, in addition to this, a large quantity is gene-
rally got from abroad ; thus showing the great necessity there is
for an increase in the extent of our home forests, in order that
we may not be so much dependent upon other nations for a supply
of timber to keep good our navy.
The quality of oak timber depends very much upon the nature
of the >oil and situation upon which it is grown. I have had oak
timber cut up from situations near the sea, and also far inland, and
apOD a high exposed part; and my experience upon this point
leads me to say, that the trees grown in a low situation and upon
a light soil, do not produce such hard and durable timber as trees
grown upon the same nature of soil on a high situation; but
trees grown in a low situation, and upon a heavy clay soil, produce
better timber than trees grown upon the same nature of soil on
a high situation. This it is reasonable to suppose ; for, upon a high
196 THE OAK.
exposed part, trees will not succeed well upon land of a cold
bottom.
Upon the estate of Amiston we have a few full-sized oak trees
yet growing upon an open sandy moss of two feet deep, which
rests upon a subsoil of hard gravelly till. The trees are partly of
the sessiliflora and partly of the pedunculata sorts ; and the quality
of the wood of each of those sorts is, upon that soil, very inferior to
that produced by both kinds upon a stiff soil. Therefore, from ex-
perience, arising from observation of the quality of the oak as pro-
duced from different soils and situations, I am now convinced that,
in all sheltered situations, the oak produces the best timber upon a
heavy clay soil ; and upon exposed situations, the best oak timber
is produced from land of a loamy, or rather light dry nature.
Upon the estate of Arniston our best oak timber is produced
on a sandy loam, resting partly upon sandy clay, and partly
upon gravel beds. I may mention one particular tree, of the
pedunculata sort, upon the Arniston grounds, which is still grow-
ing, and in good health, upon a loamy soil, situated on a
sloping bank. It is between seventy and eighty feet high — is
eighteen feet in circumference near the ground — and contains about
two hundred and fifty cubic feet of timber. The size of oak tim-
ber most suitable for country purposes, is from six to twelve inches
on the side of the square ; and for shipbuilding, all sizes above
twelve inches on the side of the square are used. A great part of
the timber used for shipbuilding must be crooked ; consequently,
oak of a crooked or bent character sells at a much higher rate for
that purpose than straight timber, although the one may be of as
good quality and of as large a scantling as the other.
The oak forms an excellent hedge-row timber tree. Perhaps it
is the best for that purpose of all the forest trees we have :
for my remarks upon this, see Section headed Hedge-row Timber.
As a coppice-wood, the oak has long held a high place, more
particularly on account of the bark it produces for tanning pur-
poses ; but now, since that article has fallen so very low in price,
it is not such a profitable part of forest culture as it has been.
For a more particular account of this, see Section headed Manage-
ment of OaJc Coppice.
THE OAK. 197
The oak is raised from seeds, which are named acorns. These
generally ripen in the month of Xoveinber ; and as soon as they
are ripe, they should be gathered and sown immediately, because
thev are very apt to be injured by being long kept, more par-
ticularly if they be not kept dry and in a cool part. If kept
perfectly dry and cool in an airy loft, the acorns may indeed be
preserved all winter, and sown in the spring ; but as they are
extremely apt to be injured by careless keeping, the better plan
is to sow them at once when gathered.
Some nurserymen are in the habit of sowing them in rows, and
others in beds, covered with about two and a half inches of earth.
My own plan is, as soon as I have the acorns at hand, to sow them
in rows upon the surface of the ground, which I have previously
dug and prepared, and cover them with from two to three inches
of earth. In sowing them, I mark off the rows about two feet
distant one from another. The breadth of the seed in the row may
be about five inches, and the seed may average one to every three
square inches. In covering the seed, I gather up the earth
from the ground upon each side of the row that is sown, until it
is the desired depth upon the acorns, taking care not to come too
near the seed upon the sides of the row, but keeping it there
rather heavier of earth than above ; for it is generally upon the
sides of the rows that vermin make their attacks upon the seed.
After the acorns have been sown, they must be paid attention
to, to see that vermin of any description do not attack them. In
the winter season, if mice or rats are in the neighbourhood, they
will be certain to attack them ; and if they do, traps must be used
in order to destroy them. And in the spring months, if pheasants
or any other birds commence upon the acorns, nets may be used
in order to cover the beds or rows from them ; or if these be not
upon the place, and cannot be had conveniently, they may be
covered pretty closely with the branches of trees, which will keep
back birds, and at the same time allow a free circulation of air to
tlw surface of the earth. This I have frequently had to do myself,
and found them to answer the purpose very well. As soon as the
young plants appear above ground, which will generally be about
the end of -May, the branches may be removed in order to give the
198 THE OAK.
young plants all justice. But about gentlemen's woods, where a
home nursery has been established, pheasants are very often nume-
rous ; and I have seen them prolong their attacks upon acorns long
after the plants were coming above ground. In fact, I have seen
the pheasants, in the nursery at Arniston, prove as destructive to
the acorns in the month of June as at any other time in the year ;
and that, too, after the plants were generally above ground. The
plan which I found most effectual against them in such a case, was
to have two boards, of about one inch thick by six inches deep,
connected by spars of about one inch square and a foot long.
These spars I had nailed across upon the edges of the two boards,
two inches separate from each other, thus : —
and these frames or sparred boxes I had made in lengths correspond-
ing to the lengths of the rows upon the ground, and had as many
of them made as covered all the seed sown, keeping the open side,
of course, resting upon the ground, and the sparred side uppermost.
This kept the vermin off, and at the same time admitted free air
about the plants ; and as such frames will last for many years for
the same purpose, they ought to be stored by in a dry shed when
not in use.
The young plants, whether grown in rows or in beds from the
seed, should be allowed to remain in the same state for two years,
when they ought to be lifted carefully by a strong-necked and
long-bladed spade, which is meant to go well into the ground, and
bring up the plants with the roots as whole as possible. When
the plants are lifted, they ought to be kept in two sizes, and about
one-third of the length of the root of each cut clean off with a
sharp knife. They should next be transplanted out into the open
nursery ground, into rows about two feet separate, keeping the
plants in the rows about four or five inches from one another ; and
in this state they may remain for a length of time, according to the
size that the plants may be required ; that is, if the plants are
not wished to be large, two years in the rows may be enough,
but in no case less ; and if the plants are required to be
THE SWEET CHESNUT. 199
large, three and even four years in the rows may be no more than
sufficient.
The oak, the first year after being transplanted, makes very
little progress, merely establishing its roots in the ground. The
second year it sends out new shoots, and the third grows vigor-
ously. Where it is intended to have plants of a pretty large size
for any particular purpose, they ought to be transplanted rather
widely in the nursery rows — say at from six to nine inches ; and
if, at that distance in the rows, they be allowed to remain for four
years, they will be very good plants indeed. It is a good plan, in
all cases of cultivating the oak, to prune the plants in the spring
before lifting them ; that is, if it be intended to lift plants from
the nursery rows in the month of November, they should be pruned
in April, which is a great means of preserving the health of the
plants, and keeping them in proper shape.
SECTION XVII. — THE SWEET CHESNUT.
The Sweet Chesnut (Castanea vesca) belongs to the natural
order Amextaceje; and according to the Linn, system, to Mo-
noocia polyandria. This is a tree which, in a favourable situation,
attains large dimensions, frequently surpassing even the oak in this
respect ; and when grown in an open park or lawn, it is a highly
ornamental tree, its general bearing at a distance very much
resembling that of the oak ; and in the autumn, when its leaves
take on a yellow colour, it has a beautiful effect among other trees
of darker foliage. Cultivated in these circumstances, also, it lives
to a great age. As a timber tree, however, it falls far short
of even what we may consider as our secondary sorts. It docs not
< vi n attain large dimensions, unless it have the advantage of a
Lr""'l loamy soil and a good situation, and is therefore not adapted
for generally planting out as a forest tree in any exposed situation
upon an indifferent soil.
\\ hen young, it grows very rapidly, and very soon attains a
large size ; but I have seldom seen one which had arrived at the
age of fifty or sixty years, which was not ring shaken in the heart-
200 THE SWEET CHESNUT.
wood, and, in fact, almost useless for any particular purpose.
Knowing this to be the case with the tree in most situations,
I am not inclined to plant it much myself, and of course cannot
conscientiously recommend its cultivation to others — at least with
the view of raising useful timber from it. The wood of the sweet
chesnut is, however, generally found good for many purposes up to
the age of fifty years ; and as a secondary tree, or one which is
grown for a time among others which may be meant to stand as
a permanent crop upon the ground, it is very well adapted. But
even allowing that this tree would do well as a secondary, or nurse,
in many situations, I have, for my own part, never found an
instance in which its place could not be more profitably filled by
the larch, ash, or sycamore ; and I never do introduce the sweet
chesnut into any forest ground of which I have the management.
In all cases where it might be planted as a secondary tree, and
where it might be cut down in order to give room to others by the
time it was from thirty to forty years old, I have found that the
larch or ash is far more profitable ; while, as a tree for a perma-
nent crop, its place is infinitely better filled by the oak, larch, or
ash. The wood of the sweet chesnut is undoubtedly very durable.
For stobs and gate-posts I have found it answer most excellently;
and even for cart-trams it answers well when from thirty to forty
years old, and for many other purposes besides. I have cut a
considerable quantity of this wood for herring-barrel staves, for
which purpose it is well adapted ; but at present it would pay a
proprietor very poorly indeed to grow this sort of wood for that
purpose. It is, however, excellently adapted for coppice-wood ;
and in all districts where there may be a demand for hoop-wood of
various sizes, or for hop-poles, the sweet chesnut would pay
well in the form of coppice. It readily throws up a succession of
young shoots from the stoles when cut over, which grow very
rapidly for the first eight or ten years, frequently at the end of
that period producing shoots from three to four inches in diameter,
and from fifteen to twenty feet high ; and these, too, very nume-
rous round the stoles.
The foliage of the sweet chesnut is full upon the young wood,
and has a very fine effect in the early part of summer, as well as
THE HORSE CHESNUT.
201
in the autumn, when it begins to take on the yellow tinge. The
leaves are what is termed by botau- FlG- 76-
ists oblong lanceolate, acuminate, and
mucronately serrated. (See Fig.
76.)
The sweet chesnut is propagated
in exactly the same manner as the
oak ; and what has been said relative
to the oak is equally applicable to the
sweet chesnut ; but with this excep-
tion, that the chesnut is generally
transplanted from the seed-bed at one
year old, and being, when young, of
a more rapid growth than the oak, is
generally ready for transplanting into
the forest ground after having been
two years in the nursery rows. In
all cases where it is desired that they
should grow to good trees, they ought
to have a good loamy soil, upon a dry
and rather sheltered situation.
SECTION XVIII. — TnE HORSE CHESNUT.
The HORSE-CHESNUT (JEsculus Mppocastanum) belongs to the
natural order HiPPOCASTANE^E; and according to the Linn, sys-
tem, to Ileptandria Monogynia. This is a tree of great beauty,
and may properly be said to be the only flowering tree we have
upon our lawns. It is of very rapid growth, and in a few years
attains a considerable size. But in order to attain respectable
dimensions, and to have the appearance which its massy foliage
and heavy limbs are calculated to produce, it requires to be grown
upon a good rich loamy soil, and in rather a sheltered situation ;
at least, it must be in a situation where it is not apt to be exposed
to severe storms of wind. It is by no means a delicate tree,
although a native of Asia : it is, in fact, a hardy tree, so far as
202
THE HORSE CHESNUT.
regards the degree of cold winch it can bear ; but, from the short-
grained texture of the wood, which is very brittle, it is not at all
adapted to grow in an exposed situation. The wood of the horse-
chesnut is of a soft nature and white colour, and by no means cal-
culated for general use. On this account its general cultivation as
a forest tree cannot be recommended ; but as an ornamental tree,
very few can surpass it. The leaves of this tree have a very fine
massive effect when the tree is placed among others of a more
light and airy character ; and as they appear pretty early in the
season, accompanied by the rich pink-white flowers, the tree is,
upon that account, more worthy of a place upon the lawn. The
naked tree is in itself of a stiff character, the young shoots
being large, and not numerous. See Fig. 77, which is a repre-
sentation of the young shoots, and Fig. 78, representing the
Fig. 77.
Fig. 7*
form of the leaves upon a reduced scale. This tree is propa-
gated from the seed, which is termed a nut. These are generally
ripe in the month of October, and they should be sown immediately
when gathered, as they are extremely apt to lose their vegetative
THE LIME TREE. 203
powers if kept long. They may be sown either in beds or in rows,
in the same manner as has already been recommended for the oak-
seed. The young plants make vigorous shoots the very first year,
and are tit for being transplanted out into nursery rows when one
year old ; in which they may remain for one or two years, accord-
ing as the plants may be wished to be small or large.
SECTION XIX. — THE LIME TREE.
The Lime Tree [Tilia Europea) belongs to the natural order
Tiliace^e ; and according to the Linn, system, to Polyandria
Monogynia. This is one of the most beautiful and interesting of
our ornamental trees in the month of July. Many object to it as
being of a stiff and formal outline, and a clumsy habit, and as not
presenting that shade and light which arc required for picturesque
scenery. This is no doubt true ; but in certain situations, such as
along the sides of walks or avenues, it is one of the most desirable
of trees. Even when standing singly, freely exposed to the open
air, and when contrasted among other trees, it forms a beautiful
object when in full flower ; indeed, as an ornamental tree, in almost
any situation, few will object to its presence. This is a tree which,
under favourable circumstances, attains very large dimensions, and
lives to a great age. We have upon the Arniston grounds many
fine lime trees; but there is one in particular, about ninety feet high,
and four feet in diameter four feet from the ground, and, I believe,
about two hundred years old. It is, in the end of July, and for some
time in August, a perfect mass of flower, the sweet perfume of
which is surpassingly agreeable for a good way off. In the sun-
shine, thousands of bees may be heard humming and busy gather-
ing their store ; and from the flowers of this tree it is said the best
honey is produced.
The wood of this tree is white in colour, and of a peculiarly
close and soft nature, being particularly well adapted for all
turnery work. It is much sought after for boards upon which to
cut leather. It is also used in the making of musical instruments,
as in the case of sounding boards for pianofortes. In Russia and
204
THE LIME TREE.
Sweden, the inner bark of the lime tree is manufactured into the
bass-matts which are so much used in this country for various
purposes. It is also used in making charcoal for gunpowder.
The leaves of this tree are of a fine light green, and are
described by botanists as smooth, cordate, acuminate, and serrated.
(See Fig. 79, a.) There is a peculiar appendage attached to the petiol
Fig. 79.
or footstalk of the leaf of the lime tree, termed the floral leaf, out
of which the flowers protrude, as it were, and which bears the seed.
The seed very seldom ripens in this country, that only taking-
place in very fine seasons ; therefore the tree is propagated by
layers, by which mode it is very readily multiplied. It being a soft-
wooded plant, it easily strikes root by layering. When the layers
are one year old, they may with all safety be removed from the
parent stock and transplanted into the nursery rows, where they
may remain for one, two, or even three years, according as the
plants may be wished to be large or small.
The lime tree is one which I have found very easy to transplant
with safety at a considerable age and size. Hence it is very useful
in filling up gaps, or for making groups to have immediate effect
upon a lawn. In order to arrive at perfection in point of magni-
tude, it requires to be planted upon a good, rich, and rather damp-
ish loam, and in a pretty sheltered situation ; therefore it is by no
means adapted as a useful forest tree for our woods.
THE SCOTS PINE. 205
SECTION XX. THE SCOTS PIXE.
The Scots Pine (Pinus silvestris) belongs to the natural order
Conifer 02, and the Linn, order Moncecia monodelphia. This is the
only one of the pine tribe which can be said to be a native of Bri-
tain ; and in so far as regards the quality and usefulness of its
timber, it is at least inferior to no other species which has yet been
introduced ; while it also becomes a tree of first-rate magnitude in
favourable situations. It is one of the most hardy of our forest
trees, being found in Scotland growing fully two thousand feet
above the level of the sea.
At one period this tree must have been very plentiful in the
Highlands of Scotland, and, no doubt, in many parts of the Low-
lands, as is evident from the remains of trees yet to be seen
growing. I may mention, in particular, the remains of the natural
pine forests still existent about Invercauld and Rothiemurchus,
where there are by far the finest specimens of this tree to be
found in Britain. Although we give this tree the name of the Scots
pine, it is by no means confined to this country : it is found grow-
ing naturally in most of the countries in the north of Europe and
Asia, but it is said not to be found in America. It abounds very
plentifully in the north of Germany, Sweden, and Norway ; and
from these countries we are in the habit of importing it under the
name of red-pine timber, which is reckoned the best quality of
pine timber imported from those countries.
In the natural forests yet remaining in Scotland, there are
found trees of the Scots pine which have attained great dimen-
sions. Mr G rigor, in his report, which may be seen in the
Tr.f/tsactions of the Highland Society, says that he girthed many
of the trees in the Duthal pine forests, and found them from six to
twelve feet in circumference one foot from the ground. And
upon the estate of Arniston we have a few trees of the Scots
pine, from six to seven feet in circumference, with a clean straight
boll of forty feet in height. These trees are growing among hard-
wood upon the lawn, and are, in my opinion, above :i hundred
years old. Their tall forms contrast beautifully among the rugged
206 THE SCOTS PINE.
oaks and elms which grow near them. They are in perfect health,
and are admired by every one who sees them. The quality of the
Scots pine is much influenced by the nature of the soil and situa-
tion upon which it is grown, as well as by the age at which the
tree is cut. The timber produced upon cold high districts in the
north of Scotland, is found, when of proper age, superior to any
imported from any other part of Europe ; while that which has
been planted and reared in the Lowlands of Scotland, as well as
in rather rich soils in many parts of England, is not nearly so
good, although the same age. Even within the Lowlands them-
selves, the quality cf the Scots fir is very much influenced by the
particular situation upon which it is grown. As an instance of
this, I may here mention, that upon the estate of Arniston, the
Scots pine growing upon the high and exposed parts of the
estate is of excellent durable quality, while that growing upon
sheltered parts of the home plantations is extremely worthless
and soft. This same observation is equally applicable to every
other estate in the Lowlands, the best timber always being
obtained from trees growing upon a thin dry soil and a high
exposed situation.
Relative to the quality of the timber of the Scots pine, I shall
make a few remarks as to how it is affected by the age at which
the tree is cut. Being daily in the habit of selling home timber of
all kinds, and of cutting it up for various purposes, I frequently
hear carpenters and wood-merchants in general condemn our
liome Scots pine as worthless when compared with pine timber
from the north of Europe. Now, as I am so well aware of the
prejudice that exists against the quality of our home pine, I am
anxious to point out the true cause of this supposed worthlessness.
I have myself cut down Scots pine trees in Scotland, which,
when cut up into planks, were, by those who spoke much against
the quality of our home wood, considered to be fully equal to any
pine which they had ever seen imported from the north of Europe.
But observe the reason. The trees referred to were above a
hundred years old. The wood had got time to mature, and upon
that account it was found of superior quality. Now, this points out
the reason why our Scots pine timber, which is planted at home,
THE SCOTS PINE. 207
is not considered of so good quality as that imported from the
natural forests in other countries: it is not allowed to grow to
maturity as is the case in the natural forests. I am decidedly of
opinion that, where the trees in the natural forests are of the same
age with those planted in our artificial forests, the quality of the
wood will be equally as good in the one case as in the other, —
circumstances of soil and situation attending each being equal.
In all situations, whether the natural forest or the artificial plan-
tation, the Scots pine is slow in maturing its wood. In high and
exposed parts, upon a rather poor soil, heart-wood begins to be
formed when the plant is about twenty-five years of age ; while,
if the plant be growing upon a rich soil having some shelter, the
growth of the wood will be carried on rapidly, and heart-wood
may not be made till the tree is nearly forty years of age. Now,
I am aware that this point is very seldom taken into considera-
tion ; and many upon this very account condemn the wood of the
Scots pine as being useless, not thinking that every tree requires
time to mature its wood. Even the oak itself is but compara-
tively worthless as a timber tree when young, and requires a time
to ripen into proper heart-wood.
We are well aware that the pines growing in the forests of
Rothieinurchus are considered as good in the quality of their
timber as any of the red pine from the north of Europe ; and we
can easily account for the superior quality of this wood as com-
pared with thinnings of Scots pine as generally cut in the Low-
lands. y\r Grrigor, who examined and reported upon the High-
land fir in a very minute maimer, says that he found the trees
in the forests of Ilothiemurchus to average from one hundred and
twenty to one hundred and twenty-five years; and in the forests
<>t' Aberaethy lit; found the trees from two hundred to two hun-
dred and forty-two years. Again, in the north of Europe, those
who cat down the pine forests in order to supply our market here,
do not consider the wood full grown till it is considerably above
one hundred years old. In the face of this fact, how can it be
justice to the tree of which we are treating, to say that, because
we do not find the Scots pine in this country excellent wood when
under forty yean old, it is to be condemned as a worthless tree?
208 THE SCOTS PINE.
Give it from eighty to a hundred years in order to ripen its
wood, and the Scots pine will, in our home woods, produce as good
timber as any got from foreign parts, if we but grow the tree in
a soil and situation adapted to it.
There is another circumstance in the management of the wood
of the Scots pine which very much affects its quality — namely,
its being cut up immediately when felled. lean attest, from expe-
rience, that the wood of the Scots pine, when in a young state —
and, indeed, this is the case with most other trees — if allowed to
lie in the bark undisturbed for a few weeks or months after it has
been felled, is sure to be worthless in the timber ; but if cut up for
any purpose immediately when felled, and the natural sap pro-
perly dried out of it, the wood will last three times as long as in
the opposite case. Even in the case of making stobs for fencing
from the wood of the young Scots pine, if they are made and
driven into the ground immediately when full of the natural sap,
they will last but a very short time indeed ; but if made imme-
diately when the trees are felled, and exposed to the sun in order
to become properly dry — say for one or two months — such
stobs will last double the time that they would have done other-
wise. I have experienced the same thing as to wood for other
purposes, having in all cases found the quality of the timber much
improved by having it cut up, and the natural sap expelled as
soon as possible.
The uses to which the wood of the Scots pine is applicable, are
almost endless. There is, indeed, no tree, the wood of which is or
can be used for so many different purposes : but the most generally
applicable forms are those of boards and scantlings of various
dimensions.
There are two varieties of the Scots pine — the P. silvestris, and
the variety Montana, which is the true Highland or Bonnet fir. The
late Mr Don, of Forfar, says, " that the onontana, or true pine, is
distinguished by the disposition of its branches, which are remark-
able for their horizontal direction, and for a tendency to bend
downwards close to the trunk. The leaves are broader and shorter
than in the common kind, and are distinguished at a distance by
their much lighter and more beautiful glaucous appearance. The
THE SCOTS PINE. 209
bark of the trunk is smoother than in the common kind : the cones
are thicker, and not so much pointed. The plant is also more
hardy, grows more freely in almost any soil, and quickly arrives at
a considerable size." Of the truth of this assertion of Mr Don's
I am perfectly satisfied, although many botanists will not allow
that these two species are really distinct. They say that soil and
situation have the effect of changing, in a great measure, the
external appearance of this tree ; but those who so assert cannot
have had much experience of them. I have myself seen, and that
frequently, the two distinct kinds growing in the same plantation,
and close to one another. Now, were it the case that soil and situ-
ation changed the external appearance of the trees, why were
they found to have different external appearances, when growing
upon the same soil and site?
There is another feature which is very remarkable in the true
pine as compared with the common one ; namely, the tree when
young has a tendency to throw out its side branches pretty
strongly, until it becomes fairly established in the soil, and has
commenced to make strong and vigorous shoots upwards ; then, as
soon as it has its growth properly established upwards, the side
branches gradually become less strong in proportion to height and
dimensions of the bole ; and when the tree has reached the meri-
dian of its growth, and is growing more to heart-wood and girth
of timber than to height, its top branches begin to enlarge consi-
derably, and take a more horizontal direction, and incline to bend
downwards at the points. "When seen in this state unconfined,
and with free room to spread out its horizontal limbs, the Scots
pine is a tree of first-rate rank, even in an ornamental point
i t new. Even the oak itself is not more venerable and pic-
turesque in appearance than a well-grown specimen of the true
Highland fir.
Tli' Scotfl pine is entirely propagated from seed. Nurserymen
are fortunately giving great attention to procuring the seeds of
the true or genuine sort — the Pintu atlveetris montana. This is
the more necessary, when we take into consideration that proprie-
tors who plant depend upon the nurserymen giving them plants of
a proper and valuable sort. Tlicy are in the habit of procuring
o
210 THE SCOTS PINE.
seed from the trees in the native Highland forests. Some of the
most spirited of them have of late procured seed from trees in the
native forests upon the Continent, where the Pinus sihestris grows
of excellent quality. Plants produced from such seed are termed
Riga pines. Few foresters have time enough to devote their
attention to the gathering of the seed of the pines as found in our
native forests ; and even although they had, I have found from
experience that the young plants cannot be raised by foresters
nearly so cheaply as they can be had from respectable nursery-
men, to whom a fair price ought to be given, in order to enable
them to send out trees of the most reputable sort. I am, indeed,
an advocate for the rearing of young trees upon the same locality
upon which they are ultimately to be planted. In order to secure
this end, I buy the seedlings from a nurseryman whom I can trust
as regards his giving me plants of the true sort ; and after having
them transplanted for one year into a nursery in the neighbour-
hood of the plantations in which they are intended to be put, I
have them removed to their site. In saying that I buy my Scots
pine seedlings from a nurseryman in whom I can trust, I beg to
be understood that, in looking at the young seedling plants of
the two varieties of the P. sihestris, it is not always possible to
distinguish the one sort from the other, even by the most practised
eye ; therefore it is necessary to place confidence in some particu-
lar nurseryman to raise plants of the desired sort.
Relative to the manner of raising young plants of the P. sihes-
tris, I may state thus far : The cones are generally ripe in the
month of December, and at that time they should be gathered.
When the desired quantity is gathered, the cones should be stored
past in a cool loft having a circulation of air, where they may
remain till Bummer, when the cones must be exposed to the heat of
the sun, which will open their scales and cause the seed to fall out by
a gentle thrashing with a stick. When the seed has been collected,
it may be stored past in a cool place, and sown in the following
spring. Another process may be used, when it is wished to have
the seed sown as soon as convenient. When the cones are
gathered, they may be put into sheets, and exposed to the heat of
the sun every good day ; and if the weather prove a little warm
THE SCOTS PINE. 211
and sunny, the cones may be opened and the seeds thrashed out
progressively by the end of March or beginning of April, when it
will be time to sow. I have myself brought the seeds very
quicklv from the cones by subjecting them to a slight kiln heat ;
but as I am convinced that this is an unnatural method, and very
apt to be overdone if left to an unskilful person, I in all cases object
to it, and think it better to abide by the slower process of opening
the cones by the heat of the sun.
In sowing the seed, a piece of very fine light ground should be
chosen. It should be well dug, and properly cleansed from all stones,
weeds, &c, as the digging proceeds. The ground being properly
dug and made fine, it should be marked off into parallel beds of
four feet in breadth, each bed having a path of a foot broad
between it and the next. The seed should be sown pretty thickly : I
may say, at an average, four seeds to the square inch. When sown, it
should be covered by about a quarter of an inch of very fine soil.
As birds are very destructive to the pine seeds, the beds should be
watched for a few weeks in order to prevent their ravages. The
plants are generally allowed to remain two years in the seed beds,
at which stage they are termed tico-year seedlings, and are then
transplanted into nursery rows, in which, if they remain one year,
the plants are termed one year transplanted ; and if two years, tico
years transplanted ; both of which sizes are planted out into the
forest ground according to circumstances, which will be explained
in the proper place.
The Scots pine is not a tree that can be said to be particular in
id to the quality of the soil upon which to grow it. The best
Scots pine timber that I have ever seen, grew upon a gravelly
loam resting upon a dry rocky bottom. I have observed some
excellent timber of this kind in Perthshire, growing upon a very
dry sandy loam. On the estate of Arniston, our best quality of
Scots ]>inc is growing upon a thin sandy surface soil, resting on
a subsoil of gravelly till; and we have it also of excellent quality
growing upon decayed rock. In short, I have seen the Scots pine
growing on almost every variety of soil ; but I am of opinion that
a light Bandy Loam is, of all others, the most appropriate soil for
this tree. In order to have its timber of good quality upon what-
212 THE SPRUCE FIR.
ever soil it may be grown, it is absolutely necessary that it have
a free circulation of air about it.
I have said, in the former edition of this work, that upon a
mossy soil I had never seen good Scots pine timber growing.
Since writing this, however, I have had a far more extensive view
of the nature of the tree, and have here to state, that in Perth-
shire I could point out several estates upon which there is excel-
lent and large Scots pine growing in a deep sandy moss ; it
having been, previous to being planted, well drained from super-
fluous water. Upon the estate of Scone, also, I observed very
healthy young Scots pine trees growing in a mossy soil, it having
been previously well drained.
SECTION XX I. — THE SPRUCE FIR.
The Norway Spruce Fir (Abies excelsa) also belongs to the
natural order Coniferce^ and the Linn, order Moncecia monodelphia.
This is a native of most of those countries which occupy the north
of the European Continent, especially abounding in Norway,
Sweden, and Russia. It is one of the tallest of the European
coniferas, except, perhaps, the silver Jir: which is frequently found
taller ; but as a stately, well-formed tree, particularly when stand-
ing alone with full spread of branches, few trees are more
admirable.
This tree grows in a peculiar pyramidal form, not like the gene-
rality of other pines and firs, diverging off into large limbs. The
bole rises like a perpendicular stalk, clothed with proportionally
small feathered horizontal branches from bottom to top. These,
when the tree stands free and alone, gradually become smaller as
they are found high upon the tree ; thus giving the tree almost a
perfect cone shape.
This tree naturally inclines to grow in what may be termed a
dampish situation ; and in Britain it is found to succeed best in a
rather sheltered part. Indeed, upon a high site, if much exposed
to cutting winds, the tree seldom attains anything like a respect-
able timber size in this country ; more particularly if the soil
THE SPBUCE FIR. 213
upon which it is planted be of a dry, sandy, or gravelly nature,
the tree generally becomes rotten at heart long before it arrives at
anything like a useful size. To illustrate this point of situation
more particularly — a point of great importance in the cultivation
of this tree — I shall give an example or two from our spruce fir
plantations at Arniston, showing how, by soil and situation, the
spruce varies much upon the same estate. In a sheltered glen
behind Arniston garden, there are spruce fir trees from eighty to
ninetv-five feet high, with a diameter near the bottom of from two
to three feet ; and generally these trees are in good health. The
soil upon which they grow is in many places a stiff blue clay ; in
other places a clay loam ; and in a few instances it is a sandy
loam. These trees being nearly all alike situated as regards
shelter, I find that the largest and healthiest-looking trees are
those growing upon the clay loam ; and next to them, those grow-
ing upon stiff clay ; the least healthy being those growing upon
the sandy loam. As these trees are all of the same apparent age,
I conclude, from what I have observed, that, other circumstances
being alike, the spruce fir will thrive best upon a loamy soil, and
worst upon an open, dry, gravelly one. In other sheltered parts
upon the estate of Arniston, we have large healthy spruce fir trees
growing upon an open gravelly soil, where the roots have a supply
of water oozing through the gravel. Upon another part of the
estate are trees of good size growing on a deep mossy soil,
which rests upon a bed of sand. These last-mentioned trees upon
the mossy soil are growing most rapidly, the situation being on
a doping brae, and the roots have the advantage of a constant
supply of water as it oozes up into the moss out of the sand below :
therefore I am convinced that, in order to grow spruce timber of
large size and healthy constitution, the soil must contain a good
proportion of moisture, or at least be what is termed moist, but not
stagnated. Again, higher up on our outer plantations, where
there i- col orach shelter naturally, I find the spruce fir succeeds
pretty well on any loamy soil, and even on a stiff clay, pro-
vided it be drained from surface water. In such situations we
have trees fifty feet high, and eighteen inches diameter at bot-
tom, at thirty-eight years of age the trees being still in a vigorous.
214 THE SPEUCE FIE.
healthy state, and likely to become of much larger dimensions.
Again, at the same elevation as that upon which the trees last
stated are growing — namely, seven hundred feet above the level
of the sea — spruce firs of the same age, but growing upon a
gravelly dry soil, I find generally not more than thirty feet high,
from eight to twelve inches diameter at bottom, and in general
rotten in the heart ; which at once points out that the spruce fir, in
a high site as well as in a low, prospers much better upon a damp-
ish soil than upon a dry one. Again, in our younger plantations,
situated about nine hundred feet above the level of the sea, I find
the same qualifications of soil relative to the tree hold good. At
the elevation last mentioned, I could point out the spruce fir rotten
at heart, and not more than twenty years old ; and that occurs
upon a dry gravelly soil.
The timber of the spruce fir is, next to that of the P. silvestris,
the most useful for boards, planks, and roofing scantlings which we
have in this country. It is of excellent quality when of mature
age, being very light and pliable. The quality of the wood of this
tree, however, is, like that of the P. silvestris, much influenced by
the nature of the soil and situation upon which it is grown.
When grown upon a dry soil, the wood is brittle and short-
grained; but when grown upon a dampish loam, it is quite of
an opposite character.
I must make an observation here, which I have often found veri-
fied by my own experience — namely, the spruce fir, when young and
unmatured, yields a far more durable timber than the Scots pine
at the same age. In erecting paling-fences, I find that, taking the
two trees for rails at thirty years old, the spruce will last two or
three years longer than the other ; and even as a gate-post or a
stob, the same observation holds good. Notwithstanding this supe-
riority of the wood over that of the Scots pine, country carpenters
are always ready to recommend the Scots pine in preference to the
spruce, even for such purposes as those mentioned above ; and I
make this observation in order that proprietors may be aware of
the true state of the case.
The spruce fir is propagated in exactly the same manner as the
P. silvestris ; and the observations given regarding the gathering
TUE LARCH. 215
of the cones, and taking out and sowing the seed of it, arc in every
respect applicable to this tree. The spruce fir, however, is much
slower in growth than the P. silvestris while in its seedling- state.
The seedling plants remain two years in the seed bed, but they
generally require three years in the nursery rows before they are
tit for being put out into their final situation in the forest. Many
recommend the spruce as being an excellent nurse for hardwood
ti« cs; but I cannot assent to this opinion. So far as my expe-
rience enables me to speak confidently upon this matter, I must
that I have found the larch and Scots pine far superior for this
purpose. The spruce fir, as a nurse for hardwood, and for oaks in
particular, is far too rapid in the early stage of its growth, often
confining the oaks too much by the spread of its massy branches,
as well as injuring the roots of the trees it is meant to protect.
The spruce fir has very fibrous matty roots, which spread in every
direction along the surface of the soil. Xow these, from their
matted closeness, keep the air from penetrating properly into the
soil for the benefit of the hardwood, which send their roots deeper
down ; consequently much injury is often done by this means ;
and this I have frequently seen proved. The spruce fir, as also
all the coniferous tribe, are best suited for timber when planted in
a mass by themselves ; but seeing that it is proper, and even neces-
sary, to have a proportion of them planted for the benefit of nursing
up our hardwood plantations while in a young state, I recommend
planting the spruce but sparingly for that purpose, having found
the Scots pine and larch answer mnch better.
SECTION XXII. — THE LARCH.
The Larch [Leurix Europea) belongs to the same natural and
Limuean orders as the coniferous trees already described.
There is one feature in this tree which distinguishes it from all
othera of the pine and fir tribes — namely, its shedding its leaves in
the autumn of the same year in which they are produced. It is
decidedly one of the most valuable of the coniferous trees yet
introduced into this country, both in respect of the quick progress
216 THE LARCH.
which it makes, and of the real value of its timber. It is a native
of the mountainous districts of Germany, and is found to endure the
climate of the north of England and the mountainous tracts in
Scotland, as well as the Scots pine ; but it is more particular with
regard to the circumstances which favour its healthy growth than
that tree. As an instance of the success of the cultivation of
the larch in Scotland, may be taken the plantations of the Duke
of Athol in Perthshire, which far surpass any others in Britain
as regards both their magnitude and quality of timber. Upon the
Amiston grounds, I the other day cut down several larches, one
of which in particular, when lying prostrate upon the ground,
measured, from bottom to top, ninety feet. We have others one
hundred feet in height ; and one tree yet growing upon the lawn
contains about two hundred cubic feet of timber, and is appa-
rently quite sound.
There are two varieties of the larch generally found in cultiva-
tion in the plantations in Scotland — namely, the white and the
red. The white is the variety which attains the greatest dimen-
sions of timber, and is the sort most generally cultivated, although
they are both often seen growing together in the same plantation,
and that by mere accident. It is said that upon the Athol estates
the red larch does not attain to more than one-third the cubic
contents which the white larch does ; and this is observable in
every plantation where the two varieties are found growing-
together.
As to the durability of the larch wood, it is allowed by all who
are at all acquainted with the tree, and who have had occasion to
use the timber, to be decidedly the toughest and most lasting of
all the coniferous tribe we are yet acquainted with. There is also
a peculiar feature characterising the wood — namely, its being
durable and tough when only of a few years' growth. Of this I
have had ample proof from my own experience in erecting fences
with young larches. As the general result of my experience in
erecting fences with the various sorts of pine and fir wood, I may
state, that when I put up a larch paling with wood from fifteen to
thirty years old, I reckon that the same should last from fifteen to
twenty years ; if of spruce fir, from seven to nine years ; if of
THE LARCH. 217
Scots pine, from four to six years. These remarks, however, only
refer to the wood forming the rails of a paling, not to the stobs
which go into the ground. These do not last so long, as will be
seen from the following estimates. If larch stobs are used, I
expect they will last from eight to ten years in a fair state ; if
spruce fir, from four to five years ; and if of Scots pine, from three
to four years. Again, in putting up gate posts made of wood
from thirty to forty years old, larchwood being used, I expect
them to keep good from fifteen to twenty years ; if spruce fir, from
eight to ten years ; and if Scots pine, from five to eight years :
the difference of time in the above cases depending upon the
quality of the Avood and the nature of the soil in which the wood
is placed. In extreme cases of durability in the larch which have
come under my notice, I have seen the upright spars, as well as
the horizontal bars, of larch palings standing quite good at thirty
years of age. These were made from old wood of a matured qua-
lity : this indicating that there is ultimately a saving to the proprie-
ty- who makes his fences with good old wood. As, however, the
young wood is generally cut down in the way of thinning the
plantations, it is necessary and proper to use it, seeing a much
higher price can be got for the matured wood for in-door and
other purposes. Upon the estate of Arniston we make all our
field-gates from our own home-grown larch ; and when painted,
they last for a great number of years, being more durable in this
respect than those made from the best foreign timber; while for
general use in all country purposes, no wood is more in demand
than the larch. For roofing I sell a great deal of it ; also for
boards adapted for all purposes, sleepers for railways, &c., and for
palings of all descriptions. A great quantity of young larch is
now used for coal-pit purposes, or what is generally termed prop-
wood. There is no description of larchwood which I have more
demand for than the young thinnings, from ten to twenty years
old, being from two to five inches in diameter. These are greatly
in demand for fancy or rustic palings ; and although we have a
great extent of young larch thinnings cut every via)-, we are
never able to supply even one half the demand for trees of that
size; which shows how much this wood is in npnte for fencing
218 THE LARCH.
alone in the Lothians of Scotland. This demand is occasioned by
the wood of that size being more durable than that of any other
small wood of the same age. In England, large numbers of young
larches are raised for hop poles, for which purpose no wood can
answer better, both as regards its tall elastic nature and its dura-
bility. Full-grown larch timber is now much used for different
purposes in ship-building. Of late, many vessels of considerable
size have been built almost entirely of this wood. In short, the
wood of the larch is daily coming the more into repute the more
its properties are becoming known ; and I believe that, ere long, it
will to a great extent supersede all other trees of the coniferous
tribe, if not in a great measure the generality of our hardwood
trees also, in consequence at once of its rapid growth and of the
great durability of its timber, more particularly when allowed to
arrive at full age.
The larch is propagated from seed in the same manner as the
Scots pine, and the observations stated with regard to that tree
are equally applicable in the case of the larch. One point of dif-
ference relative to the larch, however, is : there is considerable
difficulty in getting the seeds disengaged from the cones. Some
people kiln-dry them in order to open the scales of the cones ; but
as I have formerly said this operation is dangerous, and cannot be
recommended, the following is the way in which I have extracted
the seeds from the larch cones. Having the cones collected in a
dry loft, I set a few boys to pare the base of each cone close with
a sharp knife, just so far in as to make the end of the little central
pillar appear distinctly and level. After they are thus prepared,
I have a few more boys, or it may be women, each with an instru-
ment as shown in Fig. 80, consisting F 80
of a pointed cone-shaped piece of iron
a, the exact size in the engraving as
used, fixed into a small block of wood
b. This instrument when at work lies
upon the floor; and by placing the pared
base of the pillar of the larch cone right
upon the point at a, and giving the top
of the cone a few gentle strokes with a
THE LARCH. 219
very small mell, or other piece of wood, it is split up at least
into two halves. These being laid to one side as they are split,
another party, with a sharp knife each, can subdivide them again,
making each cone at least into four parts ; and in this manner a
few women and boys will in the course of one day open up a
great quantity. The cones being thus opened up by the use of
the instrument and the knife, they should in this state be exposed
on sheets to the influence of the sun every day, when they will
soon part with their seeds by a gentle thrashing with a small
flail.
The seed when procured should be stored past in a cool part
till the beginning of April, when it should be sown, and that
exactly in the same manner as has already been advised for the
Scots pine. The young plants should remain two years in the
seed beds, when they are termed two years seedlings. Upon high,
bare, exposed parts they are often planted out at this stage ; but
for general purposes of forest planting, the young trees are put
into the nursery grounds in rows for one or two years. In col-
lecting the seed of the larch, great care should be taken not to
gather it from diseased trees ; nor should it be gathered from trees
of a small size ; for the very fact of small larch trees having seed
upon them, is enough to point out that they are not of sound con-
stitution. The seed of the larch, as well as of all other trees,
should be gathered from trees of large size, and known to be
sound in constitution. Were this point more attended to, that
disease in the larch termed the rot, might in a great measure be in
future prevented; for it is well known that, if the parent be diseased,
the seed of that parent will be in a degree diseased also. Moreover,
as the most diseased trees generally bear the greatest quantity
of seed, the seed-gatherers, who collect it for nurserymen by the
bushel, will be most ready to take it where it is most plenty, and
will of course pay them best. In order to prevent this, nursery-
men ought to give a fair salary to a man in whom they can place
confidence, who should superintend the gathering of all their larch
seed ; and he should at the same time be a man who is likely to
know a healthy tree from an unhealthy one. The quality of the
wood of the larch is, as well a3 that of most other trees, much
220 THE LARCH.
affected by the nature of the soil and situation upon which it is
grown. I have paid some attention to this point, and find that
larch trees growing upon a rich loamy soil, and in a rather
sheltered site, do not produce nearly such durable timber as
trees grown in a more exposed site and upon a poorer soil. In
cutting up wood at our saw-mill at Arniston, I have often
observed that, in the case of larch, which has grown upon a rather
rich soil and in a sheltered site, the saws go through it easily and
without heating ; an evident proof of the softness of the wood.
On the other hand, in larchwood which has grown upon a poor or
rocky part, having a free exposure, the saws go through it with
difficulty ; and this I consider an evident proof of the hardness and
durability of the wood. Our best and healthiest larchwood,
indeed, upon the estate of Arniston is growing upon decayed rock,
or what may be termed stone rubbish. The larch is, from its
upright habit, one of the very best nurses we have for hardwood
trees. It does not, indeed, produce so much warmth to young
hardwood trees in the spring and winter season as the pines or the
spruce fir do ; but notwithstanding this, where there is a mix-
ture of larch among young hard trees, these are generally in
better keeping than when over-nursed by the Scots pine and
spruce fir.
The circumstances which I have found most favourable to the
healthy development of the larch are — as to soil, it is not particular,
but the roots must be in a soil which has been well cleansed by the
free passage of water through it, and which has at the same time
the benefit of being constantly kept clean and in a pure state by
a good descent for the water that may fall upon it, either naturally
or by means of well-made drains, as is particularly exemplified in
the case of larches growing on all mountain slopes, where there is
a continual descent of water from the higher to the lower grounds.
In the cultivated forest, this can be imitated by good deep
drainage.
THE SILVER FIE. 221
SECTION XXIII. — THE SILVER FIR.
The Silver Fir (Picea jiectinata) also ranks in the natural order
CONIFERS, and the Linn. Monoecia monadelphia. This is a truly-
noble and interesting tree, and by far too little cultivated in our home
plantations. At a distance this tree has very much the appearance
of the spruce fir; but upon a nearer inspection, the leaves are found
more decidedly in two rows upon the branches, and silvery under-
neath. The cones of this tree are also placed upright upon the
branches; whereas upon the spruce fir they hang downwards. This
tree is also not so soft and pliable in its appearance, the branches
having a more rigid appearance, and being generally much stronger
than those of the spruce fir. The silver fir rises to a great height,
carrying with it at the same time a proportional girth. There is
one standing upon the lawn behind Amiston House, a hundred
and ten feet high, with a bole nearly twelve feet in circumference
near the ground. This is a truly noble tree, and contains about two
hundred cubic feet of timber. On the pleasure-grounds about
Hopeton House, the seat of the Earl of Hopeton, near Edinburgh,
there are several specimens of this tree, apparently as large as the
one I have mentioned above ; showing the great dimensions it
attains under favourable circumstances.
Were the silver fir more generally introduced into our planta-
tions, it would become a favourite tree, it being more hardy than
the spruce fir with us, and adapted to grow upon a drier soil. In
situations twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea, I
have seen the silver fir growing rapidly, and promising fair, and
that too upon a dry gravelly soil of very inferior quality. The
wood of this tree is generally reckoned of better quality than that
of the spruce fir; at least when it has arrived at maturity. When
young, it is rather short-grained, and does not last long when
exposed to the changes of our climate ; but if the wood be at or about
fifty years of age, I consider it preferable to the spruce, and capable
of being used (<>v all purposes for which that wood is in demand.
This tree is propagated from the seeds in the same manner as
has already been recommended for the spruce fir. The cones are
222 THE PINEASTER, OR CLUSTER PINE.
generally ripe about the end of October, and the seeds are sepa-
rated from the cones by the heat of the sun in dry airy days. It
should be sown in the month of March upon beds rather thinly, as
the young plants when they come up are rather spreading in their
habit. The plants should remain two years in the seed bed, when
they may be planted out into nursery-rows, rather thinly also, as
they are when young of a bushy nature, and do not agree with
confinement. They are also of slow growth when in their young
state, and will require three years in the rows before transplanting
into the forest ground.
The silver fir thrives best upon a sandy loam ; at least I have
seen by far the finest specimens of this tree upon such a soil.
However, from having seen them of excellent and vigorous groMrth
in very stiff clay soils, as well as upon soils of an opposite natux-e,
I am inclined to think that the tree is by no means particular as
regards the quality of soil ; but it makes its most healthy develop-
ment on a good sandy loam upon a dry bottom. I have planted
a considerable number of silver firs in our woods at Arniston of
late, being desirous to have it more extensively introduced than it
has yet been.
SECTION XXIV. — THE PINEASTER, OR CLUSTER PINE.
The Pineaster {Pinus pinaster) is another member of the
natural order Conifers, and the Linn. Moncecia monadelphia.
This is not a tree which can be recommended for ornament, nor
for the value of its timber. As regards both these qualities, it is
surpassed by our common Scots pine. There is, however, one point
of superiority which this tree possesses in a high degree, and that
is, its hardihood in withstanding the blasting influences of the
strongest sea-breezes of our climate ; and it is in regard of this
that I recommend the cultivation of the pineaster.
During my experience as a forester, I have frequently had
occasion to remark, that hardy as the pineaster is in withstanding
the influences of the sea-breezes, it is but a tender plant when
planted in a high elevated part of the country inland. It is,
THE PINEASTER, OR CLUSTER PINE. 223
therefore, properlv speaking, a tree not adapted for profitable
culture in inland plantations, seeming, so far as I have been able
to judge correctly of it, to incline to the neighbourhood of the sea.
Upon the estate of Dunskey, which runs partly along the sea-
shore from Portpatrick towards Stranraer, the pineaster has been
plentifully introduced along the higher grounds bordering upon the
sea-shore, in order to form a protection to the plantations of hard-
wood growing inside. It has answered the desired end there,
having grown rapidly and healthily, securing in a very few years
an amount of shelter which could not have been obtained by any
other sort of tree. These pineasters, however, were by far too
thickly planted, and were not attended to in the way of thinning ;
hence I have no hopes of their attaining such size and value as
they would have done had they been more thinly planted, and
thinned as they grew up.
Upon more elevated parts of the estate of Dunskey, the pine-
aster was also planted ; at, I should say, from four to five hundred
feet above the level of the sea ; but in such parts the plants did
not succeed well, and, consequently, their cultivation upon these
elevated inland parts wa3 given up. \Yhen I left that place,
General Hunter Blair, the proprietor, meditated planting the pine-
aster extensively along the sea-coast, having seen the advantages
of it as a protection to his lands in that quarter. The pineaster
being a tree which stands the sea-breeze with impunity, and being
also of a branching spreading habit when young, it ought to be
planted thinly, say at from four to five feet apart ; and in forming
plantations of it along the sea-shore, I should recommend the
following method of going to work.
Line off a broad belt of land all along the length of coast to be
planted, not less than two hundred yards in breadth ; and as a fence
to this, upon the side next the sea, erect a stone dyke if possible,
in order the more readily to bring away the trees by baring a
little shelter from the sea. But if stones for this purpose are not
to be got conveniently, erect a turf dyke of about three feet in
height. The fence inside may be a hedge or otherwise, as taste
or local circumstanecs may suggest. Care must be taken, upon all
juttings of land bending out into the sea, to make in the line of
224 THE PINEASTEEj OE CLUSTEE PINE.
fence a bold convex bend in the same direction, this being in addi-
tion to the general width. Having the fence erected, plant the
ground all over with Norway maples and sycamores, of each an
equal number, at about twelve feet apart ; that is to say, if the
land be of anything like a loamy nature, and adapted to the growth
of those trees. Having the hardwood planted, make up all
the spaces between them with good strong plants of the pineaster,
till the ground all over have young trees averaging four feet
apart. The hardwood plants will not come away rapidly, and
will in all probability die down to the ground the second year
after being planted. But the proprietor must not be at all dis-
couraged upon this account, for it is quite natural that the young
plants should do so, as they must suffer a very severe check by
being at once transplanted from a nursery to the open ground
upon the sea coast. In order to strengthen the young maples and
sycamores as much as possible, when they have remained two
years upon the forest ground, have them all cut over by the
surface of the ground, and the year following they will set away
young shoots, which will bear the climate they rise in ; the more so
as, by this time, the pineasters will be beginning to grow rapidly,
and cause a little shelter over the ground. If the ground intended
for the pineasters be of a sandy nature, it would not be advisable
to plant either maples or sycamores upon it ; therefore, in such a
case, it will be much better to plant the ground all over with
pineasters alone 5 for although the maple and sycamore both stand
the sea-breezes well, still, if the soil upon which they are planted
be not of a loamy nature, they have not much chance to rise to
any good, but would remain small unsightly things. The pine-
aster, on the other hand, being a plant that grows in the poorest
sandy soils, will, instead of being injured by being planted even upon
the sea sand, actually flourish upon it. It must not be expected that
the pineasters will rise high, or make fine-looking trees, for a
number of years. On the contrary, they will spread rather low,
and form a very bushy habit for at least the first twelve years.
This habit of theirs is their security ; for a tree that would
incline to rise high in such a situation would be at once thrown
into bad health ; while the pineasters, spreading themselves, soon
THE PINEASTER, OR CLUSTER PINE. 2:>5
form a complete massive shelter to everything else near them ;
and by the time they arrive at about fifteen years old, they begin
to rise upwards rapidly, being by this time perfectly established
in their situation. Great attention is necessary, in the cultivation
of the pineaster, to see that the trees be kept at all stages of
their growth from interfering much with one another in their
side branches ; for if they are ever allowed to confine one
another so far as to grow up weakly, they cannot be easily
redeemed again: this I have had frequent occasion to observe.
The roots of the pineaster are few compared with those of the
other pines we are in the habit of cultivating. These, if the trees
are confined, become weak and slender ; and if thinning be
attempted after the roots have been once weakened by confine-
ment, they will, so far as I have seen, never recover their healthy
state ; so that the blowing down of the greater part may be
expected. Therefore, in all cases, pineaster plantations should be
kept thin, and the winds allowed to have play upon each tree,
which is the very life of them. Where the Norway maple and
sycamore are cultivated among the pineasters, these should be
pruned at a very early stage, and caused to take a pretty upright
habit, in order to keep as many of the pineasters upon the
ground as possible for the first twenty years. In doing this, I
do not mean that the hardwood trees should be drawn up weakly.
On the other hand, they too should have free air about them ; but
by keeping their side branches pretty closely pruned in, their
branches will not interfere much with the pines, which will, of
course, admit of a free circulation through the wood, and keep the
whole in a more healthy state. Further, in all cases where the
maples and sycamores appear to be any way in a state of bad
healtli, let them be at once cut down in the course of thinning,
and the pineaster left in preference. In planting the pineaster at
four feet separate, it must not be understood that at that distance
the trees can stand unthinned till they are of a useful size. Some
practical foresters have, indeed, recommended to plant the pine-
aster at eight feet apart, stating that if so managed, the young
trees will come in for use at the first thinning. I have seen them
planted at that distance, but found the trees so managed a few
P
226 THE PINEASTER, OR CLUSTER PINE.
years longer in producing the desired effect than when planted at
from four to five feet ; and being aware of this, and that proprie-
tors in general are more interested in having the desired end
quickly produced, than in the mere saving of the expense of a few
extra plants upon the acre of land, I would advise the planting to
be done at about four feet apart ; by which means shelter will
be quickly produced, and additional value be given either to
other plantations inside, or to grain crops or live stock in the
fields. When planted at the distance mentioned, as soon as the
trees begin to interfere a little with one another, thin out a part; and
if no useful purpose can be found for them, let them be destroyed
as best may be. Indeed, although the young trees cut down at
the first thinning can be turned to no use, a decided advantage is
gained by having the plantation more quickly brought forward
than could be the result were they planted at a wider distance.
The pineaster is propagated from the seed, which is generally
procured from the continent of Europe, where this tree is indi-
genous. The seeds are pretty large, and when in the bed ought to
be covered by about three-quarters of an inch of fine earth. They
should be sown about the middle of April ; or, when the season was
late and inclined to frost, I have sown them on the 1st of May.
The young plants rise up quickly, and become comparatively
stout the year that they are sown. Having few fibrous roots, it is
often a matter of some difficulty to get the young plants to trans-
plant with safety when of any size. The manner of going to
work in the rearing of this plant, so as to secure a supply of
fibrous roots at it, is as follows : —
When the seedlings are one year old — that is to say, if the seed
was sown in the end of April 1847, in the end of April 1848 I
lift the plants from the seed bed, and transplant them all into
nursery rows. In doing this I proceed thus : — I have a piece of
ground proportioned to the number of plants to be put out, pre-
viously prepared by frequently digging it during the winter, and
exposing it as much as possible to the influence of the frost.
This piece of ground should be of an open, free, sandy nature,
with no dung upon it : such as has been under a crop of pease the
previous summer answers well. The ground being thus prepared,
THE PINEASTER, OR CLUSTER PINE. 227
I take out the opening from one side of the plot and wheel it to
the opposite, in order to close with when finishing. I next dig
over the earth all along the opening, (not too deeply if there be
any bad subsoil,) until I have fully six inches in width dug and
levelled. Having this done, I place the garden line about six inches
from the edge of the plot, and give a slight beat with the back of
the spade all along the length of the line, with the view of making
the earth all smooth and level. The line being tightly placed,
and the run of the ground under it level to satisfaction, I next
proceed to cut out an opening for the plants all along the
line, merely so deep as to hold easily their roots and to cover
them about half an inch deeper than they stood in the bed.
This being done, I allow the line to lie, and take a few plants in
the left hand, and place them, resting on the side of the opening,
about two inches separate from each other ; and upon the roots of
each plant put into the cut by the left hand, I put a little fine soil
with the right, which keeps them in their place until the whole
length of the row be finished. In this manner I proceed with the
whole length of a row. When I have arrived at the end of the
line, I take the spade, beginning at the one end, and put a little
more soil upon the roots and upon the necks of the plants all
along. This being finished, I tramp with my foot, slightly, the
newly put on earth, with the view of making the soil a little firm
about the roots of the plants, and keeping out the drought. I
again take a little more earth and put it to the plants, and that as
much as will again make up a level of six inches of ground from
the first row made. Next I lift the line ; measure six inches from
the row of plants put in at each end, or from the line before it is
lifted ; place the line to that measurement for a new row ; and in the
same manner I proceed until the whole of the plants are put in.
Above all things, observe to do this work upon a damp day, and
never when the sun shines, nor when any dry basking wind blows ;
because if so, the plants will suffer much, and very likely very manv
ut' them will die. Therefore I particularly recommend the remov-
ing of the pineaster seedlings in dull, cloudy, or damp weather.
Another point to be particularly attended to here is, to see that
the plants be carefully lifted from the bed ; and in order to
228 THE PINEASTER, OR CLUSTER PINE.
this, let them be carefully loosened with the spade, endeavouring
not to strip one fibre from their roots ; but, on the contrary, try to
take a little of the soil with the roots rather than strip them bare
of it. If this be not attended to, many of the plants will, without
doubt, die ; but if attention be paid to these points, the plants will
succeed well.
When the plants have remained one year in this state, they
ought to be lifted again in the beginning of May following ; and
by this second transplanting they will make excellent fibrous roots.
In lifting them this second time, attend to the same rules already
laid down for the first transplanting ; only, in transplanting the
second time, let the distance between the plants be about three and
a half inches, and that between the rows twelve inches. When
they have remained in these rows for one year, they will be ready
for transplanting out into the forest ground.
In lifting the plants from the nursery ground, in order to place
them in their ultimate stance, have the work done in a very care-
ful manner, or, if not, it will most assuredly be a failure. Have
the plants lifted with a part of the earth attached at their roots,
and by no means admit of one fibre being broken. In planting
upon the ground, have a few men employed taking off turfs, about
two inches thick and twelve inches square, from the exact
spots where it is intended the plants are to be put in ; which
turfs, as they are taken off, should be divided into two equal
halves, and one half put to each side of the space bared. This
being done, before the man leave the spot where the turf is taken
off, he should loosen the earth with his spade, but not make a pit ;
and in this manner any number of men may proceed in preparing
for the plants.
Immediately behind the men employed making spaces for the
plants, have twice that number of men, each with a boy and
plants, coming on planting ; that is, one person preparing should
keep two planting behind him. In planting, the man with his
spade makes a sufficiently large opening in the centre of the bare
ground, to admit of the roots of the plant being properly put in.
This being done by a boy, and the plant held by him in an upright
position, the man with his spade returns the soil all carefully about
THE WEYMOUTH PINE. 229
the roots of the plant, and tramps it firm. Finally, the turf should
be put on the opening from which it was taken, but with the earth
or underside uppermost, making it meet close upon the plant upon
each side ; and when it is thus placed on, the seam or opening in
the middle of the turf must be neatly and closely fitted together,
by using a little of the earth from each of the edges of the turf.
It should receive a good tramping with the feet over all ; all this
being intended to keep out the drought in the early part of the
summer until the plants take root ; and in this manner the work
should be carried on till the whole be finished. The planting of
the pincaster should never be done sooner in the season than the
middle of April, and even then let it be, if possible, in dull or
damp weather.
SECTION XXV. — THE WEYMOUTH PINE.
The WEYMOUTH Pine (Pinus strobus) is another member of
the same Natural and Linnaean orders as those already described.
This tree is a native of North America, has been introduced into
Britain for more than one hundred years, and is said to derive its
name from having been pretty extensively planted by Lord Wey-
mouth at Longleat in Wiltshire. It is not a tree adapted to stand
our climate in very high or exposed situations ; but it is certainly
an extremely ornamental variety, and in the fertile tracts of Eng-
land many fine specimens are to be seen. Even in Scotland,
where the soil is of a sandy loam, and in a moderately shel-
tered situation, there are many good specimens of this tree.
In the woods about Arniston it grows very well : we have in par-
ticular one very good specimen, which shows that the tree is well
adapted for our climate when not too much exposed. This tree is
above seventy feet high, and about six feet in circumference. In
the home plantations a considerable number have been planted at
one time: I should Bay, from the appearance of the trees, about
forty year3 ago. They generally look well, and are tall healthy
trees, about forty feet high. In thinning the plantations, I have
had occasion to cut down many of them, and find the wood, when
230 GENERAL REMARKS.
at or under forty years, to be extremely soft and short-grained.
When used for paling or any out-door purpose, it lasts but a very
short time, being not nearly equal in this respect to our Scots pine
when young. Not long since I cut down two pretty large trees
of this species upon the estate of Arniston. From their appearance,
I should say they were about eighty years old. I sold them
to a carpenter in the neighbourhood, who cut them up for some
housework, and he informs me that the wood is very short-grained
and worthless, and not nearly equal to our Scots pine or spruce fir.
Seeing, therefore, it is not a pine likely to be useful for general
country purposes, I never, for my own part, plant any of it in the
plantations upon Arniston ; and I merely advert to it here in order
to give my opinion of the quality of the timber of the tree. But
as an ornamental tree it stands very prominent when in a situation
adapted to its nature, which seems to be upon a light dry loam, and
in a sheltered situation, with, at the same time, free air to allow
of the tree expanding its branches. The leaves of this tree are
easily distinguished from most of the other pines, by being five in
a bundle, or in fives, from three to four inches long, of a light
bluish green, with longitudinal silver lines, scabrous, and finely
serrated on the margin. In summer the leaves hang free and
loose, but in winter, and particularly during frost, they contract
and lie close to the branches.
SECTION XXVI.— GENERAL REMARKS.
Having now briefly stated the peculiarities of each sort of forest
tree which is generally cultivated in our plantations for the sake
of timber, &c, I may add further, that all deciduous hardwood
trees, to grow them properly, require more shelter than firs or
pines do ; consequently, in all cases of planting a piece of ground
upon a gentleman's estate, the hardwood ought to be planted
upon the most sheltered parts, always keeping the firs and pines
upon the high and exposed districts. This is only imitating the
proceedings of nature in the same operation ; for, in the natural
disposition of trees over the surface of the earth, the firs and pines
GENERAL REMARKS. 231
inhabit those cold, high-lying districts where the soil is thin ;
and the oak, ash, elm, &c, the more temperate regions nearer
the equator. The hardwood trees, to grow them well, require
a heavier and a richer soil than the firs do ; which suggests to us,
that in laying out a new plantation the hardwood should be
planted in the heaviest and richest parts of the soil contained
in it.
The planter being possessed of a knowledge of the soil and situ-
ation adapted to the healthy growth of each species of forest tree,
his duty is, in the planting a piece of ground with forest trees, to
use those sorts which, from his knowledge, he has reason to expect
will succeed upon it. With this view he may proceed thus : — Let
him examine the nature of the soil throughout the whole extent of
the ground designed for planting, and, having done so, consider
what sort of tree will succeed best, for a permanent crop, upon
each different soil and situation that may be contained within the
bounds of the intended plantation ; and, having determined this
point, let him proceed to have pits made for all hardwood trees
intended to be put in — say at ten feet distance from each other.
A\ herever the soil is found of a loamy nature, and the situation is
not too high, plant oak, ash, elm, or plane-tree, at the distances
specified ; but in all cases giving the preference, in number and
extent, to that species which is most likely to succeed best upon
the soil ; and observing, in all cases where it is intended that one
sort of hardwood alone shall be the ultimate crop, to plant no
other hardwood among them. Thus, if you wish to have any
particular part of a plantation to be entirely an oak forest ulti-
mately, plant these in pits at ten feet distance, and make up to
the requisite thickness with firs, generally Scots and larch, which
are only intended to act as nurses to the hardwood, and to be cut
down by degrees in order to give the latter room as they rise up
and fill the ground. Where it is intended to have a mixed hard-
wood plantation, distribute the different sorts in accordance with
taste, ami make up to the desired distance, which in this case will
be forty-tiro inches, with firs.
Having planted all the better parts of a plantation with hard-
wood, as above mentioned, if there be any thin heathy parts,
232 GENERAL REMARKS.
which would not raise such wood to advantage, occupy such parts
entirely with firs. In doing so, observe that, if it be considered
that larch trees would grow to any useful size, but not so as to be
relied upon for a permanent crop upon the ground, then plant Scots
firs, say at seven feet apart, for a permanent standing crop, and
make up to the desired thickness of about three and one half feet
with larches, which can be thinned out as the Scots firs require
to have room. In this manner the larch thinnings will come to
pay well ; for, if the entire crop had been Scots firs, little or no
value could have been got from them by the first thinning — the
larch being always valuable when young, while the Scots fir is not.
If, in planting a new plantation, there are found spots of ground
lying very high, with an extremely thin, poor, sandy soil, upon
which it is doubtful if even Scots firs would attain useful size, or
live long as a permanent standing crop, plant upon such spots one
half Scots firs, and the other half birches and beech, of each an
equal number per acre. By so doing, if the Scots firs happen not
to succeed, as is very likely upon a high-lying sandy soil, then the
birches and beeches are sure to keep the ground ; and, although
they may probably never come to be a valuable crop of timber,
still it is desirable to have a cover, though but for the sake of
shelter, upon such portions of the land.
If, on the other hand, there are any low-lying, damp, swampy
parts in it, make up such parts with alders, birches, and spruce
fir, — giving the preference in number to that sort which may be
considered most likely to succeed best as a permanent crop : and,
when they come the length of thinning, it can then be judged
which sort will stand, and which should be taken away.
If there be any rugged precipices or steep glens within the bounds
of a new plantation, plant larches and oaks in equal proportions ;
if it be considered necessary for the sake of shelter, plant a few
Scots firs upon prominent points ; and in any hollow parts of such
grounds, put in poplars or willow-trees, or, if not too damp,
spruce firs.
If the situation to be planted be near the sea, no plant, in the
form of a forest tree, will succeed so well, as a nurse for others, as
the Pixeaster or cluster pine. Upon situations near the sea-coast.
GENERAL REMARKS. 233
it is often difficult to get trees of any description to succeed to
any considerable extent, even so as to make a moderate shelter ;
and it is in such situations that the pineaster is found useful. We
have already described the operations of this kind on the estate of
Dunskey, the seat of Colonel Hunter Blair, in Wigtonshire, where
it was found impossible to grow almost anything like trees, until
the pineaster was planted upon the heights along the sea-shore ;
and now, since those have risen up — and they grew very rapidly —
the different sorts of common hardwood trees are thriving well
behind them. In such a situation they do not, of course, rise up
so as to make valuable timber themselves ; yet, as they grow very
bushy, they form an excellent shelter for trees inland ; and by the
shelter attained from them, the more valuable trees behind succeed,
which is the end in view in planting them.
CHAPTER III.
Different methods of planting young Forest Trees — Distances at which they
should be planted one from another — How to choose Young Trees when
buying them from public Nurseries — Manner of proceeding with planting
operations — Kinds of Forest Trees which may be most profitably planted in
any given district of country, so as to be of the greatest ultimate value to
the proprietor as a crop upon his land — Kinds of Forest Trees best adapted
for hedgerow timber, and management of the same — Expenses of laying
down land under new Plantations — The keeping of Young Trees in a plan-
tation clear from Grass and Weeds.
SECTION I. — DIFFERENT METHODS OF PLANTING YOUNG
FOREST TREES.
In the planting of forest trees, two different methods are in
practice among foresters : the first is the method of planting in
pits ; and the second, that of planting in notches, either with the
common spade or the planting mattock. The method of planting
in pits should be employed for all hardwood trees, for two years1
transplanted larches and Scots firs, and for three years1 transplanted
spruce firs. These pits are made with the common spade, at various
distances of from three and one half to ten feet, as the case may be ;
that is, if the whole of the plantation intended to be done is to be
planted with hardwood and two years1 transplanted firs, then the
whole ground will require to be pitted to the distance required,
but observing to make the pits for the hardwood larger than those
intended for the firs. In order to do the work properly, make
all the pits for the hardwood first, say sixteen inches on the side
of the square, and fourteen inches deep ; then, having these
pits made at the distances, say of ten feet from pit to pit,
make those for the firs nine inches on the side of the square, and
ten inches deep, and just as close one to another as may be con-
METHODS OF PLANTING YOUNG FOREST TREES. 235
sidered sufficient for the nature of the ground, say three and a half
feet over all. If, after having the pits made for hardwood upon
a piece of ground, it is found advisable to plant up with one
year's transplanted firs, then no more pits will require to be made
there, for it is not necessary to be at the expense of making pits
for any firs which are under two years transplanted.
In the making of such pits as are above described, I generally
let the work by contract. I cause the contractor to cut off the
upper turf as thinly as possible, and lay it on one side of the
intended pit ; and in taking out the soil in the act of making the
pit, he lays it upon the opposite side, which comes to be of great
advantage in the act of planting. Where the soil is hard in the
pit, the pick must be used to open it up to the desired depth. I
have generally got pits made for hardwood, to the dimensions
already named, for Is. 6d. per hundred, and those for firs for Is.
per hundred ; but if the pits have to be made among old roots,
where large trees have formerly been, 6d. more per hundred in
each case may be considered a fair price.
In the case of planting a piece of ground among old roots, the
remains of former trees, the pits should be made at least three
months previous to their being used. By having the soil in the pits
a few weeks exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, it becomes
much more healthy and congenial to the roots of the young plants.
The manner of planting the young trees in those pits must be
regulated according to the situation of the ground to be planted ;
that is, if the situation be a low sheltered one, I plant a tree in
the centre of each pit, and, cutting the turf which comes off the
surface of the pit exactly into two halves with the spade, I make
them fit closely upon the young tree, with the grass side upper-
most. But if the situation be an exposed one, then I plant a tree
in one of the corners of each pit ; and by so doing it is kept firm in
its place by finding support against the firm sides of the pit ; which
method should always be practised when the trees are apt to be
blown about by winds and storms. In planting trees in such pits,
great care is necessary to sec that they be made perfectly firm in
the new soil of the pit. But in making the trees firm in the pits,
no tramping or beating with the feet should be allowed until the
236 DIFFERENT METHODS OF
whole of the earth is put in ; for if the planter begin to beat the
earth upon the roots of the young tree while they are only half
covered with soil, he is sure to do them injury. Knowing the evil
of this from experience, I never allow a man to beat the earth
about the roots of a young tree until he has it all into the pit,
when a good firm tramping with the feet is necessary in order to
keep the plant properly in its place until its roots take hold of the
soil. After the earth has been all put into the pit and made firm,
the turf should be put over the whole as closely as possible, and
made firm in order to keep out the drought.
A few weeks ago I had a conversation with an extensive pro-
prietor of land in the north of Scotland, who, while speaking to
me relative to the different methods of planting trees, said that he
was of opinion that the plan of making pits for young trees was
altogether superfluous, and ought not to be practised ; because
upon his estate he had hitherto planted by this method, and found
that the pits when made were only receptacles for holding water.
Now, as it is possible that many other proprietors may hold the
same opinion, I here beg to make a few observations relative to
the good arising to young trees when planted in pits.
If the roots of a youug hardwood tree, or a two years' trans-
planted fir, are put into the ground merely by a simple opening
with the spade, they are so soft and tender, that they are unable to
push their way through the solid earth in search of food : the
natural consequence is, that if the tree does not altogether die, it
grows weakly, and is long in attaining the character of a healthy
tree. If the soil be of a damp open nature, the tree may succeed
well after the roots become strong enough to push their way ; but
if the soil be naturally poor, and of a binding quality, the proba-
bility is that the trees planted in it without pits will die altogether.
As to the pits made for the reception of young trees becoming a
receptacle for water, that can only be the case under bad manage-
ment; for where the ground has been drained for young trees, the
water will not stand in the pits ; and where it has not been drained
in the manner already inculcated, it is not in a fit state for plant-
ing trees in. Where trees are planted in pits made upon land in
a dry state, their young and tender roots have at once free access
PLANTING YOUNG FOREST TREES. 237
into the open soil, and, consequently, the trees soon establish them-
selves in their new site. Generally speaking, I have found that
trees planted in pits after the manner I have recommended, are
ten years in advance of those planted otherwise.
It is, however, only necessary to plant in pits those trees which
are of pretty large size, such as two years' transplanted and
upwards: trees under that age and size, having smaller roots,
only require to be planted in the natural surface soil, which is
generally free and open to the roots of all small plants.
The method of planting termed notching, or slitting, is done
with the common spade or planting mattock, and is so well under-
stood by all planters, that it would be superfluous to enlarge upon
it here. It is the practice most commonly in use for the planting
of all small trees, such as two -years' seedlings, or one year's
transplanted firs. The great point to attend to in this system
of planting, is to see that the cut or notch be properly closed
about the young plant after it is inserted, which should be done
by the planter using the heel of his shoe in beating the cut all
quite close again. The system of notching in trees by the plant-
ing mattock, is done upon the same principle as that by the
spade, and is generally practised upon a thin hard surface, where
the spade could not be used conveniently.
M ' TION II. — DISTANCES AT WHICH YOUNG TREES SHOULD BE PLANTED
ONE FROM ANOTHER.
Every proprietor of land, in planting a portion of it with trees,
has in view, first, the cheapest possible way of doing the work,
consistent with future profit ; second, the raising of the greatest
possible rental from the land under a crop of wood; and third, the
quickest possible way of producing both shelter and timber from
the land planted.
At the present day, there are a few speculative individuals who
maintain that in planting land with young trees, they should not
be put in the ground closer than from six to eight feet, making
about nine hundred young trees to the imperial acre. On the
238 DISTANCES AT WHICH YOUNG TREES
other hand, all practical foresters who, from much experience, have
tested the results arising both from wide and close planting,
recommend putting in the trees at from three to four feet, making
about three thousand five hundred plants to the imperial acre.
This is an important point in arboriculture, and ought to be sub-
jected to the test of sound reasoning combined with experience.
Therefore, in order to make it appear clear to each planter how far
he is to be guided by any particular rule of distance, let us con-
sider briefly the proper and reasonable way of judging in this
matter.
We may suppose forest lands to be divided naturally into
three distinct localities — namely, sheltered, moderately sheltered,
and exposed. Each of these demands our particular attention, in
order to come to a right conclusion as to the proper distance for
planting trees. First, then, with regard to the distance at which
young trees should be planted in a sheltered situation. Every
one is aware that trees will, in a naturally sheltered situation,
grow more freely without any artificial means being used to
protect them, than the same trees would were they to be planted
in an exposed part. The artificial means used by experienced
planters for the protection of young trees growing upon an
exposed part are, to plant them pretty closely together, so that
they may soon come to shelter one another ; therefore, in a shel-
tered part of the country, where trees do not require any artificial
rearing, they may be planted at any distance consistent with future
good management and profit ; and this must be regulated accord-
ing to the demand for the various sizes of wood required in the
neighbourhood. Let us take an example here of two estates, both
alike situated in a sheltered part of the country, but the one in a
neighbourhood where small wood is much in demand, and the
other where no such wood could be sold to advantage. In the
case of the former proprietor, whose estate was situated in a neigh-
bourhood where small trees or thinnings were much in demand, I
would ask, would it be wisdom in him to plant at such wide dis-
tances that he could not thin out any for sale till his trees become
of timber size ? This would certainly not be a wise step ; yet it
would be strictly according to the theory of those who advocate
SHOULD BE PLANTED ONE FROM ANOTHER. 239
tliin planting. They say, in all cases plant at about seven feet
apart, it being for the benefit of the trees : practical experience
points out the contrary. Again, in the case of the proprietor
whose estate was situated in a neighbourhood where no small wood
could be sold to advantage, would it be wisdom in him to plant his
trees so closely as the other proprietor, seeing he required no arti-
ficial shelter for their health, and that he could not get any of the
small thinnings sold as they were taken out in order to give the
others room. Undoubtedly, in such a case, his wisdom would be
to plant his trees at such distances as that they could come to a size
fit for useful purposes in the neighbourhood before he would have
occasion to thin. In these two comparisons the whole secret as to
distance in planting in sheltered localities lies. In such situations
they might be planted from three to five feet, according to the
local demand for wood : not closer than three feet, because, at
any distance much closer, the trees would come to no useful size
before they would require to be thinned for the health of the
plantation ; and not wider than five feet, because I consider, at
distances beyond that, there would be a great loss of land, by its
not being occupied ; while at five feet apart, trees will be able to
stand together till such a time as they will be, when cut down, fit
for the most useful country purposes, without doing injury to one
another.
Again, trees growing upon what may be termed moderately
sheltered parts of the country, or in a situation between shel-
tered and exposed, ought to be, laying aside every local considera-
tion as to the sale of the thinnings, planted more closely than those
in a sheltered part, and that on account of the health of the trees
individually, as well as of the plantation as a whole. This is
evident ; for in order to make up for the shelter possessed by trees
in a naturally sheltered site, those in a less sheltered part, in order
to give them equal advantage, require to be planted so closely as
to produce shelter to one another artificially, and that to as great
an extent as the nature of the site may demand. In such situa-
tions, again, where no very small wood could sell to advantage, I
would advise to plant at from three and a half to four feet apart.
At distances much wider than four feet, the young trees would
240 DISTANCES AT WHICH YOUNG TREES
not prosper well, but would be much checked by exposure and
want of due shelter : on the other hand, in such situations where
small thinnings could meet with a ready market, I would advise
to plant at from three to three and a half feet.
In all situations which may be termed exposed, or very exposed,
no young trees, if wished to prosper at all, should be planted more
widely than three feet, whether the first thinnings may meet with
a ready market or not. The great point to be aimed at in the
growing of timber in such situations, is to produce shelter as
quickly as possible among the trees themselves ; and this can only
be done by planting rather closely in the outset. Even although a
few hundred trees should be cut out as they become too close, and
allowed to lie as useless and unsold, no objection should be made:
they will have answered their purpose, namely, that of producing
artificial shelter for a time, and of rearing up the whole as a
plantation much more healthily and quickly than could have been
done without them.
These considerations comprise, I think, the whole art of judging
as to the distance at which trees should be planted in any given
locality of country. This distance will, in all cases, be regu-
lated by the demand for timber in the neighbourhood, whether
that may be for small or large, or both together, and at the
same time by the site of the ground to be planted. If the site
be a sheltered one, the trees may be planted more thinly, as
local circumstances may demand ; and if an exposed one, for
the sake of the general and future health of the plantation, the
trees must be planted closely in order to produce artificial shelter.
Having premised the above, it may here be profitable to say a
little as to the consequences which would be most likely to arise
were forest operations to be conducted upon the principle of thin
planting, as has been recommended by theorists.
They say, plant hardwood as a permanent crop upon the ground
at twenty-eight feet apart, and make up with firs between to seven
feet over all. In this case the proprietor's views as to the cheap-
est way of doing the work are realised ; but I maintain, not in a
manner consistent with future profit : for at seven feet apart the
young trees will not come away quickly ; they will remain for several
SHOULD BE PLANTED FKOM ONE ANOTHER. 241
years in a stunted state, growing widely to side branches, and not
to proportionable height till they come the length of sheltering one
another; while in an exposed site they might never come this
length at all, and in all probability they would not require to be
thinned before they were twenty-five or thirty years old; much
depending upon the nature of the soil and site. And, moreover,
a very few deaths per acre — say only forty plants — would occasion
forty large gaps, each not less than fourteen feet in diameter, which
would be a most ridiculous system of forest management if carried
to any extent. Further, in most cases, proprietors who would
plant trees at seven feet over all, as has been recommended by
some theorists, would not receive one penny of income from such
plantations until they were above twenty-five years of age ; and
even then the trees in such plantation would not be in nearly so
vigorous and healthy a state as those planted at from three to four
feet, as I have recommended. In short, relative to this system of
thin planting, instead of being a gain to a proprietor, it would, in
every sense of the word, be a decided loss both for the present and
future generation.
Suppose that all the plantations upon a gentleman's estate
were to be planted with hardwood at twenty-eight feet apart, and
made up with firs to the distance of seven feet, how could he ever
produce small firs for stobs or rails for general estate purposes?
If he did, he would spoil the general health of the plantation by
taking out even a few trees per acre. Again, at what age could
a plantation so managed be expected to produce a hardwood
tree, even for a pair of trams? If any wood-merchant were
to come and oiler a high price for young hardwood trees of any
description, how could the proprietor of such woods take advan-
tage of it, seeing that his hardwood trees all stood at distances so
wide, that he could not, without great loss, cut down even one tree
till "t" age? Again, were the whole of the plantations in Britain
to be conducted in this manner, what would wc do for small wood
of any description in the country generally? These questions
seem to me quite sufficient to point out the extreme folly of parties
who would recommend any proprietor of land to plant at wide
distances.
Q
242 HOW TO CHOOSE YOUNG TREES
Those who have advocated the system of thin planting as above
stated, argue that plantations, when planted at from three to four
feet, soon become too close, and that such closeness produces un-
healthiness in the trees ; and further, they maintain that this is the
very reason why we now see so many of our home plantations in
a too crowded state. That many of our home woods are shame-
fully over-crowded at the present day, is too plain ; and I myself
am one who set my face as much as in my power against such
a state of things ; but what is the fundamental cause of this ? It
by no means is attributable to planting it from three to four feet.
The cause is bad management, or rather, I may say, the want of
timely thinning. Wherever plantations have been managed in
the way that I here advise, and timelily and judiciously thinned,
the work has been attended with the most happy and profitable
results.
The whole secret of training up healthy plantations lies in the
after-management. If plantations are left entirely to nature,
as is too often the case, without any art being used, the trees must
of course kill one another.
SECTION III. — HOW TO CUOOSE YOUNG FOREST TREES WHEN BUYING
THEM FROM PUBLIC NURSERIES.
Every proprietor who has occasion to plant forest trees to any
considerable extent, will find it necessary to supply himself from
some respectable nurseryman. In doing so, it is absolutely neces-
sary that healthy trees should be selected ; and also those of such
a nature as may be suited to the situation where they are intended
to be planted for good and all.
The proprietor who intends to plant should either himself visit,
or cause his forester to visit, during the summer previous to the
planting season, any nursery from which he intends to purchase
his supply of young forest trees, and see that the stock of young
trees in it is in a clean healthy state, free from all scale, bag,
or any other vermin generally infesting young trees.
Such a visit in the summer season may by many be considered
FROM PUBLIC NURSERIES. 243
unnecessary, but every experienced planter can bear witness
to the propriety of it. I have known an instance of diseased
trees from a nursery being the cause of propagating the same
disease through several plantations in the neighbourhood. In
asserting this, however, I do not mean to say that any respect-
able nurseryman would be guilty of sending diseased trees to any
of his customers ; but I do mean to say, that every planter or
forester should, previous to making a purchase, go and visit the
nursery grounds, and judge for himself as to whether he shall buy
or not. The proper time for such a visit is during the month of
July, when the trees are in full leaf, and in a vigorous state
of growth.
In that month, all young trees should have the bark upon the main
stem and branches clean and free from any appearance of scale or
bug : and when a little of the surface skin is removed by the nail of
the thumb, the bark underneath should be of a pure healthy trans-
parent green colour, not pierced by any small holes. The surface
bark of a young tree in perfect health should be easily removed
from the inner bark. There should be no appearance of small
holes in the leaves at this season of the year; neither should they
seem to have been bitten short by any insect.
Having visited the public nursery grounds in the month of
July, and found the general health of the young trees quite satis-
factory, it will be necessary for the intending planter again to
visit the same grounds about the first wreek of November, in order
to make purchase of such trees as he may require for the season.
In making purchase, it is absolutely necessary to bear in mind
the nature of the ground and situation to be planted. If the
ground is a thin soil upon a high situation, then choose trees
from the nursery that have stood rather wide in the rows, and
have had free air and room, and arc rather of a low set, bushy
character, and altogether presenting a hardy appearance : plants
of such a character will Buffer very little indeed from being removed
to a high climate. For a high situation, always choose one year's
transplanted fire, and hardwood not exceeding two feet in height.
If plants of an opposite character be chosen tor such a situation —
that is, tall slender plants, which have made long shoots of young
244 UTILITY OF PROPRIETORS HAYING
wood the previous summer — they will be sure to suffer, and it is
more than probable that one half of them will die.
If the situation to be planted is a low sheltered one, with a good
soil, then choose tall well-grown plants for it ; for in such situa-
tions there is generally a luxuriant growth of the natural grasses ;
and unless the young trees be pretty tall, they would be altogether
choked by such a mass of herbage surrounding them. Above all,
it is necessary to be most particular in seeing that the young trees
chosen be well rooted ; that is, having plenty of small fibrous roots,
which are the mouths by which the plant derives its nourishment
from the earth. In a rather light soil, not too highly manured,
the roots of young trees are generally good ; but if the young
trees have grown in a stiff heavy soil, there is a risk of their being
badly rooted ; that is to say, they will most likely have few small
fibres ; and young trees with few fibres never succeed well when
replanted — more especially those of the pine tribe. Much of the
success in the growing of trees in the forest depends upon a good
healthy choice from the nursery ; therefore this point should always
be carefully attended to by every intelligent planter.
No proprietor should grudge to give a fair price to a respectable
nurseryman, in order to have his orders punctually attended to.
The gentleman who offers a fair price is always sure to have a good
article sent him ; while, when a proprietor offers a low price to
any nurseryman for his trees, the nurseryman is not enabled to
bestow that labour upon the lifting of the young trees which is
necessary to secure the safety of the roots. Trees of the pine
tribe, if they are lifted out of the earth carelessly, generally lose
one half of their roots ; and in such a case the trees cannot grow.
Therefore, every planter ought to see that the trees he uses are
carefully lifted from the nursery ground.
SECTION IV. — UTILITY OF PROPRIETORS HAVING THEIR OWN
HOME NURSERIES.
That every proprietor of land who has occasion to plant
young forest trees to any considerable extent, should have a
THEIB OWN HOME NURSERIES. 245
piece of ground adapted for the raising of young trees, is quite
consistent with good management in forest operations. 1 do not
here mean to advise that every gentleman should be his own nur-
seryman ; for the raising of forest trees to such an extent would
be altogether out of the question, and such a state of forest
operations would come to be found bad management. No gen-
tleman's forester, however well qualified he might be, can possibly
have sufficient time and opportunity to attend to the minute opera-
tions of raising young trees from the seed, from cuttings, layers,
&c. : but I do assert, that a piece of ground kept as a reserve nursery
is absolutely necessary in order to good management.
In order to point out the utility of gentlemen having their own
home nurseries, and to show to what extent it is advisable for them
to cultivate their own young trees previous to planting them out
into the forest, I shall here detail my manner of proceeding at
Arniston with regard to this operation.
At Arniston we have about two acres occupied as nursery
ground. In it I raise all our own oaks from the acorn ; and as I
am in the habit of getting a regular supply of acorns, 1 have ready
for transplanting out into the forest grounds about twenty thou-
sand every year successively. Having this piece of ground occu-
pied as a nursery, I am enabled to raise the oaks in it to a pretty
large size previous to planting them out, which is of great advan-
tage to us, as we have very many hares and rabbits to contend
with : and besides, being tall, they are not apt to be choked by
long grass and weeds overtopping them. To get such large plants
as 1 am in the habit of using for our home woods from the common
nurseries, would be quite impracticable to any considerable extent.
I do not raise all our oaks to a large size previous to planting
them out, but only a part, so far as is required. This spring
1M7 1 have planted out in the home plantations six thousand
- from three to five feet high, with strong fibrous roots; and,
in order to have them Btrong bushy plants, I give them abundance
of room, plant from plant, in the rows, which is never the case with
plants got from the common nurseries. In our nursery ground, I
also raise yearly three or tour thousand larches to a pretty large
il8o a number of all the commoD sorts of trees generally
246 PROPRIETORS SHOULD HAVE HOME NURSERIES.
planted in the forest, which, when I have them grown to the
desired strength, I plant out into the forest ground to fill up any
vacancies which may have occurred among the young plantations ;
and even in some instances, where a small plantation may be
required to have immediate eflfect, I have planted up with such
large trees entirely.
Now, from what I have said above, my meaning will appear
evident in advising proprietors to have their own home nurseries ;
namely, that they may have a command of good specimens of all the
general varieties of trees, to plant out at any time into any parts
of their plantations where they may be required. No proprietor's
establishment can be said to be complete, as relates to forests,
without such accommodation. Without a reserve nursery, no
forester can have young trees at command in order to meet the
demands of his employer as occasion may sometimes require.
Without a reserve nursery, no gentleman can reasonably expect to
have forest operations conducted properly. It would be folly to
send forty or fifty miles to a nurseryman for a few good trees to
answer some particular purpose, when the same could be got more
conveniently and more safely from the home nursery ; and even
after sending for such trees, they might not be such as were
expected. Difficulties of this kind I have myself experienced in
certain situations ; but where I have had the accommodation of a
home nursery, I have been able at all times fully to meet the de-
mands of my employer, and that also at a very moderate expense.
Therefore it is that, having experienced the disappointments
attendant upon the want of a reserve nursery, I would here urge
every proprietor to adopt the system of having a small one, merely
with the view of raising a few particularly good trees for parti-
cular purposes. The extent of greund to be occupied as such must
be regulated according to the probable demand; that is, if the
forest grounds be extensive, two, or perhaps three, acres may not
be too much ; and if the forest grounds be not extensive, half an
acre may be quite enough. In making such a nursery, never let
it be in a sheltered or low-lying part, for there the young trees
would be drawn up and weakly ; neither make it upon a stiff clay
soil, for in such a soil young trees never make good roots : but let
PLANTING OPERATIONS. 247
the situation be rather an exposed one, with a light friable soil.
There the young trees will become bushy and hardy, and also
throw out numerous fibrous roots, which is always favourable to
the healthy growth of young forest trees which have to be
transplanted.
SECTION V. — MANNER OF PROCEEDING WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS.
In all planting of young forest trees, the superintendent of such
operations should be a man who has had considerable practical
experience in that line of work. Xo man should undertake, or be
allowed to undertake, the management of planting operations, who
has not had at least ten years'experience in his profession. Unless
he has had such experience, and that rather upon an extensive
scale, he will not be able to judge for himself in any extraordinary
contingency. A man who is allowed to undertake planting ope-
rations without proper practical experience, is generally put off
his way by every change of the weather, and then knows not how
to proceed. In such extremities he seeks the advice of others,
who, very likely, are as ignorant in the matter as he is himself;
consequently, the mind of an inexperienced man is liable to give
in to wrong advice, and then the whole work goes wrong ; time is
lost, the work is badly done, and, in the end, failure is the sure
result. This state of things, I am aware, often happens in plant-
ing operations ; therefore, for the guidance of those who may not
have experience enough, I shall here lay down, in a particular
manner, the way of proceeding with planting operations as they
ought to be done.
All land intended for the growing of young forest trees should
be drained at least two months before commencing to plant upon it;
and, indeed, if the land to be planted is of a very damp nature,
and has been under a crop of trees formerly, I would advise to
have it drained six months before planting. By using such a pre-
caution, the ground will be considerably cleansed from any bad
quality it may contain, and consequently the chance of success
will be much greater. If the land to be planted has been under
248 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
a crop of trees formerly, and the roots of those are still in the
ground, and if hardwood is to be planted upon it, have the pits for
them made at least three months before planting. Indeed, for my
own part, I am always anxious to allow the pits made for hard-
wood plants in such land to lie all the previous winter, in order to
have the soil cleansed by the action of the frosts ; that is to say,
when I plant hardwood trees upon land formerly under wood, I
have the pits all made by the month of November, and allow them
to remain open till the month of March, when I plant the young
trees in them. If, however, the land to be planted be what is gene-
rally termed clean and new, the pits for the hardwood plants may be
made at any time as the work goes on. In all cases where the
surface soil is thin, say not more than six inches deep, and where
the subsoil is of a hard tilly nature, and drains upon it are found
not to act in so decided a manner as to draw off the water that
may fall into the pits after they have been made, do not make the
pits for the hardwood deeper than the top of the subsoil ; for
if they are made into the subsoil, the water will be retained there
in the bottom of the pits, and will most assuredly tend to keep the
roots damp, and retard the future progress of the trees. In such
a case, make the pits only as deep as the bottom of the upper
stratum of soil ; and in the act of planting the trees, if the pit be
found not deep enough, the earth can be raised sufficiently round
the roots upon the surface : by using these means, the trees
will be preserved in much better health than they would otherwise
have enjoyed.
The above observations should all be had in view by every
intelligent planter previous to commencing planting opera-
tions. The not attending to these very plain and necessary
precautions, is the cause of very many failures among planters of
the present time. Therefore I most earnestly recommend to every
planter who wishes to excel, to go over his ground at least one
year before commencing planting operations upon it, and lay down
rules for the work, and proceed with them accordingly, and not to
let the work stand till the very week when operations should
commence, as is too often done. However, the forester is not
always to blame in such cases of neglect. I have myself known
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 249
active and intelligent foresters, who were not allowed time and
money to go on with their plans. This is to be regretted, because
it is in the end a decided loss to the proprietor himself. In all
cases where a forester is known to be really an intelligent man,
and aware of his business, the proprietor should give him proper
opportunity for doing his work in the best possible manner. By
so doing, the proprietor will be amply rewarded himself, and the
forester have credit from his operations.
Then, allowing that all the precautions above stated have been
strictly observed, and that the drains have been allowed to act for
a proper time upon the land, the person who is to take the manage-
ment of the work will first consider the nature of the situation he
is about to plant upon, which we shall suppose to be an extensive
piece of moor-ground containing several varieties of soil. This
being the case, he will next begin upon one side of the ground,
and take observations as to the kinds and quantities of trees
he will require for each particular part, supposing it naturally
divided into thin heathy ground, with high exposure — good loamy
soil, upon a slope — moss two feet deep, resting upon clay — deep
swampy moss, but well dried — strong clay soil, upon a level — light
sandy soil, resting upon gravel — bare rocky parts, with here and
there good dry loam. Supposing that the ground to be planted
contains all the varieties of soil above mentioned, the manager of the
work will consider as to the quantity of ground contained in each
of the divisions ; and having ascertained this either by measurement
or by the eye, according as he may find himself qualified, he will
put up a pi'jt, with a number upon it, in the centre of each district,
and enter a corresponding number in his notebook, thus —
No. 1. — Twenty-seven imperial acres of thin heathy ground, to be
planted with Scots and larch firs, one year's transplanted, of each an
equal number and at three and a half feet apart
No i loanrj soil upon a sheltered slope, to be
planted with one hundred and i hundred and
ren ash, to the acre, and made up to three and a half feet
with r'a transplanted larch, and two years' transplanted S
pines, of each an equal number.
No. 3. — Twelve acres of moss, two feet deep, resting upon day, t" l e
planted same as No. 2.
250 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
No. 4. — Twenty-four acres of deep swampy moss, but well dried, to be
all planted with two years' transplanted Scots and spruce firs, at three
and a half feet apart, of each an equal number, excepting three acres in
the centre, which cannot lie well got dried, and which must be planted
entirely with alders at four feet apart.
No. 5. — Thirty acres of strong clay loam upon a level, to be planted
with three hundred oaks to the acre, and made up with equal numbers
of two years' transplanted larch and Scots pines, to four- feet apart
over all.
No. G. — Seventeen acres of light sandy soil, resting upon gravel, to be
planted with two hundred and twenty beech, and two hundred and
twenty birch eighteen inches high, to the acre, and made up to three and
a half feet over all with one year's transplanted larch and Scots pines, of
each an equal number.
No. 7. — Forty-three acres of bare rocky ground, with here and there
spots of good loamy soil to the extent of six acres in all — bare rocky
ground to be planted with eight-inch birch, two years' seedling larch,
and Scots pines, of each an equal number to the acre, making them stand
three feet plant from plant ; good loamy soil to be planted with ash, at
ten feet apart, and made up with Scots and larch firs to three and a half
feet over all.
Now, supposing that the person who is to take charge of the
planting of such a piece of ground has gone over it, and marked
very particularly in his note-book the different natures of the
soil in it, and stated the kinds of plants that he considers will
be most likely to do good upon it, as I have above stated,
and which is my own manner of going to work, he will, when
he goes home in the evening, sit down and draw up a state-
ment as to the number of each kind of tree he will require
to have brought forward for the planting of each of the districts
as numbered. In order to assist him in this calculation, the
following table will be found most useful. Indeed, such a table
is not only useful to a young and inexperienced forester; it is
as useful to the man of fifty years' experience as to one of five,
because no forester can keep in his memory the number of
plants he may require at a given distance per acre, nor can
he at all times find it a convenient matter to calculate these
numbers. In order, therefore, to save time, and to form a
sort of ready-reckoner for the forester, I insert the following
table : —
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS.
251
TABLE SHOWING the Number of Trees that can be Planted on an Acre,
whether the scotch or the imperial acre, from 1 foot to 25 feet
distance Plant from Plant.
Distance.
The Scotch Acre.
The Imperial Acre.
Plants of the
Plants of the
Plants of the
Plants of the
Short 100 of
Long 100 of
Short 100 of
Long 100 of
5 Score.
6 Score.
5 Score.
6 Score.
Feet
1
54.7 0
45,633
43,560
36,300
1A
24,382
20,318
19,360
16,133
2
13,690
11,408
10,890
!i,075
n
8,761
7,301
6.969
5,808
3
6,084
6,070
4,840
4,033
H
4,470
3,726
3,556
2,963
4
3,422
2,852
2,722
2,268
4.1
2,709
2,257
2,151
1,792
5"
2,190
1,825
1,742
1,452
H
1,810
1,508
1,440
1,200
6
1,521
1,257
1,210
1,008
6 A
1,296
1,081
1,031
852
7"
1,117
931
889
740
7 A
973
811
774
620
855
713
680
567
H
758
631
602
502
9
(175
662
537
448
H
606
505
482
402
10
547
456
435
363
11
452
375
360
300
12
380
317
302
252
13
324
270
257
214
14
279
232
222
185
15
■2 V.',
202
193
161
16
214
178
170
141
17
189
158
150
125
18
169
141
134
112
19
151
126
120
100
20
137
114
108
21
124
103
98
22
113
90
23
103
82
24
95
75
26
87
69
Before proceeding further, it may be proper to give a slight
explanation of the above table. If, for example, the forester wish
t" ascertain how many trees will be required to plant one imperial
acre at three feet apart, he will first cast his eye to 3 in tlie
left-hand line of figures, headed distance^ from which figure he
will next cast his eye to the right, and in the fourth line of figures
exactly opposite, and under imperial acres, headed /,/>>„ts <f the
short 100 of 5 score, he will find 4840, which is the number of
plants required to plant an imperial acre at three feet plant from
plant. If he wish to ascertain the number required for any other
252
MANNER OF PROCEEDING
distance, lie has only to go upon the same principle, always look-
ing first for the distance required in the left-hand line of figures.
If it is desired to know the number needed for a Scots acre, let
him look for the number under Scots measure instead of under
Imperial. Having given the table, I shall now point out the
manner of drawing up the statement mentioned above.
STATEMENT of the Numbers and Kinds of Young Trees required to plant the
DIFFERENT DISTRICTS IN PLANTATION, UPON THE ESTATE OF , 1850.
o
2
h
5
is
Number and Kinds of
Trees required.
Total
Number of
Trees.
Larch.
Scots Pines.
Spruce
Fir,
Oak.
Ash.
Birch.
Beech.
Alder.
1
27
48,006
48,006
96,012
2
10
15,605
15,605
1,080
3,270
35,5G0
3
12
18,726
18,726
1,296
3,924
42,672
4
24
37,338
37,338
8,166
82,842
5
30
36,330
36,330
9,000
81,660
6
17
26,486
26,486
3,740
3,740
60,452
7
43
69,056
69,056
2,610
59,693
200,415
1G3
214,209
251,547
37,338
11,376
9,804
63,433
3,740
8,166
599,613
It may be necessary for me to give a little explanation of the
above statement. In order to this, we will look over District 2.
Upon looking back to particulars on the second district, as they
were supposed to be taken upon the ground, it will be seen that it
contains ten acres, which number is stated in the second column
from the left hand in the above table. Next, it was to be planted
with 108 oaks and 327 ash to the acre. Now, if we multiply these
numbers by ten, for the number of acres, we will have 1080 oaks
and 3270 ash for the whole district, which is stated, accordingly,
under oak and ash upon the same line as formerly stated. Again,
the particulars state that the ground was to be made up to three
and a half feet with one year's transplanted larches and two
years1 transplanted Scots pines — of each an equal number. Now,
if we look at the table of distances formerly given, we shall find that,
in order to plant one imperial acre with trees at three and a half
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 253
feet apart 3556 are required ; but as we have already allowed
435 hardwood to the acre, this quantity must be deducted from
the 3556 ; consequently, leaving 3121 firs for the acre to be planted
among the hardwood ; and as the firs are to be larch and Scots
pines, of each an equal number per acre, we must take the half of
the last number given for each sort of fir; that is, 1560^ of each
for the acre. Now, there being ten acres of ground to plant in
this instance, we must multiply the last number by 10, and the
gross amount of each sort of fir required will be 15,605, which
will be found to correspond with the numbers stated under larch
and Scots pines upon the line No. 2. In the same manner all
the other districts are described ; and in the summing up of the
whole it will be at once seen, that in order to plant the whole 163
acres, the forester will require to bring forward to the ground
599,613 young trees, of the various kinds stated in their respective
places.
Presuming now that the person in charge of the work of
planting has looked over the ground, and has put up a pin in
the centre of each district to correspond with the number entered
in his statement, and that he has drawn out such a statement as I
have shown above for his future guidance in the work, he will next
order the plants to be brought forward and sheugked, each district
having the quantity of trees adapted for it put by themselves ; that
is, in order to plant No. 2 in the manner proposed, there will
require to be sheughed in it 15,605 one year's transplanted larches,
and the same number of two years' transplanted Scots pines, with
1080 oaks, and 3270 ash ; and so with each of the others. Great
care is requisite, in bringing forward the young trees, to see that
it is done in a fresh day, and when there is a little moisture,
if possible ; and if the plants have to be carted far from the nur-
series, all their roots should be covered with matting during the
journey, to prevent the air from having any bad effect upon them.
As soon as the cart arrives, a deep dry part of the ground must be
chosen for shenghing or laying them in. This requires to be done
in a very careful manner, avoiding too many hands being employed
on the work at once. If those points are not strictly attended
to, there will be a great chance of failure in the results of the
254 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
work. I have frequently, when assistant-forester, seen shameful
carelessness practised in regard to what I am now recommending ;
and this is the very reason that makes me so urgent in recommend-
ing carefulness where it is wished to have success in the work of
planting.
In sheughing the young trees, take out a trench deep enough to
hold the roots easily, and put the turf and earth which is taken
out of it all along upon that side of it which is meant to be the
outside when the work is done. On having this earth levelled
along the back or outside of the opening, if it is the hardwood trees
you intend to put in first, you may do so without loosening the
bundles, (as I presume the plants will be tied up in bundles), as
they are not apt to spoil although they lie a time in the ground in
a crowded state. But if the plants you sheugh be firs, have the
bundles opened out, and the plants spread out upon the side of the
trench not more than two inches thick. When the whole length
of the trench is filled with the plants, whether hardwood or firs,
put the finest of the earth from the next trench next to the roots of
the plants laid in, and make up above that with a sufficient quan-
tity of soil to cover the roots of the plants laid in, as well as to make
another sufficient opening for another row. When the roots are
thus sufficiently covered, give the whole a firm tramping, in order to
keep out frosty winds the more securely. Then, immediately after
this tramping, gather up in your spade any fine earth in the bot-
tom of the trench which is to receive the next row, and fill up with
it any open parts about the necks of the plants in the line put in,
in order that no open spaces may be left for the air to get down
to the roots. After re-levelling Ihe surface of fresh earth which is
tramped above the roots, the front of the new trench may be lined
off, and filled up as before. Many planters are very careless about
this part of the work, and sheugh in the plants in a mere tempo-
raiy manner ; but I would caution every forester, who wishes to
excel in the work of planting, against such a manner of procedure,
and urge him in all cases to put his plants into the earth in a manner
as permanent as if he knew they were to remain for months. I have
myself seen young trees sheughed in a temporary manner, the
planter supposing that they would be all planted out in the ground
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 255
in their places in the course of a day or two ; but instead of this
expectation of his being realised, frost set in, and snow followed.
The trees lay in the sheugh in the same temporary state they had
been put in for at least two months. When the weather broke up, the
forester who had the management of the work persisted in planting
them, and, as I myself anticipated, there were not more than a
hundred trees to the acre which were found alive in the summer.
I mention this here, in order that others, being aware of the fact,
may in future guard against such a manner of going to work,
which is not only discreditable to any forester, but, what is worse,
ruinous to the proprietor. In the same manner as I have
described for the securing of the trees in Xo. 2, let the trees
belonging to the other districts be doue also, care being in all cases
taken to have them sheughed in a piece of dry soil, and where
water is not apt to lie in the bottom of the trench.
The young trees being all brought forward and sheughed in
their respective places, the superintendent of operations will next
consider as to the number of men he may require for executing
the work. In this case he had better select a few good hands, and
have the work done properly, than gather together a number of
bad workmen, who perhaps never had planted a tree before, and
who may very likely be regardless how the work may be done,
provided they receive their daily wages. As to the number of
men that will be required to do the work in a given time, we shall
suppose that the work of planting is to be commenced about the
1st of February, and that the forester, on account of having other
plantations to make the same season, is anxious to have the
plantation in question — that is, the 163 acres referred to above
— finished in the course of four weeks. There are thus 163
acres to I"- planted in four weeks; and as at that season of the
year it is more than likely that a portion of the time will be
broken upon by bad weather, therefore, in order to have the
work finished, if possible, by the time specified, instead of cal-
culating that it is to be done in twenty-four days, we must
deduct a portion, and say that the work is to be done in twenty-
two davs. We have thus 599,613 plants to put in the ground
in twenty-two days. By the system of notching, I generally
256 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
calculate that a man in a short winter day, working from
eight in the morning to four in the afternoon, and allowing
one hour for rest, should plant one thousand young trees with
ease, and at the same time do his work well. Let it be under-
stood, that if a man is much hurried at his work, he cannot
do it well : the superintendent should, therefore, keep in view
not to hurry his men unreasonably, but to make them give
a fair conscientious day's work — as, by so doing, he will have
his work much better done than if he acted otherwise. As
this work is to be done in the month of February, when the
men, instead of working from eight to four, can work from
seven to five, they will be able, with the assistance of a boy each,
to plant 1300 plants each. Now, if we divide 599,613, the
number of trees to be planted, by 1300, the number that a man
can plant in a day, we will find that, in order to plant the whole
with one man, he would require 4G1 days ; but if we employ
twenty men, they will, at the rate of 1300 a day each, plant
altogether, in one day 26,000 trees ; and, if we divide 599,613,
the number of trees to be planted in all, we will find the answer
to be twenty- two and a half days nearly; therefore, in order to
finish the work in about twenty-two days, twenty men will be
required to plant at once. As, however, there will be pits to
make for the oak, ash, and beech, and the planting of these will
take more time than the others, it is necessary to calculate upon
them as extra, even allowing that we have already included the
number of hardwood among the other trees. By looking at
the statement containing the number of trees to be planted, it
will be seen that there are 24,920 oak, ash, and beech ; and
these require to be planted in pits. Now, in order to plant
these in twenty-two days, we must calculate thus : — one man
will in a moderate soil, where no picking is required, make
1000 pits and plant them with hardwood in one week, being
about 167 to a man in the day, and at this rate seven men will
make pits and plant the hardwood trees in the same time that the
twenty men will plant the others, which have to be notched ;
consequently, in order to have the whole work done in twenty-
two days, twenty-seven men will require to be employed. The
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 257
superintendent, after making a calculation of this nature, should,
when the men begin work, keep a note of the number of the trees
planted upon the first day, and compare the work actually done
with his calculation. By doing so, he will be aware of how far he
is likely to be correct in his plans in the future management of
the work.
We shall now suppose that the superintendent has twenty-
seven men looked out in order to commence work, and has given
them orders to meet him on the ground at a certain time ; and
that he intends to commence by planting Xo. 1, being twenty-seven
acres of thin heathy soil, not adapted for the growing of hardwood, to
be planted with Scots and larch firs, three and one half feet apart,
one year transplanted, of each sort an equal number. AVe shall
further suppose that the superintendent is forward on the ground
on the morning appointed before any of his men are collected,
which ought always to be the case with him ; for if he be a man
of an indolent habit in the morning, the men will very likely prove
the same, and consequently the work will not go on in a pros-
perous manner, and there will be small hopes of "getting through
it in due time.
Being then thus forward, he will arrange in his own mind
quietly as to the work to be done for the day. If it have the
appearance of being a fine one, he will put the men to plant upon
the most exposed parts of the grounds ; and if otherwise, upon the
most sheltered parts. The superintendent should provide himself
with three or four poles, such as farmers generally use for straight-
ening and measuring off their furrows; and while the men arc
collecting, and before it is light enough for them to plant with pro-
priety, he will begin upon one side of the ground to be planted
for the day, and pace off, from the side at which it is intended to
begin, about three yards in breadth for each man to be employed
upon, making in all, for the twenty-seven men, about eighty-one
paces or yards. At the end of that distance, from the outside, he
will put up one of his poles as a guide for the innermost man to
k»cp by in the act of planting ; and in the same manner he will
pace off the whole length of the ground by one or two more
poles before the men commence.
R
258 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
The poles being set to the breadth required, he will next see
that each of his men has provided himself with a stout boy for
handling the young trees, and that each boy has brought a stout
apron for holding them, in order to protect their roots from the
wind, as well as to keep them together while he takes out one at a
time with his right hand. Being satisfied of this, he will next
examine the sort of spades the men have brought to work with.
So far as my experience has enabled me to judge, there is, for the
purpose of notching, no implement so useful as a half-worn com-
mon garden-spade;* and for this purpose I always prefer one with
the blade from eight to nine inches in length. In all notching of
trees, therefore, I make every man bring along with him such a
spade as I have described, never allowing any man to plant with a
new one, as I have found from experience that the man who uses
a new one cannot plant the trees nearly so well, nor can he plant
nearly so many in a day, as he would do with a half-worn, sharp-
edged spade. However, those who may not be satisfied with
using old spades as I am in the habit of doing, will find an
excellent article, made for the purpose of planting young forest
trees, in any nurseryman's warehouse. These are termed planting
spades. They are of the same form as a common garden-spade, but
smaller in the blade, and having the shears, or that iron part which
clasps the wooden handle, made stronger than in the common
garden-spade, in order to resist the more certainly the strong-
pressure which is sometimes put upon the handle in the act of
notching upon the tough turf.
In cases of necessity I sometimes use these planting spades ;
that is, when I cannot procure enough of half-worn ones for the
number of men that I may have occasion to employ ; but in all
cases I have observed that those of the men who have half-worn
common spades, do far more work in a given time than those who
use the planting spades ; the reason being, that those tools are
* Mr William M'Corquodale, forester at Scoon, Perthshire, has recently invented
a spade constructed exclusively for the planting of young fir trees by the notching
system ; but as I have not yet myself practised with it, I would simply at present
call the attention of foresters in general to examine and test its adaptation for that
purpose.
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 259
made too heavy in the iron, and, when new, are not so pliable in a
man's hand as a sharp old spade.
The superintendent being perfectly satisfied as to the good state
of all the things above mentioned, he will cause some old trust-
worthy man to take charge of the plants that have been sheughed,
whose duty it will be to give out to the boys the different sorts of
young trees as they require them. This must not be trusted to
the boys themselves, as they would most likely leave the earth
from the roots of the plants when they came to take away a
quantity ; and, besides, they could not judge themselves as to the
quantity required to be taken at one time. Having appointed an
old man for this purpose, the superintendent will send the boys to
him to where the plants are, and cause them to bring with them
in their aprons, each, as nearly as possible, fifty lai'ch and fifty
Scots firs, with their roots laid inwards ; that is, the old man will
take fifty plants of larch and place them in the boy's apron, say
upon the left side, with their tops out and their roots inwards, and
he will also take fifty Scots firs and place them in the same apron
upon the right side in the same position. This precaution is neces-
sary, in order to protect the roots from the winds and drought. It
is not necessary that the man should count every plant he puts
out ; but if he count a few times, he will very soon, from practice,
1" able to give the boys the desired number, always observing in
the present case to give larch and Scots firs of each an equal
number. This he will do every time the boys come to him for a
supply as their former quantity is done : fifty plants of each at
once makes a very good quantity.
The men, with each a boy and plants, being all arranged in a
line upon the edge of the ground to be planted, having their
backs towards the plantation ground, and their faces looking upon
tli<' fence or boundary from which they are to start, and each hav-
ing a space of three yards in breadth to plant, the superintendent
will, with his own hands, take a spade and show them how he
wiahefl tin- trees to be planted, and also the manner of keeping the
distances of one tree from another; at the same time he will show
the boys how to put the tree into the notch as it is opened by the
man. I may here explain the manner of planting by the system
260 MANNER OK PROCEEDING
of notching, and how the boys ought to put in the plants. The
operator, with his spade, makes two deep cuts upon the turf,
crossing at right angles exactly where the plant is to be put in.
(See Fig. 81.) He next inserts his spade across one of the ends
of the four rays, as at a, which may be about five or six inches
from the centre, this insertion of the spade being made on the side
next himself. When the spade is inserted at a, he bends the
handle or head of the spade towards himself, FiG
and nearly to the ground. At this stage of the
operation the turf will open in the centre of
the cross in four equal parts, but most from the
point a ; and at this instant the boy inserts his
plant at the point a, where the spade intersects I
the ray from the centre. Immediately on in-
serting the plant he will draw it to the centre, while the planter
will retain his spade for a moment until the boy has the roots
slightly adjusted after passing them through the cut. As soon as
this is done, the operator raises up the handle of his spade, letting
the earth and turf down upon the roots of the plant, and makes all
the cuts close and compact about it by tramping with the fore-foot
first, and then with the heel. If the cuts do not close tightly, as
is sometimes the case when the turf is of a hard benty nature, a
little piece of thin turf may be taken from the open space and
placed over the cut, which will keep out the drought, this
also getting a tramp with the foot. When the situation to be
planted by notching is upon a sloping brae, the operator should
stand with his back up the hill and his face looking down. By
doing so, he inserts his spade for the opening of the turf at right
angles with the rise of the ground upon the upper side ; and in this
case the water coming along the surface is intercepted by the cuts,
and retained for the advantage of the young trees. Another point
to attend to in the planting of young trees by notching, is to see
that they are not inserted too deeply, for this is an error in plant-
ing which very often takes place. In order to avoid this, which is
against the health of the plants, the boy should be instructed to hold
the young tree between his fore-finger and thumb, just about one inch
above where the earth has been formerly. When he puts it into the
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 261
cut, he should hold it firmly by that part until the turf foils down
in its place; and if he finds that the turf, when down, is much
above the points of his finger and thumb, he must pull it up a little
so as to have these resting upon the surface of the turf. By attend-
ing to this precaution, the young trees will have a better chance to
succeed well. I have frequently seen the boys left to make the
plants firm in their place ; but this should never be allowed by
any man who wishes to do anything like his duty to his employer.
I have also known foresters who were so stupid and foolish as to
make the men and boys hurry on and get the plants put into
the ground at all events, not paying the least attention as to the
manner in which the work was done ; boasting then to their em-
ployers as to how many plants they had put in in one day, and of
the low price at Avhich they could plant an acre of ground ; and all
this with the view of deceiving their employer and gaining his
favour in the mean time. But, as was the natural result, the crop
was a failure. Every forester who wishes to do well to himself,
and to his employer at the same time, should have his planting
work executed well, without paying respect to a few extra shil-
lings of outlay on the acre. The work when well done will prove
satisfactory to the proprietor afterwards, as well as to himself;
and I again urge the making every man employed in the work of
planting accountable for the planting of the trees in a proper
manner, and not the boys.
The superintendent will now see that his men go on according
to the instructions given them, which arc in the mean time sup-
posed to be as above; while he also takes care that they cause
the boys to mix the larch and Scots firs equally upon the ground ;
that is to say, that the boys put in one larch and one Scots £r
alternately, mixing them in equal numbers as nearly as possible,
and as near to the given distance as can be guessed — that is, in
the present instance, three and one half feet. With regard to this
point, I have generally found that men are more apt to plant a few
more trees per acre than otherwise. After the men had done
planting a piece of ground, I have measured <>if an acre and
counted the plant- upon it, and have found two hundred more
than the stated allowance. Upon exposed situations, however,
262 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
this is the surer way of going to work ; for a few trees extra per
acre are always easily thinned out in due time, but a blank is
always an eyesore in any plantation ground, and this can scarcely
fail to be the case if a plantation is left thin at first.
The men being now, as we will suppose, going on briskly with
their work, the superintendent will keep a sharp look out behind
them, to see that they do the work according to his directions
given to them when they commenced. If there be any hands
among them who are more green than others, he will look most
sharply after them, and leave more to themselves those whom he
knows to be well acquainted with the work. He must go back-
wards and forwards among the planters, minutely examining their
work ; in short, he must examine almost each tree as it is put into
the ground, and see that it is properly planted and made firm in
the ground. When the least fault is observable, it ought to be
checked at once, and the fault laid to the person who did it ; and
if he persist in doing the same thing over again, the better way is
to pay him off at once rather than run the risk of having the work
badly done. An example will thus be made among the men,
showing them that the orders of the superintendent must not be
trifled with. Every cut made with the spade in the act of plant-
ing a tree should be firmly closed, in order to prevent the drought
from taking effect upon the roots.
When any boy has his supply of plants nearly finished, say all
but ten of each sort, he will give these to the man whose assistant
he is, and run for a fresh supply while the man is planting them.
By this method no time is lost ; and as the supply of plants is
generally not far off, and the old man ready to give them out,
any boy may be back with a fresh supply before the man has
twenty planted. Some planters have one boy serving the others
with plants ; but this method I have found objectionable, seeing
the plants are more exposed by it.
When the planters have arrived at the other end of the ground
laid off for them by the poles, the superintendent will, from the
pole at which they ended, measure off another space of the same
description as the first, and cause the men to fall in upon it, and
plant backwards another breadth of land, ending at where they
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 263
commenced. In order that the men ma}- not be hindered, the
superintendent should have the land measured off previous to their
finishing the first piece, and make the pole at which the men end
the last to be removed, and the first to begin at again. By going
to work in this manner, the superintendent is on the spot to see
his men tall into their proper places again upon the new land ; and
thus the planters will cross and re-cross the ground until they have
the district finished. When there may be any odd corners to
finish, upon which the whole number of men could not be pro-
fitably employed at once, the superintendent should cause a few of
his most trustworthy hands to finish them, and carry off the others
himself to commence upon another district.
At any time when the day may turn out wet, if the men have
all collected, and are willing to work, let them do so, but only as
long as the ground is not saturated with rain, which can at once
be known by the young trees not firming in the ground. As
soon as the superintendent sees that the men cannot, with the
usual beating, firm the trees, let him give orders to drop work at
once : to persevere in such a state of things is the worst manage-
ment. However, upon dry ground this will seldom occur. If the
day should prove frosty, let the men be set to make pits in any
district of the ground where it is required to have them — an opera-
tion which, in new land, should always be left for days of this
nature ; but the superintendent should be most careful never to
allow a tree to be planted in such pits till the frost has been pro-
perly thawed out of the earth. To plant a young tree among
frozen earth will kill it as certainly as if it had been put into
boiling water ; therefore the planter should always be extremely
careful to avoid this.
It sometimes happens that a morning will be frosty, and yet the
day prove good for planting operations after the sun has reached
a certain height. In a case of this kind, the superintendent ought
to set his men to the working of pits for hardwood in the morn-
ings, till the sun gets well up, and the frost has abated. This he
Avill at once know by the fresh earth which has been turned out of
the pits in the morning. If the particles of it are crumbly on the
t ■]>. and rather dry, the frost is too keen to admit of planting with
264 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
safety ; but if they are, when handled, of a soft and pliable texture,
he may proceed with planting immediately. In the afternoon,
when the sun begins to get low, he must observe the same precau-
tions : as soon as the earth, from its crumbling dryness, begins
to indicate the presence of frost, he must leave off the planting,
and resume the work of making pits ; but if the earth continue
soft and pliable to the feel, he may go on with planting, whether
that is in pits or by notching upon the turf.
We shall now suppose that the planting of district No. 1 has been
finished, and that the superintendent wishes to go on with the next
district in succession, No. 2. This consists of ten acres of good
loam upon a sheltered slope, and which is to be planted with 108
oaks and 327 ash to the imperial acre, and to be made up with
one year's transplanted larches and two years' transplanted Scots
pines, to the distance of three and a half feet over all. By looking
at the table of distances given in this section, it will be observed,
that in order to plant 435 hardwood upon the imperial acre, the
pits will require to be made at distances as nearly ten feet
as possible. Now, supposing that this has been partly done
during a frosty morning, while planting the first district, the
superintendent will, as is the most profitable way, and that by
which he can always have the men most immediately under his
notice, set all hands to fill up the pits which have been made with
trees, and not put one party to the making of pits, and another to
the planting of the trees, unless, indeed, he can put on one party
to make the pits in whom he can place more than ordinary con-
fidence, and enable him to devote his undivided attention to the
planting. This I frequently do myself; but where the superin-
tendent cannot place confidence in a certain party of his men, his
better plan is, in order to have the work properly executed, and to
have it carried on to advantage, to keep them all at one depart-
ment of the work. This he must do as he finds himself circum-
stanced, because either of the ways will answer so far as the work
itself is concerned. In planting the hardwood in the pits, the
boys will not be able to carry about with them so many plants as
they did of the firs, the hardwood plants being larger; twenty-
five plants of oak, and the same of ash, will, in the present case,
AVITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 2G5
be a fair proportion, aud enough of trees at once.* In the act of
planting in the pits, if the situation he an exposed one, I put the
plant, not in the centre of the pit, as many do, hut in one corner
of it. (Fig. 82, a.) My object for doing so is to obviate the bad
effects arising from the wind shaking young trees when first put
in their place, as in exposed sites this is greatly prevented by plant-
ing the tree in the corner of the pit rather than in the centre. In
the former position the young plant has two
firm sides to rest upon instead of the open
soil all around it, as in the case when planted
in the centre, as at b. As to this, the super-
intendent must judge for himself, whether he
ought to plant the one way or the other, and
be regulated, in doing so, according as the
trees are apt to be shaken or not by severe storms. Whatever
way, however, may be resolved on, the boy holds the tree in its
place until the man with his spade fills in all the loose earth taken
out of the pit; the boy all the time moving the plant slightly up and
down until he find the earth heavy about its roots. When the whole
earth is in, the man should take hold of the plant, and judge if it
is too deep : if so, he should pull it up a little, and then with his
feet make the soil firm about the roots of the newly-inserted plant.
As it is understood that, in the making of the pits, the turf, when
taken off, was divided into two equal parts, the man will next take
the divided turf and place it, grass undermost, upon the surface
of the pit, with the tree in the centre, and make it quite firm and
close about the plant. If, however, it is intended to plant the
trees in the corners of the pits, it will not be necessary to divide the
turf at all, but merely to tarn it upside down upon the surface
of the pit. The earth upon it should then be pared off, and put
with (are upon the joining all round, the whole receiving a firm
beating from the feet. In the same manner proceed with the
planting of all the trees in the pits ; and when it happens, at any
time, that the men, on account of frost, are set to make pits
altogether, the bojfl may be dispensed with for the time, the supcr-
* In the ca.se of planting the above mixture of oak and ash, the oak should he
first put in at twenty feet apart, and the ash between them to ten feet alternately.
266 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
intendent letting them know when to come back, provided the
weather shall be fresh.
Some planters have recommended to plant the ground first with
firs ; and where it is intended to plant hardwood among them, to
do so when the firs are from four to five feet high. This they
say is in order to produce shelter for the hardwood previous to
putting them in. I am decidedly against this system of rearing
hardwood, being certain that no advantage is gained by such a
method, but, on the contrary, there is much lost. For example, if
oaks are either sown or planted among firs when these are from
four to five feet high, they very soon overtop the oaks, and render
them, if not useless, at least tall, slender, and unhealthy ; but so
far as I have seen the effects of the system, the oak trees so dealt
with are more generally found crushed down, unhealthy, and
stunted ; this being always occasioned by the rapid growth of the
firs as compared with that of the oak. In all high-lying situations,
any hardwood that may be planted should be plants of a rather
small size as compared with others that would answer in a shel-
tered place. These small plants, I have always found, are much
improved by being cut over by the surface of the ground the
second year after being planted out : by this method of treat-
ment they make fair good shoots during the third summer of their
standing in the forest ground. During the fourth summer, the
young shoots are thinned out, and one left for the ultimate tree at
each stock, when a fine young tree is formed, fresh and new, and
in every respect adapted for the climate in which it has been pro-
duced. By this time also the firs are beginning to make rapid
progress, and give the hardwood plants the benefit of their shelter,
so that at eight years' growth, upon a high situation, the firs will
very probably be from six to eight feet high, and the young hard-
wood, if dealt with in the manner I recommend, will be at least
half that height. Thus we have, by the method I recommend,
when the firs are from six to eight feet high, good healthy hard-
wood, whether of oak or any others ; whereas, by the method
referred to above, the planter would be several years behind,
besides running the risk of having his trees choked up and ruined,
by the firs being so much in advance of the hardwood.
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 267
The hardwood being all planted in the district No. 2, the
superintendent will next proceed to have the ground filled up, to
the distance formerly specified, with the firs, by the method of
notching already described. District No. 3, containing twelve
acres of moss resting upon clay, is to be dealt with in the same
manner as the district last referred to. I have seen excellent oak
timber upon a mossy surface soil resting upon clay, and that was
when the moss had been well dried from superfluous moisture.
When it is well drained, the moss has a strong and rapid tendency
to subside, and the roots soon find their way down into the clay,
where they dei'ive their principal nourishment. Indeed, upon a
soil of this description, larch and Scots pines thrive well also.
District No. 4, being twenty-four acres of deep swampy moss, but
well dried by draining, will not grow hardwood to any advantage;
unless, indeed, we may except ash, which will do well in moss as a
coppice. In this case, however, I have advised to plant spruce and
Scuts pines, both thriving pretty well in a mossy soil : the spruce
firs more particularly do well upon such a soil. These should all be
planted by notching, unless the plants used be large, and the
surface rough with strong grass, in which case they should be
planted in pits ; and particular care should be had to see that
they are made firm, as the cuts in the moss are very apt to open
when the drought sets in during the spring, which would be against
the health of the plants. In a mossy soil, plants of any descrip-
tion never come away quickly. I have observed mossy tracts that
had been planted in new plantations, make scarcely any progress
whatever for the space of eight or ten years from the time of
planting. This was occasioned by the want of stimulus in the
soil to set them off in their growth, the moss being always what
forester- term duU; but as soon as shelter is produced by other
trees growing around the moss ground, the plants in it come away
rapidly. In the centre of No. 4 there is a spot of three acres,
which, from the difficulty of getting conveniently a sufficient fall
fur the water, is not well drained. In such a place the alder is the
only crop which will succeed upon it, and these may be planted
by notching.
District No. 5, being thirty acres of strong clay loam upon a
268 MANNER OP PROCEEDING
level, is excellently adapted for the growing of hardwood, and
more particularly for the growing of oak ; therefore I have recom-
mended to plant three hundred of them to the acre, and make up
to four feet over all with two years' transplanted larch and Scots
pines, of each an equal number. In this case, the oaks being upon
a level part of the ground, and sheltered by rising ground in the
neighbourhood, the plants may be inserted in the centres of the pits,
and the larches, which here, on account of the strong herbage
upon the ground, are to be two years transplanted, will, in order
to have justice done them, require to be planted in small pits,
merely the breadth of the spade upon the side of the square, which
can be very quickly made. I have found that a man will make
five hundred of such pits in a day upon a good pliable soil such as
that at present supposed : they need not be more than from seven
to nine inches deep. The Scots pines, although two years trans-
planted, may, in a good clay soil, where there are no roots of old
trees, be planted by the notching system, taking care to make
them firm in the ground, and not to put them in too deep, an evil
with regard to pines of all kinds which should be particularly
guarded against. The roots of pine trees, if buried out of the
influence of the air, are sure to be thrown into bad health, or per-
haps die, according to the degree of depth.
District No. 6, being seventeen acres of light sandy soil, with
thin surface turf, and resting upon gravel, is to be planted with two
hundred beech and two hundred birch to the acre, each sort
eighteen inches high. These must be put into pits ; but the soil
being of an open free nature, these need not be large. Pits of the
same size as has already been recommended for the larch firs in
the last district, will answer perfectly well ; and allowing four
hundred hardwood to the acre, the pits for them will require to be
made about ten and a half feet apart. These being put in, the
ground is to be made up to three and a half feet over all, with one
year's transplanted larch, and one year's transplanted Scots firs, of
each an equal number. They may all be notched ; and in put-
ting them in, care should be taken to see that they are properly
mixed, and larch planted next the hardwood.
District No. 7 consists of forty-three acres of bare rocky ground,
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 2G9
with here and there spots of good loamy soil, to the extent of
about six acres in all : bare rocky ground to be planted with eight-
inch birch, two rears' seedling larch, and two years' seedling Scots
firs, of each an equal number to the acre, making them stand three
feet, plant from plant : good loamy soil to be planted with ash,
ten feet apart, and made up with larch and Scots pine to three and
a half feet over all.
In this case, have first the six acres of good loamy soil made up
with the desired number of trees to the acre ; planting the hard-
wood first in pits, and then filling up the ground with firs, as
already specified, by the notching system.
In planting the bare rocky parts with the two years' seedling
larch and Scots pines, and also the birches, a system of planting,
different from what we have yet mentioned, must be resorted to —
namely, that of planting by means of the planting-mattock. (See
Fig. 83.) The handle of this implement is
generally made about forty inches long, and
of a piece of good ash-wood : the mouth or
cutting end, a, is about four and a half inches
broad, and pretty sharp ; and the length of
the one side, from the face to the eye, is
about fifteen inches. The other side, instead
of being broad and sharp, is made to taper
to a point, as in the common pick, (see b.)
In using this implement for the purpose of planting, which is only
done upon thin, stony, or rocky ground, where the spade could
not be used to advantage, the operator takes it into his hand in
the same manner as he would do a common pick, and first pares
off a thin part of the turf, with the broad end, a, exactly on the
spot where he intends to plant a tree. Having this turf taken off,
say about six inches square, he next with the pick-end loosens the
soil in tin' -]>"t pared, to the depth of about eight inches, bringing
up at the same time to the surface any considerable-sized stone or
stones that might interfere with the planting of the tree. In this
manner any number of nun may be employed, always observing
to keep to the specified distance as nearly as circumstances will
permit. In general, every two men employed with the planting
7
270 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
mattock are followed by one person having the trees in an apron,
which he plants in the spots prepared. In planting with small
seedlings, he uses an implement called the planting FlG 84
hoe, represented by Fig. 84. The iron part of
this implement, from a to b, is generally about ^N> '■
twelve inches long ; the mouth or sharp end at a,
is made about four inches broad, and is not
kept so sharp as the mouth of the mattock,
it having to be used in the earth; the handle may be about
fifteen inches long. The person who is entrusted with the
planting of the seedlings in the spots previously prepared by
the men with the mattocks, carries his plants in an apron
before him. In using the planting hoe, he keeps it in his right
hand, and digs it into each spot ; and by pulling it, when in, a
little towards himself, he makes a sufficient opening at the back of
it to hold the roots of the young tree, which he puts in with his
left hand, inserting the roots very carefully. As soon as the roots
are properly put in, he withdraws the instrument, taking care at
the same time not to disturb the plant in its position. When the
implement is out, he gives the earth, upon the side of the hole
next to him, a push with its mouth, in order to hurl the loose
earth into the hole about the roots of the newly inserted plant ;
and finishes by tramping and making the plant firm in its place.
In this manner three men will plant nearly two thousand plants
a day.
On very bare or rocky surfaces, it is not always even possible
to get as much earth in a certain spot as will properly cover the
roots of small seedling plants. Where this is the case, it is a
better plan to sow the seed of the trees wished to grow in the
ground at once ; which is the only way of getting young trees to
rise in certain districts. This plan has been adopted in some parts
of the West Highlands of Scotland, and has been attended with
good success.
We often see seedling trees, of almost every common variety,
growing upon old walls, or any chink of a stone where the seed
has only got a small portion of lime rubbish or other decomposed
matter to vegetate in ; and in this position we have seen them
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 271
attain considerable dimensions, so much so as to rend the wall, in
which they had got a tooting, into pieces. Even in the crevices of
rocks we often see trees of very large dimensions growing,
which points out that, where a young tree can only obtain a very
slight footing for fixing its roots, it will prosper ultimately, and
make room for itself. I am strongly of opinion that many
bare rocky parts of a country might, under proper management,
in growing the seeds of forest trees upon them, be made very
productive and valuable, not only as a shelter to the surround-
ing country, but as yielding a profitable crop of timber. The
oak and birch, in particular, are well adapted for this purpose.
I have myself cut oak and birch coppice of valuable quality grow-
ing upon bare rock ; and I am convinced from what I have seen
upon this point, that both these trees are well adapted for cover-
ing bare rocky ground ; — the oak in moderately exposed, and
birch in high and exposed, parts of the country. In sowing the
seeds of either of these trees upon a bare rocky surface, it is
necessary to have little patches prepared for the sowing of the
seeds ; and this can very easily be done by carting several loads
of earth to where that does not previously exist in sufficient
quantity. The acorns may be laid two or three in a shallow
fissure of the stony ground, and merely covered by one spadeful
of earth ; and the birch seed may be sown upon the surface of a
spadeful of earth laid down for the purpose, and merely get a
slight beat with the back of the spade, in order to prevent the
seeds being blown away. Even Scots and larch fir seed may be
sown in the same manner, but the oak and birch being trees
adapted fur coppice-wood, are decidedly preferable for ground of
the nature in question. Another reason for sowing the seeds of
trees in poor, thin, rocky soil is, that there the seed is not very
apt to be destroyed by mice, birds, and other vermin, they being
more in the habit of frequenting more favoured spots for the sake
of cover and shelter.
In growing trees from the seed in such situations as that refer-
red to, it is necessary to keep the patches clear from weeds for
the first two years, and to thin out all the patches to one indi-
vidual after the second year of their growth, at which stage the
272 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
plants will be established in their place, and require no further
attention.
Having now stated pretty fully the method of proceeding
with planting operations, I shall now conclude with a few general
observations.
In the planting of firs among hardwood, it is of importance that
the larch plants should as much as possible be kept next the hard-
wood. By this method of procedure, when the first course of
thinning takes place, we shall have larch trees to sell instead of
Scots pines, which would not be the case were the Scots pines
planted next the hardwood ; for in the first course of thinning it is
always necessary to relieve the hardwood first by taking a few
trees off them.
In making up with young trees old plantation ground, upon
which a number of large trees may be still growing for the
purpose of producing a clothed appearance until the young wood
rise up, the spreading branches of such of them as may be cover-
ing a large piece of ground, should be lopped off; for the young
trees will not thrive under their branches. In planting young
trees near old ones, it is always advisable to keep the young
beyond the drip or outer points of the extended branches of the
old ; and as the young trees rise up, the old ones should be either
cut away altogether, or their side branches so much shortened
as to give the young ones free room and space to rise up healthily.
In preparing old plantation ground for planting young trees
upon it, the pits for the hardwood should be made three or four
months previous to planting the trees in them. By using this
precaution, the soil is made more healthy for the roots of the
young trees, and they will consequently come away much better.
Young trees planted in ground from which a crop of wood has
been lately taken, seldom come away so freely and quickly as
trees planted upon a fresh soil, and this more particularly if the
crop be not changed. On this point it may be necessary to give
a few more practical hints, for many foresters are liable to error
in this point, and I have seen many failures take place in conse-
quence.
It is now a well-ascertained fact among the more observing and
WITII PLANTING OPERATIONS. 273
intelligent foresters, that in the culture of trees, as well as in the
culture of any agricultural or horticultural plant, a change of
crop, or a rotation of cropping, is necessary upon the land ; and in
many instances where this has not been attended to, a failure has
been the result. However, there are modifications as to the
extent of the failure in cases of this nature ; this depending upon
the adaptation of the land to the nature of the trees cultivated.
For example, if a piece of land upon which firs have been grown
to full size, be of a rather deep sandy loam, another crop of the
same species may be taken, and the trees of the second crop may
very likely prove nearly as good as those of the first. But if
a piece of land, upon which firs have been grown to full size,
be thin in the upper stratum, with a hard tilly subsoil, the second
crop will not succeed so well ; while, on the other hand, from the
upper stratum having been greatly enriched by the fall of the
foliage of the firs, hardwood trees would succeed well ; and after
they had got themselves established in the upper soil, and had
gained strength, they would send down their roots deep into the
subsoil, and improve it to a great extent. After the hardwood
crop had been perfected and cut down, and the soil in the upper
surface had been much improved by the foliage of the hardwood
rotting upon it, a crop of firs would thrive well upon it again,
and in all probability would be much better than the first crop ;
because, the soil being now much deeper than at first, and
improved by the penetration of the roots of the hardwood, the
roots of the firs would have a renewed soil to grow in : the one
crop thus preparing the soil for the reception of another, as is
well known to be the case in all agricultural rotations of cropping.
But although firs will not grow to the same state of perfec-
tion when planted successively upon the same piece of land, they
will, notwithstanding, grow to a considerable size, and even to the
extent of becoming useful timber ultimately. Of this we take
advantage in the planting of nurses among hardwood trees
planted after firs. In many soils, however, where Scots pines
have been cut down as a matured crop, the soil is what foresters
generallv term foul; that is, it La infested by an insect which preys
upon the young trees of the same species when planted as a
274 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
second crop ; and there are very few Scots pine plantations of
any considerable extent in which this insect is not found. Even
after the old trees have all been carried off, they will live and
prey upon the bark about the roots of the trees that remain in
the ground ; and on this account it is often found a matter of
great difficulty to get young Scots pine trees to come away after
a crop of old ones, the insects preying continually upon the bark,
and consequently killing the young trees. This insect is termed
the Hylurgus piniperda. It has the appearance of a small beetle, of
a bright gray colour, and beautifully spotted, and from half to three
quarters of an inch long. These insects, in their attack upon the
young Scots pine trees, generally commence at the part next to
the ground, and eat the bark all round. They proceed gradually
upwards, leaving the young trees peeled in to the wood, and the
tree, of course, dies in a very short time. When there are larch
planted among the Scots pines, it attacks them in the same
manner, generally commencing its ravages pretty early in the
season, when the young trees are in sap and beginning to grow.
Many plans have been tried by foresters to avoid the ravages
of this destructive creature ; but the most effectual plan, and one
which answers perfectly well, was first pointed out to me by Mr
William M'Corquodale, forester to the Earl of Mansfield, upon
his estate of Scone in Perthshire. Having myself been much
annoyed by the ravages of the insect mentioned above, in
most of the older fir lands upon which I had planted other of the
same species (both larch and Scots) as nurses to hardwood, I
learned that Mr M'Corquodale was very successful in raising a
second crop of firs upon the same land, and avoiding the ravages
of the insect. I therefore visited him at Scone, and had a con-
vincing proof of the entire efficacy of the plan he adopted, which
I shall here describe, for the guidance of others who may find it
necessary to plant young firs as a second crop upon the same
land, and which I can recommend to all foresters as being a sys-
tem well worthy of their adopting.
In planting young Scots pines on land which has been recently
under a crop of the same kind, Mr M'Corquodale uses two years'
transplanted trees. In planting them, he first takes off a turf
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS. 275
"with the spade about twelve inches on the side of the square,
rather thinly, and lays it to one side of the opening. He next
loosens the earth upon the spot from which the turf was taken, to
about nine inches deep, giving it a sort of dig, and making the
soil open, and in a good state for the reception of the roots of the
plant ; and next he inserts the plant rather shallowly with the
spade in the usual manner, giving the earth about it a firm
tramping with the feet. He then takes the turf which came off
the spot in which the plant is now put, and with the spade divides
it into two equal halves, and lays it, grass side undermost, back
upon the spot from which it was taken, making the two halves
meet upon the tree, joining the seam in the middle pretty
close, and giving the whole a firm beat with the back of the
spade. Then, in order to finish the whole, he raises a piece of turf
from the surface, anywhere near to him at the time, with his spade ;
then takes out two or three spadefuls of clean earth, and puts it
upon the top of the inverted turf, and round about the plant ; and
then, taking a hold of the plant, he with his foot makes very firm
the soil laid over the turf; which being done, he next with the
spade gathers up the loose earth as it lies flat round the tree, and
puts it neatly up all round upon the tree, giving it the shape of a
little cone or mound, with the tree in the centre. This being
neatly done, he claps it all round, firmly and smoothly, with the
back of the spade — when the work of planting F , 8.
is finished. In the same manner he proceeds
with every one of the trees he may plant
under such circumstances. Fig. 85 will
show the appearance of the tree, with its
mound of earth about it, when planted.
Now, with regard to his reason for planting the trees in the
manner described, he says, "The insects, when they make an
attempt to climb the little mound of earth, cannot keep their
footing, and invariably fall down before getting half way up."
He says, " I have frequently sat down to observe the movements
of the creatures, and find that when the surface of the mound of
earth is made perfectly smooth, they can, on account of the steep-
ness of the mound, scarcely make any advance at all, and very
276 MANNER OF PROCEEDING
soon give up the attempt ; and even when the glaze does wear
off the surface, the earth, as they endeavour to mount upwards,
on account of the steepness of the mound, always gives way
with them, and hurls them to the bottom before they can advance
an inch or two. This points out the whole secret of the matter.1'
To those who may be incredulous as to the effects of such a simple
contrivance, I have only to say, try, and the effects will be evident.
The woods under Mr M'Corquodale's charge point out the effect
of this system of planting ; and having examined for myself in
this matter, I can confidently recommend it to others.
In planting trees in pits, the planters should always be very
careful to see that the best portion of the soil be put next the roots
of the plants; for, if this be not attended to, the success will not be
equal to expectation. They should also bear particularly in mind,
to chop down and pulverise with the spade all soil which is put
next the roots; for if put in about them in lumps, vacuities will be
left about the roots, which will probably cause water to lodge
there ; whereas, when the soil is made firm and small, it gets in
about the tender roots, nursing them kindly, and preventing
superfluous moisture from lodging near them. Where pitting is
performed upon a sloping piece of ground, such as the side of a
hill, the earth, as it is taken out of the pit, should be put to the
under side, and close upon the edge ; and when the trees are
planted in these pits, the good soil upon the upper edge of the pit
should be broken well down with the spade, and put in about the
roots of the young trees, leaving all the soil which was taken out
of the pit still lying upon the under side, in order the better to
protect the roots from drought and retain moisture about them ;
forming, when the tree is planted, a bowl in fig. 86.
which a little moisture can be retained in
its descent down the hill. Fig. 86 will
explain the nature of this sort of pitting : a
represents the earth taken out of the pit ;
b the tree standing in the pit, which has been
filled up with earth by reducing the bank be-
hind as at c?, the original slope of the ground
being indicated by the line from c to e.
WITH PLANTING OPERATIONS.
277
Fig. 87.
Although the spruce fir does not naturally grow in this country
when planted in a high exposed situation, it will do well, and even
grow to useful size, in a plantation upon an exposed part, if it be
but sheltered by other trees of a more hardy constitution, such as
the 8cots pine and larch. Every planter, therefore, who wishes to
produce a variety of trees in any high part of the country, if he
will plaut spruce firs in the interior, where they will ultimately be
will sheltered, may depend upon raising spruce fir timber of
good and useful size ; that is to say, if the soil be not too light,
and of a dry gravelly nature.
In planting trees in glens and steep hollow parts, the operator
should not measure his distance between the trees with the slope
of the ground, but in the
manner as represented in Fig.
s7. which is drawn to the scale
«>f an eighth of an inch to a foot.
The line a b represents a
sloping bank, to be planted with
• tr« es, at four feet apart;
the places of which are shown
in the Figure at c, c, c, c. By
measuring upon the line a b
with an eighth of an inch scale,
it will be at once seen that
the distance between each tree
from c to c is six feet ; and had the planter planted his trees,
measuring his distance of four feet along the slope, he would,
when tin- trees grew up, have had them growing at about two and
a halt" tret instead <>i" four. In taking distances for planting trees
in a case of this nature, the operator must always keep his
. if he use one, in the position a- pointed out in the Figure
by the line from o 1.> tZ/oryin other words, the operator must, when
taking a measurement for planting another tree, set the one end of
his measure-Stick at the bottom of the last tree he planted, ami.
keeping it level, let fall a perpendicolai from the other end for the
place where the next tree ifl to be planted, as shown by the dotted
line from d to c.
278 PROFITABLE DISTRIBUTION
SECTION VI. — KINDS OF FOREST TREES WHICH MAY BE MOST PROFIT-
ABLY PLANTED IN ANY GIVEN DISTRICT OF THE COUNTRY.
In raising timber as a profitable crop upon any proprietor's
estate, two things require to be kept in view — namely, 1st, to
plant those sorts of trees which will come to be of the greatest
value in the nearest market ; and, 2d, to plant those sorts, which
are most likely to grow to useful size upon the soil to be planted.
In illustration of this, we may suppose a proprietor desirous of
planting hardwood, such as oak, ash, elm, and sycamore. If his
ground was not naturally adapted for the healthy growth of these
sorts, he would ultimately be a loser by planting them, even
admitting that he could get a ready market for the timber in the
neighbourhood. On the other hand, were the same proprietor to
plant pines upon his land instead of hardwood, even although he
could not get a ready market for such wood in his neighbourhood,
he would (the land being adapted for pines) ultimately, from the
healthy state of his trees, and the greater bulk of timber produced,
be a great gainer by such culture. From this it will at once appear
evident, that, in order to receive the greatest possible value from
timber in any given district, it is of greater importance to grow that
sort of tree for which the soil and situation are adapted, than to grow
that sort for which the greatest price may be given in the market.
On an estate thirty miles from a good market for oak timber,
and in a district difficult of access, if the proprietor were to plant
oak in a soil perfectly adapted to it, and at the same time to plant
pines in another situation as well adapted for them, supposing
that both grew equally well and arrived at good size, and that he
had the same number of feet of wood in each per acre, yet, on
account of the great distance there would be to carry the oak to
market, there being no demand for it in the neighbourhood, the
oak very likely, after deducting all necessary expenses, would not
bring so much clear cash to the proprietor as the fir would do,
there being, as we shall suppose, a great demand for it in the
immediate neighbourhood. This I have frequently had occasion
to observe, and I am aware that proprietors are often misled in
this matter, calculating much upon any wood, such as the oak,
OF FOREST TREES. 279
which is famed for its value, but not calculating the expense
necessary to be incurred in getting that wood brought to market.
Before proceeding to point out the different kinds of wood which
may most profitably be planted in any certain district, I shall give
a statement showing how the value of timber is affected by dis-
tance from market. The following are the prices, varying according
to distance from market, at which I have seen wood sold on the
ground in 184G : —
Oak at 5 miles from Leith, at 2s. 6tl. per foot
Do. at 10 :
miles,
at 2 3
do.
Do. at 20
do.
at 1 8
do.
Larch do. at 5
do.
at 1 6
do.
Do. at 10
do.
at 1 3
do.
Do. at 20
do.
at 0 10
do.
Ash do. at 5
do.
at 2 0
do.
Do. at 10
do.
at l 8
do.
Do. at 20
do.
at 1 3
do.
Scots pine, at 5
do.
at l 3
do.
Do. at 10
do.
at 0 10
do.
Do. at 20
do.
at 0 6
do.
Pit props, at 5
do.
at 3 6
per 100 lineal feet
Do. at 10
do.
at 3 2
do.
Do. at 20
do.
at 2 6
do.
Fire-wood, at 5
do.
at 10 0
per ton.
Do. at 10
do.
at 5 0
do.
Do. at 20
do.
at 2 0
do.
The statement given is from sales, the superintendence of which
I had myself, and can therefore vouch for the correctness of the
different prices given. Any proprietor, therefore, twenty miles
from the market, must not expect to realise much more than half
the value for his wood that his neighbour who is situated five miles
from the market does ; and so on in proportion to distance.
In all districts near to any ship-building port, or to the sides
of rivere, &c, where access is easy, no wood can pay better than
oak and larch, both of which are used in the construction of first-
daaa vessels, and, indeed, in vessels of every size. I have myself
seen oak timber, brought from B distance, draw a higher price per
foot than oak grown near the market, in consequence of supe-
riority in the quality of the wood; and I have heard a proprietor,
whose plantations were within four miles of a thriving sea-port,
say that his plantations of pine paid him much better than his
oak ones, his land not being so well adapted for the raising of
280 PROFITABLE DISTRIBUTION
oak as for pine. I mention these facts, to avoid misleading any,
because the value of wood as a crop upon any piece of land, let the
locality in which it is grown be what it may, does not so much
depend upon the kind of wood planted, as on whether the soil and
situation are adapted to the growth of the kinds of timber planted
upon it. Hence I always advise the proprietor of land to plant
those trees which his soil and situation are best fitted to bring to
perfection. In this case, although he may not have wood to
answer the demand in the neighbourhood, yet when he takes into
consideration the greater health of his plantations, and the conse-
quent greater bulk of timber, he will find himself far better
paid than if he had adopted a contrary plan. In the neighbour-
hood of all large towns there is a continual demand for Scots pine,
larch, and spruce fir, for deals ; and wherever the soil is adapted for
the growth of these kinds of trees, they in general pay as well, if not
better, than any other sort of wood, seeing their growth is quick.
Ash is a wood much in demand about all considerable towns for
handle-wood and coach-building, &c, and pays any proprietor well,
when his land is adapted to the healthy growth of it ; such as in
dells, and other local hollows having a good strong loamy soil. The
Scots elm is also much used in large towns, frequently for the same
purpose as the ash ; but unless it be grown in a heavy loamy soil, or
in a light loamy one, with a supply of water from a running stream,
it will not prosper well, nor turn out a profitable tree to the planter.
In the neighbourhood of all large towns, a great quantity of
wood is generally consumed in the form of fuel ; and for this pur-
pose many sorts of wood are used. In Scotland, where coals are
plentiful, wood is never grown for the purpose of being consumed
as firewood, only the tops and larger branches of full-grown trees
being sold for this purpose, along with the heavier timber when
cut down ; therefore, in Scotland, the raising of trees for firewood
does not constitute any part of forestry ; but in England, and par-
ticularly in the central counties, where fuel of every description is
scarce, the raising of wood as a substitute for other fuel is neces-
sarily resorted to, and constitutes a part of forestry. In order to
meet the demand for firewood in such districts, hedgerow trees
are kept down in the form of pollards ; that is, the trees are headed
OF FOREST TREES. 281
down to ten or twenty feet in height, according to the kinds culti-
vated, and are allowed to produce lateral shoots, which are cut
down again, in the same manner as coppice-wood, at stated intervals.
These lateral shoots, from being so frequently cut over, become
very numerous all over the trees, giving them the appearance of
enormous coppice stools, and from them a great supply of young
shoots is taken for firewood. Besides this supply, there are large
tracts of mixed coppice grown in the usual way for firewood ; that is,
this sort of coppice is planted in the usual form of a plantation, and
enclosed with a proper fence. The trees which are intended to
form the future coppice are generally planted at four feet apart,
using none but such kinds of hardwood as are known to produce
a great quantity of stoles from the bottom or collar when cut
over ; such as the oak, ash, sycamore, hazel, willow, poplar, occ.
These trees, when first planted, are treated in the same manner as
in the raising of hardwood for a timber plantation ; but instead
of thinning any out when they come to such a size as to stand
close together — and that will be when the plants are from fifteen
to twenty feet high, and from three to five inches diameter in
the bole — they are cut over to the surface, and allowed to push up
another supply of shoots for another crop. In this manner these
stools may be cut over for a supply of firewood for an indefinite
number of years, and at intervals, as may be found necessary in
order to supply the demand. In cutting dowm these coppice plan-
tations, the whole is not used for firewood, all the straight rods
being used and sold for bobbinwood for manufacturers, hoops,
basket-willows, poles for various purposes, besom-sprey, implement
handles, &c. ; and when the best of the wood has been picked out
for these purposes, all the sprey, and what may properly be termed
refuse, is bundled up and sold in the form of faggots. Now, in
districts where this sort of wood-produce is much in demand, it is
certainly right and proper for the proprietors of land to grow it in
order to supply the inhabitants with fuel; and in many instances
large returns of profit have been made from such a mode of culti-
vating wood ; but I do not sec that it can be profitable for pro-
prietors generally to plant their lands for the exclusive purpose of
raising firewood. In thin tracts, where it would not be possible to
282 PROFITABLE DISTRIBUTION
raise large timber, this sort of crop answers well, and indeed pays
well, as also in low swampy grounds. But wherever land is of a
fair quality, the more profitable system is to plant, at a given dis-
tance, hardwood trees, to be raised as timber of full size, and allow
the thinnings to be used for firewood as they are cut out. By
this mode of going to work, a greater weight of wood will be
taken from an acre of land at the end of a specified time, than if
kept entirely under coppice, and consequently a greater return of
profit would be received. In the districts in England where hops
are grown, nothing pays better than the cultivation of small
larches. These may be planted very closely together — say at from
eighteen to twenty-four inches apart — and drawn up quickly for
hop poles , and as the same land will produce several crops of the
same sort, when planted in succession, very profitable returns are
made, and at very little expense ; while, at the same time, in
raising such a crop, little or no professional skill is necessary in the
person who grows it.
In districts where coal mines abound, great quantities of wood of
various kinds are in demand ; and it is in a neighbourhood of this
description that I am at present situated, having no fewer than ten
extensive coal mines within as many miles of the place. The demand
for wood of all sorts to supply their various purposes is very great,
— more particularly for propwood, which is generally small thin-
nings of various kinds of wood not less than two and a half inches
diameter at the small end. In the neighbourhood of coal mines,
the most profitable wood to plant is, first, larch, which, in a young
state, when taken out as thinnings — say from three to five inches
in diameter — is in great demand as propwood. When of a larger
size — say about eight inches diameter — it is much sought after for
sleepers to lay under the rails upon underground railways; and
when of full-grown size, the larch is used extensively as boards for
various purposes. Second, Scots pine and spruce fir, which, when
of small size, are also used for propwood, but seldom for sleepers, the
larch being preferred for this purpose ; but when they have arrived
at full age, the wood of the Scots pine and spruce is much sought
after for boards and planks. Third, Poplar and willow is much
sought after about coalworks, particularly when of good large
OF FOREST TREES. 283
scantling, and is used in the form of plank for clothing their wag-
gons. Fourth, Ash is also much used about coahvorks for handles
to their picks. Fifth, Elm is also a good deal used for trams to
the underground waggons. Sixth, Oak is also in considerable
demand about coahvorks, and is used for framing for their large
waggons, and for various other purposes connected with such esta-
blishments. The above are the principal sorts of wood used for
coahvorks; but the most important in such districts is small thin-
nings of wood of every kind, provided it be of a size averaging
from two and a half to five inches in diameter, which is now gene-
rally sold at three shilling's per hundred lineal feet.
In the neighbourhood of flax manufactories, there is always a
great demand for plane-tree bobbins about six inches in diameter,
as also of a smaller size, which are sometimes made of birch. In the
neighbourhood of all considerable manufacturing towns, and more
especially whore there are bleaching-works, there is an extensive
demand for plane-tree of a large scantling, where it sells some-
times at a very high price. For railway purposes a great deal of
wood is now used in the form of sleepers, for which larch is used ;
in the form of stobs and rails for the purpose of fencing the fields
along the line, for which larch is also mostly used ; and in the
form of waggons of various kinds, for which purpose ash, elm, oak,
and fir are used. In the making of a line of railway, the con-
tractors require a great quantity of wood from the different pro-
prietors through whose grounds they pass in the act of working,
ami in cases of this nature a good price is generally given for the
wood ; but the sales of this description are only of a temporary
nature, in so far as the contractor's work is to be calculated upon.
"When, however, a line of railway is opened up through any gentle-
man*.- property, although he should be twenty miles off, he is, in
respect of a market for his wood, or indeed of any other produce
npon his estate, nearly on a level with his neighbours who may be
within five miles of the same market. In such circumstances, the
proprietor may plant any crop that will best succeed upon his
land, and calculate upon having it brought to market in a cheap,
sure, ami expeditious manner. In such a case, if the proprietor
find his laud adapted for the growing of the more valuable kinds of
284 TEEES BEST FITTED FOE
timber trees, he need not be in any hesitation as to planting and
rearing them, although he may not have a market near for its
sale ; because, when his wood is ready for cutting down, he can
avoid the expensive process of horse-cartage, and put his trees at
once upon trucks adapted for the purpose ; and at a very trifling
expense he may have them conveyed fifty miles to market, and
sold and delivered much quicker than his neighbour who may have
to cart his wood only five miles to the same place, although the
trees may have been all cut at the same time. This I have now
seen frequently done.
In conclusion, upon this head I have to state, that every pro-
prietor of land who intends to plant a portion of it with forest
trees, should not reason with himself merely as to what kinds
of trees will sell best in his neighbourhood when grown. He
should, on the contrary, also study the nature of his soil and
situation, and plant those sorts of trees upon it which will thrive
best and arrive at the greatest state of perfection, let the kinds be
what they will. If he do this, he will have the greatest possible
bulk of timber from a given number of acres in a given number of
years ; and will realise the greatest sum of money as their
value. But if he act in an opposite way, and plant trees not
adapted to his soil and situation, he will without doubt spend his
money in the first place uselessly, and the after result will be
vexation and disappointment.
SECTION VII. — KINDS OF TREES BEST FITTED FOR HEDGE-ROW TIMBER,
AND MANAGEMENT OF THE SAME.
At the present time, when agriculture is improving so rapidly,
many of its advocates are crying out vehemently against hedge-
row timber, declaring to an enlightened public that all hedge-
row timber trees are injurious to the raising of plentiful and
healthy crops in the fields upon the edges of which they are
planted. That this is true to a certain extent, cannot be denied ;
but the cause of hedge-row trees being in some cases injurious to
the crops in the adjoining fields, cannot so much be attributed to
the presence of the trees themselves, as to the bad management in
HEDGE-ROW TIMBER. 285
growing them ; for let it be kept in view, that anything, however
useful in itself when properly managed, if it be allowed to over-
step due order and balance, at once becomes an evil instead of a
good. This is the very state of a great many hedge-row trees,
particularly in England, at the present day. In many cases the
kinds of trees have not been adapted to the nature of the soil,
thereby causing them to spread too much; and in most the trees
have been entirely left to nature, never having been trained
uj) with the view of doing good as shelter to the adjoining fields.
They have thus often become a pest ; have been allowed to spread
out their branches widely upon all sides ; have been irregularly
and most injudiciously planted ; have been topped and mutilated,
and made to answer any purpose but that of doing good to the
farmer : in short, hedge-row timber at the present clay is a part
of forestry the least understood, and yet its proper management
is of the greatest importance both to the proprietor and the farmer.
Hedge-row trees, when trained up and managed upon right
principles, instead of being a nuisance to farmers, become of
first-rate importance in all well-cultivated districts ; and instead of
impoverishing the land, they become a source of fertility to it.
But although this may properly be said to be the state of things
generally relative to hedge-row trees, there are nevertheless many
fine examples of their being well managed ; and in such cases I
have myself heard fanners say that they were very much benefited
by the shelter produced by them, and would not upon any account
have parted with them. Having myself seen both the evil
arising from badly managed hedge-row trees, and the good which
is derived from them to all parties when grown in such a manner
as to answer the desired end, I am prepared to speak from
erience upon the matter, and to give my advice as a practical
forester, as to the best method of growing hedge-row trees, so as
to produce the greatest amount of shelter, and, at the same time,
to cause as little shade upon the land as possible.
The planting of hedge-row trees is generally done with a three-
fold view — namely, that of raising osefiil timber in the country,
without occupying much breadth of land exclusively for that pur-
pose ; the producing a degree of shelter for stock and crops in
286 TREES BEST FITTED FOE
the adjoining fields j and the giving the country a clothed and
ornamental appearance.
Now, all these three objects can be most amply attained without
any injury whatever being done to the agricultural produce of the
country. Before, however, proceeding to detail how this can be
done, it will be necessary first to make a few observations as to
how far these objects have been attained by the past or present
system of managing hedge-row trees, and at the same time to
point out the injurious effects of the system now practised. Gene-
rally speaking, hedge-row trees, as they have been managed, and
as we now find them, are not of great value to the proprietors, or
of much advantage to the country. The reason is, that no atten-
tion has been paid to their culture. In some districts, both in
England and Scotland, where, of late, attention has been paid to
the pruning of hedge-row trees, much good has arisen from their
influence. In all cases, trees planted in hedge-rows are freely
exposed to the air ; consequently, the natural habit of trees under
such circumstances is to become branchy ; but if the forester apply
his knowledge and practical skill to trees under these circum-
stances, he can, by the timely use of his knife, check this rambling
habit, and give them a contrary tendency ; and it is in a great
measure from the want of this application of timely pruning, that
hedge-row trees are now of so little value as timber, and so ruinous
to the fields. That shelter has been produced to the fields from
the existence of trees about them, is evident ; but then the
amount of good which has been done in this respect has been
overbalanced by the shade they have cast upon both sides from
the spread of their branches, causing a deficiency in the actual
crop upon the shaded parts. Thus it cannot be said that much real
good has arisen from the presence of hedge-row trees.
That they are an ornament to the country, and give it a clothed
appearance, is admitted by most travellers passing through it. But
the farmer, who has his rent to raise off the land, when he looks
upon the trees in his hedge-rows, and is aware of their doing him
much damage, feels no pleasure in them, but becomes desirous to
have them removed, in order that he may have the land occupied
by them brought into more profitable use.
HEDGE-ROW TIMBEK. 287
Farmers arc, generally speaking, averse to the growing of
hedge-row trees upon their land, and declare that they are ruinous
to their crops, both from the great shade they produce, and from
their harbouring vermin in their vicinity. I have frequently tried
to convince them of the bad consequences that would follow the
entire extermination of hedge-row trees from any particular dis-
trict, pointing out to them the beneficial effects of shelter when
that can be secured without doing injury to the land. In this
respect I have found the most intelligent of them to agree with
me, they being most anxious to have their land sheltered, provided
that can be done without occupying much land, and without
causing much shade upon the crops in the adjoining fields. This
is the very thing required ; and in order to attain it, these three
rules should in all cases be strictly adhered to : 1st, To plant all
hedge-row trees upon the surface of the land, and in straight
lines ; 2d, To plant no trees but those of an upright habit ; and
3d, To keep the trees regularly pruned and within given bounds.
I shall now give a few hints showing how all this can be done.
1st, In travelling through England, one is particularly struck
with the manner in which hedge-row trees have been planted, that
being for the greater part upon raised banks of earth, with some-
times a deep ditch on each side, sometimes with a ditch upon the
one side and a dyke upon the other. Frequently too, we find
this bank of earth over-grown with thorns, brambles, and other
rubbish ; making altogether, with the broad-spreading trees, a
formidable mass of very considerable extent. This is the state of
things that farmers complain of. Now, in order to grow hedge-
row trees upon right principles, the trees in this state should be
taken out, tiles put into the ditches on each side in order to con-
vert them into proper drains, the bank levelled down over them,
the ground trenched, and a requisite quantity of lime put into it
in order to decompose all the old roots the more quickly. This
being done in the spring months, the ground so dealt with should
be subjected to a summer fallow ; when, in the autumn, a hedge of
thorns with beech should be planted in one continuous straight
line upon the surface, putting in a young tree among the thorn
plants at every thirty feet for hedge-row timber. In the act of
288 TREES BEST FITTED FOR
renewing the fences in this manner, any alteration could be made
that might be considered an improvement upon the old style, such
as, in some cases, omitting the renewing of some of the fences
altogether, and consequently enlarging the fields so far as might
be considered necessary. In some cases a new fence might be
made along the middle of a field, thereby making such a new fence
upon new land, and converting one field and a half of the old into
one of the new ; and in the act of making such improvements, the
direction of the line of many of the present fences could be altered
so as to suit the views of the improver.
2d, A great error has occurred in the rearing of hedge-row
timber, in planting those sorts of trees which are of a spreading
habit, and not easily kept within due bounds. The following
trees are the only ones which should be planted in the neighbour-
hood of fields : — The oak, the English elm, the sycamore, Norway
maple, the birch, the sweet chesnut, the poplar, the willow.
These are all trees more or less of an upright habit, and such as,
by the timely use of the pruning-knife, can be easily kept within
due bounds. We often find the ash growing as a hedge-row
tree, but it ought very sparingly to be planted under such cir-
cumstances. When standing alone and exposed to free air, its
top is extremely liable to diverge off into large limbs; and, what is
even worse, the roots of the ash are of all other trees the most
searching upon land, and impoverish it very much.
The beech is another tree we frequently find growing in hedge-
rows; but I object to its being used under snch circumstances, for
these reasons : — I have always observed, that under the drip of
beech trees a thorn hedge will not prosper; and, as far as my
experience goes regarding agriculture, grass and grain do not
thrive under it either. Besides, the tree is of a diverging habit
when standing alone, and does not do with much pruning when
of large size. Another peculiarity of the beech is, that, when
growing in a free open situation, it is always found leaning to
the sheltered side ; that is to say, if the prevailing winds of the
district be from the west, the tree will be extremely bare of
branches upon that side, and over-heavy upon the opposite side,
giving it an oblique attitude, which, of course, does not answer in
HEDGE-ROW TIMBER. 289
every situation, and more particularly when growing as a hedge-
row tree.
The fir and pine tribes are all trees of an upright habit ; but
they are not adapted for standing alone : they always thrive best
when congregated together. Besides, the roots of these trees run
too shallow for growing upon the borders of fields where the
plough must have free access to their very boles. No fir or pine
tree, therefore, should be planted as a hedge-row tree.
3d, The training up of the young trees planted in hedge-rows
is a matter of the greatest importance, and should be most per-
severingly attended to. We shall suppose that trees of the kinds
above recommended for hedge-rows have been raised in the nur-
sery for the purpose ; and for this purpose every proprietor should
raise his own trees. These should be pruned one year before
they are lifted from the nursery ground, so that they may not be
injured in any way when transplanted; and the size of the tree
should be from three to five feet. They should be lifted from the
nursery with great care, not taking away any of the earth from
their fibrous roots, but letting it remain about them in the form of
a little ball to each ; and by attending to this, the success will be
the more certain, and prove more satisfactory afterwards.
The hedge-row being planted with thorns to form the fence, and
spaces being left in them at intervals of thirty feet for the trees,
have them planted, each kind to answer the nature of the soil as
nearly as possible ; and upon both hedge and trees being planted,
put a fence of paling upon each side, if there are to be cattle in the
fields, attending to the cutting of the hedge as has been advised in
11 place. These hedges, when at their full size, should never
br more than three feet in diametcrat bottom. As the trees advance,
let them be regularly pruned, causing each of them to have ulti-
mately a clean bole of from fifteen to twenty feet high, in order to
allow tin- hedge under them to have free air; and as the t<>ps of
the trees advance in breadth, their branches Bhonld be shortened
well in. so as, when they have arrived at thirty years old, their
side branches may not extend more than four feet over the fence
upon each Bide. In order to keep them in this state, they should
have their branches shortened hi every two or three years ; and
T
290 TREES BEST FITTED FOR HEDGE-ROW TIMBER.
even when they have attained full size, they should not extend
more than seven or eight feet over the hedge upon each side.
In these things being properly attended to, the whole art of
growing hedge-row trees consists. In districts where fuel is a
scarce commodity, the primings, as they are taken from the trees,
should be gathered up and used for that purpose. To those who
may never have seen trees kept in the way that I recommend
above, it may appear at first sight that a line of hedge-row trees
kept in this manner will have a stiff and formal appearance. In
this they are quite mistaken ; for having myself seen trees kept
thus, I maintain that they by no means present a formal or stiff
outline, but, on the contrary, have a very ornamental effect, and
form, when well kept, an agreeable object.
No doubt, were the trees to be clipped with the shears, they
would certainly have a very formal appearance ; but as they
must in all cases be pruned with the pruning chisel, their forms
can be varied very much, and that with very little trouble,
when the work is progressively well done, and no neglect takes
place.
The advantages of this system over the old one are many, and
of vast importance to both landlord and tenant.
By the old, or I may rather say the present system, of growing
hedge fences and hedge-row trees in England and in many parts
of Scotland, there is generally from eight to fifteen feet in breadth
of land wasted, and taken up for that purpose, upon the boundary
of every field where they exist ; whereas by the method I recom-
mend, and which is being practised in some districts of Scotland,
only three feet in breadth, at most, is occupied by the fence or
hedge ; and as the trees are not allowed to grow beyond a certain
breadth, their shade does not materially injure the crop even when
sown close into the side of the hedge ; while, at the same time,
from the shelter afforded, the crop is very much improved ; and,
moreover, the hedges never being allowed to grow above four
and a half feet high, and the trees being kept bare of branches in
their boles for at least fifteen feet up. a free current of air is
allowed to pass everywhere, keeping both the hedge and crop
upon the land in a healthy state.
EXPENSES OF LAYING DOWN GROUND. 291
The trees, -when treated in the manner above recommended, in
consequence of being so much kept in upon the side branches,
soon become tall, and form fine trunks of timber. In order to
gain this end quickly, the top of each tree should have the lead
from the very first, and no side branch be allowed to gain strength
upon it.
SECTION VIII. — EXPENSES OF LAYING DOWN GROUND INDKH
PLANTATIONS.
In calculating the expenses likely to be incurred in the laying
down of a piece of land under a crop of young forest trees, the
proprietor has to consider, first, the nature of the figure in which
he may intend to lay out his plantation. On the form or figure
of a plantation much of the expense of fencing it depends ; and as
this item forms a very considerable proportion of the entire cost,
it will be proper here to show the circumstances which, when
attended to, lessen this expense.
When a proprietor intends to plant a piece of land upon his
estate, say to the extent of fifty acres, he cannot exactly calculate
the sum that would be required for the fencing of it until he has
laid out, and actually measured, the line of plantation ; unless,
indeed, he shall fix upon a regular-sided figure. In order to
illustrate the truth of this. J shall here give an example : — To lay
out a plantation of fifty acres in extent in the form of strips, of
four chains or eighty-eight yards broad, the proprietor would
require to erect 5676 lineal yards of fence to inclose it; and Bup-
ig the fence used in the inclosing of this plantation in the
form of .-trips to lie stone dyke, costing Is. Gd. per yard, then the
whole expenses of fencing, in this instance, would amount to
£425,148., — equal to £8, 10s. 3d. per imperial acre upon the land
inclo
Again, supposing that, instead of laying out the fifty acres in
the form of Strips, the proprietor wished to layout the same quan-
tity of land in the form of a regular square, then the Bide of ;(
square that would contain fifty acre.- will be 490 yards; a
292 EXPENSES OF LAYING DOWN GROUND.
quently the four sides added together will amount to 1960 lineal
yards, which would be the extent of fencing required, instead
of 5676 in the last instance, although the same quantity of
ground is inclosed in both cases. Supposing, as before, the 1960
yards to be stone dyke, at Is. 6d. per yard, the whole expense of
fencing the square of fifty acres would be only £147, — equal to
£2, 17s. 9d. upon each acre of the land inclosed. Now, this at
once points out to proprietors of land the great utility of planting
all plantations in a solid compact form, in order to prevent a large
original outlay. By the cheaper method, a much more valuable
plantation is raised, apart from any other consideration.
The above examples point out the impossibility of giving any-
thing like a just rule whereby the expenses of fencing ground for
a new plantation can be ascertained, as these in all cases must be
influenced by the form in which the ground is laid out. I shall
give two examples, as under : —
For home ground with hardwood, inclosed by stone wall five feet high,
with mortared cope :
To medium expenses of fencing, per acre, with stone
wall, 76 yards at Is. 6d., .
To 100 roods of open drains, at l|d. per rood,
To 435 pits for hardwood, at Is. 6d. per 100, .
To 435 hardwood trees, at 20s. per 1000,
To 3000 firs, at 6s. per 1000,
To five days of a man planting an acre, at 2s.,
For moor ground with firs only, inclosed by turf dyke, and paling on
top:
To medium expenses of fencing per acre with turf
dyke and paling, 76 yards at 4d., . .£154
To 100 roods of drains, at Hd., . . .0126
To 3500 firs, at 5s. per 1000, . . .0176
To three days of a man planting, at 2s., . .060
. £5 14
0
0 12
6
. 0 6
6
. 0 8
B
. 0 18
0
. 0 10
0
£8 9
8
£3 1 4
The first example contains the highest cost per acre that I ever
found necessary for making of hardwood plantations, — and the
CLEARING YOUNG TREES FROM GRASS AND WEEDS. 293
second contains the lowest that I ever could get the work done
properly for. I am aware that many planters say that they can
do the work more cheaply ; hut this of course must depend upon
the average amount of wages as given to labourers in the district.
What I have stated above is taken from notes of expense
actually incurred by myself; and, of course, I can speak with
certainty upon the subject only so far as my own experience
goes. From these two statements, it will be observed that fully
one-half of the expenses consists in the fencing of the ground.
SECTION IX. — THE KEEPING OF TREES IN A YOUNG PLANTATION CLEAR
FROM GRASS AND WEEDS.
Any piece of ground having been planted with young forest
trees, in order to preserve them in a healthy growing state, it is
necessary to have them kept clear of all long grass, as well as
any other weeds that might have a tendency to injure them, by
over-topping and crushing them down. The forester, then, should
keep a sharp look out during the summer season, particularly the
first one after the young trees have been planted ; and wherever
it is observed that the grass or any other weeds are likely to become
strong, and to keep down the young trees, a careful man, with a
few women and boys under his superintendence, should be sent
over the different young plantations, who, with common shearing
sickles, should be made to switch away all grass, &c, from every
young tree that may require this to be done.
This work must be carefully done, particularly where boys or
other young people are employed, as they are very apt to cut off
the tops <>t' many of the young trees if they are not strictly looked
after ; therefore the man who is put over them should not work
alongside with them, but go immediately behind them, and closely
inspect all that they have done as the work proceeds, observing
that they do not pass over any young trees requiring to be cleared,
as well as seeing that those cleared be done in a proper manner.
This operation ought to be performed twice during the summer
season, viz. — between the middle and end of the month of June,
294 CLEARING YOUNG TREES FROM GRASS AND WEEDS.
and a second time in the month of August ; and where the trees
are growing among vegetation of a rank description, the same
process may require to be repeated for three or four years suc-
cessively, or at least imtil the young trees have risen above the
rank growth of the weeds in the summer season.
Young trees, besides being apt to be injured by grass and other
common weeds, are often still more seriously hurt by whins and
broom growing among them. It very often happens that young
trees are planted where whins and broom have been cut down
and not grubbed out by the roots, in which case the whins in par-
ticular are sure to push out a stronger and more vigorous growth
than ever the following year. Whenever this may have been the
case, the planter ought to have particular attention paid to such
parts, and see that the young growths of the whins, as they rise
up, do not hurt the young trees. For dealing away the young
shoots of the whins, a strong sickle will be found to answer the
purpose well ; and in the doing of the work, they ought to be shorn
clean by the surface of the ground wherever they are found
among the young trees, whether they may be injuring them in
the mean time or not ; for though the whins may not hurt the
young trees in many places in a young plantation for the first
year of their growth, they will decidedly do so the second year,
when it will be much more difficult to get the better of them.
Therefore it is always necessary to cut such rubbish during the
first year of their growth, when in a soft state ; besides, if they
are allowed to stand undisturbed upon the ground for a whole
year, they give shelter to rabbits, hares, and other vermin, which
are always a most dangerous stock in young plantations.
Where whins have been, even although they may have been
grubbed up, it is, I am aware, a most difficult matter to take
them out so clean as to prevent any roots that may be left in the
ground sending up shoots of considerable strength the first sum-
mer after ; consequently, it is necessary to attend in a particular
manner to those young plantations where whins have existed pre-
vious to the young trees being planted. I have frequently seen
large tracts of young plantations entirely ruined from not having
been cleared from rubbish in due time ; and in such a case, where
CLEARING YOUNG TREES FROM GRASS AND WEEDS. 295
this necessaiy clearing of the young trees has been neglected, a
replanting of the ground must take place before anything good
can be expected. This of course is the cause of a great outlay of
money, all which might have been saved had due attention been
paid at first.
The necessary expense of doing this sort of work is but trifling.
Upon the estate of Arniston we employ a man, with six young
people, from the beginning of June to the end of August, con-
stantly clearing among the young plantations ; and I find that
where no whins are, the expense of keeping clear a young planta-
tion, for the first four years, is about sixteen shillings per acre;
and where there are whins to contend with, the operation
costs about twenty-five shillings per acre, until the trees rise
above them.
In asserting the above, as to the expense of keeping young trees
in a plantation clear of weeds, &c., I do not mean to say that the
whole of the trees growing in a plantation will require to be so
dealt with : that will depend entirely upon the nature of the original
grasses, &c, growing on the surface. It is quite possible that not
one-half the extent of a plantation may require to have the young
trees thus cleared ; but wherever they are likely to suffer from
weeds, &c, they should be attended to in the manner advised.
CHAPTER IV.
The nature and necessity of Thinning Plantations — The nature and practice of
Pruning Plantations — System of Thinning and Rearing up of Fir Planta-
tions— System of Thinning and Rearing up of mixed Hardwood Plantations
— Rearing up and Thinning of Oak Plantations.
SECTION I. — THE NATURE AND NECESSITY OF THINNING PLANTATIONS.
Thinning is one of the most indispensable operations in arbori-
culture. The right understanding of the nature and design of
thinning plantations forms one of the most important points to be
aimed at by every practical forester.
The object which ought to be aimed at by the forester in the
act of thinning, is the regulating of the trees in a plantation to
such a distance one from another, and that in such a manner as
is, from well observed facts, known to be favourable to the health
of each tree individually, as well as to the general welfare of the
whole as a plantation.
In order to grow any plant to that size which the species to
which it belongs is known to attain under favourable circum-
stances, it is necessary that it have space of ground and air for
the spread of its roots and branches, proportionate to its size at
any given stage of its growth. Upon this the whole nature and
intention of thinning plantations rest.
It is much to be regretted that there does not exist, both among
proprietors and foresters, a sounder knowledge relative to the
nature and intention of thinning plantations than there is. I have
frequently seen plantations upon a high situation going back,
from having been injudiciously thinned ; and in a low one,
NATURE AND NECESSITY OF THINNING PLANTATIONS. 297
I have as often seen them going back from not having been
thinned at all. Where the blame rested I know not, neither is it
my business to inquire into that, but in all such cases there is
evidently bad management.
There are, indeed, few proprietors' estates in Scotland upon
which there is not considerable room for improvement, as regards
the thinning of their plantations. There is a decided loss of
timber, as well as shelter, whenever plantations are made too thin;
and there is also equally a loss where they are not sufficiently
thinned. Wherever plantations have remained long in a close
state, and are thinned suddenly and severely, which I term injudi-
cious thinning, they are at once cooled. This I reckon equal to
being removed a few degrees of latitude farther north, or to a
situation a few hundred feet higher than the original; and the
natural consequence is, that the greater part of the trees which have
undergone such treatment, become what is generally termed hide-
bound— the bark contracts, and prevents the free flow of the sap,
consequently it stagnates and breaks out into sores ; the trees fail
to make wood ; and, in fact, the whole plantation falls into a state
of consumption, and declines gradually. I have frequently been
called upon to examine and give my advice relative to what ought
to be done with plantations in such a state as that described above;
and wherever I have found plantations above thirty years old to be
in the state described, and to have stood in the same state for four
or five years without showing much signs of any improvement, I
have always in such cases recommended to cut down at once, drain,
and replant the ground. However, if the situation be a rather
sheltered one, and tlie soil dry, a recovery of an over-thinned
plantation will often take place ; although the trees, after having
been checked, will never attain that size they would have done
had they been otherwise treated; but where the situation is
exposed, and the natural soil cold and damp, recovery is hardly
possible.
On the other hand, where plantations are not sufficiently thinned,
the trees become drawn up weakly, and seldom attain the size of
useful timber before maturity comes \\\nm them. Where any
plantation has stood long without being thinned, particularly a fir
298 NATURE AND NECESSITY
one, it is, I may say, impossible to recover it ; for if even a very
few trees be thinned out, a number of others, from the want of
their shelter, are sure to die, which ultimately causes blanks to
occur here and there; and the wind getting play in such blanks,
great havoc is often made among the trees during a storm. As an
instance of this, I may here mention the case of a fir plantation
upon the estate of Arniston, of above thirty years' standing, and
to the extent of nearly forty acres. This had been allowed to grow
on in its natural state from the time that it was planted, when an
attempt was made to take a few trees out of it, by way of thinning
it gradually ; this having been done, many more were blown
down the very first storm that occurred ; and an opening having
thus been made by the wind, the whole plantation in a short time
became a complete wreck ; so much so, that when I came to the
place, I had the whole cleared off and replanted.
From what has here been stated, it will appear evident that
there is a great loss sustained by every proprietor who allows his
plantations to be mismanaged, either from not thinning, or from
over-thinning ; and the result may be reckoned the same in both
cases.
Upon many estates, I have often regretted to see plantations of
considerable extent, and of perhaps forty years' standing, with the
firs all overtopping and crushing down the hardwood trees. From
the appearance of such plantations, it was evident that they never
had been thinned : the hardwood trees were miserable-looking
things, and not more than ten or twelve feet high, striving for
existence; while the firs, which, of course, grew more rapidly,
were more than thirty feet high, and of a broad spreading habit,
from having been widely planted among the hardwood. In this
state many plantations have been allowed to grow up, under the
false impression that the firs were of more value than the hardwood
for the sake of shelter.
Now, could any circumstance be a more convincing proof of the
want of sound knowledge relative to thinning ? If the hardwood
trees had been relieved in due time, would they not at forty years'
standing have been valuable, both as timber and as affording
shelter? Could not the firs have been all taken out for estate
OF THINNING PLANTATIONS. 299
purposes, and been of value to the proprietor, while at the same
time they left a more valuable crop of hardwood on the ground ?
But, as the case was, the hardwood plants were useless and past
recovery ; and upon the ground where a valuable crop of hard-
wood might have been, there existed only a few firs of little per-
manent value, either for shelter or as timber.
The distance at which trees in a plantation ought to stand one
from another, must, in all cases, be determined by the nature of
the soil and situation upon which the trees grow, and also by the
ultimate object the proprietor may have in view as regards any
particular plantation. As a sort of guiding rule for thinning, I
may here state, that if in any particular plantation it should be
intended to rear up trees for park or lawn scenery, then, in such a
case, the distance between each individual tree ought to be at least
equal to the height of the same ; and this rule ought to be kept in
view at all stages of the growth of the trees after the first thinning
lias taken place, in order that they may have free room and air to
form spreading tops as well as massive trunks, which is the true and
natural form of every tree, and which constitutes the great beauty
of lawn trees.
If it should be intended to rear up a plantation of hardwood
trees principally for the sake of value of timber, and for giving
shelter at the same time, in such a case the distance between each
individual tree ought to be equal to about one half its height.
This ought to be kept in view at all stages of the growth of the
trees, after the first thinning, in order that they may not have so
much free air and room as to allow of the spread of their branches
horizontally, while they are not so much confined as to be drawn up
weakly from the want of air. If it is intended to rear up a planta-
tion of Hrs or pines, for the sake of shelter and timber, the distance
between each tree ought to be a little more than the third of the
height, which is tin- distance found most favourable to the useful
development of the fir and pine tribes as timber trees.
In order to give a clear and practical description of the manner
of proceeding with thinning operations in the forest, it will be
necessary to treat of them under three distinct heads; and this I
shall do in the proper place. (See under the heads, System of
300 NATURE AND PRACTICE
thinning mixed hardicood, fir, and oak plantations.) It may,
however, be useful here to observe, that all plantations, ere they
require to be thinned, must have grown for at least eight years ;
and even this period may in most instances be far too early. In
fact, no particular period can be specified as to the length of time
that a plantation should stand previous to commencing to thin it ;
for much depends on the nature of the soil and situation — on
whether or not a plantation may have been well laid out — and on
the state of the ground, as being dry or damp. These things
considered, it will appear evident that no particular time can be
stated as to when a plantation should be thinned for the first time,
but that this must be judged entirely from the state of the trees,
whether they may have grown rapidly or not. I have myself
found it necessary to thin a young plantation of seven years'
standing, at which age the trees were twelve feet high; while, on
the other hand, I have much oftener seen plantations of fifteen
years' standing, scarcely the length of requiring to be thinned :
therefore, observation upon the spot is the only sure way of
determining this point.
SECTION II. — THE NATURE AND PRACTICE OF PRUNING TREES.
For three or four years past, many conflicting opinions relative
to the pruning of forest trees have been issued in some of the
periodicals of the day ; which opinions, I believe, have had more
a tendency to darken the point referred to, than to throw light
on it. Many have recommended pruning as an operation emi-
nently favourable to the health of forest trees ; many more doubt
this ; and as many more affirm that pruning ought not to be prac-
tised at all : and each, as he advocates his own peculiar system of
management, gives an instance of some plantation he has had
under his care, as undeniably illustrating the advantages of the
system he recommends. Now, all the diversity of opinion arises
from the want of a properly extended knowledge on the subject in
question. A man of extensive experience comes to find that no
particular rule can be laid down to answer the pruning of trees in
all cases. He finds out that pruning in some cases is proper, and
OF PRUNING TREES. 301
in others improper ; but the inexperienced man, who wishes to be
instructed in the art of priming, when he sees one man strongly
recommend it in all cases, and another as strongly urge its not being
practised in any, is brought to a stand. Pie becomes bewildered, and
knows not how to proceed; he is not able, from deficiency of expe-
rience, to determine whether in his own case he should prune or not.
Now, the only way reasonably to confirm the mind upon this im-
portant point is, not to lay any particular stress upon any particu-
lar example that may be given, but to examine the true nature
of the art of pruning, and the tendency it has to improve or
retard the healthy development of trees in various situa-
tions. In short, in order to a right understanding of the nature
of pruning as applied to forest trees, attention must be paid to
its effects upon trees under every variety of circumstances. I con-
sider it proper that every proprietor of plantations should be able
to judge for himself in the matter of pruning, and to detect proper
from improper pruning. And to this end I shall enter minutely
into detail under this head, and give a distinct statement of my
reasons for doing it in one case and not in another. But before
entering into detail regarding the practical operation, it will, I
think, be proper first to examine the effects that the amputation
of a branch from a tree has upon its constitution : such previous
knowledge will prepare the mind for a better understanding of
the true nature of pruning as it is generally practised among
intelligent foresters.
A tree, through the agency of its roots, draws nourishment from
the earth into which these enter, chiefly in a state of solution in
water ; which liquid nourishment, or, as it is generally termed,
the sap, ascends the trunk through the longitudinal vessels or
pores ; from which, again, each branch or limb of the tree is
supplied in succession. The body or trunk of a tree forms one
bundle of longitudinal tabes, through which the sap ascends from
the roots to the branches. From this bundle each separate
branch is supplied by its own separate line of tubes ; or, which
is the same thing, each particular root of a tree has to draw
nourishment from the soil to supply its own particular branch;
and the communication between these two points is main-
302 NATURE AND PRACTICE
tained by a particular set of vessels in the trunk of the tree.
The watery part of the sap, when it ascends into the leaves,
is for the most part given off by them in the form of per-
spiration ; that which remains at this point undergoes a change
previous to its descent in the form of proper woody matter, which
change is effected by the leaves inhaling carbonic acid and other
gases, which enter into the composition of the returning sap ; and
in this manner there is a continual circulation of the sap in the
tree — the roots drawing in and supplying the whole with moisture,
which, when it is raised to the leaves, undergoes a chemical
change, and is returned in the form of proper woody matter.
The practical deduction to be drawn from this is, that every
branch growing out of the main body of a tree is by nature
meant to act as a laboratory, in which woody matter is prepared
and returned for the joint supply of itself and the body of the tree.
From this we are bound to conclude, that when we cut a branch
from a tree, we take away from it the means of supplying it
with a certain proportion of woody matter for its enlargement ;
and this is, indeed, the case with pruning in all cases of the opera-
tion. But under good management in pruning, this depriving
of a tree of its due means of nourishment is only temporary ; and
in one or two years after the operation has been done, and when
the tree operated upon has had its growth properly directed,
the increase of timber is at once remarkable, as compared with
others of the like nature and age which had not been pruned, or
with others which had been unscientifically managed.
When a large branch is cut off immediately from the body or
trunk of a large tree, the usual sap which supplied it in its ascent
from the roots, will be stopped short, and for a time will ooze out
at the cut part. In a short time however, the sap, as it rises in
those vessels of the trunk which formerly supplied the branch
taken off, becomes stagnated, and causes rot in that part, which
can never be the case while the branch remains to draw up and
prepare the sap in its leaves ; and this is the case in all instances
of large branches as they are cut from large trees. But in the case
of a branch being thus cut from a young sapling in a rapidly
growing state, the tree is not injured, but improved ; the sap of
OF PRUNING TREES. 303
the plant being in sneli a vigorous state, that rot cannot take
place. Xow, the practical deduction to be drawn from this is, that
the amputation of a large branch immediately from the body of a
large tree, instead of being favourable to its health and value as
timber, has quite the contrary effect. I say, immediately from the
body of the tree, because the cutting off of a part of a branch is
by no means injurious to the health of a tree ; but, on the con-
trary, when part of a large branch is cut off, the flow of sap to
that part is checked, and the body or trunk of the tree is in pro-
portion enlarged.
During my practice as a forester, I have had extensive oppor-
tunity of observing the nature and quality of full-grown timber
as it has been affected by different kinds of management in the
way <>f pruning. Having seen much timber of all ages cut up
for different purposes at saw-mills, I have had occasion invariably
to observe a practical truth, that wherever branches of above four
inches in diameter at their base had been cut from the trunk of
the tree, the wood for a considerable way under that part which
had been so pruned was worthless, and of a black colour. Where
much cutting of large branches had taken place in one individual
tree, I have always found such a tree to be scarcely fit for any
valuable purpose whatever when it came to be cut up; and
where the pruning had been done a considerable number of years
before the tree was cut down for use, the wounds upon the surface
were not easily observable ; in fact, such trees often appear sound
to outward appearance ; but when the bark is removed, the pruned
part La at once observable, and the vessels leading from it, down to
the roots, arc generally found soft and of a black colour.
On the other hand, I have always had occasion to observe,
that in the cutting up of trees which had not had their large
branches cut off close by the trunk, the timber was of good
quality, and sound throughout, excepting where extreme old age
had caused natural decay ; and of the truth of this I am perfectly
convinced. Therefore, I urge every proprietor of plantations,
never, as he values their health as timber, to cut clean from the
boll of a tree a branch which is more than four inches in diameter
at its base.
304 NATURE AND PRACTICE
Having now pointed out the effects the amputation of a
branch from the trunk of a tree has upon its constitution, I next
proceed to detail the method which ought to be practised with
pruning operations in all cases. And in order to a right under-
standing of this most important point in arboriculture, I shall
bring under consideration the pruning of trees, from the time
they are planted out from the nursery, to that of their full growth
in the forest, under every variety of circumstances, as I have had
occasion to observe them.
Many foresters are in the habit of closely pruning all young
hardwood trees, particularly elms and oaks, when they are newly
taken from the nursery grounds, and preparatory to planting
them out into the forest; which close pruning is most injurious to
the health of all young trees when newly lifted from the ground.
The system generally practised by foresters in this case is, to cut
off clean to the main stem all strong branches, and only leave a
few small twigs near the top of the plant, with the view of draw-
ing up the sap. The natural consequences of such a cutting off
of all the stronger branches from a young tree are, that, when the
sap ascends in the plant in the spring, it is arrested at the wound
where the first or lowest branch was taken off, and escapes from
the cut part by evaporation. It being thus arrested, there is a
natural effort made by the plant to produce young shoots and
leaves at this point, in order to convert the sap into proper woody
matter ; consequently, we almost always find a few young shoots
made the first season immediately under the part where the lower
strong branch was taken from the plant, while all the rest of the
young tree above this growth of young shoots dies — the sap not
rising to carry on life above the part where the new shoots spring
out. Even if the sap should not be all arrested at the point
referred to, the part above it remains in a sickly and unhealthy
state ; while the young shoots produced lower down draw all the
nourishment to themselves, and ultimately form a distorted
unshapely plant, unless it be carefully attended to, by giving some
one of the shoots the preference, and, cutting away all the rest,
allowing it to become the top.
The proper manner of proceeding with the pruning of forest
OF PRUNING TREES. 305
trees, as they are newly lifted from the nursery, and preparatory
to planting them out into the forest grounds, is to shorten all the
larger brandies that have the appearance of gaining strength upon
the top or leading shoot of the young tree. This shortening of
the larger branches ought to be done in such a manner, as to
leave only about one-third of their whole length remaining, with,
if possible, a few small twigs upon it, in order the more readily to
elaborate the sap as it rises in the spring ; and in this state the
young trees may be planted with the greatest assurance of suc-
cess. The great advantage of this method of pruning young trees
is, that when the sap rises in them, the first summer after planting,
there being a regular supply of small proportionable branches
along the main stem, leaves arc formed, and sap is drawn up
regularly to every part of the tree ; consequently, the tree main-
tains an equal vigour throughout. Were all the branches left
upon the young trees, the roots, from the effects of removal,
would not be able to supply the whole with due nourishment ;
and the consequence would very likely be, that the plants would
die down to the ground-level, from which part of the trees nume-
rous young shoots would issue, much in the same manner as they
do from the cut part of those trees which have been over-pruned.
It is now a well-ascertained truth among all practical foresters,
that when a young tree is in a vigorous state of growth, and the
wood full of sap, previous to its having made any heartwood, any
branch may be taken off without doing the least injury to it.
It is, therefore, ju.-t at this stage of the existence of a tree that it
can with certainty be made to do well or otherwise according as
it is attended to — to give the top the lead in the growth — to cheek
the stronger branches — and to give the tree that shape it may be
desired it Bhould have when it attains full age.
When young hardwood trees have been pruned in the manner
above recommended, and after they have been planted and grown
iii their permanent situation for the space of five or six years,
they will by that time have established themselves properly in the
ground; which circumstance is known by their putting forth con-
siderable -hoot- of young wood. At this stage of their growth
it will be necessary to go over them all with the prunrng-knife,
D
306 NATURE AND PRACTICE
and cut close to the main stem or trunk all the parts of the
branches that were formerly shortened, and, at the same time, to
take off clean all other branches that may have gained strength,
or may have the appearance of gaining strength, upon the top or
main shoot. But it should be particularly observed, that this
pruning ought never to be allowed to be done until the young
trees have decidedly established themselves in the ground, and are
in a vigorous healthy state of growth. At the same time, any
unhealthy plant which may not have succeeded well, should be
cut over, when it will soon rise up with renewed vigour.
I have now given a statement of the manner of proceeding
with pruning operations, in the case of young trees about to be
planted out into the forest ; and also the treatment they ought to
receive after being five or six years established in the ground.
There may, however, be — and, indeed, too often are — cases where
hardwood trees, while young, have been entirely neglected. It
will now be proper to consider the treatment that such ought to
receive. I shall first suppose that we have to do with a planta-
tion of young hardwood trees, which had received no pruning at
all previous to being planted ; and we shall further suppose, that
the trees are oaks, and of five or six years' standing in the forest
grounds. On examining the state of young hardwood trees of
the description above mentioned, it will be observed, if the situa-
tion be an exposed one, that the greater part of them have died
down to the part resting upon the surface of the ground, and that
from this part a number of branches have issued, each contending
for the lead in the growth. In such a case as this, no time should
be lost in giving the strongest and most healthy shoot the ^prefer-
ence, and cutting away all the rest, as well as the dead part of the
tree nearly by the ground, or at least down to the part where the
young shoots issue. Prune up the shoot intended to be left for
the future tree, by taking off all the stronger branches clean to the
boll or stem ; and in this manner go over every young tree in the
plantation, always choosing the most healthy shoot for the future
tree, and one which appears to have naturally a good balance
of branches, with the leader or top shoot strong in proportion to
the rest.
OF PRUNING TKEES. 307
We shall again suppose a plantation of oaks, of the same age as
the one above alluded to, but the trees in which, instead of having
been planted without pruning, have been pruned too severely when
lifted from the nursery ground, and previous to being planted.
The treatment in this case must in every respect be the same as
in the former ; that is, all the dead wood should be cut away im-
mediately above the point from which the young shoots issue ; and
the strongest and most healthy shoot being fixed upon for the
future tree, it must be properly pruned up, by taking off all the
stronger branches, and cutting cleanly away the rest of the infe-
rior shoots which formerly contended with it. But in a case of
this nature, where the trees had been over-pruned previous to
their being planted, there is often more difficulty in making choice
of a good young shoot, than where no pruning at all had taken
place. This arises from the young .shoots springing from the
main stem in a horizontal manner, and that, too, very often a
considerable way up the stem. In a case of this nature, where a
proper leading shoot, rising perpendicularly, cannot be got, the
only way, and the method I always follow myself, is to cut the
main stem by the surface of the ground, and allow a set of new
shoots to rise up. The chance generally is, that, when the tree is
thus cut down, all the new shoots will rise in an upright position,
and a choice can be afterwards made ; but wherever a proper
leading shoot can be had, let it be chosen, although it come away
rather far up upon the stem. If it rise perpendicularly, and the
plant be in a vigorous healthy state of growth, it will succeed
well. This sort of work should be done in the spring months, so
that tin- growth may set in immediately after the operation is per-
formed.
It very often happens that a forester, upon entering a new-
situation, finds that the Beveral plantations which are put under
hi- management have been hitherto much neglected: he finds that,
in many eases, pruning is absolutely necessary, but he is at a stand
to know how to proceed. If he be a man who has not had much
experience, he is rerj apt to go wrong in a case of importance.
He looks upon the treet before him, and is, no doubt, aware that
pruning is necessary to their health ; but, in consequence of some
308 NATURE AND PRACTICE
particular circumstance connected with the trees with which he
has to deal, he finds much difficulty in making up his mind as to
the manner in which he ought to proceed. If he should he a man
who lias had extensive practice, he will look back upon his former
experience, and consider where and when he had to deal with a
case resembling the one that may be before him. If he has, he
will review the manner in which he went to work in it ; and, at
the same time, he will consider the consequences that attend such
operations, whether these were beneficial or not ; and, in all cases,
he will endeavour to govern his conduct in pruning operations by
the result of his past experience. Whatever method of operations
he has known to succeed well, he will put again in practice,
according as the nature of the case may require ; and whatever
method he has found to have been followed by injurious effects,
lie will avoid, except in particular cases, where he is aware it
would answer the end desired.
With regard to the pruning of forest trees generally, all would
be simple and well, provided a distinct practical rule were attended
to, both by proprietors and foresters, for the rearing up of planta-
tions at every stage of their growth ; but in practice, the case is
almost always the contrary. No distinct practical rules being
adhered to among foresters as a body, one goes to work in one
wav. and another in a contrary way, in the same piece of work ;
and in the manner of doing the work all depends upon the prac-
tical experience of the man. A man of sound practical experience
finds out for himself what ought to be done, and guides himself in
the execution of his work accordingly ; but the man of small expe-
rience, unless he has some definite rule laid down to guide him,
will go to work merely under the direction of his own judgment,
whether that may be right or wrong ; and if his master, the pro-
prietor, has not himself a knowledge of how the work ought to be
done, matters will often go very far wrong indeed ; even so much
so, that the greater part of the plantations upon an estate, if not
ruined, are made of very little value. ~\Ye very frequently see
plantations upon an estate over-pruned, while those upon a neigh-
bouring one are not pruned at all ; which at once points out the bad
management that exists relative to forest operations in general.
OF PRUNING TREES. 309
Iii one place where I acted as assistant-forester, I had a most
convincing proof of the want of a practical rule among foresters
as a body relative to pruning, and which told me at once that they
have hitherto acted in such matters more according to their own
private judgment than upon any well-founded scientific rules.
When I went to B as under forester, I found the head forester
an old mau, who had reared up most of the plantations upon the
estate ; and the situation being in a high exposed part of the coun-
try, he had never either pruned or thinned much ; in fact, in most
cases pruning had never been practised at all, from the idea that the
baring of the trees of their branches would diminish the shelter
which they were meant to produce. Many of the plantations con-
sisted principally of a mixture of ash, elm, and plane trees ; and
from the circumstance of the firs having been cut out pretty early,
the trees were low-set, and spreading in the habit of their
branches, never having been much drawn up : they were about
thirty years old. Shortly after I went to this place, the old
forester died, and a young man was appointed in his place. The
proprietor wishing to have his plantations improved, and having
no knowledge of how the Avork ought to be done himself, he, of
course, left the whole management of them to his forester. The
new forester set about the pruning and thinning of some of the
plantations at once, and a number of men were set to accomplish
this. I was appointed one of the primers, and my orders from the
forester were to prune all the trees left standing upon the ground,
and to give every tree a clear stem to one half its entire height.
The trees being generally from twenty-five to thirty feet high, we
gave each tree a clear stem of from twelve to fifteen feet from the
ground. In doing this, we had often to cut off large branches
from the bole as thick as itself, which gave the trees completely
the appearance of having been manufactured artificially ; and,
having been very thickly sel with blanches all along the trunks,
when they were pruned the entire trunk was a surface of wounds.
"With regard to the tops of the trees, our orders were not to do
anything excepting where two or more tops appeared to strive for
the preference, in which case we left only one, cutting away the
other-. Eaving left that place shortly after this operation of
310 NATURE AND PRACTICE
pruning had taken place, in five years after I went to visit it, in
order to draw for my own private instruction a lesson of expe-
rience, by observing the effect of the former severe pruning upon
the trees : the consequence was exactly that which I anticipated in
doing the work. On looking over those plantations, the ruin of
which I had myself assisted in bringing about, I felt sorry to think
that gentlemen should be imposed upon by inexperienced men.
All along the boles of the trees, and about the wounds which had
been made in the cutting off of the large branches, young shoots
had sprung out. The trees were generally now hide-bound, from
having been suddenly exposed and the atmosphere cooled about
them. The trunks had scarcely increased anything in girth since
they were pruned, and the top branches had made little or no
wood. The trees, generally speaking, were ruined in their health,
and all hope of their recovery was gone. From this example I had
indeed a lesson of experience for my future guidance, and 1 have
detailed it here in order that it may be a lesson to others also.
The question now comes to be, whose mismanagement had been
the cause of ruin in the case alluded to ? Whether was the blame
attributable to the old forester, who neglected to prune and train up
the trees as he ought to have done, or to the young man who suc-
ceeded him, and pruned them without due consideration and expe-
rience ? In my opinion they were both to blame ; for, had the old
forester pruned and thinned in due time, all would have been well
in the end ; and had the young forester been more cautious, and
pruned and thinned gradually, all might have been well also. The
practical truth that I wish to enforce from this instance of misma-
nagement is, that in every forester great caution, combined with
practical experience and reflection, are necessary before he com-
mences to thin or prune any plantation. From the temporary
nature of the crops which they raise, although the gardener or
farmer mismanage any of their crops, all can be redeemed in the
course of another year ; but in the case of mismanagement in a
forester, the work of past years is lost, and thirty or forty years,
with a considerable outlay of extra money, may possibly not be
sufficient to redeem what is put wrong.
Having given the above example of mismanagement, in order
OF PRUNING TREES. 311
to point out the necessity of using caution in entering upon prun-
ing operations, I shall now proceed to give a few examples of the
manner in which I have gone to work in similar cases of neglected
plantations ; and I am convinced that, wherever plantations have
been neglected as to pruning, if they are under thirty years old,
they may, if dealt with as I shall here point out, be recovered, so
far as to make profitable timber trees, although probably not to
that extent of value that might have been expected had the same
trees been properly pruned and trained up in their young state.
"When I came to act as forester upon the estate of Arniston, I
found that many of the hardwood plantations under thirty years
old had never been pruned at all, and that there was great need
for means being used as quickly as possible to put such into
proper state. In setting about this part of our forest operations,
I determined to begin with the younger part of the woods, as
being most likely to recover quickly, and to be of the most value
ultimately if taken in due time, and to go on with the pruning of
the older districts of plantations as I could find convenient oppor-
tunity. Having laid down this principle as a rule of procedure,
I commenced first upon a plantation of oaks, about twelve years
of age — which plantation, I saw, had never, up to the period I
commenced upon it, been either thinned or pruned. The first
thing I did, was to go carefully over the whole, and examine most
minutely its state, observing, in a particular manner, whether or
not the situation was exposed. Being convinced, from the general
bearing of other plantations in the neighbourhood, that the situa-
tion was rather sheltered than otherwise, I determined upon
thinning out the firs pretty freely from among the young oaks.
Having done so, and had the firs all cleared off which were cut, I
found that the young oaks had been a good deal crushed down by
the firs, which had grown very freely as compared with the oaks ;
and in consequence of having been thus crushed down, many of
the latter bad grown strongly to side branches, and not to height;
but wherever the oaks had had free top room, with firs rather close
upon their sides, they were tall plants, and generally well shaped.
The average height of the oaks Mas from five to eight feet ; the
bark of the trees was clean and fleshy ; and, generally speaking,
312 NATURE AND PRACTICE
they were in good health. In the pruning of those trees, I first
had all the small branches, not exceeding two-thirds of an inch in
diameter at their base, cut from the trunks, and close to the bark,
to the height of about one-third of the tree in each case. Next, all
branches which grew upon the same part, with a diameter at base
exceeding the last mentioned, I cut off to within about four inches
of the stem or trunk from which they proceeded, leaving the stems
in the mean time ; and all large top branches, which appeared to
be gaining strength upon the leading shoot, I shortened down to
nearly one-half of their whole length ; but in all cases where two
top shoots appeared, I cut one of them closely away, always
leaving the one which appeared to be the most healthy and strong,
and which at the same time appeared to come most directly from
the centre of the system of the tree.
But I must observe here, that in the pruning of a young hard-
wood plantation, all the trees do not require to be pruned to the
same extent : in many instances it will be found that pruning is
not necessary at all ; and so it was in the case of the plantation I
am referring to. Wherever a hardwood tree is drawn up rather
closely among firs, with sufficient head-room, it seldom produces
many side branches, but will grow upwards to the light ; there-
fore, in all cases of pruning, where the side branches upon a young
tree are few, let such remain, and merely shorten them down
where they are long and slender. Pruning is an unnatural
operation, and ought always to be avoided unless absolutely
necessary ; that is, it ought to be avoided wherever the tree does
not produce unnaturally strong side branches, excepting so far as
to clear from branches one-third of the height of the tree from the
ground, in order to form a trunk ; and even upon this part, where
the branches are large, they ought to be taken off gradually, as
already noticed. Having gone through this plantation, in the
manner above described, I allowed it to remain so for the space of
two years ; when I again went through it a second time, and pruned
in the following manner all the oaks that stood in need of it.
Having taken out a few more of the firs, which I observed
were rather encroaching upon the young hardwood, and having
examined the general state of the same, I found that they had
OF PRUNING TREES. 313
thriven remarkably well during- the two years since I pruned them.
From being relieved of a superfluous and unnatural weight of
side branches, they were growing tall, and in a generally healthy
and rapid-growing state; therefore, seeing this, I cut close to the
main stem or part which formed the trunk, all those stumps which
I formerly shortened to four inches ; and in regulating the tops of
the young trees, I merely shortened such shoots as had the
appearance of ultimately gaining strength upon the main top
shoot. With regard to my reason for not having cut away the
strong shoots or branches from the main stem when I first pruned
those trees, I have to observe, that had I cut them away at the
first course of pruning clean to the bark of the trunk, the conse-
quence would have been that the sap of the young trees in its
ascent would have been arrested at the cut parts, young sapling
shoots would have been formed upon the stem immediately under
the cuts, and the general health of the trees would have been
injured from the sap not rising unchecked to the top shoots. These
evils were avoided simply by cutting off a large portion of each
large branch, and leaving a small portion of each upon the stem,
in order to continue the regular flow of the sap to that part, and
which, from being partially weakened in the branches, was pro-
portionately forced to flow upwards to the supply of the top parts
of the trees. After this had taken place, the stumps were cut away,
without doing any injury to the trees. By this method of pruning
off parts of large branches from a tree, I have often brought
unhealthy trees to a state of sound health ; and as soon as I
observed that such trees had regained their health, which is at
once observable by their making vigorous shoots of young wood
in the top branches, I immediately cut away the parts of the
branches that were left, when the wounds wore soon made up by
the extra supply of proper woody matter, which increased with
tin- health of the trees. This cure, however, is only applicable to
trees in a young state: I have succeeded in effecting it upon trees
under twenty years old.
After pruning the oak plantation in the way just detailed, I next
set to the pruning of another of about twenty years' standing.
Tin- other, also of oaks, was situated in a rather sheltered part of
314 NATURE AND PRACTICE
the estate ; and from having- been nursed by Scots firs, many of
which were growing when I commenced pruning operations there,
the oak trees were very much drawn up. I observed that the
oaks had never been either thinned or pruned, and consequently
they were growing within four feet of one another ; that being the
distance at which they had been originally planted. As the
situation was a sheltered one, I thinned out a few of the Scots firs,
and also a few of the oaks, previous to commencing to prune.
When I had those removed, and the trees standing more upon
their own weight, I saw that they were, from the effects of having
been drawn up, very slender, and not able to stand much exposure
or much cutting in the way of pruning, although they were from
eight to fifteen feet in height ; I therefore only shortened a few of
the stronger side branches below, and at the same time shortened
a few top branches upon each tree as I found it necessary, in order
that they might be properly balanced, and that the wind might
not have much power upon them. In this state I left them for
two years, when I again examined the trees, and finding that they
had improved in a remarkable manner, I again set to work and
gave them a final pruning. I have seldom found any plantation
make such an improvement as this one did during these two years.
This was owing to the gradual manner in which I thinned out a
few trees, and cut off a part of the branches as a preparation for
pruning. This is what every forester ought particularly to attend
to ; for, had I foolishly and thoughtlessly commenced to prune
severely at first, it was quite possible that every tree in the planta-
tion might have been thrown into an unhealthy state, — which,
indeed, I have more than once seen done ; but by having gone
cautiously to work, I had the satisfaction, at the end of two years
from the time that I first examined those trees, to find them not
only stiff, healthy, tall trees, but in a most vigorous state of growth
also. I now primed them upon the same principle as stated in
the former case ; that is, I removed off all the branches to one-
third the height of the tree in each case, in order to form a clean
trunk; and above this, among the top branches, I merely shortened
such as had the appearance of gaining strength upon the top.
And wherever two distinct tops occurred in one individual tree, I
OF PRUNING TREES. 315
cut off one, always leaving the one which appeared the most
strong and healthy, and which issued most directly from the
centre of the system of the tree, although in many cases it did not
take an upright direction ; for, let it he observed, an oak tree
is the more valuable for having abend in its form, such trees being
useful in ship-buildiug.
In the pruning of all young trees, any branch of which may be
got at by a man standing upon the ground, which branches,
generally speaking, will not be more than one inch in diameter,
the work ought to be done by the common forest pruning-knife.
(See Fig. 88.) This is not made with a hinge between
the blade and the handle, as is the case in common
pocket-knives, but the blade is fixed into the handle.
The blade is also made straight in the face, that is, with-
out any hook at the point, as is the case with garden-
knives. The forester, in working with this knife, when
he has no occasion to use it, puts it into a sheath of
leather hanging by his side. In cutting off any branch
of a tree from its bole with the forest pruning-knife,
the operator takes hold of the branch with his left hand
a little forward from its base, and eases it upwards,
and at the same moment he applies the pruning-knife with
his right hand to the base of the branch to be cut off, cutting
it upwards in the same line as the bole of the tree — taking care
not to enter the knife upon the plane of the bole of the tree, but
a little upon the base of the branch to be cut off, say about a
quarter of an inch upon the rise of the wood forming the base of
the branch. By this means the bole of the tree is not injured,
and, at the same time, the damp is thrown off the wounded part.
In all cutting off whole branches immediately from the bole
of a tree, the WOlinded part should be made perfectly
smooth, paring it neatly all round with the knife,
which >]i'>uM be kept very >harp. When the work of
lopping off a blanch is finished, the part will have the
Appearance as represented in Fig. 89 at a ; and in the
course of two years after being done, the wounded
part will be entirely covered over with voting wood.
316 NATURE AND PRACTICE OF FIR PLANTATIONS.
When pruning operations are done upon a tree, the branches of
which are within the reach of a man standing upon the ground,
but which are too large for being easily cut off by the pruning-
knife, the pruning-saw must be applied. (See Fig. 90.) In all
cases of cutting off a branch with the saw, care must
. . Fig 90
be taken, first, to make a slight cut with it upon the
under part of the base of the branch to be taken off;
say about half an inch deep if the branch be three
inches in diameter, and so on with any other size of
a branch in proportion. This is in order to prevent
the branch, when nearly cut through, from falling away
suddenly and tearing away the bark below its base
upon the bole, which circumstance sometimes happens
with careless hands. Care should be also taken to pare
with a sharp knife all the wounded surface made by the
saw, which is always rough. By attending to this, the
damp will not be so apt to lodge upon the wound.
Where the operator cannot reach to the branch to be taken off,
and where of course he could neither use the pruning-knife nor
the saw, the prun- FlG- 91-
ing-cliisel is used. flU^^— - -_. ~i— ... „^ c
(See Fig. 91.) In ° if^
this instrument, the handle d may be of any convenient length to
suit the height of the tree to be pruned ; and it should always be
made of a piece of good tough well-seasoned ash- wood. In using
the instrument, the operator takes hold of the handle with his
left hand, and puts the sharp face of the instrument a to the under
part of the base of the branch. He then, with a mell in his right
hand, with one or more strokes upon the lower end of the handle
c, which has an iron virl or ring upon it, forces the instrument
through the branch and separates it from the bole of the tree.
In the act of doing this, care should be taken to repeat the strokes
lightly when the branch is nearly through ; because, were a heavy
stoke of the mell given at this time, the instrument might be
forced upwards and injure the bole of the tree, making a deep cut.
When it is necessary to take any part of a branch off, which may
be considered too long, and not in balance with the tree, the
THINNING AND REARING UP OF FIR PLANTATIONS. 317
hooked parts of this instrument, b b, are used. They are kept very-
sharp in the inside ; and in taking off any part of a branch with
them, the operator pulls the instrument suddenly towards him, by
which means a pretty large branch may be cut very quickly
through. In using the priming-chisel, a considerable deal of
practical skill is required ; and in the hands of a practised man, it
is a most effective instrument. I have had workmen who, with a
single stroke of the face «, upon any branch three inches in dia-
meter, could force it through in a clean and neat manner ; and of
course this was in favour of the health of the tree so pruned ; for
the less haggling there is in taking off any branch of a tree, the
less is it injured, and the more healthy is the result.
All pruning operations should be done in the spring or summer
months, observing to leave all maples till the summer season. I
would not advise to prune any after the 1st of August, for after
that time the motion of the sap becomes slower, and the wounds
are consequently longer in healing up. I have this season (1848)
pruned extensively from the end of April to the end of July, and
have found the results most satisfactory. I observe, that those
trees which were pruned in May and June, heal up in their wounds
much faster than those done in July or a week in August. My
impression, therefore, is, that the month of June is to be preferred
to any other month in the year for this operation. In pruning
oak trees in the month of June, the bark can be taken from such
branches as are of any size ; and I have found this to be a
source of profit in forest management.
BB4 riOH HI. — SYSTEM OP THINNING AM) REARING OP OF PIB
PLANTATIONS.
In order to point out properly the manner of proceeding with
the thinning of fir plantations, it will be necessary to give a
detailed account of how the work should be done at the different
stages of the age of any plantation ; and, as I have already stated
that no particular age of a young plantation can be given as that
at which thinning operations ought to commence upon it, the
318 THINNING AND REARING UP
observation of the operator must always be his guide in such a
case. Every man who has given his attention to the rearing of
forests must have observed, that on some particular soils and
situations a young plantation may be in a fit state for thinning at
eight years of age, while another, composed of the same sorts of
trees, and planted at the same time, may not be ready for this
operation at twice that age — all depending upon the elevation of
the situation, and the nature of the subsoil, as that is open or
retentive, dry or damp. Therefore it is that observation upon the
spot is the only decisive way of ascertaining when a plantation is
in want of being thinned.
I may state, that at the present time, (1848,) upon the estate
of Arniston, we are thinning a fir plantation for the first time,
which is fifteen years planted. The situation is nearly one thou-
sand three hundred feet above the level of the sea, and notwith-
standing that altitude, the trees are healthy, and promise to do
well, although of a slow growth. Another fir plantation, in the
same neighbourhood, was made in the autumn of 1842, being at
the present time (autumn 1848) of six years' growth. The trees in
it are not more than thirty inches high upon an average, and yet
they are in most perfect health, and promise to do well. Tim
young fir plantation will not, I conceive, be ready for the first
course of thinning much under fifteen years of age. These remarks
are made to show that the time for the thinning of any plantation
for the first time depends much upon the altitude of the situa-
tion, and a great deal upon the nature of the soil, upon which they
are planted.
For the guidance of those who may not have had much expe-
rience in the thinning of plantations, I shall here lay down a few
hints of practical utility, from which, I am certain, a cautious
intelligent man may be enabled to lay the foundation of future
experience in this art. In examining the state of a young fir
plantation with the view of ascertaining if it be in a condition so
far advanced as to admit of being thinned, it wTill be necessary
first to walk very carefully through its whole extent, and mark
well the bearing which the young trees have one upon another.
If the points of the branches of the young trees be merely touch-
OF FIR PLANTATIONS. 319
ing, or slightly interfering with one another, thinning would be
premature, and ought to be put oft' for a year or two longer ; but
if, upon examination, the lower side branches of the trees have the
appearance of having been considerably checked in their growth,
and are actually becoming deadened in the extremities from the
want of freedom and air, and if the higher side branches of one
tree are spreading widely, and actually encroaching about half
their length upon those of another, it is high time that thinning
should be commenced. If the lower branches of the young trees
have a brown and deadened appearance, and the upper are spread-
ing so widely that in many instances the points of the strongest of
them touch the boles of others, thinning has been delayed too long;
and from the trees being heavy topped, and light in the lower
parts, many of them would be apt to be blown down if thinned
suddenly : therefore, thinning should never be delayed so long as
to allow the last-mentioned feature to manifest itself upon the trees.
Having in the manner stated gone through the voung plan-
tation, and determined as to whether it ought to be thinned
or not, supposing that it has been found necessary to thin, it
will be necessary, previous to commencing operations, to exa-
mine which sort of tree has thriven best upon the ground, and
has the appearance of becoming the most valuable for a perma-
nent crop of timber. Thus, if the ground has been originally
planted with a mixture of Scots, larch, and spruce firs, examine
each district of the plantation as it may naturally divide itself
into height or hollow, sloping banks or level ground, and ascer-
tain which variety appears most healthy, and is most likely to
come to perfect maturity as a timber tree in each separate district.
In each district spare that species which, from general appearance,
is most likely to succeed well; and when thinning, remove those
sorts which have not the appearance of becoming good timber
upon the soil.
In commencing to thin any plantation, it is also necessary to
have in view its situation. The operator should observe that, if
the situation be a high one, he must thin sparingly at first, for fear
of checking the growth of the trees. At the same time, regard
should be had as to what winds prove most violent and destruc-
320 THINNING AND REARING UP
tive in the neighbourhood of the plantation ; and having ascer-
tained the quarter from which the most injurious winds come, it is
wisdom to thin most cautiously upon that side, and more severely
in the interior of the plantation. But if shelter is given, either
naturally, or artificially by older plantations upon other heights,
then less caution is necessary, and the trees may at once be
allowed more freedom, in order to develop themselves quickly
and perfectly. The operator having fully informed himself upon
each of these points, he will next proceed to have those trees
marked which it is considered should be taken out.
In the act of thinning, particular attention should be paid to
leaving, in all cases, the healthiest trees upon the ground, and to
cutting out those that are most weakly, as the nature of the thin-
ning may require.
In thinning a plantation, many foresters think that the prin-
cipal object to be aimed at is, that of giving the whole a regular
systematic appearance, by leaving the trees as nearly as possible
at a given distance one from another, without taking into con-
sideration the ultimate welfare of the plantation. Such a method
of conducting thinning operations may, indeed, have the effect of
pleasing the eye and taste of the inexperienced for a time ; but
the effect is certainly ruinous to the proprietor in the end, and is
never practised by the forester of extensive experience. If the
trees in a young plantation are all equally healthy, then it is but
proper to thin them out to a regular distance from one another ;
but where many of the trees appear of an unhealthy cast — which
is frequently the case in a high situation — the healthy trees should
be preserved without respect to a nice regularity in appearance.
Wherever two trees may be found growing together, the one
healthy and the other unhealthy, and, according to regularity in
the act of thinning, the unhealthy tree may be found to occupy a
proper place, and the healthy one an improper, yet, for the sake
of the future welfare of the plantation, there should be no hesita-
tion as to" which should be cut down. In all such cases, at once cut
out the sickly and leave the healthv.
In the thinning of young fir plantations for the first time, it
may be asked at what distance the trees should be left the one
OF FIR PLANTATIONS. 321
from the other ? Xo certain distance can be specified : for this
reason, that the young trees do not all grow alike in the same
plantation, either as regards height or breadth of branches ;
consequently, thev do not all occupy the same space upon the
ground. In the first thinning of any plantation of considerable
extent, it will often be found prudent and necessary to pass over
some parts altogether, without takiug out almost a single tree ;
and this will happen upon a part of the ground which is of a
poor thin nature : while again, wherever the ground is of a
stronger nature, with a little shelter from the higher grounds, it
may be found necessary to take out nearly one third of the trees
in order to give proper air and room. All this must be regulated
by observation more than by any rule that could be given. As
the general rule, however, my own method of procedure generally
is, to leave the trees, as nearly as possible, free from one another
after the thinning has been performed : that is, when a plantation
of young trees has been newly thinned, the extreme points of the
branches of one tree should do no more than touch those of its
nearest neighbour ; and in all cases where fir trees are raised for
timber as well as for shelter, they should be kept rather close
together than otherwise. By observation, the most advantageous
distance will be found, as I have formerly mentioned, to be about
one third the height of the trees generally. "When firs are kept
growing at a distance less than one third of their height, they
become tall, slender, and weakly ; and if grown at a greater dis-
tance from one another, they become branchy, and do not increase
proportionately in height, and the timber is generally coarse.
No pruning of fir trees should be allowed : pruning invariably
deteriorates the quality of the wood of fir trees, and their health
also is much injured by it. If the trees are kept as nearly as pos-
sible at the distance specified above, thev naturally prune thein-
;liev advance in height ; for as soon as the lower branches
of the fir and pine tribe become confined, and a want of free air
ensues in the body of the plantation, thev gradually die and fall
off, without in the least injuring the quality of the timber. All
the ends or stumps, however, of dead branches should be carefully
removed from the boles of fir trees, and that as soon as they
x
322 THINNING AND REARING
become deadened ; this tending to make the quality of the wood
much finer. In the act of thinning, great care should be taken
that no large open space be left among the trees, which in any
direction would in length measure more than the height of one of
the trees growing by it. This can easily be avoided by proper
attention in the disposal of the trees upon the ground, not to
have them running in rows, but in such an alternate manner that,
which way soever the eye looks from any given point, there may
be always a tree to intercept the view within a short distance.
This, indeed, is a point of the utmost importance in the art of
thinning plantations, and can only be attained by careful observa-
tion and experience. If open spaces be left for any considerable
distance, the wind gets play among the trees, and has a tendency
to cause havoc among them, particularly after being newly
thinned, and the more so if the plantation has been formerly ne-
glected. As soon as the young trees which were marked to come
out have been cut down, they should be carried out entire to one
of the nearest roads in the plantation, and pruned of their branches
there. This is not, indeed, always done ; but still it ought to be
the method of going to work among young trees, the health of
which requires free circulation of pure air among them. I have
often had occasion to remark that plantations in a young state are
much benefited by having a dry wholesome air circulating through
them ; and being aware of this fact, it must appear evident, that if
the primings of the felled trees be allowed to lie upon the ground
when they are cut, the gases arising from their natural decomposition
must prove injurious to the health of the standing trees. This is
particularly the case when plantations are composed entirely of one
tribe or family of trees ; that is, if a plantation be composed entirely
of the different sorts of firs, the gases arising from the decomposi-
tion of their own kind is injurious to their health, whereas those
arising from the decomposition of firs are favourable to the
health of hardwood trees. On the other hand, the gases arising
from the natural decomposition of hardwood trees are injurious
to the living plants of the same species in the neighbourhood, but
the same gases prove beneficial to fir trees. The reason of
this I do not pretend to explain, as a question of chemistry is
OF FIR PLANTATIONS. 323
involved in the answer ; still, from my own observation, I am
satisfied of the truth of what I here assert, although I do not
remember of ever having heard that any other forester had observed
this phenomenon : and it is to be regretted that, generally speak-
ing, foresters are not allowed time and expenses to keep young
plantations in the clean healthy state which their ultimate value
demands. I have observed, in several places of note in Scotland,
where men of first-rate abilities acted as foresters, that the planta-
tions under their charge, although generally well conducted in
other points, were, notwithstanding, always in a confused state
from the primings of all felled trees lying upon the ground ; and
on inquiry into the reason of such a state of things, I have always
learned that the operation of keeping plantations clean being an
expensive one, they were not allowed strength of men sufficient
to make all right. Proprietors of plantations often lose much
valuable timber by this state of things being allowed to go on in
their plantations. It does, no doubt, demand a few more pounds of
outlay at the time, but ultimately that would be paid to their
successors ten times over, from the effects of a superior system
of management.
Supposing that a plantation of young fir trees had been thinned
in the manner above recommended, when about twelve years old,
the trees would then, probably, be from eight to twelve feet high,
according to soil and situation ; and supposing that the same
plantation was then in a fair state of health, and to have~continued
so for another period, say of five years from the time that it
was first thinned, it would, at the end of this second period, be
about seventeen years old, with the trees from twelve to twenty feet
high ; and they would, in all probability, be ready at this age for
another thinning. In the thinning of the same plantation a second
time, the same practical points relative to the work must in all
- be attended to as have already been recommended for the
first thinning ; consequently these need not be repeated here.
l>ut there are one or two points which must be observed
by the operator in the thinning of plantations at or above twenty
years old : the first of these being to see that the standing
trees are not injured by the falling of those that are cut down. I
324 THINNING AND REARING
have seen much damage done to the trees in a young plantation,
where the falling down of the cut trees was carelessly conducted ;
and it cannot be too strongly recommended to all operators, in the
act of cutting down any tree of considerable size and height, to
be most careful in the operation. When a fir tree happens to
lose its top by a felled neighbour coming in contact with it, such
a tree seldom or never increases any more in height, and very
frequently dies. The operator, in the act of cutting down any
tree of such weight of branches as may be considered dangerous
to let fall against any of its neighbours, should, if he has not a
sufficient opening for its safe fall, provide himself with a pruning
chisel, having a shaft proportioned to the height of the tree, and
also a mell ; and with these he should lop off all the heavy
branches from the tree to be felled, previous to its being cut. When
it is thus made bare of all its branches, any tree of seventeen years
may be at the command of a man's strength, in so far as he may be
enabled to push it down to one side or another as he may see fit to
suit an opening among the standing trees. The lopping off the
branches from a tree of any considerable size, is, however, an
operation requiring considerable time ; consequently it need not
be adopted excepting in extreme cases, where there is evidently
danger to the young and growing trees.
In most cases an expert woodsman can, from observation and
practice, make a tree fall very nearly to any given point he may
choose as an opening of the safest description. The method prac-
tised by expert woodsmen in this sort of work, is to observe, first,
toward which side the tree he may be about to cut has naturally
its centre of gravity. Having ascertained this point, he proceeds
to judge if the tree will or can be made to fall into a proper
opening among the growing trees ; and being from observation
well assured as to the side to which the tree can be made to fall
with the most safety, he commences to cut first upon the side to
which he wishes it to fall. After cutting rather more than half
through upon that side, so as to throw the centre of gravity in the
desired direction, he next applies his axe to the opposite side. As
he gradually weakens the perpendicular attitude of the tree, he
observes now and then if the centre of gravity in the tottering
OF FIR PLANTATIONS. 325
tree is likely to take an unexpected turn upon him ; and if so, he
checks the same by cutting oppositely. By these means alone
I have had men who could lay down trees upon the ground to
almost any given point. But, notwithstanding all this, I have
frequently had to do with instances in the thinning of plantations
where the coming down of a heavy-topped fir tree would have
done much damage; and in such cases, when I applied the chisel
in the manner as above stated, the work was safely accomplished.
At the age proper for the second thinning of any fir plantation,
it should never be too severely thinned ; because, at such an age,
say at about seventeen years old, the trees are generally in a
very healthy and rapid state of growth ; and if they should
happen to be checked at such a stage, the ultimate value of the
whole plantation might be materially impared, and it is even
possible that the whole might be ruined. Hence it is requisite, in
all cases, to thin with experience and caution.
It is always better to thin frequently, and take out a few
trees at a time from any given plantation, than to thin at distant
periods, and then to do so severely. Many foresters recommend to
thin plantations at regular intervals of ten years. To such
uniformity of procedure I cannot agree, because it is evident that
no specified time can be given as an interval between thinnings :
plantations do not grow with equal vigour every year ; in some
years trees will make strong healthy shoots of young wood, and
in others much less. Trees grow more rapidly in a warm season
than in a cold one, and, as has been already stated, they are very
much affected by variety of soil and situation ; and being aware
of these circumstances, it is folly to say that a plantation of trees
can be thinned advantageously at any definite period. After any
young plantation has been thinned for the first time, it is advanta-
geous to its welfare to go over it and take out a few trees in the
way of thinning at intervals of four or five years — in all cases
judging upon this point according to the appearance of the trees,
whetlnT tiny have grown rapidly or not since they were last
thinned. At such thinnings I would advise every proprietor
merely to take out such trees as are really doing injury to others.
By this method, which I always practise myself, plantations never
326 THINNING AND REARING
experience any sensible check, and, consequently, they are kept
in a constant quick-growing state ; whereas, by the method of
thinning at regular intervals of ten years, the trees in a plantation
are by that time generally hurt to a very great extent from the
effects of confinement ; and as soon as they are thinned in such a
manner as to relieve each tree for another period of ten years, the
whole plantation must be very much cooled down in temperature
and shelter from what it was before the operation was performed ;
the natural consequence being, that the trees thus receive a severe
check, which in too many cases they never recover. A plantation
thinned at intervals of about five years, will yield one-third more
timber at the end of sixty years than one of the same extent
thinned at intervals of ten years.
Every fir plantation, whether composed of larch, Scots, or
spruce, ought to be gradually thinned as the trees advance in height
and breadth, until they are about forty-five years of age, after
which period no fir plantation which has been properly managed
should be at all disturbed by the operation of thinning, excepting
the taking out injured, unhealthy, or decaying trees. At forty-
five years of age, the trees in a fir plantation should stand at such a
distance one from another, as may be considered sufficient to bring
them to confirmed maturity upon the soil upon which they are grow-
ing. This distance of the trees one from another should, as I have
formerly stated, be about one-third of their height ; and, indeed,
this ought to be as nearly as possible the rule for distance among
fir plantations at all stages of their growth, commencing our calcu-
lation with the time the trees receive their first course of thiuning.
In many high-lying districts, the trees in a fir plantation may,
at forty-five years of age, be about thirty feet high ; therefore, the
distance of such trees at that age should be as nearly as possible
ten feet : in a more sheltered situation, with a dry and favourable
subsoil, they may at that age be about sixty feet high; and in
such a case, the distance of the trees one from another may be
about twenty feet.
At from sixty to seventy years of age, the wood of the pine and fir
tribes is generally considered to be in its most valuable and solid
state as timber. It is then heavier, and more full of resinous matter,
OF FIR PLANTATIONS. 327
than at any other stage of its existence ; consequently, at that age,
if the object be a crop of valuable timber, the tree should be cut
down, and disposed of as may seem best. But if the proprietor
have in view the giving shelter to his lands, which is generally one
end aimed at, the plantation may be allowed to stand for other
twenty years, after which period the trees will begin to become
lighter in their wood, and many will then be showing marks of
natural decay, and the whole plantation will of course be, generally
speaking, of less value than it was at sixty years' standing. How-
ever, this is not always the case ; for very much depends upon the
nature of the soil and situation upon which the crop of wood may
be growing, as to whether that may be high or low lying, dry or
damp. In a high situation, with a good dry bottom, I have seen
excellent fir trees one hundred years old ; while, on the other hand,
I have seen firs beginning to show symptoms of rapid decay at
fifty years of age, and in many cases even at a much earlier age,
where they were in a low and rather moist situation, and without
a free circulation of air.
It very frequently happens that fir plantations have to be dealt
with which have been much neglected ; and although they may in
many instances be past any good hopes of recovery, and might, in
so far as regards the value of their timber, be very properly cut
down, yet it is veiy often the wish of the proprietor to have old
fir plantations preserved ; particularly if such a plantation should
happen to be placed upon a part of his estate where, from its ever-
green appearance, it proves ornamental from a certain point of
view, as well as shelter to the neighbourhood around it. In such
a ease, profit and ornament should be combined. It would not be
profitable for the proprietor of an old neglected fir plantation to
leave the ground entirely occupied by a few trees only in a fail-
state of health, with many others dead and dying; therefore, the
profitable way of going to work in such a case would be to plant
anew with other trees all vacant parts, ami, for the sake of orna-
ment ami shelter, all good old trees could be left for a time.
I have frequently been called upon by proprietors to give my
opinion relative to the state of fir plantations upon their estates
which had grown up under utter neglect, and requested to
328 THINNING AND REARING OF
say whether I thought that such a plantation would recover by any
means I could suggest. Where I have found such plantations
young — say at or under thirty years of age — and spoiled merely
from the want of having been thinned in proper time, I have very
often seen them recovered by a very cautious and gradual course
of thinning, especially where the trees grew upon a dry bottom ;
but wherever I have found thinning neglected upon a damp soil,
I at once pronounced that there was no hope of recovery for the
trees. In many such cases I have seen a gradual course of thin-
ning with draining tried for the purpose of recovery, but all to no
purpose. If ever the pine or fir tribe have been much affected by
dampness in the soil, the sooner that the trees are cut down the
better ; after which, draining and replanting can be got done in a
proper manner.
Where the trees in a neglected fir plantation may happen to be
old — say at or above sixty years — and where, in such a case, it is
the wish of the proprietor to extend the existence of his plantation
as long as possible for the sake of shelter and general ornament,
it is a very good method to cut out gradually all the trees which
have the appearance of decay, and to leave the best trees standing at
wide distances, and as nearly regular as possible. Say that good
trees are left at seventy feet distance one from another, from a
distant view the plantation would seem good ; and then the open
spaces between the old trees could be replanted with a crop of
hardwood trees, which, from being sheltered by the old firs, would
grow very rapidly. In the course of ten or fifteen years from the
time of this replanting, when the hardwood may be expected to be
pretty strong, the firs might with propriety be dispensed with
altogether, or only a few of the best trees left, according as the
taste of the proprietor suggested.
SECTION IV. — SYSTEM OF THINNING AND REARING UP OF MIXED
HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS.
The rearing up of hardwood plantations to anything approaching
natural perfection, requires much more attention and practical
knowledge from the manager than fir woods do.
DIAGRAM SHOW INC THE MANNER OF DISTRIBUTING TREES IN A MIXED HARDWOOD
o*o*o'
O • o • o * o • °
' .° • ° ' o • o . 0 . o
+ • + • + .
+•+•*+•+•+
• + •+•+•+.'+•. • +
o • o • o
o • o * o • b • o
o,0*o*o..0*o
+ • + • +
. + •+• + ••+• +
+ • + • + •+. + • . • +
o * ° • o
• 0 * 0 * 0 • o • o
o • o • o • o • o • o
+ • + • +
o • o • o
. + . + . + .+ .+
o • o • o • o • O
• + • + . + .+ •+• +
• o * ° . o • ° ' ° " °
+ • + • +
• + . + • + •+.+
■ + •+. + •+• + • +
o • o • 0
O • 0 • O • o ' °
■ 0.o.o,0,°'0
+ • + . +
o • o • 0
• + • + ••-+.+ .+
° • o • o • o - o
v-v'-v-.v.0.".0
+ •-*-• + • + • +
■-«-' *•+' • + • + ' + ' +
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS.
In a fir plantation, the trees are alike of an upright habit of
growth, from which circumstance they are veiy easily regulated
and kept in proper place and order ; but in a plantation consisting
of manv different kinds of hardwood, all growing in a mixed
state — some, as the elm, inclining to grow much to horizontal
branches, and others, as the ash, tending to an upright growth —
much attention is necessary for the first thirty years, in order
to keep the rambling sorts within due bounds, and from over-
topping and injuring their neighbours which may be less hardy in
their young state. And as it is in the young state that hardwood
plantations may be made to do well or otherwise, according as
they may be attended to, it is a matter of the first importance in
good forestry, that the manager be well acquainted with the cir-
cumstances which retard the progress of young trees, as well as those
which are known to be favourable to their healthy development.
Being myself well aware from past experience of the extensive
damage which is done to young hardwood plantations in consequence
of their being neglected in their young state, I shall here lay down
at some length the method which ought to be pursued in order to
have healthy and valuable hardwood trees — dwelling more parti-
cularly upon the system which ought to be adopted in rearing,
till the trees attain thirty years of age; after which time, if they have
been properly attended to, little care is required as regards trees
individually, except to give them room as they advance in size.
Let the annexed diagram represent a piece of ground which
has been planted with different sorts of young hardwood trees, at
ten feet apart, the ground being made up between them with firs
to act a3 nurses, so that the young trees stand over all at three
and a half feet from each other.
In the diagram, the different sorts of trees are represented by
marks differing either in colour or in character, thus : —
( >ak trees, planted at twenty feet apart, are represented by a red circle
Ash trees, planted at twenty feet, by a Mack circle.
Elm trees, planted at twenty feet, by a red cross.
aunore trees, planted at twenty feet, by a Mack cross.
Larch imr-ts. planted at three and a half feet from hardwood, by a red
point.
- planted at five feet from hardwood, by a Mack point.
330 THINNING AND EEAEING OF
Upon examining the diagram, it will be found that each
sort of hardwood tree is planted in such a manner that each
tree of the same sort is exactly twenty feet from the next of
its own species. This is an important point to attend to in the
planting of mixed hardwood plantations ; for it may ultimately
be found necessary to cut out the whole of one sort ; and in
this case, the others which were left would stand at equal dis-
tances after these had been removed. The ash and sycamore
are planted within ten feet of the oaks, while the elm is kept
fourteen feet off them. This is another point of much importance
to attend to in the planting of mixed hardwood plantations.
For example, supposing that the oaks, which are planted at twenty
feet apart, are intended to remain as the only ultimate crop, then
the ash and sycamore, which are of an upright habit of growth
in a close wood, could grow for a longer time close upon the
oaks than the elm could safely do, which is of a spreading habit ;
therefore the elm, at fourteen feet distance from the oak, would
be as close upon the oaks at thirty years' standing, as the ash and
sycamore at the same time. The larches are planted three and a
half feet from the hardwood plants. The reason of this is, that the
larch, from its light and airy habit of growth, is found not to hurt
the hardwood plants so much as the Scots pines would do at the
same age ; for which reason, also, the Scots pines are for the most
part planted five feet from the hardwood plants. Besides, the
larches, being planted next the hardwood, are likely to be taken
out first in the way of thinnings ; and in this case they are of far
greater value when cut at an early stage than the Scots pines.
The four larches which are planted next each hardwood plant can
be all taken away in the way of thinning a considerable time
before it is found necessary to cut a Scots pine ; and by this
arrangement the Scots pines can be allowed to stand and grow till
they become of some value.
We shall now suppose that a pretty large tract of ground has
been planted with young forest trees exactly in the manner repre-
sented in the diagram. We shall further suppose, that the ground
so planted has been properly drained and rendered congenial for
the future welfare of the plants ; for let me again observe, that
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 331
much of their future success depends upon this. A very indifferent
soil, if well dried, will produce much better timber than a good
soil having a superfluity of water in it ; hence the importance of a
thorough clearing of the ground from all superfluous water before
planting forest trees upon it. Presuming that the ground has
been well drained by means of open drains put on at consistent
distances, and that the young trees have been properly planted
according to directions, as formerly given in this book, the next
question which naturally occurs is, At what stage of the growth
of such a young plantation should thinning commence ? This is
a question which has given rise to a great deal of useless discus-
sion among those who have the management of plantations ; all
this arising from not taking into account the effect of altitude
upon the growth of young trees ; and not only the effect of alti-
tude, but even the effect of soil and aspect, and in fact many other
local circumstances which cannot always be accounted for. For
example, in districts of the country pretty far inland, and upon
estates of a generally level nature, four hundred feet above the
level of the sea, I have seen foresters thinning their young planta-
tions for the first time at eight years old from the time of plant-
ing ; while, on the other hand, upon the west coast of Britain,
upon estates within a few miles of the sea, and at four hundred
feet above its level, I have seen young plantations, under excel-
lent management, not ready for thinning when they were ten
years old. and that although the young trees were planted at the
same distances from one another in both cases. Now, this at once
points out, that, independent of altitude, other local circumstances
most be taken into consideration; as, for instance, if the ground
planted be upon a level part of the country, the trees will grow
quicker than they could do in a hilly district, even supposing the
altitudes of both to be the same ; while, again, trees grow much
faster in a glen <>r hollow than upon a common level piece of
ground. Ami. with regard to soil, when it is of a light or samlv
nature, young trees grow very quickly upon it for a few years,
and soon arrive at maturity ; while, at the same altitude, upon a
heavy or clay soil, trees will be longer in getting awav, but will
ultimately lie far superior to those planted upon the light soil.
332 THINNING AND REARING OF
Every intelligent forester who has had the management of plan-
tations upon an estate of considerable extent and of a varied
surface, will have had occasion to remark the great difference that
occurs in the growth of plantations, even within the bounds of one
estate ; and that according as the plantation may be situated
upon a sudden rising height, upon flat level ground, in a hollow
or glen, upon sandy or light soil, or upon heavy clay soil ; and I
may say also, according to shelter received from surrounding plan-
tations, &c. It will then at once appear evident, that to give any-
thing like a rule for the time at which a young plantation should
be thinned at first, is a thing, properly speaking, impossible, as I
have learned from practical experience. There are, indeed, men
whom we may properly term theorists, who pretend to lay down
exact rules for the thinning of young plantations at any given
stage, and who even state the exact size that a tree should be at a
given age, without having any regard to local circumstances
affecting the growth of trees ; all which arises from the want of
experience, and from ignorance upon the subject of growing trees :
for even a person unacquainted with forest matters will at once
admit that, in some sheltered situations, trees will be fit for a given
purpose at twenty years from the time of planting, while others of
the same age, planted upon an exposed part, will not be nearly so
large.
Upon the estate of Arniston, the plantations are situated upon
land varying from four hundred to thirteen hundred feet above the
level of the sea. A considerable portion of these are growing in
glens or hollows — a portion on level ground, about the home
domains — and another portion growing on a high moorland part of
the estate. Having such a varied surface for the growing of
plantations upon this estate, I shall here, for the guidance
of those who may not have similar opportunities, lay down
the different ages at which I have thinned plantations, mention-
ing at the same time the nature of the soil, and the altitude of
each.
First, In a hollow or glen, four hundred feet above the level of
the sea, planted with oaks at twelve feet distances, and made up
with larches to four feet over all, I have found it necessary to thin
MIXED HAKDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 333
out the firs at seven years from the time of planting. The soil in
this instance was a light sandy loam, with, in many places, rocky
projecting points, with very little soil.
Second, Upon a level part of the estate, about seventy feet
higher than the glen above mentioned, is a mixed plantation of
the same kind as the above, and planted at the same distances,
which I found necessary to thin at eight years from the time of
planting ; the soil, in this instance, being what may be termed a
clav loam, and having been, before being planted, under agricul-
tural crops.
Third, Another young plantation, consisting of oaks planted at
eight feet distance, and made up with Scots and spruce firs to four
feet over all, was thinned when of nine years' standing. The
height of this plantation was five hundred feet above the level of
the sea, situated on a level part of the estate, the soil being rather
a stiffish clay.
Fourth, Upon the same level with the last-mentioned plantation,
but in a hollow, I thinned larches from among the hardwood for
the first time at eight years old. The soil here was much the
same as that last stated ; but the situation being in a hollow, the
young trees came more rapidly forward from being sheltered.
Fifth, A young plantation, six hundred feet above the level of
the sea, consisting of oaks at ten feet apart, made up with larch
and spruce firs, I thinned for the first time when of ten years'
standing. The soil, in tins instance, was very variable ; in some
parts approaching to clay; in others, sandy loam; in others, gravelly;
and in others, mossy : consequently, from the great variety of soils
contained in this plantation, it was not generally alike at the same
time ready for being thinned. On the dry sandy soil I found the
larches had grown very rapidly, while on the more clayey parts
they had not come nearly so rapidly away. On the clayey parts,
and particularly where the moss and clay approached each other,
I found the spruce firs had tar outstripped the larches in the
rapidity of their growth.
rth, In a pretty large glen, situated six hundred feet above
the level of the sea, is another plantation of eight years* standing,
which I found necessary to have thinned at that stage. The trees
334 THINNING AND REARING OF
consist of oaks planted at eight feet apart, and made up with larch
and spruce firs to four feet. The soil is a sandy loam, and in
many places sand very much predominated.
Seventh, A number of plantations, situated seven hundred and
fifty feet above the level of the sea, and upon a rather exposed
northern aspect, I found not requiring to be thinned for the first
time before they were twelve years old. The crop of trees in these
is mixed hardwood, at ten feet apart, made up with larch, Scots
and spruce firs, to three and a half feet ; and the soil in general
is a sharp sandy loam, and in many places gravel. Gene-
rally speaking, all the plantations upon the estate of Arniston,
which are situated between seven hundred and fifty and nine hun-
dred feet above the level of the sea, I have not found necessary to
thin, although the trees are planted at three and a half feet apart,
before they are twelve years old ; excepting, indeed, hollow parts,
where there is natural shelter produced. In such hollows, even
at eight hundred feet of altitude, I have found it necessary to thin
at nine and ten years of age.
Eighth, At one thousand feet above the level of the sea, where
the natural surface soil is of that description known among foresters
by the name of sandy moss, producing short bushy heath, I have
never found it necessary to thin for the first time, even when the
trees were planted at three feet apart, till they were fourteen years
old : at the same altitude, that is, one thousand feet, where the soil
is of a loamy nature, and adapted for the growth of hardwood, I
have found it necessary to thin larch from the hardwood at from
twelve to thirteen years.
Ninth, In fir plantations, planted upon goodish loamy soil,
at twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea, having a
northern aspect, I have not found it necessary to thin trees
planted at three feet apart before they were fourteen and sixteen
years old ; excepting, indeed, in any hollow glen, where, of
course, from the effects of natural shelter, two or three years may
be gained.
Now, from the above statement, it will appear evident that alti-
tude has much to do in the bringing of trees to a given size within
a given time. Those, therefore, who say that every plantation
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATION*. 335
should be thinned at such and such a time, only expose their own
want of knowledge in the matter, and ought not to be trusted as
guides in forest operations.
\Ye shall now suppose that we have in hand a plantation of
fiftv acres in extent, which has been planted with a mixture of
hardwood and firs, exactly in the proportions pointed out in the
diagram. This plantation we shall suppose to be upon a mode-
rately exposed situation, say eight hundred feet above the level
of the sea, and pretty far inland, having a soil of moderate capa-
bilities. Such a plantation will in all probability be ready for
the first course of thinning when from ten to twelve years old ;
but before commencing to thin out any of the larches, it will be
necessary, in the first place, to have an eye to the state of the
hardwood plants, which of course are intended as the principal
and ultimate crop upon the ground.
In the rearing of plantations generally, and more especially in
the case of those in which it is intended to rear up a supply of
various kinds of hardwood for general usefulness, independent of
a particular sort which is to remain as an ultimate crop upon
the ground, the forester requires to watch them continually,
in order to keep them in a constantly healthy growing state. The
trees, after they have got properly established in the ground, must
not be allowed to become so crowded together as to impede the
free action of air among them ; neither must they at any time
be thinned so severely as materially to cool down the usual tem-
perature of the whole as a plantation, as is too often done. .V
forester, therefore, in order to raise plantations profitably, should
have the present state of every plantation under his charge
continually in his eye; for unless this be the case, matters
will without doubt go wrong. The forester will then, in the
case of such a young plantation as we are now discussing, observe
at what time the points of the side branches of the larches begin
to touch those of the hardwood plants next them; and as soon as
this ensues in the plantation generally, it is time to give the hard-
wood plants a prune, which should in all cases be done before any
thinning of the fin takes place. In the case of such a plantation
ifl imw under our consideration, this pruning will in all proba-
336 THINNING AND REARING OF
bility have to be made in the eighth or ninth year, independently
of other primings they may have received when younger.
In pruning the young hardwood trees at this stage, have all
strong branches that may have the appearance of gaining strength
upon the top shoots of each tree, cut clean away from the bole.
At this early stage, and while the plants are in a young and sap-
ling state, they are much improved by a judicious lopping off of all
large branches ; for immediately after such treatment, the trees
push upwards in a vigorous healthy manner, making double the
progress that others do under like circumstances, which have not
been pruned of their superfluous side branches. Having thus gone
over all the hardwood plants, and pruned them in the manner
stated, have any of the side branches of the larch plants that may
be likely to interfere with the hardwood soon, cut away with a
hedge-knife, taking care, however, to do so carefully : that is,
do not cut the branches close to the bole, but only about half-
way in upon themselves ; for were these branches to be cut close
in upon the surface of the bole, the young larch trees would in all
probability lose much of their sap at the wounded parts, and
consequently the health of the trees would be much impaired.
This pruning of the hardwood trees should be done in the months
of April, May, and June, and never later than the last week in
July. If this be not attended to, the wounded parts will not heal
up properly before winter set in. I have frequently had occasion
to observe, that young trees which had been pruned in September,
were much injured at the wounded parts during the frost of the
following winter ; and the consequence, of course, was, that the
trees so dealt with were unhealthy for a considerable time after-
wards, while the cause of their unhealthiness was attributed to any-
thing but the truth. One man, with ease, will prune the young
hardwood trees, and clear them from any side branches of the firs,
upon an acre of ground, in one day ; for at this stage the work is
easily performed. Many object to the doing such work, on the
ground of its expense ; but this is a very great mistake : at the
very utmost, two shillings and sixpence an acre may be reckoned
upon as the price of such work, which is, indeed, comparatively
speaking, a mere trifle, considering the advantage derived from it.
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 337
I have myself two men who will, in the manner I have described,
prune three acres in one day.
Having pruned the young hardwood trees, and relieved them
from the points of any of the side branches of the firs, they will,
from having the advantage of shelter all about them, make strong
and vigorous shoots, and their side branches will, in the course of
two years after this pruning, have pretty far met with those of the
larch. By that time they will have gained a confirmed healthy
growing state, and have completely recovered from the effects of
any pruning they may have received ; consequently they are
then in a fit state for being exposed to free air, as they always
are after being thinned for the first time ; while, if young hard-
wood trees be properly attended to in pruning them in the manner
and at the stage above stated, they seldom or ever require much
pruning afterwards. The great error which prevails among
inexperienced foresters, at the present time, in the management of
young hardwood plantations, is, that they both thin and prune at
the same time. Now, no system of management can be more
injurious to the health of any plantation than this; for, when a
few branches are lopped off a young tree, it will often die when
exposed suddenly to a temperature below that which it formerly
used to exist in ; and this lowering of temperature invariably
ensues when thinning and pruning are executed at the same time.
But if, when a young tree is pruned, the temperature be increased
rather than otherwise, the tree is immediately improved by the
operation, and decidedly attains a more vigorous constitution than
it formerly possessed ; and this, again, is exactly the case when
priming is done in the early part of summer, and a considerable
time previous to thinning. We may herein see at once the evil
of both pruning and thinning at the same time, and the great
propriety of pruning trees a considerable time before exposing
them suddenly by thinning.
I said above, that, in the course of two years from the time that
the hardwood received the pruning, their side branches would be
pretty far met with those of the larches. This is a stage in the
culture of young hardwood trees to be closely observed by the
intelligent forester ; for if the branches of the firs arc allowed to
y
338 THINNING AND HEARING OF
encroach too far upon the hardwood, they will very soon hurt them
by lashing and crushing them down ; for let it be kept in mind,
that the larch grows much more rapidly than the hardwood does ;
and the firs are not planted with the view of doing injury to the
hardwood plants, but, on the contrary, to nurse them up and pro-
tect them. Again, on the other hand, there is a possibility of
injuring the hardwood plants by taking the firs too early away
from them ; and this also ought to be avoided as much as keeping
them too close. Every forester of extensive experience will have
observed that hardwood trees, when at the stage to which we are
now adverting, if kept too far from their nurses, (the firs,) are
extremely apt to become of a branchy coarse habit, and not
inclined to grow upwards so much as to grow to strong side
branches. This is an evil of very great magnitude, and ought in
all cases to be guarded against where clean healthy timber is the
object. There is, therefore, a medium course to be followed ; and
the question is, by what feature can an inexperienced person
decide upon the proper time that he should begin to thin away
firs from the young hardwood? The right answer is not so easily
given as many would suppose. To the eye of an experienced
forester the matter is indeed simple, but to convey his experience
upon this point to the mind of an inexperienced stranger, is not
such a simple matter.
The best rule for guidance in this matter is, to go carefully
through among the trees, and mark particularly the state of the
hardwood plants ; observing particularly if the branches of the
larches are lying upon and interfering with those of the hardwood ;
and if this be the case, thinning should be commenced. Having,
then, decided that thinning is necessary for the welfare of the
hardwood trees, the first step in the work is to have the firs
marked which are considered necessary to be taken out ; and in
order to do this properly, considerable practical judgment is
required. All theoretical men, who have had little practical
experience to form their judgment with regard to thinning young
plantations, maintain that, at a certain age of a plantation, a cer-
tain number of trees ought to be cut away from each hardwood
plant ; thus reducing practical forestry to a few rules of practical
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 339
geometry. This theory sounds all yeiy well in the ears of other
inexperienced men, but when reduced into practice, it proves an
utter absurdity. Plants are, like animals, often found to die sud-
denly, and that, too, without our being able to give a reason for
it ; besides, nothing is more true than that all trees of the wood
do not grow alike ; and seeing this, we must, in the case of thin-
ning, judge for ourselves, and, from practical observation, choose
which should stand and which come out.
In practical forestry, the operator will very generally find that
of the four larches planted about each hardwood tree, (see
Diagram,) one or two may be of a pretty large size, and others
of a smaller ; one or two may be lying too much upon the hard-
wood plant next them, and others be found not doing it harm,
but, on the contrary, sheltering it ; and these may therefore be very
properly left for a time. This at once points out the harm that
would be done to plantations were we to thin them according to
any theoretical rules. On this point also the theorist says, M at
the first thinning, cut away all the four larches that stand next the
hardwood in each case." Now, I have already said, that when
young hardwood trees are allowed to have too much space in
the plantation, they naturally incline to spread their side branches,
and do not grow so tall as they ought to do in order to make
clean valuable timber. In such a case as this, much pruning
would be necessary in order to keep the trees in shape and put
them into balance ; and this severe pruning is always injurious
to the health of trees ; and were we to cut away all the four
larches at once, this would be the precise state of the hardwood
A single glance at the diagram will show the tendency of
such treatment The four larches stand at three and a half feet
distance from each hardwood. Now, were these taken away at
once, what a severe cluck would the hardwood receive ! Before the
thinning took place, these nurseswere close upon, and even touching,
the branches of the hardwood plant; whereas, by their removal,
tlnrc would be a .-pace of live feet between the hardwood plant and
each of the Scuts firs on the one hand, and another space of seven
feet between them on the other. This would not be nursing up
timber upon right principles, but the very way to retard its growth.
340 THINNING AND REARING OF
I would not have adverted so much to this, were I not aware
that there is a class of men who term themselves foresters, whose
views have a tendency to deceive proprietors by such statements
as I have given above ; they never having had any practical expe-
rience of their own even to prove the evil of the opinions which
they hold in forest matters. I am, therefore, anxious to put
proprietors upon their guard as to how far they give heed to
them.
Having, I think, pointed out the evil which would arise from
going to work in forestry according to theoretical rules, it is
evident that practical experience is the only schoolmaster for the
person who is to mark the trees which should be taken out of a
plantation at any period of its growth; and seeing that no
invariable rule can be laid down as a guide, the operator may
safely go to work conformably with the following directions : —
He will first provide himself with what is termed a hand-bill,
with which to mark the trees which are to be taken out ; and with
this implement in his hand, he will take his station on the most
sheltered side of the plantation to be thinned. My reason for
beginning upon this side is, that all trees have fewer branches
upon what is termed the storm side, than they have upon the
other ; consequently, the firs growing upon the storm side of the
hardwood plants will have their inner branches, or those upon their
sheltered sides, more abundant, and more lying upon the hardwood,
than those which grow upon the sheltered side of the latter. Now,
the operator, from keeping this in view, and beginning upon the
sheltered side of the plantation, sees much more readily, as he
advances, the branches of the firs which grow upon their sheltered
sides, and can more easily judge of the extent of the injury they
may be doing to the hardwood trees.
Being thus stationed with a hand-bill for the purpose of marking,
he will walk up to the first hardwood plant at the point where he
intends to commence ; and having done so, he will examine which
of all the larch trees about it has its branches lying most upon it,
and which will, without doubt, be the one that stands most
directly between the hardwood plant and the storm point. Having
decided upon this, and marked it with the bill, by simply breaking
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 341
off a few of the branches, or by taking a spale of the bark from it,
he will have a man following him with an axe, whose duty will be
to cut each tree as it is marked. In the cutting of it, the operator
will with his axe prune a few of the lower branches from it, in
order that he may the more readily get his implement to the root
of the young tree ; and this beiug done, he will cut the same as
low as possible, beating away any of the grass with the head or
heel of the axe, if that be any obstruction to his getting it cut
sufficiently low. The tree, as soon as it is cut, should be hauled
out by a boy present for the purpose, and laid down upon the
nearest road in the plantation, where another boy should be sta-
tioned for the purpose of taking off all the branches with a hand-
bill. Small trees of this description should be pruned out to the
very points, and put in bundles or small lots, for the conveniency
of removal.
We shall now suppose that one larch has been marked, cut, and
carried out, the one which had been hanging most upon the hard-
wood plant. Now, from this one tree having been removed, the
person whose duty it is to mark the trees will see more clearly how
the hardwood tree may be affected by the removal of the one. He
will after this be more able to judge as to which of the others
should be taken next ; and if the branches of any of the other three
larches, which are yet supposed to be growing about the hardwood
plant in question, are found to hang upon, and are like to injure
it, let it be marked and cut away also.
At this early stage of the growth of such a plantation as we are
now speaking of, it will very seldom be found necessary to cut
away more than two firs from each hardwood plant, and in many
instances even one may be enough to take away at once, with the
view of retaining a regular proportion of shelter throughout the
plantation, as well as of doing justice to each hardwood tree.
Therefore, at this stage I would advise that where any of the
larches arc not actually pressing upon the hardwood plants, or
having their branches lying upon them, these should be left for
another year, or even two, if the situation is exposed to severe
winds. By such a cautious method of procedure, the trees will
succeed much better, and not receive any sensible check.
342 THINNING AND REARING OF
My own method of going to work — and I now find the advan-
tages of it — is to go regularly through all young plantations, after
I have begun to thin them, once in two years, until the hardwood
plants are properly established, and of a good size : this will
generally be from sixteen to twenty years old, according to local
circumstances of soil and situation.
In the same manner as has already been pointed out for the
relieving of the first hardwood tree, do to the whole in the planta-
tion, paying no respect to the firs themselves, but having the atten-
tion constantly directed to the relieving of each and every one of
the hardwood. The firs, in this instance, are merely planted with
the view of rearing up the hardwood plants ; and when they begin
to hurt them by their pressing too close upon them, they must, of
course, be removed. The person who marks the trees need not
wait in all cases till he sees the one which he marked cut down ;
this would be a tedious business : but if he has never marked any
trees before, as I am at present assuming he has not, it is but pro-
per that he should begin cautiously, and see the effects of his
judgment before he proceed too far. This he may properly con-
tinue to do for a clay or two ; by which time, if he is an intelligent
and observant person, he will be able to go on marking before the
cutters. He may now and then take a walk back upon the ground
he has gone over, and see the effects of his work ; and if anything
presents itself that he could improve upon, such as marking a few
extra trees which may appear to be too close upon the hardwood,
this will have the effect of improving his judgment in the work he
has on hand, and make him more attentive in future. In marking
the trees, let it be done invariably upon one side ; for if this be not
attended to, the person who comes behind to cut them will lose
much valuable time in looking for the marks ; while, if the trees
are all marked upon one side, he will have no difficulty in finding
them out.
After the trees have been all carried out and pruned of their
branches, as has been already directed, they should be removed
from off the roads by means of a horse and cart, and stored in any
convenient part until sold. If they can be sold beforehand, so
much the better, as by this means considerable trouble will be
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 343
saved in tbcir not having to be carted and stored past at home.
The size of these larches, at about ten years old, will, in a mode-
rately exposed situation, eight hundred feet above the level of the
sea, be from eight to ten feet in length, and from an inch and a
half to two inches in diameter at the middle. They should, on an
average, be worth lid. each, and in most districts sell very readily
for various kinds of fencing purposes, handles for agricultural
implements, poles for training flowers upon, &c. &c. On the estate
of Arniston, we are in the habit of cutting many thousands of
these every year, and I find that they pay us well, there being a
great demand for them : this year (1849) we have not been able
to supply more than one-half of the demand. They are sold at
3d., 2^d., 2d., and l^d., according to size ; this showing that small
larch thinnings, apart from their use in nursing up the hardwood
trees, are, when cut down, a valuable commodity to the proprietor,
and very soon come in to pay him the rent of his land. I am the
more desirous to draw attention to this, from being aware that
some think that young thinnings do not pay the proprietor his
expense of planting and rearing them up. This is, of course, a
decided error, and only indicates bad management on the part of
those who have found it so.
In two years from the time that the plantation had received its
first thinning, it will again be necessary to look over the hardwood
plants, and take away from them all the larches that hurt them.
At this second thinning, it is very possible that all the latter will
require to be taken out ; for, if we now suppose the plantation to
be of thirteen or fourteen years' standing, the Scots pines which
stand within five feet of the hardwood (see Diayram) will be strong
and healthy young trees, and will, from their massy foliage, prove
shelter enough to the hardwood. This, however, must not be
taken as a rule ; for even at this stage, upon any prominent high
part of the plantation, it is very possible that the hardwood trees
ma v nut have advanced BO very rapidly as might be imagined. In
such eases, therefore, it will be proper to leave a few of die larches
for another year or two, in order to shelter the hardwood and
bring them into shape j for, it' they be exposed at this stage, they
will not be easily got into shape afterwards. I hit in all moderately
344 THINNING AND HEARING OF
level parts of the plantation, and more particularly in any hollow,
all the larches may at this time be, without hesitation, taken out ;
while, by the time the plantation has arrived at sixteen years of
age, the larches may all be dispensed with, leaving the nearest
trees to the hardwood, namely, the Scots firs, at five feet distance
from them. (See Diagram.) In taking out all the larches, have
the work done exactly in the same manner as I have already
described for the first course of thinning ; except that, when they are
come of a pretty large size, they will require to be pruned of their
branches on the spot where they fall, and the tree carried out to
the roads, while the branches can be gathered up and burned
afterwards.
In practical forestry it is found that the whole number of the
trees that may have been originally planted upon the ground,
cannot be accounted for in the course of thinning and training up ;
and this observation I make here, in order that the inexperienced
may not have too sanguine hopes as to the results of after profit.
Having myself now had the management of thinning a vast
extent of woodlands at all possible ages, and having kept accurate
notes of the results of each as I went on, I have found, that even
under veiy good management, 5 per cent will be found amissing
when the season of thinning commences ; and even after the trees
have arrived at the stage of growth we are now speaking of, I
have frequently found many go back. The reason of such
deficiencies occurring is, that, while the plants are in a veiy young
state, say during the time that they are under five years of age in
the plantation, they are liable to be attacked by vermin of every
description, such as hares, rabbits, mice, squirrels, moorfowls, &c,
&c. Hares and rabbits destroy young trees, both firs and hard-
wood, by gnawing the bark upon the stems and branches. I have
often seen young trees, three quarters of an inch in diameter, com-
pletely cut through by such vermin ; consequently such trees
were rendered useless if of the fir tribe ; but, of course, hardwood
trees, although gnawed over, would again come away from the
bottom part. Mice and squirrels injure young trees by eating
out the buds. If the winter and spring happen to be a severe one,
they also peel the bark from young trees wherever they can reach
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 345
it ; and when severe frosts set in, trees so injured very frequently
die in consequence of the frost affecting the tree at the peeled
part. Moorfowls are very destructive to young Scots pine plants
by picking out all their principal buds ; and from this cause alone
1 have seen very many young trees killed. It will thus appear
evident to the young forester, that he must not be disappointed
although he cannot find all the trees which he knew were
originally planted upon the ground ; and this I am the more
particular in mentioning, seeing that there are theoretical foresters,
or rather men, who say that no tree should go back under good
management. We may as well say that no medical practitioner
should be called in to sec a patient who cannot cure every disease
in the human subject, or that no medical man is perfect who can-
not cause his patients, every man and woman, to live till they are
a hundred years old. Theorists will appear in every branch of
science, and in every professional business, and will lay down rules
which, in their own estimation, are infallible ; but in every profes-
sion it is the practical man alone that is to be depended upon as a
guide. From my practical experience as a forester, I am led
to state, that, as a medium, 5 per cent of the trees planted will
be found amissing by the time that a plantation is fifteen years
old.
At this stage of the growth of the young plantation, the method
of training up which I am now endeavouring to explain, it is
necessary that the forester should examine if all the hardwood
plants are really worthy of being kept as the permanent crop ;
and in examining this, let him be particular, not so much as to
the shape of each plant, as to the state of its health. In every case
where a hardwood plant does not appear to have made young
wood freely for some years past, and is of a stunted habit of
growth, (and this will sometimes occur,) let him cut it away and
give place to one of the nearest firs ; this being a larch if pos-
sible, as it will ultimately become of more value than a Scots pine
would do, provided the soil be good. It is also, from its upright
habit, better adapted to stand as a permanent tree among hard-
wood. All the above points having been attended to, it will
■gain be necessary, at eighteen years, to look over the whole ;
346 THINNING AND REARING OF
for at this stage a few of the Scots pines will be encroaching
upon the hardwood. These should be taken out, on the same
principles as already detailed regarding the thinning out of the
larches ; the attention not being given to the taking out of any-
given number of trees from each of the hardwood, but merely
taking out those that are really pressing upon them. By
going to work regularly once in the two or three years with this
course of thinning, by the time that the plantation has arrived at
twenty-five years old, every one of the Scots pines which were
growing at the distance of five feet from the hardwood will have
been removed, thus leaving one Scots pine plant standing in the
centre of the square formed by each four of the hardwood plants ;
consequently, at this age the hardwood will be seven feet from the
nearest Scots pine in each case. (See Diagram.)
By the time that the plantation has reached twenty-five years
old, the hardwood trees will be all of a strong healthy habit, and
very probably may average twenty feet in height, with an average
diameter, at five feet from the ground, of four and a half inches,
having abundance of moderately strong leafy branches upon them
for two-thirds of their height. Now, at this stage of the growth
of hardwood trees, they ought to give prospect of their future
worth. In the state above mentioned, the remainder of the Scots
pines should be allowed to stand till the oaks are about thirty years
of age, when another thinning should be commenced, by takiug
the Scots pines away from the oaks. This thinning too, as well
as all the former ones, should be done gradually, and not all at
once, as some recommend 5 and I may say that, in general cases,
by the time that the plantation is thirty-two years old, every fir,
excepting, indeed, any that may have been left instead of any bad
hardwood, should be removed from among the hardwood, leaving
them among themselves at ten feet apart. (See Diagram.)
In any high and exposed point of a plantation, it is wisdom in
the forester to have a considerable portion of the firs left stand-
ing. They are more hardy than the hardwood sorts ; and, when
growing upon an exposed site, such as the outside and towards
the storm-point of a wood, they form a protection to more valuable
trees in the interior. In the act of thinning such parts, where it is
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 347
considered necessary to have the firs left, it must be kept in view
to have a portion of the hardwood taken out, and firs left in their
place ; as, of course, they could not grow up all together.
As it is, from experience, found that all the hardwood trees do
not advance at the same rate, I may remark here, that even at
the time that the last of the Scots pine arc being taken out, it
may be found necessary, in sheltered parts of the plantation, to
take out a few of the hardwood also. Of course this will take
place in such parts as were first relieved of the Scots pines ; for,
in sheltered parts, and upon a pretty good soil, the very same cir-
cumstances that cause the quick advance of the firs will cause the
like quick advance of the hardwood. This point also must,
therefore, be kept in view by the intelligent practical forester;
and in taking out a few of the hardwood trees at the stage we are
now referring to, he will first carefully note which sort has the
appearance of attaining the most valuable development as an ulti-
mate crop upon the ground. In the case now under consideration,
we shall suppose that sort to be the oak ; consequently, in taking-
out any of the hardwood trees at the period referred to, care must
be had to see that they be given every advantage to. Again, at
the same time, care must be taken to see which sort of the
hardwood trees is the most unhealthy, and has the least chance to
become of a healthy and valuable size. \Ve shall suppose that
sort to be the ash ; and being satisfied upon this point, the forester
nni4 act accordingly, taking out the ash as the first thinning of the
hardwood. By this method more place will be given to others that
have the appearance of becoming more valuable upon the ground.
In the cutting down of the Scots pine trees from among the hard-
wood at the advanced stage of about thirty years, great care must
be taken to see that no damage be done to the hardwood by their
failing upon them. In order to avoid this, it is only necessary to
have the pruning-chisel at hand, and by means of it to take off
any heavy branches from the firs before catting them down; and
when their tops arc lightened by this means, an expert woodman
will cause them to fall to any given point very exactly, which
point must, of coarse, be that of the greatest opening in the
neighbourhood of the tree to be cut down. In carrying out trees
348 THINNING AND REARING OF
that have been cut from a plantation at the stage we are now-
referring to, the work should be entirely performed by a few men,
and no horses should be allowed to draw them out, as is often
done, to the great damage of many of the standing trees. This
damage is occasioned by the cut trees, while being roughly drawn
out along the ground, coming in contact with the stems of the
standing ones, and taking the bark off them. At the stage
now referred to, therefore, the cut trees should be carried
out by the woodmen, either upon their shoulders as they may
be able, or by means of handspokes, to the nearest part of the
roads.
As the hardwood trees will all be making rapid progress between
thirty-two and thirty-five years of the age of the plantation, we
shall now suppose that, by the time it has arrived at the latter
named period, all the ash trees have been removed for the purpose
of giving ample space to the oaks. It will be observed, by looking
at the diagram, that the ash trees are situated alternately with the
oaks in one line, while the sycamores are situated in like manner
with them on the other line of view. Ash trees, at the age we
are now referring to — namely, at from thirty-two to thirty-five
years old — are in a very fit state for many country purposes, and
particularly for handle-wood ; and will, if growing in a favourable
soil and site, sell at a good price. I am this year (1848) selling
ash handle-wood at 2s. 6d. per foot cube ; but allowing that, upon
an average, only Is. 6d. can be got for it, then each ash tree, at
thirty-five years old, will contain about five feet of wood, and thus
make each worth 7s. 6d. Again, by the time that the plantation
has attained from thirty-eight to forty years of age, it will next be
necessary to have the greater part of the sycamores taken out,
leaving the oaks at about twenty feet apart. It may be neces-
sary to remark here, that, in taking out the sycamores, it may in
many instances be found advisable to leave one near to an oak of
a weaker growth, and, at the succeeding course of thinning, it can
be decided wThich should remain as the permanent tree. This
matter must be left to the judgment of the forester in charge.
But, with the view of illustrating the case now before us, we shall
suppose that the sycamores have all been removed, and the oaks
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 349
left twenty feet apart from each other on the one hand, and four-
teen feet from the elms on the other. (See Diagram.)
In the course of five years after, say when the plantation is
about forty-five years old, it will be necessary to have the greater
part of the elms taken out also. At this stage they will be of
good value, and fit for coach naves, trams, and many other valu-
able purposes, and may be worth, at an average, about 20s. each.
In removing the elms, as well as in the case of the sycamores, it
may be found necessary to leave a portion as I already explained
nlative to the sycamores ; for no thinning of the trees should be
done suddenly, or tc exact rule : in many cases the whole may be
required to come away for the sake of the oaks, while in others a
few may be required to remain for a time longer. In the present
case, wc shall suppose that by the time the plantation has attained
the age of fifty years, the trees in general will be left standing at
about twenty feet apart from each other all over the ground.
Hardwood trees, of fifty years old, standing at twenty feet apart,
will have ample room to develop themselves in a vigorous healthy
manner till they are about sixty years old, when another course
of thinning will be necessaiy ; and at that stage — namely, when
the trees have arrived at their sixtieth year — if they have suc-
ceeded according to expectation, a few trees will require to be
taken out in order to relieve others of a more vigorous growth.
In this case no rule of distances can be given ; for the trees will
in some instances be very close upon one another, and in others,
according to their growth, they may have quite enough of space,
and stand freely. In the same manner the plantation may be
gone over regularly at periods as occasion may require, till there
are left upon the ground about fifty trees per acre ; which will in
all probability be when they are about eighty years old. They
may then most properly be left for a period of other twenty years,
which would make them about one hundred years old, at which
they will be suitable for any purpose for which large oak is
required. In all cases where it is considered necessary to take
out the roots of large trees in order to convert the land into agri-
cultural fields, the roots should be taken out with the trees at the
same time they are taken down. By this means a great advan-
350 THINNING AND REARING OF
tage is gained, by having the tree as a lever for lifting the roots
out of their places ; consequently, the work can be much cheaper
clone than if the trees were cut over by the surface, and the root
allowed to remain till the trenching of the land took place.
There is also the case of neglected hardwood plantations to be
taken into consideration ; and, indeed, cases of this nature too
often come under the observation of the forester who may have
extensive practice. I have often had to deal with plantations
consisting of hardwood and firs, mixed and growing together in
the proportions formerly mentioned, which had never been thinned
up to the time that I examined them — and they were then thirty
years old. The hardwood plants were then about ten feet high,
and from two to three inches in diameter ; and the firs, which had
grown rapidly, were large massy trees, fully thirty feet high. On
consideration, I concluded that no remedy could be used in order
to recover the hardwood plants, seeing they had been so much
stunted and crushed down. There was, indeed, one way in which
they might have been made to grow to advantage, but it must
have been at the expense of the firs ; but as they were good trees,
the operation would have been a decided loss to the proprietor.
The only way to have saved them would have been, to have cut
them all down to the ground, and to have made them all spring
from the root afresh ; but in order to have given them a proper
recovery, one half of the firs must have been sacrificed. In
several instances where I have had to deal with plantations con-
sisting entirely of hardwood plants, so old, and so much drawn up
together from the want of thinning, that they had actually become
mere poles of thirty feet high, and not more than four inches
diameter, I have cut the whole plantation over to the surface of
the ground, because thinning was out of the question ; and, in
such cases, I have had an excellent growth of young trees from the
old stocks, which, in ten years after, formed a first-rate plantation
of trees, they having been all thinned out to regular distances in
due time, and not allowed to rise too thickly again.
In all cases of neglected hardwood plantations, where it may be
considered advisable to cut down the trees in order to cause them
to send up fresh young shoots to form trees, care should be taken
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 351
to see that the ground be made perfectly dry by a proper course
of draining ; for if this point be not attended to, disappointment
may possibly be the result.
Wherever hardwood plantations are found to be in a bad state,
from having been neglected for a period at or beyond thirty years,
there is little hope of their recovery by any course of thinning,
however cautiously it may be gone about, unless the trees evi-
dently show symptoms of a sound constitution, which may be the
case where the soil is good and dry. Therefore, in all such cases,
unless symptoms of health be remarked in the trees, the proper
and only way is to cut all down and plant anew ; and if the situa-
tion be one exposed to the view of the mansion-house or pleasure-
grounds, where a complete clearing away of the mismanaged
plantation would cause a bad effect, a few of the best and health-
iest trees might with propriety be allowed to stand for a time, in
order to give effect to the landscape, until the young trees had
attained a considerable size.
What 1 have said above, relative to the rearing up of hardwood
plantations, is only applicable to them when grown for the sake of
their timber ; but upon proprietors' estates, hardwood plantations
are more generally raised with the view of being ornamental upon
the lawns and home parks, than simply for the sake of the value
of their timber.
Every proprietor who lays out new grounds in the neighbour-
hood of his mansion-house, if no plantations exist upon those
grounds at the time, will, in accordance with good taste, and with
the view of affording shelter, plant extensively upon them. And
every proprietor of sound natural taste will, in a case of this
nature, plant the different sorts of hardwood, with the view of
their becoming ultimately his permanent standing trees, and make
up with firs, simply with the view of acting as nurses, until the
hardwood sorts arrive at a size sufficient to insure their welfare,
independent of the firs ; and not plant firs in a body by thein-
s, in any plantation near the mansion, or in the grounds
immediately in view, for these always give a place a mean and
highland appearance.
1 am aware that many proprietors in Scotland, whose seats arc
352 THINNING AND REARING OF
upon high-lying and rather moorland districts in the country, are
of the opinion that hardwood trees will not grow with them to
a size worth cultivating with the view of becoming ornamental
lawn-trees. Upon this point, my experience points to quite a
different conclusion. In all high-lying situations in Scotland,
where the Scots and spruce firs are found to succeed well — the
former on the heights and the latter in the hollows — the beech,
oak, elm, and ash will thrive well also, and become trees of no mean
magnitude. This I have observed in Aberdeenshire, and other
northern parts of Scotland, as also on the highest-lying districts
in the south of Scotland and north of England ; therefore no pro-
prietor, if he can produce upon his estate Scots firs of good size,
should hesitate to plant the kinds of hardwood trees above named.
All that he has to do, in order to insure success, is to plant firs as
nurses along with the hardwood, and remove them by degrees as
the others advance.
It is allowed by all people possessed of good natural taste, that
firs, when planted in a mass, and forming a plantation near to a
gentleman's mansion, without a proper body of hardwood trees,
give that place a cold, heavy, alpine appearance, although it may
be situated in the most fertile part of the country. And it is my
opinion, that every proprietor of land should endeavour, as much
as possible, to cultivate all the different sorts of hardwood within
the range of his home parks, which will give his grounds a fertile
and cultivated aspect, although the situation he may occupy be
naturally one of an opposite character. All fir plantations should
be kept out upon the poor high grounds of an estate; and by the
arrangement of having the hardwood trees in the centre of the
property, and the firs upon the outer grounds, the whole will have
a most natural and imposing effect.
Wherever a young plantation is made of hardwood and firs,
with the view of their ultimately becoming ornamental lawn trees,
they should, in every respect, be treated in the same manner as
already advised for forest hardwood trees, until they arrive at the
period when they require to be thinned for the first time. The
hardwood which are intended for lawn trees should also be
brought into shape by receiving a judicious pruning previous to
MIXED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS. 353
being thinned for the first time, as lias been advised elsewhere ;
and when those which are intended for lawn standards are thinned,
they should have, at all stages, much room and space to spread
out their branches and develop themselves according to their
nature, which is the state in which trees always appear to best
advantage. In order to allow the young hardwood trees to attain
their natural shape as much as possible, the firs which may be
planted about them should be kept well off them, and never
allowed even to touch their branches, but placed so as merely to
stand by their sides, and give the benefit of their shelter. As
soon as they approach each other too closely, the firs should at
once be sacrificed. At the same time, however, care must be
taken that this is done gradually ; perhaps looking over and
taking out a few firs every year, as occasion may require, and as
the hardwood trees advance.
The great art in rearing up hardwood trees for lawn scenery is,
first, not to prune off any branch after the trees are fairly estab-
lished in the ground, and about eight or ten feet high. Second,
the firs, which act as nurses, should never be allowed to spread
themselves upon the branches of the hardwood, but should merely
stand by, for the sake of shelter. Third, observe what sorts of
hardwood trees appear to thrive best upon the ground, and
encourage those most which appear to do best ; and, at the same
time, wherever any particular sort of hardwood does not appear to
do well upon the soil, leave firs in their place : a few good
specimens of firs look well among hardwood. Fourth, when the
hardwood trees have advanced so as to require all the firs to be
removed to give them room, and when they begin even to encroach
too much upon each other, cut out several of them also, and con-
tinue to do bo until the trees have attained the age of from forty to
fifty years, after which period it will not be found necessary to thin
much, if they have been well attended to previously. Fifth, in the
act of thinning out trees intended for park and lawn scenery, care
should betaken that picturesque openings be made here and there,
for the sake of distant objects to be seen from the mansion ; such
particular plantation upon a height, a romantic view of an old
ruin, or a -licet of water in a neighbouring hollow ; all of which are
Z
354 REARING AND THINNING
beautiful objects in landscape scenery, and should never be hidden
from the mansion and grounds of the proprietor ; for, however beau-
tiful trees may be in themselves upon a lawn, they form but a dull
and monotonous scene if well-chosen openings be not left among
them, through which other interesting objects may be seen.
SECTION V. — REARING UP AND THINNING OF OAK PLANTATIONS.
The oak being the most valuable of all the timber-trees grown
in Great Britain, is generally cultivated with more care and
attention than any one else ; therefore I consider it necessary
and proper to treat of the manner of rearing it under a distinct
head.
Three different systems of rearing young oaks are practised
among foresters of the present day, each of which is advocated
and upheld by a considerable number of practical men, who put
each his own system into operation according as his views of
the matter direct him, without paying due consideration to place
and circumstances.
The three different systems are these : — First, that of sowing
the acorns or seed at once upon the ground where it is intended
the trees are to grow up and become timber ; Second, that of
transplanting the trees from the nurseries in the usual way, and,
in one year after being planted, when their roots are established
in the ground, cutting each tree over by the surface of the earth,
and allowing the stump so cut to stand for two or three years,
when a number of young shoots are produced immediately from
the earth, strong enough to allow a choice to be made of one to
stand for a permanent tree when all the others are destroyed ;
and, Third, the system of planting the young trees in pits, as is
usually done, and allowing them to come away in their own
natural way. Each of these systems has its peculiar advantages
and disadvantages ; and, in order to point out these clearly, and in
such a manner as to render the statement of them practically
useful to the forester who wishes information, it will be neces-
sary to make a few observations upon each of the systems
referred to.
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 355
With regard to the first — namely, the system of sowing the
acorns, or seed of the oak, at once upon the ground where it is
intended the trees are to grow up and become timber — this is
undeniably acting according to the laws of nature, to which we
ought always to attend in the rearing of forest trees. Those who
advocate the general introduction of this system say, that the best
specimens of oak trees to be found in Britain are those sown by
the hand of nature. But this assertion seems to be far from fully
authenticated ; for, of the many famous oaks mentioned in the
history of our country as having existed until lately, it is uncer-
tain whether they were remains of an old natural forest, or
whether they may have been planted artificially by the hands of
man. The managers of the Government forests in England
have adopted this method for the rearing of their oak for the
supply of the navy ; and I understand that the trees so raised are
doing well, and likely to become trees of the first magnitude ; but
still, I am not aware that they arc succeeding better than trans-
planted trees would have done, had they been planted instead of
the acorns at the same time. I have sown acorns in forest
grounds, with the view of ascertaining if plants raised in such a
manner did grow much more rapidly than those brought from the
nurseries and transplanted in the usual manner ; and from what
experience I have gathered upon this point — which, be it under-
stood, has been but upon a small scale, (upon five or six acres of
ground,) where they were merely intermixed among transplanted
trees, the experiment being made simply with the view of satisfy-
ing myself as to the utility of the system — I am convinced that
the trees, raised from the acorn sown in the forest ground, grow
for the first few years more rapidly than the others, and are
brought into proper form with very little artificial aid as regards
pruning ; but I have found also, that where much game exists,
as is almost always the case upon gentlemen's estates, it is almost
an impossibility to get the young tender shoots of the plants, as
they rise above the ground, kept from being eaten down by hares
and rabbits. Some years ago I was very much inclined to com-
mence the sowing of acorns in all our plantations where oaks
were required to be raised. Being convinced, from a former
356 REARING AND THINNING
trial in another situation where I was, in which I was very suc-
cessful, that they, when got up without any damage befalling
them, formed the handsomest and fastest growing specimens, I
was the more bent upon making another trial upon an extensive
scale. Having communicated the scheme which I then had in
view to an old forester of forty years' experience, asking his
opinion previous to making the attempt, he advised me strongly
not to sow acorns immediately in forest ground, with the view of
raising trees in any new situation, until I had proved the utility
of the system by sowing first upon a small scale. Acting upon
his advice — for he was a man of the soundest judgment in all
forest matters — I sowed acorns in pits dug by the spade for the
pupose, and had the pits, in the act of making them, well cleaned
from all root-weeds, so as to give them every chance of success ;
and the soil being a fine dry sandy loam, I calculated upon
success. I sowed the seed in the month of February, and, upon
looking over the ground in a week or two afterwards, I was
mortified to find that rabbits had visited the fresh earth of the pits
before me, and had fully one-half of them burrowed through.
On looking for the acorns, I found the shells, indeed, but the mice
had eaten the kernels ; and on examining the state of the pits
generally, I found that very few of them had escaped the ravages
of vermin of some sort or other : I even caught pheasants in the
very act of scraping up the acorns. On seeing all this, I was indeed
thankful to my old friend, the forester, for his cautious advice, and
was also happy that I did not sow extensively upon ground which
was so much overrun with game and other vermin. As I had
sown only about an acre of ground in the manner above stated, I
could indeed easily have prevented the ravages of the larger
animals, but against those of the mice there was no possible
resource. Therefore, this being only a trial upon a small scale, I
determined to give nature her own way in the whole business, and
consequently did not go back to inspect the state of the pits in
which the acorns were sown till about the middle of May, when I
found great difficulty in tracing out the exact spots where they
had been sown : the grass and weeds which were natural to the
soil had grown rapidly, and almost hidden the red earth. I
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 357
immediately had the weeds, &c., all cut away from about the pits,
and at the same time had the surface of the pits weeded by the
hand ; but there was no appearance of any oaks as yet in them.
About the middle of June I again had the surface of the pits
weeded, when I observed about twenty young oak plants rising
upon a whole acre of ground ; and before the autumn, there were
none left excepting two, which I protected, which are indeed
doing well now, but not a great deal better than others trans-
planted about the same time, in the usual manner, from the
nurseries.
Besides what I have detailed relative to my attempt to rear
oaks from the acorn in the natural forest ground, I have also since
sown in many places of our woods without digging the ground at
all, merely paring away the turf from the surface of the ground
slightly, and then putting in the acorns with a common garden
dibble ; and I did this with the view of disturbing the natural
soil as little as possible, thinking that the rabbits and mice would
not be tempted to burrow in the soil when they found it firm.
The ultimate issue, however, was the same ; for what plants were
allowed to come above ground, and had escaped the ravages of
the mice and pheasants, were greedily sought after and devoured
by the hares and rabbits when they came into leaf. Therefore, in
the mean time, and until I have further experience upon this point,
I am induced to think that the system of rearing oaks at once
from the acorn in the forest ground, is not at all adapted to the
present state of forest lands. I confess that I am convinced of
the propriety of raising trees in the forest at once from the seed,
in order to have the best specimens of timber trees ; but it is very
likely that a period of fifty years must elapse before our forest
grounds are put into a proper and fit state for raising trees to
advantage by such a system. Were it practicable to have all our
forest ground ploughed and cleaned in the same manner as in
agricultural operations, T would unhesitatingly say, that all forest
trees ought to be raised from the seed at once sown in the ground
they are intended to occupy; but until then, the system is quite
impracticable.
I conclude my observations upon this head by remarking, that
358 REARING AND THINNING
the advantages of the system in question are, that the trees so
raised never receive any check in their growth, as must be the
case with all transplanted trees : they grow much quicker, and
come sooner to the size of trees, than those raised by transplanting ;
they grow taller in habit from not having their tap roots cut, and
are seldom found to require much pruning, as is the case with
the others.
The disadvantages of the system are, that the seed, when sown
in a detached form in pits in the common forest ground, is
extremely liable to be destroyed by vermin before it vegetates ;
while, after the plants appear above ground, they are in equal
danger from hares and rabbits eating them over. They are also
liable to be destroyed from the effects of rank-growing grass and
other weeds choking them while in their young and tender state ;
and in order to avoid this, much expense is incurred in keeping the
plants clean. Trenching the ground for the reception of the seed
would be the proper plan ; but the expense of such an operation,
to any extent, puts it out of the question.
I now proceed to the second system of rearing the oak when
voung — viz., that of transplanting the young trees from the nursery
into the forest ground ; in one year after, when their roots are
fairly established, cutting them over by the surface of the earth ;
and when a number of young shoots are produced from the stumps,
choosing the strongest and healthiest for a permanent tree in each
plant.
This system is very much practised by foresters who have to
raise hardwood plantations in high-lying districts of Scotland,
where it is well known that young hardwood plants are apt to
suffer a severe check when newly lifted from a sheltered nursery,
owing to the cold cutting winds which prevail in such quarters.
Indeed, in all cases, young hardwood trees which may have been
reared in some of the public nurseries near large towns, when
they are removed to, and planted in, a high moorland county,
seldom do much good for three or four years after their removal.
The whole part of the plant situated above the grass or foggage
of the ground becomes stunted, and gradually dies down to
within two or three inches of the surface, which part remains
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 359
fresh, because sheltered by the foggage from the winds ; and,
indeed, if the plants are left to themselves in such a situation,
they, about the third year after being planted, and after the roots
have properly established themselves, send up a number of young
shoots from the live part about the surface of the ground, which
young shoots ultimately become trees of inferior magnitude ; but
if those young shoots be thinned out to one individual, a tree of
the usual magnitude will be the result. Now, this system of cut-
ting over is only assisting nature ; and if, instead of allowing the
young trees to lie dormant for three years, as is the case when
left to nature, the forester cuts each tree over by the surface one
year after they are planted, he places himself by his art two years
in advance of nature as left to herself; for as soon as the trees are
cat over, they each send up from three to six vigorous young
shoots, which, when they are of sufficient age, can be removed,
with the exception of one, which is left as a permanent standing
tree. I have, by adopting this method, had strong vigorous
young shoots of two feet high the second year after planting ;
while, where I have not had them cut over, four or five years
elapsed before I had shoots of the same strength.
I was acquainted with a forester who had the management of
extensive plantations in Aberdeenshire, who, upon receiving his
young hardwood plants from the nurseries, of whatever species
they were, cut each down to within three inches of the roots, and
planted them in this state in the pits which Avere prepared for
them in the forest. His reason for doing so was, that he asserted
he gained young shoots a year sooner than if he had allowed the
plants to remain for one year in the ground previous to being cut
over, as is the usual way. But upon examining the state of his
young hardwood plants, which had been planted one year before
I visited him, and inspected his system of going to work, I found
that all his young trees which had been so cut previous to planting
them, produced but very weak shoots the first season, and, as I
apprehended, they in fact made no vigorous growths till the second
year. In this case, therefore, something was lost instead of
gained ; for until the roots of the young plants are fairly estab-
lished, very little young wood can be produced. The plants
3G0 HEARING AND THINNING
require the first year in order to establish their roots ; and if they
are forced to make wood during that year — ■ as is the case
when they are cut over at once — the wood seldom or never ripens,
but is weak, and apt to be nipped by the first frost of winter ;
but when the plants are allowed to have their own natural way
for the first season after being planted, and when the stem is
allowed to remain and push out a few leaves in order to elaborate
any sap drawn up by the roots, these roots become during this
period properly and firmly settled in the earth, and are rendered
strong and vigorous for being called into action the year follow-
ing. Hence it is that young trees cut down the year after being
planted always make more vigorous and stronger shoots in that
one season, than trees of the same character cut down when
planted, and having two years' growth upon them.
In conclusion, this system ought always to be practised with
oak, or indeed with any other hardwood plants, when planted out
in a high district, and after being removed from a sheltered
nursery ; but in no other case is it necessary.
The third system of rearing the oak when in its young state, as
formerly mentioned, is that of planting the young trees in pits, as
is usually done, and afterwards allowing each to come away in its
own natural way.
This is the system practised in all moderately sheltered dis-
tricts for the planting of oaks as well as all other sorts of young
trees, and need not be enlarged upon here. I may mention, how-
ever, that in all moderately sheltered districts, young trees of any
sort receive very little check from being transplanted, if they are
not above four feet high, and if the soil is one adapted for the
growth of the trees planted, and the work carefully and properly
done ; but if the soil is not of first-rate quality, and if the situation
is one much exposed, the trees always receive a violent check, and,
consequently, the bark upon the young trees becomes hide-
bound, and will not carry on its natural functions ; but the roots
being as healthy as formerly, they, when the old tops are gone,
send up young shoots to supply the place of the former, which, as
they grow up, become habituated to the climate and situation,
and consequently form trees adapted to it. Therefore, the
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 361
planter, when he meditates to bring up a plantation of young
oaks or other hardwood, must judge for himself as to which of
the two last-mentioned systems he should adopt ; and that, of
course, must be regulated by his grounds being exposed or
sheltered.
Many different opinions continue to prevail among foresters as
to the distance at which oak trees should be planted at the offset,
where it is intended to rear up an oak forest. There is no doubt
that a difference of opinion will still continue to prevail, according
to the views of the proprietor and his forester conjointly ; but this
does not form a definite answer to the question which has often
been put to myself by proprietors — namely, At what distance
ought oak trees to be planted with the view of realising the great-
est possible profit from the land in the shortest possible time after
planting?
This question cannot be answered to all proprietors alike ; for
in one neighbourhood young oak trees are of considerable value,
and in another they are comparatively little ; in one neigh-
bourhood young larch firs are of more value than young oaks as
thinnings, while in others the reverse holds good.
In the rearing of oak plantations in exposed parts of the country,
where these do not grow rapidly, it is absolutely necessary, for the
protection of the young oaks, to have a considerable quantity of
firs among them, and that, too, till they are considerably advanced;
while in more sheltered districts, where there is little doubt of
the oaks growing rapidly, fewer firs are required. In the laying
down of oak plantations, I am myself in the habit of taking all
the above points into consideration ; and from having had experi-
ence as to the growing of oaks in almost all possible situations, I
find that, in order to grow the oak to advantage, it is necessary
that every forester should do the same, and by no means go to
work according to one set of distances. It is in this way that
these differences of opinion relative to distance have arisen ; for
every rxperienced forester finds that one system of going to work
will not answer all parts; and, judging for himself, he acts accord-
ingly : while, on the other hand, the man without experience
advises to plant in all cases according to one set of distances, and
362 REARING AND THINNING
the natural consequence is, that a failure is as likely to be the
result as a crop. Having premised the above, the determination
of the question relative to distance will now be more easily under-
stood, and I shall answer it according to my own method of prac-
tice in different situations.
When a proprietor meditates planting a part of his grounds in
the form of an oak forest, without any mixture of any other sort
of hardwood, let him first ascertain if young oaks, when cut down
in the process of thinning, will sell to advantage in his neigh-
bourhood, and if they will pay him better than any other sort of
wood of the same age. We shall suppose that young oaks, of the
size generally termed spoke-wood, sell well in his neighbourhood ;
therefore, in such a case, I would advise him to plant the young
oak trees at seven feet apart, and make up the ground with firs
to three and a half feet between them. By the time that the firs
are all taken out and the oaks properly brought into shape, they
will be very valuable as spoke-wood, independent of the bark.
For coach and cart spokes I am in the habit of getting, for the
former twenty-two shillings, and for the latter thirty shillings, per
hundred ; this giving nearly two shillings and sixpence per cubic
foot of the cut wood, which is nearly double the price that could
be received for larch wood of the same age.
Again, if on full consideration it is found that oak in the young
state above referred to — that is, from twenty to twenty-five years
of age — will not sell well in the neighbourhood, while larch as
thinnings will be much more valuable, then plant fewer oaks per
acre, say at ten or twelve feet apart, and make up with firs to the
proper distance. In this way, by the time the larches, &c, are
all taken out, the oaks will be of a pretty large size, and fit for
many valuable purposes, before the cutting of any of them is
found necessary.
Again, where it is found practicable to have an oak forest in an
exposed part of the country, it will be necessary to plant a good
many firs among them for the sake of producing shelter through
the whole plantation, until the oaks have arrived at a good size ;
and in a case of this nature, from ten to twelve feet is quite wide
enough for the distance between the hardwood plants, making up
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 363
with firs in the former instance to three and a half feet over
all ; and in the latter, that is at twelve feet apart, making up
to four feet over all. In the same plantation I very frequently
plant at both of the distances above mentioned — that is, in
exposed parts of a wood I plant the oaks at ten feet, and
make up between them to three and a half feet over all ; and in
more sheltered parts of the same plantation I plant the oaks at
twelve feet, and make up with firs to four feet.
The above, which is my own system of going to work as
regards distance, will, I think, form an answer to the question
formerly quoted ; and it now remains for me to enter a little into
the practice of rearing up such a plantation as I have pointed out
above.
Suppose that a tract of ground has been planted with oak at
ten feet apart, and the intermediate spaces made up with firs to
such a closeness as to leave the whole plants over the ground at
three and a half feet distance, the oak trees will, when the
plantation is about eight years old, require to be carefully looked
over, and pruned in all cases where found necessary, but not
severely ; for the oak, at no stage of its growth, agrees with much
pruning : the wood is of a hard cross nature, and any severe
wound made by the knife is not easily healed, even although the
plant is young ; therefore, pruning should be sparingly practised
upon them. All that is necessary at the stage above mentioned,
is to prune away one top in all cases where two exist ; or where
more than two tops appear upon one individual tree, to choose
the best, and prune away all the others ; to lop off a part of any
strong branch that may have the appearance of gaining undue
strength upon the regular proportions of the tree ; and to clear
away any small spray shoots from the lower part, so as to form a
clear stem or bole. If this pruning is properly done when the
trees are about eight or ten years old, when the wood is in it3
softest state, no damage will be done; and if the work is properly
done at this stage, little or no pruning will ever be afterwards
required.
The oak not being a rapid-growing tree at any stage of its
growth, as compared with many other sorts of hardwood trees,
364 REARING AND THINNING
the young plants will not, at eight or ten years' standing in a
plantation, have attained a large size, probably not above six or
eight feet high ; but if the firs which were planted among them for
the purpose of giving shelter have thriven well, the oaks will be
deriving benefit from their shelter, and progressing rapidly. In
fact, young oaks never do come away well until the firs rise up
around and afford them shelter ; more especially if the situation
in which they are planted be an exposed one, or the soil naturally
of a cold bottom. As an instance of the great advantage gained
by planting firs among young oaks, in order to shelter them in
their young and tender state, and to bring them away as rapidly
as possible, I may mention a case which I witnessed myself in one
situation where I acted as assistant forester. There we had about
twenty acres of rather stiffish clay ground converted into a planta-
tion, situated upon what was considered rather a level and shel-
tered part of the country, although there was no other plantation
near it. The ground was fenced by a young hedge all round,
protected by a three-barred paling ; and as the proprietor wished
the plantation to be one of oak, without any admixture of other
trees, the ground was planted entirely with oak plants in the usual
way, at three feet apart, and without any firs whatever to act as
nurses. The oaks thus planted remained in a dormant state for
three years after they were planted : not only did they make no
young shoots whatever, but, on the contrary, fully one-third of
the plants died out. On seeing this state of things, the forester
thought that the whole would turn out a failure upon his hand —
set us to work, and had fifteen hundred Scots fir plants planted to
the acre, mixing them regularly among the oaks. In two years
after this planting of the Scots firs, or five years from the time
that the oaks were planted, the former began to make consider-
able shoots, so as to give a little shelter over the surface of the
ground. The oaks now began to throw up healthy shoots from the
tops of their roots, or rather at that part where the roots are
thrown out from the stem ; and in many instances where it was
thought that the young plants were dead, they sent up excellent
young shoots as soon as shelter was produced. In fact, after this
period, the whole plantation throve remarkably well, and the oaks
OF OAK PLANTATIONS. 365
kept pace with the firs during all the time they stood among
them ; but in a few years they were mostly cut down again in
order to give the oaks room as they advanced.
From this example I would draw the attention of the planter
to the great necessity in all cases of planting firs among oaks
in order to nurse them up while in their young and tender state,
the firs being thinned out by degrees as the oaks advance in
strength.
Having pruned the young trees in the plantation of oaks in the
manner formerly referred to, and that two years previous to any
thinning of the firs from among them being required, the next
step in the rearing of such a plantation is to thin away any firs as
soon as they encroach upon the oak plants. This thinning, in the
rearing up of oak plantations, must at all times be more severe
than when thinning away firs from among the common kinds of
hardwood. And, indeed, this particular forms the only difference
worth mentioning between the cultivation of the oak and the (sal-
vation of hardwood in general ; that is, the oak trees, after they
are once properly established in the ground, and brought into
proper shape by a judicious pruning, must, through the whole
course of their culture afterwards, have more room and air than
any other species of hardwood trees. The reason of this differ-
ence as regards the cultivation of the oak is this : — The oak is a
valuable tree both on account of its wood and bark : the wood is
more valuable when grown of proportionable diameter than when
of great length, and it is also of more durable quality when freely
exposed to the air than when drawn up weakly and to a great
height : thence arises the necessity of giving the trees free circu-
lation of air in order to have valuable wood. The oak is also
valuable on account of its bark, as I have already mentioned.
Now, in order to produce bark, a tree must have extent of wood,
whether that be in the form of trunk or branches. 1 have seen an
acre of oak trees, one hundred years old, cut down and sold for
the sake nt' both wood ami bark, which had been cultivated upon
the principle of drawing up the trees tall and without branches;
and according to niv note-book, which contains an account of the
transaction of the sale, that acre of ground, which contained two
3G6 BEARING AND THINNING OF OAK PLANTATIONS.
hundred trees, sold for £360. On the other hand, upon a neigh-
bouring estate I attended a sale of oak trees only ninety years
old, and which had been cultivated on the principle of giving free
air and room to the trees as they advanced ; and upon one acre
of ground, which contained a part of those trees sold, I counted
one hundred and four trees, which brought altogether £868 ;*
making the oak trees which were cultivated upon the principle
which I have recommended — namely, that of giving free air and
room — nearly three times the value of those which were drawn
up weakly. When oak trees have free room for expanding them-
selves, the lower branches form into bends for ship-building, which
is a valuable object. The trees also being more branchy in them-
selves, possess a greater surface for the production of bark ; and
the bark itself, having free air, becomes thick and heavy upon the
tree. It is perhaps not generally known that oak bark produced
upon trees having free air about them, weighs almost double that
of an equal surface taken from a tree confined and not having
air; and, at the same time, bark of such weight is always more
valuable, because containing a greater proportion of tanning
matter.
What I have here said relative to the cultivation of the oak,
I regard as sufficient to convince any proprietor of the necessity
of keeping his oak forest thinner of trees than any other of his
woods. I need only add, in conclusion, that in every other
respect oak plantations are to be managed upon the same prin-
ciples as other hardwood ones. Oak trees are never reckoned of
full age till they have attained from eighty to one hundred
years ; therefore, after a plantation of oaks has received its final
thinning, it should be allowed to stand until that age before cut-
ting down.
* This was in the year 1820, when oak wood and bark were both selling very
high ; and the soil being very favourable, it was an extreme case of the value of
oak.
CHAPTER V
Management of Coppice-wood generally —Management of Oak Coppice-wood —
The drying of Bark used for Tanning.
j.N I. — MANAGEMENT OF GENERAL COPPICE PLANTAT
THE raising of coppice plantation all others, the most
simple, and requires the least practical knowledge in the forester.
Excepting oak coppice, this sort of forest cropping is seldom
cultivated in Scotland : whereas in England it is very much cul-
tivated, and forma in many counties the principal crop grown in
the form of wood. This is the more necessary, particularly in
those inland counties where all kinds of fuel are scarce ; there,
where neither coal nor turf can be easily got, the inhabitants must
i as a substitute : and, in such cases, all small rubbish
in die form of wood becomes of importance.
In many parts of England, all hedge prunings and small twig3
from the branches of larger trees are carefully gathered up and
•sed of in the form of faggots for firewood ; while, on the other
hand, in Scotland and in the north of England, where coal and turf
abound, such small wood red useless, and is invariably
burned up as mere rubbish. As, therefore, the growing of wood
in the form of coppice is necessary in many parts of Brit;,
shall devote the present section to a few remarks as to the
mode of growing the greatest potable quantity of coppice upon a
given space of ground in a given tune.
All eoppice plantations must, in the first instance, be raised from
young trees. T hen planted for this purpose,
368 MANAGEMENT OF
ought to stand till they are from five to six inches diameter at
the ground : this may be, according to the kind of trees planted,
and according to the soil and situation upon which they are grow-
ing, at from fifteen to twenty years of age. In order to convert
a plantation of young trees into coppice, it is only necessary, when
they have arrived at the stage mentioned, to cut them over by the
surface of the ground, when, in the following season, they will
send up from each stole or slock, a number of young shoots, these
constituting what is termed coppice-wood.
All trees do not equally possess the property of sending up
young shoots from the collar of the stock ; therefore, the choice of
the kind of trees is to be taken into consideration by the grower
of coppice-wood. The fir and pine tribes do not send up shoots
at all when cut over, and the beech does it but slightly. The
kinds of trees best adapted for coppice plantations, are the ash,
elm, oak, poplar, willow, chesnut, lime-tree, mountain ash, maple,
sycamore, birch, alder, hazel, and bird-cherry. These again, accord-
ing to the uses they are generally applied to, may be divided into
four classes — namely, First, coopers'1 ware and bobbin-wood — ash,
elm, oak, chestnut, maple, hazel, and sycamore. Second, charcoal
wood — birch, alder, poplar, lime-tree, and mountain ash, Third,
bark for tanners — oak. Fourth, basket-ware — the willow. In the
above division of the kinds of trees best suited for coppice, I have
not included firewood, because all the sorts may be employed for
that purpose, although not with like effect — the ash and birch
being more useful than any of the other sorts ; but as, in general
cases, it is only the refuse of the coppice which is applied to the
purpose of firewood, it is unnecessary to designate a class exclu-
sively for that purpose. I may also state that, although I have
mentioned mountain ash as being adapted for charcoal, it is one of
the best also for coopers' ware ; and although I have included
hazel among those adapted for coopers' ware, it is also excellently
adapted for charcoal. Similar differences of application might
also be stated relative to several others of the trees. In what
remains of this section I shall point out the best method for the
cultivating of each division, so as to produce the greatest possible
crop upon the ground.
GENERAL COPPICE PLANTATIONS. 3G9
In laying out a plantation with the intention of its becoming
coppice, it is necessary to take into consideration what sorts of
coppice-wood will sell to the best advantage in the neighbourhood ;
and having determined this point, the next consideration will be,
whether or not the ground to be planted is of a nature qualified
to produce the kind which is in demand. This I would particularly
draw attention to ; for to plant those kinds of trees which are
not adapted to the soil, although it should be well known that they
would sell well when of size, would be the most effectual way of
defeating the end in view. For example, were ash, elm, lime-
tree, or poplar, planted upon a dry thin soil, with the view of
becoming profitable as coppice — or, on the other hand, hazel, moun-
tain ash, or birch, in a cold damp, heavy soil — disappointment would
assuredly be the result.
Having fixed upon the situation upon which trees are to be
planted for coppice, have it laid off, fenced, and drained, in the
same manner as has already been advised for other plantations
where it is in view to raise large timber.
We shall suppose that a plantation of five hundred acres in
extent is laid out for this purpose, and that it consists of various
hilly tracts, with a thin, poor, yet dry soil, with also considerable
portions of good loamy soil, and in the hollow swampy mossy
parts, which have been effectually drained of all superfluous
moisture ; — we shall further suppose that all sorts of coppice-wood
sell to advantage in the country in which this plantation is
situated ; — and by this means we will have the advantage of illus-
trating the whole system within the bounds of the one plantation.
l'n-st, then — In all the bare hilly parts, the soil of which is light,
and not above four inches deep, plant, at seven feet apart, birch,
mountain ash, and hazel, and make up between them with larch
or Scots pine, to three and a half feet over all. The latter are to
act as nurses for a time, in order that the plants which are intended
for the future coppice may grow up the more rapidly, and come
the sooner into use.
Second, Upon all the hilly parts which arc less elevated than
the first, the soil of which may be from five to eight inches
deep, plant maple, sycamore, oak, and chestnut, at about eight
2 A
370 MANAGEMENT OF
feet apart, and make up between them with firs to four feet
over all.
Third, In all the portions of good loamy soil, having an eleva-
tion less than either of the two former tracts, plant ash, elm, lime-
tree, poplar, and oak, at from eight to ten feet apart, and fill up
with firs to three and a half or four feet over all, according to the
distance of the hardwood plants.
In planting the different sorts of trees in the different soils and
situations above stated, each sort should be planted in a mass by
itself, and by no means mixed, as is too often the case, to the great
disadvantage of the crop in general. The latter system is the
cause that, in general coppice plantations, where the kinds of trees
have been promiscuously mixed in the first planting, we so often
find so light a crop of the whole per acre upon the ground at the
end of a given period. For example — were mountain ash, birch,
and hazel, all mixed together in a coppice-wood, the mountain
ash, from being a more rapid and luxuriant growing plant than
either of the others, would very much retard their growth, and
hinder the development they naturally would attain under dif-
ferent circumstances. This I have very frequently had occasion
to observe ; and from the experience that I have had upon this
point, I may state further, were three acres planted with a
mixture of the above three sorts, and other three planted each
with one of the sorts separately, the latter would have, at the end
of a given period, one-third more weight of wood upon it than
the former. Trees are like animals : they, as it were, like to asso-
ciate each with its own kind ; and this is also observable in natural
forests. There the best timber of any sort is always found
where one sort prevails ; while, on the contrary, where a mix-
ture exists in the natural forests, few good specimens of any
individual sort are to be found ; and the very same holds good in
most cases in the artificial forests of our own country. Many
plantations are to be seen where several sorts of trees are
mixed and come to full age ; and in such cases it is invariably
found that one sort has an ascendency over all the rest, both as
to healthy appearance and general magnitude. I have seen
numerous examples of the same thing holding good in coppice-
GENERAL COPPICE PLANTATIONS. 371
wood plantations ; and any proprietor or forester who may donbt
what I assert here, has only to examine his own plantations, and
he will there see its truth exemplified. In all cases, therefore,
each sort of tree, which is meant to stand as a permanent crop,
should be planted in a mass by itself, and that to such an extent
upon the ground as may be considered necessary. When coppice
plantations are conducted on the principle of growing- each sort
of tree in a mass, another important point is gained, namely,
that of each sort answering a certain purpose better than another
at a given period, and therefore each division will be found the
more valuable to any purchaser who may wish to buy coppice of
a certain kind and size. For example, were a man to come to a
proprietor of coppice plantations, and say that he wished a certain
quantity of hoop-wood for the market, of a particular size, and if
the purchaser saw twenty acres of hazel all of the proper size for
his purpose, would he not give double the sum for it per acre,
seeing it was so equal, which he would do for other twenty acres
of a mixed character, from which, very likely, he could not get
one half of the wood to answer his purpose ? The same may be
said of oak coppice : a person might give a good sum per acre for
oak coppice in a mass, while, if he found it mixed with other sorts
for which he had not much use at the time, he might give com-
paratively little.
In planting the permanent trees, let the greatest extent be
given to such sorts of hardwood as are known to be most valuable
and most sought after in the market, in so far as the nature of the
ground may be qualified to bring them to perfection ; and at the
same time, with regard to the firs which are planted for the
purpose of producing a temporary shelter, let very few of them be
of the evergreen sorts, such as Scots pines, or spruce firs, but
give the preference to the larch, because it is of a light and airy
habit, and not apt to draw up the hardwood trees as the more
-v branches of the others are known to do. It is a bad feature
in tin- management of young trees intended for coppice when they
are drawn up tall and without proportionable girth. In convert-
ing young trees into coppice, it is most desirable to allow them to
attain as much diameter at the collar, or that part of the trunk
372 MANAGEMENT OF
situated nearest the ground, as possible ; therefore, with a view to
this end, the plants ought by all means to be sheltered so as to
make them grow rapidly, but by no means so much so as to draw
them up weakly. Were the hardwood plants allowed to grow
without the benefit of nurses, they would be some years longer in
coming into use as coppice ; and besides, the spaces between them
would be a profitless business to the proprietor ; but when firs
are planted among the permanent hardwood, besides bringing
them forward, they are of considerable value when cut down and
sold as thinnings.
In high exposed parts, where the hardwood plants are likely
to suffer from the effects of storm, about one-third of the whole
number of the firs per acre may be Scots, in less exposed parts one-
fourth 5 and where the ground is generally of a sheltered nature,
the whole of the nurses may be larch.
In portions of the plantation having a good deep loamy soil,
with rather a sheltered situation, or at least with the prospect of
being well sheltered as the other parts of the plantation rise up,
osier coppice may be made ; but unless the soil be of a good deep
loam, with considerable shelter, it will be in vain to expect a good
crop of osiers from it. In laying down a piece of ground for the
cultivation of osiers or willows, it is indispensably necessary that
the ground be trenched to the depth of thirty or thirty-six inches ;
and before planting the willows upon it, it should have a good
manuring, and be cleaned by a crop of turnips or potatoes being-
taken off it. When the ground has been thus trenched and
cleaned, the next step is to plant the willows in rows from thirty
to forty-eight inches apart, according to the kind to be cultivated ;
the plants themselves being from twelve to eighteen inches distant
in the row, according as the sort cultivated may be of a small or
large character ; for there are many varieties in cultivation for
basket-making, hoops, &c.
The willow plants must at all times be kept clean from weeds,
and the ground dug regularly in the autumn or spring, or at least
after the crop has been cut and removed. If this keeping of the
plants clean be not attended to, the yearly weight of the crop,
instead of increasing as it ought to do, will be found to decrease,
GENERAL COPPICE PLANTATIONS. 373
as I have frequently seen to ensue ■where they were under bad
management. Xo nurses are planted among this sort of coppice ;
for, the ground having to be dug between the rows of the plants,
these could not exist.
In any hollow, swampy, or mossy part of the plantation, where,
from the dull inert nature of the soil, the other sorts of hardwood
would not succeed well, have alders or birch put in, from six to
eight feet apart, according as the natural situation may be exposed
or not. If exposed, have the ground between made up with Scots
pines ; but unless the ground have been thoroughly dried, the
Scots pines will not succeed in such a soil. If charcoal do not sell
well in the neighbourhood, ash, or even poplar, will succeed very
■well in a mossy soil ; but, in the present instance, and for the sake
of illustration, we shall suppose alder or birch to be the tree that
is to be planted.
Having premised the above, relative to the disposal of the trees
upon these different soils and situations, we shall now follow out
the management which should be adopted during the growth of
the trees to the period at which they are in a state for cutting over
for coppice, and also state the manner of disposing of the crop as
it comes to full age.
In rearing up a plantation of young trees for coppice, the
forester must in this case, as well as in that of rearing up trees for
timber, carefully guard against the hardwood plants, in particular,
being choked by long grass, or any rank growths of weeds, during
the first three years of their age : he must also be careful, as they
advance, to have all firs taken away as their branches approach
those of the hardwood. In this case, never allow the branches of
the firs even to lie upon the points of those of the hardwood plants;
for, if they are at all allowed to encroach, the latter will very likely
be drawn up rather weakly, and, consequently, will not grow pro-
portionably to diameter of trunk — the great point required in order
to make a valuable coppice plantation.
Having attended very carefully to keep the firs duly off the
hardwood plants, and having merely allowed them to stand by and
give shelter to them for a time, the firs will, by the time the plan-
tation is from fifteen to twenty years old, have been all removed
374 MANAGEMENT OF
from the ground, and at the same period, viz., from fifteen to twenty,
or even twenty-five years, according to soil and situation, the hard-
wood plants will be from five to six inches diameter at the bottom,
but not of a tall habit, having intentionally been kept in a rather
exposed state. When they have attained this size, they will then
be in a proper condition for cutting over for the purpose of being
converted into coppice stocks or stoles. I am aware that, in the
cultivation of general coppice plantations, many are in the habit
of cutting over the young trees at a much earlier period than that
mentioned above ; but such a system of management is decidedly
injurious to the future bulk of the crop, and tends to weaken the
stoles rather than to strengthen them. I am decidedly of opinion
— and my opinion is the result of experience — that in moderately
sheltered situations, the trees should not be cut over until they are
as nearly as possible six inches diameter at the bottom : if cut over
of a smaller size, the future crop will be proportionally lighter and
weaker. By allowing the young trees to attain the size of from
five to six inches at the base before cutting over, they will after-
wards send up strong and healthy shoots, while these will also be
numerous ; but if cut over of a much smaller size, the shoots will
be few in number, and proportionally weak.
Having fixed upon the time or period at which the young trees
in a plantation should be cut down as a preparation for future
coppice-wood, the next thing to take into consideration is the pro-
per manner of doing the work.
Several methods are in practice among foresters. Some cut
them down with the axe, and leave the stoles in the sloping form,
represented in Fig. 92, this sloping position of the stole being
meant to throw the water off it, and prevent
Fir 92
rot from taking place. I object to this method,
because, in the cutting over of a young tree
by repeated strokes from an axe, the stole is
much damaged, and apt to be split longitudi- FlG 93
nally ; consequently, rot is sure to commence ^-^
early. Fig. 93 represents another method
frequently practised, which is, to cut over the
tree by means of the saw, leaving the stole flat on the top.
GENERAL COPPICE PLANTATIONS. 375
I object to this method also ; because, when they are cut over in
this manner, from the circumstance of the stole being flat on the
top, rain is sure to lodge upon it, and cause rot at an early age.
Fig. 94 represents the form in which all stoles
should be made which are meant to keep sound,
and produce a healthy crop of coppice, and is
that which is employed by all superior foresters.
The following is the method of procedure : —
Have a young lad with a sickle, such as is used for cutting down
grain, and cause him to go before the men who are to cut the trees,
and clear away all long grass, &c, from the base of each tree to
be cut. This he should do to the distance of about two feet all
round each tree ; and in doing this, he must be made to cut the
grass as short as possible, in order that there may be no obstacle
to having the trees cut low. When the boy has got the first tree
cleared at the base, two men with a light cross-cutting saw follow
him. The saw should first enter upon one side of the base of the
tree, which, of course, should be the side to which the tree is in-
tended to fall ; and having cut at least two inches through upon
that side, and about two inches up on the base of the tree from the
ground, they then take out the saw, and cut the tree through from
the opposite side.
My reason for not cutting the tree through with the saw from
one side is, that when this happens to be done — and it is too often
done — and when the tree has just begun to fall, the bark upon the
side of the tree opposite to where the saw was entered, is liable to
be torn away, with very often a part of the outer wood ; and this
will the more readily occur if there be a little wind blowing at the
time ; this almost invariably taking place before the men have time
to cut the part clean through. Now, this evil can at once be
avoided, by simply cutting, in the first place, a part of the base
upon the side to which the tree is to fall. In this manner the
buy, with the two men following, will prepare and cut down the
trees, observing to cut each stole so that it may be, as nearly as
possible, about two inches high above the surface of the ground.
Next in order, there will be required another man with an axe,
wh.jse duty is to snead or prune the branches from each tree as it
376 MANAGEMENT OF
is felled ; and the branches, again, as they are cut off, are to be
assorted for different purposes, according to the local demand.
These are, in general, fence-wood, ton-wood, fuel, besom-sprey,
&c. ; and the branches, as they are cut off and assorted, should be
carried out to the nearest road in the plantation, and laid in
convenient lots, each according to its kind, in order for sale : this
sort of work can, in most cases, be performed by women and boys.
The trees, also, as they are cleared from their branches, should
be carried out to the roads, and assorted according to their sizes.
In this way the whole work of cutting down and carrying out
the trees and their branches should be performed, taking care that
the workpeople in the act of carrying out the wood do not put
their feet upon the stoles ; for by their doing so, the bark would
very likely be broken from the edges, which would of course be
injurious to them. The work of carrying out the wood should
therefore be carefully performed ; and, in order to see this done, a
careful man should superintend it.
The trees being all cut, and their produce carried away, from a
certain tract of ground, so as there need be no cause for apprehen-
sion of danger to the stoles, another man with a shaiy adze will
round the edges of each stole. In doing this, he must attend to
go close down to the surface of the earth wTith the adze, taking
with it both bark and wood, sloping it up neatly all round to the
centre of the top of the stole. He must, at the same time, be most
careful that the bark and wood have the same slope, for if this is
not attended to, water may'lodge upon the bark and cause rot
there. He must also be cautious not to separate the bark from
the wood.
All the work relative to which I have now been speaking,
ought to be performed by the proprietors' own people, and not let
to contractors, as is too often done, to the great hurt of the stoles,
and consequently of the future crop of coppice. Another serious
obstacle to the welfare of coppice-woods in England is, the bad
practice that prevails of allowing purchasers of coppice plantations
to cut it down themselves. Now, I beg to say that, in the articles
of sale, the proprietors ought to reserve the cutting in their own
hands, which would be greatly in favour of their woodland property.
GENERAL COPPICE PLANTATIONS. 377
What I have said above is only applicable to those sorts of
trees, the wood of which is not used for powder charcoal, nor the
bark for tanning. Of course, in the cutting of the trees and the
preparing of the stoles, the same rules are to be observed in all
cases. But the oak, the bark of which is an important article,
must be peeled as the trees are cut down. (For a description of how
this work is to be performed, see section headed Peeling and
drying of bark used for tanning.) But even in the case of peeling,
the wood must, in the first place, all be carried out to the road
where the operation is to be performed. There is also the birch
wood, the bark of which is used for tanning, and the wood for
charcoal ; and the alder, the bark of which is of no use, but the
wood requires to be peeled before being sold to the powder manu-
facturers : the wood, after being peeled of its bark, sells at from
20s. to 25s. per ton, according to demand. Hazel and mountain
ash are also much sought after by powder manufacturers : the
bark of these two is useless; but the wood must be peeled, in
which state it sells at the same price as the birch and alder. In
all cases of making charcoal, it is not necessary to peel the wood
for that purpose. At Arniston I have made a considerable
quantity of charcoal for colour and paint makers ; and as it is not
necessary that it be of so fine a quality as when used for gun-
powder, it is generally made from wood with the bark on. As
many foresters may have occasion to make charcoal in the same
maimer as I have to do at Arniston, I shall here, for the guidance
of those into whose hands this book may fall, give my method of
proceeding; and as the system which I practise is the same
as that detailed in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, I shall quote the
iption from that work.
II ic wood being collected near the place intended for the
operation, and cut into billets, generally about three feet in length,
the pits, or stacks, arc generally formed in this manner: — A spot
adapted to the purpose, of from about fifteen to twenty feet in
diameter, of a conical form, is selected, and, being properly levelled,
a large billet of wood, split across at one end and pointed at the
other, is fixed in the centre of the area, with its pointed extremity
in the earth, and two pieces of wood inserted through the clefts
378 MANAGEMENT OF
of the other end, forming four right angles. Against these cross-
pieces, four other billets of wood are placed, one end on the
ground, and the other leaning against the angles. A number of
large and straight billets are afterwards laid on the ground, to
form a floor, each being, as it were, the radius of the circular
area. On this floor a proper quantity of brush or small wood is
strewed, to fill up the interstices, when the floor will be complete.
And in order to keep the billets in the same position in which they
were first arranged, pegs or stumps are driven into the ground, in
the circumference of the circle, about a foot distant from one
another. Upon this floor a stage is built, with billets set upon one
end, somewhat inclining towards the central billet ; and on the tops
of these, another floor is laid, in a horizontal direction, but of
shorter billets, as the whole is intended when finished to form a
cone. The whole is then coated over with turf, and the surface
generally plastered over with a mixture of earth and sand.
Previous to the operation of setting fire to the pile, the central
billet in the upper stage is drawn out, and pieces of dry combust-
ible wood substituted in its place, to which the fire is applied.
Great attention is necessary during the process in the proper
management of the fire, and in immediately covering up the
apertures through which the flame obtrudes itself, until the opera-
tion be concluded, which is generally effected in the space of
three or four days, according to circumstances. When the char-
coal is thought to be sufficiently burned, which is easily known
from the appearance of the smoke, and the flames no longer
issuing with impetuosity through the vents, all the apertures are
to be closed up very carefully with a mixture of earth and sand ;
which, by excluding all access of the external air, prevents the
coal from being any farther consumed, and the fire goes out of
itself. In this condition it is suffered to remain till the whole is
sufficiently cooled, when the cover is removed, and the charcoal
is taken away. If the whole process is skilfully managed, the
coals will exactly retain the figure of the pieces of wood. Some
are said to have been so dexterous as to char an arrow, without
altering even the figure of the feather."
It will now be necessary to say something as to the manage-
GENERAL COPPICE PLANTATIONS. 379
merit of the willow or osier beds ; which, of course, has not been
included in what has been stated with regard to the other coppice.
The ground for this crop of coppice having been trenched,
dunged, and cleaned, and the willows planted in the manner for-
merly stated, they must, whether intended for the basket-maker
or cooper, be allowed to remain uncut for two years, with the view
of strengthening the stoles ; but being cut over at the end of the
second year, the crop produced from the stoles will be ready for
the basket-maker one year after ; that is to say, one years' growth
is what is used by them ; if the crop should be meant for coopers"'
hoops, growth of two years will be required. The best time of
the year for cutting over the willow is the month of February.
In cutting them over for the first time, three buds should be left
from the bottom, and the cut should be made in a sloping direc-
tion ; but at the after cuttings, the shoots should be taken away,
leaving only the swelled parts from whence they issued. The
willows as they are cut should be immediately carried off the
ground, assorted into three sizes, and tied in bundles of two feet
in circumference within a foot of the lower ends ; in which state
they are sold. When they stand two years and are fit for
coopers' hoops, they should be trimmed from any side-branches,
and tied up in bundles of six scores, in which state they are ready
for sale. As soon as the crop is carried off the ground, it should
be dug, and in the summer kept clean from all weeds.
We shall now suppose that all the trees which were planted
with the view of becoming coppice-wood, have been cut over for
the first time, in the manner which has been directed above ; and
shall now follow the progress a little in the coppice state, which is
the end we have in view in the present section.
If the trees were all cut over in the months of February and
March, excepting the oak, which must be cut in June, for the sake
of its bark.) the stoics will, by the middle of June, have sent up
a large supply of young shoots from the collar all round. These
are termed coppice shoots, of whatever kind the tree may be.
In the autumn of the same year, the whole plantation which was
thus cut over, will form a coppice of one year's growth. In
England, where this sort of forest cropping is more extensively
380 MANAGEMENT OF
cultivated, such a plantation, at the period we are now referring
to, is generally left entirely to nature ; but this is by no means the
proper way of going to work. Where it is intended to have
valuable coppice, such plantations should have each stole thinned
of all superfluous growths at the end of the second or third year,
according to the rapidity and strength of the growths ; but in
general, we may say, that when the coppice is of two years'
growth, each stole should be thinned out, leaving from three to six
of the best shoots upon each, according to its strength, to bring
them forward. This should be done to every sort of young coppice,
excepting the willow, which we do not here take into considera-
tion. Allowing, then, that the stoles in the plantation have all
been thinned at the above period, and the thinnings, as cut out
from each stole, sold for hamper and crate stuffs, much profit will be
at the time derived from those thinnings, without taking into calcu-
lation the superior value to be derived from the future crop by such
a method of procedure. As to the period at which coppice plan-
tations should be cut over, no definite number of years can be
stated as sufficient to bring them to a certain size. For example,
taking the oak as a standard in our calculation, in Herefordshire
oak coppice is as bulky at twelve or fourteen years as it is in
Argyleshire at twenty-five years; and this points out that all
depends upon the nature of the soil and the shelter. Besides, as
to the time of cutting down the crop of coppice, much depends
upon the nature of the demand for the crop ; thus, in some parts
of England, where much of the coppice is used for hamper, crate,
and coopers' stuff, it is cut over at two and three years of age ;
in other districts, where much of it is used for hop-poles, it is
cut over at four, five, and six years old ; and in others, where
it is used for fencing, and many other country purposes, it is
cut over at from ten to fifteen years of age. In Scotland, again,
where oak coppice is chiefly grown for the sake of bark and spoke-
wood, it is left till it is from five to seven inches diameter at the
base. At whatever age coppice may be cut over, the work should
be done by the proprietor's own people, allowing the purchaser
to dispose of the wood as he pleases.
In cutting over the coppice, the saw should in all cases be used
GENERAL COPPICE PLANTATIONS. 381
where the shoots are above four inches diameter at the base ; but
when they are of a smaller size, they may very properly be cut
over with the hand-bill, which should be kept in a sharp state for
the purpose. In cutting away the shoots, they should be hewn
closely in upon the swell at the base, and neatly rounded off, so
as to present no inequalities or roughness for the lodgment of wet.
At the same time, attention should always be given to keep the
centre of each stole higher than the margin, in order to throw off
the water and preserve them in a sound state. This can only be
effected by the woodman, at every cutting of the coppice, dressing
the stoles all round close to the earth ; taking care, hoAvevcr,
not to loosen the bark upon the tops of the roots ; for if this
be done, rot will be sure to take place there; nor should any
earth be allowed to be put over the cut part, as this also would
encourage rot.
In the course of time, when several cuttings have been taken
from the same plantation, it invariably happens, under bad
management, that the stoles extend themselves to an extraordi-
nary size, spreading themselves wide in circumference, and
becoming rotten and hollow in the centre. This state of things
should be guarded against; and under good management it seldom
takes place to any great extent, at least for a very great number
of years. The only way to prevent it is, by cutting close to
the old stoles at every period when cuttings take place, and being
very careful to smooth over the whole, so as to prevent the wet
from making lodgment upon it. In order to renew old and worn-
out coppice plantations, the only sure and effectual way is to
replant ; and, indeed, this will be found in the end the most pro-
fitable way, at least in instances of extremely old coppice-woods.
In all oak coppice plantations, I find, from experience, that no
cutting should be allowed after the 1st of July — that is to say, if
a healthy growth of young shoots is valued for a future crop.
I now come to say a little relative to the value of coppice-wood
as a forest crop. This, of course, must in all cases depend a great
deal on the nature of the soil and situation upon which the stoles
grow, and also upon the management they may have received
while in their young state. Much as has been said by some
382 MANAGEMENT OF
authors relative to the great profits arising from oak coppice, I
have not myself found this species of crop nearly so valuable to
the proprietor as that of rearing the plants to full timber size ; and
from this circumstance I am led to recommend to proprietors
the rearing of timber plantations in preference to coppice ones.
From the experience I have had in the sales of oak coppice,
30s. per Scots acre is about the average yearly rent of the land
derivable from such a crop. Birch and alder coppice I have found
to produce, at an average, about 22s. per acre; ash coppice,
48s. per acre. Coppice of a general mixed character I have
never found profitable, seldom realising more than 15s. per acre
per annum. The above valuations are taken from coppice cut
down at periods between twenty and thirty years.
In some extreme cases, I have known oak coppice, at twenty-
five years old, sell at £66 an acre ; and I have seen alder and
birch, at the same age, sell as high as £40 : but these must be
considered as extreme cases, and I have oftener seen them sold at a
rate much more below the average I have given than these are above.
In Lancashire, even though there is a great demand for coppice-
wood stuffs in Manchester and Liverpool, the land under such a
crop seldom produces above 30s. an acre to the proprietor, while much
oftener it is from 15s. to 20s. ; and that, too, upon land which, if
put under good forest management for the cultivation of large
timber, would without doubt realise three times the sum. Hav-
ing myself witnessed this state of forest matters in England, I
shall conclude this section by pointing out the manner in which
coppice plantations might be converted into profitable timber
plantations.
In the converting of any coppice plantations into one which is
to be trained up as timber, the sooner after the cutting of the
crop of coppice this is had in view, the better. The not having
attended to this point is the cause that several coppice planta-
tions, which have of late years been turned into timber ones,
have not succeeded according to expectation ; the reason of the
failure being, that the coppice was allowed to grow up in the
usual manner, and until the usual period for the cutting of it,
before a selection of proper shoots was made for becoming ulti-
GENERAL COPPICE PLANTATIONS. 383
rnately timber. With the mistaken view of taking as nearly as
possible a full crop of coppice shoots from the stoles before con-
verting- tliem into timber-bearing ones, some foresters have
recommended the system of leaving, at the time of cutting down
the coppice, only as many good shoots as will ultimately become
timber trees upon the ground, at distances from twenty to thirty
feet, and advising, at the same time, to allow all the coppice stoles
cut over to bring forth another crop, while the shoots that are left
are becoming timber ; thus endeavouring to carry on both systems
upon the same piece of ground, until those that are meant to
become timber are large enough to fill the ground themselves.
Than this, no system could be more certain to frustrate the end
in view.
How can the shoots of trees be expected to succeed so as to
form timber, which are for a number of years confined in a close
plantation, and all at once suddenly exposed, as is the case when
they are chosen to stand, and all the rest of the shoots which for-
merly sheltered them are cut away '? We might as well expect a
child to grow up to healthy manhood, who, from being closely
confined in a room, was at once taken out and set down upon a
bare moor. Unreasonable as this system must ever be, it is, not-
withstanding, frequently practised — of course, to the sure failure of
the trees so dealt with. I have seen this system practised in Eng-
land ; and, from receiving such bad treatment, the trees, of course,
were in an unhealthy state, while the cause of the unhealthiness
was not attributed to the system, but to the bad character of
the soil.
The only sure way of converting a coppice plantation into
healthy standing timber is this: — When the regular coppice has
been thinned for the first time, say at three years old, have in
view the raising of a regular portion of the best of the shoots for
ultimate timber; and with this view, thin out all the weakly shoots
and soch as arc badly formed, and leave none but the choicest,
ami those rather thinner upon the stole, than if the plantation were
merely thinned with the intention of its remaining under coppice.
Having thinned the coppice rather severely at three years' stand-
ing, at six years let it receive another good thinning, by taking
384 MANAGEMENT OF
away from each stole the worst of the shoots, leaving none but the
best, and not more at that age of these than from four to five upon
the most healthy of the stoles. At ten years of age give another
regular thinning ; at about fifteen, a fourth ; and at twenty years,
there should upon no stole be left more than one shoot, which is
designed to be trained up as a timber tree. After this period, such
a plantation may be treated exactly in the way which has already
been directed for hardwood plantations. The advantages of this
system are evident. First — the trees are trained up gradually and
naturally, and never suffer any check ; second — a better selection
can be made, from there being a continual choice of shoots at the
command of the forester as they grow up at different stages ; and
third — by this method of selecting and training up, the plants, or
trees as we may term them at twenty years old, will be twice the
size that others would when merely chosen from the body of a
thick coppice-wood and exposed all at once ; and by the time that
they are thirty years old, they will be three times as large, and, I
may also add, three times more healthy and valuable.
As cases may occur where proprietors may wish to convert a
coppice plantation of some years' growth into a timber one, I may
state for their guidance, that at whatever age they may wish to
do this, they should never commence to cut down suddenly, and
expose the shoots they wish to rear up as trees. The only sure
way in a case of this kind is, to select the very best of the shoots at
proper distances from one another, and have them pruned and kept
clear from the other shoots upon the other stoles. Those also
should alone be selected which appear to come away from the earth,
and not those which have the appearance of coming away from
the collar of the stole ; for such never will come to make good trees.
As those that are made choice of advance in size, give them room
gradually, and eventually a good standing timber plantation may
be formed in this way, cutting away all the rejected shoots betimes,
in the same manner as in the case of thinning away nurses from
among young hardwood trees in any other timber plantation.
Upon the estate of Arniston we have oak coppice shoots, some-
what above forty years old, measuring forty feet high, and three
feet in circumference five feet from the ground.
MANAGEMENT OF OAK COPPICE. 385
SECTION II. — MANAGEMENT OF OAK COPPICE.
Plantations of the description termed oak coppice are now so
common in Scotland, that there are few landed estates of any con-
siderable extent upon which there is not less or more of them. In
the West Highlands there are many extensive plantations of this
kind ; and within the last thirty years many fine old oak forests
have been cut down in the midland counties which also are, for the
greater part, now converted into plantations of this description —
being trained up from the young shoots which have arisen from
the stocks of the old trees that were cut down. Seeing, then,
that this description of wood crop is on the increase upon the
estates of landed proprietors, it may not be out of place here briefly
to detail the best modes of its management, more particularly with
the view of pointing out the most profitable manner of going to
work in the converting of old oak forest ground into healthy young
coppice-wood.
AVhen a plantation of old oak trees is cut down, and when it is
the intention of the proprietor to convert it into a coppice-wood,
for the purpose of raising a crop of oak bark upon the ground, the
work must be proceeded with in the following manner : — First,
the whole of the wood of the original trees, when cut down, should
be removed immediately, as also all the bark taken from them,
in order that no damage may be done to the young shoots as they
arise from the newly-cut stocks ; for, if the wood be allowed to
lie long upon the ground after it is cut, the young shoots will
have grown to a considerable height, and they, being extremely
tender, will be easily broken in the act of removing the wood at a
late period. In order, therefore, to prevent this taking place, if
the wood have been sold to any neutral person, say about the 1st
of May, he should be bound by the articles of sale to have the
whole of both wood and bark removed by the 1st of July at the
t. If this be not done, much loss will certainly be sustained in
the after-crop of the coppice-wood, seeing that it is impossible to
remove heavy timber from the ground without rolling it over the
suckers in their tender state.
2 B
386 MANAGEMENT OF OAK COPPICE.
This part of the work is always best done by the proprietor's
own servants, and under the superintendence of an experienced
forester ; because, in such a case, the people who cut the wood are
paid by the proprietor, and being so, will look more to his interests,
or at least will attend more to the orders given them, than strangers
from a distance would do, whose only interest is that of getting
the wood cut down at as little expense as possible, without any
regard to the future value of the plantation. It is also necessary
to notice here, that in cutting down any large oak tree, the stock
of which is intended to push up young shoots for the formation of
coppice, great care is necessary to see that the bark is not injured
below that part where the tree is cut over ; for if the bark be hurt
and ruffled there, so as to separate it from the wood, moisture will
be lodged between it and the wood, and, consequently, rot at that
part will be apt to take place. In order to prevent this, it is always
a good plan, previous to commencing the operation of cutting down
the trees, to employ a cautious trustworthy man to go before the
wood-cutters, who, with a hand-hill and wooden mell, should be
instructed to cut the bark right through to the wood, in the form
of a ring all round the circumference of the tree, about three inches
above the surface of the ground. This first ring being cut all
round, another should be made in like manner about twelve inches
higher up on the boll of the tree, when the piece of bark situated
between those two cuts can be removed, and the woodmen made
to saw each tree across exactly by the lower mark, or bottom of
the peeled wood. This forms a guide to the men not to injure the
lower part left with the bark upon it, as well as, when any diffi-
culty is experienced in bringing the tree down, avoiding all waste
of bark.
As soon as the wood and bark have been removed, all rubbish
and useless underwood should be carefully cleared away, excepting
any young healthy shoots, or young plants which may be consi-
dered worth leaving upon the ground, with the view of their ulti-
mately becoming trees. And immediately after the ground has
been cleared of rubbish, the stocks or stools of the old trees should
be dressed with the adze, in order to cause the young shoots to
come away as low down, and as near to the surface of the ground,
MANAGEMENT OF OAK COPPICE. 387
as possible. It' the young shoots of the oak, which are intended
to grow up into coppice, be allowed to proceed from that part of
the old stock which rises two or three inches above ground, these
shoots will always partake more of the character of branches than
of trees, and never will make a valuable plantation ; but if made
to come away from that part of the stock where the roots join with
the main stem, and which lies immediately under the surface of
the soil, they will partake of the character of trees, and, indepen-
dent of the nourishment that they receive from the parent stock,
will also send out roots of their own, and derive nourishment from
the common earth, and form pretty large trees, if desired. Now,
in order to cause the young shoots to issue from this point, the
long grass should be all cleared away round the stock, and itself
dressed otf with an adze. In executing this, care must be taken
that the part where the roots issue from the main stem be not
injured ; but supposing that three inches of wood have been left
above ground upon the stock, the workman should commence by
levelling his tool upon it fully two inches down upon the wood,
and hew oft' this part all round, gradually lessening the depth of
his cut as he nears the centre or crown of the stock, which is left
untouched, thus leaving a fall from the centre to the circumference
of fully two inches, and forming a convex crown. This form pre-
vents the lodgment of moisture, as well as causes the young shoots
to come away as near to the earth as possible, which should
always be aimed at ; and in this manner every stock which may
be intended for the rearing up of coppice-wood should be managed.
The sooner the operation is done after the trees are cut, the greater
is the hope of a good crop of healthy shoots : the forester, there-
fore, ought not to delay this until all the other work of clearing
away the trees and rubbish be finished. The whole ought, indeed,
to be gone on with according to the time that 1 have above stated,
but still the whole may be proceeding simultaneously. My way
of proceeding with work of this kind is: — I have a party of men
with horses and carts, who begin upon one side of the ground, and
clear away all the valuable wood as tiny proceed, which is deli-
vered to the sawyer or otherwise as the case may be. Immediately
following thia first party I have a second, consisting of women and
388 MANAGEMENT OF OAK COPPICE.
boys, headed by a man to superintend them, who gather up all the
rubbish that is left by the men with the carts, and carry it to con-
venient openings, and burn it at once, unless some other more
valuable use can be made of it. The ground being cleared by this
second party, I have a man, or men if the grounds be extensive,
following them dressing the stocks in the way described ; and in
this manner the whole work can be made to go on at once without
losing any time.
If the stocks of the old trees which were cut down are not
numerous upon the ground, as is more than likely to be the case
if the trees were of any considerable age, there will not be enough
for a permanent crop upon the ground. If, for instance, they
were eighty years old, there will not be more than one hun-
dred trees to the acre, making them about twenty feet one
from another. Now, to have a piece of forest ground with
that number of stocks upon it to the acre, would never pay the
proprietor the common rent of his land : therefore, in order to
take advantage of the ground forming the vacant spaces between
the stocks, and to make the whole pay ultimately as any other
plantation would do, the ground should be properly drained
wherever found necessary, and a crop of young oak trees planted
all over it wherever there is room. In this case, the young oaks
which may be put in, together with the old stocks, may be made
to stand, as nearly as possible, eight feet apart. All the interme-
diate spaces between them should be filled up with larches, so as
to make the trees over the whole plantation stand about four feet
one from another ; that is, taking the old stocks into account
also.
By filling up the ground in this manner, the old stocks will
ultimately become of more value than if they had been left in an
exposed state ; while, from their growing more rapidly than the
young trees, they will produce shelter to the latter in their young
state ; so that, putting the whole together, a plantation of this
kind grows more rapidly than one altogether planted with young
trees.
When the young shoots from the old stocks have been allowed
to grow undisturbed for two years, they should then be carefully
MANAGEMENT OF OAK COPPICE. 389
looked over, and all small ones removed, leaving the strongest, all
round the circumference, not closer than six inches one from
another. These again should be left for other two years, when a
second and final thinning should be made, choosing the strongest
and healthiest shoots to remain, and in no case leaving more than
six shoots to stand as a permanent crop upon any individual
stock, or fewer still if the health and strength of the parent
require it.
I am aware that many foresters are in the habit of not thinning
their oak stoles at all, until the shoots have attained a large size,
when they thin them out and peel the bark from them, supposing
that by this system there is a gain from the sale of the young
bark produced. I entirely dissent from this system of manage-
ment ; for, when the shoots are thinned out as I have advised,
they very quickly attain a large size ; whereas, when they are not
thinned out until a late period of their growth, the shoots become
stunted, and shortly indicate a want of vigour in their constitu-
tion ; consequently, at the end of a given number of years, instead
of an advantage being gained by letting the shoots grow up until
they are fit for peeling, there is a decided loss. I have compared
two plantations which were managed upon these two different sys-
tems, and found the one managed upon that which I have recom-
mended, at the end of twenty years, worth nearly a half more than
the one managed upon the opposite system.
When the young shoots have received their second course of
thinning, as lias been pointed out, they should at the same time
receive a judicious pruning, in the same manner as has already
been recommended for the pruning of young oak trees. The larch
firs, as they grow up, should be thinned away by degrees, in order
to give room to the oaks as they advance, whether to relieve the
old stoles or the young trees ; and in every respect this thinning
of the firs should be done as has already been recommended for
the management of oak plantations generally.
Seeing that the value of oak bark has fallen so much during
the last twenty years, I do not consider the growing of oak cop-
pice so profitable as it has been. About twenty-five years ago,
the price of oak bark was £10 per ton, while in J 850 the highest
390 PEELING AND DRYING OF
price given in Edinburgh was £5, 10s. ; making its value at the
present time only about one-third of what it was twenty- five years
ago, and consequently reducing the value of oak coppice planta-
tions in the same ratio. On this account, I think that proprie-
tors should not, at the present time, rear up oak plantations with
the intention of converting them into coppice, as has in many
instances been done of late. I have seen plantations of healthy
oak trees, about thirty-five years of age, cut down for the sake of
the bark they produced, and with the view of converting them
into coppice-wood, so as to have a crop of bark every twenty-five
years afterwards. Now, had those trees, which were cut down at
thirty-five years of age, been allowed to grow for other forty or
fifty years, they would, of course, have attained their full magni-
tude, and been worth to the proprietor, at the end of that period,
more than three times the money that he could get as the produce
of the same plants if cut down and disposed of in the form of
coppice-wood, at periods of twenty-five or thirty years.
The safest and best plan, with regard to all plantations, is, to
allow the trees to attain their full magnitude in the usual way,
when the timber will in all cases find a ready market, and at
a fair price. No doubt, where old plantations are cut down, it is
right and proper that the stocks of them should be converted
into coppice-wood ; for this is taking advantage of growths which
can be converted to use, and which would otherwise be lost ; but
to raise up trees to a certain age, and then cut them down pre-
maturely for the sake of their bark, is, at best, an enormous loss
to the proprietor, as well as to the country in general.
SECTION III. — THE PEELING AND DRYING OF BARK USED
For. TANNING.
The peeling and drying of bark used for tanning, being a
part of forest operations in which an inexperienced person may
be the cause of much loss to his employer through bad manage-
ment, I have considered it right to devote the present sec-
tion to giving some information relative thereto; and in this
BARK USED FOR TANNING. 391
I shall merely detail the method by which I am in the habit of
doing the work myself.
There are, properly speaking, only three sorts of wood, the
bark of which is now used for tanning purposes — namely, the
oak, the larch, and the birch. About thirty years ago, when the
demand for bark was very great, I have seen saugh, chestnut, and
mountain ash all peeled, and the bark sold to the tanners ; but
now that there is a large supply of oak bark imported into this
country from the Continent, tanners will not use these, seeing
they can get plenty of good oak bark at a very moderate rate ;
and it is in consequence of this large supply from the Continent
that the price of bark has falleu so much of late.
To illustrate the method of peeling and drying the bark, we
shall now suppose that we have to commence operations of this
nature upon a hag of oak of considerable extent. We shall
further suppose that this hag, or plantation of oak, has been
trained up for some time with the view of becoming a timber
plantation ultimately ; that the shoots or trees are about twenty-
five years old from the stole ; and that, at the thinning which we
are now referring to, there is only intended to be one left from
each stole.
A few days before commencing the cutting and peeling, the
forester will go through the plantation himself, and mark all the
shoots he intends shall be taken away. This I advise him to do,
in order that he may have time and leisure to mark quietly by
himself ; because, if the plantation be extensive, and many hands
employed, he will find enough to do, when the people have begun,
to keep them properly at their several employments, without
marking. Where many hands are to be employed, therefore, the
forester Bhould have all his trees marked previous to beginning
to cut and peel, by which means he will be enabled to give his
undivided attention to the conducting of the workpeople. A\ e
Bhall suppose that the business of marking the trees which are to
betaken out has been despatched by the forester, according to
the rules already laid down in another part of this book. lie will
next consider as to the number of people he will have to employ
in order to have the work done within a given time; and this
392 PEELING AND DRYING OF
of course must be regulated by the forester's own views as to the
time he has on hand. But as an inexperienced forester may find
some difficulty in arriving at something like accuracy as to the
time it may take him to have his work of peeling done, I shall
here give him for his guidance the rule by which I myself deter-
mine this.
When I wish to know, as nearly as possible, the weight of bark
that I am likely to have from a plantation, I first take three of
the shoots or trees which are to be cut — say of three different sizes
— one of medium small size, one of a middle size, and one of a
medium large size. These three trees I get peeled, including the
branches upon them ; and supposing the bark taken off the three
weighs 39 lb., this gives 13 lb. as an average of the raw bark
which may be expected from each tree to be cut. Having ascer-
tained thus far, the next thing is to find the number of trees to be
cut in the plantation. This of course the forester ought to know by
the act of marking them ; and this he may keep in view as he pro-
ceeds with the marking. Supposing, then, that he numbers 7466
in all to be taken out, then, if we assume that the raw bark in
drying loses about one-third of its weight — this being my principle
of calculation — we have only about 8£ lb. instead of 13 lb. as the
weight of bark off each tree when dried ; and multiplying 7466,
the number of trees to be cut, by 8j, the number of pounds of
bark supposed to be taken from each tree, we have in all 61,594 lb.,
or 27 tons. From the above method of calculation, the forester
may come very near the truth; and I generally myself come within
5 per cent of the truth by going to work in this way. Having
ascertained that 27 tons of bark are likely to be taken from the
plantation, the next point is to ascertain what number of people
will be required to peel this in 27 days, to which we shall suppose
the forester is obliged to confine himself : —
By calculations made from cases of peeling bark of the age
stated above, I find that, in order to peel one ton of bark in the
day, and carry out the wood as it is cut to the roads, a distance
of one hundred yards, where it is to be peeled, the following work-
people are required : —
BARK USED FOR TANNING. 393
Two cutters, at 2s. 6d. per day,
Two primers, at 2s. do.
Four chatters, at Is. 6d. do.
Throe men carrying trees, at 2s. per day.
Three boys carrying branches, at Is. per day,
One man putting up ranges and keeping bark on them,
at 2s. per day, . . , .
One buy carrying bark to ranges, at Is. per day,
Twenty women and boys peeling, at Is. each per day,
£0
5
0
0
4
0
0
6
0
0
6
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
£■2
7
0
Cost per ton,
In order, then, to cut and peel the number of trees above men-
tioned, in the space of twenty-seven days, thirty-six people will be
required as above stated ; and these the forester ought to have in
readiness, by a previous appointment, to meet him at the given time
and place. Before bringing the peelers to the ground, the forester
should attend to have the cutters, primers, and chatters employed dur-
ing the afternoon of the previous day, in order to have a supply
of wood ready for peeling when the women and boys arrive ; for
if this be not attended to, a great deal of time will be lost, from
the peelers all having to wait till wood is cut and carried out for
them. We will suppose that the two cutters have been engaged
upon the afternoon of Monday, as also the two primers or sneaders,
with the four chatters, and that there is a supply of wood ready
for the peelers commencing with upon the morning of Tuesday.
Before stating the manner in which the women, or people who
are employed for peeling the bark, are to be set to work, it will
be proper to begin with the cutting the trees, and then go on
progressively with each department in its own place, according to
the regular course of the work.
Let the two men who are engaged for the purpose of cutting
down the trees proceed each to a separate stole, and with his axe
cut down each shoot upon the stole having a mark upon it. But
if any of the shoots or trees are of a size about or over six inches
diameter at bottom, they will require to join together, and cut
them down with the cross-cutting saw, observing, in either case,
to cut each tree down to the surface of the earth as nearly as pos-
394 PEELING AND DRYING OF
sible, paying particular attention not to do any injury to the bottom
of that shoot which is left in order to become the future tree. In
this way they will proceed from stole to stole in regular course,
cutting every shoot having a mark upon it in their way ; and as
the marks ought to be all made on one side, and facing one way,
they will have no difficulty in quickly finding them out. Another
point which these men ought particularly to attend to is, to see
that none will fall upon the shoots which are to stand, they always
endeavouring to lay them over in an open part. In this manner
the two men will continue to cut down the trees, paying no
attention to the pruning of any of them after they are fallen, their
particular charge being merely that of properly cutting down the
trees marked ; and that the forester ought to see them do in a clean,
workmanlike manner.
As the trees are cut and laid down by the two men as already
stated, they should be followed in close succession by other two
men, who may be of an inferior cast as workmen, as their duty is
not of so important a nature. Their duty is to prune, or, as it is
technically called, to snead the trees of their branches as they are
felled ; and in cutting the branches from the trees, they must be
instructed to cut them off in such a clean manner as not to destroy
the bark upon the main stem of the tree. That they may do this
the more readily, they should be furnished with axes of a lighter
description than the common wood-cutting axes. If the wood-
cutters lay down the trees with the axe, each working separately
by himself, then each will be followed by one sneader ; but if they
use the saw, both working together, the two sneaders will follow
them accordingly, each taking a tree to himself in turn, clearing it
of all its branches, and cutting off the top of the tree where it is
from two to three inches in diameter, leaving the trees and their
branches lying as they were cut ; and these will again be taken up
by another party coming behind them.
Immediately behind the two last-mentioned men, four young lads
will follow, each having a hand-bill in his „ g5
hand, (see Fig. 95,) which is kept sharp . a
both on the curved side, a, and upon the ^M*^a^^MH^^,^jg
straight face, b. With an instrument of &
BARK USED FOR TANNING. 395
this description in the right hand, each lad will take up a branch
in the left, by the thick end, and with the hand-bill prune
off all the smaller branches ; and those branches which they
thus cut off may be subpruned again, if they are of a size
equal to the middle finger of a man's hand : in short, it
must be the duty of these four lads to prune out all the branches
down to the size mentioned. As they prune them out, the
lads must be careful to put them into bundles in a regular
manner, that they may be readily lifted and carried out of the
wood by another party behind them. It Avill be the duty of the
forester to see that these lads do not pass over any of the branches ;
for this they are very apt to do, in order to keep up with the men in
front ; and if such omissions are once allowed to slip, they will, as
young lads are very apt to do, put off their time, and still keep up
with the men in front. It must, therefore, be particularly seen to,
that they do not pass over the branches, and thereby lose a consi-
derable portion of bark. Young lads performing this operation
are generally termed chatters, or subpruners.
After the three parties above mentioned are well begun, another
party of three men and three boys will commence to carry out the
wood, the trees and branches, namely, as they have been prepared
by the foregoing parties, and lay them down along the nearest
road in the wood, in order to their being peeled. In carrying out
the wood which has been cut, the three men will carry out the
trees, two of them carrying the heaviest upon their shoulders, and
another the lighter ones by himself, while the three boys carry out
all the branches as they are pruned and collected into heaps by
the chatters. In this way the whole of the trees marked are to be
cut down, pruned, and their branched subpruned, and carried out
to the nearest road, in order for peeling ; the one party following
the other in regular succession, clearing the wood as they pass
along.
In laying down the trees and branches in order for peeling upon
the roads, the carriers must attend to divide them in such a manner
as to accommodate the number of people who arc to be employed
in peeling. Thus, in the present case, where twenty people are
supposed to be engaged in the latter, one-third of that number
396 PEELING AND DRYING OF
will be sufficient for the peeling of the trees as they are brought
out, while two-thirds will be required for the branches. The
forester will, therefore, cause the carriers to lay down the trees in
three divisions along the side of the road, (not across it,) and at
each of these three divisions two people will be employed, it
requiring two people to peel the trees to advantage ; and thus one-
third of the people — namely, six — will be engaged in the peeling of
the larger wood. The other fourteen people, again, will be engaged
in the peeling of the smaller wood ; therefore, fourteen heaps or
divisions of small wood must be laid down for them, so that each
person may have his or her own heap to work on. By going
to work in this manner, it will be at once seen by the forester who
works to advantage, and who does not ; for if a number of people
were set to the peeling of one heap or compartment of sticks, the
forester could not so well detect a bad hand from a good one.
This is a point that every forester, engaged in the peeling of
bark, should direct his attention to, to deal out his work so as
to be able to detect a lazy from an active worker, and he
ought in all cases to reward them accordingly. Every one who
has had experience in the peeling of wood, where a number
of strangers are brought together, will coincide in what I have
here stated.
The wood for peeling being laid down along the side of the
road as has been described, it will be necessary for the peeling of
the trees to have a pair of what are termed horses, erected at
each of the three heaps. (See Fig.
96.) This is simply done by driving
two strong stakes, of about three
inches in diameter, into the ground,
as represented in the figure. Two of
these are put up alongside the trees to
be peeled, about eight or ten feet
apart from each other, and they may
stand thirty inches high. They are
used to lay the ends of the small trees upon, as at a, by which
means the peelers can the more readily get the bark taken
from the trees so placed, without rolling them about upon the
BARK USED FOE TANNING.
397
Fig. 97.
Fig. 98.
ground. These being prepared by some of the men previous to
the women having arrived for peeling, the next thing is to have
them brought forward to the ground. On the arrival of the
peelers, the forester will have in readiness for each a small inell,
of the form represented by Fig. 97, the head
of which must be made of a piece of good
ash wood, but the handle of Scots fir, as it is
more soft and cool for the hands than any J
other sort of wood. The flat part of these |
mells, a, is for beating the bark upon
the wood till it separates easily from it, and the sharp part
b is for cutting up the bark so as to open it for the purpose of
introducing the peeling chisel, another little instrument which
every peeler must have in hand, and which must also be provided
by the forester for them. It is represented by Fig. 98.
The mell may be made about four inches square on
the flat part a, and about six inches deep from a to 6,
the handle c being about ten inches in length. The
chisel should be made of good iron, three inches by two
and a half in the face a, and the hose b may be about
four inches in length, while the handle c. which is of wood,
may be about eight inches long. Those who are occupied
in peeling the small wood should be provided, in addition,
with a stone from eight to ten inches square on the top,
and about six inches deep, and as smooth as possible on the one side.
Such stones may be got from any old dyke in the neighbourhood of
the plantation, or in the bed of any small watercourse near at hand.
We shall now suppose that all the people who are to be engaged
in the peeling of the wood are in readiness to begin, with the tools
described above; and we shall also suppose that they arc all
strangers to the work, and have to be instructed in it by the
forester before they can make a beginning. First, then, the
forester will pick out six of the Btontest from among the others,
whether these may be women or young stout lads, and set them to
the peeling of the trees : that is, two to each lot, as was formerly
mentioned when -peaking of the manner of laying out the trees
upon the road. He will cause them to lift, first, the heavy end of
398 PEELING AND DRYING OF
one of the trees upon one of the wood horses prepared for the
purpose, and then the small end upon the other. When this is
done, one of them will take a hand-bill, of the description shown
in Fig. 95, and with it cut the bark right round the tree, into
lengths of about three feet, beginning at the thick end. This being
done from end to end of the tree, dividing the bark upon it into
lengths of about three feet, he then, with the same instrument,
cuts it longitudinally, from the one end to the other, — the bark thus
being divided as shown in Fig. 99, b b representing the trans-
Fig. 90.
verse cuts, and a a the longitudinal one. Now, in order that,
while the one person is engaged in cutting the bark in the manner
described, the other may not be idle, he will, with his mell, using
the flat end, beat the surface of the bark upon the tree all round,
beginning at the thick end, and following his neighbour in regular
course. This beating of the bark must not be done in a rough
or severe manner, for such a course would injure its colour when
dried ; but regularly, so as to cause the bark to start from the
wood. The thinner the bark is, the less beating will be required ;
consequently, at the bottom of the tree, and upwards to the
middle, a pretty smart stroke of the meU will be required; but as
the bark becomes thinner from about the middle of the tree upwards,
a more gentle beating will do. All this the people who are em-
ployed should be made aware of; as the more knowledge the
people have of the real nature of the work, the more profitable
they are as workmen. As soon as the person has got the bark
cut into lengths in the manner described, he will put aside the
hand-bill and take his chisel, and with it he will follow his neigh-
bour, and separate the bark from the wood, taking it off in pieces
corresponding to the cuts he made with the bill ; and as he takes
off each piece, he will lay it carefully and regularly to one side,
so that it may not be in the way of the work in general. . In this
way the one will follow the other in close succession ; and as soon
BARK USED FOR TANNING. 399
as one tree is stripped of its bark, they will join in removing it
to one side, and putting a fresh tree upon the horses ; always
observing to lay the peeled wood to the opposite side from the
unpeeled, as this will prevent confusion.
We shall now suppose that the forester has shown the parties
who are to peel the larger portion of the wood, how to proceed.
It now remains for him to direct those who are to peel the smaller
wood. In order to this, the best method is for the forester to
show them himself by his own example. He will therefore call
them all round him, and make them observe how he performs
the work. He sits down upon the ground, keeping the bundle of
small wood to be peeled upon his left side, and placing the stone
upon the ground close by his left side also, with the smoothest side
uppermost. He will next take an oak branch in his left hand from
the bundle to be peeled, and lay the thick end of it upon the
flat stone, and with the flat part of the mell he will beat pretty
firmly till the bark opens from the wood, doing this from the one
end to the other before laying down his mell. As soon as he has
thus opened the bark from the one end to the other, he will lay it
down by his right side, and commence at the thick end of the
stick, and take it off in as long lengths as possible ; that is to say,
have as few small pieces as possible, because they are very apt
to be lost. If the bark will not separate easily when laid hold of
with the hand, he will take the chisel and separate it from the
wood, and as it is taken off, have it laid in a regular manner upon
the right side ; while the peeled sticks should be thrown aside,
so as not to interfere with the unpeeled wood. When the forester
has shown, by his own example, the method of peeling, he will
cause them all to sit down and perform the work in the same
manner.
The next part of the work is to have a range put up, upon
which to put the bark as it is peeled. This should be entrusted
to a careful person, who has had some experience in such work
before. It should be done thus : — From among the peeled sticks
collect a number, of the form shown in Fig 100 : these may be
from two and a half to three inches in diameter, and about three
and a half feet long. When a number of these are collected and
400
PEELING AND DEYING OF
Fig. 100.
V
carried to the place where the bark is to be put up to dry, which
should be in some open and airy part of the plantation, or if pos-
sible upon the outside of it, where a free circulation of air will be
continually had, have the sticks driven into the ground
in pairs right opposite to one another, and in two rows,
as represented in Fig. 101. In the figure, aaa represent
a front view of the forked sticks as they are driven
into the ground, and c c c the tops of the row behind
and opposite to them. The distance between the two
rows may be about thirty inches, b b b represent pieces
of the peeled sticks resting between each pair in their
forked tops ; and d d d small trees of about two or three
inches diameter, laid along on them for the purpose of
supporting the bark. The distance between these forked sticks,
when driven into the ground, may be about four feet in the row ;
Fig. 101.
and in order that the rain may fall readily off the bark on the
range, the front row should be driven in with their tops about five
inches lower than the back one.
The range for the bark being in readiness, a boy with a small
sheet of any coarse stuff, will regularly carry it away from the
peelers as they take it off, and bring it to the person who has the
charge of keeping it in order. In laying the bark upon the range,
great care should be taken to put it on in a regular manner, and
lying all one way, like drawn straw. A few large pieces of bark
should be put on the top of the range first, in order to keep the
smaller parts of it from falling through. The whole bark should
be put on in a loose state, and by no means pressed together, but
kept open in order to allow the air to pass freely through it ; and
it should not be laid on thicker than about eighteen or twenty
BARK USED FOR TANNING. 401
inches. On the top of the whole, as it is finished, large pieces
should be laid, in order to keep rain from going down through it.
As the person who has the charge of the bark range will not have
constant employment about it, he ought to assist at times any
other of the parties who may appear to be falling behind. When
the bark has stood three or four days upon the range, it ought to
be turned over, and mixed properly ; and in the act of turning it,
all the whitest pieces should be kept to the top. If the weather
continues fine, the bark may be dry enough in the course of four-
teen days from the time of peeling ; but if it is dull and cloudy,
twenty-one days may not be enough. Its being properly dry
may easily be known by all the natural sap being out of it, and its
being hard and refusing to bend. "When properly cured, it should
be of a cream colour inside. When of a dark or brown colour, it
is plain that the bark has been injured by wet ; and when it is so,
a lower price will be given for it. Great attention should therefore
be given to see the bark properly dried ; and this can only be done
by repeatedly turning it in fine weather. The more quickly it is
cured, the better it is in its tanning qualities. When dry, it may
be either carted off the ground to the tan-yard at once, or be
built up in a stack upon the ground till a convenient opportunity.
When oak bark is to be sent to a considerable distance to the
market, it is chipped into pieces of about three inches square, in
which state it is put up into bags.
In the peeling of birch bark, the same process is gone through
as with the oak ; but from its being more easily dried than the
oak, it is seldom found necessary to erect a range for it ; merely
putting a few sticks under it upon the ground, and laying it regu-
larly upon them, being sufficient.
Birch bark being less valuable than the oak, it is never chipped
and put into bags, but sent from the wood to the nearest tan-yard,
on the carts, as soon as it is dry.
In peeling larch bark, none is taken from the branches of the
tr< -i 9, bat merely that from the trunk ; and in peeling it, the
meli is seldom found necessary; but when cut into lengths upon
the tree it cornea off easily with the chisel. It is more easily dried
than the oak, and is treated in the same manner as the birch,
2 c
402 PEELING AND DRYING OF BAEK.
being seldom put upon a range, and is always carted off to the
tan-yard at once when dry.
In peeling the bark from any of the trees mentioned, the best
time is when the young leaves are expanding from the bud. The
larch and birch generally peel about the 1st of May, and the
oak about the middle or end of the same month, much depending
upon the earliness or lateness of the season. Oak bark peeled
after the 1st of July is never so valuable as that done during
June.
If wood is allowed to lie more than one day unpeeled after
being cut, it will not part with the bark so easily as when newly
cut. The forester, therefore, should observe this point, and be care-
ful not to allow one party to fall behind another so as to keep
the wood lying for any time unpeeled. Much of the quickness of
getting through with the work will depend upon this. The more
healthy any tree is, the more easily is the bark removed from it,
and the earlier in the season will it be ready for peeling. An
unhealthy tree never parts with its bark readily. Much of the
success, therefore, in peeling wood will depend upon the healthy
nature of the trees ; and the unhealthiness of a tree may be known
very easily by its being longer in coming into leaf than others of
its own species which are in a healthy state.
CHAPTER VI.
Trees best adapted for growing to useful size upon land termed moss —Cause of
disease among Larch fir plantations — External symptoms of disease upon forest
trees generally, and causes of the same — Periodical increase of timber in the
different species of forest trees — How to find the transferable value of any plan-
tation of trees.
SECTION I. — TREES BEST ADAPTED FOR GROWING TO USEFUL
SIZE UPON LAND TERMED MOSS.
As there is, both in Great Britain and Ireland, a large extent
of waste land of the description termed moss or jjeat, and as such
tracts of land are not very susceptible of rapid improvement for
agricultural purposes, it has now become a question of consider-
able interest among landed proprietors, what sorts of forest trees
will grow to most useful dimensions upon moss. This question
has of late been very often put to myself by extensive proprietors,
whose woods I have been called upon to inspect, as well as by
others who feel interested in the improvement of waste land,
which has made me turn my attention more particularly to the
gaining of information upon a point in forestry of so much
importance. With this view I have visited a number of estates
upon which plantations had been made upon moss land, and I am
now prepared to state the results of my observations, which may
be useful to those who are projecting to plant such tracts.
Moss or peat soil consists, in general, of decayed vegetable
matter, which has accumulated in a flat or hollow part, having
always a retentive bottom. In a state of nature, such moss is
always full of water, which cannot escape downwards in con-
sequence of the retentive nature of the stratum upon which it lies.
404 TEEES BEST ADAPTED FOR
The water contained in moss soil can escape only by evaporation
from the surface ; and from this it is evident that its surface must
at all times be cold as compared with others lying upon an open or
porous subsoil. It is also in consequence of this cold nature of moss
land, in its natural state, that we never find any valuable or useful
plants growing upon it, but only a few birch or alder trees, or it
may be some heath or rough grasses. Moss land, even after being
dried by draining, is found of a dull and inert character, and not
apt to give life and energy to the growth of useful plants that
may be put upon it. This is the more observable in such moss
lands as are purely of a vegetable character, and without any con-
siderable mixture of inorganic matter; such being generally
known by the name ofjtow or soapy moss.
In my investigations relative to the growth of trees in moss
land, I have found three different descriptions of this soil ; namely,
moss holding a portion of clay — moss holding a portion of sand —
and moss of a purely vegetable character; and upon each of
these I have found forest trees grow differently.
In moss holding a portion of clay, any tree will attain to more
useful and healthy dimensions than in either of the other two
kinds, whatever the depth may be. In soil of this description,
where it was from three to five feet deep, and resting upon a bed
of clay, I have found very good and healthy oaks, poplars,
willows, and spruce firs ; in which case the soil had been well
dried by open parallel drains nearly three feet deep. The plan-
tation being nearly thirty-five years old, the poplars and saughs
were, at an average, about twelve inches diameter ten feet from
the ground, and the spruce firs were about eight inches diameter
at the same height ; but the oaks, although apparently in a fair
state of health, had not made proportionate progress, being on an
average about six inches diameter six feet from the ground, and
of a branchy habit. Many of the oaks were much larger, several
of them nine inches in diameter ; but the above was the average
of them. In the same plantation, along one of its sides con-
siderably exposed, I saw a few larch trees growing, which had
not attained to anything like a useful size, while they were also
much covered with moss and of an unhealthy cast.
GROWING ON MOSS LAND. 405
The plantation above referred to was in a high-lying district in
the north of England. In the immediate neighbourhood of it I
found a considerable extent of ash coppice upon soil of the same
description as the fore-mentioned, in a very healthy state ; and in
this ash coppice plantation, there were a number of old trees of
the same kind growing, which had been left as standards ; but
these were extremely unhealthy gnarled things. On first con-
sideration, I thought that the unhealthiness in the case of the old
ash trees might be accounted for from their having been often
suddenly exposed by the cuttings of the coppice ; but on further
examination, I found that even where they had had every
advantage of shelter, they were unhealthy, and the wood of a
short-grained nature. This at once pointed out to me, in a very
forcible manner, that upon a moss soil, although ash will grow
well in the form of coppice, it will not attain anything like valu-
able quality or dimensions as a timber tree. Again, having been
lately called to inspect and report upon the condition of planta-
tions on an estate in Berwickshire, I had an opportunity of seeing
ash of a considerable age (nearly fifty years old) growing upon a
soil of much the same nature as that above referred to. In this
case also I found the trees unhealthy, being low and branchy in
their habit, and the wood of a short-grained nature. In the same
plantation, however, I found the Scotch pine in excellent health,
and the timber apparently of good quality. From these, and
several other examples of like bearing, I am led to say, and that
with confidence, that poplar, willow, spruce fir, and Scotch pine,
will thrive well upon mossy soil containing a portion of clay —
that is to say, where the soil has been properly drained from all
superfluous moisture ; but oak will thrive indifferently, and ash
badly, unless where these arc kept in the state of coppice ; and
in such a state, from examples that I have seen, I am led to
conclude that they will both succeed well. I may here state also,
that upon the estate of Arniston, I have cut down excellent oak
timber from moss land about two feet deep, resting upon a bed
of sandy clay, and also excellent larch timber under the same
circumstances. This points out that, where the roots of trees,
planted upon moss, can get down into a subsoil congenial to their
406 TEEES BEST ADAPTED FOE GROWING ON MOSS LAND.
nature, two feet of moss on the surface is little obstacle when
properly dried.
In moss soil, free from clay, but holding a portion of sand, trees
do not grow so well as in a moss having an equal portion of clay.
This I have verified from a number of observations made in the
same maimer as those referred to in the case of the soil containing
clay. On the estate of Arniston there are several plantations
upon what we term a sandy moss, not more than three feet deep.
They consist generally of larch, Scotch pine, and spruce fir ; and I
find that upon that soil the trees grow pretty quickly till they
arrive at about thirty-five years of age, when both the larch and
spruce begin to take heart-rot, while the Scotch pines remain good.
Some hardwood trees are also doing moderately well upon the
same soil, particularly the elm; and a number of birch trees, which
have been planted along with the others, are thriving beautifully,
and are evidently in their congenial soil.
Relative to moss land of a purely vegetable character, I have
seen at Scoon, in Perthshire, Scots pines growing well upon it,
as also spruce fir and larch, for a time ; but as soon as the two
last-mentioned sorts arrive at above thirty years old, they begin
to decay in the heart, and consequently decrease in value. I
have also seen oak of a pretty healthy character upon pure moss ;
but the wood of such trees is always found of very inferior quality.
On the estate of Arniston we have oaks growing upon a pure
vegetable moss, which are not in a vigorous state, but stunted and
small of their age ; and on soil of the same description we have
spruce firs and willows of excellent healthy development ; but as
they are only about thirty years of age, I am not prepared to say
how long their health may continue. From their present appear-
ance, however, they promise to become of good size.
From the above statements, relative to the growth of trees upon
moss soil, it will appear that Scots pines and spruce firs, willows
and birch, stand first in order as trees adapted for growing upon it
to useful size. This statement must, however, be understood with
the qualification, that if the situation be high and exposed, spruce
firs and willows will not do well. Under such circumstances,
Scots pines and birch would be more commendable, as being hardy
CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG LARCH PLANTATIONS. 407
and adapted for a high situation. It may be farther observed,
that the hardwood sorts, and more especially the ash, do not
thrive well as timber trees upon moss land, but do well in the form
of coppice. The quality, also, of hardwood timber grown upon
moss land is very inferior as compared with the same sorts grown
upon soil of a different description.
SECTION II. — CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG LARCH PLANTATIONS.
It is my opinion that there is no tree cultivated in Britain more
worthy the attention of landed proprietors than the larch. I am
not aware of any purpose for which oak is now used, for which
larch would not answer as well. It is a rapid-growing tree, and
attains maturity long before the oak. I have seen larch trees,
little more than thirty years old, sold for 60s. each, while oaks of
the same age, and growing upon the same soil in the same neigh-
bourhood, were not worth 10s. each ; and this at once points out
the advantage of planting larch where immediate profit is the
object. The larch has been held in high estimation in former
times, as we learn from several old authors. The first mention
made of the cultivation of this tree in England is by Parkinson, in
his Paradisus, in 1G29 ; and Evelyn, in 1664, mentions a larch
tree of good size at Chelmsford, in Essex. It appears to have
been introduced into Scotland by Lord Kames in 1734. But the
merit of pointing out to the proprietors of Scotland the valuable
properties of the larch as a timber tree for our climate, appears to
be due to the Duke of Athol, who planted it at Dunkcld in 1741.
The rapid growth of these, and of others of the same species,
afterwards planted in succession by that nobleman, as well as the
valuable properties of the timber of the trees that were felled,
realised tin' high character previously bestowed upon the larch by
foreign and British authors, who were followed in their opinion by
otlnrs, such as Dr Anderson, Watson, Professor Jlartvn, NicoLj
Pontz, ^ang, and Montcith — all confirming, and further extolling,
the valuable properties of the tree. It is no wonder, therefore,
that the larch has been planted so extensively in Scotland of late
years, in almost every kind of soil and situation, and under every
408 CAUSE OF DISEASE
variety of circumstances capable of being conceived in forest
management, seeing that its culture has been so much recom-
mended by men in whose opinions landed proprietors put much
confidence as regards forest matters. I say that it is in a great
measure owing to the advice of such men as I have above named,
that the larch has been so extensively planted within the last fifty
years in Scotland. According to their opinion, it was one of the
hardiest, and most easy of culture, among our forest trees ; and
proprietors, relying too implicitly in this matter upon the sound-
ness of these opinions, planted larch too indiscriminately, upon
all kinds of soil, without having due respect to the nature of
the tree : for the larch, as well as every other tree, is influenced
by a natural law, which restricts it to particular states of soil, in
order to develop itself fully and perfectly ; and from neglect of
this the disease now so prevalent in the larch has originated. It
is well known that, in many instances, whole plantations of larch
trees have died — I may say almost suddenly; and in many instances,
the return made by it has been far inferior even to the Scots fir.
For some years past, much has been said and written relative to
the nature and cause of that disease, now so prevalent among our
larch plantations, generally termed the heart-rot — or, as some
writers term it, dry-rot, (meridius destructor /) but, despite all that
has been written upon the subject, I am not aware that anything
as yet really satisfactory has been the result, at least in so far as
to cause any likelihood of a really permanent improvement in the
cultivation of the tree for the future. I may, therefore, here be
allowed to give my opinion, as a practical forester, as to the cause
of a disease which appears still to prevail extensively among one
of the most useful of our timber trees. Many who have written
upon this most important subject assert that, from the circumstance
of the larch not being a native, it is fast degenerating in our
country ; and, in illustration of their argument, they point out the
healthy development of many old original specimens yet remaining
in different parts of the country. Such an argument as this is
scarcely worthy of being confuted ; for we may as well say that
the plane tree, which is not a native of Scotland, ought to be fast
degenerating also, which we know is by no means the case. An-
AMONG LARCH PLANTATIONS. 409
other answer to this assertion is, that in many places we find healthy
larch plantations, and in other places unhealthy, both, nevertheless,
being of the same age. Now, it" the larch is indeed degenerating,
why is it found to succeed well in one place and not in another,
and that, too, even within the bounds of the same gentleman's
property ? The only reasonable answer that can be given to this
question is, that wherever the larch is found thriving well, it must
be growing in soil and circumstances agreeable to its constitution ;
and wherever it is not thriving, these must be unfavourable to it.
Therefore, in our further inquiries as to the cause of the rot in the
larch, we must first ascertain the nature of the circumstances which
affect the tree in both cases.
The larch is a native of the south of Europe, and also of Siberia.
It inhabits the slopes of mountainous districts, in the lower parts
of which it attains its largest dimensions. In its native mountains,
the larch is never found prospering in any situation where water
can lodge in the ground in a stagnant state ; nor is it ever found
of large dimensions in any extensive level piece of country having
a damp retentive bottom or subsoil. On the other hand, the larch
in its native localities is found luxuriating upon a soil formed from
the natural decomposition of rocks ; for there the surface soil rests
upon a half-decomposed stony subsoil, through which all moisture
passes freely in its descent from the higher grounds. In this state
of things, the roots of the trees always receive a regular supply of
fresh and pure moisture, and, at the same time, the ground in
which the trees grow is kept in a cleansed and sweet state, not
having any stagnated gas or water lodging in it ; and this forms,
in my opinion, the perfection of soil for the cultivation of the
larch.
On making some inquiries at a gentleman who had travelled
among the mountainous districts in Germany, where the larch is
found in its native state, I learned that, upon level and dry-lying
parts of the region mentioned, the larch does not succeed well,
being upon BUch parts always more stunted in its growth, and appa-
rently imt enduring so long, aa when fonnd with moisture passing
freely among its roots. This is exactly in accordance with the
state of our larch plantations in Scotland ; for, wherever disease is
410 CAUSE OF DISEASE
found to prevail, there is either a want of or too much moisture in
the soil.
Now, until on inquiry I was made aware of these circumstances
relative to the larch as found in its native localities, I never could
satisfy myself as to the cause of the disease which has appeared
among the larch plantations in Scotland; but since I have been made
aware of the above circumstances, and have compared them with
examples of healthy and unhealthy plantations on several estates
where I have had the opportunity of examining for myself, I am
now perfectly convinced as to the cause of the disease in question ;
and I am further convinced, that any man who will compare the
state of the ground upon which a healthy plantation of larch is
found in Scotland, (that is to say, one which has arrived at a con-
siderable age, and is in a sound state,) with what I have stated
relative to the healthy state of trees of the same species as found
in their native regions, will at once see the same circumstances
acting in each case. Thus, in all cases of healthy larch planta-
tions in this country, where the timber has attained large size, and
is sound in quality, we find them growing upon a soil through
which the water that may fall upon it can pass away freely ; as,
for instance, upon the slopes of hills, and even in hollows, upon a
strong clay soil, but where there is a proper drainage for the
ready and free passage of the superfluous water ; and I have even
cut down larch timber, of large size and sound in quality, grow-
ing upon a light sandy moss, two feet deep, which rested upon a
stiff clay. In this case the moss was drained, and the water passed
freely through the light soil ; and the situation being upon a slope,
there was a continual circulation of moisture passing along upon
the top of the subsoil or clay. In short, I have found good larch
timber growing upon almost all varieties of soil; but I never
found it upon one which had not its particles constantly cleansed
by the continual circulation of water passing through it, either by
natural circumstances or artificial drainage. On the other hand,
in all cases of diseased larch plantations, where the trees have
become stunted and rotten in the hearts prematurely, we shall
find that the soil has either been badly drained, or not drained at
all. There must be ingredients lodging in the soil which act
AMONG LARCH PLANTATIONS. 411
against the health of larch trees growing upon it, and which can
be carried off only by an effective system of drainage, in order to
make it fit for the healthy rearing of this tree.
In a plantation on a level piece of ground upon the estate of
Arniston, I had occasion to cut down some larches in the way of
thinning. The plantation is about forty years old, and consists of
a mixture of larch and Scots firs. I found those which were cut
in the central parts of this plantation, without exception, rotten
in the heart, which was exactly what I anticipated, for the soil
had never been drained ; while some which were cut upon one
side of the plantation that formed a sloping sandy bank, were
found every tree sound, and of excellent quality of timber ; and,
at the same time, every tree in this position was at least three
times as large as those planted in the interior level parts of the
plantation, although all were of the same age. Now, the cause of
this superiority of the trees which grew upon the sloping bank
may at once be seen, from what I have already said upon the
point. Again, another side of this plantation was bounded
by a deep ditch, forming a fence upon the edge of a field ;
and all along this ditch upon the side of the wood, larch trees
of excellent size and quality were growing. Nothing can be
more convincing than this, that in order to grow larch timber of
sound and good quality upon land which formerly grew diseased
trees, all that is required is to drain it, when success will be the
result.
I have always found larch trees succeed better when growing
among hardwood trees, than when growing by themselves or
among other firs, even although planted upon soil in the same
state in both cases. The cause of this I conceive to be, that the
- of the hardwood, from their penetrating deeper into the earth
than those of the fir, have a tendency to divide the soil, and open
it np for the more ready circulation of the water through it. ]t is,
indeed, well known to almost every forester, that the roots of the
hardwood trees will penetrate through the stiff est soil, and con-
siderably break up and improve it to the depth of about two feet;
and when the trees air of any considerable age, with their larger
roots spreading far and wide, I have often seen the water running
412 CAUSE OF DISEASE AMONG LARCH PLANTATIONS.
along the beds of such roots in considerable quantities, showing
that they acted as conductors for the water through the soil. It
is to this that I attribute the superior health of such trees found
growing among hardwood, as compared with those among their
own species upon the same quality of ground.
On the south lawn at Arniston House, there are about twenty
larches yet growing, of very large dimensions. They are generally
above eighty feet high, and a few of them contain upwards of a
hundred cubic feet of timber ; one in particular contains two
hundred cubic feet, and is apparently in good health. The
soil upon which these trees are growing, is a light sandy loam of
about fifteen inches deep, resting upon a stratum of yellow sand.
They are, as nearly as I could calculate from the appearance of
one which was cut down lately, nearly one hundred years old, and
must have been among the first of the species planted in the low-
lands of Scotland.
These fine specimens are growing among hardwood trees
as tall as themselves, but probably at least twenty years older.
My opinion is, therefore, that the hardwood trees had been a con-
siderable length before the larches were planted among them ;
and owing to this circumstance, the ground would be well pre-
pared by the roots of the hardwood for the reception of the
larches ; which must, in a great measure, be the reason that most
of our original specimens are the finest trees of the kind at present
in the country — they having always been planted in favourable
localities, and near the residence of the proprietors.
From what I have said above, it will appear evident, that the
disease in the larch is attributable to the want of proper drainage
of the soil. Since I came to Arniston as forester, I have recovered
a considerable extent of young larch plantations, which were fast
going back, and that simply by draining the soil, in order to draw
away from it superfluous water, as well as to cleanse it from bad
qualities which were natural to it, and formerly prevented the
healthy development of the larch tree. These young larch planta-
tions were under fifteen years of age when I drained them ; but
I cannot say if draining would recover plantations of older stand-
ing. In all cases where it is desirable to cultivate sound larch
EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES. 413
timber, the land should be drained with open cuts at from thirty
to fifty feet distance, according- to the nature of the soil, and not
shallower at first than eighteen inches deep ; and as the plantation
advances in age, the drains should be gradually deepened, and kept
properly clean, and stagnant water never allowed to remain in
them ; for however well land may be drained at first, if those
drains are not kept in a clean running state, they will ultimately
be of very little benefit to the rearing of healthy larch.
SECTION III. — EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OP DISEASE IN TREES, AND
GENERAL CAUSES OF THE SAME.
Trees, like animals, are subject to various diseases, which, if not
arrested by removing their causes, often either make them die
suddenly, or retard their growth to such an extent, that prema-
turity is speedily brought on. Disease in trees, like disease in
animals, in all cases throws out external symptoms by which it can
be detected ; but in order to this the experienced eye is required.
To the inexperienced, trees will often appear healthy, while in
reality they may be the reverse. I have, in many instances where
I have been called upon by proprietors to inspect their plantations,
found them entertaining high expectations as to the future welfare
of some favourite plantation, while I found it my duty to give them
reports quite opposite to what they expected. I refer to this here,
because I am well aware that plantations are often looked upon as
being in a good state, while the contrary is the truth. Disease
in trees, as in animals, is confined to no particular stage of
their existence ; from the sapling in the nursery-row to the full-
grown tree in the forest, it may often be detected, causing pre-
mature decay in the subjects. Although this is a fact too often
observable, and, I may say, too little attended to by professional
men, yet, generally, trees are not apt to die either suddenly or
prematurely when planted and existing under favourable circum-
stances as to soil and situation ; and any failures which do take
place, can, in most cases, be traced to the true cause, that being
either in the nature of the soil, climate, or management of the
cultivator. Moreover, trees, like animals, although they should
414 EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES.
grow up healthily and arrive at the most perfect state of maturity
the soil and situation upon which they grow admit of, will begin
to experience the gradual approaches of natural decay ; the life
principle of the trees will cease to act ; and if not cut down before
this stage arrives, which will, of course, be different according to
the species and nature of the soil, they will, in the case of some soft-
wooded trees at least, soon moulder into their original earth.
The healthy development of trees, like that of animals, depends
much upon the wholesome state of their food, and, at the same
time, upon the want or excess of it ; that is, if a plant, like an ani-
mal, receive too little food, its development will be irregular and
stunted, and if too much of any particular ingredient, that excess
must prove the parent of disease in its system, and of disease more
fatal than the want of it altogether would have caused.
Every tree in full health, and considerably under the age of
maturity, produces annually an elongation of all its branches, and
an increase in the diameter of its body proportionate to its species ;
and the external bark, more especially in the hardwood sorts,
should be clean and smooth. The amount of the increase of
growth in any given time is not, however, always a true criterion
of its health. For example, I have often had occasion to remark,
in cutting down trees, that one which was rotten in the heart, had
made, up to the time of its being cut down, greater annual layers
of young wood upon the bole, than another beside it which was
perfectly sound and healthy. This will, no doubt, appear, at first
sight, doubtful to the inexperienced, but it is, notwithstanding, the
truth, and I merely refer to the circumstance in order to show that
the increase in the annual layers of young wood upon the bole does
not always indicate the true state of the tree. Even in such a
case as this, however, there are always outward symptoms by
which an experienced eye can pretty readily detect the inward
rottenness : there is an indescribable something stamped upon the
general bearing of the subject which betrays the hidden disease.
Again, relative to this point, a tree upon an exposed situation may
be making but small annual layers of young wood as compared
with one of the same species in a sheltered part, and at the same
time they may be both equally healthy ; therefore, in judging aright
EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREKS. 415
of the health of any tree or plantation, the circumstances above
mentioned must be taken into account. I said that the external
bark of trees in full health should be clean and smooth ; but
relative to this, also, caution is necessary ere we judge by the
assertion simply as it stands. A tree may be in good health, and
yet have the external bark even somewhat fogged and rough ; for
smooth and clean bark is more an attendant upon rapid growth than
of sound health, properly speaking. I could point out trees, having
a clean and smooth bark, considerably damaged by inward disease ;
while, on the other hand, trees may be shown with a rough, mossy,
and furrowed bark perfectly healthy and free from all disease ; thus
pointing out, that smooth bark is not altogether to be relied on in
passing judgment on the state of a tree, but that other attendant
circumstances must be taken into account. These statements may,
to the inexperienced forester, appear contradictory, but such is
often the case ; and I merely advert to them to show, that any
single mark of either disease or health is not in all cases to be relied
on ; for the apparent marks of both health and disease may exist on
the same patient at the same time ; and it may even require a close
investigation from the most experienced of either foresters or vege-
table physiologists before decidedly saying what state it might be
in. Having thus premised, it is not my intention here to enter
into details regarding, or even to refer to, all the diseases to which
trees are liable in our climate. This would of itself be matter for
more than one volume of ordinary dimensions : it is, in fact, more
a subject of vegetable physiology than one belonging to such a
work as the present, which is, strictly speaking, a plain, practical
work on the rearing of forest trees. It is, however, necessary that
I should here advert a little to such diseases in forest trees as are
generally the offspring of bad management in the forester ; and,
accordingly, I shall point out the external symptoms of such dis-
eases, the general causes of the same, the means of cure most likely
to succeed -where the trees are infected, and those of prevention
where no disease may have yet appeared.
The principal diseases likely to be brought on forest trees by bad
management are — 1st, Bark-hound ; 2d, Moss upon the baric ; 3d,
Staghom tops ; 4th, Scale; 5th, Premature bearing of seed ; 6th,
416 EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES,
Dropsy ; 7 th, Ulcers ; 8th, Wounds ; 9th, Stunted growth of the
young ivood.
Any of the above-mentioned diseases may, to a considerable
extent, be brought on trees by mismanagement in their cultiva-
tion ; and with regard to the first mentioned — namely, bark-hound
— it may very frequently be found to exist on hardwood trees in
any soil or situation where they may have been injudiciously
managed, either in the way of planting, pruning, or thinning. The
external appearance of a tree in the state termed bark-bound^ may
be thus stated : Outer bark hard and compressed, and of a dry core-
acious texture ; the bole of the tree, as also the larger branches, with
young shoots springing out immediately from the bark, at irregular
intervals. When the disease is not of long standing upon a tree, if
a longitudinal incision with a knife be made in the summer in
the outer bark, it will immediately contract upon each side of the
incision, leaving the cut much wider than the instrument could
make in the case of a healthy tree ; but if the disease be of long
standing, this contraction of the bark will not take place, at once
indicating that the wood of the tree and its bark adhere so closely
together, that the sap cannot flow between them. Another symp-
tom of this disease in a tree is, that the proper lateral and top
branches make small and weak annual shoots ; and each year, as
the disease becomes more confirmed, the annual shoots become the
more weakly. The cause of this disease, as its name expresses, is
the bark being bound or girded about the wood of the tree, thereby
preventing the free flow of the proper sap from the roots to the
leaves, and also arresting the descent of proper woody matter
between the wood and the bark. In this case, if the cause of the
disease be not removed in proper time, the vital fluids become gra-
dually checked, till at last the passages become entirely closed, and,
as the natural consequence, the plant dies.
I have already stated that "bark-bound" may be caused by
injudicious planting, pruning, or thinning. As caused by injudi-
cious planting, we have often occasion to witness it when any
tree is planted upon a situation too high and exposed for its
healthy development. For example, the spruce fir or the ash, in
all cases where they are found planted upon an exposed and high
EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES. 417
part of the country, more particularly if growing upon the out-
side of a plantation, will be found of a short bushy habit, having
their bark hard, and adhering to the wood, and scarcely showing any
symptoms of vegetable life till far on in summer. In this state
the trees are bark-bound, which disease is caused by the vital
fluids being not strong enough to resist the cold and drying
influences of the atmosphere ; and in such circumstances the trees
seldom assume anything like a respectable size. As to a recovery
in a case of this nature, I have never been able to see how that
could be effected : we may as well say that a geranium, which may
have been planted in an exposed site, should be made to grow as
well as one in a sheltered part. Of course, all that is required is
protection ; but this would be impracticable with regard to a
spruce fir or an ash on the outside of a wood, and on a site too
high for their health. The fault rests with the planter; for, in
fact, the trees so situated, according to their nature, are not in a
state of air adapted for their healthy growth : premature death
must therefore be the result. The same results will follow in
the case of any other kind of trees that may be planted upon
a situation too exposed for their health ; and the disease,
under those circumstances, is incurable — at once showing the
evil and ruinous effects of planting trees in a situation not
adapted for them.
As caused by injudicious pruning, I have often witnessed
this disease to a fearful extent, even where formerly the trees
were in excellent state. Trees that may receive a severe pruning
of their larger branches, more particularly if they arc in a plan-
tation which has been severely thinned at the same time, are
almost certain to become bark -bound, however healthy they may
have been before that operation was performed upon them. In
this case the disease is caused by the severe denuding of the tree3
of their branches, the atmosphere being thereby cooled down
suddenly about them ; and the only rational remedy under such
circumstances is, to allow the trees to regain their former shelter
as nearly as possible, and afterwards to prune and thin more care-
fully. Tiers under such circumstances, if under thirty years of
age, are very likely gradually to recover; although they will
2 D
418 EXTEENAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES.
never afterwards attain such valuable size as they would have
done had they received no check from such disease ; but if the
trees are much above that age, they are not likely ever to recover,
at least so far as to become valuable as timber. The results are
much the same with regard to the disease, as it is often caused by
injudicious thinning. When the atmosphere of the plantation is
suddenly cooled down by a severe thinning, the sap is retarded in
its ascent, and expended in keeping up the life-principle of the
tree. The consequence is, that little woody matter is returned from
the leaves, the bark gradually becomes dry, and the trees, if they
do recover, do so slowly, and never afterwards attain the value
they would have done had they been properly dealt with. Trees,
although injured by severe pruning and thinning as above stated,
may, notwithstanding, be in a great measure recovered, and that by
two methods — namely, by removing the diseased outer bark from
the tree, or by softening the bark by means of any moist sub-
stance. In attempting the recovery of bark-bound trees hy
removing the outer bark, it is only necessary to have this chipped
or scraped off by means of any moderately sharp iron instrument.
If the trees to be operated upon are young, with a thin smooth
bark, care must be taken to scrape only; but if the trees be
pretty old, with a rough thick coat of outer bark, it must be
chipped off. I have frequently seen an old hedge-knife used for
this purpose, and that with great effect. In removing the outer
bark, the operator must be careful not to injure the soft inner bark
next the proper wood. I consider the month of April to be the
best season of the year for performing this operation on trees.
The foregoing method is frequently practised for the purpose of
recovering trees diseased in the bark, but it is not nearly so effec-
tual in bringing about a thorough cure as that of softening the
diseased outer bark by means of some moist substance applied
to it. Therefore, to those who may find it necessary to apply a
remedy for recovering bark-bound trees, I would recommend them
to proceed thus : — Have a quantity of good moss gathered from
the woods, or from an old grass field, of the same description as is
commonly used by nurserymen for packing, and have it well
incorporated with nearly an equal bulk of fresh cow-dung, making
EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES. 419
the mixture form a complete plaster. With this, cover the bark
all over the trunk of the tree affected, as also part of the larger
branches, to the thickness of about one inch ; and in order to keep
this plaster on, have the whole wound round with ordinary hav or
straw ropes. If this be applied in the autumn, and allowed to
remain till the May following', the bark will be completely softened
and in a pliable state ; but in order that it may not receive any
sudden check from the influence of the weather after the plaster has
been removed, it is advisable to have the whole wound round again
with fresh hay-ropes, these being allowed to remain till they
become wasted and naturally fall off, when a complete cure will be
found effected. In dry weather, it will be an advantage to syringe
with water the ropes upon the trees, which will tend to keep the
bark in a healthy soft state.
With regard to the second mentioned external symptom of
unhealthiness in trees — namely, moss upon the bark — this may be
found to exist upon trees in a variety of circumstances, soils, and
situations, and is not always a symptom of unhealthiness. In any
district of country where much rain falls, almost all trees will, to a
certain extent, be found infested with moss ; and notwithstanding
the trees may grow vigorously and be found in good state, as I
have frequently witnessed. Trees existing in a damp humid atmo-
sphere, where they have not a free circulation of air about them,
are generally much overgrown with moss upon their trunks. In
this case a diseased state of the trees cannot be said to be the cause
of the moss growing upon them : but such trees, existing in a state
of air favourable to the development of the moss seeds upon their
bark, may be ultimately much injured by the moss excluding light
and air from the bark ; and, in this case, draining of the soil, so as to
carry off all superfluous moisture, thinning the trees judiciously, so as
to admit a free current of air, and removing the moss from the bark,
will generally completely restore them. But if those requisites of
health have been too long neglected, it will be impossible to effect
a cure. Trees existing in a high and exposed situation, more
especially if the subsoil upon which they are growing is cold and
damp, are almost always much infested by moss. In such circum-
stances, this is caused by the languid state of the juices of the trees,
420 EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TKEES.
and their not being, as it were, sufficiently strong to resist a degree
of decomposition in the outer bark. In a case of this nature, the
only remedy is, to have the subsoil made wholesome for the roots
of the trees by draining, and to preserve shelter as much as pos-
sible, by not over-thinning or unduly exposing the trees.
Again, any plantation, which may have stood for a consider-
able time in a confined state for want of thinning, may, after
receiving a severe and injudicious thinning, become unhealthy in
the outer bark ; and, as a certain natural consequence, the trees
will be much overgrown with moss. In this case, the cause of this
growth is the sudden exposure of the trees rendering the bark
diseased. I have frequently seen this take place where bad
management prevailed; and after the trees had grown more
closely together, so as to produce shelter throughout, the moss
disappeared. We thus see that the appearance of moss upon
the bark of trees is not always a symptom of decided disease
in them, but may be occasioned by a temporary derangement
in the natural functions of the outer bark; and if observed in
time, like any other disease, may be removed by removing the
cause before it has had time to become decidedly fixed in the con-
stitution of the trees affected.
What has been said relative to the appearance of moss upon
trees, is principally applicable to the hardwood sorts. As to
moss affecting the pine and fir tribes, I shall speak of that shortly.
In the mean time, I would remark here, that hardwood trees
generally are more easily cured of any disease than pines or firs
are ; the reason appearing to be, that their juices are more pliant
than those of the others. The juices of the pines and firs are of a
thick consistency, and any sudden check to the life-principle of
those trees at once stagnates their juices and renders them unfit
for circulation; whereas, in the case of the hardwood sorts —
such as the oak, ash, &c. — the juices are thin and of a watery con-
sistency ; and although those trees may receive an injury in
their constitution, their juices will continue to flow to a cer-
tain extent, and thus keep up the life of the tree ; and, as the
cause of disease gradually subsides, they will regain their former
strength.
EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES. 421
Almost all trees growing in high districts, unless the soil be
favourable, are less or more infested by moss, which is occasioned,
I think, by the want of a full flow of sap in the trees to keep the
bark in a soft moist state. The bark of all such trees, when they
have arrived at any considerable size and age, is found dry and
hard, and, as it were, in a half decomposed state ; thus becoming a
favourable receptacle for the growth of the seeds of mosses ;
yet the trees, under these circumstances, may be healthy enough in
their constitution. It must, however, be admitted, that, under
such circumstances, trees cannot grow vigorously or attain the
valuable size they would do under more favourable circumstances.
In all such cases, therefore, it would be a very great improvement
to scrape off this outer diseased bark, and thus remove the moss
and allow the trunks of the trees to expand more freely by the
influence of light and heat penetrating more readily through the
bark. On the other hand, almost all trees growing upon a shel-
tered district of country — unless, indeed, where the soil may be
unfavourable to their growth — are generally found clean and free
from moss ; the reason of which appears to be, that the trees,
growing in favourable circumstances of soil and situation, have a
vigorous constitution, with a full flow of sap, which keeps all their
parts in a healthy state, so that no opportunity is afforded to the
moss seeds harbouring on them.
From what has been said above, it will appear plain that, where
moss exists upon trees, it is in general a symptom of something
wrong, although not always a symptom of decided disease, but
possibly occasioned by some temporary derangement in the func-
tions of the bark. The only way to prevent this appearance, is to
keep the soil dry, to admit a free circulation of air, and not to give
any sudden check to the bark by over-thinning.
"With regard, however, to moss growing upon the bark of the
fir and pine tribes, and where it is retained upon them without
intermission the whole year, the case is very different. In these it is
a certain indication of decomposition in the hcartwood of the trees
affected by it. In all my surveying of plantations in both Eng-
land and Scotland for a few years past, I have seldom been
deceived in pronouncing, relative to pine and fir trees, whether
422 EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES.
they were in a healthy or unhealthy state, and that by the
appearance of the moss upon their bark alone. In doing
this, however, there is an indescribable something which I am
guided by in my own mind, and which I could not here
explain for the guidance of others ; it is, in short, a mere tact of
observation combined with experience, which is inexpressible upon
paper. I may say thus far, that wherever the moss is found to
extend about two-thirds up the entire height of the bole of a tree,
and is also spreading out upon the branches, and not falling off
during the summer, decomposition in the heartwood is evidently
going on. Such trees should at once be cut down, as the longer
they stand they will become of the less value. There is also
something to be founded on from the appearance and kinds of the
mosses at different stages of disease ; but this can only be ex-
plained by close observation upon the subjects.
The third external symptom of disease in trees is stag-horn
top. This symptom is one easily distinguished from all others by
the top and upper branches of the tree affected becoming dead and
quite bare of all leaves and young twigs, having the appearance
of stags' horns. This disease may be occasioned by dampness in
the subsoil in the case of some sorts of trees, and by the want of
sufficient moisture in that of others. It is generally preceded by
one, and sometimes by both of the former mentioned, and is, I
may say, in all cases, irrecoverable, except by draining and pol-
larding, by which means the tree affected may indeed be made
to lengthen out its existence, but not to regain its former healthy
constitution. Willows and poplars, which luxuriate in a soil
rather damp than otherwise, generally become stag-horn topped
when grown in a soil too dry for their healthy development, and
that as soon as they have arrived at such maturity upon the soil
upon which they may be growing, as its nature is capable of
bringing them to. It at once indicates their premature state ;
and the wisest thing is to cut them down, seeing the soil is not
adapted for their growth. Elm, oak, ash, plane, &c, generally
become stag-horn topped when the soil in which they may be
growing is too damp for maintaining them in a healthy state ; and,
in this case, if the disease be observed in time, draining the soil,
EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES. 423
and cutting off the parts affected, may produce a cure ; but if the
subject is old, and the disease have made considerable progress, it
is seldom that recovery can be secured, at least so fully that the
tree can ever become a valuable and healthy one.
The fourth external symptom of disease in trees is scale , which
is a small white insect found clinging to the bark of some species.
In forest trees it is most frequently found upon the ash while in a
young state. This insect, like moss, is indicative of a constringent
state of the bark, and may be often found upon the bark of young
ash trees which have received an injudicious and too sudden thin-
ning. I have also often seen it to a very great degree on ash
trees growing upon a light gravelly soil, which is not congenial to
their healthy growth. This latter case at once points out that the
constitution of the trees affected, under such circumstances, is
impaired, and that they will not succeed to anything worth, whatever
means may be used for their recovery. Where it is evident that
trees with scale upon them have been injured by a too severe
thinning, the case is very different. These may be recovered by
scraping off the outer bark with the scale, and allowing the trees in
future to become more close among one another, so as to produce
shelter sufficient for their health, as was recommended for bark-
bound trees. The scale is easily distinguished by the appearance
of the insect upon the surface of the bark. It presents itself as very
numerous small white spots, like those on the bark of the birch;
and if the observer take a stone and draw it roughly along the
tree, he will kill many of the insects, and see their blood give a
red tinge to the bark.
The fifth external symptom of disease in trees is premature
bearing of seed. Xo tree, in a healthy rapid-growing state, is ever
found to produce seed till it has arrived at a considerable age and
size ; I would say, that any forest tree bearing much seed under
forty years of age, is not likely, ultimately, to arrive at anything
approaching a valuable size. Any tree, however healthy a state it
may be in, may be made to bear seed, simply by mutilating its roots,
or by pulling it over ; thus at once showing us that, before a young
tree produces seed, it must be brought into an unhealthy state,
either naturally or artificially. Being aware of this, il will at once
424 EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES.
be evident that, when we find a young tree producing profusion of
seed, there can be no doubt but that it is in a state of premature
decay ; therefore, in all such cases we may be at once assured that
such trees will not become valuable as timber. In short, when
found under those circumstances, disease must have been going on
for a considerable length of time, and I am not aware of any suc-
cessful means that could be applied for their recovery. The pre-
mature bearing of seed in the larch I have in all cases found to be
a sure index of heart-rot in the trees ; and even in the case of pines
of any kind, the bearing of seed in their young state at once points
out a weakness in their constitution, and tells, to the observing
eye, that such and such trees never will become valuable as tim-
ber, but that they will become decayed in the heart long before
they can arrive at large dimensions.
The sixth symptom of disease in trees is dropsy. This disease
most generally takes place in forest trees, either where the soil is
too rich for them, or where there is an excess of moisture about
their roots. The cause of it appears to be, that the roots take into
the system of the tree an excess of juices, which the bark and leaves
cannot assimilate. In this disease, unnatural swellings are obser-
vable on some parts of the bole, which begin to rot and throw off
the bark. It often also happens that the leaves will be found
dropping off in their green state, and then the tree will be found
to die suddenly. I have frequently seen this the case with the
oak, where planted in a very rich soil, with abundance of moisture.
In this disease, where the bark becomes detached from the wood,
there will be found a reddish coloured water between the wood
and the inner bark. I consider it incurable ; and the only thing
is to prevent it by attention to the ground being well drained and
not over-rich.
Seventh, Ulcers. This is a disease in trees which veiy much
resembles the last ; but it is mostly confined to the fir and pine
tribes. Its appearance is that of a running sore upon the side of
the trunk, where the natural juices escape in the form of a hard
resinous matter. This disease is mostly found upon young trees
of these tribes, and is occasioned by insects lodging their eggs in
the inner bark, where the young live for a time, and destroy the
EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE IN TREES. 425
alburnum. I have frequently observed this disease take place in
young larch plantations where the soil was unfavourable to their
growth ; and in those cases wounds were the original cause.
Eighth, Wounds. It sometimes happens that trees will receive
damage on their trunks by having the bark peeled off by accident
in some way or other, which may prove injurious to their health,
and not unfrequently be the cause of death. Any tree in a healthy
state is not easily injured by any external wound upon the bark,
unless, indeed, that be so extensive as completely to strip the tree
of its bark all round at any given part, as is frequently observable
in the case of cattle peeling the bark off to a considerable extent,
when, of course, a tree must be much injured, and will gradually
decline in health, and ultimately die. But this is an exception to
wounds of a general nature ; and any simple damage received
upon the bark of a healthy tree in all cases soon heals up, and is
only of a temporary nature. The case, however, is very different
with an unhealthy tree which may receive an apparently simple
wound, such as a piece of the bark, or even a large branch broken
off. In a case of this nature, when the sap of the tree injured is
in a diseased state previously, the wound made becomes, as it were,
a running sore ; rot will sometimes be induced at the part, and a
gradual decaying of the whole tree will take place. This state of
a wound in a tree does not often occur ; but I have known it to
take place, and that in trees which were in a state of dropsy. As I
have already said, however, any simple wound made upon a
healthy tree is seldom or never found injurious, but soon heals up.
Ninth, Stunted growth of the young wood. This state of a tree
is at once apparent by the very short annual growth of young
wood upon all the lateral branches, and may be in general the
natural result of any of the diseases already described. Every
healthy tree in a fair growing state, if not arrived at natural matu-
rity, ought to make annual growths of new wood, upon the lateral
and top branches, of from six to thirty inches, according to age
and species. If, however, a tree of thirty years of age make shoots
of twelve inches annually, and soon after that period is found to
be making shoots of four inches only, there ifl reason to suspect
that it has become suddenly unhealthy. The cause must be sought
426 PERIODICAL INCREASE OF TIMBER
for in some one or other of the diseases already mentioned, and a
remedy applied accordingly.
Every tree, when it has attained the full size and development
of its nature, however healthy it may have hitherto been, gradually
begins to fail in making young wood. This is the work of time,
doing to the old tree what disease does to the young.
SECTION IV. — PERIODICAL INCREASE OF TIMBER IN THE DIFFERENT SPECIES
OF FOREST TREES.
There is no part of a forester's education more neglected than
that of having, as far as possible, a thorough knowledge of the size
that trees ought to be, on a given situation, at a given age. Such
a knowledge can only be obtained by close observation, and by
extensive experience. For some years past, having myself been
largely employed in the surveying and valuing of plantations, both
in England and Scotland, and seeing that there was great want of
data upon which to calculate prospectively the future value of
plantations, I have applied myself particularly to gain information
upon this point, which I shall, in the present section, lay down for
the guidance of others who may be called upon to act as valuators
of wood. For a number of years past, I have made it a point of
duty, wherever I have been called upon to examine plantations, at
the same time to take notes of the different sizes of trees as I found
them to exist at a given age on a given situation ; and having
examined plantations of many kinds, upon a great variety of soils
and situations, as well as under many descriptions of management,
I have come to the conclusion, that the size of a tree at a given
age, upon a given situation, does not depend so much upon natural
circumstances as upon the artificial management it may have
received. In illustration of this, I may mention, that I have sur-
veyed plantations in England, which were growing upon a very
favourable soil and situation, and which, compared with others of
a like age in the north of Scotland, on a soil rather unfavourable,
were, notwithstanding, far inferior to the latter ; this being occa-
sioned by bad management in the one case, and good in the other.
IX FOREST TREES. 427
From such a case we may see that the cultivator of wood, as of
any other product of the soil, has much in his power in making
the crop profitable or not, even where natural circumstances may-
seem unfavourable. It would be impossible here to give the size
which trees ought to attain on every variety of soil and situation,
and under all circumstances of management — so much depending
upon both artificial and natural local circumstances. For example,
I have frequently seen a plantation of trees, which had been grow-
ing at a rapid rate, and making great progress in diameter of wood,
suddenly checked in health by an overthinning, and afterwards, in
consequence, making but little progress ; while, on the other hand,
I have as frequently seen the trees in a plantation, which had been
for a time in a confined state, and had been in consequence doing
little, which, after being judiciously thinned, had rapidly enlarged
the diameter of their boles. Again, with regard to natural local
circumstances, I have often observed trees growing on a situation
much sheltered by older wood, &c, making great progress in the
laying on of diameter of wood ; while in another plantation not
far distant, and upon the same description of soil and altitude, and
under the same system of management as the other, but much
more exposed to the free influence of the natural climate, trees
of the same sort were making comparatively little advance. Now,
on taking into account all those varied circumstances which affect
the growth of trees, it will at once be evident, that to say such a
kind of tree should, at a given age, and upon a given situation, be
an exact given diameter, is a degree of perfection not to be arrived
at, at least during the present century. In giving, therefore, my
calculations in the present section, as to the periodical increase of
timber in trees, I beg to be understood that these are given as an
average of what ought to be the result at certain ages, and under
fair circumstances of situation and management.
In taking my calculations of this periodical increase of timber, I
have invariably measured them at about eight feet from the ground ;
and, for the sake of better illustration, 1 have reduced my calcula-
tions to three distinct bases of situation. The First is an average
of the periodical increase of timber in trees growing on a favour-
able soil and site ; the Second, of that increase in trees growing on
428
PERIODICAL INCREASE OF TIMBER
moderately favourable ones ; and the Third is an average of the
growth of trees growing on unfavourable ones.
Having premised the above, I shall now give the periodical
increase of the oak.
DIAMETER IN INCHES EIGHT FEET
Ages of Trees.
FROM THE GROUND.
1st.
On favourable
Soil and Site.
2d.
On moderately
favourable
Soil and Site.
3d.
On unfavour-
able Soil and
Site.
Oak at 10 years old,
l
2
1
20
H
3
"2
30
n
7
H
40
16
12|
8
50
20i
16
9
60
25|
18
10
70
29
19'-
11
80
31 1
20§
11|
90
32|
21 i
... 100
CO2
22
... 120
341
The foregoing statements relative to the oak have all been taken
by me in cutting down timber at all the different ages specified ;
and the numbers given, under each head, are the averages taken
from many trees of the same age. The most prominent feature of
the statement is, that upon the favourable soil and situation, as
stated under the 1st division, the oak not only grows more rapidly
and attains a greater diameter of wood in a given number of years,
but it also continues to grow healthily, and lay on a greater bulk
of wood at a great age, than the others on less favourable soils and
situations ; that is, taking the oak, upon a favourable soil and site,
at from ninety to one hundred years of age, we will invariably
find it make considerable progress during that period ; while the
same sort of trees, as found growing upon a less favourable soil
and site, will have almost ceased to make any perceptible amount
of timber. Between ninety and one hundred and twenty years of
age, the tree, in the former case, has increased its diameter to the
extent of two inches; while in the latter, one half inch is made during
that period of thirty years ; — and again, in the third case specified,
no increase has been made at all ; and at this stage, the wood of
IN FOREST TREES.
429
such a tree must be in a declining state. We thus see that, on
an unfavourable soil and site, if we wish to have the wood in its
most valuable state, it should be cut between sixty and seventy
years of age, and on the moderately favourable soil between
eighty and ninety ; while upon the favourable soil it may be left
growing till perhaps one hundred and forty or one hundred
and fifty years. At first sight it may appear that two inches in
diameter is but a small amount of wood to be laid on by a tree
during a period of thirty years, as in the case of the oak in the
1st class between ninetv and one hundred and twentv years. But
if we suppose the bole of such a tree to be twenty feet long only,
we will have laid on during that period at least fourteen feet of
extra timber, which, at 3s. per foot, gives £2, 2s. of additional
value in wood laid on.
I shall now proceed with a corresponding statement relative to the
larch ; but, instead of giving the diameter at periods of ten years,
as in the case of the oak, I shall take periods of five years. My
reason for doing so is, that, in cutting down larch trees, their
periodical thinnings are generally made at or within periods of five
years ; consequently it is an object of importance to have an esti-
mate of the diameter which they should, in general cases, present
at periods of five years.
DIAMETER IV INCHES EIGHT FEET
FROM THE GROUND.
1st. 1 2d.
On favourable °" moderately
Soil and Bite. favourable
Soil and bite.
3d.
On unfavour-
able Soil and
Bite.
Larch at 10 years old,
... 15
20
... 25
... 30
... 35
... 40
... 45
... 50
... 55
... 60
65
... To
... 75 ...
... 80
11
5
9
11
13$
17
21
23J
24 i
25J
27
28
2D
30
80|
i
j
3
7
9
11
13j
15A
16J
17
17*
18
1
6
8
430
PERIODICAL INCREASE OF TIMBER
All those measurements are taken from trees cut down upon the
estate of Arniston. They indicate to us that, on a favourable soil and
site, the larch will continue to make wood till above eighty years
of age, and will even then be of a sound constitution, as I have
frequently had occasion to observe ; while, on a soil of moderate
capabilities, sixty years of age may be considered as the maximum
of the larch ; and in order to have the full value of the trees grow-
ing under such circumstances, they should then be cut down. Again,
upon a soil and situation unfavourable, from thirty to thirty-five
years may be considered as the maximum of the trees ; and if not
cut down at that age, the trees will begin to decay rapidly in the
heartwood.
I shall next give a statement of the progressive growth of the
Scots pine, as taken from specimens of the tree measured by me
in the Highlands of Scotland, as well as others on the estate of
Arniston.
DIAMETER IN
INCHES EIGHT FEET ABOVE
THE GROUND.
Ages of Treks.
1st.
2d. 3d.
On favourable
On moderately On unfavour-
Soil and Site.
favourable
Soil and Site;
able Soil and
Site.
Scots
pine at 1 0 years old,
1
3
4
15
4
3
2
20
64
4-1
^2
25
9
6
4
30
11
' 2
54
35
124
9
6
40
14
10|
64
45
15J
12
7
50
]7
13S
7}
55
18i
144
60
191
15. V
65
204
164
70
214
17
75
22
17|
80
224
18
85
23£
90
24
95
244
. . .
...
The following represents the periodical increase of timber in
the spruce fir, as taken from an average of trees measured on a
number of estates in Mid-Lothian : —
IX FOREST TREES.
431
Ages of Trees.
DIAMETER IX 1NTHES EK;::t rmST ABOVE
THE GROIXD.
1st.
On favourable
Soil and Site.
2d. 3d.
On moderately On uiilavour-
favourable " able Soil and
Soil and Site. Site.
Spruce fir at 10 Tears old,
15' ...
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
2
5
7
10
131
15
m
18J
20
2U
22|
234
24 A
25i
26|
'-'7
ors.
-'?
1
3
°2
8
11
13
15
16
174
18
18^
18|
19
n
H
44
54
6
The measurements in the first class of spruce firs, as above stated,
were taken from trees generally growing in hollow sheltered parts
upon a stiff heavy clay of a damp tenacious nature ; and those in
the second, from trees generally growing upon a fair loamv soil on
flat parts of the country, well drained. Those in the third class,
being upon unfavourable soil and situation, have all been taken
from the average of trees found growing upon a thin gravelly
soil with a high exposure, under which circumstances the spruce
seldom arrives at any useful size, generally taking heart-rot when
from thirty to thirty-five years of age, and then failing to make
wood, as indicated in the table.
The following statements show the periodical increase in the
ash and sycamore, taken from measurements of trees cut down by
me on the estate of Arniston, as well as upon some other estates
in Mid-Lothian — all which were, I consider, growing under
moderately favourable circumstances of soil and situation. Not
having yet got my measurement fully carried out upon first or third
class ash and sycamore trees, I must, in tlic mean time, restrict
myself, with regard to these trees, to the average of second class
ones.
432
PERIODICAL INCREASE OF TIMBER
DIAMETER IN INCHES
DIAMETER IN INCHES
EIGHT FEET ABOVE
EIGHT FEET ABOVE
Ages of Trees.
THE GROUND.
Ages of Trees.
THE GROUND.
The Sycamore,
on a moderately
favourable Soil
and Site.
The Ash, on a
moderately
favourable Soil
and Site.
The Sycamore,
on a moderately
favourable Soil
and Site.
The Ash, on a
moderately
favourable Soil
and Site.
At 10 years old,
... 20
2
5h
14
At 70 years old,
... 75
22£
23!
24
26
... 30
9>-
7
... 80
25!
28
... 35
114
9
... 85
27^
30
... 40
13
10!
... 90
29
31^
... 45
15
12
... 95
30
33
... 50
16|
1*1
... 100
31!
34
... 55
18
17
... 105
33
34!
... 60
19>-
19*
... 110
34
... 65
21
22
I shall now give a statement of the periodical increase of timber
in the Scots elm and the black poplar. The elm is an average
of trees growing upon a moderately favourable soil and situation,
and the poplar of those raised in a very favourable one. As yet
I have not been fully able to get enough of trees to enable me to
give statements of the 1st and 3d class trees of the elm, or of the
2d and 3d of the poplar. In the mean time, therefore, I defer
giving any more than the following, hoping that ere long it may
be in my power to supply those particulars which are now left blank.
diameter in inches
DIAMETER IN INCHES
EIGHT FEET ABOVE
EIGHT FEET ABOVE
Ages of Trees.
THE GROUND.
Ages of Trees.
THE GROUND.
Jj3 o5
s"*3
PL, o-a
Kg 6
g. = 35
K r- " 6
■5 5-2^
s a1
fqgee
The Sc
on am
favour
and
§ z °
K gco
The Sc
on a m
favour
and
At 10 years old,
5
14
A.t 55 years old,
40
19
... 15
9
4
.. 60
21
... 20
15
6
.. 65
22!
... 25
21
8!
.. 70
23!
... 30
26
10
.. 75
24!
... 35
29!
12!
.. 80
25!
... 40
32
144
.. 85
26
... 45
36
16
.. 90
27
... 50
38!
17!
.. 100
28
IN FOREST TREES.
433
"We now give the beech and sweet chesnut, as taken from
the average of a number of trees cut down on various estates in
31 id-Lothian, on moderately favourable soils and situations.
Ages of Trees.
At 10 rears old,
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
DIAMETER IX 1XCHES
EIGHT FEET ABOVE
THE GROUND.
- ~Z -
P a " i
§115
1 = = r.
so z 3
4'.
10
in
13£
141
2
A
4
6J
9
101
15
17
191
Ages of Trees.
At 50 years old,
55
60
65
70
75
80
DIAMETER IX INCHES
EIGHT FEET ABOVE
THE GROl-XD.
■ >:■—
- 3 C
= g SO .
9 ~ i §
S a 1 "
_ = - ~
5 - = =
i .t : .1
- £ -7 .
r S 3 on
15
21i
161
221
17i
24
19
2.U
20
271
21
231
22
29
221
301
From the two statements given above relative to the periodical
increase of timber in the sweet chesnut and the beech, it is very
observable that, on a soil of moderate capabilities, the beech grows
to a much larger size than the sweet chesnut ; showing that, in
order to bring the sweet chesnut to the large dimensions which we
find in some parts of the country, it requires a very favourable
soil and situation ; a point of great importance to be kept in view
bv any person engaged in valuing wood for the transfer of
property.
Having now given the foregoing statements relative to the
periodical growth of our principal forest trees, in so far as my
experience will at present permit me to do in a decided manner, I
shall only state, in conclusion upon this point, that I have found
these calculations of the greatest value to myself when called out to
value plantations prospectively for the transfer of landed property ;
and I have no doubt but that they will also prove of value to
others. There is great want of a far more extensive basis upon
which to calculate the progressive growth of trees than is here given,
and it would be of infinite advantage to all interested in timber
growing, were every intelligent forester to turn his attention to this
2 E
434 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF
point, and lay up, at least for himself, from his own experience, as
extensive data as possible relative to the periodical increase in the
growth of timber on the estate upon which he may be employed.
Before concluding the present section, it may not be out of
place to answer a question which has been very frequently
put to me by proprietors of plantations — namely, what height
should a tree of a given species be at a given age ? My answer is,
that under equal circumstances of soil, management, and situation,
trees of any species will, at a given age, be pretty nearly a given
height, but may, under different circumstances of soil, &c, greatly
vary in height. Thus, if Ave suppose that an oak tree at forty
years of age should be as many feet in height, when growing on
a level and moderately sheltered part of the country, it is quite
likely that another oak of the same age, if planted on a high and
exposed situation, will not be much more than twenty feet high ;
and again, another oak of equal age, planted in a sheltered glen,
may attain the height of sixty feet in the same number of years ;
thus showing us that, in this respect, as in the diameter of trees, a
very great deal depends upon soil, management, and situation ;
consequently, no definite rule as to this point can be stated.
SECTION V. — HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF GROWING PLANTATIONS,
AND OF FULL-GROWN TIMBER TREES.
The valuing of plantations is a point in forestry which, to be
done properly and justly, requires the exercise of the judgment of
a man who has had long practical experience in the matter. He
who gives himself out as a valuator of plantations, in the settle-
ments and divisions of landed property, must be possessed of an
accurate knowledge of the prospective value of all the plantations
that can possibly come under his notice, under the age of full-grown
timber. He must have an intimate knowledge of the habits of
growth of the different species of forest-trees, and of the influence
of soil and local climate on their periodical increase of timber ;
these qualifications being absolutely necessary in the valuing of
young plantations while they are under the age of full-grown
GROWING PLANTATIONS. 435
timber trees ; and as such qualifications are only attainable by
a pretty long course of experience as a practical forester, I shall
here state only the general method of going to work in valuing
plantations.
In taking the present transferable value of plantations, they are
divided into three different and distinct classes, namely : —
1st, Plantations not thinned for the first time.
2d, Those which have been thinned, but are under full-timber
size.
3d, Those of full-timber size.
As each of these classes is valued in a manner different from
the others, I shall here treat of the manner of valuing in each case
separately. With regard to the first, then — were I called upon to
give the transferable value of any young plantation which had
not been thinned for the first time when I saw it, I would in the
first place calculate the original expense of fencing and planting ;
and having ascertained this point, I would next measure the extent
of the plantation in acres, and put upon it a rent per acre, corres-
ponding with the land in the immediate neighbourhood, but in all
cases making an allowance for inaccessible heights and hollows.
Then, the rule for finding the valuation is — to the cost of fencing
and planting, and the rent of the land occupied for the time, add
the amount of compound interest on these, and the result will be a
fair transferable value between two parties.
With regard to the second class of plantations mentioned above,
namely, those which have been thinned, but are under full-timber
size : —
\Yhcn trees attain a size when it is necessary to thin them for
the first time, they will then afford certain evidences on which to
found calculations of their ultimate produce and value. There-
fore, at the time when young trees show evidence of their future
health, and until they have attained a full timber size, the valua-
tion of such plantations ought to proceed on the principle of pro-
spective value, and the rule for doing so is this : — First, determine
the number of years the trees will require to arrive at maturity ;
second, calculate the value of all thinnings that arc likely to be
taken from the plantation before it arrives at maturity, and that in
436 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF
periodical thinnings of five years from the time that the valuation
is taken ; and third, estimate the value of all the trees which will
arrive at perfection of growth : from the total amount of these
sums, deduct compound interest for the period the trees require to
attain maturity, and the result will be the present transferable
value of the plantation.
With regard to the third class of plantations as above stated —
namely, those which have arrived at full-timber size :■ —
As this is a class of plantations which every forester ought to be
able to value at sight, I shall be more particular in pointing out
the method of going to work in the valuation of such. Few
foresters are ever called upon to value the two first-named classes
of plantations, but the case is altogether different with regard to
full-grown trees : these are the harvest of their labours, and they
are almost every day called upon to cut down and value trees of
full-grown dimensions. In this case it is not the transferable value
of the unripe crop as found upon the land that we have to do
with : it is the simple value of wood itself — the value of each tree
in its perfect state, in so far as the ground is qualified to produce
it. It is often necessary that full-grown timber trees should be
valued previous to their being cut down ; and particularly in the
case of a transfer of property, it is absolutely necessary to have
this done, inasmuch as the trees are a part of the property to be
sold. In taking the value of timber in its growing state, two
methods are in practice among wood-valuators ; the one is to
measure the height of each tree by means of a measuring pole
with a ladder, and by actually girthing the tree in the middle with
a cord, and finding the contents in the usual manner of measuring
round timber : the other method is, that of judging by the eye the
number of feet that each tree may contain.
With regard to the first method — namely, that of measuring
the trees by means of a pole with a ladder — some suppose that this
is the most correct way of going to work in the valuation of growing-
timber ; and in consequence of this opinion having for some time
past prevailed among the older class of valuators, much precious
time has been lost by them, as well as useless expense entailed
upon the proprietors who have employed them. I have myself
GROWING PLANTATIONS. 437
seen three men, apparently busily employed for the space of ten
days, in the measurement of four hundred trees, by the method in
question ; and even after all their labour, their valuation was dis-
puted. A friend of mine being called in to make a second
valuation, he did so by estimating the size of each tree by sight,
and did the whole work in about half a day; and when those trees
actually were cut down and measured, his report of the valuation
corresponded to within five per cent of the truth, while the report
given by the other party was thirty per cent beyond the truth ; —
this instance at once pointing out the possibility of being very
incorrect in the valuation of trees measured with a pole and cord.
From the many obstacles that are apt to come in the way, it is
almost impossible to ni3asure correctly any large tree in its grow-
ing state ; and by a short sketch of the manner of proceeding in
this kind of work, the difficulty of correctness will at once appear.
In measuring trees thus, the valuator has with him two men — the
one carrying with him a pretty long ladder, in order to get upon the
trees from the ground; while the other bears with him a measuring
pole, generally about ten feet in length, divided into feet and
inches for measuring the height of the tree, and a tape line marked
with feet and inches for taking its girth. With these assistants
thus furnished, the valuator proceeds by causing the man with the
ladder to hold it to a tree, while the other goes upon it, and with
his rod measures the height of the tree as he proceeds upwards.
Having ascertained the entire height, as far as may be considered
measurable timber, he again measures downwards, one half of the
height of the tree, in order to take the girth at that part, for cal-
culating the side of the square ; and in this manner the valuator
proceeds from one tree to another, noting down the dimensions as
he proceeds. Now, as to correctness, this method would do very
well, provided that there were no branches upon the trees ; and, no
doubt, the operators always choose that side of a tree which is most
free from branches ; but, notwithstanding, there are few trees which,
in taking a straight line from top to bottom, have not several
branches to intercept the object. This is what makes their
measurement so very incorrect ; for when the man with the pole
has his line of measurement intercepted by one or two branches,
438 HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF
he generally has to change his position upon the tree, and this
often many times in the ascent of one tree ; — often causing, con-
sequently, an error of several feet in the value of one tree, less or
more. Mr Monteith, the well-known author of the Forester's
Guide, invented an instrument, which wrought with a wheel in
taking the height of a tree, and this instrument he himself used
in the valuation of forest trees. But for the same reason that I
have already mentioned — from the wheel being interrupted by the
branches of the trees — it soon fell into disrepute, and is now scarcely
or ever used; besides, the time and labour required are very much
against its being used by active valuators of the present day.
Such men, in almost all eases, accustom themselves to estimate
any standing tree simply by sight — which is, indeed, when done
by an experienced man, the method most to be depended upon.
The eye is not easily deceived in the comparative magnitude of
any two or more objects ; and more particularly, if it has been
long accustomed to compare the relative sizes of different objects
of the same form, its judgment, if I may so speak, becomes almost
indisputable ; at least, a man is very seldom deceived by his eyes
in the viewing of an object, if he have but accustomed them to
act in accordance with his judgment ; and this is all that is required
in order to give a correct idea of the size of any tree. It merely
requires that the eye should be accustomed to the work, and that
judgment should never be passed on the size of a tree until the mind
is actually satisfied of the truth of the impression produced.
Every forester ought at once to be able to estimate the size of
any tree on first sight of it. But a course of training is necessary
before being able to do this ; and as I myself, in all cases of valuing
growing timber, pass judgment of the size simply by sight, I shall
here point out the course of training necessary to those who may
wish to excel in this most useful point in forestry.
Those who never have accustomed their eyes to compare the
relative sizes of different objects, may at first be led to think that it
is impossible for any man to give a correct judgment of the exact
bulk of one tree as compared with another. This opinion, at first
sight, is natural ; but the power of habit is wTell known to be
incredible ; and those who entertain the idea of there being groat
GROWING PLANTATIONS. 439
difficulty to overcome, may be assured that a few weeks of perse-
vering practice will overcome all the difficulty. When I first
commenced training myself to value trees by sight, I was engaged
in the thinning of plantations from twenty to forty years old. For
a few weeks I, in every case of cutting down a tree, first eyed it
from bottom to top, and from top to bottom, and passed my judg-
ment as to the number of cubic feet it contained before I cut it
down ; and as soon as I had the tree cut down and pruned, I
measured the length with my rule, and took the girth in the
middle, and, on casting up the contents, I compared the result with
my previous judgment of the matter ; and at the end of three
weeks, which time I was employed in the thinning of the planta-
tions mentioned, I could have told, to within a mere trifle, the
actual number of feet and inches in any individual tree before I cut
it down. In the same manner I practised myself when cutting
down large trees, embracing every opportunity of improving my
judgment upon the point, until I came to have perfect confidence
as to the correctness of my decision.
But there is one remark which may be useful to mention here,
relative to the correctness or incorrectness of the judgment of the
eye in taking the size of a tree — namely, the mind must be per-
fectly at ease. A valuator, with his mind uneasy upon any point
foreign from his present purpose, is certain to commit errors ; and
this I mention, in order that any young beginner, who may read
this, and may commence his training in the way I did, may be
upon his guard at all times when valuing.
Having thus pointed out the way by which any forester may
acquire the useful habit of valuing trees by sight, I shall now give
a statement of the manner in which I generally go to work in the
actual valuation of the trees in a plantation.
When called upon to take the valuation of a plantation of full-
grown trees, or, as it may be, a thinning of trees from a planta-
tion, I provide myself with a pretty large pass-book, containing,
■fl usual, money columns on the right-hand side of each page, and
the spaces upon the left-hand side of the money columns I divide
into four equal parts, parallel with them ; the first space upon the
left-hand side is for entering the numbers to correspond with those
440
HOW TO FIND THE VALUE OF
intended to be marked upon the trees ; the second for entering the
species of each tree as it is numbered ; the third for entering the
number of cubic feet contained in the tree as marked ; and the
fourth contains the price, per cubic foot, of each tree as numbered.
The following sketch of this form of book will more readily assist
the learner : —
Number of
each Tree.
Species of each Tree.
Cubic feet in
each Tree.
Price per foot
of each Tree.
£
t.
d.
S. d.
1
Oak,
90
3 6
15
15
0
2
Ditto,
30
2 6
3
15
0
3
Ash,
82
2 0
8
4
0
4
Ditto,
20
1 6
1
10
0
5
Elm,
73
2 0
7
6
0
6
Ditto,
30
1 8
2
10
0
7
Beech,
75
1 6
5
12
6
8
Ditto,
25
0 10
1
0
10
9
Plane,
87
3 0
13
I
0
10
Ditto,
26
1 6
1
19
0
11
Larch,
64
2 0
6
8
0
12
Ditto,
32
1 4
2
2
8
13
Scots Fir,
58
1 6
4
7
0
14
Ditto,
18
1 0
1 °
18
0
In the act of valuing trees in the forest, I do not, of course,
take time to sum up the value of each tree, but leave the money-
columns blank until I have the wrork finished, or at least until the
evenings when I get home, when I have leisure to do so correctly.
Having provided myself with a book of the description mentioned
above, all ready and ruled, with the numbers filled in, and the
uses of the columns written along the top of each page, I next
engage three, or perhaps, if the trees are hard in the bark and
difficult to mark, four men of active habit, each provided with an
iron adapted for the marking of figures upon the bark of trees:
one of the men begins by marking No. 1 upon the first tree to be
valued, a second man marks No. 2, a third No. 3, and the fourth
No. 4 ; and in this manner the four men follow one another, each
of them marking his own number next in succession upon another
new tree ; that is, if the first man mark No. 1, his next in succes-
sion will be No. 5, if the second mark No. 2, his next in succes-
sion will be No. 6, and so on with the rest. When the men are
properly arranged at their work of marking the trees, I next com-
mence myself with the tree having the mark No. 1 upon it, aud
GROWING PLANTATIONS. 441
■write opposite the same number in my book the species of the
tree, next the number of cubic feet that I think it contains, and
lastly, the price per cubic foot of each tree, such as I think it
would really bring in the market at the time of valuation. In the
same manner I go on with every tree to be valued.
I may remark here that every valuator of growing timber, pre-
vious to entering upon the valuation of it in any locality with
which lie is not well acquainted, should in all cases make himself
properly aware of the general prices of wood in that district ; for
if he do not, he will unquestionably commit gross errors in his
work. If, for instance, a valuator were to be called from Edin-
burgh to value wood in the county of Peebles, or any other inland
district, and he proceeded to value the same according to the rate
of wood-sales in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, his valuation
would, of course, be about one-half too high ; because in the county
of Peebles, or indeed any other inland district, there is little or no
demand for wood : consequently, before the wood could be sold, it
would require to be carted by the purchaser a great distance to
reach a market ; and seeing this, the valuator should always regu-
late his prices per foot according to the prices that he knows will
be given at the nearest sea-port, deducting the expenses which will
be necessary to carry the timber between the place where it is
growing and the sea-port where it is to be sold.
CHAPTER VII.
Effects of Transplanting upon the Constitution of Trees, as that has hitherto been
practised — Method of Prepai'ing large Trees for Transplanting — Method of
Transplanting large Trees, and description of Machine for performing that
operation — Method of Renewing old or decaying Trees — Fencing of Park Trees
so as to protect them from Deer, Cattle, &c. — Effects of Underwood upon the
Health of Trees in a Plantation — Kinds of Plants best fitted for growing as
Underwood in a Plantation — Rules and Regulations necessary to be observed in
the cutting down and selling of Trees — Hints to young Foresters relative to the
nature and amount of Education necessary for them.
SECTION I. — EFFECTS OF TRANSPLANTING ON THE CONSTITUTION OF
TREES, AS THAT HAS HITHERTO BEEN PRACTISED.
For many years past, the transplanting of large trees from the
forest ground to the park, with the view of producing an imme-
diate effect where these were wanting upon the home grounds of
proprietors, has been practised with more or less success, and that
in proportion as the operation of removing the trees had been
done in the manner least tending to check the healthy flow of
vegetable life in the trees so removed.
It appears very evident to me, that any tree, however large it
may be, if only in a healthy and growing state, may, under
certain circumstances, be as safely removed from one position to
another, as the merest sapling from the nursery bed. If we can,
in our every-day practice, calculate on the certainty of a small
oak tree growing when it has been removed from the nursery-row
to the open forest land, may we not, with equal certainty, calcu-
late upon a large oak tree growing, when merely removed from
one part of a landed property to another, provided the operation,
EFFECTS OF TRANSPLANTING ON TREES. 443
in the case of the large tree, be performed with that amount of
care and skill -which is necessary to preserve in healthy action all
its life principles?
I am aware that many entertain opinions, relative to the trans-
planting of large trees, very different from mine as expressed
above ; and those who differ from me as to the propriety and practi-
cability of safely transplanting large forest trees, say that the con-
stitution of a young tree is more pliable and not so easily injured as
that of a large one, and consequently is not so easily affected by
sudden change or removal. This, no doubt, is true ; but if we, in
the removal of a large tree, can but adjust the operation to the
natural wants and requirements of the subject handled in the
same proportion as we can do to the smaller one, are we not,
according to the usual laws of nature as found to exist in all
plants, equally entitled to say that the one will continue in health
as well as the other? There can, I think, be no dispute as to
that ; therefore, in the transplanting of all trees, whether young
or old, large or small, all that is required in the operator is, to
adjust that operation to the natural icants and requirements of the
eubjectj when the success will be as complete in any one case as in
another. »
Those who maintain that success in the transplanting of large
trees cannot be obtained in equal proportion as in the case of
young ones, point to the many failures that have taken place in
that department of arboriculture, on, undoubtedly, very many
landed properties in Britain, — saying at the same time that a great
deal of money has been uselessly expended by proprietors upon
that operation, who have had nothing but disappointment as their
reward in the end. This I must also admit. But the grand
question is, Were those trees which failed to grow according to
the expectations of the proprietors who so laudably endeavoured
to ornament their estates, and which cost them so much labour to
little purpose, transplanted in such a manner as to fulfil the con-
ditions we have specified? I fear not. Wherever this rule has
not been attended to in times past, disappointment has been the
result ; and wherever it shall nut be attended to in future, disap-
pointment will also follow as the natural consequence. Saving
444 EFFECTS OF TRANSPLANTING ON
premised the above, I shall now endeavour to point out the cause
of disappointment where that has taken place in the transplant-
ing of large trees.
It is not to be wondered at that many of the cases of trans-
planting large trees, hitherto performed, have failed of that
degree of success which was expected as the result, seeing that
not one out of ten of them has been conducted upon principles
consistent with the ordinary laws which are known to maintain a
healthy state of vegetable life. Every tree of any considerable
size has its principal feeding roots situated, for the most part, at
the greater distance from its stem ; consequently, in the case of
removing a large tree from its original site, those must necessarily
be cut off, and cannot act as absorbents of nourishment for the
parent stem afterwards. Keeping this in view, then, is it any-
thing remarkable that we find a tree dying after it has been
separated from its means of deriving nourishment from the earth?
Such a result is quite in accordance with the laws of nature as
found to act upon vegetable life ; and this has exactly been the
state of things relative to those large trees which, after having
been transplanted, either died suddenly or lived a few years in a
languid and sickly state, and that just in proportion as they might
have had less or more healthy fibrous roots left upon them at the
time of removal.
I have not unfrequently seen trees of a considerable size lifted
from their original site and transplanted into another, where
they were expected to succeed well ; and yet they had been, as it
were, torn from the soil and all their roots left in it, little or no
precaution having been used to retain them. In such cases, the
soil was removed from all the roots to a considerable distance
round the stem, leaving only those roots attached which were large
and bare, and without any supply of small fibres, those having
been separated in the act of removing the earth ; and, with as
much soil attached to the part where the roots issue from the
stem as the nature of the means of conveyance would admit of,
the trees were again put into the earth, but in nine instances out
of ten the trees so dealt with never again recover so far as to
assume a tolerably healthy or respectable appearance.
THE CONSTITUTION OF TREES. 445
This has indeed been the most primitive system of transplanting
large trees; and as an improvement upon it, a system of previously
preparing the roots for removal has been adopted, which, indeed,
considering all the circumstances, has been a decided improvement
upon the old style, but has not yet been attended with that
amount of success which the nature of the case demands, and
which it seems quite possible to attain. The system of preparing
trees for transplanting, as practised for a number of years past, is
this: Any large tree, the transplantation of which was anticipated,
had a trench dug round it, at such a distance from the stem of the
tree as was considered expedient for the purpose of removal,
according to the size of the subject to be handled. This trench
was dug so deep into the earth as to cut all the side roots as far
down as those were found, with the exception of perhaps two or
three, which were left uncut to act as stays in the earth, both for
the time being and after the tree was removed. It was then again
filled up ; but if the soil was naturally bad, a quantity of better
was substituted, with the view of the more readily encouraging
the cut roots attached to the tree to push out fresh ones to act as
feeders when the tree was removed to its new site. In this state
it was again left for a period, generally of two years, when all
the cut parts of the roots had pushed out afresh into the new soil.
The tree was now considered fit for removal, which was performed
in the following manner: —
In taking away the earth from its roots, the workmen began
first by opening a new trench all round, and exactly upon the
outside of the one which had been formerly made, making the level
of its bottom a few inches under that of the latter, with the view
of the more readily getting under the level of the supply of young
roots, now supposed to be made within the compass of the first
trench. This being done, the workmen, with small picks made for
the purpose, loosened very carefully the body of the soil, as con-
tained in the previously made trench, beginning upon the outside
of the circle, and gradually working in among the young roots
made, so as to separate them from the soil ; and as these progressed,
others were employed in throwing out the soil thus loosened, taking
care to disturb or injure any of the small tender roots, now hang-
446 EFFECTS OF TRANSPLANTING ON
ing loose, as little as possible. In this manner the men followed
each other regularly, till they had the ball of earth contained within
the compass of the first trench well reduced, and all the young
fibrous and other roots, as those appeared, preserved as well as the
nature of the work would admit of, When all these had been
separated from the soil on the outer part of the ball, the remaining
part, immediately round the bottom of the stem, was preserved
entire, and taken along with the tree ; and as soon as this part had
been undermined, or freed of any hold it had perpendicularly in
the earth, a pole, which was fixed upon an axle with a pair of
wheels, was applied to the stem of the tree, and tied firmly to it,
by which means it was pulled down, with the ball and all its
appendant roots, resting upon the axle, and hanging between the
wheels. In this state the tree was drawn by horses to the place
where it was to be replanted. In the act of replanting, the bottom
of the pit, which had been previously made for the reception of
the roots, had a quantity of good soil put over it : the tree was
then put in, and the roots spread out, and replanted in as careful
a manner as possible, new soil being used when that was considered
necessary for the health of the plant. In all cases where the situa-
tion was an exposed one, and the ball of earth light in proportion
to the top weight of the tree, large sticks or ropes had to be used,
in order to keep the newly-planted tree firm in its position, until
the roots had become properly established in the new soil. And
where the newly-planted tree was found to shake much from the
action of the wind on the heavy top branches, some were in the
habit of putting heavy stones all round on the ball, in order to
counterbalance the top weight ; others adopted the plan of laying
large beams of wood across the ball, sinking their ends into the
firm soil on each side, and nailing them to stobs driven in at the
ends ; while various other means were had recourse to, according as
the ideas of the parties interested in the work might suggest: all this
pointing out that the art of properly and securely transplanting forest
trees of a large size was but imperfectly understood ; and all this I
have myself witnessed in actual practice, performed by men of first-
rate standing in the country as practical planters of their time.
Having thus given a very brief outline of the manner in
THE CONSTITUTION OF TREES. 447
which the transplanting- of large forest trees has been con-
ducted by many hitherto, it now remains for us to examine
a little as to how far that system of operations fulfils the con-
ditions required, and how far it is commendable or not. First,
then, we are aware that no tree can form a healthy development
of leaves and branches unless it be supplied with a corresponding
healthy development of roots, by which to draw food in the form
of solution from the surrounding soil ; and yet no healthy tree,
although deprived of a portion of its roots, will sustain any perma-
nent injury, provided it be allowed to remain undisturbed in the
soil till it has again replaced those roots, if, after new roots have
been made, they be preserved from further injury. Secondly, that
the merely hardwoody portions of the roots of a tree are not of
themselves capable of drawing nourishment to any considerable
extent from the earth, unless they be well furnished with the small
terminal rootlets, which are of a soft, spongy texture, and which
are considered as the mouths by which the sap is sucked from the
earth into the plant ; and, thirdly, that those very rootlets, which
are so essential to the preserving in a healthy state any tree or
plant, are very susceptible of injury, either by being unduly ex-
posed to the action of the atmosphere, or by their fine outer coats
or skin coming roughly in contact with any body harder than
themselves. Applying those facts, as they are known to affect
vegetable life, to the operation of transplanting large trees, as
already stated in the foregoing, we must conclude thus : The plan
of digging a trench round the trees to be transplanted, if not over-
done, has no permanent bad effects upon the constitution of a tree ;
it gives, no doubt, a temporary check to the system of the ascent
of the sap, but as soon as the roots have again renewed themselves,
the strength of the sap will gradually resume its former tone ;
therefore, as regards this part of the operation, no important evil
can arise ; and the first head, as laid down, is thus dismissed. But
in applying the second and third heads laid down, the system of
transplanting formerly stated is much at fault ; for, in removing
the soil from the very soft and tender rootlets, which were so
recently produced by nature for the support of the tree, their
functions are so much damaged and impaired, in consequence of
448 EFFECTS OF TRANSPLANTING ON TREES.
coming in contact not only with the strong atmosphere, but with
the hands and implements of the workmen, that they are almost
all rendered unfit for any further healthy action. It is in this
respect alone that the operation is not adjusted to the natural
wants and requirements of the subject handled, but is diametrically
opposed to sound natural principles ; and though the very system
of transplanting, which I here consider as insufficient, is yet very
frequently practised, I am not aware that its advocates can point
out many trees of considerable dimensions, which have been lifted
and transplanted by them in this way, without their having received
so much injury, that they are yet stunted in their appearance, and
do not indicate full health and vigour of constitution as compared
with trees not removed. On examining trees transplanted on this
system, they may sometimes indeed have a fair outside appearance,
like the hectic flush of a delicate person ; but, on close examination
by an experienced eye, the reality is at once evident : external
indications are at once discerned that the inward constitution of
the subject is gone, and, consequently, that its duration will be com-
paratively short. Besides this, the machine which has been in general
use for the purpose of removing large trees by the method above
detailed, is so very imperfect, that no tree of any considerable
dimensions can, with any degree of safety, be conveyed by it.
When an assistant under-forester, I was employed, along with
others, in transplanting pretty extensively upon an estate in Fife-
shire, where we lifted from the forest ground a number of pretty
large trees, some of them being above fourteen inches diameter
near the bottom of the stem, and about forty feet high, and had
them planted on the parks where necessary. These trees had been
all previously prepared in the manner already detailed. "When we
took out our trench, and commenced separating the soil from the
recently formed young roots, we found them in the most healthy
state possible, and at the same time very plentifully formed on all
the old roots which had been cut ; and although in most cases we
managed to get them relieved in as good a state as the nature of
the operation would admit of, yet when we came to have the tree
removed from its original stance, we had great difficulty in getting
all the roots taken away, without more or less of damage in some
PREPARING LARGE TREES FOR TRANSPLANTING. 449
way or other. Sometimes a valuable root was unavoidably torn
away by coming in contact with the ground, or with the wheels of
the janker, as the machine is called ; and sometimes another was
broken by the men having occasion to handle them when any
unforeseen accident occurred ; and all this in consequence of the
nature of the machine not being adapted or powerful enough for
its work : while I have very often, too, seen a principal limb torn
away by coming in contact with the road as the horses pulled the
tree along. All this plainly showed me that there was great room
for improvement in the process of removing large trees; and from
that time I began to consider the operation as practised altogether
imperfect, and having a great tendency to hurt the constitution of
any large tree so dealt with. As soon, therefore, as I had the
management of woods on my own account, I began to experiment
and follow a different system, which I shall now detail iu the fol-
lowing section.
SECTION II. — METHOD OF PREPARING LARGE TREES FOR TRANS-
PLANTING.
Having thus had my attention directed to the transplanting of
large forest trees for park scenery, at an early stage of my prac-
tice as a forester, and being convinced that the systems in general
practice were not of a nature calculated to insure the healthy
establishment of trees so dealt with, I began to think for myself
as to how the operation in all its branches might be improved.
As improvements of the first importance in the process, it
appeared to me that some successful method should be adopted,
whereby every recently made root adhering to the plant at the
period when it was to be taken out of its original site should be
preserved entire and undisturbed through all the operation of
transplanting ; and second, that a machine of great power should
be constructed, by means of which a whole tree, of whatever
dimensions, with its ball of earth and roots, should be lifted and
conveyed in an upright and natural position, and laid down in its
new bed as entire as when taken up. Those two points forming,
as it were, the whole art of transplanting, I thought that, could
2 F
450 PEEPAEING LAEGE TEEES
they be attained, any other minor points would be easily managed.
In order, therefore, to accomplish them, I set about, in the first
place, a system of reasoning in my own mind, and of trying
experiments relative thereto. The first question which I put to
myself was this : — Is it possible to have any given tree in a forest
removed, with all its natural roots entire and undisturbed, and
placed in the ground again as it was taken up ? I did not require
to think long for an answer to this question, as it appeared at
once very evident that, in order to do this, a quantity of soil
would require to be removed, and that all in one piece, which
would be quite impracticable, seeing that the roots of one single
tree, growing among others, came in contact with those of its
neighbours in every direction all around ; and thus I at once saw
that, to remove any large tree with all its natural extent of roots
entire, and soil attached, must remain an impracticable operation
— at least for the present. Secondly, seeing, or at least admitting
for the present, that this is impracticable, can no system of raising
forest trees be adopted, by means of which, at any given time
or period of their existence, they might be removed from their
site, with all their roots and soil attached, without those parts
being in the least disturbed? The case of a plant in a pot or
box suggested itself to my mind, and the inference that I drew
from this was, that if we can grow a plant in a pot or box to a
pretty large size in a healthy state upon the stage of a green-
house, with all its roots enclosed, we may as well grow forest
trees in boxes of a larger size sunk in the open ground ; and,
from the circumstance of their roots being all collected there,
they might be removed at any convenient time to any required
place. This at once appeared quite a practicable case ; and trees
in this state could be reared upon any gentleman's property, when
they could be transferred in a healthy state from one place to
another, with impunity to their roots ; provided they were not, in
the first place, too long confined within a narrow compass, and
that they were removed by a machine powerful enough to do the
work safely. This, I say, appeared to me to be a branch of
arboriculture quite attainable ; but as no trees had as yet been
cultivated upon that principle, such could not be obtained for
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 451
a considerable number of years; so that, however practicable
this might be in future generations, in the mean time it was
out of the question ; for the point wished was, not so much
that of rearing trees to a large size for the purpose of being
ultimately transplanted, as to have in the mean time any given
tree, growing in the usual way in the forest, transplanted safely,
with all its roots, &c, to any other part. Notwithstanding that,
for the present purpose, the system of rearing forest trees in
boxes was thus unavailable, the case of a plant growing in a pot
still presented itself to my mind, and no other method I could
think of appeared so feasible ; and reasoning from this, it appeared
to me, that if a large tree growing in the forest could not be
removed with all its roots entire as those were found in the natural
state, they might at least be all shortened in to a given practicable
extent round the tree, without doing the subject any material
injury, and this in the way which has been practised hitherto ; but
instead of allowing the young roots issuing from the cut part of
the old, &c., to extend themselves unduly, as generally done, let
them be confined and collected within a given practicable space ;
the tree could then be removed and transplanted, as we usually see
gardeners transplant a flower from a pot to the open ground of
the garden. This appeared to be the only reasonable and prac-
ticable method of preparing trees of a large size for transplanting
that I could devise ; consequently, I set to work to have a few
experiments made upon it.
Preparative to actual experiments relative to the point referred
to above, I began to examine the state of the roots of trees of
different kinds, as they were found to exist naturally in different
plantations, growing upon various descriptions of soil, and under
different systems of management, at all the ages I could con-
veniently find or come at. As the result of those examinations, I
arrived at the following conclusions : — First, a tree of any given
species is better supplied with small fibrous roots when growing
upon a light porous soil, than on a soil of an opposite character.
Second, the roots of trees growing in a heavy or clay soil, extend
themselves to a greater distance from the main stem in search of
food, than they do in a light and open soil. Third, the small
452 PEEPARING LAEGE TREES
fibrous roots of trees are most plentifully formed near the surface
of the ground ; and the deeper in the earth the large roots of
trees are found, the fewer fibrous roots are upon them. Fourth,
the more confined any tree is among others in a wood, the fewer
and the weaker are its roots ; and the more exposed it is to the
free influence of the air, the more abundant and healthy these are.
Fifth, the more a tree becomes clothed with branches, the better
is it supplied with small fibrous roots. Sixth, in soils of a
naturally cold and damp character, the roots of trees are few,
weakly and unhealthy ; and in those naturally dry, the opposite is
the case. Seventh, the principal masses of the fibrous roots of
trees are generally found to coincide with the extension of their
branches ; and they are also generally found most numerous upon
that side of a tree which has been most freely exposed to the
influence of light and heat.
Having arrived at this stage of my examination as to the
natural disposition and character of the roots, and having arrived
at the seven foregoing conclusions as sign-posts for my further
guidance, the next step which appeared necessary, in order to
arrive at anything like a decided improvement in the art of trans-
planting large forest trees, was that of putting to practical use the
knowledge thus attained. And I may mention here, that, in this
preliminary investigation, I spent no less than the leisure time of
three years successively. I did not content myself with examin-
ing the trees growing upon one property alone ; my researches
included several estates, and that, too, in several counties both in
the middle and northern parts of Scotland ; and not till I was tho-
roughly satisfied as to the truth of the conclusions I had formed, did
I begin to set about the experiments now to be described. In
giving a detailed account of the different experiments for deter-
mining the best mode of procedure best adapted to secure the end
in view, I shall begin with the first conclusion in order — namely,
a tree of any given species is better supplied with small fibrous
roots when growing on a light porous soil, than on a soil of an oppo-
site character. Being, then, aware of this fact, I commenced my
experiments with an oak about thirty-five years old, which grow
in a light sandy loam on an open situation, and quite free from
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 453
the interference of any other tree. It was then nearly thirty feet
high, with a diameter of trunk at bottom of about fifteen inches.
The tree was of a fine spreading habit, with branches fully cor-
responding to its size and age. I first took a cord and tied it
loosely about the bottom of the trunk of the tree ; and after con-
sidering a little as to what distance I ought to cut in the roots all
round, I fixed upon four feet as the half of the diameter of the
circle I should make for that purpose, exclusive of the diameter
of the bole itself. Then with the cord in my hand, held at four
feet from the bole as a centre, I described a circle all round,
making the diameter of the ball of earth fully nine feet.
This being done, I had a trench dug all round on the outside of
the inscribed circle about eighteen inches wide, and so deep as
completely to go under all the side roots : that depth was in this
case nearly two feet and a half, the subsoil being a sort of earthy
sand. In digging the trench, I found the main roots very plenti-
ful, and pretty regularly dispersed all round, but more abundant
on the south and west sides, which were most exposed to the
influence of light and heat. As the digging of the trench pro-
gressed, I had all the roots carefully and smoothly cut, as those
appeared upon the inner side of the trench, so as to leave no
roughness on the wounded parts for the lodgment of water about
them. Under the depth of two feet from the surface, I found the
roots scarce, and with few or no fibres ; therefore I determined,
at this stage of the operation, to have these more closely cut in, so
as to cause them to produce a more plentiful supply of small roots
for the future health and establishment of the tree when removed.
Accordingly, I had the ball of earth situated between the trench
and the stem of the tree undermined all round, leaving it only
about twenty inches deep upon the outside, and gradually sloping
it downwards as I approached the centre of the ball under the tree,
where it might be fully thirty inches deep. This undermining,
however, was not carried to such an extent as to come in contact
with any of the tap roots situated immediately under the stem of
the tree. Had this been done, it would have given too severe a
check to the tree, as I considered that the tap roots were essen-
tially necessary for its support, at least until the roots, which were
454 PREPARING LARGE TREES
now shortened, had pushed out fresh young ones for drawing in a
supply of nourishment. I merely undermined the ball of earth,
formed about the roots, to the extent of about two feet inwards
from the perpendicular of the same all round. Having this part
of the work, as detailed, all finished, I next, with a small pick, took
away all loose pieces of soil from the sides of the ball all round.
In doing this, wherever I found it deficient in roots, I applied the
pick, and had the soil taken away till I came in contact with roots ;
and wherever I found them, I at once left off without disturbing
them further. At this stage of my operations, the ball about the
roots of the tree presented rather a rough appearance. On some
parts the cut points of pretty large roots protruded, and on others
the earth was hollowed out, showing that many fibrous roots
were lying there ; but my meaning for this will be better under-
stood after I have explained how I finished the work.
Before commencing with the work of preparing the ball of
earth around the tree as above detailed, I had ready prepared a
quantity of half-rotten vegetable mould, consisting principally of
leaves and small twigs of woody matter as collected from cleanings
of the lawn. To this I added an equal quantity of light peat-
mould, mixing the two well together ; and of this compost I put
in about nine inches thick all round the ball. In doing this, I
began at the bottom or lowest point of the excavated ground,
replacing the soil which was thrown out gradually with the com-
post; putting it in next the roots of the tree to the thickness already
stated, and giving it a slight tramp with the foot in order to compress
it a little. The soil which had been removed was then returned
behind the compost, and to this also a firm tramping was given,
making it as solid as possible, and keeping all the worst of the
soil thrown out next the compost. In putting in the compost
about the roots, wherever I came to a hollow part, as made where
there had been few roots upon the ball, I filled them completely up
with it, extending it, at the same time, to the ordinary thickness
round the outside area of the ball ; thus, in places where any of
those hollow parts occurred, the compost was sometimes fully two
feet in thickness — this being with the intention of encouraging an
extra supply of roots to grow at such parts. In this manner I
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 455
went on with the work till I had the whole extent of the hall
equally done ; and when I came to the surface level of the ground,
I spread about six inches of the compost over on the ball ; in
which state I considered the preparation of the roots of that tree
completed. To another tree of the same kind, upon the same soil,
and of the same age and general character, I performed the like
operation at the same time ; but in this case I had the principal
large branches shortened in to the extent of about one-third of
their length ; that is, I took off about one-third of the length of
each of the larger branches, and put them into a regularly
balanced state. In this case I did not attempt anything like a
regular pruning of the tree, by taking off any branches from the
trunk : I merely shortened in, and that without producing any
bad effect as to the natural outline of the tree, any large over-
grown limbs which appeared to have an undue ascendency upon
it, and to require an undue proportion of the sap of the tree to
support them.
Having thus detailed my first experiment in preparing trees,
growing upon a light soil, for future transplantation, I shall next
give a similar statement relative to others growing upon a heavy
clay soil, exemplifying the practical bearing of the second conclu-
sion formerly mentioned — namely, the roots of trees growing in
a heavy or clay soil extend themselves to a greater distance from
the main stem in search of food, than they do when growing in
a light and open soil. Keeping this fact in view, I sought
for two trees growing upon a clay soil, and found such as I
desired ; the one an ash about thirty-eight years old, and the other
an elm of the same age ; both good healthy specimens, but both
had been a little drawn up in the bole at an early stage of their
growth, and, consequently, were what might be termed rather
bare of top branches. However, they were both perfectly healthy
and stout in the bole, (about the same diameter as the oak,) and
promised to become good ornamental trees if judiciously exposed,
for they were growing in a plantation among others of the same
kind. I determined, therefore, upon having their roots prepared;
and, with this view, I had two or three trees cut away from about
them, in order that they might in future have more free air for the
456 PREPARING LARGE TREES
spread of their branches. This being done, I next caused a trench
to be opened about the ash, in the same manner and to the same
extent as formerly described in the case of the oak. I was absent
on other business while the men were employed in casting out the
trench of the first tree operated upon, which was the ash. On my
return, I found that they had thrown out very few small fibrous
portions of roots ; but what they had come in contact with were
principally bare roots, of from one to three inches in diameter ; and,
following out the lead of a few of those roots upon the outside of
the trench, I found that the principal masses of the fibrous roots
extended outside to the distance of about other three feet. But
having the trench made, I determined to have the operation com-
pleted, and judge afterwards of its effects. When the trench was
all thrown out, and the ball of earth surrounding the tree under-
mined as with the oaks, I next took the pick in hand myself, and
commenced taking off a rather large quantity of the stiff clay soil
forming the ball, in places where there appeared to be no roots
existing. In this instance I had to reduce the ball very much ;
in several parts right through to the bottom of the trench ; but
wherever I came upon roots of any size, however small, I at once
left off there ; and in this way I reduced the ball all round till roots
of some size or other appeared. This part of the operation being
concluded, I next had a quantity of vegetable mould, as before
described, and an equal quantity or bulk of well-rotted turf
mould, well mixed together, and had all the openings in the ball
properly filled up with it, making it rather compact in among the
roots by pressing with the hands. When the openings which
I had made with the pick were all completely filled up on the
flat of the ball, I next commenced and put the compost all round
on the outside, keeping it fully nine inches in thickness between
the clay soil put in behind, and the nearest of any one of the
points of the roots projecting from the ball. This I did in exactly
the same manner as in the former case of the oaks ; always
observing to pack the clay very solidly behind the compost put iu,
and the compost itself more slightly ; and when the whole was
levelled to the surface, I covered the top of the ball with the com-
post to the thickness of about six inches. The elm tree I operated
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 457
upon in exactly the same manner ; with only this difference, that I
made the trench round it one foot farther from the tree, by which
means I found more fibrous roots within the ball of earth than in
the case of the ash. I may also mention that, after I had both
trees finished, I had an open drain made from each, down to the
level of the bottom of the trenches made ; for, from the stiff
nature of the soil, I anticipated that water might lodge in the
trenches and destroy the health of the young roots which might
be made. This I strongly recommend as being absolutely neces-
sary in such work, wherever the soil is heavy ; as, by the simple
process of making an open drain from the bottom of the trench,
no water can remain there, and the tree must altogether be pre-
served in better health, as well as have the advantage of a more
healthy and sweet state of soil in which to form new roots.
With regard to the third conclusion arrived at, namely — The
small fibrous roots of trees are most plentifully formed near the
surface of the ground ; and the deeper in the earth the large roots
are found, the fewer fibrous roots are upon them — it will at once
appear, in referring to the operations of preparing the roots of the
different trees, as already detailed, that there were few fibrous
roots, comparatively speaking, found under twenty inches from
the surface ; aud to encourage the growth of these under that
depth was my object in undermining the ball of earth, and putting
a quantity of soil favourable for the production of roots under that
part. "We now come to the fourth conclusion, namely — The more
confined any tree is among others in a wood, the fewer and the
weaker are its roots ; and the more exposed it is to the free influ-
ence of the surrounding air, the more abundant and healthy these
are. Under this head I may remark, that trees of any kind,
which have been injudiciously drawn up in a plantation, arc the
most unfit subjects that can be chosen for transplanting ; there-
fore, in choosing trees for the purpose of transplanting, they should
always be taken from the outside of a wood, where they will have
had plenty of pure air to develop their branches, and, which is the
natural accompaniment of this, a large supply of fibrous roots. It
may not be out of place here to give a few hints as to the manner
in which I have gone to work on Arniston estate in getting brought
458 PREPARING LARGE TREES
into proper state for transplanting a considerable number of trees,
which, when I came to the place, were in rather a drawn-up
condition.
On the north lawn at Arniston, there are three clumps of trees,
extending altogether to about four acres, and which may be from
twenty-five to forty years' standing, consisting principally of oak,
ash, elm, beech, and lime trees. These clumps, when I came to
the place to act as forester, were in a very close state, in conse-
quence of many firs having been left too long among the hardwood
trees which had been intended to form the principal ultimate crop.
As I had no convenient selection of subjects for transplanting —
without, indeed, going to an inconvenient distance on other parts
of the estate for them — and as Mr Dundas wished to transplant
large trees pretty extensively at a period not far distant, he gave
me permission to have the clumps of trees, above referred to, thinned
out to my own mind, with the view of making the trees, left there
after thinning, form a future nursery for supplying him with sub-
jects for his intended improvements upon the home grounds. With
this view, I commenced and had all the firs taken out, as also all
the hardwood trees which I considered would come to little ulti-
mate value ; and, altogether, I think I took out about two-thirds of
the whole number of the trees as originally standing before I began
to them. Those left have now stood about six years since I
thinned them, and they are vastly improved in their health,
having now, in general, fine branchy tops, and being clean in the
stems, with healthy thick bark ; and, by the way, I ought to
observe, that any tree which is to be transplanted, of any size,
should be possessed of a good, sound, thick, and fleshy bark. If a
tree has bark in that condition, it is never easily affected by sudden
change of exposure, whereas one with thin bark is easily hurt. In
short, those trees are now such good specimens, that I intend this
year to have a number of them prepared for being transplanted in
two or three years hence. Having, I think, now shown how trees
in a drawn-up state, which are always comparatively destitute of
fibrous roots, and in that state unfit for being transplanted, may
be recovered and made fit subjects, provided they are in a healthy
state, I may also further remark, that, in choosing large trees as
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 459
subjects for transplanting from any part of a plantation where the
trees may have been formerly much confined, it should be care-
fully seen that the bark of the tree to be removed is in a good
healthy state. When, therefore, it is desirable to have any part of
a plantation thinned out as a nursery to supply large trees for the
purpose, if the trees have formerly stood very close, they should
be thinned out gradually, and not to the distance of the desired
number of specimens all at once ; for in this case, as well as in
the case of other thinning of plantations generally, if the work be
overdone, disappointment may follow : the trees, if too suddenly
exposed, will become unhealthy in their bark ; and if so, their
future progress will be slow and uncertain.
\Ve now come to say a little relative to the fifth conclusion
mentioned, namely — The more that a tree becomes clothed with
branches, the better is it supplied with small fibrous roots. In the
choosing of large trees for the purpose of transplanting, this is a
point which should never be lost sight of; therefore, the planter,
in looking out for specimens which he would have with good roots,
has only to observe the natural state of the tops : if they are
spreading and branchy, he may rely upon plenty of good roots ;
and if they are tall, with few top branches, he may depend upon
few roots existing upon them ; consequently, such would make the
very worst trees to transplant with any hope of success.
I may merely observe, relative to the sixth conclusion, which is
— In soils of a naturally cold and damp character, the roots of trees
are few, weakly, and unhealthy, and in soil of a naturally dry
character, the opposite is the case — that in all cold damp soils, the
growth of trees is invariably slow, as compared with others upon
a dry soil j this arising from the weak and unhealthy state of the
roots in the one case, and their more vigorous state in the other.
He, therefore, who would wish to remove trees from a naturally
cold and damp soil, must first, if he desires to be successful in the
operation, have the ground well drained about the specimens to be
removed ; and either at the time of draining, or after the trees
show more vigorous signs of health from its effects, the trees may
be prepared in the roots, and afterwards removed with safety. I
now come to relate an experiment which I made upon a tree which
460 PREPARING LARGE TREES
I wished to have removed, and which grew upon a soil of cold
damp clay. My reason for not relating it before is, that I
considered it most proper to come under this head, as illustrating
what may be done in improving the health of trees growing upon
a cold damp soil.
On the estate of Craigston, in Aberdeenshire, where I prepared
the oaks, the ash, and the elm, formerly referred to in this section,
there grew a very fine-shaped Scotch elm, upon a flat piece of
ground, which was of a stiff clay nature, and was, besides, natu-
rally damp, and the subsoil of a cold clay till. The tree might be
about fifty years old, and was, in consequence of the cold nature
of the subsoil, showing symptoms of prematurity, which was indi-
cated by the annual growths of young wood becoming small and
weakly, and the leaves falling off very early in the autumn. As
this tree was of a very spreading, fine, ornamental habit, I deter-
mined to attempt having it, if possible, put into a better state of
health ; and if I succeeded, to have it afterwards transplanted to
a better and more interesting situation. With this view I had a
trench, fully three feet deep, cast about it, at a distance of about
six feet from the stem, all round. This trench I dug about two
feet broad ; and in the act of making it, the water stood plenti-
fully when two feet under the surface, at which stage we were
obliged to make a drain from it to a water-run close by. The
drain being made, we got the water in the trench let off, and pro-
ceeded with the same to the desired depth. In the act of cutting
the roots as we made the trench, we found them in a very bad
state indeed : many of the larger roots had become entirely
rotten, and upon the healthier parts the fibres were delicate and
small. This was especially the case with the roots as found
lower than about sixteen inches from the surface: above that
depth, the roots were, in general, in a healthier state, and seemed
not to have suffered so much from dampness ; but over the whole
extent of the ball they were weakly and unhealthy as compared
with trees growing upon a drier soil. Having the trench
finished, and the ball undermined as in former cases, the most
earthy part of it well reduced, and all bad roots cut clean away, I
had a drain made with stones all round the bottom of the trench,
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 401
and conducted out to the burn. This being done, the ball was
prepared and made up with compost, in the same manner as
already detailed with regard to the ash and elm.
Before making any remarks as to the effects produced upon this
tree by the operation performed upon it, I shall say something
relative to the seventh conclusion, namely — The principal masses of
the fibrous roots of trees are generally found to coincide with the
extension of their branches ; and they are generally found most
numerous upon that side of a tree which has been most freely
exposed to the influence of light and heat.
In reading the above conclusion, as laid down, it must not be
understood to signify that masses of fibrous roots, growing from
any tree, never extend beyond the spread of its branches. On the
contrary, the principal masses of the fibrous roots of a tree may
sometimes be found to extend very much beyond this ; but in
such a case there must exist an extraordinary cause ; that is, in
all cases where a tree is found growing in a soil of equal fertility
throughout, the principal masses of fibrous roots will be found
generally to coincide with the extension of its branches ; while, on
the other hand, if any extraordinary nourishing property exist not
far distant from the roots of a tree, such as a water-course, a stratum
of soil of a superior nature to that in which the tree may be stand-
ing, or heaps of manure, &c, they will far outgrow their usual
pace in order to reach such extraordinary nourishment; and when
they have, as it were, attained their desired possession, the prin-
cipal masses of fibres will grow out and congregate there, although
at a considerable distance beyond the extension of the branches.
This may often be observed in the case of trees growing on the
side of a wood where a well-cultivated piece of land may happen to
be ; then the roots will be found in tufted profusion in the land,
and at a great distance from the trees themselves ; and the same
thing may be observed in the case of the roots getting into drains.
All these cases, hoMever, arc extraordinary, and arc not to be
taken into account in speaking of the nature of trees as found
under ordinary natural circumstances.
Admitting, then, as a truth founded on practical observation,
that, under existing circumstances, the principal masses of fibrous
402 PREPARING LARGE TREES
roots of trees are generally found to coincide with the extension of
their branches, an important question naturally arises — Should we
not, in the removal of a large tree, carry along with it a ball of
earth equal to the ordinary spread of its roots in the earth ; or, if
not to the extent of the spread of the roots in the earth or the
branches in the air, by what rule are we to be guided in the
operation ?
Relative to this, as well as to many other matters of forest
operations, different opinions are held. Some maintain that, in
the act of transplanting a large tree, all its roots should be bared
and traced out to their full extent as nearly as possible, and
removed entire, along with the tree, without any respect being paid
to a ball of earth ; while others hold that no previous preparation
is necessary for the removal of any tree, but that lifting a ball of
earth, varying from eight to twelve feet in diameter, according to
the size of the tree, is quite sufficient for its safety, without any
attention to the natural spread of the roots in the earth. Such
opinions are so contradictory in themselves, and so void of sound
natural principles, that we shall at once dismiss them as unworthy
of attention. We live in an age in which mere assertion has little
weight ; therefore, in answering the question as above laid down,
we must attend to the effects of experience, as that is based upon
sound natural principles relative to the laws of vegetable life.
I have already said, in the section immediately preceding this,
that no tree can form a healthy development of leaves and branches
unless it be supplied with a corresponding healthy development of
roots by which to draw food, in the form of solution, from the
surrounding soil ; and yet no healthy tree, although deprived of a
portion of its roots, will sustain any permanent injury, provided it
is allowed to remain undisturbed in the soil till it has replaced
those roots.
Now, admitting the above assertion to be true, as I have found
it to be in my own experience, the reader will at once see that,
to deprive a tree of its roots, and to remove it to another soil at the
same time, is the very means to prevent its making healthy pro-
gress in future ; and, at the same time, he will readily see, that,
although any tree should lose a portion of its roots, if it be allowed
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 4G3
time to replace them without being further disturbed till it has
done so, no permanent injury will follow. Keeping in view,
then, that a tree cannot make a healthy development of leaves and
branches unless it be supplied with a corresponding healthy
development of roots, and that it will not sustain any permanent
injury though it lose a portion of its roots, if it be allowed to
remain undisturbed till it replace them, I have laid down as a rule,
for my own guidance in the transplanting of large trees, to have
their roots previously prepared by cutting them in by means of a
trench dug all round, at a distance from the tree equal to two-
thirds of the diameter of the spread of the branches ; that is to say,
if the diameter of the spread of the branches be twelve feet, (not
including the extreme points of large branches,) the diameter of
the ball of earth inside the trench should be eight feet ; and so on
in proportion.
To the inquiring reader, another question will naturally arise
here, namely — What object is gained by the cutting of the roots
by means of a trench ; and why define two-thirds of the diameter
of the spread of the branches in preference to any other distance ?
My answer, which is entirely based upon the result of my own
experience, is this : — With regard to the object gained by the
cutting in of the roots previous to the removal, let any one who
may have two rows of oaks or any other kind of hardwood trees
in the nursery of a pretty large size, say five or six feet high, have
all the side roots of the one row cut in with the spade upon each
side, say about six inches from the trees in the line, but not so deep
as to cut any of the tap roots, which are meant to supply the tree
with food till new ones are made upon the sides, and leave the
other row uncut in their usual natural state. In twelve months
after the trees in the one row have been cut in, have them lifted,
and the side roots will be found very plentiful in small fibres, and
in an excellent state for being safely removed to the forest ground ;
whereas, on lifting the row of the same age, the trees of which were
left uncut, the side roots will be found extremely spare, and the
fibres, for the most part, left in the ground ; and on planting the
trees as contained in the two rows out into the forest, under equal
circumstances of soil, situation, and management, the observing
464 PREPARING LARGE TREES
forester will very soon have occasion to decide, without the least
hesitation, that those which had their side roots cut in twelve
months previous to their being removed are far more healthy, and
making more rapid progress, than those which were not cut till the
time of their removal. It is exactly on this same natural prin-
ciple that I advise to have the side roots of all large trees cut in
previous to their being lifted ; and I may further state, regarding
this point, that I have so often practised this method of cutting in
the side roots of pretty large trees in nursery-rows previous to
having them transplanted to the forest-ground, and have found the
effects of the operation so beneficial, that my mind is now quite
decided as to the improvement that takes place in trees so ma-
naged, compared with others which may be lifted and planted out
in the usual manner. The object, therefore, gained by cutting in
the side roots of a tree previous to having it transplanted is, a
great supply of young fibres, all in readiness to draw in nourish-
ment as soon as it is put into its new site, which is never the case
when a tree is removed without any previous preparation.
My reason for defining two-thirds of the diameter of the natural
spread of the branches in preference to any other distance is,
that at that distance from the bole or stem of a tree, all the large
and hard or matured portion of the root is inclosed within the
circumference of the ball, while on the circumference of the ball
itself, at that distance from the bole, the roots are found pretty
regularly ramified, and of a character and consistency of wood the
most likely to send out numerous healthy fibres for the future sup-
port of the tree.
Having now, I think, pretty fully explained the basis upon
which I have formed the plan of preparing large trees for trans-
planting, I shall, before summing up the general statement of that
plan, say something as to the result of my operations on the oaks,
elms, and ash trees, as already detailed in this section.
These operations were all performed upon the trees just when I
went to the place in the month of November; and my intention
then was to have the trees removed to other situations. But as I
had occasion to leave the place (Craigston) exactly two years after
the trees had been prepared by me, and finding that it was not
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 465
convenient to have them transplanted before I left the place T
determined upon having them examined as to the effect produced
on the roots by the cutting in they had received, which would have
a tendency so far to confirm my experience in future operations
of the like nature. With this view, I had openings made at four
parts, at equal distances, upon the outside of each of the trenches
formerly made round the trees, taking care to make the openings
immediately on the outside of the good soil as formerly put in, and
in such a manner as not to disturb the young roots made in it ;
and upon examination I found, to my great satisfaction, exactly as
I had previously anticipated, that the whole of the body of new
soil which was put round the roots upon the ball of earth, was
actually filled with the masses of young fibrous roots that had grown
from the old ones which had been cut; and these had not, at this
period, begun to grow out into the natural soil beyond ; but the
mass of new soil which had been put in, with its roots pervading
it, very much resembled the roots and ball of a plant which had
been long confined in a pot, as may be often witnessed by gar-
deners in the act of shifting plants from one pot to another. In
this state I considered the trees could be removed with all safetv,
provided that the whole ball of earth, with its young roots inclosed,
could be removed without being materially disturbed. I may
remark here also, that, in my examination of the roots of those
trees, I found those upon the light soil most plentifully supplied ;
upon the heavy soil the roots were indeed good, but not so plen-
tiful, nor so much ramified through the good soil, as in the case of
the others ; and this, of course, would be occasioned by the ori-
ginal quantity of the roots in the tree growing in the light soil
being greater than that of those in the heavy soil. The former,
therefore, which were the oaks, I would then have transplanted at
once ; but the latter, which were the ash and elms, I would have
allowed to remain for a year longer, with the view of giving them
a longer time to form a greater supply of roots before having them
transplanted : a point which requires to be kept in view by the
planter.
I said that i pruned one of those treea of part of the heavy
branches at the time that I had them prepared in their roots : tlii-
2g
466 PREPARING LARGE TREES
pruning had a very beneficial effect on its after health. In all
cases of cutting-in the roots of trees in the manner above described,
it is observable that they receive a slight check in their growth ;
but in the case of the tree which I had pruned in a slight degree,
there was not nearly so much apparent check as in that of the one
which received no pruning. This at once gives evidence that,
when trees are prepared in their roots with a view to transplanting,
they should have a judicious course of pruning, which tends to
secure, as it were, a balance between roots and branches ; that is to
say, when the side roots are checked and made incapable of supplying
nourishment for a time, the health of the tree is much improved
under the operation by having a proportion of the top branches
shortened in also ; for by this the roots are relieved of a burden
they would otherwise have had to support; this tending, as I
have already said, to throw a better balance between roots and
branches, and consequently to retain the tree in better health under
the operation.
Having been disappointed in getting my transplanting opera-
tions put into execution upon the estate of Craigston, although I
did not, at the same time, find myself disappointed as to the results
attendant on the plan I had adopted in preparing trees for that
purpose there, and having had no convenient opportunity of
extending my experience further upon that point of arboriculture
till I came to Amiston, as soon as I came here, I had some trees
prepared in the same manner for transplanting as I had already
done at Craigston.
Since I came to Arniston, I have had my attention too much
engaged with other general forest improvements upon the outer
parts of the estate, to allow me to have much time devoted to the
transplanting of large trees upon the home grounds ; but, as I
have mentioned, Mr Dundas intends soon to transplant pretty
extensively, and I have been getting a nursery of good subjects
prepared for that purpose, and this very year (1850) I am about
to begin preparing them in the roots for after removal. Having,
however, transplanted a few on the side of one of the approaches
leading to the mansion-house, it may not be out of place here to
give a short statement as to the manner in which this was done.
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 467
Mr Dundas wishing to have a few large trees put upon an open
part of the east lawn, requested me to have that done at a con-
venient time. Accordingly, I fixed upon seven lime trees about
twenty feet high for the purpose, and had them prepared in their
roots exactly as 1 have already detailed in the case of the trees at
Craigston ; but as the trees in this case were much smaller than
those I operated upon in the last-mentioned place, on the prin-
ciple already laid down, I had the roots cut in by a trench at
three feet distance from the stem all round, making the ball of
earth, including the stem, nearly seven feet diameter. Having
remained in their preparative state for two years, I was about
to have them transplanted, when, in the course of other im-
provements of ail agricultural nature upon the lawn where they
were to have been planted, it was considered proper to defer
putting trees there till these improvements were finished. As,
however, a continuation of a line of trees was necessary upon the
side of one of the approaches, Mr Dundas wished them put in
there, which I did by means of the pair of wheels with a pole,
termed a janker, not having any other machine for the purpose.
When 1 lifted these trees from their original site, I kept all the
young fibrous roots formed upon the circumference of the ball
as whole and undisturbed as possible ; not even removing any
particle of earth from among the young roots, except what could
not be avoided, in consequence of the nature of the machine
being imperfect, and not adapted for raising out of the ground
any heavy body of earth. Even with this machine, imperfect
as it was, I managed, by great care, and the assistance of a few
active stout men, to have the balls attached to the trees pretty
safely removed, and with the young roots comparatively unin-
jured.
As the seven trees, the number which I had previously pre-
pared for transplanting, were only about a fourth of the number
required for finishing the continuation of this line, and as Mr
Dundas wished the line finished in order to have the full effect
desired, I determined upon having that part done with trees
which had got no previous preparation of their roots. This was
done in as careful a manner as possible, removing all the earth
468 PREPARING LARGE TREES
with the roots as far as the nature of the machine was capable of
doing ; but, notwithstanding, these last are to this day decidedly
inferior to their neighbours which had their roots previously pre-
pared. It is now three years since these trees were removed, and
the seven which were previously prepared in the roots have not
shown the least symptoms of anything like a check, whereas the
others which received no previous preparation received a great
check ; their appearance even yet indicates a want of vigour, and
it may still be a considerable time before they thoroughly recover.
This at once points out that, in order to remove large trees safely,
and with the hope of future success, they must first be prepared
in their roots, or if not, the subjects acted upon will receive so
violent a check, that they will never after resume that healthy
character which is so desirable in park trees.
Having now said so much regarding the nature of removing
large trees, I shall conclude the present section by laying down a
kind of abstract of the manner of proceeding with the preparing
of large trees for transplanting, which, let it be understood, is the
system I have laid down for my own guidance, and is entirely
based upon the results of my own experience.
First, In choosing a tree of a large size for removing to another
place, I first see if it will be well clothed with branches ; for if
the branches be few, the roots will be correspondingly few.
Second^ If one or more of the branches forming the top appear
to bear an undue proportion to the main stem, I have such
shortened in by at least one third of their whole length, but never
in such a way, or to such an extent, as to give the tree a formal or
artificial outline. This I do with the view of reducing, as far as
consistent with good management, the demand for food upon the
roots after they have been cut in.
Third) Taking the perpendicular drip of the general mass of
the points of the branches, as the circumference of a circle round
the stem of the tree, after the strong limbs have been shortened
in, I next take two-thirds of that as the diameter of the ball of
earth to be left inside the trench to be formed.
Fourth) The circle being inscribed round the stem of the tree, I
next take out a trench, on the outside of that circle, from eighteen
FOR TRANSPLANTING. 469
to thirty-six inches broad, according to the size of the tree, keep-
ing the earth to the outside, and have all roots as they appear upon
the inside of the trench smoothly and carefully cut, and that to
such a depth as the roots of the tree may be found, which is
generally from two to three feet under the surface.
Fifth, The trench being made, I next pare off with the spade all
loose soil from the surface of the ball of earth now formed on the
roots of the tree ; and, at the same time, with a pick take away all
earthy parts of the ball in which no roots exist, with the intention
of putting in soil of a nature congenial to the growth of roots ;
and in order to encourage the more readily that growth on the
under part of the ball, I have it undermined to the extent of two
to three feet within the perpendicular, and the earth thrown out
to be replaced by better soil.
Sixth, All the parts of the work as above stated being finished,
I next bring forward, which is understood to have been previously
prepared, a quantity of any light vegetable mould, such as has
been already described, and have it put about the roots of the tree
to the extent and in the manner already detailed.
Seventh, If the trees be originally growing on a soil of a light
nature, which is naturally congenial to the production of nume-
rous roots, they may be safely removed in two years after the
roots have been cutin ; but if upon a soil of a heavy or clayey
nature, which is not so congenial to the growth of these small
roots, the trees so situated will be the better of remaining three
years in their preparative state ; for, as the original quantity of
roots was comparatively small, the more time will be required to
make good that deficiency in the good soil put in for that purpose.
Some will probably consider the system of preparing large
trees for transplanting, as herein laid down, an expensive opera-
tion ; but those who may, at the first glance, and without due
consideration, think so, may be assured that it is the cheapest and
most satisfactory plan in the end. There is no doubt but that
trees may be removed at a cheap rate from one place to another
without any such preparation as has been advised ; but the grand
question is, can they be otherwise more cheaply removed with an
equal hope of success as to the object in view ? I am not aware
470 METHOD OF TRANSPLANTING
that they can ; and this has been shown from the case of others, as
well as from the results of my own experience ; for it is most rea-
sonable to suppose, even by those who may have had no practical
experience of their own, that a tree removed from its original site,
having numerous small fibres formed at all the extremities of its
roots, must have a much greater assurance of future health than
one removed without any of these. No proprietor of judgment
and taste would hesitate one moment as to the outlay of a few
extra pounds upon such a work as the transplanting of large
trees, when he is aware that by the system of preparing their
roots he is likely to have the greatest amount of ultimate satisfac-
tion. The expense of preparing a tree of thirty feet high, for
transplanting in the manner advised, may stand thus : —
s. d.
Two men one day throwing out soil from the trench, at 2s., 4 0
Cartage of three loads of light soil, which need not be
valued, being the proprietor's own, . . .20
Two men one day putting in soil, etc., at 2s., . .40
10 0
The above valuation of the work is amply sufficient ; and where
men are accustomed to it for a time, it may be done for a much
smaller sum ; but even allowing that each tree, of thirty feet in
height, to be transplanted, should cost 10s. in order to secure its
future health, it is infinitely better spent upon that operation than
if no preparation had taken place ; and as the work of transplanting
large trees must in all cases be an expensive one, it is but right
that it should be done in a proper manner.
The next thing to be considered is the work of removing large
trees after they have been thus prepared : and this will constitute
the subject of the following section.
SECTION III. — METHOD OF TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES, AND DESCRIP-
TION OF MACHINE FOR PERFORMING THAT OPERATION.
At the beginning of the preceding section, I remarked that, as
improvements of the first importance in the removal of large
LAKGE TREE*. 471
trees, it appeared to me that some successful method should be
adopted whereby every recently made root adhering to the plant
at the period when it was to be taken out of its original site,
should be preserved entire and undisturbed through all the opera-
tion of transplanting ; and second, that a machine of great power
should be constructed, by means of which a whole tree, of what-
ever dimensions, with its ball of earth and roots, should be lifted
and conveyed in an upright and natural position, and laid down
in its new bed as entire as when taken up. Now, keeping this
in view, and having already pointed out the nature of preparation
that appears to me necessary for the safe removal of all large
trees — without which preparation every recently made root
adhering to the plant when it has to be taken out of the ground
for transplantation, cannot be preserved entire and undisturbed
through all the operation — I next come to point out how trees
thus prepared may be safely removed by means of a powerful
machine very recently invented.
For some years past I had been attempting to make a model
of a machine powerful enough for the safe removal of large trees,
upon the principle above stated — that of removing them with all
their roots entire and undisturbed as they were found after the
preparation had been effected. But not being able to produce
from my own hands anything at the same time simple and
effective enough for the purpose, I had just given up the attempt,
when I happily read, in the Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal of
the 15th December 1849, the following, being part of an article
by the editor : —
u There are few things more desirable, and perhaps none which
it is usually found more difficult to accomplish, than that of build-
ing a mansion on a bare knoll, and in the space of four or five
years giving to it the character and effect which, by the ordinary
process of nature in the growth of timber, requires a period of
thirty years or more. Desirable as this undoubtedly is — difficult,
impracticable, and wonderful as it may seem, it can be done.
" Our readers are aware that within the last few weeks we
have passed through some of the northern counties, and visited
such gardens on our way as appeared to claim our attention. As
472 METHOD OF TRANSPLANTING
one of those, we called at Kingston Hall, the seat of Edward
Strutt, Esq., Keg worth, near Derby. Here, then, we were
delighted to find the all but impossible thing to which we have
referred above, realised to an extent very much exceeding what
we had anticipated. In the early part of 1843 Mr Strutt com-
menced the erection of Kingston Hall, selecting for its site the
slightly elevated ground in the midst of the estate, where no
house or tree existed before. In due time the mansion was
reared, forming a structure, in the Elizabethan style, of very
considerable extent, designed by the well-known and eminent
architect Mr Blower. Nothing was done in the way of planting
until the house began to show its bulk and general outline ; and
at this juncture, doubtless, not a few persons would gravely sus-
pect that Mr Strutt had committed a serious mistake in building
a magnificent residence where he could not reasonably expect to
see trees much taller than himself during his own lifetime. How
far Mr Strutt, or those about him, foresaw the means of meet-
ing this objection, we are not prepared to say ; but in October
1844, a pair of large wheels was provided, in accordance with
the well-known plan of Sir Henry Stewart, recommended by
him in his celebrated work on the improvement of estates and
the transplanting of large trees. By means of this machine, about
twenty trees of various sizes, from fifty feet downwards, were
brought from St Helen's, one of Mr Strutt's estates, near Derby,
and that upon which he then resided, and planted at Kingston.
It was found, in the course of drawing these trees so great a
distance (thirteen miles) along the public highway, with many of
the branches frequently trailing upon the ground, that the latter
got seriously injured and broken ; nor did the trees themselves,
when replanted, succeed sufficiently to warrant any very extended
operation upon this plan. A new machine was therefore con-
structed, upon a principle somewhat similar to one invented
by Mr Barron, who has conducted the works at Elveston with
so much success. This new machine, which was built by Mr
Mackay, Mr Strutt's gardener, for the future operations of tree-
lifting at Kingston, is that represented in the accompanying
engravings, and has been employed at Kingston Hall, where,
LARGE TREES.
473
in the short period of four or five years, a bare knoll has been
transformed into a grove."
Fi<;. 104.
Pio. 105.
— i i
— s>'v —
END SECTION.
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"^1
474 METHOD OF TRANSPLANTING
Upon reading the article in the journal relative to the nature
of the machine used for transplanting trees at Kingston Hall,
part of which I have quoted above, my attention was at once
called to its great value to other proprietors who might have
work of the same kind to perforin in future; and I took the first
convenient opportunity of going to Kingston Hall to examine for
myself as to how far the machine referred to was likely to answer
the end in view — namely, that of its being in all respects adapted
for safely lifting trees of any size in the work of transplanting.
With this view, therefore, I went to Kingston Hall, and saw
Mr Mackay, the very intelligent gardener there, under whose able
directions all the work of transplanting with the machine had been
performed. He very kindly caused his men to have the machine
brought out and put into working order in my presence ; and, on
a thorough examination of its structure and working capabilities,
I am now led to say, from my own observations, that it is exactly
such a machine as I have long wished to see constructed ; and I
must also state, that it is in every respect adapted for the purpose
of lifting and transplanting large trees in the most safe and
efficient manner.
Mr Mackay has two machines which he has used in the trans-
planting of his large trees at Kingston Hall, both of the same
construction, but different in power ; the one used for transplant-
ing trees of twenty-five feet in height and under, and which may
be capable of safely removing a weight of about five tons ; the
other he has used for transplanting trees from thirty to forty feet
in height, which is capable of safely removing a weight of from
ten to fifteen tons — that is, including the tree and its ball of earth
attached. Trees of the latter weight Mr Mackay told me he had
removed ; and having examined these, I estimated that some of
them would weigh about fifteen tons, including the ball of earth.
Before entering into detail as to the manner of working the
machine, I shall first give a statement as to the nature of its
construction.
It consists of two pairs of wheels, each pair working upon a
strong axle of superior quality. In the largest machine as referred
to above, each pair of wheels is about nine inches broad in the rings.
LARGE TREES. 475
The pair situated on the front part (see engraving at b) are about
five and a half feet in diameter, and the pair situated on the
hinder part (see engraving at a) are about seven feet in diame-
ter, and distant from each other about fifteen feet ; thus making
the length of the machine, from the one axle to the other,
fifteen feet. On each of the axles is placed a strong frame, in
order to raise the horizontal bearers to a convenient height, and
at the same time with the view of making the whole machine
move in a workable manner. (See section of front frame k, and
section of back frame I.) The front frame, I may also state, is made
to turn upon a horizontal wheel, in the same manner as in the case
of a carriage, for the easy turning about of the machine in any
required direction, as is represented in the ground-plan of the tree-
lifter at m. Resting upon the frames, as is shown in the front and
back sections, and parallel to each other at a distance of about
two feet apart, are two strong beams of wood, about ten inches
deep by six broad. (See side elevation of the tree-lifter at c, and
also on the ground-plan at n n.) Those beams are fastened to the
frames placed above the fore and aft axles, by means of strong iron
bolts, which can be unscrewed as occasion may require; and, placed
across upon those horizontal beams, again, are two others, (see
ground-plan at o o,) into which the jack-screws are placed. The
screws are also shown in their working state in side elevation d d,
with their cross-handles for turning, c c. On the under part of
those jack-screws, as passed through the cross beams, arc attached
the strong chains by means of which the tree is principally taken
out of its place, (see p p)) and, as an assistant to them, there
are side chains attached to strong iron rings fixed upon the beams,
(see//.) Those side chains arc made to act along with the others
attached to the screws, and are also found necessary to retain the
weight of the tree and its ball of earth during the reversing of
the screws for a new hold. The horizontal planks upon which the
ball of earth rests, supported by the chains, are shown on side
elevation at g ; and the two cross planks, which are placed upon
the horizontal ones for the better support of the ball, arc also
shown at h h. Those planks require to be made of the best oak
wood, not less than four inches thick.
476 METHOD OF TRANSPLANTING
Having now given a brief description of the construction of
the machine as I examined it upon the spot, it remains to be
stated how the operation of transplanting a large tree is accom-
plished by it.
The work of transplanting a tree with the machine above
referred to, is perfectly simple and easily understood ; but as I
have not as yet myself had an opportunity of seeing the work
actually performed by that machine, I could not do better than
lay before my readers the manner of proceeding with the work as
detailed by Mr Marnock, the able and enterprising editor of the
journal formerly referred to, who visited Kingston Hall, and saw
the work performed. In the journal of the 22d December 1849,
he writes thus : — " In our last week's number we stated that
we had seen some elm-trees at Kingston Hall, the seat of
Edward Strutt, Esq., carried by the machine then represented, and
replanted in another situation about three-quarters of a mile from
the place where they had stood and grown for upwards of thirty
years. We further stated that these trees were forty feet in
height, and weighed each, including the ball of earth and the
machine, upwards of ten tons, and that they were drawn by nine
horses. We shall now, therefore, give the following details as to
how this was accomplished. The trees to which we now allude
were growing on the outskirt of a wood. The ground around the
tree was cleared, and at four and a half feet from the stem of the
tree a circular cutting was made to the depth of about three and a
half or four feet, and about two and a half feet in width. This
done, then on the most open side of the tree a sloped cutting was
made, from the surface of the ground to the bottom of what may
now be called the ball of earth, and a similar sloped opening was
made on the opposite side of the tree. The first of these sloped
cuttings was made for the purpose of drawing out the tree up this
slight incline to the surface of the surrounding ground. The cir-
cular opening in the earth around the tree, and the two sloping
roads on each side, being now prepared, the workmen commenced
to undermine the ball of earth ; this being done all around, four
stout oak planks, long enough, were placed under this ball of earth
in front and behind — that is, crossways to the direction of the
LARGE TREES. 477
machine ; and under these two others were placed lengthways,
with their ends in the direction to back and front of the machine.
It will now be understood that these four oak planks under the
ball of earth cross each other at their four extremities ; and around
their extremities, at each of the four corners, four sets of strong
iron chains arc fastened. A reference to the diagrams given last
week will assist in explaining this. The first set of chains brought
into play were those attached to the bottom of the jack-screws.
Being made as tight as possible over the ball of earth, they were
then hooked on the end of the jack. The two jacks were then
turned by two or four men each, as the case may require, until the
tree and the ball of earth were raised from the ground about six
or ten inches. The jacks were then permitted to rest, and what
is called the side chains were then put in requisition. These, as
we have already stated, are fastened to the planks under the ball
of earth, at the same point as the others, the opposite ends being
made fast to the side beams, as shown in the engraving. This
being done at the four corners, the jacks are then reversed, and
the first set of chains slackened : the weight of the earth and tree
is then sustained by the side chains. The first set of chains arc
again adjusted, and made as tight over the ball of earth as manual
power can effect. The jack is again run down, and again attached
to the chain at the lowest point it will reach. The jacks are once
more applied, and run up till the end of the screw has been com-
pletely worked up to the underside of the cross-beam on which it
rests. By this second lift the jacks have probably gained upon
the six or ten inches which they made at the first lifting, and the
bottom of the ball is now fifteen or twenty inches from the ground.
The side chains, which are now quite .slackened by the second lift
of the jacks, arc again made as tight as possible ; this accomplish" d.
and all securely and equally fastened to the side beams again, the
jacks are gentlv reversed, till the weight is equally divided betwixt
the side chains and the jack chains. The tree is now in a condi-
tion t.) be drawn out, unless it should be necessary to give it a third
lift with the jacks, so as to raise it still higher from the ground :
and if so, the side chains must always be attended to, as already
described. They may be properly called the guard-chains, as they
478 METHOD OF TRANSPLANTING
prevent accidents in the event of breakage of any of the jack
chains, when the former would take the weight of the tree, and
prevent its falling. About ten or fifteen feet up the stem of the
tree, four ropes extend from this point to the two front and two
back corners of the machine ; and this is all that experience has
found necessary to preserve the tree in its perpendicular position
during its transport on the machine to its future place of growth.
The perpendicular position of the tree is, however, very greatly
secured by the four side or guard chains. We have now to
describe the mode of introducing the stem of the tree within the
machine. This is effected in the following manner : The machine
is drawn as near to the tree as circumstances will allow ; it is then
taken to pieces by unscrewing the different bolts — that is, the main
horizontal beams are unfastened, and thrown over the wheels on
either side. The larger hind-wheels are then placed in their pro-
per position on the sloped cutting behind the tree, and the smaller
fore- wheels on the sloped cutting before the tree ; the large beams
are then lifted on to their places, one on either side of the tree,
and made secure with the iron bolts and the requisite fastenings.
The tree then stands with its stem betwixt the side beams, and
with a pair of wheels behind and another before. The chains and
jacks are then applied as already described, and thus the process
is complete. The next and only point deserving further allusion,
is that of planting or placing the tree where it is ultimately to
grow ; and this is effected in the following way : The hole, suffi-
ciently large to receive the ball of earth, is dug the necessary
depth ; then, on the opposite sides of the hole, a sloped cutting,
wide enough to admit the machine to be drawn down and through
it, is also provided. Into this cutting, therefore, the machine and
tree are drawn, and through which the team of horses first pass.
When the tree has reached the proper point, the machine is per-
mitted to rest ; props of brick or stones are then raised at the four
corners immediately under the ends of the cross planks. These
props may be three or five bricks in height ; and when all is pre-
pared in this way, the jacks are reversed, and the ball of earth
gradually lowered down, till the ends of the cross planks rest upon
the corner props, and the tree has taken its proper perpendicular
LARGE TREES. 479
position ; and this is effected by the raising or lowering; of these
corner props. All being- adjusted, any opening that may remain,
betwixt the bottom of the ball of earth and the bottom of the hole
provided for the tree, is filled up with earth ; the whole being made
firm around and under the roots of the tree. The brick or stone
props are then struck out, and the planks removed — a process
easily effected, as the tree now rests upon the earth which has been
placed under and about it. These planks are, however, well
ironed at each end, that, in case of any difficulty in their removal,
a horse or horses may be readily yoked, and the planks with-
drawn."
Having now, I think, fully explained the nature and working
capabilities of the machine, which I now beg to recommend for
the safe transplanting of large trees, I may further state, that I
am so thoroughly convinced of its proper adaptation for the pur-
pose, after having myself examined it minutely, that I am about to
have one made for our future transplanting operations upon the
estate of Arniston. Mr Mackay, at Kingston Hall, told me that
the larger machine, which is capable of removing a tree with its
ball of earth, of a weight varying from ten to fifteen tons, cost
about £60, and the smaller one, which is capable of removing a
weight of about five tons, cost about dC25 ; and it is evident that,
by increasing the strength and power of the machine, it may be
made to remove a tree of any given weight and dimensions. We
are thus now in possession of a machine vastly superior to any
other thing of the kind that has ever been introduced to the notice
of landed proprietors for the speedy ornamenting of their home
grounds ; and where proprietors will take the trouble to prepare
their trees in the roots, in the manner which I have recommended
in the section immediately preceding this, and allow them to remain
for two or three years, till the ball of earth has become one mass
of fibrous root, the whole may be then lifted, by means of this
machine, in one entire piece, without disturbing almost a fibre :
and any tree removed in such a favourable state will never show-
any symptoms of want of vigorous growth, which has not been the
case with most large trees hitherto planted OH principles which left
the young roots exposed and injured in the act of removal.
480 METHOD OF TRANSPLANTING
In lifting large trees which have been previously prepared in the
way recommended, care should be taken to open up the earth upon
the outside of the light good soil which was put in about the roots ;
that is, no part of that good soil should be disturbed in the act of
removing the tree, but it should be retained as part of the ball ;
and as the young roots will have pervaded it thoroughly, it will
easily adhere, and therefore can be safely removed along with the
tree. In all cases of transplanting large trees, the ground should
be made perfectly dry, when damp, by drainage, for their ultimate
success ; and where the soil into which the tree is to be planted is
of a heavy clay nature, the hole should be made large in propor-
tion to the size of the ball — say from four to five feet wider than
the ball, and this space should be filled up under, around, and
above the ball, with soil of a light character, which is always
found more congenial to the growth and spread of roots than a
heavy soil. At the same time, it is of importance to observe that,
in the case of planting trees upon a stiff clay soil, the roots should
be kept proportionally shallower in the hole than if they were
planted in a light soil. There is often an error committed by
planting trees too deep ; for my own part, I never put more than
about six or eight inches of soil over the top roots of large trees ;
and even in such circumstances, I have never had any disturbed
by the winds, so often complained of by planters. Yet I never
have used props of any kind, the weight of the ball being sufficient
to keep the tree in an upright position against the effects of the
weather on the top branches : this is the object gained by always
removing a ball proportioned to the top of the tree, and in such a
condition trees always thrive best. In putting the soil about the
roots of a large tree, when having it replanted, I have found it of
immense importance to its future health not to make it as put in
too compact, as is too frequently done, and which is quite incon-
sistent with the laws of nature. My method of procedure in this
case is as follows : When I have first about six or eight inches of
the soil put in about the roots in the bottom of the pit, I have it
given a good watering all over, making the whole, as it were, a
thick mortar. This being done, I put in another layer of the same
thickness, and again another watering alternately, until the whole
LARGE TREES. 481
is filled to the surface, when I give the whole a complete beating
with a heavy mallet. By this plan the water causes the particles
of soil to mix intimately among the roots, which has far more
effect than any tramping. When the whole is finished, I turf the
surface of the opening all over at once, and give a good watering
over it : the turf thus soon begins to grow, and, consequently,
excludes the drought better than any other plan which can be
adopted. Indeed, it is of first-rate importance for the better
securing of the speedy growth of large trees when transplanted,
to give repeated waterings over the surface of the ground above
and about their roots, during the first four months after removal,
and that more especially during very dry weather. As to the
time of the year most favourable for transplanting operations, my
opinion is, that any time between the 1st of November and the
middle of April, while the weather is fresh, is alike favourable ;
observing, however, to transplant those kinds of trees first which
come earliest into leaf in the spring.
As to the kinds of trees best adapted for safe transplanting, I
conceive that any kind whatever, if previously properly prepared
in the roots in the way I have recommended, may be with equal
success removed. The Turkey oak and the holly, when of large
size, have been considered uncertain subjects for safe removal ;
but by judicious preparation they may be transplanted with as
much hope of success as the lime-tree or the elm.
It sometimes happens, in the case of large trees that have been
transplanted, that they send out shoots from the crown of the roots,
and from the surface of the stem — thus at once indicating that the
constitution of the subject has received a violent check ; and in all
such instances, it will be at once observable, that the top branches
are not making healthy progress. In order to check this tendency,
all such young shoots should be at once removed, in order to force
the sap upwards ; for if they are allowed to grow on undisturbed,
they will appropriate a great proportion of sap to their own use as
it ascends, and consequently deprive the top branches of clue
nourishment.
2 ii
482 RENEWING THE HEALTH OF
SECTION IV. — METHOD OF RENEWING THE HEALTH OF OLD OR
DECAYING TREES.
As it is sometimes a matter of very great importance to those
who have the management of gentlemen's home-grounds, to know
what can best be done for the preservation and improvement of
favourite ornamental old trees, it may be useful for some into
whose hands this book may fall, to be made acquainted with the
method of adding new vigour to the impaired health of very old
or decaying trees. In the present section, therefore, I shall lay
down my own manner of procedure in such work.
Wherever it is desirable to have a tree that may be in a declin-
ing state resuscitated, or renewed in health, the first point in the
operation is, to have all dead branches cut clean away, and that as
far back upon each branch as to remove entirely all decidedly
dead and decaying portions, till the healthy wood appears at the
cut parts. Next, the bole of the tree, as well as all the larger
branches, should be scraped clean from all moss that may be
growing upon their surface ; and all the parts scraped should be
well washed down, beginning at the highest part, with a brush and
cold water, observing to make the bark perfectly clean. That
being done, a trench should in the next place be opened all round,
cutting the roots in the same manner, and at the proportionate dis-
tance from the stem, already described in treating of preparing
trees for transplantation. Supposing, then, that the roots have
been cut in, say six feet from the stem all round, making the
diameter of the ball of earth about the bottom of the tree twelve
feet, exclusive of the bole itself, the trench immediately upon the
outer circle of the ball should be made from five to six feet broad,
and as deep as to cut every root attached to the tree down even
under the subsoil, and as far as they may be found to exist, with-
out having any respect to rule in this point. In throwing the soil
out of the trench, the workmen should be instructed to lay all the
good portion (which may be the upper stratum) immediately upon
the outer edge of the trench opened, which will, in such a position,
be ready for mixing among any better soil that is afterwards to be
OLD OR DECAYING TREES. 483
put in. Beyond the good soil thrown out, all bad portions should
be thrown, and immediately carted off, before commencing to
fill in the trench about the roots again. The trench being made
of the proportions above stated, and all bad quality of soil removed,
the next thing is to have a mixture of the following kinds and
proportions of soils brought forward, and which, it is presumed,
has been previously in readiness for the purpose : — One part well-
rotted cow-dug, two parts half decomposed leaf-mould, and one
half part powdered lime ; or, in other words, to one barrow-load
of well rotted cow-dung, and two of half-decomposed leaf-mould,
add one-half barrow-load of lime in its powdered state, and in the
same proportion whatever quantity may be required. A compound
of the above description being previously prepared, and a suffi-
cient quantity of it brought forward, have it mixed up with an
equal quantity of the good portion of the soil which was thrown
out of the trench, and have the opening or trench entirely filled up
with this mixture ; observing in this case, as well as in the case of
transplanting the large trees formerly referred to, to give plenty
of water as the filling in of the new soil proceeds, and to give a
moderate tramping with the feet also. When the trench has been
filled to the level of the surface of the surrounding ground, have
the turf, growing upon the surface of the ball between the trench
and the stem, pared off to the depth of about four or five inches,
which turf may be thrown back on the top of the new soil; and
over all this have again about eight inches of the compost spread
over the whole extent from the stem of the tree to the outer cir-
cumference of the trench, making the ground upon that part eight
inches higher than the level of the surrounding ground ; and after
a good watering and tramping, the whole operation is finished.
In order to encourage as healthy a state of the trees as possible,
it is of great advantage to syringe repeatedly, and keep clean the
bark, by means of a brush and cold water, in the summer season ;
and even in the event of a continued tract of dry weather, to give
repeated waterings at the roots, more especially over the new soil
put into the trench, where of course the young roots will be making
rapid progress. By such a system of treatment I have seen old
trees, which to appearance were rapidly decaying, recover, and
484 FENCING OF PARK TREES.
assume quite a renewed state. This season I am about to operate
in this manner upon some very fine specimens of old hollies which
appear to be decaying ; and from what I have seen in the case of
other subjects formerly treated in the same manner, I feel confident
that their health will again be established.
In all cases of resuscitating old trees in the manner above
advised, it is of the greatest moment to have a drain made all
round the bottom of the trench before putting in the compost ; for
it sometimes happens, more especially if the original soil be of a
heavy character, that water will lodge in the bottom of the trench ;
and by simply making a drain, and leading it away by a proper
outlet, any danger of this kind may be prevented. If water were
allowed to lodge, the tree would, instead of improving, decay
more rapidly than if it had never been interfered with.
From my frequently visiting gentlemen's landed properties, I
have seen many old and ornamental trees which could be much
improved by dealing with them in the manner above detailed ;
and it is on this account I have given these few hints for the
improvement of such. Still, in order that proprietors may not be
too sanguine on the point under consideration, I may state that
there is a stage of unhealthiness and old age at which trees may
arrive, which will render them quite unfit for being recovered,
whatever means may be used for that purpose, discrimination
being necessary on the spot.
SECTION V. — FENCING OF PARK TREES, SO AS TO PROTECT THEM FROM
DEER, HORSES, CATTLE, &C.
There are few landed proprietors' seats in Britain so perfectly
adorned with all the known ornamental and useful sorts of trees,
that they may not now and then receive an additional embellishment
in the form of some new and highly interesting foreign species.
Indeed, however complete any proprietor's home parks may be as
to its collection of useful and ornamental trees, if he is of a highly
refined taste, he will frequently take pleasure in transferring good
specimens from the enclosures of his shrubberies, &c, where they
were almost hidden from view, to the open parks, where they are
FENCING OF PAKE TREES. 485
sure to develop themselves to advantage, and prove in no small
degree ornamental, by their contrast with other larger and more
common sorts, when judiciously arranged among them. In order
to protect such specimens from being injured by cattle that may
be grazing on the park where they are planted, it is of primary
importance for their future welfare that they have a fence of some
sort put about them for a time at least. It is more particularly
under such circumstances that I would here recommend the
fencing of trees on a park ; for it must be admitted, that a tree
growing without any protection whatever, is in all cases a more
agreeable object than one having a fence about it. Wherever,
therefore, it is found necessary to have single trees protected for a
time from the effects of animals roaming about them, that should
be done upon the most ornamental principle that can be devised.
There are various methods and forms practised for the protec-
tion of single trees — from the simple wooden posts with rails, to
the neat and highly ornamental, and, I may say, almost invisible
fence of iron. It would be altogether superfluous to enter into
detail here upon all the varieties of fences, or guards, as they are
sometimes called, in general use for protecting single trees. I shall
therefore confine my observations to the description of three sorts
— namely, the octagonal, the square, and the circular.
The names, as given above, merely indicate the shape of each
sort ; therefore, in order to illustrate their size and general con-
struction, it will be necessary to give a Figure of each, with a few
remarks subjoined, relative to how they are applied in protecting
trees, the materials of which they may be made, and the expense
of erecting in each case, according to strength and height.
Figure 106 is a plan of the octagonal form of tree-guard, as we
have them made for protecting very young specimens in the lawn
at Arniston ; and it is an exceedingly ornamental form when well
made. We make them of small larch thinnings, in the following
manner: —
The tree is planted in the centre of the octagon, as shown at ",
in Figure 106, and also at a in Figure 107, which last is a section
of the side elevation of the plan. The open circle about the tree is
marked off upon the ground about two feet in diameter, around
486
FENCING OF PAEK TREES.
which small stobs are driven in so as to form an octagon in that
part, as at &, in each Figure. These stobs may be from two to
Fig. 10G.
Fig. 107.
three inches diameter, according to the strength required, and
from twelve to eighteen inches high above ground. The eight
small stobs being driven into the ground so as to form an octagon
of about two feet diameter, corresponding ones will next require
to be driven in upon the outer circle, as shown in each of the two
Figures at c c : these may also be from two to three inches dia-
meter, and from two to three feet high above ground, according to
strength required ; that is, according as there may be sheep only to
guard against, or deer, &c. The octagon being formed by the
stobs being driven in both upon the inner and outer circles, and
the diameter of the Figure made, measuring from any two of the
extreme points, say ten feet, the next part of the work is, to have
bearers nailed on between each corresponding pair of stobs, as
shown in each of the Figures at J, d. These may be of the same
strength of wood as the stobs upon which they rest their ends.
Next, a top rail is to be nailed on the outer stobs, as at e, e, in
each of the figures, all round, so as to bind the whole together,
which top rail we shall suppose to be two and a half inches dia-
meter. The other three courses of rails, as shown at fy g, and h,
should be made proportionally of a smaller size as they recede
downwards to the centre, which gives the work a neater and
lighter appearance than if the whole were made of one dimension.
In the Figure above, there are only four horizontal courses of
FENCING! OF PARK TREES.
487
rails shown ; but iii this matter the taste of the proprietor may bo
consulted ; at the same time keeping in view, that it* the eight
spaces forming the outer boundary of the octagon arc not made
proof against the encroachment of sheep, the horizontal spars upon
the inside slope must he made so ; and also that, if it he loiind
necessary to make the octagonal guard proof against the encroach-
meut of rabbits, hares, &C, that is vcr y simply attained by driv-
ing in a tew extra small stobs on the inner circle forming the
octagon immediately about the tree. The eight squares forming
the outer boundary of the octagon may be made of an ornamental
character, and of any design the taste of the proprietor or his
forester may suggest. As to the merits of this description of tree-
protector, besides being very ornamental, it is of all others the best
adapted for the admitting- of free and uneonlined spaeo about a
young plant ; the whole body receding from the plant as, it were,
and yet producing perfeet protection at the same time. I would,
therefore, reeounneud it before all other forms lor young specimens
requiring free and open and uneonlined space for the development
of their branches. In parks where large cattle are grazing, the
diameter of the octagon should be increased, so as to prevent them
from reaching (lie branches of the i,.|( |,m>
plant ; ami in such a case, in order
that the grass growing upon the
ground occupied by the octagon may
be made serviceable to sheep, it is only
necessary to Leave open the -paces
between the stobs forming the outer
boundary of the Figure. The ex-
pense of erecting octagonal kree-pro-
tectors is but trifling; for the wood
being laid down, a man will easily
make one in ;i day.
Fig. LOS represents the square,
or four-sided form of tree-protector,
which is not adapted tor very yOUUg
tree-;, but for trees of a considerable
size only, and such as have a stem
***&•
I '
488
FENCING OF PARK TREES.
Fig. 109.
free of branches. They may be constructed of small larch thin-
nings, as in the former case, and of any convenient strength
according to the kinds of cattle to be kept back ; say of wood
two inches diameter, and three feet high above ground for sheep,
and of two and a half inches diameter, and from four to five feet
high for deer, horses, or oxen. The spars may be put in all
vertically, or with four uprights, one at each corner, and having
others nailed on at convenient and proper distances, horizontally,
according as taste may suggest.
In erecting these, care should be had to keep them at least six
inches from the stem of the tree at any given part ; for if put too
close on, animals will sometimes gnaw the bark through between
the spars, or peel it off with their horns.
Fig. 109 represents the circular form of tree-protector, and is
adapted for trees of a considerable size only,
as in the case of the square form, already
referred to. They are sometimes made with
spars altogether vertical, having a hoop
to bind them together on the top, and some-
times with four or more upright stobs driven
into the ground, bound by hoops at regular
intervals between top and bottom, as in
the case of the Figure here given — this, of
course, being altogether a matter of taste.
Both the four-sided and the circular forms of
tree-protectors are of very simple construc-
tion, and may be made by any forester by
means of small larch thinnings from the young
plantations; and any active man will make at
least six in a day. In what has been stated
above relative to tree-guards, I have con-
sidered them to be made of wood only ; but
where a superior style is an object, they should
be made of iron, painted green, so as to
make them almost invisible at any consider- !
able distance. Made of iron, they could not, of course, be so neatly
done and fitted up by any forester; therefore those proprietors
EFFECTS OF UNDERWOOD ON PLANTATIONS. 489
who wish to have tree-guards of an elegant, light, and airy appear-
ance, I would recommend to apply to Messrs Charles D. Young
and Company, iron manufacturers, 128 High Street, Edinburgh,
and 22 Parliament Street, Westminster, London, who keep on
hand, for the purpose, a great variety of beautifully fitted-up
articles of the kind, at various prices, according to strength
and height, &c I have at present one of the catalogues of the
above-named firm before me, in which the price of the tree-guards
of the square and circular forms are stated at from 10s. to 15s.
The octagonal form is not, however, mentioned in their list now
before me ; but I should suppose that, to make it of iron, it would
cost at least 60s.
SECTION VI. — EFFECTS OF UNDERWOOD ON THE HEALTH OF
TREES IN A PLANTATION.
By the term undencood, is implied bushes of a woody habit
growing under timber trees. It may consist of two kinds —
namely, perfect plants of a naturally low and branchy cha-
racter, as the privet, rhododendron, holly, &c. ; or shoots issuing
from the stoles of trees which may have been cut down in thin-
ning, as in the case of neglected coppice. In whichever of the
above forms underwood may be found in a plantation among
growing timber trees, it is capable, under certain circumstances
of management, of becoming of much ultimate good or harm to
the health of the trees under which it may be growing. In a
plantation of considerable extent, if underwood be allowed to
grow up in such a profusion as to impede a free passage of air
through the trees, its effects must be of the very worst descrip-
tion, and must ultimately be productive of many premature deaths
among them ; and even those that may grow up healthily, must
afterwards be found inferior in the quality of their timber, from
the want of a proper amount of air by which perfectly to mature
the wood. On the other hand, a plantation of trees of rather
small extent, more particularly if upon an exposed and high-lying
situation, is much improved in health by having a well-regulated
quantity of underwood growing among the trees, more especially
490 PLANTS BEST FITTED FOR UNDERWOOD.
if that is planted upon such points as are most exposed to
cutting winds. But even in such situations, an injudicious quan-
tity of underwood would certainly prove injurious to the health
of the trees; for let it be understood, that most plants of the
character of underwood naturally emit a great quantity of fibrous
matted roots, which have the effect of impoverishing the soil to a
great extent, and also of excluding a due portion of air from the
roots of the trees under which they grow. In the introducing,
therefore, of underwood into a plantation among trees which are
wished to be kept in a healthy state, judicious management is
required. A due proportion of well-chosen plants as underwood,
is in all cases both ornamental and useful in a plantation, and
may be attended with the very best effects ; but an over-quan-
tity is in all cases void of ornament, indicates confusion, and,
instead of being useful, becomes a nuisance both to the proprietor
in seeking after recreation, and to the forester while in the act of
removing his trees. Having now merely adverted to the effects
of underwood upon the health of trees in a plantation, which was
all I aimed at in the present section, I shall in the next point out
how underwood may be managed for the health of trees, and at
the same time point out the plants best fitted for the object in
view.
SECTION VII. — KINDS OP PLANTS BEST FITTED FOR UNDERWOOD, AND
HOW THEY MAY BE PLANTED IN A WOOD SO AS TO PRODUCE USEFUL
AND ORNAMENTAL EFFECT.
Having in the foregoing section made a few remarks as to
the effects of underwood in plantations, and shown that it may
be made to produce either good or bad effects, it still remains to
be indicated how the plants generally termed underwood may be
disposed of among trees so as to prove both useful and ornamental.
But before doing so, I shall give a list of the different kinds of
plants which are known to thrive under the shade of trees, and
are therefore termed underwood.
PLANTS BEST FITTED FOR UNDERWOOD.
491
Names of Species.
Aucuba Jafonica,
Laurel Bay,
Box Tree,
Dogwood,
Ivy,
Holly, .
Portugal Laurel,
Evergreen Privet,
Laurustinus,
Rhododendron,
Jumper,
Yew Tree,
Arborvit.k,
Butcher's Broom,
Alder,
Scotch Rose,
Mahonia Aquifolium,
Nature of Soil in which
they thrive best.
Any loamy soil, if dry.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Bare rocky parts.
Rich loam.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Peat soil.
Very light sandy soil.
Sandy loam.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Rich loam.
Ditto.
The above-named are the most important of the class of shrubs
generally called underwood ; and these are, with the exception of
the dog-wood, alder, and Scotch rose, all evergreens. In planting
any of these shrubs with a view to produce shelter upon any
given point, the holly or alder should be chosen, because they
are the most hardy for that purpose. "Where it is wished to cover
any bare rocky part in a plantation with the view of forming cover
for game, and of producing an ornamental effect at the same
time, the ivy, juniper, yew tree, and Scotch rose should be planted,
all these thriving well on such parts ; and where general groups
of underwood are wanted anywhere along the sides of forest
rides, the other sorts may be used.
The common system of planting underwood is that of
scattering promiscuously among the trees individual specimens,
without any regard to order. To this system I object, because
it is neither of an ornamental nor a useful character. I am
aware that this is done with the view of producing a general cover
throughout for the protection of game, but it is seldom that the
plants so dealt with grow so well as either to form a respect-
able cover, or to be ornamental as specimens; and, besides, where
underwood is found thus generally scattered over a plantation,
it has more the effect of retarding and interrupting the progress of
the proprietor and his friends while going through, than of adding
492 PLANTS BEST FITTED FOR UNDERWOOD.
to their recreation. I would therefore advise, as an improvement
on this point of forestry, the following method, which is decidedly
both ornamental and useful : — First, Upon any exposed point,
where it may be advantageous to have underwood grown for
the purpose of producing shelter, have hollies planted, say at eight
feet apart, and made up between with firs to four feet over all.
The firs will have the effect of producing shelter to the hollies for
a few years, and thereby cause them to grow up more quickly
than they would do otherwise ; and as the nurses advance upon
the others, they can be thinned out and gradually dispensed with
altogether. If the situation happen to be one too much exposed
to allow of hollies attaining a useful and ornamental size, and
yet one where it is particularly desirable that underwood should be,
plant birch, which will be certain to grow well and form under-
wood, while upon more favourable parts the holly may be planted
as above stated. Second, where underwood is wanted in the
interior of a plantation, either for the purpose of cover for game
or for ornament, plant clumps of laurel bays, hollies, Portugal
laurels, and evergreen privets ; keeping each kind separately in
a mass by itself, to the extent of from one-sixteenth to one-
eighth of an acre. Where such masses are planted, the trees
should be almost altogether dispensed with, leaving perhaps only
one tree in the centre of each mass of evergreens ; for let it be
understood, that although the plants above named will generally
grow under the shade of trees, they are more apt to live long
and become bushy healthy plants when the trees are kept well off
them. Third, at convenient intervals along the sides of the
forest-rides, have groups of various sizes planted, giving these
various bendings of a natural character, like plots in a flower-
garden ; and at well-chosen points of view from the roads, have
slight openings made, so that masses of evergreens in the interior
of the wood may be brought into sight. In thus disposing the
underwood plants into masses, care should be had to keep all the
low-growing sorts next to the rides — that is, such as the rhodo-
dendrons, mahonias, roses, laurustinus, and aucubas; and in order
that a natural variety may be produced by the plants of each
species being congregated in a mass, two or three arborvitses
TLANTS BEST FITTED FOR UNDERWOOD. 493
may be put in as prominent plants in a group now and then,
which would produce a pleasing and graceful effect ; while, in
some cases, a tree growing in the centre of such a group might be
clothed with ivy, which has also a graceful effect in a wood.
Having thus briefly stated my views as to the disposition of
underwood in plantations, it yet remains for me to show the
advantages of such a system over the usual way of planting them
without any regard to order. Where bushes of any kind are
found growing as it were at random, in a plantation among
trees, they have in all cases the effect of retarding arboricultural
operations, and that to a very great extent, as I have myself
often experienced ; and, besides, they have a great tendency to
prevent a free current of air passing through among the trees,
causing, as it were, a stagnated state of air. Now, by the system
of growing underwood in small masses as I have recommended
above, these bad effects are prevented ; for, as it is understood
that these masses are to be grown at pretty wide intervals, the
air will have free access to all the trees growing in the spaces
between them, and wood operations can at the same time be
carried on without interruption. Again, the proprietor and his
friends, when in pursuit of game, can have no straggling thickets
of bushes to annoy them ; but when any of the covers are beat,
they have open and uninterrupted spaces between each group ;
while the underwood, in consequence of being planted in masses,
with few trees in their immediate vicinity to injure their growth,
will be much more bushy, and will form a better cover than
bushes scattered singly over the ground. In an ornamental point
of view, the system which I here recommend is infinitely superior.
By having shrubs planted singly and at random over the ground
in a plantation among trees, there is a continued sameness and
confusion presented to the eye ; but when planted in well-defined
masses, each species by itself, there may be made a continual and
never-ending variety in the scene ; for the eye, instead of resting
upon a confused sameness, at once alights upon a beautiful and
compact mass of foliage, having its outline perfectly portrayed
on the space beyond among the tall trees, beyond which another
mass may appear in the distance. This part of forestry is generally
494 RULES FOR CUTTING DOWN
too little attended to, and that for no other reason than that taste
is required to bring it out ; but it is to be hoped that this state of
things will improve.
SECTION VIII. — RULES AND REGULATIONS NECESSARY TO BE OBSERVED
IN THE CUTTING DOWN AND SELLING OP TIMBER.
The cutting down and disposing of timber forming, as it were,
the harvest of forest operations, and much of the value of that
harvest depending upon the manner in which it is done, it is of
very great importance that the principles upon which it ought to
be conducted should be well understood.
Since publishing the first edition of this book in 1847, I have
been very much called out by landed proprietors for the purpose
of giving them advice relative to the manner in which the sales
of their timber should be conducted ; and as I have not in the
first edition entered into any minute practical details relative
thereto, I consider it highly important that I should do so now,
seeing that information upon that point is sought after by landed
proprietors in general.
There are two ways of disposing of timber — viz., by Public
Eoup and by Private Bargain, both of which ways may be
put into practice, upon any given place, according to local circum-
stances, to profitable account ; but, generally speaking, where
there is a large quantity of timber to dispose of at once, and
more especially when it is of a mixed character, the greatest
amount of money will be realised by the proprietor when he dis-
poses of it by public roup. At public roups, there are in all cases
people collected who are in quest of various sorts of wood, from
the smallest size to the largest, consequently a competition takes
place among them, which generally brings each lot to its value
before being sold. As to the manner of conducting public and
private sales of wood, I shall here give my own method of pro-
cedure, beginning first with the selling of wood by public roup.
We shall presume then, in the first place, that the timber to be
disposed of consists of thinnings of various sizes, as to be taken
AND SELLING TIMBER. 495
from plantations of several different ages, and of different kinds
of wood; and also presuming that the work of cutting is to be
Let by contract, the trees, of course, having been previously marked
by an experienced forester. I beg it to be understood here,
that I do not mean to say that the cutting of all trees should
be let by contract, for where there is an experienced forester upon
an estate it is not necessary to do so ; but where there does not
happen to be such, I often find it necessary to have the cutting of
wood let ; and in such cases I find it necessary to bind the con-
tracting party to do the work in the manner and according to
the rules laid down in the following form of specification : —
SPECIFICATION of "Work to be done in the cutting clown and preparing
Timber for Public Sale, on the Estate of D e, November 1850.
Article 1. The trees to be cut for public sale are marked with white paint,
and will be pointed out to the contractor by A B, residing at the
East Lodge, D e.
Art. 2. All the trees marked in the park must be cut down with the cross-
cut saw. In the young plantations the trees marked may be cut
down with the axe, excepting those that are at and above six inches
diameter at the ground, all which must also be cut down with the
cross-cut saw.
Art. 3. Each tree, previous to being cut over with the saw, must be laid in
with the axe to the level of the surface of the ground, and then cross-
cut to that level.
At*. 4. Any damage done to the standing trees by the falling of the others,
or otherwise, shall be charged against the contractor at the rate of
double the market value of each tree injured ; and any damage done
to the trees taken down by the careless work of the people employed,
shall also be charged against the contractor at a rate equal to the
deterioration in value caused by such damage.
Art. 5. Each tree, as it is cut down, mast be neatly pruned from all side
branches, and the bole laid entire along the side of the road, in order
for sale — no cross-cutting of the bole being allowed.
Art. 6. The side branches, as tiny are taken from the trees, must be
arranged into lots in order for sale, to the satisfaction of the above-
named A B, or any person named by the proprietor.
Art. 7. All implements, as well as horses, ice, that may be required for
the performing of the work, to be famished by the contractor.
496 RULES FOR CUTTING DOWN
Art. 8. The oak trees marked are not to be cut down till the usual time
of peeling in the summer, nor under the present agreement.
Art. 9. All the trees marked, excepting the oak, to be cut down and
arranged into lots for sale, in the manner as detailed above, for the
sum of three shillings per pound sterling, of the amount of roup-
roll, and to be finished and in readiness for sale on or before the 26th
day of December next.
Art. 10. All disputes or differences that may arise as to the due execu-
tion and fulfilment of the foregoing articles, shall be referred to the
determination of Mr J. 0., forester at M h, whose decision
thereon shall be final.
The above form requires to be signed by the contractor and
witnesses in the usual manner.
By going to work in the way above specified, I have had many
plantations thinned and the wood prepared for sale, and that in a
very efficient manner ; of course, always employing a person who
could do the work well, and who had been accustomed to work of
the same kind before.
The person having the oversight should see that each sort is
arranged into separate lots by itself; and no individual lot should
contain less timber than twenty-five cubic feet, in order that
there may be a cartload for the purchaser ; and each individual
tree should be pruned out to the full length.
I have often had occasion to observe at sales of timber, that where
large trees had been cross-cut to a particular length for the sake of
convenience in having them removed from the interior of the wood
to the side of the nearest road, they never sold nearly so well as others
of the same dimensions and quality which had been left entire.
The reason is, that purchasers of timber, when they have it in
long lengths, can always apply it to many more purposes than
they can do short lengths ; therefore this is a point that should
be strictly attended to in the preparing of wood for sale, because
the value of trees may be much deteriorated by injudicious short-
ening of their boles.
All timber of good quality should be lotted separately from
that of indifferent quality. Let good timber be sold in lots by
itself, and inferior timber in the same manner ; and if possible,
whatever number of cut trees may be put into a lot, let them be
AND SELLING TIMBER. 497
nearly of an equal size. The great advantages arising from such
a system of arranging the wood into equal sizes and qualities,
will appear evident when I say, that if a purchaser come to a sale
of wood with the view of buying, say one lot of good small ash
for handle-wood, and found the kind he wished to purchase mixed
up with other inferior trees in the same lot, he might of course
buy the lot in which he saw a few trees suitable for his purpose,
but he would reckon nothing upon the value of the inferior trees
sold along with them, he having of course no use for such ; and
the same may be said of any other sorts mixed up in an unscien-
tific manner. But where each sort is arranged according to its
particular use and quality, the full value of each may be readily
got from different people who may have a use for the different
sorts.
When trees are laid together in the way of lotting out for sale,
the bottoms and tops should all be laid one way, and that in a
regular manner, so that the purchasers may see at a glance the
size and quality of the wood they may wish to purchase.
All lots of wood prepared for public sale should be carried out
of the plantations, and put upon the sides of the nearest roads,
for the convenience of purchasers getting to them with their carts;
which arrangement is always in favour of the wood bringing a
high price.
After the wood has been all lotted in the manner advised above,
each lot should be numbered and entered to a corresponding
number in a book made out for the purpose ; at the same time
stating the kind of wood that each lot consists of, with the number
of trees in each, and the medium value of the same. In order to
illustrate this sort of book, as used by me, I shall here give a
statement from my own, as taken from a sale of wood which we
had at Arniston the other day. Such a statement, I am aware, will
prove interesting and useful both to proprietors and young
foresters who may wish to have information on the point.
2 i
498
RULES FOR CUTTING DOWN
Wood Lotted and Numbered for Sale at Arniston, 15th
November 1850.
Number
on each
Lot.
Number
of Trees
in each
Lot.
Kinds of
Timber in
each Lot.
Names of Purchasers.
Forester's
Valuation.
Value as sold
at Sale.
£
.?.
,i.
£
s.
d.
1
5
Oak
John Philip, Bonnyrigg,
0
15
0
0
14
0
2
3
Do.
Do.
0
18
0
0
16
0
3
3
Do.
Do.
1
0
0
1
4
0
4
6
Do.
Do.
1 1
0
0
0
17
0
5
2
Do.
Robert Grindlay, Roseberry
1
6
0
1
10
o
6
11
Ash
Do.
0
12
0
0
13
0
7
7
Elm
Mr Coldwells, Gorebridge
0
13
0
0
13
6
8
1
Larch
John Philip
0
18
0
1
2
0
9
1
Ash
Mr Galbraith, Edinburgh
1
1
0
1
4
0
10
1
Do.
Do.
2
10
0
3
0
0
11
0
Firewood
Mr Dalgleish, Gilmerton
0
3
(1
0
3
6
12
0
Do.
Do.
0
4
0
0
3
9
13
1
Elm
Thomas Johnson, Temple
1
8
0
1
15
0
14
1
Plane
John Philip
2
10
0
2
15
0
15
1
Do.
John Carrick, Glasgow
7
10
0
8
12
6
16
1
Larch
John Philip
2
15
0
3
0
0
17
1
Do.
Do.
3
15
0
4
5
0
18
1
Ash
Mr Galbreath
8
15
0
12
0
0
19
1
Beech
Mr Easton
2
0
0
1
15
0
20
8
Spruce fir
John Philip
1
4
0
1
0
0
21
7
Beech
Mr Coldwells
0
10
0
°
6
0
41
7
0
47
9
3
The foregoing statement, taken from my note-book, will at
once point out how I am in the habit of arranging and conducting
sales of wood made by public roup.
The first three columns of the statement given, with my own
valuation, are all filled up previous to the day of sale ; and upon
the day of sale I follow the auctioneer, and fill up the other two
columns which were left blank ; that is, I then enter the pur-
chasers' names opposite each lot, and the price given ; and as the
clerk of the sale keeps also an account of the same, my book forms
a check upon him in case of any mistake occurring ; and, besides,
such a book kept by the forester becomes a guide both to himself
and the proprietor, for the purpose of ascertaining if the wood sell
at a fair price or not.
Relative to public sales of wood, it yet remains for me to state
how they should be advertised and made known to the public ;
and this should be always done about ten days previous to the
day of sale, so that time may be given for its being properly made
known. The following is the form of intimation which I made
AND SELLING TIMBER. 499
regarding the sale which we had at Arniston the other day. Its
insertion may prove useful here to other foresters who may have
occasion to give intimation of the same kind for their wood
SALE OF WOOD.
There will be sold by Public Roup,
ON THE ESTATE OF ARNISTON,
Near Fusliie Bridge,
On Frid:iy the loth November,
A large quantity of Timber, consisting of Sycamore, Ash, Larch, and Beech,
of large dimensions ; a considerable quantity of Oak adapted for trams,
spokes, and other country purposes ; Ash for handle-wood ; Larch,
Scotch, and spruce Fir, fit for deals, roofing, lire.
The above will be exposed in lots to suit purchasers. The Sale
■svill begin at Braidwood Bridge, under Temple Village, exactly at ten
o'clock forenoon.
T. D., Auctioneer.
Aknibtoh, 31s? October 1850.
In order that such an intimation may be made properly public,
it should be inserted in one or two of the local newspapers, and
printed forms put up along the public thoroughfares, and sent to
people who are known to be in the habit of buying wood.
Wc shall now suppose that all the wood intended for a sale has
been cut and arranged in the manner advised above, and that due
intimation has been given relative to the same ; particularly
observing to make a fair statement of the kinds of wood to be
sold. The next important point the forester will have to attend
to is, the articles and conditions of sale. The following is the
form by which, upon the estate of Arniston, we are in the habit
of exposing our wood to public sale.
ARTICLES and CONDITIONS of Sai.f. of Wood on the Estate of
Aiimm'iin, to be exposed for Bale <>n this L6th day of November 1850.
Art.\. The wood to be put up in lots, and at such upset prices, as the
company may think fit, and sold to the highest bidder, who Bhall l"'
bound to implement the following conditions : —
Art. 2. Bach lot to be at the entire risk of the purchaser thereof as booh as
ealled down by the auctioneer ; but none of the lots to be interfered
with until a settlement for the same be made to the satisfaction of
the exposer, his agent, and judge of the roup.
500 RULES FOE CUTTING DOWN
Art. 3. The exposer reserves one bode on each lot for his own behoof, and
also power to adjourn the sale if he shall see cause.
Art. 4. Any damage done to the plantations, gates, or fences, in the
removal of the wood from the ground or otherwise, shall be paid for
by the purchaser against whom such loss or damage can be qualified,
the master being always accountable for his servant.
Art. 5. Purchasers shall be allowed six weeks from the day of sale to
remove their purchases from the ground ; and should any purchaser
fail in having his purchases removed by the time above specified, he
shall forfeit his offer of purchase, and be liable to the exposer in
one-fifth part of his offer of purchase in name of penalty ; and the
exposer shall have it in his power to do with each lot or lots as he
may think proper for his own benefit. The first offerer, notwith-
standing, shall remain bound for the original price.
Art. 6. Purchasers, if required, shall pay to the clerk of sale one-fifth of
the price of each lot as a deposit.
Art. 7. All sums at and below ten pounds sterling to be paid ready money ;
and for all sums above ten pounds, three months' credit will be allowed
on bill and caution being granted to the satisfaction of the exposer,
his agent, and judge of the roup. Purchasers paying ready money
shall be allowed sixpence per pound on all sums above five pounds.
Art. 8. A person duly authorised to point out the lots and receive payment
of the same shall be in attendance every lawful day between the
hours of seven o'clock morning and five o'clock evening during the
time before specified.
Art. 9. Purchasers to meet with the exposer's agent and judge of the roup
on Wednesday the 20th next, between the hours of twelve and two
o'clock, in the "White Hart Inn, Grassmarket, Edinburgh, and the
Cross Keys Inn, Dalkeith, on Thursday following, at the same hours,
to settle for their purchases. Those, however, wishing to settle
immediately after the sale will be accommodated.
Art. 10. Purchasers to pay the bill stamps their respective sums may
require.
Art. 11. T. D. is hereby appointed judge of the roup, with full power to
settle all differences that may arise between the purchasers and exposer,
or between the purchasers themselves ; and his decision shall be bind-
ing, withoiit the power of appeal to any court of law.
In witness whereof,
(Signed)
What I have stated in the foregoing' part of this section is only
applicable, properly speaking, to the sale of wood which has been
cut ; but it is frequently found convenient and necessary to expose
AND SELLING TIMBER. 501
wood in a growing or standing state also. In such a case, the
only difference is, in the selling of it, to publish a form, stating the
kinds and number of each kind to be sold, and what purposes they
may be most applicable for ; and, at the same time, it is necessary to
give in such a case intimation, stating who will point out the trees
upon the ground to intending purchasers before the day of sale.
For the information of young beginners, it may not be out of
place for me here to give another form of advertisement appli-
cable to the selling of growing or standing timber.
SALE OF WOOD
ON THE ESTATE OF D .
There will be exposed to sale by public roup, on Friday the 27th
current,
Within the White Hart Inn, Edinburgh,
At One o'clock afternoon,
3000 Standing Trees of Larch and Scotch Fir, fit for railway sleepers,
roofing, joisting, boards, <kc.
The above wood will be exposed in twelve lots to suit purchasers.
W. II., forester upon the estate, will point out the lots previous to the
day of sale ; and further particulars may be learned on application to J. N.,
20, Street, Edinburgh.
D , lOfA Se)»Umber 1850.
In the same manner, any sorts of trees may be given intima-
tion of for sale, always observing particularly to state for what
purposes the trees to be sold are applicable. Oak and other coppice
woods are generally sold by the acre, or they may be sold in lots
to any certain or convenient extent, mentioning about the number
of acres in each lot, which should be all valued previous to the day
of sale : such sales of coppice may be made in the month of April
or May. Having said thus much relative to public sales of wood,
it yet remains for me to make a few remarks as to the conducting
of wood sales by private bargain upon gentlemen's estates.
In the selling of timber by private bargain, it is generally done
at a certain rate per cubic foot, according to kind and quality ; or
it may be done at so much per tree, or so much for a certain
number of trees ; and in this case the trees are, of course, valued
by the forester previous to making bargain with the purchaser.
In some cases where I have had a quantity of timber to dispose of,
502 RULES FOR CUTTING DOWN
and which was to sell by private bargain, I have taken private
offers for the same from different parties who were inclined to have
it, and, of course, sold to the person who gave the highest price
for the whole.
The above remarks are applicable only to wood as it is sold in
the round or rough state ; but the selling of wood by private bar-
gain, when cut up into various scantlings at saw-mills, is very dif-
ferent, and sometimes a matter of considerable difficulty to young
foresters. Therefore, for their assistance, I shall here give a few
statements, showing how they may be able to calculate the fair
value of timber, of any scantling, as they may have occasion to
sell it from saw-mills under their charge.
We shall suppose that a forester is in the habit of getting Is. 2d.
per cubic foot for his larch timber, as sold lying in the plantations
in the round state, and that he has charge of a saw-mill, at which
he wishes to cut up his larch for sale to various sorts of scantlings
as may be required. We shall further suppose that he wishes to
learn at what rate he should sell the cubic foot of sawn timber, so
as to have at least the same profit to the proprietor off the cut
timber that he is in the habit of realising from the round. In
order to illustrate this point in as clear a manner as possible, we
shall suppose that the forester has lying cut, in one of the planta-
tions under his charge, say one mile distant from the saw-mill,
one hundred and fifty cubic feet of larch timber, which he values at
Is. 2d. per cubic foot, or at £8, 15s. for the lot, being the sum he
could realise for it in the forest, independent of any further trouble.
The question now is — At what rate per cubic foot should this larch
be sold, after being carted from the woods and cut up at the mill,
so as to realise the original price, and cover all necessary expenses ?
The following statement will form an answer to the question : —
To two horses and carts, drawing one hundred and fifty feet of
larch from the woods, one mile distant from the saw-mill,
at 5s. per day for each horse, . . . . , £0 10 0
To one man assisting in loading carts, at 2s., . . . 0 2 0
To four men in saw mill one day, cutting up the same into
scantling 6x2 inches, at 2s. 6d. per day each, . . 0 10 0
To keeping up machinery of mill, files for saws, oil, &c., &c, &c, 0 15 0
£1 17 0
AND SELLING TIMBER. 503
Here, now, we have the outlay necessary for converting the one
hundred and fifty feet of rough wood into scantling at the saw-
mill— namely, £1, 17s. — being 3d. additional upon the cubic foot
nearly ; therefore, in order to realise the original sum of Is. 2d.
per foot for the proprietor, the forester will require to lay on 3d.
extra on each foot of the sawn wood, making it Is. 5d. per foot to
the buyer of the wood from the mill.
In order to illustrate this case still farther, we shall suppose that
a house carpenter comes to the forester, and inquires at what rate
pe)' lineal foot he could supply the above larch scantling — namely,
six inches by two inches, for roofing purposes, and to be laid down
at a distance of four miles from the saw-mill. Here, again, the
forester will require to consider how much extra per cubic foot it
will take to lay the wood down at a distance of four miles from the
saw-mill. I reckon that thirty feet of sawn timber is a fair load
for a horse ; and, at four miles distant, a horse will take two loads
in a day — that is, a horse will draw from the mill sixty feet in one
day to a distance of four miles. Therefore, calculating 5s. a-day
for a man with a horse, we have sixty feet of timber laid down for
5s., making Id. extra on the foot — that is to say, the forester could
lay the scantling down, at four miles distance from the saw-mill,
at Is. 6d. per cubic foot, and still have the Is. 2d. clear for the pro-
prietor. The forester having now, we shall suppose, ascertained
the price per cubic foot at which he could lay down the sawn timber
to the carpenter, his next point of inquiry is, and which the
carpenter desires to be made aware of, at what rate per lineal
foot he could give the scantling. My method of calculation,
in a case of this nature, is as follows : —
in. in.
The square of the end of the scantling, G x 2 = 12 ) 141
Number of lineal feet required to make one foot cube, IS
Here we have the square of the scantling, which is 12, exactly 12
times out of 144 ; thus showing that, of a scantling 6 * 2 inches,
12 feet in length are required to make one cubic foot of timber,
therefore these 12 lineal feet can be sold at Is. 6d., or at l^d. per
lineal foot, which is the answer required.
As every forester should be well acquainted with the sort of cal-
504 RULES FOR CUTTING DOWN
dilations now under notice, I will here give another statement of
a different scantling from the last.
We shall suppose that a forester gets an order from a party for
a quantity of paling rails, say 4*1 inch, to be Scotch fir. We
will say that the forester sells his Scotch fir, of the size adapted for
paling, at 8d. per cubic foot in the rough state ; and that he reckons
that, to bring the wood in to the mill and saw it up, will cost
him 4d. extra per foot, as in the former case. Here, then, the
price of the sawn wood will be Is. per cubic foot ; and the forester
wishes to ascertain at what rate he can sell the paling rails, per
yard of three feet lineal measure. In order to ascertain this, he
has to calculate thus : —
in. in.
The square of the end of the scantling, 4x1 = 4) 144
Number of lineal feet required to make one foot cube, 36
That is, it requires 36 feet in length of a scantling, 4 x 1, to make
a cubic foot of wood ; and in 36 feet in length there are, of course,
12 yards; therefore, if 12 yards in length cost Is., the forester
is enabled to sell the paling rails at Id. per yard, and still have 8d.
per foot cube for the proprietor as the value of his timber.
Knowing that calculations of this nature are extremely useful
to all denominations of foresters, I shall, before concluding this
section, give yet another example, showing how to calculate the
value of deals per square foot, according to the rule formerly
given. Suppose that a forester is requested to supply deals of one
inch in thickness to a party from his saw-mill — say from old
Scotch fir timber, and that the deals must be at least twelve inches
broad. In this case, we shall suppose that the forester values his
Scotch fir at Is. 2d. per foot lying in the woods in the rough state ;
then he must add to this the expense of mill-work and cartage,
as in the former cases, at 4d. per foot ; and say that he can supply
the sawn wood at Is. 6d. per foot cube, his next point of inquiry
will be, at what rate can I sell this wood per square foot when
sawn into deals of one inch thickness ?
It was said that the deals were to be twelve inches in breadth ;
therefore the calculation will again be thus : —
AND SELLING TIMBER. 505
in. ill.
Square of thickness and breadth, . 12 x 1 = 12) 144
Number of lineal feet required to make one foot cube, 12
Here again, we find that it takes twelve superficial feet of boards
to make one cubic foot of timber ; which, again, is reckoned in
value at Is. 6d.; therefore, the forester can supply the boards one
inch thick at l^d. per square foot. Having given the above state-
ments, it would be superfluous to give any more upon a matter so
very simple, as the rule is the same in all cases, whatever be the
size of the scantling, and whatever may be the price of the wood
per cubic foot.
In conclusion, I may here add, that unless a forester be well
acquainted with the above rule for calculating the value of cut
wood, he cannot be able to sell it by private bargain to parties who
may be inquiring after it. Where wood is cut up at saw-mills,
people will come inquiring after scantlings of every size and kind
of timber ; and if the man who has the charge be not able to give a
clear and definite answer to builders and others about the value of
wood, who may wish to deal with him, they will at once consider
him a person of inferior capabilities ; and, in such a case, many will
be ready to take the advantage, and try to secure a bargain for
themselves at the cost of the forester's character.
SECTION IX. — HINTS TO YOUNG FORESTERS RELATIVE TO THE NATURE
AND AMOUNT OF EDUCATION NECESSARY FOR THEM.
I believe that I am justified in here stating, that, compared
with any other of the branches of rural economy, forestry is the
least in advance towards the perfect state which we may suppose
attainable; and whether this state of forestry may be attributed
to the slow growth of trees as compared with other rural crops,
or to the want of competent knowledge in those who have been
in the habit of rearing timber as a crop, is by many considered
questionable. Still, we may safely say, that forestry's n«»t hav-
ing hitherto kept pace with the other branches of rural economy
in our country, may with justice be attributed in part to each of
506 HINTS TO YOUNG FORESTERS.
these causes. That the slow growth of trees is one reason why
forestry has been making so little progress as compared with
gardening and farming, cannot be denied ; for, under the most
favourable circumstances, a period of not less than thirty years is
required before woodlands come to pay the proprietor; whereas,
in the case of farming and gardening, the results are evident in
the course of one or two years at most ; consequently proprietors
have, as is very natural to suppose, given more attention to that
kind of culture which they saw was likely to produce a quick
return for the capital expended, and left the other to linger on
behind in the march of improvement, seeing they were not likely
to be immediately benefited by it. Proprietors, seeing that the
operations of high farming upon their estates was a means of
quickly enhancing the real value of their property, employed men
to superintend such improvements who were of the highest stand-
ing in their profession, and of course paid them liberally for their
services ; while, on the other hand, seeing that their woods were
in the first place a burden upon them for a considerable time,
and, in the second place, considering that their ever coming to
pay them as well as their agricultural operations was doubtful,
they were not inclined to give a high salary to a man to act as
forester, since they were not likely to receive an immediate return
for his services. It is, in a great measure, in consequence of
this state of things that we generally see so many plantations in a
neglected state, and that we so often find foresters mere men of
hand and axe, rather than of mind and knowledge. In making
these assertions, I by no means wish it to be understood
that there are not men in the capacity of foresters who are as
efficient in their profession as land-stewards and gardeners ; on
the contrary, I could point out many men, employed in the
former capacity, whose woods attest their abilities ; but, generally
speaking, foresters, as a body, are not so able to improve in their
profession as many other servants upon landed property. On this
account it will not here be out of place to make a few remarks as
to the amount of education which I conceive necessary for young
men who would wish to excel as foresters, and who have a desire
to advance upon those of the old school.
HINTS TO YOUNG FORESTERS. 507
First, then, as the ground-work of every other acquirement, it
is indispensably necessary that young men who would be first-rate
foresters, should be ready penmen and arithmeticians. It is not
enough that they be able to write only so far as to keep their
men's time, and calculate the amount of wages that may fall due
to each at the end of a given period ; but they should be well
acquainted with the construction of their native language, or what
we may term good grammarians ; and that in order that they may
be able to hold written communication with their employers upon the
general business of their charge, and also that they may be enabled,
in a plain, clear, and intelligent manner, to write for the benefit of
the public when necessary. Not only so, but they should also be
able to enter minutely into all kinds of calculations with figures ;
and, above all, they should be well acquainted with mensuration
and geometry ; for, being in possession of such knowledge, they
will be able to sketch out upon paper a plan of any projected
improvement that may be necessary, whether in the way of new
plantations or of laying down to a scale all the different woodlands
that may be under their charge ; which, by the bye, every forester
ought to be able to do. The amount of education above referred
to is necessary for every common forester in the daily routine of
his profession ; but in order that he may be enabled to excel in
the rearing of plantations, he must also be well acquainted with
botany, vegetable physiology, chemistry as applied to agriculture,
geology, and entomology. Without a knowledge of these
sciences, it is impossible for any man to excel as an improving
and intelligent forester. By having a knowledge of botany, the
forester will be enabled to examine into the nature and kinds
of trees and other plants he may cultivate, as well as to write,
describe, ami give his opinion intelligently relative thereto. By
being acquainted with vegetable physiology, he will still farther
be enabled to examine into the nature of plants, in the case of
disease or any other extraordinary occurrence: and will seldom be
found at a loss to assign a sound reason for any unusual pheno-
mena that may take place among the trees he cultivates; in short,
vegetable physiology is to the forester what anatomy i3 to the
medical practitioner — absolutely necessary, and not to be dis-
508 HINTS TO YOUNG FORESTERS.
pensed with, where success in business is desired. Though this
science is thus indispensable to success in the rearing of trees,
it is, I may say, wonderful that not one forester among twenty
thinks of studying it. Agricultural chemistry and geology are
two other sciences which every forester ought to be acquainted
with. By having a knowledge of these, they will be enabled to
examine reasonably and intelligently into the nature of soils, and
their adaptation to the different kinds of trees to be reared in a
given district. Many say that entomology is by no means a
necessary part of a forester's education ; stating that the natural
history of insects is more useful to farmers and gardeners. To
this, however, I answer, that insects attack trees as well as plants
of a smaller and more delicate nature; therefore it is a most
necessary part of a forester's education, seeing that, when insects
do attack trees, if the forester is ignorant of their natural habits,
he must either be indebted to others for advice, or allow his
plants perhaps to be destroyed under their ravages.
I have very recently spoken to several foresters as to the neces-
sity of young men being well acquainted with the above-named
sciences, and found them averse to it upon the score of want of
means. This objection can no longer hold good, as there are so
many cheap books to be had upon every one of the useful sciences,
by which any person of tolerable capacity, and a moderate share
of perseverance, may attain a very correct knowledge of the same.
I have frequently heard another objection raised on the same
point — namely, that although foresters were to be well acquainted
with the sciences named, and could apply them to their every-day
employment, they would not in all probability ever be rewarded
for their knowledge and labour, seeing that foresters' wages are
in general small. This objection is scarcely worthy of being
refuted. However, as I am well aware that it is entertained by
many, I may here state, that every experienced forester, having
the amount of knowledge which I have stated to be necessary,
will have no difficulty in realising a competent salary for his
abilities. Those who will be ignorant, will of course be paid
accordingly ; and those who, by perseverance and praiseworthy
industry, have gained a proper amount of knowledge to render
HINTS TO YOUNG FOBESTEBS. 509
them superior in their profession, will also be paid accordingly.
No proprietor, who had extensive woods to manage, would hesi-
tate one moment in deciding whether he would be most benefited
ultimately by employing an indifferent forester at L.40 a-year, or
a first-rate one at L.150 a-year. I would therefore urge every
young man who wishes to fill a respectable situation as forester,
to gain first a sufficient amount of necessary education and
practical experience, and he will soon be picked up by observing
landed proprietors. I may remark here, that it is by no means
necessary that a forester should be a profound professor of all
the different sciences named : such an amount of knowledge is
not, I believe, to be attained by any siugle individual during a
lifetime : all I urge is, that he should be well acquainted with
those sciences, and be able to reason upon the different branches
of his daily employment, according to the rules laid down by the
professors of them. Relative to this point I may also state, that I
have induced a few of my young foresters at Arniston to begin to
study the sciences above referred to. I spend with them, now and
then as I have leisure, an hour or two for the purpose ; and by
this mode I not only have the minds of my young men instructed,
and make them Baperior workmen, but I have at the same time
an opportunity of improving my own mind: and I think that
every experienced forester should do the same with his young
men ; for by adopting such a system, there would be very soon
brought forward a race of foresters in every way superior to what
has yet been ; and thus their profession would be made of higher
standing as a branch of rural economy.
However necessary the above-mentioned amount of education
is to foresters, it is also of equal importance that they cultivate to
a very great extent, habits of observation and perseverance in
every department of their profession. In fact, without the culti-
vation of these, no experience can be gained in any department of
rural economy. It is quite possible that a man may be well
acquainted with the theoretical parts of all the above-named
sciences, and yet be very ignorant as to the profitable rearing of
timber ; and it is also quite as possible that a man may be
engaged for a period of fifty years in the planting and cutting
510 HINTS TO YOUNG FORESTERS.
down of trees, and be at the same time ignorant of the proper
way of managing plantations. All this I would earnestly impress
upon the minds of young men who attempt forestry. At the
present time I am acquainted with some young men who have
not been more than seven years at the business of forestry, who
are far superior in their profession to others who have been
not less than thirty years working among woods ; all this
difference being occasioned by the one being of a persevering
and observing character, while the other is of the contrary. I
would, then, particularly advise young foresters not to allow
any part of the work they may be engaged in to slip through
their hands, as it were, but to make themselves perfectly aware
of why and wherefore such a piece of work should be done
this way, and not that. In all cases where young men of observ-
ing habits have reason to think that the system of operations
adopted by their masters could be improved upon to advantage,
I would advise them to do a small part in the manner they may
think would be an improvement, and afterwards observe the
results for their own future guidance and experience.
In conclusion, theory in forestry, as well as in any other pro-
fession, is valuable as a suggestion, but it cannot be laid down
as a practical rule until proved by observation and experience.
APPENDIX
[The following notes, from a Report actually drawn up by the
Author, on the state of plantations, &c, and fitness of land for
planting- in high-lying districts, have been added, in order to illus-
trate, to those employed in similar examinations, the way in which
such surveys may be conducted. — J. B.]
The principal object in surveying and reporting on lands which admit of
being planted, is to ascertain and describe whether the climate, soil, and
other local circumstances, present favourable inducements to undertake
the extensive planting of forest trees, with a view to a profitable return —
regard being also had to the local demand for timber, especially if mines
arc situated either close to, or within a moderate distance of, the pro-
posed plantations. The first important step in such cases is, to examine
and report separately upon the present state and prospective condition
of existing plantations ; and the following are examples of such examina-
tions and reports, omitting such portions as are exclusively of a local
bearing.
No. I.
ri LNTATION 1600 l'i:ii ABOVE IIIi: BRA, .'V I YEARS OLD. — DETAILED DIRECTIONS
FOR THINNING AND PARTIAL REPLANTING.
This plantation consists principally of larch, with a proportion of
h and spruce firs intermixed, and may be about thirty years old. It
occupies both rides of a ravine, to the extent of forty-one acres, and is situ-
ated at an elevation of fifteen hundred feet above the level of the sea.
Upon the sloping sides of the ravine, the upper Boil IE chiefly of a light
and sandy nature, somewhat approaching to a light loam, which bus partly
upon a subsoil of limestone roek, and partly upon bed- of -and mixed up
with large stones. Thvf"t upper portions of the ground under this planta-
tion, situated upon the east ride of the ravine behind the wall by the road-
side, consist of about twelve inches of moss resting upon a sandy day,
which is generally damp, with trees going back upon it, and requiring
512 APPENDIX.
draining. In the bottom of the ravine some flat ground occurs, the soil of
which, being clay, is in a very damp state also, and requires draining.
The soil here is excellently adapted for the rearing of larch to healthy
and valuable dimensions ; but notwithstanding this fitness of the soil,
one half of the present crop of trees are in a weakly and unprofitable state.
At thirty years of age, fir trees ought to stand in a plantation at
distances varying from ten to twelve feet one from another ; whereas,
in the plantation now under notice, the greater part of the trees
stand at distances varying from four to seven feet ; and in consequence
of their having for some years past existed in such a state of confine-
ment, one half of them are now in a weakly and irrecoverable con-
dition ; but wherever any of the trees have got head-room, they are of
excellent and healthy character, and will yet become timber of first-rate
dimensions. Generally speaking, there are yet enough of healthy trees in
this plantation to form an ultimate valuable crop under good manage-
ment ; and seeing this, I would advise, for the recovery of the most
valuable part of the trees, to proceed as follows : — 1st, Have all weakly
trees, of whatever kinds, cut down and removed, wherever they may be
lying upon, or too close to, any valuable healthy larches. 2d, All the
healthy larch being relieved from encumberers throughout the whole
extent of the plantation, the next thing will be to have the Scotch and
spruce firs relieved among themselves ; observing in this not to leave any
one tree with its branches lying upon those of its neighbour, excepting
upon the outskirts of the plantation : there it will be necessary to leave
the trees rather close, in order to protect the interior from storms of wind ;
for if the outskirts were made as thin as the interior, the wind would get
in and blow down many trees. 3d, The flat damp parts, formerly referred
to, should be cleared from all unhealthy trees, the ground properly drained
by open cuts at thirty feet apart, and about two feet deep ; and after lying
for a few months, in order that the drains may have the effect of cleansing
the soil, they should be replanted with larch alone, as that tree will
decidedly become of good value upon the soil now under our notice.
Ath, All beech and alder growing in this plantation are worthless as timber ;
therefore I would advise to have these cut down and removed, and the
ground occupied by those trees drained where necessary, and replanted
with ash at twelve feet apart, made up between with larch to four feet
over all, where the soil is of a clayey nature, and with larch alone where
it is of a light nature.
All the work, as above detailed, should be done as soon as possible ;
and I recommend the spring as the best time for having it performed.
In the case of plantations under regular good management, a particular
season of the year is not of importance for thinning ; but where the trees
have suffered much from confinement, it is absolutely necessary that they
be thinned, say during the months of April, May, and June ; for, by
APPENDIX. 513
attending to this point, the trees Jo not suffer any check from winter
storms, as would be the case were they thinned in the winter months
The advantage, therefore, gained by thinning during spriug is, that the trees
become established and firm at the roots before winter sets in upon them.
No. II.
PLANTATION, 1560 FEET ELEVATION, 26 YEARS OLD. DRAINING, SHELTER
FROM WINDS, &C.
This plantation consists of Scotch fir chiefly, with a few larch
intermixed, and may be about twenty-five years old. It extends to
about three acres, and is situated at an elevation of 1550 feet above
the level of the sea. The soil is of the same nature as No. 1, and is
excellently adapted for the growing of larch timber to valuable dimen-
sions. In consequence of the land not having been drained when
the trees were planted here, the present crop is for the greater part
diseased and worthless, and will not now attain to any considerable value.
Seeing this, I would advise to have the land cleared of all the present crop;
have drains formed at forty feet apart ; and after it has been allowed to
lie one year under the action of the drains, to have the whole replanted
with larch at from three to three and a half feet apart. I said above
that I would advise to have the land cleared of all the present crop of
trees; but I should observe here that it will be necessary to preserve a
narrow belt of the present crop all round the outer edge of the plantation,
with the view of protecting from storm the young trees forming the second
crop, till they arrive at the stage when they will require to be thinned for
the first time.
In replanting here, it will be necessary to run a narrow belt of Scotch
firs right through the centre of the ground, from south to north, with the
view of intercepting the strong west winds, which would otherwise sweep
unchecked through the whole breadth of the plantation. The larch being
a deciduous tree, it is often retarded in the spring months by severe frost-
winds blowing through a plantation composed of it alone ; but when narrow
belts of Scotch fir, which is an ev< rgreen, are run at proper distances against
the prevailing winds, the climate i- much ameliorated, and the larch trees
are inconsequence much improved in their general health.
No. HI.
PLANTATION, 1400 MM ELEVATION, 28 HAILS OLD. INJIMmI, El I 1 .i T> <T
DAMFNBB8 OB THE GROWTH 01 LABI u, &C
This plantation consists of Scotch and larch firs mixed, which may be
about twenty-eight years old. It extendi to nearly twenty-six acres, and
2 K
514 APPENDIX.
is situated at an elevation of fourteen hundred feet above the level of the
sea. On the higher parts, the soil in the upper stratum consists of a sandy
loam ; on the lower parts it is inclined to a sandy clay, all resting upon
sandstone rock.
The bad effects of dampness upon the health of forest trees is very
strikingly exemplified in this plantation, as well as the good effects of dry
ground upon the same ; and there is at once indicated the great necessity
of draining the land in this district of country previous to planting trees
upon it. Upon all the damp parts here, the larch has entirely died out ;
while the Scotch fir, on the same parts, has merely kept in a state of exist-
ence, and formed low, bushy, spreading plants, quite out of the usual cha-
racter. Upon some slightly elevated parts, again, where the soil is naturally
dry, both the Scotch and larch firs have done well ; but in consequence of
neglect in thinning, they are much drawn up and weakly.
In order to improve this plantation, and make it become of ultimate
value, I would advise to have all the bad Scotch fir cleared from the damp
land, have it properly drained, and after the drains have been allowed
to act for a period of one year, have the drained land replanted with
larch alone, say at three and a half feet apart. Upon the dry portions,
where the larch and Scotch fir have thriven comparatively well, I would
advise to have the trees judiciously thinned, and the best allowed to
remain (for they will yet increase in value) in order to shelter the young
crop for a time. It may be proper for me to remark here also, that it will
be of great importance for the future benefit of the young trees to be
planted here, if a narrow belt of the present crop be left all round behind
the fence ; and that more especially upon the west side of the plantation.
The land under this plantation is well adapted to bring larch timber to
durable and valuable size.
No. IV.
PLANTATION, 1400 FEET ELEVATION, 40 YEARS OLD. — IMPORTANCE OF BREADTH
IN EXPOSED SITUATIONS.
The crop of trees here consists of Scotch fir principally, upon the
northern division, and of larch and Scotch fir, mixed, on the southern
division, and is about forty years of age. This plantation extends to
sixteen acres, and is situated at an elevation of fourteen hundred feet
above the level of the sea. The soil is very nearly of the same descrip-
tion as that of the last-mentioned plantation, but having a few inches
of moss in the upper stratum upon the higher part. Upon the northern
division, where Scotch fir forms the principal crop, the trees are mere
bushes, and will never arrive at any ultimate value. This state of the
trees may be easily accounted for ; for the plantation on this part being
quite narrow, the wind from the west blows easily through the whole
APPENDIX. 515
breadth. Upon the south end the plantation is much broader, and the
trees are consequently much healthier ; thus pointing out that, in order
to grow trees profitably in this district, it is only necessary to plant them
in large masses.
In order to improve the state of this plantation, and make it valuable
as woodland ultimately, I would advise to have a few of the Scotch fir trees,
where they are close, taken out, with the view of replanting larch among
them, (that is, upon the northern division) ; and that being done, the whole
of the vacant ground among the old quarry rubbish, and wherever openings
occur among the Scotch fir, should be replanted with larch alone ; and in
consequence of the Scotch fir trees being left for the greater part among the
young larch trees, the latter will grow up rapidly, and very soon form a
valuable plantation. Of course it is here understood, that as the young larch
trees rise up, the old Scotch firs left among them as nurses might be cither
taken out altogether, or left, if considered necessary, for a continuance of
shelter. Upon the southern division, the trees, both larch and Scotch fir,
are in a fair state, but have been much neglected, and altogether they have
suffered from want of thinning, being much drawn up and weakly ; but as
thej* will yet considerably improve under future good management, I would
advise to thin out fully one-third of the weaker trees ; after wdiich, the
healthier part left will become more strong and vigorous, and attain the
size of good deal-timber.
No. V.
PLANTATION, 1480 FEET ELEVATION, 18 YEARS OLD— TUINNING AND DRAINING.
Part of this plantation consists of larch, which may be about eighteen
years old ; and the remainder consists of Scotch and spruce firs princi-
pally, with a few larch intermixed, which appear to have been planted
in the spring of the present year. The extent of the two parts put
together is six acres, situated at an elevation above the sea of about
fourteen hundred and eighty feet. The soil upon which the older larch
trees are growing is of a heavy loamy nature, which, if dried by
means of open drains, is capable of growing either larch or hardwood to
valuable dimensions. The present crop of larch is excellent wherever
the ground is naturally dry und> r them ; but where the ground is
damp, tin; plants have of course failed to grow. In order to improve
the older division here, I would recommend to have the trees thinned
where too close upon the dry ground, and at the same time to have all
the damp parts which are vacant well drained, ami afterwards replanted
with oak, at from ten to twelve feel apart, and made up between with
larch to about three and a half fit over all. The soil here is well adapted
for growing oak, anil, if dried by means of open drains, valuable trees would
516 APPENDIX.
ultimately be produced, more especially as the present crop of larch,
would shelter and bring them away quickly.
No. VI.
PLANTATION, 1370 FEET ELEVATION, 16 ANn 20 YEARS OLD INJURIOUS
EFFECTS OF PRUNING LIVE BRANCHES FROM FIRS, &C.
This plantation consists of oak, sycamore, and ash, with larch and
spruce fir as nurses. The northern part is about sixteen years old, and
the southern twenty years ; and altogether the plantation may extend
to about nine acres, situated at an elevation of thirteen hundred and
seventy feet above the level of the sea. The soil is generally a light sandy
loam, resting upon an open decayed freestone bottom.
The whole extent of this plantation is at present in a close and
neglected state. The greater part of the trees being, however, healthy,
and the land being well adapted for bringing either hardwood or larch
to valuable dimensions, I would advise, for the future improvement of this
plantation, to proceed as follows : — 1st, All healthy hardwood trees should
be relieved from every fir that may be lying upon or too close to them ;
and when relieved, they should have a judicious pruning, which pruning
should be done in the months of May, June, or July, but never in the
winter season. — 2d, All the healthy hardwood trees being relieved, the firs
should next be thinned among themselves ; observing, in doing this, not
to leave any individual tree with its branches lying upon those of its
neighbours. In thinning here, generally, observation should be had to
cut down any bad or unhealthy hardwood tree, and leave the nearest fir
instead.
In looking through this part, I observed that a system of pruning
live branches from the firs has lately been put into practice. Such a
practice is injurious in the extreme to the health of the trees ; therefore
I would advise, that in future no such pruning should be allowed.
It is in all cases an improvement to the health of fir trees to prune dead
branches from them ; but the cutting off of live branches causes a wooud not
easily healed.
The trees growing on the northern division of this plantation are
inferior in health to those on the southern division, in consequence of the
difference in the breadth of the mass. On the north, the mass is narrow and
inferior in health, while on the south the mass is broader and superior ; and
I consider it proper to advert to this, seeing that the health of plantations
in a high-lying part depends very generally upon the extent ; that is, the
larger that a plantation is made, the healthier will the trees be, and the
greater will be the ultimate produce per acre.
APPENDIX. 517
No. VII.
PLANTATION, 1500 FEET ELEVATION NEWLY PLANTED EFFECTS OF NEGLECT
OF DRAINING, AND PBOPKB SELECTION OF TREES.
A piece of ground extending to about eleven acres, which has very
recently been enclosed as woodland. The soil is a good deep sandy loam,
well adapted to the rearing of hardwood and larch to valuable dimensions,
and is situated at an elevation of about fifteen hundred feet above the
level of the sea.
This piece of ground, although naturally damp, has been planted with
larch, Scotch, and spruce firs, without any drains having been previously put
on it; and in consequence of the natural wetness of the soil, a great portion
of the young plants have perished. Besides, of the kinds put in here,
the Scotch and spruce firs are not adapted to the soil and situation. With
the view of raising a valuable crop of timber here, I would recommend to
have the ground dried by means of open drains, say at forty feet apart,
and two feet deep — not draining of course any knoll naturally dry — and
to plant oak and ash, with a few sycamores upon the outrides, at from ten
to twelve feet apart, making up with larch to about three and a half feet
over all.
No. VIII.
PLANTATION, 1200 FEET ELEVATION, 21 > YEARS OLD IMPORTANCE OF
TIMELY THINNING TO HARDWOOD, &C.
A young plantation about twenty years of age, consisting of oak, ash,
and sycamore, as a permanent crop, with larch and spruce fir intermixed
a- nurses. The soil is a good deep sandy loam, resting upon free-
stone. The plantation is situated at an elevation of twelve hundred feet
above the level of the sea, and in extent may be about four acres. The
greater part of the trees are in health, but much drawn up in conse-
quence of neglect of thinning. This plantation requires to be judiciously
thinned, and that as soon as possible. In thinning here, I would adv.
proceed in the same manner a< already detailed under the head No. VI.
Some damp parts occur here, which should be drained and replanted with
larch alone.
Under future good management, there will be produced hero both
hardwood and larch of large rise and valuable quality.
518 APPENDIX.
No. IX.
PLANTATION, 1050 FEET ELEVATION, 35 TEARS OLD THINNING, SHELTER FROM
PREVALENT WINDS, AND ADVANTAGES OF TREES HAVING ROOM TO GROW, &C.
Consists of larch and Scotch fir, about thirty-five years of age, and
extends to forty-eight acres. The soil is generally a good deep light loam,
resting upon freestone, and is excellently adapted for the rearing of either
hardwood or larch to valuable dimensions, and the situation may be
about ten hundred and fifty feet above the level of the sea.
The trees in this plantation are very much crowded, but, considering
the neglected state they have existed in, are good. Wherever the larch
have got room and air they are first-rate specimens, and of large dimen-
sions for their age ; at once pointing out what the whole plantation would
have been under good management. The Scotch firs are much inferior to
the larch throughout the whole plantation ; therefore, in making future
thinnings here, the Scotch firs should be considered as a secondary tree only,
and gradually removed in order to give place to the larch. The whole of
the plantation requires to be gone carefully through, and all the weaker trees
taken out, so as to give proper room and air to the stronger : at least one-
third of the whole require to be thinned out. As this will ultimately,
under good management, become a wood of great value, I would advise to
have it thinned immediately ; and in the act of thinning, care should be
had to leave the west side rather close of trees, with the view of protecting
the interior from storms of wind ; for otherwise, after thinning, many
might be blown down, seeing that they have stood so long in a confined
state. On the low-lying flat part of this plantation some good ash and oak
are growing, but in a very crowded state : these should be well thinned
out, to such an extent that the branches of no individual tree shall inter-
fere with those of its neighbours. Where the hardwood trees are grow-
ing, a considerable number of drains require to be cleared out, as they are
at present filled up, and causing water to stagnate among the roots of the
trees.
No. X.
PLANTATION, 1000 FEET ELEVATION, 18 YEARS OLD SELECTION OF TREES
FOR ULTIMATE CROP, AND IMPORTANCE OF PLANTING EACH KIND OF TREE
IN A SUITABLE SOIL.
Consists of oak, ash, and sycamore, with a few Scotch elms, and also
larch, as nurses. The soil is a very light sandy loam, resting on freestone,
at an elevation of one thousand feet above the level of the sea. The trees
are about eighteen years old. The ash and elm, in consequence of the
APPENDIX. 519
vi tv light nature of the soil, are not doing well ; therefore, in thinning
here, those sorts should be cut out, and place given to the other kinds
which are more healthy. The oak, sycamore, and larch are good, and will
arrive at valuable dimensions under future good management. The
whole plantation is in a very crowded state, and should be immediately
thinned ; and in doing so, the operation should be gone about in the
same manner as already advised under the head Xo. VI.
No. XI.
PLANTATION, 1070 FEET ELEVATION, 45 YEARS OLD — REMOVAL OF DISEASED
TREES, AKD CAUSE OF DISEASE, &C
The crop of trees here consists of larch and Scotch fir, about forty-
five years old. The soil is a naturally dry and light sandy loam, resting
upon freestoue. The extent of the plantation may be about twenty-eight
acres ; it is situated at an elevation of one thousand and seventy feet above
the level of the sea. Many of the trees stand at distances not exceeding
five feet one from another, whereas, at their age, they should not stand
closer than fifteen feet. On the north end of this plantation, a part has
lately been cleared of trees ; and upon making inquiry as to the reason of
such a premature step, I was led to believe that it had been done under
the impression that the trees were diseased, and failing to increase in value.
In consequence of the crowded state the greater portion of the trees have
d in for some years past, a few have become diseased ; but this will be
found equally the case in all plantations under like circumstances of manage-
ment ; and the only reasonable way of recovering such a plantation is, to thin
out the diseased, in order to improve the healthier trees, but by no means to
cut down the healthy and improvable portion along with the diseased. An
experienced practical forester can easily detect in a plantation a tree that
will improve in value from one that will not ; therefore, instead of sweep-
ing the crop entirely down, the diseased portion should have been taken out
and disposed of, and the healthy trees left to improve, and become of more
value as an ultimate crop.
This plantation should be improved by a judicious regular thinning.
In doing this, it is only necessary to give, in the first place, ample room
to all good, healthy trees, whether larch or Scotch fir, (and there are
enough of good trees for an ultimate crop ;) and in the second place, to cut
out all trees, whether larch or Scotch fir, having a weakly or unhealthy
appearance. If this be attended to, the plantation will yet increase very
much in value.
The whole of the plantations described are situated more than one
thousand feet above the level of the sea, and in districts of a semi-
520 APPENDIX.
mountainous character, in which there are, both in England and Scotland,
many hundreds of square miles of land capable of rearing timber. Taking
into account the extremely neglected condition in which the trees in the
plantations described in these notes have hitherto been left, I am led to
conclude that they are good, and, I may even add, comparatively healthier
in constitution than many others which I have examined, both in England
and Scotland, which were growing under more favourable circumstances of
situation — at once confirming my judgment, and giving me full confidence
in here stating, that the soil upon which these plantations are growing, as
well as the climate in which they exist, is well adapted to the rearing of
trees to valuable dimensions and sound quality ; that is to say, if attended
to in a regular and thoroughly practical manner.
An opinion unfavourable to the extensive planting of forest trees has
been formed by many persons residing in elevated districts, from an
idea that the soil and climate present a great discouragement to trees
attaining healthy and profitable maturity. Such an opinion can only be
entertained by persons unacquainted with the present improved system of
arboriculture, and without extended practical observation and experience
relative to the point in question. In proof of this, it is only necessary to
remark, that the plantations already noticed in this Appendix have been
for the greater part planted without discrimination, and almost left to
nature, which at once indicates that those who hold the opinion referred
to above have not formed a correct judgment upon the subject.
The principal points to attend to in the rearing of timber, in a high-
lying district of country, to healthy and profitable maturity, are, first, to
drain the land in such a manner as to render and keep it in a sweet and
dry state ; second, to distribute the several kinds of trees over the ground to
be planted, in such manner that each may have a soil and site congenial to
its nature; third, to plant in such large masses, that only the trees forming
the outer boundary of the plantation may be affected by local storms, and
thus ameliorate the general climate for the good of the trees forming the
interior of the plantation ; fourth, to plant pretty closely at first, and after-
wards thin out gradually as the trees advance in size ; fifth, to thin very
frequently, so as the plantations may neither receive a check from being
overcrowded, nor from being suddenly thrown too open ; sixth, to keep all
drains in a clear running state ; and, seventh, in the forming of a planta-
tion, to throw out a bold convex bend against the prevailing local winds.
The following notes refer to proposed operations in high-lying districts,
and are selected, with the omission of local descriptions and details, from
professional reports by the Author.
APPENDIX. 521
No. XII.
PROPOSED PLANTATION AT AN EXTREME ELEVATION OF 1700 FEF.T — PRODUC-
TION OF SHELTER DRAINING SELECTION OF TREES, &C.
An extensive tract of comparatively waste land, which, at an altitude
of seventeen hundred feet, is capable of great improvement, either as grass
or woodland. The soil in this district is very variable : at an elevation
above seventeen hundred feet, it consists chiefly of moss above three feet
in depth, resting upon blue clay ; which nature of soil, at such an eleva-
tion, is quite unfit for the rearing of any kind of tree to any profitable
size. Taking a parallel range of about two hundred feet under the last-
named height, the upper surface consists, generally, of from six to
eighteen inches of moss resting upon a blue clay, with various indenta-
tions of good loamy soil — all well adapted, if properly drained, to the
rearing of either larch or Scotch fir. Between the elevations of twelve
hundred and fifteen hundred feet, the soil varies from a good light loam,
generally dry, resting upon a gravelly and stony bottom, to a strong sandy
loam, generally wet, resting upon a blue sandy clay — all well adapted, if
properly drained, to the rearing of either hardwood trees or larch.
Taking into account the large extent of land which rises to an elevation
above seventeen hundred feet in this district, and which may at present be
considered incapable of growing timber to useful size ; and also taking into
account that a large portion could be very profitably converted into grass
land, I am of opinion that about fourteen hundred acres ought to be
planted with forest trees ; and as the land here is well adapted for rearing
trees to healthy maturity, such an extent would not only prove of great
ultimate value as timber, but would, in consequence of producing shelter
and ameliorating the climate, greatly enhance the value of the land in the
neighbourhood, which might be kept cither under the plough or in grass.
In laying off the fore-mentioned quantity of land for planting, I would
advise to keep all the better portions lying along each side of the water for
the purpose of being improved and cultivated as arable; and as the greater
part of the land there is good, if drained, and otherwise improved, it might,
under the ameliorating influence of the rising forests, be made available for
the production of agricultural crops. Keeping thifl in view, and supposing
that a considerable portion of good land i- to he retain* d along each side of
the water, I would next advise to make, at proper intermediate and irre-
gular distances along tin- hack-ground of the land to be cultivated, bold
masses of plantation, bending down to the waterside By laying off the
woodland in thifl manner, a pleasing and natural outline will lie produced;
and at the same time such projecting masses of plantation will have the
beneficial effect of sheltering the cultivated land from winds rushing down
522 APPENDIX.
the vale, independently of the main body of the "wood producing shelter
from winds coming from the hills. Again, in laying off the outer or higher
boundary line of fence for the land to be planted, I would recommend,
■where the land is of good quality, and free from any considerable depth of
moss, to take the fence well up, in order to include such parts ■within the
plantation, even going in such cases a little beyond the specified elevation
of seventeen hundred feet ; and where the land may be of an inferior
quality, and consist of rather deep moss, to bring the line of fence consider-
ably under that height, in order to avoid such bad portions of the soil. In
all those cases, it should be particularly observed to throw out a -wide and
bold convex bend against the most stormy point or points, which "will be
found capable of resisting the action of the local winds much better than a
straight line of fence.
The plantation or plantations being laid off to the extent of about
fourteen hundred acres, the next thing in order, after the fencing has been
completed, "will be to have the land drained where necessary. This forms
a most important part of the work of laying down plantations, much of
the future success depending upon its being "well done.
In draining here, I would recommend the following rules as to depth
and distance between : — Upon all hollow or flat-lying portions, where the
soil may be inclined to clay, have the drains put in at about thirty-five
feet apart, and make them about twenty-four inches deep. Where the
soil is of a light loamy character, yet naturally damp and requiring to be
drained, have them put in at about forty-five or even fifty feet apart,
and make them about twenty inches deep. And upon the higher portions,
where the soil may be inclined to moss on the surface, have the drains
put in at about twenty-five or thirty feet apart, and about eighteen
inches deep.
It will not be found necessary to drain the whole extent of the land to
be planted here. I would say that fully one-third is naturally dry, and
will grow trees perfectly well without being drained — all which can easily
be ascertained by an experienced person ; but I may add that, throughout
the whole extent of the district, draining would be of great advantage.
The land being all drained where necessary, it should be allowed to lie
in that state for at least three months previous to planting the trees upon
it — that is to say, no particular part requiring to be drained should have
plants put into it till the drains have been allowed to act for a period of
three months ; this being with the view of having all stagnated qualities
that may be lodging in the soil washed out before the plants are put in.
In distributing the young trees over the different qualities of land, I
would advise as follows : — Beginning upon the highest and most exposed
parts of the ground, have a belt of about fifty yards in breadth planted all
along behind the fence, of one-half Scotch fir and one-half birch, planting
them equally over the ground at about three feet apart. This is intended
APPENDIX. 523
to act as a break-wind against the prevailing storms ; and if the Scotch fir
should fail to make good upon any particularly exposed point, the birch
will decidedly grow well, and maintain shelter for the trees in the interior.
Immediately behind this break-wind belt, have another of about one hundred
yards in breadth, planted of Scotch fir and larch, of each an equal number,
to the distance of about three and a half feet over all. This second belt is
intended to act as a medium protection between the break-wind outside
and the more valuable trees in the interior of the plantation. With regard
to this second belt, however, I may add, that it is by no means necessary
that it should be made a hundred yards in breadth throughout the whole
of its length : it ought, indeed, to be made of that breadth upon particu-
larly exposed and prominent points ; but where the boundary of the plan-
tation falls into a comparatively sheltered part of the ground, it may be
almost dispensed with, and gradually widened as the line of fence may
fall upon a more exposed situation.
These very necessary points in the rearing of timber upon high lands
being attended to, any kinds of trees adapted to the soil may afterwards be
planted in the interior with every hope of success. Next, therefore, have
all the good clay and loamy tracts planted with oak, ash, and elm, say at
distances averaging between ten and twelve feet, and make up with larch
alone to about three and a half feet over all. Next, all the best of the land
in the most sheltered parts being planted with hardwood trees, as
specified above, all the sloping braes, situated between the hardwood trees
on the one hand, and the secondary belt upon the other, should be planted
with larch alone, at distances varying from three and a half to four feet ;
and all prominent ridges of land forming the tops of the slopes, as well as
any portions of the land having more than twelve inches of moss on the
surface, should be planted with Scotch fir alone, at distances varying from
three and a half to four feet.
By attending to these rules, each kind of tree will occupy the soil and
situation most congenial to its nature, and consequently the plantation as
a whole will be made to produce ultimately the greatest possible value in
useful timber ; and I may state, that it is the want of attention to these
rules that is the cause of many plantations failing to become of value.
No. XIII.
PROPOSED PLANTATION AT AN ELEVATION OF 1360 VEST — SPECIES OF TREES
FOR DII I I.KI.N I I.'., \| | | UB, &C.
An enclosure extending to about 500 hundred acres. The medium
elevation above the level of the sea, L360 feet The soil for the most part
consists of a good light loam, with limestone under. On sonic flat parte
the soil is a sandy clay, which is all damp, and requires to be drained.
524 APPENDIX.
This land is of first-rate capabilities for the growing of timber to
valuable dimensions ; and as it is generally of an open bottom, draining
may be easily and readily performed. After drying all naturally damp
parts, by means of open drains at about forty feet apart and twenty-four
inches deep, there should be a belt of Scotch fir planted immediately
behind the wall forming the south and west boundaries, to the extent
of about fifty yards in breadth ; and as the land is of the highest
elevation on those sides, such a belt will prove of great benefit in
giving shelter to the interior of the plantation. Next, the land upon
the west side of this allotment being of the highest elevation, I would
advise to plant upon that side Scotch fir to the extent of about one
hundred and fifty acres ; upon the east side, along the banks of the
water, oak, ash, and elm, mixed with larch, as already detailed in
No. XII., to the extent of about one hundred and fifty acres ; and
between those two compartments, where the soil is generally of a good
sandy loam, I would advise to plant larch alone, which of course would
be to the extent of about two hundred acres.
Upon this land, hardwood and larch will arrive at great value, and
Scotch fir will also be good.
No. XIV.
PROPOSED PLANTATION, 1100 FEET ELEVATION IN PLANTING, DEPTH OP
MOSS ON SURFACE TO BE TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION.
Comparatively waste land, extending to about one hundred acres,
situated at an elevation of about eleven hundred feet above the level
of the sea.
On the hollow and flat-lying parts, the greater part of the soil consists
of a good sandy loam, well adapted for the healthy growth of either oak
or larch. On the higher lying portion, the upper soil consists of about
twelve inches of moss resting on sandy clay, all damp ; but if drained, it
is well adapted to the rearing of either larch or Scotch fir ; or on some
parts where the moss is not more than six inches deep, of oak and ash. In
planting here, I would advise the same manner of procedure as already
detailed in note, No. XIII.
No. XV.
PROPOSED PLANTATION, 1 500 FEET ELEVATION SCOTCH FIR AS A BREAK-
WIND, &C
A portion of land extending to about fifty-two acres, situated at an
elevation of fifteen hundred feet.
The western and highest-lying half of this tract consists of a thin
APPENDIX. 525
light moss on the surface, with sand ami gravel under, and is adapted for
the growth of Scotch fir only ; the slopes hanging to the south and east,
being a good light loamy soil, are well adapted to the growth of larch.
The greater part of the land here requires to be drained at forty feet apart,
and about eighteen inches deep. In planting here, it will not be necessary
to form a belt upon the storm side, seeing that one-half of the ground is to
be planted with Scotch fir upon that quarter, which will form sufficient pro-
tection of themselves to the interior, as well as to the larch upon the sloping
ground under them. Both the larch and Scotch fir divisions may be
planted at about three and a half feet apart.
No. XVI.
PROPOSED PLANTATION, 1700 FEET ELEVATION NOT ADVISABLE TO PLANT
TREES ON MOSS LAND ABOVE THAT ELEVATION.
An extensive tract of waste land, the greater part of it rising to
an elevation considerably above seventeen hundred feet. I would advise
to enclose and plant of it only to the extent of about ten chains in
breadth from the enclosed land on the south-east ; which extent in
breadth would run the outer fence along the elevation of about seventeen
hundred feet above the sea-level, and consequently would include the
land to bo planted under that extreme.
The soil of this part consists generally of from six to eighteen inches
of moss, resting upon an open subsoil of the same nature as that
described in Note, No. I., — all well adapted to the rearing of the fir
tribe.
Excepting upon some naturally dry ridges, the whole of the land here
requires to be drained before planting. In doing so, I would advise to lay
the drains on at about forty feet apart, and make them about eighteen
inches deep. In planting, I would recommend to have the upper half of
tin' proposed breadth planted with Scotch fir alone at three and a half feet
apart, and the under half with larch alone, excepting on a few partial spots
where the moss is deeper than twelve inches, which should be planted with
Scotch fir. Both Scotch fir and larch will grow here to a good useful
size.
No. XVII.
PROPOSED PLANTATION, 1 ~< N ) II II I I.I.N \ I IOW — I RBB8 WILL 8UOI LED AT
I ii at ELEVATION ii N"i OH i-i.i .r HOBS i.am>.
A continuation of No. XVI. tract. The Boil on many parts consists
of a good sandy loam, but it is generally of a light in<>". varying from
four to thirty-six inches in depth, and all resting upon an open sandy
526 APPENDIX.
bottom. On this district there may very properly be planted with
larch and Scotch fir one hundred and thirty acres ; and in laying off
the land for planting, I would advise not to extend the boundary fence
beyond the elevation of seventeen hundred feet. In draining, and
distributing the trees over the ground on this district, I would recommend
to keep in view the same remarks already made under the last head.
No. XVIII.
PROPOSED PLANTATION, 1400 FEET ELEVATION DRAINING AND DISTRIBU-
TION OF TREES ACCORDING TO THE NATURE OF SOILS.
A tract of waste land extending to about seventy-five acres. The
soil consists of a sandy moss, varying from three to twelve inches in
depth, resting upon an open sandy bottom, sometimes approaching to
sandy clay. The slopes hanging to the north have the soil generally
of a good sandy loam, well adapted to the rearing of larch to a valuable
size. The medium elevation of the higher ground here is about fourteen
hundred feet above the sea-level. All the higher part of this allotment
requires to be dried by drains laid on at about forty feet apart, and
eighteen inches deep. The slopes are generally dry; but on some partial
spots where the soil inclines to clay it is damp, and will require to be
drained before planting upon it. I would advise to plant the higher
ground with larch and Scotch fir in equal numbers to three and a half
feet over all ; and the sloping ground, where inclined to clay, with oak
and ash, at from ten to twelve feet apart ; and where light sandy loam,
with larch alone to three and a half feet : of course, making up among
the hardwood with larch to the same distance over all.
PRI.N'TKD BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBVBGH.
. u;r
-•-
V
jP't DATE DUE
'
I t
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•
i 0 1994
J AN
Saliibi
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STORAGE
UNIVERSITY OF B.C. LIBRARY
MacMILLAN
LIBRARY
3 9424 02802 9541
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