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FOREST PRODUCTS ~~ 
THEIR MANUFACTURE AND USE 


EMBRACING THE PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL FEATURES IN THE 
Propuction, MANUFACTURE, AND UTILIZATION OF 
THE Most Important Forest Propucrs OTHER 
THAN LumBerR, §§ THE UniTep STATES 


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BY a. 


NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN, B.A., M-F. 


Professor of Forest Utilization, The New York State College of Foresiry at 
Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York; Trade CommisStoner, 
United States Lumber Trade Conimission to Europe, — 
Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. / 


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FIRST EDITION 


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/ NEW YORK aD 
JOHN WHLLEY: & SONS, Inc. 
Loxpon: CHAPMAN &- HALL, Limitep 
IQI9 


PREFACE 


Tue object of this book is to present to the student or reader the chief 
commercial features involved in the manufacture and use of the princi- 
pal forest products except lumber, and to serve as a reference book for 
those interested in them. The treatment of the subjects, therefore, has 
necessarily been very brief. A book could easily be written on each sub- 
ject, but the curricula of the professional forest schools usually do not 
provide for extensive study and investigation of each product, unless 
special and separate courses are offered in such subjects as pulp and 
papermaking. 

It is impossible to include in a book of this kind some of the wood- 
using industries which are closely associated with lumber and its uses, 
such as the furniture industry, ship building ahd car construction, etc., 
because they belong in a separate category. The important problem 
has been to determine what to include in a book of this kind, and to 
discriminate and to exclude some of the less essential material. It is 
planned to make this volume a brief treatise preliminary to a more 
complete and exhaustive work or group of books to be written at some 
later date. 

Although there are more or less statistical data available on some of 
the industries treated in this book, there has been very little written in 
American forestry literature on the principles and practices followed 
in the production of materials other than lumber. From the viewpoint 
of invested capital, and value of products,they are of greater importance, 
collectively, than lumber. 

The values and conditions used in this book are largely given for the 
period prior to the participation of this country in the war. This has 
been deemed advisable because of the wholly abnormal and somewhat 
temporary conditions brought about by the war itself. 

Much of the data has been obtained as the result of personal investi- 
gation and inspection of operations in the South, the Lake States, 
the Northeast, and the Far West during the past ten years. Some mate- 


ill 


iv PREFACE 


rial has also been collected on trips during 1913, 1917, and 1918, to 
various European countries. Brief bibliographies are appended at the 
end of each chapter. These were used, to some extent, as sources of 
information and can be consulted for further study in each subject. 

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Hugh Potter Baker and members of the 
faculty of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse and to the 
United States Forest Service and various individual members of its staff 
for a number of excellent suggestions as well as material. I am also 
grateful to the Bureau of Chemistry, the Census Bureau, and Bureau of 
Foreign and Domestic Commerce, for statistical material. 

I wish to acknowledge my special gratitude to the following specialists 
in their respective fields for review of the various chapters: Mr. A. R. 
Joyce of the Joyce-Watkins Tie Co. for reviewing the text of the chapter 
on Cross Ties; Mr. Samuel B. Sisson of the S. B. Sisson Lumber Co., on 
Poles and Piling; Mr. J. C. Nellis, Assistant Secretary of the National 
Association of Box Manufacturers, on Boxes and Box Shooks; Mr. E. A. 
Brand of the Tanners’ Council of the United States and Mr. Henry W. 
Healey, formerly of the Central Leather Co., on Tanning Materials; Mr. 
Thomas J. Keenan, F. C. S., Editor of Paper, on Wood Pulp and Paper; 
the editorial staff of the India Rubber World on Rubber, and Mr. S. J. 
McConnell of the Keery Chemical Co., on Hardwood Distillation. The 
chapter on Softwood Distillation has been reviewed and corrected by a 
prominent operator in the South who requests that his name be with- 
held from publication. ; 

It was originally deemed advisable to include chapters on such other 
important materials as certain medicinal and chemical products of the 
forest, as well as camphor, palm oils and other foreign commodities, 
and to discuss the relation of the subjects treated to the present and future 
of forestry in this country. However, it was found that on account of 
the necessity for economy in space, it would not permit the inclusion of 
a more elaborate treatment. Many of the chapters have already been 
curtailed for this reason. 

NELSON COURTLANDT BROWN. 
JULY, 1919. 


CONTENTS 


Ra lies chip AS So hg ON nano eee eat Bay San oe & 
Wastage in production of forest products. ....-..-. 2-2-2. 22 sent eee s ewe cbeeeeeeens 


Se As SUNS IME ROPING a os wise cae sas es mec pe meso CG eek s oan en tins 9 Ue 
a A RUIN SIMIC RINT Ooo ss 2 cc wc ee ae bas 8 ons evn Nema ree eh ek sa a Wen ele 
Requirements of desirable pulp woods. ....... 2... 2.0222 e eer ace eweeenesscncescns 
IN ISONE I UNONES cr. bio = Gaintn lk mn d'o snc Seg demir ss 6c aces etnaeened 


Requirements for the establishment of a pulp mill. ..........-.- jigusdccsscusdercaswe 
mee manutacture of mechanical pulp. 05... on eos os a a See ee cee ene 
Preparation of the wood.............--- SE ne = Se ear ee 


oS ss ald 6 bow a 6 sek ow eb ow So 66 06 8h © 6 oe a6 0a. 6 © eles 6 ss Sn See e6 * & so oe Rene 6 6 60 


Serene RINNE DENEIR CIE GUNTUR: PRINS a oc. cco 0 oo «0 x wile nawnncse Meee epineminee es ah eho secsss 
SEER REIOE Air SUEREO! FIND <5" ~ fw s.0\<> So's « een ceeg ewe GkeNo= veterns sees 
CitE 1 Me TH, o>... oc hac = cee een sabereietasssss<ssqscee's e's 
ee manaictore Gt paner from pulp: |... 5. 5 6k she ec ec eee tse cee 
Eaipotts Of pulp wood and wood pulp... --- 2. 0.5. oe ee i ic cee ee epee eecee 


CHAPTER III. TANNING MATERIALS 


vi CONTENTS 


. PAGE 

Principal sources and tannin-contents. 6 205 fi... 6s... cee ec Sawe medias ova eee cb ee 64 

Protaction ‘of hemlock Darla 2:5 6'502'6.. os cn'o ao os co o's de wb 0p PERS A oe oreo ee 65 
Blarvesting Hemlock DAK... 553.100.0500 o0s 000s san uabipeed be eee Waokee pene 66 

Production of chestnut omk Wark «5. osdiic.c ais.s 00000002 ebaiees bo telnie ce asa 70 

CTBT CSTACE: 5250 % 6:0 nes dee ies 6 hn a6b 5545.0 6g gale ene gly y= « See en 73 

WOTDOLE ORR. cis i aah pinines s Vs vee 8a ee ae he vig. aielle Bla lee boithe- os a ge 75 

Wresterts TOMO icin sc 5s oo swale Seah ais C0 ws pe We ne o's. ogg Re wines ge 77 

Black oak bark and other domestic materials...................-. Gielers dows pele eee 78 

Gleb rach ¢.s scab Bees lice aint ho ecw secaah ucarae bia hae ele Sia» 0 e2eia he paRENeR Verma tee, een 79 

Mangrove Dark. 5.05056. oir veces Deate tsk eb UC es so cn cen Gememle a sy On > en 82 

Myrobalan nuts........ Deiat icies owas ST a i are ee x pa etek 84 

BOIVEGIVG 5.6.55. Sone 4 0:4 6 bone g5ctte es Shn'g bin g9-0 <5.» oy lara aa ge we aareaeies Ien c  a 84 

Fmported sma. ooo aie eS oso tio s 2 keg 09.0 4.4 + ib eieketnd Mae ethinyl ae ee 85 

Warlonnigns i555 circ ave Saco tpi 0 bow Wicked 0 8 in. dib 010. oid 0 a 15 ee Hla a oebt a TERS te eta nes a 85 

Other foreign tanning materials. 0.0... 0jcecs sche csv ensedens usbiewseessan aie be 85 

Imports,..... se olew¥. Bias lat etajoile in og ia dial’ O'% lohan, poy.) iby ails Wecatmeeth ToOe te) Slee NE Rie ee ee 86 

CHAPTER IV. VENEERS \ 

General fac occa SS eEeE eS aa Lele we bg Eda o eel a See ae dL 89 
Methods of making veneers 2\i.2 5.5.5.6. 556 6sa.6.c Ua dew deeee Dee 3 eae 90 
Qualifications ‘desired in veneer woods; 3.5 6..0563.6s0 asc 0 00a baa cone Memenroien QI 
Woods tne. ooo fais. Sie s lot es Lane Get don dette dee de code een 92 
Annwal production and ‘values... o50. fins 50s cada s seen s exe u der eee 94 

Rotaty. colt Veneers ic. 5555 65s ciate pe Se phe ee kee GET ee ete as 9S vials ae en 95 

SSURRIOEL WRTIOCTS «5.0 dss. osetia s'5/s.0. ose wim th dace wh aw AUIS Poles aig Stam ears 4 asi dt ee a 99 

SRO, HOO oso 5S iin a on 0 a. 5i0 cw wine MUTA MAI nthe aD, wtlatesb aly SRNR cen ee nn IOI 

BOA BUNK oo Sis hos vce re io bth’ Bie F bade alles vigig fans ws eae 103 

WtGiretion OF Veneers... is .05 oc .iag wisn te awanias Fa veep eo «hates tg ee eee eee 105 

Rfilica tion ‘of wast 2.2196 Sie do oe beets ve aele a ola Sane Us ciaee Re eee ee eee 107 

CRORE PUES ye 55.5.4 dino Sind SS ose piv idin's net eR iaib ua ieedeiea Wieeaelieee a ee ++ 109 

CHAPTER V. SLACK COOPERAGE 

Meme rises. aia sina a haa eS wed ike ve oN ene CE Sik ae 4 DAE Oe ate eee IIs 

Annual production... 645 ees «dase ede cee Tc ele bs ple Aiviaei nie Rice gtd waa ee 116 

Slack cooperage versus other forms of shipping containers..............00eeeeeeeeeee 117 

Laws governing the industty oo. 0:5. sci F005 a5 so ais a vietive aie cb e'nle ipod ola ale aig eee gp een 118 

Qualifications for slack cooperage Stock.....05.:. 6.6 siivose us sis ces vale oes ot «deni ae 119 

WV OOS ISOC 555 soos 55. 5ia ss Sedigicta ohm wee ane a WEE A Sa sli hb eg Rupees ete te ne 119 

Manufacture of slack cooperage Stock... 65:5 00.060 esc v2 ov ses tun aie sans eee 122 
Manufactiire of staveses << esis ais yrds 6 Hal se ee baal eteld are aera is ae 123 
Manufacture of heading :,<< i040 F525 45 sts Adee ale se nem ae mle ec 127 
Manufacture of Roope) 0.065.612 6 eas es.c% sina 'eia ars a dk ve Relale egg seo pa aaa 131 
SWE LOOK i08sk Wace vied a wSd n'v-06d o Ud RKEe TED ARE Me ea ae ee bona 132 
Oe Se aE en TOE me wast hry TNE ree STS 132 

PANG oo Sg Binds Vivid Figures 4a alin a's >) ak DK a aD ER eK ae a nT 134 

RICSeBUIO OE WORE 5555 Gah Ive. d veda daa spawn les oie Seka ees 135 

MOSTV AICI So asc on POY noe x SF Shp WE 8 acy dipcel lean 0 rs eth a EN eTe: teee are ay peels aE 137 

SOOO TOV UUSECIADS 555.745.5005 bata (aFiapo 00) Fs cvesedaynvovesueecds iviecscon scatodcopBURRepabetehetieeivl «i atenat ins cele vc teen 137 


CRETE NE Sy ross 15 ion totam wh 0S iad rehire doe saa ho bon 4, tsdlaome Do co aR GASRUR Senate NSE 2 a 140 


CONTENTS . Vil 


CHAPTER VI. TIGHT COOPERAGE 


. PAGE 
NO es. eu |. ou teil iain nb Uae 8 aes Ga ht am ckteah Uden sheen eh adttegs es 143 
ON SE et a eee rie ee eee ee eee eT eee 145 
NN WM gin <5 5. CU oes sve © as ye aS aes RNs a owe Ube Ss <6 5 sip oo ares go rie eel nee ow 146 
NE DMEOO. 5 o'r, Pec aa won So's wks RCO k Cae Cb oe pwEK SS dine Chee t eked ie gaz he 147 
= SORES CE OEE ECE PEL TREE CTE Tees Pee EE eT 148 
EMER ola’. <2 TS baw Ae ya se cen y Sa dbiewne Panes ong tiins dary Sah cican 149 

IGS 5 iz. 50s SRMCELR OMe a erp vasa be Ge siewat.cap yeni ees wap 149 
EMROR  o.). .. cco COR Re lowes aan ot te wean an ne hnenth Gppmes Balers 149 
RANI St CCUVOTING WORN rics a Ss. he's ce nica bso sietep este rete rete apndan 150 
OE REE RIE Soe P88 0) PEE Maller EIA Sion Tg tL ey 152 
wmmenriare Of staves and hesdine® si 6.2 oc 0's oo 5h Ske ose reese ase Sb andecwns 153 
CN eR cans osu a bow Sb ar eae SERPS AO PREPRESS CURES PEP EE Sees 159 
SeSY SUE TINCASIONNS SEMI TUES. 5 Io vn cls os ss de ok Chad epg eh See ee Nese een hawe 163 
SEEM a5 G4 a div /o'y Gm «50 9 ov a,0 kK Salen page weawa ms Eee Kee eS kneA SRE eeee eC eSM ns oC Ree 164 
CHAPTER VII. NAVAL STORES 
SEN a Sa Sid tk <tc sc Soe cee Pe a REO ec RANEY yb) Oat ee oes See eS 165 
En See i ere ls Rr lS eee a Pe ey eee eee ee ar 167 
RE CR MCURMR. Els a Mien saa sla site Mikes Goh ose Es Vea ER SAD ash ss vesieaess 167 
EE DRRUMINNDS 23. O CERO ono Ko piv dors o's wd a boo <.ain asics DEWRIR Kae Ses Mead 169 
Se ee eee ae Pi er a a, sy aie eer 173 
EMMI MMR geht eto a A STS wr cio ee SC aicie ba ais SERA Soir ve wo bd bees aces weceee 178 
RR Sa a Bier Gass op Suse Se we Had Pula WS oe «kee EH ne os eee aetle 182 
Utilization of products. ........ Pane Lites et oh ieee eae MRR Ca eens oc 183 
INS GO eee ek SAAT bee Clea eae tre eee attest ee kre Sentees 185 
CHAPTER VIII. HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 
Re Tear gle Wak ai wis a.6'r no + ¢ cin b bine ass pple LR UCN bore Roe STC aE 189 
NEIMAN ieee Lie dials aida seco. o3 wikis nt Dap acne ean s Ria a Bake kes © cae 189 
: ES ee, Bn EE EE REET ai AO ELLOS E ee. ee Sa 189 
Utilization of wood in the industry.............. rc SGU ES Ae Sea saw See tls 192 
Sea NIMMUAOUNB Ske Kare srase'e sis ao Fd ¢.<'3 2 OVA EER oe Pow cee eh Jews 192 
RE MEIOR En Oa ccle ON ca Od win doris op tine bs Scand S Wha ce ho gdde Sieaayet% 192 
SE RP eo: aes Seedy Pye The PY PL eee ye eee eee 192 
tee CL OUETIO AG the IACLOEY. oo ck wes ce nes Seaweeds ss leecsares 193 
NIRS Siu ao sonny ws oS na won te wR OOS ES dd Mt cw evee wok 193 
Opportunities for utilization of sawmill and woods waste...................... 194 
ONION SUNOS. oo: och = chp A Mp eb awe Kowa ead d des ee daha 195 
Statistics of wood consumption... .. DR he CON hae eyes © CRE ee ire are 196 
I AR UE ROU od ooo So nn an i eicie gis ss Ce RR VA ER SS Ooo ON OMS 197 
NN RMECMING aclg oc is 6 ak oeag dew coe RAE Masts yw ekcoeen sleet asepee 199 
PPROEES MMB yo cecls, ota oa a creas Eun RCE AS £ Sat ole © sina Up awd Sik oe 200 
MMRDA LS Cates sak cae aati slaw cd Serine GEE ges ups bat Lo gee aoe taba 200 
I ag las ee eh gem ks ees has cw 5 otc. exes ee 201 
SS i ah ott MER ans Sicily ak da citer ae ac eucea s ve nkn whined 203 
ST Eitan SY Fe ot ey Ue ee aia 206 
Rian ole fi chlor os RSPR SRK: SESo RRM GaAs + 0 Loses ale WANE OE 213 


viii CONTENTS 


CHAPTER IX. SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION 


PAGE 
General..... SE Ae Pee ry Weert Sa PE 225 
Destructive distillation sys eco cc she oe ash a acs bs aoale dg ets ABR aaah 0 Se 227 
Steam ‘distillation and extraction: 0/0 00.056 0 os ek 2 ou Oa ee eltle 0 oo cette tice 230 
Wuhization of products ys oiwicce Foes ol CLG pee be eee gene's» > 7k 233 
Future of industry........0s...e0805 PeawhUSESTS We Sale >» > oie Seen en 232 
CHAPTER X. CHARCOAL 
Ome tA So ae Cae FSs a Chien Wowace wide 6 ROA HE be 9 64 ood 6 0 ee 235 
Woods used and yields. ...............-5- eee ee 236 
PrOCESSES USE os 65. cis.c!sa Adis sco ab dane aso ie bobeele 6-5 0,61216 0.05 Sse Re oot 238 
Utilization and. prices ....660 ys ese eats od ass acy ae cane Re Ren Ona sare ae 245 
CHAPTER XI. BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS 
Generals ooo. o sieie sone ob ibew oissecpie'e 6 vin 8 BGI 0% 5 on dla ceye aid Stoo an RES eRe ted ate Nanna 248 
Qualities desired in woods used for boxes................ TUs oe ohn odes Celene 249 
Species used and annual consumption... .... ...0../i-¢.ac teens acoete rs vauneewe ogee 250 
Manufacture ois aiieia a's sos och ba wid oe win pub dor b 40) dae Sa SORERT oc ae 253 
Sizes and specificAGiOnes 5... 6 ies deen 5's ve vin oe Ketamine eons a te aca ee 254 
Export of ShooWgs..3. . 0 ssadiew cocks ac srees sca to cen amy ete 0 Bl de wig sept neee . 260 
CHAPTER XII. CROSS TIES 
MOTTE ois i oan oa 'b Bins Fa "5 ding 9 0) danse dinlele s sauecn ita e/Sieee ta ast a cept gin ee acta . 263 
SSDOCIOS UIBOD So 6.0 5icisin 5c 0.5 cielovese vein. diele o his 0:6 6150 y's "e-atatnatigh We 8 lehteeTa Cnr ts 264 
Renuirements of & Zood tie... os... eee cde evo ,ssis sistwle ol eeN lee vamp leita te ne 267 
Sayyed versus Rewed ties. oi. s ieee. 6 oie sie sale bye 3,5 0d 5 wraree bleyary, SORRCR Dalam papain anes he an aera 269 
WPCCHICATIONS ANC PICES: 5. ie. 6 os kk a ese wind w store niptace ual d git eae ye ee ae 270 
Makie and delivery to. market... 03.00.56. 600c ice nae usies. 1 1o]eR a ean eta 277 
MSONOTAL Sooo esa si PIERS 6 oa ele boa oc was asd said aide © nea clatter 277 
SOEWIMIDA GLE oe asiats 2s aiecs bars ee ee Ale, weve 8 © Alia Gadel Rane apeTe ee eee ee ee 277 
Suitable sized timber for hewing:... <<... 5 65. os ccc sido eel be tee nian 278 
Number of ties per thousand board feet... ........0. 022s sews ec eceresewemeas 279 
BAS sn ok Sino go cars 0'e.0 worse acs wie phere us wildla’ cca 7k. Seer bi or ere ariel Ma at ete eae at na 280 
SIMA 6 05 5 oss ae: eic bin oc Sin, a0). & 0 aielwiaie a ure wictas abate evel pe aueilene latent eee aia 283 
BABU moan os enn 0st 20 0.558 00 0 0's nia o'e-0 bw yiniohal echiatey Oran eS es 283 
Other forms of transportation... 66.6 c0kie aed sis oo nate eel en sae 284 
Summary of operating costs................. Sealey abd chavs Sab Scaa oobea a adie nema 285 
SOW OE TAS oligo cia aoe Ws 0 e's 8,015 Biase oa Wonrea.d one eae. FeO Os EES ONE cnet a 287 
SCAM seksi c dah ek ceo aise s wast-o'e wibiolerdlg in toe > 6. « sal slate rele, GL enesete ean aan tec 289 
Hele of Witten bed HEB... 6k. ice sca Lac ese Stork cee pea We nee ies che 201 
The preservative treatment of ties... ..0.65 66 coos iva da cote ns cum edgle ee eee eee 293 
The protection of ties against mechanical wear.............00eeeeeees + bee teen 2094 
CHAPTER XIII. POLES AND PILING 
| BOE tT ET fo Ue PETE REE REN ET RAVE PEER E CUS Ey rie heh eo ey S 299 
Qualifications desired in pole and pile timbers. .............2.00060cceuceeeeseeeees 209 


Sache MIKE QIAOUNE TSE 65515 Fis debian s dha oc bkses aes Oa ood eee ee ee 300 


CONTENTS 


Specifications and prices. ........-.----++-++++++++ PRA Ae Oe CT. 
Logging and production of poles and piles... ........- AE ts Pr 


General considerations... .....-....---- scene ce cens cece ere ee teeeee 


Hauling and other forms of transportation. .....-.-.-.-.-------+------ 
Yarding, seasoning and shipping... ....-.- SR ee PEE et see 


Length of service untreated. .....-..-.- +--+ ++ +0225 e erence ee eee eee e eters 


a ttleades: Sak tiirds and piling “S750. 40. es <s-cs0 o> - sesh e-wokesctenese a eee 


I NN 5 eS os 2 oo 20% 5 vw tics ns vy es Bes a en 
SMILE BOIS WOUG POT CORN 5.8 8 85. oa cw soe oe ae bese pe eeee ve 


Cutting, hauling and delivering to market... .............------+------ee5: 


donee eee eesacansweokseceseceseswisentsevsaesesecaeteecasessacesasene Senses es 


EE a eae TER ENTE Pe BP a 
Durability and Nee OE CCRT ne eso aes iss fee ites dines 


ix 


PAGE 
304 
310 
310 
312 
313 
314 
314 
314 
318 
319 
321 
325 


326 


33° 


331 
333 


x CONTENTS 


PAGE 
CHAPTER XVIII. MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 

History and developmen@®::. .. 2 s.ccced eee a eee ova s plane piys's » he hay meen 374 
Species of maples Msed ho 5. i ocas Coase oe nen oeae ose ans « +9 eeenanene ‘378 
Asmual production. ...3\.26) dei. Seg adeeb duces sslene oseaSlghe +” «3a geen ae 380 
Conditions necessary for commercial operationS..........600.0cc cece ee eeeeeeeeeeune 381 
SAD HOW AN SEASON: «0. 6s ines os ee seen Ree hs bee ea be o> 6 ps ee ie ta gon 
WV OOUS GPETAUIONS 655.5... boo: 0 vette SPR EA re e385 
Tapping trees and distribution of buckets... ...........0:sceeeecseeeceuseenes 385 
Collection of sap... ..c0 os eie ce ica bees on © o's » «pte ogame ate gear 388 
Manufacture of syrup and stgats 6.06653. 66 65.6.00)6 + 0 i 5.09 staiilnle Olan etsy a> od ah 390 
The sugar: Bouse.) 4.6 se naseae os ab oo oo o-alp adele aM Sc 390 

(3) Sa e  eeaee e e RM YS) 391 
Equipment and Cost. 5.0062 c0a ence sce s ob oa emianen ates ye esa oes ae 391 
PEOCORSS 655 1e lo 5B sipse ios SS iaye Gee 08 49s 62 0s) enka Fgh ame a TE INR igen Tee ase 304 
Vields of sap, syrup. and Stgar. 3.00.6. ow ase seis e - eoo sate ea lage inate oie VSI oe 396 


Uses and value OF PROGUCIS 4). os ne .1 06's 20.9004 epee 0 9.0 area eR rears Ribeetal leat 398 


CHAPTER XIX. RUBBER 


MOTE RES ai gi res asin ee eed tee SiR Eloi Te ean se Beale ee ERS ae RE nas eee Pennines 401 
Le 0) 9 an On ee ie ee mM revo e eft irre ae ee kr 402 
Sources of supply and methods of production... 0.0.0... cscs eeec eee eee eee eeeeeseees 404 
Rehber plantations sre odie. 5 wee bose + gous» ayes bce my Nie Map abvene Regt ew Ngo 407 
Methods of mantfactures. icc. oo. o.65 ois vce» 6s assis 2 8 eeeiny ¢ Meteeleia toatl hepehaa cad eteeoaenanna 41t 
PPYRVICHAL USCS ine. 4 fore. 5.6.00’ 0.0 9-9 59010 a8 Che bv hw e818 Os alsa Naa rae et ctak ee 412 


CHAPTER XX. DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 


General description...) 5 003 se. d ees) dab es ha eee See ee 414 
Manufacture of dyestuffs..... eet mere Pe era RNS tem re ekg 415 
BAW matersals used 5c. 5 6 cs 5 56.5 55a oe a 6 Dos oO ole Cla a See Ee 416 
TOR WOO 0555.5 305 Sb a 24 5 er yaa UIs Oa Td een ob POE Gee 416 
WER ZI WOKS 5.4.0 656k ss obo gies 4 ota nls ibontuuerale yb a DI Rea ney eee ar ore ae 417 
EASELS 5 5).6Sis-o 30h p state s-0 ewe ays Goes O¥ Deda Lie lee eel Ue ne ee 418 
Red sandalwood «005.0... 55 adc s Hone See Wiaiwe Ue da a Ga ise ee 419 
MET CLEXOI GE «5.5, scons, sso Biocais atae eee Saree tee Te eee pea ee 419 
Venetian sumach 6 o..acc. so. sane 0s Pe he 5 Oe eee 419 
BBR EPA CO se. Ss ase asic 5 Sh ae & eee TE bw Bee OTE ee ie ane ee 419 
O11, 7 ul SRO rat eae Wear Se At a te ira RII RATE ap Poh rele acetate 421 
OEE SHS sn 5k 5 0:55 Oe tle Coorg tba FUR ee ae oles Oe 421 


Bomortation OF GVCStUGGi6 iis cee cee eee veeabyaevs 


oevoevevenevertreeoeeeeee veneer e 421 


CHAPTER XXI. EXCELSIOR 


MRED ih 5 dena f Say 68S) ASA ves Seas bax) Bee een Ae eee bre eT eee ne 424 
OGRE COS eG 555535 55 Gisays ja So Na a wah AN canes COREE Eee oe 424 
GER BUI WATE OF CKCONBION So oes 5s. oss a dds Betea ac Th ee ee ae Oe 425 


CONTENTS xi 


PAGE 

NN OEE) at ee ee Ren: en eens 427 
eeementeoee mine Aint OF SAOe VRRCOCTAE Ss 5 is os ok pe Foe sabes SoC Sen tie 8 ee 427 
Mn TIC ess 2s en eg Desa See eRe ce wisn d DARA Cb elaed oe woo 427 
NENG. CSC ai ae con fabwind ss CAE On e\s Ree Eoiess Dak pen Labo obo EO we eeu A 427 
MAY OE MEER 5 5 2 cet yas. Ox Analy ae kis <b a cea aune <evPeaeseChnie'e s 439 

CHAPTER XXII. CORK 

ans <a SOR RRERENETS pis we seh ob Ts Seed Renae Swe wane cekwap eames 433 
MEINMCMEMICE Sati S oa aicl ah a tue aha eaten » oe CRE we news Sobek decclnewens pie yas 434 
TM. 35 5's sas aoe tetas bik aos ccc ae ste dnceuse av edtancebeedes 435 
aoe oo n'a ss oS Ne ie oo cat ew kd wp.cee beta ese setahuns op 437 
MEINE oie e ia! o's o's. oo Sec RE EO ee AA a aL nee Ra eeme ee wa a 438 
EMINENCE, Sos oo... ou a herein RA CUED E Ee ie be aw Weed eet annee Sante rons 440 
I do Eis a «a6 vvet so cdeceseedis catvubwelsucs tabaescrsacan seme kha Canes 445 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS | 


FIG. PAGE 
1. About 10,000 cords of pulpwood bolts, Hinckley, New York. ...........00000-05: 19 
2. A pulp mill with a capacity of 60 tons of pulp in twenty-four hours............... 25 
3. A four-pocket grinder used to reduce wood bolts to fiber by the mechanical process.. 34 
4. Grinder room in a large pulp mill containing 24 wood grinders of the three-pocket type 36 
5. Wood chipper used to reduce the bolts of wood to chips for use in the manufacture of 

SIME ONIN ein ce I neat C cies. eagle aa A x ae mn mae cee aie ee OR KARIN 39 
6. Digester used to cook chips in the manufacture of sulphite pulp.................- 42 
7. Wet machine or press—the final step in the manufacture of paper pulp..........- 44 
ys ae ay et ae Sn a Ree yi eles, Sy Le eA 52 
9. Fourdrinier wire, the most specialized machine in the manufacture of paper... .... 54 

to. Diaphragm plate screen tilted for washing.................22...-2 22 - eee eee eee 55 

11. The end of the drier, the calender stack, reels, rewinder and cutter....... eae 56 

a2. Peeme temiock bark ti North Carolina. ..o4 6. ecco cane we sccnahsbercpocsucc 62 

13. Hauling and loading hemlock bark in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. ..... . 67 

14. Method of hauling hemlock bark in Garrett Co., Maryland.....................- 69 

15. A large leather tannery at Andrews, North Carolina......................-..--- 74 

16. A peeling operation on tanbark oak near Sherwood, California.................-.- 76 

47. Rotary veneer machine in operation . .... ... 2... ce cece en scec tc teccsee'ee 9! 

18. Rotary veneer machine showing the lugs on which the log is turned and the veneer 

MMMM alee co Anas voce ceheeekcs cs boty oe Weak demas GR BER eer meio eis om 97 

19. A veneer slicing machine in operation, cutting Circassian walnut veneers.......... 100 

REPO MAW COOTER «On en orcs ce sSigas i deleusn cee Oealaetiaue ecg teake 102 

21. Sheets of veneered heading used for barrels............. 2.2.2... 22 2c eee eee eues 103 

22. A hollow die stamping machine used for making fruit-basket tops, novelties, etc... . 106 


23. Sawing up cores left after making rotary veneers at the Weed Lumber Co., Weed, 
MMR soda anc oo es =e ce ARS 2S Cpa kw we da macchan wees 109 
eee teat OF Veneer BAN eos ioc aa wn oes ck pow ess Shades eacuesks III 
25. Diagram illustrating the utilization of a log for quartered flitches................- 113 
NIN a oi x cos so Sans oe cae LA AAR eae mee SOE ee acca es wage ess 116 
27. Method of cutting logs of various diameters into stave bolts..................--- 120 
28. Ground plan of slack cooperage plant........... 2.2.2.2. cece cece eeececeeeseese 122 
Sn REO SERVE TOME CrIGNIECET. oo one a np = cic os Chee sex uanccccedeeaccoses 124 
30. Barrel stave saw and stave bolts ready to be sawn at Batesville, Arkansas......... 125 
I SUMO METRES SoS ng em gist pp exc det: chance ccame 128 
nine Beer On Saseeibning eB batted ooo Sco ss aww corn cc accion cccuvecascacend 130 


XiV 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
FIG. : PAGE 
33- Method sometimes employed in riving sections of white oak logs into stave bolts, 
Houston County, "Lennéssee 20 (oon awo's soc soe 0 need cle bints 2s = spree ane 144 
34. Diagram showing method of riving staves from a white oak log.................. 150 
35. White oak butt cut for stave bolts from which twelve bolts were obtained. Giles 
County; Tennessee sox s.r... alee sccieacsts irs aoe anaes oie otal "Saale o.0 8 ae I5I 
36. Equalizer in operation at a tight stave mill in Tennessee.................2...0.. 153 
37. Asplit stave emerging between the bucker knives........ 0... 6. es see cece eee euee 154 
38. Stave jointers or listing machines in operation at a stave mill in Arkansas......... 155 
39. About 1,000,000 tight cooperage staves piled for seasoning in Quitman County, 
Mississipph oi... heey eye's DE es aoe sabe o a's vos de dle ecg mT EO a a: ha 157 
40. Stave jointer in operation in a large cooperage assembling plant.................. 158 
41. Method of heating the staves preliminary to placing them in a power windlass for 
final assembling se ooo eis. 5: cis ais v's, Gis kia 'o -eclaSee psn eer ee eae end eda ee 160 
42. Machine for chamfering, howeling and crozing tight barrels....................-. 161 
. Cutting a box in the base of a longleaf pine for the collection of resin. .;.......... 166 
44. Cornering a box to provide a smooth surface over which the resin is guided into the 
box; Statesboro, Georgia. .).:. s:<,'va, clic a /lsts = oo craeebay weasel 1s ee So aE TS.Y lo 170 
45. Chipping the fourth streak above a virgin box near Ocilla, Georgia............... I7I 
46. Dipping the resin from the old-fashioned box. ............+.0:eeesseceeeeeeeees 173 
47. Correct position of the Herty cup and gutters....... 04... 06.0.500000+0eurb ees fae 174 
48. Method of collecting resin with the McKoy cup................0 cece eee eeeeeee 176 
49. Western yellow pine tapped for naval stores products. Experimental area on Coco- . 
nino National Forest, Arizona. i664 (iso scivs » cs acevo ves eed pul 177 
50. Tools and utensils used in the naval stores industry... ............00eceeeeeeeees 178 
51. Turpentine still at Clinton, North Carolina. 3 3156.00 3, 0, Since ahi ns 6 os a ee 179 
52. Diagrammatic cross-section of a turpentine still............... 02-2 e eee e eee eee ee 182 
53- Method of tapping maritime pine near Arres in the Landes region of France....... 186 
54. Beech, birch and hard maple cut in 50-inch lengths for conversion by dry distillation igo 
55- General view of the Maryland Wood Products Co., Maryland, New York......... 194. 
56. General view of hardwood distillation plant at Betula, Pennsylvania............. 198 
57- The wood distillation plant of the Cobbs-Mitchell Co. at Cadillac, Michigan....... 202 
58. Alley between the first and second sets of cooling ovens, showing the character of the 
doors and method of banking around the base. ............... cece cree eeeee 203 
59. Cars or trucks loaded with charcoal after heating in the ovens................4+- 208 
60. Interior of the still house at a hardwood distillation plant in Pennsylvania......... 2mr 
61. Acetate of lime drying over the retorts in the oven house at a large plant at Betula, 
Pennsylvania... ..5 5. 0c s vis ve bo node nied sy eed ew ees nae 220 
62. General view of the destructive distillation plant of the Pine Products Co., Georgia. 228 
63. A charcoal pit near Elk Neck, Maryland... ... 0.0540. «ste os «sss vw saclneeen eae 237 
64. A charcoal pit in the process of burning.............0.00cecerceecseerceeseeees 240 
65. Type of brick beehive kiln used for making charcoal for iron furnaces in northern 
New. Works io). Svs cg ves wey wesc emacs Cpe wale ee ee 242 
66. A forest of beech cut clean for charcoal in one of the State Forests of Tuscany in 
Comtral Ttally i665 oo. aiso0-3 cickew sve oce'n:ba 0 ply aie dad es bw ee 244 
67. A view of the yard of a sawmill at Vallombrosa, Italy...............0e0eeeeeees 246 
68. Common forms of hewed cross ties with reference to their position in the log....... 264 
69. Tie hacker making ties from lodgepole pine in the Gallatin National Forest, Montana 265 
70. Peeler or bark spud used in removing the bark............0.00ceceuceuceceecess 268 
71. Triangular tie used by the Great Northern Railway............00e0cecveueeeees 274 
72. Method of sawing triangular ties from tie logs.............ccceceeucecuvcecuces 274 
73. Making ties in the hardwood forests of Decatur County, Tennessee.............++ 281 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV 


FIG. PAGE 
74. Hauling Douglas fir ties to the landing or chute with the “go-devil”............. 283 
75. Ties hauled from 1 to 3 miles by wagon to the landing at the flume. Western 

RINE ars OO Ps PS SE eS Tose ey Pee ete ae bose se oso te OU eee wees es 285 
76. Loading ties from barges to cars at Metropolis, Illinois................----.-+-- 287 
77. Conventional methods of piling cross-ties..........----------2- cece eee eee ede 289 


78. Method of using “ S ” irons to prevent the further opening of checks in cross ties.. 291 
79. Graphic representation of the price levels of No. 1 white and red oak ties delivered 


f.o.b. cars at East St. Louis for the years 1902 to 1917, inclusive. ............. 204 
80. The effect of the nail spike and the screw spike on wood fibers of ties... .. . Sta 296 
8r. Peeling western red cedar poles in the Priest River Valley, Kaniksu National Forest, 
RMI ooo?) 5 <n Ste aE foe Pols t eis aCe CoS eo 302 
82. Loading chestnut poles. Perry County, Pennsylvania..................-.----- 315 
83. The beginning of a new pole yard in northern Idaho.................-.-.-.---- 315 
84. Method used in piling poles to facilitate drying. ................-.-.---+------ 317 
85. Loading southern white cedar telephone and telegraph poles at Wilmington, North 
II eg aces ite nar a os, Ser eR Oe a Maas Sedo ns aaa es ee 318 
86. Method employed in piling and nadine Bien GN CRI K oe ote owas orm 320 
87. Method of treating poles in an open tank to increase their length of service... .... 322 
88. Pole yard and treating plant at Gaulsheim, Germany...........-.----..------- 324 
89. Over 500,000,000 posts are used annually on the farms and along the railways of this 
RRMRER ats Sirens ya Sa aa Ss he Cal aka laen BBS dla < Wi WE a Sa a Sees a! a elular ee ae b's -6'Sle 327 
go. Preservative treatment of fence posts by the open-tank method. ................ 328 
gt. Beech, birch and maple cordwood cut and stacked for seasoning in the woods. 
SRN ORES TNO NAMM a's 5.2 ors Sa cea ae en b Ete eames owivgs oie bee 4 a0 337 
92. Woodyard with a capacity of 5000 cords of fuel wood along the Potomac River 
PMU LET TOs Mie ok eat EE ater hts cigs omic Sana araig ww ew alaiataw vias 8 341 
93- Two cut-up saws operated by electric motor. ................-..-----20-2- eee es 346 
94. Hauling cordwood near Custer City, Pennsylvania............2.-....-...-5.---. 347 
95- About 500 cords of wood piled in the municipal pai of Columbia, South Carolina 349 
ie repens NACE OP PIMC TNO 6 Soi. Sos = coat cules he sea he he Rae peat ees means 366 
97- About 100,000 shakes made from five sugar pines in the Sierra National Forest, 
NNER 3 Ste Pata s a a Aes OVE Lege St ORR ee Ts GWE awe Vea ed 371 


98. The old primitive and wasteful method of tapping sugar maples used by the Indians 375 
99. The old-fashioned method of reducing the sap to syrup by boiling down in copper 


etties Hi tie WOOUSs. 25 Aloe Fe uc aa ote os Let’ dae ee eek, Be eeas 377 
too. Tapping a sugar maple in the Adirondacks. ...............-.....---------+--- 386 
tor. Modern tin pails with covers to keep the sap free of rain, bark, twigs and anes 
egamrities.- Mandwick, Vermboniti2. sce 0 Pees oars oa enc din bs aig 388 
to2. A recent development in the maple sugar and syrup industry................... 389 
103. A typical sugar house in the “sugar bush”....................2..22-02--- 00005 390 
104. Gathering the sap in a northern New York sugar bush.....................-.-. 393 
105. Interior of a sugar house showing the steaming evaporator at the left and the sugar- 
ae es AAG AE. CPN EEE Fo eos sia Bo CREO we eB RS RLS ae Rete 305 
106. Ground plan of a 14-ft. by 20-ft. foot sugar house equipped with a eandern evapo- 
RIM re So pias oe aal? c Ae MES Ue as ew atacted hace SIME EEE OEM wana ee Gke ect ots 397 
107. A maple tree on the Spalding farm, Amsden, Vermont, with 32 buckets hung at one 
REE i ae ee Ape OS ee Se lyn SINE) MA ae e eee 309 
108. Two-year old rubber trees grown in plantation in Sumatra..................--- 402 
109. Method of tapping rubber trees in plantation in Sumatra..................-.... 407 
110. Close view of tapping methods and cups used in collecting the latex............. 409 


111. Curve representing the world’s production of rubber from 1900 to 1918, inclusive.. 411 


Xvi 


FIG. 
112. 
113. 


114. 
IIS. 


116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 
Raw material in the form of poplar bolts being placed in vertical excelsior machines 427 
Vertical type of excelsior machines in operation at a factory in Union, New Hamp- 


SEG 5 bigiciavess, tases dete aM eee yo sap nue 9,410 'e o0ib's.g alates «4.0 Cee ee 430 
A good stand of cork oaks in Andalusia in southern Spain..............-++..++- 434 
Weighing pieces of cork in the cork oak forests of southern Spain, just after stripping 

GIA EVIE 05 wigd cf ood iernsnyr G45) s'y 3914 & «0 a erence oe » + 5 WM 5 oa 436 
Character of bark as it is brought to the factory from the forest................. 438 
A large cork factory in Seville, Spain.................5. 1 Fake sot aca si ace Men 439 
Baling cork after boiling, scraping, grading and trimming.................0-0+- 440 
Sorting and ‘trimming sheets.of cork’. . 2.22. ..6-++00009 see ae dae o> ce penmeenees 441 


Baled:cork scraps at.a cork factory. .2.\...... +. +s-sscsmw peta belees += 5s eee 442 


COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF NATIVE 
AMERICAN TREES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT * 


SOFTWOODS 


Arborvite—see northern white cedar. 

Cedar, eastern red or juniper (Juniperus virginiana, L.). 

Cedar, incense (Libocedrus decurrens, Torr.). 

Cedar, northern white or arborvite (Thuya occidentalis, L.)}. 
Cedar, southern white (Chamaecyparis thyoides, Britt.). 

Cedar, western red (Thuya plicata, D. Don.). 

Cypress, southern red or bald (Taxodium distichum, Rich.). 

Fir, balsam (Abies balsamea, Mill.). 

Fir, Douglas (Pseudotsuga taxifolia—also mucronata, Sudw.). 
Fir, noble (Abies nobilis, Lindl.). 

Fir, red (Abies magnifica, A. Murr.). 

Fir, white (Abies concolor, Lindl. and Gord.). 

Hemlock, eastern (Tsuga canadensis, Carr.). 

Hemlock, western (Tsuga heterophylla, Sarg.).t 

Hemlock, western or mountain (Tsuga mertensiana, Sarg.). 
Juniper—see Cedar. 

Larch, eastern or tamarack (Larix occidentalis, Nutt.). 

Larch, western (Larix americana, Michx.). 

Pine, Cuban or slash (Pinus heterophylla—also caribea, Morelet). 
Pine, Jack (Pinus divaricata, Du Mont de Cours). 

Pine, loblolly (Pinus teda, L.). 

Pine, lodgepole (Pinus contorta, var. murrayana, Engelm.). 

Pine, longleaf (Pinus palustris, Mill.). 

Pine, North Carolina—see shortleaf and loblolly pines; includes both. 
Pine, Norway or red (Pinus resinosa, Ait.). 

Pine, pitch (Pinus rigida, Mill.). 

Pine, shortleaf (Pinus echinata, Mill.). 

Pine, southern yellow—includes longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly and Cuban pines. 
Pine, sugar (Pinus lambertiana, Dougl.). 

Pine, western white or Idaho white (Pinus monticola, D. Don.). 
Pine, western yellow or California white (Pinus ponderosa, sarg.). 
Pine, white (Pinus strobus, L.). 

Pine, Virginia or scrub (Pinus virginiana, Mill.). 

Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens, Endl.). 


*Scientific names of exotic species mentioned are generally given wherever found in the text. 
f Of the two western hemlocks, this is the only one of large present commercial importance. 


xvii 


xviii 


* This is the only birch of large commercial importance, and wherever the tree is referred to without 


COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES 


Spruce, black (Picea mariana, B. S. and P.). 

Spruce, Engelmann (Picea engelmanni, Engelm.). 
Spruce, red (Picea rubens, Sarg.). 

Spruce, western or Sitka (Picea sitchensis, Carr.). 
Spruce, white or cat (Picea canadensis, B. S. and P.), 
Tamarack—see Larch. 


- HARDWOODS 


Ash, black (Fraxinus nigra, Marsh). 

Ash, white (Fraxinus americana, L.). 

Aspen, large tooth (Populus grandidentata, Michx.). 
Aspen, quaking (Populus tremuloides, Michx.). 
Basswood or linden (Tilia americana, L.). 

Beech (Fagus americana, Sweet.). 

Birch, black or cherry (Betula lenta, L.). 

Birch, red or yellow (Betula lutea, Michx.)*. 

Box elder (Acer negundo, L.). : 

Buckeye (Aesculus glabra, Willd.). 

Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa, Engelm.). 

Cherry, black (Prunus serotina, Ehrh.). < 
Chestnut (Castanea dentata, Borkh.). 

Chittam or American fustic (Cotinus americana, Nuit.). 
Cottonwood (Populus deltoidea, Marsh). 
Cottonwood, black or western (Populus trichocar pa, Hook.). 
Cottonwood, southern or swamp (Populus heterophylla, L.)f. 
Cucumber (Magnolia acuminata, L.). 

Elm, rock or cork (Ulmus thomasi, Sarg.). 

Elm, white (Ulmus americana, L.). 

Gum, black (Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh). 

Gum, red or sweet (Liguidambar styraciflua, L.). 
Gum, tupelo (Vyssa aquatica, Marsh). 

Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis, L.). 

Hickory (Hicoria spp.). 

Locust, black (Robinia pseudocacia, L.). 

Locust, honey (Gleditsia triacanthos, L.). 

Maple, black (Acer nigrum, Michx.). 

Maple, mountain (Acer spicatum, Lam.). 

Maple, Oregon (Acer circinatum, Pursh.). 

Maple, red (Acer rubrum, L.). 

Maple, silver or soft (Acer saccharinum, L.). 

Maple, striped (Acer pennsylvanicum, L.). 

Maple, sugar, rock or hard (Acer saccharum, Marsh). 
Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora, DC.), 

Mulberry, red (Morus rubra, L.). 

Oak, black or yellow (Quercus velutina, Lam.). 

Oak, bur (Quercus macrocar pa, Michx.). 

Oak, chestnut or rock (Quercus prinus, L.). 

Oak, overcup (Quercus lyrata, Wallt.). 


naming the kind of birch, this is the one indicated. 
+ The principal cottonwood cut for lumber, veneers, staves, etc. 


COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES 


Oak, pin (Quercus palustris, Muench.). 

Oak, post (Quercus minor, Sarg.). 

Oak, red (Quercus rubra, L.). 

Oak, swamp white (Quercus platanoides, Sudw.). 
Oak, tanbark (Quercus densiflora, also Pasania densiflora, Orst.). 
Oak, white (Quercus alba, L.). 

Osage orange (Toxylon pomiferum, Raf.). 

Palmetto, cabbage (Sabal palmetto, R. and S.). 
Poplar, yellow or tulip (Liriodendron tulipifera, L.). 
Popple—see Aspen. 

Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras, Karst.). 

Sumach, southern (Rhus cotinus, L.). 

Sumach, staghorn (Rhus hirta, Sudw.). 

Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis, L.). 

Tupelo—see Gum, Tupelo. 

Walnut, black (Juglans nigra, L.). 

Walnut, white or butternut (Juglans cinerea, L.), 
Willow (Salix spp.), 


xix 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


CHAPTER I 


GENERAL 


INTRODUCTION 


In ancient times the harvesting and use of the products of the forest 
constituted the entire practice: of forestry. Then no thought of the 
future was necessary and there was little discrimination as between the 
various species and the adaptability and suitability of each to its par- 
ticular and proper uses. As the raw products of the forest became 
scarcer and, therefore, more valuable in conformity with the law of sup- 
ply and demand, new methods were constantly devised, as a result of 
experimentation, to put our wood supplies to their most profitable use. 
As our most valuable trees became exhausted, others were required to 
take their places, and in spite of the rapid introduction of wood sub- 
stitutes, new uses are being constantly found for wood. 

Every species of wood is characterized by its individual structure, 
color, grain, etc., which serve to distinguish it from other species. It is 
these same characteristics which must be studied and investigated to 
determine their adaptability and value for the different wood uses. For 
example, longleaf pine is strong, stiff, durable and grows tall and straight 
and, therefore, makes an excellent construction timber; spruce has long, 
soft, strong and pliable fiber and is comparatively free from resin and, 
therefore, makes a splendid wood pulp; oak is hard, strong, durable and 
has a pleasing grain, so it makes an excellent furniture wood. Each kind 
of wood is especially useful and adaptable for certain specific arts and 
industries. 

Altogether, shelter, next to food is the most important commodity in 
human economy. According to Fernow, over one-half of our popula- 
tion live in wooden houses and two-thirds of the population use wood 
for fuel. Besides wood, which constitutes a large part of the total 
utilitarian value of our forests, they supply the following: 


2 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Bark for tanning, medicines, mattings, etc. 

Resinous products, such as turpentine, rosin, tar, pitch, etc. 

Chemical products, such as wood alcohol, pyroligneous acid, char- 
coal, creosote, etc. 

Seeds, oak and beech mast, walnuts, chestnuts, etc. 

Pasture, especially in the West. 

Game and fish (of great importance). 

Recreation and health, summer pleasure grounds, etc. 

Fruits and berries (of minor importance). 

Moderation of temperatures and climate. 

Regulation of the water flow, prevention of erosion, etc. 


ORIGINAL FORESTS 


Originally this country was endowed with greater and more varied 
forests than those of any other nation except Russia. The eastern forests 
stretched unbroken from the Atlantic Ocean to the treeless prairies of 
the Middle West. The Rockies and Pacific slope were densely forested 
except for desert plateaus and interior valleys and high mountain tops. 

The original area of forest in the United States has been estimated 
at 850,000,000 acres. The present area is approximately 545,000,000 
acres. The original stand was estimated at 5,200,000,000,000 bd. ft. 
The present stand is estimated to be about 2,535,000,000,000 bd. ft. 


HISTORY OF LUMBER CUT 


In accordance with the best available historical reports, the first saw- _ 
mill erected in this country is generally attributed to Berwick, Maine, 
where it was erected in the year 1631. Various other mills have been 
reported as being erected in the old Jamestown Colony of Virginia in 
1607 and another in the Plymouth Colony of Massachusetts in 1630, but 
these records are not as well substantiated as those regarding the saw- 
mill at Berwick. 

From the earliest days of the lumber industry in this country, Maine 
held first place in lumber production and developed a considerable trade 
with the West Indies and even with Europe in lumber, timbers and spars, 
etc. With the rapid development in population, and its extension west- 
ward, the lumber industry was moved in the same way. From Maine, 
the center of the lumber industry gradually moved to New York, which 
was the center of the country’s lumber production in 1850. By 1860, 
the center of production had shifted to Pennsylvania. For several 
decades following 1870, and, in fact, up to 1904, the center of lumber pro- 
duction was in the Lake states, Michigan holding first place for over 


SE a eee 
¥ , 7 


‘GENERAL 3 


twenty years, followed by Wisconsin, which also held the leadership in 
lumber production for a period of almost twenty years. Within the past 
two decades there have been rapid changes. Lumber production has 
increased rapidly and the center of the industry has shifted to the south- 
ern states, and now there is once more a period of migration: this time to 
the Far West. 

The following table visualizes the gradual development in the lumber 
industry from the northeast to the Lake states and then to the Far 
South and finally to the northwest. In the year 1890, lumber production 
was just beginning on a large scale in the Pacific northwest, and Wash- 
ington held sixth place in the order of production by states. By 1900 
it had risen to fifth place, in 1904 it occupied second place, and ever since 
1905 this state has held first place. 

LUMBER PRODUCTION BY STATES FROM 1850 TO 1916 


1850 1860 1870 1880 
New York Pennsylvania Michigan Michigan 
Pennsylvania New York Pennsylvania Pennsylvania 
Maine Michigan New York Wisconsin 
Ohio Maine Wisconsin New York 
Indiana Ohio Indiana Indiana 
Michigan Indiana Maine Ohio 
Massachusetts Wisconsin Ohio - Maine 
Tilinois California Missouri Minnesota 

1890 1900 1910 1916 
Michigan Wisconsin Washington Washington 
Wisconsin Michigan Louisiana Louisiana 
Pennsylvania Minnesota Mississippi Mississippi 
Minnesota Pennsylvania Oregon Oregon 
Indiana : Washington Wisconsin _ North Carolina 
Washington Arkansas Texas Texas 
New York Ohio Arkansas Arkansas .- 
Ohio Indiana North Carolina Alabama 


The great center of present production is in the South where over 15,- 
000,000,000 bd. ft. of southern yellow pine, out of a total of about 40,000,- 
000,000 bd. ft., or over 37 per cent of the total lumber production in the 
country is produced, principally in the states of Louisiana, Mississippi, 
North Carolina, Texas, Arkansas and Alabama in order of importance. 

In the year 1899, only 1,736,570,000 bd. ft. of Douglas fir were pro- 
duced, whereas in 1905, 3,000,000,000 bd. ft. were produced, and in 1916 
nearly 5,500,000,000 ft. of Douglas fir were produced. The production 
of oak has been fairly uniform during the past few decades, but the pro- 


4 FOREST PRODUCTS 


duction of white pine, formerly the leading lumber tree cut in this coun- 
try, has fallen in production from over 7,742,000,000 bd. ft. in 1899 to 
2,700,000,000 in 1916. Other species, such as cypress and yellow poplar, 
have shown a marked decrease in production during the past two decades, 
and other species, such as western yellow pine, red gum, birch, cedar, 
and maple have shown a marked increase in production. 


PRESENT FOREST RESOURCES 
Of the total stand of timber still uncut, about 75 per cent is in private 


hands and the remaining 25 per cent in Government hands. The dis- 
tribution of this timber is as follows, by regions: 


STAND OF TIMBER BY REGIONS! Per Cent 
Pacific northwest). .0o.ct is See ee 46.0 
Southern pine: région’. 7.5.) + as create ep ee 29.1 
Lake states: #0 sce SSP sie as Lit aoe ates 4.5 
Other regione. 3.546 Ensen Pel eae be eee 20.5 
Total acc ok Ateneo wc aca See ee 100.0 


By species, the stand of 2,535,000,000,000 bd. ft. left standing in this 
country is divided as follows: 


STANDING TIMBER BY SPECIES! 
Species. ; Billion Bd. Ft. 


Dougiasiht. . ia Zoe ao ake x aaa in eae weet aes 525 
Southern: yellow pitie = oyu. c.s Fie wat ee GAT t oan 325 
Western: yellow ‘pines ec ein ee 275 
Rédwood 35.01% hoes caewa es dae 100 
Western cedar 0. Fis ae Gas ewes cer 160 
Western hemlock 0.0. 225.34. wit ee ee ee 100 
Lodgepole pine .... 2. ;..244.18..% .5 eee oe ee go 
White and Norway pine... ............0..--2+--+- 75 
Eastern: hemlock. :.524<2.00e. unt ioe ee 75 
Westen spruces Et Fr ee SER Le 60 
Eastern ‘spritce: sy.2. 0.4.5 23:00 Si Be ep 50 
Western f9sii sis). be Steeda eS eee 50 
UAL PINE 0.6/1 Le ae Ray eee ee 30 
CY PPOSS. © isc Ti aie Oaieeag yo Cage op eee 20 
Other conilers... 32 oi. Fs ask eget eee 100 
PATA WOOS, 6 FCP Yi nals 4 26 BU eee one eee 500 

Potas ore Ask Sie so thas A Sin ae 2535 


1 From “The Timber Supply of the United States,” by R. S. Kellogg, U.S. Forest 
Service Circ. 166, 1909. 


GENERAL 5 


RATE OF CONSUMPTION 


In 1880 the annual consumption of lumber in this country was 
only 18,000,000,000 bd. ft.; now it is about 40,000,000,000 bd. ft. The 
present supply, at the present rate of consumption, but without allowing 
for the increase in population, will last about seventy years. (Increment 
in American forests is only about one-third of that in Europe, and in addi- 
tion we have about 200,000,000 acres of virgin timber where decay offsets 


APPROXIMATE ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS 
IN THE UNITED STATES! 


: - | Wastage ? in| Total Annual 
Products. Asoc ot irene” | peneceae | Coemitace 
ia Cubic Feet. | Cubic Feet. 
MAMICT PES AL.)s 20:5 sic 2a 45% 005.068 40,000,000,000 | 40,000,000 | 6,000,000 053332333 
Fuelwood, cords................- 100,000,000 | 50,000,000 100,000 9,100,000 
Fence posts, pieces.........-....- 500,000,000 | 2,500,000 50,000 800,000 
Reine, TRCCES A... 555. ersiee = 150,000,000 | 4,950,000 350,000 762,000 
Pulp wood, cords..............-. 6,000,000 | 3,000,000 60,000 600,000 
Round mine timbers, cubic feet. . . 165,000,000 990,000 30,000 196,000 
Shingles, pieces:...5..........-.- 12,000,000,000 | 1,200,000 100,000 160,000 
Tannins—wood and bark, cords. . . 1,300,000 650,000 33,000 150,000 
Distillation wood, cords.......... 1,500,000 750,000 12,000 147,000 
Weneert. tals ito. oes Sk ccbs oo 500,000,000 500,000 60,000 143,000 
Slack cooperage, staves..........-. 1,328,968,000 553,700 
Slack cooperage, sets of heading.. . 106,000,000 117,000 70,000 127,000 
Slack cooperage, hoops........... 353,215,000 265,000 | 
Tight rage, staves.......... 500,000,000 850,000 | 
Tight a otal sets of heading. . . 40,000,000 123,000 } iad faced | ta te! 
Poles and piling, pieces........... 8,000,000 800,000 20,000 116,000 
MA MEET GAS Sth: 9s casey in graye oie 49s 3,163,000,000 632,000 10,000 63,000 
anger, NG. Te... oa: . 2-5 - 100,000,000 100,000 1,000 9,333 
Miscellaneous, including rails, house 
logs, grape stakes, logs used in 
round, hop poles, converter poles, 
props, vehicle stock, derrick 
Seen COC OR CME MOVES 1s 5. 6 5 So coe cfs eee scrptie's cf iiceaedves 3% 200,000 
Me COMMUNION Ge hy Sanec cd sciee pelt adasecseaachy-besewe cis 22,029,666 
Per capita consumption, 
estimating population at 
SaN NEM SIs a. im wrdita Coals ehiaghad <p sl aos acndiales 200.27 cu.ft. 


1 Board feet of lumber have been converted to cubic feet at the rate of 12 bd. ft: =1 cu. ft., round 
material at 6 bd. ft. =1cu. ft., cords to bd. ft. generally at 500 bd. ft. =1 cord, and cords to cubic feet 
at 1cord=o90 cu.ft. For other conversion factors see tables ir Chapter I and various other chapters 
relating to subject. 

2 It is obvious that certain forms of forest products could not be actually converted intc bd ft., for 
example, fuelwood and pulp wood. The table is offered for the purpose of rough comparison The 
amounts in thousand bd. ft. in this column have not been converted to cubic feet except in 
the case of lumber, veneers and excelsior. 

+ This includes waste in logging such as tops, stumps and cull logs and waste in manufacturing 
so oact ce hg kerf, slabs, trimming and edging, etc., but does not include waste by fire, insects, decay, 

.e 


6 FOREST PRODUCTS 


growth.) Weare using our forests three times as fast as they grow. We 
use about. 200 cu. ft. per capita annually, which is more than that of any 
other nation. Germany normally uses only 37 cu. ft., France 25, Great 
Britain 14, and Italy 14. We use nearly twice as much wood per capita 
to-day as we did fifty years ago. 

We are now using distinctively different species from those ten, 
twenty, or fifty years ago. Hemlock now makes up the principal wood 
cut in Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, and New York. White pine, 
the former leading wood cut, is now fourth on the list of the country’s 
lumber production. We are commonly using red gum, hemlock, tupelo, 
beech, sycamore, etc., which formerly were scarcely cut at all for lumber. 

The table on page 5 shows the estimated annual consumption of forest 
products in this country. It is based upon a large number of sources. 


ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF LUMBER 


For the past decade, the annual production of lumber in this country 
has been about 40,000,000,000 bd. ft. It is likely that the peak of lumber 
production in this country was reached in 1909 when 44,500,000,000 
bd. ft. of lumber were reported cut. Up to that time lumber produc- 
tion was on a steady increase. 

The tendency in the industry has been towards the centralization 
of production in the largest sized mills. Fifty years ago, few mills had 
a daily capacity of over 50,000 bd. ft. per day, whereas there are several 
mills in this country which now have a capacity of around 1,000,000 
bd. ft. per day. It is an interesting fact that only 925 sawmills, or 
3.08 per cent of the total number of mills operating in this country 
cut more than 23,000,000,000 bd. ft., or 58.56 per cent of the total pro- 
duction. Each of these mills cut 10,000,000 bd. ft. or more per year. 
About 70 per cent of the total number of all sawmills in this country, 
amounting to over 30,000 mills, cut only about 10 per cent of the total 
lumber product of the country. 

As our original virgin forests continue to be depleted, there will be a 
distinct tendency in the direction of a larger number of small sawmills, 
which will be operated to cut portions of the forest left by the larger 
operations, timber found unsuitable at the time of cutting or on second or 
even third growth which has sprung up after the last cutting or that pre- 
viously left by the larger companies. In the year 1916, for example, 
New York state reported 1121 mills, cutting from 50,000 to 500,000 
bd. ft. annually in operation out of a total number of 1260 mills. Only 
one state, North Carolina, reported a larger number of mills than New 


GENERAL 7 


York state. The virgin forests of these states have been heavily cut 
over many years ago. Washington, the state of the largest present 
lumber production, reported only 444 mills, 126 of which were mills 
cutting over 10,000,000 bd. ft. annually. Louisiana, the center of the 
yellow pine production in the South, reported only 329 mills in the year 
1916, 121 of which cut over 10,000,000 bd. ft. each. ; 

The following table! shows the estimated amount of lumber cut in 


the twenty-five leading lumber-producing states in this country, in the 


year 1916: 
LUMBER PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES 
1916 1899 
States. (30.081 Mills) (31,833 Mills) 
Bd. Ft. Bd. Ft. 
IMUM iii So oy Pics boa se 4,494,000,000 1I,429,032,000 
RRO SF. Nas OS ek a PS 4,200,000,000 1,115,366,000 
We ee eR ci 2,730,000,000 1,206,265 ,000 
Cerri ee Bae sce a. Ge oe 2,222,000,000 734,538,000 
INGSUIEC aronnas ss os Sree et 2,100,000,000 1,286,638,000 
gf ne ey Caren Sacha cae an 2,100,000,000 ¥,232,404,000 
AG a ss Leh ee 1,Q10,000,000 1,623,987,000 
Alpe re ee eee ot 1,720,000,000 I,101,386,000 
bo Se ee 1,600,000,000 3,389,166,000 
PRS A oe cas ee bee vets 1,425 ,000,000 790,373,000 
Oo pea ak es 1,420,000,000 737,035,000 
Witt hs as pees Sebo i a. c8s0.-.- I,335,000,000 959,119,000 
J Ee Ree 2 ae I,230,000,000 3,018,338,000 
MO eee ae ee I,220,000,000 778,051,000 
Bo Sian aan a ee I,220,000,000 2;342,338,000 
ee ee Eee ee ee 1,000,000,000 I,3I1,917,000 
pO Ee ioe yee ie ee os 935,000,000 784,647,000 
DOWRECE MNO Oo Pett ee Sool cite. cl. 857,000,000 466,429,000 
MUMMERS rnd 2 Sed «cs be ose fe 849,600,000 65,363,000 
i |) Se ee er ee ee 750,000,000 2,333;278,000 
MUNIN Sane a oe ees Se Seee ls 700,000,000 950,958,000 
PROMA MMC ete sid geet ws |S 525,000,000 774,651,000 
SS eee ee ee eee 400,000,000 878,448,000 
URW REMMI 2 5 So ook BEN ok oe 385,000,000 572,447,000 
ONES 5 a a eee 383,900,000 255,685,000 
ge Cee eee ee eee 175,551,000 4,921,607,000 
Otek Gale etates) 2: of. 5s. otk. |  39,807,251,000 35,084,166,000 


The above table is interesting in showing how lumber production 
has varied in the different states during the seventeen years between 
1899 and 1916. 


1 From statistics published by the U. S. Forest Service. 


8 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The following table! shows the quantity of each kind of lumber cut 
in this country in the years 1916 and 1899. The change in the amount of 
each of the different species cut is brought out very strikingly in the 
interim of the seventeen-year period. It represents the decline of the 
more important species cut in the East and is not only a reflection 
of the conditions which have obtained in recent years in this country, 
but it also portends the developments which are likely to take place in 
this country in the next few years. Our virgin forests are being rapidly 
cut, and the center of lumber production is rapidly shifting from the 
yellow pine forests of the southeast to the heavy Douglas fir, spruce, 
pine and redwood forests of the Pacific Coast. 


LUMBER PRODUCTION BY SPECIES 


Kinds of Wood. (Ba Et). (Ba Ft). 

Yellow pine. 5s S203. bie wi ceeaiocneee os ' 15,055,000,000 9,657,676,000 
Dotighas Si¥ x 3302, 3/3555 sae ee ee 5,416,000,000 1,736,507,000 
Oak inca bas. ccte bs a0 bs sp RE I esis 3)300,000,000 4,438,027 ,000 
Whit) pike 2S 6c 650 805 xine sean teens os 2,700,000,000 7;742,391,000 
Henshock ties. 0c. Popeye et ee cee 2,350,000,000 3,420,673,000 
Western yellow pine. .... 2.0.0... 080.500 1,690,000,000 945,432,000 
SHATHICE i a9 Fx cal 75 gaa Si rs Ae sl I,250,000,000 1,448,091,000 
GY PIOS8 ips Pocus Sok wie Seed Reo I,000,000,000 495,836,000 
Maple visions ob ue ete se olege tet ene eis 975,000,000 633,466,000 
GUM eo sishcoe hi Ses CENT DER Stele een 800,000,000 285,417,000 
Vellow poplaric2 5 n:5)/5) 2 gse ee oe eo 560,000,000 I,115,242,000 
Chestinnst?). 2 sccuaic..c salve aa tee ig bine Oe ee 535,000,000 206,688,000 
Redwood sss oo via ah cases er bao ee 490,850,000 . 360,167,000 
Bearchisisty aaa ae grac tins kes ROT Mee 455,000,000 50,619,000 
BIRCH. 5 5 Si oe ee ee a a ee 450,000,000 132,601,000 
COD aR eins i EVs Bee oldtia cle MEd 410,000,000 232,978,000 
Beethicn. 25.0 cig Biss Seite Moe ee om mare 360,000,000 1 
PUPS 520 Gi fans creel etnies kg 275,000,000 1 
Basswogds .6.ciis. heh pe eee a ees Sareea es 275,000,000 308,069,000 
Wn oa he St k2 Bares Sok law ae ie a ae 240,000,000 456,731,000 
ASH, 205. 4h Sabb w sels Dad vm ape ae ee artes 210,000,000 269,120,000 
Cottonwood i. aiie< setisen.c er Re tee 200,000,000 415,124,000 
White Br. .ice66 5 558 ots were sees 190,000,000 q 
PUCAT DME: sat se ae Es ace get hare oe 169,250,000 53,558,000 
BUICK ODV cork tic wid 5 o's ges Oeste eye eas ee Me 125,000,000. 96,636,000 
Bsisameair oi coe Soe oe ean ee 125,000,000 1 
WEEE 5 SFiS Tord bie wate ah ree Oe 90,000,000 38,681,000 
SSVCATIOTO SS oy a Mie ais Fo cis eho Wr teen ae De 40,000,000 29,715,000 
Lodgencle Dine. o<i.. 9630p cede uae be bbws 30,800,000 1 
Alottior kinds 2 see teas sieake Tote bed ses 40,351,000 514,721,000 

DOCH As. Pica tle Hae eee bse tds agiae 39,807,251,000 35,084,166,000 


1 Not separately reported. 
1 From statistics published by the U. S. Forest Service. 


GENERAL 9 


In the above classification, yellow pine includes principally the three 
species of pine commonly found in the southeast; longleaf, (Pinus palus- 
tris), loblolly, (Pinus taeda), and shortleaf (Pinus echinata), pine. Lou- 
isiana is the present center of production of yellow pine. The other 
important yellow pine states, in order of production are Mississippi, 
Texas, North Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas and Florida. Although the 
virgin forests of eastern North Carolina were cut over many years ago, 
yellow pine cut from the second and third growth of the forests there 
constitute an important contribution to her present output. 

Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is the principal timber tree of the 
West, and more than one-half of its total production is now cut in Wash- 
ington. Oregon cuts almost one-third, while California, Idaho, and 
Montana cut the remainder. 

Oak is the third tree in order of lumber cut in this country, and is 
widely distributed over the entire eastern section of this country. The 
lumber cut of oak is steadily declining. It includes about twenty species 
of oak found in merchantable quantities in this country, although there 
are fifty botanical species recognized, which are divided into two broad 
classes of red and white oaks. The center of production of oak lumber 
is in West Virginia, where over 13 per cent of the oak is produced. Arkan- 
sas, Tennessee, Kentucky and Virginia are other oak-producing states 
in order of their cut. 

For a long time, white pine held the leadership of lumber produc- 
tion in this country, but it now occupies fourth place and it includes 
in addition to the original eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) in the 
above statistics, Norway pine, or red pine (Pinus resinosa), western white 
(Pinus monticola) of western. Montana and Idaho, and a small portion of 
jack pine (Pinus divaricata) of the Lake states. 

Hemlock is the fifth tree of importance in this country’s lumber cut, 
and is produced chiefly in Wisconsin and Michigan, which, together pro- 
duce about 43 per cent of the total product cut. Hemlock includes both 
the eastern (Tsuga canadensis) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla). 
It formerly was produced chiefly in Pennsylvania, which now occupies 
fourth place. Washington occupies third place. It is also cut in con- 
siderable quantities in West Virginia, Maine, and New York. 


LUMBER VALUES 


Lumber values have not risen in the past few decades to the extent to 
which many other commodities have, particularly other building and 
structural material. On account of the over-production of lumber, the 


10 FOREST PRODUCTS 


price level has been steadily held to comparatively low heights until 
the outbreak of the recent war. 

The over-production of lumber was particularly true in the case of 
southern yellow pine and Douglas fir, and the prices obtained for them 
in the various years reflect the situation very forcibly. 

The following table shows the average values of the different kinds of 
lumber cut in this country. The prices are given on the basis of per 
thousand bd. ft., values specified for the years from 1899 to 1917, 
as published by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service Bulletin 
No. 768, page 38. 

AVERAGE VALUE OF LUMBER PER THOUSAND FEET, BOARD MEASURE, BY 
KINDS OF WOOD, FOR SPECIFIED YEARS, 1899-1917 


Kind of Wood. 1917 1916 I9I5 IQII 1910 1909 1907 1904 1899 
All kinds. gists: c oe ects $20. 32/$15.32/$14.04/$15.05/ $15. 30)$15 . 38|$16. 56 $12.76 $11.13 
Softwoods: ; 
Yellow pine.....-...... 19.00] 14.33] 12.41] 13.87] 13.29] 12.69] 14.02] 9.96| 8.46 
Douglas fits 3602o-.ne 16.28) 10.78} 10.59] 11.05] 13.09] 12.44] 14.12] 9.51| 8.67 
White pine... 220... 24.81) 19.16) 17.44| 18.54} 18.93) 18.16) 19.41| 14.93] 12.69 
BICHNOCK cup oon 5 ss teats 20.78) 15.35] 13-14] 13-59] 13.85] 13-95] 15.53] 11-91; 9.98 
SPMICe Bsc eke 24.41| 17.58 16.58) 16.14] 16.62) 16.91] 17.26] 14.03] 11.27 
Western yellow pine. ..; 19.59! 14.52! 14.32] 13.62) 14.26] 15.30] 15.67] I1.30| 9.70 
CVPICRS ies sce at ae 23.92} 20.85} 19.85] 20.54} 20.51] 20.46] 22.12) 17.50] 13.32 
Redwood... .......5.. 21.00| 13.93} 13.54! 13.90] 15.52] 14.80) 17.70] 12.83] 10.12 
CURT a) tc.e Susie 19.40! 15.24] 16.10] 13.86) 15.53! 19.95) 19.14] 14.35] 10.91 
Larch (tamarack)..... 16.21} 12.49] 10.78] 11.87] 12.33] 12.68) 13.99] 11.39} 8.73 
White Bie Poo ao eh ..| 17.16] 12.25] 10.94] 10.64] 11.52] 13.10] 15.54| ? 1 
Siigar pine... 3. 4555055 24.69] 16.77| 17.40] 17.52| 18.68) 18.14) 19.84] 1 12.30 
Balsamvir 2. s. Nass 20.02) 16.49] 13.79) 13.42] 14.48) 13.99] 16.16) 1 1 
Lodgepole pine........ 18.34) 15.13] 13.57] 12.41] 14.88] 16.25) + 2 1 
Hardwoods: 3 
CORE ea ces kote tetas 24.49) 20.06) 18.73) 19.14} 18.76] 20.50) 21.23) 17.51) 13.78 
OVINE 52 ike a vicis gibisogs fa 23.16} 18.24] 15.21) 15.49| 18.16] 15.77| 16.84] 14.94! 11.83 
Gum, red and sap..... 19.56) 14.64| 12.54] 12.11] 12.26) 13.20) 14.10} 10.87] 9.73 
Chesteiae jr. 535s :7 aig oe 21.54) 17.05} 16.17| 16.63] 16.23; 16.12] 17.04] 13.78) 13.37 
Yellow poplar......... 27.17) 21.89] 22.45] 25.46] 24.71| 25.30) 24.91| 18.99) 14.03 
BUCH rats See esa hee 24.07| 19.59) 16.52] 16.61) 17.37| 16.95) 17.37] 15.44] 12.50 
BOCHUM Aa eee 19.58; 16.20] 14.01] 14.09] 14.34] 13.25] 14.30} 1? 4 
Basswood............ (25.96) 21.05) 18.89) 19.20] 20.94) 19.50) 20.03) 16.86) 12.84 
1a ee Die aR aietebas al 23.89} 19.46] 16.98) 17.13] 18.67] 17.52| 18.45) 14.45]. 11.47 
PRN ees 5g eis 6:82 ate 30.01| 23.85] 22.15] 21.21| 22.47| 24.44) 25.01); 18.77] 14.85 
Cottonwood.......... 23.19] 17.42] 17.36, 18.12] 17.78] 18.05] 18.42] 14.92] 10.37 
PMOL Sy ike Siena > os 18.06}. 13.00] 12.25]. 12.46] 12.14] 11.87] 14.48} 3 4 
TICRONG ice Spd sere 29.48) 23.84] 23.35| 22.47] 26.55] 30.80) 29.50) 23.94) 18.78 
Wialnts cise: aes alae 72.99| 42.38] 48.37| 31.70] 34-91| 42.79] 43.41! 45.64) 36.49 
SyCAHIOKess rors s ios care 18.68) 14.65] 13.86) 13.16] 14.10] 14.77| 14.58} + II.04 


1 Data not obtained. 


GENERAL 11 


USE OF THE LUMBER CUT 


Until recent times no investigations have been made to determine 
how our lumber cut was utilized. During the period 1909 to 1912, how- 
ever, the United States Forest Service, in co-operation with the various 
state agencies made a study of the annual consumption of lumber in 
nearly all of the states. 

A compilation of these statistics shows that our lumber cut is nor- 
mally used approximately as follows: 


Principal Uses. Per Cent. 

Planing mill products such as sash, doors, flooring and general mill 
Oe die NaS chao aka Rw ena ee aoc ee, Gees Bae os 34 
Rough lumber and structural timbers ..............-..----2--+--- 33 
SEES Pa ae ARs og Na ap Pens ae Sa ESA, aaa II 
REIAMIICY ANC LUIMDETS oo sg 5 iassit Spur e's ns wks ee wee eee 7 
MMRURIC TIONS 5 Niere ped acts Alec MRD ke RO 2 Sind we lnk pment 3 
EE car NEY BS sarc es PRPs et ge oR eer Oe ner ee IS ee 2 
BRS SS ery Ee 2 
INMINEIINTRN SPTMICOIOTN Bo ok wide b+ bc oc beige be 6 esa see Oye eee I 
MemutenwWate-and Novelties: 655 6.4. 6 oe Se I 
94 


‘The remaining 6 per cent is made up of miscellaneous uses such as 
chairs, handles, musical instruments, tanks and silos, ship- and boat- 
building fixtures, etc. 

The following table shows the annual use of wood in the United 
States, with the exception of fuel wood and fence posts, according to 
U. S. Forest Service figures:! . 


Bd. Ft. 
Planing mill products, sash, doors, blinds and general 
ES ea gg ay eh ein ee 13,428,862 ,000 
mougnh lumber and timbers...............-..2..+-.--: 13,000,000,000 
TGs ar Sa a iy a nee eee 4,550,016,000 
I dy i Saini) anne cgalele wisieaa 4,502,000,000 
meeort tumber and timbers... ...............0...---- 3,000,000,000 


1 Partly taken from “ Lumber Used in the Manufacture of Wooden Products,” by J. C. 
Nellis, U. S. Dept. of Agric., Bulletin 605, 1918. 


12 FOREST PRODUCTS 


| Bd. Ft. 
Woo mals CronG) Me et a cw fa oo mea eee 2,635,000,000 
Car COnsttHibhon. | cet eh tae oes ee oe 1,262,090,000 
Shinwles (AGF). 0... occa aspera hy 5 Canon k Werte a I,211,387,000 
PUERIOURE Bis aA cache cae ee ERR TORS Neepe y e 944,678,000 
Vehicles and Vehicle narts,.. 2. 2. ys 0 8.) poss 739,145,000 
Slack cooperage (1914). 4:2 $54.5 .%5 ss os Dw eS 655,603,000 
Distillation (1911)........ Wich fA S p Biba Se 610,680,000 
Lath (1959). os ee Lo en oe eee 594,222,000 
Veneers’ (1015)... <red. oa a cao ink 2S Pee ee. 444,886,000 
Woodenware and novelties........... Pe Cal Sort ay 405,286,000 
Agricultural implements.) 25 045;.) 4 nde a ee 321,239,000 
Chatte. ois eis pe ea ee ea a ee 289,791,000 
Handles, 5 o <7 <a ines nie hig: See eee 280,235,000 
Musical instruments... cesies veut oy eae pee 260,195,000 
‘Faniks and silosis 2... Ate «One tas RO ee toi _ 225,618,000 
Poles and piling: (xOat ccs is aie oc 250,000,000 
Ship and boat building toes) wae. Wane a0 oa cae . . .200,000,000 
Fixtures ooo. Re Adee ga eae ae ee 187,133,000 
Excelsior, 6 2. ccs PA See Pe I 100,000,000 
Miscellaneous industries and extract wood............ 1,486,121,000 


WASTAGE IN PRODUCTION OF FOREST PRODUCTS 


Under conditions of a large virgin timber supply of comparatively 
low-stumpage value, there is inevitably a large wastage in its utilization. 
Much of the timber found in the virgin forests of this country is over- 
mature and defective and its conversion into the various forms of forest 
products naturally results in great loss. Fires and insects and fungi 
also destroy enormous quantities of timber in the forest, which otherwise 
might be profitably utilized. 

It is estimated that we use only from 30 to 50 per cent or less of the 


total amount of wood which is cut in our forests, and this does not. 


take into account the loss by fire, wind, insects, decay, land clearing, etc. 
In the western and southern European countries, it is estimated that 
between go and 96 per cent of the total forest crop is utilized. Under 
the conditions obtaining in those countries there is no loss from over- 
maturity and defects due to that condition, and there is very little 
damage done by fire, insects and decay, which are the cause of such a 
tremendous amount of wood wastage in this country. Many of the trees 


GENERAL 13 


are planted and all are cut before they are allowed to become over- 
mature. 

There is a large amount of waste in the production of lumber in this 
country as well as in the production of such forms of forest products 
as cross ties, shingles, slack and tight cooperage stock, veneers, etc. 
There is a much less comparative waste in the production of such forms 
as pulp wood, fuelwood, distillation wood, poles and piling and round 
mine timbers because there is little relative Joss in reducing the original 
to the finished form. 

It is estimated that in the production of saw logs, there is a loss of 
wood in logging which amounts to from 15 te 20 per cent or more. This 
is largely composed of stumps, tops, broken and defective logs, limbs and 
timber which is undersized or undesirable on account of crooks or defects 
such as punk, shake, large knots, etc. In addition, moreover, mer- 
chantable trees are often overlooked or left lodged in the woods. 

In the manufacture of those saw logs which reach the mill, the loss is 
estimated to be from 40 to 57 per cent, depending upon the local effi- 
ciency in the methods of manufacture and the character of the timber, 
that is, the size of the individual logs, their freedom from defects, their 
straightness and regularity, the width of the bark, etc. The loss in 
manufacture may be divided approximately as follows: 


LOSS OF WOOD IN MANUFACTURE OF SAW LOGS 


Character of Loss. | » Nauta 
DI Pea lH OS hee Soe Soo aie SA snine 4 ajecae c vo dev wo'e dein | Q-15 
SN EC ree On eee ees pee 10-16 
nn SEC ERORE CEES ECO EEE: 8-10 
I WA seine oa gies ne vee «Pep ece cece cel eeeee ees Q-II 
Inefficiency and careless manufacture including loss in handling. . . 4-5 
4°-57 


The total loss in the production of lumber, therefore, including both log- 
ging and manufacturing, may be estimated to be from 55 to 77 per cent. 
At the present time little of this loss is salvaged, but as our raw wood 
supplies become further depleted and the various forms of forest products 
become more valuable, methods will be devised and found profitable to 
utilize considerable portions of this loss, whereas, under present com- 
mercial and economic conditions, it is not generally profitable to convert 


14 FOREST PRODUCTS 


any large proportion of this waste into other forms. Considerable quan- 
tities of slab wood are being used for paper pulp in Maine, New York, 
and Wisconsin, where the manufacture of wood pulp is largely centralized, 
and in other sections certain forms are being used for box boards and a 
great variety of small wooden products which can use odd pieces of 
wood which would otherwise be wasted after logging or sawmilling 
operations. 

Under present conditions, however, a very large percentage of the 
wood’s waste is left to rot in the woods and the sawmill waste is burned 
under boilers for the development of power or is consumed in burners 
especially designed to dispose of this waste. In Europe the woods 
waste is much less because of the customary practice of cutting the 
stumps close to the ground, the utilization of the tree trunk to a small 
diameter in the top, and the conversion of woods waste such as tops, 
limbwood, defective material, etc., into charcoal, or its direct utilization 
for fuel wood. In the sawmill operations it is a common practice to use 
a much thinner saw-kerf, sawing is done almost universally by the use of 
gang frame saws, there is an almost utter absence of waste of edging 
and trimming, and there are more efficient methods of handling and 
manufacture. Furthermore, there is a common willingness among the 
wood-using industries and the public at large to use waney-edged lumber, 
a factor which is of considerable importance. The bark is used for 
tanning purposes in case of spruce and oak, or used for fuel. Other 
sawmill waste is used for making briquettes in case of sawdust, or for fuel, 
charcoal and small wooden products such as novelties, woodenware, 
kitchen utensils, etc. 

There is a great amount of waste incurred in the production of cross 
ties in this country because a large percentage of them are hewn and 
this means considerable loss in their manufacture. The production 
of tight and slack cooperage stock involves enormous wastage, particu- 
larly in the case of the former. The details of the loss in the production 
and manufacture of these and other forest products are described in the 
chapters dealing with those subjects. 


CONVERTING FACTORS 


The following list of wood equivalents or converting factors have been 
followed in this book. There are exceptions, however, and additions in 
the various chapters. These converting factors are the ones used by 
the U. S. Forest Service. 


a 


——" 


GENERAL 15 


Products. Baquivalent m Assumed Dimensions. 
Cord (shingle bolts).....................- 600 4’ X4' X8’ 
PEICMNOEP ees. 52k toe go oes 500 a Xa xs’ 
Rane Gn the rough). . 22. 2.5.2. es oss ences. 500 1 cord 
PURMEMMMEED,.. 22. Vacedaeescsanances 60 7" X30" 
PUMP AMGIMMEC),. . . 5 2 os. Scale geen ewe css 100 9” X30" 
Ret aT ei So os oC Sous eee ORE 60 7” X30" 
RRP et re Poe... . aah ale amuses Dae 60 10” X16’ 
MMMM Sirk itis >> - vo denaekces Poedece 333 6"X8" Xs’ 
SO MMREEERGR a Fog Me See attics 28 6”°X7" X83" 
CRMEIROW OOO). 50... .. cnc cdeace sends 21 6"X7"X6" 
SS Sine ot eee cee ha 373 7° X8"X3’ 
I a ca ty an onde ce cack ood teen's 42 7X9" X8’ 
RRS aa las Ga 3 ee 60 7" X30" 
Derrick set (11 pieces). ...........2.....-. 480 
CI Saree CL Da tvs Stee eee 7O 10” X20" 
PERMPISNNET . 1G oa Gv so coca a saboucse as 20 X12" 
SEES Sere arch nis Re Aiea 30 8” X16’ 
RS oT Ore Teer ee Core 30 7 X16’ 
SUSE Sinus Coes ate oo Pace va 15 7” X10" 2 
OS rn ey eee 10 6” X10" ‘ 
PEE wed Vag wig Sn'g Sere Pe ee bk he Sa 10 6” X10" 
CU a “A Oa een rr eee 10 4° X20" 
LRN eS fDi, Fo ode Deans cea 8 16’ 
Py Se a al ag gS Sag 10 4” X20’ 
MR NOTMOUES) . 0. 25 ake eee oe 10 3°Xe’ 
EMR CINIME) ooo a cons oso «os oak cm sce pe 6 
NE Se ioe as ct ape ak wiles oon 5 3 pole 
EE aren Sek ok pe an owen wes oes 7 6"X7’ 
a SS el OE So 7 x7 
ii SEA RAE ey as aa 2 2” X6" X16" 
(FARRIS 5 SY i a 7 6"°X7’ 
Post (circumference 18 in.)................ 6 CY ie, if 
EE noe a dw yas ok Lc ele be ti cence es 5 oxT 
PINES aioe 55a ls oe nee Reine oooh 3 10” X1’ 
MRE Me a ike code bree hss fe 2 4°Xo’ 
IED SY od a inte clard al dss 5s = SE B 2" X6" 
Nace ales ee id g ay ak 3 otc 2 4X6 
ae ae at Seen 3 2" X6"X2" 
| hae ES AC aS ay eR eo Sage ah ene Cs I 3"Xs5" 
ea aaa Se ae ae ea I Cw od 


The following list shows the converting factors used in the inter- 
national timber trade with particular reference to European countries: 


; Equivalents. 
Dee PCtEOMIN StMNORG. . 5c. eee c a ccceccace 165 cu. ft. 
4.67 cu. meters 
NS tS aha g's < oehes ance ns vente es vdats 1320 bd. ft. 


4.1 loads 


16 


Equivalents, 
Ree Ey ger eA ga ESR. Omar Pa it i an 1650 bd. ft. 
3-3 loads 
BOGIGS «6. sis 5a 4 Lee Oe aa atiaaat s hae a ee © 1980 bd. ft. 
3.3 loads 
Cubic meter, (stere) <6 ossan Hey oatg oo uw os Soe phen 35.3 cu. ft. 
0.214 standard 
8 standard railway cross ties 
0.2758 cord of 128 cu. ft. 
©.47-0.37 cord of solid wood 
OGSiask. vial scams. tees hee ae mA Ree 283 bd. ft. 
0.882 load 
Squared Umber. 25 iss tes's at ae ewe eerie 353 bd. ft. 
0.706 load 
BOATS. ccs ee aie Ricans Sao RE ae EE ee 424 bd. ft. 
0.706 load 
DOL WOOdSa5 2. hicore see va apes ae eee 5.8 quintals 
FlarGwoods ic. vlpestatnk weer aeey tars coer 7.7 quintals " 
Cubie meter.“ au-reel 7is7=. alice oes no Pe es 0.20-0.30 cu. meters of sawed lumber 
Metric tons. .3.235 sc eee oat pen eis oe oe a 1000 kilos 
Io quintals 
2204.6 lb. 
Logs: 
Soltwoods 2 sk Sreeer ae eee eae 490 bd. ft. 
Hardwoods ies. sa aktac ie: ce 367 bd. ft. 
Squared timber: 
Soltwoods +... 22. ots. Sage ken te ee aie 612 bd. ft. 
Hardwoods. 2d o-tae tee aes tees 459 bd. ft. 
Boards: 
SOL WOOUE..5. 7. si ccs Soh ote Oy are 753 bd. ft. 
Hard woods 35 sein demas ea eos cats eeiaiton 551 bd. ft. 
Quintals Sse Foran SES an alte ele Pa OEE es 100 kilos 
220.46 lb. 
Logs: 
Boltwoods Sais s5.o0.c bene ne oe et 49 bd. ft 
Hardwoods). st \victcc ee tare ta oe emcees 37 bd. ft 
Squared timber: 
Softwoods >-si.jealices eeaaeh en anise Reon 61 bd. ft. 
Hardwoods....... Rsfisa-sateiind thane Serna 45 bd. ft 
Boards: 
Softwood." og ae oe ers ae 74 bd. ft 
PATAWOONS » 27 a ek ex Ce 55 bd. ft 
feo 0) 118 tye | COPE oe eee ee RRS cen eee. (crv ena Site one re 83.3 cu. ft 
TIES Gi Ss ek. a pee eo ane Ca Da 3-53 Cu. m. 
31.125 loads 
0.758 standard 
TOG CHNBEES 5 5s ita bod atsalig tis Same 2.83 cu. m. 
2 loads 
0.606 standard 
BOIS Soi 5 coins Vee eI ee ee oe 2.36 cu. m. 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


1.666 loads 
0.505 standard 


GENERAL ; 17 


Equivalents. 
Load: 
OS RT Oe he ee ee 40 cu. ft. 
1.133 cu. ft 
320 bd. ft. 
0.242 standard 
Behred tiriber.. . ..o6< .c cence ce wen ewww ss sanees 50 cu. ft. 
1.416 cu. m. 
500 bd. ft. 
c © 303 standard 
OS ORE SL err re yore re Poe ra § 50 cu. ft. 
1.416 cu. m. 
- 600 bd. ft. 
0.303 standaid 
Cubic foot: 
Ms. LAG, 9 os wg sinc at GA Me re eee ee a Se 6 bd. ft 
NS SE ease ea Pe ee Ne ae Py epee 12 bd. ft. 
wo Th EPS Te aa or ae en Spry anys aap a 12 bd. ft. 
MEN SION, 2S Day. ely an wees sors s Un ae oem 22 cu. m. 
EM alice. ce ph Seah Sethe vee 6226 bd. ft. 
ae ee ae ae Pere ee re ee eae 7766 bd. ft. 
PO ae eee ee Peer ee eine re geen 9328 bd. ft. 
Cord 
re SOs RES, 9 NR ee ah i er 128 cu ft. 
3.624 cu. m., or steres 
EES ee Oe Oe i ee 40 cu. ft. (round timber) 
DMR ee oe hat tie ata gw Sale hes Da. wes 02.3 SSeS 2.47 acres 
ir nee She ee ent gin asa oa Male aie «ss ae 0.4047 hec 
RMS Ri Sreviy  e Pee oes Ui aly eco pining <0 oe 25.4 mm 
Ma ere Pera) ails ee at maa nig vn coed aie wlecetners' «5 eae 304.8 mm 
30.48 cm. ; 
PENI Sette oes nee ee Dc dile'a p.ve.ciecies wie cecess 13.12 in. (4 m.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Bureau of Corporations, Department of Commerce and Labor. The Lumber Indus- 
try, Parts I and II. 

Kettocc, R.S. The Timber Supply of the United States. Circ. 166, U. S. Forest 
Service, 1909. 

National Lumber Manufacturers Association, Chicago. Annual Proceedings, 1910- 
1919. 

Price, O. W., R.S. Kettocc and W. T. Cox. U.S. Forest Service, Circ. 171, Wash- 
ington, 1908. 

SuitrH, Hersert K. Stand of Timber. Report of National Conservation Com- 
mission. Senate Doc. 676. Vols. I and II. 19009. 


CHAPTER II 
WOOD PULP AND PAPER 


GENERAL 


PAPER is a material composed of vegetable fibers formed artificially 
into thin sheets. The word paper comes from the Latin word papyrus, 
a name given to the Egyptian sedge and bulrushes of the Nile Valley. 
The plant is said to have been used by the Egyptians as early as 2400 
B.C. to make sheets for writing purposes as well as for wrapping and 
other mechanical uses. ; 

Within the past ten to twenty-five years the manufacture of wood pulp 
has made tremendous strides. It is now one of the principal products 
derived from the forests aside from lumber. At the present time it is 
estimated-that there are about 6,000,000 cords of wood needed to supply 
the annual demands of the paper trade in this country. Assuming 500 
bd. ft. to the cord, this amount is equivalent to about 3,000,000,000 
bd. ft. In 1900 only about 2,000,000 cords were consumed for wood 
pulp and in 1911 about 4,500,000 cords. Zon estimates that in 1930 
about 10,500,000 cords will be required and as high as 16,000,000 cords 
of wood will be demanded in 1950. The increase in the consumption of 
wood from 1900 to 1919 has been over 300 per cent. 

About 80 per cent to 85 per cent of all paper used in this country is 
now derived from wood, whereas before the middle of the 19th century, 
paper was entirely manufactured from other vegetable fibers. 

The industry is still in the evolutionary stage of development, both 
in the matter of kind and quantity of raw materials and in the processes 
of the manufacture of pulp and paper. At first, basswood was used in 
the earlier years of the industry in this country and then spruce became 
our leading pulp wood. Spruce still holds the pre-eminent position. 
The demands for pulp wood are increasing so rapidly that other processes 
are being constantly developed to utilize woods that are cheaper and 
more abundant than spruce. 

18 


' ca ae ee 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 19 


Vast improvements have been made and are still being made, not only 
in the processes themselves but in the use of raw material, and in refine- 
ments in labor-saving machinery. Large amounts of capital are required 
for participation in the industry, due largely to the expensive forms of 
machinery required. 

According to the U. S. Bureau of Census for 1909 the industry 
employed a capital of over $409,000,000 and the manufactured products 
had an annual value of $267,000,000, giving employment to 81,000 
persons. The amount of increase in capital in the decade prior to 
1909 Was 144 per cent and 110.2 per cent in the value of products. 


Photograph by A. M. Richards. 


Fic. 1.—About 10,000 cords of pulpwood bolts, 90 per cent of which are peeled. The 
wood consists of mixed spruce, balsam fir and hemlock. Hinckley Fibre Co., Hinck- 
ley, N. Y. 


However, the increase in number of persons engaged in the industry was 
only 53 per cent, which is an indication of increase both in size of machin- 
ery used and in the number of labor-saving devices. 

Wood has been demonstrated to be the best available raw material. 
From time to time sporadic attempts are made to introduce other mate- 
rials, but they are too expensive to assemble and transport, are unavail- 
able in sufficient quantities, or do not make the desirable kinds of paper. 
Before wood was widely introduced about 1850, paper was entirely made 
from cotton and linen rags, esparto grass, hemp, straw and a number of 
other vegetable fibers. 

It is estimated that the annual value of our paper products is 5780,- 


20 FOREST PRODUCTS 


000,000. The principal forms are shown in a report of the War Indus- 
tries Board, as follows: 


RELATIVE VALUE OF KINDS OF PAPER PRODUCED 


Kind. 4 Value. 
Newsprint DRADER 5. < sichons waste ead oes av aie dls eee $1 36,000,000 
Book: PAPOUS sass Bi Sa ccs RS tama Hane “125,000,000 
Papershoanibs) cactus attae tae deicah aroma eens 156,000,000 
Fine writing paper 6-5 3: sse.5-o60 «<0 so 3dips a ae eel 142,000,000 
Wrapping papers............... “Phws.0ie oar errata 89,000,000 
Miscellaneous papersis ic. i200% ois shes ote ole 132,000,000 

Totals. oO. one oan eo ibe eee $780,000,000 


' In the production of paper and paper products we use annually, 
9,230,000 tons of coal, 21,619,200 gal. of oil and 1,287,000 tons of chem- 
icals. The per capita consumption of paper in the United States is 
annually about roo lbs. 


HISTORY OF PULP AND PAPERMAKING 


Although the Egyptians are sometimes given credit for the earliest 
development in the manufacture of ‘paper, more recent research has 
developed the fact that the Chinese must be credited with the first man- 
ufacture of paper. The art of papermaking was known in China long 
before the Christian era. It is likely that the art of papermaking 
was transmitted from China across India to Persia and Arabia. It 
is known that the Saracens carried the practice of the art to Spain 
after their conquest of that country in the 8th century. The industry 
was gradually developed, but spread very slowly through Europe. 
From Spain it went to Italy where a paper mill was first operated at 
Fabriano in the year 1150. This became an important center for 
papermaking and it is said that paper is still made there at the present 
time. The first paper mill in France was established in 1189; in Ger- 
many in 1390; and the date of 1330 is given as the time of the first paper 
mill in England. 

The introduction and development of papermaking machinery was 
very slow, because of the current opposition to all forms of labor-saving 
machinery during the Middle Ages. Forms of paper made in the earliest 
paper mills in England are still extant and it is generally accepted that 
the very best kinds of paper were made on the old-fashioned hand presses 
in the earliest days. In this country early records show that the first 
paper mill was established in 1690 by William Rittenhouse near Phil- 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 21 


adelphia. The first paper mill in New England was built by a company 
which was granted the sole privilege in the vicinity of Massachusetts for 
ten years, following 1728. 

Until the early part of the 19th century, sheets of paper were made 
entirely by hand, sheet by sheet. Prior to this a device for making paper 
in an endless web was invented by Louis Nicolas Robert in France, but 
it was not put to practical use until developed in England by Henry 
and Sealy Fourdrinier, who perfected the machinery now universally 
known as the Fourdrinier wire, which is the basis of modern paper- 

making. This will be described later in this chapter. 

* It is said that the use of wood for making paper dates from as recently 
as 1840 when Keller patented his process in Germany for a wood-pulp 
grinding machine. It was not, however, until 1854 that the process was 
placed upon a commercial basis. It was introduced in this country by 
Warner Miller in 1866. 

The manufacture of so-called chemical pulp, which has a still greater 
possibility for the future than ground wood pulp, dates back to the year 
1867. Tilghman is generally given credit for the discovery of the disin- 
tegrating action of sulphurous acid upon wood. This was the basis of 
the invention of making chemical wood pulp by the sulphite process. 

Within comparatively recent years the sulphate and soda processes 
of reducing wood fibers to the form of pulp have been developed. The 
sulphate process was first attempted in Sweden and has great possibilities 
before it in the utilization of woods and saw-mill waste in connection with 
the exploitation of some of our most abundant woods, such as southern 
yellow pine and Douglas fir. 

_ With the rapid increase in the demands for wood pulp for all grades 
of paper, other features including forms of machinery and processes of 
pulp making have been devised to keep pace with the situation. In 
1879 the average price of all forms of paper was $122 per ton, whereas 
in 1909 it was only $56 per ton. 

_ To the development of engineering and chemistry is attributable 
More than to anything else, the remarkable progress of this industry. 
The discovery and improvements in the manufacture of paper pulp 
by the three chemical methods of reducing the wood fiber; the sulphite, 
soda and sulphate processes, and the use of the bleaching power of 
chlorine have made possible the use of a large variety of woods and the 
production of great quantities of pulp on a commercial scale. 


22 FOREST PRODUCTS 


KINDS OF PAPER MANUFACTURED 


Generally speaking, there are two classes of paper in common use, as 
follows: first, papers for recording or printing; and second, papers for 
mechanical purposes. 

In the first group are found the fine linen ledgers and writing papers, 
printing paper for books, magazines and general printing purposes and 
news print used for newspaper. General printing papers require a white 
paper with filling and sizing material. Some grades of printing papers 
are given a smooth surface by special calendering instead of by loading 
with clay and sizing. Newspaper is the cheapest of all paper and 
mechanical wood pulp forms the greater part of its substance. Writing 
papers are largely sized papers in the best grades, in which only selected 
rags are used, though of late, chemical wood pulp is used even in the 
expensive writing papers, and it may be said that nearly all papers, 
excepting high-grade ledger, contain wood.. 

In the second group are the cardboards, pasteboards, papier-mache, 
wrapping papers, and blotting and tissue papers and those of the 
heaviest forms, such as building paper, carpet and wall paper, etc. 

Blotting paper is composed of short-fibered cotton and wood pulp 
cut fine in the beating engine. This paper is free from sizing of any kind 
and so is capable of absorbing water or other liquids. It can be dyed 
to any desired color without impairing its quality. Tissue papers are the 
thinnest of all papers and are generally made from rags or paper shavings, 
with varying quantities of wood pulp. Wrapping papers are partly sized 
papers of coarse material and are largely made from mixtures of sulphite 
pulp and ground wood, or wholly of sulphate pulp to form kraft paper. 
Straw, jute and mixtures of hard fibers are also largely employed. Card- 
board, pasteboard and other heavy forms of paper are generally made 
from a pulp formed of waste paper; as well as from sugar cane refuse, 
waste fiber boxes, etc. They are sometimes made by pressing a number 
of sheets of other paper together in powerful presses, with a suitable 
agglutinant. Papier-mache is made chiefly from old paper s.ock by 
boiling toa pulp. It is then mixed with glue and starch paste and pressed 
into moulds. 


THE REQUIREMENTS OF DESIRABLE PULP WOODS 


The principal requirements which paper manufacturers hold as 
desirable in woods for making paper pulp are summarized:as follows: 
1. The wood should contain a long, strong and yet soft and tender 


— = 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 23 


fiber. Woods in which these characters stand out make the best paper 
and are used with comparative economy. 

2. The wood should be relatively free from intercellular constituents, 
such as resins, gums, tannins, etc. Highly resinous woods and those 
containing large percentages of tannins, gums, etc., are converted into 
paper with considerable difficulty and are used only for the cheaper 
grades of paper. 

3. The wood must be available in sufficient quantities, reasonably 
accessible and, therefore, fairly economical in price. Some woods are 
admirably adapted to the manufacture of pulp and paper, but are often 
eliminated because they are not sufficiently available or are in greater 
demand for other purposes. 

4. White fibered woods are preferred since most papers are white or 
light in color. Bleaching at great expense is required to whiten some 
woods. Woods which are white or nearly so-are much more in demand 
than those of deep or dark colors. 

5. The wood must be sound, reasonably clear of knots, free from rot, 
dote, bark, pitch pockets, and other defects. Sound wood, clear of all 
foreign matter or defects is especially required in certain processes of pulp 
manufacture. 

6. The wood itself should contain large quantities of available cellu- 
lose. Most woods contain between 40 per cent and 60 per cent of cel- 
lulose. Since the basis of all paper is cellulose, it is desirable to select a 
wood for pulp that contains cellulose in a form that is readily separated 
without loss by the destructive action of chemicals which are used in 
cooking processes. 


ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF WOOD 


At the present time it is estimated that about 6,000,000 cords of wood 
are now annually used in this country for wood pulp. The latest avail- 
able accurate figures are those published by the United States Forest 
Service for the year 1916, when it was reported that 5,228,558 cords of 
wood were manufactured into pulp at 230 mills. Of this amount Canada 
- supplied about 700,000 cords, or 15 per cent of the total quantity. 
There has been a steady increase from year to year in the consumption of 
wood. 

While the number of mills has not increased !so rapidly from year to 
year there has been a strong tendency to increase the size of our American 
pulp mills. The average number of cords used annually in each pulp 
mill in 1911 was 16,149 and in 1916 was 22,735. Some mills consume as 


24 FOREST PRODUCTS 


high as 60,000 cords annually. Some of our modern pulp mills consume 
between 200 and 250 cords per day. Assuming about 15 cords as the 
average cut per acre for pulp wood of all kinds, and a yearly consump- 
tion of 6,000,000 cords, 40,000 acres of forest are cut over every year 
for this country’s pulp wood supply. 


Woods Used. 


Nearly every native wood grown in this country is capable of being 
made into paper. Some woods are, however, obviously much more 
desirable, based upon the requirements outlined in the foregoing para- 
graphs. The softwoods are most amenable to treatment and are pre- 
ferred. 

In 1916 at least eighteen different kinds of native woods were used 
in the manufacture of paper pulp. 

Of all woods used, however, spruce holds the arcane position, 
since the quality and character of this wood is admirably fitted for use, 
both in the mechanical and chemical processes of pulp making. It is 
actually used in all of the modern processes. In 1916 it constituted 
over 59 per cent of the total quantity of wood used for pulp. There is a 
tendency to decrease the percentage of spruce, as compared with other 
woods, because of its growing scarcity, and the introduction of new 
processes which make possible the use of other woods heretofore seldom 
used for:this purpose. Most of the spruce used is the eastern red spruce 
(Picea rubens) although white spruce (Picea canadensis) is being 
used more and more, especially in eastern Canada. Western spruce 


(Picea sitchensis) is rapidly coming into prominence and is used on — 


the northern Pacific coast and in British Columbia. It is abundantly 
available in this section and it is likely that western spruce, together 
with other spruces in the Far West, which are available in large quan- 
tities will attract the location of many new pulp mills in that district. 
Spruée is an ideal pulp wood because it has long, strong fibers, which are 
comparatively free from resins, gums, tannins, etc.; it is light in color, is 
generally sound and is fairly free from knots, rot, and other defects. It 
also contains the maximum quantity of cellulose, which can be freed 
from other substances without great difficulty. Nearly one-fourth of all 
the spruce used for wood pulp in this country is imported from Canada. 

Hemlock ranks second among our leading pulp woods and in 1916 
it averaged over 14 per cent of the total pulpwood supply. It is reduced 
almost entirely by the sulphite process and is very largely used in the 
Lake states, especially in Wisconsin. The wood is inferior to spruce, 


—— a 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 25 


since the fibers are much shorter and weaker. Inasmuch as the fibers 
easily become broken in grinding, it is not adapted for reduction by the 
mechanical process. However, hemlock is available in large quantities 
and can.be successfully reduced by the chemical process for news, wrap- 
ping and other cheaper grades of paper. 

Poplar, including the two aspens of the northeast and Canada, ranks 
third in importance as a pulpwood. It forms about 8 per cent of the 
total supply. The wood is soft, light in weight and color, but its fibers 
are short and comparatively weak. It is reduced almost entirely by the 
soda process and its pulp is mixed with sulphite pulp to give it sufficient 
strength for manufacture into grades of book paper. 


Photograph by A. M. Richards. 


Fic. 2—A pulp mill with a capacity of 60 tons of No. 1 and No. 2 bleached and natural 
spruce and hemlock sulphite pulp in twenty-four hours. The tall building on the right 
contains the digester and bleaching rooms. The building in the right foreground is 
the wood room for rossing, splitting, chipping and screening. 


Balsam fir is very commonly mixed with spruce and used as such for 
mechanically ground pulp. Purchasers of pulpwood: usually specify 
that no large per cent of the wood purchased shall be of balsam fir. The 
wood is light in color and weight, soft and comparatively free from resins, 
gums, and other objectionabie materials. Papermakers object to it, 
however, because it is said that the pitch from it covers the felts and 
cylinder faces making operations difficult. Balsam fir is available in 
fairly large quantities in the northeast and eastern Canada. It is largely 
reduced by the mechanical process, and finds a large market for news- 
paper stock; it is said, indeed, that balsam fir finds its greatest economic 


26 FOREST PRODUCTS 


importance as a pulpwood. Papermakers aver that pulp which contains 
a large admixture of balsam fir lacks strength and character. 

Pine is being used more and more from year to year and is being 
reduced chiefly by the soda and the sulphate processes, especially southern 
yellow pine. In the statistical reports, pine includes principally southern 
yellow pine but nearly one-half is composed of jack pine. White pine 
is used to a small extent. 

White fir is rapidly coming into common use in the West. This and 
other firs, together with large quantities of spruce and hemlock, which are 
available on the northern Pacific coast, will tend to make that region a 
great center of the future pulp and paper industry. In 1916 more than 
49,000 cords of white fir were used for paper pulp. 

Some hardwoods like beech, maple, chestnut and cottonwood are also 
used to some extent. They are largely reduced by the soda process. 
Large quantities are derived from the residue of chestnut pulp after the 
tannin has been removed at tannin extract plants in the South, notably 
at Canton, N. C. 7 

Douglas fir is being used in the northern Pacific coast to some extent, — 
but it is more or less in the experimental stage of development. 

Other woods used for pulp are tamarack, elm, basswood, birch, gum, 
sycamore, cucumber and ash. 

Altogether there is.a strong undercurrent of desire among manu- 
facturers to experiment in the use of new woods. Spruce has risen so 
high in price that pulpmakers are generally looking for other sources of 
raw material and are developing processes which will be applicable to 
our most abundant kinds of woods, such as southern yellow pine, 
Douglas fir, western hemlock, redwood, western spruce, cedar and 
various hardwoods. It is estimated that there is a sufficient amount of 
sawmill waste that is burned up, or which serves no profitable or 
economical purpose, to meet all the demands for pulpwood. Upwards 
of 200,000 cords of sawmill waste in the form of slabs, edgings, etc., 
are now being utilized in pulpmaking. In Wisconsin especially, large 
quantities of hemlock waste from sawmills are converted into pulp. 

The following table! shows the quantity of wood consumed by kinds 
for 1916, 1911, and 1909. + 


Consumption by States. 


_ The wood pulp industry is centralized largely in the northeast. Many 
new mills have recently been erected over the Canadian line in the lower 


1 Taken from statistical reports of U. S. Forest Service and U. S. Census Bureau. 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 27 


valley of the St. Lawrence River. The location of the industrial center 
of the manufacture of wood pulp is attributed directly to the fact that 
raw material is available in this section and the great paper mill centers 
have been developed there. 


: Quantity, Quantity, Quantity, 
Kind ot Wood. 1916. Igrt. 1909. 
- Cords. Cords. Cords. 
DUCES AMIRORING: O55...» Ss cea awk saws coe 2,300,003 1,612,355 1,653,249 
PROT UR oe cass... sy ne eee ens we 701,667 903,375 768,332 
oats ot ee eee ee ene eee 760,226 616,663 559,657 
ae oe eee ee 320,370 | 333,920 302,876 
Se ei escent. &. 82,326 34,205 25,622 
MR Ween. eg einai y-s cian ven w dee 301,032 191,779 95,366 
ME eS Se koe Dieta bandied ot 170,378 124,019 90,885 
Meets. foo. 5. tear ee ee te ee tans ob cake ote ta ead 44,320 31,390 
Seale a ae So asd tbe oe OR ba Pu 36,079 
art. ona Sic Gkk oa canes € ue ce 49,425 36,4903 37,176 
IE Pe sn nas ag unis Sae «bla Oke 22,211 25,043 36,898 
CN RARE PET ee | 211,086 88,268 151,179 
Slabwood and other mill waste. ............... | 200,844 280,534 248,077 
REE wg chin Vitis cbse Sie x aaield | §,228,558 4,328,052 4,001 ,607 


1 Included with all other species in 1916. 


New York occupies the commanding position in the manufacture of 
wood pulp and paper. It now has about seventy-five pulp mills and con- 
sumes more than 1,000,000 cords of wood annually. The centers of the 
industry in New York are in the upper Hudson River and Black River 
valleys, the latter centering around the cities of Watertown and Carthage. 
Maine is the leader in the consumption of wood, using over 1,198,000 
cords of wood annually. In 1911 there were thirty-eight pulp mills in 
Maine and in 1916, thirty-two mills. Wisconsin is third in order of 
_ importance. é 

Owing to the decrease of available material in the northeast, the 
industry has exhibited a tendency to move to Canada, the Lake states 
and the northwest and it is estimated that in a few decades many new 
pulp mills will be located in the Lake states, the Far West and even in 
the South where new developments in the reduction of southern pine 
waste give excellent promist. Other leading states in order are New 
Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Michigan, Oregon, West Vir- 
ginia, Virginia, Vermont, North Carolina and Massachusetts. 


Consumption by Processes. 
Most of the pulpwood is reduced by the sulphite process. In 1916 


28 FOREST PRODUCTS 


of the total amount reduced—s5,228,558 cords—over one-half, or 2,856,122 
cords, were reduced by the sulphite process. This process was applied 
chiefly to spruce, hemlock, balsam fir and white fir. 

The mechanical process was used with nearly 30 per cent of the total 
supply and was applied chiefly to spruce, and to a much less extent, to 
hemlock, balsam fir and pine and aspen. : 

The soda process is largely applied to poplar or aspen, pine and hard- 
woods. Of the total amount of pulpwood made in this country nearly 
14 per cent is reduced by the soda method. 

Only about 3 per cent of our wood pulp is made by the.sulphate 
process. It has been introduced and passed the experimental stage in 
‘ connection with Douglas fir on the Pacific coast and southern yellow pine 
in the South. It has enormous possibilities for the future and it is 
likely that it will be applied to a large number of woods now little used 
for pulp purposes. 

The table! on page 29 shows the quantity of wood consumed by 
species and processes of manufacture for 1916. 


RAW MATERIAL 


Raw material for the manufacture of pulp comes to the mill in a great 
variety of forms, chief of which are the following: | 

1. Logs. In the past much of the raw material was delivered to the 
pulp mills in the form of logs, but this is being superseded by delivery 
in shorter lengths. 

2. Bolts. A large share of material is now delivered in a form of 
4-{t. bolts, either in the peeled condition or with the bark still on. 

3. Chips. For sulphite pulp some of the pulp mills are pressing their 
material in the baled form or in the loose state in carload lots. ; 

4. Sawmill Waste. Considerable hemlock and spruce slabs ve q 
edgings are now being received in larger quantities from year to year. 
This is especially true in West Virginia, Maine, Pennsylvania and — 
Wisconsin. 


Logging and Transportation. 

It is estimated that about 80 per cent of the pulp companies own their 
own standing timber. Up to the present time, the conventional method ~ 
has been to send logging crews in the woods in the late summer or early 
fall to put up the annual supply of pulpwood. When logging is done — 


1Taken from Pulpwood Consumption, etc., 1916, by Smith and Helphenstine, U. S, 
Forest Service, unnumbered circular. 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 


in the spring, barking can be done to best advantage. 


29 


As soon as the 


snow comes to sufficient depth the snowhaul with the two-sled is em- 
ployed to bring the logs down to some drivable stream. This method 
is very commonly employed in Maine, northern New Hampshire, the 
Adirondacks and eastern Canada. 

In the spring the logs are floated down to the mill and held in large 
booms until required for use.! 


- PULPWOOD CON SUMPTION—QUANTITY OF WOOD CONSUMED BY KIND AND 
PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE—1916 


REDUCED BY 
Kind of Wood. | 
Aggregate | Mechanical] Sulphite Soda Sulphate 
Quantity. | - Process. Process. 3 Process. 
ot Se a aaa 3,101,660 | 1,293,508. | 1,803,217 | 630 4,305 
eee 760,226 | 84,116 | 647,738 | ..-....- 28,372 
oe pe eee 411,696 14,733 2,323 | 304,577 63 
MAMORINME Soe Qos. 2 301,032 77:313 | 213,569 | be aot 10,150 
emoW PENG. 2... <5 ..- 225-54 90,310 15,663 8,209 | 29,727 36,711 
} 
EI rae. 8 So ses Ss ee 80,068 54.0361 Cost. 61,145 4,988 
ON a a ae 49,425 13,560 35,865 | 
Yellow poplar................ SIQITA Eh ooe 5501 WoC ee | 37,974 
nea eee STII N epee Seo Waites | $7,392 
0 eee 33,271 431 2 oe ee ee 29,065 
0 SE eee eee 22,211 2,082 | 668 19,461 
Basswood.... ot en Pee eee A | 11,481 
EMO = 5 oe moo seine cs TIPO, Senco og aik gn © | 7,679 
Of RS ae 2565'S SK DAIST oe ncs Cimete 1,072 
OS ea eee 2,246 Fs i hee | 2,246 
Re. ot oN oes eieg Up epi 600 
MMos i i tce bea LOG oP ateces Gh eles nae 100 
a ere 7 2a WEEP aris pe Uae sate 37 
_ Beech, birch, and maple... . . - . 77;762 $82 2035. <: 77,751 
Slabs and other mill waste. 200,844 7,551 140,758 | 26,620 25,905 
Bo Se ee ee 5,228,558 | 1,524,386 | 2,856,122 | 707,419 140,631 


| Use of Sawmill and Other Waste. 


Over 200,000 cords of sawmill waste in the form of slabs and edgings 


are now used for paper pulp. 


Many lumber companies operating in 


* For information regarding logging methods, costs, etc., see Logging, by R. C. Bryant 
John Wiley & Sons, New York City. 


30 FOREST PRODUCTS 


spruce now convert their smaller and crooked logs into chips, which are 
used in some sulphite mills. 

In a large mill in the Adirondacks cutting 90,000 bd. ft. of lumber 
per day about 23 carloads of sulphite chips, which is equivalent to about 
15 cords of chips, are secured from 1900 logs per day. All logs which are 
symmetrical and straight and which are over 6 in. in diameter at the 
small end are manufactured into lumber. All crooked logs above this 
diameter and all logs below 6 in. in size at the small end go into pulpwood. 
All balsam fir logs of the smaller diameters also go into pulpwood. 


Value of Pulpwood. 

There has always been a great variation in the price paid for pulp- 
wood at the mills. In 1916 the price generally varied for rough pulp- 
wood between about $4.00 and $11.00 per cord, for peeled wood between 
about $5.00 and $16.00 per cord and for rossed wood between $6.00 and 
$18.00 per cord. The average cost for wood of all forms in 1916 was 
$8.76 per cord, delivered at the mill. The price of pulpwood has steadily 
advanced during the past two decades, until in 1919 $16.00 to $18.00 
was quoted. 

The total value of the raw material in the form of pulpwood delivered 
at the mills in 1916 was $45,785,682. In 1909 the total value of the pulp- 
wood consumed was $34,477,540. 


REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A PULP MILL 


The following are usually considered the principal requirements 
necessary for the location of a pulp mill. 

1. A large initial investment. The machinery required for reduction 
of wood to the different forms of pulp is known to be the most highly 
specialized and one of the most expensive forms used in any of our 
industries. Not only is the machinery very specialized and expensive, 
but large and substantially constructed buildings are required to house 
it. Many of our pulp mills cost from $400,000 to $800,000 or more for 
the initial investment. 

2. A large and continuous supply of wood of a desirable kind and. 
reasonably accessible so that it can be delivered sufficiently cheap. The 
average pulp mill in this country consumes about 22,700 cords per annum. 

3. A plentiful supply of clean water. For washing the fibers and 
carrying the pulp to the machines, enormous quantities of clear, pure 
water are required. 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 31 


4. Adequate power. Most of the pulp mills have hydro-electric 
power developments in connection with them. 

5. Accessibility to a good fuel supply. 

6. Adequate transportation facilities for both the shipment of the 
raw material to the mill and the movement by rail or boat of the products 
to the consuming market. 


THE MANUFACTURE OF MECHANICAL PULP 


In the manufacture of ground wood or mechanical pulp the wood 
fibers are torn apart by mechanical abrasion, by compressing the billets 
of wood against a rapidly revolving grindstone. Spruce is better adapted 
for this process than any other wood. Other species used are pine, bal- 
sam fir, hemlock, aspen, poplar and a few other woods, but a very large 
per cent (about 85) of the total amount is made up of spruce. In 1916 
1,524,386 cords of wood were reduced to pulp by the mechanical process. 

The cheaper grades of paper, chiefly news print, are formed of pulp 
made by the mechanical process. The intercellular substances of wood 
fibers, chiefly lignin, resins and tannins, are not removed, as in the chem- 

“ical processes, which dissolve out the undesirable constituents and leave 
a substance which is largely pure cellulose. In the mechanical process 
the wood is ground to a fine pulp. 


Preparation of the Wood. 


The raw material if it is brought to the pulp mill in the log form is 
- taken out of the booms and log storage in the river or mill pond and is 
carried up into the mill by means of a jacker chain which usually leads to 
a series of live rolls. The logs are then reduced to a uniform length 
usually 24 in. Very commonly, pulpwood comes to the mill in the form 
of 24-in. bolts, either in the peeled or rossed condition or with the bark 
still on the wood. The logs are reduced to the bolt length by means of a 
slasher made up of a series of circular saws against which the logs are 
conveyed. In some mills a large, circular, cut-off saw called a “ drop- 
saw’ is used. In the latter case the logs are brought into position by 
means of log rolls and the saw lowered until they are cut off to the 
proper length. 

One type of six-saw slasher has a capacity of handling 8000 logs up 
to 14 ft. in length every ro hours. 


Barking. 
If the bolts or logs come to the mill in the unbarked state they 


32 FOREST PRODUCTS 


are conveyed in the bolt form to the barking or rossing machine which 
removes the wood. The modern barker consists of a heavy, circular, 
steel disk from 52 to 72 in. in diameter, inclosed in a heavy, iron frame. 
The steel disk has three knives inserted in it radially in such a manner 
that the knives cut away the bark as the blocks are held against the 
rapidly revolving surface. A log rolling attachment is provided to hold 
the logs in place after the operator has inserted them. The toothed 
chain revolving around two sprockets, turns the log and the sharp knives 
automatically remove the bark from the wood. 

When the logging of pulpwood is done in the spring or early summer, 
the bark can best be removed by the use of a bark spud or even an axe. 
When fall or winter logging is practised the logs are sent directly to the 
mill in the unbarked condition. There is very little loss of good wood by 
peeling in the woods, but there is a loss, estimated at 15 to 25 per cent of 
the solid wood, when the bark is removed by the barking machine. If 
the bolts were perfectly symmetrical there would be very little loss, but, 
owing to the unsymmetrical character of the bolts, together with seams, 
crotches, taper, knots, etc., considerable wood must be removed in order 
to cut off all the bark. The rapid revolving and rossing take off large 
quantities of wood along with the bark. Bolts of small diameter lose 
a greater percentage of wood than large bolts. 

A rotary or drum barker has been devised which minimizes this loss. 
The drum barker consists of a heavy, circular, iron cylinder made of 
angles or channels fitted with projections to scrape the bark from the 
logs. As the drum revolves the bark is removed partly by attrition - 
and direct contact with the projecting surfaces. It is estimated that 
from 10 to 20 per cent of solid wood is removed, but modern devices and 
improvements are correcting this difficulty. The wood enters the 
rotary or drum barker at one end and is discharged at the other, while 
pieces of bark which have been removed fall through the open spaces 
in the drum. 

In many pulp mills where both chemical and ground wood pulp are 
made the better classes of bolts, that is, those which are relatively free 
from dirt and contain few knots, are used for chemical pulp, while those 
of inferior quality are sent to the ground wood mill. 

Very often the barking process is catried on more rapidly than the 
grinding operation which follows it, so that the surplus blocks are carried 
out into the yard on a cable conveyor or a similar device and stored until 
needed. In winter, many of the bolts contain ice and dirt, accumulated 
in the woods. These are sent into a hot box or tub of water where 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 33 


the ice is melted and much of the dirt removed. The soaking they receive 
also facilitates the grinding process. 

In the case of the largest bolts a splitting machine is provided on one 
end of the barking room to reduce the largest bolts to a size that can be 
accommodated in the grinders. 


Cold and Hot Ground Wood Pulp. 


The most important part of making ground wood pulp lies in the 
grinding and screening methods which are employed. A great many 
experiments have been made, but each individual manufacturer generally 
follows his own ideas on the subject. 

There are two distinct kinds of ground wood pulp, namely, cold and 
hot ground pulp. These vary greatly in degree of coarseness, and in the 
length and strength of fiber. When wood is ground into fibers in the 
presence of large amounts of water a fine, even grade of pulp is produced. 
This is known, commercially, as cold ground pulp. Contrasted to this 
form the hot ground pulp is produced under conditions of high tempera- 
ture and comparatively little water. Hot ground pulp is coarse and 
contains long fibers. 

The operation of reducing wood to pulp is carried on in a separate part 
of the mill, in the grinding room where from 4 to 24 grinders or more are 
operated simultaneously. The wood is brought in on trucks and stacked 
up at some point convenient for the operator. The grinding machine 
consists of a strong, iron, circular box, inclosing a heavy grindstone 
mounted on a horizontal shaft. These grindstones are made of gritty 
sandstone and are largely imported from England for the purpose. Some 
artificial stones are also in common use. The surface of the stone is 
grooved and pitted to make it rough. In size these stones are usually 
from 54 to 60 in. in diameter with a 27-in. face. Around the circumfer- 
ence of the casing, openings or pockets are located in which 2-ft. or 4-ft. 
bolts of wood are placed and pressed against the rotating stone by means 
of hydraulic pressure. The stones revolve at the rate of about 240 revo- 
lutions per minute and from 200 to 400 horse-power are required to drive 
each grinder. The texture of the stone, the rapidity with which it turns 
and the rate of pressure of the wood against the stone determine in a large 
measure the character of the pulp made. A stone with an exceedingly 
rough surface will produce very coarse fibers, whereas if the stone is per- 
mitted to become too smooth or dull, the fibers will be too short and the 
resultant pulp too fine. Dull stones are sharpened while revolving, by 
pressing a “ burr ” or “ jigger ’’ made of especially hardened steel, against 


34 FOREST PRODUCTS 


the surface. Some stones wear unevenly and must be ground, so that 
they will be perfectly symmetrical. The operator must give constant 
attention to the stones, so that the maximum quantity of the best quality 
of pulp may be produced. 

In the process of grinding, the door of the pocket is opened, the piston 
is raised and the pocket filled with blocks, the bolts- being placed flatly 
against the surface of the stone and at right angles to the direction of the 
revolutions, as shown in the illustrations. When the pocket is filled, the 
door is closed and the piston lowered. The pressure is exerted at the 
rate of about 70 Ib. per square inch. The temperature of the wood during 
the process of making cold ground pulp is about 60° F. The stones weigh 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service 


Fic. 3.—A four-pocket grinder used to reduce the wood bolts to fiber by the mechanical 
process of making wood pulp. The bolts are pressed against a rapidly revolving stone. 


from about 2500 to 3500 lb. each and have an average life of only about 
six to eight months. Each grinder has a capacity of from 6 to 9 cords 
of wood per twenty-four hours. All water used in making cold ground 
pulp is first passed through filters in order that absolute purity may be 
insured. One man can tend a pair of grinders. 

The water carries the pulp away from the grinders and it is collected 
and carried off through a large pipe at the base of the grinder. 

In making hot ground pulp the water allowed to flow on the grind- 
stone during the process is reduced to a minimum. The friction causes 
the temperature to rise and the resultant pulp is of entirely different 
quality from that made by the cold ground process. In making hot 


“= setae 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 35 


ground pulp the fibers are torn away very readily so that the resultant 
pulp is very much coarser and the fibers longer. 

In this process, the grinding machine includes a grindstone mounted 
in a vertical position on a horizontal shaft and surrounded by a heavy 
iron casing. Pockets are provided and the pressure afforded in a way 
similar to that described for the other process. Even in the presence of 
sufficient water to prevent the pulp from burning, the temperature rises, 
commonly, to over 160° F. Hot ground pulp is used largely in the man- 
ufacture of newspaper. It runs freely on the Fourdrinier wire, since the 
coarse quality of the fiber permits the water to drain away quickly. 

Much higher yields are secured in the hot ground process owing to 
the fact that the wood is worn away more rapidly and to the use of coarse 
stones or stones which are finished to grind the maximum amount of 
pulp in a given period of time. 

In a few mills in this country and in Canada magazine grinders have 
been installed which take a charge of 12 cords of 4-ft. wood sticks. The 
grinding proceeds during a twelve-hour shift without any special atten- 
tion being necessary on the part of attendants. 


Screening. 

The pulp stock, after grinding, is run through a series of screens to 
remove chips, portions of knots and any foreign material from the pulp. 
There are many kinds of screens in common use, but they all follow the 
same general principle. In some stages of the process flat plates, per- 
forated with fine holes are used. This lets the water and fine pulp go 
through, but retains the coarse material. Revolving drum screens are 
also used. The latter are arranged in rows, and are 4 ft. by 4 ft. 6 in. 
with a 10-in. perforation, through which the pulp passes. The feed-pipe 
supplies the pulp at the end of each drum. 

In the case of the plates they are vibrated to do the work of screening. 
In the case of the centrifugal screens, which are the latest form, a cylin- 
der revolves at a high rate of speed, fine chips being forced through the 
slits by centrifugal force. 

After the pulp has been screened it is treated in a wet press or lap 
machine in order to remove the large amount of water with which it is 
mixed. The material which does not pass through the screens is pumped 
to a refiner where it is again ground up and submitted to the same 
screening process until reduced to a fine fibrous condition. 


1See Paper, June 25, 1613. 


36 FOREST PRODUCTS 


After screening, the pulp is treated in a wet press or lap-machine in 
order to remove the large quantities of water and leave a pulp suitable for 
shipment to the paper mill. The watery mixture is pumped contin- 
uously into a large receiving reservoir or vat in which a hollow drum 
rotates. The surface of this drum is made of fine wire gauze. The 
pulp in solution is caught by this fine gauze and adheres to it while the 
water passes through the gauze and out through the waste pipe. 

This thin layer of pulp is carried by the rotating drum up above the 
surface of the liquid in the vat and is picked off by a traveling felt which 


Photograph by A. M. Richards. 


Fic. 4.—Grinder room in a large pulp mill containing 24 wood grinders of the three-pocket 
type. The grindstones are 60 in. in diameter and have a 28-in. face or grinding surface. 
Pressure of wood is maintained against the stones at a rate of 70 lb. per square inch. 
Capacity of grinding room is 180 cords per day of twenty-four hours. 


passes over a roller and which comes into contact with the drum. The 
thin sheet of extracted pulp passes first between small rollers which press 
out most of the remaining water. From these rollers the sheet of pulp 
is wound up in a continuous sheet or roll on a large wooden drum until it 
is sufficiently thick to peel off. At various intervals, the operator cuts 
across this sheet with a wooden stick, removes the layers of pulp and folds 
them into convenient sizes for piling or for shipment or baling. When 
baled, it is commonly submitted to hydraulic pressure to remove all the 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 37 


moisture possible in order to reduce freight rates. Before hydraulic 
pressure is exerted, the sheets of pulp ooo contain from 50 to 75 
per cent of moisture. 


Yield. 


- The following table shows the amount of pulp made by the mechanical 
process from a cord of the principal kinds of wood used. 


Species Pulp Produced in Pound 
BN er rc een eres ote ks oe ee b,c 8 ois 1600-2200 
(a Sls a agi aay cee = 2S, Bsa gage bapa. ae Bae oy Wee 1400-2000 
MUM PNG? coc. Sea acts fo a ee oa 1600-2000 
Sg GE i Ren mie <i eyepiece ae eS ae a age 1600-1800 
MINER WOO 8 055 25 cx Fei aay nd a8 OTe he IQOO-2000 
MUIR ree rt 8 on ob hy osha grain 800-1100 


Pulp manufacturers generally estimate a yield of about 2000 lb. of 
air-dry pulp from spruce. The yield by the mechanical process is much 
greater than by the chemical processes. 

The variation in weights given is due to variation in moisture content, 
condition of wood, methods of manufacture, efficiency in recovery of 
waste or unscreened wood, etc. 

About 85 per cent of all the wood used in the mechanical process p 
spruce. 

The cost of producing mechanical pulp depends upon a number of 
conditions such as: 

1. Cost and kind of wood. The cost of wood has been a variable 
factor, with the tendency in recent years to increase rapidly. (Wood 
prices have been discussed earlier in this chapter.) ; 

2. Size and equipment of the plant. 

3- General efficiency of the labor, methods and machinery. - 

4. Nature of pulp produced. 

The cost of producing ground wood pulp per ton may be summarized 
as follows: A variation is given because the cost figures cover a wide 
latitude depending upon the factors given. It should be understood 
that these are pre-war estimates. 

Under conditions prevailing before the war, the minimum figure of 
$16.60 would be about the average cost of producing ground wood pulp, 
but all materials, especially wood and machinery have increased very 
materially so that the maximum figures are more nearly a reflection of 
recent conditions. : 


38 FOREST PRODUCTS 


COST OF PRODUCING GROUND WOOD PULP 


Items Cost per Ton of Pulp 

GE ANG cee CEN inns MEU oe ee $7.00-$11.00 | 
eT a AR ae ep eRe a SPREE NY Va: ne 2:5e-. 2288 
FRCS aig sce stowlt aa ysip enters a eaten Mrdee 1300-* 2.2% 
Water (storage, rent, dams, etc.).......... «75-90 
(stinding Sstonesios cia Doses ee I5- 18 
Peli hcg cao aioe nae Oe eee el ee 12- 15 
Wire; screens, etc. .s.% 5b es 08 JI 
Miscellaneous, overhead, etc.............. 5.00- 6.00 
$16 .60-$22.34 


In a report submitted to the Newsprint Service Bureau, May 13, 
1919, the cost per ton of producing peta ground wood pulp 
was put at $26.90. 

Under the item, miscellaneous, are. included’a a great many costs not 
included elsewhere, such as oil, fuel, general overhead charges, such as 
taxes, interest, insurance, depreciation, selling charges, commissions, 
etc. - . 
Mechanically ground pulp can be produced much cheaper than any 
other forms of pulp but it is the most inferior in grade, printing quality, 
strength and durability. 


THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHITE PULP 


More wood is reduced to pulp by the sulphite method than by any 
other process. As already noted, there are three processes of chemical 
reduction, namely, the sulphite, sulphate, and soda. The sulphite is by 
far the most important of these. In 1916 there were reduced by the 
sulphite method 2,856,122 cords of wood which represents more than 50 
per cent of the total amount consumed in that year. Nearly two-thirds 
of all the wood used for sulphite pulp was composed of spruce of which 
there were 1,803,217 cords. ‘The remainder was composed of hemlock, 
balsam fir, and white fir. Most of the white fir is reduced by this process. 
Practically no hardwoods are reduced to pulp by the sulphite method. 

The sulphite method of manufacturing wood pulp in its general aspects 
is practically the same the world over and varies only in minor details and 
with the local conditions in each pulp mill. 

The wood is prepared by practically the same process of preparation 
as has been described in the case of manufacture by the mechanical 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 39 


process, that is, wood is cut to 2-ft. lengths and is either peeled in the 
woods or rossed or barked at the mill. Wood, however, is more carefully 
selected for this process than for ground wood pulp. 


Chipping. 

As the blocks of 2-ft. bolts come from the wood room they are passed 
on a conveyor to the chippers. The chipperman makes a final inspection 
of each bolt before it goes into the machine, and the large blocks which 
escaped the splitter and the undesirable species are sent back. Any 
blocks having any bark attached are sent to the helper who removes the 
bark with a hatchet. 


Photograph by Pusey-Jones Co. 


Fic. 5.—Wood chipper used to reduce the bolts of wood to chips for use in the manufacture 
of chemical pulp. 


The chipper is very similar to the rossing machine except that it is 
much heavier in construction. It consists of a solid steel wheel with 
knives inserted, the only openings being at these points to allow the chips 
to pass through. This is covered with a heavy metal case to keep the 
chips from flying. The blocks are fed into the machine and against this 
'wheel so that they strike the knives nearly perpendicular to the grain. 
The revolution of the wheel causes the knife to make a sliding cut and a 
slice is taken off the end of the block. As the wheel revolves at about 
2000 R.P.M. this cutting is done so fast that the piece cut off is broken 
into small chips. These chips fall down into a pit below the machine 
and are carried to the screen by a cable and belt conveyor. Chips are 
generally about 2 in. in length and ; to 3; of an in. or more in thickness. 


40 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Screening. 

The chips pass from this belt into a large revolving screen, or in some 
cases, a flat jigger screen is used. As the chips pass along this screen 
which has small openings at the head end, gradually increasing in size, 
the fine slivers and dust are removed first. Next, the good chips them- 
selves pass through the holes and the knots and large pieces drop out at 
the lower end. These chips drop into a trough and are conveyed to a 
storage bin, directly over the digesters and cooking room, while the waste 
is conveyed to the boiler house and used for fuel. 


Acid Manufacture and Storage. 

In the sulphite process, the acid plant is one ‘ot the most important 
parts of the mill. Acid making is a truly chemical process and in these 
mills it is as much a part of the industry as the cooking or reduction of the 
wood. The basis of this cooking liquor or acid is sulphurous acid and is 
made by passing sulphur dioxide gas through water. 

In modern mills pure sulphur is burned either in caldrons or rotary 
burners in the presence of an excess of oxygen. Part of the sulphur burns 
to sulphur dioxide but a portion burns only to the oxide or monoxide. 
In order to further oxidize this it is passed through a large oxidizer, which 
is very similar to a Bunsen burner. Here oxygen is admitted and the 
gas burns to the dioxide. The gas is then drawn through a series of three 
water coolers where it passes through lead pipes surrounded with cold 
running water. This cools the gas down to about 70° C. A set of fans 
is arranged in this system and by their work they suck the gas this far, 
furnishing the draft for the burner and oxidizer. The gas passes from 
the last cooler directly into the fans and in the tower system of acid man- 
ufacture is driven into large towers filled with limestone. The gas enters 
these towers at the bottom and as it passes upward, it comes in contact 
with many small streams of water which are trickling down over the 
stone, the water being admitted at the top. The sulphur gas also unites 
with a part of the limestone which has been dissolved by the water and 
forms a solution of acid calcium sulphite which constitutes the cooking 
liquor. As the liquor reaches the bottom of the system it is pumped into 
large wooden storage tanks and there kept until needed. 

The acid, coming down through one tower is not sufficiently strong 
to eat away the lignin, resins, etc., of the wood which must be reduced. 
The proper strength is obtained by pumping the liquor from the bottom 
of the first tower, up and into the top of a second, where it again passes 
through a dense cloud of gas, as it runs down over the limestone. This 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 41 


liquor is then pumped from the bottom of this second tower, up and into a 
third and the process is repeated. On reaching the bottom of this third 
tower the acid is strong enough to do its work and is pumped away. At 
this stage it is strong enough to “eat’’ metals and is particularly harmful 
to iron and steel. This makes it necessary to handle the substance in 
lead pipes and containers or wooden tanks, etc. 

Several other svstems of sulphite acid manufacture are in use, tanks 
and flat vats filled with milk of lime being charged with sulphur dioxide 
to form acid calcium sulphite, but the tower system is believed to be the 
' most efficient and economical. 

In handling the gas, great care must be taken to keep all copper and 
brass out of the way as the gas will unite with the copper to form copper 
sulphide. In fan blades and all parts which must be hardened, a hard- 
_ ened lead is used. This consists of a mixture of lead and antimony. 
The limestone which is used in these towers is not pure lime car- 
_ bonate and as the lime is dissolved away a large amount of refuse in the 
3 form of sand, and other minerals is left. This must be cleaned out at 
_ intervals of from three to five days. As it is necessary to shut down a 
_ system entirely while it is being cleaned, an extra system must be main- 
tained and run while any other system is closed for cleaning and refilling 
with stone. 

A test of the acid is made every hour and record is sent into the office 

_ each day. 
, Statistics show that it requires a three-tower system, with two towers 
making acid twenty-four hours a day for six days of the week and twelve 
_ hours on one day to supply this cooking liquor for a 100-ton mill. . This 
varies in winter and summer as more acid and stronger acid can be made 
in the winter with cold water than in the summer when the water is 
warm. This requires the burning of 8000 Ib. of sulphur and the use of 
about 25 tons of limestone per day. 


-__ The cooking, which is the chemical process which reduces the wood 
elements to soluble compounds leaving only the cellulose, is carried on in 
large steel retorts, which taper to a neck at each end and vary in size 
according to the desired capacity. The outside measurements of a 3-ton 
digester are 32 ft., neck to neck, and it is ro ft. in diameter. A 5-ton 
Tetort is 45 ft., neck to neck, and is 10 ft. 6in. indiameter. Retorts vary 
in size from 3 to 20 tons. Modern mills use the largest size because of 
the economy in operation. These retorts are lined with two layers of 


42 FOREST PRODUCTS 


acid-proof brick and silicon cement, which prevents the acid from acting 
on the metal and also keeps the heat in. The lid or cover and valve parts, 
especially the ‘ blow-valve”’ at the bottom, are made of hardened 
lead as the acid has little effect upon this. About three-quarters of the 
way up the retort is a small pit cock from which liquor can be drawn from 
the retort. It is by this method that the man in charge (cook) tells 
when the wood is cooked. 

The steam, which furnishes the heat for the cook, is admitted at the 
bottom and drawn off at the top of the retort through a vent. 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. .- 


Fic. 6.—Digester used to “ cook’ chips in the manufacture of sulphite pulp. 


In carrying out this’ operation, the blow valve or outlet valve at the — 
bottom of the retort is closed and the retort is filled up to the top with the 


chipped wood. The wood chips are usually stored in large bins directly 
above the retorts, to which they were conveyed from the screen in the 
wood room. When the retort is full of chips, it is pumped almost full of 
acid from the acid storage tanks. A space of about 6 ft. is left, from the 
top of the acid to the top of the retort. This is to allow for boiling and 
overflow. The lid is then put in place and securely bolted down. The 
steam is then turned on and it is allowed to cook for about eight hours 


‘WOOD PULP AND PAPER 43 


under a pressure of about 80 Ib. anda temperature of about 340° F. Read- 
ings are taken hourly and reported. 

Cooking spruce, balsam and hemlock usually requires about eight 
hours, but this may vary widely, according to size of digester, strength 
of the acid and freeness of the vent. If the vent becomes clogged it may 
require much longer to cook. In one case it took thirty-one hours to 
cook a 3-ton digester of hemlock, because of a clogged vent. Instances are 
_known where the packing has been blown out of the top of a digester, 
from this cause. The vapors which pass out through this vent are 
piped into the acid storage tank where they deposit the acid which they 
contain and warm up the acid in storage. 

When the cook is finished the steam is turned off and the blow valve 
at the bottom is opened. The pressure in the retort forces the semi- 
liquid mass out through the large pipe and into a large wooden tank 
called a blow-tank or: blow-pit. The eXCess steam which is freed in this 

process passes out of the tank through a chimney into the open air. 
| Care must be taken in manufacturing the acid, as acid too weak does 
_ not thoroughly disintegrate the wood and produces a so-called hard stock 
which is full of small slivers. Acid that is too strong will dissolve the 
wood. 


Washing. 

After the pulp has sufficiently cooled so that the blow-pits can be 
opened, it is washed thoroughly with water to remove all of the liquid 
which it contains. As soon as the stock is washed, it is pumped into the 
feed tank from which it passes onto the screens as needed. 

The blow pits are simply large wooden tanks which catch the pulp 
and liquor as it rushes out of the retort, and allows the steam to escape 
at the top. These tanks are made large enough to accommodate at least 
three digesters full of pulp. This is done so that the digesters can con- 
tinue to run, even if the pulp mill should close down because of breaks or 
any other reason. 


Screening. 

The screens used in this process are of the flat plate type, each plate 
fitted with a vibrator which aids the fibers in passing through the 
V-shaped slits. These screens are arranged in four lines, with a slant 
from head to foot so that the pulp-laden water will flow freely over the 
plates. 


At FOREST PRODUCTS 


After washing, the pulp is pumped into the feed tank where it is mixed 
with a surplus of water so that the fibers are suspended individually. It 
is then pumped from this tank to the first line of screens. Here the best 
part of the pulp passes through the screens and is carried away by the 
water and goes out onto the press machines where it is collected. 

There are several styles of screens employed for screening the pulp but 
these are usually used for special purposes and in mills in which the 
pulp is miade directly into a certain kind of paper. 


Collection of Pulp on Lap or Press Machine. 


From the screens, the pulp passes out and intoa tank which is equipped 
with a revolving cylindrical screen. As the screen revolves, the water 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 7.—Wet machine or press—the final step in the manufacture of paper pulp. The sheets 
are stacked up as shown on the extreme right and then pressed and baled for shipment 
to the paper mill. 


passes through the meshes and outlet, teaving the pulp adhering to the 
mesh. The screen revolves, carrying the pulp upward and it is removed 
by a felt which is carried over a set of rolls where the pulp is deposited 
on a large wooden roll. This pulp is cut off from time to time, as it be- 
comes thick and is folded up into bundles for shipment or use directly 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 45 


in the paper mill. Laps made up in this way contain about 60 per cent of 
water. 


Drying. 

In the manufacture of dry pulp the pulp passes from the screens into a 
box containing a revolving cylindrical screen and is picked up and carried 
on a felt the same as in the case of the lap machine. In this case, how- 


_- ever, it is carried through a series of three sets of press rolls which press 


the water out of the sheet of pulp. This sheet is then carried over a set 
of about 36 hot cylindrical drums which are arranged very similarly 
to those of a paper machine. These drums are heated by steam and are 
kept at a temperature of about 250° F. As the dry pulp comes off the 
rolls it is wound on a reel at the end of the machine. There are two of 
these reels and while one is winding up the pulp that on the other is re- 
wound and run through a set of knives and re-wound in rolls 2 ft. long 
and weighing about 200 lb. These rolls are then tied, and loaded into the 
car for shipment. 

Dry pulp is never made in a mill where the pulp is going directly into 
paper as it is unnecessary to drive off all of this water. Dry pulp is made 
for long shipment and long storage. 


Power. 


Power in a pulp mill is not restricted to any one type. In many 
places water power is used entirely. Steam is also used and electricity is 
uscd where it can be manufactured cheaply. 

A 10o-ton mill requires about 1500 h.p. to operate it. 


Cost of Production. 


The cost of manufacture of pulp varies in different mills but a good 
average before the war would be about $35.00 a ton, unbleached. The 
process of bleaching added about $12.00 to this initial cost. 

Spruce and hemlock, in the summer, are practically alike and sell at 
the same price, but in winter they vary greatly, both in quality and sale 
price. 

At a large pulp mill in New York the following costs were determined 
over a period of several months in 1916: 


46 FOREST PRODUCTS 


COST OF PRODUCING SULPHITE PULP 


Items. Cost per Ton. 

WOO ie aie Oe ey eet eos kee a $16.59 
Mall labors... ees aa win eens ee eee 3.61 
Sulphur ays oe ee been oa eae ee 3-24 
Machine repairs and supplies..............- Toe 2.09 
Machine labor (repairs). v.20 5.225 see eee 1.30 
Power, heat:and light.; 0.55.5. ssa pe ase 1.29 
Yard labor i530) sae ee ee sist cep arkidy Bea Y . 63 
Buele., ook ve erecta ee eee ee anne 44 
Limestone, So ois tk neat ie pe ee .36 
Oil, erease, Cts oic:o a5". as Shee oie eee 14 
Stable and teams «. 2040 aNG.00 uw feo ats Meena 29 
Repairing buildings. ..... Sis bn 970 Ds, ok eae 38 
Miscellaneous expenses.......... it tip Spelt .51 

Total manufacturing expemses.............. $35.24 


To the above general items may be added the general expenses which 
are not usually included in the cost of manufacturing but which are 
obviously part of the total expenditures. These items are as follows: 


Items. Cost per Ton. 

General superintendency and officers’ salaries..... $ .55 
OMice salaries |). 0 Deas he ee eee .52 
Imsurance and taxes. 423.5 Ste Sa ae ee 1.24 
LM 5 SE OL ec praeete ai are lel g rain Reena .09 
Interest on investment; = 02550 Sec. eee eee 1.65 
Miscellaneous, including travel................... 3 
Postage, printing, telephone, telegraph ............ 52 
Tocidentals 3.3... 5. 2 feo Mee ee ee eee .06 

Totals 95 Aes a ie oe es $4.54 


Adding the general expenditures and the manufacturing expenses the 
total expenditures amounted to $39.78 per ton of unbleached sulphite 
pulp. 

At the time these cost figures were obtained sulphur cost $25.00 per 
ton gross, f.o.b. mill, limestone, $.80 per ton net, f.o.b. mill, and coal 
$3.40 per ton gross, f.o.b. mill. 


‘yy . a = 


eee 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 47 


In the summer of 1916 No. 1 spruce sulphite pulp brought $65.00 
per ton, No. 1 hemlock sulphite pulp, $58.00 per ton, bleached sulphite 
pulp, $97.00 per ton and screenings, $16.00 per ton. 


THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHATE PULP 


The manufacture of pulp by the sulphate process represents the most 
recent development in the chemical reduction of wood fibers. The 
process really dates from 1883 when Dahl introduced the soda treatment 
on straw. A short time thereafter it was used in connection with wood. 
It is now used chiefly on those conifers which do not lend themselves 
readily to reduction by the other processes. The high resinous content 
of many of our most abundant forest trees cut for lumber has been 
the great deterring factor in the use of these woods for paper pulp. 
Great success has recently been attained in the reduction of southern 
yellow pine and other saw-mill waste which heretofore had been largely 
a total Joss. Since the greatest waste in all forest industries occurs in 
saw-mill and logging operations, and since our greatest lumber opera- 
tions are in southern yellow pine and Douglas fir forests, this method holds 
great promise for the future. 

In 1916, 144,631 cords of wood were reduced by the sulphate process. 
The largest single amount was made up of southern yellow pine, of which 
36,711 cords were reduced by this process. Hemlock composed 28,372 
cords, tamarack 29,065 cords and balsam fir 10,150 cords. 

The preparation of the wood for reduction by this process is the same 
as for the sulphite method. The boiling is done with a solution of caustic 
soda containing small amounts of sulphate and sulphide of soda. The 
sulphate of soda is used as the source of alkali and sodium sulphide in an 
incineration process. 

The successful manufacture of kraft paper, a strong, brown wrapping 
paper from sulphate pulp, offers every indication of a large developmen: 
in the South where a relatively cheap and plentiful supply of raw wood 
material is available. 

Sulphate pulp has recently been imported from the Scandinavian 
countries to the amount of over 36,000 tons annually and kraft paper 
itself to the amount of over 22,000 tons yearly. Sufficient wood waste 
is said to be available in the southern states to manufacture at least 10,000 
tons of kraft paper per day. | 

The sulphate process, in contrast to conditions obtaining in this coun- 
try, has superseded the soda process in Europe several years ago and is 


48 FOREST PRODUCTS 


still far more important in its yearly output. For some specialities, sul- 
phate paper is regarded with great favor. In white papers from bleached 
sulphate pulp, the product is soft and pliable in contrast with the harder 
and more “ rattling ”’ sulphite papers. However, for the future, the use 
of sulphate pulp for kraft papers has the greatest promise. 

The process may be described briefly as follows: 

After the reduction of the wood billets to the form of chips as has 
been described in connection with the sulphite process, they are digested 
under pressure in a liquor containing a solution of various sodium com- 
pounds. In the ordinary operation, according to this process, these 
compounds consist of sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphide, sodium car- 
bonate, and sodium sulphate. Of these compounds the first two are 
the active agents in the digesting process and combine with about 50 
per cent of the weight of the dried wood to soluble organic sodium salts. 
The time required for cooking depends upon the nature of the wood 
and the character of the pulp desired. After cooking, the pulp is sep- 
arated from the waste liquor by washing in large tanks. The liquor is 
later evaporated and the residue is partly burned in rotary furnaces and 
after being subjected to high temperatures, the sodium sulphate is added 
to replace the soda lost during the recovery process. 

After cooking and washing, the pulp is run through press rolls and 
formed into bundles. Then, after drying, it is sent to the pulp mill. 


THE MANUFACTURE OF SODA PULP 


The manufacture of wood pulp by the soda process was discovered 
about 1880. The preparation of the wood for use in the soda process is 
exactly the same as has been described in connection with the sulphite 
pulp. That is, the wood is barked and then chipped and screened. 

This process lends itself especially to the reduction of various hard- 
woods and pine. In 1916, 394,577 cords of aspen were reduced by this 
method. In fact aspen composes more than one-half of all of the pulp 
wood reduced by this method. Other hardwoods, such as beech, birch, 
maple, yellow poplar, gum and cottonwood are also frequently reduced 
by the soda process. In 1916 there were 707,419 cords reduced by this 
method. 


The Digesters. 
The object of boiling the wood under pressure with chemicals is to 


‘Taken partly from an article on the manufacture of sulphate pulp by Carl Moe, in 
Paper, July 26, tg16. 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 49 


dissociate the valuable fibrous portion of the plant from the resinous and 
non-fibrous portion. As a result of this boiling the wood loses about one- 
half of its weight. 

The digesters are of various styles and shapes and may be either 
spherical, cylindrical, or egg-shaped, being constructed to revolve at a 
slow rate of speed, or they may be fixed permanently in an upright posi- 
tion. Digesters of the spherical type are usually about 9 or 1o ft. in 
diameter and the cylindrical digesters are from 40 to 50 ft. high and from 
12 to 15 ft. in diameter. These digesters vary in size from 3 to 20 tons 
capacity. 

The inside of these digesters which are used in this alkaline process 
do not have to be lined with brick as do the digesters used in the acid | 
process. 

The mixture in the digesters is heated by means of steam at a pres- 
sure of from 80 to 100 lb. per square inch. This steam may be 
blown directly into the digester or may pass through a large coil at the 
bottom of the digester. Each of these systems has its advantages and 
disadvantages, as in the former the steam is condensed by the material 
in the digester and so increases its volume while, in the latter, it is drawn 
off from the coil. 

In the manufacture of soda pulp, revolving digesters are most com- 
monly used and are found to produce the best results. Here a pressure 
of from 60 to 8o Ib. is also found to produce the best results. 


Cooking. 

The cooking and the manufacture of the cooking liquor in this 
process are not nearly so complicated as in the sulphite process. Here 
the wood chips are emptied into the digesters and are covered with a 
6 to g per cent solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda—NaOH) and 
this is cooked at a temperature of about 240° F. and a pressure of from 
60 to 80 lb., for a period of from eight to nine hours. 

When the cook is completed, the valve at the bottom of the digester 
is opened and the semi-liquid solution passes out asa result of the pressure 
in theretort. This is called “ blowing ” and the material passes into a 
large wooden tank called a “‘ blow-pit.”” Here the steam which escapes is 


passed into the open air through a large pipe running from the top of the 
tank. 


Washing. 
The next step is to wash the pulp free from the spent cooking liquor 
and soluble portions which it contains. As the caustic soda is recovered 


50 FOREST PRODUCTS 


by a well-defined process, the water used in washing is reduced to a 
minimum amount. All of this liquor is saved and is conveyed by pumps 
and pipe lines to an evaporator where the soda is recovered. 

The next step in the process is bleaching the fibers, which is touched 
on briefly elsewhere. All soda pulps intended for conversion into paper 
must be bleached. 


The Recovery of Spent Liquors. 


The spent cooking liquor and the washings are pumped into an evap- 
orator which is operated by a multiple effect vacuum apparatus where 
the water is removed and it is reduced to a thick syrup. This concen- 
trated liquor is then burned in special furnaces, this burning consuming 
all of the organic matter and leaving a black mass which consists mainly 
of carbonate of soda. The mass is then washed with water to remove 
the carbonate which is later converted into caustic soda by being boiled 
with lime. 


Collecting the Pulp. 


The remainder of this process is exactly like that of any other process 
and will not be taken up in detail here as it has been described in the two 
preceding processes. 

Reviewed briefly it consists of a very thorough screening of the pulp 
to separate the fibers from the slivers and any other large, uncooked 
pieces of wood or foreign material. The pulp is then screened from the 
water and run out in the form of laps containing from 40 to 60 per cent 
of water or run out in dry rolls which contain about 18 to 20 per cent of 
water. 

Tests of this pulp for water content, strength, etc., are made and the 
pulp is either shipped to the paper mills where it is made into paper or it is 
made directly into paper at the mill where it is reduced from the wood. 

A great advantage in the reduction of wood by the soda process lies 
in the fact that comparatively little care is necessary in preparing the 
wood because of the great solvent power of the alkali. The process will 
reduce small pieces of bark and even small knots as well as the chips. 


THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER FROM WOOD PULP 


The manufacture of paper consists of the formation of a continuous 
sheet or web made of minute structural units of pulp. The processes of 
papermaking are of a mechanical and physical nature to a large extent 
in contrast to the manufacture of wood pulp by the various chemical . 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 61 


processes. It is upon cellulose and a proper knowledge of its nature that 
the entire paper industry is based. Cellulose is the basis of the vegetable 
kingdom and makes up the greater part of all woody tissue. Considered 
chemically, it is one of the most inert substances known and possesses 
the property of great resistance to the natural destructive agencies. 
Cellulose never occurs free in nature but always in combination with 
other members of the fatty series. Cellulose in its pure form is obtained 
by the removal of other substances during the chemical processes, whereas 
mechanical ground pulp is merely the physical reduction of the wood 
fibers to a pulp form. 

In the preparation of the cellulose fibers for the manufacture of paper, 
vast quantities of water are used but there is no loss of product through 
its solubility because cellulose is insoluble in water. In many mills from 
50 to 70 gal. of water are required for washing every pound of paper 
that is manufactured. Cellulose has little affinity for chlorine and this 
is of importance because it permits of the use of chloride of lime and other 
chlorine compounds for bleaching purposes. 

The strength of any paper is due primarily to the strength and cohesion 
of its constituents. A careful dissection of any paper will show that the 
fibers are interlacing in all directions. The deposition of the fibers from 
suspension in water, the interlacing of the fibers, and the isolation of the 
individual fibers are the basic principles of papermaking. 

In comparing the mechanical and chemical pulps the principal dis- 
tinction is that the mechanical pulp is not pure cellulose, and, conse- 
quently, a very inferior grade of paper is secured. The chemical pulp 
has had the resins, gums and other fatty constituents, as well as the wood 
cells themselves, removed, leaving only the fibers of cellulose. Mechan- 
ical pulp, moreover, produces fibers which are short and brittle, whereas 
the wood fibers in chemical pulp are long, slender and flexible. Paper 
made from mechanical pulp oxidizes readily and turns yellow on con- 
tinued exposure to the air, owing to the organic residues contained in it. 
It is also relatively weak and is used only for newspapers and cheap 
wrapping papers. Paper made from chemical pulp is manufactured into 
the finer grades of book and writing papers, etc. 


Bleaching. 

After the manufacture of pulp has been completed it is necessary to 
bleach it to bring out the proper color. Although considerable pulp is 
bleached, in comparison with the total amount manufactured the per- 
centage put through the bleaching process is relatively small. Sulphite 


52 FOREST PRODUCTS 


pulp is a pinkish gray color and is used directly in grayish papers. The * 
mechanical pulps which are gray or brown in color according to the 
method of manufacture are used in papers’ which are generally not re- 
quired to be white and, therefore, are seldom bleached. 

Whenever sulphite, sulphate, or soda pulps are to be bleached they 
are put through a process of oxidation. The compounds used generally 
are hypochlorites, usually suspensions of chloride of lime, or electrolytic 
bleach consisting of calcium or sodium hypochlorite solutions, etc. The 
bleaching process, which is rather expensive, increases the value of the 
paper to a considerable degree. 


Beating. 
After bleaching, or in case the pulp is not put through the bleaching 
process, the complete separation of the individual fibers is necessary. 


rant 5 F ee 


“S TTY eer sear area ee 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 8.—Beating machines. 


This is done by beating which gives the pulp evenness of texture so that 
proper felting and an interlacing of the fibers can be secured in the final 
process of papermaking. The fibers are also made flexible and of uniform 
length and the ends are frayed out so that they will enmesh more readily. 

The machine used for the reduction of the pulp by beating is called 
the ‘“ Hollander,” or more commonly the beating engine. It consists 
of an oblong trough with semi-circular ends, and ‘“ midfeather,” running 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 53 


partly along the center so as to form a continuous channel round which 
the pulp can circulate. On one end is situated the beating rolls which 
are provided with a set of knives or bars which may be raised or lowered 
to press more or less on a bedplate of stationary knives or bars. These 
machines vary in size but- usually have a capacity from 1000 to 1200 Ib. 
at one time. The ordinary beater is about 2 ft. deep at one end and 
about 2 ft. 6 in. deep at the other. The movement of the pulp in the 
machine is caused by the paddle-like action of the arms of the roller. A 
large proportion of the power used by the paper mill goes to the beater 
room. Experiments have shown that large beaters are much more 
economical of power and are much more efficient than the smaller ones. 
Recently concrete has been introduced for the trough construction in 
place of iron. 

A beater with a roll or drum having 100 bars and a bed-plate with 20 
bars of 40 in. in length and running at 200 R.P.M. should prepare about 
14 Ib. of paper of average substance per minute. 


Sizing and Loading. 

When the pulp is bleached a certain amount of bleaching chemicals 
remain in the substance and it is necessary to remove this either by 
washing, or by the use of chemicals. Washing is generally considered 
the best as it readily removes the chlorine. 

After washing, the pulp is passed through the beater. During the 
_ beating operation, the sizing and loading are added. In the manufacture 
of ink or water-resisting papers, the operation is practically limited to 
rosin as a “size.” It generally requires about 3 or 4 lb. of rosin to size 
100 Ib. of paper. The prepared rosin size is added to the pulp in the 
beater, together with alum or sulphate of alumina which finishes the 
reaction and fixes the rosin size upon the pulp. Starch, silicate of soda, 
soap, casein, gelatin, and many other substances are used as sizing for 
papers for special purposes. 

In the manufacture of high-grade papers, it is necessary to fill up the 
surface pores so that the surface will be smooth. This is done by the 
addition of very fine clays, such as kaolin, talc or sulphate of lime, or 
baryta. There are other fillers and loading agents but these are the most 
common. The greater the percentage of filler used, it is obvious that the 
smaller is the proportion of wood pulp, and, therefore, paper that is 
heavily filled is not so strong and durable. In composition the filler may 
constitute from 2 to 30 per cent of the finished paper product. 


54 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Coloring. 

The dyeing or coloring of paper pulp is also done during the beating 
process and requires considerable care and study. As cellulose is exceed- 
ingly inactive it is usually necessary to use mordants in order to fix the 
colors. Soluble coal tar dyes are very commonly used, but there are only 
comparatively few which are suitable for the coloration of paper pulps. 
Mineral pigments are often used as well to secure certain bright colors. 
Poorly dyed papers will bleach when moistened or if exposed to light. 
The coloring of paper pulps is still in the process of development. 


Paper Machine. 
After the beating process, during which the size, filler and dyes are 
added, a trap door in the bottom of the beater is released and the mixture 


Fic. 9.—Fourdrinier wire, the most specialized machine in the manufacture of paper. The 
stock is deposited on the wire at the left and the water content is drawn off. A rocking 
motion of the frame causes the pulp to “felt” properly and the fibers to intertwine. 


flows out through a pipe and into a tank called the stuff chest where it is 
stored until needed at the paper machine. The paper machine is the 
most intricate of specialized machines used in the paper mill and is the 
key to the successful making of paper. It consists of an endless wire 
screen called the fourdrinier wire which revolves around a series of 
rollers. On this screen, the pulp pours in a steady even stream and as 


~= 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 55 


the water which carries the pulp passes through the screen it leaves the 
fibers behind to form an endless sheet. This sheet which still contains a 
large percentage of water next passes on to a felt and is carried through 
three sets of very heavy rollers which are pressed together under 
pressure. These press rolls squeeze out a large portion of the re 
ing water. The sheet then passes over a series of heated rollers 
gradually dry out the remaining moisture and produce the finished 
of paper. 

There have been great developments in the refinements of the four- 
drinier machines during recent years. From machines making news 


Fic. 10.—Diaphragm plate screen tilted for washing. This screen is located at the head 
of the paper machine and its function is to screen the paper stock before it passes on to 
the Fourdrinier wire. ‘ 


print paper of the width of go in. at a speed of 200 ft. a minute, the parts 
of these machines have been lengthened and widened and refined until 
at the present time these machines have a width of 206 in. and can pro- 
duce paper at the rate of 700 ft. a minute. 

The pulp is carried out to the fourdrinier wire by means of an apron 
and a special mechanical arrangement prevents the formation of too thick 
a layer on the screen. On the fineness of the screen depends the quality 
of the paper made, but it usually contains from 60 to 70 or more strands 
of wire per inch. The frame which supports the rollers and the screen 


56 FOREST PRODUCTS 


is usually arranged so that it can be vibrated sidewise at all times while 
the machine is in operation. This vibration assists in intertwining and 
interlacing the fibers and consequently gives a much stronger sheet of 
paper. The length and number of strokes determine the character of 
the paper to a large extent, the long, slow strokes being best for sulphate 
papers, while the short and fast strokes are best for finer grades of paper. 
Suction boxes, or vacuum rolls, traverse the under surface of the screen 
and aid in removing the excess of water by sucking it out. 


Press Rolls. 

As the paper passes on the screen it is detached from the wire and 
passes over a heavy felt which carries it through three sets of rolls which 
press out a considerable portion of the remaining water. Many machines 
are fitted with a set of rollers having many small perforations through 
which the remaining water is partly sucked out. An endless felt carries 
the paper over the dryer. 


oo” 


= one 
a aX <3 
a 4 


«” 


1 ce 
{1 gee 


~ meee sei sl AS Ae > 
Fic. 11.—This shows the end of the drier (at left) the calender stack, reels, rewinder and 
cutter. On the right is a roll of paper which has been re-wound and cut. The calender 
irons out the wrinkles in the paper and surfaces it. Paper is re-wound to make neat and 


compact rolls and is cut to the desired length of roll. 


Drying Rolls or Driers. 
From the press rolls the sheet passes over the drying rolls which con- 
sists of a series of from 16 to 36 or more large heated steel drums. The 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 57 


number of drums used depends upon the speed of the machine and the 
weight of the paper. The felt is also used in connection with them to keep 
the sheet of paper pressed tightly against the hot rolls which are heated 
by steam introduced from one side. 

After passing through the long series of drying rolls, the paper is run 
through calenders to produce what is known in the trade as supercalen- 
dered paper. In this operation the surface of the paper is given a glazed 
finish. 


Cutting. 

As the paper goes from the driers it may vary from 60 to 156 in. or 
more in width. It is seldom that this width is desired commercially, so 
the sheets must be unwound and cut to the desired width and rewound 
once more. For this purpose a special cutter and winder is used. The 
paper is then sorted, tested, and wrapped for shipment. 


IMPORTS OF PULP WOODS AND WOOD PULP 


The following table shows the imports of pulpwoods and wood pulp 
to this country for the years 1914 to 1918, inclusive, according to the fig- 
ures of the Department of Commerce. Each year of these imports ends 
on June 30th. Practically all of the importation of pulpwoods is from 
Canada, whereas the wood pulp comes normally from Sweden and Nor- 
way as well as from other countries and Canada. The tables show how 
the war seriously interfered with the imports of wood pulp to this coun- 
try, since the total amount has decreased markedly from the importation 
in 1914. 

Most of the imports of pulpwood comes to this country in the peeled 
condition. The iinports of pulp wood have increased during the period 
of the war, particularly the wood brought in in the peeled condition. 


IMPORTS OF PULP WOODS, 1914 TO 1918; INCLUSIVE 


RovuGu, | PEELED. Rowunpb. 
Amount. | Value. Amount. Value. Amount. | Value. 
Conds... Cords. Cords. | 
IQI4 186,316 $1,063,721 630,863 $4,0€2,835 255,844 $2,118,910 
1QI5 247,400 | 1,458,029 $51,293 3,516,460 187,047 | 1,597:750 
1916 187,006 1,131,359 627,290 3,959,732 164,714 | 1,282,658 
1917 | 214,180 | 1,307,884 639,816 4,285,282 162,818 1,295,957 
| 


1918 | 210,527 1,045,781 822,816 | 7,821,335 138,690 1,621,306 
: 


| 


58 


IMPORTS OF WOOD PULP 1914-1918, INCLUSIVE 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


MECHANICAL PULP. CHEMICAL PULP. 
Amount. Value. Amount. Value. 
1914 354,967,673 Ibs. $2,733,595 783,759,522 lbs. $14,289,743 
IQI5 187,253 tons 3,141,119 400,669 tons 16,739,092 
1916 186,406 tons 3,148,173 320,640 tons 13,719,077 
1917 270,107 tons 7,018,404 420,368 tons 3514435390 
1918 189,599 tons 6,138,831 314,553 tons 25,450,259 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BEADLE CLayToN. Chapters on Papermaking. London: C. Lockwood & Son, 
1907-08. 4 vols. ; 

BEVERIDGE, JAMES. Paper Makers’ Pocket Book. London. 

BLANCHET, AUGUSTIN. Essai sur l’histoire du papier et de sa fabrication. Paris: 
E. Leroux, 1900. 1 vol. (Exposition retrospective de la papeterie. Paris, 1900.) 

Butter, F.O. The Story of Paper-making. Chicago: J. W. Butler Paper Co., 1901. 
136 pp. 

CLAPPERTON, GEORGE. Practical Paper-making. London: C. Lockwood & Son, 
1894. 208pp. (Weale’s Scientific and Technical Series.) 

Cross, C. E. and E. J. BEvan. Cellulose. London: 1917. (4th edition.) 

Cross, C. F. and E. J. Bevan. Text-book of Paper-making. 1916. London: 
E. & J. N. Spon, 1916. 422 pp. 

Cross, C. F., E. J. BevAN and R. W. SINDALL. Wood Pulp and its Uses. London. 

Daten, G. Chemische Technologie des Papiers. Leipzig: J. A. Bart, hrsg. 1ort. 


120 pp. (Einzelschriften zur chemischen Technologie, von Th. Weyl. (1 Bd. 
1 Lieferung.) 


Davis, C. T. The Manufacture of Paper. Philadelphia: H. C. Baird & Co., 1886. 
608 pp. 

Encianp, G. A. Paper Making from Wood Pulp. Van Norden Magazine, June, 
1908. vol. 3: 51-58. 

Grirxin, R. B. and A. D. Littte. The Chemistry of Paper-making. New York: 
Howard Lockwood & Co., 1894. 517 pp. 

HupsparD, Ernst. Utilization of Wood Waste. London. 

HorMANNn, Cart. Practical Treatise on Paper-making. New York: H. Lockwood 
& Co., 1895-96. 6 parts. 


Hoyer, EBERT von. Die Fabrikation des Papiers. Braunschweig: F. Vieweg 
und Sohn, 1887. 485 pp. (Handbuch der chemischen Technologie . . . hrsg. 
von... Bolley . . . 6 Bd., 5. Gruppe, 1 Abt.) “Literatur;” pp. 492. 


WOOD PULP AND PAPER 59 


Kiemm, Paut. Handbuch der Papierkunde. Leipzig, 1904. 


Kotter, THEODOR. The Utilization of Wood Waste. London: Translated from the 
German. 

Lawson, P. V. Paper-making in Wisconsin. Madison, Wis.: Wisconsin Historical 
Society, t910. 273 pp. From the Proceedings of the State Historical Society 
of Wisconsin, 1909. 

Miter, WARNER. American Paper-mills. (In Depew, C. M., ed. One hundred 
years of American Commerce. New York: 1895. vol. 1, pp. 302-307. 


Miscellaneous Articles in Paper Trade Journals such as Paper, The Paper Trade Jour- 
nal, The Paper Mill, etc. 


SINDALL AND Bacon. The Testing of Wood Pulp. London. 

SrypaLt, R. W. The Manufacture of Paper. London: A. Constable & Co., 1908. 
275 pp. (The Westminster Series.) Bibliography: pp. 253-272. 

SmitH, A. M. Printing and Writing Materials: Their Evolution. Philadelphia: 
The Author, 1901. 236 pp. 


Smitru, F. H. and R. K. HELPHENSTINE, JR. Pulpwood Consumption and Wood 
Pulp Production, 1916. U.S. Forest Service in Coédperation with the News Print 
Manufacturers Association, New York. 


Smirg, J. E. A. A History of Paper. Holyoke, Mass.: C. W. Bryan & Co., 1882. 
104 pp.. 

Spicer, A. D. The Paper Trade; a Descriptive and Historical Survey. London: 
Methuen & Co., 1907. 282 pp. Bibliography: pp. 261-265. 

STRACHAN, JAMES. The Recovery and Re-Manufacture of Waste Paper. Aberdeen: 
1918. 


U. S. BurEAU OF THE CENSUS. Census of Manufactures, 1905. Paper and Wood 
Pulp. Washington: Govt. Print. Off., 1907. 43 pp. (Bulletin 80.) 


Veitcu, F. P. Paper-making Materials and their Conservation. Washington: 
Govt. Print. Off., 1908. 20 pp. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Chem- 
istry. Circular 41.) 

Watt, ALEXANDER. The Art of Paper-making. 3d ed. New York: D. Van Nos- 
trand Co., 1907. 260 pp. “List of books relating to paper manufacture,” 
Pp. 246. 


CHAPTER III 


TANNING MATERIALS 


GENERAL 


NEArty all plants of the vegetable kingdom contain an astringent 
principle known as tannin. This agent has the property of acting upon 
animal skins in order to make them strong, flexible, impervious to water, 
imputrescible, and resistant to decay and wear. Practically all of the 
commercial tannin, however, is derived from a relatively few species of 
plants and is secured from only small portions of these. The principal 
forms of tannin are derived from a variety of barks, woods, leaves, 
fruits, nuts, etc., which contain varying amounts of tannin and tannic 
acid. Tannin occurs chiefly in solution in the cell sap, as well as in 
tannin vesicles and the cortical cells of the bark. 

In this country, hemlock bark was, for a long time, the principal 
source of tannins. Some oaks also supply bark of sufficiently high tannin 
content to be of commercial interest. 

With the rapid cutting of our virgin forests and the gradual disap- 
pearance of hemlock, however, the principal source of supply has been 
seriously depleted, and the tanners have turned to a number of other 
materials such as chestnut wood and a variety of foreign products, the 
importation of which has been steadily increasing within the past few 
years, particularly, quebracho, gambier, mangrove bark, sumach, 
myrobolan nuts, valonia and several others. 

It is estimated that the total annual value of the vegetable tanning 
materials used by the tanners and dyers of this country is from $25,000,- 
000 to $30,000,000. 

The harvesting, manufacturing, and importation of tanning materials 
constitute one of the most important of the forest product industries. 

Hemlock bark has been of the greatest economic value in the past 
because it occurred in comparatively large quantities and, therefore, was 
relatively cheap. It is also readily made available for use. As a result 
of this situation, the chief centers of the tanning industry have devel- 
oped, principally in the great hemlock regions, the obvious reasons being 

60 


TANNING MATERIALS ~ 61 


it was easier to transport the lighter hides to the centers of tannin pro- 
duction, rather than the heavy barks. 

For several yeats past it has been customary to use tanning materials 
containing not less than 8 to 10 per cent of tannin, but a method has been 
devised whereby chestnut wood which has a very variable content of 
3 to rr per cent can be utilized. This method consists of extracting the 
soluble matter from the wood and concentrating the extract in a vacuum 
to a very dense liquid or dry powder. This extract may contain, as a 
result of this process, as much as 30 to 70 per cent of tannin. 

With the exception of this wood and quebracho, tannin is a prod- 
uct found chiefly in the portions of a tree which are of little com- 
mercial importance otherwise, namely: in the bark, portions of the 
roots, the heartwood (only in case of quebracho and chestnut), the 
husk of the fruit and in a few other cases in the leaves and twigs. 
The tannins found in the various sources are not precisely the same 
in their chemical constituents. Two acids are formed, namely; gallic 
and pyrogallic. 

At the present time there are at least 600 consumers of tannin in the 
United States and aside from foreign materials, they use about 625,000 
cords of hemlock bark, 290,000 cords of oak bark and 380,000 cords of 
chestnut wood. 


HISTORICAL 


Records of early civilization indicate that the tanning of leather 
to preserve it was practiced by the Chinese over 3000 years ago. It is 
said the Romans tanned their animal skins with oil and alum and occa- 
sionally with oak bark. The Indians of this country were found using 
bark to preserve buffalo skins. It is reported that the first tannery 
erected in this country was built in Virginia in the year 1630 but the 
industry developed most widely and successfully in Massachusetts. 
There were 51 tanneries in New England in 1650. Oak bark was used 
principally at first and was generally preferred to hemlock. The abun- 
dant supply of hemlock, however, brought it into early and prominent 
use. At this time, there was a strong demand for the export of skins 
and hides to Europe, and it is said by the year 1810 the value of the 
product of American tanneries was about $200,000,000. Salem and 
Peabody in Massachusetts became great centers of industry and Boston 
became the great leather market of the United States. About 40 to 50 
years ago, owing to the rapid cutting of available oak and hemlock forests, 
the center of the production of tanning materials moved toward the 


62 FOREST PRODUCTS 


West and South. Pennsylvania became the great center of bark produc- 
tion and many acres of virgin hemlock were cut down for their bark alone. 

Until 1895 to 1900 foreign tanning materials, on account of cost 
of transportation, could not be sold in this country in competition 
with the domestic supply. But, owing to the increase in wages and 
the decrease in the domestic supply and the fact that the forests are 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 

Fic. 12.—Peeling hemlock bark on the Cataloochee Tract, Haywood Co., North Carolina. 
The bark is removed in 4-ft. sections and, after drying, is piled ready for hauling to 
the railroad. This crew consisted of four men including the foreman. 

becoming more remote from the tanneries, entailing greater cost of 

transportation, the price of hemlock and oak bark delivered at the 

plants increased to such an extent that a great deal of foreign “leaf ” 

(meaning accrued and unextracted tanning materials) came into use. 

These could be imported great distances because the tannin content 

ranged from 23 to 4 or more times the content of hemlock and oak bark. 
The outbreak of the war in 1914, however, together with the scarcity 

of ocean tonnage, made more imperative the demand upon the domestic 


TANNING MATERIALS 63 


supply of oak bark, hemlock bark and chestnut wood extract. In 1905 
the average price paid per cord of 2000 lb. for hemlock bark in Penn- 
sylvania was $7.54 and for oak bark, $8.40. By 1915 the prices became 
stronger and values from $9.00 to $12.00 per cord were quoted f.o.b. cars 
at shipping points for hemlock bark and still better prices for oak bark. 

With the growing scarcity of the barks in the East, the California tan- 
bark oak which contains from 10 to 20 per cent or more of tannin was 
developed. In 1905 over 50,000 cords of an average value of $19.04 
per cord were produced. In the northwest the western hemlock (Tsuga 
heterophylla) began to be developed for its bark. Of the 2200 tons of 
bark used annually in the tanneries of Oregon and Washington, it is said 
that two-thirds are of western hemlock. The industry. is still in its 
infancy in the northwest and it is likely that western hemlock will supply 
a much larger share of the requirements there in the future. It contains 
from-to to 12 per cent of tannin. 

The most important development in the tanning industry within 
recent times in this country came with the discovery of a method to 
extract the tannin from chestnut wood on a commercial basis. This 7 
phase of the industry has developed rapidly within the past twenty years, 
especially in North Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee, where a plentiful 
supply of chestnut of sufficient tannin content is available in the moun- 
tainous portions of those states. In several of the chestnut extract fac- 
tories of the South, part of the residue left after the tannin has been 
removed from the chips is converted into paper. The future of the 
chestnut extract industry is not altogether assured, owing to the uncer- 
tainty of the ultimate effect of the blight or bark disease on the chestnut 
forests of this country. 

The entrance of foreign tanning materials in competition with those 
produced in this country has had a profound effect on the industry at 
large. As the demand for tanning materials increased in this country 
and the domestic supply became more limited, inaccessible and expensive, 
it became possible to import exotic tannins. Quebracho from the 
Argentine has been imported in steadily increasing amounts since 1900, 
when the important South American quebracho fields were developed 
and exported on an extensive scale. The value of quebracho wood and 
extract imported to this country in 1917 was about $6,575,000. 

Other foreign tanning materials that have entered our market and 
have been extensively used within the past two decades are gambier, 
- mangrove bark, myrobalan nuts, sumach and valonia. These and 
others are described later in this chapter. 


64 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The world’s supply of tanning materials is apparently very abundant 
and it is estimated by authorities that many sources little developed at 
the present time may be depended upon for vast quantities in the future. 
Especially is this true of many tropical plants of Africa, the Far East 
and South America. The great hemlock forests of Washington and 
Oregon have been scarceiy touched in so far as their tannin resources 
are concerned, and they constitute an important storehouse of tannin 
for future use. Western hemlock bark has a higher tannin content 
than that of the eastern hemlock. At the present rate of cutting que- 
bracho in South America, which amounts to about 1,000,000 tons, and 
which supplies an important part of the tanning supplies of England, 
Germany, France and Italy, as well as the United States, it is estimated 
that the supply of this source alone will last 168 years | and the annual 
growth more than offsets the yearly cut. 


PRINCIPAL SOURCES AND TANNIN CONTENTS 


The following table shows the most commonly used domestic and 
foreign tuanthe materials with the percentage of tannin which they 
usually contain. These are the tannin contents as recognized by the 
Leather and Paper Laboratories of the Bureau of Chemistry: ? 


DOMESTIC Toanin.’ Tammie. 
Hemlock bark (Tsuga canadensis)... ..........00 000 ee cece eee 8-10% catechol 
Chestnut wood (Castanea dentata).........0.-.0 ee eee eee eens 4-10% catechol 
California tanbark oak (Quercus densiflora)...............6044- 10-29% catechol 
Chestnut oak bark (Quercus prinus)........0. 00.0 sce e ene 8-14% catechol 
Black oak bark (Quercus velutina).......... Bi Pe a Boat ghee ate 6-12% catechol 
Red oak bark (Quercus rubra)... 2.060250 obese een etn ta bw dec 4- 8% catechol 
White oak bark’ (Querctts: GlbG) 355.5. 5 conc vens weeece sees tmeree 4- 7% catechol 
Western hemlock bark (Tsuga helerophylla)...........000 000055 10-12% catechol 
American sumach (Rhus glabra) Southern States................ 25% pyrogallol 
“ Staghorn ” or “ Virginian ”’ (Rhus typhina).............-..+-. 10-18% pyrogallol 

FOREIGN 
Quebracho wood (Quebrachia lorentzii) South America........... 20-28% catechol 
Gambier (Uncaria gambier and U. acida) ...........0000002055 35-40% pyrogallol 
Myrobalans (Terminalia chebula) nuts...........6.00+5 0000 e ees 30-40% pyrogallol 
Valonia (Quercus egilops) acorn cups, Eastern. Mediterranean.. Up to 45% pyrogallol 
Sicilian sumach (Rhus coriaria) Italy. -.... SPANIEL aaah pea 20-35% pyrogallol 
Mangrove bark (Rhizophora mangle) tropics...........-.-+++-++ 15-40% catechol 
Divi-divi (Ce@sal pinia coriaria) Central America, pods........... 40-45% pyrogallol 
Golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha)..........00 ccc cence eens About 40% pyrogallol 
Kino (Pterocarpus senegalensis) Africa.....0...6.-000000 000s Up to 75% catechol 
Algarobilla (C@salpinia brevifolia) Chili............-+.-..+- Average 45% pyrogallol 
Pistacia lentiscus, Sicily, Cyprus, Algeria.........20......--+++- 12-19% catechol 


1 From “ Tanning Materials of Latin America,” by T. H. Norton. 
? Supplied by Dr. F. P. Veitch. 


le ik 


TANNING MATERIALS 65 


The following table, furnished by the Tanners’ Council of the United 
States, shows the approximate eeey of tanning materials consumed 


annually in this country: 


TANNING MATERIALS CONSUMED CALENDAR YEAR 1918 


ore Solid Extracts, | Liquid Extracts, | Chis Tanning 
oun Pounds. Pini. 

ES a eet Ser ate eed 48,148,878 316,220,621 74,794,423 
UNIT oars 25 ke wns oa eh a 2,952,660 17,442,192 723,077,392 
OR sn eS ns sn one ces ee eee ene 3,815,056 34,380,396 485,134,791 
oo SEE ie per re eee es 79,137,089 04,371,395 2,989,851 
WEEN isos cs Sein es SLs etnies 154,013 "36,792 2,200,452 
Nee ee eee 1,405,265 45,891 5:764,495 
WG IOSENNIS 2 5522 Pe ae ot tease ets 124,583 188,908 6,710,404 
NINERS ey Sos nc ac oer 782,512 225,236 3,176,398 
RPIPEMERE SS hee Gis ec rainas pers Fae ue 1,080,110 1,670,909 5:930,990 
MNES BS Gace Os ee ee 10,120 100 7,008 
MMM a cpt eae bat ise se ves Oey eee 500,514 89,101 13,217,926 
IO eS Esc io nas tyne goo Se we 243,483 2,049,208 goo 
oo chin, oP ee Pe ey ae 3,726 18,722 10,433 
ee Re pe og ene ane 1,950 
MMR ES Orie ey pg aie Se 2,580 64,690 
EC EMM 2 ire aoe Os Pag ine a, yo 3,048,623 28,464,866 523352272 
Runaway or recovered extract ?......... 84,620 9,776,692 
Blended (chestnut and oak only)?....... 17,000 4,938,616 1,018,824 
ES CRISP 5S on os ne ce ots 194,004 | 6,185,361 


1 Figures obtainable for January-May only. Other months probably included in “* Not specified.” 
* Figures cover July-December inclusive only. Other months probably included in ‘‘ Not Speci- 


2 Pigures cover August-December inclusive only. Other months probably included in ‘“ Not 


CHROME TANNING MATERIALS 


; Pounds. 
RR IROMTIRENDG So rs, whe Se a 13,344,547 
Other chrome compounds. ..............-. 8,230,942 


PRODUCTION OF HEMLOCK BARK 


Hemlock bark has for a long time constituted the principal source of 
tanning materials used in this country, and has been commonly employed 
in tanning leathers ever since the beginning of the industry in America. 
The nearest competitor was oak bark, the annual consumption of which, 
however, has been for many years less than one-half that of hemlock bark. 
Oak bark has been particularly preferred by some tanners from the 
earliest days of the industry largely because it has been associated in 


66 FOREST PRODUCTS 


minds of tanners and the trade that it produced the best class of leather 
but tests in recent years show that the oak bark inherently gives no 
superior quality to the leather apart from appearance. Government tests 
show that harness leather made of hemlock is largely superior to oak. 

In 1900 hemlock led in the production of bark, with 1,170,131 cords, 
or 72 per cent of the total amount of bark produced in this country, and, 
in 1909, it still led, producing 698,335 cords, or 65 per cent of the total 
production of bark in the United States. 

The average price of hemlock bark per cord of 2240 lb.! in the United 
States has. risen from $6.28 in 1900 to $9.21 in 1909. Since the later 
year, however, the price has dropped off until the cutting of hemlock 
bark was almost abandoned except in the more accessible districts. On 
a large contract of 250,000 tons in West Virginia $8.00 per ton was paid 
in 1912 for hemlock bark delivered at the tannery. With the outbreak 
of the European War, however, the price rose rapidly. It is said that 
in Wisconsin only about 20,000 cords had been cut in 1915, whereas in 
1916, Over 100,000 cords were estimated to have been cut. In 1917 
prices of from $11.00 to $14.00 or more were paid per cord for hemlock 
bark in New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Wisconsin. 

The reason. for the small amount of bark produced in Wisconsin was 
because of the small yield of leather per 100 lb. of hide in comparison 
with Pennsylvania and Michigan bark. But it can be used advan- 
tageously with foreign tanning materials, the yield of leather being 
greatly increased by the blend so that it was profitable to use foreign 
tanning materials and extracts such as quebracho, for example, which 
cost more per unit of tannin than the Wisconsin bark did. 

The principal producing states were formerly Maine and Massachu- 
setts, and still later New York and Pennsylvania. Important hemlock 
regions like the Catskill Mountains of southern New York were largely 
cut out for their bark alone. The principal present producing centers in 
order of importance are Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, 
West Virginia, and Maine. These six states produce over go per cent of 
the total hemlock bark production of the country. 


Harvesting Hemlock Bark. 

The proper season for harvesting bark is, of course, when the bark 
will slip off most easily. The spring of the year when the sap is flowing 
freely and the leaves are breaking out is the very best time for removing 


1Tn Pennsylvania, Michigan and Wisconsin, the ton is generally considered to be 2000 lb.; 
in the south it is generally 2240 lb. 


TANNING MATERIALS 67 


the bark. In the northern portion of the hemlock region, that is, from 
Maine to Wisconsin, the season is often from early in May to early in 
July, or later, whereas in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia, the 
season may be from April to June. It is found that peeling is accom- 
plished much more rapidly during the warm damp weather within the 
peeling period, and even better, during the morning and evening than 
during the noon. 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 13.—Hauling and loading hemlock bark in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. 
The bark is brought down the steep slopes on sleds, for a distance of from one to two 
miles and loaded on flat cars. 


The peeling crew is often organized to work on a piece basis, so much 
being paid for felling, peeling, stacking, hauling, and loading on the cars. 
The work is usually done in connection with the logging operation 
although it has been done very often for the bark alone. The bark 
formerly was stacked and measured by the full cord (128 cu. ft.), 8 ft. 
long, 4 ft. high, 4 ft. wide, but for many years it was paid for by weight— 
*““merchantably dry.” A rough conversion factor of one cord equal to 


68 FOREST PRODUCTS 


one long ton, is commonly used. Wisconsin bark has the reputation of 
being somewhat thinner than Michigan bark and yielding less leather 
by weight and consequently brings a lower price. 

It is generally understood that about one-half a cord of bark can be 
secured from 1000 bd. ft. of standing timber. This; however, partic- 
ularly applies to trees of 20 in. and up in-diameter. A smaller tree, of 
course, yields more bark per tooo ft., than the larger treés. In some 
regions it is assumed that one acre of average hemlock timber will yield 
about 7 cords of bark. This factor is naturally a very variable one, but 
is commonly used in estimating the bark yield from a forest. With the 
increase in the value of bark, more careful methods are being used in 
bark peeling, and bark is removed to a much smaller diameter than here- 
tofore. Inthe Lake States, the volume of bark is said to be equivalent 
to about 19 per cent of the total cubic volume of the trees, and varies little 
with the size of the tree. _In the Southern Appalachian Mountains it is 
said that the volume varies from 15 per cent for 6-in. trees up to 19 per 
cent for trees 26 in. and over in diameter. The bark of the larger trees 
is often from 2 to 3 in. in thickness at the stump, and gradually grows 
thinner towards the tip of the trees. 

A peeling crew is commonly composed of four workers; one spudder, 
one fitter, and two log buckers. The fitter is usually in charge of the 
crew, and directs the activities. He first cuts two rings around the 
tree about 4 ft. apart, and then splits the bark from ring to ring. The 
spudder then proceeds to peel off the bark by inserting the spud between 
the bark and the wood, and gradually pries it off. The crew then fells 
the tree, and the bark is removed from the entire length of the bole by 
. cutting circular rings at 4-ft. intervals up the trunk and by prying off 
the bark with the spud as explained above. As the tree falls, the log 
cutters remove the limbs or any brushwood that may interfere with the 
work of sawing up the trunk or the removal of the bark. 

The pieces of bark as they are removed are leaned against the trunk 


to season. This process requires generally from one week to a month, 


depending upon the weather conditions. After the spudder removes 
the bark and the bole is sawed into log lengths, the crew proceeds to the 
next tree. 


The bark, when merchantably dry, in the summer or in the fall, is" 


hauled out by means of sleds or wagons to the nearest loading point on 
the railroad or “sleigh haul.’”’ Sometimes the bark is left until the 
winter when it can be hauled directly on sleighs. A whole cord is often 
loaded on a sleigh at one time. Sometimes log chutes are used to bring 


~~ Ve 


TANNING MATERIALS 69 


down the bark, but this method is only employed on the most moun- 
tainous topography. On some operations special sleds are constructed 
for carrying from 13 to 23 cords to the load. 

One crew of men will frequently fell the timber and peel enough 
bark to make from 3 to 4 cords per day. Four men will peel from 6 to 8 
cords daily, and also cut the timber into saw logs. The latter sized crew is 
estimated to peel about 240 to 270 cords in a season. Seven men will often 
load four cars daily, each car having a capacity of from 6 to 7 cords of bark. 


See 


a ee * 3 rae 
* Nera gt ee 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 14.—Method of hauling hemlock bark from a mixed forest along the Castleman River 


“a Garrett Co., Maryland. From one to two cords or more are often hauled in each 
oad. 

The cost of producing hemlock bark may be summarized as follows: 
These costs were secured in 1914 as an average of several prominent bark- 
peeling operations. 


COST OF PRODUCING HEMLOCK BARK 


Operation. Cost per Cord. 

RMI AMME SMEs ons oe AE Ss ays a ais'a oe mcgiend 2 od os $2.30 to $2.60 
EPMA ROARING Sone Ste cee Cs CSpot e Ss aie loipiceoes eae wanes. .go to 1:20 
MMR IN eta tetas oo Sa wie Wee ce oniee Davembes «ces .50to .60 
UWE AMIE Eco x 0c dt eee aks ae. ake seers 62 2% .20to .30 
eM EIMONIS erate g Soe asd cs o's = v's Poe's dieten o Slab eae .25 to .40 
$4.15 to $5.10 


70 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The following table shows the number of cords of hemlock bark per 
1000 bd. ft. for trees of different diameters in the southern Appalachian 
mountains. _The Doyle-Scribner rule was used.! 


NUMBER OF CORDS OF BARK FOR TREES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS 


D. B. H., Inches. Cords per M Bd. Ft. D. B. H., Inches.. Cords per M Bd. Ft. 
12 2.8 22 8 
13 2:3 23 =f 
14 I.9 24 mf 
15 1.6 25 6 
16 Ti 26 6 
17 %2 27 as 
18 xt 28 = 
19 1.0 29 *; 
20 9 30 -4 
2I 8 


The following table shows the volume of hemlock bark in stacked 
cords, for:trees of various diameters.? 


VOLUME OF HEMLOCK BARK IN CORDS FOR TREES OF DIAMETERS 
FROM 8 TO 29 INCHES 


D. B. H., Inches. . Volume of Bark Cord. D. B. H., Inches. Volume of Bark Cord. 
8 .03 19 .20 
9° 05 20 ea 

10 .06 21 525 
II .07 22 . 28 
12 .08 23 31 
13 09 24 - 34 
14 .10 25 387 
15 ae 26 -40 
16 14 27 43 
17 . .16 28 .46 
5B tak, .18 29 .50 


PRODUCTION OF CHESTNUT OAK BARK 


The oaks have always held a very prominent position as a source of 
high-grade tanning materials because of the excellent nature of the 
effect on various skins. Oak bark is especially esteemed for sole leathers. 
The bark of chestnut oak is not only used directly in tanneries, but is 
also widely employed for making tannin extract. The two tannin- 
producing oaks are the chestnut oak and tanbark oak. The former is 


1 From data secured by Walter Mulford, 1905-1906. © 
2 From “ Hemlock in Vermont,” by A. F. Hawes. 


TANNING MATERIALS 71 


found principally in the East along the southern Appalachian Mountain 
regions, while the latter is found entirely in southern Oregon and Cali- 
fornia. 

Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) is found most abundantly in Virginia, 
West Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, Kentucky, and southern 
Pennsylvania, in order of importance. It seldom grows in pure stands 
but is associated with a number of other oaks and hardwoods. It grows 

chiefly on the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. Its bark 
is exceedingly ridged, some indentations often being 3 in. deep. The 
peeling operations are carried on generally from late in March to middle 
of June or later, and the general plan of peeling the bark is very similar 
~ with chestnut oak as with hemlock. 

The presence of considerable quantities of chestnut oak, together with 
the hemlock forests have established the location of many tanneries in 
western Virginia and in West Virginia. An increasing amount of chest- 
nut oak bark is being consumed from year to year. There is serious 
danger of the supply of this wood being exhausted if the present rate of 
consumption continues. Many of the chestnut oak forests grow in more 
or less inaccessible places, and in portions of northeastern Tennessee it 
was estimated that only 2 per cent of the entire cut of the chestnut oak 
was converted into lumber, whereas 75 per cent was cut exclusively for 
the bark alone. In northwestern Virginia a tannery which has been in 
operation for thirty years on chestnut oak bark alone, is now gradually 
accepting the bark of other oaks. The bark competes, moreover, with 
hemlock bark and chestnut extract. The managers of tanneries claim 
that hemlock bark is best employed by combining it with chestnut oak 
bark. Chestnut oak extract is also used with chestnut wood extract to 
give strength, tenacity, and greater impermeability to leather. 

In ror1 the ruling price in Virginia and West Virginia for chestnut 
oak bark was about $8.50 per cord delivered on cars. During the sum- 
mer of 1916 prices had risen to from $11.00 to $12.00 or more. During 
1917 and 1918, it had risen to still higher figures. The average cost of 
harvesting chestnut oak bark prior to the war was about as follows: 


Operation. Cost per Cord. 

Cutting, peeling and stacking....................-..-.---- $1.00 to $1.35 
Hauling to railway, average 6 miles..............-...------ 1.50 to 2.00 
Loading on car, and supervision...............-.-.-------- .20to .40 
fT Bitte 2k cies SIC o re Oi EAS Sun ee gk a dea eg $2.70 to $3.75 


72 FOREST PRODUCTS 


In addition to the above charge the stumpage should be added, but it is 
frequently not taken into consideration as a stump charge is placed on the 
saw and tie logs. 

On an operation of over 3do0 acres, 10 miles from the railway in West 
Virginia, the method of procedure was as follows: In the early spring 
30 men were engaged for the work which was well located in a side valley. 
The men worked together in sections laid off for them, and they were 
paid $1.00 per cord for cutting the tree into tie logs, with the exception 
of the better butt logs (used for saw logs), and for peeling and stacking 
the bark. One man can cut and peel from 1 to 2 cords a day, and buck 
up the tree. A gang of 30 men in this operation turned out about goo 
cords ina month. This is equivalent of 30 cords per man per month, or 
slightly more than an average of 1 cord per man per working day. A 
portable mill was then brought in and the ties and butt logs sawed up. 
The haul starts as soon in May as the condition of the roads permit, 
and continues until about the middle of August. A team will haul about 
a cord a load, and one load per day, on which the special contvact price 
was $3.50 per cord for hauling. The wagons are weighed at the railway 
with the load on, and, after the load is removed. Each teamster is 
credited with the number of pounds for each load. The bark is loaded 
into cars containing about 7 to 8 cords each, for which work a charge of 
$3.00 per car is paid. In this particular region it was estimated that it 
required about 4 trees averaging 16 in. in diameter at breast height to 
make a cord of bark. 

The cost on this operation, where a long haul was involved was as follows: 


Operation. Cost per Cord.. 
LAY Ect] 07:5. Sapie eeta Le Cua ape Spsloe-ec MUmERUGED ayo Sera g Mir ae $1.30 
Peeling a5, Tonk oso ee a eee coe sae atie ances an I.00 
SAMUI TOES i eek Se oie ogee aa Wee a be Meee Daa 3.50 
Lopilivig On cars -15)) 45 ees he RT ON au ee .40 
$6.20 


Average prices f.o.b. cars $11.50 per cord. 

Profit $4.70 per cord, which includes overhead charges, depreciation, 
and some equipment. 

The following table shows the yield of chestnut oak bark in cords 
or Jong tons for a tree of average diameter in the southern Appalachian 
Mountains:! 


1 From “ Chestnut Oak in the Southern Appalachians,” by H. D. Foster and W. W. Ashe, 
Forest Service, Circular 135. 


TANNING MATERIALS 73 


AVERAGE YIELD OF CHESTNUT OAK BARK IN CORDS FOR TREES 
OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS 


D. B. H., Yield of || D.B.R.. Wuidoe: +l 2-0. BH. Yield of 
Inches. Bark Cord. | Inches. Bark Cord. || Inches. Bark Cord. 
i 

10 .06 17 -12 | 24 22 

II .06 18 s¥3 | 25 ~24 

12 -O7 19 -15 265: .26 

13 -08 20 -16 27 .28 
-. 14 .09 21 247 28 -30 

15 .10 | 22 -19 29 .32 

16 -II 23 .20 | 30 -34 


CHESTNUT EXTRACT 


The discovery of a method whereby the tannin content of chestnut 
_ wood could be extracted and placed on the market to compete suc- 
cessfully with other tanning materials, has brought about many changes 
in the tanning industry, particularly within the past fifteen or twenty 
years. More than two-thirds of all the tannic acid products made in 
the United States is now derived from chestnut wood. 

The extract of tannin from chestnut wood is largely confined to the 
- southern states, particularly in Virginia and North Carolina. The wood 
in those localities contains from 6 to 11 per cent of tannin, whereas, 
although the chestnut tree is commonly found in the northern states as 
_ well, it does not contain a sufficiently high percentage of tannin to make 
its extraction as profitable as that in the South. -Chestnut extract is 
commonly used in mixture with other tannins. ; 

The growth of the chestnut wood extract business has been very 
rapid. In 1900 only 64,043 bbl. were used, whereas by 1906 the total 
value of this extract was over two-thirds of the value of all extracts used 
in the United States. : 

The process of manufacturing chestnut extract consists of chipping 
the wood ina “ hog.” These machines will grind around 5 cords per hour. 
Some plants use disk chippers similar to those used in a wood pulp 
reduction plant. There are several separate processes used in the 
extraction of tannin from the chestnut wood, but the following is probably 
the most common one employed. The finely ground chips are placed in 
large cylindrical wooden tanks. The tank is flooded then with weak 
liquor heated to a high temperature. The liquor is continually passed 
from extractor to extractor and the process continues from two to four 
days. The process is usually carried on in batteries of 10 extractors. 


74 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The liquor is then filtered and evaporated to the desired density or con- 
centration. Multiple evaporators are used for this purpose and about 
1400 gal. of water are evaporated for every cord of wood leached in open 
extractors. In a plant producing 250 bbl. of extract daily about 225,000 
gal. of water must be evaporated. In the evaporation process the mini- 
mum temperature of the steam is said to be 220° F. The temperature 
in the other steps is still lower. Finally the concentrated liquor is 
pumped into a series of settling tanks. After settling and cooling, the 
concentrated liquor is placed into tank cars for shipment. 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 15.—A large leather tannery at Andrews, North Carolina. Two years’ supply of bark 
piled ready for use on the left. Hemlock bark has been the mainstay for tanning leathers 
until the advent, in recent years, of foreign materials such as quebracho, myrobalan 
nuts, sumach, valonia, mangrove bark, etc. 


The yield of 25 per cent tannin extract secured from a cord of chest- 
nut wood containing 160 cu. ft. is from 700 to goo Ib. The cost of chest- 
nut wood delivered at the plant varies from about $4.50 to $5.00 per 
cord of 160 cu. ft. before the war. The average price secured for extract 
of about 25 per cent strength was about $4.06 per unit of tannin in 1914. 
Consequently, the yield was from $8.00 to $9.50 per cord with a pro- 
ducing charge of about $7.50 to $8.00 per cord, the balance being interest 
and profit. 

The factories making chestnut extract are exceedingly complicated 
and specialized industries and considerable capital for investment is 


TANNING MATERIALS 75 


required. The above figures of production, cost and yield are largely 
taken from Benson.! 


TANBARK OAK 


Tanbark oak (Ouercus densiflora) is a native of southern Oregon, and 
of California, where the harvesting of tanning bark has been an important 
industry for many years. Commercial tanning has been in progress on 
* the Pacific Coast ever since the gold wave of 1849-1850. As early as 
1852 Sonoma County had a tannery producing $30,000 worth of leather 
per year, and by 1859 there were 29 tanneries. In the ten-year period 
1881 to 1890, 240,000 cords were produced in California. Excellent 
prices have been obtained for this bark, which contains an exceedingly 
high tannin content—about 29 per cent. 

The tree ranges from southwestern Oregon along the coast range to 
Santa Barbara in southern California. It is commonly associated in 
its native habitat with the redwoods. 

The Santa Cruz district produces the largest present supply, and the 
source of supply is being rapidly exhausted. It is estimated that in 1900 
about 75 per cent of the total available supply had been cut and peeled 
for the bark. Some second growth is appearing, but it is exceedingly 
slow in‘its development. A great deal of the oak has been cut for the 
bark alone. ' 

The largest remaining available supply is now found in northern 
Mendocino and Humboldt Counties. The relative inaccessibility of 
many of these forests, and the consequent long haul involved has been an 
important deterrent factor in preventing the cutting of a large portion 
of the remaining supply. It is estimated that the total remaining stand 
of tanbark is 1,425,000 cords, which, at the present rate of cutting is 
estimated to last about forty to forty-five years. The average yield is 
about 200 to 300 cords “ per claim ”’ of 160 acres, or from 1} to 23 cords 
peracre. In estimating the yield it is said that six average trees will make 
a cord of bark in the most important producing sections. The peeling 
season is from May 2oth to August roth, but varies with the weather, 
altitude, temperature, etc. This oak is extremely sensitive to heat and 
cold, and a cold spring will delay the opening of the peeling season, and 
cold weather will cause the bark to adhere closely to the tree. About 
one-half a day is required for two men to peel a large tree. The peelers 
never begin on a tree unless they can finish peeling during the day, as the 


1From “ By-Products of the Lumber Industry,” by H. K. Benson, Department of 
Commerce, 1916. 


76 FOREST PRODUCTS 


bark may tighten over night. The peelers work in pairs. The tree is 
first girdled and felled and the bark removed in 4-ft. sections in the 
very same way as has been described for hemlock bark. The bark is 
removed up to a point about 3 in. in thickness on the trunk. As the 
bark is removed, it is laid on the ground or stood against the trunk with 
the fresh side upward. Workmen commonly peel 2 cords a day on the 
average, and trees down to a diameter of 4 to 8 in. are stripped of their 
bark. Sometimes bark from standing trees is removed as far as it can 
be conveniently reached and the rest of the tree is left to die. This 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 16.—A peeling operation on tanbark oak near Sherwood, Mendocino Co., California. 
After the tree is felled and the limbs removed, circular rings are cut through the bark at 
4-ft. intervals and the bark pried off with the axe as illustrated. 


wasteful method has seriously interfered with the future of the industry 
in California. 

Owing to the lack of railway facilities, considerable bark in this region 
is hauled to the coast and loaded on schooners. A schooner load is com- 
monly about 200 cords of bark. 

The future supply of tanbark oak in California must be obtained 
from forests now largely inaccessible and from second growth timber, 
and more conservative methods should be employed in the woods by 


TANNING MATERIALS 77 


protection from fire, by leaving the smaller trees until they have acquired 
a larger size and by more complete utilization of the tree. The cutting 
of this oak commonly goes hand in hand with the lumbering of the red- 
woods. 


WESTERN HEMLOCK 


Although of little present importance as a source of tanning materials, 
the two species of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla and T. mer- 
tensiana) constitute an important resource of tannins. They have been 
little exploited up to the present time because the tanning industry has 
been little developed in the northwest where these trees are found. 
There are very great possibilities, however, for the future because of 
the fact that there are estimated to be 100,000,000,000 bd. ft. of hemlock 
still standing in the forests of western Washington and Oregon. This 
constitutes, therefore, a veritable store house of tanning materials which 
may be used in the future. At the present time the prohibitive cost of 
shipping western hemlock bark to the eastern tanning factories precludes 
its wide use throughout the country. The bark of the western hemlock 
is much thinner than that of the eastern hemlock but contains more 
tannin by weight. The western hemlock contains from 10 to 12 per 
cent against 8 to 10 per cent in case of the eastern species. 

Investigation of hemlock in the northwest indicates that the bark 
of trees in the Cascade Mountains contains a higher percentage of tannin 
than those in the coast region; furthermore, the percentage of tannin 
increases with the increase of elevation and the bark from the trees in 
Washington probably contains a higher tannin content than the same 
trees grown in Oregon. 

The following comparative analysis was made by H. C. Tabor to 
determine the tannic acid content of sample hemlock bark from Wash- 
ington, Pennsylvania and Quebec: 


COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HEMLOCK BARK FROM WASHINGTON, 
PENNSYLVANIA AND QUEBEC 


| Tannin, Non-tannin. Reds. | Woed Fibers, 
| Per Cent. Per Cent. | PerCent. | Per Cent. 
' ; 
i | 
OE eee i near 17.04 | 6.40 1.56 75.00 
Pennsylvania... ............-.. 13.28 7.52 eames BY.’ 75-72 
WIMEING Ste has oS since duiet « 10.16 4-56 | 1.92 83.36 


The peeling season for western hemlock is much earlier than for eastern - 
hemlock and the bark is often harvested as early as February. However, 


78 FOREST PRODUCTS 


the season usually runs from May to August of each year. The process 
follows along the same general plan of that described for eastern hemlock. 
There are several difficulties, however, in harvesting western hemlock 
bark which do not occur in the eastern states. The timber, being of 
much larger size, presents difficulties in getting out the bark, and loggers 
who operate largely with steam logging devices do. not care to bother 
with bark as a by-product. Owing to the very rainy climate, the bark 
seasons out with some difficulty. It is handled, treated, and used in the 
same way as the eastern hemlock. | 

There are no accurate statistics of the present annual production of 
western hemlock bark, but it has been estimated that it supplies about 
two-thirds of the present annual requirements of the tanneries in the 
northwest. With the further development of that rapidly growing sec- 
tion, and the installation of more and larger tanneries, it is believed 
western hemlock will assume greater importance as a source of tanning 
materials. 


BLACK OAK BARK AND OTHER DOMESTIC MATERIALS 


Black oak (Quercus velutina) or yellow oak has recently come into 
some prominence as a source of tanning materials, especially by the manu- 
facture of a certain extract which is-called “ Quercitron.” Its center of 
production is in Pennsylvania and the southern Appalachians. These 
trees yield a fairly thick bark, and have a tannin content of from 6 to 
12 per cent. It is produced in the same manner as has been described 
for the bark of the chestnut oak. Its principal drawback is that it 
mildews rather easily and care must be exercised, therefore, in the drying 
process and in stacking in the woods. Leather made from it has a violent 
yellow color. The price ranges somewhat below that for chestnut oak. 
In West Virginia in 1910 it brought the high figure of $10.30 per cord 
f.o.b. cars. Since then its price has risen still higher on account of the 
demand for tanning materials during the war. There are no figures 
available as to the total output, but it is relatively small as compared to 
other barks. . 

Other barks and materials produced in the United States are as follows: 

White oak bark is used to a limited extent in the eastern and south- 
eastern states. Its tannin content is from 4 to 7 per cent. The bark is 
rather thin, however; and it is not believed that its use will increase 
very much in the future. 

Sumach leaves, when dry contain a large percentage of tannin; from 
ro to 25 per cent. There are two tannin producing varieties of native 


TANNING MATERIALS 79 


sumach, namely, Rhus typhina and Rhus glabra. The principal source 
of these species is in Virginia and the southeastern states. Both grow 
farther north, but the tannin content.of the sumach from the north is so 
much lower that it is not commercially profitable to harvest it. In the 
south the leaves are collected in the fall just before they turn red as the 
tannin content is dissipated from the leaves as they turn color in the fall. 
The leaves are then dried and ground into a powder in which form they 
are shipped to the tannery. The price on native sumach varies from 
$.90 to $1.40 per hundred pounds in carload lots at the shipping point. 

Palmetto extract is secured from the root of the cabbage palmetto 
(Sabal palmetto). These roots contain about 10 per cent of tannin. 
It has not been developed to any large extent commercially, but it has 
possibilities for the future. Large quantities of palmetto are found 
along the shores of the southeastern states. 

Canaigre is the common name of the species of Rumex which con- 
tains around 30 per cent of tannin. It occurs extensively in the south- 
west, but the cost of producing and hauling it to market is so excessive 
that it can not enter into competition with the other native grown or 
imported tanning materials. 


QUEBRACHO 


There are several trees which go by the name “ Quebracho ” but the 
real quebracho (Quebrachia lorentzii) is now regarded as the most impor- 
tant source of tanning materials in the world, and, according to the figures 
_ of importation for the year ending June 3oth, 1914, furnished 87 per cent 
of the total value of tanning agents brought to this country, amounting 
in all to $3,864,000. In 1909 it supplied 38 per cent of all the tanning 
extract used in the United States. 

The native habitat of quebracho is along the water courses and plains 
of Central South America, embracing Southern Brazil, Southeastern 
Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and northern Argentina. It is included 
within a district of about 300,000 square miles. Its present commercial 
exploitation is limited to northern Argentina und the province of Chaco 
in Paraguay where the work is carried on largely by German-Argentine 
companies and one American firm. The quebracho industry dates from 
about the year 1888 when exports were first made from Argentine on 
a large scale. The first wood came to this country in 1897. 

The name is derived from the Portuguese meaning “ axe breaker.” 
The wood is one of the hardest and heaviest known, the specific gravity 
being about 1.30 to 1.40. A cubic foot of wood weighs from 75 to 78 Ib. 


80 FOREST PRODUCTS 


It is extensively used for railway cross ties in Argentine where it is said 
to resist decay for over fifty years. The tree is generally small and poorly 
shaped; the quebracho forests resembling the live-oak stands of the 
southeast and southern California. Individual trees are generally only 
from 15 to 30 in. in diameter and 20 to 40 ft. in total height. Its center 
of production is now in rather remote districts along the Parana River, 
where the forests are very scattered and open. When seasoned, the wood 
is cut and converted into logs for shipment with great difficulty on account 
of its exceeding hardness. 

The tannin is found chiefly in the heartwood, although the sapwood 
and the bark as well contain small percentages of it. Excepting chestnut, 
it is the only wood which has been developed and used on a large scale 
for this purpose, all the other materials consisting of bark, leaves, or other 
parts of the tree. 

A number of analyses of the percentage of tannin contained i In que- | 
bracho wood give the following results:! 


QUEBRACHO TANNIN CONTENTS 


Portion of Tree. Percentage of Tannin. 
ACBVUWOOE so5 ce os Re de Re are 20.24 
SAP WOO oot mitvs cheek acim richer an as 3-4 
BAEK Si i cies ate odin Sea se eo Wee a NY 6.84 


The wood is generally accredited with 20 to 28 per cent of tannin. 
One analysis of the wood gave the following results:! 


Material. Per Cent of Total. 
Tanna.’ see, oko Pea ee oe 28.20 
Foreign substances 3.5.2 bir chie exp pce 1.70 
Extract-AShin ss cota fu es eee oe itine .40 
Watemis. cocci sco ke cm cain apa Mite 11.85 
Insoluble matter. .-5. fe iw Tee ke we 57.85 
LOtaleccic sacs Sine scones ian oe Rie 100.00 


The first of the above tables indicates that the tannin content of the 
sapwood and bark is so Jow, and the weight of the wood so great, that it 
is only profitable to transport the heartwood long distances to market. 


1 From “ Tanning Materials of Latin America,” by T. H. Norton, Department of Com- 
merce, 1918. 


TANNING MATERIALS 81 


Consequently, the bark and sap are removed from logs in the forest. 
Furthermore, the great weight of the heartwood causes a large portion 
of the product to be shipped to Europe and this country in the form of 
extract, rather than in the log. 

The trees after felling and the removal of bark, branches and sapwood 
are bucked into logs of from 4 to 16 ft. in length or more and then hauled 
by oxen to the nearest railway. They are transported in some cases, 
several hundred miles to Buenos Aires and Montevideo, the great que- 
bracho wood markets. Some companies have a monthly output of 
from 500 to 1000 tons of wood. There are five factories for the con- 
version of the wood into extract on the upper Paraguay River. Some 
companies which cut quebracho for cross ties, selling at $1.50 to $2.50 
apiece, have found that there is more profit in getting out wood for extract 
or for direct export than for the local railways. The industry has devel- 
oped so widely that the quebracho forest region has contributed an 
important source of income to Argentine and Paraguay. 

In the process of extraction, the wood is reduced to small chips or 
shavings and then placed into closed copper extractors with a capacity 
of about 530 cu. ft. each. Steam is admitted and the leaching process 
is consummated rapidly. Consequently very concentrated liquors are 
secured. These are cooled and clarified in the dark to prevent oxidation. 
The extract is then evaporated in vacuum pans to a rather thick con- 
sistency until only 20 to 25 per cent of water remains. This extract on 
cooling, becomes solid. Analysis of quebracho extract shows about 65 
per cent of soluble tannin content, 8 per cent insoluble tannin and 7 
per cent of non-tannins. 

The industry has assumed large proportions in the Argentine and the 
war has greatly stimulated prices. Since the year 1900, the value of the 
exports of logs has increased over roo per cent up to 1913 and the 
value of extract over 800 per cent. 

In the year 1913 the Argentine statistics show that the total export 
of logs and extract was 463,648 metric tons. The principal countries 
which received this material were as follows: 


Countries. Metric Tons. 
ALO RINPOONIT Sook cicsu vceaee so 83,035 
MITEL SEMEOS os net Sic tke ak aale so 37;835 
BEANS arcs ec e so See OU ea eee Sete 30,144 
TO ce ae ee, Somat ee sr eRe 27,212 
NEMMES  Pok i OK, crea oe See eR eaats 8,605 


82 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The following table shows the imports of quebracho wood and extract 
into the United States for the ten-year period 1907 to 1917. It shows 
the effect of the lack of tonnage due to the war on the imports. 


IMPORTS OF QUEBRACHO WOOD AND EXTRACT INTO THE UNITED STATES 
1907 TO 1917 


QUEBRACHO Woop. QUEBRACHO EXTRACT. 
Fiscal Year. 
Tons, Long. Value. Pounds. Value. 
FOOT ods ewe Bae 66,810 $840,770 76,034,000 $2,320,000 
TOO As cuatnan eee 40,871 612,971 79,187,000 2,260,000 
TOOOL coat oetee 66,113 731,795 102,005,000 _ 2,741,000 
TOROS owe eee 80,210 1,058,647 87,531,000 2,796,000 
TOLIRS Vil deeawes 66,617 984,841 85,721,000 2,894,000 
: Cat bees ahead rine 68,174 982,315 67,281,000 2,223,000 
TOUI + 6): oro OE 102,766 1,299,905 74,545,000 1,903,000 
TOTAP es ee - 73,911 899,603 88,589,000 2,441,000 
IQT§ cess eens 54,995 753,981 120,450,283 3,676,749 
TOLGs co wiceye 106,864 1,598,465 81,501,952 5,432,468 
EOL]. - S40 eee 73,307 1,274,600 59,808,734 5,198,904 


There is no import duty on quebracho logs coming to this country but 
prior to October 3, 1913, there was a small duty imposed on the extract. 

In 1912 the price of logs at South American ports was from $14 to $20 
per long ton and for extract $80 to $85 per long ton. In 1915 the 
price of the extract had risen to $115 per long ton. 


MANGROVE BARK 


Mangrove bark has come into great prominence in the tanning 
industry of this country. In the year 1915, 20,041 lb. were imported at a 
value of $565,805, which represented a greater value than that of any 
other imported tanning material except quebracho. The Census of 
1909 gives a consumption of $1,401,008 Ib. of mangrove bark. Within 
the past decade it is represented as increasing very materially. 

Mangrove bark. formerly came principally from Portuguese East 
Africa, Madagascar, and the East Indies. Within recent years, however, 
large quantities have come from Venezuela. and Colombia. 

Most of the mangrove bark consists of the so-called red mangrove, 
Rhizophora mangle, Linn. This tree covers great areas of tidal swamp 
throughout the tropical regions of both the eastern and western hemis- 
pheres. Other varieties of rhizophora named black mangrove, of 
Avicennia nitida and white mangrove Avicennia tomentosa also pro- 


es 


TANNING MATERIALS 83 


duce bark of commercial importance in the tanning industry. Through- 
out the tropical regions, coasts, and river swamps of South America and 
Central America, the mangrove occurs in great abundance. All of 
the above three species of mangrove are also found in the swamps of 
southern Florida, but have not been developed on account of the excessive 
cost of cutting, transporting and delivering the product to market. The 
industry is being exploited especially in Colombia and Brazil, and to a 


_ lesser extent in the Guianas, Venezuela, and Trinidad. 


The yield varies considerably with the various regions. Altogether 
this variation is said to be from 5 to 45 per cent. The older the tree, 
however, the greater is said to be the tannin content. The mangrove 
cut and placed on the market in large commercial quantities usually 
produces a yield of tannin of from 22 to 33 percent. The leaves of the 
mangrove also contain merchantable quantities of tannin and are fre- 
quently used in the tanneries of southern Brazil, particularly in Santos 
and Cartagena. 

The bark is exceedingly hard and heavy. When used locally the bark 
is employed directly by the tannery, and not used for extraction pur- 
poses. The methods for the extraction of tannin from mangrove bark 
have not been perfected to the same extent as for quebracho. Up to 
the present time, the process of extraction is somewhat similar to that 
employed for quebracho, but it is more difficult, and it is likely that the 
process will be still further developed in the future. It is said that 
extract from the mangrove forests of Africa contains from 60 to 70 per 
cent of tannin, whereas that produced in the Colombian factories con- 
tains about 48 to 50 per cent of tannin. 

The use of mangrove bark began in Europe in 1804, and it has only 
recently begun to enter this country on a large scale. It is generally 
regarded by the tanneries as one of the cheapest forms of tannin and this 
accounts largely for its general acceptance and its increasing use. Man- 
grove tannin is seldom used alone as it has the reputation of imparting 
an undesirable color to leather. In France, a mixture of one-third man- 
grove bark, about two-fifths hemlock, and the remainder of oak or mimosa 
bark, is commonly used. 

Owing to the various resources of mangrove forests found along the 
tidal shores of the tropics in nearly all parts of the world, this material 
constitutes a great asset for the future of the tanning industry. Its 
habit of growth renders it somewhat difficult to cut and transport to 
market, but improved methods are being constantly devised whereby it 
can be successfully produced. No estimates have been made of the 


8-4 FOREST PRODUCTS 


quantities available, but they are believed to be very extensive; cer- 
tainly sufficient to last several hundred years at the present rate of con- 
sumption. Mangrove is said to constitute the greatest single source of 
tannin supplies for the future requirements of the world. 


MYROBALAN ! NUTS 


‘“‘Myrobalans ”’ is the trade name applied to several species of Indian 
trees of the Terminalia genus. The most common and the one which 
constitutes the great source of this supply is the Terminalia chebula, 
which is a tree usually from 4o to 60 ft. in total height, which is culti- 
vated in various districts of India, both for the timber as well as for the 
value of the nuts. The latter are harvested by the natives, placed in 
storage houses where the fruit shrivels up into irregular and wrinkled 
forms. The nuts in good condition should be hard and firm and should 
be completely free from moisture as their absorptive properties are very 
great. The tannin content of these nuts varies from 30 to 4o per cent, 
and is found chiefly in the outer layer. 

India exported 73,355 tons in 1910. In the year 1909 this country 
used 18,000 tons, valued at $30.00 a ton, and 1,000,000 lb. of myrobalan 
extract, valued at $37,500. In 1915, 18,417,434 lb. of myrobalan nuts, 
valued at $198,000 were imported. 

Used alone, myrobalans yield a light yellow tannin. The tannin 
penetrates the skins rapidly and produces a spongy leather so that the 
best effect is secured when blended with quebracho or hemlock bark. 
Mixed with these materials, myrobalans add weight, substance, and 
firmness as well as a fast color to the leather. It is used especially by 
tanners of calf, goat, and sheep skins. It can be used with harness and 
sole leather as well. 


DIVI-DIVI 


Divi-divi is the trade name applied to the seed pods of a small tree 
indigenous in the West Indies, Mexico, Venezuela and northern Brazil. 
Its scientific name is Cesalpinia coriaria. 

The pods are about 3 in. long and ¢ in. broad and very thin. On 
drying, they curl up. They contain from 40 to 45 per cent of tannin. 
They are commonly exported in their natural state in bags containing 
about 110 lb. of pods. 

It is a very cheap form of tannin, and its use is not very extensive 
in this country. In 1918 this country imported 15,739,331 Ib. valued 

1 This is also spelled myrobolan. 


TANNING MATERIALS 


at $274,891. Aclosely allied species from Chile called algarobilla (Ce@sal- 
pinia brevifolia) is very rich in tannin. In 1915 the port of Curacao, 
West Indies, shipped 500 tons of divi-divi to the United States. 

Divi-divi is shipped principally from the ports of Caracas and Mara- 
caibo and brought about 1.6 cents per pound at these ports in 1914. 

Divi-divi has been used for over one hundred years but chiefly by the 
Germans. In use it is usually blended with certain tanbarks or other 
extracts. It readily adapts itself to separation into the extract form. 


IMPORTED SUMACH 


Sicilian sumach (Rhus coriaria), as it is known in tanning circles, 
contains from 20 to 35 per cent of tannin and is regarded as a valuable 
tanning agent in this country, where the importation has increased 
within recent years up to 1916. 

It grows chiefly in Sicily and southern Italy, where it is extensively 
cultivated although it is found in other sections of the Mediterranean 
basin as well. In the year 1916 this country imported 17,454,996 lb. 
valued at $472,590. Owing to the war, its importation decreased during 
1917 and 1918. 

Sumach tannin is used principally for tanning fine leathers such as 
glove and book leathers and, as a mordant, to fix the basic aniline dyes. 


VALONIA 


Valonia is the usual commerical name given to the acorn of the 
Turkish oak (Quercus egilops), which grows chiefly in Asia Minor and 
to a less extent in the Grecian Archipelago. It is sometimes called, 
according to its origin, Smyrna valonia and Greek valonia. 

In 1915, this country imported 6,352,190 lb. of valonia valued at 
$88,061 and only 244,000 lb. in 1909. 

These acorn cups may contain up to 45 per cent tannin. The tannin 
is readily derived in the form of an extract. It is seldom used alone as 
it has an injurious effect on the leather, but excellent results are obtained 
when used with other tanning materials. It is in great demand in normal 
times in Austria and Russia for the tanning of fine leathers in those 
countries. 


OTHER FOREIGN TANNING MATERIALS 


Gambier is used for both tanning and dyeing purposes. It comes to 
this country from Singapore and in 1914, 16,450,000 Ib. costing $625,000 


86 FOREST PRODUCTS 


were consumed for both these purposes. Gambier usually contains from 
35 to 40 percent of pyrogallic tannin and comes from two species, namely 
Uncaria gambier and U. acida. It produces a brown tannin which is 
generally used in connection with other tanning agents. 

Kino is an astringent gum used in tanning and dyeing and for medi- 
cines. It is derived from African or Gambia kino, which may yield up 
to 75 per cent of tannin. Its imports to this country are not reported 
separately in the customs statistics. The name is also applied to a num- 
ber of tropical and sub-tropical plants. 

Wattle or mimosa is the trade name applied to several acacias of 
Australia, South Africa and Tasmania. The black wattle is the Acacia 
natalitia and it is also found in commercial quantities in the Acacia 
pycnantha. Both barks are very rich in tannin. 

Cutch (Acacia catechu) is imported in large quantities, but is used 
chiefly for dyeing purposes. It is occasionally used for tanning leathers 
in connection with the dyeing operation. 

There are many other vegetable products among the barks, leaves, 
twigs, roots, wood, fruit, etc., which are used occasionally as tanning 
agents, but none has assumed any commercial importance as yet in 
this country. Among them may be mentioned Mexican sumach, cas- 
calote, several oaks (bark), etc., which have varying percentages of 
tannin. 


IMPORTS 


The following table shows the amount and value of the imports of 
tanning materials to the United States for the years 1914-1918, inclusive: 
QUANTITY AND VALUE OF CRUDE TANNING MATERIALS AND TANNING 


EXTRACTS IMPORTED TO THE UNITED STATES FOR 3914 TO 1918, IN- 
CLUSIVE 


QUANTITY 
IQI4. IQI5. 1916. 1917. 1918. 

Tanning materials, crude: 

Quebracho wood, tons.. 73,956 54,955 106,864 73,307 45,440 

Mangrove bark, tons... * 7,689 8,096 21,186 10,565 3529 

Sumach, pounds....... 10,770,400 | 13,165,182 | 21,542,390 | 11,637,023 | 14,046,662 

Gambier, pounds...... 14,930,129 | 14,169,490 | 12,819,859 | 10,133,025 8,964,832 
Tanning extracts: 

Quebracho, pounds... .| 93,329,087 |120,450,283 | 81,501,952 | 50,808,734 |101,523,282 

PU GENCE: tiaras cave als 6,028,383 | 6,191,232 5,471,251 2,500,854 4,573)925 


TANNING MATERIALS 87 


VALUE 


Igt4. IgI5. 1916. Igt7. 1918. 


Tanning materials, crude: 
Quebracho wood, tons..| $900,880"} $753,981. | $1,598,465 | $1,274,660 $718,567 


Mangrove bark, tons.. . 196,891 218,952 582,922 299,807 72,956 
Sumach, pounds....... 258,736 323,448 555,276 365,173 467,663 
Gambier, pounds...... 571,067 542,200 928,924 859,873 0553352 
All others. ........... 468,230 370,133 668,166 792,064 496,070 
Tanning extracts: 5 
Quebracho, pounds....| 2,543,302 | 3,676,749 | 5,432,468 | 5,198,904 | 4,917,212 
All others, pounds... .. 198,073 202,675 382,880 152,619 219,993 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BALpERSTON, L. The Extraction of Valonia. Leather Manufacturer. Boston: 
1915. Vol. 26, p. 290. 


Bennett, H.G. The Analysis of Tanning Materials. 


BrackeEy, J. R. The Extraction of Tanning Materials. Leather Manufacturer. 
Vol. 22, p. 47. — 


Census Bureau, Washington. Tanbark and Tanning Extract. Forest Products. 
No. 4. 


Development of the Tanning Industry in the United States. Leather Manufacturer. 
Boston, 1914. Vol. 25, pp. 297, 377. 


Gannon, Frep. A. The Development of the Tanning Industry. Leather Manu- 
facturer. Vol. 22, pp. 22, 213, 253, 301, 341, 381, 421, 475. 


Jepson, W. L. and others. California Tanbark Oak. U.S. Forest Service. Bull. 
75, 191. 


Journal, American Leather Chemists’ Association. Easton Pa. Wattle Bark as a 
Tanning Agent. Vol. 11, p. 535. : 


Kerr, Georce A. The Principles of Tanning Extract Manufacture. Leather Manu- 
facturer. Vol. 24, pp. 197 and 235. 


Mett,C.D. Tanbark Oak, Leather Manufacturer. Vol. 22, pp. 373, 374- 


Miscellaneous Articles in Journal of American Leather Chemists’ Association, Easton, 
Pa. 


Miscellaneous Articles in Leather Manufacturer, Boston. 

Miscellaneous Articles in Journal, Society of Chemical Industry, London. 
Miscellaneous Articles in Chemical Engineer, Chicago. 

Miscellaneous Articles in The Leather World, London. 


88 FOREST PRODUCTS 


NIERENSTEIN, M. Chemie der Gerbstoffe. Stuttgart: F. Enke, rozo. 


Norton, T. H. Tanning Materials of Latin America. Bureau of Foreign and 
Domestic Commerce, Washington. Special Agents Series, No. 165, 1918. 


Proceedings, American Leather Chemists’ Association. 
Proceedings, Tanners’ Council of the United States. New York. 


ProcTeR, HENRY RICHARDSON. Leather Industries Laboratory Book of Ana- 
lytical and Experimental Methods. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
London: E. & F. N. Spon, Limited; New York: Spon & Chamberlain, 1908. 


Procter, HENRY RICHARDSON. ‘The Principles of Leather Manufacture. Lon- 
don: E. & F.N. Spon, Limited; New York: Spon & Chamberlain, 1903. 


Recorp, S. J. Our Present and Future Sources of Vegetable Tannins. Scientific 
American. New York, 1916. Vol. 114, pp. 580-581. 


CHAPTER IV 


VENEERS 


GENERAL 


VENEERS are thin slices or sheets of wood. They were at first only 
made from beautifully grained and handsomely figured woods which, 
owing to their extreme cost, wereseldom used in the form of solid boards. 

The veneer industry has increased in importance in great strides 
within the past quarter of a century. It is generally considered a phase 
of 19th-century industrialism, but historically veneers were used even 
in early Roman times. Pliny, the younger, records how the Romans 
went to Greece to buy great tables with veneered tops in the manufacture 
of which the Grecians had attained great proficiency. It is said that the 
wealthy Romans paid very high prices for these tables faced with veneer 
of rare Eastern and tropical woods. Pliny does not record how .these 
veneers were made or what species were used and the industry was 
practically a lost art until the early part of the last century. 

The principal reason why veneers have not come into more common 
use until the last twenty to thirty years is the great wealth and com- 
parative cheapness of native species, including an excellent selection of 
cabinet woods. With the gradual depletion of our timber supply, espe- 
cially of the more valuable woods, it is a natural consequence that 
much of our high-grade furniture, interior finish, doors, etc., should be 
made with the veneer face, and the centers or cores composed of mediocre 
woods or low-grade stock. This situation, of course, contributes to the 
more efficient utilization of our timber supplies, since the best woods or 
best quality of our more valuable woods can be reserved for the exterior 
faces and the interiors made up of the cheaper woods and lower grades. 

Until comparatively recent years veneers found their principal 
use for fine furniture and cabinet work. Within the past decade the 
demands for veneers have increased remarkably and most of our veneers 
are not used now for strictly veneer purposes in the original sense, but are 
utilized for a great variety of comparatively new uses, such, for example, 

89 


wy 


90 FOREST PRODUCTS 


as built-up stock, berry and fruit baskets, cheese boxes, crates and pack- 
ing boxes, drawer bottoms, trunk stock, mirror backing, panels, etc. 

The veneer industry has consequently come into a position as parent 
organization to a large number of subsidiary wood-working and using 
industries which are dependent upon it for the source of their working 
material. 


Methods of Making Veneers. 


The modern use of fine-faced. veneers in cabinet work is said to have 
been started by Sir Ishambard Brunel at the Chatham Dock Yards, 
England, in r799. Here was also the first steam sawmill used in England. 
A shop was equipped in 1805 in Battersea, England, and veneers were 
made from mahogany and rosewood. It is said that the first circular 
veneer saw was invented in 1805 which cut veneers as thin as ;; of an inch. 
Soon after veneers were also made by slicing, which is the forerunner of 
the present: methods of cutting and slicing veneers. It was not until 
1896 that’ the rotary method of cutting veneers‘came into commercial 
importance. © | brah: > 

At the present time the following methods are used in making veneers: 

1. The rotary cut process, which consists of turning a log on a heavy 
lathe against astationary knife, is the method by which about 90 per cent 
of all*of our veneers are made: Continuous sheets of veneer are cut off 
down to a 6- to’ ro-in. core. Generally speaking, our lowest priced 
veneers are made by this process as it is a very cheap method of manu- 
- facture. Since it is a rotary process, cutting with the rings of annual 
growth, it does not bring out the quarter grain or figure of the wood as 
well as the other processes by which cuts can be made along the medullary 
rays. Most of the native black walnut and Circassian walnut veneers 
are made by the rotary method. Walnut stumps and burls are also cut 
by this method in connection with a stay log. More waste is occasioned 
by this process than the others, due to the core left after cutting and the 
large amount of waste in clipping and trimming. 

2. The slicing process, which consists of rapidly moving a flitch of 
wood vertically downward against a cutting knife, isthe method by which 
much of our quarter-cut oak veneers are made. Mahogany, Spanish 
cedar, rosewood and other foreign woods showing a pleasing figure on the 
quarter grain are commonly sliced by this method. This method is 
least wasteful of the raw material of the three processes. 

3. Sawed veneers are considered most: valuable because this process 
tears the wood fiber less than the other processes and they can be worked 


VENEERS 91 


up and finished to better advantage. Our most valuable mahogany and 
other foreign woods, especially those presenting a fine figure when cut on 
the quarter, are sawed. The method consists of moving a flitch of wood 
on a Carriage against a circular saw which cuts a kerf of about 25 of an 
inch. It is Capcity a very wasteful process. Most of our sawed 
veneers are about z'5 of an inch in thickness. 

Details of the sickest of veneers by each of these processes are 
taken up later. 


east Y 


From Coe Manufaciuring Compeny. 


Fic. 17.—Rotary veneer machine in operation. A continuous sheet is cut off by revolving 
the log against a sharp stationary knife. 


Qualifications Desired in Veneer Woods. 


The veneers desired for facing table tops, fine furniture, cabinet work 
and similar uses demand a pleasing grain and figure. Other than this, 
however, the qualifications desired in veneer woods are not so particular. 
They may be summed up as follows: 

1. Veneer woods should be reasonably low in price because the ulti- 
mate products for which veneers are largely used, such as berry and fruit 
baskets, crating, cooperage, novelties, packing boxes, cheese boxes, etc., 
bring a comparatively low price on the market. 

2. The woods must be available and readily accessible. There must 
be sufficient quantities to make a uniform product. 


92 FOREST PRODUCTS 


3. The particular species should grow to a comparatively large size 
and must be symmetrical in shape. 

4. The species in common demand must be reasonably free from 
defects such as various forms of checks, shake, frost cracks, rot, pitch 
streaks, “‘ cat faces,’’ etc. 

5. The grain and fiber of the woods should be of such a nature that it 
readily adapts itself to manufacture. This, however, is of compara- 
tively little importance as practically any wood can be made into veneers. 
Some, however, lend themselves to certain processes of manufacture 
better than others. ; 


Woods Used. 


Although red gum is pre-eminently the most important wood used for 
veneer, nearly all of the commercially important species used for lumber 
and other forest products in this country are used to some extent for this 
purpose. Altogether 37 separate native species and 13 foreign woods | 
were mantfactured into veneers according to the figures of the Census 
Bureau for 1911, which are the latest available statistics. 

With the advent of the heavy demand for veneers about 1900, red 
gum took its place as the leading veneer wood and for the past decade it 
has furnished about one-third of all the veneers cut in the country by all 
processes. It is now used for some of the most expensive veneers as well 
as the most ordinary lines of usage. When cut on the quarter grain it 
offers a most pleasing figure and grain, and it has entered very prominently 
into the market for high-grade cabinet and finishing veneers. 

Over 136,000,000 bd. ft. of red gum logs are used every year for 
veneers. Owing to the extensive available stands of red gum in the 
lower Mississippi Valley, its low-priced stumpage, the tall, large sym- 
metrical stem which is ordinarily free from defects, and its compara- 
tively soft, even and attractive grain, it meets very satisfactorily the 
requirements for a desirable veneer wood. It is likely that it will hold 
its commanding position for a long time to come. Red gum is largely 
produced in Arkansas. Missouri and the other states in the lower Mis- 
sissippi Valley also contribute to its production. Veneer logs of this 
species bring from $9.00 to $14.00 delivered at the mill, per thousand 
board feet. 

White oak is next in importance as a veneer wood, and it comprised 
9 per cent of the total amount of veneer produced in 1911, when over 
41,000,000 bd. ft. of white oak were used for this purpose. Probably 
75 to 80 per cent of all sawed veneers and nearly this percentage of sliced 


VENEERS 93 


veneers are of quartered oak. It is estimated that approximately two- 
thirds of all white-oak veneers are manufactured either by the slicing or 
sawing process. Quartered white oak has, for a long time, been a stand- 
ard veneer, especially for table tops and general cabinet and furniture 
purposes. It is chiefly manufactured in Indiana. Logs of this species 
bring from $25.00 to $50.00 delivered at the mill, per thousand board 
feet. 

Yellow pine veneers are next in order of importance. Over 35,000,000 
bd. ft. were used in 1g11r for the inexpensive lines of usage. They 
make excellent berry, fruit and vegetable baskets and packages and they 
are also used for slack cooperage, crates and boxes and core material. Its 
use for door and interior finish panels is on the rapid increase. When 
stained it presents a most attractive finish. Yellow pine is cut almost 
entirely by the rotary process in the South, where logs bring from $8.00 
to $12.00 or more per thousand board feet, delivered at the mill. 

Hard maple is the most important wood used for veneer in the 

Northern States, where it isused for both theinexpensive lines of usage as 
well as for the finest of finishing purposes. The well-known bird’s-eye 
» and curly maple have always held a position of high esteem in the trade. 
Maple veneers are chiefly made by the rotary process in Michigan, Wis- 
consin and New York, where log prices range from $16.00 to $23.00 per 
thousand board feet, at the mill. 

Cottonwood makes an excellent veneer because of its soft, light and 
even-textured wood, which brings it into special demand for many pur- 
- poses. It cuts very smoothly and evenly on the rotary lathes and along 
with basswood is one of the few woods which do not require any pre- 
liminary steaming or boiling to soften the fiber before cutting. Prac- 
tically all cottonwood veneer is made by the rotary process in the lower 
Mississippi Valley states. Owing to its limited amount in the remaining 
forests its importance as a veneer wood in the future is not bright. Pres- 
ent prices of $13.00 to $20.00 per thousand board feet obtain at the mill 
for cottonwood logs. 

Yellow poplar is one of the most desirable veneer woods available on 
account of its soft, even fiber, pleasing grain, freedom from defects and 
large symmetrical sizes. However, its wider use is precluded by its com- 
parative scarcity and high price on the market. It yields a very high 
grade of crossbanding or core stock and it is commonly used for this 
purpose in high-grade panel, finish and cabinet work. In fact, yellow 
poplar and chestnut are our two most highly regarded core woods. » Pop- 
lar veneers are principally made in Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina 


94 FOREST PRODUCTS 


and West Virginia. Log prices vary from $18.00 to $30.00 per thousand 
board feet or more at the veneer mill. 

Basswood is in strong demand for door and panel purposes, but it is 
very limited in its available supply. Birch is commonly used in the North 
for all kinds of veneers. Curly birch brings excellent prices. Elm is cut 
almost entirely for cheese boxes and for hoops and crates. Chestnut, 
especially the ‘‘ sound wormy ” variety, is widely used in built-up stock. 

Other woods frequently used for veneers are Douglas fir, which is 
coming into well-merited prominence, together with western yellow pine, 
on the Pacific coast. ‘Tupelo, beech, ash, red oak, cypress, sycamore, 
white pine, spruce and many others are also used. 

Mahogany, Circassian walnut, Spanish cedar, the native black 
walnut and cherry and a few other valuable foreign woods such as rose- 
wood, satinwood, English and Japanese oak, vermilion, padouk, etc., 
are usually made by the slicing or sawing process. Altogether they 
do not comprise more than 18,000,000 to 20,000,000 bd. ft. annually. 
Much of the black walnut and some of the mahogany is cut by the 
rotary process. More walnut is used for veneers than for any other 
purpose. About 5,000,000 ft. each of mahogany, black walnut and 
Spanish cedar logs are annually made into veneers. Mahogany logs are 
worth from $120 to $160, black walnut from $75 to $150 and Spanish 
cedar from $100 to $135 per thousand board feet in the log, delivered at 
the mills. 


Annual Production and Values. 


As mentioned above, over 500,000,000 bd. ft. of forest material, 
in the form of logs and flitches, are annually manufactured into veneer 
in the United States. It is estimated that there are over 1000 firms now 
engaged in the industry scattered over 35 states. In 1905 only 181,- 
000,000 bd. ft. of logs were manufactured into veneers, and yet there 
is a general feeling in the industry that the demands for the output of the 
mills in their present capacity are far from stabilized. It is likely that 
Over 1,000,000,000 ft. of logs will be annually consumed for veneers in 
this country within a few years. 

Veneers may be cut in any thickness from s¢o up to 4 an inch or 
more. For commercial purposes, thicknesses of less than str of an 
inch or more than ¢ in. are seldom cut. Spanish cedar for cigar boxes 
are the thinnest veneers found on the market. 

Rotary cut veneers are commonly cut from 7 to § in. in thickness, but 
those from zy to sz in. constitute the largest amount. Sawed veneers 


VENEERS 95 


are usually cut 25 of an inch in thickness. Sliced veneers are often cut 
from #5 to zo of an inch. 

The relation between the contents of a log in board feet and the 
square feet of veneers produced depends obviously on the method of 
cutting, the thickness of the veneer, the soundness of the log and the care 
in clipping and drying the product. These factors vary with almost 
every mill, so it is exceedingly difficult to standardize the amount of 
veneers of a given thickness to be expected from a thousand board feet 
log scale by a given process. 

In a rotary veneer mill in Michigan where 16-ft. logs ran about twelve 
to the thousand by the Doyle rule and a 6- to 7-in. core was ordinarily 
left, 1000 bd. ft. of No. 1 logs yielded about 10,000 sq. ft. of xs in. 
stock, or about 13,000 sq. ft. of 2'5-in. stock, on an average. 

Veneers are sold by the square foot, surface measurement, the price 
varying with the species, the thickness of veneer, the character of the 
grain (curly, bird’s-eye, quartered, crotch, etc.) and method of cutting, 
drying, etc. The following list was obtained at a large mill dealing in 
some of the better grades of veneers. The prices are given, wholesale, 
delivered in New York State for the year 1917. Prices have ad- 
vanced very materially since the fall of 1918. 


Wood. a erg Thickness. sauare Poot 

Plain mahogany........... Ae pe re Sawed 1/16 3-33 
Striped or fancy mahogany............. Sawed 1/28 6-8 
REET MODI ors nica ce yes cain ve co Se Sawed 1/28 8-12 
MENIERESISTOWOINUU. = 0's 5 2 cece newest ee Sawed 1/28 6-10 
TAC ST SI Pale ee aan ga a eee Rotary cut 1/20 13-2 
Quartered red gum. ................ ...| Sliced 1/28 3-4 
MARGU SWAIN res "a 2 CR goats «ida 2 8 wos Rotary cut 1/20 23-5 
Red birch....... Dee he tee ae Rotary cut 1/20 1-1} 
Reanpnte ORK bess seed ke. ek. Rotary cut 1/20 13 
Quartered white oak................... Sliced 1/20 2 
Quartered white oak.................-- Sawed 1/20 2} 


ROTARY CUT VENEERS 


Rotary veneer mills are located with reference to a continuous supply 
of raw material in the form of logs and along some railroad offering 
facilities for shipment of the product to market. Veneer mills may be 
located in connection with furniture or cabinet factories, door mills, 
cheese-box factories, basket mills, etc., or they may be independent of 
them and sell the bundled product to the various subsidiary industries 


96 FOREST PRODUCTS 


which consume it. Few mills are supplied by the company’s own logging 
operations. Logs are customarily purchased in carload lots from logging 
operations or from wood lots in the vicinity. As only the better class of 
logs are used, logging companies frequently set aside their veneer logs 
until they have a sufficient supply for a special shipment. There are no 
universally adopted rules for grading logs accepted at veneer mills. 
Individual mills have their own rules and uniformity in them is now being 
considered in the industry. 

As the logs are unloaded at the plant they are left in an opea yard just 
outside the mill and rolled in as needed. A few of the largest mills have 
storage ponds similar to those in use in connection with saw mills. The 
advance supply kept on hand is often so large that serious deterioration 
takes place due to checks, rot and insect attack. Seasoning is not neces- 
sary; in fact, green logs are preferred. 

The machinery and equipment usually found in the moder rotary 
veneer plant censists of a drag-saw or cut-off saw to cut the logs into 
desired lengths, a vat for boiling or steaming, the rotary veneer machine 

or lathe, a clipper to trim the veneer into the desired sizes, conveyors, 
a wringer, a die cutter, a dryer and a knife grinder. When built-up stock 
is made, power or hand presses and glue-room equipment are added. 

The following is a brief description of the usual method followed: 

The logs come in even lengths up to 16 to 20 ft. long, and must be cut 
down to from 38- to 52-in. logs, which are the lengths usually used on the 
veneer lathe, or to 6, 7, 8, 9 or 10 ft. in length depending upon the width 
of veneer desired. They are rolled into the mill by hand or by the use 
of heavy cranes, or on a log hoist when a mill pond is used for storage 
purposes. 

The cut-off saw, either of the drag, horizontal band or circular type, 
cuts the logs into the desired bolt lengths, which are conveyed to the 
steaming or boiling vats in order to soften the fibers for cutting. In the 
former, live steam is turned into the pits but no pressure applied. Boil- 
ing is the favored method because it heats the logs more evenly and the 
logs remain in good condition for cutting for hours, whereas steamed logs 
should be cut immediately after heating or they become hard and brash. 

There has been no determination and common acceptance of the 
length of time or degree of temperature to be followed in boiling. Many 
mills fill the pits each morning. with sufficient bolts for the next day’s. 
run and leave them there overnight. The usual size pit will hold from 
600 to 1000 ft. board measure of bolts. Heat is applied by means of 
steam pipes. 


VENEERS 97 

The degree of heat and length of the boiling period should be governed 
by the hardness of the wood, its degree of dryness, porosity, toughness 
of the fiber, size of logs, etc., but little attention has apparently been paid 
to these matters. 

In practice, the following periods of boiling are commonly used: 
From one to two days or up to forty-eight hours for the oaks, fifteen to 
eighteen hours for yellow poplar, from twelve to twenty-four hours for 
red and black gum, from twenty-four to thirty-six hours for elm, ash, 
birch and maple, Douglas fir and western pine. Temperatures of from 


7 w,” 3 


yy Vs 


v4 


: = Te 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown 


Fic. 18.—A rotary veneer machine showing the lugs on which the log is turned and the veneer 
knife immediately back of the man. Photograph taken in a California veneer mill 
cutting western pine (Pinus ponderosa). 


160° to 220° F. are maintained. If oak is boiled too long it becomes so 
hard that it is very difficult to cut it. Yellow ponlar when over-boiled 
produces a rough veneer, showing that the fibers have been crushed too 
much rather than being cut sharply. Cottonwood and basswood do not 
require boiling. 

After boiling, the bark is removed. This is done by splitting the bark 
lengthwise. The bark then drops off easily after being loosened in the 
boiling process. 

The bolts are taken over to the veneer lathe,which has two large drive 


98 FOREST PRODUCTS 


wheels and a spindle with chucks to hold the log in position. The 
machines are graded by the length of the knives, which are usually 
made in the following lengths: 24, 30, 50, 60, 65, 76, 90 and 124 in. 
They are 63 in. wide, 3 in. thick and made of the finest cutting steel. 
The logs are centered on the chucks and cutting is done by revolving 
them against the stationary knife, the veneer coming over in long con- 
tinuous sheets. An automatic geared device feeds the knife toward the 
log so that at each revolution it approaches the log nearer by the thick- 
ness of the veneer. The knife is usually sharpened after every thirty- 
five to forty hours of cutting. It must be changed more frequently with 
thick than with thinner veneers. It must be very sharp and uniformly 
so or a poor grade of veneer results. The shafts which hold the logs 
can be regulated to hold a short or a long log. Generally 24 to 28 revo- 
lutions are made per minute except on the very largest logs and con- 
tinuous sheets are cut off down to a core of from 6 to 10 in. 

As the veneer comes from the cutting lathe it is conveyed to the clipper, 
a machine which trims off defective portions and cuts the veneer to the 
desired sizes. This consists of a sharp knife from 5 to 10 ft. in length, 
worked by steam or foot power, extending across the conveyor table. 
The knife descends directly to the veneer and clips it in rectangular 
sections. A straight edge on one side imsures a right angle in 
clipping. 

In some mills, a wringer located back of the clipper eliminates any 
superfluous water in the veneer. A die-stamping machine is sometimes 
used to stamp out chair or drawer bottoms, covers, berry-box patterns 
or tapered peach-basket staves, etc. This machine will make from 20 to 
30 strokes per minute and will stamp out from 52,000 to 400,000 pieces 
per day depending upon the thickness of the stock turned out. 

Next the veneer goes through an automatic dryer. It is necessary 
to dry it artificially, as it warps, twists, checks and curls very badly when 
air dried. Although several types of dryers are on the market one of the 
most common types is described as follows: The veneer is slowly passed 
on revolving rolls through a long roller dryer which is steam heated and 
from which the moist air is carried off in hot blasts. One of the larger 
driers is 130 ft. long, 12 ft. wide and 5 rolls high. From fifteen to forty- 
five minutes are required for passing through the rolls, depending upon 
the thickness and kind of wood and the veneer is thoroughly dry when 
taken out. For example, in one mill it required forty minutes for § in. 
veneer to pass through while with z'5-in. stock only twenty minutes were 
required. Five tiers of 1-in. steam pipes, 44 pipes in each tier are used 


VENEERS 99 


and temperatures of from 200° to 260° F. are maintained. The drier 
box is covered with sheet iron and asbestos. 

From the drier the sheets of veneer go to the glue room or to the bun- 
dling room, from which they are shipped. 

The cost of manufacturing rotary cut veneers varies considerably. 
The chief factors which influence this cost are the size of the mill, labor 
charges, efficiency of the operation, thickness of veneers produced, kinds 
of woods used, type of machinery and equipment, etc. Costs are fig- 
- ured on the basis of rooo sq. ft. of surface measurement. The cost may 
ordinarily be found within the following figures: 


Cost per Thousand 
Square Feet 
Labor and superintendency.................. $ .75-1.35 
NE hin Pe cyt Ng, oN os ase ai od ears IW a ne 25 = 75 
Overhead, including depreciation, interest, 
CROs SIIOTANN So nd on ce oes Hee ees oe . 50-1.20 
$1.45-3.30 


These figures are exclusive of the cost of logs, selling and office charges. 


SLICED VENEERS 


Although the least important of the three methods of making veneers, 
from the standpoint of production, and, therefore, of little comparative 
importance, the slicing process of veneer manufacture has taken material 
strides within the past decade or so. It is likely that it may surpass the 
sawing process in production. Slicing machines are almost always found 
in use in the same mills where veneer saws are used. The cost of making 
sliced veneers is considerably less than by the sawing process and there is 
much waste of material in the latter method due to saw kerf. 

White oak is the principal wood used in slicing veneers and practically 
all of it is in the form of quartered flitches that have been cut out in saw- 
mills. Quartered sycamore, red gum and red oak and some mahogany, 
Circassian walnut and Spanish cedar, together with a few other foreign 
woods are also cut. Only the finer furniture, cabinet and finish veneers 
are manufactured by this and the sawing procees. Indiana is the cen- 
ter of production of sliced veneers. _ 

The slicing process aside from the actual cutting follows the same gen- 
eral methods as the rotary process, except that flitches instead of logs are 
used and steaming is customarily used instead of boiling, especially when 
mahogany and Spanish cedar are used. In some mills, the flitches are 


100 FOREST PRODUCTS 


first steamed for a few hours and then soaked in hot water for about 
twelve hours before slicing. The question of the best preliminary method 
to be followed in softening the fibers for slicing is still an opén one. 

The present slicer in common use is a very ingenious mechanical 
device and has been evolved as a result of much experimentation. Sev- 
eral different types are on the market but the same general principle 
is followed in all. The accompanying illustration shows the general 
features of the machine. The flitches are fastened against the dog plate in 
a heavily constructed steel stay log, by means of screw dogs placed at 


Fic. 19.—A veneer-slicing machine in operation, cutting Circassian walnut veneers. Note 
the veneer flitch fastened above. This is dropped vertically against a sharp knife. The 
men are engaged in piling the sliced veneers as they emerge at the base of the machine. 


{ 


intervals of about 1 ft. The dogs hold the flitch in place both on the top 
and bottom. In slicing, the flitch is moved downward against a station- 
ary knife which slices off a veneer of the desired thickness at each stroke. 
When the flitch moves upward, the knife automatically recedes suffi- 
ciently to clear the upward motion and then advances in a position to 
slice another sheet. Thus the flitch moves upward and downward in 
the same vertical plane, the knife being moved forward and backward 
at each stroke to cut each new slice until the flitch is largely used up. 


VENEERS 101 


As each slice is removed, it falls through the knife slots onto a platform. 
- Two men, one at either end, pile them up in the same relative position 
as they appeared in the flitch. They are usually kept together and sold 
in this fashion. 

The drawbacks to this process are: 1. It is a slow method of manu- 
facture and 2, the veneer has only one face side and is not reversible. 
Mills using one machine have a daily capacity of about 50,000 to 80,000 


_ sq. ft. 


Sliced veneers are dried in many different ways but the most accepted 
procedure is the roller dryer as explained in connection with the rotary 
process. The old-fashioned hot room is occasionally employed as well as 
suspension in long sheets from the ceiling, but unsatisfactory results are 
generally the rule. Owing to the fact that veneers from one flitch are 
kept and sold together, they are seldom trimmed on the clipper, as ex- 
plained in connection with rotary cut veneers. . 


SAWED VENEERS 


Veneers were first made by hand sawing, the process being very labo- 
rious and expensive. They were only made of rare woods of highly attract- 
ive figure and consequently their use was very limited. For a long time 
sawing was the only process used. Now only the highest grade finish 
and cabinet veneers are sawed. It is a very simple method of man- 
ufacture, but it is the most wasteful of the three methods and the most 
expensive as well. 

Sawed veneers are usually cut ='5 in. in thickness and a kerf of equal 

thickness is made. This means that as much wood is wasted as is ulti- 
mately used. They are preferred, however, to sliced or rotary cut 
veneers because in the case of the latter two the wood fibers are crushed 
by the knives, and the thinner the veneer the more serious is likely to be 
the result. On the other hand, with sawed veneers, the fibers are torn, 
but those only which come into contact with the saw. Consequently 
sawed veneers are stronger and are less likely to show up defects after 
being used for some time. It is also said that sawed veneer more closely 
resembles solid wood than any other kind. One great advantage in 
favor of sawed veneer is that it is reversible and either side may be used 
as the face. 

It is estimated that at least 75 per cent of all sawed veneers are 
made of quartered white oak. In general, the same woods are used for 
both the sliced and sawed veneers. Considerable mahogany of the 
finest grades and special figure and grain such as ribbon mahogany as 


102 FOREST PRODUCTS 


well as a limited amount of Circassian walnut, vermilion, Spanish cedar, 
teak, rosewood, and other expensive woods are sawed into veneers which 
bring exceptionally high prices as compared with the rotary cut veneers. 
Most of the high-priced foreign woods which do not show an especially 
pleasing grain on the quarter are cut, however, by the rotary method, 
by using a stay log for flitches, crotches, burls, etc. About 10,000 sq. ft. 
of sawed veneer z'5 in. in thickness can be cut from 1000 bd. ft. of flitch 
material. 

In the manufacturing process flitches are usually used, and they are 
preferred in the green state. No preliminary steaming or boiling is prac- 


Fic. 20.—Making sawed veneers. Many of the finest veneers are made by this method. 


ticed to prepare the flitches for sawing. The flitches are either cut at 
the veneer mill or purchased from some sawmill, and kept in a covered 
shed preparatory to manufacture to prevent undue checking. As 
wanted, they are conveyed to the mill and mounted on a stay log by screw 
dogs on a vertical saw carriage. In the most up-to-date mills, the feed is 
automatic, the carriage being set up nearer the saw after each cut, to 
correspond with the desired thickness of veneer. The sawed sheets fall 
on the platform and are stacked up in the same position as they were 
found in the flitch. They are kept together and sold in this way the same 


VENEERS 103 


as described in connection with sliced veneers. Drying is practiced in 
the same manner as that followed with sliced veneers. 


BUILT-UP STOCK 


The manufacture of built-up stock made of 3-, 5- or 7-ply material 
has really become a separate industry of great magnitude within compara- 
tively recent years. Its demands on veneer as its raw material have 
increased very rapidly and explain to some extent the greatly increased 
production of rotary cut veneers. Plants turning out various forms of 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 21.—Sheets of veneered heading used for barrels. These are piled for cooling after 
drying and are then taken to the glueing room. Poplar Bluff, Missouri. 


built-up material may be found in connection with rotary veneer mills 
or in operation entirely independent of the veneer factory. 

The principal fields of usefulness for built-up! or laminated stock are 
the following: panels, doors, aeroplanes, furniture, trunk stock, interior 
finish and many articles of botha utilitarian and an ornamental nature. It 
is even coming to beastrong competitor of lumber for many of its common 

1The U. S. Forest Service laboratory at Madison, Wis., has made great strides 


during the war in the perfection of built-up stock and glues used in aeroplanes and 
hydroplanes. 


104 FOREST PRODUCTS 


lines of usage. By using successive layers of veneer, with the grain of 
each board running at right angles to the grain of the board adjoining 
it, many advantages over equal grades of lumber are claimed for it, the 
chief among them being the following: . 

(a) It is comparatively free from such common disagreeable effects 
such as warping, checking, twisting out of shape, etc., in the presence of 
changing temperature and atmospheric moisture. 

(b) It is stronger for general purposes. 

(c) It is relatively light in weight. 

(d) Its low comparative cost. 

(e) Its efficient use of wood, in that the core or crossbanding may be 
made of cheaper woods or those containing minor defects. 

When making 3-ply stock, glue is applied only to both sides of the core 
or center ply. The back of the panel or other built-up stock is first laid 
on a truck, then the glued core is laid down and finally the top or face side, 
the direction of the grain of the core always running at right angles to 
that of the top and bottom pieces. The same principle is followed out 
in making 5-ply or 7-ply stock. 

The glue is applied hot and as soon as a truck load is completed it is 
moved at once to the press. Both animal and vegetable glues are com- 
monly used by the manufacturers of built-up stock, furniture, etc. More 
animal glue is undoubtedly used, however, than vegetable glue. Each 
individual operator, however, decides this for himself, and the question 
will be an open one for some time to come. 

Many kinds of veneer presses have been developed, and at many of 
the mills home-made or locally contrived devices have been found in 
common use. The old hand screw press has been determined to be 
very efficient and is still in common use in some of our most modern 
and progressive plants. However, the hydraulic press is probably used to 
a greater extent at this time than any other. 

As soon as a load is placed in the press a pressure of from 100 to 200 lb. 
per square inch is exerted, depending upon the nature of the work, the 
thickness of the built-up stock, species involved, etc. As soon as the 
maximum load is applied, retaining clamps are placed on and the whole 
set is removed from the press to make way for another set. The clamps 
are customarily left on for varying periods up to ten to twenty-five hours. 
In a large veneer plant in Wisconsin using mixed hardwoods native to the 
state, the clamps were retained for from twenty to twenty-five hours. 
In a large veneer mill in northern California which cuts western yellow 
pine by the rotary process, 36 courses of 3-ply stock were left in the 


~ VENEERS 105 


clamps for from eight to twenty-four hours under a. pressure of 125 lb. 
per square inch. It was said that eight hours was sufficient, but that for 
convenience they were released the day following and new courses were 
placed in the clamps. As a matter of fact, convenience in organization 
is the determinant factor in this time element. Leaving. courses in 
clamps longer than the required time does not injure the stock. 

After release from pressure the panel or other built-up stock is trimmed 
to even off the edges. It is then sanded or scraped and shipped to des- 
- tination. 


UTILIZATION OF VENEERS 


There has never been any attempt at an accurate compilation of 
figures or statistics showing how our various kinds of veneers are used in 
this country. The different uses that have come into existence for veneers 
have broadened very greatly within the last few years. At the present 
time it is estimated that more than one-half of our veneer logs is cut into 
veneers for purposes other than the original use of veneers which was 
to cover less valuable woods especially when the figure and grain of the 
veneer woods were to be brought out to best advantage, as exemplified 
in furniture, cabinet work and similar lines of usage. 

At the present time the cheaper veneers are most in demand especially 
for such materials as shipping containers, boxes, fruit and berry baskets, 
etc. 

The following list shows the approximate order in which our veneers 
are used. A few years ago it was estimated by the Census Bureau that, 
under average conditions, 6 sq. ft. of surface veneers were produced 
from each board foot as measured in the log. When veneers are sliced 
each board foot should produce 12 sq. ft. of surface veneer if cut +: of an 
inch in thickness. Six square feet, however, is a good average because of 
the great amount of waste occasioned in the manufacture of veneers, 
especially in the form of cores, trimming, and loss in the form of defects, 
checks, etc. Using 6 sq. ft. of surface veneer as an average from each 
board foot, an annual consumption of 500,000,000 bd. ft. of logs 
would yield 3,000,000,000 surface feet of veneers annually consumed 
in this country. The following table has been made up as a result of 
visits made to a large number of veneer mills and data secured from men 
engaged in the industry. The most important fields for the utilization 
of veneers are taken up in the order of quantity consumed: 

1. Furniture, including tables of all kinds, beds, dressers and other 


106 FOREST PRODUCTS 


bedroom furniture, cabinets, pianos and other musical instruments, book 
cases, etc. Veneers were originally used entirely for furniture purposes 
and it still constitutes the principal demand for. veneers, and particu- 
larly those made from quartered oak and red gum, mahogany, black 
walnut, Circassian walnut, cherry, hard maple, birch, etc. 

2. Doors and door panels. There are many.veneer mills in this 
country which operate entirely for the production of veneer and veneer 


ned 


Fic. 22.—A hollow-die stamping machine used for making fruit-basket tops, novelties, etc. 


core stock used for the production of doors and door panels. The 
largest door factory in this country, in fact, depends upon its veneer mill 
for a good share of the material that goes into its product. Veneers 
intended for use in door panels as well as for door stiles, rails and muntins 
are usually cut into 3% in. thickness. The species used are oak, red gum, 
birch, Douglas fir, western pine, and Southern yellow pine. 

3. Shipping containers, including packing boxes, cheese boxes, 
crating materials, veneer barrels, etc. It is very likely that in the future 


VENEERS 107 


a large share of our packing boxes, slack barrels and all of our cigar boxes 
will be made from veneer stock. Cigar boxes were formerly made 
entirely of Spanish cedar but, owing to the high cost of this material, 
the cheaper cigar boxes are made of veneer sliced to rs and ras of an inch 
in thickness and glued upon a basswood, yellow poplar or tupelo gum 
core. Veneers used for packing boxes, crates, etc., are cut in thicknesses 
of from 3s to 2 in. The species used are yellow pine, red gum, cot- 
_ tonwood, spruce, basswood and chestnut. 

4. Fruit containers, including such products as berry cups, berry and 
fruit baskets and many forms of vegetable boxes. In some sections of 
the country, peaches, apples, potatoes, grapes and all forms of berries 
and vegetables are shipped in containers made entirely out of veneer 
material. Basket veneers are customarily cut to 7; in. The principal 
species used are yellow pine, tupelo, elm, maple, basswood, oak and red 
gum. 

5. Drawer bottoms, chair seats and mirror backing, which are usually 
classed together in the manufacture of veneers. This has opened up a 
new trend in the veneer trade and it is likely that the demand for these 
materials will increase very considerably in the future. They are cut 
in thicknesses of from 7's to 2 in. Yellow poplar, hard maple, red gum, 
cottonwood, birch and tupelo are the principal species used for these 
Purposes. 

6. Novelties and sporting goods. There is a great variety of novel- 
ties and articles made in the sporting goods factories which demand con- 
siderable quantities of veneers. 

7. Miscellaneous, including such articles as automobile tops, egg 
cases, wooden dishes, hoops, hampers, toys, trunks and a great number 
of other uses which could be mentioned. _ 


UTILIZATION OF WASTE 


There is a great amount of waste occasioned in the manufacture of 
veneers before the product is ultimately used in one way or another. 
The following table is a rough estimate of the amount of waste that is to 
be expected under average conditions. Since rotary cut veneers make 
up go per cent of all the veneers turned out in the country, most of this 
table is based upon the manufacture and use of this particular kind. 
There is very little waste incurred in the manufacture of sliced and sawed 
veneers with the exception of the saw kerf lost in connection with the 
latter. 


108 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Per Cent 
Trimming, including the cutting off of defective ends and trimming 
around ‘defects -knhoteyete. <3 ava. Gea ea ee 5.5 
Loss through checks and cracks which occur in prs! logs before 
mantifactared es tos. By Used oP eee 6 
Loss through damaged sap or in cutting around sap to bring out 
the best colonia c s03'5 iia 4 2 acetate lea ee a 378 
Loss in cores, which vary in diameter from 6 to 12 in. depending 
upon the'size-ol the log. 5.35 ¢ ..4:3.<S. piv te 5.6 
Loss through. breakage... 53 3/eicds + «nd meth wae oe ee 5 
Loss.through imperfect drying... <s5 isc 1d 5-059 Sse ee ee 4 
Miscellaneous: losses oi... icici9 issu aa ceaivi-n 0 wlbtebwen die dine een 4.7 
Dotdhs no ic seis aa oc 54 Ho ie oa ws anny ere ae 34.0 


Miscellaneous waste includes kerf in sawed veneers, carelessness in 
handling, mis-cut veneer, etc. Most of the logs used for rotary cut 
veneers are shaved down to a diameter of 6 in. In all cases they are cut 
down to the spindle chucks which vary directly with the size of the log. 

It is likely, therefore, that about one-third of all of the raw material 
intended to be manufactured into veneers and which is brought to the mills 
from the woods, is lost during the process of manufacture, of treating 
or of shipping. There is a distinct tendency to reduce this amount every 
year. 

Practically all of the trimmings and defective veneers are utilized for 
fuel purposes in the power plant or are burned up in a waste burner or 
carted away locally for fuel purposes in the homes of laborers about the 
mill. 

There have been developed, however, many uses for the core material 
left as a result of manufacture by the rotary cut process. At first these 
cores were used almost entirely for fuel purposes. Later, the larger 
cores were cut into crating material, boxes, shooks and smaller pieces of 
lumber. It is estimated that more cores are cut into boxes, lumber, 
crating stock, etc., than for any other purpose. 

Yellow poplar, basswood, and cottonwood cores are frequently shipped 
to excelsior mills, as these woods make excellent excelsior. Cores of the 
heavier hardwoods are very often utilized by construction companies, 
for rollers for moving houses, machinery, etc. 

Oak and pine cores have been in great demand for mine. rollers and 
for general mine timbers, especially in mining regions such as the Penn- 


VENEERS 109 


sylvania coal region and the mines of southern Illinois, Indiana, Mis- 
souri and Alabama. 

Some of the cores of the more valuable species are reinserted in special 
lathes, and veneers are cut off down to a 3-in. core, which is then used fora 
variety of purposes. Black walnut and Circassian walnut are very fre- 
quently sold to manufacturers of shotguns, pistols, rifles, etc., for gun 
stocks. 


a ee ee rs - ‘ 
zt sae ’ or a a ‘ 
Photograph by Neizon C. Brown. 
Fic. 23.—Sawing up the cores left after making rotary veneers at the Weed Lumber Co., 
Weed, California. They are used for box boards and crating stock. 


Other miscellaneous uses for cores are fence posts, bowling pins (in 
the case of hard maple), heading for slack cooperage, cheese boxes and 
heading and bottoms for fruit and vegetable baskets. 


GRADING RULES 


Rules for the measurement and inspection of quartered oak veneer, sawed and 
sliced: 


Measurement. 

Tape measure shall be the standard measurement in all thicknesses, and the width 
shall be taped midway of the flitch. 

In computing the feet in a flitch the actual length of the flitch shall be used. 


110 FOREST PRODUCTS ' 


Multiply the width in feet and inches as shown by the tape by the length of the flitch 
to obtain the number of square feet the flitch contains. 

In determining the width of a bevel flitch, the average width of the sheets, shall be 
the width of the flitch. 

In computing defects, the flitch shall be taken asaunit. Thepercentage of defects 
allowed in each grade as herein stated is figured on the total square feet contained in a 
flitch. 


Cutting. 
The term “cutting,” as used in these rules, means a “piece of veneer” free from 
defects. 


Figure. 
All flitches must show go per cent of figure in the aggregate. 


Grades. 
There shall be two grades of veneer, standard and medium. 


Standard Grade. 

All flitches in which the defects do not exceed 1o per cent of the total feet i in the 
flitch shall be measured full. 

Flitches containing defects not to exceed 20 per cent of the total feet in the flitch 
may be cut in measurement 10 per cent of the total feet in the flitch to raise the veneer 
to this grade. 

In estimating defects, no cutting to be considered less than 6 in. wide by 24 in. long. 

Bright sap shall not be considered a defect. Widths shall be 6 in. to 12 in. 

Lengths shall be 4 ft. and over, not over 5 per cent to be under 7 ft. 


Medium Grade. 


Flitches shall cut two-thirds clear, no cutting to be less than 5 in. wide by 18 in. 
long. 

Bright sap shall not be considered a defect. 

Widths shall be 5 in. and not over ro in. 

Lengths shall be 4 ft. and over, not over 5 per cent to be under 7 ft. 


Note. 

Any other specification for veneer, other than these rules, shall be a matter of 
special contract between buyer and seller. 

Inspection and grading rules for rotary cut ash, basswood, birch, beech, elm, 
maple, chestnut, cottonwood gum, poplar, sycamore and oak: 
No. 1 Faces or Face Stock. 

Stock of any thickness, free from knots, shall admit sap, splits that close, and 
slight discolorations. 
Select Faces or Face Stock. 

Stock of any thickness of the same grade as face stock, except that it shall be 
selected as to color. 
No. 2 Faces or Face Stock. 

Stock of any thickness shall admit sound knots, splits that close and log run color. 


111 


VENEERS | 


Drag Saw 


ts 


SS 
Knife Grinder 


Clipper 


Cutter 


Conveyors 


Wringer 


! Store Room 


Glue Room 


Automatic Roller Dryer 


ea | ae | a 


i070 


b= 


Heater 


= 


From Coe Manufacturing Co. 


Fic. 24.—The “U” plan of veneer mill. 


112 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Backs or Backing Stock. 


Stock of any thickness shall admit sound knots, pin-worm holes, discoloration, 
firm doty spots and open splits and checks, not to exceed 7¢ in. in width. 


Draw-bottom Stock. 


Stock of any thickness shall admit sound knots, closed splits, pinworm holes and 
log run color. 


Center Stock. 


Stock of any thickness shall admit sound knots, pinworm holes, discoloration, firm 
doty spots and open splits and checks not to exceed 7¢ in. in width. 


Flitch Stock. 


Stock of any thickness, of random widths and lengths, 10 in., wider, the sheets to 
be kept in consecutive order as they are cut from the flitch. The stock is to be at 
least two-thirds No. 1 faces. 


Log Run Stock. 


Stock of any thickness, random widths and lengths, as the logs will make 6 in. 
wider, not less than 75 per cent to be 12 in. and wider. Not less than 50 per cent 
shall be No. 1 face stock, and the remainder shall be suitable for center and backing 
stock. 


Cross-banding. 
Stock not thicker than 7 in., cut to dimension sizes, shall admit sound knots, 
splits that close, pinwork holes, firm doty spots and log run color. 


Dimension Stock. 

All dimension sized stock, unless otherwise particularly specified, shall be machine 
cut to exact lengths and may be a trifle full as to width. 

Surface dimensions shall be stated as follows: first, width across the grain, and 
last, length with the grain. 


Box Grades. . 

Stock shall be 24 in. and under in width, any thickness; shall be machine sized tc 
dimension as required by the buyers, but seller shall have the privilege of shipping 
not to exceed 25 per cent nariow cuttings, 5 in. and over in width. 

No less than 75 per cent of each shipment shall work without waste in sound cut- 
tings, and the remaining 25 per cent shall work as good as three-quarter to sound 
cuttings. 

The grade to sound cuttings shall admit of sound knots, discoloration, pinworm 
holes and splits or checks not more than }-in. in width. 


Notes. 

Stock of all grades must be cut solid, dried, so that it will not mold or damage 
in transit, and sufficiently flat to straighten under the press, dry, without splitting. 

Any specification not covered by these rules shall be a matter of special contract 
between buyer and seller. 

Inspection and grading rules for rotary cut walnut and cherry. 


VENEERS 113 


Dimension Faces. 
Consist of stock that shall admit of not over }-in. sap along the edge, splits that 
close and small tight knots. 


Random. . 


Consists of stock of sundry lengths, 3 ft. and up, and sundry widths, 6 in. and up, 
and will admit of same defects as dimension faces. 


Flitches. 

Consist of-stock cut sundry lengths, 4 ft. and up, and sundry widths, 6 in. and up; 
the sheets are kept in consecutive order as they are cut from the flitch; shall admit of 
not over 50 per cent sap in any one sheet, splits and heart knots where the sheets will 
cut 50 per cent faces. _ 


Fic. 25.—Diagram illustrating the utilization of a log for quartered flitches, marked (X) 
used for sawed and sliced veneers. The other cuts are used for lumber. The log is 
first quartered, then each quarter is dogged and turned on the carriage. 


Log Run. 

Consists of stock of such widths and lengths as the log will make, 6 in. and up 
wide; not over 25 per cent to be under 12 in. wide, not under 50 per cent faces, and 
the remainder can be defective, as the log may turn out. 

Backs. 

Consist of stock of all thicknesses cut to required sizes not suitable for faces but 

reasonably sound, and shall admit of same. 


Backing. 

Consists of stock of random widths and lengths suitable for backing only. 
Note. 

In specifying dimensions always name thickness first, next the width across the 
grain, and, last, the length. 

All of the above rules have been officially adopted by the National Veneer and 
Panel Manufacturers’ Association. 


114 FOREST PRODUCTS 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BorINcDON, JoHN. Art and Practice of Veneering. Work, London: rors. Vol. 
50, p. 106. ‘ 


CENSuS BuREAU, Washington. Veneers, Forest Products, No. 5s. 


CRONSTROM, HENDRIK. The Russian Veneer Industry, Hardwood Record, Vol. 37, 
No. 4. 

Forest SERVICE, Washington. Production of Veneer, Circulars No. 51 (1905), and 
133 (1906). 

Miscellaneous Articles in Furniture Manufacturer and Artisan, Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Miscellaneous Articles in Furniture Trade Review, New York. 

Miscellaneous Articles in Hardwood Record, Chicago. 

Miscellaneous Articles in Packages. 

Miscellaneous Articles in Wood Worker. 


STRYKER, J. B. B. Foreign Veneer and Panel Manufacture. Hardwood Record, 
Vol. 35, No. 5. 


CHAPTER V 


SLACK COOPERAGE 


GENERAL 


CoopERAGE is the art of making vessels, or containers, of pieces of 
wood bound together by hoops. The industry is a very ancient art, as 
early historical records show that various forms of cooperage were in 
common use among the Romans at the beginning of the Christian era 
and even in early Biblical times. 

Slack cooperage is made up of three forms of wood: Staves, heading 
and hoops. Each of these forms is commonly made at separate plants, 
although in many of the larger cooperage establishments both staves and 
heading are made in one plant. The manufacture of hoops is quite dis- 
tinct, however, and it really constitutes a separate industry. Tight 
cooperage is distinguished from slack cooperage in its ability to contain 
liquids. 

Although a large percentage of slack cooperage products refers to 
barrels, it is also inclusive of such containers as tubs, buckets, pails, kegs, 
churns, firkins, etc. There are many grades of slack cooperage barrels; 
the finest product has tongued and grooved staves and is used for the 
shipment of flour and sugar; semi-tight cooperage stock, which is classi- 
fied with slack cooperage, is used for making vessels required for butter. 
lard, paste, paint, mince-meat, etc., while cheaper grades of slack cooper- 
age are used for the shipment of apples and various forms of agricultural 
products such as vegetables, fruits, etc. Still cheaper and more roughly 
constructed slack cooperage barrels are utilized for the shipment of hard- 
ware, crockery, rosin, etc. 

A good portion of our slack barrels is utilized for the shipment of 
cement (an equivalent of over 100,000,000 barrels of cement are produced 
annually), flour, sugar, apples and vegetables. Other commodities 
shipped in slack barrels are various chemicals, meal, crackers, starch, 
salt, cranberries, candy, aecti i dried fish, lime, powder, and many other 
materials. 

115 


116 FOREST PRODUCTS 


ANNUAL PRODUCTION 


In spite of competition from boxes, crates, paper containers, cartons, 
etc., the production of slack cooperage stock has increased in the last 
decade. Statistics gathered by the U. S. Census Bureau vary in their 
amount from year to year, but there has been a general tendency to 
increase production. 

In 1911, 1182 mills reported the production of 1,328,968,000 staves; 
106,407,000 sets of heading, and 353,215,000 hoops. Expressed in the 
terms of the ordinary sized barrel and figuring one set of heading, 15 


Fic. 26.—Stave Cutter. This makes 165 strokes per minute and has a daily capacity of 
30,000 staves. 


staves and 6 hoops to the barrel, the production would be sufficient staves 
for over 88,000,000 barrels; the heading would complete over 106,000,000 
barrels and the hoops would be sufficient for over 58,000,000 barrels. 
These apparent discrepancies in production are accounted for by the fact 
that large numbers of second-hand barrels or portions of them are used 
over again. The wooden hoop is also being rapidly displaced by the steel 
and iron hoops. ~ 

The production of staves is centralized in Arkansas and Missouri, 
which together produce annually over 400,000,000 staves. Pennsyl- 
vania, Virginia and Maine are the next three states in order. The man- 


SLACK COOPERAGE 117 


ufacture of heading is also centralized in Arkansas, which produces 
annually over 15,000,000 sets of heading. Michigan, Pennsylvania, 
Wisconsin and Virginia follow in order. The manufacture of hoops is 
centralized in Ohio, where over 106,000,000 hoops are made annually. 
Indiana, Michigan, Arkansas and Missouri follow in order. 9A few 
decades ago the industry was of greatest importance in the Ohio Valley 
and Lake states, but with the rapid depletion of the timber supply in 
those regions and the consequent rise in timber values, the industry has 
shifted to a large extent to the lower Mississippi Valley, where the cheaper 
and more abundant red gum and yellow pine are available. 


SLACK COOPERAGE VERSUS OTHER FORMS OF SHIPPING CONTAINERS 


The wide variation in the production of slack cooperage stock from 
year to year is not surprising when so many outside influences acting 
upon the industry and its output are taken into consideration. The 
larger proportion of slack barrels is used for marketing agricultural 
products. The prospect of an increase or decrease in the staple crops 
and the resultant effect upon the industry will naturally pay the makers 
of slack cooperage stock to gauge their output accordingly. The com- 
petition of cheaper classes of packages, moreover, has a direct bearing 
upon this situation. Within recent years, associations of apple growers 
and others have made official decisions which have an important influence 
on the output of slack barrels. The veneer barrel undoubtedly has made 
important inroads in the old style of manufacture of slack barrels. There 
has also been a growing tendency to market commodities in smaller con- 
tainers such as cloth and paper bags, which are more easily handled as 
well as being more easily marketed. It is estimated that seven-eighths of 
all the flour made in this country is put up in cotton, jute and paper sacks 
and but one-eighth in wooden containers. This is to be expected since 
cotton and jute bags, counting four to the barrel, cost from.5 to 6 cents 
each and paper sacks even less, while wooden barrels commonly cost from 
37 to 45 cents or more, each. Other commodities sold in sacks to a rela- 
tively less extent are sugar, salt, cement, plaster, etc. Another important 
competitor of the slack barrel, the carton package, is used for crackers, 
starch, cranberries and various fruits and agricultural products. 

The increased demand for slack barrels in other lines than the above, 
however, has probably more than offset this effect of the competitive 
packages. For example, the rapid growth of the Portland cement 
industry has vastly increased the demand for wooden barrels. In many 
states apple growing is becoming a leading occupation, whereas a few 


118 FOREST PRODUCTS 


years ago it was comparatively unimportant. The barrel has always 
been the foremost container for marketing apples, but since the Apple 
Growers’ Congress in 1909 declared in favor of the barrel over the box 
for the standard shipping package, the demand for barrels has had a 
decided impetus. Again, the more recent movement for better protection 
of foodstuffs and commodities in transit and marketing has called special 
attention to the excellent qualities of the wooden package. Many other 
outstanding advantages of the wooden barrel are economy in storage, 
convenience in handling, less liability to loss in transit, better protection 
from insects and rodents and from exposure to atmospheric conditions, 
comparative cheapness and availability for secondary use. 


LAWS GOVERNING THE INDUSTRY 


Numerous attempts have been made to secure greater uniformity in 
the specifications and holding capacity of barrels, especially those used for 
agricultural products. Much progress has recently been made in this 
direction. 

The United States Government has prescribed standard barrels for 
apples by an act of Congress in 1912 of which the dimensions without 
distention of its parts are as follows: 


Length of stave—28} in. 
Diameter of head—17§ in. 
Distance between heads—26 in. 
Circumference of bilge—64 in. 


This represents practically 7056 cu. in. 

The statutes of the various states provide for the dimension of barrels 
and casks used for various commodities. Section 188 of the Agricultural 
Law of the State of New York requires that the capacity of fruit barrels 
shall equal 108 qt., 123 pk. or 6720 cu. in. dry measure, and shall be of 
dimensions as follows: 


Diameter—1¥3 in. 
Length of stave—28} in. 
Bilge not less than 64 in. outside measurement. 


If the barrel is made straight up and down or without any bilge it shall 
contain the.same number of cubic inches as described in the foregoing. 
Anyone manufacturing barrels for use in the sale of apples, pears or any 
other fruit, must brand such barrels upon each end and upon the side 
with conspicuous letters “ short barrel.” 


SLACK COOPERAGE es 


The legal fruit barrel in the State of Indiana shall contain not less 
than 12 pk. 96 qt. or 6451 cu. in. | 

The State of Wisconsin provides that the barrel shall*contain 31.5 
gal. and a hogshead 2 bbl. A barrel of flour measured by the hun- 
dred weight shall contain 196 Ib.; a batrel of potatoes, 172 lb.; a barrel 
of unslacked lime, 200 lb.; a barrel of apples or pears usually represents a 
quantity equal to 100 Ib. of grain or dry measure. 


QUALIFICATIONS FOR SLACK COOPERAGE STOCK 


Almost any species may be used for slack cooperage. Since slack 
barrels must compete with other forms of containers and packages, such 
as sacks, paper and cloth bags, fiber board boxes, wooden boxes and 
crates, cartons, etc., the primary requisite in considering stock for the 
manufacture of slack barrels is its comparative cheapness. Aside from 
this, it should be light in weight to reduce shipping charges and the wood 
should be easily worked. Woods which are soft and of uniform grain 
and texture, therefore, are much preferred to those which are hard, 
heavy and coarse. 

Woods which dry quickly, steam well and retain their form when 
bent, are also in high demand for slack cooperage stock. Woods which 
are light in color are in especial demand for heading purposes. Basswood 
is generally considered our best heading wood on account of its light color 
together with its other admirable qualities, such as excellent workability, 
lightness in weight, freedom from resin, etc. Woods which do not con- 
tain oils, resins or discoloring materials or other substances likely to taint 
or sour substances brought into contact with them make very desirable 
heading and stave material. 

For the manufacture of hoops, woods which are primarily tough; dur- 
able and exceedingly strong are required. Species likely to warp are not 
considered satisfactory, especially if the retainer is to be used for certain 
commodities. 


WOODS USED 


Until about 1890 practically the only wood used in the manufacture 
of slack cooperage was oak, and a large portion of this was white oak. 
The rapid rise in the value of oak, however, caused the cooperage trade 
to change to other less valuable but still abundant woods. Elm became 
the leading wood used for slack barrels and it became known commer- 
cially as the “ patent elm stave.” Until about 1900 and since 1890 elm 
was the leading wood used in this country for hoops and for staves and 


120 FOREST PRODUCTS 


heading as well. The increasing demands for slack cooperage stock 
rapidly exhausted the available elm, however, and a change was soon 
made to other woods. About 1900 red gum began to appear upon the 
market for slack barrels, and since 1907 it has been the leading wood used 
for staves. With the decrease in the use of elm came the increased use 
of beech, birch and maple, particularly in the Lake States, where these 
woods had not been cut when the more valuable white pine was removed 
from the Michigan and Wisconsin forests. ‘These came into such 
common usage that the trade name “ hardwood staves” came to be 


SQ Qe 


19" 12"LOGS 


32”- 16"LOGS 16’% 20”LOGS 


TWO WAYS OF CUTTING LARGE LOGS 
(ABOUT 40”) 


LOGS OVER 21” 


Fic. 27.—Method of cutting logs of various diameters into stave bolts. 


applied to these woods, which are now used for the highest grades of 
slack barrels, namely, for the flour and sugar trade. 

Red gum has been the leading stave wood for the past several years ° 
and it is likely that it will hold this place for some time to come. It has 
also been the leading heading wood next to pine for the past few years. 
Red gum staves and heading are shipped to every part of the country and 
large quantities are now exported to European and South American 
markets. In the South, red gum is practically the only wood used for 
molasses and sugar barrels and is used very largely for shipment of rosin 
as well. The available supply of red gum is comparatively large and this 
fact, together with the even texture and strength of its wood are impor- 
tant factors in making red gum our leading slack cooperage wood. 


SLACK COOPERAGE 121 


Pine is the leading heading wood expressed in terms of quantity used 
and is second only to red gum as our leading slack cooperage wood. By 
pine is meant both the Southern yellow pine and the white and red pine 
of the North. Because of its lightness and easiness with which it is 
worked, pine is regarded as highly desirable for certain purposes. How- 
ever, yellow pine, on account of its highly resinous nature, is likely to dis- 
color or impart a disagreeable odor or flavor to the contents. Staves from 
yellow pine, therefore, constitute a much cheaper grade and are used 
largely for the shipment of cement, lime, rosin and produce barrels. 
White and red pine make a much higher grade stave and heading. They 
are used largely for paint and fish pails and for the shipment of jelly, 
candy and apples and for ice cream freezers. 

Beech is excelled in use only by red gum and pine. Its wide use is due 
to its extensive range in the Lake States and Northeast, comparative 
cheapness and high value as a stave wood. In the trade it is usually 
classed with birch and maple which, together, are called hardwood staves. 
They now represent the highest grades manufactured in slack cooperage 
industry and have the leading place for the shipment of flour, sugar and 
other commodities which demand a clean wood free from any disagree- 
able odors or discoloration. 

On account of its great toughness and tensile strength, elm is our lead- 
_ Ing hoop wood. In fact, it constitutes about go per cent of all the hoops 
made. The only other woods that make high-grade hoops are hickory 
and ash but these woods are now valued so highly that they are not found, 
to a large extent, in the market as hoop material. Elm makes an excel- 
lent stave, but its comparative scarcity has precluded its common use for 
this purpose. 

Chestnut is the next wood most commonly found in the manufacture 
of slack staves. It is also used for heading to some extent. Within re- 
cent years chestnut has risen very rapidly in importance as a stave wood. 
Its easy workability and lightness in weight for use as a shipping con- 
tainer contribute to its broad usefulness. Its manufacture, however, 
is principally localized in Pennsylvania and Virginia, where it is chiefly 
used for cement, lime, fruit and vegetable barrels. 

About fifteen other woods are commonly used for slack cooperage 
stock including staves and heading. The leading woods among these are 
spruce, ash, oak, tupelo, cottonwood and basswood. 


20 Steam 
Tunnels 


122 FOREST PRODUCTS 


MANUFACTURE OF SLACK COOPERAGE STOCK 


The manufacture of the three forms of slack cooperage stock, staves, 
heading and hoops is usually found in separate mills. The assembling 
of this stock into the finished barrels is almost always practiced in still 
another shop. Staves and heading are sometimes manufactured 
together in the larger plants where a division of the raw material may be 


| Short 
Btave Cutter ; Equalizer, 
tt 4 


Fic. 28. 


advantageously made, the poorer material going into heading, the better 
going into staves. This is done because the staves are thinner than the 
heading and they must later withstand the strain of bending over the 
bilge when assembled into the barrel. 

Mills are located first with reference to a sufficient supply of raw 
material, either independently or in connection with a logging operation 
or sawmill. Location on a common carrier affording good transporta- 
tion facilities and on a stream for a mill pond are desirable. 


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SLACK COOPERAGE 123 


The raw material is preferred in the green state as it is manufactured 
much more readily and is delivered to the mill in the form of logs or bolts. 
They are accepted down to 8 in. at the small end at some of the plants. 
A mill pond to clean the logs, thaw frozen logs in winter, serve for storage 
purposes and to soften the wood for slicing and sawing is in common 
practice. A log hoist serves to elevate the logs to the main floor, from 
which point the material gravitates to constantly lower elevations. 

In some mills the logs are rolled on to a deck; in others they are taken 
directly to a cut-off saw. In either case, they are inspected and desig- 
nated for their proper use, the better grade of logs going into staves or 

‘hoops, while those containing crooks, knots, checks, and other defects are 
set aside for heading. Following this inspection they are bolted into the 
proper length by a drag saw or drop circular saw. The former is used in 
mills where large logs are the rule and the latter for mills in which the run 
of logs is small. In one large mill, all bolts for staves are cut into 32-in. 
lengths, while those for headings are cut into 22-in. lengths. 

From this point in the process of manufacture the bolts are con- 
ducted on transfer chains or other carriers to the different parts of the 
mill. 


Manufacture of Staves. 


The larger bolts designated for staves are quartered or halved, depend- 
ing upon their size, and, if necessary, cut in smaller flitches sufficiently 
large to yield staves 4 to 5 in. in width. Formerly stave bolts were rived 
with a maul and wedge, but this method is so wasteful that saws are 
almost universally used at the present time for this purpose. 

The flitches or bolts are next put through a process to soften the fiber 
sufficiently to shear into staves. Steaming has been found to be the best 
method. Well-steamed wood shears about one-third more easily than 
green or wet wood and yields a brighter and much smoother stave. 
Wood that is not sufficiently steamed will produce rough, uneven staves 
that are likely to stain, whereas over-steaming deadens the fiber and, 
therefore, impairs its life and strength. Elm, cottonwood, soft maple 
and basswood require much less steaming than gum, beech, hard maple, 
birch and sycamore. In a mill cutting staves of the last four-named 
species, the wood was subjected to steaming for twenty-four hours under 
a-pressure of from 100 to 110 Ib. In some mills boiling the bolts for 
seven hours is practiced instead of steaming. There is a difference of 
opinion as to whether boiling or the use of live or exhaust steam is-best, 
but steaming is the most common practice. 


124 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The usual procedure is to load the bolts on cars 55 by 53 in. in size, 
which are rolled into steam tunnels about 45 ft. in length. The tunnels 
may be constructed either of wood or concrete. One mill has 15 of 
these tunnels arranged side by side with a capacity of 9 cars, ora total 
capacity of 135 cars, which contain the equivalent of about 100,000 
staves 284 inches in length. 

From the steam boxes the bolts go to the stave bolt equalizer, located 
conveniently to the stave cutter (to the left of it and about 3 ft. from it). 
The bolts are first peeled of all bark. The equalizer cuts off both ends 
of the bolt to insure the desired length and make them smooth and square. 


Fic. 29.—The Trevor stave bolt equalizer. 


It is provided with two circular cut-off saws about 32 in. in diameter, of 
11-gauge, having 64 teeth and run at a speed of about 1800 R.P.M. 
Each equalizer can turn out enough bolts for 50,000 staves daily. 

Next the bolts are cut into staves on a stave-cutter. This machine 
has a knife usually 36 in. long and 63 in. wide, with a face ground to a 
circle of 20 in. The bolts fit in a tumbler and at each stroke against the 
knife a stave of any desired width is sliced off. The speed of the machine 
is regulated as fast as the operator can feed it, 150 to 170 strokes per min- 
ute being the usual practice. With even, straight bolts the work is much 
easier than with split or uneven pieces. This work demands the con- 


SLACK COOPERAGE 125 


stant and most careful attention of the operator since the cut should be 
made on the quarter-grain in so far as possible in order to produce the 
strongest stave. It should always be of even thickness and smooth. 
This work is of such exacting nature combined with the danger of cutting 
one’s fingers that stave cutters are usually required to work every other 
hour, or altogether only five hours on duty ina ten-hour day. One stave- 
cutting machine will turn out about 30,000 to 60,000 staves in a ten-hour 
day. 

In working up the softwoods into staves, such as white and yellow 
pines, hemlock, spruce, tamarack, etc., the steaming process is not 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Sertce. 


Fic. 30.—Barrel stave saw and stave bolts ready to be sawn at mill of Mt. Olive Stave Co., 
Batesville, Independence Co., Arkansas. Both slack and tight staves are made on this 
type of saw. 


resorted to. These woods, particularly the Southern pines, seem to be 
so shattered in the steaming and cutting process that the staves check 
and splinter up very seriously upon drying. The usual practice with 
these woods, therefore, is to cut them on a cylinder stave saw which is 
shown in the accompanying illustration. The speed of these saws is 
usually maintained at about 1800 R.P.M. The cylinder or drum saw is 
most commonly found in the South. 

As soon as the staves are made on the drum saw or the stave cutter, 
they are received by a helper who loads them on carts, .cars or sleighs, 
according to the season and location of the mill, and are transported 
to the dry shed for seasoning. Four to six staves are laid on top of one 


126 . FOREST PRODUCTS 


another, the curved sides fitting into each other. The ends of another 
similar bundle rest on the ends of other bundles and thus the piling con- 
tinues making a sort of crib work construction. es piles are separated 
by a space varying from 14 to 24 in. 

Seasoning is usually carried on in open-air sheds abou 20 ft. wide and 
100 to 150 ft. in length. The piles should be elevated about 10 to 16 in. 
from the ground and every opportunity offered to facilitate the drying 
out of the staves. The seasoning of hardwood staves requires from one 
to three months, depending upon the time of year. It is estimated that 
beech, birch and maple staves 28} in. in length should weigh about 
1 lb. apiece when properly dried. 

Just before the-staves are shipped to the cooperage shop where the 
staves, heading and hoops are assembled into barrels, they are jointed. 
The jointing machine is brought to the staves in the dry sheds and 
operated there either by hand or power. The hand jointer is the more 
common form in use at the present time. The function of the jointer 
is to shape the staves so that the finished barrel will have the required 
bilge. Staves with a three-quarter bilge joint means that the ends of 
the staves are $ in. narrower than'the center. It is‘very important that a 
careful man and one who understands zrades is employed on the jointing 
machine. Current opinion in the trade now favors the bevel as against 
the square joint. At each downward stroke of the knife, narrow strips 
called listings are removed. Each stave jointer has an average capacity 
of about 10,000 staves in a ten-hour day. : 

For the purposes of shipping, staves are bundled in a stave press 
which is very similar to a shingle, excelsior or hay press in principle. 
Several different types are on the market. Staves are packed with alter- 
nating wide and narrow ones, and so arranged that about 200 in. in total 
width, are in one bundle. This is estimated on the basis of 50 staves 
to the bundle and that the width of the average stave is about 4 in. 
This method of packing is standard throughout the slack cooperage 
industry. 

The crew of the stave department in a typical cooperage mill making 
both heading and staves of the Northern hardwoods is as follows. This 
mill runs eleven months in the year, during which it manufactures about 
25,000,000 staves and 600,000 to 800,000 sets of heading: 

2 men who load bolts. 

2 men in feeding steam tunnel 

I man in pulling tunnel. 

2 bark peelers. 


SLACK COOPERAGE 127 


3 equalizers—these men work one hour on and one-half hour off. 

4 stave cutters—these men only work every other hour. 

2 stave cullers. 

2 loaders—on trucks that take them to the dry sheds. 

2 drivers—to transport the trucks to the yards. 

8 pilers in the yard. 

4 stave jointers. 
Stavers get $3.00 to $3.25 per day. Common labor received $1.75 per 
day of ten hours before the war. 


Manufacture of Heading. 


After the bolts designated for heading stock are cut off in proper 
lengths (22 in. for sugar barrel heads) by the main cut-off saw, they are 
first rossed to remove the bark and any accumulated sand, grit, etc. 
One man can remove the bark fast enough to keep two heading saws busy, 
when sawing 24,000 to 30,000 pieces of heading boards per day. Then 
each bolt is transferred on live rolls to the heading saw, the largest bolts 
being quartered or halved. One large mill observes the rule that bolts 
12 in. and over in diameter must be halved; those over 16 in. are quar- 
tered. 

The heading saw is also called an upright pendulous-swing saw. 
The larger this saw with greater rim speed, the greater will be the ease 
in cutting and, therefore, its capacity. The hardness and character of 
the wood sawed will govern, of course, the gauge and number of teeth in 
the saw. With beech, maple, birch, sycamore and oak a 56-in. saw with 
80 teeth, 15 gauge at the rim and 6 gauge at the eye running 1500 R.P.M. 
will give the best results. With red gum, cottonwood, and basswood, a 
50-in. saw with 64 teeth, 15 gauge on the rim and 10 gauge at the eye and 
running 1500 R.P.M. gives the most satisfactory results. A horizontal 
- hand-feed heading saw is also used to some extent and has certain advan- 
tages. 
The heading saw usually cuts the heading stock about +5 of an inch 
in thickness. When surfaced and kiln dried it makes heading ;; or 4 
in. in thickness. Surfacing is usually done only on one side. 

The boards are then stackea on trucks which hold from 4500 to 5000 
Pieces and conveyed to the dry shed where they are left from ten to 
thirty days with stickers between the layers. 

From the dry shed the heading boards are rolled on trucks into the 
dry kilns, of which there are many types. One mill which turns out 3500 
to 4000 sets of heading per day has two channels in its dry kiln which are 


128 FOREST PRODUCTS 


each 100 ft. by 18 ft. in dimension. Until within recent years, air 
drying was resorted to entirely to properly season the heading boards. 
Kiln drying has the advantages of saving in time and the control of the 
dry condition of the boards. Softwoods may be kiln-dried directly from 
the heading saw and planer, but hardwoods should first be air dried for 
from ten to thirty days, depending upon the kind of wood and the 
season. 


Fic. 31.—Heading sawing machine. 


In a heading mill, which turns out from 2500 to 4ooo sets of beech, 
birch and maple heading per day, there are two dry kilns 128 ft. long, 18 
ft. wide and ro ft. in height. Each kiln has a capacity of 20 cars, each of 
which holds from 4500 to 5000 pieces. Every effort is made to dry all 
the boards, which are separated by stickers, at the same rate, to prevent 
warping, checking and case-hardening. Many plants use a series of 
steam pipes to secure and regulate the proper amount of heat and a 
forced draft over the cars is provided by a large fan. At one mill, at the 


SLACK COOPERAGE 129 


wet end of the kiln (where the highest humidity is maintained) the 
temperature is maintained from go° to 130° F. At the dry end the 
temperature may be 150° or over. 

The period of kiln-drying is about ten days for Northern hardwoods, 
during which the heading blanks slowly pass from the wet to the dry end 
of the kiln as fresh material is put in and the dried boards are conveyed 
to the heading mill. Although kiln-drying is in common practice, at 
some mills the heading stock is merely air dried in a shed. 

Within the heading mill are the three machines—the jointer, the head- 
ing turner and the heading press or baler. In some mills the heading 
boards are planed before they reach the jointer. The heading room 
should have ample space for the various operations and should be well 
above the level of the ground in order easily to carry out the refuse to 
the boiler room and to load the baled heading on the cars with the least 
effort. 

As the trucks containing the dry boards are unloaded from the dry 
kiln, the heading pieces are jointed. This consists of removing any bark 
or rough or uneven edges and making them smooth and even, so there 
will be a tight joint or “ fit” when the heading pieces are placed together 
to form the barrel head. This is done either by a saw or a large rotary 
wheel provided with knives against which the boards are shoved by the 
jointer until a Smooth edge is secured. Experience in the trade, how- 
ever, has shown that a 5-{t. wheel jointer running 650 R.P.M. and with a 
21-in. knife, will give the best satisfaction. An operator well versed in 
the work can joint 3500 to 4000 sets of heading in a day of ten hours. The 
heading board should be held firmly and evenly against the jointer to 
make the best joint. The edge should also be along the grain in so far as 
possible. If these precautions are not observed the joint is likely to be 
shattered or rough or uneven. There is a strong tendency to cause 
unnecessary waste which only an experienced man can avoid to best 
advantage. 

The pieces next go to the matchers, of whom there are usually two, to 
keep one jointer and one heading turner busy. These men assemble the 
heading pieces into sizes approximately of the same diameter as the fin- 
ished barrel head. From five to six pieces are used for sugar-barrel heading 
19g in. in diameter. Assuming that the heading turner properly centers 
the pieces, an allowance of 1 in. is usually made for trimming. The 
*‘ goosenecks ”’ or “‘ bats ” left after trimming are a good guide to the 
matchers as to unnecessary waste in matching up boards for the heading 
turner. The boards are stacked up to a convenient height on a bench 


130 FOREST PRODUCTS 


near the heading turner and as he finishes one pile another is moved up 
close to avoid loss of time. Piles of about 20 sets are customary. 

The heading turner is probably the most interesting machine in a 
cooperage mill. Its function is to circle a finished barrel heading with a 
beveled edge out of each course of heading boards. The jointed and 
matched boards are placed into a form or clamp which holds the pieces 
firmly together; the operator, with a foot lever, releases the turner and 
the boards are swiftly revolved against a combination saw and knife. 
The saw which is concave in shape cuts the boards in a circle on a bevel 


aie 


Fic. 32.—First step in assembling a barrel. 


while the knife cuts the other bevel to meet it. Immediately the heading 
is turned, the machine automatically throws itself out of gear, discharges 
the heading pieces and assumes a position ready to receive another course. 
The speed of the turner saw is about 5000 R.P.M. In some mills the 
operator works only every other hour. 

As each head is made, it drops down a chute with the waste to a 
pick-up.or assembly man. He sets aside the waste and assembles the 
boards into regular piles. When enough sets have been piled up, they 
are carried or sent on live rolls to the baler. It is customary to pack 20 
sets (40 heading) to the bundle which are baled with 3 wire ties of 11 
gauge wire and loaded directly into the freight cars. 


SLACK COOPERAGE 131 


The manufacture of heading does not require skilled labor of any 
particular or exacting nature. A mill having a capacity of about 4000 
sets of heading in a ten-hour day, but actually turning out about 3500 
sets per day, has the following crew in the heading mill alone. About 
100 h.p. was required to drive the heading machinery. 


2 men or boys called “‘ tads ” to take the boards from the dry-kiln trucks 
and place them within convenient reach of the jointers. 

2 jointers to feed the jointing machines. 

2 matchers to put those boards together that will fit and make the proper 
width for a head. 

2 turners—these men only work every other hour. 

I pick-up or assembly man to put the pieces together after coming from 
the heading turner. 

1 baler who takes the assembled heads and fastens them with wire into 
bundles of 20 sets each. ; 

t boy who picks up the “ goosenecks ” and ties them together. 

1 general utility man to assist anyone who becomes overrushed with 
work, look after breakdowns, clean-up congested parts of the mill, 
assist in loading baled heading, etc. 

1 plant foreman. 


MANUFACTURE OF HOOPS 


Elm has always been the leading hoop wood on account of its tough- 
ness, strength, and ability to retain these qualities when steamed or 
boiled and bent. It makes up practically all of the material used for 
hoops, although oak, hickory, ash, birch, and maple are occasionally used. 
In the far South, pine, cypress and red and black gum are sometimes 
used, but the total amount is almost negligibl ecompared to elm. Wooden 
hoops are not as important a forest product as formerly, due to heavy 
competition from wire and flat steel and iron hoops, which are gradually 
displacing the wooden variety. 

Hoops are generally made in separate mills which move from place 
to place as the scattering local supply of elm and other species-are ex- 
hausted. Green timber which is sound and straight-grained and free 
from knots, shakes and other defects is the best material. It is generally 
felt that second growth rock elm makes a very poor and unsatisfactory 
hoop. 

The standard barrel hoop should be 13 in. wide, 4 to 7 ft. long and with 
one edge about twice as thick as the other. Usually the thicker edge is 
i in. wide and the other 3; in. in width. Both edges are rounded. On 


132 FOREST PRODUCTS 


finishing the hoops, one end is pointed while the other is “ lapped ” or 
thinned down to a fine edge like a wedge. 

There are two methods of manufacturing coiled hoops and although 
certain variations in the two processes may be found. in different parts of 
the country, they may be described as follows: 


Sawed Hoops. 


The timber for hoops is sawed into planks at a sawmill. They are 
ripped on a self-feed gang rip-saw into hoop bars 17% by #4 in. in cross- 
section, each bar being large enough to turn out two hoops. The length 
may vary from 4 to 7 ft., depending upon the size of barrels they are 
intended for. Rip saws 16 in. in diameter and running at a speed of 
3000 R.P.M. have proven to give excellent satisfaction. 

The other machinery required for the manufacture of sawed hoops 
includes a combined planer and a jointer or lapper, and in addition a 
coiler. A great improvement over the old method is found in the Traut- 
man sawed hoop machine which saws the hoop bar in two and planes, 
points and laps the hoop in one complete operation. The process is, 
briefly, as follows: One end of the bar is pointed by a revolving cutter 
head and is then started through the feed rolls. A saw placed at the 
necessary angle to produce the proper bevel, divides the bar into two hoops 
while a planer surfaces the opposite sides of the hoops. As they pass 
out, each hoop is lapped. Two operators are sufficient to run the 
machine, which has a rated capacity of 15,000 hoops per day. The Ket- 
tenring machine is another in common use. 

The hoops are conveyed to a boiling vat or tank made of wood, 
which is about 7 ft. long, 5 ft. wide and 3 ft. deep. Here they are soft- 
ened in the hot water which is heated by exhaust steam. They are then 
taken to the coiling machines. 


Cut Hoops. 

The timber is sawed into planks of the same width as the hoop and 
cross-cut into the desired length. In the cutting process, the following 
machines are required—a hoop cutter, a lapper or jointer, a hoop planer 
and a coiler. Before cutting the planks are steamed or boiled. For a 
long time there was some discussion as to whether steaming or boiling 
was better, but there is a general opinion among manufacturers that 
boiling is more efficient and cheaper in the end. 

The size of the vat depends upon the capacity of the mill. For a 
plant with a capacity of 40,000 to 50,000 hoops per ten-hour day the vat 


SLACK COOPERAGE 133 


should be about 45 to 60 ft. in length, 8 to 10 ft. wide, and 5 to 7 ft. deep 
and made of concrete or yellow pine. Some plants boil their hoop plank 
standing on end, as they claim that best results are secured when each 
plank is separated from the others, which is difficult or impossible when 
the planks are laid flat in the horizontal tanks. 

The heat applied and length of boiling depend upon the condition of 
the stock. All that is required is to soften up the fibers so they will cut 
easily. 

While still hot the planks are taken to the hoop cutter, which should 
be adjusted to cut the hoops slightly thicker than the finished size to 
allow for planing. Hoop-cutting machines are usually run at a speed 
of 200 R.P.M. and have a capacity of 60,000 to 75,000 cut and beveled 
hoops in ten hours. Next the hoops are planed in special machines that 
dress three hoops at a time and have a capacity of 30,000 to 35,000 
hoops per day of ten hours. They are then pointed and lapped on 
other special machines and sent to the coiling machine. 

As to the relative advantages of cut and sawed hoops there has been 
much discussion. Many more hoops can be made from a given amount 
of timber by the cut process than by the sawed process for the reason 
that with cut hoops there is no loss in sawdust. It is estimated, for © 

example, that 1000 bd. ft. of elm logs will make 4000 cut hoops as 
against 3000 sawed hoops. Hoop-cutting machines will turn out from 
40,000 to 60,000 hoops per day as against 15,000 sawed hoops per day. 
However, the machinery used in sawing hoops is much more portable 
than the other, it requires much less capital and skill for equipment and 
maintenance and the sawed hoop is generally considered in the trade to 
be superior. The last argument seems to be true, because in the cutting 
process the knife is inclined to shatter the wood in forcing its way through 
the fibers which results in materially weakening the hoop. 

The hoop-coiling machine is an ingenious device to coil the hoops 
while still hot from the vat whether made by the cutting or sawing 
process. Several makes have a capacity of from 15,000 to 20,000 or 
more per day. If the hoops are not hot when coiled, there will be much 
breakage and splintering in consequence. After coiling the hoops are 
carefully stacked in an open air shed and thoroughly dried before ship- 
ment. Coiled elm hoops are made in many dimensions, varying in 
finished lengths from 3 ft. 6 in. to 8 ft. 6 in. 


134 FOREST PRODUCTS 


ASSEMBLING 


The assembling of the various parts of slack cooperage into the fin- 
ished barrel is accomplished in shops at or near the point where the 
barrel is filled with its contents. For example, sugar refineries, flour 
and cement mills, fruit and other storage warehouses usually have shops 
in connection with them where great quantities of staves, heading and 
hoops are brought in carload lots and assembled into the barrel of the 
desired size. 

Formerly small cooperage shops were commonly found where barrels 
were largely assembled by hand, but the tendency in the business is to 
centralize the assembling of barrels in large shops where recently improved 
machinery is introduced to turn out great quantities of barrels at a lower 
cost. . 

The process of putting together ‘the barrels generally consists of the 
following distinct operations: 

1. Putting the required number of staves together in a form. This 
operation is commonly called “ raising ” or ‘‘ setting up.” 

2. Heating over a stove or patent heater to dry out the wood, increase 
the flexibility of the staves and make a closer fit. 

3. Bending or forcing the staves together in a bending press or by 
means of a windlass and rope. This operation is often called wind- 
lassing. ) 

4. Crozing, which consists of making a groove in which the heading 
fits. ; 

5. Chiming or chamfering down the ends of the staves on a bevel 
from the groove to the end. 

The following is a brief description of the process of making apple 
barrels as carried out in the old-fashioned cooperage shop. The cooper 
sets up, on an average, 16 staves inside a wooden hoop 64 in. in circum- 
ference, inside measurement, on a platform in front of his work bench. 
The ends of the barrel are then drawn together by placing a rope over the 
end of the barrel and drawing it tight by means of a foot lever and pulley. 
A small regulation hoop is placed over each end as the staves are drawn 
together. The cooper then places the barrel over a small coal stove or 
heater and a metal cover or hood is let down over the barrel to retain the 
heat. Here it is left until it begins to steam or smoke. Meanwhile 
the cooper starts the assembling of a new barrel as just described. The 
heated barrel is taken back to the work bench where the quarter hoops 
and second hoops are fitted on, the ends of the staves are pounded to 


SLACK COOPERAGE 135 


even them off and planed. Next the croze or groove is made followed by 
the chiming operation. The heads are set in the groove at each end and 
the first hoops are fitted on and nailed. When used immediately one 
head is left off until filled with apples or other contents. 

In the average small cooperage plant, coopers are paid from 5 to 8 
cents apiece for the work of assembling the parts. A good cooper will 
average 80 barrels a day. Exceptional coopers will put out from go to 
100 apple barrels in a day. These barrels sell at the shop for from 35 
to 43 cents or more per barrel, depending upon size, quality and local 
demand. 

In the larger and more modern cooperage shops, instead of one 
cooper doing the whole operation several men are employed and each 
man tends a machine or looks after only one particular task. Very little 
hand work is done. The staves are first put together in a “ raiser” by 
means of which one man will “ raise ” from 75 to 100 barrels in one hour. 
The other ends of the staves are cramped together by a windlass, an 
ingenious mechanical device operated either by power or by hand. The 
barrel is rolled down an incline to the heater, where it remains for about 
thirty seconds and goes on to the hoopers and trimmers, who fit the hoops, 
trim up the ends of the staves and another machine in one revolving 
motion cuts the bevel and groove in the staves, noted above as the chime 
and the croze. There is a continuous progressive movement of the barrel 
from the first to the last operation with the minimum loss of time and 
effort. From the crozer the barrel goes to the “ header,” who stands 
it on a metal base, the heads are put into position and the “ rebutter ” 
forces the last hoops into place. The barrel is then ready for shipment. 


UTILIZATION OF WASTE 


The slack cooperage industry offers many opportunities for saving 
woods waste. After logging has progressed over an area, the remaining 
small trees, tops (crooked and otherwise) and defective logs are often 
worked up into heading and staves, particularly the former. On many 
operations, all 4-ft. bolts down to 8 in. in diameter at the small end are 
taken for slack stock. 

At some of the larger hardwood sawmills, defective ends, slabs and 
the smallest logs are sent over to a heading mill erected in connection 
with the sawmill. 

The manufacture itself of heading, staves and hoops necessitates the 
loss of considerable wood. In the making of staves and hoops, it is esti- 
mated that from 40 to 50 per cent of the contents of logs are lost in the 


136 FOREST PRODUCTS 


process. The loss in the manufacture of heading is even much greater, 
the waste commonly reaching 60 or 70 per cent of the original logs or 
bolts. A good portion of this waste is frequently unpreventable. The 
chief sources of waste are as follows: 

1. Severely checked logs and bolts resulting from too long exposure 
in the woods or in the yard. Green material brought directly from the 
woods and used immediately makes the best stock. 

2. Logs suitable only for heading are cut up into stave lengths or 
multiples thereof and later found to be only useful for heading. This 
results from careless or incompetent inspection of the raw material. 

3. Logs are frequently bolted into lengths suitable for making a 
certain sized heading or staves and later used for shorter staves or smaller 
heading. In the making of many thousand staves and sets of heading 
daily the loss in trimming, due to this carelessness, may determine to a 
considerable degree the character of the profits. In some mills head- 
ing bolts are cut 21 in. long when only 17§ or smaller heading will be 
circled out of them. Bolts for 32-in. staves are often cut into 283-in. 
staves, etc. . 

4. Faulty or careless manufacture, such as in handling the stock, 
useless waste in jointing both staves and heading, and in bolting and 
quartering the stock are common sources of waste. Only too often care- 
less methods of piling staves for seasoning result in a serious loss. 

Although considerable loss is occasioned in the manufacture of 
slack-barrel stock, up-to-date plants utilize practically all of the waste 
material. The sawdust and some of the smaller pieces go to the furnaces 
in the power plant, the ashes being sold for fertilizer. Some of the larger 
material is utilized for trunk slats, crate stock, furniture parts, chair 
rungs, toy stock, etc. The principal forms of waste occurring in the 
process of manufacture aside from those mentioned above, are as follows: 

(a) “‘ Goosenecks,” the waste from the heading turner. 

(b) “ Listings,” narrow strips removed by the stave jointer. 

(c) Corner wood—odd corners left after staves are made from the 
stave bolts. 

(d) Culled staves and blockwood consisting of culls from heading 
material. 

One of the largest cooperage mills in the country sends all of its 
waste wood to a wood distillation plant for which $2.75 is secured per 
cord f.o.b. cars at the cooperage mill. 


SLACK COOPERAGE 137 


EQUIVALENTS 


There are no universally adopted figures of the number of hoops, 
staves and heading of given sizes that may be cut from 1000 bd. ft. 
of logs or from a cord of bolts. However, the following apna are 
accepted by a large number of companies: 

For an average run of logs, about 2400 staves 30 in. in length and 4 in. 
in width may be cut from 1ooo bd. ft. of logs measured by the Doyle 
tule. It is said that in Arkansas 1 cord of bolts 32 in. in length measured 
with the bark will yield 1000 staves or without bark 1200 staves. Bolts 
of this length are usually stacked 4 ft. and 12 ft. long, which makes the 
standard cord of 128 cu. ft. 

When the dry thickness of heading is ;4 in. and 19} in. in diameter, 
tooo bd. ft. of logs, Doyle rule, will yield 2000 pieces of heading, or 
about 400 sets. 

Measured by the same rule, 1000 bd. ft. will yield-4000 cut hoops 
or 3000 sawed hoops. 


STOCK WEIGHTS 


The following is a list of weights adopted by the National Slack Coop- 
erage Manufacturers’ Association in 1915. The heading is kiln-dried; 
the staves are thoroughly air-dried, and the hoops are in the usual air- 
dried condition for shipment. 


STAVES 

Elm, North of the Ohio River. Weight Per 

Thousand Pieces 
28} in. staves, cut 5 to 1% in., avg: 4 in. wide..................2-..------ 780 Ib. 
mr staves, cuts to rf m., avg. 4M. wide... .-... 2... 2-22. bonne seas 830 lb. 
aa ms Staves, Cuts tO 14 in., ave. 4m. Wide... 2.52.5 k ce sees ceeee 885 Ib. 
34 in. staves, cut 5 to 1} im., avg. 4 im. wide........... 2.2.2 ..2. eee cence 945 lb. 
33 im. staves, cut 5 to 1j in., avg. 4 in. wide..............05.. 5.6.0. eee 915 lb. 
284 in. staves, cut 6 to 2 in., avg. 4 in. wide. .-..- 22... ee cee cee eeeeseee 680 Ib. 
Elm, South of the Ohio River. 
283 in. staves, cut 5 to 1} im., avg. 4 in. wide... .............0..0e-- eee 800 Ib. 
mona staves, Cut s to 17 in., avg. 4 in wide... 0.02 -< 5. cic ec cc cok 840 lb. 
32 im. staves, cut 5 to 1% in., avg. 4 in. wide..............2.022.2.4.6.. 925 lb. 
34 in. staves, cut 5 to 1} in., avg. 4 in. wide....................0..-... 1000 Ib. 
28% mn. staves, cut 6 to 2 in., avg. 4 in. wide... ...... 2.2... eee eee eee 700 Ib. 


Gum, Mixed Staves. 
es in. Staves, cut 6 to 2 in., avg. 4 in. wide... . 222.22. 2.22. cece coca vee 700 Ib. 


138 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Hardwood Staves (beech, birch, maple). Weight Per 
Thousand Pieces 
283 in. staves, cut 6 to 2} in., avg. 4 in. wide... . 2... 22s vicee ccs es¥ vive 950 lb 
30 in. staves, cut 6 to 2% in., avg. 4 in. wide............ Fe fe ee La 1000 Ib 
Cottonwood Staves. 
28% in. staves, cut 5 to 13% in., avg. 4 in, wide.............0ceceeeceeeee 650 lb 
Gum Staves. 
23% in. staves, cut 5 to 132 in., avg. 4 in. wide...............-0-..0eceee 600 Ib 
28% in. staves, cut 5 to 14% in., avg. 4 in. wide... 6.00.0... 000... eceeeneee 800 Ib 
30 in. staves, cut 5 to 14% in., avg. 4 in. wide..................:..-000 840 lb 
32 in. staves, cut sto 244.in., avg-4in: wide... 1. .....:3..05sceaeee 925 lb 
34 in. staves, cut 5 to 17¢@ im., avg. 4 in. wide.......................:.. 1000 lb 
36 in, staves, Cut-§ to0/2: - In., Aavg.'4.m, Wide: .2..... fal hud ee ee 1100 lb 
40 in. staves, cut 5 to 27g in., avg. 4 in. wide..................-..000ee 1200 lb 
23% in. staves, cut 6 to 2‘ in., avg. 34 in: wide... .. 2... 0. eee ew ce teas 500 lb 
24 in. staves; cut 6:16°9.7 1n., avg. 94 in. wider. .6053 4. so. aa eee 525 lb 
Eim Hoops 
3 ft: 8 in; hoops, ye ye XE i. ves. vce. vos ce wpa anes eee eee 275 lb 
4 it: hoops, Fut Pe TE. thee ead. wh oem ee. ee 300 Ib 
aft. 4 in. hoops, Pes ye Kid ae ik hee 1 Og 350 lb 
5. ft. hoops, se X Fe AS Theor oasis deine > ovale ea ae 400 Ib 
5 ft. 6 in: hoops, a a's X14 I, 22554 ook Sokew phones ane 460 ft 
6 ft: hoops, se ee NUE 1 ec ors S leo cs ee ni ed eee cae 500 Ib 
6 ft..6:in. hoops, eX xfe % TF in, 2 sec oso 3 oO oe he ee ee 545 lb 
6 ft. 8 in. hoops, sae X TE in. 335 os eee he ea ee 570 lb 
9 ft. Woops; vex fe Xd ss Soe AL OA eee . 600 Ib 
» ft. 8 invhoops, yee TE AD. sess, on oes nose ey Caw le ee ee ee 650 lb 
8:ft. hoops, eX Te EBD i ss dae hie a on ae a eae a 700 Ib 
HEADING 
Gum. Weight 
Per 100 Sets 
15% in. heads, $i. thick: 05. odiccvci Joe cy ees 1 anes ae ne 360 Ib 
574 in. heads, $.in. thick: oa scenes ls ce see ob cos ne ee 435 |b 
184 in: heads, 4-in: thick: : 220... Gat ca ee oe nab Na oar ee 500 lb 
Tok in. heads, 4 in: -thick:... ..535ccceis en oe sane wees ee ee eee 550 lb 
aon, heads, 4 in, thick ss siecle ak wa ee eee eee Cer 600 Ib 
au is deads; 4 in. thick) 5.0:55.55 sac. ga aN oa seca eee eek ee ee 650 Ib 
aoe in. beads, 4 ‘im. thick... 30.0 53 decease eee ee ee ee 725 |b 
wa8 in heads 4} i. thick. 0°. 27005. ss ye eae es oe eae ee gee 825 Ib 
Sa sit heads, 4 iN; thick. sew sew aah ts 9d ae orate ae 875 lb. 
Cottonwood. 
19% in. heads, 3 in. thick........... PY LEU i ee OS Ce ry nt 450 lb. 


ee ee a nT 


SLACK COOPERAGE 


Basswood. Weight 
Per 100 Sets 
RenaNCM ty & 80s, CCI os eg ti Fee pa nce Ss oo cet Ss ow U ey te de SERS 240 lb 
PURMMOE: S0k: CHM Sp ae Sc eos se totes g Pa Fe ae newb cee west 250 |b 
Sent 301 CRS = hoa ey oe Plo ig Boe eae Se te Dew ne SERS Ree 260 Ib 
Mee eeenns. -& ti. Ce Oe isa. oat cee ee es oe Pe Ae eepts eee 300 Ib 
RE MCNEMCRS gear d Cus te he ea cat tee ne eo) en ES 340 Ib 
CPM BMA RMR S OS Se te 8s ES wc gele 6 Oh eit a 5.08 coe ae 400 Ib 
Hardwood (beech, birch, maple). 
Serene, se 10 CICK a go. ons eae tenes pees Vac Sa ees oe 310 |b 
CNN as BD EMM yo wc relate een PEO Kapkee Lee 340 Ib 
153 in. heads, 7% in. thick... .. Wales 5 nie tee Aa er eeu teat aoe’ 360 Ib 
RSS geese ASE Pe Ane Pe de hepa Wee -.-+ 400 Ib 
ee RENEE, Ser ME TUCK: Sand. eS hace ence tk hy ace Sy ee gan Wee eee 440 Ib 
IEMNCMIES ols Iie CHEK a5 2. ds cc Ee Laos Gap elation ee ee ads 500 Ib 
Sona emes, sen THK. |e ak SA kG PR aars 600 Ib 
SOUND Ag Ns Sa ape ae qe cor Rama ar eg gry Gar, 675 Ib 
enema: Shs COCR oe as = oa cleo «ae ee wee eo Se ee te oes 750 Ib 
SECM, BN CM ss os sivien ee odia tinea aw tor wane cnn Meee G 800 Ib 
PeremGMen a he PRIOR OR Stats SS ck ctv e ov eae ae ase aU ne tees eo goo Ib 
Sema weeeine @ Ott. AGHCK. «Oo 25S. w1o 3. a ob bs poe b ae Sey Tees oeeeeee es! 970 lb 
Seemeaeaee eth. tacks 2 5 jo eS 1030 Ib 
ee ee Old, CICK es Ss hoe cl eis ois 0 Sv ow ee Oe oe r100 lb 
Yellow Pine. 
MN as 8 SOGGY aici Clara cg nud Ae he aad ¥ de Me stn hl alg gee So Mdkeed 2 t10 Ib. 
MIB T hose: Lows cae sch ws bee Sos wea indian ag alee gees aes 125 lb 
MM oe el eek ons OG o's Xo EN end Gd 8 wie OAS fea ks d hoo 135 lb 
EE Serco se. og ae Geos et ais Vata obigdgee eS ae iy wo 150 lb 
ATE RE SESE TA ih oe Pane en GAT RAE Ree [Rate 180 Ib 
INN sto tancd PNG Sacha Sorat as Sig's aw y Se BS EAE Sw eeeee nd 200 Ib 
ED aries ns AW Femi, J Airity wars wake Kon dr ashe eee oe 220 Ib 
a iD DS atc ts Be re 9 2.P alo nid mide ws Bom URAC ae 240 lb 
a SE Si ee On nS PPD Se A” ee eRe RL IN een Pees Sey Die 260 Ib 
III ES Wes oy Moe Re oc Bes Ssh ene sl me ake Shee 280 Ib 
NN asc 2 54°50 Se WERE 5 Spiviels PTS Gnawa». oi bea sl glee aaa T. 300 Ib 
MM re cri Behe ste orp 'n Sate ta gaeek a J xs nae a hie a Oo 320 lb 
EN a Nace Dare ai, MOI 5 ak a. ha Cais wa a Oe ee ae 345 |b 
NE Hess eh RS a ah ck ae eee a ek Sela Fa RE heat ch Ae 370 lb 
MI ei Oreo vo gee PRS et Seis od were Fa he 395 lb 
IERIE FN So fo TS sty ae A ee ae, 420 lb 
MM ME eh! Sealey aot, ee Sa psec shoe POT Ghote Deke ws 435 lb 
DE i oT oT rhs TPS ye st epee ai at beeen 475 lb 
I as rete ee ee ees pee 485 lb 
eS OR RR ae ee, cc 500 Ib 
I eR te ad Late eck k hci es cdc ccenbéahan 530 lb 
TE Cot hc es lati ve Ra tg bd sche ese 540 Ib 


140 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Weight 

Per 100 Sets 
top tn heads 5 poh eee awa eka chee yeas ee ee eee 550 lb. 
20° INheads. 655 aes Os wi ew ie ba tle eek eae ae 610 lb. 
ar in. Heady, : ieee etl dak Sls eRe aaa oe 675 |b. 
214 ity heads. 3 .goyapsoee Rieke ee 8 ca aR ee eee 710 tb. 
22! ga heads. yi ic vs dca Hele ee ed ba dae 755 lb. 
ag In. Hewes. Ae Se ie iat baa wh apaiee ol Oege Se Cee 840 Ib. 
23H iv heads yes PS Se ate tc a beans cee A 890 Ib. 
24 in. heads........ Sage Mattias Aiea k ate ea ee oe eh eM be eee ae 930 Ib. 


GRADING RULES 


The following grading rules were adopted by the National Slack = Man- 
ufacturers’ Association on May 14, 1915. 


Staves. 

1. Elm and gum staves 283 in. and longer shall be cut five staves to 17 in. in thick- 
ness. 

2. Cottonwood and basswood staves 21} in. and longer shall be cut five staves to 
17¢@ in. in thickness. 

3. Elm, gum, cottonwood and basswood staves 24 in. and shorter shall be cut six 
staves to 2 in. in thickness. 

4. Hardwood staves, oak, beech, and maple 28} in. and longer shall be cut six 
staves to 2} in. in thickness. 

5. Hardwood staves, oak, beech and maple, 24 in. and shorter, shall be cut six 
staves to 2 in. in thickness. 

6. White ash staves shall be cut five staves to 2§ in. in thickness. 

7. No. 1 staves shall be of uniform thickness, free from knots, slanting shakes, 
dozy wood, badly stained with black and blue mildew, or other defects making stave 
unfit for use in a No. r barrel. 

8. Meal barrel staves shall be free of slanting shakes over 1} in. long, knot holes 
and unsound knots (but sound knots not over 2 in. in diameter shall be allowed), and 
shall consist of good, sound, workable staves. Moderate stain, mildew or discolora- 
tion no defect. 

9. Mill run staves shall consist of the run of the knife, made from regular run of 
stave logs, and shall contain 40 per cent or more of No. 1 staves. All dead culls out. 

10. No. 2 staves shall, unless otherwise specified, contain the meal barrel grade 
and be free from dead culls. Mildew and stain no defect. 

11. Standard bilge on staves, unless otherwise specified, shall be as follows: 
18 in. to 22 in. in length both inclusive, 3 in. bilge; 23 in. to 284 in. in length, both 
inclusive, 3-in. bilge; 30 in. in length, 3-in. bilge; 32 in. and 34 in. in length, -in. 
bilge. 

12. Standard quarter shall be 9 in. for flour barrels and 83 in. for sugar barrels. 

13. No. 1 staves longer than 24 in. shall not be less than 2 in. nor exceed 5} in. 
in width, measuring across the bilge. No. 2 staves of same lengths may be from 2 in. 
to 6 in. in width. 

14. All barrel staves 283 in. and longer to average in measurement, after being 
jointed, 4 in. per stave or 4000 in. per thousand staves. 


SLACK COOPERAGE 141 


15. Half barrel staves, 23 in., 233 in. or 24 in., 33 in. to the stave, or 175 in. to the 
bundle of 50 staves. 

16. Keg staves to measure 160 in. to the bundle of 50 staves. 

17. All staves shall be thoroughly air dried before jointing and shall be measured 
across the center of the bilge. Unless otherwise specified, it will be presumed that 
staves are to be air dried. 

18. No. 1 white ash staves shall be of uniform thickness, smoothly cut, free from 
knots, slanting shakes, dozy timber, worm holes, stains or mold of any kind which 
makes the stave unfit for use in the manufacture of No. 1 butter tubs and to average 
not less than 85 per cent white. 

19. No. 2 ash staves—same specifications as No. 2 gum and elm. 

20. All ash staves shall be jointed with 3-in. bilge unless otherwise specified. 

21. Mill run apple barrel staves, unless otherwise specified, shall be cut six staves 
to 2 in. in thickness and shall consist of the run of the mill from the regular run of 
stave logs. An average of not less than 60 per cent of the staves in each bundle 
to be bright on the outside. At least 40 per cent of all staves to be No. 1. Mold on 
No. 1 staves no defect. All mill run apple barrel staves, unless otherwise specified, 
shall be jointed with ;%-in. bilge. 

22. Cement barrel and all other staves not specifically mentioned should be sold 
according to the local custom or by special agreement. Same will apply as well to 
bilge of such staves. 


Dead Cull Staves. 


23. Dead cull staves are staves containing knotholes of over 1 in. in diameter; 
staves with large, coarse knots or badly cross-grained near quarter preventing staves 
being tressed in barrels; staves under }-in. thick; staves with bad slanting shake ex- 
. ceeding 6 in. in length, or with rot that seriously impairs strength. 


Hoops. 

24. Standard dimensions of coiled elm hoops, 5 ft. 6 in. and longer, to be, when 
finished and seasoned, 3°; X 335 X 12 in. 

25. Dimensions of keg hoops, 5 ft. and shorter, may be 74g X75 X 15 in., or standard 
dimensions, as provided in Section 24. 

26. No. 1 hoops shall be of good sound timber, up to specifications, well finished 
and free from broken and other defective hoops, in the coil in excess of 3 per cent of 
hoops over 5 ft. in length, 5 per cent of 5-ft. hoops and 8 per cent of hoops less than 
5 ft. long, which are unfit for use on a barrel, and to be dry when shipped. 


Heading. 

27. No. 1 basswood, cottonwood or tupelo gum heading shall be manufactured 
from good, sound timber, thoroughly kiln-dried, turned true to size, and shall be 3 in 
thickness after being dressed on one side, and free from all defects making it unfit 
for use in No. 1 barrels. Stain or discoloration or under side no defect. To be 
jointed straight unless otherwise specified. 

28. No. 1 hardwood and red gum heading shall be of the same specifications as 
in Paragraph 27, excepting that the thickness after being dressed shall be 7% in. 

29. Mill-run heading shall consist of the run of the saw from the regular run of 
the heading bolts or logs, without any previous culling to select out the better grade, 


142 FOREST PRODUCTS 


well manufactured of standard thickness and kiln dried. All dead culls out and to 
contain not less than 50 per cent No. 1 pieces or carits. 

30. Pine heading, all sizes over 12} in. in diameter to 163 in. inclusive,shall be 7 
in. in thickness after being dressed on one side; larger sizes shall be 3 in. in thickness 
after being dressed on one side. Specifications otherwise to be the same as provided 
in Paragraphs 27 to 36, both inclusive, except as to thickness. 

31. No. 2 heading shall be manufactured from heading blanks culled in the process 
of manufacturing No. 1 heading and shall be workable free from dead culls. 

32. All heading to be well bundled, 15 sets to the bundle, sizes 14} in. to 193 in., 
inclusive; 2 wires to the bundle, sizes under 109% in.; 3 wires to the bundle, sizes 19% 
and over. Number of pieces to the head not to exceed the following: 

33. No. rand M. R. grades, above 133 in. and to 17} in., inclusive, three and four 
pieces, at least 50 per cent to be three piece, or less. 

34. No. 1 and M. R. grades, 18 to 193 in., inclusive, three-, four- and five-piece, 
at least 50 per cent to be four-piece, or less. 

35. Heading that contains knotholes of over 1 in. diameter, bad slanting shakes, 
rotten timber or other defects that make it unworkable, shall be considered as dead 
culls. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Statistical Reports—U. S. Bureau of Census. 

Miscellaneous Articles in Barrel and Box. 

Miscellaneous Articles in Packages. 

Miscellaneous Articles in National Coopers’ Journal. 

United States Forest Service, Washington. Production of Slack and Tight Cooperage 
in IgIt. 

WAGNER, J. B. Cooperage, 1910. 


CHAPTER VI 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 


GENERAL 


TIGHT cooperage refers to barrels and containers made of staves 
and heading for liquid contents. As contrasted, therefore, with man- 
ufacturing methods and woods used for slack cooperage barrels, a much 
more carefully manufactured article must be produced and it must be 
made of woods which are practically impermeable in their wood structure. 
On account of its impermeable nature together with the fact that it does 
not tend to discolor or lend a disagreeable odor to the contents, its hard- 
ness, workability, excellent seasoning qualities, etc., white oak is pre- 
eminently our best tight cooperage wood. In the early days of tight 
cooperage mariufacture, white oak constituted the only wood used. 
This species also contributed a large portion of the raw material used for 
slack cooperage purposes. 

Outside of-the fact that white oak meets the requirements for tight 
barrels better than any other wood, only the best quality of white oak 
can be used. Ordinarily trees less than 18 in. in diameter at 43 ft. above 
the ground are seldom used. In addition to this minimum size, the trees 
must be straight-grained and sound and comparatively free from knots, 
rot, shake, or other defects. : 

Where the seasoning of contents is involved, such, for example, as 
in the case of wines, whisky, beer and other spirituous liquors, the wood 
composing both staves and heading must be only of an excellent grade of 
white oak. When tight barrels are used for purposes where the season- 
ing of the contained liquid is not involved, such, for example, as mineral 
oils, lard, chemicals, pork, turpentine, molasses, syrup, etc., a limited 
’ amount of other species such as red oak, red gum, white ash, and a few 
other species have come into use. Owing to the curvature of the staves 
which are largely sawed now it is very important that these be of more 
impermeable wood than the heading. However, all woods which are 
used as substitutes for white oak are paraffined or otherwise coated 
on the interior to protect them against leakage. Red oak is much 

: 143 


144 FOREST PRODUCTS 


more susceptible to leakage than white oak owing to its open pores. 
(In white oak the pores are closed by means of tyloses.) There is a 
growing tendency to use more and more substitute woods in the cheaper 
grades of tight cooperage staves and heading. This condition, more- 
over, is being aggravated by the growing scarcity of high-grade white oak 
stock, the increasing demands for white oak for tight cooperage barrels 
and the consequent rise in prices. 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Services 


Fic. 33.—This shows a method sometimes employed in riving sections of white oak logs into 
stave bolts. Houston Co., Tennessee. 


Where the seasoning and aging of the contained beverages are in- 
volved, as mentioned above, all white oak barrels are charred on the 
inside to an average depth of § to 4 of aninch. This has been univer- 
sally the custom for a long time, especially with whisky barrels. 

The pure food laws passed by Congress and the increase in petroleum 
and turpentine production greatly stimulated the demand for tight bar- 
rels. As soon as these laws went into effect, there was a very strong 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 145 


demand upon the distillers and others for considerable quantity of 
bonded goods resulting in an increased demand for raw materials for 
staves and heading. The great increase in the production of petroleum 
and, to some extent, of cotton seed oil and turpentine, have also tended 
to enlarge the demand upon white oak and other species used for these 
barrels. The prohibition laws have not materially decreased the output 
of tight cooperage stock because the demand for oil staves and heading 
has increased to such a large extent. 


SPECIAL FEATURES 


Altogether the tight cooperage industry is distinguished by the follow- 
ing outstanding features: 

1. The steadily increasing demands for stave and heading stock 
attended by the rapidly rising stumpage values and prices demanded for 
the product. 

2. Great waste in the erdaction and manufacture of both staves and 
heading. In the early days, staves were almost entirely rived in order 
to insure straight grain in the finished stave. At the present time, only 
a small portion of our tight staves are bucked, and split, and hewed, and 
these are turned out almost entirely for foreign consumption. They 
bring unusually high prices compared to the sawed staves. It is esti- 
mated that from 50 to 70 per cent of the raw material as it stands in the 
woods is lost in the manufacture of staves even under the present methods 
pursued in the industry and from 40 to 60 per cent of the raw material 
is lost in the manufacture of heading. Only trees above 16 in. in diam- 
eter at breast height can be used and the heart of the largest trees up to 
a diameter of from 4 to 8 in. is usually left in the woods together with all 
sap wood, tops, cross grain and knotty or otherwise defective material. 
Only rarely is material less than 12 in. in diameter at the top taken, thus 
leaving a long, clear top frequently in the woods. This top is sometimes 
utilized for ties or for wagon and chair stock. 

3. There is a very heavy drain upon one species which lends itself 
most admirably for the purpose of tight cooperage stock and for. which 
there are no apparent satisfactory substitutes. It is estimated that 
from 12 to 16 per cent of all oak cut for lumber and all other purposes 
goes into tight cooperage stock. ' 

4. Production by means of small portable mills, which are frequently 
moved from place to place near the source of supply, and long hauls of the 
rough product to the nearest railroad point or shipping wharf along the 

river. Some companies own from 20 to 40 or more of these small port- 


146 FOREST PRODUCTS 


able mills, which are scattered over the white oak regions of Arkansas, 
Tennessee, Mississippi, Missouri and other states from five to twenty-five 
or more miles from the nearest shipping point. 

5. The industry is highly specialized in that few local mills or plants 
make more than two kinds of staves or heading for the market. The 
manufacture of beer and ale staves constitutes a separate branch of the 
industry. 


SPECIES USED 


White oak comprises from 75 to 85 per cent of all the material used for 
tight cooperage staves and from 65 to 70 per cent of all the material used 
for heading. 

Other species used for staves are red oak, red gum and ash. Ash 
makes up about 75 per cent or more of all of the heading used in pork 
barrels. Red oak constitutes about 14 per cent of all the material used 
for tight cooperage heading. Other species used for heading purposes 
in order are red gum, white pine, white ash, basswood and cypress. 
Other species occasionally used which are coming into greater prom- 
inence from year to year, are beech, birch, chestnut, Douglas fir, hard 
maple and spruce. 

Most of the white oak is the true white oak (Quercus alba). Some of 
it is post oak (Q. minor) and some of the other white oaks, such as over- 
cup oak (Q. acuminata) bur oak (Q. macrocarpa) and swamp white oak 
(Q. platanoides) are used to a limited extent. There is very little differ- 
ence in the character of the wood produced by these various white oaks 
and they are usually accepted without discrimination by the manufac- 
turers and purchasers of stumpage under the single head of white oak. 

The highest grade of staves are called Bourbon staves, which are 
known as “ whiskies”’ in the trade. These barrels are made entirely, 
that is, including both staves and heading, of white oak. The grade of 
tight staves which brings the next highest price on the market are the 
spirit and wine staves, which are colloquially known as “‘ wines ” in the 
trade. These also are made entirely of white oak. The next grade are 
the oils and tierces, which are known as “ oils’ and which are largely 
made up of white oak, but red oak and red gum are used to some extent. 
The least expensive staves are those used in pork barrels and are called 
“porks.” White ash furnishes a large amount of material for these 
barrels and white oak is also used to a large extent as well as red oak, 
red gum, Douglas fir, birch and hard maple. 

Although these four kinds of staves constitute the large majority of 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 147 


staves turned out for tight cooperage, there are also a large number of 
other specialized products, such, for example, as beer barrels and special 
barrels for the West Indian liquor trade, for claret, turpentine, molasses, 
tank staves and other special sizes such as half beer barrels, quarter 
barrels, sixth barrels, eighth barrels, ale hogsheads, etc. 

In order of quantity, oil and tierce staves come first. Next, in order, 
are the “ wines,” then the “ whiskies,” the “‘ porks,” etc. With the 
advent of prohibition, there has been a decrease in the production of 
wines and whiskies and a great increase in the making of oil barrels. 


ANNUAL PRODUCTION 


It is estimated that at the present time between 450,000,000 and 
500,000,000 staves are annually produced together with about 40,000,000 
sets of heading for the tight-cooperage industry. ~ 

According to the latest available government statistics! published for 
the year 1911, there were over 357,000,000 staves produced during that 
year and over 30,000,000 sets of heading. Although the production of 
both staves and heading are distributed over 25 different states, nearly 
one-third of all staves were produced in Arkansas where more than 
twice as many were cut than in the state next in order of production. 
Other important states producing staves are Tennessee, West Virginia, 
Mississippi and Kentucky. New Hampshire is classified as an important 
tight cooperage state, but this produces chiefly white pine stock for fish 
and pickle buckets, mince-meat pails, etc. Sometimes these are classified 
with the slack cooperage stock. 7 

Arkansas furnishes 40 per cent of the heading and nearly three times 
more than Tennessee, its nearest competitor. Other important states 
producing heading are Mississippi, Kentucky, Missouri and Louisiana. 

It is apparent, therefore, that the industry is centralized in Arkansas 
and a few other states bordering on the Mississippi River south of the 
mouth of the Ohio River. 

As contrasted with the production of 1911, in 1905 there were pro- 
duced only about 241,000,000 staves and about 13,000,000 sets of head- 
ing, nearly all of which was made up of white oak. ° 

About 25 per cent of our tight cooperage stock is exported under 
normal conditions, New Orleans being the principal exporting center. 
Hewed staves are manufactured almost entirely for the foreign market, 
most of the work being done by expert foreign laborers. Most of the 
exported material goes to Europe, and France is the leading nation which 

1U. S. Bureau of the Census and U. S. Forest Service. 


148 FOREST PRODUCTS 


imports American tight cooperage stock. Most of the exported material 
is used for the wine trade. 

About 87 per cent of the staves manufactured in 1911 were sawed. 
About 94 per cent of the heading was sawed. Others were bucked 
and split or hewed. There are about 500 active establishments pro- 
ducing tight cooperage staves and heading in this country. 


VALUE OF PRODUCTS 


In 1909 the value of tight staves produced was estimated to be 
$9,201,964; or an average of $24.26 per thousand for the 379,000,000 
staves produced in that year. In the same year there were 20,691,000 
sets of heading produced having a total value of $3,716,000.’ In addi- » 
tion to this there were 16,547,000 beer and ale staves produced for which 
no available figures are obtainable regarding value. More recent data 
relating to total production and values are not available, but market 
quotations show a tremendous increase in prices. For instance, early 
in 1915 Bourbon staves were selling in the Ozark region for $52 per 
thousand f.o.b. car, while, in December, 1916, this grade brought $77. 
In 1916 the number of finished barrels produced for malt liquors amounted 
to 58,634,000. Their output has not varied greatly during the past ten 
years. Since the average price of a barrel was about $2 f.0.b. central 
markets, in 1917, the total value of finished high-grade stock produced 
annually amounts to over $177,000,000.! 


WOODS OPERATIONS 


In contrast with the general policy followed in the slack cooperage 
industry where the logs and bolts or other raw material are brought to 
the mill, in the tight cooperage industry it is the general custom to use 
small portable mills, which are set up in the woods near the source of the 
raw material and are frequently moved about from place to place. This 
means a much shorter haul of the bolts, which are the form of the raw 
material used customarily in the manufacture of tight cooperage stock. 

Formerly a good share of the tight staves were rived, but this method 
was so very wasteful and the supply of raw material became relatively 
so limited that most of the tight cooperage staves are now split into bolts 
and then sawed into staves at small portable mills located at convenient 
accessible points throughout the forest. Beer staves and a very few 
whisky and wine staves are still split out. It is also the custom to rive 
isolated timber more commonly than accessible timber because there is 

1 From data supplied by the U. S. Forest Service. 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 149 


less waste material to be hauled in with rived staves and, therefore, the 
haul can be done cheaper. In Germany, the proper bilge of rived staves 
_is secured by hewing, whereas bending is secured in the United States in 
a finishing plant by end pressure. 


Stumpage. 

Within recent years, stumpage values in Arkansas have averaged 
from $2.50 to $5.50 or more per thousand board feet, depending upon (a) 
quality and size of the trees; (6) location, that is, the topography and its 
relation to the nearest available haul-roads; (c) accessibility or distance 
to the mill or shipping point. The nature of the haul-road, including its 
grade and the character of its surface, have a strong bearing on the value 
of stumpage. 

Only the best white oaks are taken. They must be tall, straight, 
cylindrical, free from large limbs for a good height and at least 16 in. in 
diameter at breast height. Under average conditions, only about 500 
to 1000 bd. ft. of desirable white oak material are found per acre in the 
Arkansas forests. 

Stumpage is higher for good stave stock than for heading because 
better quality is demanded for stave stock, and it is possible to use a 
greater portion of the tree with heading on account of the bolts being 
shorter. Sometimes the same tree is used for both stave and heading 
bolts, but with the majority of operations the work is limited to either the 
cutting out of one or the other product. Very commonly the defects 
are not visible until the tree has been opened up, so that there is a large 
amount of waste attendant upon most of these operations. There is, 
of course, a great deal more waste with rived staves than with sawed 
staves because the former must be of absolutely straight-grained mate- 
rial. There is also much more waste with whisky staves than in the 
case of “oils.” ‘“‘ Oils,” on the other hand, require considerably more 
waste than pork staves. 

It is the general practice in purchasing stumpage to pay for only the 
scale of the quartered sections which come up to grade. Stumpage is 
paid for on the basis of per thousand board feet, bolt scale. There is 
considerable agitation now in the Forest Service to pay for stumpage on. 
the basis of cubical contents regardless of board measure actually used. 


Rived Staves. 
Only the finest white oak timber is selected for rived staves, as it must 


be wholly free from defects and, in addition, it must be straight-grained in 
order to split out properly. 


150 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The white oaks are felled and sawed by cross-cut saws into blocks 
which are 2 in. longer than the intended staves. The sap line is demarked 
with a pencil and inside the sap line with the help of a pattern showing 
the cross-section of the staves, as many staves as-possible are pencil 
marked. By the use of axes, wedges and wooden mauls, the block is 
then halved, quartered and split out along the pencil marks. Staves 
are split out along the medullary rays in order to insure the greatest 
impermeability. The core of at least 4 in. in diameter containing the 
‘small limb stubs is usually thrown away. The 
rough staves are inspected, sorted and piled in a 
hollow square or ‘‘ hog-pen fashion ” for air dry- 
ing. As arule, woodsmen do this work by con- 
tract, supplying their own tools. The rough 
staves after being thoroughly air dried are run 
through the stave bucker, by which three- 
quarters of all the rived staves are made in 
Fic. 34.—Diagram showing the United States. This machine dresses and 

SRR ORE oa tae planes both sides of the stave to proper cur- 
the sap and heart are com- Vature and thickness. A rack forces the rough 
monly wasted.” - staves through the narrow space left between 
two knives which are fastened in a rocking 
frame. The knives are either straight or curved to correspond to 
the periphery of the ‘barrel. Sometimes the staves are run through 
a stave dresser instead of through:the bucker. The dresser carries 
knives on two cutter heads, dressing and shaping the staves on 
both sides to proper thickness and leaving either an abrupt or gradual 
shoulder. Rived staves finished in this way are much less permeable 
than staves cut out on the circular drum saw, because the latter does not 
always follow the grain of the wood. ; 


Logging and Delivering Bolts. 


In logging- bolts for sawed staves, woodsmen fell the trees and cross- 
cut them into bolts which vary in length from 18 to 38 in. Those for 
heading are usually 22 in. long while those for staves are 37 to 38 in. long, 
depending upon the economy of waste. <A 30-in. bolt is the minimum 
length for staves. The cutters go up the tree trunk as far as the grades 
justify, being limited only by size and the number of limbs and defects 
that may be present. 

The operating season is customarily a year long. Bolts are halved 
and quartered on the ground with a wedge, wooden maul or sledge ham- 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 151 


mer: The bolt makers, as a rule, work by contract by the piece, $2.00 
to $2.75 per cord being paid for felling the timber, making the bolts and 
removing the bark which is done in the same operation. They are 
immediately graded and all bolts taken which will make pork or oil 
staves or better. 

Bolts are then hauled in immediately to the mill and sawed before 
seasoning. They may be ricked or stacked at the mill for from ten to 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 35.— White oak butt cut for stave bolts from which twelve bolts were obtained. The four 
interior sections are called heart bolts and the exterior sections sap bolts. Very often 
both the sapwood and heart of a log are cut away and wasted, leaving only a com- 
paratively small portion to be utilized. Giles Co., Tennessee. 


thirty days. On these hauls, country roads are usually very poor and 
rather rough. On “ rough going” bolts are seldom hauled more than 
three miles. Hauling is done the year round by four-wheeled wagons and 
teams, one-third to one-half a cord usually making up a load. The 
common practice is to let out the hauling by contract to farmers and local 
owners of teams. The cost ordinarily runs about $2.25 per cord for a 


152 FOREST PRODUCTS 


1;-mile haul; $2.50 for a 13-mile haul and $2.75 for a 13-mile haul under 
average conditions of road, surface, etc. 

The following is a summary of the logging costs on a typical operation 
in Arkansas. “~' 


Cost per Cord. 

Road work during operation amounting to-$500 which is pro-rated 
among 1756-cords.). 2.4.57 EAS 4 RES Sera ee . 28 
Felling and bolt-making by.contract.. 0.7.6.5 ccc. 6l....0.55. 2.50 

Brush disposal including lopping and piling on National Forest 
Sales... fecal pseatine be sos oe peu a BSE sees SOS ae nen are 5° 
Bolt haul, inchiding snaking. 3 2s. 1.22.25 EG eee pee 2.55 
Total gost: per cotdic* cscs sss ieee eee $6.03 


The cost of bolts, therefore, stacked on the mill yard in terms of 
thousand staves and on the basis of 500 staves equaling 1 cord of bolts 
would be $12.06 per thousand staves. 


Equivalents. 


Although there is considerable variation in equivalents in this industry, 
the following are generally accepted. There are 80 to 100 bolts of 34-in. 
staves in a cord of bolts. A cord of bolts is equivalent to about 850 it., 
board measure, bolt scale according to the U. S. Forest Service, scale of 
Scribner Decimal C. which allows for cull timber. There are 1000 
staves, 34 to 36 in. long in 2 cords of bolts or in 1700 ft., board measure, 
of bolts by the Scribner Decimal C. scale. Therefore, 1000 ft., board 
measure, will produce about 588 staves, 34 to 36 in. long. 

In some localities it is said that it requires eight 18-in. white oaks to 
average 1000 half-barrel beer staves. 

It requires 1000. ft., board measure, by the Decimal C. scale to pro- 
duce from 300 to 350 tight barrel heads. 

The average width of the standard stave is recognized as 43 in. It 
requires from 18 to 21 standard staves to make a whisky barrel which 
is 81 in. in diameter, outside dimensions. 

On a representative sale involving 412,800 bd. ft. by the Scribner 
Decimal C. scale on the Arkansas National Forest, the following check 
of equivalents was determined: The above amount made 502 cords of 
36-in. bolts and sawed out 256,000 staves, of which 8 per cent or 20,520 
staves were culls, 48 per cent or 122,710 staves were Bourbon, and 44 
per cent or 113,270 staves were wines and oils. One cord of bolts, 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 153 


therefore, made 511 staves of all grades and represented an equivalant 
of 822 bd. ft. 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 36.—Equalizer in operation at a tight stave mill in Tennessee. This machine trims off 
the length of the bolts to an exact size. 


MANUFACTURE OF STAVES AND HEADING 


Manufacturing establishments for making staves and heading from 
bolts are placed in the forest on locations advantageously situated with 
reference to water, yarding facilities and bolt haul. Since the moving 
and setting up of a mill from place to place ordinarily costs about $200, 
the mill is moved to the timber, so to speak, to obviate long, costly hauls. 
In hauling bolts, considerable waste is being transported in the form of 
saw kerf, listings and odds and ends. 

Many mills operate as a rule under one company. The usual practice 
is to have separate mills for staves and headings; the mills being fre- 
quently located now from ro to 20 miles from the nearest points of ship- 
ment on the railroad. This in itself is evidence of the rapidly decreasing 
supply of white oak timber, the most accessible stumpage having been 
cut off sometime ago. There should be at least 2,000,000 staves avail- 
able to be cut from each mill set. Mills should not be moved more 
frequently than once a year, for economical production. 


154 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The mill equipment for staves usually costs about $2 soc to $5000 
with an average of about $3300 aside from horses, tools, harness and nec- 
essary buildings, which are roughly constructed affairs. The men work- 
ing both at these mills and in the woods usually live in tents which are 
easily transported from place to place. 

As soon as convenient after the bolts are hauled in from the woods, 
they are equalized to finish them to a uniform length the same as in the 
finished stave, by the use of a swinging frame operating against two 
cut-off saws. They then go to the circular drum saw shown in the illus- 
tration,’ where staves are cut to the desired bevel or curvature 2 of an inch 


am at nus 
gl 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 37.—A split stave emerging between the bucker knives. The waste shavings are held 
by the operator on each side of the stave. This illustrates one of the wasteful processes 
involved in the production of tight cooperage stock. 


thick for wine staves and { of an inch for whisky staves. The stave saw 
consists of a hollow steel cylinder having the diameter of the barrels to 
be made and carrying saw teeth at one end. It usually saws staves on a 
23-in. circle and up to 36-in. in length. The carriage pushes the bolts 
against this cylinder. A stave holder runs into the cylinder and removes 
the sawed staves. The speed of this saw is about 1500 R.P.M. The 
capacity of one of these drum saws and consequently of the plant runs 
between 8000 and 12,000 staves per day. 

The staves are then stacked in a mill yard and air dried in hollow 
square fashion for from 2 to 6 months prior to the long haul to the rail- 
road. From 400 to 500 staves are hauled per load. Staves are graded 


1 See foregoing chapter on slack cooperage. 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 155 


both at the mill and also at the railroad where they-are usually inspected 
by the purchaser. 

These stave mills do not run regularly and the annual output is com- 
monly only about 900,000 to 1,200,000 staves, although it may be as high 
aS 2,000,000 staves. 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. r 
Fic. 38.—Stave jointers or listing machines in operation at a tight stave mill in Arkansas, 
the center.of production of both tight and slack cooperage.stock. 


The following table shows the men required in one of these stave 
mills, the daily wage paid and the milling cost per thousand staves: 


COST OF MANUFACTURING TIGHT STAVES 


rs) | Milling Cost 
Daily Wage. per M Staves. 


MOR nk oss, FE arith ee os Be fa At OT ee $3.50 5 
RM WO ac ss clus ve wae Puriads aoe seed 2.50 25 
MOM MDOE Mate irs 2 i's liegt a Ulaee's cee aeh wee 2.00 .20 
2 tasters at $2 or 20 cents per. Mi: . 2.2 ie. 62s os See 2 4.00 .40 
MUMMEREEPES 2 Gor hag dicts aig 9 tos coh Sha ee EES a seae oe 2.00 20 
Mpumrentinas AY, CNTINCYT 2. 2 o ee ook nc ceca cvacnses 2.00 20 
t Yardman wheeling bolts (or with mule and dolly)... .. -. 2.00 20 
EM ates Seo hale cB pax oven ee ae eatin ele a ae Ms 2.00 20 
RT coo eae Se ISS ase re vie ew tae oan ee ee eb 17 
a Ry os arate Sar Rae IST a ee atl 1.75 17 
PERE MIMECURIS DOW ey Sol foe ite Seen stasciaw lo wae ROWER 1.50 -1§5 
AMMA TERMINI o.oo Nadas sia Sirivac-o. 5 sain oisre eS Sod ore Se ome | 1.75 -175 
PRIME acs CS 5 esos a5 Scare Shao ni Be Ee mee 1.75 -175 
SPR SASE-5O Per GAY). 0. os one cere eck oc creeds cee ivetae Fatiteeeae as 155 


8 


156 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The following is an estimate of the kind and cost of equipment of a 
typical stave mill before the war: 


Cost (Set-up) including Freight, 


Machinery and Equipment Hauling, and Settings 


1 boiler and setting 40-8 p52. 5 552.05 She ee eee $700 
1 engine complete. scant E Sted seca Bee ee 400 
pulleys and -shatiwg 222. os ae a eee 200 
1 sharpener for-Darrel saw: x20 3.5: 5.3.5 Sv eee 50 
1. bolt equalizetin cases oi nu he vitesse RRO SOAR go 
I Stave NSber roe ce cess aan care eee ee Soi ee 325 
2 equalizer sae. s. cke eats p22. 3G EN oR NS See eta 35 
I 24-in; barrel Stave Saw: .2) 38s a0cia Po, co ae Le ee 550 
I extra CYUAet is eee See hee oa ce ee ne ee 225 
blow pipes for sawdust, etc Rb at ER aaa bine Rae Om er Ce 125 
1 drive Delt 2) Si Cee ea Oo, ee Saat Sof ont ce eas at UR eee 75 
3 trucks ess 2 iu ony de ceo wtisin wae eel ee 100 
Miscellaneous—tools, extra parts, pipes, fittings, wheelianiae 
grindstone.and supplies 5.54.5, «> «ida aw eae see gee 400 
OCA cas Heal coca Sak deck ROE Gee eee ee De ae $3275 


This equipment is capable of turning out about bodes 2,000 whisky 
staves per day of ten hours. 

The cost of staves per thousand on the stave mill yard may be esti- 
mated as follows: 


Cost per M Staves 


Stumpage at $4.00 per thousand board feet................... $7 .00 
Logging cost; felling, bolt making, road making and hauling... 12.06 
Milling. costs 25 8223 ASE aa ha et na as ean a eee 3.00 
General expense 270 Sin. fi eons ets ee ee gi 
SHSUTANCE ANG Takes yo Ss ona us yee eee Se 62 

Petal cosh. oa. ie one ee ee ee ee ee $23.59 


In addition to these costs, the stave haul to the railroad averages from 
$6.00 to $9.00, depending upon distance, character of haul, finish of timber, 
labor, etc. Inspection, grading and loading costs about 75 cents per 
thousand staves. 

The total cost, therefore, delivered at the shipping point runs between 
$28 and $33 per thousand staves. 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 157 


On many of these operations, an estimate that 60 per cent of the staves 
are sufficiently good for “‘ wines” and 40 per cent for “ oils’ is made. 
The former bring about $50 per thousand and the latter $25 per thousand. 
The selling price runs, therefore, about $40 per thousand staves, leaving 
a profit of from $7.00 to $12.00 on each thousand staves marketed. 


a 
yy 


to 


Na ns ae 


tae - 
) =e. 


( 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 39.—About 1,000,000 tight cooperage staves piled for seasoning in Quitman Co., 
Mississippi. 


Heading mills are operated along the same lines as described for tight 
staves, and the stock is always sawed in 1-in. thicknesses from bolts cut 
about 2 in. longer than the diameter of the finished heading. The 
machines commonly used in these small portable heading mills are a 
heading bolter, a heading saw, a heading jointer and doweler, a heading 
planer and a heading rounder together with a baler or baling press. 


158 FOREST PRODUCTS 


In the manufacture of heading, the same general method is followed 
as described in the chapter on slack cooperage heading except that the 
machinery is much more specialized and expensive. The power required 
at one of these portable heading mills is about 25 to 30 h.p. It is esti- 
mated that at each location of the mill about 200,000 sets of heading are 
turned out. About 8000 to 10,000 headings are completed per day of ten 
hours. 

Most of the heading turned out for tight barrels is doweled to insure a 
tighter fit and to prevent loosening of the joints in any way. These 
dowels are customarily ;; of an inch in diameter. Many plants have 


Fic. 40.—Stave jointer in operation in a large cooperage assembling plant. 


their own machines to make dowel pins. One machine in common use 
splits the material into proper thickness for the pins, then forces it through 
the dies and delivers the pins separate from the waste. The machine 
makes 3 pins at a stroke and will turn out several bushels of about 5000 
pins each, in a day of ten hours. 

The final finishing of staves and heading, including dressing, dry- 
kilning, bending, packing, etc., is accomplished at large plants which are 
chiefly centralized in large centers within or contiguous to the producing 
regions such as Memphis, Louisville, Peoria, St. Louis and other points 
on the lower Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 159 


Bending was formerly accomplished by steaming and drying on a form. 
It is now done almost entirely by end pressure on a stave-bending ma- 
chine and held in shape by iron holders called “ span dogs,” which are 
released when the staves are assembled in the finished container. Bend- 
ing is used for beer staves and those intended for packages of considerable 
bilge. Otherwise there would be a serious loss from breakage in wind- 
lassing when the unbent staves are forced together for the upper truss 
hoop. 


ASSEMBLING 


As a rule the assembling of tight cooperage stock into barrels, kegs, 
etc., is done at or near the plant where the contents are put into them, 
as was found to be the case in connection with the assembling of slack 
cooperage stock. It is true, however, that more tight barrels are made 
and shipped from large central cooperage plants to points of destination 
where they are to be filled than in the case of slack barrels. This is 
notably true in the case of turpentine barrels and to some extent with 
beer kegs, whisky barrels and others. 

The assembling of tight cooperage stock demands the greatest care 

and skill for the apparent reasons that (a) the finished barrel must be 
sufficiently tight to prevent leakage, (6) the vessel must withstand trans- 
portation to great distances together with considerable rough handling, 
and (c) the barrel must often resist great internal pressure from fer- 
menting liquors. 
*. The machinery, therefore, must be of the most elaborate, exacting 
’ and specialized design. Special types of assembling machinery have 
recently been invented and placed on the market which are vast improve- 
ments over the old hand cooper or even the machinery in use ten and 
twenty years ago. Most of them are great labor-saving devices. 

The machinery usually found in a modern up-to-date tight cooperage 
shop consists of the following: A setting-up form with necessary truss 
hoops, a power windlass, a heater, a trusser, a crozer, a head-setting form, 
a lathe, a thin hoop driver, a heading-up machine, a bung borer and a 
barrel tester. When the steel hoops are made in the plant it is essential 
to have, in addition, a hole-punching machine, a riveter and a hoop flarer. 

In many of the plants the stock is brought in in bundles, enough 
staves (usually 18) in one bundle for one barrel. First the staves are set 
up in a form by a “ raiser ” or “setter up,’’ who sends them directly 
to the steamers, where they are heated or steamed for from three to five 
minutes to increase the flexibility of the staves. Then they are “ wind- 


160 FOREST PRODUCTS 


lassed ’’ by power which consists of throwing a wire rope over the loose 
ends and drawing them together until the head truss hoop can be thrown 
over them. The power is then released and the barrel rolled or conveyed 
to the trusser after leveling the staves by slamming the barrel on end on 
the floor. When steamed, the barrels, after windlassing, are sometimes 
sent to the heaters to dry them out. The function of the trusser is to 
force the hoops well down on the barrel. The barrel next goes to the 
crozing machine which crozes, chimes and howels the staves in one oper- 


Fic. 41.—Method of heating the staves preliminary to placing them in a power windlass for 
final assembling. 


ation, finishing both ends at the same time. To accomplish this, the 
three tools are placed in one head, which, revolving at high speed inside 
of the package insures a uniform thickness and depth of chime. Mean- 
while stationary cutters level the barrel. The bung hole is then bored 
and the barrel goes to the heading-up machine, where the heading is 
inserted by releasing the head truss hoops. Many of the tight barrels 
are inserted in a lathe and turned at a rate of from 100 to 150 R.P.M. 
against a smoothing plane to give them a better finish. The barrels then 
go to the thin hooper, where the steel hoops are driven down in final 
shape. The last operation consists of testing the permeability of the 
vessels, after which all cracks or leaks are repaired and it is inspected 
and stored until needed. 


TIGHT COOPERAGE 161 


In finishing tight cooperage barrels, flat steel or iron hoops are used 
almost entirely, as they are stronger and less liable to breakage and dam- 
age than wooden hoops. They are, however, much more expensive 
than the wooden hoops. 


Fic. 42.—Machine for chamfering, howeling and crozing tight barrels. 


Many of the tight-barrel plants assemble from 300 to 1000 or more 
packages per day of ten hours. In a plant turning out from 500 to 800 
barrels formed of 34-in. staves and 203-in. heading the following labor 
was employed. All of the men excepting the foreman received ordinary 
day wages running from $1.75 to $2.25 per day before the war: 

1 man to bring in the bundles of staves. 
I man raising and setting up the staves. 
1 man to steam the barrels and to operate the windlass to bring the staves 

together with the top hoop. . 

1 man looking after the stoves or heaters. 
r man to level up the barrels. 

r man to run the trusser. 

r man to croze the barrels. 

1 man to bore bung holes. 

I man operating the heading-up machine. 
1 man at the thin hooper. 

1 man testing barrels. 

rt man making hoops. 

I man inspecting and repairing barrels. 

1 foreman. 


162 FOREST PRODUCTS 


STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND RULES 


These rules govern the sales and arbitrations dealing with the market- 
ing of tight cooperage stock and have been adopted by the National 
Coopers’ Association, 1916. 


Bucked Bourbon Barrel Staves. 


Shall be equalized, 34, 35 or 353 in. long, as agreed, to be, when thoroughly kiln- 
dried, j in. thick, and to average in width when close jointed, free of sap, not exceeding 
21 staves to the barrel, and to be free of seed or worm holes of any kind, cat faces or 
checks, and crooks inside or outside. (A twist, not varying to exceed 3-in. from a 
straight line shall be allowed.) Crooks with hollow to back of stave, not exceeding 
3 in. in variation to 12 in. in length, shall be allowed. Reverse crooks not admitted. 
Sound streaks that do not go through stave will be admitted, provided they are on 
inside of stave and over 6 in. from ends. 

(See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) 


Bucked Alcohol and Whisky Barrel Staves. 


Same specifications as bucked Bourbon staves, except length is to be 33 or 34 in., 
and thickness # in. after being thoroughly kiln-dried. 
(See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) 


Sawed Alcohol, Bourbon and Rye Whisky Barrel Staves. 


Shall be sawed with the grain from straight-grain bolts, and equalized 33 or 34, 
35 or 36 in. long, as agreed, to be evenly sawed and of uniform thickness throughout, 
and when thoroughly kiln-dried to be full #, 3 or 1 in. thick, respectively, when planed 
on inside or outside; and full +3, +2 and 135 in. thick, respectively, when not planed. 
To average in width when close jointed, free of sap, not exceeding 21 staves to the 
barrel, and to be free of seed or worm holes of any kind, cat faces or checks. Sound 
streaks that do not go through staves will be admitted, provided they are on inside of 
stave and over 6 in. from ends. The grain of the stave must be such that a straight 
line, drawn at right angles, across the thickness at the ends of a stave must pass 
through not less than three lines of grain at any one place. 

(See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) 


Bucked or Sawed Half Whisky and Alcohol Staves. 


Same specifications as above, length 26 to 30 in., as agreed, thickness }4 or 3 in., 
as agreed, and to average in width when close jointed and free of sap not less than 19 
staves to a half-barrel. 

(See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) 


Sawed Wine Barrel Staves. 

Shall be sawed with the grain from straight grain bolts and equalized, 34 in. long, 
and to be, when kiln-dried and planed on both sides, 7% in. thick, and when planed 
on one side to be 3 in. scant thick; to average in width when close jointed, not-exceed- 
ing 21 staves to the barrel. Slight defects not showing through on both sides admis- 
sible. 

(See notes I., II., IV., and V., following.) 


TIGHT COOPERAGE | 163 


Red Oak Oil Barrel or Tierce Staves. 

Shall be equalized, 34, 35 or 36 in. long, as agreed, and to be, when thoroughly dry, 
3-in. thick, evenly sawed and of uniform thickness throughout; to average in width 
when close jointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 22 staves to the standard 
barrel. To be free from seed holes, cat faces which show through on both sides, and 
rotten sap. 

(See notes following.) 


Turpentine Barrel Staves. 

Shall be equalized, 34 in. long, and to be, when thoroughly kiln-dried and planed, 
not less than 3-in. thick, evenly sawed, and of uniform thickness throughout; to 
average in width when close jointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 22 staves to 
the standard barrel. 

To be free from seed holes, cat faces, rotten sap, wood want or proof. 

(Notes I., IV. and V.; also note IL. as to length only.) 


Cuban Tierce Staves. 


Shall be equalized, 36 in. long, and, when thoroughly dry, to measure 1 in. thick, 
otherwise to grade same as 3-in. oil or tierce; to average in width, when close jointed, 
including sap, not exceeding 21 staves to a barrel. 

(See notes following.) 


Pork Staves. 


"Shall be equalized, 30 in. long, and, when thoroughly dry, to measure $ in. thick, 
evenly sawed and of uniform thickness throughout; to average in width, when close 
jointed, including sound sap, not exceeding 19 staves to the barrel. To be free from 


__ seed holes, cat faces, wind shakes and rotten sap. Slight defects not showing through 


on both sides of staves admissible. 
(See notes following.) 


Notes. 

Nore I. All staves must be evenly equalized, so as to be square on the ends. 

Nore II. Variations in staves. All staves must not be less than the standard 
measurement herein stated, but if } in. shorter or longer, or ;g in. over or under spe- 
cifications in thickness on one edge, will not affect the grade. 

Note III. Worm holes. Sound worm holes in sawed oil tierce, or pork staves 
not exceeding two in a straight line across the width of the staves within 12 in. of the 
center, not more than five worm holes in any one stave, and 10 per cent of the number 
of staves in carload will be admitted. 

Norte IV. All staves must have a proper circle; no flat staves will be sine. 

Note V. When not otherwise agreed, all staves over 30 in. in length shall be 
settled for on an average width basis of 4} in., and all staves 26 to 30 in. in length, on 
an average width basis of 4} in . 

Nore VI. Unless otherwise specified by the buyer, all oil barrel staves averaging 
18 to 31 in. shall be ager with a 3-in. bilge, and for each stave in excess of 18 staves 
the bilge shall be reduced 3 of an inch. 

(Note that this does nae prevent parties contracting for staves on basis of any 
other width if they prefer. These specifications are to apply where there is no spe- 
cific agreement.) 


164 FOREST PRODUCTS 


EXPORTS 


The exports of staves from this country are shown in the following 
table. They are practically all tight barrel staves used largely in the wine 
trade of Europe: 


STAVES FROM THE UNITED STATES 


i eae Number of Staves. . Value in Dollars. 
1914 775150;535 $5,852,230 
1915 39,297,268 2,481,592 
1916 57,537,010 3,529,181 
IQI7 61,469,225 3,921,882 
1918 63,207,351 3,724,895 


These staves go principally to Canada, France, Italy, Spain, Holland 
and England. 


CHAPTER VII 


NAVAL STORES 


GENERAL 


THE naval stores industry is one of the most important of all forest 
industries, excepting lumbering, measured in terms of the value of its 
products. It is also one of the oldest of the forest industries in this coun- 
try. The value of the products turpentine and rosin, in 1910, was over 
$35,000,000. The industry has been closely identified with the economic 
development of the South. The earlier colonists depended to a large 
degree on the products of the industry for their livelihood, particularly 
in North Carolina and South Carolina. The primary products of the 
earlier development of the industry, pitch and tar, were among the first 
exports from this country and were extensively used in wooden sailing 
vessels; hence the name naval stores. This name is still applied to the 
present products of the industry, which are confined to turpentine and 
rosin. 

The production of naval stores is a waning industry, due to the rapid 
depletion of the virgin timber supply and the failure to perpetuate the 
industry either by providing for the reproduction of the forests or by con- 
servative methods of tapping, which would at least continue to an appre- 
ciable extent the life of the industry. Until about 1890, lumbermen con- 
sidered timber bled for turpentine unfit for manufacturing into lumber 
and literally billions of board feet of valuable timber have been allowed 
to go to waste by windfall, insects and fire, especially in Georgia and the 
Carolinas, after the bleeding process had been completed. 

Until the introduction of various forms of cups in which to collect the 
resinous exudation from the trees, the method of boxing has been prac- 
tically the same for the past two hundred years. 

The gummy exudation from the tree is called crude turpentine or 
resin, and the final products of the industry as marketed are called spirits 
of turpentine or turpentine, which is the distillate of the resin, while the 
residue after distillation is called rosin. 

165 


166 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The question of the effect of turpentining on the strength and dura- 
bility of lumber and timbers has long been a debated subject. Investi- 
gations have proven that it has practically no deleterious effect of this 
kind; in fact, bled timber is more durable than “ round ” or unbled tim- 
ber, owing to the increased presence of resin. However, on account of 
the discrimination in the lumber grading rules against excessively resinous 
lumber and the fact that the wood back of the faces on turpentined timber 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 43.—Cutting a “ box ” in the base of a longleaf pine for the collection of resin as it 
exudes after each chipping. 


is generally heavily filled with resin to a depth of } to 1 in., the propor- 
tion of high-grade lumber contained in “ round” or unbled timber is 
somewhat greater than that cut from turpentined or bled timber. This 
condition is minimized to a large extent by slabbing a butt log containing 
a turpentined “‘ face ” at the saw-mill, in order to remove all of the wood 
having a high resin content. ; 


NAVAL STORES 167 


SOURCE OF PRODUCTS 


The naval stores industry is confined to eight states of the southeast, 
bordering the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico from North Carolina to Texas, 
inclusive. Probably at least 90 per cent of the total products is derived 
at present from the longleaf yellow pine (Pinus palustris). Cuban or 
slash pine (Pinus heterophylla) is also tapped. Other Southern pines 
such as the loblolly and shortleaf pines yield a resinous exudation when 
tapped, but there is not a sufficient quantity of resin available to make 
their exploitation for this purpose commercially profitable. Western 
yellow pine may be developed in the future in the southwest, California 
and in Oregon, and experiments have demonstrated that the resinous 
flow is sufficient to justify commercial development. However, there 
are many practical and commercial difficulties in the way of present 
development, particularly the labor question and a market for the 
products. _ 

Resin is stored in resin ducts which are peculiarly large and abundant 
in longleaf and-Cuban pines. The resin ducts form in the region of the 
cambium layer. When exposed by a cut or chipping streak the exuda- 
tion of their resinous secretion is permitted. Each cut stimulates the 
formation and development of. other resin ducts:above the incision or cut 
and an area of from 2'to 3m. above:the cut is affected in this way. 

Experiments have shown that over 67 per cert of the total resin 
flow after each exposure or chipping occurs within the first twenty-four 
hours. Oxidation and -crystallization of the resin at’the mouths of the 
resin ducts causes them to be clogged, so it is necessary to make fresh cuts 
from time to time to renew the flow by opening new ducts. Chipping is 
consequently done every week. At the expiration of this period prac- 
tically all flow from the previous cut has ceased. If the weather suddenly 
turns cold it is likely to retard or even completely stop the flow of resin. 


ANNUAL PRODUCTION 


North and South Carolina were formerly and for a long time the most 
important centers of production of naval stores. When the virgin 
longleaf timber of these states was largely bled for turpentine, Georgia 
became the center of production. For the past two decades, Florida 
has been the great producing center of naval stores. The largest 


168 FOREST PRODUCTS 


areas of forest still untapped are in Florida. The only other large areas 
of virgin forests still remaining unbled for turpentine and rosin are to 
be found in Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. 

According to Veitch, the following is an estimate of the production 
of turpentine and rosin for the calendar year 1918: 


PRODUCTION OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN FOR 1918 


State i tee hae rays eg = ape 

Flonda. (ic eee REF ag Dye 104,478 321 SII 349 
GeOrgid As. cee OR pL aloe ee 54,192 170,884 Beery i 
Léntisiana, 2 igs earnest ees, hes 52,636 155,402 38 
Alabama . viene ss apie eae 33,076 105,029 145 
Missiesip pi ots scttp.see > Seed nated 31,217 92,149 40 
"Texas? sg ee eal isiarome asia 23,086 67,552 8 
North Carolina. .\.)5 5.06.5 ween + 554 1,981 17 
South Carolinirecic, sesh tic tateren 429 1,438 17 

POA Secs es ok seer ee Ae 299,668 915,946 987 


There has been a great decrease in the production of turpentine and 
rosin during the recent years. There was a serious drop in production 
from 1917°to 1918. The industry is on the wane due to the rapid ex- 
haustion of the available timber supplies of the South. 

More than 50 per cent of the total amount of products are exported. 
The high peak in the value of the exports of naval stores was reached in 
1912, when $26,754,987 worth were exported. In 1917 only $15,581,208 
worth of naval stores were exported. This country is the great source 
of the world’s supply of turpentine and rosin. In normal times the 
products were chiefly sent to Germany, the United Kingdom, the Nether- 
lands and Canada. The war has seriously interfered with the exports of 
naval stores from this country. 

The peak in the production of turpentine was reached in 1900, when 
38,488,000 gal. were produced, and the greatest quantity of rosin was pro- 
duced in 1908, when 4,288,000 barrels were placed on the market. For 
the five-year period up to 1914 the average annual production was 
31,800,000 gal. of turpentine and 3,700,000 barrels of rosin. The follow- 
ing table shows the quantity and value of turpentine and rosin produced 
according to the. Census Bureau figures, from the years 1900 to 


1913: 


Lea ee SC 


NAVAL STORES 


169 


NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS AND QUANTITY AND VALUE OF TURPEN- 
TINE AND ROSIN PRODUCED—UNITED STATES 


(Figures taken from reports of the Bureau of the Census) 


| 


r TURPENTINE. Rosin. Combined 
< Ne mber of URPENTINE OSIN Se a 
=: 3 = l Turpentine 
a Gallons. Value. Barrels. | Value. and Rosin. 
Te ey ae 2 OOO OOS: foo aiss -ckes3 3,815,000 | 
US 1) age Be 34,000,000 | ....--...- 4,000,000 | } no data no data 
Le Oe 8 EU et BE MOO 000 Po gene coos ue 3,800,000 ) 
TAG ee) eee eee 27,750,000 | $17,680,000 | 3,651,000 $18,255,000 $35,035,000 
1909 1,585 28,941,000 | 12,654,000 | 3,258,000 | 12,577,000 | 25,231,000 
1908 1,696 36,589,000 | 14,112,000 | 4,288,000 | 17,795,000 | 31,907,000 
1907 1,629 34,181,000 | 18,283,000 | 3,999,000 | 17,317,000 | 35,600,000 
1904 1,287 30,687,000 | 15,170,000 | 3,508,000 | 8,726,000 | 23,896,000 
1900 1,503 38,488,000 | 14,960,000 | 2,563,000 | 5,129,000 | 20,090,000 


1 According to ** Naval Stores Review "’ of Apr. 4, 1914. 
The following table shows the quantity and value of turpentine and 
rosin exported from this country for the various years from 1860 to 1913: 


QUANTITY AND VALUE OF SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN EXPORTED, 
1860-1913 


(Figures from the Bureau of the Census) 


TURPENTINE. Rosin. 
Year Ending é 
June 30th. j 
Gallons. | Value. Barrels. Value. 

IgI3 21,039,597 $8,794,656 2,806,046 $17,359,145 
1gI2 19,599,241 10,069,135 2,474,460 16,462,850 
IQII 14,817,751 10,768,202 2,189,607 14,067,335 
1910 15,587,737 8,780,236 2,144;318 9;753,488 
1909 17,502,028 7,018,058 2,170,177 8,004,838 
1908 19,532,583 10,146,151 2,712,732 11,395,126 
1905 15,894,813 8,902,101 2,310,275 ~ 7,069,084 
1903 16,378,787 8,014,322 2,396,498 4,817,205 
1900 18,090,582 8,554,922 2,369,118 3,796,367 
1890 11,248,920 4,590,931 * 1,601,377 ? 2,762,373 
1880 7,091,200 2,132,154 ? 1,040,345 *2,368,180 
1870 3,246,697 1,357,302 * 583,316 * 1,776,625 
1860 4,072,023 1,916,289 1 770,652 1 7,818,238 


1 Turpentine included with rosin: 


WOODS OPERATION 


For many years the unit of woods operation has been the “ crop,” 
which consists of an orchard of 10,500 boxes or faces. The area included 
within the crop varies considerably with the density of the stand, the size 
of the individual trees and the intensity of the boxing (number of boxes 


170 FOREST PRODUCTS 


per tree). This number has been determined upon as a result of experi- 
ence—it being found to be the most convenient in laying out a turpentine 
operation, collecting the products, supervision, etc. Subdivisions of 
the crop are called “ drifts,” which may follow topographic or other 
natural or artificial divisions. 
Boxing. 

After laying out the crop, the trees are boxed during the winter accord- 
ing to the old-fashioned system. This consists of chopping a cavity or 
“box ” about 3 to 4 in. wide, 6 to 7 in. deep and 12 in. long near the base 


' 


thas usltiiil 
Res it 


ps eI 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 44.—‘‘Cornering” a box to provide a smooth surface over which the resin is guided 
into the box. Photograph taken at Statesboro, Georgia. 


of the tree. This cavity will hold about 13 qt. and is designed to catch 
the resin as it exudes from the surface, called the face, which is chipped 
periodically. The top edge of the box is generally from 5 to 12 in. from 
the ground. There may be from one to four or more boxes on every tree; 
depending upon its size. 
Cornering. 

Cornering consists of removing a triangular-shaped chip above each 


NAVAL STORES 171 


corner of the box. It is done to provide a smooth surface over which the 
resinous exudation may flow into the box and to expose two diagonal lines 
to guide the initial chipping. It is shown in the accompanying illus- 
tration. 


Chipping. 


This operation consists of re-exposing the cambium layer by cutting 
it periodically with a chipper or hack. This streak or chipping is done 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 45.—Chipping the fourth streak above a virgin box near Ocilla, Georgia. - Chipping 
is usually done every week to induce new resin flow from March to October. 


every week during the warm season, generally from March to late in 
October, depending upon the season. The number of chippings per sea- 
son may vary from 28 to 40, and the average is about 32. The operation 
of chipping is shown in the accompanying illustration. For high faces, 
up to 8 ft., a long hack sometimes called a “ puller’ is used. A 5 to 7 
Ib. weight on the end of the hack facilitates the work of, cutting the 


172 FOREST PRODUCTS 


streak, which is made by a sharp U-shaped blade made in three sizes 
(usually about 1 in. across the curvature). The gash is about 3 to 13 in. 
in depth. Two cuts, forming a V at an angle of go to 100°, form the 
streak. Chipping continues through four seasons, at the end of which 
a height of about 7 to 8 ft. is attained. Shallow chipping has been found 
to yield better results and it is said that a depth of } in. is the best. 
Narrow chipping, around 3 in. in width, is also best. The present 
method is about r in. or more. This reduces the length of time the 
tree can be tapped. It is possible to improve the present methods 
vastly. An experienced laborer will chip from 8000 to 10,500 faces per 
week, 


Dipping. 

Dipping consists of removing the resin or gum from the box. A 
dipper with a long-handled, trowel-shaped blade is used. The gum is 
emptied into a small wooden bucket which the worker carries from tree 
to tree. Dipping is done every three to five weeks, depending upon the 
season and condition of the trees. Operators generally estimated that 
dipping is done from seven to eight times a season. Resin barrels, 
placed at convenient points through the drifts by a wagon, are used for 
collecting the gum as the buckets are filled. As these barrels are filled 
they are taken directly by wagon to the turpentine stills. One still will 
take care of the products of from 20 to 25 crops of 10,500 boxes each. 


Scraping. 

Owing to the gummy and sticky nature of the resin, considerable 
quantities of it adhere to the face and never reach the box at the base of 
the tree. Obviously, this condition is enhanced the higher the chipping 
occurs up the tree. Cold weather also affects it. This gum is scraped 
from the face at the end of each season by means of special tools called 
“scrapers ” and it is caught at the base of the tree in a wooden receptacle 
called a “scrape box.” The “scrape” yields very inferior products 
compared to the “dip.” It is estimated that only 45 to 60 per cent of 
the normal quantity of turpentine is secured from the scrape and it 
produces a rosin of dark color and consequently of low grade. It gen- 
erally contains many impurities, such as pieces of wood, sci twigs, 
bark, bugs, etc. 

After the turpentine season is over the ground about the base of each 
tree is raked over for a distance of 3 to 4 or more feet to guard against 
fires. Inflammable material such as pine needles, particles of gum, sticks, 


NAVAL STORES 173 


etc., are removed by this raking. The pine woods are then set fire, gen- 
erally speaking, to improve the grazing, keep down the brush, which 
would interfere with the turpentining operation, sand to prevent forest 
fires from starting from some accidental or intentional cause. When 
the woods burn in this way, after raking, there is little likelihood of fires 
getting into the highly inflammable boxes and doing irreparable damage 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 46.—* Dipping ” the resin from the old-fashioned box. This method is very wasteful 
compared to the cup systems. 


by burning out the boxes and resulting in the felling of the tree by wind- 
fall. 


CUP AND GUTTER OR APRON SYSTEMS 
Owing to the serious losses resulting from the wasteful process of 
turpentining by the old box system and the growing scarcity of virgin 
longleaf pine forests still untapped in the South and the consequent 
need for more conservative methods of tapping the trees, several 


174 FOREST PRODUCTS 


processes were introduced from time to time which provided a substitute 
for the box as a method of collecting the resin. It is said that the first 
substitute was patented in 1868. 

In 1894 W. W. Ashe introduced the French cup and gutter system, 
which had proved to be such a success in the maritime pine forests in the 
Landes region of southwest France. Dr. C. H. Herty, however, is gen- 
erally credited with the successful introduction and commercial applica- 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 47.—Correct position of the Herty cup and gutters. This shows the condition of the 
face at the end of the first season after about thirty-five chippings have been made. 


tion of the cup and gutter systems in this country, and the Herty cup is 
now widely used throughout the South. Only within the past two 
decades, however, has this great improvement been generally adopted. 
The first large commercial use of the cup system was in 1904. It is said 
that at the present time as many cups are in use as boxes and on all new 
forests tapped, probably 75 to 80 per cent of all the trees are equipped 


NAVAL STORES 175 


with cups, which have demonstrated a saving of 20 per cent in value of 
products over the old wasteful box method of turpentining. 

The principle of the cup and gutter systems lies in the substitution 
of two gutters or an apron and a cup for the box. The gutters or apron 
is used to guide the crude turpentine, as it exudes from the tree into a 
clay or ga!vanized iron receptacle, which is either hung from a zinc nail 
or the apron itself. The gutters or aprons can be elevated from time to 
time. This obviates the necessity of the gum or resin flowing over such 
a long-exposed face to the box; consequently the amount of scrape is 
reduced and both a greater quantity and higher quality of product are 
secured. 

The gutters are generally 2 in. wide and 6 to 12 in. long and are bent 
into the shape of an obtuse angle. The gutters are inserted in slits made 
by a broadaxe, one projecting about 2 in. beyond the lower end of the 
other in order to conduct all the resin into the cup, which is suspended 
from a nail. Both clay and galvanized iron cups holding 1, 13 and 2 at. 
are commonly used. The position of the cup and gutters is shown in - 
the accompanying illustration. 

In the case of the aprons, a flat piece of galvanized iron, nearly 
rectangular in shape and with one edge concave in order to conform with 
the shape of the tree, is inserted in a slit made with a broadaxe having a 
_ concave edge. The slit is almost horizontal and slopes slightly down- 
ward. 

The cup or receptacle used with this form is generally hung directiy 
from the apron. As in the case of the other form of cup, it may be either 
of clay or galvanized iron, but it is generally made of the latter material. 
In shape it is rectangular, about 12 in. long, 3 in. wide-and about 3 in. 
deep, and is smaller in both length and width at the bottom than at the 
top. The illustration shows the position, shape and method of use of this 
form. 

There are several other forms and adaptations of the forms described 
above and new variations are introduced to the industry nearly every 
year. : 

In all cases, the cups are removed at the end of each season and are 
elevated together with the aprons or gutters to new positions higher on 
the tree at the beginning of each season. 

The advantages of the cup systems over the old box system may be 
summarized as follows: 

1. The yield of turpentine is considerably greater and the value of the 
rosin much higher. This is explained by the fact that the cups are raised 


176 FOREST PRODUCTS 


each year and, therefore, there is more and cleaner resin and much less 
“* scrape ” which yields an inferior grade of rosin. 

2. The danger from fire is greatly decreased. Formerly ground fires 
could easily get into the box cut in the base of the tree and would either 
ruin the face for further turpentining or completely burn away the base 
of the tree. The tree would then deteriorate and be unfit for lumber by 
the time logging operations could move it to the sawmill. 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 48.—Method of collecting resin with the McKoy cup. A single apron is used to conduct 
the resin from the face tothe cup. This is moved up the tree after each season’s opera- 
tions. Walton County, Florida. 


3. The use of cups does not injure the vitality of the tree as does the 
boxes. Often after severe boxing windfall results. The following Table! 
shows a comparison of the number of dead trees and those blown down 


1 From the Naval Stores Industry, by Schorger and Betts, U. S. Dept. of Agric., Forest 
Service, Bulletin No. 229, page 26. 


NAVAL STORES 177 


by the storm under the two systems in one season. It is conclusive evi- 
dence in favor of the cup system over the boxing method: 


TREES Blown Down. DeaD TREES. 
Boxed. | Cupped. Boxed. Cupped. 
After 16 chippings............... 5 2 I 
Alter 32 chippings. <2 22s. 2225.8 8 3 35 16 


Specifications for turpentining recommended by Schorger and Betts 
are as follows: 

1. No trees under to in. in diameter shall be tapped; minimum 
diameter to carry two faces, 16 in.; no tree shall carry more than two faces. 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. 


Fic. 49.—Western yellow pine tapped for naval stores products. Experimental area on 
Coconino National Forest, Arizona. 


2. The faces on trees from ro to 16 in. in diameter shall not exceed 
12 in. in width, and the faces on trees above 16 in. in diameter shall not 
exceed 14 in. in width. 

3. The height of the face shall not be increased by more than 16 in. 
each year the tree is tapped. 


178 FOREST PRODUCTS 


4. Each streak shall not exceed a width of $ in. or a depth of # in., 
the depth being measured from the dividing line between the wood and 
the bark. 

5. Before the chipping season opens the rough oufer bark shall be 
scraped off over the entire surface to be chipped for each season, care 
being taken not to penetrate the living bark. 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 50.—Tools and utensils used in the naval stores industry. From left to right, broadaxe 
used to cut slit for apron, cup and apron in place, hack used in chipping, broadaxe used 
in making “face,” maul, and on right foreground cup and apron. Photograph taken 
on experimental area in western yellow pine timber on Sierra National Forest, California. 


6. During the winter a space of at least 23 ft. shall be raked free of 
debris about each tapped tree. 


DISTILLATION 


As the resin is collected in buckets and then in barrels in the forest, 
it is transported on wagons to the still, located at a place convenient to 
several (20 to 25) crops and generally on a railroad, to facilitate the 
marketing of the products—spirits of turpentine and rosin. Copper 
stills have only been used since 1834. Prior to that time iron retorts 
were used and they were exceedingly crude and wasteful and produced 
a very inferior product. 


NAVAL STORES 179 


The equipment and housing of a modern turpentine distilling plant 
usually consists of the following: 
r still house—a roughly constructed open shed containing the copper 
still, loading platform and “ worm ” for condensing the vapors. 
storage shed, separate from the still, for storing the turpentine. It 
generally houses, as well, the kettle for heating the glue used in coat- 
ing the inside of the turpentine barrels. 
cooperage shed for making rosin barrels. 
rosin screen and rosin barrel platform. 


- 


= 


| ~ . a 


na’ 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 51—Turpentine still at Clinton, Sampson Co., North Carolina. 


The capacity of the stills is generally from 15 to 20 barrels, but may 
be as high as 40 barrels. 

The barrels of crude gum are dumped into the still after removing 
the still head and gooseneck. The residue of gum, sticking to the inside 
of the barrels, is removed by introducing live steam or by allowing them 
to drain slowly. With “ virgin” dip or the new fresh gum, the still is 
only filled to three-quarters its capacity, while with ordinary dip only 
about one-half the still is filled and with old scrape only about one-third 
the still is filled. This is done because of the danger of boiling up into 


180 FOREST PRODUCTS 


the still head and the consequent fire hazard, which must be carefully 
watched in all still operations. 

After charging, the fire is started underneath the still. In the case 
of “scrape,” several pails of water are added. The process of distilla- 
tion requires about 2 to 2} hours. The operator or “ stiller’ watches 
his charge very closely and he can gauge the distillation by the sounds 
emitted from the still and by the relative proportions of water and tur- 
pentine in the distillate. When needed, additional quantities of water 
are run into the still, especially when distilling old dip and scrape. 
The operator can determine the end of the distilling process by the 
small proportion of turpentine in the distillate. It is never attempted 
to remove all of the turpentine because a better grade of rosin is secured 
in this way. The fire is then put out and the residue is skimmed to 
remove the waste and foreign material such as chips, bark, needles, etc., 
which collect on the surface. Sometimes skimming is done during the 
distilling process. 

After skimming, the hot residue is allowed to run out an aperture 
at the base of the still and through a short pipe and a set of three or four 
screens into a large metal vat. The screens are placed, one above the 
other and are of 6- to 8-, 14-, 32- and 60-in. mesh from top to bottom. 
A piece of cotton cloth is generally placed on top of the lowest screen. 

After cooling in the vat for a period up to an hour, depending upon its 
_ temperature, it is dipped out into slack barrels which hold about 450 lb. 
Upon cooling, it hardens in about twenty to twenty-five hours into rosin 
and is ready for shipment to market. Rosin is graded according to its 
color. Virgin dip yields the lightest colored and best rosin, called “W. W.” 
or “ water white,” whereas the scrape yields the darkest and least valua- 
ble rosin. The following are the grades of rosin, in order of quality: 
WW, WG, N, M, K, I, H,G, F, E, D, B. 

As the distillate comes from the copper condenser or worm, it is col- 
lected in a barrel, the turpentine rising by gravity to the top. Near the 
top a spout permits the turpentine to run off into a second barrel, from 
which it is dipped into barrels of 50 gal. capacity and shipped to market. 

Savannah is the great naval stores market in this country, both for 
domestic and foreign consumption. Owing to the large foreign trade 
developed and its proximity to the Georgia and Carolina turpentine 
orchards, it has for a long time held a pre-eminent position and Savannah 
quotations are recognized as the standard in the industry. 

The Savannah Board of Trade has been very active in developing 
the industry along proper lines. As a result of some dispute and to 


NAVAL STORES 181 


improve the standards of containers for naval stores, this Board issued 
in 1911 letters of instruction to the operators of stills, as follows: 


Turpentine Barrels. 

All barrels, whether new or second hand, should be kept absolutely 
protected from the elements, and not allowed to remain subject to rain 
and sunshine at way stations and river landings. Glue will not take on 
damp staves. Every barrel should be glued twice before being filled. 
Use only the best quality of glue, as it is the cheapest in the end. Before 
gluing, see that your pot is absolutely clean. Put into this 20 Ib. of good 
glue and 5 gal. of water, and allow it to soak overnight. On the fol- 
lowing morning apply sufficient heat to melt up to a temperature not 
exceeding 160° F. Under no condition whatever must glue be allowed 
to boil, as this causes decomposition to set in, which causes the bad smell 
usually noticed around glue sheds, and renders it utterly worthless. This 
amount of prepared glue will be sufficient for 20 barrels. After gluing, 
barrels should be taken off the trough and stood on the head for about 
one-half hour, after which time they should be reversed, so that the 
surplus glue will run down equally on both heads. The barrels should 
then be well and thoroughly driven, and, after standing for twenty-four 
hours should be given a second coat of glue, using the exact formula as 
before. They are then ready to be filled in forty-eight hours, and if 
treated in this way there should be no turning except for broken staves. 


Rosin. 

Rule No. 9 of the Savannah Board of Trade says in part: “ Rosin 
barrels to be in merchantable order must have two good heads, not exceed- 
ing 1} in. in thickness, staves not to exceed 1 in. in thickness; the top 
well-lined.”” Too much stress, therefore, cannot be placed on the abso- 
lute necessity of carrying out this rule to the very letter, especially regard- 
ing the thickness of staves and heading, for rule No. 10 specifically 
instructs the inspector to make a proper deduction in weight in all rosin 
when the staves and headings are more than the prescribed thickness in 
rule No. 9. In such cases, therefore, the operator will lose, as in addi- 
tion to having the deductions made, for which he receives nothing, he 
must pay the full amount of freight to the railroad. Operators must 
see that every barrel is well coopered before shipment; see that all four 
hoops are nailed on the barrels, and the heads cut to fit close, and a good 
lining hoop as prescribed by rule No. 9 is in place. Staves must be 
properly equalized. Staves should be 4o in. long, and barrels built on a 
22-in. stress hoop, which gives a well-shaped and easily handled barrel. 


182 FOREST PRODUCTS 


YIELDS 


The Census Bureau of 1909 shows the following yields of turpentine 
per crop of 10,500 boxes for each of the principal states in the South 
producing naval stores: 


YIELD OF TURPENTINE PER CROP BY STATES 
Yield of Turpentine per 


State Crop of 10,500 Boxes. 

Barrels 
ABD AM oe ciccetgl ocd ces HO ne ek eee ee 35.6 
Blorida: tsa ate os SP ee ee ae 29.8 
CSCDERIR Ss soar oat a Coe as Aga 6 58 a peed geen 26.5 
L/OURNMRER OS iy. oeeretae Tors Poe ee aaa 44.7 
MiiasisSi oo ox ona cee Se a ae Te 34.5 
BS A»: © Saierteany eg Sy ph pA A Se MCT ys 29) Ske Tamar 43.5 


The larger yields shown in the above table from the forests of Louisiana 
and Texas are undoubtedly explained by the fact that the timber in those 
states is much larger than the timber now being bled in the other states. 
Consequently, the yield would naturally be much larger per crop. 


Arm 


Water Inlet 
Tank 
i— 
Overflow 
Worm Trough Cap 
Funnel~ (¥-~ Charging Platform 


Tail Pipe | Kettle 


From Schorger and Betts. 


Fic. 52.—Diagrammatic cross-section of a turpentine still. The barrels of resin are brought 
in from the forest and, after unloading on the platform on the right, are emptied into the 
kettle on removal of the cap. The turpentine is collected in the barrel at the right. 


A crop will-generally yield from 29 to 46 barrels of turpentine and 
from 163 to 234 barrels of rosin, depending upon the year of tapping. 
It-is obvious that the yield of turpentine will be much greater during 
the first year of tapping and the same is true of the yield of rosin. Con- 
siderable depends upon the method of tapping, that is, by the box or the 
cup system. 

The yield of crude turpentine or rosin is generally about 8 to 12 |b. 
per box, or about 20 to 25 lb. from a tree of average size where two faces 
are exposed. 


ee 


NAVAL STORES 183 


One barrel of average crude turpentine will yield about 5 gal. of 
spirits of turpentine and from 60 to 65 per cent of its bulk in rosin. 

The bleeding of the first year produces a fine, light-colored rosin and 
this grows darker from year to year until at the end of the fourth year 
the scrape at the end of the season yields the poorest grade of rosin. 

The following tables show a comparison of yields of turpentine and 
rosin from bleeding by both the cup and box system: ! 


SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE FROM HALF CROPS, SEASONS 1902-1904, GEORGIA 


| | Net Pri Value of 

Cor, | Boxes. «| toes | NES | “aces 

Year. i Cup we Pan 

r | | o Ta- | wy 
Dip. ‘Scrape. Total. Dip. ‘Scrape.| Total. | Half Crop. | °" tiga” | Half Crop. 
Gal. | Gal. | Gal. | Gal. |-Gal. | Gal. Gal. Cents. 

First... . - “.|1385.3| 205.0,1590.3 |1134.7) 153-7,1288.4 301.9 40 $120.76 
Second... .|1103.5| 165. 0/1268. 5| 705-2) 226.6, 931.8 336.7 45 ele se 
Third... ..| 781. 3) 136. ° O17. 3) 536.1 190.5, 726.6 190.7 | 45 -| 85.82 
Total. . 3270. , 506. 013776. I fe 6. 057 70.8 jpoae 8 226. 3 Se ees | $358.10 


NET SALES OF ROSIN FROM HALF CROPS, SEASONS 1902-1904, GEORGIA 


} | 

Cups. Boxes. | Value of 

| | Excess 

Year. : from 

‘ | Cup 

Dip. Scrape. | Total. Dip. Scrape. Total. |Half Crop 

Fg Se dae ae allan ae $401.72 | $47.72 | $449.44.$328.40 | $35.53 [$363.03 | $85.51 
Second... .. Se cee Res .| 286.88 58.24 | 345.12) 132.42 | 84.08 | 216.50 | 128.62 
SPANO oe sede kc ste 212.60 | 61.65 | 274.25) 124.76 | 79-70 204.46 | 69.79 
ORB foc ar sintiyn aces $q01.20 $167.61 $1068.81/$585.58 ‘$199.31 $784.89 $283.92 


UTILIZATION OF PRODUCTS 


Turpentine. 
Probably the greatest quantity of turpentine is used for paints and 
varnishes. It has the power of thinning out these materials by its action 


as a solvent, as well as by its power of oxidation and evaporation. 


It is widely used in the cloth-printing industry, especially for woolens 
and cottons and it is extensively in demand as a solvent for rubber, gutta 
percha and like substances. 

Turpentine is also used in a great variety of chemicals, medicines and, 
in a number of industries, for many specialized purposes. 

1 From The Naval Stores Industry by Schorger and iene U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Bulletin No. 229, page 23. 


184 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The following table! shows the high and low prices, per gallon, at 
Savannah for turpentine for eleven years. 


PRICES OF TURPENTINE—PER GALLON 


Year. High. Low. 
FOTIMNEB ES Sos Vee aa eae ad $ .403 $. 36 
TOUGHT] 34h. Aenea eG woe 54 354 
TOISAIG bs Sain cts wee ae .56 36 
THERES EN he BO a ee .47 .40% 
TOLGH=14s Sa GA en ook . 483 ae TS 
NODFSR a ce hoe oie ca) pales .48 -35 
EQEIAT Oe oa teens Kee ese 1.02 44% 
TOLQPET Co Cooke oan: Shine ce eat 1.07 552 
TOOUS TOs is ti aa eras eh Mee 3 35% 
EQOS-GO os Fs dae 2s See ees Pee 503 35 
IQOPTOB Ls aS scien Se eee ae avers 69 4° 


Rosin. 


The greatest single utility of rosin is in the manufacture of soap. 
It is combined with caustic soda and potash to form the various kinds of 
soap. It is also in great demand as a rosin sizing in the manufacture of 
paper. It gives certain kinds of paper a stiff coating or surface, making 
them adaptable for printing and writing purposes. Without this sizing 
it would be impossible for certain papers to take colors, inks, etc. 

“‘Brewer’s pitch,” made of rosin and a small admixture of turpentine, 
was widely used to coat the interiors of barrels and other containers of 
beer and malted liquors. This coating gives the liquors a better taste and 
renders the barrels easy to clean. 

Rosin is also in great demand for a wide variety of manufacturing 
enterprises, particularly in the making of linoleum, sealing wax, oilcloth, 
special flooring compounds and coverings, various kinds of inks, roofing 
materials, lubricating compounds, and a great variety of chemicals too 
numerous to mention. 

An important use for rosin is for resin driers, which are extensively 
used in the drying of oil paints and varnishes. Rosin soaps are com- 
_ bined with metallic salts to form metallic resinates, which are known 
in the trade as “ Japan driers.” 

Rosin is distilled into rosin oils which are produced under several dif- 
ferent trade names. ‘These oils are used in the manufacture of several 
greases and specialty lubricants, as well as solvents. 

1 From the Naval Stores Review, Savannah, Ga., June 7, 1919, p. 10. 


NAVAL STORES 185_ 


The following table ! shows the range of prices from high to low for 
rosin in the Savannah market: 


ROSIN MARKET PRICES AT SAVANNAH. 
High and low prices per barrel for four-year period. 


Grade. 1914-15. 1915-16. 1916-17. 1917-18. 
High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. | High. Low. 
Jater white....... .... $7.50 $5.50 | $7.50 $5.50 | $7.323 $5.20] $7.75 $5.90 
Window glass........... G.08° (8340: 1-77 384 5-35 7-10 5-05] 7-65 5.75 
Meee ve aiae sale d 2 se 6.00 5.00] 7.00 4.70 | 7.02$ 4.75| 7-55 5-75 
(7 eee Pee eee 5-30 3.95} 6.50 3.95 | 6.75 4-50} 7-10 5§.75 
Beet ie 5 osc Reina 4-553 3-20| 6.15 3.25 | 6.62 4.20] 6.95 5.20 
Beir DS = nin's ie Sak sees 4-35 3-05 | 5-90 3.10] 6.50 4.20] 6.70 5.15 
Eee aan pe pia cere 4-35 3-05 | 5-90 3-05] 6.50 4.10} 6.65 5.15 
eae ee ee 4.20 3.05 | 5-90 3.05 | 6.45 4.10] 6.60 5.10 
7 5S SNES eee 4-15 3.05 5-90 3.00] 6.40 3.95] 6.60 5.05 
(LE te ea Wales | 4.02} 3.023] 5.85 2.95 | 6.35 3.90] 6.60 5.05 
1 EO ee a pea ec rays | 4.05 3.00] 5.85 2.85 | 6.35 3.85} 6.60 5.02} 
ESE Ree ea ge | 4.00 2.90] 5.85 2.70} 6.35  3-75| 6.60 5.00 
| i 


FRENCH METHODS 


Turpentine and rosin are produced in large commercial quantities 
in various European countries, particularly France, Spain and Russia, 
but the total production in all Europe is exceedingly small by comparison 
with that in this country. 

The industry has been highly developed in France, where it is cen- 
tralized in the Landes, a region of about 2,000,000 acres in southwest 
France from Bordeaux to the Spanish frontier. The forests of the 
Landes are composed of almost pure maritime pine (Pinus maritima) 
and, in the period before the great war, the value of the yield of naval 
stores products was greater than the value of the timber when cut. 

The maritime pine trees are much smaller than the longleaf pine cf 
the South, since most of the trees are planted and are cut when from sixty 
to seventy-five years of age. Many of these trees are continually bled 
for turpentine from fifteen years of age until they are cut. ! 

The French turpentine operators chip the trees by slicing off a new 
shaving each time the resin flow is to be renewed. The face is only 
about 33 in. wide instead of 12 to 14 in. in this country. Chipping is 
done every eight days, and during the first season the height of chipping 
is only carried about 24 in. up the tree. The depth of chipping is only 


1 From the Naval Stores Review, Savannah, Ga., June 7, 1919, pp. 24-27. 


186 FOREST PRODUCTS 


about 3 in. and is done with a concave gouge instead of a semi-round or 
circular hack as in this country. 

A single zinc apron or gutter is used to guide the resin into an earthen- 
ware cup hung below it. The apron is inserted in a slit made by a chisel 
specially designed for the purpose. The cup contains about 1 qt. and 
is supported by a nail at the base and the apron at the top. The aprons 
and cups are raised each year. Only two faces are generally permitted 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. 


Fic. 53.—Method of tapping maritime pine near Arres in the Landes region of France. 
A narrow “face” is chipped. and the apron and cup moved up each, year. Trees 
are frequently bled for thirty years or more. The faces heal over and are changed to 
different parts of the trunk. 


on each tree at one time. Chipping is done up to 12 to r5 ft. in height or 
more. The worker uses stilts to chip at the higher levels. 

After bleeding, these narrow faces heal over so that the face can be 
moved to different parts of the tree from time to time and the tapping 
continued for a period of thirty to forty years or more. This is in sharp 


irra ere 


NAVAL STORES 187 


contrast to the practice in this country, where the period of tapping 
seldom exceeds four years. 

Distillation follows the same general lines as those described for this 
country, but there are several preparatory measures such as clarification 
and steaming and distillation by steam is used as well as direct distillation. 

It is unsatisfactory to compare the yields of maritime and longleaf 
pines because of the different sized trees, different methods of bleeding, 
chipping, etc. However, it may be said that the resin content of the long- 
leaf pine is much greater for similar sized trees than is the case with the 
maritime pine. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


AsHE, W. W. The Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Products of Eastern North 
Carolina. Bulletin 5, North Carolina Geological Survey, 1894. 


Bert. Note sur les dunes de Gascogne. 1go0. 


Betts., H. S. Possibilities of Western Pines as a Source of Naval Stores. Bulletin 
116, Forest Service, 1912. 


Bopre. Cours de technologie forestiére. 1887. 

Bureau of the Census. Turpentine and Rosin. Bulletin 126, 1902. 

Bureau Turpentine and Rosin. Census of Manufactures. Bulletin 85, 1905. 
DRoMART. Etude sur les Landes de Gascogne. 1808. 

Fernow, B. E. Strength of “Boxed” or “Turpentine” Timber. Circular 8, For- 


> 


est Service, 1892. ‘ 


Fernow, B. E. Effect of Turpentine Gaikering ot on the Timbér of Longleaf Pine. 
Circular 9, Forest Service, 1893- 


Fernow, B. E. Timber Physics. Part II. Bulletin 8, padtsi Service, 1893. 
Fernow, B. E. Report of the Chief of the Division of Foréstry for 1892. 1893. 


Great Britain. Report on the Turpentine Industry in the United States. Consular 
Report No. 647, 1906. 

Great Britain. Pine Cultivation and Turpentine Production in France, Russia, 
Greece, and the United States. -Consular Report, 1906. 


Herty, C. H. A New Method of Turpentine Orcharding. Bulletin 40, Forest 


Service, 1903. 
Herty, C. H. Practical Results of the Cup and Gutter System. Circular 34, 
Forest Service, 1905. 


Herty,C.H. Relation of Light Chipping to the Commercial Yield of Naval Stores. 
Bulletin 90, Forest Service, 191r. 


*Hovucu, F.B. Report on Forestry, 1877. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 137-144. 


188 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Mour. The Timber Pines of the Southern United States. Bulletin 13, Forest 
Service, 1897. 


Pincuot, G. A New Method of Turpentine Schein Circular 24, Forest 
Service, 1903. 


RABATE. L’industrie des résines. 1902. 
RaBATE. Le pin maritime et son gemmage. 1902. 


ScHorGerR, A.W. An Examination of the Oleoresins of some Western Pines. Bulle- 
tin 119, Forest Service, 1913. 


TALLoN. Du pin maritime et des produits du pin d’Austriche de Joseph Mack. 188s. 


United States. Inspection of Naval Stores. Hearing before a Subsontasie tee on 
Interstate Commerce, United States Senate, S. 7867. 1909. 


United States. Inspection of Naval Stores. Hearing before a Subcommittee on 
Interstate and Foreign Commerce. H.R. 24482. 1909. 


VerItcH and Donk. Commercial Turpentine: Their Quality and Methods for Their 
Examination. Bulletin 135, Bureau of Chemistry, 1g1t. 

VEITCH AND SAMMET. Grading Rosin at the Still. Circular 100, Bureau of Chem- 
istry, 1912. ; 


ll th er 


CHAPTER VIII 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION ! 


HISTORY 


Introduction. 

The heating or carbonizing of wood for the purpose of manufacturing 
charcoal has been in practice as long as history is recorded. It is believed 
that it is as old as civilization itself. In the manufacture of charcoal by 
the old process, the wood is heated to such temperatures that it is 
carbonized while the gases that pass off in the form of dense, heavy, black 
smoke have given rise to the modern processes of distilling wood. 

Altogether two distinct branches of the industry have been developed 
in this country. The most important branch is devoted to the utilization 
of the denser and heavier hardwoods and seeks the recovery of the follow- 
ing commercial products—wood alcohol, acetate of lime, and charcoal. 
In addition the minor products are wood tar and wood gas, both of which 
are at the present time usually utilized as fuel in the heating process. 
Only those hardwoods that are comparatively free from an excessive 
content of gums, tannins, resins, etc., are desirable. The so-called 
Northern hardwoods, such as maple, birch and beech, are considered 
the most desirable. Hickory and oak are also considered of almost equal 
value. 

The other branch of the wood-distillation industry requires resinous 
woods, and the objective products are, on the other hand, turpentine, tar, 
wood oils, and charcoal. The southern longleaf pine is the best wood 
for this kind of distillation and, up to the present time, has been prac- 
tically the only one used for this purpose. 


Early Practices. 


The first record of the distillation of wood on a commercial scale in 
this country was in 1830, when James Ward began the manufacture of 
pyroligneous acid at North Adams, Mass. This is the raw liquor 

1 This chapter is largely taken from The Hardwood Distillation Industry in New York, by 


~ the author, bulletin of the New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 1916. 


189 


190 FOREST PRODUCTS 


distilled from the condensed vapors that pass off in heating the wood. 
So far as can be learned from records, it was not until 1850 that the 
distillation of wood for the production of volatile products and semi- 
refined products was begun. According to the most authentic records 
the first successful wood distillation plant in this country was estab- 
lished in New York State in 1850, when John H. Turnbull, of Turn- 
bull & Co., Scotland, who had for some time been connected with the 
industry, came to this country and erected at Milburn, Broome Co., 
New York (now Conklin on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown 


Fic. 54.—Beech, birch and hard maple cut in 50-in. lengths for conversion by dry distillation 
into wood alcohol, acetate of lime and charcoal. This wood is always seasoned about 
one year before it is used. 


Railroad) a small chemical plant. The copper and steel castings were 
brought from Scotland. There were eight cast-iron retorts, 42 in. in 
diameter and about 8 ft. long, and the necessary copper stills, copper 
log condensers, etc. A number of men experienced in the industry were 
brought over by Turnbull from Scotland and many of these men and 
their sons became managers of plants which soon after sprang up in 
southern and southeastern New York. : 

The retorts were charged each twelve hours with wood cut in 8 ft. 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 191 


lengths. The vapor was condensed in a copper log condenser and the 
liquid recovered was pumped into settling tanks, from which it was drawn 
to the copper stills for distillation. The settled tar was drawn off from 
these settling tanks each day, and spread, with a ladle, over the charcoal, 
which was burned under the retorts, the copper and lime stills, and the 
pans—all distillation being accomplished by this direct method. Little 
or no effort was made to save the wood spirit, the main object being to 
produce acetate of lime, for which a high price was obtained both in n the 
home and Scotch markets. 

The methods followed in operating the plant demanded a large amount 
of hand labor, and sturdy men of experience were needed to carry the 
work forward.’ These men with their families came from time to time 
from Scotland. In a short time Milburn became known as the Scotch 
Settlement, and it was famous for the number of trained men who, after 
getting their experience here, were called upon to take charge of distilla- 
tion plants not only in New York, but in Pennsylvania, Michigan, Canada 
and other centers as well. 

About 1865 (or soon after), a Mr. Pollock, a chemist, of Morrisania, 
New York, began refining wood spirit in a small way. The market 
developed rapidly. Shortly after the Burcey Column was introduced to 
the crude plants, thereby adding to the power of the stills to recover wood 
spirit of 82 per cent test. The production of wood spirit being greatly 
increased, it became desirable to install a central refining station, and the 
Burcey Chemical Co., with a refinery at Binghamton, New York, resulted. 
A refinery was also started’3 in Brockton, Mass., in 1877. 

For a long time the sale of charcoal was Binited, the greater part being 
consumed as fuel in the plants. Slowly the market developed, until © 
to-day practically the entire output is shipped, hard and soft coal taking 
its place under the boiler and retorts, and live steam being used in the 
stills (now fitted with coils), and in the pans, which have steam jackets 
at the bottom. 

At the present time plant operation is along efficient lines. Old-time 
methods have been discontinued, and the manual labor is now greatly 
reduced. In the woods there is also a notable improvement. Cord wood 
is now, to some extent, cut from the limbs and refuse tree trunks, after 
the lumberman has taken out the best timber in the shape of logs. 
Thus the danger of fire is reduced and the ground, which, otherwise would 
be covered with scattered brush, is free for new seedlings to take root 
without delay, or the stumps ieft to sprout up with a new wood crop. 


192 FOREST PRODUCTS 


UTILIZATION OF WOOD IN THE INDUSTRY 


Favorable Conditions. 


The Northern hardwood forests, chiefly in Michigan, Pennsylvania, 
New York and Wisconsin, are very fortunately located for engaging in 
the wood-distillation industry. There are three very necessary condi- 
tions for successful operation, namely: (1) a plentiful and, therefore, a 
relatively cheap wood supply; (2) comparatively near a good fuel supply, 
such as natural gas and coal;! (3) reasonably accessible to a market for 
the products of the industry. The only desirable condition that is not 
generally present is that of large iron furnaces where the charcoal can 
be utilized to the best advantage. In Wisconsin and Michigan, however, 
are large iron furnaces which have been largely responsible for the devel- 
opment of large distillation plants in those states. 


Desirable Species. 

Woods that are hard and heavy are the most suitable for the wood- 
distillation industry, especially those that are, in addition to the above 
qualifications, free from tarry and resinous products. As a rule, heart- 
wood is considered much more desirable than sapwood and there is an 
almost uniform opinion among manufacturers to the effect that hard 
maple is considered best and that beech and birch follow in order. Chest- 
nut contains too much tannin for successful production of distillates. 
Ash, oak and hickory are considered almost as good as the so-called 
northern hardwoods, namely beech, birch and hard maple. Cherry and 
elm contain too much tarry material and, consequently, the distillate 
results in an excessive amount of wood tar which has very little com- 
mercial value and, in addition, there is an insufficient yield of alcohol and 
acetate of lime. Basswood, popple, cottonwood and the soft woods or 
conifers are entirely too soft and light. The conifers such as spruce, 
white pine, balsam, fir, hemlock, etc., are undesirable on account of the 
resinous nature of their wood and their light weight. Other native species 
found in the Northern hardwood forests do not grow in sufficient quan- 
tities to make them of any importance for use in the industry 


Stumpage Values. 

The value of the timber on the stump varies considerably. On 
large logging operations. where the tops, limbs, defective trees and 
brashy material are utilized, practically no stumpage value is used, 


1 This is especially true of plants located in Pennsylvania and New York. 


y ogre 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 193 


because the utilization of this material is considered as salvage. On 
most of the New York and Pennsylvania operations steep, rocky hill- 
sides, covered by the desirable hardwoods, are anywhere from one-half 
mile to several miles from the plant or shipping point. Stumpage on 
these operations, particularly in Delaware County, which is the center of 
the industry in New York State, runs about 75 cents per cord. Alto- 
gether they vary between 25 cents to $1.00 per cord. There is a general 
tendency for stumpage values to rise. This has been especially true 
during the past decade. Since the European War broke out, the 
stumpage values have been inflated to a considerable extent above these 
figures. 


Cutting and Delivering to the Factory. 

Cutting is done by choppers who, in many sections, look upon getting 
out the annual cord-wood supply in the winter as a lucrative means of 
winter employment. The trees are cut up in 5o0-in. lengths and hauled 
on sleds when snow is on the ground or on wagons directly to the acid 
plant. Hauls up to 8 to 10 miles are fairly frequent. 

For cutting and stacking, the usual figure is about $1.25 to $1.40 per 
cord. Cutting is usually done by contract and where the wood is favor- 
ably sized and located for chopping and the ground fairly level, cutting 
and stacking can be dione as low as $1.00 to $1.10 per cord by experienced 
choppers. The maximum figure is about $1.50 per cord. The cost of 
hauling varies with the distance and the character of the ground and the 
road over which the load is hauled. One and one-half to two cords are 
usually considered the maximum load under the most favorable condi- 
tions. The total cost of wood delivered at the commercial plants is about 
$4.00 percord. Estimates obtained from all the New York plants show 
that the average value of cordwood delivered at the plants in 1916 was 
$4.06 per cord. The maximum cost was estimated to be $5.00 per cord 
at one plant. At another plant, the cost was estimated to be $3.25 per 
cord which was the minimum estimated cost in the State. 


Seasoning and Weights. ; 

In all cases the wood must be seasoned for at least one year before 
being used in the ovens or retorts. If used green, the high-moisture con- 
tent is excessive and too much heat is required to derive the product. 
At many of the plants it is estimated that before seasoning, the average 
cord of mixed beech, birch and maple weighs in the neighborhood of 6200 
lb. After seasoning the average cord weighs about 3800 lb. The wood 


. is used in the process with the bark on. All forms of limb and body wood 


194 FOREST PRODUCTS 


down to 2 in. in diameter are utilized. When over 8 in. in diameter, the 
wood is commonly split. Body wood is much preferred to limb wood 
because the latter contains too much sapwood and, consequently, more 
moisture. As mentioned previously, yields from heartwood are much 
greater than those from sapwood. 


Opportunities for Utilization of Sawmill and Woods Waste. 


Some of the most successful plants in this country are operated where 
woods waste consisting of tops, limbs, crooked trees, defective logs and 
broken material in the woods can be utilized to advantage. Haul roads, 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. 


Fic. 55.—General view of the Maryland Wood Products Co. plant at Maryland, Otsego Co., 
New York. The trucks loaded with hard maple, beec': and birch on the left are ready 
to be moved into the retorts in the oven house. 


skidways and railroads maintained and operated for the purpose of get- 
ting out logs can be utilized to excellent advantage in getting out the 
other material for distillation purposes, and under these conditions the 
wood can be delivered at the factory at a very low comparative cost. 
This is the method usually followed in connection with large distillation 
plants in Michigan and Wisconsin and is also followed to some extent 
in the Adirondacks. Where the larger logs are utilized for lumber, the 
material that would otherwise be wasted is used for wood distillation 


a 


EE —- = 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 195 


purposes. This feature constitutes an important contribution to the 
cause of forest conservation. The removal of all of this material from 
the forest also means that the fire danger is greatly lessened. 

The larger refuse from the manufacture of lumber in sawmills is 
used to advantage in the largest plants in this country in Michigan. It 
is believed that this form of utilization of sawmill waste will come into 
greater prominence in the industry in the future. Only the larger forms 
of sawmill waste, such as slabs, edgings, trimmings, and similar material 
can be utilized to commercial advantage. The sawdust, shavings and 
similar material usually cut up by the slasher cannot be utilized profit- 
ably except as fuel, but experiments are now being undertaken which 
may permit of the utilization of sawdust and shavings for distillation 
within a short time or as soon as some promising experiments can be per- 
fected on a commercial basis. 


Management of Timber Lands. 


Several of the wood distillation companies in New York and Pennsyl- 
vania own tracts as large as 50,000 acres each or lease tracts nearly as 
large. These are managed on a permanent basis and carefully protected 
from the annual fire hazard during the dangerous dry seasons. These 
companies are practicing one of the best forms of forestry because they 
- utilize the products of the forest most completely, the maximum growth 
of the forest is stimulated, and forest fires, the greatest enemy of the 
forest, in so far as practicable, are eliminated. The rougher and more 
mountainous portions of the forest are admirably suited to forest culture 
on account of the steep, rocky hillsides which contain many springs and 
seepage flows, thus permitting the most rapid growth of timber and 
stimulating the sprouting capacity in all of the larger trees. The cutting 
is usually done in the winter time. The following spring the stumps 
sprout up thriftily and vigorously to a height of from 5 to 10 ft. the first 
year. After a period of from twenty to thirty years the stand is cut 
over and the same process is repeated. In one section, four different age 
classes of timber were noted where average yields of one cord per acre per 
year had been obtained after the original forests were cut over. These 
tracts are in much better condition than they would be under ordinary 
conditions of lumbering because the forest is renewed both from sprout 
and from seed. The vigor of the forest is, therefore, maintained, forest 
fires are kept out and all of the available wood product is utilized. It 
would be a highly desirable situation if all forest industries could be run 
_on the same basis. 


196 FOREST PRODUCTS i 


Statistics of Wood Consumption. 

For a long time New York was the leader in the consumption of wood 
in the hardwood distillation industry. In the early nineties, however, the 
industry spread into Pennsylvania and the greatest consumption at 
present is found in Michigan where, although there are comparatively 
few plants, the total consumption of wood exceeds that of any other state. 
From an investigation carried on in the spring of 1916, the New York 
State College of Forestry has determined that the annual consumption 
of hardwood for the industry in New York at that time was 192,330 cords. 
The daily capacity as reported by these plants was 643% cords. These 
figures have been compiled as a result of both the daily and annual 
capacities of the twenty-five plants in the state, as estimated by the 
plants themselves. The latest available statistics as compiled by the 
Bureau of Census at Washington, D. C., for the consumption of hard- 
woods in New York State in this industry was for 1911, for which year 
it was announced that 132,400 cords were consumed. 

The largest plant in the state in the spring of 1916 consumed 80 cords 
per day. This was an 8-oven plant located in Delaware County. The 
smallest plant in the state was one consuming only 12 cords per day in 
Sullivan County. This was an old cylinder retort plant containing 8 
pairs of retorts. The average daily capacity of the individual New York 
plant is 25.74 cords and the average annual capacity is 7691 cords. 

As a rule the oven retort plants are much larger in daily capacity than 
the round retort plants. The smallest oven retort plant is a 2-oven 
affair consuming 16 cords per day with an 80-cord plant per day the 
largest. The smallest round retort plant also consumes 12 cords per day 
with the largest one consuming 30 cords per day. ; 

The latest available statistics of wood consumption in the hardwood 
distillation industry in the United States were for 1911, when it was 
reported that 1,058,955 cords were consumed. Of this amount Michi- 
gan with 13 plants led with 396,916 cords; Pennsylvania was second with 
50 plants consuming 364,539 cords and New York third with 25 plants 


consuming 132,400 cords. Seventeen other plants scattered in 11 - 


different states, chiefly in the northeast, reported a consumption of 
165,100 cords. 

It is very likely that with the stimulation of high prices for products 
of the wood distillation industry, due to the European War, the total 
consumption in the whole country in hardwood distillation amounts to 
at least 1,200,000 cords, although this is a very rough estimate. The 
following table shows the statistics of wood consumption for the United 


a ee 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 197 


States as compiled by the U. S. Bureau of Census from the years 1goo to 
IQII: 


‘ Number of Cords 

Number of 
Year. Est thubaicats. yj sence se 
1890 53 600,000 * 
1900 93 800,000 ! 
1907 100 1,219,771 
1908 Ior $78,632 
1909 116 1,149,847 
IgIo 117 1,257,917 
IgttI 105 1,058,955 

1 Estimated. 


This table shows how the consumption of the wood in the industry 
dropped off after the enactment of the Federal Law in 1907 which 
resulted in the serious drop of prices obtained for the crude wood alcohol. 


DEVELOPMENTS IN THE INDUSTRY 


Up to nearly 1860 practically all of the acetate of lime used in the 
dye business in this country had been imported from Europe. Acetate 
of lime was the principal product sought after in wood distillation in the 
early developments of the industry. The distillate was not utilized for 
wood alcohol or for any other purpose than for lime acetate, and the char- 
coal was used, when convenient, for fuel for manufacturing pig iron and 
for other purposes. Acetate of lime was commonly used even in the wet 
condition before it had been thoroughly dried out. In the early days of 
the industry it brought as high as 18 cents a pound even in the wet con- 
dition. In October, 1916, dry gray acetate of lime brought 33 cents a 
pound whereas in the fall of 1914 it was bringing only 14 cents a pound. 
In the spring of 1916 it brought 7 cents per pound. During 1917 and 
1918 the price dropped back to between 1} and 23 cents per pound. 

Mr. Patterson was one of the first men to establish a plant in New 
York, located at Kirkwood, near Binghamton. Mr. Thomas Keery 
entered the business with him at Keeryville, between Cadosia and Apex 
in Delaware County, and this firm has been in the business ever since. 
At that time the brown acetate of lime was full of tar and nct nearly 
equal to the present refined product. The charcoal and alcohol were 
usually allowed to go practically to waste. Enormous prices were ob- 
tained for acetate of lime, so that interest was greatly stimulated in the 
industry. 


198 FOREST PRODUCTS 


About 1885 the raw form of wood alcohol was developed and an 
attempt was made to sell it to the hat manufacturing industries at Dan- 
bury, Conn. This was one of the very first large fields for the use of 
wood alcohol and it brought high prices. Formerly grain alcohol had 
been used to stiffen hats and the use of wood alcohol rapidly came into 
common practice. At first as high as 70 cents a gallon was paid for this 
wood alcohol. 

Charcoal developed as the price of acetate went down. Acetate of 
lime was used to fix the color in dyes. particularly in Fall River, Mass. 


| 


J 


Fic. 56.—General view of hardwood distillation plant at Betula, Pennsylvania. On the left is 
the wood yard, in the center the oven house and still house and on the right, the char- 
coal storage warehouse. Immediately to the right of the oven house are the two sets of 
cooling ovens, 


Gradually a big influx of wood distillation plants came in and the prices 
gradually dropped. Around 1885 to 1900 there were a great many small 
capacity plants and most of them followed very rough and crude methods. 
All of them used the cylinder retort process. These plants, however, 
were gradually replaced by the larger modern plants using the long oven 
instead of the old retort. There is now a much smaller number of plants 
than formerly, but on the other hand there is a much greater annual con- 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 199 


sumption of wood in the industry, due to the economy in plant operation 
with the advent of the oven in the early nineties. 

Up to 1900 the industry was almost wholly centralized in the state of 
New York. At that time a few plants were started in Pennsylvania. 
just over the border from the southern tier of counties in New York. 


About 1902 to 1906 the industry was further developed in Michigan, 


where the largest wood distillation plants, some of them utilizing as much 
as 110 to 200 cords of wood per day, are now located. Ideal conditions 
are present for the successful manufacture of wood distillation products 
in Michigan because of the availability of the raw material in connection 
with hardwood, saw and planing mills, together with the fact that iron 
furnaces are maintained in connection with them where the charcoal 
can be used to the best economical advantage. In addition, the raw 
material is secured from the waste of sawmills and logging operations, and 
one of the principal products can be utilized on the ground without exces- 
sive shipping rates. 

Before 1907 wood alcohol had been bringing from 38 to 40 cents per 
gallon wholesale for the crude product, that is, the 82 per cent crude 
alcohol. When the Federal Internal’ Revenue Department. removed 
the tariff on grain alcohol, which took effect September 1,.1907, the 
price of crude wood alcohol dropped to about 16 cents per gallon and 
gradually came. back to 26 cents. The approximate price in 1916 was 
45 cents per gallon, and in March, 1917, was 65 cents, a price stimulated 
largely by the European War conditions. Before the war in 1914, the 
price was about 25 cents to 28 cents per gallon of crude 82 per cent alcohol. 


PROCESSES OF MANUFACTURE 


Within the past fifty years the developments in the processes of man- 
ufacture followed in hardwood distillation have been remarkable. The 
history of the industry represents an evolution from the old wasteful 
charcoal pits. To recover the condensable gases lost in making charcoal 
by the old pit process, brick kilns were used. This was a very crude 
process, but represented a great step in advance. Next came the round 
iron retorts placed in “ batteries ’’ of two each in long bricked-up rows, 
and within comparatively recent years the steel oven which is a great 
labor- and time-saving device. The following are brief descriptions of 
these three processes which followed each other in rapid chronological 
order: 


200 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Brick Kilns. 


The brick kilns supplanted the old charcoal pit as a means of manu- 
facturing charcoal when the iron industry in this country assumed large 
proportions. Brick was substituted for the open-air or clay-covered pit 
because manufacture was simplified, the loss of carbonization was mini- 
mized and burning, therefore, could be carried on with greater safety. 
However, a good portion of the vapors are lost with the brick kilns, as 
they are with the old open-air pit, since the yield is only about 40 per 
cent to 50 per cent of the yield from the oven process. These brick 
kilns are made with a circular base, with holes in the base for drafts of 
air regulated by special doors and the vapors are drawn off by exhausters 
through wooden ducts. This practice was followed especially in Penn- 
sylvania and in Wisconsin, where an abundant supply of the desirable 
hardwoods was found in a location near blast furnaces where pig iron was 
produced. Pig iron, manufactured by the use of charcoal, is considered 
far superior to that made by coke. The pig iron made with charcoal 
commonly brings about $5.00 a ton more than that manufactured with 
coke. The brick kilns were usually built to hold 50 to go cords each and 
were charged and discharged by hand. The complete manufacture of 
charcoal by the brick kilns, including charging and discharging, required 
from fifteen to twenty-five days. The heating necessary to distill the 
wood is supplied by the combustion of part of the charge within the appa- 
ratus, in the same way that charcoal is made in the open-ai- pit. The 
yield of charcoal by this method is somewhat below that manufactured 
in the retorts or ovens and is generally considered inferior in grade. 
The brick kiln is desirable only when the chief product is charcoal and 
transportation facilities are not available or the market is too distant for 
the other products of wood distillation, such as wood alcohol and acetate 
of lime. Where other forms of fuel, such as natural gas and coal, are 
out of the question and the manufacture of charcoal is desired, it is also 
commonly used. 

Most of the brick kilns were in operation in Michigan and Wisconsin, 
where charcoal was in great demand in connection with iron furnaces. 


Iron Retorts. 

The iron retort followed the brick kiln and was the first device in- 
vented whereby the vapors from the carbonization of wood are collected 
on an efficient basis and distilled in the form of pyroligneous acid and 
later refined into wood alcohol, acetate of lime, etc. The yields, how- 
ever, are much lower on account of slow firing. These retorts were small. 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 201 


cylindrical vessels originally of cast iron and later steel cylinders 50 in. 
in diameter by 9 ft. in length. They were placed horizontally in pairs, 
and batteries of 10 to 15 pairs were common in long brick rows in the 
earlier plants. Each retort was sufficiently large to hold about five- 
eighths of a cord of wood. Heating was provided externally by a 
fire box located underneath the retort. For fuel, coal, charcoal, wood gas, 
wood oil, wood tar, and wood itself, have been used. The retorts are 
built and discharged from the single door in front which can be fastened 
tightly and sealed with clay to prevent the entrance of oxygen after the 
heating process is started. Along the top of these rows of retorts the 
surface is bricked over and serves as a drying floor for the acetate of lime. 
Arun, that is the period from the first charging of the retort to the removal 
of the charcoal after the process, usually requires from twenty-two to 
twenty-four hours. 


Oven Retorts. 

The small round retort is now being rapidly replaced in the larger and 
more progressive plants by the large rectangular retort or oven retort. 
This is also known as an oven. Until about 1900 a large number of 
these round retort plants were in operation, but about 1895 the oven 
retort came in, which provides for loading and unloading the retort by 
the use of cars which are run directly into the chamber. This resulted 
in a considerable saving of labor charges so that all of the new plants now 
being constructed are introducing the ovens. In ‘several of the states 
there are not as many plants active now as there were twenty years ago, 
but there is a vastly larger amount of wood being consumed per plant, 
due to the fact that the oven retorts can consume as high as 10 to 12 
cords in a single oven, whereas the old round retort held only about 3 
to 1 cord of wood. 

The modern hardwood distillation plant, therefore, is usually the 
. oven retort plant. This was a decided advance in the manufacture of 

wood distillation products. As noted above, it is largely a labor-saving 
device and, although the initial cost is considerably greater the operating 
charge per cord is so much smaller than with the round retort that it is 
being universally introduced. The ovens are rectangular in cross- 
section and may be anywhere from 25 to 56 ft. in length: The common 
form is an oven 52 ft. in length, 8 ft. 4 in. in height and 6 ft. 3 in. in width. 
These ovens are usually arranged in pairs similar to the process followed 
with the round retort. The cars, each loaded with about 2 cords of wood, 
are run in on standard or narrow gauge tracks.directly into the ovens. 


202 FOREST PRODUCTS 


They are heated in a manner similar to the round retorts, that is, by 
means of a fire box underneath, although there may be fire boxes at one 
or both ends, and the fuel in the Pennsylvania and southern New York 
regions is usually either coal or natural gas. In the Delaware County 
section the fuel consists of coal from the Scranton region. The vapors 
pass out from one or two large openings at the side or at the end and are 
condensed through a large copper condenser. The process of distillation 
requires from twenty-two to twenty-four hours with the oven retorts, and 
when the doors are unsealed and opened a:cable is attached to the first 


TES Fie et a tee ae aI 


v gee Sans 
Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. 


Fic. 57.—The wood distillation plant of the Cobbs-Mitchell-Co. at Cadillac, Michigan, 
showing the oven house, the first and second sets of 52-ft. cooling ovens and on the left 
the trucks of charcoal which have just been released from the second cooling ovens. 
This plant has a capacity of 96 cords per day. Hardwood sawmill and woods waste is 
used. 


car and they are drawn from the ovens directly into the first cooling oven, 
which is of the same type of construction and shape as the heating oven. 
The capacities of the oven plants vary with the number and size of the 
ovens. There are some oven plants that now consume as high as 200 
cords a day in the Lake States. The largest plant in New York State 
has eight ovens; it consumes 80 cords of wood per day and has an 
annual capacity of 24,000 cords. 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 203 


Whereas the charcoal is*emptied from the round retorts into round 
containers, sealed tightly to cause the slow cooling of the charcoal with- 
out admission of oxygen, the charcoal, after the heating process is com- 
pleted in the oven retorts, is left in the cars and drawn into the first cooling 
oven and left for twenty-four hours. This is of the same type and con- 
struction as the charring oven. The cars containing charcoal are then 
drawn into second coolers, where they remain for twenty-four hours; 
then left in the open air forty-eight hours, so that there is a period of 
ninety-six hours which elapses between the time of the completion of the 
heating process and the time when the charcoal is loadedon the cars. It 


| 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. 


Fic. 5$.—Alley between first and second sets of cooling ovens, showing the character of 
doors and method of banking around the base. The trucks of charcoal are retained in 
each of these ovens about twenty-four hours. 


must remain on the freight cars at least twe:ve hours before shipment, 
so that 108 hours elapse to the time of final shipment. This precaution 
is taken to prevent fire, which otherwise sometimes causes the loss of 
charcoal and cars in transit.’ 


Distillation. 

Although many changes have been introduced in the manner in 
which the wood is heated for distillation purposes, very few changes 
have been made within the last twenty years in the refining of the crude 
distillate. 


204 FOREST PRODUCTS 


In the modern oven retort operation the process requires from twenty- 
three to twenty-six hours for completion. When the wood is rolled in 
trucks into the ovens, the doors are hermetically sealed and the fires are 
started underneath. In from one to two hours the wood is sufficiently 
heated up so that water distillation takes place. This distillate contains 
about 2 per cent acid. Then the green gas comes free for about five to 
six hours. 

It is considered desirable to heat up the wood gradually and also to 
let it cool off gradually at the end of the process. The exothermic process, 
that is, that part of the process in which the wood fibers break down 
under the intense heat, does not take place until the temperature is run 
up to about 300° F. In about six hours after closing the doors the tem- 
perature attains an average of about 450° F. It is then maintained 
between 450 and 600° F. Temperatures of over 600° F. are considered 
undesirable. After about six hours of heating the pyroligneous acid 
begins to flow, and the best average is maintained up to about the 
eighteenth hour. An operator can determine from the color of the pyro- 
ligneous acid whether there is too much heat maintained, and if the wood 
fibers have broken down sufficiently. At the end of the heating proc- 
ess, the distillate forms tar to a large extent. After the eighteenth 
hour the iatent heat in the oven settings is sufficient to complete the 
process to the end, but the heat is gradually decreased until the charcoal 
is withdrawn. 

As the gases and vapors pass out through the nozzle of the oven, they 
are condensed into a yellowish green, ill-smelling liquor called pyrolig- 
neous acid. A copper run takes this condensate to the raw liquor 
“ sump,”’ a tank in the ground and so placed that the liquor will run into 
it by gravity. Meanwhile, the “fixed” or non-condensible gas is 
trapped and taken off at the outlet of the condenser and used for fuel 
underneath the boilers or ovens or perhaps both. A simple gooseneck 
is used to trap off the gas. 

The pyroligneous acid is next pumped from the “sump” in the 
ground to a series of wooden settling tubs, of which there should be at 
least five in number. These tubs are usually from 5*o 8 ft. in diameter 
and 6 to 8 ft. in height. The purpose of these tubs is to settle the tar 
and heavy oils. The heavy tar is taken to a wood tar still equipped with 
a copper condenser. This tar still is of wooden construction because the 
tar would “‘eat up” the copper in about a year. The residue remaining 
in the tar still is utilized together with residue from primary stills as boiler 
fuel. | 


‘ 


7 aes 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 205 


The pyroligneous acid is then run by gravity to the primary steam- 
heated copper stills equipped with automatic feed in order to supply the 
still continuously. The residue or boiled tar, which gradually fills up in 
the still from the bottum, is distilled by itself and run off at intervals of a 
few days or whenever the deposit reduces the flow of distillate from the 
still. During this process, which is known as “ tarring down,” the dis- 
tillate is run into a separate tank and the light oils which rise to the top 
are drawn off. The acid liquor is then piped to storage tanks or tubs 
with the regular run from this still. These copper stills are made in 
any size which will give them the most flexible operation, that is, the size 
is determined by the question of economy in operation in labor cost. 
This, in turn, depends upon the capacity of the plant in cords of wood. 
The vapors from the copper still are conveyed through a large copper 
neck to an all copper tubular condenser encased in a steel water jacket. 
The flow of distillate from these condensers is piped to storage tubs. 

From the storage tubs the acid liquor goes to the liming or neutraliz- 
ing tubs. These are wooden tubs 12 ft. to 14 ft. in diameter about 4 ft. 
high. and provided with an agitator operated by a shaft and bevel gear 
from the top. The liquor is neutralized by adding slaked lime, a small 
quantity at a time. The proper quantity of lime is commonly deter- 
mined by the color of the liquor, which changes at the neutral point 
between an acid and alkaline substance to a wine color, followed by a 
straw color and the appearance of beads on the surface. 

From the neutralizing tubs the liquor is pumped or forced by means 
of a steam ejector to the “lime lee ”’ stills. These stills are constructed 
of steel plate, the heat being applied by copper steam coils. The alcohol 
vapors pass off through an iron or copper neck, and are condensed in a 
copper condenser, and piped to storage tanks. 

When the alcohol has been distilled off in the lime lee stills, the residue 
or acetate solution is forced by steam or air pressure to a settling pan 
located over carbonizing ovens. After the impurities settle and are 
drawn off the acetate liquor is run into a large shallow steam-jacketed 
steel pan, and boiled down to the consistency of mortar; it is then 
shoveled out and spread on brick, steel or concrete kiln floors over the 
ovens and thoroughly turned and dried; it is then shoveled into sacks 
for shipment as acetate of lime. 

_ The alcohol liquor from the lime lee still is drawn from the storage 
tanks previously mentioned into a steel alcohol still provided with 
copper steam coils, and distilled off through a copper fractionating 
column consisting of a series of baffling plates having a tubular water- 


206 FOREST PRODUCTS 


cooled separator at the top. By this process the lower proof products 
are thrown back for further distillation, while the more volatile vapors 
pass over through a condenser, the distillate being sold to the refin- 
eries as finished crude alcohol of 82 per cent proof. 


PLANT EQUIPMENT 


The equipment of a modern hardwood distillation plant demands a 
comparatively large initial investment. They are usually located with 
reference to a large available supply of hardwoods which can be brought 
to the factory at a comparatively low cost per cord. From 10 to 40 acres 
are usually required for the plant and its adjoining storage yards and 
trackage facilities. The modern plant has from 2 to § oven retorts which 
are usually 52 ft. long and housed in a retort house; open space for two 
sets of cooling ovens; a shed for the cooling and shipping of charcoal, 
and the still house and power plant, which are usually separate from the 
retort house. Most of the modern wood distillation plants in New 
York cost from $59,000 to $500,000 for the initial investment. 

Before the European War it was usually estimated that a complete 
plant aside from timber lands and the wood-yard would cost $2000 per 
cord of daily capacity. Since the war thisjaverage has risen to $2500 
per cord. However, this may vary between about $2000 and $3000 per 
cord, depending upon the degree of completeness, cost of transportation, 
labor costs, character of the machinery and materials installed, etc. 
This means that an 8-oven plant with approximately an 80-cord daily 
capacity will cost in the neighborhood of $200,000. Using these same 
figures, the smallest modern oven plant with only 2 ovens, and with a 
daily capacity of 20 cords, will cost in the neighborhood of $50,000. 

A plant with seven 25-ft. ovens built about 1902 cost in the neighbor- 
hood of $125,000 fully equipped. 

The following is a brief description of the principal features of equip- 
ment that are usually found in the hardwood distillation plants: 


Storage Yards. 


The storage yards should be in the close vicinity of the retort house 
and connected with it by standard gauge tracks running through the 
stacks of piled cordwood. The storage yards should consist ef between 
5 and 20 acres, depending upon the capacity of the plant, and should be 
slightly raised in elevation above the retort house so that the loaded cars 
can be rolled easily into the ovens as needed. 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 207 


Inasmuch as the wood must be seasoned for between one and two 
years, it is necessary to have a large, convenient and well-located wood 
yard so that there should be at least six months’ seasoned supply on hand 
all the time. 

At a 35-cord capacity plant it is planned to have 10,000 cords of wood 
as an advance supply continually on hand. 

The wood is usually cut in 50-in. lengths and stacked in long piles up 
to 12 ft. in height on either side of the standard guage tracks from which 
the unseasoned wood is unloaded from freight cars. In other cases 
parallel roadways are left open for the wagons to unload directly from 
the woods. Parallel tracks between these roadways are then provided 
to load the wood cars for the ovens after seasoning. In cylindrical retort 
plants the wood is commonly rolled in on wheelbarrows or open trucks 
and loaded by hand. 


Retort House. 


The retort house is the largest building in the plant. It houses the 
cylindrical retorts or oven retorts and, in some cases, the stills and appli- 
ances for treating the pyroligneous acid as well. However, in the most 
modern plants, the still house is a separate building. 

The principal requisite of a retort house is that it should be of fire- 
proof construction on account of the very inflammable nature of charcoal 
and wood alcohol. One retort house at a plant having a daily capacity of 
38 cords is 60 ft. in width by 240 ft. long, 20 ft. high to the eaves and 
40 ft. to the peak of the roof. Steel beams and supports are used through- 
out with sheet-iron roof and siding. Other retort houses are either 
built of stone or brick in order to reduce the fire hazard and, therefore, 
obtain low insurance rates. Many plants are poorly arranged because 
of their enlargements from rather modest beginnings, and no definite 
plan seems to have been followed in the arrangement of the plant. 


Trackage and Cars. 


The tracks are usually standard gauge with the rails from 40 to 75 
Ib. in weight, and are so arranged as to bring the wood from the storage 
yards to the retort house and then to conduct the cars loaded with 
charcoal through the two sets of cooling ovens and out to the charcoal 
shed, where the charcoal is loaded on freight cars. The most modern 
plants have the progressive arrangement, that is, the loaded cars come 
from the storage yards directly to the retort house; follow through in one 
continuous direction to the first cooling oven and then to the second and 


208 FOREST PRODUCTS 


on out to the charcoal sheds, where the charcoal is shipped. The return 
tracks take the empty cars back to the storage yards, where they are re- 
loaded and the same process followed out. 

The cars are all of steel construction and hold from 2 to 23 cords of 
50-in. wood. A 50- to 54-ft. oven will hold four of these cars in one 
charge. A 25-ft. oven will hold two cars. They are built in different 
sizes, but the usual style of car is 52 in. wide, 6 ft. 6 in. high and 12 ft. 
6 in. long with four small wheels. They first came into use about 1895 
and have proven to be a great success. 


ere : 4 - a4 


Photograph by Nelson C, Brown 


Fic. s59.—Cars or trucks loaded with charcoal after heating in ovens. Each truck contains 
about 2 cords of 5o0-in. billets of beech, birch and maple wood. Photograph taken at 
the Cummer-Diggins plant, Cadillac, Michigan. 


The cars cost from $80 to $140 apiece, f.o.b. at Warren, Pa. They 
last indefinitely according to most of the operators, so that there is very 
little depreciation charge on them. Both sides of the car are detachable 
to facilitate the loading and emptying of the cars. 


Retorts. 

The old iron retort was a cylindrical vessel holding about five-eighths 
of a cord. The standard size was 50 in. in diameter by g ft. in length. 
Cordwood 48 in. in length was used instead of the 50 in. length commonly 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 209 


used in the oven retorts. The retorts are set in brickwork in pairs, 
each pair forming a battery and heated directly from beneath. They 
are charged and discharged from a single door in front which can be 
hermetically sealed. Considerable labor is involved in the charging 
and discharging of these retorts, and the ovens with the cars running 
directly into them on tracks are a great improvement. With the inven- 
tion of the ovens in the early nineties very few of the old, round retorts 
were installed. In fact, all of the new plants being installed are equipped 
with the long oven retorts. 


Ovens. 

The oven or oven retort is a vast improvement over the round retort, 
the chief advantages being that a large amount of wood can be distilled 
at one time and considerable labor is saved in charging and discharging 
the ovens, the loaded wood cars being run directly in from one end on 
tracks and hauled out by means of a cable on the other end to the first 
cooling oven. 

These ovens in cross-section are 6 ft. 3 in. wide and 8 it. 4 in. high. 
In length they vary from 25 ft. to 50 ft., although the usual length used 
at the present time is a 52-ft: oven which holds 4 cars. These ovens are 
usually installed in batteries, that is, 2 ovens being placed close together 
and called a battery. In Michigan there are as many as 7 to 10 batteries 
in a single plant. The largest New York plant contains 8 ovens and is 
located at Corbett in Delaware County. Altogether in New York State 
there are 46 ovens distributed over 10 plants. 

These ovens have air-tight doors on one or both ends, depending upon 
whether the charcoal is to be taken out in the same direction as it entered. 
or sent out through the progressive form of trackage arrangement. 
‘The ovens are of steel, usually three-eighths of an inch in thickness, while 
the bottoms and backs are of }-in. material. The oven is sustained by 
means of angle irons riveted perpendicularly on the sides and on one side 
near the top are riveted cast-iron nozzles, usually two in number, which 
are attached to the condensers. In the heating process it is said that the 
52-ft. oven will expand 4 in. in length due to the tremendous heat applied 
during distillation. These ovens last only from three to twelve years, 

so that the depreciation charge is very high. 

The 52-ft. oven costs about $1800 apiece and approximately an equal 
amount is required to install and set it up ready for operation. 


Cooling Ovens. 
In every oven retort plant the charcoal is gradually cooled by being 


210 | FOREST PRODUCTS 


run into cooling ovens located immediately in front of the retort house in 
the open air. The first cooling oven is about 8 to 10 ft. from the charring 
oven and the second cooling oven about an equal distance beyond thé 
first cooling oven. The accompanying photographs show the arrange- 
ment of the cooling ovens in relation to the retort house. The cooling 
ovens appear to be the same in size, shape and construction as are the 
ovens themselves. However, the sides are only of 33-in. steel and usually 
there are doors at both ends. There are no bottoms to these cooling 
ovens as they rest directly on the ground. Dirt is piled around the base 
to prevent the admission of air. 

The cars with the heated charcoal, after the distilling process, are 
rolled directly into the first cooling oven. As soon as the air is admitted 
on the opening of the doors, the charcoal bursts in flame and as soon as 
possible after the cars are rolled into the cooling oven the doors are 
hermetically sealed, so that the charcoal will cool slowly. The charcoal 
is left for twenty-four hours in the first cooling oven, twenty-four hours 
in the second cooling oven, then is left at least forty-eight hours in an 
open shed or in the open air, and after being loaded on the freight cars it 
is left standing for at least twelve hours before shipping. This means 
a total of one hundred and eight hours from the time of heating to the 
time of leaving the yard. A government regulation prescribes this pro- 
cedure because ‘‘ punky ” knots hold fire for a long time in the charcoal 
and it.is necessary that these extreme precautions be taken to prevent 
burning of the cars. | 

In some of the plants, an outlet pipe is used near the top of the 
cooling oven to permit the escape of the acid fumes. It is claimed by 
‘some that this saves the eating of the iron by these fumes. 


Still House. 


The provision for re-distilling the pyroligneous liquor is usually 
housed in the old plants along with the cylindrical retorts, but in the 
more modern oven plants the apparatus is placed in a separate fire- 
proof building, usually in close proximity to the power-house or in con- 
nection with it. 

The equipment of the still house consists principally of the settling 
tubs, neutralizing tubs, storage tubs, steam pans, copper and iron stills, 
condensers, fractionating column, etc., required for the three principal 
distillations previously described. Although the equipment in some 
small details may vary in each plant, the general process of separating 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 211 


the acetate of lime and the wood alcohol, as well as the wood tar, is the 
same as was in common practice about twenty years ago. 

For each separate plant, however, individual plans are drawn up to 
meet the requirements of local conditions. ‘Altogether it is estimated 
that the equipment of the still house costs between $430 and $500 per 
cord of daily capacity. In the description of processes of manufacture, 
the function of the various equipment in the still house is described. 


Fic. 60.—Interior of the still house at a hardwood distillation plant in Pennsylvania. 


The following is the usual equipment used or recommended for a 
hardwood distillation plant consuming 30 cords of wood per day: 


Retort condensers including tubs and outlet connections, number and size depending 
upon style of retort or oven installed. 

Copper liquor run for conducting raw liquor from condenser outlets to storage tub. 

Copper gas main and connection for conducting wood gas from condenser outlets to 
boiler for fuel. 

5 wooden settling tubs for raw liquor from storage tank above mentioned. 

1 copper still complete with copper steam coils, neck and condenser for first distilla- 
tion of raw liquor. Wooden storage tubs for liquor from copper still. 

Wooden liming tub with power agitator for neutralizing liquor from storage tubs 
above mentioned. 

1 iron lime lee still fitted with copper steam coils and condenser (an iron neck may be 
used on this still). 


212 FOREST PRODUCTS 


I or 2 steel storage ranks for lime lee liquor. 

1 steel alcohol still with copper steam coils, column, separator and condenser for 
producing 82 per cent crude alcohol from lime lee liquor above mentioned. 

Steel storage tank and one large steel shipping tank for raw liquor. The residue from 
lime lee stills (acetate of lime) would be piped to the open’steel settling tank and 
then to steam pan. ‘The acetate of lime would then be shoveled from steam pan to 
drying floor on top of ovens if possible in order to utilize waste heat from ovens. 


The use of a small wooden tar still with copper neck and condenser 
for distilling raw tar from settlers which contain a considerable quantity 
of alcohol is also recommended. 


For refining the crude alcohol further one would require one steel still with copper 
steam coils, refining column, separator and condenser for first distillation; one 
steel still with copper steam coils, column of different type than used in first dis- 
tillation including separator and cooler for second distillation. The alcohol in 
first and second distillation is treated with caustic soda. A steel tank graduated 
in inches or gallons should be provided for caustic soda storage and charging stills. 

2 steel storage tanks would be required for each still each tank having the capacity 
equal to still. 

An all: copper still with copper steam coils, refining column cf special type, including 
separator, cooler, hydrometer jar, necks, etc., complete would be required for third 
distillation. The alcohol would be treated with sulphuric acid in this distillation. 
Suitable storage and shipping tanks which may be of steel to be provided for fin- 
ished goods. 


This latter outfit would produce commercial refined alcohol of 95 per 
cent to 97 per cent purity. 


Drying Floor. 


The drying floor is a flat, level space surfaced with cement or concrete 
usually placed over the ovens. The heat of the ovens furnishes the 
necessary temperature to dry out the acetate of lime. After being dried 
it is bagged up and shipped directly in freight cars. 


Charcoal House. 


The charcoal house is usually an open-constructed affair slightly 
elevated above the level of the oven house, so that the cars containing 
charcoal can be unloaded directly into box cars or into charcoal bins. 
The trucks containing charcoal must be left either in the open air or 
standing in the charcoal house at least forty-eight hours before the 
charcoal can be dumped into the box cars. Most of the charcoal is 
shipped in the loose state. Sometimes it is separated into as many as 
five grades, the finer product being bagged and shipped in sacks con- 
taining 25 or so lb. each. In all cases the charcoal house is well removed 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 213 


from the oven house to decrease the danger from fire. It is also well 
protected by means of hose, water pails, fire extinguishers, etc., to min- 
imize the fire hazard. 


Cost of Plant and Equipment. 


As outlined before, the initial cost of a modern complete wood dis- 
tillation plant is very large. It is estimated that, under present market 
conditions, an investment of $2500 should be provided for each cord of 
capacity. That is, if a plant is so designed to be of 50 cords capacity, 
the initial investment required would probably be about $125,000. 

Before the great European War, it was generally estimated that a 
complete plant would cost about $2000 per cord of capacity. The dif- 
ference in the above estimates is due to the fact that the cost of iron, steel, 
copper and other materials used in the manufacture of wood distillates 
has risen tremendously as a result of the competition to better condi- 
tions in this country, together with a demand for supplies from European 
countries. 

The old-fashioned cylindrical retort plant is much less expensive for 
the initial expense, but the heavy charges due to labor result in excessive 
operating charges. A 24-round retort plant, that is, one containing a 
battery of 12 pairs with each pair of retorts holding about 13 cords, costs 
$75,000 for the entire plant. 

When it is figured that the modern plant costs $2500 per cord of capa- 
city, it is estimated that one-third of this charge is for building, while the 
apparatus costs about two-thirds. 


PLANT OPERATION 


The following are the principal features of plant operation. Each is 
briefly described, giving the principal commercial features involved, 
such as costs, per cord charges, and other commercial features involved 
in the operation of a wood distillation plant. 

Altogether there are six forms of fuel commonly used in the hardwood 
distillation industry. They are as follows: Coal, natural gas, charcoal, 
wood, wood tar and wood gas. Altogether coal is most commonly used. 
In the district centering around Olean, New York, many of the plants 
use natural gas. Most of the plants in the Olean district, however, are 
just over the New York line in Pennsylvania. Both hard and soft coal 
are commonly used for the purposes of direct heating and the production 
of steam. Practically all plants use the wood tar and wood gas, which 


214 FOREST PRODUCTS 


are products of the distillation process, directly under the ovens or retorts 
or under the boilers. 

The estimates regarding the cost of fuel vary considerably. Alto- 
gether estimates were received from $1.15 to $2.00-per cord. The cost 
will naturally vary with the kind of fuel used, the distance from source of 
supply, efficiency of boilers and steam pipes and other correlated factors. 
In one of the larger plants of the state which has seven 25-ft. ovens, it 
was estimated that 300 bu. of charcoal, 300 gal. of wood tar and all of 
the available wood gas were used for each charge of seven ovens. Ata 
prominent plant in New York it was estimated that 300 lb. of soft 
bituminous coal were used for the distillation of 1 cord of wood. In an 
oven containing 10 cords, therefore, this would require 3000 lb. of soft 
coal for one charge. It is estimated that the fuel value-of wood tar is at 
least twice as much as that of coal for a given weight 


Labor. 


Labor is a very important item in the cost of production. Altogether 
the labor is unskilled at all of the plants with the exception of the plant 
superintendent or manager, and, in the case of the largest plants, there 
is a chemist or expert engineer employed who receives more than the 
ordinary day wages. ‘There is a distinct tendency to raise wages at the 
various plants. During 1916 these varied between $1.50 per day 
to $1.60 at one plant up to $2.00 per day at others. All plants, of course, 
run night and day, but there is a very small force engaged in the work 
during the night time. At most of the plants there is a given piece of 
work to be done each day and when this is completed the men are free 
for the rest of thé time. For instance, in the wood yard, the day’s work 
may consist of loading so many cars of wood. When this particular 
work is completed, the men are through for the day. 

Altogether the larger the plant the greater is the economy in labor, 
The greatest saving in labor in the development of the industry has been 
the change from the old round retort plant to the modern oven plant. 
Owing to the fact that the trucks are pulled in and out of the oven by 
means of a power cable, there is a great saving in labor over the old round 
retort plants where the retorts had to be loaded and discharged by hand. 

At a 4-oven plant having a capacity of 40 cords per day, there were 
the following employees: 


2 firemen at the boilers. 
2 men in the still house. 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 215 


2 firemen for the ovens. 

4 men in the dry kiln. 

4 men to charge and draw trucks or cars. 
1 extra man about the piping. 

2 men in the wood yard handling wood. 


1 foreman. 


This makes a total of 18 men on the 24-hour shift, that is, there are 
13 men on during the day and 5 during the night. This list does not 
include the teamsters used in drawing the wood from the chopping area to 
the storage yards. 

At a 2-oven plant there were 12 men employed beside the superintend- 
ent. All of these men were common labor paid in 1916 at the rate of 
$1.50 per day. The firemen were on eight-hour shifts and all others 
were on ten-hour shifts. The following shows the number of men re- 
quired on this particular operation: 


2 still house men, 1 on the night and the other on the day shift. 
2 kiln men, 1 on the night and 1 on the day shift. 

3 firemen in eight-hour shifts each. 

3 oven men to load wood on cars or coal screener. 

3 extra handy men. 


The labor cost per cord varies very much. In two plants the costs 
were $1.15 and $1.18 per cord, respectively. At other plants the labor 
cost is sometimes as high as $1.50 to $1.70 per cord. The labor charge is 
considerably higher, of course, in the cylindrical retort DES than in 
the oven peas due to the reasons given above. 


Depreciation Charges. 

Owing to the intense heat required to distill the wood, and the acid 
nature of the products, depreciation charges on the ovens, retorts, cars 
and distilling apparatus are very heavy. Ovens usually last only from 
three to twelve years. The coolers last much longer as a rule, and the 
wood cars last from twelve to twenty years. Altogether a depreciation 
charge of from 50 cents to $1.00 per cord is customary at most of the 
plants. However, the usual charge is likely to be nearer $1.00 than the 
lower figure. 

The life of the copper apparatus is about ten to twelve years and there 
is considerable salvage on old copper. 


216 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Cost of Operation. 


The cost of operation depends on a large number of factors, the chief 
of which are the charges for wood, fuel and labor. Transportation 
charges for material such as fuel, supplies, etc., aré also an important 
consideration. 

It is very difficult to say what the average costs of operation should 
be. They are usually figured or based on the charges per cord. At the 
various plants, the method of cost computation varies considerably, so 
that it is very difficult to compare one with another. The degree of 
efficiency also varies considerably, so it is very difficult in this respect to 
compare them. At an oven retort plant that has been run for several 
years, the costs per cord in 1916 were figured as follows: 


WOE 625556550695 Tis tages Sie os eee ee $4.00 
EB DOE 6s Ain 2 ire Daa ee ay Beare Bee 1.50 
Bel icc ks Figo bee oe Egos on Cee Oe ee ee 1.39 
TAGS cies: 2eeP cate BGS Pe ne Re Ta ea oes 19 
Supplies: oils;etes 92 ieee Ee eae .32 
General expenses: .).)55650) 2). 8b hr eee ee ee 51 
Depreciation ..ii0t/u< deel uceins Rie eee .58 
ANGUTANER feet Sk Pee ie routes du ee ee ae cee .08 
Wasess.. 2b eee acceler eel EGP are 22 

OLA cs VS iy 58s FA SAE COs eee $9.17 


The above computation was based on a month’s run and a very care- 
ful record was kept of all costs. There were 16 men employed at this 
factory, not including the men engaged in cutting and hauling the wood, 
nor the office force. The standard wage scale was $1.60 per day.and the 
factory was located in the region in which a plentiful supply of wood could 
be obtained. 

At another oven plant the following costs were observed. These are 
also given per cord of wood: 


Wood i. BeAr ee Ee ea ee $4.00 
tS Ee Peer ea eR a 2 RE ie Pan eS gr 0 Xt 1.50 
LAWOR SN VES OOS Sp aa RS ee een a 2.00 
Depreciation; ete: rok aie eae eee 1.00 
Marketitio ss. woiic sis Tees Eee ee nee 1.47 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 217 


Yields. 

The yield of products at hardwood distillation plants varies considera- 
bly. The yield at any particular plant depends upon the following factors: 

1. Temperature, that is, the maximum and minimum temperatures 
used during the exothermic process. 

2. The rapidity of heating. Too rapid heating will cause a much 
smaller and lower grade of product. Usually about ten hours is the time 
required to get wood up to the highest temperatures. If heating is done 
too rapidly the color of the pyroligneous acid is much darker and the 
yields are consequently much lower. 

3. The species of wood. There is a general consensus of opinion 
among the New York plants that maple is the best wood with beech next 
and birch third. Oak and hickory are also desirable species, but if there 
is too much soft maple, basswood, poplar, gray birch or other inferior 
species, the yields will be lowered. . 

4. The condition of the wood. It is generally assumed that the dryer 
and more thoroughly the wood is seasoned, the better will be the product. 
It is also true that heartwood yields much larger and better products than 
sapwood, and body wood is much more desirable than limb wood. 

5. Efficiency of the plant. This is determined by the character of 
the machinery and equipment, arrangement of the apparatus and many 
other factors connected with the efficiency of an operation. 

The products of hardwood distillation are as follows: Wood alcohol, 
acetate of lime, charcoal, wood tar and wood gas. The latter two are 
practically always used as fuel under the boilers or retorts. 

From an investigation of the 25 plants in New York State it was 
determined that an average yield of 42.7 bu. of charcoal are obtained 
per cord of wood from all of the plants. There was a maximum yield of 
50 bu. of charcoal per cord and a minimum yield of 38 bu. 

The average estimated yield of acetate of lime was 199.47 lb. per 
cord of wood. The minimum was 171 Ib. and the maximum 220 Ib. 

In wood alcohol the average yield was 9.9 gal. of 82 per cent wood 
alcohol per cord of wood. The minimum was 8 gal. and the maximum 
11 gal. per cord. 

It is estimated that between 23 and 28 gal. of wood tar are secured 
per cord with an average of about 25 gal. It is estimated that about 
11,500 cu. ft. of gas are secured per cord of wood. 

These figures are based upon the individual estimates of the various 
wood distillation plants of the state. Altogether much better yields 
are secured from the oven plants than from the cylindrical retort plants. 


218 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Value of Products. 


One of the greatest drawbacks to engaging in the wood distillation 
business has been the great fluctuation in the price levels for all of the 


principal products, namely, acetate of lime, wood alcohol and charcoal. 


In the early days of the industry charcoal was the principal product, 
and it brought from ro to 20 cents a bushel or more. Then acetate of 
lime became the principal product sought after and finally the wood 
alcohol. Before the Federal legislation, the profits were excellent and 
attractive, but since 1907 and up to the outbreak of the great Euro- 
pean War on August 1, 1914, price levels were very uncertain and several 
of the concerns were driven out of business. 

Up to the time of this war the prices obtained for acetate of lime 
varied between $1.25 to $2.00 per hundred pounds. Since August 1, 1914, 
the following price levels have been obtained: 


August to October, TORE wo. halts 5 sh acne ret one wane $1.50 per 100 lb. 
NOVeRARET, “FORA eo ohn hal ck Ay eae clues te ee oe 1.75 per 100 lb. 
Deceniper, TOS 6s os oe hs se vee a 2.00 per 100 lb. 
JODUAEY 2 TEES Sok cess anck = aby Ses kn ae SS 2.00 per 100 lb. 
February 10 May, 1086 6 6.25 GAG es Sr a ee 2.50 per too lb. 
JURC COWARBMEE ROE Ts os 5 gcccs ines Fnie a dha oe ents 3.50 per 100 lb. 
September ‘to October, 3015. ss. s wes chs wae 4.00 per 100 lb. 
November to December, 1915........... 00s eeeeee 5.00 per 100 lb. 
January, 1916.......... Rain nly Bean Pere tet ey Or 6.00 per roo lb. 
February to August, 1916... .....6...5..5. aire ats 7.00 per 100 lb. 
SURUEIIVEE, FORO. woke ae ny ak a Cu teats 5.00 per 100 lb. 
October, 19902. 5.G ar vet ee Ger y Cee h aheeeens 3.50 per 100 lb, 


In regard to wood alcohol, the prices have also fluctuated considerably. 
Quotations varied between 30 cents and 45 cents per gal. for the crude 
82 per cent alcohol. Since the outbreak of the war, however, the use of 
both wood alcohol and acetate of lime have been greatly stimulated 
for their use in the manufacture of certain war munitions and the prices 
have steadily advanced. 

During the year 1914 the market price of 82 per cent crude wood 
alcohol was 25 cents per gallon delivered to the refineries in tank cars 
and the price of 95 per cent refined delivered to buyers in free wooden 
barrels to points east of the Mississippi River, 45 cents per gallon for 1 
to 10 bbl. lots and a small discount in carloads. Prices held at these 
figures until October, 1915, when the price of 95 per cent refined good 
alcohol began to advance first to 50 cents, later to 55 cents, then on 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 219 


February of 1916 to 65 cents and on October 1, 1916, to 7o cents. These 
advances were made possible by the rapid increase in the price of de- 
natured alcohol, this material now being 60 cents per gallon. There is 
every indication that the price of both alcohols has gone sufficiently high 
for some time to come. In the spring of 1916, 97 per cent refined alcohol 
brought 70 cents per gallon. Methyl acetone was worth go to g5 cents 
per gallon and pure methyl or columbian methanol was worth $1.00 a 
gallon. 

With the increased use of both acetate of lime and wood alcohol, the 
demand for charcoal has not kept pace with these other two products, and 
consequently prices have suffered very materially. In 1917 charcoal 
was only bringing around 5 to 6 cents per bushel. In 1914 it was bring- 
ing 7 cents a bushel wholesale at the acid factory. The estimated pro- 
duction of charcoal in this country before the war broke out was about 
5,000,000 bu. a month and the iron furnaces took by far the greatest 
proportion of this. 

Practically all of the products of the wood distillation industry are 
sold wholesale in carload lots at the factory. The wood alcohol is shipped 
in tank cars or in tight barrels. Charcoal is shipped in sacks and the 
acetate of lime is also shipped in sacks or bags. Up to the present time 
no regular market has been developed either for the wood gas cr wood tar. 

‘Both of these are usually now consumed as fuel underneath the retorts. 
It is very likely that some time in the future a definite market will be 
developed for the utilization of wood oils and wood tar. It can be made 
into creosote, but the process is so expensive that this form cannot com- 
pete successfully with coal-tar creosotes. 

The following table shows a comparison of values of products per cord 
under conditions prevailing in 1914, and those occurring in 1916. This 
table is based upon the average of yields of acetate of lime, wood alcohol 
and charcoal per cord. The values are those described before. The 
table shows that the operators were receiving more than twice as much 
for their products under market conditions in the spring of 1916 as they 
did under those prevailing before the war: 


Yield Val Val Val Val 

| Cord. | Unit; 1916: | Cord: 1916. -| Unit, 1914. | Cond. 1914: 

Acetate of lime..... 199.47 lbs. $.07 $13.97 $r-7 $3.30 

Wood alcohol...... 9.9 gals. 37 3.66 .25 2.48 

Charcoal... s423 5.2: 47-7 bu. .6 2.86 22 3-34 
$20.49 $o.21 


220 FOREST PRODUCTS 


UTILIZATION OF PRODUCTS 


The utilization of the products of the hardwood distillation industry 
has been a great problem, especially since the Federal law of 1907 went 
into effect. The greatest money return is received from disposal of the 
acetate of lime, and the prices received for this product have undergone 
great fluctuation. 

Altogether there are three primary products derived from the process, 
namely, the raw pyroligneous acid, the wood gas and the charcoal which 
remains as a residue from the distillation of the wood. The secondary 


Fic. 61.—Acetate of lime drying over the retorts in the oven house at a large plant at Betula, 
Pennsylvania. 

products as a result of the separation of the tar from the pyroligneous 
acid and the further distillation of the pyroligneous acid are, first, wood 
tar, second, acetate of lime, and third, wood alcohol. 

The utilization of the five derived products of this industry, therefore, 
are described:as follows: Acetate of lime, wood alcohol, charcoal, wood 
tar and wood gas. 


Acetate of Lime. 
It is estimated that approximately 100,000 long tons of acetate of 
lime are produced every year in this country. Under normal conditions, 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 221 


that’ is, before August, 1914, only about 75,000 long tons were pro- 
duced. 

Under normal conditions the export and domestic consumption of 
acetate of lime about equaled each other. Now this product is chiefly 
consumed in this country. 

Probably 75 per cent of the acetate of lime produced in this country is 
used as the raw material for the acetic acid industry. More recently, 
_ there has been a heavy demand for the use of acetate of lime as a source 
of acetone. About 100 lb. of 80 per cent acetate of lime are equivalent 
to 50 to 60 Jb. of refined acetic acid or 20 lb. of acetone. Acetic acid is 
used chiefly for the manufacture of white lead acetone in the textile and 
leather industries and in a great variety of other commercial manu- 
factures. One-of the most important present uses is in the manufacture 
of cordite and lyddite, two high explosives. Acetone is also used largely 
as a solvent for the cutting of gun cotton and in the manufacture of smoke- 
less powder. 

In many of the European countries, acetic acid or wood vinegar is a 
common product on the market. However, the manufacture of wood 
vinegar from acetic acid is prohibited in this country. 


Wood Alcohol. 

It is estimated that between 10,000,000 and 11,000,000 gal. of wood 
alcohol are produced every year in this country. Its greatest single 
use is asa solvent. Probably go per cent of all the wood alcohol used is 
for this purpose in one way or another. Its greatest consumption is 
probably in the paint and varnish industry, in which about 35 to 50 per 
cent is utilized. 

Practically no wood alcohol is used in the raw 82 per cent state. Itis 
all refined to a higher state of purity before being utilized. One concern 
refines a good share of the total product of the country. 

Wood alcohol is used very largely in aniline dye factories to make 
colors, especially greens, purples and light blues. It is also used in the 
manufacture of formaldehyde, photographic films and in stiffening hats. 

Refined wood alcohol of high purity or methyl alcohol, that is, of 99 
to 100 per cent purity, is sold under a great variety of trade names, such 
as columbian methanol, colonial methyl, diamond methyl, etc. As an 
extraction agent wood alcohol is used in the manufacture of smokeless 
powder, nitrocellulose and other explosives. Gun cotton, for example, is 
freed from cellulose nitrates by extraction with wood alcohol. 

Other common uses are as follows: As fuel, as an illuminant, as a 
denaturant and in various chemical and medicinal preparations. 


222 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Charcoal. 

Until about 1905 the great market for charcoal was in the reduction 
of iron ores. Important methods of steel production within recent years, 
however, have gradually eliminated the strong demand for charcoal for 
this particular purpose. Charcoal iron or Swedish iron, as it is often 
called in the trade, is still in demand for certain specialized uses, espe- 
cially for high-grade steel used for tools, instruments, car wheels, etc. 
Pig iron reduced with charcoal commonly brings $5.00 a ton more than 
coke iron. A single blast furnace uses between 10,000 and 12,000 bu. 
of charcoal a day. Where there are from 5 to 10 blasting furnaces at a 
single ore-reduction plant, it is easily seen that the consumption of char- 
coal may be very large. A great many of the hardwood distillation 
plants in Michigan and Wisconsin have ore-reducing plants in connection 
with them. These are the conditions under which the greatest economy 
in charcoal utilization is practiced. Muchof thecharcoal for these plants, 
however, is made by the open-pit or bee-hive kiln as well as by the oven 
plants. An investigation carried on by the U. S. Forest Service showed 
the consumption of charcoal in this country to be as follows: 76 per cent 
went to blast furnaces; 19.5 per cent is utilized in domestic uses; 1.9 
per cent is used for chemical purposes; 1.03 per cent is used for powder 
mills and the remainder went to smelters, railroads, etc. However, 
replies from only 60 per cent of the plants were received, so that it is not 
likely that a large number of plants throughout New York and Pennsyl- 
vania are properly represented by this estimate. 

Charcoal from the New York plants is probably used in a greater va- 
riety of ways than from those in other states. There is no question but 
that the major portion of charcoal produced in this country is still 
used in blast furnaces and for the manufacture of gunpowder. 

One New York plant screens it and ships it in five different grades. 
When the charcoal is shipped, it is screened to remove the finer pieces. 
This is ground up in some cases and pressed into briquettes and used for 
fuel. Other common uses for charcoal are for medicinal purposes, for 
poultry and cattle food, in chemical manufacture and for fuel in a great 
variety of ways. 


Wood Tar. 

At the present time practically all of the wood tar is used for fuel under 
the ovens or boilers. Throughout the country it is estimated that 
between 30,000,000 and 40,000,000 gal. of wood tar are used in this way. 
In some cases, prices of between 4 and 83 cents have been received per 


HARDWOOD DISTILLATION 223 


gallon for the use of this material in chemical manufactures, but its 
use is very limited. It is believed that sometime in the future a 
method will be found for using this wood tar as a basis of creosote on 
a commercial scale. A good share of our creosote at the present time is 
made from coal tar and a large part of it is imported. There is no 
question that sometime in the future this material will be used for the 
preservation of wooden material, such as ties, poles, mine timber, etc. 


Wood Gas. 


Wood gas is used entirely as a fuel underneath the ovens at the present 
time. In some localities in Germany and Austria wood gas has been 
used for illuminating purposes, and it is very possible that at some time 
in the future this may be used for a much more economical purpose than 
as a fuel underneath the ovens. This, however, is looking a long way in 
advance and it is probable that for some time at least it will continue to 
serve the purpose of fuel along with the wood tar and coal or other fuel 
brought in to supply the necessary amount of heat. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Brown, Netson C. The Hardwood Distillation Industry in New York. The New 
York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. ¥Y. 1916. 


CAMPBELL, C. L. The Wood Distilling Industry. Metallurgical and Chemical 
Engineering. March, rg1o. 

Dumesny, PAuL and Moyer, J. Wood Products, Distillates and Extracts. Scott, 
Greenwood & Co. London: 1908. 


Frencu, E. H. and Witnrow, J. R. The Hardwood Distillation Industry in Amer- 
ica. Ohio State Universtiy, 1914. 


GEER, W.O. Wood Distillation. U.S. Forest Service. Circular 114. 


Harper, W.B. The Destructive Distillation of Wood, 1912. Industrial Chemistry, 
PP- 539-544- 

Haw ey, L. F. and Parmer, R. C. Distillation of Resinous Wood by Saturated 
Steam, 1912. U.S. Forest Service. Bulletin roo. — 

Martin, GEOFFREY. The Charcoal and Wood Distilling Industries. Industrial 
and Maufacturing Chemistry. Crosby, Lockwood & Son. London: 1918. 


Miscellaneous Articles in Chemical Engineer, Chicago. Metallurgical and Chemical 
Engineering, New York. Chemical Trade Journal, London. Journal of In- 
dustrial of Engineering Chemistry, Easton, Pa. Journal, Society of Chemical 
Industry, London, England. Oil, Drug and Paint Reporter, New York. 


PALMER, R. C. Yields from Destructive Distillation of Certain Hardwoods, 1917. 
U. S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 508. 


294 FOREST PRODUCTS 


PALMER, R.C. A Statistical Study of the Growth of Hardwood Distillation Industry, 
etc. Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter, March 9, 1914. 

PALMER, R. C. The Effect of Incomplete Distillation on the Yield of Products, etc. 
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1918. Vol. 10, p. 260. 

TEEPLE, JOHN E. Waste Wood Distillation. Journal of Industrial and Engineering 
Chemistry, November, 1915. 

VertcuH, F. P. Chemical Methods for Utilizing Wood. U.S. Bureau of Chemistry. 
Circular 36, 1907. 


CHAPTER IX 


SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION 


GENERAL 


THE distillation of soitwoods in this country is an outgrowth of the 
hardwood distillation industry as developed in its earlier days in New 
York and Pennsylvania.! Owing to the radically different kind of woods 
available in the South, consisting largely of pines of a highly resinous 
nature, a different process than that evolved for the dense hardwoods of 
the North was found necessary. 

The distillation of softwoods has not developed to the extent that has 
been the case with the northern hardwoods. Two distinct methods of 
distillation have been evolved, namely, destructive or dry distillation 
and steam distillation with its later development called the extraction or 
solvent process. The industry is still in its infancy, however, since no 
standard method of production has been generally adopted as has been 
the case with the hardwood distillation industry, and each plant follows a 
method which is usually quite different from that of the others. 

There are great possibilities in this industry, however, for the utiliza- 
tion of wood products which otherwise are wasted. At a meeting of 
the American Society of Chemical Engineers in Baltimore in 1916, Mr. 
Arthur D. Little expressed a very apt viewpoint of the industry: 


When the real work of wood waste utilization has once begun and attention of 
chemical engineers and financial men has been drawn more generally to the huge 
potential values now ignorantly thrown away, we may expect the rapid development 
of these by-product industries and an initiation of many new ones to the great enrich- 
ment of the South and in somewhat less degree that of the Northwest. 


The crude beginnings of softwood distillation were not in common use 
in the South until about 1885, but it was not until about 1905 that any 
marked improvements had been made in solving even some of the ele- 
mentary problems in the industry. At the present time there is a vast 

*See Chapter on Hardwood Distillation. For details regarding Process of Dry Distilla- 
tion, also consult same chapter. 

225 


226 FOREST PRODUCTS 


amount of work and an unusually large opportunity for the skilled wood 
chemist and engineer to develop a satisfactory solution to the many 
problems. The material collected and made available up to the present 
time on the industry illustrates what not to do rather than what should be 
followed. The industry is characterized by a great number of com- 
mercial failures due to fluctuations in market conditions and mistakes 
in both chemical and commercial aspects. 

The first improvement in the industry was the introduction of iron 
retorts to replace the open-air charcoal pit. This improvement made 
possible the recovery of turpentine, a little of the pine oils, considerable 
tar oil, creosote oil, pitch and pyroligneous acid in addition to the tar 
and charcoal which were the only products of the old-fashioned charcoal 
pits. The quality of these products was exceedingly poor and there was 
but little demand for them during the earlier days of the industry. 
The turpentine was of exceedingly poor quality but could be further 
refined at some expense. The tar product was in less favor than the 
product from the kilns and could be marketed only at a rather low price. 
The market for charcoal was also poor and considerable quantities of it 
were used to fire the retorts. The gas product was also used directly for 
fuel. The pitch, if no market existed, was disposed of in accordance 
with the ingenuity of the producer. It was sold in the solution of tar 
oils or creosote oils or even sold as tar. The solutions gradually grew toa 
large number and were marketed as oils, paints, insecticides, disin- 
fectants, medicinal products, etc., under a large variety of trade names. 

Many improvements have been made in the retort process within 
the past two or three decades, until at the present time a high grade of 
turpentine and tars much superior to the kiln tars are produced. 
Practically the only commercial success has been attained by the manu- 
facturer who has developed a special ability to market his products, 
particularly the oils, as specialties under established trade names. This 
practice tended to decrease the keen competition which heretofore had 
been very destructive to the successful marketing of the products. The 
production of acetate of lime from the pyroligneous acid is a still more 
recent development and was made possible through the increased: de- 
mand for acetones. During the war acetate of lime commanded a price 
as high as 7 cents per pound and its production was greatly stimulated. 
After the war, the price, however, dropped to about 2 cents per pound. 

Up to a comparatively recent date it is doubtful whether the greater 
measure of success is to be attributed to the chemical engineer in charge 
of the individual plant or the ability of the manufacturer as a business 


SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION 227 


man to anticipate the demand and to develop a special market for his 
products, which are sold to a large extent as specialties. At the 
present time there is a gradually increasing belief among chemical 
engineers that the destructive method of distillation is wrong to a 
large extent in its fundamental principles. This belief has caused the 
development of many new processes. However, the plants operating 
by the destructive method have been and are still operating on a com- 
mercial basis, whereas, those based upon the distillation of steam and, to 
a less extent, those using extraction by solvent baths, have largely failed 
to survive the fluctuating market conditions. Many of the failures are 
no doubt due to the lack of real knowledge of the possibilities of each 
system followed, a lack of knowledge of the market possibilities and the 
failure to keep accurate cost data. 

With the development of the softwood alaiittation industry, there 
has been a gradual sorting out of the species which can be profitably 
utilized on a commerical scale. The principal requirement is that the 
wood be sufficiently rich in resin and that there be as much “ lightwood ” 
as possible. Lightwood generally consists of stumps and logs after the 
bark and sapwood have rotted off and is characterized by high resin 
content. Longleaf pine is the most satisfactory species used and is the 
same tree which is tapped for rosin and spirits of turpentine as described 
in the Chapter on Naval Stores. Cuban (Pinus heterophylla) and short- 
leaf (Pinus echinata) pines are also used, but only to a limited extent. 
Several experimental and commercial plants have been constructed to 
utilize Norway pine in the Lake States and Douglas fir and western 
yellow pine and larch in the West. These have generally proven unsat- 
isfactory, however, for general commercial development because the low 
average resin content, the comparatively high cost of obtaining the raw 
material, and the fluctuations in the values for the products did not 
permit a sufficient latitude for profitable development. Many of the 
experiments on these woods have been tried out with specially selected 
specimens and although these experiments have in some cases proven 

that the products could be extracted on a commercially profitable basis, 
in actual practice on large operations it has been impossible to secure a 
sufficient quantity of wood of equally high resinous or “ fatty” con 
stituents. 


DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION 


The destructive distillation of resinous woods is carried out at the 
present time chiefly in the South along the South Atlantic and Gulf 


- 228 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Coasts. In this region there is a comparatively plentiful and cheap 
supply of raw material, such as longleaf, Cuban and shortleaf pines. 
The process briefly consists of heating the wood in retorts in the absence 
oi air and the condensation of the gaseous products as has been described 
in connection with the hardwood distillation industry. 

Retorts of cylindrical shape containing from one to four cords are 
used. They are usually placed in horizontal fashion in rows or batteries 
over a bricked-up furnace. The fire-box may be arranged to heat either 
one or two retorts. The wood is charged and drawn from doors at either 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 62.—General view of destructive distillation plant of the Pine Products Co., in Georgia. 
This plant uses longleaf yellow pine. The retorts are loaded with the wood shown in 
the foreground. In the rear are the stills, settling and storage tanks, etc. 


one or both ends of the retort. Within the past few years, cars loaded 
with wood and run directly into long ovens, as has been described in the 
case of the hardwood distillation industry, have been used to a limited 
extent. 

The distillation process usually requires about twenty-four hours as 
is true of the hardwoods.. The furnace fires are then drawn and the 
charcoal allowed to cool for twenty-four hours. The gases are condensed 
through copper condensers and the usual products are, aside from char- 


SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION 229 


coal and the non-condensing gases, light oils, tar and pyroligneous acid. 
The yields are generally about 7-10 gal. of refined wood turpentine, 
1} gal. of pine oil, 50 gal. of tar, and 800 to goo Ib. of charcoal per cord of 
fat pine weighing about 4000 Ib. Light oils and tar are very complex 
and are usually separated into a variety of products depending upon the 
current market conditions. Very little has been done commercially in 
this field, however, and a great opportunity exists for further investi- 
gation and research. The light oils are obtained in two fractions, the 
one containing turpentine being condensed from a low temperature in 
separate tanks. In some plants the volatile products are mixed in one 
condenser. The pyroligneous acid contains the same ingredients as has 
been described in the case of hardwoods, but in such small amounts that 
it is not commercially profitable to refine it further, and it is usually 
allowed to run to waste. The tar is refined to produce oils and a good 
grade of retort tar may be sold in its original state. The turpentine is 
of good color, but has a characteristic odor, and is considered somewhat 
inferior to the spirits of turpentine secured by tapping the trees as 
described in the Chapter on Naval Stores. 

It is impossible to state the average costs involved or to even approx- 
imate an estimate of the number of men employed, kinds of equipment 
used, etc., because each plant differs from the other and the standardiza- 
tion in this industry is probably less than can be found in almost any 
other. Lightwood is generally secured at about $3.00 to $4.75 per cord 
f.o.b. plant. 

At one of tke most important dry distillation plants in the Southeast 
the following production was secured. - This is based on a six-months’ 
run in which 8690 cords of longleaf pine were utilized. Each cord 
(128 cu. ft.) of lightwood weighed between 3500 and 4000 |b. 


PRODUCTION BY THE DRY DISTILLATION SYSTEM 


Products. | Number of Gallons per Cord of Wood. 
USI MNNNMR ass DOC arin od ain hihi dS ed Cra eioeislaeta welbeyee O50 7 
jE ea a Ae IAP a tea NO ne gee gr ne 2 
CTS S| PS ES rele Sor ie a dg nr 32 
MIE NG SOR e ecg cr ke Cea es aes ae eden 41 
OP RPRMR Nod cate erate Nala 2 oes Sa ZA PRR CRS As eras 82 


In addition to the above products, 39 bu. of charcoal were secured 
from each cord, on an average. 


230 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The prices secured for the products of dry distillation are shown as 
follows: They are given f.o.b. plant for the month of May for both 1914 
and 1919. 


< 


PRICES OF DRY DISTILLATION PRODUCTS 


| 


Products. Unit. Value May, 1914. | Value May, rg19. 

PUMPCOUNEs 655 ct ch Wash kde te Gallon $.33 $.60. 
Pine oli 24 cathe Attereuten eno Gallon . 30 65 
Tar os, tebe sca heree ous Gallon .18 35 
Tar ois; Crudécs sioeictnds one Gallon ie .24 

TODAYS 3 éca'e + oa shaggy arate tb otaate raya Male Barrel 8.00 12.00 
PHGHS Lochotisc ons ee teed een Pound .O15 .03 
Charcoal yoke sie coe enh Bushel .09 <a7 
Pyroligneous acid............... Gallon .02 .02 


The cost of production at one prominent plant in the South was 
estimated to be about $15.00 per cord in 1914 and since that date the 
cost gradually increased up to about $30.00 per cord or an advance of 
100 per cent. At this plant good lightwood was secured for $3.50 
per cord in 1914 whereas $7.50 was paid per cord in 1919. The wood is 
always paid for on the basis of weight, it being obvious that the heaviest 
dry wood contains the most fatty constituents. The depreciation charges 
on these plants are exceedingly heavy because the expensive metal 
retorts burn out in about four to five years. Taxes, labor, repairs, sup- 
plies and equipment as well as the cost of wood have advanced in price 
considerably since 1914. 


STEAM DISTILLATION AND EXTRACTION 


The introduction of steam distillation and extraction has been much 
more recent than distillation by the destructive process. 

The woods used for this branch of the industry are the same as have 
been described for the destructive process, The wood is “ hogged ”’ 
or reduced to small chips as in the case of reducing the wood for making 
paper pulp by the sulphite process. In some plants sawdust is also 
used. In the steaming process the chips are placed in vertical or 
horizontal retorts which are equipped with steam coils so that the wood 
can be reduced by live steam. The chips are steamed for three to four 
hours from low-pressure boilers, during which time the turpentine and 
pine oils are largely removed. The steam and oil fibers pass into a con- 
denser and then into a separator, the oils and crude turpentine rising to 


SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION 231 


the top and it is thus easily removed. After steaming, the chips are 
subjected to a vacuum to dry them. 

In the extraction or solvent process a solvent such as naphtha, 
benzol, gasoline, etc., is admitted to the retort and heated to boiling 
temperature by the steam coils. This solvent removes the rosin from the 
wood. The extracted chips after being freed of rosin as well as the petro- 
leum solvents are discharged through a trap in the bottom of the retort 
and sent to tHe boiler house, where they are used for fuel for power and 
steam. 

The products, therefore, of this form of distillation are crude turpen- 
tine, a yellow oil consisting of wood turpentine, and pine oil. This 
crude turpentine, if properly refined, produces a colorless uniform quality 
fluid which is very similar to the standard spirits of turpentine. The 
rosin, however, is of comparatively low grade and does not command the 
same price as that derived from the tapping of the trees. 

The length of time required for the extraction by steam distillation is 
ordinarily about twelve hours. One plant in the South which has a 
capacity of 20 cords for each charge requires from 12 to 20 men to operate 
and the initial cost of equipment is said to be from $1000 to $3000 per 
cord of capacity. The yields vary directly with the character of the wood 
used. In one plant from a continuous run of 711 cords there were 
secured an average of 815 lb. of rosin, 11 lb. of turpentine and 4 gal. of 
pine oil per cord. By the spring of 1919, practically all the plants using 
the steam process had gone out of existence. 

The so-called bath process is a form of steam distillation. A non- 
volatile pitch or rosin is heated to the boiling-point and circulated through 
the wood in the retorts. The turpentine and oils in the wood are liber- 
ated by this heat and mixture with the bath. The oils and turpentine 
are recovered separately and the bath used again. This process has not 
developed under market conditions which would thoroughly justify its 
general commercial use; the alkali process or one similar to it has been 
very optimistically spoken of and by some it is predicted that it will 
ultimately solve the problems of softwood distillation. The process 
combines the recovery of the resinous parts of the wood with the pro- 
duction of wood pulp. In the disintegration through the cooking for 
pulp the volatile oils are liberated and recovered from the digester. The 
rosin may be recovered as sizing or as rosin oils. The process is still in 
the earlier stages of development but appears to have an important pros- 
pect for the future. Palmer, in his “ Distillation of Resinous Woods,” 
has shown the following experimental yields from the various kinds of 


232 FOREST PRODUCTS 


wood used in both the destructive and steam distillation processes based 
upon an average cord of raw wood material weighing about 4000 lb.: 


. Pine . 
+ 417043 . Turpentine : Rosin Tar Charcoal 
| ’ , ’ , 
Distillation Method. Species. Gallons. Guin Pounds. | Gallons. | Bushels. 
Destructive distillation | Southern pine (Ref.) 7-12 BOF a ee oi ee 40-60 25-35 
toner Douglas fir (Crude) 1-2 OATS i nivaetnsor Sale mente ee 27 
Steam distillation and | Southern pine (Ref.) 10-15 I-5 500-600 
extraction Norway pine 8 2 350-450 
Douglas fir 1} 4 70-80 
Western yellow Not de- 
AG 12 3 termined 
estern yellow 
pine (mill 
waste) (Crude) 1} Not de- 
termined 
Steam distillation...... Mill waste (Ref.) 2-4 3 
j i 


UTILIZATION OF PRODUCTS 


The wood turpentine secured from the destructive process of softwood 
distillation is generally classed in the markets as inferior to gum turpen- 
tine chiefly because of its peculiar odor. The wood turpentine derived 
from steam distillation is of more uniform quality and better flavored 
than the product from destructive distillation. Both are sold at a small 
discount below the price secured for gum turpentine and are used mostly 
in the paint industry for varnishes and paints, particularly for paints 
used on exterior portions of structures. 

Tar oils are the combination of heavy oils from the tar and heavy 
oils from the crude turpentine. These are chiefly used as disinfectants, 
paint driers and a great variety of chemical and medicinal commodities. 
The lighter oils contain the wood tar creosote. 

The principal use of the tar oils is for flotation oils used in the recovery 
of copper, zinc and silver. 

The tar after removal of the light and heavy oils is used largely in 
the shipping and building industries. 

Charcoal is used in the same way as hardwood charcoal, that is, in 
iron furnaces in the manufacture of gunpowder, as a filtrant and purifier, 
and for chicken and stock food, etc. It is also widely used as a fuel in 
the distillation plants themselves and for domestic purposes in the local- 
ities where it is produced. 

Rosin is refined and used in many industries, especially in the produc- 
tion of linoleums, varnishes, soaps, printing inks, foundry work, and for 
sizing in the manufacture of paper. 

The pyroligneous acid is usually sold in crude form as a disinfectant 
and to the dye trade for special dyeing purposes. If the market condi- 
tions justify,it may be further refined for manufacture into wood alcohol 


SOFTWOOD DISTILLATION 233 


and acetate of lime as described in connection with the hardwood distilla- 
tion industry. 


FUTURE OF INDUSTRY 


The present conditions obtaining in the softwood distillation industry 
do not hold out a large measure of promise for the future. With but one 
or two principal products the manufacturer is largely at the mercy of the 
market, which has fluctuated very widely in the past. A plan whereby 
the production of distillates will not be the entire purpose of the man- 
ufacturer should accrue to the benefit of the industry at large. After 
a careful survey of successes and failures up to the present time, experts 
interested in the improvement of the industry are generally agreed that 
this principle is a sound one. According to John E. Teeple, in a given 
5000 Ib. of rich fat lightwood stumps, there is about 20 per cent or 1000 
Ib. of rosin, 40 gal. of turpentine and pine oil, and 750 Ib. of water. This 
leaves about 3000 lb. of wood fiber. By destructive distillation of the 
above sample the manufacturer may derive all of the turpentine, but 
only a small portion of the pine oils before the disintegration of the rosin 
and wood. These oils are valuable and no satisfactory method exists 
at the present time of extracting them from the decomposed products. 

It is believed that a combination of the softwood distillation industry 
and the paper industry can be brought about to profitable commercial 
advantage. The present method of steam distillation leaves the fiber 
of the residue unchanged. It is possible to operate these plants suc- 
cessfully if the minimum price for turpentine is not less than 50 cents per 
~ gallon and for rosin $5.00 per barrel. At the introduction of the solvent 
method it was believed that prices would not reach the minimum levels 
again, but in January, 1916, rosin was selling at $3.00 per barrel and tur- 
pentine at only 38 cents per gallon. 

The 3000 lb. of fiber mentioned in Teeple’s experiment contains a 
certain proportion of bark, but may make about 1500 lb. of wood pulp. 
This pulp is not satisfactory to use in the manufacture of white papers, 
but experiments conducted by the U. S. Forest Service have indicated 
that it will produce an excellent quality of kraft paper. A combination 
of a process removing all of the distillate products from the wood and 
another making use of the 3000 lb. of wood fiber for pulp should be the 
most satisfactory and profitable utilization of the original material. 
The solution of this problem, therefore, is very likely to be the combina- 
tion of distillation with paper-making under the direction of competent 
business men and chemical engineers. 


234 ~- FOREST PRODUCTS 


A factor which will be very important in the solution of the problems 
of the industry along these lines is the possibility of clearing land in the 
South. A plant may be so located that it can secure sufficient raw mate- 
rial from the surrounding region, the land may be cleared for agriculture 
and thus enhance its value, and a paper pulp factory established to 
operate in connection with the distillation plant. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


PriTcHARD, THos. W. Recent Developments in Wood Distillation. Scientific 
American Supplement, December 17, 1912. 


Benson, H. K. By-products of the Lumber Industry. Bureau of Foreign and 
Domestic Commerce, Special Agents Series No. 110, 1916. 


Benson, H. K. Chemical Treatment of Waste Wood. Scientific American Sup- 
plement. June 7, 10913. 

Hawtey, L. F., and Parmer, R. C. Distillation of Resinous Woods by Steam. 
Forest Service Bulletin 114. 

GEER, W. C. Destructive Distillation. Forest Service Circular 114. 

TEEPLE, JOHN E. Waste Pine Wood Utilization. Scientific American Supplement. 
Jan. 8, 1916. ' 


Parmer, R. C. Distillation of Resinous Woods. U.S. Forest Products Laboratory 
Circular, Madison, Wisconsin. 


CHAPTER X 


CHARCOAL 


GENERAL 


CHARCOAL is charred wood as the result of partial or incomplete 
combustion. Its manufacture in the past consisted usually in carbonizing 
wood in open-air pits. The wood is usually placed in large piles of 
various forms and charred, or it may be the residue from the distillation 
of wood in closed retorts.. For many centuries charcoal has been used 
as the principal domestic fuel, particularly in countries like Italy, Spain 
and France, where there is a shortage of coal. During the middle and 
latter parts of the past century its production was greatly stimulated for 
use in the reduction of iron ores. 

The production of charcoal by the old open-air pit method reached 
its height of importance long ago in this country. It has been for many 
centuries and is still of great importance-in Europe where, in many 
countries, charcoal serves the purpose as the principal domestic fuel, 
both for heating and for cook’ng. It is also extensively used in various 
arts and industries. 

The manufacture of charcoal is practiced principally in regions of 
abundant forest resources. Owing to the fact that charcoal can be trans- 
ported with ease on account of its lightness in weight—wood, a heavy 
form of fuel, can besmade readily available for the market by conversion 
to approximately one-half its original volume and one-quarter its original 
air-dry weight. 

The manufacture of charcoal by the open-pit method is a very 
wasteful operation, because the volatile products which pass off in the 
process of conversion are not recovered. Principally because of this fact 
combined with the demand for the volatile products of wood such as 
wood alcohol, acetate of lime, etc., the distillation of wood in ovens and 
in closed retorts has made great progress and has discouraged the making 
of charcoal by the open-pit process. 

The old-fashioned method of manufacture is still very important in 
the rather remote districts in the heavily forested sections of Sweden, 

235 ; 


236 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Austria and France. In this country, only in restricted sections of the 
hardwood forests of the East and in the softwood regions of western 
Montana and isolated portions of the West and South, are the old char- 
coal pits in operation. They are used to a limited extent near iron ore 
reduction plants, and in comparatively inaccessible districts where good 
hardwoods are abundant and cheap and the market is near enough to 
attract its manufacture. 

According to the census of 1909, the production of charcoal in this 
country amounted to 39,017,247 bu., valued at $2,351,644, or an average 
value of about $.06 per bu. The census of 1880 shows a consump- 
tion of 74,008,972 bu., valued at $5,276,736, or an average value of $.071 
per bushel. In 1870 there were said to be 3473 charcoal operations in 
this country. The reported production of 1909 was made in wood distilla- 
tion plants, very little being made by the old crude charcoal pit methods, 
and none of which was reported in the census statistics, whereas the pro- 
duction in 1880 was made largely in open-air pits or beehive retorts, and 
over 94 per cent of it was used in the manufacture of iron. 

With improved methods in the reduction of iron ore, and the greater 
use of coke for the same purpose as that formerly supplied by charcoal, 
the demand for the latter has gradually decreased. One of the principal 
problems at present adduced by the operators of wood distillation 
plants ! is the difficulty encountered in the profitable sale of their char- 
coal. In some sections it became a drug on the market prior to our 
entrance in the war, and the prices for it decreased to an exceedingly low 
level. 

In Europe the conversion of stumps, tops, branches and other wood 
waste after logging as well as saw-mill refuse, such as slabs, edgings, etc., 
into charcoal, is a common sight in all of the forested sections. Where 
the market for charcoal is attractive, the making of this by-product is an 
important means of complete and efficient utilization of the forest product. 


WOODS USED AND YIELDS 


The yields of charcoal depend upon the method and rate of burning, 
the degree of heat, the kind, character and condition of the wood, etc. 
Woods of high specific gravity yield the most and best charcoal. Conse- 
quently such woods of great density as hickory, hard maple, beech, 
birch, and the oaks are regarded as the best kinds of wood for making 
high-grade charcoal. The lighter weight hardwoods and the softwoods 


1 See Chapter on Hardwood Distillation. 


CHARCOAL 237 


produce both less charcoal and a product of lower quality for general 
utility purposes. For certain specialized purposes in metallurgical work, 
however, a charcoal derived from mixed hardwoods and _ softwoods 
is sometimes preferred. Charcoal made from willow and other light- 
weight woods has been in great demand for the manufacture of certain 
forms of explosives, filtering purposes and disinfectants. Experiments 
have shown that the volume of charcoal is only about 50 per cent to 60 
per cent of that of the original air-dry wood, and the weight only about 
19 per cent to 25 per cent of the original weight of wood used. 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 63.—A charcoal pit near Elk Neck, Cecil Co., Maryland, ready to be covered with 
grass, leaves, etc., and soil preparatory to burning. Beech, birch, maple, hickory and 
the oaks make the best charcoal because of their great density. 


On a large operation in Virginia where pits containing about 35 cords 
of white and red-oak wood were used, an average of about 30 bu. to the 
cord were secured. In southern Pennsylvania where a mixture of oaks 
and yellow pine were used in open-air pits, a yield of 30 bu. was secured. 
It is generally regarded that this is an average yield when the better 
hardwoods and more dense soft woods are used. 

The yields from the beehive and other forms of prepared kilns are 
obviously much greater, because of the increased efficiency in operation. 
An investigation of the yields of 25 hardwood distillation plants in New 


238 FOREST PRODUCTS 


York disclosed the average yield of 42.7 bushels of charcoal per cord of 
wood, which consisted largely of beech, birch and maple.! 

Experiments have shown that the number of pounds of dry charcoal 
per bushel varies from 32.89 for shellbark hickory, to 27.26 for beech, 
21.10 for white oak and 17.52 for longleaf pine. The same experiments 
demonstrated that the weight of charcoal produced per cord of air-dry 
wood also varied considerably. A cord of shellbark hickory produced 
1172 lb., beech, 635 lb; white oak, 825 lb, and longleaf pine, 585 lb. 

The table on page 239 shows the yields from a variety of American 
woods, together with their specific gravity, weight of wood, and a num- 
ber of other related facts. The specific gravities do not agree with those 
commonly accepted at the present time, but the correlated facts are inter- 
esting. 

In Europe, where the industry has been most highly developed, 
investigations carried on by Bergil disclosed the following yields, ex- 
pressed in percentages of weight and volume. The species mentioned 
are very similar in properties and characteristics to those of similar name 
in the American forests. 


YIELD OF VARIOUS EUROPEAN SPECIES IN CHARCOAL DERIVED BY THE 
OPEN-PIT METHOD 


= 


YIELD. 
Species. 
Percentage of Percentage of 
Original Weizht. | Original Volume. 

Beech and oak, quartered wood............ phawae sos 20-22 52-56 
Birch, quartered Woe 2235 2.50 sous sca cels Seek ace 20-21 65-68 
Pine (Pinus maritima and P. sylvestris) quartered wood. 22-25 60-64 
Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), quartered wood......... 23-26 65-75 
Norway spruce, stump wood.................20eeeeee 21-25 50-65 
Norway spruce, edgings and mill waste................ 20-24 42-50 
Mixed hardwood and softwood, mill waste (oak, birch, 

beech; pine and Snmice) 3.2555 Ok seca si be sedee 19-22 38-48 


- PROCESSES USED 


The process of manufacture of charcoal by the open-pit method 
consists generally of the following operation: Billets of wood from 2 to 4 
ft. or more in length and from 2 to 6 in. in diameter, are piled on end in a 
conical form. There may be from 10 to 35 cords or more to the pile, and 

1See the “ Hardward Distillation Industry in New York,” by Nelson C. Brown, New 


York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, New York, 1916. 
* Taken from experiments by Marcus Ball, Philadelphia. 


239 


CHARCOAL 


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240 FOREST PRODUCTS 


the form may vary from a regular cone to an obtuse cone or a truncated 
cone. Openings are left at the base to serve as a draft, together with a 
central shaft to carry off the smoke running vertically hroues the middle 
of the pile. 

The sticks of wood are piled compactly together. The pile is first 
covered with grass, leaves, moss, branches, or needles, etc., depending 
upon the best available material, to a depth of from 3 to 5 in., and then 
with soil and turf to a depth of from 2 to 5 in. in addition. It is then 


po 


| 
| 
| 


Fic. 64.—A charcoal pit in the process of burning. An “ explosion ” has occurred and the 
burners are determining the extent of the cavity. The latter is filled with small pieces 
of wood which are held in readiness for this purpose. The framework in the exterior 
is used to hold the dirt in place. Photograph taken in Deerlodge National Forest, 
Montana. The wood used is lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana.) 


ignited by means of a torch at the base of the central flue, and the whole 
pile gradually chars upward and outward, great care being exercised not 
to burn the pile too rapidly, or to permit flames to burst out. The 
admission of only sufficient air to cause partial combustion is a most 
important feature of the burning process. The time required for burning 
depends upon the kind of wood and its size and dryness, the method of 
piling, size of pile, the temperature and weather, and the character of 


the ground, etc. 
In Montana the average-sized charcoal pit is about 4o ft. in diameter 


CHARCOAL 241 


at the base, about 30 ft. across the top, and the pile usually assumes the 
shape of a truncated cone. This pit will yield about 2000 bu. of char- 
coal, and before burning, contains about 55 cords of lodgepole pine. 
Some pits in the lodgepole pine forest contain as high as 65 to 70 cords 
each. It requires about twenty-one days and nights of average weather 
conditions to complete the carbonization of an average pit of 55 cords. 
On these piles the wood is first covered with pine needles or grass or hay, 
and then covered with dirt and sod. 

In Sweden and Austria charcoal pits containing up to 80 cords of 
wood each are common; in the Austrian Tyrol there are piles frequently 
containing up to 60 cords, while those in France, Spain and Italy contain 
only from ro to 30'to 4o cords, or even less. In Austria there are several 
beech forests, which can be profitably utilized only by conversion of the 
wood into the form of charcoal, on account of the inaccessibility of these 
forests and the difficulty in transportation in the raw wood state. 

Mathey states that the time required for burning charcoal pits depends 
largely upon the volume of wood involved. Under average conditions, 
the following number of days are required for burning different sized pits:1 


TIME REQUIRED FOR BURNING OAK AND BEECH CHARCOAL BY THE OPEN- 
PIT METHOD 


Number of Days. Volume of Wood, Steres. ary plan ray 
2-3 7-8 2-23 
46 10-15 3-4 
6-8 20-30 6-8 
12-15 40-60 12-16 
28-30 100-200 273-55 


It is claimed by experienced charcoal burners that new locations of 
pits do not give as good results as when old places are used. The accessi- 
bility and convenience to the wood supply generally governs the question 
of moving to new ground. The space chosen for burning should satisfy 
the following conditions: 


1. It should require little work in clearing and preparation. 

2. It should be accessible and convenient to the wood supply, 
as well as affording good means of transporting the product to 
market. 

3. It should be near and convenient to a water supply. 

4. It should be well protected from the wind. 


1See “ Traité d’Exploitation Commerciale des Bois,” by A. Mathey, Vol. II, Pp. 40. 


242 FOREST PRODUCTS 


5. Its location should be on soil which is rather dry and soft, and 
preferably clay or calcareous soil. 


Special kilns or ovens have been devised and have been used in con- 
nection with or near large iron furnaces. They did not seek at first the 
recovery of the volatile products of wood, but were the medium or step 
between the crude old-fashioned open-air charcoal pit and the modern 
wood distillation plant. They have largely gone out of existence at the 
present time, owing to the much greater profits to be derived by the 
construction and operation of the distillation plant. They were usually 
of conical shape, about 24 ft. in diameter, about 2 5 to 30 ft. in height 


BAAD 4y A | 


Pra eee ee — 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service 


Fic. 65.—Type of brick beehive kiln used for making charcoal for iron furnaces in northern 
New York. Photograph taken at Wolf Pond, Franklin Co., New York. These had a 
capacity of about 40 cords each. 


and had a capacity of about 40 cords of wood. They were commonly 
called “‘ beehive ” ovens. They were lined with fire brick up to 10 to 12 
ft. on the inside, and were plastered on both inside and outside. Air 
holes were provided around the base of the kiln and at the top was an 
iron door which could be raised and lowered as desired. 

Another form of rectangular shape, about 4o ft. long, 16 ft. wide and 
15 ft. high, usually held about 80 cords of wood at one charge, and pro- 
duced about 3000 bu. of charcoal at one time. 

The yield by both these forms is usually from 37 to 46 bu. of char- 


CHARCOAL 243 


coal per cord of wood. The time required for filling, burning and empty- 
ing the charge in the case of the larger kiln of rectangular shape is about 
four weeks and for the smaller one about three weeks. 

About three weeks are required for the operation on the average 
outdoor pit containing about 25 to 30 cords of air-dry hardwoods. One 
man can usually tend two pits at a time if located close together. A 
crew of 5 or 6 men will look after 3 or 4 pits generally, while another crew 
chops, piles, transports the wood, and erects the piles, and bags and 
transports the charcoal to market. 

The location of the pits of the open-air style can be changed from 
place to place, convenient to the source of wood supply, all that is neces- 
sary being the leveling and clearing of the space 40 to 75 ft. in diameter. 
In the case of the brick ovens or kilns, the wood must be transported 
much greater distances. Although the yield from the old-style pit is not 
as great as that from the beehive or rectangular oven, it is claimed that 
the charcoal made in the open pits is superior to that made in the ovens. 

The conditions and the rate of burning in open-air pits depends upon 
the following factors: 


1. The kind of wood. Dense hardwoods of high specific gravity 
are the best for making charcoal. The conifers are much 
inferior, dependent upon their weight. Heavy woods require 
much more time for burning. For the manufacture of certain 
kinds of charcoal iron, however, a mixture of hardwoods and 
soft woods is considered best. 

2. The size of wood used including the length, thickness, regularity 
and straightness of the individual billets. Large pieces obvi- 
ously require much longer time for burning than thin, slender 
pieces. The best size is billets 3 to 4 in. in diameter, or billets 
from 6 to 9 in. in diameter that have been quartered. 

3- Condition of the wood. It should be well seasoned, but never 
doty or partially decayed or rotten. Wood free of knots and 
other defects makes much better charcoal than that containing 
large knots and frequent defects. 

4. Condition of the ground. It should be perfectly dry, solid, 
level and free from draft. The latter is very important. Ina 
loose, sandy or gravelly soil, air may be drawn in from under- 
neath and, therefore, the draft may be beyond the control of 
the operators. 

5. The time of year. The best time is from July to September or 
October, the wood having been cut the previous winter and 


244 FOREST PRODUCTS 


piled for seasoning during the spring and early summer months. 
Under good weather conditions the operator can watch it night 
and day with least difficulty, and the summer and fall months 
offer the best conditions. The danger from forest fires is 
always present then, but with care this is of little consequence. 
6. The condition of the weather and temperature. This is of 
great importance. The action of the wind and temperature 
seriously affects the rate of burning, and must be watched with 
great care. In rainy and humid weather the drafts must be 
opened much more than in clear, dry or windy weather. 


eer 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. 


Fic. 66.—A forest of beech (Fagus sylvatica) cut clean for charcoal in one of the State Forests 
of Tuscany in central Italy. From 140 to 200 cubic meters of wood were produced per 
acre from this area. Note the piling of both stem and limbwood as well as the smallest 
branches. The stumps are also grubbed out and converted into charcoal. 


In the forest of Camaldoli in central Italy, where the per capita con- 
sumption of charcoal is greater than in any other country, Dr. Ferrari 
made the following interesting determination! of the division of time 
required for the operation of charcoal making under average conditions, 
by the open-pit method. The wood used was red oak (Quercus cerrus) 


1 From “ Prontuario del Forestale,’” by Dr. Egidio Ferrari. Milan, 1918. 


CHARCOAL 245 


cut from coppice forests twenty to twenty-five years of age. About go 
kgm. (198 Ib.) of charcoal was secured per stere! of wood. The basis 
is the time required per man per stere of wood. 


DIVISION OF TIME REQUIRED ON CHARCOAL OPERATIONS 


persion pay Sees al seed 

SEEM eso oie | cu snd Sao Oo ew oe eels Resit pes 5.60 
MERE SNMRETA GRRE. oro 9 4-5 ond e's wwe cu eNO pune sv Coven s Foc se 5.60 
ERENT CINE PORTS oe 8 50s so cc anata ws ccgues abuses 50 
PR Haka deans aren’ sis's vacuo pelos pa aires Keeani 4.80 
PRA EEE WOO ‘Smt DA 2 oo aac 0:5. 05k Siw cl etein Balareiy oi ratetoe and 1.00 
Coverme the pat with Girt ,€tc. - 2). s.. 60.0 coia seve. recess ae I.00 
ROMAN EIIM ten Bala Set sre re an oc aes Sa" asalv ates Ma re 8.00 
Extinction of fire, removal of cover and measuring charcoal 1.50 

PROUT cls Sal ahaiw) ois*cia Sg 2 taro'a nla, aint saat oa eral e gts eg 28.00 


1 One stere =.276 cord or 1 cord (128 stacked cubic feet) =3.63 steres. 


Therefore, for a pit of 40 steres (about 11 cords) it would require one 
man 1120 hours or 2 men 560 hours for the complete operation. On a 
pit containing 200 steres (about 55 cords), it would require a crew of 
10 men (28X200+10) 560 working hours, or 233 days of twenty-four 
hours each for the complete operation. 


UTILIZATION AND PRICES 


One of the most important uses of charcoal during the past few 
years was in the manufacture of gunpowder and explosives. It is also 
extensively used in metallurgical operations as a reducing agent. Its 
principal use from twenty to fifty years ago was for the production of 
charcoal or Swedish iron, but the introduction and wide use of coke and 
improvements in the methods of reducing iron ores have seriously dimin- 
ished the demand for charcoal. It is widely used as a filtrant, for 
medicinal purposes, and for fuel. 

In the copper smelters of Montana and Arizona charcoal is used in 
the smelters for testing the ore and for treating some ores. 

Some of the larger iron furnaces use as much as 750,000 to 1,000,000 
bu. or more annually. It requires from 50 to 65 bu. of charcoal to reduce 
aton of ore. This is equivalent to about 126 to 144 bu. to the ton of iron. 
These figures were obtained in New York and New England blast fur- 
naces. 


246 FOREST PRODUCTS 


More complete discussion of the utilization of charcoal is found in the 
chapter on Hardwood Distillation. 

The price obtained for charcoal has been the determinant factor in 
the activity in the industry. For the past fifty years, the price, deliv- 
ered at the nearest railroad station, or at the point of consumption, has 
varied between 4 and 8 cents per bushel. Before the great European war 
it was a “drug” on the markets at 4 to 6 cents per bushel, but with the 
impetus given to the demand for all forms of fuel within recent years, it’ 


\ 


“ BY A 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. 


Fic, 67..—A view of the yard of a saw mill at Vallombrosa, Italy, where mill waste. 
including slabs, edgings and trimmings were converted into charcoal. The three pits 
in the foreground are almost ready to burn. The production of charcoal was greatly 
stimulated during the war owing to the price of coal having risen from $10 to $15 up 
to $80 to $140 per ton. The manufacture of charcoal is one of the most important 
uses for wood in Italy. Each pile contains about 4o cubic meters of wood. Before 
the war charcoal brought about $2 per quintal of 220 lb. whereas in 1919 it brought about 
$8 for the same amount. These piles show the type of charcoal kiln commonly 
employed in Italy. 


has risen to 7 and 8 cents per bushel and even much higher in places in 
the years 1917 to 1919. Owing to the stimulation in the hardwood dis- 
tillation industry, however, during the war, the acid factories have 
increased their output of charcoal and the number of open-air pits have 


i a 


CHARCOAL 247 


not greatly increased except in isolated forest regions where a special 
demand has arisen. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Charcoal and its Value in Brass and Bronze Melting. Brass World. Vol. 9, 1913, 
pp. 231-236. 
FERRARI, Dr. Ecmpro. Prontuario del Forestale. Milan, 1918. 


MarILLEr, C. La Carbonisation des Bois en France — la Guerre. Technique 
Moderne, Paris. Vol. ro, 1918. 


Maruey, A. Traité d’Expolitation Commerciale des Bois.. Vol. 2. 


Ryan, V.H. The Manufacture of Charcoal. Adelaide, So. Australia, r910. Intel- 
ligence Dept. 
SCHLICH, Sir Wx. Manual of Forestry, Forest Utilization, London. 


SYLVAN, HELGE. Manufacture of Charcoal as an Economic Measure. So. American 
Supplement.. Vol. 87, ror9. ote 


CHAPTER XI 


BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS! 


GENERAL 


THE manufacture of boxes, crating stock and shooks is one of the most 
important wood-using industries in this country. It is very closely 
associated with the lumber industry inasmuch as the raw material is 
usually supplied in the form of lumber. 

About 12 to 15 per cent of the total annual lumber cut of this country, 
amounting to from 4,800,000,000 to 6,000,000,000 bd.-ft.?, are consumed 
every year for boxes, box shooks, crates and fruit and vegetable packages. 

In ‘spite of the introduction of a number of other materials to take 
the place of the wooden container the consumption of lumber for boxes 
has been on the steady increase. Great quantities of boxes are annually 
consumed for the packing and shipment of canned goods and vegetables, 
milk, fish, apples and other fruits, and a great variety of other products. 
Over 20,000,000 boxes are used annually for oranges and lemons alone in 
California. In addition this state consumes large quantities of box shooks 
for the shipment of melons and other fruits and vegetables. Probably 
the greatest single use is for canned goods, which, together with the 
demand for boxes for apples and other products, explains the fact that 
over 50 per cent of the total number of box boards are manufactured in 
the eastern section including New England, New York, Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, Virginia and North Carolina. 

For a long time white pine has been the wood most prominently in 
demand for the manufacture of boxes. This has been true not only on 
account of its availability and relative cheapness, but because of its soft- 
ness, workability and lightness in weight. 


1 This is the only lumber-using industry described in this book. Owing to its importance 
and its development as a large and distinct industry, it was deemed advisable to include 
the major statistics and some of the more important facts. It is treated very briefly, 
however, owing to the necessity for economy in space. 

2 The larger amount is based on an estimate by the National Association of Box Manu- 
facturers. 


248 


BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS 249 


Low grades of lumber are generally used for the manufacture of boxes 
because of their cheapness and because the defects, such as knots, can 
be readily cut out as in the use of shop grades of lumber for sash and 
doors, etc. 

Within recent years certain forms of veneers have been used in the 
manufacture of boxes, but the total percentage does not constitute more 
than 5 to 10 per cent of the total amount of wood used by the industry. 


QUALITIES DESIRED IN WOODS USED FOR BOXES 


The qualities desired in woods used for boxes may be summarized as 
follows: 

1. Lightness in weight. This is exceedingly important, because 
practically all boxes are used for the shipment of commodities and the 
question of weights is vital. Many varieties of woods, although avail- 
able, are not used extensively because their weight prohibits their use. 

2. Strength is of importance, but it has been determined that the use 
of more nails and strapping will greatly strengthen a box made of com- 
paratively weak wood. Where great strength is required, as in the 
shipment of iron and steel products and other heavy commodities, hard- 
woods are employed. 

3. Nail-holding power is obviously of considerable importance. _ 

4. A smooth and attractive surface, preferably light in color, should 
be offered for printing and labeling. 

5. Softness and workability are desirable qualities which are some- 
times of determining influence in choosing the character of woods used 
for box purposes. 

6. Sanitary qualities (odorless, tasteless, etc.) are needed for many 
food boxes. 

The pines, especially white pine, Norway pine, Idaho white pine, 
western yellow pine (western soft pine, California white pine), California 
sugar pine, shortleaf,! and North Carolina pine, meet the above require- 
ments to the best advantage. Other woods of light weight and of work- 
able qualities which possess the other properties are red gum, spruce, 
cottonwood, hemlock and yellow poplar. 


1 Including the Arkansas and Gulf States shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata). 


250 FOREST PRODUCTS - 


SPECIES USED AND ANNUAL CONSUMPTION 


White pine formerly constituted a large share of the total amount 
of lumber consumed for box purposes in this country. About twenty- 
five years ago it is estimated that this species supplied from 50 to 60 per 
cent of all of the material consumed for boxes. At the present time, 
however, it furnishes only about 25 per cent of the total annual consump- 
tion. Nearly every species of wood of commercial importance in this 
country is now used for making box shooks and crating material. In 
many cases locally produced woods are used because of their availability 
and relatively low cost. 

The use of yellow pine has advanced remarkably in the last few decades 
for the making of packing cases of all kinds and now constitutes from 
20 to 23 per cent of the total amount of lumber used for boxes. A good 
share of the material classified as yellow pine is made of North Carolina 
pine and produced in the South Atlantic States from Maryland to South 
Carolina, inclusive. It is estimated that North Carolina pine consti- 
tutes about 70 per cent of the total amount of yellow pine used for boxes. 
Of the remaining 30 per cent a large share is made up of Arkansas and 
Gulf States shortleaf and loblolly pine and the remainder of longleaf, 
pitch and scrub pines. 

Red gum has recently entered prominently into the box-board 
industry. It is somewhat harder, stronger, and holds the nail better 
than the so-called soft pines and is extensively used in the Central West 
and lower Mississippi Valley. 

Of the total consumption of wood for the making of boxes eight kinds 
of wood constitute from 80 to 84 per cent of the whole. These include 
white pine, yellow pine, red gum, spruce, western yellow pine, cotton- 
wood, hemlock, and yellow poplar in order of importance. 

The principal states in the consumption of lumber for box shooks are 
Virginia, New York, Illinois, Massachusetts, California and Pennsyl- 
vania in order of importance. New York, Illinois and Massachusetts 
produce comparatively little lumber, but they are great manufacturing 
and industrial states and also produce commodities such as apples, 
canned goods of various kinds, and other foods which require wooden 
containers for shipment. 

The following table! shows the annual consumption of lumber by 

1 This table has been compiled by J. C. Nellis from the various reports of the wood-using 


industries of each state carried on by the U. S. Forest Service in co-operation with the various 
state agencies. 


BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS 251 


kinds of wood together with the total lumber production for the year 
1916: 


BOXWOODS—CONSUMPTION BY BOX MANUFACTURERS AND-TOTAL LUMBER 
PRODUCTION 


; " 


|Quantity Used Annually | Total Lumber Pro- 


Kind of Wood. | by Box Manufacturers, duction,! 1916, 
1912, Feet B. | Feet B. 
} | 
NNN Fe ohio an wa ets o tena wus : 1,131,969,940_. 2,600,000,000 
Yellow pine (including North Carolina pine). ' 1,042,936,123 14,975,000,000 
I tee oo tea hac wd hw aryccesind Soie 401,735,390 850,000,000 
MR Atta a wiv t ciote awa ss dd <egudlesé os aa 335,035,043 I,200,000,000 
Western yellow pme.«..........2-2.....-- 288,691,927 1,690,000,000 
EMME ee Ste ss PE So ee og Wine 210,819,500 200,000,000 
EE aes rig Son dhe bog sale pw lp wien 203,526,091 2,350,000,000 
NS ES Ee Pee Pee eee eee 165,116,737 575,000,000 
a tes oa Gd gy Std Sa o's Sais bs ote oe 96,831,648 975,000,000 
RR teeth Manns SE Bae ed a 90,787,900 450,000,000 
MMMM RON os8 ios os Sap Pot. Shas oS eS ecao an 86,979,611 270,000,000 
ER A eters a i at are 77;:809,280 360,000,000. 
IIa twat widened ese sane Sas 74,982,910 260,000,000 
RR te oS 282 Sees ins ete wiv eitaice kee aie 63,726,458 235,000,000 
RR ao ec ihm mo 5c Scene a woe Vals 56,362,111 3,500,000,000 
Fe Ease Ses Be pe pe ee ar geen ae 40,173,700 125,000,000 
IRIN ao Sls Srdtek a a's Sue a pie ace 8's oes 38,962,895 I 000,000,000 
0 Se es ee ee eee ee 36,216,700 325,000,000 
IN ig chad cca g Abo ah tae eeee 24,686,000 169,250,000 
DM SG sre eos Uda wis ode Sessa Daigic 16,451,693 40,000,000 
Lee uns Sy oie Saiscc «niece wes 10,507,308 210,000,000 
DMM ees eh PSs ee ea eee 10,004,600 1,610,000 
Larch (including tamarack)................ 7:470,300 440,000,000 
a I a ga 7:349,840 5,416,000,000 
A aN ee a eae 6,653,500 ; Included in white fir 
RR ate a oS 5:449,000 i 1,359,000 
RN re A ores og oo aleginain 3,174,028 3,161,000 
IN eae Dylan ons ale een E ase kale 3,142,080 189,660,000 
ME ES fe Dial? oo Sin oS s oan ede 2,512,150 425,000,000 
MRR ORGS. culos nee Osc ci aes sas 2,439,500 490,850,000 
ER Be nn aN ced Us geese s 1,328,330 Included in white fir 
MINN oben in 25 4s cevaevs'eces 3,150,278 280,361,000 
Cn TE EE a Ay a tee ta 4;547;:973,180 39,807,251,000 
? Computed total production. 


The following table! shows the consumption of box lumber by states 
together with the total lumber production of each state. In some of 


1 Compiled by J. C. Nellis. 


252 FOREST PRODUCTS 


these states the consumption of lumber for making boxes bears a prom- 
inent relation to the total lumber production. 


BOX LUMBER CONSUMPTION AND TOTAL LUMBER PRODUCTION BY STATES 


Quantity Used Annually Total Lumber Production, 
State. for Boxes, 1912. Ig16. 
Feet B. Feet B. M. 
WHEREIS soos ara hoa 2 Ste egeers Os rie 433,028,997 1,335,000,000 
New Vans. sini 5 cies gaan aes 390,057,050 400,000 000 
BME Ta es ere gettin neces SR ar oo 389,199,000 60,000,000 
Massachusetts..c Sion bos shee edie co 353)405,350 219,000,000 
Calioniie <7 seis Peak een oo Rls oe 309,406 285 1,420,000,000 } 
Pénnsylwanias eis eas vanatontienes 276,587,004 750,000,000 
Michigan nik Rote Sonotaracenine e 232,111,486 1,230,000,000 
New -Hampshire..:: «2... cc. uisu SENG 200,209,596 385,000,000 
OOGAS cha e 2m bl zeloe tithe ett eat 153,417,273 280,000,000 
Maryiandss 7.132 05 bo p tere terrae 144,309,000 90,771,000 
Wisconsin oscescnce is pce ss Sain 119,267,000 1,600,000,000 
Kentickey Gi lsetsaysisrese Actaris ete ators = 112,424,500 550,000,0c0 
PMISSOUTT HS ek alas. deiotess eas ues 111,765,699 260,000,000 
arkansas i. sind ccs thes winate Verde ae 110,822,000 I,Q10,000,000 
5S Dis eee eta ona ns seh rece ae 108,889,400 035,000,000 
New Jerseys sits See. cate 102,605,205 40,000,000 
Washiipton’? isi oy sess vines aoattanacs 96,448,500 4,492,997,000 
1 Gree CHUTE Sa Sie ae eg re ahaa a a 85,267,160 280,000,000 
MTR DT Ae Oe we, go Austen Ries wo eR 78,939,000 2,221,854,000 
SP ORNESSEG 0 ie ciocaon watt oss tin eae 775079,510 732,000,000 
IWisenesota cs (itt ere eee ae aes aes 77,854,000 I,145,000,000 
INOFLE Carolinas wii alt seiee aes 76,525,000 2,100,000,000 
PE OWISIATIA Ts re Cok view Neo chiceite hie elutes ' 56,004,500 4,200,000,000 
MIOTIOA pena cewek ee eds rene Oe 53,409,000 1,425,000,000 
Wel bette ais sie a eee re Fe ese a 48,871,000 200,000,000 
SVETSSINSEIS TI Ciere sees srs p sists winks! soe ce 39,295,003 2,730,000,000 
le Tae ea RSA a le Ny lea Mama Ante al 35,762,125 2,130,000,000 
ROWE ae assay Cis eieiicw nosso ete ia we eee 31,340,476 20,000,000 
WRADSAS wae iicte ns ete Ria ee 28,544,500 534,000 
Arizona and New Mexico............ 28,035,000 184,878,000 
DEA WATEL. oe Sais aa eee tet ates ome 27,024,173 14,000,000 
Connechestiics Sica eeianeeeeniaies 24,411,090 80,000,000 
MOOTED soe cic iirc eee aes Wk setae ocd 24,373,409 I 000,000,000 
Wihest'Vareinia 27.2 iuci acta wie alec eee ath 23,837,000 1,220,000,000 
PISAINA | cigs Ot cee we 22,442,000 1,7 20,000,000 
ARNOGE TSANG sak so site ose orate SEEN 15,951,200 18,000,000 
South Caroling.cic. ose see eee 13,900,000 820,000,000 
ASANO: cos cassis «sige ha <n viele el pee 10,245,000 849,554,000 
Nebraska iso cy btw eae 6,861,000 None 
DIOWtANA 2 oss he ens es elon as ees 53249,927 383,658,000 
Colorado. 36 Sk oa eines 4,734,000 77,578,000 
Oxlaiionia (eS oe vies Cee shore 4,389,000 240,000,000 
Nevada and Utah iio. st reeane se 1,517,000 9,383,000 * 
District of oumMibis. 55... sce ew os a 518,655 None — 
North and South Dakota............ 18,667 22,650,000 4 
WSR 55, oss ears conversant eaeene Te Tete None 18,494,000 
SEORALY tS 50s Sak ote let ie oe 4,547,973,180 39,807,251,000 


1 California and Nevada. 
2 1914 Statistics on box lumber consumption are available: 


Washington......0. o.. 5% 106,307,980 feet B. M. 
Ofeaon Nis ts: case weawas 72,299,344 2°25." 
3 Utah. 


4 South Dakota. 


BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS 253 


MANUFACTURE 


The manufacture of boxes and shooks is usually an industry separate 
from the manufacture of lumber, although occasionally in the Southern 
States and very often in the Western States the shook factory is one 
department in a sawmill. It uses lumber of comparatively low grade 
which contains more or less knots and other defects. The upper grades 
which are free from these same defects are generally too expensive to be 
used by the box manufacturers. 

The great problem in the industry is to cut up the lumber and remove 
the defects or have the knots removed in the center of the board with as 
little waste as possible and the minimum expenditure of power and labor. 
The waste in making boxes is generally from 15 to 30 per cent or more. 
If boxes were to be made with no knots or other defects it would result 
in the waste of from 60 to 80 per cent. The presence of a knot in the box 
does not interfere with its strength or usefulness provided they are 
not along the edges or in a position where they will be reached by nails. 

Many different sizes and types of boxes are made, but they may be 
classified as nailed, lock-cornered and wire-bound boxes. The latter has 
come into the trade very prominently within recent years, but the nailed 
box is still the type most prominently used and probably constitutes 
go per cent of the total number of wooden boxes used in this country. 

The conventional sizes of lumber manufactured by the saw-mills are 
necessarily accepted by the box manufacturers. The thicknesses, that 
is 1, 13, 13, 13, 2 in., etc., in the rough, are resawed in the box factory to 
=, 3, and 3-in. material, etc: The widths range between 3 and 12 in. 
and more but in some factories only stock widths in even inches; such as 
4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 in. are made. The lengths of box shooks generally 
range anywhere from 12 in. up to 18 in. or more. For these purposes 
lumber is acceptable in almost any length from 6 ft. and up and in width 
from 3 in. and up. The box grades (No. 1 and 2 box) according to the 
White Pine Association of the Tonawandas, the No. 4 Common of the 
Northern Pine Manufacturers’ Association, the No. 4 Common of the 
Western Pine Manufacturers’ Association and the round edge or mill run 
grade of New England white pine are specially adapted to the manu- 
facture of boxes. The box grade (No. 4) of the North Carolina Pine 
Association and the No. 2 Common grade of the Southern Pine Associa- 
tion and the Georgia-Florida Sawmill Association are also specially 
adapted for use in the manufacture of boxes. 

The details of the methods and cost of manufacture vary so greatly 


“~ 


254 FOREST PRODUCTS 


that it is impossible to discuss this subject to any length without going 
into a great amount of detail. The following figures, however, will 
convey some impression of the costs involved in a box factory in the 
important box and shook manufacturing district of New England. At 
this box shook factory cutting about 12,000,000 bd.-ft. of white pine 
and spruce per year and employing about 120 men the following costs 
were determined. The lumber was received at the mill in round-edge 
or live-sawed stock. The boxes were used for canned vegetables, cereals, 
milk, paints and shoes, and a number of specifications were required to 
suit the individual requirements. The minimum size was a box 15 in. in 
length, 12 in. in width and tro in. in depth, and the maximum size was 
40 in. in length, 24 in. in width and 24 in. in depth. The average costs 
for the years 1914 and 1918 are given to show the rapid rise in charges 
due to the war and its activities: 


COST OF MANUFACTURING BOX SHOOKS, NEW ENGLAND 


Cost per Thousand Board-feet. 
Item. 
1914. 1918. 
Labor. th ee es eee ee ee $4.46 $8.54 
Overhead, including salaries, insurance, taxes, general repairs, 
depreciation, supplies, and various sundries............ 1.30 5.69 
Lumber delrvered:fiovb. mill: Sein es sw aie oie hs tee 18.67 37.00 
Total cost of production................ I naira 24.43 51.23 
¢ EO POR CONG DHOUE . . c th. oS eae cea oa eaves eens 2.44 5.12 
SWELL SPITICE) coy 35 wl kp aia aeeos te tee ee Re ee on 26.87 56.35 


In the above figures, the waste figured at 20 per cent in this mill has 
been included in the cost of lumber. The waste includes loss by edging 
and trimming, but does not include waste of saw kerf, which is always 
included in the value of the lumber itself. 


SIZES AND SPECIFICATIONS 


As indicated above, there are so many different sizes and specifica- 
tions used in the manufacture of boxes that it is impossible to go into this 
subject in any great detail. 

Since one of the principal use for boxes is for canned goods the follow- 
ing standard specifications for canned goods boxes as adopted by the 
United States Food Administration and the Quartermaster Corps at 
Washington are given. These include the kinds of woods used, the 


BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS 255 


sizes of cans which each box is designed to contain, the thickness and 
sizes of the individual shooks used in boxes and the number of nails. 
These specifications were based on years of experience followed by tests 
made at the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory and were adopted in 1917 
by the National Association of Box Manufacturers, the National Can- 
ners’ Association and the National Wholesale Grocers’ Association. 


STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR CANNED FOOD BOXES 


DoMESTIC 


Style A: Nailed Wooden Boxes. 
Style B: Lock Corner Wooden Boxes. 


Boxes must be well manufactured from lumber which is sound (free from decay or 
dote), and well seasoned. Boxes when stored after nailing should not be placed in a 
heated room. Lumber must be free from knot holes, loose or rotten knots greater 
than 1 in. in diameter. No knots will be permitted which will interfere with the 
proper nailing of the box. 

The grouping of woods with the specifications following will govern: 


GROUP I 

White pine Basswood White fir 
Aspen Cypress Cedar 
Spruce Southern yellow pine Redwood 
Western yellow pine Hemlock Butternut 
Cottonwood Virginia and Carolina pine Cucumber 
Yellow poplar Willow Alpine fir 
Balsam fir Noble fir Lodgepole pine 
Chestnut Magnolia Douglas fir 
Sugar pine Buckeye Larch 

Boxes to Carry: 


24 No. 23 cans; 

24 No. 3 cans; 

6 No. 8 cans; 

6 No. ro cans; 
And other cans of approximately the same content. 


NAILED CONSTRUCTION 
Ends. 


Not less than $ in. thick one or two pieces. Two-piece ends, cleated or fastened 
with three corrugated fasteners. When one-piece sides are used the third corrugated 
fastener may be omitted. 


1 The thicknesses specified herein are to allow for an occasional unavoidable variation in manufac- 
ure, but that variation shall not exceed one sixty-fourth of an inch below the thicknesses specified. 


256 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Sides, Tops, and Bottoms. 

Not less than 3’g in. thick,! not more than two pieces to each side or three pieces 
to each top or bottom and no piece less than 2 in. in width. 
Nailing. . 

Seven nails to each nailing edge; 6d. standard cement-coated box nails. 


LOCK-CORNER CONSTRUCTION 


Not less than 3 in. ends and 3%; in. sides, top and bottom,}! all piecing tongued, 
grooved and glued, top and bottom nailed with not less than 14 6d. standard cement- 
coated box nails in each top and each bottom. 


Boxes to Carry: 


24 No. 1 cans; 

48 No. 1 cans; 

24 No. 2 cans; 
And other cans of approximately the same content. 


NAILED CONSTRUCTION 

Ends. 

Not less than 2 in. thick,! one or two pieces. Two-piece ends cleated or fastened 
with two corrugated fasteners. 
Sides, Tops and Bottoms. . 

Not less than 3°5 in. thick,! not more than two pieces to each side or three pieces 
to each top or bottom, and no piece less than 2 in. in width. 
Nailing. 

Six nails to each nailing edge. 6d. standard cement-coated box nails. 


LOCK-CORNER CONSTRUCTION 
Not less than 7-in. ends and sides, 3%5-in. top and bottom; or }-in. ends and 
;-in. sides, top and bottom, all piecing tongued, grooved and glued; top and bottom 
nailed with not less than 12 4d. standard cement-coated box nails in each top and each 
bottom. 


GROUP 2 
White elm Beech Tupelo 
Red gum Oak Maple, soft or silver 
Sycamore Hackberry Birch 
Pumpkir. ash Black ask Rock elm 
Hard maple Black gum White ash 


Boxes to Carry: 
24 No. 2} cans; 
24 No. 3 cans; 
6 No. 8 cans; 
6 No. 10 cans; 
And other cans of approximately the same content. 


1 The thicknesses specified herein are to allow for an occasional unavoidable variation in manu- 
facture, but that variation shall not exceed one sixty-fourth of an inch below the thicknesses specified. 


i i a i a 


BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS 257 


NAILED CONSTRUCTION 
Ends. 
Not less than § in. thick,! one or two pieces. Two-piece ends cleated or fastened 
with two corrugated fasteners. 


Sides, Tops, and Bottoms. 
Not less than ;5 in. thick,! not more than two pieces to each side, or three pieces 
to each top or bottom, no piece less than 2 in. in width. 


Except. 

On the following woods: Hard maple, beech, oak, hackberry, birch, rock elm, 
white ash, the thickness will be not less than } in.,! not more than two pieces to each 
side, or three pieces to each top or bottom and no piece less than 2 in. in width. 


Veneer. 


Red gum not less than }-in thick,! one-piece sides and tops, one and two-piece 
bottoms, no piece less than 2 in. in width. 


Nailing. 
Seven nails to each nailing edge, 4d. standard cement-coated box nails. 


LOCK-CORNER CONSTRUCTION 
Ends. 
Not less than 3 in. thick, ;%;-in. sides, top, and bottom.! All piecing tongued, 
grooved, and glued, top and bottom nailed with not less than 14 4d. standard 
cement-coated box nails in each top and each bottom. 


Boxes to Carry: 
24 No. 1 cans; 
48 No. 1 cans; 
2., No. 2 cans; 
And other cans of approximately the same content. 


NAILED CONSTRUCTION 
Ends. 


Not less than 3-in. thick,! one or two pieces Two-piece ends cleated or fastened 
with two corrugated fasteners. 


Sides, Tops, and Bottoms. 
Not less than 35 in. thick,! not more than two pieces td each side, or three pieces 
to each top or bottom, no piece less than 2 in. in width. 
Except. 
On the following woods: Hard maple, beech, oak, white ash, birch, rock elm, 
hackberry, the thickness will be not less than } in.,! not more than 2 pieces to each 
side or three pieces to each top or bottom, and no piece less than 2 in. in width. 
Veneer. 


Red gum not less than } in. thick,’ one-piece sides and tops, one- and two-piece 
bottoms, no piece less than 2 in. in width. 


1 The thicknesses specified herein are to allow for an occasional unavoidable variation in manu- 
facture, but that variation shall not exceed one sixty-fourth of an inch below the thicknesses specified, 


258 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Nailing. 
Six nails to each nailing edge, 4d. standard cement-coated box nails. 


LOCK-CORNER CONSTRUCTION 
Ends. 
Not less than 3 in. thick, 7g-in. sides, top and bottom. All piecing tongued, 
grooved, and glued, top and bottom nailed with not less than 12 4d. standard cement- 
coated box nails in each top and each bottom. 


SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 
Size. 
_ Allow only } in. over exact length of contents. Allow only }-in over exact width 
of contents. Allow only } in. over exact depth of contents. 


Printing. . 
One end only, in one color. 


Cleating. 

Cleats 14 in. by 3 in., or any other size cleat that has equally large cross-section, 
with six nails to each cleat driven through and clinched. No piece of end shall have 
less than two nails. Outside nails shall be driven as near the ends of cleats as is 
possible without splitting the cleat. Balance of nails shall be as evenly spaced as 
possible and no nail shall be driven in a joint. 


Nailing. 

Space nails as evenly as possible. No nail shall be driven into a joint. All 
nails shall be friven squarely into the center of the thickness of the end. Put not 
less than two nails in each end of any one piece of lumber. ; 

Outside nails on the sides shall be driven just inside the end nails of the cleats. 

Outside nails on the top and bottom shall be driven far enough inside to miss the 
side nails. 

Sides, tops and bottoms shall be flush with the ends. 

Tops and bottoms shall overlap sides. 

Size of nails depends on woods used for ends. 


NOTE 
In Group 1, Sawed Lumber. 
When one-piece sides and two-piece tops and bottoms are used, #;-in thinner 
material permitted. 


Style C: 4-One-Wooden Boxes—Wire Bound 


SPECIFICATIONS . 


To carry canned foods and similar commodities weighing not to exceed go |b. net. 

Boxes must be well manufactured from sound (free from decay or dote), well- 
seasoned thin boards and cleat lumber. Kiln-dried lumber by excessively high tem- 
peratures or low humidities, or below 6 per cent moisture must be avoided. 

The thin boards must be free from knot holes, loose or rotten knots greater than 


1The thicknesses specified herein are to allow for an occasional unavoidable variation in manu- 
facture, but that variation shall not exceed one sixty-fourth of an inch below the thicknesses specified. 


BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS 259 


1 in. in diameter. Cleats must be free from knots and from excessive cross grain. 
No knots will be permitted which will interfere with proper nailing or stapling. 
Boards. 

Tops, bottoms, sides and ends not less than { in. thick if gum, yellow pine or 
hardwood veneer; 3; in. thick if western pine, spruce, or fir veneer; 7 in. thick if 
resawed boards. 

Cleats. 

43 x7 in. or 3X2¥ in 
Wires. 

16-gauge, not over 6 in. apart. 

Staples. 

Not over 2 in. apart, and not less than two staples in each end of each board. 
Printing. 

One end only, in one color. 

Size. 

Allow only } in. over exact length of contents; allow only { in. over exact width 
of contents; depth should be exact depth of contents, without any allowance. 
Fastening Ends in Boxes. 


The ends shall be firmly fastened to the inside of the side cleats with either 16- 
gauge staples with legs not less than }2 in. long, or with two-penny cement-coated 
nails, both staples and nails having centers not in excess of 2 in. apart. 


The following table shows the sizes of cans used in the canned food 
boxes and how they are packed in them. These are the sizes officially 
adopted by the United States Food Administration. 


SIZES OF CANS AND HOW PACKED 


F = a a = 
: e | é EO ia A ey be 
a -|-= = : ao; |oSe 
23/315 2 ES | 38 | ms |oose inci 
2 ge ieei28| 2 | «| os | 38 | os | See |- Punts Oe 
5 |-=& | 30 S S 3.5 35 25 | sO0n 
alm jz |}<)/alte ja ja JE 
| SAR aes 2H 24 | 3X4 2 8x 10} 8 22 Shrimp, oysters, 
el i ea 2u 4 48 | 4X6 2 102 16} 8 44 pe. aoe 
No. 1 tall....... ait 24 |3X4]| 2 8¥5| 10% | 8} 23 Do. . 
eres 2 43 | 48 | 4X6 2 107 163 83 45 Do. 
Salmon, 1 lb....| 3 4 48 | 4X6 2 12 18 o} 60 Salmon, sliced 
fruit. 
Milk, sweetened | 233 3%| 48 | 4X6 2 11? 17% 7k 46 ——— _. con- 
: den 
aco oags evapo- | 23 43 | 48 | 4X6] 2 113 17% | 9} 57 Unsweetened evap- 
te; a; tora aks 2 3i5 4%| 24 | 3X4] 2 to} 13} 9} 36 Frat W ieeabion 
No ; Sewlas beim : 4ie 24 | 3X4 2 12. | 16 92 52 Do. 
No. 3... .220.. ah 4k | 24 |13X%4| 2 123 | 17 93 66 Do. 
Si: Se oe 7 | 6 | 2X3 I 12? 18%; 7 46 Do. 


ton ig ae igira = omagees mre Posute from epee: = can sizes, due to method of manu 
€retore advisable for manu fe 
miscwin ce ants ce tee rep a of solid fiber board and corrugated fiber con 


260 FOREST PROD UCTS 


Export Boxes. 

The proper designing of boxes to carry American exports is now more 
important than ever because of the expansion in our foreign trade. Very 
stringent specifications for boxes to carry supplies to France during 1918 
were adopted by the War Department and used to some extent com- 
merciaky. However, the requirements of an export box may be summed 
up as: (1) proper size for convenient handling, all the way to destination; 
(2) sound lumber, heavy enough for the net weight, but no heavier, 
and cleats on all boxes weighing from 75 to 100 lb. and up; (3) end nails 
not over 2 in. apart; side nails 6 in. apart. Penny of nail = thickness 
of piece holding point of nail after driving expressed in eighths of an inch 
(plus one penny for softwoods); - (4) strapping, generally around both 
ends 1 in. to 3 in. from inside of end and of about 250 lb. tensile strength 
for boxes go lb. gross and up to 850 lb. tensile strength for boxes up to 
250 to 500 lb. gross. For waterproofing boxes, metal liners may be used 
and several paper manufacturers now make waterproof lining paper for 
boxes. Anti-rust and anti-tarnish paper, etc., can also be secured for 
packing valuable commodities. 


EXPORT OF SHOOKS 


This country is an important exporter of box shooks. The trade in 
these commodities has been developed largely to Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, 
Argentina, the West Indies, and England. 

The following table shows the value of box shooks exported from the 
United States to all other countries for the years 1914 to 1918, inclusive: 


EXPORTS OF BOX SHOOKS FOR YEARS ENDING JUNE 30 


Year. Value. 

LOLA 6b Ree de bs Ee RE ew Le Oe $2,812,749 
LOT Geis pchn nce Ph anne eee ae ase Raa ae 2,327,220 
IQIG SF. 65a $5 Le EE TL ee ee 3,034,332 
EQI 7 onc ie Sayles Seat we eae a 4,386,175 
LOD 6054, how dete be See ee 3,304,222 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Birtinc, A. W. Dr. Box Specifications. Reviews experiments and gives speci- 
fications for canned-goods boxes. National Canners’ Association, Washington: 
1917. Bulleton 4o. 

Bureau of Explosives. Regulations for Transportation of Explosives and Specifica- 
tions for Shipping Containers, I. C. C. July 15, 1918. Compiled and also 
published by Bureau of Explosives, 30 Vesey Street, New York City. 


ape at 


<1 RR NMI BA 8 


BOXES AND BOX SHOOKS . 261 


BUTTERICK, P. L. Making Box Boards from Sawmill Waste. For. Quart., March, 
. 1916. Vol. 14, No. 1, 39-45. 


Export Specifications for Canned Goods Boxes, National Associations of Box Manu- 
facturers, 1917. National Canners’ Association Bulletin 47, 1918; Food Admin- 
istration Bulletin 40, 1918; Inspection Manual No. 32, Subsistence Division, 
Quartermaster Corps, 1918. 


Hatr, W. K. Strength of Packing Boxes of Various Woods. U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Forest Service Circular 47, 1906. 


Knapp, J. B. World’s Box Shook Industry, Packages, February, 1915. Vol. 18, 
No. 2, 28-45; also Packages, March, rgr5. Vol. 18, No. 3, 16-19. 

Knapp, J. B. Study of the Box Industry of the Pacific Northwest. Unpublished 
Forest Service Report. 


LEAVER, J. M. Official Box Estimator: Adopted by the National Association of 
Box Manufacturers. The Leaver Manufacturing Co., Oakland, Calif., 1912. 


MaxwELt, H., and Sackett, H.S. Wooden and Fiber Boxes. U.S. Department 
of Agriculture, Forest Service Circular 177, 1911. 


National Association of Box Manufacturers. Uniform Cost Finding and Accounting 
Plan. National Association of Box Manufacturers. Chicago, Ill. 1917. 


NELuIs, J. C. Amounts and Kinds of Woods used in the Manufacture of Boxes in 
the United States. National Association of Box Manufacturers in Co-operation 
with Forest Service, 1914. 


NELLIs, J. C. Packing Box Woods: Kinds, Supply, Grades and Sizes Available. 


U..S Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Mimeographed Circular, 
June, 1918. 


NEWLIN, J. A. Tests of Packing Boxes of Various Forms. U.S. Department of 
Agriculture, Forest Service Circular 214, 1913. 


New, J. A., and Witson, T. R. C. The Development of a Box-testing Machine 
and Some Results of Tests. Proceedings, American Society for Testing Materials. 
Vol. 16, pp. 320-342. 10916. 


Reep, L. J. Dr. Stowage of Ship Cargoes. Bureau of Research and Statistics, 
War Trade Board, 1919. Will be Distributed by Division of Planning and 
Statistics, U. S. Shipping Board, Washington, D. C. 


Roeser, H. M. Unit Displacement of Commodities. Bureau of Standards, Cir- 
cular No. 77, 1919. 


Schedule for Nailing Boxes. National Association of Box Manufacturers, Chicago. 


Specifications for Containers for Fruits and Vegetables and Loading Rules for South 
and East; Fruit and Vegetable Transportation Association of the South and 
East, Broad Street Station, Philadelphia, Pa. 


Standard Specifications for Canned Goods Boxes. National Association of Box 
Manufacturers, Chicago, March, 1917; National Canners’ Association, Wash- 
ington, Bulletin 140, April, 1917; Proceedings, American Society for Testing 


262 FOREST PRODUCTS 


? 


Materials. Vol. 17, pp. 723-731, 1917; National Canners’ Association, 
Bulletin 47, 1918; .Food Administration Bulletin 40, 1918; Inspection Manual 
Bulletin No. 32, Subsistence Division, Quartermaster Corps, 1918. 


War Department. Standardization of Boxing and Crating Specifications. Supply 
Circular No. 22, Purchase Storage and Traffic Division, July 22, 1918. 


War Department. Standard Specifications for Export Packing in Boxes (Personal 
and Horse Equipment and Tools), Ordnance Department, Bulletin 3102, March 
30, 1918, revised June 28, 1918. 


War Department. Instruction Book for Export Packing of Engineer Material, 
Engineer Corps, 1919. 


“‘WENTLING, J. P. Woods Used for Packing Boxes in New England. U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Forest Service Circular 78, 1907. 


World Survey of Box Shook Industry as Reflected by Consular Reports. Timberman, 
December, 1914, and January to March, rors. 


Addenda. For miscellaneous data and recent information regarding the box industry, 
the following associations of box manufacturers should be consulted: 


National Association of Box Manufacturers, Chicago. 

Eastern Shook and Wooden Box Manufacturers’ Association, Boston, Mass. 
North Carolina Pine Box and Shook Manufacturers’ Association, Baltimore. 
Southeastern Box Manufacturers’ Association, Atlanta, Ga. 

Northwestern Shook Association, Chicago. 

Box Department, West Coast Lumbermen’s Association, Seattle, Wash. 
Box Bureau, Western Pine Manufacturers’ Association, Portland, Ore. 


California Pine Box Distributors, San Francisco, Calif. 


CHAPTER XII 


CROSS TIES 


GENERAL 


Wirs the rapid expansion in American railway development in the 
past fifty years there has been a great concurrent demand for cross ties. 
It is estimated that in 1880 about 35,000,000 new ties were used; in 1890 
64,000,000 were used; in 1900 over 83,000,000; and, at the present time 
between 130,000,000 and 145,000,000 new ties are annually demanded 
both for renewals and for the construction of new track. One large 
railway system uses new ties at the rate of five every minute. Many of 
our larger railway systems use between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 new 
ties every year. With a total railway mileage of 434,500 miles in this 
country and 2640 ties per mile, there are 1,147,080,000 ties constantly 
in use. The average life of untreated ties is only about five years and the 
average cost is estimated ! at about 70 cents per tie. 

Altogether the production and utilization of cross-tie material in 
this country are characterized by the following: 


(a) Rapid rise in values, due largely to the growing scarcity of 
available material and especially of the most desirable species. 

(6) Production by farmers and cutters, who work chiefly through 
the winter months and sell directly to the railroads or indirectly 
through tie jobbers. The source of material, therefore, is 
largely woodlots, small scattered holdings or larger tracts 
already cut over for saw logs. 

(c) As a result of condition (6) most of our ties are hewn. The 
waste of raw material incurred in hewing ties is enormous. 
It amounts annually to about 285,000,000 cu. ft. 

(d) Marked tendency to use treated ties, due to rise in price 
values of durable woods and availability of cheaper and non- 
durable woods which, when treated, give service equal or 
superior to the untreated durable woods. 

1 During 1917. 
263 


264 


(e) Tendency to increase specifications of length, thickness and 
face of ties to meet the demands of heavier rolling stock, 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


and more frequent traffic. 


(f) Increased use of tie plates, screw spikes and other patent 
devices to prevent mechanical abrasion and give longer 


service. 


As recently as 1895 white oak ties could be purchased for about 20 
At that time, standard rails were 60 lb. in weight, 
axle loads about 15,000 lb., cars were of only 40,000-lb. capacity and 
comparatively few trains were operated. Now, white oak ties bring 
from 70 cents to $1.00 apiece or more depending upon point of delivery, 
and many inferior woods are being introduced and treated to prolong 


to 25 cents apiece. 


PWS ERS 


gOS RSS 


Pole tie. 


Fic. 68.—Common forms of hewed cross ties with reference to their position in the log. 


their life. 


SW 


*. Quartered tie. =~ 


57 cents, and in 1913, 70 cents apiece. 


In 1915 the total mileage of railways including steam, electric 
horse was 434,500. Of this amount, steam railways made up over 
In 1900 there were only 289,000 miles of trackage of all 


390,000 miles. 
kinds of railways. 


For a long time in the early days of railroad development, the timber 
growing adjacent to the tracks was depended upon for the cross-tie supply. 
Throughout the East, the oaks and preferably the white oak, were used 


SPECIES USED © 


NWN 


Fal 


Boxed heart or rifle tie 
(containing no sap.) 


The records of one important railroad show that the average 
price paid for ties (of several species) in 1904 was 50 cents, in 1909 


and 


CROSS TIES 265 


extensively and constituted nearly all of the tie stock. With the devel- 
opment of the western extensions and transcontinental lines the demand 
increased in rapid strides and together with the decreasing supply of good 
oak, large numbers of ties were collected at central depots and shipped 
to points of consumption. 

At the present time the oaks still lead in the quantity of ties con- 
sumed by the railroads, but a much greater variety of species is now used. 
In fact, practically every tree species in the country is used, at least to 
some extent, for cross-tie purposes. Most of the ties now cut are made and 
used in the tracks of the railroads running through the same region where 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 69.—“Tie hacker” making ties from lodgepole pine in the Gallatin National Forest, 
Montana. After felling and limbing the tree, it is “scored’’ on each side with the axe 
as shown; then the “hacker,” standing on the tree and working backward, “faces” the 
tree with a broadaxe from the butt to the limit of size suitable for making ties. 


they are produced. The U. S. Railroad Administration has made this a 
requirement. 

The latest available statistics are for 1915, but the most complete are 
those published by the Bureau of Census and the Forest Service for 
1911. These show that in that year about 135,000,000 ties were used. 
Of these over 59,000,000, or about 44 per cent, were of oak and over 
24,000,000 were of southern pine. The next, in order of quantity, were 
Douglas fir, cedar, chestnut, cypress, tamarack, hemlock, western pine 
and redwood. These ten kinds supplied 95 per cent of all ties used in rgrr. 


266 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Other miscellaneous species are gum, maple, beech, spruce, birch, elm, 
white pine, lodgepole pine, eucalyptus, hackberry, hickory, sycamore and 
locust. 

With the exception of western pine and hemlock, the first ten species 
are distinguished by their durability in contact with the soil. There is a 
strong tendency to increase the demand for such perishable woods as 
gum, beech, maple, birch, elm, etc., which, when treated with some 
preservative, last as long or longer than the more durable varieties such 
as oak, longleaf pine, cedar, chestnut, etc., when used in the untreated 
. condition. 

Between 8 and 15 per cent of the total number of ties used annually 
are for new track so that the demand for renewals or decayed or worn-out 
ties accounts for the large majority of new ties used. 

Steam railroads use between go and 94 per cent of the ties. The 
electric roads use the same kinds as the steam railroads, but usually 
adopt smaller specifications and use “ seconds ”’ or those which fail to 
meet the specifications for No. 1 ties. The number of ties used on narrow 
gauge railways is negligible. 

About 80 per cent of all ties are hewed; in fact it is recognized as the 
common method of producing ties except on the Pacific Coast, where 
over 60 per cent of the Douglas fir ties are sawed. Nearly go per cent 
of the oak ties are hewed. ! 

About 4o per cent of all our ties are produced in the South, which is 
the center of production for southern pine gum and cypress ties. The 
central hardwood region, embracing the territory tributary to the Ohio 
river and Illinois and Missouri, produces about 22 per cent of all the ties. 
More oak ties come from this region than from any other. The Lake 
states of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota produce most of the cedar, 
tamarack and hemlock ties. The North Atlantic region, including New 
England, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Maryland, produce 
most of the chestnut ties and considerable of oak. The Pacific Coast, 
including the states of Washington, Oregon and California, produce only 
about 6 per cent of the ties and these consist largely of Douglas fir sawed 
ties together with some western red cedar, western pine and redwood ties. 
The Rocky Mountain region produces only about 5 per cent of the ties 
and these consist largely of Douglas fir, western red cedar, western larch, 
lodgepole pine and western pine ties. 

The principal species used for cross ties and the number of each are 
shown in the following table for several years as published by the U. S. 
Census Bureau and the Forest Service: 


CROSS TIES 267 


NUMBER OF CROSS TIES REPORTED PURCHASED, 1907 TO 1911 AND 1915, BY 
KINDS OF WOOD 


IQrt. 


I9to. 


1909. | 


Kind of Wood. IQI5.- 1908. 1907. 
1) 49,333,881) 50,508,000 68,382,000 5731 Sahat 48,110,000; 61,757,000 
Southern pine... . 14,115,681) 24,265,000, 26,264,000 21,385,000, 21,530,000) 34,215,000 
Douglas fir....... 6,950,910! 11,253,000 11,629,000) 9,067,000! 7,988,000) 14,525,000 
J eee 5,122,103) 8,015,000) 7,305,000 6,777,000, 8,172,000) - 8,954,000 
Chestnut........- 4,548,352, 7:542,000! 7,760,000, 6,629,000, 8,074,000) 7,851,000 
Cypress...-...-.. 4,478,612) 5,857,000, 5,396,000, 4,589,000, 3,457,000) 6,780,000 
Eastern tamarack.. 2,606,794) 4,138,000} 5,163,000} 3, 311,000) 4,025,000) 4,562,000 
West’n yellow pine | 1,402,836) 2,696,000) 4,612,000 6,797,000} 3,093,000} 5,019,000 
Lodgepole pine 1,316,819) } 

Western larch 1,251,304) | 

OOO niwis sos ome « 1,173,490) 1,109,000, 798,000 195,000, _—_192,000 $2,000 

Soe ee 1,069,547: 1,189,000) 773,000 158,000) 151,000 

Hemlock. ........ 859,662) 3,686,000) 3,468,000 2,642,000) 3,120,000] 2,367,000 

Redwood......... 563,685) 1,820,000} 2,165,000) 2,088,000) 871,000) 2,032,000 

OES Bip ee ean 485,406) 1,293,000 1,621,000; 378,000) 262,000) 15,000 

Birch. .. ata 465,815) | 

All others... .. 1,361,694, 2,682,000} 2,895,000 2,603,000 3,421,000] 5,574,000 
All kinds. .... 9 07,106,651|135,053,000 148,231,000 123,751,000 112,466,000) 153,703,000 


2 Mileage of railroads reporting ties represent 78.46 per cent of total mileage. Mileage represented 
of former years not obtainable. 


REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD TIE 


The selection of tie material to satisfy the various requirements of the 


railroads is of large importance. 


Altogether the following are the prin- 


_cipal points which determine the desirability of any wood for use as 


cross ties: 


1. Durability. This is of prime importance. It is estimated by 


various railway officials that the average tie of all species used by the 
railroads in this country does not last, untreated, more than five years. 
White oak ordinarily lasts from eight to ten years, untreated. The life 
of untreated ties will be discussed later. 

2. Ability to resist impact. The crushing of ties by heavy rails and 
rolling stock, resulting in serious cliccking and splitting, precludes the 
use of soft woods such as cedar, redwood, cypress, etc., where the rolling 
stock is heavy and trains are frequent. The American Railway Engineer- 
ing Association announced in 1907 that a maximum of 75 per cent of 
cedar ties used by one railroad failed because of mechanical destruction. 
Other railroads report failures of from to per cent to 75 per cent due to 
that cause rather than to decay. . 


268 FOREST PRODUCTS 


3. Ability to resist spike pulling and lateral displacement of spikes. 
This is of such importance that many railroads are contemplating the 
use of screw spikes to replace the ordinary nail spike. Hard, dense 
woods, as oak, maple, beech, etc., are much superior to soft-fibered woods 
such as cedar, western pine, spruce, cypress, etc., for this purpose. 

4. The wood must be of sufficient strength to withstand the strains 
due to center binding. Practically all woods used for ties meet this 
requirement. On weaker species, center binding will cause checking and 
splitting which may become serious and require renewal with new ties. 

5. Available in sufficient quantities and reasonably inexpensive. 
Locust, mulberry, osage orange and other woods make excellent ties, but 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 70.—“ Peeler” or bark spud used in removing the bark after the tree trunk has been 
“faced” and before it is sawed or chopped into tie lengths. 


do not grow in sufficient quantities. Walnut, hickory and cherry make 
good ties, but they are too valuable for this purpose. White oak has risen 
so rapidly in price that, although still fairly abundant, railroads are 
being forced to use inferior and cheaper woods after treatment with some 
preservative. 

The above considerations apply largely to ties intended for use in the 
untreated condition. If the ties are to be treated, the principal requisite 
qualities are: 

1. Strength. 3. Permeability. 
2. Hardness. 4. Availability and inexpensiveness. 


Le nee, eee eel 
' 


a 


CROSS TIES 269 


These will be at once apparent when reviewed in the light of the 
above discussion. Such species as the red oaks, hard maple, yellow birch, 
beech, red and black gum and elm meet these conditions to best advan- 
tage and all of them are now rapidly coming into common use for treat- 
ment. Maple and beech, untreated, last only about four years in the 
track, but when subjected to a treatment of 10 Ib. of creosote per cubic 
foot, they should last from sixteen to twenty years or more, whereas such 
highly durable woods as redwood, cedar and cypress give a service in the 
track of only about ten to twelve years. 

Since sapwood is generally more easily impregnated with chemical 
preservatives than heartwood, it is considered a desirable qualification to 
have an even distribution of sapwood entirely surrounding the heartwood 
when the ties are intended for treatment. 


’ SAWED VERSUS HEWED TIES 


There is a wide range of opinion among those experienced in the use 
of both sawed and hewed ties as to the relative advantages and disad- 
vantages of each form. As noted before, about 80 per cent of all ties are 
hewed, and this form is almost universal in the East as contrasted with 
the Pacific Coast, where about 80 per cent of all ties produced are sawed. 

Inasmuch as ties are generally produced from small holdings such as 
farmers’ woodlots, scattered bodies not reached by a logging operation, 
and from tops and cull trees left after logging, there seems to be no dis- 
position to change the method of making them. In fact, the proportion 
of hewed to sawed ties has remained about the same for the past decade or 
more. The introduction of wood preservation on an extended scale, 
however, has tended to increase the demand for a uniform sized tie and 
one which offers an even bearing surface for both tie plates and rails. 

The principal points in favor of the hewed tie may be summarized as 
follows: 

1. They shed water more readily than sawed ties and hence are 
likely to be more durable. This is obviously of little impor- 
tance when the ties are to be treated. 

2. Hewed ties are cut with a straight grain, hence they may have 
superior strength to sawed ties. 

3. The railroad receives a larger volume of wood when buying 
hewed ties because sawed ties are always cut to fixed specifica- 
tions, whereas in hewing the object is to keep above these fixed 
dimensions so that the volume of wood is likely to be much 
larger. 


270 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


4. It is generally cheaper for the producer to hew the ties on the 


ground where the trees are felled rather than to indulge in an 
an expensive haul of slabwood which is generally wasted. In 
other words, it is usually cheaper to hew ties and haul them 
directly to market than to haul the logs to a sawmill and then 
load and haul the ties to the point of shipment. This pre- 
supposes a condition where a choice of method must be made. 
Sawed ties are usually made in a sawmill where the principal 
product is lumber, the ties being cut out of the knotty hearts of 
the logs. 


As opposed to these arguments, the following points are sometimes 
adduced in favor of the sawed ties: 


I. 


Hewing generally means the waste of a large amount of mate- 
rial. The waste is estimated by Zon in hewing loblolly pine 
at from 25 to 75 per cent of the available material. It is pointed 
out that as a rule only one tie is hewed from a 15-in. log that 
could be sawed into two ties. It is estimated by the Forest 
Service that 285,000,000 cu. ft. are wasted every year in 
hewing ties. 


. The sawed tie is cut to specific dimensions, so that in treating 


them the desired absorption of preservatives per cubic foot can 
be accurately determined. This cannot be followed accurately 
with hewed ties, each of which, in reality, has a different vol- 
ume, and it is obvious that each tie cannot be measured before 
treatment. 


. More sawed than hewed ties can be loaded on a cylinder buggy 


for treatment so that the daily output of the preservation plant 
is increased and consequently the cost of treating per tie is 
decreased. 


. Tie plates and rails will find a more even and uniform bearing 


surface on sawed than on hewed ties. The latter must or- 
dinarily be adzed before the plates and rails are spiked. This is 
usually offered as a serious objection, especially where tie plates 
are used. 


. The hewed tie contains much needless volume and weight and, 


therefore, is more expensive to handle and to transport. 


SPECIFICATIONS AND PRICES 


There has been a marked tendency to increase the size of the specifi- 
cations of ties used by the larger railway systems to meet the demands 


ae 1 a ee 
i 


CROSS TIES 271 


of increased traffic and heavier rolling stock. Prices, as outlined above, 
have also steadily risen. 

For a long time all standard gauge railroad ties were 8 ft. in length. 
In recent years many railroads have increased this to 83 ft. and some 
even tog ft. Formerly a thickness of 6 in. was prescribed for both sawed _ 
or hewed ties, but now many of the railroads require a thickness of 63 to 
7in. Pole ties, that is, those faced, either by hewing or sawing on two 
parallel sides, are now usually required to measure 7 to 8 in. on the 
face. Squared ties, or those hewed or sawed on all four sides, are now 
customarily 7 by g in. in cross-section, although some railroads still hold 
to the dimensions of 6 by 8 in., which were commonly in use a few years 
ago. 

The following tabular statement shows the size specifications adopted 
by some of both the larger and smaller railway systems in the country, 
for the period before the entry of this country in the war: 

RAILROAD TIE SPECIFICATIONS; COMPILED FROM SOME OF THE LEADING ROADS 
OF THE UNITED STATES 


1916 SPECIFICATIONS 


Tepeieane geting aS 


; ~ No. 1 No. I No. 2 No. 2 
Railroad. Species. Squared. i Pole. Squared Z 
tw Moa 27 L F tS aah is L T F 
Baltimore & | White oak group Say 6 8.5 7 7 S.5 .6 7 $282.6 6 
Ohio Cherry $5.7. 38 OR at 7 8.5. 6 9 8.5 6 6 
Mulberry ee Ee 8.5 7 7 Sig: 6. 7 8.5 6 6 
Black walnut a5" 7:38 5.527 7 S56 6-7 8.5 6 6 
Heart longleaf To fay aia S.5)9 6 
Boston & Heart yellow pine | 8.5 7 9 
Albany Native chestnut SIMO ei ig ee eee oe S15: 53570 
Native MO SI | ES SO 8.5 79 
Boston & White oaks 8 7 9 8 7-12 | 8 6 8 8 6 S-12 
Maine Chestnut — 8 aS 8 7 7-12 | 8 6 8 8 6 5-12 
Cedar (white) 8 7 9 8 | 7-12 | 8 6 8 4... 6 5-12 
Oe So ec Ane) te Ty ro ream me a Wn Sears see 8 6 8 | 8 6 5-12 
Buffalo & White oaks B25 BF Ss F 7-12 | 8.5 7 68/| 8.5 7 6-8 
Susquehanna | Chestnut oe ee, 8.5 7 7-12} 8.5 7 6-8 | 8.5.7 6-8 
Cedar 8.5 8 7 8.5 7-12 | 8.5 7 68} 8. 7 6-8 
C., B.& Q. | White oaks 8 6 8 8 ety Me. aes SEP eae eee 8 6-7 67 
5 Red oak 8 6 8 8 Eee Sg. eeethe NPP Mie Al se 8 6-7 67 
Delaware & | White oaks 8.5 79 8.5 7-8 6 8.5 6 8 !8.5 67 5-6 
Hudson Chestnut 8.5 7 9 8.5 7-8 6 | 8.5 6 8 8.5 67 5-6 
Cherry S547 9 8.5 78 6 |} 8.5 6 8 8.5.67 5-6 
Red oak 8.5 7 9 8.5 7-8 6 te 8.5 67 5-6 
D., L. & W. | White oaks 8.5 7 812|8.5 7 97-12 | 8.5 6 7 8.5 6 6 
Chestnut 8.5 7 8121/1 8.5 7 7-12 | 8.5 6 7 8.5 6 6 
Red oak 8.5 7 812| 8.5 7 7-12 | 8.5 6 7 8.5 6 6 
Beech and birch 8.5 7 812|8.5 7 7-12 | 8.5 6 7 8.5 6 6 
Great Tamarack Vere 9 | 8. | 8 6 6 
Northern Douglas fir 8.5 ; 7 a ; 2 23 6 6 
Lehigh & White oaks 8.5 7 9 8. 6-7 8-12 
Hudson 2d growth chestnut! 8.5 7 9 8.3 é, 8-12 
Lehigh Valley} Longleaf heart wood| 8.5 7 9 | .............. ey 


L=length in feet; T =thickness in inches; F =face in inches. 


272 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


RAILROAD TIE SPECIFICATIONS; COMPILED FROM SOME OF THE LEADING ROADS 


OF THE UNITED STATES—Continued 


1916 SPECIFICATIONS 


Railroad. 


Species. 


No. 1 
Squared. 
ye Me 


Squared. 
L ve F 


-_No. 2 


No. 2 
Pole. 
j Peaae F 


Louisville & 
Nashville 


Cypress 
White oak 
Chestnut oak 
Red oak 


oon 


Michigan 
Central 


White oaks 
Red oaks 


un 


au 


N. Y., N. H. 
& H. 


White oak 
Red oak 
Chestnut _ 
Cedar (white) 


co | Ca] MmOMmO 
alum | unin 
sa faa |aaas 
wojlyou }o0oonwo 


monMmnM! an 
AARAAA! 1 
5 
N 


Northern 
acific 


White oak 
Tamarack 
Douglas fir 
Miscellaneous 


ABAAADD | coon; ~ 


Pennsylvania 


White oaks 
Black locust 
Black cherry 
Cypress _ 
Longleaf pine 
Chestnut 
Sassafras 

Red mulberry 
Red cake 
Beech - 

Gums 
Shortleaf pine 


ne Oar 


PMWOWMWOWDDODOmMDODmmO | DOOD! DOOD! HOw 


MAAaAannannininwnn on 


IIs 


Cn mss sss © O11) 


2 00 60 
an 
as 
Aaa 


@0 00 00 00 00 CO 
WU 
sass 
AAABAAN 


White oaks 
Red and black oaks 


a 


oo 


Wisconsin & 
Northern 


Hemlock 
Tamarack 


as 


aa 


L=length in feet; T =thickness in inches; F =face in inches. 


The same general requirements governing the making and delivering 
of No. 1 ties along the railroad right of way were in effect by most of the 


leading systems. 


be summarized as follows: 


Although there may be minor differences, they may 


1. All ties shall be made from live timber of good quality, straight and free from 
any rotten or loose knots, wind shakes, worm holes, checks or other injurious 
defects which impair the usefulness, strength or durability of the tie. 

2. All ties must be cut from the stump between October 1st and April 1st and 
must be freed of all bark. Ties must be delivered at railroad not later than 
six months from date of felling. 

3. All ties must have parallel faces, sawed or hewed smooth with the grain of 
the wood. When hewed, ties must be free from deep score hacks on the 


faces and all knots must be cut close and smooth. 


4. All ties must be cut off square at the ends. 


un 


. Ties delivered on right of way must 


(a) Not be piled closer than ro ft. to the nearest track; 
(b) Be piled separately by species; 
(c) Not be over 12 layers high; 


Se ee _e 


es 


Lie: Sisal 


CROSS TIES 273 


(d) Not interfere with view of approaching trains; 
(e) Be ranked as required to season to best advantage. 


In addition to the above, the species acceptable to the railroad are 
always specified. No. 2 and No. 3 ties are less rigid in their requirements, 
both in size and quality, than the above. 

The following prices will give an idea of the values prevailing for cross 
ties announced by some of the railroads in their specifications: 

The following prices were advertised by the Beet hides Railroad 
for certain divisions: 


Species. Grade tf. Grade 2. Grade 3. 
White oak, black locust, black walnut, and black cherry . . $.75 $.65 $.35 
Chestnut, sassafras and red mulberry................ A 45 .20 
Red oaks, honey locust, hickories and beech.......... 50 .40 .20 
Hard maples, sycamore, red gum, hackberry and ashes -45 .35 15 
Soft maples, black gum, butternut, birches and elms. . . -40 .30 .10 


The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad paid the following 
prices in 1917: 


Species. Class A. | Class B. | Class C. 
; | 
REM AA Gee Se noe Son wknd chy On sins eC A 2 $.80 | $.70 $.55 
ML «Got ere ta eas tec a pa ue alee s p dae ee os oo eee > -55 50 -35 
Oeste Tas COs thin Sein s tance boos ¥9 ve 65 .60 -35 


The Baltimore & Ohio Railroad paid the following prices in 1917: 


Species. Number 1. | Number 2. | Number 3. 


White oaks, cherry, mulberry, black locust or black 
SMM: oo oes ae OS es TRAIN SDRC noe Si aa $.65 $.50 $.25 
TS Se eae ee Sie Rl ee ape gS -45 30 not taken 


The only specifications that do not conform in general to the above 
“squared” and “pole” ties in this country are the rectangular ties 
adopted several years ago and still used by the Great Northern Railway. 
At Somers, in western Montana, these are sawed out of western larch 
and Douglas fir by special machinery. The ties are 8 ft. long, 12 in. 
across the upper face and 8 in. deep from the face to the lowest point 
of the angle. They contain approximately 40 bd. fit. each. The fol- 
lowing are the advantages claimed for the Great Northern triangular tie: 


274 FOREST PRODUCTS 


1. It is a self-tamping tie. It embeds itself easily and firmly on 
the road bed and will not ‘‘crawl.” 

2. It gives an even 12-in. surface to the rail with its-attendant 
advantages. _ ; 

3. The ties are replaced more readily and, therefore, more cheaply. 

4. More ties and lumber can be cut out of the various-sized trees 
than other accepted forms. 

The following are the disadvantages of the triangular form: 

1. It gives a less satisfactory bearing surface on the ballast. 

2. The ties are likely to check and split off on the edges. 

3. The spike must be driven in the exact center. 


E> 


SES 
wy 


% i is TH 
+! BURBS 
, ET 


wy 


Fic. 71.—Triangular tie used by Fic. 72.—Method of sawing triangular ties 
the Great Northern Railway. from tie logs. 


These ties cost the Great Northern about 56 cents apiece. There are 
25 ties per thousand board feet and they were sold on the basis of $14.00 
per thousand board feet for Douglas fir and Western larch ties in 1917. 

The following specifications are those issued by the United States 
Railroad Administration under date of June 11, 1918: 


UNITED STATES RAILROAD ADMINISTRAION 


SPECIFICATIONS FOR CROSS TIES 


Kinds of Wood. 


Before manufacturing ties, producers should ascertain from the railroad to which 
they contemplate delivering them just which of the following kinds of wood suitable 
for cross ties will be accepted: Ash, beech, birch, catalpa, cedar, cherry, chestnut, 
cypress, elm, fir, gum, hackberry, hemlock, hickory, larch, locust, maple, mulberry, 
oak, pine, redwood, sassafras, spruce, sycamore, and walnut. Others will not be 
accepted unless specially ordered. 


Quality. 
All ties shall be free from any defects that may impair their strength or durability 
as cross ties, such as decay, splits, shakes, or large or numerous holes or knots. 


a 


Ce ee. | 


CROSS TIES 275 


Ties from needleleaved trees shall be of compact wood, with not less than one- 
third summerwood when averaging five or more rings of annual growth per inch, or 
with not less than one-half summerwood in fewer rings, measured along any radius 
from the pith to the top of the tie. Ties of coarse wood, with fewer rings or less 
summerwood, will be accepted when specially ordered. 

Ties from needleleaved trees for use without preservative treatment shall not 
have sapwood more than 2 in. wide on the top of the tie between 20 in. and 40 in. 
from the middle, and will be designated as “heart” ties. Those with more sapwood 
will be designated as “‘sap”’ ties. 


Manufacture. 

Ties ought to be made from trees which have been felled not longer than one 
month. 

All ties shall be straight, well manufactured, cut square at the ends, have top and 
bottom parallel, and have bark entirely removed. 


Dimensions. 

Before manufacturing ties, producers should ascertain from the railroad to which 
they contemplate delivering them just which of the following lengths, shapes and sizes 
will be accepted. 

All ties shall be 8 ft. or 8 ft. 6 in. long. 

All ties shall measure as follows throughout both sections between 20 in and 40 in. 
from the middle of the tie: 


ets Top, Betton, and Sides. Top and Botton. 
6” 
nf None ee 
oe ng’ rT 
2 6 € 
| 8° oe i 
ety CC) 
2° 8” 
9° 9° 
met} CC) 


The above are minimum dimensions. Ties over 1 in. more in thickness, over 3 in. 
more in width, or over 2 in. more in length will be degraded or rejected. 


276 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The top of the tie is the plane farthest from the pith of the tree, whether or not the 
pith is present in the tie. 


Delivery. : 

All ties ought to be delivered to a railroad within one month after being made. 

Ties delivered on the premises of the railroad shall be stacked not less than 10 ft. 
from the nearest rail of any track at suitable and convenient places; but not at public 
crossings, nor where they will interfere with the views of trainmen or of people ap- 
proaching the railroad. Ties should be stacked in alternate layers of two and seven, 
the bottom layer to consist of two ties kept at least 6 in. above the ground. The 
second layer shall consist of seven ties laid crosswise of the first layer. When the ties 
are rectangular, the two outside ties of the layers of seven and the layers of two shall 
be laid on edge. The ties in layers of two shall be laid at the extreme ends of the ties 
in the layers of seven. No stack may be more than twelve layers high, and there shall 
be 5 ft. between stacks to facilitate inspection. Ties may be ranked like cordwood, in 
which case the owner shall rehandle them while inspection is being made. Ties which 
have stood on their ends on the ground will be rejected. 

All ties at the owner’s risk until accepted. All rejected ties shall be removed within 
one month after inspection. 

Ties shall be piled as grouped below. Only the kinds of wood named in the same 
column may be piled together. 


CLASS U—TIES WHICH MAY BE USED UNTREATED 


Group Ua. Group Ub. Group Uc. Group Ud. 
Black Locust “ Heart ” Pines “ Heart ” Cedars _ Catalpa 
White Oaks “ Heart ” Douglas Fir “ Heart ” Cypress Chestnut 
Black Walnut Redwood Red Mulberry 

Sassafras 


CLASS T—TIES WHICH SHOULD BE TREATED 


Group Ta. Group Tb. Group Tc. Group Td. 
Ashes “ Sap ” Cedars Beech Elms 
Hickories “Sap ” Cypress Birches Hackberry 
Honey Locust “Sap ” Douglas Fir Cherry Soft Maples 
Red. Oaks Hemlocks Gums Spruces 

Larches Hard Maples Sycamore 
“Sap ” Pines White Walnut 
Shipment. 


Ties shall be separated in the car according to the above groups and sizes as far as 
practicable. 
Approved, Washington, D. C., June 11, 1918. 


JOHN SKELTON WILLIAMS, 
C. R. GRAY Director of Finance and Purchases. 
Director of Operation. 


The following prices were paid during the winter of 1919 by a prominent eastern 
railroad for the species as listed: 


Sa. 
* 


SEV 


CROSS TIES 277 


Crass U Woops. Crass T Woops 
SIZES. Grave. 5 polaced Fotis FOR TREATMENT. 
} 
Sawed or Hewed | Sawed cr Hewed | 
Top. Bottom, | Top or Bottom. No. Ua Vos Ts Tc Tp 
and Sides, Ins. Ins. i 
None 6X6 I $.85 $.65 || $.75 $.65 $.65 
6X7 6X7 2 I.00 -75 || <90 -75 -75 
6X8 6X8 or 7X7 3 1.20 265. Hl 1.10 -95 -95 
7X8 7X8 4 ‘35 tie - || P.25 1.10 1.10 
7X9 7X9 5 1.50 1.25 || 1.40 1.25 | 1.25 
Hack. 
Black Ashes Beech ae 
Locust [anes ||Hickories | Birches bests 
Ties should be piled as White Red. || Honey | Cherry | ygoties 
grouped in classes. Oaks Matheny ocust Gums S et ae 
Black Sas eae i} Hard S a cores 
Walnut ssatras || Oaks | Maples | "Yop 
i ite 
| Walnut 


The above are minimum dimensions. Ties over 1 in. more in thickness, over 3 in. 
more in width, or over 2 in. more in length will be degraded or rejected. 

The top of the tie is the plane farthest from the pith of the tree, whether or not the 
pith is present in the tie. 


MAKING AND DELIVERY TO MARKET 
General. 


The hewing of ties is done either by owners of small holdings, such as 
woodlots, or by contractors who buy stumpage by the acre or area or still 
more commonly by the tie. Throughout the country the work is usually 
done between October 1st and April 1st, both because many of the rail- 
roads require in their specifications that the timber be cut during that 
period and because other work is less active in the fall and winter. Then, 
too, hauling can usually be done more cheaply in the winter, especially 
with snow or the ground. On many of the larger logging operations, tie 
cutters follow up the work after the saw logs are removed and hew the 
ties from the remaming tops, smaller trees of insufficient size for saw logs 
and cull trees too defective, knotty or crooked to make good lumber. 
In the woodlots of the East and central hardwood region, many farmers 
look upon the getting out of a few hundred ties during the winter as a 
regular source of employment and income. 

Stumpage. 
. As in the case in all timber values expressed as stumpage, the value of 
ties in the tree varies with their kind and quality, accessibility and dif- 


ficulty of logging and transportation to market. The following stumpage 
values are those which prevailed prior to 1917: 


278 FOREST PRODUCTS 


In the prominent tie-producing sections of: Kentucky and West Vir- 
ginia, well-located white oak stumpage involving a haul of from 1 to 6 
miles was worth from 10 to 20 cents per tie. Many sales have been 
made for about 16 cents or more. Southern yellow pine stumpage is 
worth from 6 to 14 cents with an average of about ro cents. 

Douglas fir and western larch stumpage brought from 4 to 1o cents 
per tie; western pine from 4 to 8 cents per tie. 

Red oak and chestnut stumpage brought from 8 to 15 cents per tie, 
depending upon quality and location. 

_ Hardwood ties, such as beech, birch, maple, elm and red gum were 
worth, on the stump, from 5 to 12 cents apiece. 


Suitable Sized Timber for Hewing. 

The best sized trees from which ties are made by hewing are those 
from 11 to 15 in. in diameter at breast height, although trees from ro to 17 
in. are customarily taken. 

Lodgepole pine, as it grows throughout the northern Rocky Moun- 
tains, is naturally most suitable in size for hewing into ties since most 
of the merchantable stands of this timber contain from 75 to 200 trees, 
10 to 16 in. in diameter. They are tall and straight and free from exces- 
sive taper. 

Hewed ties seldom conform to the dimensions specified by the rail- 
roads, other than length. As a general rule, tie inspectors do not care 
how large the ties are, as long as they are at least large enough to meet the 
specifications. Therefore tie cutters prefer those trees which will yield 
No. 1 ties with the least effort on their part. 

In investigating the average number of ties that can be cut from 
trees of different diameters, Zon has prepared the following table! 
as a result of measuring 996 loblolly pine and hardwood ties in eastern 
Texas: 

l 


, Average Number of 


: : Number of Trees : 
Diameter Breast High. Ties Cut from Each 
sis Measured. Diameter Class. 
II 77 2.4 
12 236 S00 
13 257 3-9 
14 231 4.8 
15 140 E.2 
16 53 5-7 
17 2 6.0 


1See “ Loblolly Pine in Eastern Texas,” by R. Zon. Forest Service Bulletin No. 64, 
1905, p. 36. ; - - 


CROSS TIES 279 


By counting the number of trees per acre of each diameter and mul- 
tiplying this by the average number of ties per tree the yield of ties per 
acre can be easily derived. 

In western yellow pine, suitable for hewing into ties in the Southwest, 
the averag= number of ties per tree is only 2.7, but here the trees do not 
grow to a very good height. 

Tie hackers do not like trees of too small diameter because an insuf- 
ficient number of No. 1 ties can be cut from them for the labor involved 
in felling, limbing, etc., whereas in trees of 16 in. or over in diameter the 
hewing is more difficult and the ties are difficult to handle on account of 
their large size. 

The following table is interesting in that it shows the minimum diam- 
eter of logs from which the various-sized pole ties may be hewed together. 
with the cubic feet contained in the pole tie that conforms to the exact 
specifications of 1917. They are given for some of our larger railroad 
systems. A length of 8 ft. is used for all. 


HeEWED Pote TIEs. = | 
Railroad. ) Diameter of | Cubic Peet 

Face, Ins. | Thickness, Ins. Log in Inches. “ 
C., B. & Q. (Burlington)......... 7-5 6.5 Io 3.34 
WOM PRIN. 83 els ou ela 6.5 7 9.6 3-38 
Great Northern: ................ 7 7 o25- <b 348 
Mertmern Pact... . oo 56.6.2... 8 7 10.6 | 3-73 
CC Se ate eae ie 8 7 10.6 3-73 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul... 8 7 10.6 3-73 
Oregon Short Line............... 8 7 $51 3-07 
Chicago & Northwestern......... 6.7 | 6 | 9 2.76 


Number of Ties per Thousand Board Feet. 


It is customary to use the converting factor of 30 ties per thousand 
board feet for the average standard gauge pole tie, cut 8 ft. long. This 
means, therefore, that the average tie contains 333 board feet. It is very 
apparent from the above discussion and specifications that this factor 
is a variable one. 

Sawed ties are usually cut to conform exactly with the specifications 
and are sold by the board feet as well as by the piece so that the converting 
factor is usually applied only to hewed pole ties. The number of board 
feet contained in each tie, therefore, depends upon the specifications and 
also upon how closely the tie hacker conforms to these given dimensions. 

The following study by Koch in western Montana contains some 
valuable data on the average number of hewed ties per thousand board 


280 FOREST PRODUCTS 
feet.' It was made on several small tie sales from National Forest 
timber. 
NUMBER 1 TIES 
Average Scale in . k $ 
Operstor. | Number ot | Hoard Reet per | Tptel Susle ia, | Average Thick | Average | 
I 712 24.705 17,590 8 13 
2 284 26.055 7,400 8 13 
3 155 28. 839 4,470 9 12 
4 402 32.040 12,880 9 13 
Number of number 1 ties per thousand board-feet, 37. 
NUMBER 2 TIES 
A Scale i : ; 
Operator, | TumeSE OE | "Board-teet per ) TBial Gone in | Average Thick | Average. 
I Iil 10.495 I1,165 7 8 
2 5 14.000 7° 8 9 
3 19 15.263 290 8 9 
4 68 14.264 970° 8 9 
Number of number 2 ties per thousand board-feet...............00005 81 
Per cent of number 2 ties.» ....6....3. 00.00 Spares PRN Eom. II}. 
Average scale of number 1 and number 2 ties..............eesee viera'n'g ep ia 
Number of number 1 and number 2 ties per thousand naanis feet Satna 39 


Koch concluded from this study that 40 ties should be considered 
equivalent to 1000 ft., board measure, instead of 30 as at present. 

In a large tie sawmill cutting ties 7 in. thick by 8 in. wide and 8 ft. 
long, from a run of 148,311 logs which scaled 14,135,310 bd. ft. (about 
ro logs per thousand), 419,199 ties were yielded in addition to about 
15,687 cords of slabwood. It was determined, therefore, that from sim- 
ilar-sized logs, 30 ties and 1 cord of slabwood should be derived per thou- 
sand board feet. 

As noted before, the Great Northern triangular tie contains 40 bd. ft. 
each so that there are only 25 ties of this size to the thousand board feet. 
Hewing. 

Hewing, generally speaking, refers to the operation of felling, limbing, 
scoring, facing and bucking the tree into tie lengths. It is sometimes 
called “‘ making ”’ ties. 

The tie makers, also called “ tie hacks,” ‘‘ hackers, 


1 Number 1 ties were 8 ft. long, 7 in. thick, not less than 8 in. nor more than 12 in. in 
width. Number 2 ties were of the same length with a 7-in. face and 6 in. in thickness. 


”) 


etc., usually 


a 


_. 


Se ee ee ee 


CROSS TIES 281 


work by contract and are paid by the piece. Each man works alone and 
is assigned an area. His equipment consists of the following: One 4 to 
43-lb. double bitted axe, one 12-in. 6 to 7-lb. broadaxe, one cross-cut saw, 
an iron wedge, a light sledge hammer, a bark spud, a measuring pole of 
the desired length and a bottle of kerosene to oil the saw. It is cus- 
tomary practice for each man to furnish his own tools. 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 73.—Making ties in the hardwood forests of Decatur Co., Tennessee. The man on the 
left is hewing with the broadaxe; the other “scoring” with the axe. 


In felling, care is taken to have any crooks or the largest diameter 
of the tree perpendicular to the ground in order to facilitate hewing. 
Small crooks are permitted by the railroads if the hewed surfaces are 
straight and parallel to each other. As soon as the tree is felled, the 
“ tie hack,” standing on the trunk, scores each face by chopping into the 
sides with an axe at an angle of about 45° with the direction of the tree 
and at intervals of from 4 to 8 in. The limbs are taken off with the axe 
as the tree is scored. After scoring, the two faces are hewed down to the 
desired width and smoothness with the broadaxe, the chopper standing 


282 FOREST PRODUCTS 


on the tree and working backward with the grain. The tree is then peeled 
with a bark spud and bucked up into the desired tie lengths with the 
cross-cut saw. When faced on four sides, which is'seldom done, the tree 
is turned, scored and hewed on the other two sides-before barking and 
bucking. A few years ago softwood ties were sometimes chopped to 
length, but this is seldom done now. 
The cost of hewing depends upon the following factors: 
1. The ability and efficiency of the hacker or tie chopper. 
2. The species and whether green or dead. 
3. The condition and slope of the ground. 
4. The run of timber; such as adaptable sizes, shape, length of 
bole, freedom from limbs and defects, and amount per acre, etc. 
5. Specifications of ties. 
An experienced and efficient tie hacker will make from 40 to 50 ties 
in favorably located and sized lodgepole pine and hemlock, from 35 to 40 
in Douglas fir, western larch, western pine, cedar, loblolly and longleaf 
pines and other softwoods and from 20 to 35 in oak, chestnut and hard- 
woods. An average will run, in softwoods, between 20 and 35 and from 
15 to 25 in hardwoods. 
Contracts for hewing-No. 1 ties range from 14 to 15 cents for difficult 
conditions down to 10 cents for good “‘ chances ” and from 11 to 8 cents 
for “ seconds.” The usual prices paid in Pennsylvania are 11 cents for 
chestnut and 13 cents for oak “ firsts’ and 8 and to cents respectively 
for “seconds.” In the West, 14 cents is a customary price for hewing 
“ first’ and g cents for ‘‘ seconds.” A tie hack bends every effort to 
make all the “ firsts’ possible from every tree handled as it is current 
opinion among them that there is no money in making “ seconds.” 
Hewing No. 1 ties in West Virginia and Kentucky costs from 13 to 15 
cents per tie. On a tie operation in northern New Mexico where the 
timber ran about 3 ties per tree, each man turned out about 20 ties on 
an average per day. Ina ten-hour day the time was divided as follows: 
1; hours felling, 33 hours limbing and scoring, 3 hours facing, 1 hour 
bucking into lengths and 1} hours peeling. On this basis the average 
cost of hewing was distributed as follows: 


Operation Cost per Tie 
Ponies. 55 55 cht sa sake pare R Ee $.o11 
SCOTING So oes sx oe tee eee Fae eee mes 032 
FACIE OO SPOS ic a ware ee eee 027 
Buekihy Os a eae ees 009 


CROSS TIES 283 


At 20 ties per day this would mean a wage of $1.80 per day for the tie 
hacker. However, time lost in getting supplies, and during inspections, 
and wear and tear on tools, which the men supplied themselves, reduces 
this to some extent. 

On some operations, expert workers frequently make from $3.50 
to $4.00 per day or more out of which board costs them from 60 to 75 cents 
per day. 

Skidding. 

Skidding usually costs from 2 to 3 cents per tie. It is done by hand 
for short distances, but is more frequently done by a single horse or team 
taking from 2 to 6 ties per trip. On one operation where over 3000 ties 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service 


Fic. 74.—Hauling Douglas fir ties to the landing or chute with the “go-devil.” From 
10 to 15 ties or more can be hauled at one time by this method, depending upon the dis- 
tance, slope and the “going.”’ 


were taken by hand to the haul road an average distance of 3 mile, each 
man handled 136 ties per day, on an average, and the cost was 3 cents. 
Go-devils are sometimes used, especially on the longer skidding 
chances. One man can skid from 150 to 200 ties with one horse, a dis- 
tance of § mile, in the average day. 


Hauling. 
Hauling from the banking grounds to the railroad or stream is usually 


done by means of a wagon or sled. Winter hauling on snow with sleds 
is of course the cheapest. The cost is determined by: 


284 FOREST PRODUCTS 


1. The distance. 

2. Condition of the road together with its grade. 
3. Labor and horse charges. 

4. Availability of snow for sleigh haul. 


On an iced sleigh-haul road from 60 to 100 ties are commonly hauled. 
From 40 to 60 ties may be hauled on a wagon under the most favorable 
conditions but under ordinary circumstances from 30 to 40 ties are con- 
sidered a good load. 

The following shows the number of trips for various hauling distances 
figured on the basis of 40 ties per load and $6.00 per day for team and 
man: 


Distance, Miles. enn es ! | pe a3 Rt 
4 15 0.10 
I 8 1.88 
2 5 3.00 
3 3 5.00 
4-7 1 2 7-59 
10-14 I 15.00 


The price of hauling always includes piling at the railroad right of 
way, yard or along the stream, according to directions. Loading on the 
cars is usually done by the railroad company. If the contractor does this, 
there is a standard charge of 2 cents per tie for loading. 


Other Forms of Transportation. 

The cheapest method of transportation is driving, but good drivable 
streams are seldom available on tie operations. Ties can be driven 
cheaper than other forms of material because of their short length and 
small size compared to saw logs, poles, long timbers, etc. Driving can 
be practiced only in the spring, so that an interest charge of from 6 to 
8 per cent must be added to the cost together with an allowance for loss. 
The cost of driving is very variable. The cost of putting ties in the 
stream and taking them out and piling costs about 2 cents apiece. Two 
men and one horse can take out and pile 600 ties per day. In one drive of 
about 90 miles, involving 300,000 ties, in the West, the cost per tie was 
52 cents. 

Fluming and chuting are practiced to a limited extent on some of the 


a ee ee ee ie 


ile. 


CROSS TIES 285 


larger operations in the West, particularly with lodgepole pine, Douglas 
fir and western yellow pine. 

On some of our navigable streams, ties are fastened together in large 
rafts or they are loaded on large barges and towed to destination. The 
average river barge on the Mississippi River or its tributaries holds be- 
tween 7000 and 8000 ties each. In loading the cars from a barge or raft, 
a tie hoist is used. This usually consists of a cradle lowered and raised 
on an incline track from the water to the loading platform by means of a 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 75.—Ties hauled from 1 to 3 miles by wagon to the landing at the flume. From 30 to 
60 ties are hauled on each trip. Fluming and driving are common methods employed in 
bringing softwood ties to market in rough, mountainous regions. Photograph taken 
in western Montana. 


gasoline engine. Before they are loaded on the cars from the ranks or 
cribs, they are inspected and branded by a railroad tie inspector and are 
spotted with paint. 


Summary of Operating Costs. 

The following table! shows the usual costs involved in and prices 
received for white oak and other hardwood ties based upon a number of 
operations in Kentucky, the center of the oak-producing region in 1917. 
The specifications used are 8-in. face, 7 in. in thickness and 83 ft. long. 

1 Data supplied by Mr. W. F. Goltra. 


286 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The ‘‘ seconds ” or No. 2 ties were those which failed to pass inspection 
as No. 1 ties: 


WwW 
Ciceneaie Gtk Rep Oak. BEECH. 
Firsts. | Seconds. | Firsts. | Seconds. | Firsts. | Seconds. 
Stumpages.. as oh7.-4e0 an eaket ue $.20 $.12 $.12 $.10 $.10 $.08 
Felling and hewing......-0......: (15 .I0 BY .08 sE2 .08 | 
Hauling to railroad (av. 1o miles) rd Utah, Beare fs, sae .12 .15 hes $s 
Loading on: CATs ea een .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 
rae caer kaa as aac ty 
Totals: osc 4 2e-teaas esieae $.52 | $.34 $.41 $. 32 $.39 $.30 
Prices received. ics°¢ 5. ssc .60 .40 47 ey, 42 a 
Brent er Lee eee -$.08 $.06 $.06 $.05 $.03 $.02 


The following data were supplied by the U. S. Forest Service from 
a tie chance on the Tongue River within the Bighorn National Forest 
in Wyoming, where 1,555,000 standard gauge hewed and sawed ties were 
taken out on a flume operation. Most of the timber was lodgepole pine 
and a very limited amount of Engelmann spruce. Most of the ties were 
hewed. 


Hewed Ties. | Sawed Ties. 

Felling, bucking, limbing and hewing (for hewed ties)......... $.122 $.031 
Skidding # =. sicieictisy oc FES pe ote ad ane ie er gee ag a O50 .031 
Hauling to flume, including cost of temporary roads.......... 040 .056 
Brush disposal and cutting defective trees...............2.0. 030 .024 
Fluming: ot driving 'toilhis i .'s-<5_ 2. 9a elon oo od ee ee ls AG -O16 
Sawing 32S Pe Psa aay) = apetlang Bn ak oa nner NC oh aldo ae ae 055 
Fluming 27 miles, driving to railroad and handling in yard... . 035 .035 
Depreciation of improvements and equipment................ 047 065 
Maintenance of improvements and equipment...:............ .O10 .O13 
General and miscellaneous expenses................0000 00 eee .O17 .022 

Potals 55 ee oe aa eee ee eae $.351 $. 348 


On an operation in the Northwest where 22,000 Douglas fir, western 
larch and a few lodgepole pine ties were cut the following costs were noted. 
A 160-rod chute was used to get the ties down a steep place followed by 
a 45-mile wagon haul where two trips per day were taken and frequently 
loads of 50 to 60 ties handled per load. Skidding for a distance of } to } 
rile was done by hand. 


CROSS TIES 287 


Cost per Tie, Firsts. Cost per Tie, Seconds. 
| 
| 


MI Deere Pa si Sie a «5 AUER ESD $.06 $.06 
MERI A LAA IS 55's a saoin os ate alc Sem 4 ae .14 -09 
MINER eens. xe c-Si boa eS ola ome .03 .03 
Piling brush. ........... hegre ds weep mises £¢ 02 02 
MONI id 00 5a on vt wae Saw oa eSta eee OI OI 
MIRE ANE COMED So <a. 0 sires 6 5 w/c ey @ OI oI 
1 OO Sie aE Se aE ee ep Sa Mee -O5 -O5 

$.32 $.27 


The Northern Pacific (see specifications) paid 38 cents apiece for the 
fir and larch firsts and 28 cents apiece for the seconds. 


> ~ RE EET = w =s Soy 


Photograph by Joyce-Watkins Co. 

Fic. 76.—Loading ties from barges to cars at Metropolis, Ill. Large quantities of ‘ties pro- 
duced along the tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers are sent by barge or raft 
to a convenient point for loading, inspection and acceptance by the railroad companies. 


Sawed Ties. 

The subject of sawed ties has been briefly touched upon from time to 
time in the above discussion. They constitute but a small portion of the 
total number of ties produced (about 20 per cent) and are made chiefly 
on the Pacific Coast of hearts of logs, where the most knots are found. 
‘They bring from 32 to 4o cents per tie for Douglas fir or 60 to 70 cents 
for white oak or more, depending upon such factors as species, specifica- 
tions, etc. Very commonly they are sold by the thousand board feet. " 
Switch ties, which are much longer, are practically always sawed and sold 
by the thousand board feet. Knots do not detract from the value of a 
tie if they are sound and not so placed as to lessen its strength or life. 


288 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Some sawed ties are made in the East in portable mills and in double 
or twin-circular mills, by slabbing either 2 or 4 sides. 

Generally speaking it costs more to deliver sawed ties on the market 
than hewed ties. In the central hardwood region it is commonly under- 
stood that it costs about 5 cents per tie more to deliver sawed white oak 
ties on the market than hewed ties, with the same given conditions of 
timber, accessibility, specifications, etc. In this region the cost of sawing 
ties on four sides is 10 cents apiece for ties 7 in. in thickness, 8 in. in width 
and 83 ft. long and 8 cents apiece for ties 6 in. in thickness, 8 in. in width 
and 8 ft. long. Felling and logging of timber to the sawmill is about 12 
cents per tie for the first-named size and 1o cents for the latter size. 
The added cost of sawed ties over hewed ties is due usually to the increased 
logging expense of hauling the log and waste slabs to the mill. In hewing, 
the tie is made on the ground, skidded to the haul-road and then aaa 
directly to the railroad. 

A typical example of the cost of producing sawed ties 7 in. X8 in. x8 ft. 
long along the Ohio River was as follows: 


Cost per 1000 Feet, Cost per Tie at 30 Ties 
Board Measure. per 1000 Bad. ft. 
Stumpage....... Sage partes Wels wee $6. 0o-$10.00 $. 200-$. 333 
Polling... Senta he) eeeoun horn oan D.25= 1 25 .O4I-— .O41 
Logeite acniiestrr ats saan sar are ate I.50- 2.00 .050- .067 
Sawing, yarding, etc............... 4.00- 5.00 .133- .167 
Hauling (2-6 miles)................ I1.00- 2.50 .033- .083 
Potadessckeoee ek cna ks baie $13. 75-$20. 75 $.457-$. 6091 


As noted before, where sawlogs run about ten to the thousand board- 
feet, about 30 ties, 7 in. x8 in. <8 ft. can be sawed from each thousand 
board-feet. 

The cost of sawing Douglas fir ties in the Northwest was found to be as 
follows, at one mill. Lumber was the main product and only the smaller 
logs and hearts of larger logs were sawed into ties: 


Cost per 1000 Cost per Tie at 
Feet, Board 30 Ties Pat 1000 


Measure. 
Stlmpage: 5... .dsavcsecades Retin OAT ee $2.00 $.067 
Cutting logs (felling and bucking).................... .60 .020 
SOUTER ei AGRI RSS BRA wrt t ASR ie Me iy set Daas .O4 
Penge COO 26s ees 2 Ea Ui acer eee te eee 2545 .OOL 
SAAMI D cree ie eee FGA hole depute as WE Oe ON eR 2.00 .067 
Overhead: depreciation, interest, taxes, sales expense... . 1.25 .O4L 


$9.85 $.327 


mF pm ace a gee RU le” SUI Ligeia mg et mrt etm, a A ee n,n ie eT mal alk i emit tae a i eel ea oi hes eee ek Maes 
‘ —— 


CROSS TIES 289 


SEASONING 


Cross ties are always seasoned before being placed in service on the 
track or before preservative treatment for the following reasons: 

1. Seasoned ties as in the case of all timbers are more durable than 
in the green state because the water content is reduced and the likelihood 
of attack by fungi lessened. 


= 


7) Lb Sab 
Pied att) Wir ae 


Photograph by A. R. Joyce. 


Fic. 77.—Conventional methods of piling cross ties. On tne right, softwood ties are piled 
by the open method; on the left, the hardwood ties are piled by the alternate method 
in order to season more slowly and prevent excessive checking. 


2. Seasoning increases the effectiveness of preservative treatment. 

3. A decrease of from 30 to 40 per cent of the weight of ties by season- 
ing means a corresponding decrease in hauling charges and freight rates. 

4. Proper seasoning prevents serious or unnecessary checking and 
splitting. 

The rate of seasoning is determined largely by the structure of the 
wood, the season of the year, general climatic conditions, methods of 
piling and location of the ties. 

Hardwoods such as oak, gum, maple, beech, etc., season slowly and 
with difficulty as compared to such softwoods as the pines, firs, cedars 
spruces and redwood. 

Winter-cut ties are less likely to fungus and insect attack and when 
properly piled will season out sufficiently during the following spring and 
summer. In all cases, ties should be peeled as soon as cut in order to 
facilitate the most rapid seasoning. Some ties such as gum and beech 


290 FOREST PRODUCTS 


season with difficulty and if piled too open and exposed to the sun’s ray 
may split and check very seriously. 

The following table shows the rate of seasoning for peeled hemlock 
ties, stacked in 7 by 2 forms and surrounded by other piles. They were 
cut in the winter, but showed no apparent loss in weight up to the time 
of initial weighing: ! 


Date of Weighing. | “fom Fist a Das Weighing: por eekied fet 
Days. Per Cent. Pounds. 
April 1977230. 454 ponebaceensas | ° 129 55-0 
MSV EA RSs oslo a tits oe eae a ee | 30 95 46.8 
JUNG TSA eu sen ae Sere es 60 fn 82 ri ey, 
JOlyet Soo Awiseer oe tenes go 72 41.3 
AUGUST IES iV as Pino edie orn ete eaes 120° 65 39.6 
September 13.0.2 .2ssec2 ost oenes 150 60 - 38.4 
October 13 eo ssi aries 180 56 37.4 
Noévembel 135 acsiiewe dt tok este 210 53 36.8 


The warmer and drier the air and the greater the circulation of air 
currents, the more rapid will be the loss of water from the ties and con- 
sequently its rate of seasoning. Ties, therefore, season more quickly in 
the South than in the North and more rapidly in summer than in winter. 
Ties should never be piled to season on low, swampy ground, or where 
there is not a good circulation of air currents. Piling in or near a rank 
growth of grass or weeds should always be avoided and piles should be 
elevated above the ground on two cull ties or by some other means to 
permit freedom of air currents underneath. 

There are many forms of piles in common use. Some are shown in 
the accompanying illustration. The following are the principal forms 
used by our railroad systems: ; 

(a) Solid piling, arranging 7 to 9 ties each way, with no spacing 
and, therefore, little chance for circulation of air. This is rapidly going 
out of practice, as it results in too slow a rate of seasoning. 

(b) Half-open piling, in which about 4 in. of spacing is allowed beewee 
the ties, which are placed seven in a tier, each way. Not advocated, as it 
is still too close for proper seasoning. 

(c) Triangular piling. Advocated where most rapid seasoning is 
desirable and where plenty of piling space is available. Costs more 
than other forms and is little used. 


1See “The Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Hemlock and Tamarack Cross 
Ties,” by W. F. Sherfesee, U. S. Forest Service Circular 132, p. 11. 


CROSS TIES 291 


(d) Open-crib piling, where ties are placed in alternate layers 7 one 
way and 2 the other. This is known as 7 by 2 piling. Variations of it, 
such as the g by 2 and 7 by 1, 8 by 1, and 8 by 2 are also used. This is 
the most common form and is now specified by most of the progressive 
railroad systems of the country. Ten tiers or layers of ties resting on 
stones or cull ties, with 45 ties to the pile is a common form. It permits 
of free circulation of air and experiments have shown it to give the 
best results. The 7 by 1 method is commonly used with hardwoods 
whereas the 7 by 2 method is used with softwoods.. 

When green ties or those that have been in the water are exposed to 
too rapid drying by warm temperatures, direct rays of the sun and strong 
wind currents, the ends of the ties, due 
to more rapid evaporation of moisture, 
are likely to shrink and check. Many 
ties are culled on inspection when 
checked too severely. Close piling will 
tend to decrease the checking, together 
with piling in the shade and other simi- 
lar precautionary measures. However, 
in all cases, a few ties, especially those 
of certain species which season with 
difficulty, will split and check. Many 
railroads are now following an old European practice, which consists of 
driving “‘S ” irons ‘n the ends of the ties, across the incipient check to 
prevent further opening. Their use is shown in the accompanying 
diagram. 

Oak ties should be given a minimum period of seasoning of eight 
months after cutting in the late winter, but they should preferably be 
exposed under favorable conditions of seasoning for fully twelve months. 
Other dense and heavy hardwood ties, such as beech, birch, maple, 
sycamore, and locust should receive the same length of seasoning period. 

Yellow pine, Douglas fir, western larch, and tamarack ties should be 
seasoned from five to eight months; hemlock, jack pine, cedar, cypress, 
redwood and chestnut ties from four to six months. If accurate moisture 
determinations cannot be conveniently made, seasoning should be con- 
tinued until their weight is constant. 


Fic. 78.—Method of using “S” irons to 
prevent the further opening of checks 
in cross ties. 


LIFE OF UNTREATED TIES 


Until comparatively recent years, nearly all cross ties were placed in 
service in railway tracks in the untreated condition. White oak, chest- 


292 FOREST PRODUCTS 


nut and longleaf pine were practically the only species used and they gave 
satisfaction until higher prices were demanded with the decreasing avail- 
able supply. 

The life of untreated cross ties depends upon a number of factors, 
principal of which is the durability of the species involved. However, 
the length of service is determined by the following factors aside from 
natural durability: 

1. Size of tie, including both thickness and face. Small ties rot away 
or shatter under heavy rolling stock much faster than larger ones. 

2. Amount of sapwood. Even the sap of white oak rots away much 
faster than the heartwood. 

3. Degree of seasoning. It has already been explained that thor- 
oughly seasoned ties are much more durable than those in a green or 
partially seasoned state. 

4. Climatic conditions. It has been demonstrated that white oak 
ties in a warm, humid climate will not last more than from five to six 
years, whereas in a colder and dry climate they may last from eight to 
twelve years. ‘Ties resist decay if the climate of the West much better 
than in the East. 

5. Condition of the road bed, such as character of the ballast, drainage 
facilities, etc. 

6. Weight of rolling stock, frequency of trains, and whether on main 
or branch lines, sidings, etc. 

7. Protection against mechanical wear. The use of tie plates, screw 
spikes, dowels, etc., is of material assistance in adding to the length of 
service of all forms of cross ties. 

It is obvious from the above, therefore, that it is impossible to fore- 
cast the life of untreated ties in the track. The variation within the 
individual species is very great, depending upon these factors. The 
following is offered as a rough guide in estimating the life of the prin- 
cipal species used for ties in the untreated condition.! 


Species Length of Life in Years. 
Bepeb so 5 ii nl otigtartint is sels bao eae oe 2- 4 
Birch, yellow orveds..s.:..-assaame ee -aaeeee 2+ 4 
Cedar; eastern Ted's 3:0). ::..cicapteniy on srebeeatigasins 12-15 
Cedar, northern white..0 5 65.6 504) menus aoe. IO-I5 
A ORLSANG. 2 a. Eneatin ov ton etOa oie ee iets 5 8 


1For further data see “‘ Durability Records of Cross Ties,” by C. P. Winslow and 
C. H. Teesdale in Proceedings, American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1916. 


4 
4 
- 
z 
t 
3 
‘ 


CROSS TIES 293 


Species Length of Life in Years. 
PPR iiconate Sons vi. Gia ASA 3 Sis va stele 9-14 
RN OTM ES, Se arya ae Re tind ioe Re Saw ebm 3- 5 
MAGS BMI TES 35 teoye gic oe kine oie sued Ae. ga 6-9 
BR Et a Ree Sees 7 9 A Ee eee ee oy 
031111 0) C:\e aun se vente egy ba a hae Sis 2-4 
PICHIMICK/ COSECRM 15 sks hove arcsec sss -3- Yo 
PROIICK, WESIOI 3 i chess oo. pang rene oe 4-7 
TS JOE ee De 2 ee Ae ee re oe ee pe 2-5 
WMEOCTN MISE GUN oo et cethe eo laig 5 ik bate ae. oa ei ewe. 6- 8 
AME UN eS ose SATS Mane iS oe eeeie Ws 12-20 
ca He a ere es peerage te eres 2-4 
SR Re ea a ah Bae tein a 7-11 
MRS NS dear de Sate 2 ie eI Ae 3 o's Pain dhe BaG 
MUL WMI fe eek 2 hrc sod oe tee bee aes 2 4 
MD MOORE ie od 5 sca Rie a cal ele ath 4a bs, 2-5 

. Rem MNOMMEER isc. )3 phn sv, Pee Sean S wires 6- 9 
Rt, MOMAE ENON clea Sinks as ao Saiengie SE Ste hans 25 
Pie, western yellow... eee ke 4-7 
PAs, WAN tA, Sper e ey dR ee <p eb Ss 3-.6 
IONE oy eee OL eS ee CRA ee eee 8-14 
TT SS aOR 8 Sa ES a 6 -9 


_THE PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF TIES‘ 


It is estimated that in 1915 over 37,000,000 ties or nearly 30 per cent 
of all those used that year were treated by some artificial means to pro- 
long their life. About 80 per cent of all wooden materials subjected to 
preservative treatment are cross ties. 

The principal preservatives are coal tar creosote and zinc chloride, 
the former being used in humid or non-arid climates and the latter in 
the semi-arid regions of the West. (Zinc chloride leaches out of the wood 
in regions of medium to heavy rainfall.) Sometimes a combination of 
both is used (Card process). 

Cross ties are almost wholly preserved by the so-called pressure treat- 
ment, that is, the ties are loaded on trucks and run directly into long 
cylinders or retorts where steaming or vacuum may be applied and then 
the creosote oil is forced into the wood fibers under pressure until an 

1 For further information regarding timber preservation, see “The Preservation of Struc- 


tural Timber,” by H. F. Weiss, Annual Proceedings of the American Wood Preservers’ 
Association, and various publications of U. S. Forest Service on the subject. 


294 FOREST PRODUCTS 


absorption of from 6 to 10 |b. of oil is retained per cubic foot of wood. 
When zinc chloride is used, the same general process is followed except 


° White Oak | + Red Oak 
_ $.80 
$.70 Pes 
$00) — / ae a 
7% 
ce Ni Pane ak aA 
ne s % < Wee or 3° eo eo 
| ecb ‘i T : ae iene ol yeas 
$.40 


1902 1904 1906. 1908 1910 1912 1914 1916 1918 


Fic. 79.—Graphic representation of the price levels of No. 1 white and red oak cross ties 
delivered f.o.b. cars at East St. Louis for the years 1902 to 1917, inclusive. All ties 
were 6X8" <8’. 


that a different preservative is used. Many variations of both the 
creosote and zinc chloride forms of treatment are used. 


NUMBER OF CROSS TIES TREATED. BY PRESERVING PLANTS DURING 1915, 
BY KINDS OF PRESERVATIVES AND KINDS OF WOOD! 


Kind: of Wood. Total. Aree Creosote. wise Cee Miscellaneous. 
Oak. 2 siseineactat | 16,885,517 7;954,492 7,305,073 1,565,352 
Southern pine...... 8,541,203 3,257,505 5243,516 40,122 
Douglas fir........ 35553954 2,760,952 ry Oey Ur i Mien mare ee 5655 
Beech. 7 5 sp thoes: 2,933,737 100,000 2,469,202 364,535 
Western pine ?..... 2,007,609 1,702,167 301,581 3,861 
PAMBEACK 2 5 oes 932,038 449,660 390,017 91,496 865 
Gum once 277,886 204,653 1,650 71,583 
Biche. t vale 173,071 55 173,916 
LUN} rr ign aS 50,846 50,846 
BManle jodie se ass 36,942 316 36,626 
AlVothers.. 35 7...% 1,601,982 1,338,578 307,041 45,763 

All kinds. .....} 37,085,585 | 17,819,234 17,077,009 2,182,712 6520 


1From Proceedings, American Wood Preservers’ Association. 
2 Includes lodgepole pine and western yellow pine. 3 Includes western larch. 


THE PROTECTION OF TIES AGAINST MECHANICAL WEAR 


Railway engineers estimate that between 10 per cent and 75 per cent 
of all untreated ties that are unprotected by means of tie plates fail and 
must be renewed because of severe mechanical abrasion. This is espe- 


a tae, 0 gama tee eer ee 


4 
. 


CROSS TIES 295 


cially true of the softer woods, which are readily cut by the rail when heavy 
axle loads and frequent trains are the rule. Those species which ordina- 
rily decay rather quickly, such as loblolly pine, hemlock and beech, should 
not be protected with tie plates if laid untreated as they will decay before 
they wear out. Other soft but durable woods such as redwood, northern 
white cedar, western cedar, southern juniper, etc., unless protected 
by means of tie plates and screw spikes will wear out before they fail 
from decay. 

As mentioned in the first part of this chapter, among the prime requi- 
sites that determine the desirability of any wood for tie purposes are 
hardness or ability to resist impact, ability to resist spike pulling and 
lateral displacement and sufficient strength to resist strains due to center 
binding. A composite expression of these properties to show the relative 
mechanical value of the principal woods used for cross ties has been 
devised by the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory. Proportionate weight 
has been given to the various properties involved and the following table 
constructed :! 


TIMBERS ARRANGED IN ORDER OF THEIR MECHANICAL VALUE AS TIES 


No. Species. Average Composite Value. 
I Black locust 1666 
2 Sugar maple 1140 
3 White oak 1050 
4 Red oak 072 
5 Beech 955 
6 Longleaf pine QI4 
7 Red gum 825 
8 Shortleaf pine 800 
9 Western larch 790 

10 Tamarack 740 

II Eastern hemlock joo 

12 ; White fir 610 

13 Lodgepole pine. 590 

14 Western yellow pine 560 

15 Northern white cedar 420 


The protection of cross ties against mechanical wear is afforded by 
means of improved forms of spikes and by the use of tie plates. Various 
forms of screw spikes and tie plates have been tried out with very satis- 
factory results by the European state railways and to-day practically 
all their trackage is protected by both screw spikes and tie plates. Many 


* See “Woods Suitable for Cross Ties,” by R. Van Metre in Annual Proceedings of 
American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1916. 


296 FOREST. PRODUCTS 


of our more progressive railway systems and especially those with frequent 
and heavy traffic are installing the latest accepted forms on all newly 
laid track and tie renewals. 

The passing of trains over the track results. largely in an un- 
dulating or pumping action in its effect on the ties. In addition to 
this motion, which is responsible for the cutting of the ties by the rails, 
there is strong lateral pressure tending to spread the rails, especially on 
curves. The latter action causes a displacement of the spikes. Eventu- 
ally the spikes are bent backward and pulled out. The grinding action 
of the rail on the tie causes it to cut and finally check until together with 
the necessary respiking the tie is literally worn out.. 


\: { 5 Lo™ ta eee a 


Fic. 80.—The effect of the nail spike and the screw spike on wood fibers of ties. ‘The former 
works loose more readily and is less firm than the screw spike. The latter i is almost 
universally used in Europe and is being gradually adopted in this country. *The D.; L. 
& W. Railroad has used it with great success. 


This discussion, therefore, may be summarized under the following 
heads of (1) spikes and (2) tie plates: 

1. Spikes. The function of spike is to hold the rail in place and pre- 
vent spreading. In driving the ordinary nail spike the fibers are crushed 
to a considerable extent so that it is more or less easily pulled out by the 
pumping and lateral pressure jars. Tests! carried out by Prof. W. K. 


1From “Holding Force of Railroad Spikes in Wooden Ties,,” by W. K. Hatt. 
Forest Service Circ. 46, 1906. 


CROSS TIES 297 


Hatt at Purdue University to compare the force required to pull nail and 
screw spikes show some very interesting results. The common nail 
spikes were 53 in. long and 3% in. square in cross section and weighed 
165 to the 100 lb. The screw spikes were also 53 in. long, with a diameter 
of = in. at the root of the thread and weighed 85 to the 100 Ib. The 


_ yesult of these tests showed that the resistance of the screw spike was 


3.15 times that of the nail spike in chestnut, 2.1 times in loblolly pine and 
1.8 times in white oak. Other tests showed that the screw spike is far 
superior to the nail spike in resisting lateral displacement. The loosen- 
ing of the ordinary spike permits of the accumulation of moisture around 
it and furthers the rotting of the tie. When respiking is practiced the 
holes are sometimes filled with treated hardwood tie plugs. 

The dilatory introduction of the screw spike is due chiefly to the abun- 
dant and relatively cheap tie timber available for our railroads. With 
the increased cost of cross ties and use of treated material, length of 
service is of great importance and this can be greatly enhanced by the 
use of devices to prevent abrasion and mechanical failure as well as by 
preservative treatment. Aside from this ssn ty the objections 
raised to the use of screw-spikes are 


1. Increased initial cost over nail spikes. 

2. It requires a longer time to insert screw ‘spikes and this is likely 
to delay traffic at times... 

3. Screw spikes require special machinery to drive them and 
boring both of which’require larger labor and equipment costs. 

4. Difficulty of re-gauging the track from time to time as track 
becomes worn. 


In justice to these spikes, however, it should be mentioned that 
_ these objections are largely of minor consequence. 

2. Tie Plates. These are placed immediately between the tie and the 
rail and are designed to distribute the impact and weight of the passing 
trains over a greater area than that afforded by the base of the rail and 
thus reduce the likelihood of rail cutting. With the use of increased rail 
weights, such as 100 and 110 lb. and even heavier rails with their wider 
flanges, the tendency to rail cutting has somewhat diminished. But the 
increasing weight and frequency of trains has more than counterbalanced 
this advantage on most of our larger railway systems. 

Many forms of tie plates have been introduced and used. Wooden 
tie plates have been tried, but without much success, because they soon 
split and buckle under the great impact. In order to be effective tie 


298 FOREST PRODUCTS 


plates should be of sufficient size to offer a much larger bearing surface 
than the base of the rail on the tie. The bottom of many of the plates 
is ribbed or provided with prongs or sharp points which embed them- 
selves into the tie. The general sentiment, however, is in favor of a flat 
plate. In either case, the upper face should be provided with a shoulder 
on which the outer part of the screw spike head may be supported. 
Otherwise the lateral thrust may bend the spike out of position. 

Two screw spikes are provided on each side of the rail and holes are 
made in the plate designed to accommodate rails and spikes of given 
. dimensions. ‘Tie plates should, in all cases, be as wide as the tie and 
from 6 to g in. long. When hewed ties are used in the treated condition 
they should be bored and adzed prior to treatment to provide an even 
bearing surface for the tie plate. Many of our treated ties are now 
being laid with screw spikes and plates to prevent mechanical wear and 
thereby increase their length of service. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Annual Proceedings, Miscellaneous Articles; American Wood Preservers’ Associa- 
tion, Baltimore. Society of American Foresters, Washington. American 
Railway Engineering Association, Chicago. American Society of Civil Engi- 
neers, New York. 

Bureau of Census and U. S. Forest Service, Washington. Statistics of Cross Tie 
Production for Various Years to and Including rors. 

Grsson, H. H. Future Tie Materials in the United States; Hardwood Record, 
Chicago. Vol. 37, 1914. 

Miscellaneous Articles in Railway Age Gazette, New York; Forestry Quarterly, 
Toronto. (Now merged with the Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters, Washington.) 
Engineering News, New York; Engineering Record, New York; Railway 
Review, New York. 

Reum, N. F. Ties and Tie Plates. Track Standards, Chicago, 1910. 

Raymonp, W. C. Cross-ties. In Elements of Railway Engineering, 1908. 

SHERFESEE, W. F. The Seasoning and Preservative Treatment of Hemlock and 
Tamarack Cross Ties. U.S. Forest Service, Circ. 132, 1908. 

Von SCHRENK, HERMAN. Cross-tie Forms and Rail Fastenings. Bureau of Forestry, 
Bull. 50, 1904. 

Weiss, H. F. and Winstow, C. P. Service Tests of Ties. U.S. Forest Service, 
Circ. 209, 1912. 

Winstow, C. P. The Grouping of Ties for Treatment; Railway Age Gazette, New 
York, Vol. 62, p, 150, 1917, 


CHAPTER XIII 


POLES AND PILING 


GENERAL 


Wits the advent of the telegraph and later the telephone as means of 
communication there was created a great demand for poles on which the 
wires are supported. Still later the street railway and interurban 
trolley systems and the electric light and power transmission lines added 
very materially to this demand until, at the present time, between 
4,000,000 and 5,500,000 poles valued at from $8,000,000 to $10,000,000 
are now annually needed for new construction and renewals due to failure 
from breakage or decay. 

No government statistics have been published to show the amount of 
piling annually used in this country, but it is estimated that nearly as 
much timber is utilized for piling as for poles. When one takes into. 
consideration the great quantities of piles used for bridge construction,. 
trestle, wharf and harbor work along rivers, lakes and seaports, it is evi- 
dent that the annual consumption of this form of material must be very 
large. 

At first, practically all species were used for poles and piles. Acces- 
sibility and initial cost determined very largely the timbers used for our 
first telegraph and telephone lines, but it was soon discovered that most 
poles decay at the ground line in from two to five years. 

At the present time even our most durable species are being treated 
with some wood preservative to prolong their service in the pole lines. 


QUALIFICATIONS DESIRED IN POLE AND PILE TIMBERS 


In making a selection of the various woods available for poles, the 
following properties are the determining factors: 

1. The wood must be durable in contact with the soil. Poles decay 
most rapidly at the ground line because of the alternate dry and moist 
conditions at that point. Since poles are used in the round almost 
exclusively, it is important that the sapwood be durable. 

299 


300 FOREST PRODUCTS 


2. The timber must be accessible and available in such quantities 
that it can be placed on the market at a reasonably low price. 

3. It should be light in weight in order to transport and erect the 
poles with comparative facility, but still more importantly to secure low 
freight rates. 

4. The wood should be sufficiently strong to resist the stresses and 
strains incident to carrying a load up to 80 wires, some of which may be 
No. 8 B. W. G. copper wire under the pressure of high winds, slect, ice 
storms, etc. | 

‘5. The pole should be cylindrical, straight, with gradual taper, and 
free from excessive checks or other defects which will detract from its 
strength or shorten its life. At the present time the market is preferring 
poles (at least of certain species) which have large butts. 

6. The surface of the pole should be susceptible to use with climbing 
irons. This is rather a minor consideration and yet some workmen have 
difficulty in climbing poles of certain species and object to their use. 

7. When the poles are to be treated, the wood should be capable of 
penetration by creosote or other preservatives. The percentage of poles 
being treated is rapidly increasing so this has an important bearing. 

In general, the sume qualifications as outlined will hold for piling, but 
in addition to these properties, the timbers must be capable of being 
driven without breaking or splitting; they must withstand very heavy top 
loads; they must be sufficiently straight so that the axis is kept within 
the pile, and they must be clear and sound throughout. 


SPECIES AND AMOUNT USED 


The various species of cedars combine the above qualifications to a 
remarkable degree. The two principal species used for poles, northern 
white cedar or arbor vite (Thuja occidentalis) and western red cedar 
(Thuja plicata) make up about 65 per cent of all the woods used for 
pole purposes in this country. The chief sources of these poles are in the 
cedar districts of the Lake States, northern Idaho and western Wash- 
ington. Most of our cedar poles now come from the Lake States, where 
large quantities of northern white cedar are cut, but the best poles for 
size, shape, durability and strength come from the western red cedar of 
the “ panhandle” of Idaho. Excellent poles are also cut of the same 
species in western Washington, but the tree naturally grows to better 
pole sizes in northern Idaho. Some southern white cedar or juniper 
(Chamaecy paris thyoides) is cut for poles in New Jersey, Virginia and 
North Carolina, but the amount is small compared to the other cedars 


POLES AND PILING 301 


cut for pole purposes. The cedars are used throughout the country, but 
especially in the Northeast, North and Northwest. It is likely that, in 
the future, the Northwest will be called upon to supply more and more 
of our pole timbers. Most of our cedar poles are cut on large logging 
operations. 

Chestnut is the next most prominent pole wood. It has long been a 
favorite pole timber in the Northeast and especially along the Atlantic 
Seaboard from New Hampshire to Georgia. Chestnut contributes from 
12 to 20 per cent of our annual supply of poles. It makes an excellent 
pole timber on account of its durability and light weight, but it is inferior 
to the cedars both in the properties of shape and durability. It is a 
rapidly growing wood and reproduces so thriftily that it would be an 
important pole timber to encourage in forestry practice for the future 
were it not for the chestnut bark disease (Endothea parasitica) which has 
rapidly depleted much of the native chestnut in the past nine years. 
Chestnut is found in many of the woodlots in the Northeast and in the 
southern Appalachian section, where it is cut and marketed largely by 
small owners. 

Oak poles have been coming into more common use in recent years for 
rural telephones, the extension of which has been remarkable. They 
are chiefly used in short lengths. Many species of oak are used and they 
are widely distributed, the particular kind being largely determined by 
the locality in which they grow. White oak is, of course, preferred on 
account of its durability. Oak poles are very heavy, however, and, 
therefore, are not shipped to great distances on account of prohibitive 
freight rates. I 1911 oak furnished 199,590 poles or about 6 per cent 
of the total pole supply. In 1907 only 76,450 oak poles were cut and 
used. 

Pine, including chiefly longleaf pine with a limited amount of other 
southern pines such as loblolly and shortleaf and a small quantity of 
western yellow and lodgepole pines, is next in order of quantity. Al- 
though most of the pine poles are used in the round form, many southern 
pines are sawed into sauare, hexagonal and octagonal forms. Pine poles 
are not as durable as cedar poles and are much heavier,-so they are used 
to a very large extent, locally. They cannot compete as pole woods 
without preservative treatment. The longleaf pine is far superior to 
the other pines for pole purposes when used in the untreated condition. 

Cypress poles are used next in order of quantity, but they have de- 
creased in amount from over 100,000 in 1907 to about 73,000 in 1gII. 
This condition is largely due to the fact that the wood brings a higher 


302 FOREST PRODUCTS 


price in the form of lumber. The total available supply of cypress, more- 
over, is rapidly decreasing and it is becoming more difficult to cut it in 
suitable sizes for poles. Cypress poles are only cut in the Southern 
States, chiefly in the cypress districts of Arkansas, Missouri, Louisiana 
and Mississippi. 

The use of Douglas fir poles is rapidly increasing in the Northwest, 
where they are largely cut. In 1906 only g601 Douglas fir poles were 
cut; in 1910 over 56,000 were cut. Western red cedar poles, which are 
produced in the same region, are much superior for pole purposes, espe- 


Photograph by U. 8S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 81.—Peeling western red cedar poles in the Priest River Valley, Kaniksu National 
Forest, Idaho. 


cially in the properties of durability and light weight, so it is not likely 
that fir poles will be extensively called into greater demand in the future 
except for local purposes. 

Tamarack poles are largely cut in the swamps of the Lake States. 
They grow to good pole sizes, are straight and well shaped and are 
durable, but they are much heavier for shipment than northern white 
cedar, which grows in the same districts. 


POLES AND PILING 303 


Almost all the redwood poles, which are cut exclusively in California, 
are sawed because this tree is seldom found in sizes suitable for pole pur- 
poses. Redwood makes an excellent pole because of its superior dura- 
bility, light weight, sufficient strength, etc., but its sawed form, requiring 
an additional cost for production, prevents its wider use over the country 
in competition with cedar and other poles placed on the market in the 
round form. 

Other species entering to a limited extent in the pole market in order 
of quantity are osage orange, used locally in Oklahoma, Texas and Kan- 
sas, spruce in the Northeast, hemlock, locust, sassafras, catalpa, mul- 
berry, butternut, ash, elm, cottonwood and a few others used locally. 

When it is considered that five kinds of wood—cedar, chestnut, oak, 
pine and cypress—supply over go per cent of all poles used it is readily 
observed that the total amount supplied by other species is of com- 
paratively little consequence in the pole trade. 

The following table prepared by the Census Bureau in co-operation 
with the U. S. Forest Service shows the number of poles purchased by 
species for the years 1907 to 1911, inclusive, and for the year 1915: 


NUMBER OF POLES PURCHASED 


Kind of Wood. 1915 } IQIr | 7910 1909 | 1908 | 1907 
Cedaieeo.cf. i+ 2 2,521,769 | 2,100,144 | 2,431,567 | 2,430,825 2,200,139 | 2,100,477 
Chestnut. ..... >-2-| 651,643 | 693,489 |: 677,517 | - 608,066 - * 516,049 630,282 
a eae Eee 199.442 | 199,590 | 265,290 | 236,842 160,702 76,450 
Pine. ....--24>--»- 546,233 | 161,690 | 184,677 | 179,586 | 116,749 | 155,960 
CAINE ee ass 67,644 | 72,005 | 75.459 77,677 90,579 | 100,368 
Douglas fir........ ~-cthnes |» 24,833 | - 56,732 |. 24,877 19,542 15,919 
Tamarack......... I 24,543 | 30,964 29,889 | 24,123 13,884 
Redwood. .......-- 1 26,887 30,421 | 23,145 | 13,061 | 31,469 
Osage orange.....- Sa semeeae 21,101 23,221 | © 21,401 | 18,109 | 5,962 
SRNEIME 3 Ses eee oe aes Tas 10,166 | 22,929 | 11,423 8,088 10,646 
Jeniper 22/0035. <: : 27,847 | 20,042 | 43,581 42,367 38,925 
Hemlock .........- 1 Eee 90,793 | 6,222 1,998 3,301 
PACE Fees) o 0s at pee oe ae 8,477 °9,030 | 10,463 10,224 4,672 
ee ee 91,233 | 47,258 | 30,073 | 25,653 27,424 85,9053 

i eee 4,077,964 | 3,418,020 | 3,870,604 | 3,738,740 | 3,249,154 | 3,283,268 


1 Included with all other. 


304 FOREST PRODUCTS 


SPECIFICATIONS AND PRICES 


For commerical purposes, poles are classified by 5-ft. lengths, top 
diameters, and sometimes by the diameter at a specified point, usually 
6 ft. from the butt as in chestnut.: The minimum length is generally 
regarded as 20 ft. and from the poles run in 5-ft. lengths up to 75 it. 
or more for special purposes. Practically two-thirds of our poles are 
from 20 to 30 ft. in length as these are the sizes most in demand. Only 
about one-fifth are from 30 to 4o ft. in length, one-twentieth from 40 to 
50 ft. and only 1 to 2 per cent exceed 50 ft. in length. 

The telegraph and telephone companies purchase about 75 per cent of 
all the poles used. A good share of the remainder are purchased by the 
electric railroad and the electric light and power companies. The steam 
railroads purchase only about 6 per cent of all the poles. 

Specifications are prepared by the pole associations or by the tele- 
phone, telegraph and other companies to classify the poles according 
to dimensions, shape, freedom from defects and appearance. 

The following are the latest specifications of the Western Red Cedar 
Association with headquarters at Spokane, Wash., for standard telephone, 
telegraph and electric light poles, 20 ft. long and with 4-in. top diameter 
and up. 


All poles must be cut from live, growing cedar timber, peeled, knots trimmed 
close, butts and to pssawed square; tops must be sound and must measure as follows 
in circumference; 


4-in. top 12 -in. circumference 
5-in. top 15 -in. circumference 
6-in. top 183-in. circumference 
7-in. top 22 -in. circumference 
8-in. top.25 -in. circumference 
g-in. top 28 -in. circumference 
1o-in. top 31 -in. circumference 


Crook. 


No pole shall have more than one crook, and this shall be one way only, the sweep 
not to exceed 1 in. to every 6 ft. in length. Same to be determined in the following 
manner: Measurement for sweep shall be taken as follows: That part of the pole when 
in the ground (6 ft.) not being taken into account in arriving at sweep, tightly stretch 
a tape line on the side of the pole where the sweep is greatest, from a point 6 ft. from 
butt to the upper surface at top, and having so done, measure widest point from 


POLES AND PILING 305 


tape to surface of pole, and if, for illustration, upon a 30-ft. pole said widest point 
does not exceed 5 in., said pole comes within the meaning of these specifications. 


Butt Rot. 


Butt rot in center, inciuding small ring rot, shall not exceed to per cent of the area 
of the butt. Butt rot of a character which impairs the strength of the pole above the 
ground is a defect. 


Knots. 
Large knots, if sound and trimmed smooth, are not a defect. 


Dead or Dry Streaks. 


A perfectly sound, dead or dry streak shall not be considered a defect welbe it 
does not materially impair the strength of the pole. 


The following are the standard specifications of the Northwestern 
Cedarmen’s Association of the Lake States covering the output of north- 
ern white cedar: 


Standard Telegraph, Telephone and Electric Poles. Sizes 4-in., 25 ft. and-up- 
wards. Above poles must be cut from live growing timber, peeled and reasonably 
well proportioned for their length. Tops must be reasonably sound, must measure 
in circumference as follows: Seasoned 4-in. poles, 12 in.; 5-in. poles, 15 in.; 6-in. 
poles, 18} in.; 7-in. poles, 22 in. If poles are green, fresh cut or water soaked, then 
4-in. poles must measure 12} in.; 5-in. poles, 16 in.; 6-in. poles, 193 in.; 7-in. poles, 
222 in. in circumference at top end. Length may be } in. scant for each 5 ft. in 
length and 6 in. long for any length from 20 ft. up. 

One-way sweep allowable not exceeding 1 in. for every 5 ft., for example, in a 25-ft. 
pole, sweep not to exceed 5 in., and in a 40-ft. pole 8 in. Measurement for sweep 
shall be taken as follows: That part of the pole when in the ground (6 ft.) not being 
taken into account in arriving at sweep, tightly stretch a tape line on the side of 
the pole where the sweep is greatest, from a point 6 ft. from the butt to the upper 
surface at top, and having so done measure widest point from tape to surface of pole 
and if, for illustration, upon 2 25-ft. pole said widest point does not exceed 5 in. said 
pole comes within the meaning of these specifications. Butt rot in the center includ- 
ing small ring rot outside of the center: Total rot must not exceed ro per cent of the 
area of the butt. Butt rot of a character which plainly seriously impairs the strength 
of the pole above the ground is a defect. Wind twist is not a defect unless very 


unsightly and exaggerated. Rough, large knots if sound and trimmed smooth are 
not a defect. 


The following are the specifications of one of the largest purchasers 
of poles in this country as applied to chestnut. To determine the char- 
acter of poles to be used, pole lines are divided into the following classes: 


Class A. A 50-, 60-, 70- or 8o-wire line, the heaviest used. 


Class B. Heavy trunk line with a capacity for 40 wires on four 10-pin cross arms. 
Ten of the wires may be No. 8 B. W. G. copper. 


306 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


Class C. Light trunk line with a capacity for 20 wires on two 10-pin cross arms, 
Class D. Light line with a capacity of 12 wires on two 6-pin cross arms. 


Class E. Branch line with a capacity for 2 wires on brackets. 


= 


Crass A. Crass B. 
Length of acc Eee - tice Length of Circum- ae Price 
erence -0.b. ference f.o.b 
Pole, Ft. Top, In. oa aoe Car Pole, Ft. To, Tn: bP er Car 
25 24 36 $3.00 20 22 31 $1.75 
30 24 40 4.00 25 22 33 2.00 
35 24 43 i 5-00 30 22 36 3.00 
40 24 45 | 6.00 35 22 40 4.00 
45 24 48 6.50 40 22 43 5.00 
50 24 51 y.00 45 22 47 6.00 
55 22 54 10.00 50 22 50 8.00 
60 22 57 13.00 55 22 53 9.50 
65 22 60 15.00 60 22 56 12.00 
70 22 63 19.00 65 legg 59 14.00 
75 22 66 24.00 70 22 62 17.50 
75 22 65 22.50 
Crass C. Crass D. 
: Ci - : . Circum- . 
Length of | ircum- | terence. | Price || tength of | Circum- | ference | Price 
ole, Ft. Top, In. | a a ae Car Pole, Ft. Top, In. oes Car 
20 20 27 $1.50 20 20 24 $1.25 
25 20 30 1.75 25 20 27 1.50 
30 20 33 2.25 30 20 31 2.00 
35 20 36 3-50 35 20 © 35 3-25 | 
40 20 40 4.50 40 20 39 4.25 | 
45 20 43 5.50 45 20 43 5-25 
50 20. 46 7.00 50 20 46 7-00 
55 20 49 8.00 
Crass E. 
Length of Pathan eae i é nee 
erence .O. 
Pole, Ft. Top, In. ee Car 
20 154 23 $ .85 
25 153 26 1.00 
30 153 29 1.75 
35 20 34 2.10 
4° 20 38 . 3.10 
45 20 42 4.00 
5° 20 46 5.00 
i> 


POLES AND PILING 307 


All poles shall be of sound, live white chestnut, squared at both ends, reasonably 
straight, well proportioned from butt to top, peeled and knots trimmed to the surface 
of the pole. 

The dimensions of the poles shall be eeaeae to the following table: The “top ” 
measurement being the circumference at the top of the pole, the “butt” cir- 
cumference being 6 ft. from the butt. The company reserves the right to sae; its 
own inspection and reserves the right to reject any poles which are defective in any 
respect. The prices set opposite the various dimensions in each class are the approx- 
imate average prices paid in 1917 for chestnut, loaded on cars, ready for shipment in 
New York State. (Shown on p. 306.) 

The sweep permissible in the above poles measured at the 6-ft. mark and at the 
top of the pole is as follows for the different sizes: 


Length of Pole, Ft. | Wasim Permienibhe Sweep: You 
35 10 
40 Ir 
45 10 
50 II 
55 I2 
60 13 
65 14 
jo 15 


In inspection work, the inspector usually carried the following equip- 
ment: 
2 75-{t. waterproof tape lines. 
1 50-ft. steel tape line (used in checking We accuracy of the waterproof 
tapes). 
1 6-ft. brass safety chain, small size, with key ring or one end for measur- 
ing poles at 6-ft. mark. 
2 iron prods for examining poles for bad tops, rotten knots, etc. 
1 set of marking hammers. 
1 timber scribe for marking poles 6 ft. from butt. 
The following are the specifications adopted by the Western Red 
Cedar Association for piling. 


‘ STANDARD CEDAR PILING 


All piling must be cut from live, growing cedar timber, peeled, knots trimmed close, 
butts and tops sawed square. Top must be sound. Butts may contain rot, the 
average diameter of which is not over 10 per cent of the diameter of the butt. (This 
rot not to exceed 1 per cent of the area of the butt.) 


Length. 
All piling shall be furnished in the following lengths: 16 ft., 20 ft., and multiples of 


308 FOREST PRODUCTS 


5 ft., over 20 ft. Owing to the inaccuracies of cutting cedar in the woods by hand, a 
variation of 6 in. in length is allowable. 


Tops. 

Piling 30 ft. and shorter must measure at small end not less than 30 in. in circum- 
ference. 

Piling 35, 40, and 45 ft. must measure at small end not less than 28 in. in circum- 
ference. 

Piling 50 ft. to 70 ft., inclusive, must measure not less than 25 in. in circumference 
at small end. 


Butts 


Butts must measure not less than 14 in. of more than 20 in. in diameter the widest 
way. ; 


Crook. 


Piling may contain crook one way providing a line drawn from the center of the 
top to the center of the butt does not fall outside the body of the piling at any point 


Cat Faces and Dry Streaks. 


A sound cat face not to exceed 10 per cent of the length of a piling is permissible. 
A sound, dead or dry streak shall not be considered a defect when it does not materially 
impair the strength of the piling. 


In addition to red cedar, the following timbers are commonly used for 
piling purposes in the West: Douglas fir, western hemlock, western yet 
low pine, redwood and, to some extent, eucalyptus. 

In the East, most companies classify piling as permanent or tem- 
porary. The former must be of white oak, chestnut or longleaf pine 
and must be peeled. The latter may be of almost any species that can 
be driven with a pile driver, but the following are generally used: Red 
and black oak, beech, maple, ash, hickory, elm, black gum or sycamore. 
They are used in the unpeeled condition. The following are customary 
dimensions: The diameter at the middle of the pile shall be not less 
than 12 in. and the diameter of the butt shall not exceed 20 in. 
The minimum diameter at the top for piles up to 30 ft. in length shall 
be 9 in.; for those from 30.to 50 ft., 8 in., and for those exceeding 
50 ft., 7 in. A line from the center of the butt to the center of the top 
shall lie within the pile. Permanent piles usually command a price of 
from 14 to 20 cents or more per lineal foot, delivered at the railroad 
tracks, while temporary piling brings only from 8 to 15 cents per linear 
foot. The larger prices are paid for the longer pieces: 


POLES AND PILING 309 


The following table shows the lengths and top diameters in which 
western red cedar is sold, the average weight for each size and the prices 
which obtained on board cars at a prominent pole shipping center in 
northern Idaho for the years 1912-1916, inclusive: 


Prices f.o.b. Cars, NORTHERN IDAHO. 
begs in Dasaetes Woske a j 

5 in Inches. Pounds. 1912. 1913. | 1914. | 191s. 19016. 
20 4 100 Feet S60 1. S65: Sigs Ae Sr6e 
20 5 135 .70 Sy ES ety «ie eee Lae es 
20 6 190 .go PAG. Sei eos) E:60- tS eiie 
25 4 150 -75 x eve ees | od ee ee gee 
25 5 200 I.00 E2004 fe (21002 | F300: 3 1.20 
25 6 250 1.50 1.25 | 1.50 1.40 1.85 
25 7 325 2.00 fo, ee Gee yo eM (ee ee TS 2.25 
25 8 400 2.50 3.00 2.50 2.50 | 3-00 
30 6 350 2.00 2.25 1.95 2.00 2.25 
30 bat Diyos Khoa 2.75 3-75 2.50 3:00.15. 3075 
3° 8 | 500 3-25 4.5° 3-25 | 3-35 | 4.50 
35 6 see 3-00 | 4.00 3-00 | 3.50 | 4.00 
35 7 500 3-50 |. 4.75 3-75. | 4-00 | “4.75 
35 8 625 4-00 5-50 4-25 | 4:75 | §-50 
35 9 | 800 4.50 6.00 4-85 |. 5.25 6.00 
4o 7 650 4.00 5-50 | 4-25 | 5.00 5.50 
40 8 800 4.50 6.00 | 4.85 5.50 6.00 
40 rs) 1000 5-00 7.00 5-40 | 6.50 7.00 
45 7 850 4-75 O50 NY 4.88" 1 co | 26. ge 
45 8 1000 5.50 7.00 5240 1.6.25) lp 7.00 
45 9 1200 6.00 8.00 6.00 | 6.75 8.00 
5° 7 1050 5-50 | 7.50 5-40 | 6.25 | 7.50 
50 8 1200 6.00 | 8.00 6.00 7-00 | 8.00 
50 9 1400 SIOON 9 @.00'2).-.6.65 2.00.0 9.00 
Bales 8 1400 7-00 | 9.00 | 6.65 8.00 -| - 9.00 
55 9 1600 8.00 | 10.00 7.25 9.00 10.00 
60 8 1600 8.00 | 10.00 T7325 9.00 10.00 
60 9 1850 9.00 .| 12.00 8.25 II.00 12.00 
65 8 1850 9.00 | 12.00 8.25 II.00 12.00 
65 9 2200 II.00 | 16.00 10.00 14.00 | 16.00 
70 8 2200 II.00 | 16.00 10.00 14.00 16.00 
7o. Co! 9 | 2600 14.00 | 21.00 12.50 | 18.00 _| 21.00 
6254 8 2600 14.00 | 21.00 12.50 | 18.00 21.00 
y eee 9 | 3000 21.00 28.00 | 18.00 25.00 28.00 
80 8 3000 21.00 | 28.00 18.00 — | ©2500 28.00 
80 9 |. 3500 30.00 | 35-00. =|. 25:00 33-00 35-00 


The prices that have obtained for northern white cedar during 1916 
have been about as follows, on board cars in the pole yards in the Lake 
states: 


310 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Length in Feet. Top a spice in Prices f.o.b. Cars. 
20 4 $.47 
20 | 5 -57 
20 6 65 
20 7 1.25 
25 4 .60 
25 5 -75 
25 6 1.60 
25 7 2.50 
30 6 3.00 
3° 7 4.75 
35 6 5.50 
35 7 8.50 
40 6 8.50 
40 7 10.50 
45 6 10.50 
45, 7 13.00 
50 6 13.00 
50 7 16.00 
55 6 16.00 
55 7 18.00 
60 7 25.00 
65 7 30.00 
70 7 40.00 


LOGGING AND PRODUCTION OF POLES AND PILING 


General Considerations. 


The logging of cedar poles and piles in both the Lake States and in the 
Northwest is usually carried on as a systematic and separate operation, 
either before or after the logging of the saw timber. This is done in order 
to prevent unnecessary breakage of the lighter and weaker cedar by the 
heavy woods worked up into saw logs. 

A very large percentage of chestnut and oak poles are logged and de- 
livered to the pole yards or to the railroad by farmers and small woodlot 
owners, the work being done in the winter when other work is rather 
slack. Some of the northern white cedar and western red cedar is still 
cut by ranchers and those engaged in clearing land, but the production 
of poles is carried on as a separate industry more in northern Idaho and 
in northern Michigan and Minnesota than in any other centers. 

The sawing of long logs into tapered poles from redwood, pine and 
occasionally from a few other woods is rapidly going out of practice. 

Generally speaking, the logging consists of felling the tree close to 
the ground (as large butts are preferred), sawing off the top at even 5-ft. 


POLES AND PILING 


311 


lengths, trimming off the branches, peeling, skidding, and hauling to the 
railroad, driving or floating to the pole yard. 

Pole logging is the cheapest form of logging per unit of volume, since 
practically the whole tree trunk is taken out in one operation. 

The following table is interesting as showing the size of trees of various 
diameters, taken at breast height (43 ft.) required to yield poles of 
specified lengths and top diameters. It was devised as a result of the 
measurement of 478 western red cedar trees in northern Idaho by officials 
of the Forest Service: 


DIAMETERS AT BREAST HEIGHT IN INCHES, 


Number of 
Length in Feet. Trees Used 
: s-in. Top. | 6-in. Top. | 7-in. Top. 8-in. Top. as Baum 

20 8 GS ria eas eh os te eas 48 
es Tebewasd sess <5 10.5 Pee es see Ss 49 
cle) Tarde SPARS See rears 11.6 13.0 14.8 65 
Bes ON sieciw rece Sepee are Ss 14.7 14.9 51 
VS at bles ae eee i ee pa ae 16.5 16.7 51 
MPPs wan eere binned s< ase 16.7 17.9 52 
[SO RSE err: bert ener | 16.9 18.4 5I 
ony 3 hed BR ee ros ran COS eC el Seeieirer em 18.7 25 
Ret era fr ae Bore toi Py ste ee oles 19.8 25 
DEO) bale le aeses 2 ft ca toate at posse eee eeee 21.8 25 
5 a ay Se ET Pe eR ar een pote tee 23.2 20 
75 Te eee es oe oe eee ere 24.3 9 
CS OS ae OSE ie rae barr eetiaa wee 25.7 7 


The following table shows just the reverse of the above table in that 
jt gives the sizes of poles that may be obtained from trees of different 


HEIGHT OF TREE IN FEET. 


| 


Diameter, | l | 
Breast High 50 60 70 } 80 90 | Number of Trees 
in Inches. | _ used as Basis. 


Length of Poles in Feet. 


| ' 
13 25 25 25 25 25 | II 
14 30 30 30 30 30 17 
15 35 35 35 SG ee Sere 6 
ae ter] eee nere eae Gaara ere: 40 40 40 14 
ER ae ae Sas bocce a ee Ss 40 45 45 | 6 
BOT he es ase Los Saas 45 50 50 II 
Pee re Oe nee ec tea ics secre eh: cS ews 55 6 
See Menara p a) ralsmis ait escalate ae TPs osic Secs 60 4 


? For details regarding general logging methods see “ Logging,” by R. C. Bryant, John 
Wiley & Sons, New York City. 


312 FOREST PRODUCTS 


diameters. It was made by E. H. Frothingham for chestnut in Connec- 
ticut.! All poles are assumed to have a 7-in. top. 


Stumpage Values. ‘ 

As in the case of all timber values, the value of pole stumpage depends 
upon the species involved, accessibility, quality of poles, difficulty of 
logging and marketing, supply and demand, etc. Cedar pole stumpage 
is practically the only pole stumpage traded in, since the other kinds of 
poles are largely cut and marketed by the owners or cut along with large 
logging operations, as is largely the case with such poles as cypress, pine, 
redwood, Douglas fir, etc. In the latter case they are purchased along 
with the saw timber and at specified values per thousand feet. 

Stumpage values in both northern white and western red cedar are 
based on the lineal foot and on the piece. It is customary in some local- 
ities to charge 2 cents per running foot for all poles up to and including 
40 ft. in length, and 3 cents for all poles over 4o ft. in length. In other 
centers of operation, a separate stumpage value is placed on each pole of 
given length and top diameter. 

The following table shows the stumpage values for western red cedar 


STUMPAGE VALUE OF WESTERN RED CEDAR POLES IN NORTHERN IDAHO 


STUMPAGE VALUE. 
kcagthe., | Diameter, | Measure | per MI, a ee 
Inches. per Pole. B.M. Per Pole. yg a: o 
20 5 20 50.00 $.09 $.005 $4.50 
20 6 25 40.00 “22 006 4.80 
25 6 35 28.57 .19 .O1 5-43 
25 7 40 25.00 29 OL aoe 
30 6 5° 20.00 30 .Or 6.00 
30 7 75 13-33 44 O15 5-87 
30 8 go II.11 59 02 6.55 
35 6 75 13-33 -54 O15 7.20. 
35 7 90 TDi .68 02 TY 
35 8 115 8.70 Moye) 025 7.83 
40 ‘4 125 8.00 .93 02 7.44 
40 8 135 7.40 1.12 03 8.29 
45 7 145 6.90 1.03 02 yee eS 
45 8 175 5.72 1.34 .03 7.66 
50 7 180 5.55 1.50 .03 8.32 
50 8 215 4.65 1.50 .03 6.98 
55 8 205 3.38 1.93 035 6.52 
60 8 310 3.23 2.10 .035 6.78 
65 8 300 2.78 2.60 -04 7.23 
70 8 390 | 2.50 2.80 .O4 7.17 


1 See “ Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut,’”’ Forest Service Bulletin No. 96, by 
E. H. Frothingham. c 


POLES AND PILING 313 


in northern Idaho expressed cn the basis of each sized pole as well as by 
linear feet and by the thousand feet, board measure. It also shows the 
-amount of board-feet in each sized pole and the average number of poles 
required to make a thousand board-feet. All figures are based on the 
Scribner Decimal C Scale and on measurements taken by 1o- and 5-ft. 
sections. 
Both western and northern white cedar when found in good pole 
sizes bring much better stumpage values when sold in the pole form than 
as saw logs or for any other purpose. 


Felling and Peeling. 

Winter-cut poles are much more in demand than those cut at other 
seasons of the year. Peeling, of course, is more difficult and expensive 
at this season, but many specifications of purchasing companies call for 
winter-cut poles as they dry out much more readily in the following spring 
and summer. Many dealers claim that they are more durable and 
stronger, but there is nothing to support this contention other than the 
likelihood that winter-cut poles are less susceptible to checking and 
insect and fungous attack than those cut in the spring or summer. 

In making poles, one man usually works alone and is paid by the 
lineal foot. He uses an axe for undercutting and limbing and a one-man, 
5-ft. saw for felling and sawing off the top. With the axe or broadaxe he 
peels off the bark by standing on the tree trunk and working backward, 
taking off a continuous strip 3 to 5 in. in width and turning the pole with 
a cant-hook until all the bark is removed. 

Peeling is done easiest from about May 1st to August 1st, but the 
same prices for felling and peeling usually prevail throughout the year on ~ 
continuous jobs. ; 

The rates paid for felling, limbing, topping and peeling vary with the 
region, demand for labor and many other factors. On one large pole 
operation in northern Idaho, .8 cent was paid per foot for all poles up to 
40 ft. in length, 1 cent for poles 40 to 60 ft. long, and 13 cents for all poles 
60 ft. and up in length. Sometimes a straight rate of 1 cent for felling 
and 1 cent for peeling is paid on the more difficult jobs. Since most of 
the poles are from 20 to 35 ft. in length the cost averages about 1 cent per 
ft. for both operations. 

Piling is seldom peeled for the reason that it seasons better with the 
bark on and checks less. When intended for preservative treatment, 
however, all piling is peeled. 


314 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Skidding. 

This operation usually consists of dragging the pole, by using a team 
and tongs or choker, to the landing, chute or stream. It costs from } 
to 13 cents per lineal foot depending upon the usual factors of distance 
charges for teams and labor, topography, ground cover, size of poles, etc. 
On some operations 15 cents per pole is paid for all poles up to 3 5 ft. long. 
For those above this, 1 cent per lineal foot is paid. 


Hauling and Other Forms of Transportation. 


. This is also a very variable charge. Hauling is done on sleighs i in 
winter and on wagons in summer. On some of the larger logging opera- 
tions, skidding takes the poles directly to a railroad or to a drivable 
stream. 

On fair country dirt roads from 4 to 7 40-ft. poles will be a Pet load 
for one team and wagon. On sleighs from io to 15 green poles, 30 to 
40-ft. in length, may be handled in one load. 

Hauling costs on a large cedar operation, using wagon haul, were as 
follows for 30-ft. poles: 


LEGS Oe se A ee ei $ .15 per pole 
ToS MUSES eS ea ee es .25 per pole 
Be TUBS SS os iss a ee os .75 per pole 
GOMES Pee ee cee Ae 1.00 per pole 


For poles below and above this standard a proportionate reduction or 
increase was made. 

The cost of driving cedar ral and piles an average distance of 25 
miles in Michigan was 5 cents each (average of all lengths). Rafting 
30 miles varied‘in cost from 3 cents each for 20-ft. poles up to 53 cents for 
30-ft., 25 cents for 40-ft., and 40 cents for 60-ft. poles. The cost of driving 
and rafting rises very rapidly with the length. On narrow, winding 
streams poles are driven with great difficulty, as jams are frequent. 


Yarding, Seasoning and Shipping. 

Proper yarding and seasoning facilities are of great importance in 
the pole business. Up to the present time little attention has been paid 
to methods of seasoning and the poles have been piled on top of each 
other indiscriminately. 

If piled too closely and too high they are likely to be attacked by 
fungi before they season properly while, if exposed too much to the sun 


POLES AND PILING 315 


Som “EBS 


ve 


+ 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 82.—Loading chestnut poles to be hauled 
Pennsylvania. 


‘ RAS . 
WAN SS 


Photograph by E. T. Chapin Co. 

Fic. 83.—The beginning of a new pole yard in northern Idaho. These are western red 
cedar poles, which are produced in great quantities from this section. The poles are 
skidded by team from the woods to this landing, where they are loaded on cars and 
sent to the distributing yard. 


316 FOREST PRODUCTS 


and the drying action of the wind, they may check seriously. If poles 
are to be treated, they should be thoroughly seasoned. In any case, 
seasoning is of importance in saving freight charges. The decrease in 
weight in the seasoning process may be anywhere from 20 to 50 per cent 
according to Weiss, or 180 to 850 lb. per pole. . 

When the top diameter of green poles is measured, 1 in, is customarily 
allowed for shrinkage in circumference, although shrinkage in such 
species of low specific gravity as the cedars and chestnut would be much 
less than in oak, or the heavier pines. When end checking becomes 
evident, the poles should be protected from further deterioration by 
means of “S”’ irons. 

The best method of seasoning is to provide skids or stickers between 
the poles so that free currents of air may carry off the moisture. When 
once seasoned the poles should be shipped at once or a roof placed over 
them. 

All poles should be seasoned for four full seasoning months. In 
determining what should constitute an equivalent of this period, the 
calendar months have been rated as follows: 


January equals § seasoning month; 
February equals § seasoning month; 
March equals {4 seasoning month; 
April equals 4 seasoning month; 
May equals 4 seasoning month; 
June equals 1 seasoning month; 
, July equals 1 seasoning month; 
August equals 1 seasoning month; 
September equals 1 seasoning month; 


seasoning month; 
seasoning month; 
seasoning month. 


October equals 
November equals 
December equals 


Qi coles paleo 


Yarding, seasoning and loading costs from 1 to 23 cents per lineal 
foot, depending upon yarding facilities, amount handled, labor costs, 
efficiency, labor-saving devices, etc. Heavy cranes, log loaders and gin 
poles are used for unloading, piling and loading. Loading alone costs 
about 1 cent per lineal foot. 

Poles over 40 ft. in length must be loaded on two flat cars. The 
following table shows the approximate number of western red cedar 
poles of each size used for single and double car-load lots: 


POLES AND PILING 317 


Photograph by z. T. Chapin Co. 

Fic. 84.—Method used in piling poles to facilitate drying. Nearly 5,000.000 poles are 
’ annually required for our telephone and telegraph lines, electric light and power 
lines, etc. 


NUMBER OF POLES REQUIRED TO MAKE CAR-LOAD LOTS 
WESTERN RED CEDAR 
(Single Load—on One Car.) 


DE te acd 4 creates ely oe oe re ER oie oie a wR Baie 175 to 225 poles 
0 RE A eas Sete ga alge Oa a a RA ae? Pk Ge anv 150 to 175 poles 
8-in. top, 25 ft... ReneS: are Pea ee mee 120 to 140 poles 
Gathers so seo tase. 5. ee its ONG tA Se ee tae ae 130 to 175 poles 
SPE MITES eo 2 os ithe oe O atahe 2 ends Ot OR Se ee 120 to 150 poles 
ro Soa | SS ta ely Be gS et a go to 120 poles 
Wena, Rr ee EE ey Sie ies eg ne eS oe an Se a 120 to 150 poles 
SU RMN Fe Sit Pe a ca LM ans ce ngs Shak, ay ny ee 100 to 120 poles 
Wea Uae R ENE Mee AT ts ccmece Oe te nce AOE ay ts Me ee go to r10 poles 
Sol. Sai Re se ene es i iC ate Pear ce go to 120 poles 
Rae NE IE re or ye kg Soe ea Ge Coe 85 to r10 poles 
(Double Load—on Two Cars.) 
UME RN oa a ae Mena eg i cckp ate geist net Cle 80 to 95 poles 
REE ee Rota Nene gin ped Se as, sheen agasWackas 26 7° to 85 poles 
MN ene tt ihe Aarne nc PO nry Lc oa cet eet amene te 7° to 85 poles 
LENG OT SE ER 7 Bie aan See tan Ba ae. tk eS ae nA 60 to 75 poles 
ROM RE Siu Prema Alo nat Omens IAS Sos Caice coe kiuien 55 to 70 poles 
en TURNED Were Ure Fog Toe ate Sra ad cok aah Lose ie aoe Ts 50 to 65 poles 
eT BR ERRY Tah peo dine east Sie <aewr = ROPS naa cs Maye ane 45 to 6o-poles = 


COND MR Sea ce Si 15 ee S2 ried s LG nck taser es Shave Mca 40 to 50 poles 


318 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Summary of Costs. 


It is very difficult to give average costs which will obtain for any 
number of operations. Each logging chance presents its own difficulties 
and no two operations are jdentical in scarcely the smallest respect. 

The following are offered as being fairly representative of the average 
logging costs found in the western red cedar region of northern Idaho: 


Cost PER RUNNING Foor. 
Items. 
Low. Average. High. 
StumMpawkosckactes ke pels ewes | $.01 $.02 $.03 
Cutting and peeling................. .008 .O1 {O38 
SIAR ee cd a eevee .005 .008 .OL 
“Transportanion..gsc. secede a seion .005 OI .02 
Storage and loading................. .O1 .O1§ .02 
Sales and general expense............ .OI .O15 .O15 
$.048 $.078 $.11 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 85.—Loading southern white cedar telephone and telegraph poles at Wilmington, 
North Carolina. The swampy regions of.eastern Virginia and the Carolinas contain 
some excellent stands of this cedar. 


The highest figures will hold for operations where long poles are being 
logged as a rule and where transportation is more expensive. ‘The min- 


POLES AND PILING 319 


imum estimates, on the other hand, are generally for shorter length poles 
and where conditions are more favorable for economical logging. 

In logging chestnut in eastern woodlots, the following are the approx- 
imate itemized costs per lineal foot: 


Items. 20-30 Foot Poles. 35-50 Foot Poles. 
SEE, Se ee ee epee ine: ere cer $.02 $.03 
Catting and peeling... 2. .scicecccwe mene 007 -O15 
NN. Sk a hike oe eee y «So's obaeews Nueva ot .004 .008 
TREN aoa denice et 3 sient 6 awe 008 .o18 
Storage and loading....................--. oI -O15 
MP ORDCNNG: yn os boc keicscasevedcecas O15 -O17 
$.064 $.103 


It does not generally pay to log and market chestnut poles in the 
25- and 30-ft. lengths according to many operators, as there are insuf- 
ficient profits. The shorter lengths are commonly sold as piling, which 
bring better prices as a rule. 


LENGTH OF SERVICE UNTREATED 


The length of service which untreated poles will give depends upon a 
number of factors. These are as follows: 


1. Kind of wood. It is obvious that the cedars, chestnut, red- 
wood, white oak, cypress, etc., are preferred for pole purposes 
on account of their exceeding durability along with their other 
favorable qualifications. 

2. Size of pole. Large poles will give much longer service than 
those of small diameter. Poles decay at the ground line first 
and therefore those with large butts which are of greatest diam- 
eter at the ground line are much preferred, other conditions 
being equal. 

3. Climate, precipitation, etc. Poles placed in warm, humid 
climates will not last as long as those placed in arid or colder 
regions. 

4. Local conditions of soil, drainage, moisture, etc. 

5. Breakage due to sleet or ice storms, heavy winds, etc. 

- Altogether, under average conditions, the principal woods used for 
poles will probably last as follows, in the untreated state: 


320 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Species. Years. 
Northern: white. cedars). /2 vic +b aes ok eee 12-16 
Western fed cedar 0) 5c!nevos jhe penn eee titee 12-26 
Southern white Cedar...) os.5.c8 1g dee ties a ee ae II-I5 
Chestnut srs warecrn scars cea hao teas 8-13 
White Oak lr cece oie seed ee cae q-11 
Cypress finn. Sontie sions i Ss cae aw Ee GSe II-I5 
Lofigieal pine ic. 0 Less oC ah eee 6-10 
Loblolly pines? 22020. hoay eos 0 vin de oe 4- 6 
Redwood (360s. datetabon tant ntklng se ane 12-15 
Westernzvellow pine, .55.5.03:e.1g04 bless ex eee 2- 4 
Lodgepole pine. ..........4 She peek Re 2- 4 
Douglas fitiic35. gs 081 te sl ia ook A ee ae 6-10 


reeset 
ay Santee Ad 


Photograph by E. T. Chapin Co 
Fic. 86.—Method employed in piling and loading poles on cars. 


The life of untreated piling depends upon a number of factors, chief 
of which are: (1) the kind of wood; (2) size; (3) amount of abrasion and 
wear and tear to which it is subjected; (4) damage by marine borers 
(teredo, limnoria, xylotrya, etc.) ; (5)-exposure to elements which encour- 
age decay. Piles retained entirely underneath the surface of water or in 
the ground will last almost indefinitely. 


POLES AND PILING 321 


Much of our piling is only temporary in its requirements, such, for 
example, as for temporary trestle and bridge construction, false work, 
etc. For such purposes almost any species may be used. For wharf, 
dock, trestle or other construction in the warmer salt waters (south of 
Delaware Bay on the Atlantic Coast and the entire Pacific Coast up to 
British Columbia) the danger from marine borers is so great that un- . 
treated or unprotected piling may be riddled and rendered useless in 
from one to four years. 

White oak, Douglas fir and longleaf pine are the principal timbers 
used for piling purposes where great strength and durability are required. 
When exposed, untreated, to the usual conditions of decay, such, for 
example as wharf or dock piling, trestlework, etc., but without the pres- 
ence of marine borers, these woods should remain in service for from 
seven to eleven years. Other less durable species must be replaced in 
from four to seven years depending, of course, upon the local conditions 
of decay, abrasion, etc. 


THE PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF POLES AND PILING 


Consumers of poles and piles are actively taking up the work of pre- 
servative treatment to prolong their life in service. It has not only been 
demonstrated that the increased cost due to treatment is more than 
justified in the longer service rendered, but when the cost of taking out 
old poles, replacing them with renewals together with the cost of restring- 
ing the wires are taken into consideration, there is a great annual saving. 
Even the most durable poles are now being treated before placement. 
Within the past decade the amount of poles and piling that has been 
subjected to preservative treatment has more than doubled. 

Inasmuch as poles deteriorate from decay most rapidly at the ground 
line it is only necessary to treat that portion of the pole which extends 
from the butt up to a point about 6 in. above the surface of the ground. 
Many methods of artificially treating the pole or providing for its setting 
in the ground have been experimented with. Among these are: (ca) 
charring by means of painting with crude oil and setting fire to it; (6) 
brush treatment or coating with creosote or other toxic preservative; 
(c) setting in a collar of concrete or crushed stones. The first two 
(a) and (6) will probably prolong the life of a pole from two to six years 
but the last named (c) does not justify the additional expense incurred. 

In all cases, poles should be thoroughly air seasoned before being 
subjected to any form of artificial preservative treatment. 


322 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Probably 95 per cent or more of the poles that are treated in this 
country are given the open-tank treatment, whereby a penetration of 
from one-third to 3 in. or more of the preservative from the surface is 
secured on the butt of the pole. Many pole companies have recently 
installed open-tank plants in connection with their pole yards or dis- 
tributing depots, where the poles are raised by means of a derrick and 
stood on end in a hot bath of creosote at a temperature of about 215° F. 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 87.—Method of treating poles in an open tank to increase their Iength of service. The 
butts are treated up to a point above the ground level. Wilmington, Los Angeles Co., 
California. 


for about two hours. The creosote oil is then permitted to cool or cold 
oi] is pumped in. The heating process causes the water and air in the 
wood to expand. The cool bath causes a contraction in the cells and 
intercellular spaces and the oil penetrates the partial vacuum caused 
by change in temperature. Experiments have shown that a penetration 


POLES AND PILING 323 


of .3 in. for chestnut up to 3.1 in. for western yellow pine has been 
secured by this method. Absorption of from 20 to 50 lb. of creosote 
oil per pole is usually secured. 

Kempfer has shown the possibilities, cost and annual saving in the 
treatment of poles by both the brush and open-tank methods in com- 
parison with the untreated condition of many of the kinds of timber used 


for pole purposes. 
ESTIMATED FINANCIAL SAVING DUE TO CREOSOTE TREATMENT OF POLES 


Amt. | eee) | 
fone on Poe: of | Esti- | Esti- | Estt. | Annual 
Character |Preserv-; mated | mated Lenath ‘Avimal Saving 
Species. ° ative | Cost of | Cost of if Due to 
Diam-| |» eth Treatment. | A; 384 Treat- pa in| Life, | : bie 8 
eter, . per Pole,| ment. ace. < ment. 
Ins. Feet. Lb. Yrs. | 
i{ | Untreated Cia eee $6.00 Ba) $0.77 
Chestnut. 2s o.2 ck ena 7 30¢ | Brush 7 $.020 6.20 13 -66 | $0.11 
| | Open-tank 25 -75 6.75 16 -62 -15 
Untreated [Fagen sae asses : 5.00 10 -65 
Southern white cedar.;| 7 304 | Brush 5 .20 5.20 13 -55 .10 
Open-tank 40 -95 5.95 18 -51 -I4 
{ | Untreated ric oad eed See 7.00 14 -71 
Northern white cedar. 7 304 5 .20 7..20 17 -64 -07 
| | Open-tank 50 1.05 8.05 22 -61 -10 
( | Untreated o rate tS 9.50 10 1.23 
Western red cedar... 8 404 | Brush 8 .30 9.80 13 I.04 .19 
Open-tank 40 1.35 | 10.85 20 -87 -36 
{ Untreated as WS tere 8.00 3 2.94 
Western yellow pine. 8 404 | Brush 6 -30 8.30 5 1.92 I.02 
| | Open-tank 60° I.90 9.90 20 -79 2.15 
: -{ | Untreated Cae eae ” 2.00 5 1.62 
Lodgepole pine...... 7 35{ x sip 1125 | - 8.25 aa 66 es 
LU gate Oe irs ate, | 2.50 3 | 92 
Sage | ntire pole | 
Loblolly pine....... 6 35 onertanle | | 
: | | or pressure | 200 2-45 | 4.95 | -20 -40 -52 
| i i 


In 1915, 2,512,780 cu. ft. of poles were treated. This.is equivalent 
to 4,282,175 lineal feet. Assuming 7 ft. to be the average length of butt 
treatment, this means that 611,739 poles were treated during that year. 

The table on p. 324 shows the ground line and height of treatment for 
different-sized poles used by one of the large companies operating in 
western red cedar. 

More cubic feet of piling are now treated than of poles. It is prac- 
tically essential to treat all piling placed in waters containing marine 
borers as outlined above. Instead of treating only a portion of the stick, 
as in the case of poles, the whole pile is preserved. 


1 For further information regarding this subject see “‘ Preservative Treatment of Poles,” 
by W. H. Kempfer, Bulletin 84, U.S. Forest Service r91r, also Proceedings, American Wood . 
Preservers’ Association, Baltimore, Md. 


324 FOREST PRODUCTS 


GROUND LINE AND HEIGHT OF TREATMENT FOR WESTERN RED CEDAR 


POLES 
Length of Poles Ground Line in Feet _ |. Height of Treatment 
in Feet. from Butt. in Feet. 
16 33 5 
18 32 5 
zo 32 5 
25 43 6 
30 52 7 
35 6 72 
40 6 72 
45 63 8 
50 63 8 
55 62 8 
60 7 8} 
65 72 9 
70 72 9 
75 72 9 
80 72 9 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 88.—Pole yard and treating plant at Gaulsheim, Germany. Note the straight, uniform 
character of the poles. These are largely composed of spruce and fir. 


In 1915, 6,295,284 cu. ft. of piling were treated largely by creosote 
and the pressure process. This is equivalent to 9,352,778 cu. ft. of 
piling or 467,639 piles each of 20-ft. length. 

It is very necessary that all bark be carefully peeled before treatment 
and that large amounts of creosote oil be forced into the wood. If the 
piles are subject to attack in salt waters, from 18 to 24 lb. of creosote per 
cubic foot are advisable; if free from attack, from 10 to 14 lb. of oil 
per cubic foot is regarded as sufficient to retard decay. The full cell 
or Bethell process of pressure treatment in large cylinders is the method 


POLES AND PILING 325 


most commonly used in preserving piles. On account of their sus- 
ceptibility to treatment, reasonable cost, and other qualifications such 
as strength, shape and availability, the southern yellow pines, western 
yellow pine, and Douglas fir are preferred for treated piling. 

Properly preserved piles have been known to last from twenty-five 
to thirty-five years in waters containing marine borers. The cost of 
creosote treatment is usually from 3 to 7 cents per cubic foot. 


SUBSTITUTES FOR POLES AND PILING 


With the gradually increasing cost of wooden poles the large com- 
panies which use the greatest number have naturally investigated the pos- 
sibility of other materials. In many cities the telephone and telegraph 
lines are placed in underground conduits. 

The chief substitutes for overhead lines are concrete, reinforced con- 
crete, iron and latticed steel poles and steel towers, the last named being 
used to some extent for heavy transmission lines. 

Up to the present time these materials have not replaced the wooden 
pole to any great extent and it is not likely that they will for some time 
to come, for the following reasons: 

1. High initial cost that is scarcely justified in service rendered. 
2. Excessive weight and consequent difficulty and expense in 
handling and transportation. 

Concrete and reinforced concrete poles are still in the experimental 
stage of development, and all forms of substitutes lack sufficient length 
of service to draw definite conclusions. 

Reinforced concrete, wrought and cast iron and steel piling have been 
introduced to a much smaller extent than in the case of poles, so that little 
is known of their possibilities. It is likely, however, that difficulties of 
corrosion in case of iron and steel and cracking due to alternate freezing 
and thawing with concrete piles, together with the objections given 
above for pole substitutes, will render their introduction rather slow and 
doubtful. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Kemprer, W. H. Preservative Treatment of Poles. Bulletin 84, U. S. Forest 

Service, 1911. 

Proceedings, American Wood Preservers’ Association. Annual, 1910-1910, inclusive. 

Baltimore, Md. 


SuitH, C. S. Preservation of Piling against Marine Wood Borers. Circular 128, 
U.S. Forest Service, 1908. 
, Statistical Reports, U. S. Bureau of Census for 1905 to 1914, inclusive. 


Weiss, H. F. Preservation of Structural Timber. McGraw-Hill Pub. Co., New 
York City: 1915. 


CHAPTER XIV 
POSTS 


THERE are no government statistics’ available showing the annual 
‘production of fence posts in this country; but it is estimated that there 
are 500, 000, coo posts consumed annually. They are used chiefly 
on farms and by the railroads along rights of way, which are always 
inclosed by fencing. ; 

The posts used on farms are lage: cut in local woodlots, generally on 
the farm woodlots, whereas those used by the railroads are generally 
produced in regions of an abundant supply of. durable timber. In Cal- 
ifornia and the Southwestern States, redwood (Sequoia’ sempervirens) is 
the particular species sued for posts. . In the Northwestern States and 
on the western plains the principal.wood used is western red cedar 
(Thuja plicata), In the Central West and in the Lake States, the par- 
ticular species used for fence posts is northern white cedar (Thuja occi- 
dentalis) from Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan and locally pro- 
duced locust, white oak, catalpa, mulberry, hackberry, etc. In the 
Northeast common woods.used for fence posts are northern white cedar 
and chestnut; in the East, chestnut, sassafras, catalpa, and white oak are 
the principal fence post. woods and, in the South and Southeastern States 
cypress, southern white cedar (Chamaecy paris thyoides), juniper, or eastern 
cedar (Juniperus virginiana), and longleaf pine are used. 

Posts are generally cut in 7-ft. lengths, although they may be cut for 
special purposes up to 20 ft. in length. Sometimes they are cut in 
multiples of 7 ft. or thereabouts and then cut into the desired lengths at 
destination. This is generally for convenience and economy in handling. 
Fence posts are generally used in the round, in which case they are usually 
from 4 to 6 m. in diameter at the top end. Most of the western red 
cedar, redwood posts, and frequently those of chestnut, northern white 
cedar, cypress and longleaf pine are split posts. Rail fences are rapidly 
disappearing from use, especially in regions where the native timber 
supplies and good split timber are being depleted. Consequently fence 
posts to be used with rails are seldom used any more. The old zigzag ~ 

326 


POSTS 327 


rail fence which did not require the use of ordinary posts is also fast dis- 
appearing on account of the labor involved in splitting out the rails, 
the disappearance of native forests, the economy in using the wire type 
of fence and the saving in ground space with the latter form. In many 
regions fence posts are pointed at the lower end and driven into the ground 
with a maul after preparing the hole with a crowbar or other similar tool. 

The requirements for desirable fence post woods are practically the 
same as those described in connection with poles.!_ Briefly the principal 


= 7 SE ree) | 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 89.—Over 509,020,009 posts are used annually on the farms and along the railways 
of this country. 


qualifications are durability, lightness in weight, straightness and ability 
to hold the nail well. The paramount qualification, however, is dura- 
bility. 

The business of getting out posts assumes the character of an industry 
only in regions where pole production is carried on as a regular business. 
At many pole operations, all poles 20 ft. and less in length are some- 
times classified as posts and sold as such. The principal regions where 
posts are produced on a large scale are in the swampy sections of the 

1 See Chapter on Poles and Piling. 


328 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Lake States where the northern white cedar is cut, the redwood forests 
of northwestern California, the western red*cedar forests of northern 
Idaho and western Washington, the southern white cedar swamps of 
eastern Virginia and North Carolina and the cypress belts of the Gulf 
Coast. In all of these sections posts constitute a by-product of the pole 
industry. All tops, small trees and defective poles are made into posts 
which are principally marketed for the railway trade. Few of these 
posts are in the round. Most of them are halved or quartered or split 
posts made from defective butts or crooked poles or tree trunks which 
will not make satisfactory poles. 


See 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 90.—Preservative treatment of fence posts by the open-tank method. The fire heats 
the creosote in the two barrels through the connecting pipe. 


The development of the great agricultural sections of the central and 
Far West and the division of the larger farms and ranches into smaller 
units has greatly stimulated the production of posts on a large com- 
mercial basis. The subdivision of farms and ranches is still taking place 
in an important way throughout the West and requires immense quan- 
tities of fence posts, which often constitute an important part of the local 
retail lumber yard stock in each community. 

With the growing scarcity of posts and their rise in price the concrete 
and iron post has been introduced to some extent and will no doubt 
continue to be used on even a larger scale in the future, particularly 
in regions where there is a scarcity of good durable post material and on 


POSTS 329 


farms and about enclosures where the additional expense incurred in 
the use of these forms is a matter of little consequence to the purchaser. 

The gradual scarcity of good fence post material has caused the plant- 
ing of many wood lots primarily to supply fence posts. It has also caused 
the introduction and use of wood preservatives to treat woods which had 
formerly never been used for posts because of their perishability. Posts 
have been charred and the tops pointed to increase their life in service, 
but the most satisfactory method is to treat the portion of the post to 
be imbedded in the soil with creosote. This is usually done by the open- 
tank method of treatment.! Such non-durable woods as red oak, Caro- 
lina poplar, box elder, white pine, spruce, loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, 
hemlock, yellow poplar, elm, basswood and other species which grow 
naturally or are planted can be made into excellent fence posts by a 
preservative treatment costing from 6 to 12 cents per post. 

1 See the various publications of the Forect Service dealing with the preservative treat- 


ment of fence posts as well as miscellaneous articles in the annual proceedings of the American 
Wood Preservers’ Association from 1910 to 1919, inclusive. 


CHAPTER XV 


MINE TIMBERS 


GENERAL 


In the early history of this country comparatively little mining 
beneath the ground was carried on. However, with the development of. 
coal mining, principally in Pennsylvania, a heavy demand was gradually 
created for mine timbers in both the sawed and round forms. . At first 
the only means of support were “‘ mineral pillars,” which consisted of 
pillars of ore left in the chambers as a means of support. As the value 
of the minerals increased and the operations became enlarged and more 
systematized, wooden supports called props, caps and collars were 
substituted for the old minerai pillars. 

Wood has given great satisfaction and although it is possible that 
concrete and steel may, to a limited extent, replace the wooden supports 
in the various types of mines, their comparatively high cost and the dif- 
ficulty of installation will doubtless restrict their use to a considerable 
degree. 

It is estimated by the U. S. Geological Survey that there are approx- 
imately 50,000 mines in this country. However, probably only 5000 of 
these use timber for props, caps, collars, lagging, mine ties, shaft shoring, 
etc. There are many mining operations classified as mines according 
to the government statistics, but a large number consist of quarries, 
placer mines, oil and gas wells, salt works, clay pits and coal strippings, 
which use little wood. 

The only available complete figures showing the use of timber in 
mines were compiled by R. S. Kellogg in 1905 for the U. S. Forest Service. 
This compilation estimated that we use in round numbers about 200,000,- 
ooo cu. ft. or about 2,500,000,000 bd.-ft. of round and sawed timbers. 
At the present time (1919) this material would be valued at about $13,- 
000,000. Of the total amount only about 17 per cent is composed of 
sawed timbers and lumber. 

Most of the mines gather the round timber material from the region 
about the mines. 

330 


MINE TIMBERS 331 


Pennsylvania, with its important coal mines, both anthracite and 
bituminous, is the most important state in the consumption of lumber 
and timbers. This state probably purchases more than 50 per cent of 
the total value of mine timbers used in the entire country. 


KINDS AND AMOUNT OF WOODS USED 


The character of wood used in American mines is not highly spe- 
cialized. Generally speaking, almost any kind of wood which is suffi- 
_ ciently strong will meet the requirements. Altogether, durability is the 
most important single requirement and where woods of great durability 
are not available, woods of a more or less perishable nature can be treated 
to increase their life in service in the mines. Furthermore, in many of 
the mines of this country, the use of wood as a means of support and for 
mine ties, mine rails, etc., is only temporary, and after a period of service 
of from two to four years, they are either left to decay or removed and 
placed in service in some other location. Where woods are to be in ser- 
vice only two to four years, almost any species will serve the purpose, 
because even our most perishable woods will last, generally, from three 
to four years. 

The conditions found in most of our underground mines, however, 
are exceedingly favorable to decay because of the damp condition of the 
atmosphere and the relatively high temperatures involved. 

It has been determined that hardwoods constitute by far the most 
important source of supply for mine timbers. Of the total cubic footage 
of round timber, namely, 165,535,000 cu. ft., over 86,000,000 cu. ft. 
were of hardwoods, 38,000,000 of softwoods, and the remainder amount- 
ing to somewhat over 41,000,000 cu. ft. were not specified as to their 
character. The preponderating use of hardwoods can be probably 
attributed to the fact that the most important wood-using mines of the 
country are located in hardwood regions. 

For the purpose of classifying the utilization of wood, all mines have 
been divided into the following category, namely, bituminous, anthracite, 


precious metal, iron, and miscellaneous mines. Most of the wood-using . - 


mines of this country are found in-the bituminous class and they are also * 
the most prominent in the use of timbers. All of the anthracite mines 
are found in Pennsylvania and are also very important consumers of 
both round and sawed timbers. The precious metal mines are located 
principally in the West, in such states as Montana, California, Colorado, 
and Arizona, where generally speaking, there is a fairly good supply of 


332 FOREST PRODUCTS 


timber, except in the last-named state. 


cipally in the sawed timber form. 


The following table from Kellogg shows the quantity and cost of tim- 


ber used in mines in 1905: 


These mines use wood prin- 


: Round Sawed 
Mineral Product. Sey ine of Timber, Timber, Total Cost. 
: Cubic Feet. Board-feet. 

Bitumiious coals 26. fO6 45 vet ay 2940 91,300,700 | 140,790,000 | $6,370,931 
Anthracite;coalie: 2. Ae eae 216 -43,676,000 | 101,210,000 | 4,433,125 
Precious metalss 2:54 oh esse eae 1718 15,282,500 | 164,956,000 | 4,405,690 
TOW? Fo: Foss Swe BR ae 143 13,484,000 | 13,929,000 914,449 
MScelaneous, 2. oi yo 6 ote ee 146 1,783,700 | 15,059,000 322,692 
Potal seas tae ee 5163 165,535,900 | 435,944,000 |$16,455,887 


The following table shows the kind and quantity of timber used in 
the 5163 mines of this country, according to the figures compiled by Kel- 


logg. Oak constitutes by far the most important species among the 
hardwoods and the pines constitute about one-half of all of the softwoods. 
S : 
Softwood, Round Tees | ae 
Pe ss ph sen Wea Oe OE Sor ees 19,100,000 96,602,000 
BR ae ee eR ee ene oe patho ate inte 4,360,000 78,772,000 
FACMAGEK Se Radke tes esas eo ea een ta nares the 4,155,800 60,802,000 
SOmieg,. ri eeies oii ales al eaimeas tn dieu kad Sens 1,104,200 5,403,000 
Mixed SOLEWOORS 2 sa)0 Soles a ie = 6 ecko leceie oth ewe 9,685,600 32,166,000 
POLE Te Ase ee he ce als Coles ba oe ee 38,504,600 273,745,000 
Hardwoods 
Via) soe SES IN carci ig ate ons era EAL BS ROE SS 28,174,400 58,693,000 
SCNESENGE Fone ene Oa ts a hesalahy tea hee paceman pees 1,543,800 908,000 
BeCC as eh Ree als ete ning 6 Ara 522,900 1,597,000 
PURSTOOTN ans sa slthic cops ks aisisidew la eas eae Ne ia a nies vic ones 142,100 
FANE RE 5 5 LG vc ie opcle meet Wrekin S spianse3 136,600 53973,000 
OL ONG sa i Rea aot ara became ad A Lc in 117,200 932,000 
RUICROLY SSS ae Te Site. aa alte aetna eae Mapas 94,400 
DOORN sins a,b old. Wea xa lads ¥ 8 KEN ey DED AE MALT OL eo, Card ST BE AE aE 475,000 
PATIO SAG WOOGE 6.36555, 5 dais wlcteo bip.c ein sele oere laa 54,915,500 60,333,000 
Psat: Bens waa, bebe setae wae 86,646,500 128,911,000 
PEE RECs yo loa He on Fax > ve Oa Ae Re 41,483,800 33,288,000 
tse Cc Ys 4} 70,54 PR ea aS ipa a AN AREREIEE ning ach 2 165,535,900 435,944,000 


te ate el 


MINE TIMBERS 333 


SPECIFICATIONS AND PRICES 


Sawed timbers and lumber which are used in the mines of this country 
are always purchased on the basis of the thousand board-feet and are 
bought in various sizes from the sawmills and local lumber yards. The 
specifications are not at all standardized and the prices obviously fluctuate 
with the lumber market. 

The round timbers are purchased largely from the local region. In 
Pennsylvania the sections about the anthracite and bituminous coal 
mines have been heavily cut off for mine ties, props, mine rails, and collar 
timber. The Butte mining district is dependent to a large extent on the 
lodgepole pine timber from the Deerlodge National Forest and to a less 
extent on the western yellow and lodgepole pine cut in western Montana. 
The Birmingham mining district of northern Alabama has been heavily 
cut off for the important iron and coal mines. Northern Michigan sup- 
plies a great many hardwoods for the copper districts of northern Mich- 
igan. ‘The forests of the Arizona copper mining districts and the precious 
metal mines of California have also been depleted to some extent for’ 
mine timbers. However, California has such an abundant timber sup- 
ply that the demand for material for her mines represents but a small 
percentage of the total demands on the forests in that state. The 
mines of this country are not generally located immediately in or 
near abundant sources of forest wealth, except in California. 

The specifications and prices vary a great deal with the local condi- 
tions. Specifications for mines in Illinois and Indiana would not suffice 
for those in Pennsylvania, and the same would be true of the various 
metal mines of the West. 

The following are the standard mine timber specifications and prices 
for one of the most important mining companies in Pennsylvania which 
annually consumes large quantities of timbers. These prices were quoted 
in 1917. 

All mine material to be cut from sound, living timber, felled between August rst and 
March 1st. Timber must be reasonably straight, have all knots trimmed even with the sur- 
face, and free from defects that impair the strength and durability for their intended use. 
All measurements to be made at the top end under the bark. Material to be inspected at 


point of loading unless otherwise advised. No shipments accepted unless covered by regu- 
lar order. Prices quoted are f.o.b. cars D., L. & W. R.R. 


Prop Timber. 
Prop timber to be to ft. to 30 ft. (averaging 15 ft.) long, of any kind of hardwood, 
and including hemlock, pitch pine, spruce and chestnut. 


Price { 6 in. diameter top 2 cents per lineal foot. 
mee’ 8 in. diameter top 33 cents per lineal foot. 


334 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Collar Timber. 
Collar timber to be of hemlock, pitch pine, spruce or chestnut, 10 per cent oak 
permitted. 
10 in. diameter top to be to ft. to 30 ft. (averaging 15 ft.) long. 
12 in. and 14 in. diameter top to be 18 ft. to 30 ft. long. 
Price { 10 in. diameter top, 6 cents per lineal foot. 
12 in. diameter top, 11 cents per lineal foot. 
. 14 in, diameter top, 14 cents per lineal foot. 
Mine Rails. 
Mine rails are to be 3 in. by 5 in. by 12 ft., and of hardwood, such as beech, birch, 
maple and oak. A small percentage of 10-ft., 14-ft. and 16-ft. lengths will be accepted. 
To be edged to size and ends cut square. Rails containing any defects that would 


injure them for the purpose intended will not be accepted. . 
Price, $13.00 per thousand board-feet. 


Flat Mine Ties. 


Flat mine ties are to be 5 ft. long, hewn or sawn on two sides, on an average 5 in- 
thick and 5 in. face. Nothing less than 4 in by 4 in by 5 ft. will be accepted. To be of 
,oak or chestnut. A small percentage of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) will be accepted. 
Price 9 cents each. 


The manufacture of round mine timbers is almost entirely a woods 

operation.! The trees are felled, bucked and swamped and then peeled. 

The following represents the costs involved on a winter operation 

on the Deerlodge National Forest where lodgepole pine stulls were 
produced for the Butte mining district :? 


Operation. Cost per Thousand Feet. 


ShOveling SNOW. 4 ii Pins: ae ties Seca eee 1.68 
Felling trees... 3°) 6st svelte sk) ake eae eee .48 
Trimming trees. 200 oNGA a Sate eee .19 
Brush disposal (piling and burning).............. ay 
Cutting into stull lengths... 2. 2.4.4 .009 SAS). 93 
Peeling 00 ob asic eee oats eee ae 1.55 
$4.56 


The use and life of mine timbers depend upon the local conditions. 
Where the various mine tunnels require more material for support and 
there is likelihood of a shifting in the strata of rock or soil, considerably 
larger quantities of material must be used. Furthermore, on account of 

1 For further information regarding logging methods, see “‘ Logging,” by R. C. Bryant. 
John Wiley & Sons, New York City. 


2 From “ Utilization and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Mountains,” 
by D. T. Mason. U.S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 234. 


ee 


MINE TIMBERS 335 


the warm moist air in most of the mines, the timber is readily subject 
to attack by decay and insects. In coal mines it very frequently happens 
in extreme cases that the timbers up to from 12 to 15 in. in diameter will 
become completely decayed in about three years if used in the untreated 
condition. The expense involved in resetting these timbers is very great, 
and furthermore, such x epee generally interfere with the working 
operations of the mines. 

Besides decay, other prominent reasons for the destruction of mine 
tmbers are wear and tear, breakage, fire and wastage. Taken all 
together, these represent about 50 per cent of the causes for the destruc- 
tion of mine timbers, the remaining 50 per cent being the result of decay 
and insect attack. Wooden rollers and drums must be frequently 
replaced on account of wear, and large amounts of timbers themselves 
destroyed by “ crush ” and “ squeeze,” or by “ swelling ground ” and a 
_ great deal of temporary timber is lost in mine workings which become 

filled with waste rock and dirt called “‘ slush’ after the coal and other 
ore has been mined. 

The relative importance of the various destructive agencies in the 
American mines is shown in the following table:! 


Causes of Destruction. Percentage. 
Bretcay: anid meacct attack o.% 00552 ooo ae eet 50 
Pynsre trea al tases = 30 ot oe heen 25 
PPAR UUC UME OIG... 270 sh toes See eS kere es Lae yaks 20 
SRS Ser eR a et ue cass Ene eee ee ee 5 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BurEAu OF Census. Forest Products of the United States, 1907. Washington, 
BC. 


Kettoc, R. S. Timbers Used in the Mines of the United States in 1905. Forest 
Service Circ. No. 49. 


Rocky Mountain Mine Timbers. Forest Service Bull. No. 77. 


Mason, D.T. Utilization and Management of Lodgepole Pine in the Rocky Moun- 
tains. Forest Service Bull. No. 234. 


NELSON, JOHN M. Prolonging the Life of Mine Timbers. U. S. Forest Service 
Cire. 111. 


PETERS, E. W. Preservation of Mine Timbers. Forest Service Bull. No. 107. 
Weiss, H. F. Preservation of Structural Timber. 


1 From “ The Preservation of Mine Timbers,” by E. W. Peters, U. S. Forest Service 
Bull. 107, 1912, p. 6. 


CHAPTER XVI 


FUEL WOOD 


GENERAL 


Woop furnishes fuel for a great variety of purposes. It is chiefly in 
demand on farms and in small rural communities for general heating 
purposes and for the preparation of food. It is also used as fuel in the | 
generation of electric and steam power, electric lighting, in the manu- 
facture of brick, etc. Since wood is largely used on farms, it is prin- 
cipally cut from woodlots and small holdings. Cordwood cut for fuel 
also comes from material otherwise wasted, such as slabs from saw- 
mills, tree tops, branches and defective material left on the ground after 
logging operations, scrubby growth and inferior trees which are not in 
demand for any other form of product. The fuel cutter does not take 
what the sawmill or other wood using industries can use. If the demand 
for fuel wood were doubled in this country it could be easily taken care 
of without the use of good timber. Transportation is the chief problem 
in the further utilization of fuel wood in this country. The larger 
markets, aside from the farmers and the rural communities, are not in 
close proximity to the principal fuel wood supply so that at the present 
time enormous quantities of material are wasted and left to rot in ig 
woods due to prohibitive transportation charges. 

There is approximately as much wood used at the present time for 
fuel as for lumber. It probably brings the lowest delivered market 
price of wood in any form. Its use is decreasing in this country due to 
the increasing introduction of the use of natural and artificial gas, coal, 
electricity and fuel oil. There is much less wood used at the present 
time for heat and power than formerly. In thirty years, the coal output 
has multiplied 6 times and many new natural gas and oil wells have been 
developed. 

The war greatly stimulated the use of wood fuel, particularly in 
1918 and 1919, when there was a shortage of coal. 

336 


FUEL WOOD 337 


AMOUNT USED 


It is estimated that, at the present time, about 100,000,000 standard 
cords of wood valued at $350,000,000 or about $3.50 per cord are used 
every year in this country. This amount would be equivalent, assum- 
ing that 500 bd.-ft. are equal to one cord, to 50,000,000,000 bd.-it. 
of material or 9,000,000,000 cu. ft., assuming that there are go cu. ft. of 


solid wood per cord. 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown, 


Fic. 91.—Beech, birch and maple cordwood cut and stacked for seasoning in the woods, 
In the winter, this is hauled out on sleds. Photograph taken near Cadosia, Delaware Co., 


New York. 


Sargent estimated that in 1880 there were used in this country 
146,000,000 cords valued at $322,000,000 or $2.21 percord. At that time 
the population was only about 50,000,000, whereas it is now in excess of 
100,000,000 people. In spite of the increase in population of over 100 
per cent, therefore, the total amount of wood used for fuel has decreased 
very considerably, owing to the introduction of other forms of fuel such 
as gas, oil and coal as outlined above. 


338 FOREST PRODUCTS 


From statistics 1 gathered by the U.S. Forest Service, the leading 
states in the consumption of wood fuel on our farms are Alabama, 
Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, North Carolina, Arkansas 
and Texas in order. These eight states consume about’ 50 per cent of the 
total amount used on our farms in this country. 

The quantity of fuel wood used in any one spec depends very largely 
upon the following factors: 


1. Climate. It is natural that more fuel wood will be used in 
colder climates than in the southerly ones unless near coal or 
oil fields. 

2. Cost of other fuel. The use of wood is determined very 
largely in any given region by the cost of the available coal, 
oil and gas. 

3. Transportation facilities. Very often wood is available in 
abundant quantities but transportation facilities are lacking. 


Several years ago considerable fuel wood was reduced in form to 
charcoal in isolated regions of long hauls to save transportation charges. 
The general use of charcoal for fuel purposes, however, has been reduced 
to a considerable extent and the old method of making charcoal has 
nearly. gone out of existence, due to the introduction of modern methods 
of both hardwood and softwood distillation. 

There are. great possibilities for closer utilization of our raw wood 
supplies in the development of wood for fuel. The value of fuel wood in 
many of our smaller towns and cities has risen so rapidly that it is now 
competing successfully with coal or other materials for fuel purposes, and 
although it will be a long time before fuel wood can be utilized in an 
intensive way as in the European nations, we shall undoubtedly save, 
in the future, enormous quantities of material now wasted in the woods 
in logging operations and poor and defective timber now left to decay. 

The following table 1 shows the amount and value of wood fuel used 
on the farms of this country during 1917: 


1 From “‘ The Use of Wood for Fuel,” U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bull. 753, roro. 


FUEL WOOD 


WOOD FUEL USED ON FARMS 


339 


Number : VALUE OF Woop USED 
of Farms Cords Numbe: ; VALUE PER Corp. ! on Basis oF DECEM- 
dant. —— Ba fees 1 _ oer: 1917, VALUES. 
eaten: 2 hoe yong er: ers. |per Farm.| Total Value. 
Maine......... 60,000 137 780,000) $6.40 | $4.50 | $83.20 | $4,992,000 
New Hampshire. 27,000 12 324,000; 6.40 4.60 76.80 2,074,000 
Vermont....... 33,000 I5v 495,000) 6.00 4.35 90.00 2,970,000 
Massachusetts. . 37,000/ 10 370,000! 6.35 4.70 63.50 2,350,000 
Rhode Island. . . 5,000 10 50,000! 5.80 4.00 58.00 290,000 
Connecticut... . 27,000! 13 351,000} 6.00 4-50 78.00 2,106,000 
New York... ... 215,000 14 3,010,000} 4.60 4.00 64.40 | 13,846,000. 
New Jersey 33,000 8 264,000} 5.10 4.00 40.80 1,346,000 
Pennsylvania 218,000 9 1,962,000} 3.50 2.60 31.50 6.867,000 
Delaware....... 11,000 13 143,000} 4.20 3.10 54.60 601,000 
Maryland...... 50,000| 13 650,000} 4.15 3.20 53-95 2,698,000 
Virginia........ 190,000 18% | 3,420,000] 3.20 2.40 57.60 | 10,944,000 
West Virginia 99,000, 16% | 1,584,00c] 2.90 | 2.30 | 46.40} 4,594,000 
North Carolina 259,000 | 17V 4;403,000; 2.75 2.10- 46.75 | 12,108,000 
South Carolina 185,000 14 2,590,000! 3.00 2.10 42.00 7;770,000 
Georgia........ 300,000 «16. 4,800,000; 2.50 2.00 42.00 | 12,000,000 
Plorwiac 65: 55,000} II 605,000! 3.10 2.60 34-10 1,876,000 
Ohi Po 0555)22-- 271,000! 13 3,523,000} 3.60 3.00 46.80 | 12,683,000 
Indiana........ 215,000, 12 2,580,000! 3.70 3.30 44.40 9,546,000 
Lo. aie 250,000, 9 2,250,000! 4.60 3.40 41.40 | 10,350,000 
‘Michigan....... 209,000! , 13 2,717,000! 5.25 4.00 68.25 | 14,264,000 
Wisconsin... ... 180,000! 13 2,340,000| 5.50 4.20 71.50 | 12,870,000 
Minnesota... .... 157,000' II 1,727,000} 5.40 4-30 59.40 9,326,000 
POWERS ss creeks 215,000) 5 1,075,000} 4.70 4.20 23.50 5,05 2,000 
Missouri... .... 275,000 13 3:575,000| 3.20 2.60 41.60 | 11,440,000 
North Dakota 90,000 3 270,000} 7.50 6.40 22.50 2,025,000 
South Dakota 90,000) 3 270,000! 6.20 6.00 18.60 1,674,000 
Nebraska... .... 135,000, 3 405,000! 4.25 3-90 12.75 1,721,000 
Kansas......... 180,000 6 1,080,000} 4.25 3-30 25.50 4,590,000 
Kentucky...... 265,000, 18% 4:770,000} 2.20 1.70 39.60 | 10,494,000 
Tennessee. ..... 250,000, 19 \ 4,750,000} 2.20 1.75 41.80 | 10,450,000 
Alabama....... 270,000 18 y 4,860,000} 2.00 1.80 36.00 9,720,000 
Mississippi. . . . . 285,000 16 4,560,000} 2.30 1.90 36.80 | 10,488,000 
Louisiana....... 122,000} 15 1,830,000} 2.50 2.25 37-50 4,575,000 
Yo. yes Sepa 430,000 9 3,870,000} 3.40 2.80 30.60 | 13,158,000 
Oklahoma... ... 210,000! 10 2,100,000} 3.10 2.75 31.00 6,510,000 
Arkansas. ...... 225,000 19v 4,275,000] 2.35 2.00 44.65 | 10,046,000 
Montana....... 35,000 b fo) 350,000} 4.80 4.50 48.00 1,680,000 
Wyoming....... 15,000 10 150,000} 4.50 3.80 45-00 675,000 
Colorado....... 55,000 6 330,000] 4.50 3.70 27.00 1,485,000 
New Mexico. 45,000 9 405,00G} 4.20 4.00 37-80 1,701,000 
ANZONS > oS 5 55. 12,000 9 108,000] 5.75 5.40 SE. 75 621,000 
Utah sc See 23,000 8 184,000} 5.00 4.00 40.00 920,000 
Nevada... ....:. 3,000} II 33,000} 7.00 6.00 77.00 231,000 
Wdaho:s 45.6.5 36,000 9 324,000} 5.00 4.60 45.00 1,620,000 
Washington 65,000 II 715,000} 5.20 4.50 57-20 3,718,000 
Oregons 3. oS. 50,000! 12 600,000) 4.70 3-90 56.40 2,820,000 
California...... 95 ,000| 10 950,000} 7.40 5.80 74.00 7,030,000 
United States. 6,562,0001 12.6 | 82,777,000 3.42 2.75 43-13 | 282,915,000 


340 FOREST PRODUCTS 


SOURCES OF SUPPLY 


As noted above, the farmers’ woodlot and small scattered holdings 
are the principal sources of fuel wood at the present time. Slab wood 
and other refuse from sawmills are used, to a considerable extent, in and 
near towns in which sawmills are located. Many areas that have been 
recently logged over are now being culled for fuel wood; choppers and 
in some cases, gasoline-driven cut-off saws being introduced to lower the 
cost of production. In the East, refuse from logging operations and 
sawmills are being sent to market in box cars up to distances of 300 miles. 

Wood is probably relied upon for fuel purposes more in the South 
and in the Far West than in any other sections, due both to the cheap and 
abundant supply of wood and the comparative remoteness of an avail- 
able supply of coal. In the central prairie region very little wood is 
used, due to the lack of native timber in that section. Coal is used to a 
very large extent. +e 

In an investigation carried on by the office of Farm Management in 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture covering 950 families living on farms 
in all parts of this country and with an average of 4.8 persons per family, 
the average annual consumption of wood per person was 2 cords or 9.6 
cords per family.. It was also shown that on the average farm the value 
of wood fuel is more than twice as much as the value of coal fuel used. 

In the Northeast, the oaks, maples, hickories, birches, beech, chest- 
nut and other heavy hardwoods are largely relied upon for fuel purposes. 

In the South, the southern pines, chiefly longleaf pine, is used almost 
entirely for fuel purposes. In some sections, hardwood such as oaks, 
hickories, ash and a few others are used, but the resinous hard pine is 
much preferred. 

In the Rocky Mountain region, Douglas fir and western yellow pine 
are relied upon very largely for fuel. Lodgepole pine and Engelmann 
spruce are used to a limited extent, but they are very inferior for fuel 
purposes. Sage brush, greasewood and mesquite are also used in the 
treeless and desert regions of the southern Rocky Mountain region. 

In California, the live oaks, western yellow pine and Douglas fir are 
the principal woods used for fuel. In southern California and to a 
limited extent in other sections, eucalyptus is relied upon very largely 
for fuel. In the Northwest, Douglas fir, western larch and hemlock, 
furnish most of the wood fuel. 

It is estimated that about 4,000,000,000 cu. ft. of mill waste furnishes 


—— en ee 


ee 


FUEL WOOD o41 


power for the 30,000 sawmills in operation in this country. This is 
made up of slabs, edgings, trimmings, sawdust and defective material. 


FUEL VALUES 


The value of equal weights of dry wood for fuel purposes is practically 
the same with all species. According to this rule, therefore, specific 
gravity may be used as a direct means of comparing the heat values of 
the different species. This, however, does not hold with resinous woods. 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 

Fic. 92.—Woodyard with a capacity of 5000 cords of fuel wood along the Potomac River 
at Washington, D.C. Rivers afford cheap transportation for low-priced forest products 
such as fuel wood. This is mixed pine and hardwoods brought by small sailboats from 


forests along the lower Potomac. 


Aside from weight, however, other considerations often determine 
the value of different kinds or classes of wood for fuel purposes. The 
principal other considerations that may be mentioned are as follows: 

1. The design, construction and regulation of furnaces, stoves 
and fire places all have an important bearing upon the question 
of getting the maximum fuel value out of any wood. Oak and 
hickory burn with practically a smokeless flame, whereas others 
often burn with more or less smoke due to improperly regu- 


lated flues, drafts, etc. 
2. The degree of dryness. Much heat is lost in driving the re- 


342 FOREST PRODUCTS 


maining moisture from green wood. The following table 
shows the per cent of available heat given out by wood burned 
at different moisture contents: 


Condition of Wood. Per Cent of Water. Re et eet 
Kal drys)... cowide toaesas veeven ee 2 100 
Aly dry (emit)... Dacons seed cies eae es 10. 90 
Air dry {ebunks) 5.7 Gocae eee a oe 20 80 
Half diye oye tage ere es ae ee ln 35 60 
Greeny. 5 aa aie Ae Se Fee 50 40 


3. The character of seasoning. Some woods decay if left in the 
open before they are thoroughly seasoned. This may hold 
true of beech, birch and other woods under certain conditions. 

4. The rapidity of burning. When certain woods are burned too 
rapidly full heat values are not derived. 

The average heating value of dry wood has been determined to be 
4600 calories per kilogram or 8028 British thermal units per pound. 

The following table! shows the relative fuel value of non-resinous 
woods based upon their specific gravity. ; 


Specific Gravity (Dry). [yx Volume (Dry Weed). 
Hickories, average:..:. Vou caasaed dees eve 5 64 Ico 
Oaks, average... so. c bse e re neuer enase sss .58 or 
Beéchue Site can eee bie pay aad eae 56 89 
Birch ikea Sere eet wert rie -55 87 
Maple i: 37. cst aes silo Merwe mai Sree ee 55 87 
PAI car Ries eal ety Ree eesie hee eae 52 81 
FS a an uot peed ee eke ey ee ro Sere 52 81 
"ESMmarack (choc oh cece ec tree rere ones -49 76 
estnnte se coe a tele aiketes een eee 42 65 
Wousae Be sie eS whe een ies coe 42 65 
Hemlock ss. ose ere eee a oe eas 39 61 
LOUgeDnOl® PINE. 2.2. vgs ps. 35.455 ewan ey 287 58 
Wate Nine, ioc uit erite eR ese ees 36 . 56 
ee aaa par er SS bad 35 4 55 
WY Hate Ait oi G5 ci de beh vain catiips yee 35 55 
SPUCESy(AVETROC Li st ais coisa. 810 2 obit ee ncs wall 33 52 
PIWIS TE Sts s osc tees rete seen 31 48 


In respect to resinous woods the fuel values can only be approxi- 
mated according to the resin content. It is said that the califoric value 

1 From “ Fuel Value of Wood,” by H. S. Betts and E. Bateman, 1913. U. S. Forest 
Service. 


FUEL WOOD 343 


of resin is about twice that of wood. Betts and Bateman have com- 
piled the following table, giving approximation of the fuel value of long- 
leaf pine of varying resin content compared to that of hickory. The fuel 
value of resin is taken as 9400 calories per kilogram. 


APPROXIMATE RELATIVE FUEL VALUE OF LONGLEAF PINE CONTAINING 
DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF RESIN AND HICKORY 


Relative Fuel Value Unit 
Resin Contents, Per Cent. Specific Gravity (Dry). Volumes of Dry Wood, 
Hickory 100. 
° -44 69 
10 -49 84 
20 -55 ts 
30 -63 128 
40 -73 160 
50 .88 206 


Other woods to which this table could be applied are the other pines 
such as shortleaf, loblolly, western yellow, pifion, pitch, lodgepole and 
jack pines and a few others such as the cedars, juniper, cypress, etc. 

It has been determined that 1 Ib. of good coal is equivalent to about 
2 lb. of seasoned wood in heating values. Assuming that there are 80 
to go cu. ft. of solid wood to the average cord, the weight of a cord of 

medium, heavy and light woods would be approximately 4000, 3000, 
and 2000 Ib. respectively for seasoned sticks containing 15 to 20 per cent 
moisture. The following table shows the number of cords of different 
kinds of seasoned wood necessary to give approximately the same heating 
value of 1 ton of coal: 


Hickory Ash 
Oak Elm 
1 cord Beech Locust Equivalent to 1 ton coal 
Birch Longleaf pine 
Hard maple Cherry 


Shortleaf pine Douglas fir 
13 cords Western hemlock Sycamore Equivalent to 1 ton coal 


Red gum Soft maple” 
Cedar Cypress 
Redwood Basswood 
2 cords Poplar Spruce Equivalent to 1 ton coal 
Catalpa White pine 


Norway pine 


344 FOREST PRODUCTS 


PRINCIPAL MARKETS 


It is estimated that at least 80 per cent of the total amount of fuel 
wood cut for that purpose is used on our farms. Ten-per cent is utilized 
in the small towns of 1000 population or less and the rural communities 
scattered among these towns. 

Other principal markets are in mining and smelting mills, in the 
manufacture of brick and tile, and in the manufacture of salt and wool. 
Formerly great quantities of fuel wood were used for railroad locomotives, 
steamboats and general power purposes. At the present time, however, 
coal and oil have very largely supplanted wood for these purposes. 

In the smelting of copper, green wood is used in the refining process 
to remove the impurities. This is done by introducing compressed air 
beneath the surface of the copper and applying until the fracture of the 
sample of copper shows that sufficient copper has been oxidized to insure 
the removal of all impurities. Then converter poles are introduced 
beneath the surface of the molten copper, their action being to reduce 
the oxide of copper back to metallic copper. This is carried on until the 
sample shows that this result has been accomplished and the sample has 
acquired what is technically known as a “ set.” The best woods for 
smelting purposes are green hardwoods. 


AMOUNT OF SOLID WOOD PER CORD 


The standard cord is generally accepted as a pile of wood 4 ft. wide, 
4 ft. high and 8 ft. long. This is a stack of 128 cu. ft. The amount of 
solid wood found in a standard cord of this size varies between 89 and 
64 cu. ft. and depends upon such factors as the size, straightness and 
form of the sticks, split or round, etc., and the method of piling. The 
following table shows the volume of solid wood per cord for sticks of 
different length and diameter: 


VOLUME OF SOLID WOOD PER CORD! 


DIAMETER AT SMALL Enp. 
Length of Sticks, Feet. 

Over 5.5 In. 5.5 to 2.5 In. 2.5to1In. 
Cubic Feet. . Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet. 

2 gl 84 65 

4 89 82 64 

8 84 77 59 

12 78 71 54 


1 From “ Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord,’’ by R. Zon. Forestry Quar- 
terly, Vol. I, No. 4, 1903. 


FUEL WOOD 345 


The converting factor of go cu. ft. per standard cord is generally 
adopted in those regions where fuel wood is commonly cut. 

The converting factor of 500 bd.-ft. per standard cord is also gener- 
ally accepted, although this factor depends upon a number of conditions. 

Ten per cent of the volume is generally allowed for shrinkage from the 
green to the dry condition of the sticks. According to Zon, green hard- 
wood in seasoning shrinks from g to 14 per cent, depending upon the 
species while softwoods shrink only g to ro per cent.! 


CUTTING, HAULING AND DELIVERING TO MARKET 


“The following description and costs are given for the full standard 
cord of 128 cu. ft. capacity. Many other forms of stacked cordwood 
or units are commonly used in different parts of the country. For 
example, in portions of the Lake States and Far West, a long cord of 
160 cu. ft. capacity is sometimes used. In other places the short cord is 
used or a face cord made up of a stack of wood 8 ft. long, 4 ft. high but 
instead of 4 ft. in length the sticks are 12, 16, 18, 24, 30, 37, 50, 56 in., 
etc., in length. These various face cords are used for special kinds of 
fuel wood and for marketing in small lots. 

The work of cutting, hauling, etc., is usually done by common 
labor, the men using the single-bitted splitting axe, cross-cut saw, wedges 
and on large operations, a double-bitted axe as well. Where consider- 
able fuel wood is cut the men usually work by contract, doing the cutting 
and hauling for a given amount per cord. 

Stumpage values vary considerably with the different regions. The 
price runs from about 25 cents to $1.00 or more per cord. This value 
depends upon the species, local demand, cost of cutting and hauling and 
placing on the market, etc. In the Northeast stumpage values of 
50 cents to $1.00 per cord are common. In the South 25 cents per cord 
is an average price. In the Far West from 25 to 50 cents per cord is 
the usual prevailing stumpage value. 

The operations of cutting and stacking fuel wood in cord lots are 
generally done together and they usually cost from go cents to $1.45 per 
standard cord. Many contracts in favorably sized and located timber 
regions have been made for cutting and stacking for $1.00 to $1.10 per 
cord. Foreign laborers, skilled in this work, have been known to make 
from $3.00 to $5.00 per day at these prices. The cost usually depends 
upon the kind and condition of wood, its size, local charges for labor, 
location of timber and general working conditions. 

1 See “ Untersuchungen iiber den Festgehalt,” by Franz Baur. 


346 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Stacking is sometimes done in open crib fashion to facilitate season- 
ing, which requires from one to two months, depending upon the weather, 
size of individual sticks, method of piling, etc. 

When the individual sticks are more than 6 to 8 in. in diameter they 
are commonly split in two. When over 10 to 12 in. in diameter they are 
quartered. . . 

Gasoline engines equipped with a portable cut-off saw are commonly 
employed to buck up limbs, tops and defective trees into cordwood. 
About 25 cords’per hour can be cut up by 2 men working with a 2 h.p. 


Photograph by U Sz Forest Service. 


Fic. 93.—Two cut-up saws operated by electric motor, cutting 23 to 35 cords per day each. 
The wood in lengths from 4 to 12 ft. is reduced to stove and fire-place sizes. Durham, 
North Carolina. 


engine. This same equipment and crew will cut up 4-ft. cordwood into 
12-in. stove lengths at the rate of 1 to 2 cords per hour. 

Hauling includes loading of the cordwood on the wagon, hauling and 
unloading at the yard or into a freight car. In the North it is usually 
done on sleighs in the winter time. Otherwise the ordinary wagon haul 
is employed for this purpose. 

The usual wagon load will take from 1 to 13 cords. Up to 23 cords 
or more may be taken ona sleigh. The cost depends upon the distance, 
the load, condition and grade of the road, cost of labor and team, working 
hours, and general efficiency. It is customarily considered that it does 
not pay to market cordwood when the haul is longer than 6 miles unless 
there is a favorable down-hill haul and the market demand offers suf- 


FUEL WOOD 347 


ficiently high prices. Six trips per day are commonly made on a 1-mile 
haul on the average country road, 4 trips on a 2-mile, 3 trips on a 3-mile 
and 2 trips on a 4-mile haul. The inconsistency apparent in these 
figures is explained by the fact that in the larger number of trips per day, 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. ‘ 
Fic. 94.—Hauling cordwood near Custer City, Pénnsylvania. This load contains about 
1} cord of beech and hard maple. About 100,000,000 cords of fuel wood‘are annually 
consumed in this country. 


relatively more time is taken up in loading and unloading. The follow- 
ing table shows the approximate total cost per cord of cutting and 


Daily Hasting | Teaming Wage | y fot Cost, || Rally Hacling | Teaming Wage | whitincrte, 
One Team. per Cord. One Team. Located per Cord. 
ie Mery er $5.50 $6.89 4cords...:.. $5.50 $2.52 
5.00 | 6.36 5.00 2.39 
4.50 5.83 4-50 2.26 
4.00 5.30 i] 4.00 2.12 
2 CORES. i. o66s 5.50 3.98 | 5 cords......| 5-50 2-23 
5.00 3-71 5.00 2.12 
4.50 3-45 4.50 2.01 
4.00 3.18 4.00 1.91 
+ CONS. Sos 5.50 3.00 
5:00 2.83 
4.50 2.65 
4.00 2.47 | 


348 FOREST PRODUCTS 


delivering for various wage rates and hauling capacities including interest 
charges at 6 per cent for one year.! 

Considerable fuel wood is hauled on our railroads, especially to all the 
larger cities. Cordwood takes the same freight rate; usually, as lumber, 
pulp wood and other forest products. From 12 to 18 cords are the usual 
capacities per car, depending upon the size of the box car, size of sticks, 
method of piling, etc. 

In many of the western cities and villages, 4-ft. cordwood is used for 
fuel in furnaces and much of this material is hauled in carload lots from 
nearby logging operations or cut-over timber. 


PRICES 


The cost of fuel wood varies considerably in the different regions. It 
depends upon the supply, demand, cost of other forms of fuel, cost of 
cutting, marketing, etc. In the Northeast the following prices usually 
prevailed before the war for the full cord delivered in town wholesale: 


HICKOLY 3 secant eee $7.00 to $10.00 
Beech, birch, ash, hard maple and oak... 5.00 to 8.00 
Soft maple, poplar, chestnut, etc........ 4.00 to 6.00 
BE Ws We a6 Cc A ROMO pate Feat So teh ao nay 4.00 to 8.00 


Wood delivered to the consumer costs considerably more than these 
prices; usually from $2.00 to $3.00, depending upon the demand, desired 
length, character of wood, etc. It is commonly figured that it costs 
50 cents per cord to buck up wood from the 4-ft. length to the 12- or 16- 
in. length for stove or fire-place use. 

In the South and West prices are generally much below these. 
Standard sized cords are delivered in town, wholesale, in the Southern 
pine belt, the Northwest and Lake State regions for from $3.00 to $5.00, 
depending upon local conditions. 

In portions of the Rocky Mountain regions where timber is very 
scarce sage brush is sometimes used for fuel. In Nevada the large, main 
stems are trimmed by Indians at $3.00 per cord and delivered to the user 
at about $6.50. Sage brush burns rapidly and does not hold heat very 
long. 

Around sawmills, excess slab wood, edgings, etc., are sold for prices 
less than round or split cordwood. In connection with one large saw- 
mill in the West 16-in. slab wood is sold for $3.50 a cord delivered at the 


1From “ Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut,” by E. H. Frothingham, U. S. 
Forest Service Bulletin 96, p. 24. 


FUEL WOOD 349 


house. It is estimated that it cost $1.75 to handle and deliver this, but 
the profit, $1.75 per cord, is looked upon as so much salvage by the lum- 
ber company. When logs run about 5.2 per thousand feet for 16-ft. 
lengths, 1000 ft. log scale will yield about one-third of a cord aside from 
the lumber when slabs are cut thin. One large sawmill concern cutting 
ties, figures that it cuts 30 ties and one cord of fuel wood per thousand 
feet of logs. This large comparative amount is explained by the fact 
that the logs are small and heavy slabbing is done in order to face the 


+ 


——— SP) aa 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic 95.—About 500 cords of wood piied in the municipal woodyard of Columbia, South 
Carolina. The use of wood fuel was greatly stimulated during the war. 


ties properly. Other sawmills sell excess fuel wood for from 25 cents to 
$1.00 per load at the refuse pile, the consumer doing the loading and 
hauling. No measurements are taken; the buyer simply taking as much 
as his wagon will hold. 

After the entrance of this country into the war, the prices for wood 
fuel advanced, generally. throughout the country. Where coal was 
particularly difficult to secure, the price of wood fuel advanced to hitherto 
unquoted prices. 


350 FOREST PRODUCTS 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Betts, H. S. Wood Fuel Tests. U.S. Dept. of Agric. Forest Service. Review of 
Forest Investigations. Vol. 2, pp. 39-42. 


Betts, H. S. and BATEMEN, ERNEST. Fuel Value of Wood (unpublished), 1913. 

Brown, NEtson C. Utilization at the Menominee Indian Mills. Forestry Quarterly, 
No. 3, Vol. 10, 1912. 

_Fisner, W.R. Heating Power and Combustibility of Wood. In Schlich’s Manual of 
Ferestry. Vol. 5. 

FROTHINGHAM, E. H. Second Growth Hardwoods in Connecticut. U. S. Forest 
Service Bull. 96, 1912. pp. 19, 23, 29, 38. : 

Funk, W.C. Value to Farm Families of Food, Fuel and Use of House. Bulletin 410 
of U. S. Dept. of Agric. Washington: 1916. 

Kettock, T. Efficiency of Wood in Stoves and Open Fireplaces. Forest, Fish and 
Game. Athens, Ga.:. April, ror. 

Prerson. A. H. Consumption of Firewood in the United States. U.S. Forest Ser- 
vice, Cir. 181, 1910. 

ReEcorD, S. J. The Fuel Value of Wood. Hardwood Record. Oct. 10, 1912. 

SARGENT, C. S. Report on the Forests of North America, Vol. 9. Tenth Census, 
1884. pp. 251, 252 and 489. 

ScHENK, C. A. Heating Power of Wood. Forest Utilization. Biltmore, N. C.: 
1904. 

U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bull. No. 753. The Use of Wood for Fuel. March, 1919. 

Various Reports, Bulletins, etc., of State Fuel Administrators, State Foresters and 
Others Advocating the Use of Fuel Wood during the War. 


ZON, R. Factors Influencing the Volume of Solid Wood in the Cord. Forestry 
Quarterly, No. 4. Vol. 1, 1903. 


a — 


CHAPTER XVII 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 


HISTORY 


SHINGLES have been used from the earliest historical times to protect 
buildings from the weather both as roofing and as siding. Up to com- 
paratively recent times they had been made by the slow process of hand 
work. ‘The logs were cut into bolts, hand rived with a frow or broadaxe 
and the shingles were shaved with a drawing knife. Sometimes a “shav- 
ing horse ” was used in early colonial times. A man who could rive 500 
shingles in a day was considered an expert worker. 

Until a few decades ago, white pine, chestnut and southern white 
cedar were relied upon for the major portion of shingles used in this 
country. The rustic shingle maker was often able to tell from the general 
appearance of the tree whether it would rive properly or not. Fre- 
quently, however, a large block was cut out of the side of the large virgin 
white pine trees to test their splitting qualities. If the wood did not 
split well the tree was left a prey to the next forest fire, which quickly 
ignited the resin which had exuded from the exposed portion. This 
pioneer custom was very wasteful, since only the butt log was used for 
shingles and very frequently a tree that would now produce 3000 shingles 
was made to produce only about 500 shingles. 

Hand-made shingles were generally of two kinds, known as “ joint” 
and “lap.” The latter were longer with one edge thicker than the other 
and nailed on the roof so that the edge of one lapped over the edge of the 
other like weather boards. The “ joints ” were nailed edge to edge like 
sawed shingles. Hand-made shingles called “ shakes ” are still made 
from sugar pine and redwood in California and will be discussed later 
in this chapter. 

The introduction of shingle machinery proved to be a great economy 
in saving the available raw material. With the shingle saws, shingles 
which included knots, cross grain, etc., could be made not only from butt 


logs of the best trees, but from the tops and partially decayed butts. 
351 


352 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Gradually the center of the shingle industry moved to the Pacific North- 
west, where the western red cedar, which grows so abundantly in that 
region, was found to be an ideal shingle wood. In the East, shingle mills 
are usually located in connection with sawmills, the shingles often being 
made of defective or misshapen portions of the butt logs of white pine, 
yellow pine, spruce, cypress, etc. 

Shingle machines were introduced on a commercial basis about 1880. 
Several years before that time western red cedar shingles were shipped 
around South America to the Atlantic seaboard. The shaved shingle 
industry had already assumed large proportions in the Puget Sound and 
Columbia River sections. With the opening of the Northern Pacific 
Railroad in 1883 came a great impetus in the manufacture of sawed 
shingles and their distribution not only in the Northwest, but throughout 
the prairie states. About the year 1892 and the year following came a 
rapid increase in production and several hundred million shingles were 
shipped to the Far Eastern markets. About 200 shingle mills were then 
in operation in western Washington. At the present time, western red 
cedar shingles are sent to every state in the Union and compete suc- 
cessfully with shingles made from all other species. ‘There are approx- 
imately 350 shingle mills in Washington at the present time, most of 
which are operated as separate industries. There are probably fewer 
shingle mills to-day in the Pacific Northwest than a few years ago, but 
there is a much larger annual output, however, due to the larger capacity 
of the individual mill. Some of the larger shingle mills now have a 
daily capacity of from 100,000 to 250,000 shingles or more per day of ten 
hours. Some of the British Columbia mills exceed any of the Washing- 
ton mills in daily capacity. 


QUALIFICATIONS OF SHINGLE WOODS 


The qualifications that are demanded in a wood used for shingles are 
as follows: 

1. Durability. Shingles must withstand varying conditions of 
moisture, the effects of weathering and the rapid changes of temperature. 
Non-durable woods are practically unused for shingle purposes. 

2. Light weight. This factor is very important in transportation. 
In order to compete successfully, the wood must be light in weight in 
order to bear the heavy transportation charges incident to the shipping 
of shingles to great distances. Shingles are always thoroughly seasoned 
before shipment by rail. 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 393 


3. Nail-holding power. Shingles must retain nails without loosening. 
Zinc nails are commonly used in connection with many of our shingles, 
as they do not rust. 

4. The shingle must not check, warp or twist out of shape when once 
placed flat on the roof. Prevention of leakage is of great importance. 
Shingles should preferably be straight and even grained. 

To meet the above qualifications, the western red cedar is an ideal 
shingle wood in addition to the fact that it is abundantly available. 
Other trees, such as the northern white cedar and the southern white 
cedar, make practically the same quality of shingles as the western 
variety of cedar, but they are more inclined to be knotty and narrower in 
width inasmuch as they are made from much smaller trees. Other 
species yielding shingles of very high quality are cypress and redwood. 


ANNUAL PRODUCTION 


About 8,000,000,000 to 12,000,000,000 shingles are produced annually 
in this country. The latter amount has been produced for some time, 
but for the last few years the production has decreased, due to numerous 
cities inaugurating fire laws which prohibit the use of shingles in new 
buildings within city limits. Of the total production, between 70 and 80 
per cent is made up of western red cedar. These shingles are largely 
manufactured in the State of Washington, which alone produced 73 per 
cent of all the shingles made in this country in 1917. Oregon and 
northern Idaho also turned out large quantities of shingles and a few 
western red cedar shingles are also made in western Montana. 

Northern white cedar shingles are made largely in northern Michigan, 
Maine and in Minnesota. Southern white cedar shingles are produced 
chiefly in eastern Virginia and North Carolina. 

Next to cedar, cypress is the leading shingle wood, but only slightly 
Over 600,000,000 cypress shingles are annually manufactured in this 
country. Next, in order, are yellow pine, redwood, spruce and chestnut. 
A few shingles are also made from hemlock, western yellow pine, white 
pine and a few others, but their total amount is of little comparative 
consequence in the shingle markets of this country. 

Western red cedar is practically the only kind that has a national 
market. The northern white cedar is consumed largely in the Central 
West and Northeast and southern white cedar in the Southeast and East. 
Cypress shingles are used throughout the East and southern pine shingles 
find their principal market in the South. All other shingles are used 


354 FOREST PRODUCTS 


very largely in restricted local regions except redwood, which has devel- 
oped a wide market outside California as well as within that state. 
Next to Washington, which is pre-eminently the leading shingle 
manufacturing state, according to the government’ statistics for 1917 
the following were the leading states in order of production: Oregon, 
cutting western red cedar; Louisiana, with its cypress and yellow pine 
shingles; California, cutting redwood; Maine, turning out large quan- 
tities of northern white cedar, and Michigan, with its great cedar output. 


RAW MATERIAL 


The material used for the manufacture of shingles comes to the mills 
in the form of bolts or logs. This material is usually logged in large 
lumber operations and sold directly to the shingle mills, which constitute 
a separate industry in the Northwest. Very often the poorer quality of 
logs are separated and sold to the shingle mills since very excellent 
shingles can be made from hollow butted logs. Ranchers and those 
clearing land commonly cut cedar trees into 52-in. bolt lengths and sell 
them directly to the mills. Logging of shingle logs is done largely by 
donkey engines and railroads, or by chutes, railroads, and by the use of 
drivable streams. The production of the raw material for the manu- 
facture of shingles is usually carried on by separate companies. 

Shingle logs cost between $8.00 and $15.00 or more per thousand 
board-feet delivered at the mill Bolts in 52-in. lengths bring from $3.00 
to $8.00 or more per cord at the mill. The cost depends upon the qual- 
ity of the timber and the local demand at the time of delivery. The 
market on shingles fluctuates rather rapidly, so that the value of the 
raw material fluctuates accordingly. | 

In logging southern white cedar for shingle production, the trees are 
cut into 5 ft. 2 in. and 6 ft. 2 in. lengths, which will make 3 bolts for 20-in. 
shingles out of 5 ft. 2 in. logs and 4 bolts for 18-in. shingles from 6 ft. 2 in. 
logs. A shingle cord in eastern Virginia and North Carolina in 1907 was 
considered to be a stack of bolts 4 ft. high by 5 ft. wide by 7 ft. long and 
contains 140 cu. ft. or 600 log feet. 

At the present time a shingle cord in this region is considered to be a 
stack of bolts 8 ft. long, 4 ft. high and 4 ft. wide and contains 128 cu. ft. 
This is considered equivalent to 500 ft., board measure, by the Doyle 
rule. 

In the manufacture of cypress, southern pine, and white pine shingles, 
defective or misshapen logs are commonly butted by means of a cut-off 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 3590 


saw at the the top of the jack ladder in the saw mill and the short lengths 
sent down a chute to the shingle mill on the lower floor. 

The following shows the cost of logging shingle bolts on a typical opera- 
tion before the war in western red cedar in Washington: 


COST OF LOGGING SHINGLE BOLTS,' WESTERN RED CEDAR 


Operation. Cost per sa of Shingle 

ARN hare oo pecan ba DO a ee $1.50 
SEMMMOS so %a-2,. x c's Daas pew aera ere -5° 
EC OMINE ay 27s gain a caw oe cee ee .25 
RUROIM ois ico cde ce acs KN awe ewes 1.00 
VAP CRDONBES «60. Ste As Cairne S25 
RBS | oC see de ss aig ee tedie ee =25 

Cs | operate erie ara: Spee $3.75 


1 This cost was for the period of the winter of 1916-1917. 


The prices received for bolts on this operation varied from $4.75 to 
$5.50 per cord. Eight thousand Star A shingles were derived from each 
1000 ft. of logs. Each cord of shingle bolts contained, on an average, 
about 850 bd.-ft. Each cord was made up of 25 to 40 bolts, each 52 in. 
in length. 

Generally, the shingle manufacturers prefer their shingle bolts in 
such sizes that from 20 to 30 make up a cord and it is commonly accepted 
that a cord of these bolts is equivalent to about 7oc bd.-ft. 

No trees less than 15 in. at the butt are accepted for making shingle 
bolts. The western red cedar usually grows with a large flared butt, espe- 
cially in the oldest and biggest specimens. In these cases, the swollen 
butt is cut up into shingle bolts and the upper part of the bole, which is 
less tapered, is utilized for saw-logs or for poles and piling unless too large. 
The best timber for shingle purposes and from which the best shingles are 
made are the trees with a straight, slightly tapering, and limbless bole, 
straight grain and as free as possible from such defects as rot, shake, 
checks, etc. . 

The operation of taking out bolts for the shingle mills may either pre- 
cede or immediately follow the logging operation for saw-logs. The 
latter practice is more frequently followed and very close utilization is 
customary, even defective or hollow logs and high stumps being used 
where low transportation charges justify the expenditure. A few years 
ago, when all stumps were cut from 5 to 20 ft. high or more with the aid of 
spring-boards, shingle mills, moved from place to place, obtained their 


356 FOREST PRODUCTS 


raw material at a relatively low figure and it generally was of such high 
quality that profits were excellent. 

The logging expense during 1916-1917 on a large operation in south- 
ern white cedar was as follows: ; 


COST OF LOGGING SHINGLE BOLTS, SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR ! 


Erase ct ; ae 
Operation. Cost nits 

SA Wi Kk Aart esis ails Artemis $4.67 
SkiIddin et Rl gecko oh oid eee ae 1.02 
fi” ieee RN ae ee fe iy RSNA ory x oar 69 
RailtGad Operauion, cro os Vhs Soe is a el ers 1.88 
Freight paid other railroads, various distances... +27 

$8.53 


1 Data supplied by Reber F. Clark. 
2 As noted above each cord contains about 500 bd.-ft. by the Doyle rule. 


SHINGLE MACHINES 


There are various forms of shingle machines now placed upon the 
market. Formerly they were entirely of the horizontal variety with a 
provision to make the standard shingle with a thick butt and a thin 
tip. Machines used in the early days of the industry were devised to 
cut from 1 to 10 blocks at the same time. In recent years, the horizontal 
machines have been largely supplanted by the upright shingle machines. 

The equipment in a modern shingle mill usually consists of the fol- 
lowing machinery: 

(1) A drag or swinging circular cut-off saw, usually run by steam 
or electricity to cut logs or bolts to the desired length. Drag saws are 
generally preferred with large timber as they are adaptable to all sized 
logs. However, they are objectionable because they do not make a 
smooth cut and, therefore, result in rough butted shingles. Bolts are 
usually cut into shingle block lengths by means of small stationary 
circular saws. 

(2) A bolter or “ knee bolter,’”’ a circular saw revolving in a hori- 
zontal plane and fed by a small carriage controlled by the knee of the 
operator. ‘This saw is used to remove the bark and any exterior defects 
and cut the bolt into proper sizes for the shingle machine. 

(3) The shingle machines were formerly of the horizontal type, as 
stated above, but have been largely replaced by the upright machines 
which were introduced within recent years from the Lake States. All 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 357 


types are regulated to make the standard sized shingle having the thick 
butt and thin tip, and with provision for taking from 1 to 10 blocks at a 
time. 

The vertical type consists of a set of stationary circular saws revolving 
in a vertical plane. A vertical sash frame holds the block and operates 
with a longitudinal reciprocating motion. Attached to the frame are 
spur rolls, one above and the other below, which automatically alternate 
the butt cut from the top to the bottom of the block, with each backward 
stroke of the frame. This, of course,means a minimum of waste, which 
runs as low as 10 per cent of the raw material in the most modern mills 
using the upright machine. 

(4) The jointer or clipper consists of a single or double rip saw, or a 
wheel jointer. The latter is a rapidly revolving steel wheel carrying 
from 4 to 8 knives set in radial fashion. The jointer edges or “ joints ” 
the shingle, making the two sides parallel and trimming off wane or uneven 
edges. 

(5) The shingle packer. This consists of a bench frame and two 
slotted, overhanging steel rods. After the packer or operator places the 
shingles into the frame the rods are pressed down, packing the shingles 
tightly together, the thin tips overlapping, while the metal strips are 
nailed. Foot levers are used to draw the wooden cleats together and 
hold the shingles tight until the strips are fastened. 

The following table represents the average daily output of the various 
forms of shingle machines now in use in the Puget Sound region, based 
on a ten-hour working day: 


OUTPUT OF VARIOUS TYPES OF SHINGLE MACHINES | 


Type of Machine. Average et utput of 
Sete DMGK ane ieaals vs. Joue too ee ss 180,000-—2 10.000 
Poeile block tess 2.2 ty. ks I 10,000—1 30,000 
Giiuile DAE: cs Sadly occas nes. 75,000- 90,000 
RTRRG TIMOR sos ie ae ee | 45,000- 55,000 
WWMENE Cos cos Sisco ecco tt 25,000- 30,000 
' 


The minimum figures of output given in this tabulation would obtain 
for so-called combination mills where the better class of logs are sawed 
into lumber, whereas the maximum figures obtain in those mills where 
both the good and poor timber is run into shingles and where efficient 
men and methods are used. 


358 FOREST PRODUCTS 


MANUFACTURE OF SHINGLES 


The following tables 1 will convey the best idea of the output, number 
and duties of men employed at a large shingle mill ‘using logs for raw 
material in western Washington, where both day labor and piecework 
prevail as is the case with most of the large shingle mills. The daily 
output was rated at 200,000 shingles and the annual capacity at 50,000,- 
ooo. This is figured on the basis of 250 working days in the year. The 
output was evenly divided between the two popular grades of “ stars ” 
and “ clears ” and the average cost of the raw material in log form, deliv- 
ered at the mill, was $10.00 per thousand board-feet. 

The following day labor was employed at the rates given: 


Employee. Daily Wage. 

EEN BITICET, of Cw Rie Bn cee a aes ral aoe eat ae $3.50 
Phere es SAID aris FETs ye oS 6.50 
ft GIRG SAWYER nc vate wien is yc Mes Re 3.50 
rpower Bolter sis PA Fe ee eee 3.00 
TACK NEN Se eles ce eae eer ae My ee sj 
poor: Man. nol eas cE Re 2 
$ Sremmper MAN os A hs Sa ae Ra ree ee 3.00 
x tally -qaanns, S569 nies 3 with aetog Shae eonteee e 3.00 
zt headlosders )3 02a ss ee ee 3-50 
z second: loader? 55.55 sowie Sa SA ae 2.50 
Faved Maa SE ke nate ae 2.00 
¥ Wand Baer es ee Nee 1.75 

Totals Sa ee RS en See ieee $37.00 


The following piecework charges were involved, the cost being ex- 
pressed per thousand shingles: 


Operation. Cost per M. 
Shingles 
PaCking baie Bk ach 4 vow Fe seg k tad A eae $.0g0 
Kitot Sawai. ooo4.9 ss cass oe a ee ee .130 
SAWIIE hasc fot e.ely's bias Biss OR ody eave ee .055 
Knee. bolting... 2... Atk is seid ees 045 
TOtah ss ois as einen mnie Ses a eee $. 32 


1From “ Western Red Cedar in the Pacific Northwest,” by J. B. Knapp and A, G. 
Jackson. 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 359 


By dividing the daily labor charge ($37.00) by the daily output (200,- 
ooo shingles) the charge per thousand shingles is found to be $0.185. 
The fixed charges, including maintenance, interest, watchman, insurance, 
taxes, depreciation, office expenses and night watchman come to $0.16 
per thousand and the raw material in the form of logs at $1.125 
per thousand. The total charges, therefore, may be summarized as 
follows: © 


Item. Cost per M. 
Shingles 
DIMURRIIOR Soren So See aS coe Sains a hee $0. 185 
MRL WOENS <font rs oe Paki d oe 24 Sn 0.32 
Fixed charges or overhead.....................- °.16 
Raw material (logs) delivered................... 1.125 
Total cost. of production}. vo. 22.5 ..2nee $1.79 


The average selling price over a given period based upon 50 per cent 
“ clears” and 50 per cent “ stars ” was $1.865 per thousand. This left, 
therefore, a net profit to the operator of $0.07§ per thousand. The 
annual net earning on the 50,000,000 output would amount to $3750. 

The following is a summary of costs together with the number of 
men employed at a single mill in Washington where the raw material 
was received in the bolt form. 

The following itemized daily costs were observed at this mill: 


Item. Daily Charges. 
8 cords of bolts at $6.00 per cord................ $48 .00 
2 knots sawyers at $4.50 per day................ g.00 
Y BMINGIS PACKET AUC OA.5O.. 1. es ee sw nce teen 4.50 
WE ANY NEE os eo hts Sonica os wae 10.00 
CM BU WANG oe ge oe Se po palestine os oh 7.50 
Pi engMERT hs 5. Sr, POE Ee er Pe PRET 2.50 
Depreciation and miscellaneous expenses... ...... 3-00 

PAM aR CIE ERT Ao, ioc eos se ke oad $84.50 


This mill received an average of about $2.00 per thousand for their 
shingles and the mill turned out 50,000 shingles per day, making the gross 
daily income $100. Deducting the above daily expense of $84.50, 
there was a net daily income of $15.50. The average cost of the manu- 
facture of shingles at this mill was, therefore, $1.69 per thousand shingles. 

The removal of the tariff on shingles by the Federal Government has 


360 FOREST PRODUCTS 


seriously affected the manufacturers in Washington and Oregon. British 
Columbia manufacturers have the advantage of cheap, Oriental labor, 
better grades of raw material since the timber runs better in that section, 
and greater concentration of capital and industrial-conditions. There 
were 115 shingle establishments in British Columbia in 1915, but the 
average mill has a much larger capacity than the average mill in Wash- 
ington, the largest mills turning out 700,000 shingles in a ten-hour day. 
In 1915 British Columbia exported over 1,259,000,000 shingles to 
the United States, leaving only 348,000,000 for domestic consumption. 


SPECIFICATIONS AND GRADING RULES 


The manufacturers of shingles have made many efforts to standardize 
mill grading by the organization of grading bureaus. The western red 
cedar shingle manufacturers are now well organized as a branch of the 
West Coast Lumbermens’ Association. Some companies still determine 
their own methods of grading. 

The basis of all shingle grades is (1) size (including length, width, and 
thickness), and (2) freedom from defects. Practically all shingles are 
made in 16-, 18- and 20-in. lengths and 4-, 5-, and 6-in. widths. Some 
are 24 in. in length in both the narrow and the larger widths. The 
larger shingles are from 3 to 3; of an inch in thickness at the butt and the 
shorter ones § of aninch. The thin end or tip varies from 7g to § in. in 
thickness. Some grades permit “feather tips.” 

The thickness of a shingle is a direct criterion of its length of service, 
other conditions being equal, since erosion and wearing due to rains and 
the weather will often determine its usefulness. Shingles must be thick 
enough to resist the stress induced by alternate moistening by rain and 
drying by the sun. Very wide shingles are not desirable, because they 
are very apt to warp and split as the result of alternate expansion and 
contraction with the weather. Western red cedar is commonly made 
into extra wide shingles, but those 10 in. wide and under are preferred. 


Some shingles are cut on the vertical or quarter grain and are much . 


more desirable because they wear better, and are less likely to check 
and warp. 

At the present time, the standard sawed shingle of western red cedar 
is regarded as being 16 in. long, 4 in. wide, jg in. thick at the point and 
3 in. thick at the butt end. 

The following are the official specifications of the shingle manufac- 
turers of the West Coast Lumbermens’ Association in the Northwest 
as applied to western red cedar: 


ae 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 361 


Perfection-18 in. 

Variation of 1 in., under or over, in length, allowed in 10 per cent. Random 
widths, but not narrower than 3 in. When dry 20 courses to measure not less than 
83 in. To be well manufactured. Ninety-seven per cent to be clear, remaining 3 per 
cent admits slight defects 16 in. or over from butt. 


Puget A-18 in. 

Random widths, but not narrower than 2 in. -When dry, 20 courses to measure 
not less than 8h in. Admits feather tips and 16-in. shingles resulting from shims, and 
other defects 8 in. or over from butt. 


Eureka-18 in. 

Variation of 1 in., under or over in length allowed in 1o per cent. Random 
widths, but not narrower than 3 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 
9} in. To be well manufactured. Ninety per cent to be clear, remaining 10 per cent 
admits slight defects 14 in. or over from butt. 


Skagit A-18 in. 

_ Random widths, but not narrower than 2 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure 
not less than 9} in. Will admit feather tips, and 16-in. shingles resulting from shims, 
and other defects 8 in. or over from butt. 

Extra Clear-16 in. 


Variation of 1 in., under or-over, in length, allowed in 10 per cent. Random 
widths, but not narrower than 23 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 
93 in. To be well manufactured, 90 per cent to be clear, remaining 10 per cent 
admits slight defects 12 in. or over from butt. 


Choice A-16 in. 


Random widths, but not narrower than 2 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure 
not less than g in. Admits wane and 12-in. shingles resulting from shims, and other 
defects 6 in. or over from butt. 

Extra *A*-16 in. 

Variations of 1 in., under or over, in length, allowed in 10 per cent. Random 
widths, but not narrower than 2 in. When dry, 25 courses to measure not less than 
7: in. To be well manufactured. Eighty per cent to be clear, remaining 20 per cent 
admits defects 10 in. or over from butt. If not to exceed 2 per cent (in the 20 per 
cent allowing defects 10 in. from butt) shows defects closer than 10 in., the shingles 
shall be considered up to grade. 

Standard A-16. - 


Random widths, but not narrower than 2in. When dry, 25 courses to measure 
not less than 7} in. Admits wane and 12-in. shingles resulting from shims, and other 
defects 6 in. or over from butt. 

Probably about go per cent of the shingles turned out in the North- 
west are made up of the “ Extra Clear”’ and “ Extra Star A Star” grades, 
about equally divided. 

The following are the official specifications of the Northwestern 


362 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Cedarmen’s Association as applied to the northern white cedar in the 
Lake States: 


Shingle Specifications. 

Extra Star A Star Shingles shall be manufactured as follows: Ten in. clear and 
better from butt, with all clears in: nothing narrower than 3 in. in width allowed. 
Five butts to measure 2 in. when sawed. All Extra Star A Star Shingles to. be 16 
in. in length. Standard Star A Star Shingles shall be 5 to 10 in. clear from butt, 
nothing narrower than 2 in. allowed: 5 butts to measure 2 in. when sawed. Ten per 
cent sap is allowed in this grade. 


The following are the specifications used for southern white cedar in 
eastern Virginia and North Carolina: 


Smooth Sawn Shingles. 

To be sawn on circular saws as smooth as possible. 

To be 4 in., 5 in. and 6 in. wide, and 16 in., 18 in. and 24 in. long. 

The 16-in. shingle to be $ in. thick at butt, and 3’ in. thick at point. 

The 18 in. shingle to be 4 in. thick at butt, 3% in. thick at point. 

The 24 in. shingle to be 35 in. thick at butt, and } in. thick at point. 

No. 1 Grade: To be all heart or to show one heart face, a little sap on reverse side 
will be admitted, in fact, if sap is barely visible on edge of face side it will be admitted, 
admits knots, but they must be sound and tight. 

““A” Grade: This grade compares with No. 1 grade in all respects, except that any 
amount of sap is admitted, they may be all sap, or part sap, or part heart. Will 
admit knots but they must be sound and tight. 

“Star” Grade: This shingle to take practically all shingles below Grade No. “A,” 
will admit any amount wane edges, provided there is a full face for a length of 6 in. 
from butt. Bark to be removed from edges. Will admit any amount of knots, which 
do not have to be sound or tight. The 4-in. shingle will not admit any knot holes, 
especially if they are near the center of the shingle. The 5-in. and 6-in. shingles are 
not graded as closely in this respect and will admit small knot holes. No badly split 
or rotten shingles put in this grade. 


The following are the official grading rules of the Southern Cypress 
Manufacturers’ Association as well as of the Hardwood Manufacturers’ 
Association of the United States as applied to cypress shingles: 


Bests. 

A dimension shingle, 4, 5 and 6 in. in width, 16 in. long, each width packed sep- 
arately, 5 butts to measure 2 in., to be all heart and free of shake, knots and other 
defects. 


Primes. 

A dimension shingle, 4, 5 and 6 in. in width, 16 in. long, each width packed sep- 
arately, 5 butts to measure 5 in., admitting tight knots and sap, but free of shake and 
other defects, but with no knots within 8 in. of the butts. 

This grade may contain shingles clipped two-thirds of the width and one-eighth 
of the length on the point. 

Star A Star. 

A random width shingle 3 in. and wider, 14 in. to 16 in. long otherwise the same 

as primes. 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 363 


Economy. 

Dimensions, 4, 5 and 6 in. each width separately bunched, admitting sap and 
- sound knots, may have slight peck 5 in. from butts, imperfections on points no 
objection and admitting 14 in. shingles. © 
Clippers. 

All shingles below the above grades which are sound for 5 in. from the butts, worm 
holes and slight peck excepted, random widths 2} in. and wider. 

The count of the manufacture of these shingles, of all grades, is based on 4000 
lineal inches in width, making 1000 standard shingles, consequently there would be 
only 667 6-in. shingles packed and counted as 1000 standard shingles; 5 in. dimensions 
being counted in like proportion. 

In making reinspection of shingles, one bundle out of twenty beniiies! taken at 
random, shall be cut open, the results of this investigation to form the basis of arriving 
at the grade of the entire shipment. 


The following table ! shows the average selling prices of the two prin- 


cipal grades of western red cedar shingles. These two grades make up 
approximately 95 per cent of all western red cedar shingles made. 


Average | Average 
Year. Grade. Price per i Year. Grade. Price per 
Thousand. Thousand. 
1893 Star A Star $1.39 ] 1907 Star A Star $2.39 
Extra Clears 1.61 1 Extra Clears 2.67 
1894 Star A Star I.1I0 || 1908 Star A Star 77 
_- Extra Clears 1.25 i} Extra Clears 2.20 
1895 Star A Star .go | 1909 Star A Star 1.75, 
Extra Clears T.05 | Extra Clears 2.10° 
1896 Star A Star -92 || 910 Star A Star 1.69 
Extra Clears I.07 | . Extra Clears 2.14. 
1897 Star A Star 1.02 || torr |. Star A Star 1.55. 
Extra Clears 1.16 || Extra Clears 1.98- 
1898 Star A Star re oe | AB Star A Star 1.60 
Extra Clears F265) Extra Clears 2.00 
1899 Star A Star 1.22 1913 Star A Star 1.65 
Extra Clears 36 || Extra Clears 2.14 
Ig00 Star A Star 1.25 | 1914 Extra Stars 1.65 
; Extra Clears 1.46 Extra Clears 2.14 
Igor Star A Star 1.37 IQI5 . Extra Stars 1.43 
Extra Clears 1.61 es Extra Clears epee eg 
1902 Star A Star 1:75 -l| 1916 Extra Stars. | 4.27 
Extra Clears 1.99 || Extra Clears | 1.56 
| | 
1903 Star A Star 1.50 || 1917 Extra Stars | ress 
Extra Clears 4837 | } Extra Clears I.g2 
1904 Star A Star 1.36 | 1918 Extra Stars 2.19 
_ Extra Clears 59. >) Extra Clears 2.82 
‘1905 Star A Star 1.36 IgI9 Extra Stars | 2.23 
Extra Clears 1.62 | Extra Clears 2.80 
1906 Star A Star 1.78 
Extra Clears 2.12 


1 Taken from the ** West Coast Lumberman,” Seattle, as published in several issues. 


364 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The following table shows the average selling price per thousand 
pieces of southern white cedar shingles for the past five years. The two 
grades quoted represent approximately 93 per cent of all southern white 
cedar shingles manufactured. 


} 
Average Average 
Year. Grade. ape Bee Year. | Grade. Psst 
Pieces. Pieces. 
1 
1916 cA” $4.50 | 1918 Ave $8.25 
; Star 3.50 | Star 6.75 
1917 “A 8.00 { 1919 eA? 8.50 
Star 6.50 | Star 7.00 
i| . 


THE LAYING OF SHINGLES 


Shingles are used for both roofing and siding and in certain architec- 
tural designs lend a very attractive appearance to the structure. Stained 
shingles are especially coming into favor for siding either all or part of 
the building. 

The placing of shingles does not always receive the attention commen- 
surate with the cost of the work and the length of service expected. 
improper nailing or carelessly laid joints often result in leakage. Shin- 
gles which are 6 in. wide (or wider) should have 3 or more nails. Those 
from 3 to 6 in. in width should be fastened with 2 to 3 nails. 

The kind or form of shingle nails has a direct bearing on the length of 
life of any shingle. Those made of zinc, copper, or galvanized wire are 
much preferred to cut iron or wire shingle nails. 

The pitch of a roof also has a direct bearing on the life of the shingle. 
Those on nearly flat roofs deteriorate much more quickly than those on 
steep roofs or those ysed for siding. 

The following table shows the covering capacities of shingles and 
shakes when laid at varying exposures to the weather. It is based on 
4 in. as the average width of shingles and 5 in. as the average width of 
shakes. 


COVERING CAPACITIES OF SHINGLES AND SHAKES 


Kind Taches to Weather, | Namber Required to | Number Square Feet 
i SEN aE 4 1080 93 
SPHMMES ashe re ere 43 1000 105 
SINE Sys is oe oe 5 790 133 
Shakese ss. 4.050 se: 7 400 280 
Re Franc nelak 2 10 290 345 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 365 


Shakes are commonly 24 and 32 in. long. The former are laid 7 in. 
to the weather and the latter ro in. 

Shingles 20 and 24 in. in length, made of southern white cedar are 
often laid 5, 6 and 7 in. to the weather. 

Southern white cedar shingles, 4 in. in width by 20 in. in length are 
usually laid 6 in. to the weather. Laid in this manner their length will 
admit of three laps, which are essential to a tight roof and make pos- 
sible a four-ply shingle roof with a 2-in. under extension. Southern 
white cedar shingles have a covering capacity as follows: 


; Number of Pieces to | - 
2 : Number of roo it. 
Wats. heath: | 100 Sq. ft. Laid 6 In. | square to M Shingles. 
4 20 600 ¥.67 
5 20 480 2.08 
6 20 576 2.50 


PACKING AND SHIPPING 


Shingles are packed in regulation frames of standard length, thick- 
ness and width. All packing is done by hand and each grade is kept 
separate, the packer usually being paid by the piece. 

In Washington all shingles are cut in random widths from 2} in. and 
up, the average being about 4 in. A standard bundle of 16-in. 
western red cedar shingles containing 250 pieces is 20 in. wide and has 
24 tiers. The shingles overlap with the thin ends at the center. Foot 
levers are used to draw the center together while wood strips across the 
face and metal strips at each side bind the bundle in a compact manner. 

Shingle packers or “‘ weavers,” as they are called, will pack from 
30,000 to 80,000 shingles in a ten-hour day, while the average is around 
45,000 a day. This capacity is determined largely by the ability and 
deftness of the weaver, and the average width and quality of the shingles. 

The cost of packing ranges from about 7 to 12 cents per thousand 
shingles. 

Figuring 4 bundles to the thousand shingles, there are about 880 
bundles or about 220,000 shingles per car, of the larger sizes. 

The following are the accepted rules for packing in the Northwest: 


“ 


All shingles are to be packed in regulation frames, 20 in. in width. Openings 
shall not average more than 13 in. to the course. Perfection and Puget A shall be 
packed 20-20 courses to the bunch and 5 bunches to the thousand. All others shall 
be packed 25-25 courses to the bunch, 4 bunches to the thousand. Every bundle 
is branded with the full name of the grade. Color of wood and sound sap are not 
considered as defects. 


366 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Some of the southern white cedar shingles are packed 50 to the bundle, 
this requiring 20 bundles to make a thousand. In this case each sepa- 
rate width is bundled separately. A carload of these shingles will con- 
sist of between 60,000 and 125,000, depending on the sizes. The popular 
sizes are the 18- and 20-in. shingles, whereas the 16-in. shingle is the 
popular size with western red cedar. 

In the Northwest shingles are usually kiln dried at temperatures of 
from 150 to 200° F., for from five to twelve days to reduce freight charges » 


Fic. 96.—Shingle packer or buncher. 


as much as possible. Many manufacturers have been somewhat over- 
zealous in reducing the weight of their product by extreme artificial 
drying and have injured the durability of the shingles. This has been 
rapidly overcome, however, since the serious depression in the price 
of shingles during the year 1915. 

Air seasoning has given much better results from the standpoint of 
durability, but it is so expensive as to be almost prohibitive in the case 
of western red cedar. 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 367 


Water shipment charges are based upon the number of shingles rather” 
than on weight, so that shingles shipped on vessels are often in the green 
condition and partially air-seasoned before reaching their destination. 

The following standard shipping weights are recognized in the North- 
west and delivered prices are customarily figured on this basis (see 
grading rules for further description of grades): 


Grades: Weight in ron per 
PREM RII SEE EO WD Sass bien ee et SS 160 
Pe ROE, Ctr facsien ster cnae douleet dosh 3 160 
SEM NIM CRO NER EOS SIN eres fae i idle a. ore os Oe scies os Und 180 
ET ESOT pee ee ne ras ae ne eB ee ea i 180 
MRROM CRN IIE oo Sia ald oe ag Peitics ie Se hase eu ae iat Besta 200 
ES SE ie Es on, eae a Rae ele ee oe 200 
Perfections and Puget A-18 in..................-....---- 200 


The weights of southern white cedar shingles are as follows: 


Length, Inches. Width, Inches. Pew is Foonis pec 
20 4 400 
18 4 375 
16 4 300 


No artificial method of Seasoning is generally applied to these shingles, 
which accounts for their relatively high weights. They are commonly 
shipped with little or no air seasoning as the wood contains a low per cent 


- of moisture. 


SHINGLF SUBSTITUTES 


The competition of substitute materials for roofing purposes has 
become a serious problem with shingle manufacturers. Those pro- 
moting the use of substitutes for wood shingles have used the fire hazard 
as their great argument. The modern movement in favor of better fire 
protection in our cities has been used to favor the passage of ordinances 
in many cities prohibiting the use of wooden shingles in congested centers 
and restricting their use generally. 

The forms of substitutes for wooden shingles include a great variety 
principal among which are asphalt, asbestos and combination shingles, 
tar roofing, slate, tile, various metal forms and several patent materials. 
The widespread demand for fireproof construction as applied to all kinds 


368 FOREST PRODUCTS 


of structures and buildings, as a result of the great annual loss of life 
and property and the decreased insurance rates offered in conformance 
with fire underwriters’ specifications have greatly stimulated the intro- 
duction and use of these substitute materials. The best indication of 
this condition is found in the statistics showing annual consumption of 
wooden shingles. It has remained about stationary in the past four 
years, whereas the demands for roofing materials of all kinds have been 
increasing from year to year. 

Very little has been done until recently in the way of concerted effort 
to meet this competition. Efficient and widespread advertising, more 
careful methods of manufacture and the adoption of and adherence to 
stricter standards should be of material assistance in maintaining the 
demands for the wooden shingle. 

Most of the substitutes are much more expensive and in addition 
require heavier construction in the building because of their additional 
weight. Moreover, wooden shingles, particularly cedar, cypress and 
redwood, are more durable as a rule than the other materials. 

Probably the most effective means of combating this question is the 
fireproofing of the wooden shingle. Many experiments have been car- 
ried out with this purpose in view, but no method has been generally 
adopted as yet in the commercial field. The U. S. Forest Products 
Laboratory has developed experimentally a method which may prove 
to be commercially practicable. Air-dried shingles are subjected to a 
treatment with a solution of borax in water. The shingles are kiln dried 
to a moisture content of 10 per cent and then treated with a solution of 
zinc chloride and dried. It has been determined that shingles subjected 
to this treatment still retain their fire-resistant qualities after soaking ~ 
them in running water for two weeks. 

Wooden shingles have the following distinct advantages: They are 
durable, relatively cheap, light in weight and therefore require only light 
support; they do not rust or corrode; wood is an excellent non-conductor 
of heat; they are not affected by the wind if laid and nailed properly; 
they present a pleasing appearance and are easily laid. 


DURABILITY AND PREVENTION OF DECAY 


The value of any shingle wood depends very largely upon its durabil- 
ity. The durability.in turn of shingles is dependent upon a number 
of factors, the chief of which are the species of wood, climate in which 
they are in service, pitch of the roof, size of the face of the shingles 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 369 


exposed to the weather, the thickness of the shingle, the method of laying, 
and last, but very important, the fire hazard involved. 

The length of service varies considerably with the different species 
of woods used for shingles. The following shows the approximate 
service that the principal shingle woods should give under average con- 
ditions: 


Species. Length of Life. 
Cedar (western red and northern and southern white)... .. 15 to 305 years 
NNN scan ors 03s o's cA tole PEE Sees Ge ees hol a et 15 to 30 
SAL MET IE VOUMPW PRUE 3h ins SA fs oc Seer aes 6 to 12 
0S TD SE pe a ae ak aarp are OMICS 30m) eer ra 12 to 25 
STR eae es 2 Cas ay ape a ee oe SR 12to20 “* 
REM np RGR EAE oe iS pene Te Bea erat 1sto25 “ 
IEE PANO 0 ack vias a oc eR Oe cee anes 8to12 “ 
gs SAR eae oan pe mr een Min ee ice tener roms ales 7to12 “ 
yn eR iy ate Bet ae A ep tn tg Le ever rye, oT ee Pinas 


Shakes, which, as a rule, are much thicker than shingles, will last 
much longer than the periods given above. Split or cut shingles always 
last longer than sawn shingles. Instances are on record of cedar, cypress, 
and redwood shingles lasting for from thirty to fifty years or more, but 
this is an unusual exception. Decay is caused chiefly by water, the 
accumulation of moss and debris on the roof, splitting, warping, etc. 
The use of preservatives has been widely introduced to prevent decay. 

The following methods, briefly enumerated, are the principal processes 
of preventing decay. Along with the prevention of decay various 
stains and preservatives are used to lend attractiveness to the appearance 
of the structure when used with various coloring agents. 

1. Dipping. This is the most common method, the shingles being 
merely dipped in the preservative, and nailed to the roof. The shingles 
should be thoroughly air dried before dipping, and the preservative 
should be applied warm or hot. The exposed part of the shingle only, is 
dipped. They are usually given a final coating of preservative after 
being laid. Preservatives used are creosote, carbolineum and various 
patent forms. 

2. Brush treatment. This is a cheap and less efficient method in 
which the shingles are merely painted with a preservative, after being 
laid. Paint aids chiefly in keeping shingles flat and preventing leaks. 

3. Impregnation. This is the most efficient method, in which the 


370 FOREST PRODUCTS 


shingles are treated by the open tank process, about 10 lb. of preserva- 
tive being applied to each bundle of shingles. The absorption should 
not be so great as to cause the running of pevpenvatiye oil from the 
shingle on unusually warm days. 

4. Staining. Stains are usually some compound of creosote applied 
to the shingle. They are not very efficient and also have a strong objec- 
tionable odor. 

The following costs are customarily involved in the preservative 
treatment of shingles: 


Impregnation with creosote (open tank or pressure treat- 


ment), per thousand.......... Se Sahai be eee nem $1.25 to1.75 
Dipping in creosote, per thousand......................  .60t01.50 
Shingle stains, per gallon.......... eras Red Gap eet . .40 to 1.00 
Brush treatment, once after laying, per 100 sq. ft........  .60 to 1.00 
Brush treated, twice after laying, per 100 sq. ft...... irae: be DGS 


SHAKE MAKING 


Shakes are split shingles and were in very common use up to the 
advent of the sawed shingle. In remote forest regions shakes are still 
made and. used for roofing and siding mountain cabins and other build- 
ings. Wherever transportation facilities are provided, sawed shingles 
compete successfully with shakes as they can be produced much cheaper. 

Shakes are now made in isolated mountain regions in California, 
the Northwest, and in the southern Appalachian Mountains. In Cal- 
ifornia many shakes are now made for tray bottoms, used in the drying 
of fruits such as raisins, prunes, and apricots. The practice is rapidly 
going out of existence, however. 

Shake making is generally condemned because it is extremely wasteful 
of timber. Only the very best and most straight-grained trees which are 
free from knots and other defects will rive. The shake maker, therefore, 
often lowers the value of a forest stand in a serious way by taking out only 
the largest and clearest timber of which only a small portion is utilized. 
The experienced shake maker looks over the best trees and takes a test 
chip or block out of one side of a tree. He continues this until he finds a 
tree of the proper riving qualities. 

Sugar pine, redwood, and western red cedar make excellent shake 
timber and all are commonly used in inaccessible districts of the West 
where these trees are found. In the Southern Appalachians, chest- 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 371 


nut, white oak and red oak are sometimes used, but the industry is 
rapidly diminishing both because of the development of the country and 
the lack of suitable and cheap timber. 

When a tree is found that will rive, it is felled, swamped and bucked 
up into blocks the length of the shakes. The blocks are next set on end 
for bolting. Circles the width of the shake are marked out on the face of 
the block, the center which has a diameter of from 3 to 6 in., being culled 
as it is too knotty. Next, the shakes are marked out in outline form 
so that they can be split out along the radius. Shakes split out along 
the quarter grain in this fashion are much stronger and more durable. 
The sapwood is usually trimmed off and only the heartwood taken. 


Photograph by U.S. forest Service. 


Fic. 97.—About 100,000 shakes made from five sugar pine trees in the Sierra National 
Forest, California. These sold at $4.00 per thousand. Shake making is exceedingly 
wasteful and is rapidly going out of practice. 


After the shakes are diagrammed on the face of the block they are split 
out. The shake maker uses the following tools: A cross-cut saw, axe, 
maul or mallet, 1 or 2 wedges, and a frow. The frow consists of a steel 
blade 6 to ro in. long with a wooden handle at right angles to the blade. 
It is usually made locally in a blacksmith shop and has a rather thick 
wedge edge. They cost from $.75 to $1.00 or more. With a frow and a 
wooden maul the bolts are first quartered, and then split up into suitable 
sized bolts for riving into shakes. Immediately after splitting the 


372 FOREST PRODUCTS 


shakes are piled in fours, crib fashion and thoroughly seasoned before 
being used or hauled to the market. 

As a rule, roof shakes are 32 in. in length, 5 in. wide and 3; of an inch 
thick. Tray shakes are generally 2 ft. long, 6 or more inches in width, 
and } in. thick. In California, it is estimated that each roof shake con- 
tains about 3% ft., board measure, and each tray shake about } ft., board 
measure. Only about 4000 roof shakes are made from each thousand 
board-feet of the tree actually used. About 25 per cent of the available 
saw timber of the trees taken for shake making is wasted. This por- 
tion is not used because of knots, cross-grain, sapwood, and defects. of 
various kinds. ! . 

The following costs of production have been observed in California. 
The usual selling price for roof shakes sold at the point of making runs 
between $6.00 and $8.00 per thousand shakes. 


Operation. Cost per M Shakes. 
Felling: and trimmitig. i060 dosh eseee see gee $0.10 to $0. 12 
BIA ves ss ee ee Cotes. PEM ae ae 1.25 to 1.60 
RIVTAG.. 25 utes oe SERUM A GAY ore es ee 1.80to 2,10 
Dili 4 eter hy aes Moen Oe Aone .10 tO: 50 
Baling (including wire) .........3....0: 60004 (25 tO ae 
PAE MIB okies agen SEA tetany SRS RIA Le 86 to 9.-e2 
SEUPMIIAIC ars he; 5 as a bg va bie SR Aw ete Dele pe 1.25 to 1.60 

oral Der Thousand 5.65 Ss sos eS $4.80 to $5.89 


Tray shakes for use in the California valleys are commonly split out, 
but they are also sawed out at so-called tray mills. The operation is 
practically the same as in making roof shakes, but the operator is not so 
particular about the type of timber taken. Tray shakes are, as a rule, 
much longer, wider and thicker than roof shakes, and are sometimes 
graded into first and second classes. Tray mills which saw their product 
sometimes turn out from 12,000 to 16,000 tray boards per day. They 
bring from $13.00 to $15.00 or more per thousand delivered at the rail- 
road. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Berry, Swirt. Shake Making and Tray Mills in California National Forests. 
Forestry Quarterly, No. 3, Vol. 11, 1913. 


Knapp, J. B. and A. G. Jackson. Western Red Cedar in the Pacific Northwest. 
Reprint from the West Coast Lumberman, 1914. 


ee EEE EEE aoe 


SHINGLES AND SHAKES 373 


Mattoon, W. R. The Southern Cypress. U.S. Forest Service Bulletin 272. 


National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association. Conference with the Federal Trade 
Commission. December, 1915. 


Miscellaneous Articles in the Timberman, the West Coast Lumberman, the Lumber 
World Review, the American Lumberman and the Canada Lumberman. 


_ Sntnn, C. H. Shakes and Shake Making in a California National Forest. No. 2, 
Vol. 4, Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters. 


U. S. Bureau-of Census. Lumber, Lath and Shingles, 1912. 

U. S. Dept. of Agric. Production of Lumber, Lath and Shingles in 1917. Bull. 768. 

Weiss, H. F. Preservation of Strcutural Timber. McGraw-Hill Co., New York. 
Chap. 14. 


CHAPTER XVIII 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 


HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 


THE making of syrup and sugar from the sap of the maple trees was 
discovered and developed in a very crude way by the Indians long before 
the first white settlers came to this country. Interesting passages from 
the journals of early explorers refer to the tapping. of the maple trees in 
the early spring throughout the St. Lawrence Valley and the northeastern 
part of this country. . The earliest extant written record seems to be in 
1673. Many legends have been handed down to the white settlers 
concerning the first discovery of the use of.the maple sap by:the Indians. 

They tapped the tree by making a sharp incision in the bark or in one 
of the larger roots and. collected the sap by conveying it by means of a 
reed or a curved piece of bark into a receptacle made of clay or bark. 
The journal of a white settler captured by the Indians ‘in.1755 tells of a 
large trough of 100 gal. capacity made of baie bark which was used for 
the collection and the storage of maple sap.. 

The early settlers quickly -took .up the process. and ‘aaa many 
improvements in the. way. of receptacles and utensils. The Indians 
had boiled down the sap by repeatedly dropping hot stones into it. They 
had also learned to convert the sap into sugar by allowing it to freeze in 
shallow vessels, the ice being skimmed. off and thrown away and this 
process continued until the sap was sufficiently refined to crystallize. 
Although the same general method was followed, little marked improve- 
ments were made by the early colonists. The axe was used to cut a 
diagonal notch in the tree and later a circular hole was cut, followed by 
the use of the spile or spout to convey the sap into a bucket. Iron or 
copper vessels were substituted for the crude bark or wooden troughs or 
hollowed logs. 

Still later the trees were tapped by the use of an auger, holes being 
bored an inch or more in diameter in which were inserted hollow or half 
round spiles of sumach or alder. The sap was collected in wooden 
buckets, and more recently galvanized iron and tin buckets came into 


common use. 
374 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 375 


The “ boiling down ”’ or evaporation process in the early days was 
also very crude. It was done in the open woods with no shelter from sun, 
wind, rain or snow. The resultant impurities from this lack of pro- 
tection meant a very inferior grade of product. Frequently a pole was 
stretched between two forked posts and from this an old-fashioned potash 
kettle was suspended over an open fire. Sometimes a long, heavy pole 
supported by a post or the crotch of a tree and balanced at the other 
end with weights was used. The latter method permitted the kettle 
to be swung over or away from the fire. As the sap was boiled down 
the impurities were skimmed off. When it was boiled down to the 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 98.—The old primitive and wasteful method of tapping sugar maples used by the Indians 
and sometimes by the early settlers. The rough-hewn receptacle and wooden trough 
have been replaced by the covered bucket and the iron spout. 


proper consistency, or to a thin syrup, it was stored in a vessel and the 
process repeated with fresh sap. Very often the syrup resembled a 
tarry mass; dark, heavy, and exceedingly inferior in quality in com- 
parison to the modern product. 

The work of making the syrup into sugar is known as “‘sugaring 
off.” This was accomplished by continued boiling until the syrup 
attained a waxy consistency when dropped in the snow.. It was then 
poured immediately into small moulds where it crystallized into sugar. 


376 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Succeeding the suspended iron kettle came the open furnace, built of 
flat stones or brick with grates placed over them and space provided 
for from four to six kettles. The next step was the use of the boiling 
pans which varied in width from 30 in. to 3 ft., in length from 6 to 10 ft., 
and only about 6 in. deep. These pans came into use about the middle 
of the last century. In 1865 pans with partitions to produce an alter- 
nating flow of sap were introduced and rapidly adopted. The latter 
made possible the gradual flow of sap from one side to the other through 
succeeding compartments until it finally emerged in the form of syrup. 
This principle is incorporated in the modern evaporators, which have 
been in common use for the past forty years and which are used in con- 
nection with all of the larger commercial sugar orchards. They have 
a capacity of converting from 25 to 400 gal. of sap into syrup in an hour. 

The modern evaporators are usually from 2 to 6 ft. in width, 4 to 8 in. 
deep, and from 6 to 24 ft. long with corrugated bottoms to increase the 
heating surface. The rate of flow through the compartments is obvi- 
ously of the greatest importance. Most of the present models use 
automatic regulators by which the flow of sap from the tank or reservoir 
increases or diminishes with the heat underneath the pan. The evap- 
orator is always operated now in a sugar house conveniently located to 
the maple orchard. Its use will be more fully explained later in this 
chapter. 

As the evolution of the modern evaporator came about in gradual 
improvements, so the methods of collecting the sap and maintaining the 
sugar grove progressed from time to time. At first the sap was gath- 
ered in wooden buckets and carried by hand to the kettle or sugar house. 
Then a barrel on a sled drawn by horses or oxen was used as larger groves 
were tapped. The most modern improvements are exemplified in a 
system of pipes which convey the sap directly by gravity to the storage 
tanks along the roadside or to the sugar house. One large Adirondack 
sugar bush used a narrow gauge railway for bringing the sap from the 
woods to the sugar house. 3 

Another great advance in the industry has been in the cleanliness of 
the methods of tapping, gathering and manufacturing of both syrup and 
sugar and, therefore, in the purity of the product. At the present time, 
covers or lids are used on the pails hung on the trees on most of the up- 
to-date operations. Formerly rain, snow, leaves, twigs, pieces of bark, 
etc., fellin. Boiling was practiced in the open and here the same oppor- 
tunity was afforded for impurities to fallin. The lightest colored sugar 
and syrup are only derived from the purest sap and by the use of the most 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR oV7 


Sanitary utensils and methods. The purest product secures the best 
prices on the market so it is considered of the highest importance to 
use the most sanitary methods in every respect. 

It must not be assumed from the foregoing that all our maple sugar 
and syrup are made with the use of the evaporator and other up-to-date 
methods. Only the larger commercial operations tapping from 50 or 
100 up to several thousand trees every year can afiord these improve- 
ments. Both products are made on most of the farms in the Northeast 
where sugar maples are available, but on many places only a compara- 


= 
Pa 


kee 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 99.—The old-fashioned method of reducing the sap to syrup by “boiling down” .in copper 
kettles in the woods. The modern evaporator has replaced this method in large sugar 
bushes because it is more efficient and sanitary. 


tively few trees are tapped and the syrup and sugar made in the home 
kitchen and only for home use. 

In the early colonial days, maple sugar was made as an article of food. 
With the advent of cane sugar, it ceased to be an important necessary 
commodity on the markets and is now classed as a luxury. The demand 
for both sugar and syrup as luxuries has kept the industry alive and it is 
on the steady increase. However, in spite of the strong demand, the 
production has remained about stationary for the past two decades or 
more because of the large amount of adulteration. It is estimated that 
approximately seven-eighths of the total product is adulterated before 
it reaches the ultimate consumer. The increase in demand, therefore, 


378 FOREST PRODUCTS 


results in the use of more adulterants so that the producers do not profit 
from this strong demand. Organizations to combat this evil and to 
place their product directly in the hands of the consumer, as well as to 
standardize and advertise their product, have done much good work, 
notably among them being the Vermont Maple Sugar Makers’ Associa- 
tion, organized in 1893. The growers, consequently, do not like to seil 
their product to these “ mixers,”’ as they are called, and prefer to sell the 
sugar and syrup direct. This results both in protecting the trade against 
a spurious product and in bringing in more returns for their work. 


SPECIES OF MAPLES USED 


There are about 70 species of maples distributed over the world, of 
which Sargent recognizes 13 species or varieties as growing in the United 


States. The most important in the making of sugar and syrup is the . 


sugar maple (Acer saccharum) which also goes by the names of hard or 
rock maple. Probably between 80 and go per cent of all the maple 
sugar and syrup is made from this tree. All of the other native maples 
yield a sweetish sap, but only a few of them are capable of producing 
sugar on a commercial scale. 


Sugar Maple. 

The sugar maple is found throughout the eastern part of the United 
States, but for the production of sugar and syrup it does best in western 
New England, New York, Pennsylvania, the northern Appalachians, 
northern Ohio and the Lake States. The southern varieties of sugar 
maple, namely, A. floridanum and A. leucoderme, do not yield sugar or 
syrup. 

Throughout its northern habitat, the sugar maple is one of the most 
prominent trees in the forest, growing in mixture particularly with yellow 
birch and beech and on the higher elevations with spruce. It has a 
very wide range of soil requirements and is found both on moist, well- 
drained soils as well as on gravelly, dry hillsides. 

It is classed as a tolerant tree so that its crown is rather deep and 
broad even when growing in close association with other trees or under 
the shade of other dominant specimens. 

Sugar maple sometimes reaches a height of from 100 to 120 ft. although 
it commonly grows to a height of from 60 to 80 ft. Its diameter averages 
between 14 and 24 in. and it is said to occasiqnally reach 4 ft. in diameter. 
It is a very slow growing tree and frequently reaches an age of between 
three hundred and four hundred years. 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 379 


This tree is readily planted in the form of new groves and it is easily 
reproduced naturally so that, in spite of its slow rate of growth, there 
will always be little difficulty in maintaining sugar groves for the future 
of this industry. 3 


Black Maple. ; 

The black maple (Acer nigrum) which is sometimes recognized as a 
variety of sugar maple, also occurs throughout the North and East, but 
commercial production of maple sugar and syrup is limited to the 
Northeast as in the case of the true sugar maple. In Vermont the black 
maple is commonly considered superior to the sugar maple as a pro- 
ducer of high quality as well as large quantity of sap. In general appear- 
ance and characteristics, it is very similar to the sugar maple and is 
usually found on lower elevations and along the banks of streams and in 
the lower valleys. 

Red Maple. 

This maple (Acer rubrum) has a wider natural range than any of the 
other maples found in this country. It grows best along the borders of 
streams and in swampy soils. It is a much more rapidly growing tree 
but does not reach the size, either in height or diameter, of the sugar 
maple. It is used for sugar production in the Middle and Western 
States to a limited extent, but its sap is very low in yield of both syrup 
and sugar. 


Silver Maple. 


The silver maple (Acer saccharinum) is found from New Brunswick 
to Florida and west to the central prairies. It commonly grows along 
with the sugar maple, but altogether prefers the low lands bordering 
swamps and streams. It yields a plentiful flow of sap, but it is very likely 
to discoloration and its season is very short and uncertain. It is seldom 
used when sugar or black maples are available. It grows to a good size, 
but does not occur as frequently as the three maples mentioned above. 
It is not likely that it will ever be an important source of syrup and 
sugar production. 


Other Maples. 


The other maples, such as the Oregon maple (Acer circinatum), 
mountain maple (Acer spicatum), striped maple (Acer pennsylvanicum), 
box elder (Acer negundo), etc., are of no importance in this industry. 

It is of the greatest importance that the best forest conditions are 
maintained in the sugar grove. The sap and sugar production is directly 


380 FOREST PRODUCTS 


proportionate to the leaf area of the trees and it is said that this leaf area 
is of greater importance than the amount of light the leaves receive. 
Each tree, therefore, should have full room for development consistent 
with the largest available number of trees per acre. At the sample time 
the crown canopy of the trees should be sufficiently dense to prevent the 
growth of grass underneath and to maintain a good covering of humus 
and leaves on the ground. 

The gradual northern spring with cold nights, warmer days and slow 
yield of frost from the ground are conducive to a long and continuous 
flow of sap. Sudden thaws and rapid changes of temperature are 
injurious to this flow. The ground should be kept as moist as possible 
under the humus covering. A good blanket of snow gradually melting 
off helps very materially to keep the soil moist and, therefore, to induce 
the maximum flow of sap. 

The careful nurturing of the young maples, the thinning and improve- 
ment of the grove, etc., are silvicultural problems which are deserving 
and receiving more and more attention from the sugar makers. Some 
growers even advise the sowing of 500 Ib. of nitrate of soda per acre to 
induce vigorous leaf growth and, therefore, sweeter and more sap during 
the following spring. 


ANNUAL PRODUCTION 


It is estimated that an equivalent of about 45,000,000 Ib. of maple 
sugar are annually made in this country. This is based upon the assump- 
tion that all sap is made into sugar. 

The annual production of maple sugar and syrup reached the height 
of its importance in 1860. At this time the cane sugar came into com- 
petition with it as a food commodity. In 1870, as a result of this com- 
petition, the production fell heavily but rose again in 1880 and remained 
about the same in 1890. About this time both syrup and sugar came | 
into strong demand as table luxuries and this demand stimulated its 
production very materially. 

In 1900 there were produced about 12,000,000 lb. of sugar valued at 
$1,074,260 and 2,056,611 gal. of syrup valued at $1,562,451. In 1909 
the value of the sugar and syrup crop was $2,541,098. There has been 
a distinct tendency in the production to fall off in those parts of the 
country where sugar was produced for home consumption only, whereas 
in regions where the industry is of larger commercial importance, it has 
increased in considerable amounts. For example, in Vermont, New 
York and northern Ohio, the industry has made rapid strides within the. 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 381 


past five years through a strong demand for the products, organization 
of the growers and more stringent laws to prevent adulteration without 
proper labeling. 

In 1909 there were produced 14,060,206 lb. of sugar and 4,106,418 gal. 
of syrup. The great majority of these products are made in Vermont, 
New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan and New Hampshire, listed 
in order of importance. These states supply about 95 per cent of the 
sugar and over 80 per cent of the syrup. Vermont is said to specialize 
more in sugar while Ohio turns most of its production into syrup. New 
York engages in the production of both syrup and sugar without dis- 
crimination. Other states passively engaged in the work are Indiana, 
Wisconsin, Massachusetts, Maine, West Virginia and Maryland. The 
census for 1909 shows a number of other states such as lowa, Connecticut, 
Rhode Island, Illinois, Nebraska, North Carolina, Virginia and others, but 
the total number of trees tapped and products made in them are of very 
little importance. 

In 1909 there were over 18,899,533 trees tapped valued at $5,177,809. 

A census of the more important sugar orchards in Vermont showed 
the average orchard to contain a little over 1000 trees. It is generally 
understood that by a sugar bush one means a grove where at least 100 
buckets are installed. In New York some of the sugar groves contain 
between 8000 and 17,000 buckets, although the usual sugar orchard runs 
between 300 and 1500 buckets. 

Practically every county in Vermont engages in the industry on-a 
commercial scale. The leading counties in order of production in this 
state in 1914 were Orleans, Franklin, Caledonia, Lamoille, Windham, 
Washington and Orange. The leading centers in New York are in St. 
Lawrence and Franklin and Lewis Counties, the Saratoga-Warren 
County section, the Delaware-Schoharie County unit and Cattaraugus- 
Chautauqua County unit. Geauga County is the center of production 
in Ohio. 


CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS 


In the establishment of an operation for making syrup and sugar 
within the natural range of sugar and black maple, where sap flows in 
commercial quantities, there are several considerations which should be 
kept in mind. It is assumed that in engaging in the work on a com- 
mercial scale the purchase of modern equipment such as evaporator, 
sugaring-off arch, tin buckets and covers, etc., is included. 


382 FOREST PRODUCTS 


These considerations may be summarized as follows: 

1. There should be trees enough for at least 100 buckets. The 
larger the number of buckets above this minimum the greater is the 
profit per bucket. : 

2. There should be at least from 60 to 80 trees or more per acre large 
enough to be tapped. The individual tree should be preferably well 
formed, with deep crowns and of good size. 


3. The trees should lie on gentle or sloping topography from which 3 


the sap can be collected on a sled with little difficulty. Although trees 
on southerly slopes run earliest in the season, there is no indication that 
they yield more sap than trees on other exposures. 

4. Very little capital is necessary to engage in the work, as the manu- 
facturers of equipment usually allow the growers to pay for this invest- 
ment out of the annual profits of the business. 

Other important considerations bearing upon the financial aspects of 
the making of syrup and sugar are: (a) No skilled labor of any kind is 
required; the work being done by the farmer and his family and hired 
help unless the groves are of the largest sizes. ‘Three men can look after 
the work of tapping the trees and gathering the sap on an orchard of 
2000 trees or less, while it requires only one man to look after the evap- 

orator. (6) The sugar season comes at a time of the year when the 
regular work of the farm is least active, thus giving the men an oppor- 
tunity to give most of their time to it. Under average conditions the 
gathering of the sap is finished by the middle of the afternoon and one 
man is left to complete the work of making syrup or sugar until the last 
of the day’s sap is run through the evaporator. 


SAP FLOW AND SEASON 


The flow of sap from the maple tree has not been thoroughly under- 
stood until comparatively recent years. Many investigations have been 
carried on by the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station which thor- 
oughly cleared up a number of doubtful points. 

Maple sap ordinarily contains from 2 to 6 per cent of sugar with an 
average, under all conditions, of about 3 per cent. The sap is composed 
largely of water, and the other component part sbesides sugar are various 
mineral ingredients such as lime, potash, iron, magnesia and certain 
vegetable acids. 

- It is the alternate freezing and thawing, peculiar to the climatic 
conditions in the early spring throughout the Northeast, that is most 


conducive to commercial sap flow. Moderately warm days and cold: 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 383 


nights below the freezing point are considered best in Vermont, and it is 
current opinion that a temperature of 25° F. during the night and a 
maximum of 55° F. during the day, with damp, northerly or westerly 
winds are the conditions under which the best flow is obtained. These 
changes of temperature cause a certain expansion and contraction of the 
gases within the cells and intercellular spaces in the wood which results 
in an alternate pressure and suction. During the sugar season this 
force varies from a suction of 2 Ib. per square inch at night to a pressure 
of about 20 Ib. per square inch during the day. 

The commercial flow of sap ordinarily runs from about the middle 
of March until about the middle of April in the region from Vermont to 
northern New York, inclusive. In Ohio and western New York the 
season is usually from late in February to early in April. The beginning 
of the sap season, of course, is determined wholly by the weather and the 
latitudes. Records show that the flow has commenced as early as the 
first of February and as late as the early part of April in the Northeast. 
The following records were obtained in Ohio from 1880 to 1912 by a sugar 
grower who kept an actual record of the opening and closing date of each 
season:! 


| 
| Number Coens | Closing | Number 
7 Year. ate. | Date. of Days. 

} 


Year. ning | Closing 


| 1897 Mar. 9 | Mar. 9 | 23 
1898 Mar. 3 | Apr. 11 39 
| 1899 Feb. 20 Apr. 11 50 

1900 | Mar. 8 | Apr. 14 | 37 


1881 Mar. 9 | Apr. 16 | 38 
1882 Mar. 2 ne St, a0 
1883 Mar. 1 Apr. 10 | 41 
1884 Mar. 12 ! 

1885 Mar. 27 Apr. 18 22 


| 
| 
| 
1880 Feb. 24 | Aer ss «f  3F | 
| 
| 


1902 | Mar. 7 Apr. 6 30 


1886 Mar. 15 Apr. 1r | 27 || 1903 | Feb. 26 | Mar.15 | 17 
1887 Mar. 2 Apr. 9 38 1904 | Mar. 2 Apr. 6 | 34 
1888 Feb. 21 Apr. 10 | 50 || 1905 Mar. 16 Mar. 29 | 13 
1889 Mar. 11 Apr. 9 29 «|| «1906 | Feb. 13 Apr. 2 | 48 
1890 Feb. 17 Apr. 7 49 || 1907 Mar. 14 Mar. 23 9 
1891 Feb. 13 Apr. 1: | 57 || 1908 | Mar. 5 Mar. 26 | 21 
1892 Feb. 22 Mar.30 | 37 | tgo9! | 
1893 Mar. 7 Apr. 3 |, 27 || 1910! | 
1894 Feb. 27 Apri Fao!) I) TORE Feb. 16 | Apis a | 47 
1895 Mar. 23 Apr. 12 20 | IgI2 Mar. 17 | Apr. 9 | 24 
1896 Feb. 27 Apr. Io 43 | 
t 


1No records were taken in this year. 


The longest run on this record is fifty-seven days and the shortest 
only nine days. The average is thirty-four days. The season ends 


1 See “ The Production of Maple Sirup and Sugar,” by A. H. Bryan and W. F. Hubbard, 
Farmers’ Bulletin 516, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1912, p. 20. 


384 FOREST PRODUCTS 


when the leaf buds begin to swell. The season, of course, begins earlier 
in the South than in the North. Professor J. L. Hills, Director of the 
Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station, has determined in his inves- 
tigations of sap flow many interesting findings, the chief of which may 
be summarized as follows: 

1. The amount of sap flow from a tree under given conditions is 
directly in proportion to the leaf area and the amount of sunshine it 
receives. The starch is stored in certain sapwood cells during the 
preceding summer and through the action of enzymes is transformed 
from starch into sugar. The alternate freezing and thawing causes 
expansion and contraction which, with the large amount of moisture 
drawn up from the roots, excites pressure at the tap hole. Trees in the 
open with wide, deep crowns, therefore, give much more and richer sap 
than forest grown specimens with long, straight boles and small shallow 
crowns. A tree 15 in. in diameter and 50 ft. in height was determined 
to have 162,000 leaves. This leaf space is equivalent to 14,930 sq. ft. 
in area representing about one-third of an acre. The weight of the water 
in the leaves in this tree is estimated to be 242.2 lb. and the total water 
content of the tree is set at 1220.57 lb. 

2. No more sugar or syrup is obtained by tapping on the branchy 
or south side of the tree. The compass direction makes no apparent 
difference in the yield of sap, sugar or syrup. A healthy and fresh por- 
tion of the bark indicates the best place in which to tap a tree. 

3. Most of the sap flow comes from the first 3 in. of sap wood. Deep 
tap holes, therefore, are not considered best. Tapping is seldom done 
now to a depth of more than 2} in. It was determined that in a tap hole 
6 in. deep, four-fifths of the sugar came from the first 3 in.. Deep tap- 
ping does not compensate for the extra labor of boring and increased 
injury to the tree. 

4. The best point at which to tap a tree is about 4 ft. from the ground. 
This point yields both more sap and better quality sap than lower or 
higher elevations. An experiment showed that 51 per cent of the total 
yield of sugar came from a tap 4 ft. from ‘the ground, whereas only 27 
per cent came from a root tap and only 22 per cent from a higher tap hole. 

5. The best size of tap hole is from 3 to 3 of an inch. Seven-eighths 
of an inch is the size most commonly in use to-day. Generally speaking, 
the larger the tap hole the more sap and sugar for the time being will be 
yielded. However, the smaller size holes yield practically as much 
sap and the hole will rapidly heal over so that the tree is not materially 
injured. In all cases the tap hole should be cut by a short bit, should 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR | 385 


be cleaned of all shavings and borings before the spout is inserted and the 
bark should be left intact. 

6. Sap pressure exists on all sides of the tap hole. That is, the pres- 
sure from above and below is the same and the flow of sap from the side 
also shows the same amount of pressure. 

7. Most of the sap flow occurs between the hours of 9 A.M. and 
noon. Over an extended period 63 per cent of the total sugar was con- 
tained in the sap which ran before noon. After 3 P.M. there is very little 
flow if any at all. 

8. The removal of the sap from the tree does not seem to have any 
material effect on its growing ability or general health conditions. 
Assuming that 3 Ib. of sugar are made to the tree, only from 4 to 9 
per cent, according to the size of the tree, of the total sugar contained is 
removed. 

g. Buddy sap, which is the common term applied to the green sap 
collected toward the end of the season and from which a resultant red- 
dish syrup is made, is commonly attributed to the swell of the buds. 
Investigation shows that this is caused by the development of a certain 
group of bacteria. These micro-organisms infect the sap as it flows 
out of the tap hole and while in the spouts and buckets. This infection 
increases with the sugar season and is the cause of the souring of sap and 
the buddy flavors which are common in syrups made at the termina- 
tion of the season. This tendency may be eliminated and the quality 
of the product much improved by observing the following: 

(a) By keeping the spouts and buckets thoroughly clean by wash- 
ing often ard regularly. 

(b) By using metal spouts and buckets instead of wooden ones. 

(c) By collecting the sap frequently and boiling it as soon as pos- 
sible after collection. 


WOODS OPERATIONS 


Tapping Trees and Distribution of Buckets. 


Tapping should take place just before the season opens. A sharp 
bit should be used since a dull, rusty one leaves the hole rough. Smooth- 
surfaced cuts always give best results. The tap hole should not be over 
3 in. deep and a depth of from 2 to 23 in. is considered best since this 
depth will completely grow over in a year and heal itself. The best 
diameter is now considered to be 7% in., although holes of from } to 2 
of an inch or more are used. 


386 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Immediately after tapping, the spout is inserted. Care should be 
used to remove all chips, bark, etc., from the hole, before inserting the 
spout. It should be done immediately, followed by the hanging of the 
pail. z 

In long or intermittent flowing seasons, when the tap holes are likely 
to be contaminated, the holes should be reamed out once, using a reamer 


Photograph by U.'S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 100.—Tapping a sugar maple in the Adirondacks at Horseshoe, New York. 


7s in. larger than the original tap hole. This cleans the exposed surface 
of all slimy substance and induces stronger flow. 

There has been considerable discussion regarding the number of taps 
per tree. There is no question but that overtapping not only impairs 
the life of the tree, but seriously interferes with tapping during suc- 
ceeding years. The writer knows of one very large tree on which 30 
buckets were hung in one year. The ensuing year the tree sickened 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 387 


and died. The following table shows the number of taps that should 
be used, depending upon the size of the tree: 


Boag eae ep Number of Taps. 
8 to 12 I 
12 to 16 2 
16 to 24 3 
24 and up 4 or more 


Some prominent owners of large sugar groves advocate the tapping 
of only one hole in each tree during a season. 

Tapping should be done in the thrifty part of the tree where the bark 
looks best. It is commonly-done on the southern side of the tree because 
that side warms up the earliest in the season and the first sap flow is 
considered best, but experiments show that under average weather condi- 
tions, the flow of sap is equal on all sides. It is always advisable to avoid 
tapping near an old tap scar. 

Two men working together will tap and hang about 400 to 500 buck- 
ets per day working from eight to nine hours per day. The cost, there- 
fore, of the distribution of buckets and of tapping is about 1 cent per 

bucket. 
_ There are at least twelve different kinds of metal sap spouts or spiles 
on the market. They cost from $2.00 to $3.00 per hundred and for 
each particular brand there are special advantages claimed. They 
have displaced the old sumach or alder or half round wooden spiles 
except on the smallest and most inaccessible orchards. 

The general principles involved in the selection of a ky spout 
may be summarized as follows: 

1. It must provide for an easy and maximum flow of sap. 

2. It must hold firmly in the tree and not only support the bucket 
and cover but it must be attached and removed easily and the bucket 
must be held in such a position that it may be emptied without unhooking 
it from spout. Buckets should never be hung from a nail. 

. It should be placed in the hole in a level position and must not be 
ase in deep enough to split either bark or wood, and yet it must pre- 
vent leakage. 

4. It should exclude the air and prevent drying out at the end of 
the first run of sap. 

5. It must be inserted in and withdrawn from the tap hole with the 
least difficulty. 


388 FOREST PRODUCTS 


On many of the most modern operations, after the spout is taken 
out at the end of the season, the tap holes are plugged with cork stoppers. 
During the following growing season the hole readily heals over with a 
fresh layer of wood and bark. 

The flaring rust-proof tin buckets of 13- and 16-qt. capacity are rapidly 
superseding the old wooden bucket.. They are hung, together with the 
covers, directly on the spout. The flare shape is used to prevent ice 
from breaking them. Galvanized iron is never used because of the 
voisonous nature of the metals used in galvanizing. 

. The advantages of the tin over the wooden buckets are: 

1. They do not dry up and leak. 

2. They can be easily rinsed and cleaned after each run. 


Bees a 


Fic. ror.— Modern tin ssias with covers to bend the sap ome of rain, bark, twigs, a other 
impurities. Photograph taken at Hardwick, Vermont. 


3. They do not soak up sap and sour the contents as the wooden 
buckets do, unless frequently scalded. 

4. The tin bucket is durable, light in weight and when nested they 
are compactly stored. 

The 13-quart rust-proof tin buckets cost from $25 to $30 per hundred 
depending upon the number purchased. The covers cost about $8.00 to 
$9.00 per hundred. 


Collection of Sap. 

Preliminary to the work of tapping the trees, setting the buckets 
and the gathering of the sap, haul roads are customarily broken through 
the snow so that as soon as tapping is commenced, preparations can be 
made to bring in the sap immediately. 


ee 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 389 


Gathering was formerly done entirely by hand, the men going from 
tree to tree with buckets into which the new sap was poured from the 
pails hanging on the trees. This was a slow and laborious method and 
with the development of larger commercial operations, especially in 
sugar groves where the number of trees tapped range from r1ooo or more, 
a gathering tank of from 25 to 160 gal. capacity is placed on a sled-which 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Sertice. 


Fic. 102.—A recent development in the maple sugar and syrup industry—a pipe line to 
conduct the sap directly from the forest to the sugar house. Note also the modern 
covered buckets. 


is drawn about by a team. The gathering tank should be of metal, 
preferably of tin or galvanized iron and provided with some form. of 
strainer at the top to keep out such impurities as leaves, twigs, etc., 
and also to prevent the contents from spilling out. Haul roads are laid 
out on a systematic basis with reference to reaching the largest number 
of trees from the coves and draws and with reference to the location 
of the sugar house. Pipe lines are now used to some extent in the larger 


390 FOREST PRODUCTS 


sugar orchards under such favorable conditions as large numbers of trees, 
rather steep topography and a central location for the sugar house. 
Narrow gauge railroads have been used, but this is an extreme refinement 
which will never be adopted to any extent. 

Under ordinary conditions two men and one team work together. 
This crew will gather the sap from 500 buckets per day, making two col- 
lections during the day. The men pour the sap directly into gathering 
buckets which are emptied into the tank on the sled. Gathering should 
be done as frequently as possible and the sap should always be taken 
up after from 2 to 4 qt. of sap flow. The leaving of sap in buckets too 
long results in discolored sap, which means a low grade of syrup. 

It costs about $50 per season for gathering sap on a bush of 500 
buckets. 


MANUFACTURE OF SYRUP AND SUGAR 


The Sugar House. : 
In laying out a new operation, the first consideration is the location, 
size and equipment of the sugar camp or sugar house and its cost. These 


Fic. 103.—A typical sugar house in the “sugar bush.” A large pile of dry wood is available 
for heating the évaporator under the shed at the right. 


are determined, in turn, by the number of trees to be tapped. In an 
orchard containing 500 buckets or more, it must be located with refer- 
ence to the minimum length of sap haul on one of the principal woods 
roads. The house should be placed on a well-drained slope to permit 
the emptying of the gathering tank by gravity into the storage tank. 


—— 


iii te a 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 391 


It should never be built in a cold, damp hollow where a poor draft will be 
afforded the chimney. 

For a camp of 500 buckets, the house should be about 14 by 20 ft. 
in ground plan, with 8-ft. posts,-rough siding, ventilator at the ridge 
and paper roofing. This may be constructed for from $75 to $150, 
depending upon cost of materials and labor and method. of construction. 
This will provide nicely for a 3 by 12 ft. evaporator. 

For larger operations and where further refinements are justified, 
a house with two compartments and a separate woodshed, with brick 
or concrete paving on the floor, a well-equipped work bench and provision 
for maintaining an even temperature and avoiding drafts are considered 
advisable. Where sugaring-off is practiced a two-compartment house is 
usually required. The primary requisites in the construction and oper- 
ation of the sugar house are comparative inexpensiveness, convenience 
and cleanliness. 


‘Fuel. 


Well-seasoned wood, split rather fine and prepared well in advance, 
should be kept stacked in the woodshed adjoining the evaporator room. 
Some makers use the old fence rails and odd pieces of wood picked up in 
the grove. It should preferably be cut in the spring so it will have a 
whole summer season in which to thoroughly dry out. 

It usually requires about 8 face cords of 2-ft. wood or 4 full cords (of 
128 cu. ft. each) to evaporate the sap from about 500 buckets, or expressed 
in other words, about 6400 gal. On many of the Vermont operations it 
is commonly considered that it requires 1 cord of wood to provide suf- 
ficient heat to make 300 Ib: of sugar. For the larger evaporators, some 
of the operators estimate that they use a full cord every day. © 

The cost of cutting, hauling and ricking the fuel wood in the wood- 
shed is usually figured at from $2.00 to $2.75 per full cord. 


Equipment and its Cost. 


Many of the smallest groves operated for home consumption still 
use the old-fashioned methods such as wooden buckets and spouts and 
boil down the sap in a kettle on the kitchen stove. 

The minimum number of buckets with which modern equipment is 
used is about 4o. It is doubtful, however, if such a small operation 
would ordinarily justify the rather large initial expenditure involved. 
For this work the following equipment is recommended: 


392 FOREST PRODUCTS 


A sugaring-off arch and pan which serves the purpose of an 


evaporator.jas welle. 3c... 195 2548445 (Rae eee eee eee $27.00 

40 sap spouts with hooks at $2.75 per hundred................ 1.10 
40 16-qt. buckets at $29 per hundred..............00....000. 11.60 
40 bucket covers at $8.75 per hundred... ......0...0.00...050. 3.50 
t thermiometer 5055445. 58 yeh Nake) ee ee ee 1.25 
L trainer 266.2 St seh cites ey See te Vee Pee res at Pe tos 1.50 
One’ 3-in: tapping bits yas 5 265 Gla k | bi ete Po eee 25 
One $2in, reamersiuty vcs lvoe fst, oak ee eee 50 
Total. 6 ence ees we eketee ee eee $46.70 


Gathering and storage tanks are not usually used in such small 
outfits as this. 

It is generally considered in the industry that it scarcely pays to 
engage in the work with modern equipment unless one has a bush of 
at least 100 buckets. The necessary outfit required for a 500-bucket 
sugar bush equipped only for making syrup is as follows: 


COST OF EQUIPMENT 


Evaporator—capacity go gal. sap per hour. ......:.. PERE oA $145.00 
500 buckets—rust proof at $27.00 per hundred... ............. 135.00 
500 bucket covers at $8.00 per hundred..................... 40.00 
500 spouts.at $227.5 per hundred «2. pone ee a ireees 13.75 
Gathering tank at 160-gal. capacity. ........ 2... c ee eee ee 20.00 
1 10-bbl. capacity storage tank . 2 )..25 0046 6. es 2. ide ens 15.00 
Thermometer, dipper, skimmer, strainer.................... 3.25 
One pair of gatheriig’ pails yoo nc. 8G ook CSc 2.50 
200 Tegal. SYTUP CANS, Soa. tee ea bene 2s eee 24.00 

Potal. 3. aecclaincs en dere so ea eee $401.00 


With good care this equipment should last twenty years or more. 

It is at once evident that the cost of operation and equipment per 
bucket decreases as the number of buckets increases. For example, in 
the above estimate, by dividing the total cost of initial equipment by the 
number of buckets, the cost per bucket is $.802 ($401+ 500=$.802 per 
bucket), whereas in an orchard of 2000 trees where the total cost of initial 
equipment is about $1170, the cost per bucket is only $.585 ($1170+ 
2000 = $.585). 


es 
it es 


ee 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 393 


The cost of labor per bucket is also less because while two men with 
one team can take care of 500 buckets, with the above equipment, three 
men with two teams could easily handle 2000 buckets. 

Manufacturers of evaporators, sugaring-off arches and other sugar 
makers’ utensils usually provide for the payment of the initial equip- 
ment out of the profits of the business from year to year. It is esti- 
mated that the average annual gross income from each bucket in the bush 
varies from 25 to 40 cents. The average cost of operations, including 
interest on equipment, depreciation of utensils and tools, labor taxes, 
etc., will total about 15 cents per bucket in a sugar bush of 500 buckets. 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Seretce. 


Fic. 104.—Gathering the sap in a northern New York sugar bush. Sufficient snow is still 
on the ground when the sugar season is on to require the use of snowshoes. 


‘The expense per bucket decreases directly as the number of trees increases. 
From the profits of from 1o to 15 cents per bucket, therefore, together 
with the depreciation charges, this initial cost of equipment can be 
readily paid off. 

There are several types of evaporators or “ arches,” as they are 
called, on the market. Each make has certain advantages claimed for 
it but in general the same principle is followed in all. As mentioned 
before they vary in width from 2 to 6 ft., and from 6 to 24 ft. long. They 
cost from about $40 for a small capacity type for a 50-bucket bush up to 
around $500 for the largest size, which has a capacity of from 350 to 500 
gal. of sap per hour. The latter are only used in the largest sugar 


c 


394 FOREST PRODUCTS 


orchards. All the evaporators are divided into compartments through 
which the sap passes in the evaporation process. Underneath, a fire, 
with flues leading the length of the pan, furnishes the necessary heat. 

In the selection and use of an evaporator the following general prin- 
ciples should be followed: 

1. The capacity should be sufficient to handle the sap from the num- 
ber of trees tapped without night work. In no case should sap be left 
over for the next day’s run. 

2. The sap should be converted into syrup as soon as possible after 
leaving the tree. In the conversion process, a large heating surface 
covered by shallow sap is used to reduce the sap to syrup in the shortest 
time. 

3. As the sap enters the evaporator, it should be kept constantly 
moving through the various compartments until it finally comes out as 
syrup. The light and heavy sap should never be allowed to mix as in 
the old kettles or pans. When the sap reaches a temperature of 219° F., 
it should weigh 11 lb. to the gallon in conformance with the law. 

When it is desired to make sugar from the syrup, a sugaring-off arch 
and pan are set up, usually in another room of the sugar camp. For the 
smallest orchards, this can be used instead of an evaporator for making 
syrup, but where 50 trees or more are tapped a small evaporator is advis- 
able. The accompanying illustration shows the firebox underneath 
and the general manner of construction. They cost about $30 for a 
50-gal. capacity size. In dimension, this is 23 in. long by 45 in. wide and 
11 in. deep. This will sugar-off syrup in about one-half hour. 

Another important feature of every sugar camp is the storage tank 
into which the sap is emptied when brought from the trees. This should 
be located outside the main house in order to be kept as cool as possible 
and elevated so that the bottom of the tank will be at least 12 in. above 
the level of the evaporator so that the sap will flow by gravity to the 
regulator which governs the rate of flow. It is very essential to have a 
large capacity storage tank to take care of from 8 to 15 bbl. of sap or 
more. 

Other important items of equipment for the sugar camp are a good 
weighing scales, a thermometer, a saccharometer for testing the density 
of syrup, a skimmer, a felt strainer, sugar molds, funnel and sugar cans. 


Process. 


Many of the details of syrup and sugar making have already been 
covered or at least touched upon in a brief way. By the time the sap 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR - 395 


first comes in from the bush, all the utensils should be thoroughly cleaned 
and scalded, the sugar house carefully swept and dusted out and the 
firebox prepared for the fire. The automatic feeder or regulator is then 
opened and the sap allowed to flow from the storage tank into the evap- 
orator until it covers all the corrugations. As the sap heats up, the first 
part to reach the syrup end is dipped back until the proper density is 
reached. Many of the modern evaporators have a heater in connection 
with them which warms up the sap from the waste heat so that it evap- 
orates much more quickly. 


Fic. 105.—Interior of a sugar house showing the steaming evaporator at the left and the 
“sugaring-off”” arch at the right. 


The sap is maintained just as shallow as possible without danger of 
burning as this method permits the most rapid evaporation. When the 
fire gets hotter, a greater flow of sap is induced through the regulator, 
or, if scorching is likely, the fire is checked by means of dampers or other 
patent devices. As impurities or scum come to the surface, they are 
skimmed off. The sap gradually turns an amber color as it reaches the 
syrupy stage and deposits of malate of lime (called niter in Vermont and 
silica in Ohio) are noted on the bottom of the evaporator as the current 
reaches the end of the pan. Many devices, such as siphons, interchange- 
able pans, reversing the current, etc., are used to obviate this precipita- 


396 FOREST PRODUCTS 


tion. It is estimated that on the average evaporator used, the sap covers 
about 50 ft. of surface through the various compartments before it finally 
emerges as syrup. 

It has been determined that sap boils at 213° F. At 219° F. (at 
500 ft. in elevation above sea level) the syrup will have attained a specific 
gravity of about 1.325 and weigh r1 lb. to the gallon, a point at which it 
will not granulate. At the beginning of the season sap ordinarily con- 
tains about 6 per cent of malate of lime; later in the season it may con- 
tain from 25 to 30 per cent of the total dry matter of the sap. If the 
malate of lime is not removed before the syrup is taken off, tempera- 
tures should run about 221° F. An increase or decrease in the altitude 
of 500 ft. affects the thermometer 1° F. for the purpose of boiling. 

Every few minutes the syrup is run off and strained through felt to 
remove any malate of lime not already eliminated or any impurities of 
any kind. It is then put up when still hot into tin cans or glass jars, the 
former usually of 1 or $ gal. size and the latter of 1 or 2 qt. capacity. Care 
must: be taken to observe that the containers are absolutely clean and 
when filled are made airtight and kept in a cool place. 

When sugar is to be made, the syrup is placed over the sugaring-off 
arch and heated until it is so thick that it pours slowly or becomes 
waxy in the snow or in cold water. This occurs at a temperature of 
about 230° F. It is then turned into molds. Experienced sugar 
makers can readily tell when the syrup has sugared-off, but some operators 
use a saccharometer or thermometer to determine this. When hard, the 
sugar is wrapped in wax paper. The first run of sap always makes the 
best sugar. In fact, that from the last of the season will sometimes fail 
to ‘“ cake.” 


YIELDS OF SAP, SYRUP AND SUGAR 


The yield of products in this industry varies considerably with the 
season, size of the tree, character of tapping and many other conditions 
which have been covered under the subjects of sap flow, tapping, etc. 
Yields are often expressed on the basis of the individual tree. However, 
this is not a satisfactory basis, because much depends upon the size of 
the tree, the number of buckets hung, its past and present condition, etc. 
A general figure for all trees, an average of 3 lb. of sugar per season per 
tree is sometimes used. This varies, however, from 1 to 7 lb. per tree. 

The most satisfactory basis of determining the yields is expressed in 
terms of the individual bucket. Both costs and yields are now coming 
to be expressed in terms of buckets rather than the individual tree. By 


MAPLE SYRUP AND SUGAR 397 


a sugar bush is usually meant a unit of roo buckets or more regardless 
of the number of trees. 

The following average figures have been derived as a result of investi- 
gation covering conditions in New York, Vermont and Ohio: 

From a standard bush of 500 buckets, there is an average yield under 
all conditions, of about 6400 gal. of sap. This will be equivalent to about 
200 gal. of syrup or 1500 lb. of sugar. These equivalents are based upon 
a determination that 32 gal. of sap under average conditions are required 
to make 1 gal of syrup and that 4{ gal. of sap are required for 1 Ib. of 
sugar. 


Storage Tank 
on Brackets 
7 with Shed Roof 
a 


& 
cae 
i] Evaporator 
Bere 4 
a 
I] 
jee ee 
~ 2 
Wood Shed = 
10‘x 12° # pass Draw off 
B Working Floor 
Raised 12in. 
Work Bench 


30 wide 15’ long 


Sle aes 


Fic. 106.—Ground plan of a 14- by 20-ft. sugar house equipped with a modern 
evaporator. 


An average of 12.8 gal. of sap are secured from each bucket in the 
average bush. Each bucket, therefore, yields about } gal. of syrup or 
about 3 lb. of sugar. The number of buckets on each tree, of course, 
is determined by its size, as explained under the subject of tapping. 
There are extreme instances on record of groves which averaged 19 gal. 
of sap per tree per season and of one tree which actually produced enough 
sap to make 303 Ib. of sugar in one season. One maple tree in Vermont 
yielded 175 gal. of sap in a single season.!_ Usually from 5 to 40 gal. of 
sap are obtained from each tree. 

A gallon of good syrup will make about 73 Ib. of sugar testing 80 per 
cent. 

1 See Proceedings of the Vermont Sugar Makers’ Association for 1906. 


398 FOREST PRODUCTS 


There is a variation of between 28 and 40 gal. or more of sap to an 
average gallon of syrup. A standard gallon of syrup will weigh about 
11 lb. net. 


USES AND VALUE OF PRODUCT 


Formerly, the country merchant usually set the price for both syrup 
and sugar because he took them in trade from the farmer and sold them 
at the best prices he could obtain. The Sugar Makers’ Association in 
Vermont has done a great deal to develop and broaden the market 
and, as a result, the makers are coming more and more to sell their 
product directly to the consumer. It is now shipped and sold directly 
to individuals and stores all over the country. The far-reaching possi- 
bilities of successful marketing have, however, scarcely been touched. 
In marketing, lies the success of the whole operation to a marked degree, 
as it does in fact with most commodities. 

A few years ago, maple sugar could be purchased in gallon cans for 
from 75 cents to $1.00 per can. The same product is now worth from 
$1.25 to $2.75 per gallon can, delivered to the consumer. 

Fairly good profits can be made at $1.25 per gallon, retail, but much 
of the product is still sold wholesale, especially the inferior grades at 
prices varying from 70 cents to $1.10 per gallon, depending upon the 
quality of the product and the season. There are no uniform grades 
adopted. Each maker decides upon his own system of grading and some- 
times there are four grades based on flavor and color. 

In fancy, nicely labeled cans or jars, some of the best syrup brings 
as high as $3.00 or more per gallon, retail. 

It is said that the best average prices are received in Michigan for 

the reason that the makers have a common understanding that syrup 
is always worth at least $1.25 a gallon and that this should be the lowest 
possible figure in order to make a reasonable profit. 
A few years ago, sugar brought from 8 to 12 cents per pound depend- 
ing upon its quality, size of cake and kind of package. Now it brings 
from 12 to 20 cents per pound and the very best sugar, put up in small 
cakes and nicely packed and labeled, brings from 20 to 30 cents per 
pound. “ Stirred sugar,” a special product, brings from 20 to 25 cents 
per pound. | 

As to whether there is greater profit in syrup or sugar has long been 
an open question. As noted before, Vermont has heretofore specialized 
more in sugar than any other section and Ohio turns out syrup for the 
market almost entirely. Probably not one-tenth of the sugar made 


MAPLE. SYRUP AND SUGAR 399 


twenty years ago in Vermont is now produced in that state. It is 
likely that about 75 per cent of all the sap that is harvested is turned 
into sugar. 

Comparing prices, it is very evident that sugar must be worth more 
than 16 cents a pound, with 73 lb. of sugar equivalent to a gallon of syrup, 
to compete with syrup at $1.25 a gallon. Then, too, the added cost of 
manufacturing sugar must be offset by still higher prices. 


Fic. 107.—A maple tree on the Spalding farm, Amsden, Vermont with 32 buckets hung at 
one time. Excessive tapping is injurious to the tree. 


As noted before, probably seven-eighths of all syrup and sugar 
sold on the market is adulterated and sold under another name resembling 
or implying the pure product. Most of it is used as a table luxury and 
for use in flavoring preparations, confections, etc. The inferior sugar 
and poorest syrup, sometimes called “black-strap,” is utilized for sweet- 
ening chewing tobacco. 

Since the war, the value of maple sugar and syrup has advanced 


- 400 FOREST PRODUCTS 


markedly and many orchards heretofore tapped little or not at all have 
been brought into production. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Bryan, A. H. and Hupsarn, W. F. The Production of Maple Syrup and Sugar. 
Farmers Bulletin 516. U.S. Dept of Agriculture, rgr2. 


Cook, A. J. Maple Sugar and the Sugar Bush. Medina, Ohio: 1887. 


Cooke, W. W. and Huts, J. L. Maple Sugar. Bulletin No. 26. Vermont Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station. Burlington, Vt.: 1891. ‘ 


CrockeT, W. H. How Vermont Maple Sugar is Made. Bulletin No. 2i. Vermont 
Department of Agriculture, 1915. 


Fox, WILLIAM F. and Hussarpb, W. F. The Maple Sugar Industry. Bulletin No. . 


59. Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905. 


Hitts, J. L. The Maple Sap Flow. Bulletin No. 105 of The Vermont Agricultural 
Experiment Station. Burlington: 1904. 


Hitts, J.L. Buddy Sap. Bulletin No. 51 of The Vermont elie Experiment 
Station. Burlington: i1gro. 


HusparD, WILLIAM F. Maple Sugar and Syrup. Farmers Bulletin No. 252. 
U.S. Dept of Agriculture, 1906. 


McGri1, A. A Study of Maple Syrup. Bulletin No. 228 of the Laboratory si the 
Internal Revenue Dept. Ottawa, Can.: t1g11. 


Proceedings of the Annual Meetings of the Vermont Maple Sugar Makers’ Associa- 
tion, 1909-1917, inclusive. 


CHAPTER XIX 


RUBBER 


GENERAL 


RvuBBER—also commonly called india rubber and caoutchouc in the 
trade—is the product of the milky juice or latex found in a variety of 
trees, vines and shrubs of the tropics. The true function of latex in 
the life and development of the tree has not been fully determined as 
yet. It is found secreted in the vessels and small sacs in the cortical 
tissue between the outer bark and the wood. It also occurs in the leaves, 
roots and other parts of certain tropical plants. 

The latex is derived from the bark by making an incision at regular 
intervals through the outer layers of bark. This milky fluid contains 
from 20 to 50 per cent of crude rubber. 

Rubber is one of the most important forest products used by man- 
kind. The value of rubber imported to this country is more than twice 
the total value of all other forest products brought to this country from 
foreign sources, including lumber, tanning materials, dyewoods and 
materials, pulpwood, wood pulp, etc. In 1917 the value of rubber 
imported to this country was $233,220,904. 

The rubber industry has made greater advances, measured both in 
the quantity and value of its product, than any other forest industry 

»in the world. The demands of the automobile industry for rubber tires 
have been enormous, and the production of crude rubber has been equal 
to the demand. Little rubber of any kind was used fifty years ago and 
the process of making crude rubber available for modern arts and indus- 
tries was only discovered less than one hundred years ago. 

In the year 1900 the total world’s production of rubber was only 
120,713,600 lb.; in rgro the total output was 157,920,000 lb., but in 1915 
the production rose rapidly with the increased demands for rubber tires 
for automobiles, and in that year the output was 355,492,480 lb. More- 
over, the demand was not satisfied even with that enormous yield and in 
1918 the world’s production had risen to the enormous total of about 
600,000,000 Ib. 

401 


402 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Had the native resources of the various rubber trees been depended 
upon, it would have been quite impossible to meet the heavy demands. 
Prior to 1900 the wild rubber trees supplied practically all the world’s 
supply of rubber. Since that date, however, the production of rubber 
from planted trees in the Far East has made remarkable strides and in 
1918 furnished over 83 per cent of the world’s supply. 

The successful attempts to transplant the principal original source 
of rubber, which is generally called Para rubber ( Hevea braziliensis), from 
its native habitat in Brazil to the Far East has revolutionized the entire 
industry. 


. “x ais ea 
he de Neat oe eto 


Photograph by U. S. Rubber Company. 


Fic. 108.—Two-year-old rubber trees grown in plantation in Sumatra. One company has 
70 square miles of planted rubber trees. 


The total annual value of rubber products in this country is estimated 
(1919) at over $1,000,000,000. The United States consumes about 70 
per cent of the total world’s rubber production. 


HISTORY 


The history of the production and manufacture of india rubber has 
been full of interest. Although rubber, as a material, has been known for 
many centuries, its development and extensive use has taken place 
within the past century. The development of the automobile industry 
has been the impetus which has created an enormous demand for rubber 


RUBBER 403 


and within the past five years the demand has increased over 250 per 
cent. 

The history of india rubber dates from Columbus’ second voyage 
to the Western Hemisphere. One of his recorders, Herrera, described 
the use of rubber balls made of the latex of certain trees by the natives 
of Haiti. They were used entirely for amusement purposes. A book 
published in Madrid in 1615 refers to certain trees in Mexico which 
produced a crude form of rubber. It is said, however, that india rubber 
wes first studied scientifically by a French scientist named Le Con- 
damine, who sent samples of the crude rubber product to the French 
Academy in Paris in 1736. The name india rubber was suggested by a 
chemist named Priestley about the year 1770. At that time the only 
use developed for rubber, which was in an exceedingly crude state, was 
for the purposes of erasure. 

The first rubber is said to have been brought to this country about 
1800. In that year Charles Goodyear, the man whose inventions and 
experiments made possible the extensive use of this product, was born. 

The manufacture of some crude forms of rubber began in 1820 in 
this country, when a few establishments were created in New England 
to import and make rubber for erasing purposes. At that time it was 
an exceedingly coarse and hard material, full of foreign matter and very 
expensive. It remained for Charles Macintosh, a Scotch chemist, 
to develop a method for waterproofing cloth in the year 1823 and the 
name still obtains for certain forms of waterproof garments. In 1852 an 
American sea captain brought to Boston 500 pairs of rubber boots which 
he had secured in Brazil. These sold readily and brought from $3.00 to 
$5.00 or more per pair. 

The rubber industry in this country, however, in its broader sense, 
really dates from the work of Charles Goodyear, who first succeeded in 
making rubber less susceptible to the influence of changing conditions of 
heat and cold. It had been determined that the admixture of sulphur 
rendered the rubber less sticky, but it is said that the art of vulcanizing 
was learned purely through accident, Goodyear having dropped some of 
the rubber admixture by accident on a hot stove without the usual 
melting result. He first patented his process in 1844, which really marks 
the beginning of the great industry in this country. 

Generally speaking, vulcanizing consists in mixing sulphur with rub- 
ber and then submitting the admixture to heat up to about 250° to 320° F 
for from one to three hours depending on the thickness of the goods. 
This renders it elastic, impervious and unchangeable in various ordinary. 


404 FOREST PRODUCTS 


temperatures. Commercial rubber hardens at the freezing point (32° F.) 
and temporarily loses its elasticity but, on the other hand, it does not 
become brittle. 

The center of the American rubber industry is at Akron, Ohio, to 
which many large automobile tire concerns have gravitated within the 
past decade. 

Had it not been for the development of a successful method of arti- 
ficially growing rubber trees, particularly in the Far East, rubber would 
be exceedingly expensive on account of the tremendous demands for it. 
Methods have been developed for the manufacture of rubber by syn- 
thetic processes, but no methods have been evolved to manufacture it on 
a basis to replace the natural rubber. Great strides have been made in 
the past decade, not only in the amount of imports of rubber to this 
country, but in the manufacture of the crude form, as well as in the han- 
dling of rubber plantations, the tapping of the trees and the reduction of 
the milky fluid or latex into the crude rubber state. 


SOURCES OF SUPPLY AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION 


Up to 1914 the principal source of india rubber was Brazil, where the 
province of Para was the center of production. The so-called Para 
rubber is the standard by which all rubbers have been judged. Since 
that year, the principal source of supply has been the plantations of the 
Malaya and the surrounding sections of the Far East and for the past 
five years the production of plantation rubber has had a most remarkable 
development. 

Wild rubber is also produced in nearly all sections of the tropics. 
Aside from the regions mentioned above, considerable quantities of 
rubber are produced from a variety of plants in Central America, Africa, 
Mexico, the northern countries of South America and the West Indies. 

The following species are the principal sources of rubber supply, 
in the approximate order of commercial importance: 

1. Para rubber occupies the pre-eminent position in the world’s 
rubber markets. It is derived from several species of Hevea, principally 
Hevea braziliensis (Miill, Arg.) which, in both the wild and planted 
forms, supplies about 80 per cent of the world’s rubber production. 
There are extensive forests in the valley of the Amazon River, especially 
in the province of Para, but it also extends along the tributaries of this 
river to Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela and the Guianas. The rubber area in 
Brazil alone is said to cover 1,000,000 square miles. The Para rubber 


RUBBER 405 


trees frequently reach a height of 60 to 80 ft. and a diameter of 12 to 30 in. 
The tree flourishes best in damp, rich soil and where the temperature 
ranges from 89° F. to 94° F. at noon and never falls below 73° F. at night. 
The trees are seldom tapped until they are twelve to fifteen years of 
age, because they yield an inferior grade of rubber if tapped earlier. 
The rubber fluid or Jatex is collected during the dry season from June to 
February and, if properly carried on, the tapping is not injurious. Great 
efforts have recently been made to conserve the rubber forests, and prac- 
tices which are destructive to the trees are being abandoned. It has 
been determined that the latex runs most freely in the early morning. 
The “ seringuero,” or rubber tapper, equipped with a small basket and a 
quantity of tin latex cups, goes out along the “ estradas ’”’ or pathways 
cut through forest to each rubber tree. He makes a blow or incision 
with a hatchet and attaches the cup to the bark at the base of the incision 
to receive the latex, by either using clay as a plaster or by slipping the 
cup underneath the bark. The tapper uses his judgment as to how many 
cups each tree should carry. There may be up to 20 cups on each tree. 
The cups hold only a few ounces each. The tapper comes back to empty 
the cups into a pail the same day or next day, depending on how rapidly 
the trees are flowing. The latex secured from this tapping contains 
about 30 per cent of rubber and the average sized tree will yield about 10 
Ib. of rubber per year. The latex is collected, brought to camp and con- 
verted to the crude rubber state in the following manner. A fire is built 
of dry sticks and oily palm nuts (Aiddalea excelsa) and the natives make a 
piece of wood about 3 ft. long fashioned like a paddle, which is dipped 
in the latex and held over and revolved in the smoke of the fire. The 
smoke of the fire is usually controlled through a narrow bottle-like neck. 
As the milky fluid becomes dried and hardened on the paddle, the process 
is continued until a large ball or “ biscuit ’’ weighing 5 to 6 Ib. or more is 
formed. The smoke has the peculiar property of firming and curing the 
latex. A skilled native is said to make from 4 to 6 lb. of rubber per hour 
by this method. Other forms of sticks are commonly used as well as 
the paddle-like form. This “wild” Para rubber, although containing 
many impurities and 15 per cent of moisture, is said to be the finest 
rubber product obtainable. The scrapings from the tree are mixed with 
the residue from the fire pots and. collecting receptacles and made into 
large balls called “ negro-heads.’’ These contain from 20 to 35 per cent 
of impurities such as chips, bark, water, twigs, etc. 

2. The “ule” or “ caucho”’ rubber of Central America and Peru, 
generally called “ centrals ’ in the trade is derived from Castilloa elas- 


406 FOREST PRODUCTS 


tica (Cerv.) which grows principally in Guatemala, Nicaragua, Southern 
Mexico and in northern South America west of the Andes. The same 
general method of collecting and treating the latex as described for the 
Hevea is followed, although there are many variations. 

3. Guayule is the trade name applied to rubber from Parthenium 
argentatum from Mexico, which has entered the rubber markets in a 
prominent way during the past decade. It does not command the high 
price which Para rubber does. 

4. The principal rubber plant of the African tropics is the Funtumia 
elastica, called ‘“‘ Africans ” or “ logos” in the trade. The rubber is of 
excellent quality, but it generally contains considerable impurities. 

5. The climbing vines of Africa have entered prominently in the 
rubber trade, especially in Sudan, Congo and Mozambique. The vines 
are generally destroyed in the process of collecting the latex. They 
consist largely of several species of Landolphia, especially L. owariensis. 
The Kickxia elastica is also eieely associated in this group and enters 
the trade under the name of “ Africans.”’ 

6. The rubber tree commonly planted as an ornamental tree is the 
Ficus elastica, which produces the Assam or Rambong rubber of com- 
merce, which is known in the American rubber trade as ‘‘ East Indian.” 
It attains a large size in Ceylon, India and Malaysia. Owing to the crude 
methods of collection it does not command.a very high price. It fur- 
nishes much of the native wild rubber of India, Sumatra and Java. 

7. Jelutong or Pontianak is the name of an East Indian rubber 
derived Dyera oe cay: 

8. The manihots or “‘ manicobas,” which is the common trade name, 
come largely: from Manihot glaziovit, a native of Brazil, and a close rela- 
tive of the tapioca plant. It grows at elevations up to 4000 ft. along the 
Andes Mountains. 

9. Mangabeira is the trade name of the rubber derived from Han- 
cornia speciosa, a native tree of Brazil. It is also called Pernambuco 
rubber. 

10. Balata is the rubber from Mimusops balata, which grows in Brit- 
ish and French Guiana. 

11. Gutta percha is largely derived from a species called Palaquium 
gutta. Inferior guttas called gutta siak are secured from several species. 

Many other plants yield a latex or rubber-bearing fluid and it is 
said that large forests of rubber plants are still undeveloped owing to their 
inaccessibility in the remoter districts of the tropics. However, the 
above represent practically all that are of present commercial importance. 


RUBBER 407 


RUBBER PLANTATIONS 


Prior to the year 1900 practically all rubber was of the “ wild” 
variety and largely produced in Brazil. Owing largely to the enhancing 
cost of rubber, due to its ever-increasing inaccessibility and remoteness, 
the cost of transportation to market, the lack of good labor in the upper 
Amazon districts and the restriction of production to the dry season 
of six months in each year, many attempts were made to grow several 
varieties of the rubber trees in artificial plantations. 

In 1873 an Englishman, H. A. Wickham, was commissioned by the 
Government India Office, to attempt the introduction of rubber trees in 
India. In June, 1876, there were 70,000 young seedlings growing in the 


Copyright by U. S. Rubber Company. 


Fic. 109.—Method of tapping rubber trees in plantation in Sumatra. The most successful 
tree for planting and the only one now being planted is the Hevea braziliensis, which has 
been the main source of wild rubber known as Para rubber. 


Botanic Gardens of England. In the same year 2000 young plants were 
sent to Ceylon, but the trees did not flower until 1884. 

The year 1888 was a turning point in the attempt to grow rubber in 
plantations, as the plants were introduced in Malaya, particularly in the 
region bout Singapore, where the rubber plants were found to do much 
better than in Ceylon or India. Tapping experiments were also begun 
in 1888 and it was learned that the trees could be tapped every day 
except when they shed their leaves in February and March. Rubber 


408 FOREST PRODUCTS 


plantations, however, were not made on any important scale until 1898 
and it was not until 1905 that any extensive developments were made. 
In the latter year, it is estimated that there were 16,000 acres in plan- 
tations. The Dutch and later the French and Americans followed the 
example of the English. Since.1905 the development of rubber planta- 
tions has been remarkable. Many species were tried, including the 
Ficus elastica, the Castilloas and others, but it remained for the Para 
rubber tree ( Hevea braziliensis) to be the most successful as well as the 
first to be tried by Wickham in his experimental plantations. It is the 
only one now used on new plantations. Over 35,000 acres of other 
species have been planted. | 

At the present time there are about 500,000 acres of rubber trees 
under cultivation in the Dutch East Indies alone and about 250,000 acres 
in Ceylon. The English have invested $36,000,000 in Dutch plantation 
properties, the French about $8,000,000, the Americans $9,000,000 and 
the Dutch about $7,000,000. 

By the end of 1907 only about 13 per cent of the world’s rubber supply 
had been produced from plantation rubber. At that time, about $1.00 
per pound was secured for this rubber at the plantations, which was con- 
sidered a satisfactory price. By 1910 the price had risen to $2.50 per 
pound and a great boom was created in plantations. The present area 
(1919) of rubber plantations of all kinds is estimated at nearly 2,000,000 
acres and new areas are being constantly planted.- The soil and climate 
of the Far East seem to be peculiarly suited to the successful growing of 
the Para rubber in plantations. The following table shows the dis- 
tribution of the planted areas in the Far East: 


RUBBER PLANTATIONS IN THE FAR EAST 


Region. Area in Acres. 

Malay: Peninistila ic. :3.2 ss «o5je cies apse ene ne bagi eae ano NTS 1,033,069 
DUMNALT AS. oe Ss, 7s 5S dadala be a patiose ee Se ins ae ee RRR ee 250,388 
POND pager oly wo hain epee Paine i Frabac pias pegee te Ss eesti mas athe Bate 249,326 
Ceylon. osc iene ont Ce sia eae Ga antag pA aS aE 240,000 
Burns; India ¢. 73:5 sagas aks ad ots Fave eo oa 58,000 
SOUPNERD Tia. 5005s plies ace Goat oa hae eels atop nae 44,000 
Cochin COMMA SS a tivina-5.c cities to ene 05o/ oleae Ww a Beg Mie Nurs eae 42,500 
British: North: BOrmees:..5 «ts s-s av oe ek oars eee ba Tee 31,500 
Other: DutehIndiesy oases Bsr oiscov. eae aah wee sleep 29,998 
Neéw, Guinea yden pane Sisco t awe vo te baa ee kaeite ets 13,300 

TOGA Seis aette hip WET ve etre SEEN oP e ite 1,992,582 


RUBBER 409 


There are said to be over $400,000,000 invested in rubber plantations 
and they supply (1919) about 83 per cent of the total world’s require- 
ments. 

The trees in plantation are planted about 150 trees per acre (20X15 
ft.) and do not become productive until four to seven years of age, when 
they are 5 to 7 in. in diameter at breast height. If tapped before this 
age the rubber yield is inferior. At seven years of age, the annual yield 
is only about 3 lb. per tree per annum. The average at twelve to fifteen 
years of age is about 13 Ib. per tree. 

At first all the brush and weeds were removed from an area to be 
planted at great expense, but it was found that the hot tropical sun 


Copyright by U.S. Rubber Company. 


Fic. 110.—Close view of tapping methods and cups used in collecting the latex. 


baked out the soil too readily and until the plants reached a size sufficient 
to shade the soil, it was necessary to grow some leguminous plants to 
both shade and enrich the soil. 

The methods of tapping and reducing the latex have been greatly 
improved over the systems in vogue with wild rubber, although it cannot 
be said that they have reached a finality of development. A common 
method is to make a series of V-shaped incisions on four sides of the tree 
up to a height of 5 to 7 ft. from the ground. The latex is collected in a 
cup hung at the apex of each V._ The “ herring-bone ”’ plan with a ver- 
tical incision and lateral channels on either side is used as well as the spiral 


410 FOREST PRODUCTS 


system. Daily incisions are made at 45° until the trunk is nearly covered 
with scars. When the bark of the trunk is almost completely covered 
with cuts to induce the flow of latex, a period of years is generally allowed 
to elapse before beginning to retap the tree. Small sharp knives are 
employed in making the incisions instead of the axes or large cutters 
used in Brazil. 

Instead of the primitive and wasteful method of reducing the latex 
to crude rubber, as followed in the forests of Brazil, the fluid is collected 
in large tanks or casks. It is coagulated by the admixture of an acid, 
usually acetic acid or lime juice. The coagulation gradually separates 
as a soft, white, or yellowish mass. This is washed by first passing 
through washing machines, and then through other machines, which 
compress it in thin sheets or long ribbons called crépe. These are hung 
up and dried. Plantation rubber enters the market either in the form of 
crépe in sheets or biscuits or in the form of large blocks made by com- 
pressing the sheets of crépe together. 

Plantation rubber formerly did not bring the same prices on the 
English and American markets as that commanded by the Para or “ wild ”’ 
rubber, but it now brings about the same or even slightly better price. 
It is much cleaner and freer from impurities than the wild rubber and 
contains only 1 per cent of water as against 15 per cent for the latter. 
It is generally regarded, however, that plantation rubber has not the 
tensile strength of the Para rubber. This may be due to the fact that the 
plantation rubber is generally procured from much younger trees. 

The following table shows the relative importance of plantation 
rubber and the product of native forests of Brazil and other portions of 
the tropics: 


PRODUCTION OF RUBBER FROM PLANTATION AND NATIVE SOURCES IN 
TONS FROM 1911 TO 1918, INCLUSIVE 


Product from 4 
Product f: Product f : Total Production, 

Year. Plantations, Tone. Brazil, Dene. poe iy oa, Tons. 

IQII 14,419 375730 23,000 755149 
IgI2 28,518 42,410 28,000 98,928 
1913 17,618 395370 21,452 78,440 
1914 71,380 37,000 12,000 120,380 
IQI5 107,867 37,220 13,615 158,702 
1916 152,650 36,500 12,448 201,598 
1917 204,348 39,370 13,258 256,976 
1918 240,000 38,000 12,000 290,000 


a 


RUBBER 411 


The above table shows the tremendous strides in production of plan- 
tation rubber, the almost stationary production of wild rubber from 
Brazil and the falling off in the product from all other sources, such as 
Central America, Mexico, Africa, the Guianas, etc. 


METHODS OF MANUFACTURE ' 


Wild rubber contains many impurities such as dirt, stones, bark, 
leaves, chips, etc., as it comes to this country in its crude state in the form 
of biscuits or balls. The first process, therefore, in the manufacture of 
the various finished forms of rubber is thoroughly to cleanse it of all 
foreign matter. Wild rubber, which is generally called Para rubber from 
Brazil, contains a great many more impurities than the plantation rubber. 


5 : y. 


oa 


LZ 


Production in hundreds of 
millions of pounds 
w r 
— 
N 


1900 1902 1904 1906 1908 1910 1912 1914 1916 1918 
Years . 


Fic. 111.—Curve representing the world’s production of India rubber from rgoo to 1918, 
inclusive. 


The latter comes to this country in sheets or packages and is much more 
free from impurities on account of the greatly improved methods of col- 
lecting and coagulating the latex. 

The process of cleansing consists of washing the crude rubber in hot 
water for a period of about twenty-four hours. It is then passed through 
corrugated rollers in the presence of large quantities of water. This 
process removes the impurities and gives the rubber a more homo- 
geneous structure. It is then placed in the drying rooms ‘n sheets and 
after a thorough drying it is stored until desired for further use. 


1The methods of rubber manufacture is a large and involved subject and can be cov- 
ered only in a most brief and suggestive fashion in this work. For further reading on the 
manufacture and the chemistry of rubber it is suggested that several references in the bibliog- 
raphy at the close of this chapter be consulted. 


MSs. FOREST PRODUCTS 


Various methods of vulcanizing rubber are in common use at the 
present time. The method generally followed consists of kneading the 
crude rubber aiter it is washed and dyed with varying amounts of sulphur. 
It is later reduced to proper shape by cutting into small pieces and then 
running it through rollers. In general, there are two kinds of rubber, 
naturally hard and soft rubber. Hard rubber is often called ‘‘ ebonite ” 
in the trade. There are many classes of finished forms of rubber, each 
of which requires a different kind of treatment and a distinctive process 
of manufacture. The principal classes of rubber may be divided as 
follows: 


. Footwear. 

Waterproof garments. 

Mechanical goods, such as tires, belts, etc. 

. Electrical and scientific apparatus and articles. 

. Medical and surgical appliances., 

. Liquid or semi-liquid goods, such as varnishes, cements, etc. 


An Ww N H 


PRINCIPAL USES 


There are no statistics available to show the utilization of rubber 
in this country. An authority on rubber and its uses estimates the value 
of the different forms of rubber products as follows: 


USES OF RUBBER 


- Uses. Value. 
Aritomonule UES 5 sas oe pees Ba eee ee $2 50,000,000 
Mechanical g00ds.i3060.. 62) 5% Secs foe eae 200,000,000 
Solid. 66s i) ue as ator a ees 175,000,000 
MOC Ai Redes. eases mc wire oes 100,000,000. 
Clothing, auto topping and similar goods. . 75,000,000 
Agatomobile Funes. 5 i Se oe ee 70,000,000 
Rubber insulated wire and insulation..... 65,000,000 
Draggists ‘stndries) 5c. as ty 4 30,000,000 
Miscellaneous Ses40) da sae Jager ceace ee 30,000,000 
PION PUD Sse oe HG Ei dau eos 15,000,000 
Motor cycle, bicycle tires, etc............ 10,000,000 
Wesper COMENIE Sch ha ste Ph ee ee 5,000,000 


Total annual value. 0.6.65 0... 048 $1,025,000,000 


—" 


RUBBER 413 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Akers, C. E. The Rubber Industry in Brazil and the Orient. London: 
Methuen & Co., 1914. 


BEADLE, CLAYTON and STEVENS, H. P. Rubber; Production and Utilization of the 
Raw Produce. London: Sir I. Pitman & Sons, Ltd., rortr. 

Brown, Harotp. Rubber, Its Source, Cultivation and Preparation. London: 
J. Murray, ror4. 
CavapiA, T. G. Les Plantations de caoutchouc leur developpement, leur avenir 
Paris: Kugelman Printing Co., rgt1. . 
Ciouts, Franz. Rubber, Gutta Percha and Balata. London: Maclaren & Sons, 
1903. 

Farmer, J. B. The Rubber Industry, etc. Scientific American. rg18. Vol. 86, 
p- 178. 

Fox, WALTER. Notes on the Cultivation of Para Rubber.. International Rubber 
Congress II. London, rgrt. 

Horter, JoHN C. Cultivated Rubber. American Geographical Society. Vol. 37, 
pp. 720-724. 

Great Britain. Imperial Institute. Rubber and Gutta Percha. London: Darling 
& Son, r912. 

India Rubber World. Miscellaneous Articles. New York. 

International Rubber Congress. Proceedings. Miscellaneous Articles. London. 

International Bureau of American Republics. Rubber and its Relatives. Wash- 
ington, 1909. 

Potts, HARoLtD E. The Chemistry of the Rubber Industry. London: Constable 
& Co., 1912. 


SEELIGMAN, T. India-rubber and Gutta Percha. London: Scott, Greenwood & Co., 
IgI0. 


CHAPTER XX 


DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION 


- From the earliest times various forms of natural dyestuffs have been 
used for coloring purposes. The principal sources of these vegetable 
dyes have been the roots, bark, leaves, fruit and the wood of trees and 
other forest-grown material. Until the Civil War and shortly thereafter 
practically all of our dyestuffs came from some form of vegetable origin. 
Later the aniline dyes were introduced and came into prominent use. 

Many of our important industries are dependent upon these dye- 
stuffs and their consumption has increased very rapidly within the past 
decade. The industries consuming the largest quantities of dyestuffs 
are the textile for cotton, silk, wool, etc., paint, varnish, ink, leather, 
paper, wood, etc. 

At the present time aniline dyes compose a large percentage of all the 
dyeing materials used. For certain purposes, however, a few dye woods 
are still held in high esteem in the textile and leather trades and other 
fields which consume large quantities of dyeing materials. For the 
fiscal year 1913 this country expended over $12,000,000 for foreign 
artificial dyestuffs imported to this country and only $961,534 for for- 
eign importations of natural dyestuffs. 

Germany has been the principal source of artificial dyes and before 
the war produced about go per cent of the dyestuffs consumed in the 
world’s markets. These were manufactured from coal tar products 
made in Germany. 

Since 1914 there has been a great impetus in the importation of 
natural dyes and in the introduction of new sources, notably osage orange 
which, before the coming of the white race to this country, was exten- 
sively used by the Indians to decorate their war bonnets, bows, arrows, 
etc. This and many other natural coloring agents were adopted from 
the Indians by the early colonists in the dyeing of their homespuns, etc. 
It is said that even during the Civil War, butternut dyes obtained 
from the husk of the nut were used to color the dull yellow suits worn by 
the Confederate soldiers. 

414 


DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 415 


MANUFACTURE OF DYESTUFFS 


Most of the natural dyes are now produced from imported woods from 
Central and South America and the West Indies, the coloring matter 
being obtained from the parenchyma cells by extraction after reducing 
the wood to the powdered or chipped form. Dye woods generally con- 
_ tain only from 5 to 10 per cent of their weight in true dye color. The 
principle of wood dye extract operations consists first in removing the 
coloring material by lye washing made with the help of a suitable sol- 
vent, which differs with each wood to be treated, and then by concen- 
trating the solution to the crystal, liquid or powdered form. The 
process employed in deriving these extracts varies with most of the large 
manufacturing concerns and the details are held with the greatest 
secrecy. However, the following is a very brief description of the 
process generally used in the reduction of our principal dye woods. 

The wood is first run through a grinder or a very fine chipper or “ hog.” 
In the case the latter is used the chips are again shredded. The principle 
involved in reducing the wood to such fine proportions is to make the 
coloring material more readily available to the effects of the solvent which 
is used to separate and carry off the desired color from the wood cells. 
The chips or shredded wood are then submitted to a curing process, which 
consists of leaving them piled up in heaps 4 or 3 ft. in height in the open 
air. The piles are moistened with water from time to time and left in 
this condition for from four to six weeks. They are occasionally worked 
over with shovels to prevent heating and to allow full access to the air. 
The wood gradually turns to a deep color and sometimes certain chem- 
icals are used to hasten the curing process. However, there is danger of 
over-oxidation. Extraction and concentration are next followed out. 
Extraction is accomplished in diffusion batteries consisting either of a 
set of open tanks or of closed copper extractors arranged in series. Ordi- 
narily there are eight or ten of these batteries, the liquor from one cell 
being used as a solvent for the material in the next cell so that as con- 
centrated a liquor as possible is obtained with a minimum amount of 
extracting water. The liquid extract is then evaporated in multiple- 
effect vacuum evaporators made expressly for this purpose. In this way 
an extract is obtained containing about 25 to 30 per cent of total solids 
at a temperature which is not injurious to the extract. All natural 
dyestuffs require a mordant, such as a solution of chrome for their proper 
fixation on fibers. 


416 FOREST PRODUCTS 


RAW MATERIALS USED 


A very large share of our natural dyestuffs is made from West Indian 
and Central American woods. They are received in the log form from 
3 to 8 ft. long and are sold entirely by weight. To be acceptable to the 
dye manufacturers, the logs must be thoroughly trimmed of all bark 
and sapwood and free from any dirt or other foreign material. Extracts 
from these dye woods are imported to a small extent, but they are con- 


~%, sidered inferior to those made in the extract manufacturing plants in this 


~ country. 

Logwood or Campeachy wood constitutes about 75 per cent of all 
dye extract materials imported into this country. Fustic is next in 
importance; then there is a great variety of foreign woods occasionally 
used such as the Brazil-wood and other redwoods, sandalwood, etc. 
Other forest-grown materials used for dyeing purposes are catechu or 
cutch, sumach, gambier, etc. Other sources of natural dyes such as. 
cochineal, indigo, turmeric and madder are not classified as forest 
products. 

Osage orange is coming into use as the principal native dyeing mate- 
rial. Quercitron, the crushed bark of the black or yellow oak (Quercus 
velutina) is another important native source of dyes. Other native 
materials used to a vary limited extent are black walnuts and butter- 
nuts, sumach, yellow wood, mesquite, alder, red gum, bluewood and 
dogwood. 

The following is a brief description of the principal forest-grown 
materials used for dye extracts in one form or another: 


Logwood. 


Logwood (Hematoxylon campechianum, L.) also called Campeachy 
wood, bois de sang, etc., is a thorny tree of the family Leguminosee. 
It is one of the oldest dye woods in common use and is now used more 
than all other woods together for coloring purposes. Its principal 
source is in Jamaica, Haiti and the Bay of Campeachy in Mexico, where it 
grows abundantly, but it is also exported from most of the Central Amer- 
ican countries and many of the West Indies. It has been successfully 
introduced and grown in India. Varieties of logwood are sometimes rec- 
ognized according to their source, but they are all generally accepted 
to be of one species. 

The wood is very heavy, non-porous, coarse-grained and yellowish 
in color, which rapidly turns to a rich red on exposure to the air. It 
has a very pleasing odor, resembling the violet. 


CO OO ——— 


DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 417 


Logwood contains from g to 12 per cent of the coloring essence called 
hematoxylin, from which is derived hemitin, the true dye color. Log- 
wood is chiefly used for the black colors and it is considered superior to 
the aniline blacks. It is also used, to some extent, for blues and other 
dark colors and with other dye materials for composite colors. Its 
principal use is on silks and wool. When acids are likely to come into 
contact with it, logwood black is not considered so very good, but these 
cases are exceptional. It is also used on leather and to a limited degree 
on cotton. 

Under normal conditions, logwood brings from $20.00 to $25.00 per 
ton delivered at our Atlantic ports, but since the war prices have risen 
enormously and have become very unstable due to over-speculation, the 
elimination of the German supply of aniline dyes and the exceptionally 
high ocean freight rates. Maximum prices of $110 per ton have been 
quoted and many sales have been made at from $55.00 to $80.00 per ton 
at New York and other ports. The importations of logwood increased 
from 30,062 tons for the year ending June 30, 1914, to 122,794 tons for 
the year ending June 30, 1917. 


Brazil-woods. 

Brazil-woods or the soluble redwoods include a variety of woods 
of the genus Cesalpinia used for red dyes, which appear on the market 
under a great confusion of trade names. Although of the same genus 
they vary considerably in their value for dyeing purposes. The coloring 
matter braziline is found in varying quantities in all these woods, which 
are hard, heavy, durable and even grained in all species. Hypernic is 
the trade name applied to the extract obtained from the soluble redwoods. 

Pernambuco-wood from C. crista L. is recognized as the most valuable 
of these woods and grows largely in Brazil and Jamaica. The wood is 
yellowish-red with a distinct brown or brownish red on the surface. 

Brazil-wood from C. braziliensis Sw. comes from Brazil and generally 
throughout the West Indies and Bahamas. 

Sappan-wood from C. sappan L. comes from Siam, China, Japan, 
Ceylon and the East Indies. Its wood is somewhat lighter in color than 
the other redwoods of this genus. 

Lima-wood or Nicaragua wood from C. bijuga Sw. comes from the 
Central American countries and the northern countries of South Amer- 
ica. Other trade names used for these and other species of Cesalpinia 
are braziletto, peach wood, South American basswood, etc. 

Brazil-wood normally brings from $23.00 to $26.00 per ton at the 
Atlantic seaboard ports. Since the outbreak of the European war it 


418 FOREST PRODUCTS 


brought from $35.00 to $46.00 or more per ton. Extracts from the 
Brazil-woods are chiefly used in wool and cotton dyeing. 


Fustic. : 

Fustic is the principal source of natural yellow dyes and has been in 
common use for a long time. Next to logwood it is the most important 
dye wood imported into this country. Owing to its comparative scarcity 
many substitutes have been used to displace it and osage orange is becom- 
ing a prominent competitor for yellow colors. 7 

True fustic comes from the fustic tree of the West Indies and tropical 
America. The scientific name of the tree is Chlorophora tinctoria, Gaud. 
(also described as Maclura tinctoria, D. Don and Morus tinctoria L.). 
Fustic is sold under a variety of trade names such as old fustic, fustic 
mulberry, yellow wood, Cuba wood and mora. It contains two color- 
ing principles, morin or moric acid and maclurin or moritannic acid, 
both of which are used for yellow dyes and are found in the commercial 
extract. 

The fustic tree reaches a size of only about 2 ft. in diameter and about 
50 ft. in height in its native habitat. The wood is fairly hard and heavy. 
The heartwood is a light-colored yellow which rapidly becomes a yellow- 
ish brown on exposure to air and light. The sap is white and very thin. 
It is always trimmed off before shipment to save freight as it does not 
contain sufficient coloring matter. 

Fustic is usually imported in the form of logs from 2 to 4 ft. long and 
from 3 to 12 in. in diameter. It is sometimes brought to this country 
in the form of chips, powder, liquid extract and paste. The wood 
ordinarily brings from $18.00 to $22.00 per ton on the docks in this 
country. Since 1914 and during the heavy speculation in dyewoods it 
brought as high as $45.00 per ton, but seldom ran over $35.00 to $40.00 
per ton. 

Fustic dyes are largely used for yellows, browns and olives and in 
connection with logwood dyes for toning the darker colors, especially on 
woolens. 


Red Sandalwood or Saunderswood. 


Pterozarpus santalinus L. is used to some extent for red dyes 
through its coloring principle called santaline, of which it is said to con- 
tain 16 per cent. It grows in Java and the East Indies as well as in 
China and yields a very hard, heavy and slightly resinous wood which 
is described as being a deep orange-red with lighter zones running through 
it. On exposure it turns a very deep red. A number of other woods 


ee a 


DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 419 


such as barwood (Pierocarpus santalinoides, L’her) and camwood (Baphia 
nitida, Afzel), which closely resemble it are sold as red sandalwood. All 
of these woods are commonly referred to in dyestuff circles as the insol- 
uble redwoods. 


Quercitron. 

_ This is the crushed or ground bark of the black or yellow oak (Quercus 
velutina, Lam.) which is found throughout the East and particularly in 

the Middle Atlantic States and the southern Appalachian Mountains. 

The coloring matter is contained in a thin layer in the inner bark. 

The bark is usually crushed into a fine brownish-yellow powder, the 
coloring principle of which is quercitrin. This may be decomposed, by 
using a dilute sulphuric acid, into quercitrin. Flavine is the trade name 
applied to a preparation of quercitron obtained by acting upon the bark 
first with alkalies and treating this extract with sulphuric acid. Both 
- the liquid and solid extracts are used commercially for dyestuffs. 

Flavine and quercitron find their principal use in dyeing cottons and 
woolens with tin mordants. Flavine is commonly used with cochineal 
or lac-dye for producing scarlet. 


Venetian Sumach. 

Venetian sumach, also called young fustic, wild-olive, smoke tree, 
wig tree, etc. (Rhus cotinus L. also called Cotinus cotinus (L) Sarg.) is 
imported to a limited extent from Hungary, Greece, Italy and other 
European countries. It produces a yellow dye called fustine, used chiefly 
in coloring glove leather and wool. It is sold very commonly as a sub- 
stitute for the true fustic, although it is produced by a small tree or shrub 
which yields sticks up to 4 in. in diameter and 4 to 6 ft. in length. The 
heartwood is greenish-yellow and hard. This tree is not related botan- 
ically to the true fustic. 

The coloring matter yields a fine orange color with alkalies and bright 
orange precipitates with lime and lead acetate. 

Sumachs native to America, especially the staghorn sumach (Rhus 
hirta), which grows throughout a large part of the East, are used to a very 
limited extent in coloring cloth and fine leather. The leaves, leaf stalks 
and smaller twigs yield a yellow dye. A close relative of the sumachs, 
called chittam or American fustic (Cotinus americanus, Nuit), grows 
throughout the lower Mississippi Valley and yields a clear orange colored 
dye. 

Osage Orange. 
This tree is commonly found in the rich bottom lands of southern 


420 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas. It is most abundant in the valley of 
the Red River. Its scientific name is Toxylon pomiferum, Raf., and, 
besides osage orange it is commonly called bow-wood, mock orange, 
bodock, bois d’arc, yellow wood and hedge tree. It is frequently planted 
throughout the East both for its wood and as a decorative and hedge tree. 

The tree is rather poorly shapen as a rule and seldom grows to be 
over 50 ft. in height and 2 ft. in diameter. The wood is exceptionally 
hard, heavy, strong, durable and coarse grained. It is a bright orange 
in color, which on exposure turns to a deep yellowish brown. The wood 
is in high demand for use as wagon and vehicle stock, especially for felloes 
and spokes and for cross ties, fence posts, handles and other specialized 
purposes. It was highly prized by the Indians as a material for bows 
and arrows, hence the name bois d’arc. 

Osage orange, even in the time of the Indians, was used for dyeing pur- 


poses, and in the region of its natural growth has been used to a limited . 


extent as a coloring matter. Since the outbreak of the European War, 
however, it has been extensively experimented with and is coming into 
commercial use as a substitute for fustic. The dyeing principles found in 
osage orange are morin or moric acid and moritannic acid or maclurin, 
as is the case with fustic. The extract from this wood is now manu- 
factured and sold under the trade name of aurantine. The roots and 
bark also contain coloring principles which have been extracted by 
boiling. This practice, however, is limited to a very small local custom 
in the Southwest. 

Results of experiments show that with iron and chrome mordants, 
osage orange dyes are satisfactorily fast to light, water and washing, 
especially when used on wools, and that they may be employed wherever 
dyes from fustic wood are used. Osage orange is also used on leather, 
wood, paper and, to small extent on cotton. It is especially effective 
for orange-yellows, old gold, deep tan, olive and chocolate shades. It is, 
moreover, used as a base for greens and grays in combination with other 
colors and with aniline dyes. In comparison with fustic, the advan- 
tages claimed for it are that it is cleaner, more uniform, yellower, faster 
and cheaper. 

It is estimated by Kressman of the Forest Products Laboratory at 
Madison, Wis., that over 25,000 tons of waste material are now available 
annually from the manufacture of osage orange for various wood products 
and that altogether from 40,000 to 50,000 tons of osage orange could 
readily be shipped yearly from Texas and Oklahoma. In 1915 about 
14,000 tons of fustic were imported to this country instead of the usual 


a 


DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 421 


yearly importation of about 4500 tons prior to this date and it is likely 
that osage orange will gradually displace, to some degree, at least a good 
share of this material. The latter can be purchased in Texas and Okla- 
homa for about $5 to $8 per ton. It brought from $12.00 to $15.00 per 
ton delivered on the Atlantic seaboard in 1916 under the name of Amer- 
_ican fustic. 


Cutch. 

Cutch or catechu is used principally as a tanning agent and has been 
briefly described in the chapter devoted to tanning materials. It is the 
_ name applied to the dried extract derived from Acacia catechu, which is 
produced largely in India and Burmah. It is used somewhat exten- 
sively for brown dyes. With copper, tin and alumina mordants it yields 
a yellow dye principle called catechin. It also yields another dyeing 
‘principle known as catechutannic acid. The best varieties of cutch are 
said to come from Pegu. Bombay and Bengal cutch are also held in 
high esteem. They are used in cotton and silk dyeing for browns and 
composite shades. Catechu is frequently adulterated with starch, sand, 
clay and blood. 


Gambier. 
Gambier is also a dried extract used chiefly for tanning purposes in 
this country. It also goes under the names of gambier and pale catechu 


and is derived from the leaves of two species of the same genera, namely 
Uncaria gambier and U. acida. 


IMPORTATION OF DYESTUFFS 


The following table secured from records of the U. S. Department of 
Commerce shows the value of dy woods imported for each year by 
decades since 1860 and also the years 1917 and 1918: 

IMPORTATIONS OF DYEWOODS 


Year. Total Value. 
ROM CRY ilo WER 3 de Shires he 0s aR en yy eT W,, ROSE OO 
BOO i= they Sg et eg eA ee SN kG 1,337,093 
fs Papen ere een eae ae, re te NOE a ae a 1,808,730 
MEM es Dattate Ce aa ete Ne wel ace Pe ke Ses as 1,725,167 
SANG PUN se so we A Me gee se 6s ge 8S 862,462 
WEG pl Dente Sirk ck Gh a ote <a td 566,377 
RRR eee Re cee ine aie eee Us ss boxe 4,326,576 
PURO Pe rr OF ea ea outing ae berets wd Sita a glee 2,018,122 


! The values given for the years 1917 and 1918 are those for the period ending June 30th 
in each of these years. 


422 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


The following table shows the importations of dyetoods and dye- 
wood extracts into the United States for the years 1906 to 1910, inclusive: 


T9064, 1907. z 1908. 
Material. 
Amount. Value. Amount. Value. Amount. Value. 
Logwood, tons.......... 36,624 498,602 37,901| 478,656 21,809} 248,578 
Logwood extract and other 
extracts, Ibs.......... 3,443,676] 295,188) 4,542,257) 368,704 | 3,576,676) 230,475 
Fustic:,tons: korea 55783 89,513 3,483] 54,765 4,452| 53,884 
Gambier, Ibs. . settee eees 31,478,837| 1,118,910) 28,853,124) 977,000 | 26,692,100] 895,210 
1909. IQtO. 
Material. 
Amount. Value. Amount. Value. 
Logwood;-tons:-. accion at toutes eae os 17,873 166,371 31,270 353,311 
Logwood extract and other extracts, Ibs..} 3,463,582 231,612 | 2,937,626 187,124 
Eustic; tons:.2. oi sag sk clad regents 2,466 345752 5,816 82,887 
Gambier; lbs.35..2 cae ano sin eee ee 31,000,855 | 1,313,990 | 25,808,720 | 1,264,023 
IMPORTS OF DYEWOODS AND MATERIALS 
(Years ending June 3oth) 
19t4. 1915. 1916. 
Amount. Value. Amount. Value. Amount. Value. 
Logwood, tons..... 30,062] 378,064 55,059] 742,264 134,629] 3,437,608 
Other dyestuffs}... 7,663) 108,928 13,361] 197,122 24,592 468,669 
Gambier, lbs.?...... 14,936,129] 571,067 | 14,169,490| 542,200 | 12,819,859 928,924 
1917. 1918. 
Amount. Value. Amount. Value. 
Logwoods tOns Ss ictivisiware art eln Patemen 122,794 | 4,137,400 52,027 | 1,066,455 
Other dyewoods, tons 1..............0-5: 8,895 | 4,189,176 35,449 951,667 
Gambier, Ibs.?.........6... 00. see cee eees 10,133,625 859,873 | 8,964,832 9555352 


1A large portion of the classification ‘‘ Other Dyewoods "’ is composed of fustic wood. 
2 Gambier is used for tanning purposes as well as for dyeing. 


Cuapin, EpwarD S. The Revival of the Use of Natural Dyestuffs. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


IQI5. 


Cuaptn, Epwarp S. Turning to Logwood. Textile Colorist for February to May, 


IgI0. 


CHAPIN, Epwarp S. Reconstruction in Dyeing. 


1916. 


DYE WOODS AND MATERIALS 423 


CHARPENTIER, PAuL. Timber. pp. 406-417. 
KressMAN, F. W. Osage Orange Waste as a Substitute for Fustic Dyewood. From 
Yearbook of U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington: ro15. 

KressMAN, F. W. Osage Orange—Its Value as a Commercial Dyestuff. Journal of 
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Vol. 6, No. 6, p. 462. June, 1914. 
KressMAN, F. W. Osage Orange—A New Substitute for Fustic. Journal of Amer- 

ican Leather Chemists’ Association. July, 1915. 
Norton, THomas H. Dyestufis for American Textile and Other Industries. Spe- 
cial Agents Series No. 96. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 1915. 
SADTLER, SAMUEL P. Industrial Organic Chemistry. J. B. Lippincott Co. Phil- 
adelphia: 1912. 


SupwortH, G. B. and Mett,C. D. Fustic Wood—Its substitutes and adulterants. 
U. S. Forest Service Circular 184, 1911. 


CHAPTER XXI 


EXCELSIOR 


GENERAL 


EXcELsIor consists of thin, curled strands or shreds of wood made by 
rapidly moving knives and spurs or fine steel teeth against a wood bolt. 
The spurs slit the wood and are followed by a knife which pares this 
slitted material off the bolt. 

Excelsior first found its principal use as mattress stuffing, but has 
come into demand for a great variety of uses. The excelsior industry 
is about fifty years old in this country’ where it was first developed. The 
finished product first appeared on the market about 1860. 

The term excelsior was first used as a trade name in advertising the 
product, by a single company, for upholstering purposes. For a long 
time it had been called wood fiber. Due to wide advertising by this indi- 
vidual concern, the name excelsior has been applied to all grades of the 
product. Although an American invention, the finished product has 
been greatly improved upon in European countries, where it has been 
largely used for filtering and other specialized purposes. At the present 
time the industry consumes over 100,000,000 bd.-ft. of forest material 
in this country every year. 


Qualities Desired. 

The qualities most desired in woods used for manufacturing excelsior 
are lightness in color and straight grain, together with tough but soft 
resilient fiber. It should also be light in weight, free from any dis- 
agreeable odor, and not brittle when the wood is manufactured in the 
air-dried form. It should preferably be free from resins or gums which 
are likely to discolor or taint any material with which it comes in contact. 

The best all-around wood which meets these desirable qualities is 
basswood. Basswood excelsior always brings the very best prices on the 
market, but owing to its limited supply, and demand for other purposes, 
only a small portion of the total amount of excelsior produced annually 
in this country is made of basswood. In fact, basswood constitutes only 

424 


a 


CO OO re 


EXCELSIOR 425 


about 14 per cent of the total supply, being exceeded by the various pines 
and cottonwood. 


Uses and Value of Excelsior. 

Excelsior is a staple article used by upholstery, carriage, automobile, 
mattress and furniture manufacturers and for packing miscellaneous 
articles which are susceptible to breakage. It is commonly used for 
packing glassware, china, druggist’s and confectioner’s goods, toys, hard- 
ware and other miscellaneous articles. 

It is much preferred to other materials used for similar purposes such 
as shavings, sawdust, straw or hay, because it is free from dust and dirt, 
it is elastic, light in weight and odorless. Packing purposes consume 
the bulk of excelsior manufactured. In making excelsior. mat- 
tresses the inner portion is usually filled with excelsior cut from 3% to { in. 
wide. Over this is spread a finer grade or wood wool to give a softer 
surface near the ticking. 

The fine grade called wood wool, which is from zs to soo of an in. in 
thickness and about ¢z of an in. wide, is used for filtering purposes and 
for the manufacture of better grades of mattresses and other specialized 
products. Probably from 80 to go per cent, however, is made from the 
medium and coarse grades, which go chiefly for upholstering and for 
packing. These grades are from ¢5 to roo of an inch in thickness and 
from 7; to { of an inch in width. One large department store in New 
York uses over $500 worth of excelsior per month, for which is paid 
around $16 per ton. A large toy company uses every day from 30 to 
40 bales weighing 125 lb. per bale. 

Dyed excelsior is used for packing fancy goods. Aniline dyes have 
been found to stain excelsior to excellent advantage. More recently 
the finer grades of excelsior have been woven into mats and floor cover- 
ings. In Europe it is very largely used for absorbent lint in hospitals 
and for filtration purposes. Its lightness and elasticity make it espe- 
cially valuable for packing. .Its resiliency makes it valuable for uphol- 
stering and mattresses, while its softness and ability to absorb liquid 
make it valuable as an absorbent lint. Long excelsior is used for twisting 
into rope for use in winding core barrels in making cast-iron pipes in 
large pipe foundries. This takes the place of marsh hay and is con- 
sidered much superior. . 

Excelsior is sold by the weight. The market for the various grades is 
exceedingly unstable and prices fluctuate very widely and rapidly. The 
major portion of excelsior placed on the market, which is used for mattress 


426 FOREST PRODUCTS 


stock and packing (common fine grade), sells for $8.00 to $22.00 per ton 
f.o.b. cars at the mill. The average price would probably be around 
$12.00 per ton before the war. The coarser grade of excelsior brings from 
$1.00 to $2.00 per ton below the common fine. 

Wood wool, the finest grade of excelsior, brings from $24.00 to $35.00 
per ton f.o.b. cars at the mlli. There isa general belief in the industry, 
however, that it does not pay to manufacture wood wool. It is only a 
question of difference in “ feed ”’ at the machines. 


Woods Used and Annual Consumption. 


Cottonwood, including the southern cottonwood and northern aspens 
or popple, make up over one-half of the total supply of wood used for 
excelsior in this country. Yellow pine comes next in order. The softer 
and less resinous varieties of yellow pine, particularly loblolly pine, Vir- 
ginia scrub pine and shortleaf pine, are used to a large extent in Vir- 
ginia and Georgia. Basswood constitutes about 14 per cent of the total 
supply and is manufactured throughout the Northeast and Lake States, 
but particularly in New York, Wisconsin, New Hampshire and Michigan. 
Other woods commonly used are willow, yellow poplar, white pine and 
buckeye.. In Washington the black cottonwood is used. All-of these 
woods are valuable for excelsior purposes on account of their soft wood, 
straight grain and resilient fiber. Red gum, soft maple, spruce, chest- 
nut, hemlock, white cedar and cypress are used to some extent. On 
the Pacific coast, western yellow pine and Douglas fir are coming into 
use for the manufacture of excelsior. 

The industry is scattered throughout the eastern part of the country. 
New York has the largest number of manufacturing plants, namely 29, 
but Wisconsin with 12 plants consumes the largest amount of wood 
annually. Other leading states are Virginia, New Hampshire, Georgia 
and Michigan. ~ 

Government statistics for 1911 show that during that year over 
139,000 tons of excelsior were produced in 122 plants, which means that 
the average plant produced about 1150 tons annually. 

Over 142,000 cords of wood were consumed in 1911 for excelsior and 
it is estimated that over 200,000 cords of wood are now used annually 
for this purpose. 


MANUFACTURE 


Excelsior plants are located with reference to a good supply of raw 
material and near the market with favorable shipping facilities. They 


EXCELSIOR 427 


do not require a very heavy investment. Many companies which use 
considerable quantities of excelsior for packing purposes operate one or 
more machines solely for their own requirements. The initial invest- 
ment of a twenty-machine plant turning out daily from 60 to 100 bales 
of excelsior weighing about 200 lb. per bale and run independently of 
other operations is about $10,000, which sum will serve as a criterion 
for the cost of larger plants. Single upright machines alone cost from 
$150 to $200 installed. Single horizontal eight-block machines cost 
$1200 to $1600 installed. Excelsior plants are sometimes operated 
in connection with rotary veneer mills where the circular cores left after 
cutting veneer are utilized for the manufacture of excelsior. 


Preparation and Cost of Raw Material. 


Wood used for excelsior should be thoroughly air seasoned for at least 
a year. It is usually brought to the mill in bolts 37 or 56 in. long and 


Photograph by U. S. Forest Service. 


Fic. 112.—Raw material in the form of poplar bolts being placed in vertical excelsior machines. 
Photograph taken at Melvin Mills, New Hampshire. 


piled in ricks either in the open or in sheds. Excelsior stock is always 
peeled and when over 6 in. in diameter it is customarily split into smaller 
billets. Many of the mills in the North bring in bolts in carload lots 
from a radius’of from 50 to 100 miles. 

Before going to the machine each bolt is cut up into lengths of from 
152 to 24 in., with square ends. Each stick must be free from defects 


428 FOREST PRODUCTS 


and reasonably straight. Bolts less than 4 in. in diameter are not 
desirable. 

Prices for the raw material vary with the species, transportation and 
labor charges and local supply and demand. In Virginia, yellow pine 
cordwood is delivered at the mills for from $2.50 to $4 per full cord. 
Basswood brings from $4 to $7 per cord delivered at the mill in the 
North. Cottonwood, including popple or aspen, and other species bring 
from $3 to $5 per cord. 

The factors affecting the amount of excelsior produced per cord are: 

(a) Size and quality of the bolts, whether round or split, etc. 

(6) Size or coarseness of the strands. 

(c) Kind of wood. The heavier yellow pine will yield more than 
basswood or aspen. 

(d) Amount of waste. The size of the “ spalt ” or the remainder 
of the bolt after cutting determine to a large extent the amount 
of excelsior. produced. 

Under average conditions it is considered that one cord of wood will 
produce about 2000 lb. of excelsior. This may vary, however, from 1650 
Ib. up to over 2300 lb. per cord, depending upon the’above factors. 


Excelsior Machines. 

A complete plant consists of a battery of machines (up to 24 upright 
machines or from one to six horizontal 8-block machines), a wood splitter, 
a cut-off saw, a barker, knife and spur grinder, a baling press, a set of 
scales and necessary power together with shafting, hangers, pulleys, 
belting, tools, etc. About 5 h.p. is required to run each upright excelsior 
machine. One horizontal 8-block machine is equivalent in capacity to 
ro to. 12 upright machines. 

This plant, using 24-upright machines would cost from $000 to 
$12,000 depending on such factors as labor charges, freight, character of 
equipment, etc. 

Excelsior machines are of two designs: (a) upright or vertical, and 
(b) horizontal. The following is a brief description of common forms 
of each type: 

(a) Vertical or upright excelsior machine. 

The vertical or upright machines are usually set up in multiples of 6 
since one operator can look after six machines. Batteries of 18 or 24 
machines are fairly common. The frame of each machine is 10 ft. high, 
and it occupies a floor space 4 ft. 2 in. by 12 in. Two vertical guides 
support a horizontal crankshaft bearing an 18-in. flywheel. To this 
wheel is attached a connecting rod which reciprocates vertically between 


EXCELSIOR 429 


the two guides and supports a steel frame. The spurs or teeth which cut 
the excelsior are attached to this steel frame. The spurs are flat pieces 
of steel 33 in. long, 3; in. thick and 3 in. wide at the base and taper to a 
point. The number of these points determines the grade of excelsior. 
They vary from 35 to 205 in number.. Just. above the steel frame is 
fastened a wide knife which follows the points and cuts off the scorings 
made by them. Two horizontal, corrugated feed rolls actuated in oppo- 
site directions serve to advance the bolt as fast as the cutting requires 
and can be easily regulated according to the fineness of the desired 
product. It ordinarily requires four to six minutes for a 2-ft. bolt to pass 
‘through one of these machines, each of which is capable of producing 
about 500 lb. of excelsior of medium grade in a ten-hour day. 

(6) Horizontal excelsior machine. 

A common form of the horizontal type is an 8-block machine con- 
sisting of 2 sliding steel frames, carrying 8 toolheads into which the 
knives and comb-like spurs are spanned. The sliding frames are moved 
with powerful cranks and pitmans on hard maple slides. Above these 
sliding frames are 2 stationary frames, each of which has 4 sets of rolls. 
The latter by their rotation press a wood block downward against the 
knives. This 8-block machine requires from 25 to 35 h.p. to operate it, 
depending on the grade of excelsior. Fine grades of wood wool require 
more power than the manufacture of coarser grades. One man can 
tend the machine and keep it supplied with blocks. It will turn out about 
2 tons of wood wool or from 5 to 6 tons of packing or mattress stock in a 
day of ten hours. 


Baling Press. 

There are two common types of baling presses on the market. In 
general they follow the same principles as employed in hay or shaving 
presses. The following are two representative types: 

The horizontal press has a steam cylinder mounted in a direct line 
with the plunger and the body of the press. The stroke of the plunger 
is central. The excelsior is placed in a hopper in front of the press and 
at each thrust the plunger forces the hopper-full into the press. This 
process is repeated until the bale is completed when it is wired and pushed 
out. The wire is first placed in grooves in the bottom and sides. Bales 
made by this type of press are 18 in., by 22 in. but they can be made 
14 by 18 in. or 16 by 20in. The bales of the first size weigh from go to 
110 lb. each. This press requires 5 h.p. of steam when it is operated 
continuously. The diameter of the cylinder is ro in., length of stroke 36 
in., and extreme length of press 153 ft. The list price of this press is $380. 


430 FOREST PRODUCTS 


The other common type is an upright form in which the excelsior 
is collected directly in the press and the top is forced down and com- 
presses the contents by a rack and pinion operated vertically. The 
common size of bales made by this form is 26 by 28 by 56 in. They 
weigh from 175 to 240 lb. each. 


Description of Operation. 
The wood is brought in from the storage shed or yard with a one-horse 
wagon or by a hand truck and unloaded near the cut-off or push saw. 


Here the operator cuts the 56-in. bolts in thirds, squares the ends, and his 
helper piles them in a place convenient for the men who feed the excel- 


Photograph by U.S. Forest Service. 
Fic. 113.—Vertical type of excelsior machines in operation at a factory in Union, New 
Hampshire. At each downward stroke, a sharp steel spur removes a thin strand of wood 
from the block. 


sior machines. All the bolts must be squared so they will go through 
the machines evenly. Bolts over 6 in. in diameter are usually halved or 
quartered either by hand or by a bolt splitter in the larger mills. 

The bolts are fed into the excelsior machines as fast as desired, the 
“spalt ”’ or waste being thrown on a pile to one side and used on the 
bales or sold for fuel. Any grade of excelsior can be made, from the 
finest wood wool to the coarsest mattress stock, by an adjustment of 
the feed and different thickness of spurs. The capacity of each machine 
depends upon the feed, speed, kind of wood and attention of the opera- 
tor. The excelsior drops to the floor and is collected on the other 


EXCELSIOR 431 


side of the machines. It is either moved by hand to the baling press or 
carried on a belt conveyer directly to the press. 

Two men are usually employed to operate the press and weigh the 
bales. They are then rolled on trucks directly into the freight car or toa 
shed for storage. The minimum car load is usually ro tons. From 100 
to 125 bales weighing from 175 to 240 Ib. apiece make up the average 
carload. 

Labor employed at an excelsior mill is entirely unskilled and, there- 
fore, only comparatively low wages are paid. In the South the men 
receive from $1.25 to $1.5¢ per day. In the North the prevailing wages 
are from $1.50 to $2.50 per day. A ten-hour day is usually observed and 
night shifts are used when the demand for the product justifies them. 

Depreciation and insurance charges are usually heavy. The former 
is written off at the rate of about 10 per cent per annum. Owing to the 
highly inflammable nature of the product and the generally cluttered con- 
dition of the mills, the fire risk is rather high. Some companies pay $1.75 
insurance per $100 valuation even when equipped with automatic 
sprinklers. 

The following is an approximate estimate of daily labor and other 
expenses incurred at a plant equipped with four 8-block horizontal 
machines as manufactured by the Kline Co. of Alpena, Mich. This 
plant will use between 2c and 24 cords of wood per day and turn out about 
20 tons of common fine grade or mattress stock in ten hours. 


4 machine operators at $1.50 each............... $ 6.00 
UNIS BRUNO Ror Fe onc os ee av ck RE Le 3.00 
MnCIDERS (HOVE) AtI.OO. 2 oss os cece a ne 2.00 
iB UVCtS AIM WONPRENS aS oe. ee oe kee te oe 3.00 
isawyer to square blocks. 20/0... . 2.52.3: 1.50 
EMMOTT SAWYER gh es. sic eae one es 1.25 
P.asestnne tO Pile DOMsss oo Se Se once ee 1.25 
1 grinder to sharpen knives and spurs........... 2.00 
Pace AD OIE es ok ee Pc bee 1.50 
1 foreman to look after machinery.............. 3.00 
1 cart driver to bring in bolts................... 1.50 
r man to load cars or pile goods in warehouse.... 1.50 
¥ fireman and efigmeer. hoes. oc. ee 2.50 

1 SEP SY Bea Wile ed's” gy ec ee 7.00 
DEINE DOMME cs i orcs ONG we re kbs ico edocs 1.50 

Se We SORE. as ages Poke es Sk ewe oe 2.50 


id 


432 FOREST PRODUCTS 


To the above figures must be added those for taxes, insurance, inter- 
est, depreciation, superintendency, selling charges, etc., which are very 
variable factors and which altogether should not total more than $3.50 
per day. The cost of wood is roughly figured at one-third to one-half 
the total cost and varies considerably with the species, location, etc. 
This represents one of the largest of the excelsior operations, which 
can be run on a much more economical basis per ton of product than 
can the smaller operations. 

In another mill using from 6 to 10 cords of basswood, poplar and wil- 
low per day and where the output is from 6 to 10 tons of excelsior of the 
medium grade, the following labor charges were incurred. This mill 
was equipped with 20 upright excelsior machines. : 


¥-snill foreman, ': ; i208 Hos Va he eee $ 2.50 
1 teamster to bring in the wood from the yard.... 1.50 
I assistant to work with teamster............... 1.50 
1 operator at the cut-off saw................. ai. aoe 
1 wood piler to carry blocks from saw to a point 

convenient to the excelsior machines........... 1.50 
3 operators to feed excelsior machines and look 

after them generally at $1.75 .............4..-- 3.26 
2 men picking up excelsior at $1.50.............. 3.00 
2 men to operate baling press, and tie and weigh 

bales at Si, 5006 oto cui cape ee ie aes 3.0C 
1 assistant to truck bales to car or shed.......... a) 
t grinder orien: 3.00 sowie eee 1.75 
rengineer atid fireman! 9520, Sits eee a 2.00 


CHAPTER XXII 


CORK 


GENERAL 


Cork is the outer layer of the bark of an evergreen oak (Quercus suber). 
Although the tree grows over a wide territory, the commercial production 
of cork is restricted to a comparatively small area bordering the western 
Mediterranean Sea, between the 34th and 45th degrees of latitude, North. 

The Iberian peninsula is the great center of cork production and pro- 
duces nearly two-thirds the world’s supply of cork. It also grows widely 
in southern France, Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Morocco, Algiers and Tunis, 
and, to a limited extent, in Greece, the Dalmatian Coast, Tripoli, and 
Asia Minor. Portugal probably produces more cork than any other 
country, but Spain is regarded as the center of the cork industry because 
it imports large quantities from Portugal and re-exports it together with 
the Spanish product in the various manufactured forms. The Tagus 
River Valley in Portugal and the provinces of Catalonia, Andalusia and 
Estremadura in Spain are the great sources of the world’s cork supply. 

There are 400,000 acres of cork forest in France, 818,000 acres in 
Portugal, about 850,000 acres in Spain, 1,000,000 acres in Algeria, and 
200,000 to 250,000 acres in Tunis. The total area of cork oak forests is 
estimated to be betweeen 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 acres. The richest 
and most productive forests are in Portugal and Spain. 

Cork has played an important part in civilization since the days of 

_ the ancient Greeks of the 4th century B.c. and the Roman Empire, for 
it is mentioned by Horace and Pliny as well as by Plutarch and an early 
Greek writer. Even in those early days cork was used both for bottle 
stoppers and for buoys for fishermen’s nets. The introduction of glass 
bottles in the 15th century gave a great impetus to the industry and the 
importance of cork gradually increased until modern times. 

In 1914 this country imported over $6,400,000 worth of cork in its 
various forms, and even in 1918 the value was over $5,000,000 in spite of 
the lack of ocean tonnage. In 1916 Spain exported cork and cork prod- 

433 


434 FOREST PRODUCTS 


ucts to the value of about $6,900,000. The annual production of cork 
from all sources is estimated to be between 50,000 and 60,000 tons. 


THE CORK OAK 


The cork oak is generally a small, irregular tree from 25 to 50 ft. in 
height and from 8 to 18 in. in diameter, at breast height. The clear 
trunk is seldom over 12 to 15 ft. in height and the crown is usually some- 
what dense and spreading. The cork oak forests resemble to some 
degree the live oak groves of the southeast and California, with the 
exception that individual cork oaks do not generally reach such a large 
size as the live oaks of this country. 


Fic. 114.—A good stand of cork oaks in Andalusia, the province of southern Spain which is 
the center of production of that country. The trunk of the tree on the left including 
the lower branches is being stripped. Note the hatchet used to girdle and pry off the 
bark. The trees are usually stripped of bark every eight or nine years. 


The forests are very open and there are ordinarily only from 30 to 60 
trees per acre. All the trees are of native origin and grow wild and there 
are no extended attempts at artificial regeneration in its native habitat. 

The trees are very slow growing and generally do not attain a size 
suitable for stripping until about twenty to thirty years of age or more. 
In Spain practically the only important government regulation govern- 
ing the conduct of this industry, is the stipulation that no trees under 

* 40 cm. in circumference (about 5 in.) at a point 13 meters above the 


CORK 435 


ground can be stripped for their bark. Trees commonly attain an age of 
from 100 to 500 years or more. They generally grow on the lower slopes 
of mountains and on the poorer and more rocky soils which are unsuit- 
able for agriculture. The best cork is said to be produced from the drier 
and more rocky soils. 

In 1858 several cork oaks were introduced in this country and have 
grown well in the Southeastern States. The experiments were not suffi- 
ciently extensive, however, to determine any positive results regarding 
the possible introduction and growth of the tree in America. 

There has not been any disposition evidenced either by the cen- 
tralized or,local governments in Spain to exercise any supervision over 
the cork forests except as noted above. They are such an important 
factor in producing wealth that the owners of cork oak forests realize 
their importance and give them excellent care. The general method of 
handling has been practically the same for the past several centuries and 
it is not likely that there will be any marked changes in the general 
methods either of cultivation of forests or in the methods of stripping. 


HARVESTING THE BARK 


All trees that are vigorous and healthy, from 5 to 6 in. and up in diam- 
eter, are stripped. Trees are stripped of their bark every six to eleven 
years, with an average of about eight to nine years. In the lowlands, 
where the soil is richer, the cork is thicker and more spongy and, there- 
fore, of less value. The firm and heavier cork, which is much more 
desirable, is produced only on higher and drier soils in very open groves. 
This product is considered to be of superior quality even though much 
thinner. Young trees, generally speaking, produce the best quality of 
cork, although the first stripping, called “virgin ” cork, is of very inferior 
grade and is used only for granulated cork. It is usually hard, thin, 
dense and tough, and very irregular. Trees as young as twenty years of 
age have, in special cases, been subjected to the stripping of their bark, 
but, ordinarily, the age of first stripping is much older than this, as the 
trees in Spain grow very slowly, and it is often from thirty to fifty years 
before trees will attain a diameter of 6 in. The first stripping does not 
injure the growth; on the other hand, it seems to stimulate further 
development of both the bark and wood growth. 

There is no definite rule regarding the age at which trees no Jone 
continue to yield commercial cork. Growers in Spain estimate that 
commercial cork is produced from trees up to three hundred to five hun- 


436 FOREST PRODUCTS 


dred years of age. The most valuable cork is generally about an inch 
in thickness and this is produced from .rather young, vigorous trees, 
about forty to fifty years of age, and from the lower branches of the 
older trees. The bark is stripped according to the vigor displayed. This 
is gauged by men long experienced in the business. All stripping is done 
by skilled workmen who decide for each tree how high the bark should 
be removed. A young, vigorous tree with thick bark can be stripped 
higher than one with thin bark, or one which presents a rather unprom- 


Fic. 115.—Weighing pieces of cork in the cork oak forests of southern Spain, just after 
stripping and drying. Raw cork is usually purchased on the basis of weight before it is 
sent to the factory for manufacture. 


ising or unhealthy appearance. On old trees the best cork is found 
on the lower portions of the larger branches. 

In stripping the bark, a ring is customarily cut completely around the 
top and the bottom of the trunk; then a vertical cut is made up the trunk 
and as many other horizontal rings around the tree as seem necessary in 
order to facilitate the removal of the bark. The wedge-shaped handle 
of the hatchet is then inserted and the bark pried off. Each tree presents 
a different problem. On small trees one may often take off the whole 
bark in one section. On larger trees 2 to 4 vertical cuts up the tree may 
be necessary. There is no uniformity either in the length or width of 


CORK 437 


the sections removed from the different trees. The stripping is done 
entirely with a hand-axe or hatchet especially designed for the purpose. 
The strippers are always careful not to injure the inner bark at any point, 
because if broken or disturbed this point becomes scarred and successive 
removals of bark are rendered much more difficult. On the old trees, 
stripping from the larger branches is done with the assistance of ladders. 

One can always tell freshly stripped trees by the dull, red appearance 
of the inner bark. The cambium layer turns a rich dark red shortly 
after stripping and remains in this condition until the next year’s growth. 
This is a characteristic sight throughout the cork oak districts. 

The time of stripping varies in different parts of the cork region. 
The general rule followed is that it should be done when the sap is run- 
ning freely. In Andalusia, in southern Spain, it is customarily done from 
June ist to early in September, but the busiest season is in July. The 
operation may start early one year and the next year much later, as the 
season varies considerably. It is said that hot weather, following a 
good rainfall, is the most opportune time to strip the bark during the 
removal season. 

As the strips and slabs are removed from the tree, they are piled up 
at a convenient point in the forest and later tied in bundles and con- 
veyed on donkey-back to the nearest shipping station or bark scraping 
establishment. 

In Algeria and Tunis: the strippers customarily use a crescent-shaped 
saw for stripping, whereas in Spain and Portugal a hatchet with a long 
handle, wedge-shaped at the end is the only implement. used in the 
stripping process. 


YIELD AND VALUE 


The thickness of the bark varies from } to 23 in., depending upon the 
size and age of the tree, the part of the tree, its condition, the character 
of the soil, etc. Each tree will yield from 45 to 500 Ib. of cork, depend- 
ing upon these same factors. 

Ordinarily the bark is allowed to season from three to eight days in 
the forest, then it is weighed and sent to some central point to be scraped. 
The scraping process may be done either in the forest or at the shipping 
station. In the case of large Saas it is cone at some large, central 
manufacturing point. ‘ 

Purchases are ordinarily made on the basis of weight. Frequently 
buyers inspect the cork on the ground and count the strips by the dozen, 


438 FOREST PRODUCTS 


the larger pieces being separated from the small ones. Generally 
speaking, it is estimated that on the average there are two pieces obtained 
from each tree. In Andalusia, in Spain, it is usually purchased by the 
quintal of 46 km. Whole forests or orchards are sometimes purchased 
at a fair price, the buyer occasionally doing the stripping himself. The 
price by weight may be figured either at thé station or at the manufac- 
turing or shipping point. 

Prices prior to the war have been very variable. It is seldom graded 
aside from the general classification as noted above. Prices range from 


AN 


£ 


t 


Photograph by Nelson C. Brown. 


Fic. 116.—Character of bark as it is brought to the factory from the forest. On the right isa 
piece about 4 ft. in length, stripped from the tree in one section. It is first boiled, then 
scraped and sorted by thickness and quality. Photograph taken at a large cork factory 
in Seville, Spain. 


7 to g pesetas (roughly, from $1.40 to $1.80), per quintal, up to 20 or 
25 pesetas (roughly, $4.00 to $5.00), according to the quality, classifi- 
cation, condition, size, thickness, and location, 


MANUFACTURE 


In the manufacturing process, the raw’ bark as it comes from the 
trees and after drying is first boiled in large copper vats for about three- 
quarters of an hour. The purpose of boiling in water is to soften the 


CORK 439 


bark, and increase its volume and elasticity, to remove the tannic acid, 
and straighten out the curvature of the individual pieces for convenience 
in packing. The boiling is done by placing the pieces close together, one 
on top of another, and compressing by a heavy weight to keep them flat- 
tened out. Boiling softens the outer bark so that it may be scraped to 
remove the coarse and hard outer layer called ‘‘ hardback.” This layer 
may vary from ;; to § in., depending upon the nature and character of 
the bark. It is done by hand with hand rasps in most cases, and reduces 
the weight of the bark about 20 per cent. Efforts have been made to do 
the scraping by machinery, but it is generally agreed that the hand work 


. Se 


Photograph by Neilson C. Brown. 


Fic. 117.—At a large cork factory in Seville, Spain. Under the open sheds on the right the 
crude cork is boiled and scraped. The best cork is made into wine stoppers. 


is better, because the worker can better judge the character and require- 
ments of the individual piece and rasp accordingly. Some pieces of 
bark are exceedingly rough and irregular and require much more scrap- 
ing and individual attention than others. Some parts of one piece of 
bark may also be much more irregular than other parts. : 

After scraping the bark, it is trimmed with a knife either by hand or 
by machine, and sorted into grades. It is sorted first for thickness and 
then for quality. There are customarily from four to five grades of 
thickness and there are usually four sub-grades of quality to each thick- 


440 


FOREST PRODUCTS 


ness. There are no standard methods of grading requirements for either 
the thickness or quality among the various companies. All cork after 
manufacture is sold on the basis of samples. The slabs of cork to be 
shipped are then baled in hydraulic presses, and tied up with wire. 


_-- | 


Fic. 118.—Baling cork after boiling, scraping, grading and trimming. Considerable cork is 
shipped to this country in thisform. Photograph taken at a large cork factory in Seville, 


Spain. 


UTILIZATION OF CORK 


Cork possesses a number of properties which distinguish it and render 
it adaptable for use in a great diversity of ways. Its principal features 


are: 


& W ND H 


5. 


Lightness in weight. 

Compressibility and elasticity. 

Comparative imperviousness to liquids as well as to air. 
Comparative strength and durability in relation to its other 
properties. 

Low conductivity of heat. 


The combination of these. characteristics renders it invaluable. for 
many specialized purposes. Its low specific gravity combined with its 


CORK 441 


strength, toughness and durability, cause it to be in great demand for life- 
belts, buoys, floats, and for several special devices for the prevention of 
drowning. 

Its impervious and compressible qualities bring it into wide use for 
bottle stoppers, which have been, for a long time, the principal use 
for the better classes of cork. Champagne and fine wine stoppers require 
the very highest grades of cork. 

Its lightness in weight, softness and low conductivity: of héat render 
it an excellent lining for hats and for soles of shoes. 

The demands upon cork products have greatly increased during the 
last few decades. It is estimated that in the manufacture of solid articles 


Fic. 119.—Sorting and trimming sheets of cork. The best grades are used for bottle stoppers. 


from cork, there is a primary waste of from 55 to 70 per cent. This 
waste, however, is always collected, ground up ae ultimately used for a 
great variety of purposes. 

On account of its being a poor conductor of heat—exceeding most 
materials in this quality—its use for cork insulation in refrigeration has 
developed very broadly in the past twenty years. Probably about 
50 per cent of the tctal cork product of the world, measured by weight, 
is used now for refrigeration. The American, Argentine, and Brazilian 
meat packers purchase vast quantities of cork boards composed of odd 
pieces of cork waste compressed together. 


442 FOREST PRODUCTS 


Large quantities are also used for heat insulation, either in the form 
of cork boards or for loose filling in the walls of ice boxes, cold-pipe lines, 
water coolers, cold storage rooms, and about the sides of freezing tanks 
in ice factories. Fur storage vaults, creameries, bakeries, candy factories, 
and breweries use it for insulation and it is extensively used on ships, 
clubs, hotels, etc., for the same purpose. When used in the board form, 
the sheets usually measure 12 by 36 in. and vary in thickness, depending 
upon the local requirements. 

_ Cork flour is a prominent product. This is made entirely from cork 
waste and is one of the principal constituents of linoleum and cork floor 
tiling; cork shavings are used to stuff mattresses and boat cushions. 
Other common uses are table mats for hot dishes, pin cushions, entomo- 


Fic. 120.—Baled cork scraps at a cork factory. Used principally for insulation at refriger- 
ating plants. 


logical cork for mounting insects, bath mats, washers, penholder tips, 
carburetor floats, churn lids, cork balls, gaskets, instrument and fishing- 
rod handles, etc. Recently it has come into greater use for cigarette 
tips and cork paper from yoo to sos of an inch in thickness. 

Spain, the most important country in the exportation of cork and 
cork products, has an export tariff of five pesetas (roughly, $1.00), per 
100 km. or 220 lb. of cork in lumps and sheets. This duty has been the 
same for a number of years. There is no import duty in the United 
States for bark, but there is a large duty for manufactured cork, stoppers 
paying from 12 to 15 cents per pound, depending upon size, while other 
forms pay about 30 per cent of their value. 


CORK 443 


In 1916 the total exports of cork from Spain were as follows: 


Form. Number of Kilograms 
DOTS. eh ee ee cabs 2 iobeetes « 26,471,820 
WN OSE = ice rahe 5 Eats la ete Sia Sip ote Bees CS 4,231,885 
SGMRTES, pg aN a eS eee ee Ee oes 1,726,123 
BheCts AIL TOMa teas 8s eae ce a eS IEE 1,200,440 
CUE SOU iG oe ei ote ee exe 344,870 


Spain ordinarily imports over 4,500,000 kg. of cork from Portugal and 
after manufacture re-exports it. Most of the stoppers go to France, 
with a considerable quantity to the United States and Great Britain as 
well. The squares go chiefly to Argentina, France, and Italy, while, of 
the cork waste, nearly one-half goes to the United States and a good share 
of the remainder to Great Britain. Before the war, Germany was an 
important market for cork and cork products, so that there has been a 
general decrease in total exports since 1914. 

The following table shows the value of the importation to this coun- 
try of cork bark and manufactures of cork from all sources during the 
years 1914 to 1918, inclusive, each year ending June 30th: 


IMPORTATION OF CORK TO THE UNITED STATES 


’ Cork Bark: aca Manufact f Cork. 
Years. 4 +" ve Value in Dollars. | Valeo in Dollars. 
1914 $3,851,794 $2,647,838 
1915 2,762,895 2,024,059 
1916 3,134,884 041,243 
1917 3,870,389 2,158,447 
1918 3,061 829 2,017,146 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ARMSTRONG CorK Co. Cork and Its Uses, and Miscellaneous Leaflets and Circulars. 
Pittsburg. 

EL ALCORNOQUE. Ministero de Fomento. Madrid, rgrr. 

LAICHINGER, Paut. The Cork Insulation Industry Refrigeration. Atlanta, 1919. 
Vol. 24, pp. 36-40. 

Marquis, Raout. Le Liege et ses Applications. Paris: Jouvet et Cie. 

Prentice, H. W., Jr. History of Cork. Automobile. New York, 1917. Vol. 
36, p. 424. 

ReEcorD, S. J. Possibilities of Cork Oak in the United States. Hardwood Record. 
Chicago. Vol. 35, No. 5, p. 29. 


STECHER, G. E. Cork: Its Origin and Industrial Uses. New York: D. Van 
Nostrand & Co., 1914. 


INDEX 


A 


Acacia calechu, tannin, 86 

— —, dye woods, 421 

— natalitia, 86 

— pycnantha, 86 

Acetate of lime, drying floor for, 212 

— — —, — over ovens, illustration of, 220 

— — —, price of, 218 

—— —, uses of, 220 

— — —, value of yield per cord, 219 

—— —, yield per cord, 219 

——_— , yields of, in distillation, 217 

Acid factories, see Distillation, Hardwood 

— manufacture and storage in sulphite pro- 

cess of pulp manufacture, 40 

—, pyroligneous, 204, 205 

Acre, equivalent, 17 

Acreage of cork forests, 433 

— — rubber plantations, 408 

Adirondacks, practice of making pulpwood 
in mill in, 30 

Africa, mangrove in, 83 

African rubber, 406 

Agents, sizing and loading in papermaking, 53 

—, tanning, 60 

Agricultural implements, 11 

Akers, C. E., on rubber industry, 413 

Akron, center of rubber industry, 404 

Alabama, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 3, 7 

—, wood fuel used, 330 

Alcohol, refining, 212 

—, wood, price of, 218, 219 

—, —, uses of, 221 

—, —, yield per cord, 219 

Algarobilla for tanning, 64, 85 

—, tanning contents of, 64 

Amazon, rubber in, 407 


American fustic, 419 

— Leather Chemists’ Asseciation, reference, 
87 

Andalusia, cork in, 433, 434, 435 

Andes Mountains, 406 

Annual consumption of excelsior, 426 

— — — wood for boxes, 250 

— production, maple sugar and syrup, 380, 
381 

— use of wood, 11 

Anthracite mines, timber used in, 332 

Appalachians, southern chestnut oak in, 72, 
72 

Apple Growers’ Congress, decision in favor 
of barrel, 118 

Apron systems of collecting resin, 173 

Arabia, 20 

Area of original and present forests, 2 

Argentina, production of quebracho in, 79, 
80 

Arizona and New Mexico, box ae, con- 
sumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

hokanions box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 3, 7 

— National Forest, cooperage sales on, 152 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Armstrong Cork Co., on cork, 443 

Ash, amount for boxes, 251 

—, charcoal yield, 239 

—, for pulp, 26 

—, fuel value, 342 

— hoops, 13t 

— lumber cut, 8 

—., lumber value, to 

— staves, sizes, 140 * 

— used for slack cooperage, 121 

— — — distillation, 192 2 

—, white, used for tight cooperage, 143 . 


445 


446 INDEX 


Ashe, W. W., on forests of North Carolina, 
187 
—,—, introduction of cup systems by, 174 
Aspen for pulp, 25, 29, 31, 37, 48 
— used in mines, 332 
—, yield in pulp, 37 
Assam rubber, 406 
Assembling slack barrels, 134 
— tight cooperage, 159, 160 
Altalea excelsa, 405 
Atlantic coast, south, distillation in, 227 228 
Austria, charcoal methods in, 236 
Avicennia nitida, 82 
— tomentosa, 82 
B 
Balata, rubber, 406 
Balderston, L., on valonia, 87 
Ball, Marcus, data and experiments by, 238 
Baling cork, illustration of, 440 
— press, excelsior, 429 
Balsam fir for pulp, 19, 25, 26, 27, 20, 31, 
38, 47 
— —, time of cooking for sulphite pulp, 43 
Baphia nitida, 419 
Bark, black oak, 78, 79 
—, chestnut oak, cost of producing, 71, 72 
—, — =; price'of 71, 72 
—,— —, yield of, in cords, 73 
—, hemlock, analysis of, 77 
—, —, cost of producing, 69 
—, —, equivalents, 68 
—,—, for tanning, 60, 61, 66, 67, 68 
—, —-, harvesting, 66, 67, 68 
—, —, hauling and loading, illustration of, 67 
—, —, method of hauling, illustration, 69 
—,—, peeling, 62 
—, —, price of, 66 
—, —, production of, 65, 66, 67; 68 
~—,—, volume of, for trees of different 
diameters, 70 
—, mangrove, 82 
—, —, use of, 82, 83 
—, number of cords of, for trees of different 
diameters, 70 
Barking bolts or logs for paper pulp, 31, 32 
Barrel, assembling a slack, 130 
—, legal sizes of, 118 
Barrels, (other) see cooperage, slack and 
tight 
Barker, rotary or drum, used in making 
pulp, 32 


Barwood, 4109 

Basswood, amount for boxes, 251 

— for pulp, 18, 26, 29 

—, heading sizes, 141 

— —, weights, 139 

— lumber cut, 8 

—— value, 10 

— posts, 329 

—, South American, 417 

— staves, sizes, 140 

— used for excelsior, 424 

— — — slack cooperage, 121 

— — — tight cooperage, 146 

— veneer cores, 108 

— veneers, use of, 107 

Bateman, E., on fuel value of wood, 342, 
343 

Bath process of distillation, 231 

Batteries of ovens in distillation plant, 209 

Baur, F., on wood shrinkage, 345 

Beadle, C., on papermaking, 58 

— —, on rubber, 413 

Beating engines, 52, 53 

— machines, photograph of, 52 

— pulp, process of, 52, 53 

Beech, amount for boxes, 251 

—, charcoal yield, 238 

— cross ties, amount, 267 

—, European, illustration of, 243 

— for charcoal, 236 

Reh ee pulp, 26, 27, 29, 48 

—, fuel value, 342 

— lumber cut, 8 

—, — value, Io 

— staves, sizes, 140 

— ties, durability, 292 

—, time for burning charcoal, 241 

— used in mines, 332 

— — for distillation, 192, 193, 217 

— — — slack cooperage, 121 

— — — tight cooperage, 146 

—, weight, 193 

Beehive kilns, illustration of, 242 

Bennett, H. G., on tanning materials, 87 

Benson, H. K., data from, on chestnut ex- 
tract, 74 and 75 

—,—-—,on by-products of the Lumber 

Industry, 234 

Bergil, charcoal investigations by, 238 

Berry, S., on shake making, 372 

Berwick, Maine, first sawmill at, 2 

Bethell process of treating piling, 325 


tite = 


INDEX 447 


Betts, H. S. and A. W. Schorger, data from, 
176, 177, 183 
—, — —, on fuel value of wood, 342, 343, 35° 
—,——, on possibilities of Western pines 
for naval stores, 187 

Betula, Pa., distillation plant, illustration of, 
220 

Bevan, E. J., on wood pulp and papermaking, 
58 

Beveridge, James, on pulp and papermaking, 
58 

Bichromates for tanning, 65 

Bighorn National Forest, tie chance on, 286 

Birch, amount for boxes, 251 

—, boiling for veneers, 97 

—, charcoal yield, 238 

— cross ties, amount, 267 

— for charcoal, 236 

ice pulp, 26, 29, 48 

—, fuel value, 342 

— hoops, 131 

—, lumber cut, 4, 8 

—, — value, 10 

— ties, durability, 292 

— used for distillation, 192, 193, 217 

—— — tight cooperage, 146 

—, veneer, prices, 95 

—, veneers, use, 106, 107 

pa weight, 193 

Bitting, A. W., on box specifications, 260 

Bituminous mines, timber used in, 332 

Board feet, equivalents, 15, 16, 17, 18 

Bodock, 420 

Bois d’arc, 420 

Bolts, shingle, logging, 354, 355, 356 

—, stave, logging and delivering, 150 

—, tight stave, method of cutting, illustra- 
tion of, 151 

Boringdon, John, on the art and practice of 
veneering, 114 

Bow-wood, 420 

Boxed heart tie, 264 

Box elder posts, 329 

Boxes and box shooks, general, 248 

— — crating, 11 

— — crates made from veneers, 106, 107 

Boxes, desirable qualities in woods, 249 

—, hardwoods used for, 249 

—, lumber used for, 248 

—, manufacture, 253 

—, principal states, 250, 252 

—., sizes and specifications, 254 


Boxes, species used, 250 

—, veneer, 257 

—, wire bound, 258 

Box grades of lumber, 253 

Boxing a longleaf pine for resin, illustration 
of, 166 

— trees for resin, 170 

Box lumber consumption by species, 251 

— lumber consumption by states, 252 

— shooks, cost of making, 254 

Blackey, J. R., on tanning materials, 87 

Blanchet, A., on history of papermaking, 58 

Brace, equivalent, 15 

Braziletto, 417 

Brazil, mangrove in, 83 


-—, rubber, 406 


Brazil-woods, 417 
Bryan, A. H., on production of maple 
syTup, 383, 400 
Bryant, R.C., reference to book on Logging, 
29, 311, 334 
Brown, Harold, on rubber, 413 
—, Nelson C., on hardwood distillation 
industry, 223 
—,——,, on utilization at Menominee Mills, 
35° 
Sh ie Ss cork bark, photograph by, 438 
—,——, — factory, photograph by, 439 
—,——, cordwood, photograph by, 337 


—,——, photograph of cars loaded with 


charcoal, by, 238 
—,——, — — Cobbs-Mitchell Co. plant, 
by 202 
—,— —,—— cooling ovens, by, 203 
—,— —, — — distillation wood, by, 190 
—,— —, — — Italian saw mill, 246 
—,——,— — hardwood distillation plant, 
by, 194 
—,— —,— — veneer machine by, 97 
—,——,— — maritime pine in France by, 
186 
—,— —,— — Western yellow pine by, 177 
Buckeye, amount for boxes, 251 
Buckeye, for pulp, 29 
Built-up stock, manufacture of, 103, 104 
Burcey column, introduction and use of, 191 
Bureau of Explosives, on shipping containers, 
260 
Burning charcoal, rate of, 243 
Butler, F. O., on papermaking, 58 
Butte mining districts, timbers used in, 
333 


448 


Butterick, P. L., on making box boards, 261 
Butternut dyes, 414 


C 


Cadillac, Mich., Cummer-Diggins distillation 
plant, 208 

—,—, distillation plant, 202 

Cesalpinia coriaria, 84 

eR) dyes, 417 

California, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, fuel in, 340 

—, lumber cut, 3, 7 

+, mine timber supply in, 333 

—, number of boxes used in, 248 

—, shakes in, 351, 370, 371 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Camaldoli, Italy, charcoal burning, 243 

Campbell, C. L., on wood distillation, 223 

Campeachy wood, 416 

Camwood, 419 

Canada, supply of pulp wood, 23 

—, tendency of wood pulp industry to move 
to Canada, 27 

Canned food boxes, specifications, 255 

Cans, sizes of, used in boxes, 259 

Capacity of charcoal pits in Europe, 241 

—— distillation cars, 209 

— — storage yards for hardwood distillation, 

206 

Car construction, Ir 

Car-load lots of poles, 317 

Card process, 293 

Cars and trackage, hardwood distillation, 207 

—, distillation, capacity of, 207, 208 

—,—, cost of, 208 

— loaded with charcoal after distillation, 208 

Cascade Mts., hemlock bark in, 77 

Cascalote, 86 

Castilloa elastica, 405 

Catalpa posts, 326 

Catechin, 421 

Catechu dye woods, 421 

Cavadia, T. G., on rubber, 413 

Cedar, amount for boxes, 251 

—, annual production, 8 

—, cross ties, amount, 267 

—, eastern red, posts, 326 

—,— —, ties, durability, 292 

—, lumber cut, 4, 8 

—, — value, 10 

—, northern white, pole prices, 310 

—, — —, posts, 326 


INDEX 


Cedar, northern white, shingles, 353 

—,—-—-, ties, durability, 292 

—, poles, 300, 301 

—— —, amount, 303 

——, durability, 320 

— shingles, durability, 369 

—, southern white, 326, 353, 362, 364 

—, Spanish, sawed veneers, 102 

—,—, sliced veneers, 99 

—,-—, used for veneers, 90, 94, 99 

—, western red, shakes, 370 

—, — —, shingles, 352, 353, 360, 361, 633 

—,—-—, pole prices, 309 

= POstssn320 

—,—, standing timber, 4 

—, white, excelsior, 426 

Cellulose, in paper making, 51 

—, sulphite, used for tanning, 65 

Ceylon, rubber experiments, 407 

Chamaecyparis thyoides, poles, 300 

Chamfering barrels, 134 

Chapin, E. S., on dyestuffs, 422 

— Co., E. T., photograph by, 315, 317, 320 

Charcoal, annual production of, 236 

— burning illustration of, 240 

— — in beehive kilns, 242 

—, cooling, after distillation process, 209, 
210 

—, general, 235 

— house in hardwood distillation plant, 212 

— making in Italy, 244, 245 

— —, processes used, 238 

— operations, division of time on, 245 

— pit, illustration of, 237 

—, prices, 245 

—, rate of burning, 243 

— trucks after distillation, illustration of, 208 

— used in Europe, 235 

— — — smelting copper, 245 

—, uses of, 222, 232 

—, utilization, 245 

—, value of yield, per cord, 219 

—, volume of, 237 

— yield by species, 239 

— — in New York, 237, 238 

— yields of, 236 

—,——., from hardwood distillation, 217 

—, yield per cord, 219 

Charpentier, P., on dyestuffs in ‘‘ Timber,” 
423 

Chemical Engineer, Chicago, reference to, 87 

Cherry used for veneers, 94, 106 


—“——  — 


INDEX 449 


Cherry veneers, use, 106 


Chestnut, amount for boxes, 251 

— bark disease, 301 

—, charcoal yield, 239 

— cross ties, amount, 267 

— excelsior, 426 

— extract, 73 

— for pulp, 26 

— fuel valve, 342 

—, lumber cut, 8 

—, lumber value, 10 

Bate oak, 64, 70, 71, 72 

— — bark, tannin contents of, 64 

— poles, 300-301 

— —, amount, 303 

— —, durability, 320 

— posts, 326 

— shingle, durability, 369 

— ties, durability, 292 

— used for distillation, 192 

— — — slack cooperage, 121 

— — — tight cooperage, 146 

— — in mines, 332 

— wood for tanning, 60, 65, 73 

— wood, tannin contents of, 64 

Chiming barrels, 134 

China, 20 

Chinese, tanning by, 61 

Chipping, illustration of, 17x 

— pulp bolts, 39 

— — wood, description of operation, 39 

— trees for resin, method of, 171, 172 

Chlorophora tinctoria, 418 

Chrome compounds for tanning, 65 

— tanning materials, 65 

Chutes, log, 68, 69 

Clapperton, G., on paper making, 58 

Clark, R. F., data by, 356 

Clouth, F., on rubber, 413 

Coal, fuel value, compared to wood, 343 

Cobbs-Mitchell distillation plant, 202 

Coconino National Forest, illustration of 
naval stores experiment on, 177 

Coe Manufacturing Co., illustration by, gr, 
III 

Colorado, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Coloring paper pulp, 54 

Collection of sap, maple, 388 

Common forms of cross ties, 264 

Condensers, copper, in softwood distillation, 
228 pea 


Conditions determining cost of making 


mechanical pulp, 37, 38 
— for burning charcoal, 241 
Congo rubber, 406 
Connecticut, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, wood fuel used, 339 
Construction of distillation ovens, 209 
Consumers of tannin, 61 
Consumption, annual, of lumber and wood 

products in the United States, 5 
—, —, excelsior, 426 
— of paper, per capita in United States, 20 
— — wood by process of pulp manufacture, 
27, 28 
— — — fuel, leading states in, 339 
— — — products, per capita, 5 
—— woods for boxes, 250 
—., per capita, of forest products, 5, 6 
Contents of tannin in principal materials, 64 
Conversion factors in tight cooperage indus- 
try, 152 

— — or equivalents, slack cooperage, 137 
Converter pole, equivalent, 15 
Converting factors, 14, 15, 16, 17 
Cooke, W. W., on maple sugar, 400 
Cooking soda pulp, 49 


- — sulphite chips, length of time required, 43 


tes Sen pulp, 41, 42 

Cooling oven in hardwood distillation plant, 
203 

— ovens, 209 

Cooperage mill, slack, crew of, 126, 127 

—., slack, annual consumption and wastage, 5 

—,—,— production of, 116 

ras Sere assembling, 133 

—, —, general, Its 

—,—, grading rules for, 140 

—,—, laws governing, 118 

—, —, stock weights, 137 

—, —, utilization of waste, 135 

—, —, versus other forms of shipping con- 

tainers, 117 

et hie wastage, 5 

—, —, woods used for, 119, 120, 121 

— stock, slack, qualification for, 119 

—, tight, annual consumption and wastage, 5 

—,—, annual production of, 147 

—, —, assembling, 159, 160 

os ee general, 143 

—,—, labor employed in assembling, 161 

—,—, special features of, 145 


. —, —, Species used for, 146, 147 


450 


Cooperage, tight, standard specifications and 
rules of, 162 

—, —, stumpage value of, 149 

Sy WOSEAE CS 

—,—, waste in production of, 145 

—,—, value of products, 148 

—,—, varieties of white oaks used, 146 

Cord, amount of solid wood per, 344 

—, cost of labor per, at acid factories, 215 

—, equivalent of, 17 

—, (fuel), equivalents, 15 

—, (shingle bolts), equivalents, 15 

Cords, number of hemlock bark, for different 
sized trees, 70 


Cordwood, beech, birch, and maple, illus- 


tration of, 337 

—, hauling, illustration of, 347 

Cores, sawing up rotary veneer, illustration 
of, 109 

—, veneer, use of, 107, 108, 109 

—,—, used in mines, 108, 109 

Cork, baling, 440 

— flour, 442 

— forest, illustration of, 434 

— —, acreage, 433 

—, general, 433 

—, harvesting bark, 435 

— imports, 443 

— manufacture, 438 

— oak, 434 

—, properties, 440 

— scraps, illustration of, 442 

—, sorting and trimming, 441 

—, uses of, 440 

—, value, 437 

—, weighing, illustration of, 436 

—, yields, 437 

Cornering a box, illustration of, 170 

Cost, cutting fuel wood, 345 

—, hardwood distillation plant equipment,213 

—, manufacturing box shooks, 254 

—of cutting and delivering distillation 
(hardwood) wood, 193 

— — equipment for still house, 211 

— — — of tight stave mill, 156 

— — fuel in hardwood distillation plants, 214 

— — labor in acid factories, 213 

— — logging shingle bolts, 355, 356 

—-—making and delivering tight stave 

bolts, 152 
— —— mine timbers, 334 
— — manufacturing tight staves, 155 


INDEX 


Cost of operation, hardwood distillation 
plants, 216 
— — plant and equipment, hardwood dis- 
tillation plant, 213 

— — producing hemlock bark, 69 

— — — mechanical pulp, 37, 38 

— — — sulphite pulp, 45, 46 

— — production in softwood distillation, 230 

— — treating posts, 329 

Costs, depreciation at acid factories, 215 

—, summary of, pole production, 318 

—, ties, summary of, 285 

Cotinus americanus, dye wood, 419 

Cottonwood, amount for boxes, 251 

—, black, used for excelsior, 426 

— for pulp, 26, 27, 48 

— heading, sizes, 141 

— —, weights, 138 

— logs, prices, 93 

— lumber cut, 8 

—,— value, 10 

— staves, sizes, 140 

— —, weights, 138 

— used for excelsior, 425, 426 

— — — slack cooperage, 121 

— veneer coves, use of, 108 

—, yield in pulp, 37 

Creosote treatment of poles, saving in, 323 

Crocket, W. H., on maple sugar, 400 

Cronstrom, Hendrix, on Russian veneer 
industry, 114 

Crop, description of, in gathering resin, 160, 
170 

Cross, C. F., on cellulose and pulp and paper 
making, 58 

Cross tie dimensions, illustration of, 275 

— — piles forms of, 290, 291 

— — specifications, U.S. Railroad Adminis- 

tration, 274 

— ties, annual consumption in board feet, 11 

— —, average life, 263 

— —, common forms, 264 

— —, delivery of, 276, 277 

— —, general, 263 

— —, hauling, 283 

— —, hewed, percentage of, 266 

— —, hewing, 280 

— —, history, 263 

— —, life of untreated, 291 

— —, loading illustration of, 287 

— —, making and delivery, 277 

— —, making, illustration of, 281 


« 


, 


INDEX 


Cross ties, mechanical value, 294, 295 
— —, method of piling, illustration of, 289 
-——,, number per thousand board feet, 279 
— —, — purchased, 267 
——, number used, 263, 264, 265, 267 
— —, preservative treatment, 292, 293 
——,, price levels, graphic representation of, 
204 
——, prices of, 270 
——, prices paid by Penna. Railroad, 273 
— —, requirements of good, 267 
— — requiring treatment, 276 
— —, sawed, 287 
——, sawed versus hewed, 269 
— —, seasoning, 289 
— —, suitable timber for hewing, 278 
— —, specifications, 270 
——~, species used, 264 
— —, stumpage values, 277, 278 
— — treated, number, 294 
ers triangular, 274 
—w—, triangular, advantages and disad- 
vantages of, 274 
——, —, illustration of, 274 © 
— w— used untreated, 276 
Crozing barrels, 134 
Cuba wood, 418 
Cuban pine for distillation, 227 
Cubic foot, equivalents, 16, 17 
— —, (round) equivalent, 15 
— meter “‘au reel,’’ 16 
— meter, equivalent of, 16 
Cucumber for pulp, 26, 29 
Cummer-Diggins plant, distillation at Cadil- 
lac, Mich., 208 
Cup and gutter systems, advantages of, 175, 
176 
— — — — of collecting resin, 173 
—— —, Herty, illustration of correct posi- 
tion of, 174 
Cutch, 86 
— dye woods, 421 
Cutting a box for collection of resin, illus- 
tration of, 166 
— paper, 57 
Cylinder stave saw, speed of, 125 
Cypress, amount for boxes, 251 
— cross ties, amount, 267 
— excelsior, 426 
— hoops, 131 
— lumber cut, 8 
—,— value, 10 


451 


Cypress poles, 301 

—-poles, amount, 303 

— —, durability, 320 

— posts, 326 

— shingles, 353 

— —, durability, 369 

—., standing timber, 4 

— ties, durability, 293 

— used for tight cooperage, 146 


D 


Dahl, introduction of process by, 47 

Dalen, G., on paper technology, 158 

Davis, C. T., on the manufacture of paper, 58 

Decay in mine timbers, 335 

Deerlodge National Forest, burning char- 

coal, 240 

— — —, mine timbers, cost of producing, 334 

——-—, mine timbers from, 333 

Delaware, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 - 

—, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, 

mine timber specifications, 333 
Depreciation charges at hardwood distilla- 
tion plant, 215 

— — — softwood distillation, plant, 230 

Derrick pole, equivalent, 15 

— set (11 pieces) equivalents, 15 

Destructive distillation softwood, 227 

Developments in distillation industry, 197 

Digesters used in making soda pulp, 48 

— — to cook chip in making sulphite pulp, 

photograph of, 42 

Dimensions of cross ties, illustration of, 275 

Dipping from turpentine boxes, 172 

— resin from box, illustration of, 173 

Distillation, beech, birch and maple used 
for, illustration of, 190 

—., description of, 203 

—, destructive, softwood, 227, 228 

— plant, hardwood, illustration of, 194, 198 

—, hardwood, cooling ovens, 209 

—,—, cost of operation, 216 ; 

—,—,— — plant and equipment, 213 

—, —, depreciation charges, 215 

—, —, desirable species for, 192 

—, —, early practices of, 189 

—, —, favorable conditions for, 192 

—, —, history of, 189 

—,—, illustration of Cadillac, Mich., plant, 

202 
—, —, oven and iron retorts used in, 200, 201 


452 


Distillation, hardwood, ovens, 209 

—, —, plant equipment 

—,—, processes of manufacture in, 199 

—,—, retort house, 207 

—,—, seasoning and weights of wood used 

in, 193 

—,—, storage yards, 206, 207 

—,—, time required for, 204 

—,—, trackage and cars, 207 

—,—, use of sawmill and woods waste, 194 

—,—, utilization of products, 220 

—,—,— —'wood-for, 192 

—, —, wood consumption for, 196 

—,—-, yields, 217 

— of naval stores, 178 

—, softwood, development of, 225, 226 

—,—, future of, 233 

—,—, general, 225 

—,—, lightwood used for, 227 

—,—, prices of products, 230 

—,—, process, 228° 

—,—, utilization of products, 232 

—, —, yields from 228 

—, steam, and extraction, 230 

— wood, wastage, 5 

District of Columbia, box lumber con- 
sumption, 252 

Divi-divi, for tanning, 64, 84, 85 

—, production and use of, 84 

—., tannin contents of, 64 

Division of time in making charcoal, 245 

Doyle rule used in measuring heading and 
stave logs, 137 

Douglas fir ties, hauling, 283 

Driers, paper, 56 

Drop-saw used in pulp mills, 31 

Drums, cylindrical, used in drying pulp, 45 

Drying floor for acetate of lime, 212 

— sulphite pulp, 45 

Dumesny, Paul, on wood distillation, 223 

Durability of shingle, 368 

— — species used for cross ties, 293 

Dyera costulta, 406 

Dyes, butternut, 414 

—, raw materials, 416 

Dyestuff, manufacture, 414 

Dye woods, general, 414 

——, imports, 421 


E 


Ebonite or hard rubber, 412 
Economic value of tanning materials, 60 


INDEX 


Elm, amount for boxes, 251 

— for pulp, 26 

—, fuel value, 342 

— hoops, 131, 132 

— —, weights, 138 

—, lumber, cut, 8 

—,— value, 10 

— posts, 329 

— staves, sizes, 140 

— —, weights, 137 

— used for slack cooperage, 119, 120 

— — in mines, 332 

— veneers, use of, 107 

—, white, charcoal yield, 239 

—,—, ties, durability, 293 

Employees required in hardwood distillation 
plant, 214, 215 

Endothea parasitica, 301 

England, G. A., on papermaking, 58 

Equalizer, Trevor stave bolt, 124 

Equipment, distillation plant, cost of, 206 

— for syrup and sugar making, 391 

— in still house, cost of, 211 

— of still house, 210, 211, 212 

— — tight stave mill, cost of, 156 

—, plant in hardwood distillation, 206 

Equivalents, fuel value, wood and coal, 343 

—, list of, 14, 15, 16, 17 

—, slack cooperage, 137 

— used in tight cooperage industry, 152 

Eucalyptus fuel wood, 340 

European countries, waste in, 12 

— species, yield in charcoal, 238 

Evaporators used in making maple syrup, 
390, 391, 302, 303, 304 

Excelsior, annual consumption and wastage, 
5 

—, baling press, 429 

—, cost of raw material, 427 

—, general, 424 

— machines, 428 

— machines in operation, 
43° 

—, manufacture, 426 

—, —, illustration of, 427 

—, specifications, 425 

—, uses of, 425 

—, wastage, 5 

— woods, qualities desired, 424 

Exothermic process in hardwood distillation, 
204 

Export boxes, 260 


illustration of, 


we 8s- 


INDEX 


Export lumber and timbers, amount, 11 
— staves, countries of destination of, 164 
Exports of box shooks, 260 
— — tight staves, 164 
— — turpentine and rosin, 169 
Extract, chestnut, 73 
—., recovered, for tanning, 65 
Extraction process in distillation, 230 
F 


Farmer, J. B., on rubber, 413 

Factories, acid—see distillation, hardwood 

Factors, converting, 14, 15, 16, 17 

— determining yields from hardwood dis- 
tillation, 217 

— influencing the volume of solid wood per 
cord, 344 

Federal Internal Revenue act, influence of, 

~ on hardwood distillation products, 189 

Felling poles, 313 

Fence posts, wastage, 5 

Fernow, B. E., on strength of boxed timber, 

etc., 187 

—,——, on use of wood, 1 

Ferrari, Egidio, cn charcoal making, 244, 247 

Fir, alpine, fuel value, 342 

—, balsam, amount for boxes, 251 

Rel thes for pulp, 19, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 38, 47 

—, —, lumber cut, 8 

—,—,— value, 10 

—, —, used for paper pulp, 25, 26 

Fir, Douglas, amount for boxes, 251 

—,—, boiling for veneers, 97 

—,—, cross ties, amount, 267 

—,—, excelsior, 426 

—,—, for distillation, 227 

eat ea for pulp, 21, 20, 47 

—, —, fuel value, 342 

ek ues | lumber production, 3, 4, 8,9 

—,—,— value, 10 


Seas poles, 302 


—,—,—, amount, 303 
—,—,—, durability, 320 
—,—, standing timber, 4 
—,—, ties, durability, 293 
—,—, used for tight cooperage, 146 
—,—, veneers, use, 106 

—, noble, amount for boxes, 251 
—, red, amount for boxes, 251 
— used in mines, 332 

—, western, standing timber, 4 
—, white, amount for boxes, 251 


Fir, white, for pulp, 26, 27, 29, 38 

—, —, fuel value, 342 

—,—, lumber cut, 8 

—,—,— value, 10 

Fisher, W. R., on heating power of wood, 350 

Florida, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, importance of, in naval stores, 167, 168 

—, lumber cut, 7 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Fluming ties, illustration of, 285 

Food Administration, U. S., box, specifica- 
tions, 254 

Foreign tanning materials, 60 

Forest cork, illustration of, 434 

— of Italian beech, illustration of, 243 

— products laboratory, 420 

———,, box tests at, 255 

— —, wastage in products of, 12 

— resources, by regions and species, 4 

— Service, U. S. photographs by, 34, 42, 44, 
52, 103, 125, 144, I51, 153, 154, 155, 
157, 166, 170, 171, 173, 174, 176, 178, 
179, 228, 237, 242, 265, 268, 281, 283, 
285, 302, 315, 318, 322, 324, 327, 328, 
341, 346, 347, 349, 371, 375, 37/, 386, 
380, 393, 427, 43° 

Forestry, ancient practice of, 1 

Forests, American increment in, 5 

—., area of original and present, 2 

—, cork, acreage, 433 

—, original and present area and stand of, 2 

—, used for tanning, 60, 61, 62 

—., utilitarian value of, 1, 2 

Forms of cross ties, 264 

— — tie piles, 290 

Foster, H. D., table on yield of chestnut oak 
bark from, 73 

Fourdrinier wire, 21 

— —, description of, 54, 55, 56 

——, development of, 21 

— —, illustration of, 54 

Fox, Walter, on rubber, 413 

France, charcoal used in, 235 

—, first paper mill in, 20 

—, naval stores industry in, 185 

—, per capita consumption in, 6 

French, E. H., on hardwood distillation, 223 

— foot, equivalent, 17 

— methods of naval stores collection, 185 

Frothingham, E. H., on hardwoods in Con- 

necticut, 348, 350 . 
—,—-—,, on sizes of poles, 311, 312 


454 


Fruit containers made from veneers, 107 

Fuel, cost of, in hardwood distillation fac- 
tories, 214 

—.-used in hardwood distillation plants, 213 

— value, coal and wood, 337, 339 348 

— used in making maple syrup, 390 

— —, of various woods, 342 

— —, relative, of longleaf pine and hickory, 

343 

— values, 341 

— wood, amount used, 337 

— —, annual consumption and wastage, 5 

— —, cost of production, 345 

— —, cutting by motor saw, illustration of, 


346 
——, cutting, hauling and delivering to 
market, 345 


— —, effect of war on use of, 336 

— —, general, 336 

— —, prices, 348 

— —, principal markets, 344 

— —, sources of supply, 340 

— —, stacked for seasoning, illustration of, 

337 

— —, stumpage values, 345 

— —, value of, 337, 339 

— —, per cord, 339 

— —, wastage, 5 

Funk, W. C., on value and use of wood fuel, 
35° 

Funtumia elastica, rubber, 406 

Furniture, 11 

—, amount of lumber, 11 

Fustic dye wood, 418 

— mulberry, 418 

Fustine, 419 

Future of softwood distillation, 233 


G 


Gallatin National Forest, cutting ties on, 265 

Gambier, dye wood, 421 

—, for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 85, 86 

—, tanning contents of, 64 

—, use and production of, 85, 86 

Gannon, Fred A., on tanning industry, 87 

Gas, wood, uses of, 223 

—, wood, yield of, in hardwood distillation, 
217 

Gasoline engines used to cut up wood fuel, 
346 

Gathering sap in sugar bush, illustration of 


393 


INDEX 


Geer, W. C., on destructive distillation, 234 

—,— —, on wood distillation, 223 

Geological Survey, U. S., on mine timbers, 
330 : 

Georgia, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 7 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Germany, per capita consumption in, 6 

Gibson, H. H., on future tie materials, 298 

Glue used for ply-wood, 104 

Goltra, W. F., data supplied by, 285 

Goodyear, Charles, inventor of rubber, 402 

Grades, box, 253 

—, of rosin, prices of from 1914-1917, 185 

—, of shingles, 361, 362, 363 

Grading rules, slack cooperage, 141 

Great Britain, per capita consumption 
in, 6 

Great Northern Railway, triangular ties 
used by, 273, 274 

Griffin, R. B., on chemistry of papermaking, 
58 

Grind-stones used in making pulp, 33, 34 

Ground wood pulp, cold and hot, 33 

Guatamala, rubber, 406 

Guayule, rubber, 406 

Guiana, rubber, 406 

Gum, black, hoops, 131 

—,—, ties, durability, 293 

—, boiling for veneers, 97 

—, cross ties, amount, 267 

—, for pulp, 26, 48 

—, heading, sizes, 141 

—, heading, weights, 138 

—, lumber cut, 8 

—, red, amount for boxes, 251 

—,—, excelsior, 426 

—,—, charcoal yield, 239 

—,—, and sap, lumber value, 1o 

—,—, hoops, 131 

—,—, lumber cut, 4 

—, —, sliced veneers, 99 

—,—, ties, durability, 293 

—,—, used for slack cooperage, 120 

—,—, used for tight cooperage, 143 

—,—, veneers, amount used, 92 

aad Uae We prices, 95 

—, Suse Of 106; 207 

—, staves, sizes, 140 

—, —, weights, 137, 138 

Gutta percha, source, 406 

—, siak, 406 


INDEX 


H 


Hackberry posts, 326 

Hematoxylon campechianum, dyes, 416 

Half moon tie, 264 

Hancornia speciosa, rubber, 406 

Hardwood distillation, 189 

— —, see distillation, hardwood 

—, fuel, prices, 348 

—, heading, sizes, 141 

—, mill waste, charcoal yield, 238 

—, staves, sizes, 140 

—, —, weights, 138 

—,, ties, seasoning ,289 

Hardwoods, for pulp by soda process, 48 

—, lumber value, 10: 

—, standing timber, 4 

—, undesirable for distillation, 192 

—, used for boxes, 249 : 

—, — — distillation, 189 

—, — in mines, 331, 332 

Haar: W. B., on destructive distillation, 223 

Harvesting cork bark, 435 

Hatt, W. K., on holding force of railroad 
spikes, 296 

—,— —,— strength of packing boxes, 261 

Hauling, capacities of wood fuel, 347 

—, Dougias fir ties, illustration of, 283 

Hawes, A. F., data on volume of hemlock 
bark, 70 

Hawley, L. F., on distillation of woods, 223 

—,— —, on steam distillation, 234 

Heading, and staves, tight, manufacture of, 
153 

—, sawing machine, illustration of, 128 

—, slack, annual production of, 116 

—, —, grading rules for, 141 

—,—, manufacture of, 127 

Heart and back or wing tie, 264 

Heat, required for hardwood distillation, 204 

Heating, rapidity of, in distillation, 217 

—., staves, illustration of, 160 

Hectare, equivalents, 17 

Hedge tree, 420 

Helphenstine, R. K., on statistics of pulp- 
wood consumption, 28, 59 

Hemlock, amount for boxes, 251 

—, bark for tanning, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 

67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 74 

—, —, harvesting, 66, 67, 68 

—, —, tannin contents of, 64 

—, cross ties, amount, 267 


455 


Hemlock, eastern for tanning, 64, 65 
—, —, standing timber, 4 

—, —, ties, durability, 293 

—, excelsior, 426 

—, for pulp, 19, 24, 27, 29, 31, 38, 47 
—, fuel value, 342 


‘—, lumber cut, 8, 9 


=, walue 10 

—, poles, amount, 303 

—, posts, 329 

—, principal wood cut in Wisconsin, Penn- 
sylvania, Michigan and New York, 6 

—, pulp, price, 45, 47 

—, shingles, durability, 369 

—, staves, slack, 125 

—., tissue of cooking for sulphite pulp, 43 

—, used in mines, 332 

—, use of, for pulp, 24, 25 — 

—, western, as source of tanning material, 77 

—,—, bark, tannin contents of, 64 

—, —, for tanning, 63, 64, 65,.77, 78 

—, —, Standing timber, 4 

—,—, ties, durability, 293 

—, yield in pulp, 37 

Herty cup and gutters, illustration of correct 
position of, 174 

—, C. H., introduction and application of 
cup systems by, 174 

—, — —, on naval stores, 187 

Hevea braziliensis, 402, 404, 405 

Hewed ties, factors in favor of, 269 

— —, percentage of, 266 

Hewing cross ties, cost, 282 

Hickory, charcoal yield, 239 

—, for charcoal, 236 

—, fuel value, 342 

—,—, wood, value, 348 

—, hoops, 131 

—, lumber cut, 8 

—,—, value, 1o 

—., ties, durability, 293 

—,, used for distillation, 192, 217 _ 

—, — in mines, 332 

Hills, J. L., on maple sugar industry, 384, 400 

Hinckley Fiber Co., 19 

History of softwood distillation, 225 

Hoffman, Carl, on papermaking, 58 

Hoops, annual production of, 116 

—., barrel, grading rules for, 141 

=> CHL £32 

—, manufacture of, 131 

—, sawed, 132 


456 


Horter, J. C., on rubber, 413 

Hough, F. B., report on forestry, 187 
House, charcoal, 212 

—, log, equivalents, 15 

—, retort; 207 

—., still, in hardwood distillation plant, 210 
Hoyer, E., on papermaking, 58 


Hubbard, Ernst, on utilization of wood waste. 


for wood pulp, 58 
—, W. F., on production of maple syrup, 383, 
400 


I 


Idaho, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 7 

—, poles produced in, 300, 301 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Increment of American and European forests, 
5 

Illinois, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 3 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Imports of cork, 443 

— —, dyewoods, 421 

— —, pulpwoods and wood pulp, 57 

— —, tanning materials, 86, 87 

Inch, equivalent, 17 

Insulation cork, 441, 442 

India, 20 

Indiana, lumber cut, 3, 7 

—, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, quartered white oak veneeers in, 93 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

India rubber—see rubber 

India Rubber World, 413 

Towa, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Iron mines, timber used in, 332 

Irons, “‘S,” used to prevent checking in poles, 
316 

Italy, 20 

Italian beech forest, cut-over, illustration of 
244 

Italy, charcoal making, 244, 245 

—,— used in, 235 

—, per capita consumption in, 6 

Interior of still house at distillation plants, 
illustration of, 211 


J 


Jackson, A. G., on western red cedar, 372 
Java, acreage of planted rubber trees, 408 


INDEX 


Jelutong rubber, 406 

Jepson, W. L., on California tanbark oak, 87 

Jointer, tight stave, illustration of, 158 — 

Joyce, W. R., photograph of ties, by, 289 

Joyce-Watkins Co., photograph of ties, by, 
287 

Juniper poles, amount, 303 

—, posis, 226 


K 


Kaniksu National Forest, peeling poles, 302 

Kansas, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Keller patent for grinding wood pulp, 21 

Kellock, T., on use of wood fuel, 350 

Kellogg, R. S., on mine timbers, 330 

Kempfer, W. H., on preservative treatment 
of poles, 323 

Kentucky, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 7 ‘ 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Kerr, G. A., on tanning extract manufacture, 
87 

Kickxia elastica, rubber, 406 

Kilns, charcoal, illustration of, 242 

Kiln drying slack heading, 127, 128, 129 

Kilns, brick, used in making charcoal, 200 

Kinds of paper, manufactured, 22 

— — —, relative value of, 20 . 

— — wood, prices by, 10 

Kino, for tanning, 64 

—, production and use of, 86 

—, tannin contents of, 64 

Klemm, Paul, handbook on papermaking, 59 

Kline Company, excelsior machines, 431 

Knapp, J. B., on western red cedar, 372 

—,— —, on world’s box shook industry, 261 

Koller, T., on wood waste, 59 

Koch, on cross tie investigation, 279, 280 

Kraft paper, 47, 48 : 

Kressman, on dye woods, 420 — 

—, F. W., on osage orange, 423 


L 


Labor, cost of, in hardwood distillation, 213 
Labor in acid factories, 213 

Lagging, (6 pieces) equivalent, 15 
Laichinger, P., on cork, 443 

Lake states, distillation plants in, 202 

— —, posts cut in, 326, 328 

— —, stand of timber in, 4 

Landol phia, spp., 406 


INDEX 457 


Larch, distillation, 227 
—, (including tamarack), amount for boxes, 
251 
— for tanning, 65 
—, lumber cut, 8 
—, (tamarack), lumber value, 10 
—, western, cross ties, amount, 267 
—,—, ties, durability, 293 
Latex, collecting, 409, 410 
—, source of rubber, 404, 405 
Lath, annual consumption and wastage, 5 
—, wastage, 5 
Lawson, P. V., on papermaking in Wiscon- 
sin, 59 
Leather, manufacturer, reference, 87 
— World, reference to, 87 
Leaver, J. M., on box estimator, 261 
Life of mine timbers, 334, 335 
Lightwood used for distillation, 227 
Lima-wood, 417 
Lime, acetate of,—see acetate of lime 
Limestone used in making sulphite acid, 41 
Limnoria, damage to piling, 320 
Linear foot, equivalent, 15 
Liquors, spent, recovery of, 50 
Little, A. D., on chemistry of papermaking, 
58 
—, — —, — softwood distillation, 225 
Load, equivalents, 17 
—, (in the rough), equivalents, 15 
Loading, chestnut poles, illustration of, 315 
—, southern white cedar poles, illustration of, 
318 
Locust, black, ties, durability, 293 
—, poles, amount, 303 
—, posts, 326 
Log chutes, 68, 69 
Logging, poles and piling, 310 
—, shingle bolts, 354, 355, 356 
—, waste in, 11 
Logos rubber, 406 
Logwood, 416, 417 
—, prices of, 417 
Louisiana, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, lumber cut, 3, 7 
—, wood fuel used, 339 
Loss of wood in manufacture of saw set 13 
Lumber and timbers, 11 
—— —, export, IT 
—, annual production of, 6 
—, cut, history of, 2 
—, —, use of, 11 


Lumber, production, by states, 3, 7 
—, —, changes in, 3 

—, quality of, used for lumber, 249 
—, used for boxes, 248 

—, values, 9, 10 

—, wastage in producing, 5 


McGill, A., on maple syrup, 400 

McKoy cup, illustration of collecting resin 
with, 176 

Machine, die stamping, 98 

—, for chamfering, howeling and crozing 
tight barrels, illustration of, 161 

Machines, excelsior, 428 

—, listing, illustration of, 155 

Poh shingle, 356 

Madelura tinctoria, 418 

Magnolia, amount for boxes, 251 

Mahogany, sawed veneers, 1or 

—, sliced veneers, 99 

—, used for veneers, 90, 94, 95, 99, 106 

—, veneer, prices, 95 

—, veneers, use, 106 

Maine, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 3, 7 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Malaya rubber plantations, 407 

Management of timber lands for hardwood 
distillation, 195 

Mangabeira, rubber, 406 

Mangrove bark, for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 

82, 83, 84 

— —, production of, 82 

— —, use of in Europe, 83 

— —, tannin contents of, 64 

Manicobas, rubber, 406 

Manihot glaziovii, rubber, 406 

Manihots, rubber, 406 F 

Manufacture of boxes, 253 

— — cork, 438, 440 

— — dyestuffs, 415 

— — maple syrup and sugar, 390 

— — mechanical pulp, 31 

— — paper from wood pulp, so 

—— — slack cooperage stock, 122 

— — soda pulp, 48 

— — sulphate pulp, 47 

— — sulphite pulp, 38 

— — tight staves and heading, 153 

Manufacturing tight staves, cost of, 155 


458 


Maple, amount for boxes, 251 

—., black, used for syrup, 370 

—, boiling for veneers, 97 

— cross ties, amount, 267 

— for pulp, 26, 27, 29, 48 

—, fuel value, 342 

—, hard, charcoal yield, 239 

—, hard, for charcoal, 236 

—, hard, ties, durability, 293 

—, —, used for distillation, 192, 193, 217 

—, —, — — tight cooperage, 146 

—,—, veneers, amount used, 93 

—, —, veneer logs, prices, 93 

=, —} 8s 2065 107 

— hoops, 131 

—, lumber cut, 4, 8 

—, lumber value, 10 

—, Oregon, 379 

—, red, used for syrup, 379 

—., silver, used for syrup, 379 

—, soft, charcoal yield, 239 

—, soft, excelsior, 426 

—., staves, sizes, 40 

— sugar orchard, conditions for commercial 
operations, 381 

— syrup and sugar, making process, 394 

—, sugar, used for syrup and sugar, 378 

— syrup and sugar, uses of, 398 

— — — —,, value of product, 398 

—— — —, woods operations, 385 

— — — —,, yields of, 396 

— —, history, 374 

— —, sap flow and season, 382 

— tree with 32 buckets, illustration of, 399 

— used in mines, 332 

—, weight, 193 

Maples, species of, used for syrup and sugar, 
378 

Mariller, C., on charcoal making, 247 

Marine borers, damage by, 320 

Maritime pine, 185, 186 

— —, illustration of tapping, 186 

— — used for naval stores, 185, 186 

Marquis, R., on cork, 443 

Martin, Geoffrey, on charcoal and wood dis- 
tillation, 223 

Maryland, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

— Wood Products Co. plant, illustration of 
194 

Mason, D. T., on utilization of lodgepole 
pine, 334, 335 


INDEX 


Massachusetts, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, lumber cut, 3 
—, wood fuel used, 339 
Material, raw, used for paper pulp, 28 
Mathey, on charcoal burning, 241 
Mattoon, W. R., on southern cypress, 373 
Maxwell, H., on wooden and fiber boxes, 261 
Mechanical process of pulp making, woods 
used in, 29 
pulp, cost of producing, 37, 38 
— value of ties, 295 
Mell, C. D., on fustic wood, 423 
——— —, — tanbark oak, 37 
Method of piling poles, 320 
— — using “S” irons, 291 © 
Methods of making veneers, go 
— — manufacture, rubber, 411 
— — rubber production, 404 
— — tapping rubber trees, illustration of 
409 
Metric ton, equivalents, 16 
Mexico, rubber, 406 
Michigan, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, lumber cut, 3, 7 
—, wood fuel used, 339 
Mileage, railway, 263 
Mill waste, charcoal yield, 238 
— — used for fuel, 340, 341 
Miller, W., on American Paper-mills, 59 
—, Warner, 21 
Mimosa, 86 
Mimusops balata, rubber, 406 
Mine timbers, amount used, 330, 331, 332 
— —, annual consumption, 5 
— —, causes of destruction, 335 
— —, cost of making, 334 
— —, durability, 334, 335 
— —, general, 330 
— —, kinds, 330, 331, 332 
et ee prices of, 332, 333 
— —, specifications, 333 
— —, value of, 332 
— —, wastage, 5 
Mining timber, equivalent, 15 
Mines, number, 330 
Minnesota, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, lumber cut, 3, 7 ‘ 
—, wood fuel used, 339 
Mississippi, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, lumber cut, 3, 7 
— River, barging ties on, 285 
—, wood fuel used, 339 


INDEX 


Missouri, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 3 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Mock orange, 420 

Moe, Carl, on making sulphate pulp, 48 

Mohr, on southern timber pines, 188 

'. Montana, box lumber consumption, 252 

_ —, burning charcoal, 240, 241 

—, lumber cut, 7 

—, tie study-in, 279, 280 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Mora, dye wood, 418 

Morus tinctoria, 418 

Mover, J., on wood distillation, 223 

Mozambique rubber, 406 

Mulberry posts, 326 

Mulford, Walter, data on volume of hemlock 
bark, 7o 

ec tears nuts, for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 

= Pee SO ol 84 

Siveibalses. tannin contents of, 64 


N 


Nail spikes, 295, 296, 207 
National Association of Box Manufacturers 
quoted, 248 

— -—  — Box Manufacturers, specifications, 
255 

— Canners’ Association, specifications, 255 

— Coopers’ Association, rules and specifica- 
tion of, 162 

— Lumber Manufacturers’ Association, con- 
ference of, 373 

— Slack Cooperage Association, grading 
tules, 140 

oe ae weights adopted by, 137 

— Veneer and Panel Manufacturers’ Asso- 
ciation, rules of, 109 

Naval stores, annua! production of, 167, 168 

— —, boxing trees in collecting, 170 

Peg chipping, 17t 

— —, dipping, operation of, 172 

— —, distillation of, 178 

— — experiment in Araons, illustration of 

177 

— —, French methods of, 185 

— —, general, 165 

— — industry, tools and utensils used in, 

Llustration of, 178 
— —, quantity and value of, 169 
——,— — —— exports of, 169 


459 


Naval stores Review, data from, 169, ee 
185 

— —, scraping faces, 172 

— —, source of products, 167 

— —, table of production in 1918, 168 

— —, utilization of products of, 183 

— —, woods operation, 169 

— —, yields of, 182 

Nebraska, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 3390 

Nellis, J. C., data by, 12 

—,— —, on woods used for boxes, 250, 251, 
252, 261 


_ Nelson, John M., on mine timbers, 335 


New England, cost of boxes in, 254 
New Hampshire, box lumber consumption 
252 

— —, lumber cut, 7 

— —, wood fuel used, 339 

New Jersey, box lumber consumption, 252 

— —, wood fuel used, 339 

Newlin, J. A., on tests of packing boxes, aes 

New Mexico, wood fuel used, 339 

Newsprint Service Bureau, report to, 38 

New York, box lumber consumption, 252 

—- —, hardwood distillation in, 190, 191, 192, 

_ 202 
— —, importance of in manufacture of wood 
pulp and paper, 26, 27 
-— —, lumber cut, 3. 7 
— —, production of sugar and syrup, 380, 
381, 383, 307 

—— State College of Forestry, bulletin 
issued by, 189 

, investigation by, 196 

— —, wood fuel used, 339 

Nevada and Utah, box lumber consumption, 
252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Nicaragua, rubber, 406 

— wood, dyes, 417 

North and South Dakota, box lumber con- 
sumption, 252 

North Carolina, box lumber consumption, 

252 

— —, lumber cut, 3, 7 

— —, wood fuel used, 339 

North Dakota, wood fuel used, 339 

Northwest, fuel in, 340 

Northwestern Cedarmen’s Association, ae 
specifications, 305 


. Norton, T. H., on dyestufis, 423 


J 


460 


Norton, T. H., on tanning materials, 88 
—,— —, reference to, 64 

Novelties, 11 

Number of cross ties purchased, 267 

— — tanning consumers, 61 

— — ties per thousand board feet, 279 


Oo 


Oak, amount for boxes, 251 

— bark for tanning, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 78 

—, black, bark, contents of, 64 

—,—, for tanning, 64, 78 

—,, boiling for veneers, 97 

—, charcoal yield, 239 

—-, chestnut, for tanning, 64, 70, 71, 72, 73 

—, cork, 433, 434 

— cross ties, amount, 267 

— for charcoal, 236 

—, fuel value, 342 

— hoops, 131 

—, Japanese, used for veneers, 94 

—, lumber cut, 8, 9 

—, lumber value, 10 

— poles, 301 

—  —, amount, 303 

—, properties of, 1 

—, quartered, veneers, prices, 95 

—, — white, used for veneers, go, 93, 95, 106 

—, red, bark, tannin contents of, 64 

—, —, for tanning, 64 

—,—, sliced veneers, 99 

—,—, ties, durability, 293 

—, —, used for tight cooperage, 143 
_— staves, slack, sizes, 140 

—., tanbark, for tanning, 64, 75, 76 

—, —, harvesting, 75 

—, —, peeling, illustration of, 76 

—, time for burning charcoal, 241 

— used for distillation, 192, 217 

— — — slack cooperage, 119, 121 

— — in mines, 332 

— veneer cores, use of, 108 

—, veneers, prices, 95 

—~ —, use, 106 


J —, white, bark, tanning contents of, 64 


—, white, drain on, for tight cooperage, 144 
145, 148, 149, 150 

—,—, for tanning, 64, 78 

—,—, poles, durability, 320 

—, —, posts, 326 

—, —, quartered, sawed veneers, 101 

—,—, sliced veneer, 99 


INDEX 


foak, white, ties, durability, 293 
—, —, used for tight cooperage, 143, 144, 
145, 146, 147 
—,—, varieties of, used for tight cooperage, 
146 

—, —, veneers, amount used, 92 

Ohio, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 3 

~—, maple sugar and syrup production, 380, 
381, 383, 397 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Oklahoma, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Open pit method, yield by, 238 

Operating costs, ties, 285 

Operation, cost of, hardwood distillation 
plants, 216 

— of hardwood distillation plant, 216 

Opportunities of waste utilization in dis- 
tillation, softwood, 225 

Oregon, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, lumber cut, 3, 7 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Osage orange, 416 

— —, dye wood, 419 

— — poles, amount, 303 

Ovens, cooling, 209 

—,; —, illustration of, 203 

—, distillation, 209 


P 


Pacific northwest, stand of timber in, 4 

Packing shingles, 365 

Padouk used for veneers, 94 

Pails used to collect maple syrup, illustration 

of, 388 

Palaquium gutta, rubber, 406 

Palmer, R. C., on distillation of resinous 
woods and hardwoods, 
223, 224 

—;— , — —— woods, 231, 232; 234 

Palmetto used for tanning, 79 

Paper, kinds of manufactured, 22 

— machine, description of, 54, 55 

—, manufacture of from wood pulp, 50 

— mill, first in United States, 20 

— — in Italy, first, 20 

Paper Mill, The, reference to, 59 

—, reference to, 35, 48, 50 

— Trade Journal, reference to, 59 

Papier-mache, 22 

Para rubber, 402 


— a ee 


INDEX 
Para rubber in plantations, 408 Pine, lodgepole, lumber cut, 8 
Parthenium argentatum, 406 —, —, — value, 10 
Peach wood, 417 —,—, poles, durability, 320 


Peeling cross ties, illustration of, 268 

— hemlock bark in North Carolina, illustra- 
tion, 62 

— — —,, season for, 67 

— poles, 313 

Pennsylvania, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, charcoal making in, 237 

—, importance in use of mine timbers, 331 

—, lumber cut, 3, 7 

—, mine timber specifications, 333 

—, wood fuel used, 339 

Per capitaconsumption of forest Grodacts, « 5,6 

Percentage of loss in manufacture of saw logs, 


13 

Pernambuco-wood, 417 

Persia, 20 

Peters, E. W., on preservation of mine tim- 
bers, 335 


Picea canadensis, 24 

— excelsa, charcoal yield, 238 
— rubens, 24 

— silchensis, 24 

Picket, equivalent, 15 


Piece, equivalent, 15 

Pierson, A. H., on oe of firewood, 
35° 

Pile, equivalents, 15 Z 

Piling, 299 


—, annual consumption ae wastage, 5 
—, danger from marine borers, 321 
—,, life of, untreated, 32 
—, logging, 310 
— method, illustratior. of, 317 
—, preservative of, 321 
—, specifications, 3¢7 
—, substitutes for, 325 
— ties, method of, 289 
—, wastage, 5 
Pinchot, G., on turpentine orcharding, 188 
Pine, Cuban, for distillation, 227 
—, —, used for naval stores, 167 
— for pulp, 26. 27, 31, 48 
—, jack for pvip, 26, 29 

—, loblolly, poles, durability, 320 


—, —, standing timber, 4 

—, —, ties, durability, 293 

—, longleaf, characters of, x 
—, — for distillation, 227 

—, —, poles, durability, 320 
—; —s Posts, 326 

—, —, ties, durability, 293 

—, —, used for naval stores, 167 
—, Norway for distillation, 227 
—, —, standing timber, 4 

—, pitch, charcoal yield, 239 
— poles, 301 

— —, amount, 303 


461 


— Products Co., Ga., view of plant, 228 


—, shortleaf, for distillation, 227 

—, — posts, 329 

aS ee ties, durability > 203 

—., slash, used for naval stores, 167 

= Rpt sa cross ties, amount, 267 
—, hoops, 131 


Be ae dealing timber, € 

—, — —, veneers, use, 106, 107 
—, sugar, amount for boxes, 251 
—, —, lumber cut, 8 

—, —, — value, 10 

—, —, standing timber, 4 

— staves, stack, 125 

— used for slack cooperage, 121 
— — in mines, 332 

— veneer cores, 108 

—, western, boiling for veneers, 97 
—, —, shingles, durability, 369 
—,—, veneers, use, 106 

—, — yellow, amount for boxes, 251 


—, — —, cross ties, amount, 267 

—, — —, excelsior, 426 

—, — —, for distillation, 227 

—, — —, for naval stores, 167, 177 
—, — —, lumber value, 10 

—,— —, poles, durability, 320 
—,— —, tapped for naval stores, 177 


—,——,, ties, durability, 293 
—, white, amount for boxes, 251 
—, —, charcoal yield, 239 

—, —, excelsior, 426 


462 


Pine, white, for boxes, 248 © 

—,—, for pulp, 26, 29 

—, —, fuel value, 342 

—, —, lumber cut, 4, 8, 9 

—, —, — value, 10 

—, —) posts, 329 

—, —, shingles, durability, 369 

—,—, standing timber, 4 

—, —, ties, durability, 293 

—, —, used for tight cooperage, 146 

—, —, yield in pulp, 37 

—, yellow, charcoal yield, 239 

—, —, heading, weights, 139 

—,—, (including North Carolina pine), 

amount for boxes, 251 

—, —, lumber value, 10 

—,—, veneers, amount used, 93 

Pines, resinous, for distillation, 225 

— used for boxes, 249 

Pinus echinata, 9, 227 

— divaricata, 9 

— heterophylla, 167, 227 

— —, used for naval stores, 167 

— maritima, 185 

— —, charcoal yield, 238 

— —, used for naval stores, 185 

— monticola, 9 

— palustris, 9, 167 

— —, used for naval stores, 167 

— ponderosa, 97 

— —, veneers, 97 

— resinosa, 9 

— strobus, 9 

— sylvestris, charcoal yield, 238 

— taeda, 9 

Pipe line to collect maple sap, illustration of, 

389 

Pistacia lenticus, 64 

Planing mill products, 11 

Plant and equipment, cost of, 213 

— equipment, hardwood distillation, 206 

—, distillation, cooling ovens used in, 203 

—,—, cost of, 206 

—, largest New York distillation, 209 

— operation, hardwood distillation, 213 

—, slack cooperage, ground plan of, 122 

—, softwood distillation, illustration of, 228 

—, wood distillation, Cobbs-Mitchell Co., 
illustration of, 202 

Plantations, rubber, 407 

—, —, acreage, 408 

Planted rubber, method of tapping, 409 


INDEX 


Plate screen, diaphragm, illustration of, 55 

Pole and pile timbers, qualifications desired 
in, 299 

—, (fence), equivalent, 15 

—, (telephone) equivalents, 15 

— production, summary of costs, 318 

— tie, 264 

— yard in Idaho, illustration of, 315 

— — — Germany, illustration of, 324 

Poles, amount treated, 323 

—, amount used, 300 

— and piling, general, 299 

—, annual consumption and wastage, 5 

—, cedar, weights, 309 

-—, chestnut, loading, illustration of, 315 

—,—, prices of, 306 

—, felling and peeling, 313 

—, length of service, 319 

Pa logging, 310 

—, method of piling, illustration of, 320 

—, number of, used, 299 

—, peeling, illustration of, 302 

—, preservative treatment, 321 

—, prices, 304 

— required for car-load lots, 317 

—, seasoning, 314, 315 

—, — months, 316 

—, shipping, 314 

—, skidding, 214 

—,southern white cedar, illustration of 
loading, 318 

—, specifications, 304 

—, stumpage value 312 

—, substitutes for, 325 

—., treating, illustration of, 322 

—, value of, 209 

—, wastage, 5 

—, western red cedar, j eight of treatment, 

. 324 

—, yarding, 314 

Pontianak rubber, 406 

Poplar, Carolina, posts, 320 

— for pulp, 25, 27, 31 

— used for wood pulp, 25 

— — in mines, 332 

—, yellow, amount for boxes, 251 

—, —, boiling for veneers, 97 

—,—, charcoal yield, 239 

Spe tor pulp, 20, 48 

—, —, logs, prices, 93, 94 

—, —, lumber cut, 8 

—,—, — value, 10 


INDEX 


Poplar, yellow, posts, 329 
—,—, veneer cores, use of, 108 
—, yield in pulp, 37 
Portugal, cork production in, 433 
Post, cost of treating, 329 
—, (circumference 18 in.), equivalent, 15 
—, equivalent, 15 
—, fence, annual consumption and wastage, 
5 
—, —, wastage, 5 
—, general, 326 
— in place, illustration of, 32> 
—, number used, 326 
—., preservative treatment, 328, 329 
—, principal sources of, 328 
—, requirements for desirable, 327 
Potts, H. F., on rubber, 413 
Power used in pulp mill, 45 
Precious metal mines, timber used in, 332 
Prentice, H. W., on cork, 443 
Preservative treatment of poles and piling, 
321 
— — — posts, illustration of, 328 
eC ee shingles, 369, 370 
Preservatives, kinds of, 294 
Press rolls, paper, 56 ; 
Prices, excelsior, 425 
— of charcoal, 245 
— — dry distillation products, 230 
— — fuel wood, 348 
— per thousand board feet, lumber, 10 
Pritchard, T. W., on wood distillation, 234 
Process, distillation of, hardwood, 203, 204, 
205 
— of making maple syrup and sugar, 394 
— — wood pulp manufacture, 27 
—, softwood distillation, description, 228 
Processes used in making charcoal, 238 
Producing hemlock bark, cost of, 69 
Production, annual, of lumber, 6 
—, —, — veneers, 94 
— by dry distillation system, 229 
—, cost of by softwood distillation, 230 
—, lumber, by states, 7 
— of charcoal, annual, 236 
— — poles and piling, 310 
— — rubber, 410 
— — —, methods, 404 
— — sugar maple and syrup, 380 
—, shingles, annual, 353 
Products, forest, wastage in production of, 12 
—, utilization of hardwood distillation, 220 


463 


Products, utilization of, in softwood distil- 
lation, 232 

—, value of, in hardwood distillation, 218 

Prop, equivalent, 15 

— timber, 333 

Protection of ties against mechanical wear, 
204 

Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 9 

Plerocarpus santalinoides, 419 

— santalinus, 418 

Pulp and papermaking, history of, 20 

—., bleaching, 51 

—, collecting (soda), 50 

—, — of, on lap or press machine, 44 

—, coloring, 54 

= s drying, 45 

—, mhechanical, the manufacture of, 31 

— mill, photograph of, 25 

— —, power required in, 45 

— —, requirements for the establishment of, 

31, 32 

—., sizing and loading, 53 

—, soda, manufacture of, 48 

—, —, washing, 49 

— stock, screening of, 35 

—, sulphate, manufacture of, 47 

—, —, cost of producing, 45, 46 

—, —, manufacture of, 38 

—., yield of, from different woods, 37 

Pulpwood, annual consumption and wastage, 

5 

== —0f 122 

—, consumption by states, 26, 27 

— —., table of, 29 

—, forecast of future requirements, 18 

—., logging and transportation, 28 

—, value of, 30 

—, wastage, 5 

Pulpwoods, imports of, 57 

—, requirements of desirable, 22 

Pusey-Jones Co., photograph by, 39 


Q 


Qualities desired in box woods, 249 

— — — cross ties, 267, 268 

Quebrachia lorentzii, 79 

Quebracho, description and production of, 79 
—, export of from Argentina, 81 

— for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 79, 80, 81, 82 
—, imports to United States of, 82 

—, tannin contents of, 64 

—, weight of, 79 


464 INDEX 


Quercitron, 65, 78, 79 
—, dye wood, 419 
Quercus acuminata, 146 
— alba, 146 

— egilops, 85 

— cerrus for charcoal, 244, 245 
— densiflora, 75 

— macrocar pa, 146 

— minor, 146 

— platanoides, 146 

— prinus, 71 

— suber, 433 

 velulina, 78 

— —, dyes, 416 
Quermos for tanning, 65 
Quintal, equivalents, 16 


R 


Rabate on French naval stores industry, 188 

Rail, (split), equivalent, 15 

Railroad Administration, U. S., tie specifica- 
tions, 274 

— tie specifications, 271, 272 

Railway mileage in United States, 263 

Rambong rubber, 406 

Rate of consumption of lumber, 5 

Raw material, excelsior, 427 

Raymond, W. C., on cross ties, 298 

Record of sap seasons, 383 

—, S. J., on cork oak in the United States, 


443 
—,——, — fuel value of wood, 350 
—,—-—,-— sources of vegetable tannins, 


reference, 88 
Recovery of spent liquors, 50 
Red spruce—see eastern spruce 
Redwood, amount for boxes, 251 
— cross ties, amount, 267 
— fuel value, 342 
—, lumber cut, 8 
—, — value, 10 
— poles, amount, 303 
— —, durability, 320 
— posts, 326 
— shakes, 370 
— shingles, durability, 369 
—, standing timber, 4 
— ties, durability, 293 
Reed, L. J., on storage of ship cargoes, 261 
Refrigeration, cork for, 441 
Refining crude alcohol, 212 
Rehm, N. F., on ties and tie plates, 298 


Requirements of a good tie, 267 

— — desirable pulp woods, 22 

— for establishment of a pulp mill, 30 

Retort house for distillation, hardwood, 207 

Retorts, distillation, 208 

—, iron, used in hardwood distillation, 200 

—, oven, used in hardwood distillation, 2or 

— used in cooking sulphite pulp, 41, 42 

Resin flow in tapping for naval stores, 167 

Resinous woods, fuel value, 343 

Rhizophora mangle, Linn., 82 

Rhode Island, box lumber consumption, 252 

— —, wood fuel used, 339 

Rhus coriaria, 85 

— glabra, 79 

— lyphina, 79 

Richards, A. M., photograph by, 19, 25 

Rifle tie, 264, 

Rocky Mountains, fuel in, 340 

Rolls, drying, paper, 56 

Rosewood sawed veneers, 102 

— used for veneers, 90 

Rosin and turpentine, production of, 168, 169 

— barrels, 181 

—-, grades of, 180 

— market prices at Savannah, 185 

— sizing, 53 

—, uses of, 232 

—, utilization of, 184 

Rotary veneer machine, illustration of, ox 

Rubber, African, 406 

—, collecting, illustration of, 409 

— Company, U. S., illustration by, 407, 409 

—, general, 4o1 

—, history, 402 

—, methods of manufacture, 411 

—, — — production, 404 

—, Para, in plantations, 408 

— plantation, illustration of, 402 

— plantations, 407 

— —, acreage, 408 

— —, investments in, 408, 409 

— —, spacing trees, 409 

— production, 401, 410 

—, sources of supply, 404 

—, uses, 412 

—, values, 401, 402, 412 

— vulcanizing, 403 

Rule, Doyle, used in measuring stave and 
heading logs, 137 

Rules, grading, shingle, 360 

Russia, 2 


eS 


——— ee 


eo 


Oe ee 


1. ee 


INDEX 


Ryan, V. H., on the manufacture of charcoal, 
247 


Sabal palmetto, 79 

Sackett, H. S., on wooden and fiber boxes, 261 

Sadtler, S. P., on dyestuffs, 423 

Sandalwood, 418 

Sap flow and season, maple syrup, 382 

— —, maple, conditions of, 383, 384 

Sappan-wood, 417 

Sargent, C. S., on forests of North America 

35° 

—, — —, — fuel wood, 337 

Sassafras posts, 326 

Satinwood used for veneers, 94 

Saunderswood, 418 

Savannah, rosin market prices at, 185 

Sawed versus hewed ties, 269 ; 

— ties, factors in favor of, 270 

Saw kerf, width of, 14 

— logs, loss of wood in manufacture of, 13 

Sawmill, first, at Berwick, Maine, 2 

—, — steam, 90 

Sawmills, capacity of, 6 

—, wood fuel used by, 341 

Schenck, C. A., on heating power of wood 

arte ed 

Schlich, Wm., on utilization, 247 

Schorger, A. W., and H. S. Betts, data from, 
176, 177, 183 

— and Betts, diagram of still by, 182 

—,—-—-,on oleoresins, 188 

Scraping turpentine faces, 172 

Screening pulp stock, 35 

— sulphite ships, 40 

— — pulp, 43 

Screw spikes, 205, 296, 297 

Season for pe ling hemlock bark, 67 

Seasoning and weights of hardwood used for 
distillation, 193 

Seeligman, T., on rubber, 413 

Sequoia sempervirens, 326 

Seville, Spain, cork factory in, 438, 439 

Shake, equivalent, 15 

— making, 370 

Shakes, cost of, 371, 372 

—, history, 351 

—, illustration of, 371 

—, redwood, 351; 37° 

—, sugar pine, 351, 370 


465 


Sheds, charcoal, 208 

Sheets of veneered heading used for barrels, 
illustration of, 103 

Sherfesee, W. F., on seasoning ties, 291 

Shingle bolts, logging, 354 

— machines, 356 

— packer, illustration of, 366 

— substitutes, 367 

— weights, 367 

— woods, qualifications of, 352 

Shingles. annual consumption and wastage, 5 

—, annual production, 353 

—, covering capacities, 364 

—, durability, 352, 368 

—, history. 351 

—, laying, 364 

—, packing and shipping, 365 

—, preservative treatment, 368, 369 

—, Prices, 363, 364 

—, raw material, 354 


| —, Specifications and grading rules, 360 


—, wastage, 5 
Shinn, C. H., on shake making, 373 
Shipping shingles, 365 


= — ton, equivalents, 17 


Shooks, amount, 248 

—, export, 260 

Shrinkage in wood, 345 

Sierra National Forest, California, illustra- 
tion of tools and utensils used on naval 
stores experiment, 178 

Sindall and Bacon, on testing of wood pulp, 
59 

Singapore, rubber experiments, 407 

Sitka or western spruce for pulp, 24 

Size of pulp mills, 23, 24 

Sizes of boxes, 254 

— — cans used in boxes, 259 

Skidding poles, 314 

— ties, 283 

Slab, equivalent, 15 

Slabs, amount used for pulp, 27, 29 

Slabwood used for fuel, 340, 341 

— — — paper pulp, 14 

Slack cooperage—see cooperage, slack 

— — stock, manufacture of, 122 

Slasher used in pulp mills, 31 

Smith, A. M., on printing and writing 
materials, 59 

—, C. S., on preservation of piling, 325 

—, Franklin H., on statistics of pulpwood 

consumption, 28, 59 


466 INDEX 


Smith, J. E. A., on history of paper, 59 

Society of Chemical Industry, Journal, ref- 
erence to, 87 

Soda process of pulp making woods used in, 
29 

— pulp, cooking, 40 

— —, manufacture of, 48 

— —, washing, 49 

Softwood distillation—see distillation, soft- 
wood 

— mill waste, charcoal yield, 238 

— ties, seasoning, 289 

Softwoods for paper pulp, 22 

—, lumber value, 10 

— too light for distillation, 192 . 

— used for staves, unsteamed, 125 

— — in mines, 331, 332 

Solvents used in extraction process, 231 

Somers, Montana, sawing ties at, 273 

Sorting cork, illustration of, 440 

Sources of rubber supply, 404 

— — supply, fuel wood, 340 

South Carolina, box lumber consumption, 

252 

— —, lumber cut, 7 

— —, wood fuel used, 339 

—, cross tie production, 266 

— Dakota, wood fuel used, 339 

Southern pine for pulp, 21, 26, 29, 47 

— — regions, stand of timber in, 4 

— Cypress Mfrs. Assoc., shingle grades, 
362 

Spain, 20 

—, charcoal used in, 235 

—, cork production in, 433 

—, exports of cork, 443 

Species used for boxes, 250 

Specific gravity of charcoal, 239 

— —, various species, 342 

—  —, woods used for charcoal, 239 

Specification of mine timbers, 333 

Specifications and rules for tight cooperage 
stock, 162 

oat. box, 254 

—, piling, 307 

(ig poles, 304 

—., shingle, 360 

Spicer, A. D., on the paper trade, 59 

Spikes, effect of, on ties, 

Spruce, amount for boxes, 251 

—, eastern standing timber, 4 

— excelsior, 426 


Spruce for pulp, 18, 19, 24, 26, 27, 20, 31, 
38 


~ — fuel value, 342 


—, kinds of, used for pulp, 24 

—, length of cooking for pulp, 43 

— lumber cut, 8 

—, lumber value, ro 

—, Norway, charcoal yield, 238 

— poles, amount, 303 

— posts, 329 

— pulp, price, 45, 47 

— shingles, durability, 369 

— staves, slack, 125 

— used for slack cooperage, 121 

— — — tight cooperage, 146 

— — in mines, 332 

— veneers, use, 107 

—, western, standing timber, 4 

—, yield in pulp, 37 

Squared pole tie, 264 

Stake, (fence), equivalent, 15 

Standard, St. Petersburg, 15 

States, consumption of pulp wood by, 26, 27 

—,— — wood fuel by, 339 

—, important lumber producing, 7 

—-, lumber production by, 3 

—, principal, using boxes, 250, 252 

Stave bolts, method of cutting logs into, 
illustration of, 120 

— —, tight, method of riving, illustration of, 
144 

— cutter, illustration of, 116 

— jointer, illustration of, 158 

— jointers, illustration of, 155 

— mill, bolt equalizer in, illustration of, 153 

— —, tight, cost of equipment of, 156. 

—, patent elm, 119 

— saw, illustration of, 125 

—, split, emerging from bucker knives, 

illustration of, 154 
Staves and heading, tight, manufacture of, 
153 

—, Bourbon, 148 

—, heating tight, illustration of, 160 

—, method of riving tight, diagram showing, 

150 

—, rived, 149 

—, seasoning of, 126 

—, slack, grading rules for, 140 

—,—, manufacture of, 123 , 

—, —, production of, 116 

—, tight, cost of manufacturing, 155 


i iD lid ie, gl Om 


ee 


INDEX 467 


Staves, tight, exports of, from the United 
States, 164 
—, —, piled for seasoning, illustration of, I 57 
Stay, equivalent, 15 
Steam distillation, 230 
Stecher, G. E., on cork, 443 
Stere, equivalents, 16 
Stevens, H. P., on rubber, 413 
Stick, equivalents, 15 
Still house, 210 
— —, interior, illustration of, 211 
Stills, hardwood distillation, 205 
—,, lime lee, 205 
Setaes tubs in hardwood ditMation. 205 
— yards for hardwood distilling, 206 
Strachan, James, on waste paper, 59 
Stripping cork bark, 435, 436, 437 
Stryker, J. B., on foreign veneer and panel 
manufacture, 114 
Stull, equivalents, 15 
Stumpage value of cross ties, 277 
— values of hardwood distillation wood, 192, 
193 
— — — poles, 312 
Substitutes for poles and piling, 325 
—, shingle, 367 
Sudan, rubber, 406 
Sudworth, G. B., on fustic wood, 423 
Sugar house, 390 
ar ee ground plan, 397 
— —, illustration of, 390 
— —, interior, illustration of, 395 
—, maple—see maple sugar 
— —, tapping, photograph of, 375 
— pine shakes, 370 
Suitable timber for hewing ties, 278 
Sulphate process of pulp making woods used 
in, 29 
— pulp, description of process of making, 47, 
48 
——, imports of from Scandinavia, 47 
— —, manufacture of, 47 
Sulphite cellulose for tanning, 65 
— process of pulp making, woods used in, 29 
— pulp, collection of, on.lap or press machine, 
44 
— —, cost of producing, 45, 46 
— —, manufacture of, 38 
— —, screening, 43 
— —, washing, 43 
Sumach, American, for tanning, 64, 78, 79 
—, —, tannin contents of, 64 


Sumach for tanning, 60, 63, 65 

—, imported, 85 

—, Mexican, 86 

—, production of, 78, 79 

—., Sicilian for tanning, 64, 85 

—, —, tannin contents of, 64 

—, staghorn, dye wood, 419 

—, Venetian, 419 

Sumatra rubber plantation, illustration of, 

407 

—,— — in, 402 

Sump, in distillation plant, 204 

Supply of tanning materials, world’s, 64 

Sweden, charcoal methods in, 235, 236 

—, sulphate process in, 21 

Sycamore, amount for boxes, 251 

—, charcoal yield, 239 

— for pulp, 26, 29 

— lumber cut, 8 

—, — value, 10 - 

—, sliced veneers, 99 

Syrup and sugar making, cost of equipment, 
302 

—,, boiling down, illustration of, 377 

—, maple—see maple syrup 

Sylvan, Helge on charcoal making, 247 


T 


Table of charcoal yields, 239 

Tabor, H. C., analysis of hemlock bark by, 77 

Tamarack, eastern, cross ties, amount, 267 

— for pulp, 26, 20, 47 

—, fuel’'value, 342 

—, poles, amount, 303 

—, see also larch 

— staves, slack, 125 

— ties, durability, 293 

Tanbark oak, harvesting, 75, 76 

— —, tannin contents of, 64 

Tanneries in United States, 61 

Tanners’ Council of the United States, table 

on tanning materials, supplied by, 65 

Tannery, leather, illustration of, 74 

Tannin contents of principal sources, 64 

—, forms of, 60 

Tanning by Chinese, 61 

— materials, 60 

— —, annual consumption of, 1918, 65 

— —, chrome, 65 

— —, foreign introduction of to United 
States, 62, 63 

— —, history of, 61, 62, 63, 64 


468 ; INDEX 


Tanning materials, imports of, 86, 87 

Tannins, wood and bark, annual consump- 
tion and wastage, 5 

5, Wastares:s 

Tapping rubber trees, 404, 405 

— — —, illustration of, 407 

— sugar maple with bit, illustration of, 386 

— trees, maple, 385 

Tar oils, uses of, 232 

—, wood, uses of, 222 

—,—, yield of, in hardwood distillation, 721 

Teak sawed veneers, 102 

Teeple’s experiment in softwood distillation, 


233 


Teeple, John E., on waste pine wood utiliza- | 


tion, 234 
—, J. E., on waste wood distillation, 224 
Temperatures used in boiling logs for cutting 
veneers, 97 

Tennessee, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, lumber cut, 7 
—, wood fuel used, 339 
Terminalia chebula, 84 
Teredo, damage to piling, 320 
Texas, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, lumber cut, 3, 7 
—, wood fuel used, 339 
Thuja occidentalis, poles, 300 

plicata, poles, 300 
Tie, equivalents, 15 
—, (2d class), equivalents, 15 
—, (narrow gauge), equivalents, 15 
—, (Standard). equivalents, 15 
— hacker making ties, illustration of, 265 
— plates, use of, 297 
Ties, cross, annual consumption and wastage, 

5 
—, —, wastage, 5 
—, — see cross ties. 
Tilghman, discoverer of chemical pulp, 21 
Tight cooperage—see cooperage, tight, etc. 
Timber lands, management of, for hardwood 
distillation, 195 

— owned by government, 4 
—, standing, owned by pulp companies, 28 
—, stand of, by regions and species, 4 
Timbers, mine—see mine timbers 
— used for piling, 321 
Time required for charcoal burning, 241 
— — — hardwood distillation, 204 
Tower system of making acid, 40, 41 
Toyylon pomiferum, 420 


Trackage and cars, distillation, 207 
Treated ties, number, 294 
Treating posts, cost, 329 

Trevor stave bolt equalizer, 124 
Trestle timber, equivalents, 15 
Triangular cross ties, 273, 274 

— ties, advantages of, 273, 274 


| — —, disadvantages of, 274 


Trucks, distillation, cost of, 208 

Tsuga canadensis, 9 

— heterophylla, 9, 63, 77 

— mertensiana, 77 

Tupelo, amount for boxes, 251 - 

—, lumber cut, 8 

—, — value, 10 

— used for slack cooperage, 121 

— veneers, use, 107 

Turnbull, John H., distillation plant by, 190 

Turpentine and rosin, exports of, 169 

— — —,, production of, for 1918, 168 

— barrels, 181 

—, prices of, 184 

— still, diagrammatic cross-section of, 182 

— —.,, illustration of, 179 

—, utilization of, 183 

—, yield per crop of, 182 

Turpentining, effect of, on strength and 
durability of lumber, 166 

—, French methods of, 185, 186 


U 


Uncaria acida, 86 

— gambier, 86 

Use of lumber cut, rr 

—- sawmill and other waste for paper 
pulp, 29, 30 

— — wood, annual, 11 

Uses of cork, 440 

— — excelsior, 425 

— — maple syrup and sugar, 398 

—, rubber, 412 

Utah, wood fuel used, 339 

Utilization in European countries, 12 

— of charcoal, 245 

— — cork, 440 

— — products, hardwood distillation, 220 

— — — of naval stores industry, 183 

—-— sawmill and wood’s waste for hard- 
wood distillation, 194 

— — softwood distillation products, 232 

— — veneers, 105, 106, 107 


Oe —————————— a —— sl 


OE — Se 


——“—n 


wa a 


INDEX 


Utilization of waste in manufacture of slack 
cooperage, 135, 136 
— — wood in hardwood distillation, 192 


Vv 


Vallombrosa, Italy, charcoal pits, illustration 
of, 246 

Volonia for tanning, 60, 63, 64, 65, 85 

—, production and use of, 85 

—, tannin contents of, 64 

Van Metre, R., on woods suitable for cross 
ties, 295 

Varieties of white oak used for tight cooper- 
age, 146 

Value of export shooks, 260 

— — fuel wood, 337, 339, 348 

—_ — — — per cord, 339 

— — kinds of paper, 20 

— — maple syrup and sugar, 398 

— — mine timbers, 332 

— — natural dyestuffs, 414 

— — poles used, 299 

— — principal uses, rubber, 412 

— — products, hardwood distillation, 218 

— — pulpwood, 30 

— — tanning materials, 60 

—, stumpage, cross ties, 277 

— — tight cooperage products, 148 

Values, fuel, 341 

—, lumber, per thousand board feet, 9, 10 

—, stumpage, poles, 312 

Vehicles, amount, 11 

— and vehicle parts, 11 

Veitch, F. P., on chemical methods of utiliz- 


ing woods, 224 
—,—-—, — commercial turpentine, 188 
—,—-—,— on estimate of naval stores 
production 168 
—, --—, — papermaking materials, 59 
—, — —,, reference to, 64 


Veneer flitches, diagram of, 113 

— grading rules, 109, 110, 111 

— logs, prices of, 93, 94 

— machine, rotary, illustration of, 91, 97 

— mill, the “U” plan of, 111 

—, plywood or built-up stock, 103 

— woods, qualifications desired in, 91, 92 

—, slicing machine in operation, illustration 
of, 100 

Veneers, annual consumption and wastage, 5 

—, — production of and values, 94 

—, cost of making, 99 


469 


Veneers, general, 89 
—, history of, 89 
—, making sawed, illustration of, 102 
—, methods of making, 90 
oe prices of, 95 
—, rotary cut, description of process of 
making, 95, 96, 97 
—, sawed, process of making, 1o1 
—, sliced, process of making, 99 
—, table showing percentage of 
making, 108 
—, thickness of, 94 
—- used for cooperage, 93 
—, utilization of, 105, 106, 107 
—, — — waste in making, 107, 108 
—, wastage, 5 
—, wood used for, 92 
Venetian sumach, 419 
Vermilion sawed veneers, 102 
— used for veneers, 94 
Vermont Agric. Exp. Station, investigations 
by, 382 
—, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, production of maple sugar and syrup, 
380, 381, 383, 397 
— Sugar Makers’ Assoc., proceedings, 397, 
400 
—, wood fuel used 339 
Virgin cork, 435 
Virginia, box lumber consumption, 252 
~——, charcoal making, 237 
—, lumber cut, 7 
—, wood fuel used, 330 
Volume of solid wood for cord, 344 
—,, original and present of forests in U. S., 2 
Von Schrenk, H., on cross tie forms and rail 
fastenings, 298 
Vulcanizing rubbers, 403 


WwW 


Wagon or carload equivalents, 17 
Walnut, black, used for veneers, 90, 94, 95, 


waste in 


106, 109, 
—,—, veneer cores for gun stocks, 109 
[lems 5.3 prices, 95 


—, —, veneers, use, 106 

—, Circassian, sawed veneers, 102 

—,—, sliced veneers, 99 

—, —, used for Veneers, 90, 94, 95, 99, 100, 
106, 109 

“~;, —, Veneer, prices, 95 

—, —, veneers, use, 106 


470 


Walnut, lumber cut, 8 

—, — value, ro 

Ward, James, beginning of hardwood dis- 
tillation by, 189 

War Industries Board, Report of, 20 

Washing soda pulp, 49 

— sulphite pulp, 43 


Washington, box lumber consumption, 252 -_ 


—, lumber cut, 3, 7 
—, shingle making in, 352, 354, 365 
——, wood fuel used, 339 
Wastage, comparison of American and 
European conditions, 12 
— in production of forest products, 12 
— — wood production, 5 
Waste in European countries, 12 
— ~~ logging, 13 
—, mill, charcoal yield, 238 
—, —, used for pulp, 27, 29 
—, sawmill and woods, used for hardwood 
distillation, 194 
—, —, used for paper pulp, 26, 28, 29, 30 
—, utilization of, in manufacture of slack 
cooperage, 135 
— wood used for fuel, 340, 341 
Watt, Alexander on the art of papermaking, 
59 
Wattle, 86 
—, golden for tanning, 64 
, —, tannin contents of, 64 
Weed Lumber Co., 109 
Weiss, H. F., on preservation of timbers, 293 
—, — —, — seasoning poles, 316 
Weights ‘of wood used for hardwood dis- 
tillation, 193 
—, shingle, 367 
—, stock, slack cooperage, 137 
Wentling, J. P., on woods used for packing 
boxes, 262 
— Coast Lumberman on shingle prices, 363 
—-—Lumbermans’ Association, shingle 
branch, 360 
West Indies, lumber trade with, 2 
— Virginia, box lumber consumption, 252 
— —, lumber cut, 7 
— —, wood fuel used, 339 
Wester Red Cedar Association, pole Bees 
fications, 304 
— spruce for pulp, 24 
Wet machine, photograph of, 44 
Wickham, H. A., rubber plantations, 407 
Willow, amount for boxes, 251 


. 


INDEX 


Willow excelsior, 426 
—, used for pulp, 29 
Winslow, C. P., on grouping of ties for treat- 
ment, 298 ¢ 
Wire bound boxes, 258 
Wisconsin, box lumber consumption, 252 
—, excelsior made in, 426 
—, lumber cut, 3, 7 
—, wood fuel used, 339 
Withrow, J. R., on hardwood distillation, 223 
Wood alcohol, price of, 218, 219 
—-—, refining, 212 
— —, uses of, 221 | 
— —, yield of, 217 
==, “per COM, 210 
—, annual consumption of for pulp, 23 
—, — use of, 11 
—, best, for charcoal, 236 
— chipper, photograph of, 39 
— consumption statistics of, for hardwood 
distillation, 196 
—, distillation, cutting and delivering to the 
factory, 193 
— dyes, 414 
—, excelsior, value of, 428 
— fuel, hauling, illustration of, 347 
— — —-see fuel wood 
—, — value compared to coal, 343 
— gas, yield of, in hardwood distillation, 217 
— —, uses of, 223 
—, loss of, in manufacture of saw logs, 13 
—, preparation of wood for paper pulp, 31 
— pulp and paper, 18 
— — — —, capital employed by, 19 
— —, cold and hot ground, 33 
— —and paper, history of, 18, 20 
— —, imports of, 57 
Sy ee 
— —, yield of from different woods, 37 
—— — industry, tendency to move to Canada, 
27 
—, shrinkage, 345 
—, solid, amount per cord, ‘344 
— tar, uses of, 222 
— —, yields of, in hardwood distillation, 217 
— used for making brick, 344 
— — to smelt copper, 344 
—, utilization of for hardwood distillation, 
192 
Woodenware, 11 
— and novelties, 11 
Woodlot, source of fuel, 336, 340 


r 
, 

4 
‘ 


INDEX 471 


Woods used for paper pulp, 24, 25, 26, 27 

— consumed by processes of pulp manufac- 
ture, 29 ; 

—, fuel value of, 341, 342 

— operation in naval stores industry, 169, 
170 

—, resinous, fuel value, 343 

— used for boxes, qualities desired, 249 

— — — charcoal, 236 

— — — excelsior, 424, 425, 425, 427 

— — — mine timbers, 332 


Woods used for slack cooperage, 119, 120, 
121 

Woodyard in Washington, illustration of, 341 

—, municipal, illustration of, 349 

World’s production of rubber, 411 

— supply of tanning materials, 64 

Wyoming, box lumber consumption, 252 

—, wood fuel used, 339 


x 
Xylotrya, damage to piling, 320 


BOOKS 
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Books on Forestry 


Forest Physiography— Physiography of the United States and Principles 
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By Isatan_ Bowman, Ph.D., Director American Geographical Society. 
xii+759 pages. 6 by 9. 292 figures and 6 plates, including a New Geo- 
logic Map of North America, in colors. Cloth............... net, $5.00 
A book on physiography for students of forestry, and also a work which 
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Elements of Forestry. 
By FREDERICK FRANKLIN Moon, B.A., M.F., Professor of Forest Engi- 
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Forest Management. 


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The Theory and Practice of Working Plans (Forest Organization). 
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Identification of the Economic Woods of the United States. 


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By SAMUEL J. Recorp, M.A., M.F., Professor of Forest Products, Yale 
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An efficient aid in the study and identification of wood. The new edition 
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By Samuet J. Recorp, M.A., M.F. xi+165 pages. 6 by 9. 51 figures. 
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A short contribution to the life-history of one of our most important 
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The Principal Species of Wood: Their Characteristic Properties. 
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Seeding and Planting in the Practice of Forestry. 


By James W. Toumey, M.S., M.A., Director of the Forest School and 
Professor of Silviculture, Yale University. xxxvi+455 pages. 6 by 9. 
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French Forests and Forestry—Tunisia, Algeria, Corsica. With a Trans- 
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By Tueopore S. Wootsey, Jr., M.F., Assistant District Forester, U. S. 

Forest Service, 1908-1915; Lecturer, 1912, 1916-17, Yale Forest School. 

xv+238 pages. 6 by 9. Illustrated. Cloth................. . net, $2.50 
The results of a study of the more important phases of forest practice in 
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Y 


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INt 
Subjects Related to this Volume 


For convenience a list of the Wiley Special Subject Catalogues, 
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List of Wiley Special Subject Catalogues 


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Canning and Preserving. 


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(Over) 


~~) 


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—— ey 


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