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"FORESTRY QUARTERLY 


VOLUME V 


PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION 
of a 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


With Seven Plates and Twelve Diagrams 


ae 


me oe (i 
Y ‘ \° 
ITHACA, N.Y. 

1907 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


B. E. Fernow, L. L. D., Editor-in-Chief. 


HENRY S. GRAVES, M.A., FILIBERT Ror, B. S., 
Yale Forest School University of Michigan 
RICHARD T. FISHER, A. B., Hucu P. BAKER, M. F., 
Harvard University State College of Pennsylvania 
ERNEST A. STERLING, F. E., RAPHAEL ZON, F. E., 
Forester, Penna. R. R. Co. Forest Service 
FREDERICK DUNLAP, F.E., CiypE Leavirt, M.S. F., 


Forest Service Forest Service 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Forest Manapement:in Southern. Pines, 30.0 ei) sb ia alee ele eo bielers I 
By Max Rothkugel. 

Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves, ..........ecceceeceeee® II 


By Frank J. Phillips. 
Railroad Forest Plantations, Some Mistakes Made in Establishing 


“TD LAV eyari yt 13 es le i RR Te AU Lge eR a a SOA ARR Ue UI 20 
By Prof. R. C. Bryant. 
New Method of Measuring Volumes of Conifers, ................+. 29 


By B. E. Fernow. 
Table for Determining the Financial Increment Per Cent. of Trees 


Basedioni their) Market \Walhtwe (ios penn Fe here cy oehiersvaissa oleae eee 37 
By Nils B. Eckbo. 
MSpeapS Se EIRP CURA IF). apo ra leh lieicterdl ale slehalletsoalerelalelatale areteie eulelalaimore caine 41 
By Barrington Moore and Robert L. Rogers. 
Neate om ropical Wood). Supplies: ei). eso eis ie eleigialo ose alaloss 51 
y B. E. Fernow. 
The Sprout Forests of the Housatonic Valley, Connecticut, ........ 121 
By G. Frederick Schwarz. 
UTC DOL ESE (RpATI Hb 6 52 stat hohe le habe ay ahedullade telond a lahelollaleie alallotere ceeiale aan 154 
By Ernest Bruncken. 
California Red. Fir in the Tahoe Forest Reserve, ...........0. 00005 159 
By M. B. Pratt. 
Seance Government) Pimber se ie eiielulalalaleielelciale oe ogleteeels 166 


By T. S. Woolsey, Jr. 
Some Fundamental Principles of Silviculture as stated by Prof. 
Sy SIre Ss 6 100 1" eI MR Ay a a A aU 174 
Translated by R. Zon and A. T. Boisen. 
The Formation of the Annual Ring of Wood in the European 


ILS iHlay senayalid ake ee Ys chy tenttd capt 6 eAMnMin, AOL Alan On HU EN UNS ual A Ha ar AA 259 
By Prof. W. A. Buckhout, State College, Pa. 
NBME CTARISEN Nive 2/2 MAN LOT UnIh SLE OF a) ci Ars A AO 268 
By W. J. Ward, Forester, Brookings Lumber Company . 
Wbherbereshi laws or Caliqormian sei Oke aly Ware aie 278 


By Geo. B. Lull, State Forester. 
Treatment of Hardwood Lands in South Western Connecticut, .... 283 
By Ralph C. Hawley. 


SEMEN TESESHOL UATICANSAS LHL k i OI N Nain ot ATM enna ae 206 
By Samuel J. Record. 

Anmbrective screen | Tom Nurseries ee ee eee ee ec a 307 
By E. J. Zavitz. 

Beonomic hhinning of White Pre iio en le Ua 368 
By Austin F. Hawes, State Forester. 

Pie OHNO FV COLA TES aie rN ART UE UMP TE Ihara 373 
By B. E. Fernow. 

Humbering, 1mithe, Philippine | Tslands. os eiie es ale 205 Siclals eels 385 
By H. D. Everett, Forester. 

The Treatment of Fence Posts to Increase Durability, ............. 390 
By Prof. Hugh P. Baker. 

AGO M OTS STONED le OURS Fike ya ies as ol volo Vella alo lente lasllese say pariatchale 403 
By A. B. Recknagel. 

CURRENT TPE RAR i ois hoc te goal eie's seis 54, 190, 302, 405 

PERIODICAT, TE VIRIATWIRG, ) 5 be ha eae ou esas ons 86, I97, 312, 412 

Forest. Geography and) Descriptiony .....050006.. 00-000. e lee 197, 412 


Botany, and | Zoology yee iiy ste oisiasatdiet Maher ah areloiere ove 80, 199, 312, 414 


iv 


Page. 


Soil. Water andiGlimate ieee renee ieee eee ee QI, 202, 324, 417 
Silviculture, Protection and Extension, ......... 95, 204, 330, 420 
Mensuration, Finance and Management, pean Ge 99, 221, 337, 430 
Utilization, Market, ands Technology. snc cus ce.cnee 102, 231, 348, 4. 
Statistics and History, SE) oO 3 at a let i ENT A ace eat 107, 237, 349 
Politics wand myecislationy en iase cities eerie oe eee oe II2, 438 
Miscellaneous cise thao sscyan sere Lie ie tee eres eae cles 116, 246, 354, 
INE WS WANED IN ODES eae cae @ punts ceoeieasl ea ie aie 117, 248, 355, 440 


INDEX TO VOLUME V. 


Altes) masgnitica; article, ): 2/024 e8i 0. aces eee -EOeRREE 
Acchimatizationyicy oe cee ceer eer eee e eee LLC EEELene 
Ae Or trees MNIOPeNs pW senior e eee 
Altitude, Influence on Increment, ................... 
Anniialcminewormationvanticle wes ance ee ee eror 
Apple MWood, 110 tes os cya erter el Novos Glee theta octavian 
Atkansas, fonests:wanticle. epee nee a soneek cer enercre 
IA Sh esilvics as alaticcmetectiner Meer EEO coe eee 
Australia’ timberitestsay- fee ee Reo eee eee 
(RIGID Tomes Ietesbhaea) Yee basa dao Cocisocddadasepdoas 
Avalanches) prevention cece ee er oe ee eerie. 
~Averagevlog a iCruise article. ....e ee ake oes 
Baden: sstatistics oe herd: eee eee REEL ORG one 
BAKER. . H.-P wartselendt 05 1:5, Uae Rupees esc 20 rae et es Ae 
Banks of Pik, (ey ke a At ae ane EN AL RE 
Bark, (pet: Centerpinedie.nc een ete otns neato area eae 
Bavaria. StaliStiesi cat. 2s ee eeiee been eon ae 
Beech sblood Moneini aor earccasacier cee eho ee eee 
Bitdsyalosteninig- Bene kee. eet deel eee eee bRoeien oe 
Bogs, Alpine wivalties.0s4. cb comes C eee ee eee ae 
BOTSEN AG tie sctranslator wi yes ec Le eR has antes be 
Botany andEZoologyaus saree cee tee bee ae 
Black Locust, Baas iRlantations weerere aa aero 


“ce 


o}ee-* 2 ae je)e(elelese 96 ¢le 4.0)\8 sie. (ele @\0) 2) es 2 « 


ield, 
BRUNCKEN, 4s) ‘article, 5 hatics Ricci HONS cickers Lae taya bg Wa 
BRYANT So? °C aaeticle, } 2) som eeh ete te eiie cise 
BUCKHOUT, W. AL article Veit sveweasmekhioentte ee 
California, conditions, SHAE BAS CPA AAO oOO tence ood S 
forest laws, Phy oleate es sled See eee 
HEPONE, sTEVIEW,. eitike wie emereltewee seis oteitieiee 
‘Calipers for small dimension, MBA Ue 5 Sac omem naam ao 


“ec 


LECOLGINL KECONOMY: + wei ccoetek hate Ciel ie ere caiees 
=H TIED: bra h2eecicaie la: Sree ehaba beet he tolers les otelel ove pe aR Kereta 

Canada, Forest Poltcys ists sh erase See ene ee eee 
Map Wvork, 2). hess Olt casio. Ukaite eee 
a3 


Coppice, iti Connecticuts article, )i.. c'cae ea lank aibnie 
5 Composite; JRESiLES | fosic/.\us wibeela eit mea bisa’ 
5 SELECHION, | 5,5 nctriatte sek piston ey ne re eeent ae eae 


woodumarket: ino ee eer eee eee ate 
Catalpa, Use tor Railroad W1es, ). incieenteies melon me 
Cedar for pencil wood, Leview,, s/k:. vide wsaieies np 6 esi sie 
Climate;;relation toulncrement, cece nus eek wieeians 
Climatic: Varieties, Ne pie ice cke Gott bieiere Seue RRM ie eit ot OnetG 
Climbing: apparatus, crisis isn islsicteng isis tapieieie ole isle wks alee 
Competition OF TE TEQS i's oy wis vos a0 bp ble ee ean eek eeu 
Composite SBDrest)’ ls isies dee os aig k Se ameainets etude ns 
Congressional ours; sarticles, .s.skis 8 os bineiathiseaietrnys 
Connecticut repotty TEVIE Ws ++i see clear ome ER 


@ oleae) s) ese. 0») viele 


So diese oe eerane 174 


ed 


eee 


Barnell: Colleme: Borest, \...000ieh acess scecdvas 
MereMIAbOL, IP uSSlan ce raid weiss cas oe scenes 


ae 
“ 


Damage, by fumes, apparatus, ................ 
Damping Off, time for spraying, ............. 
i DETTETOSp OELHAVG EE 6 by 2s eine 
PNSEASES AeNOUAPATASILIC) (J. 2) oe cee levee a leboeties 
So RITES, i FETCTENCE Sy wos, cue wig eee de 
GASHHONA PINE Wace ok Sie Cae 


Economie forestiere, review, ................. 
PAREMIEIANTSD TOLES, a8 rd 0 5 die chala sw sp alerelanote ees 
leenicitynin loses. . |; oso dio walee pek.oe oheete 
Beeunatine. by average 10g oo oce. De cece cls 
Pee ty Ds Articles-<.\c0se conus eet: 


Bexoucespecies: in Germany, 2... <ss.soess eae. 


Exposure, Influence on increment, ........... 
PIE AP PALALIS ssi ty Fog ity Aenean ee cen 


ee 


Increment Per Cent, article, ........ 
ie eealsam,. Notes) article” 6.4.02. e660) es 
PERRET ey eal (SOY eo ay et UIE eo ND Aly BA 


“c 


“cc 


Protection, System. and: Cost, . 5222.2. 
% Sparkmarnesteme Alessia nureete 


Forest Geography and Description, ........... 


Forest Influences in General, ................- 
2 rf on Ground Water, ......... 

: Ely drolosicw iy sokee ce eee 

= s One Vand Sayers eet seer 
OmmRamrally vara eee eee 
One Watersblows aiseoee ate 
Forest Land, absolute, article, ............:--- 
Forest Management, Aims and Methods, ..... 


Forestry Association, Connecticut, reference, .. 
i 4 foOctsuin: Paissiaayyen 
Peowin: Classe Wiebe 4) cic)... 5: 0%) echt seers 
¥ Pl ee i 3, a 
Dera LACLOT SEACH os 6. «so satewdaaeanid 
*§ re ADL CMMPERRI fol =) ci2)'s, acre Gee eons 


Ce rar ee ar ary 


STEtSN6 SB. 0| 01.066 0 © « 6 ae Lele, 


Bi alevetuce eis) ee 6 ¢ie ce 6 oe aisle 


Silas) 410 (6 6) 6 0.10 @ 8 6 66 6, 6 Clee 


skepsie) eS) 016 6 \ele) uw @. el ehele S16 « 


CTO CCI. CRO Chilo, ice CMO 


Clee oe @) 06 6 18)\6 (0) 0, 0| 0 ae © wre 


a) (6.6/6! 60) el sigilei ele. 0c 0) Sia.« <¢ 


@) ele) ¢) ee ela) ef aialiv. se ee 6, @.e 


w feYolletelavie els e's’ s) 6.10.60) 16 16).ce 


CONC ONOT CHOC CL ry CNOA Oni 


CIR ROROICEC CHOC CE ONO) taG) IG 


@1¢\,6 a:\e;/0\/ ©. 0; 6's) (0 (0/0181 0) 6101 © oe 


eo eer rec ce seer cs eccece 


Ceerecerscecercseccceccseccs 


CC er 2 


CC ee er | 


CECIORCRONO RN ONO Ghote ot 


DRO MORCM CHUM CC RC CNC 


OF eikeiejejse)'eilels)e ve) eels sels <\e 


ale! /eye: ele) Bia) ess ie) 4is0s)e\ele \s.'e 


©. 6. 6) ule) @ ele: wi letulee ald « sis o 


© of 0\\0\ 0 0) ooh e),e ee! ef e\ei ena, ee 6 


PHORUM Oh. Cir et) ich GA Cut) 


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© 6) 9 16! ww 686) eye) cate \a)e)a)ele so 


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CPCHO EC) Cat yc NCH ChCRer eye Chir 


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Oe 8 Opal ee o 6 66 ¢) 6 6 6 Ms Balle 


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vi 


; Page 
Germany, Import, grading structural timbers, ..00020 0.5202) .00 25). 356 
Great Britain, CAT HISTOLY, eee eee ee ee ate he OMe Lares oe 353 
WOOd ICONSUMPHOR,, (ae Yoo ial-, «tea eae ae 349 
ry on CIMDETA SUPPLY. oo Se clo dls eicict ate See a aa 109 
Growth affected by (i Drouth, 25 oS see Gael os ealee Giclee ea ere 320 
Tables, Balsam Fir, Loh cy RDN pela ec eiove Arai Atak OREN La 42, 45 
r Relations to W eather, aia pee bop rates Sh Sb oy distal geet Als SNRs peas EN 316 
IN VATRID HP ALOTESE; Sa Sec See Sie eee ee eae ae ed ee 198, 315 
Hasdwood Jands, treatment; article, ) eis iio nwareteerins Mowe aa ap 283 
Fhawaiit, (LEport iT evie ws icc icorereteteeo eae eA eS ok oe a een 75 
HAWES, A. BS article, scohapeeics taanawh ove ten Goat eaoraetet ent M WeaL ea eAn I a Eo ae 368 
ERAWWil EVAR Cotati clentay neice sas tiara reek er ROMEO Ee Cres a nets 283, 205 
Heartwood; Hormation, \Proaness, 0) 0. iia ee ae eae ee 416 
Freath yplanting» methods! icticsitscsrct acts teens byeeetelone ees ee ae ea 212 
Efesse; | Statistics, aiiiens oats sister tee Rac Pa RE Rca NN eal aT aaa eres eT 352 
Ee Konya SCan Citysiie)s pares acevo coeee Sk cuclel crete ae LA av encnret cn rate LRP re nD 105 
Ehistory: of Forestry, Pernow, neviews, Uissiscuk seen k 6 oo eae antes 54 
amis, classification sys scone ae kek seed eden Ol mite hsp nse SDRC aCe 02, 202 
[asa pPOrtssp ISAS pe AAU eR eRe Me erba ne ee Ra eae Las Acie SO 241 
Increment AN CEO UE oA eLaea sets steak een pe NOON SAL al a 320 
THEME TACSS HOT he ty heap ayy eohenee dN choke RR Tae ee 430 
eS ATID WEALITO Te iu cy potas Novree beta lets cueee eI RC RCE OT eee Tee 316 
Taidia,, \ TEDOTE FEMI WEN Ss essen erator S Ae Oe nee 82 
Influences on rainfall, DeLee eis caae) Soe Sse O UNS ara Tella: SoA SR OE TaN eee te 419 
“water supply, SET ap ee Sie Peat BORE Ree PON PE eda |= 2.) ia. 57) Ae 
cs SACS PAARL By. Na die ae Cao RS REA ee ee OIG nee ae 419 
Insects and cPhaenology sips yee eee eae ere ee eee 315 
oh ATID TIS SY RS We heel AON NS seca gS ee Bw Og Se 420 
OR bi vs [nun ON UENO UBDAN Ma NONE NN MOM AMIS Vans Seen RACES ANS Tahara ote So 335 
Journal of Forestry, Binglishrevaewa aciilscaed de oekekidene oe Ree 82, I90 
June Beetle, biology, A sial aVenavaWaledeianetatede torae ay syota stone nw seatota eA SISTRGRE Shela 429 
Kentucky, forests, Safe raksset enc haraia Pavarei tae Wate yareseke meee exe ene ORche SP TE LI 246 
Larch, Sannnial orion eget ai nL Ors See ai ae Sak) a oa eee 259 
Leak fall Garis eg rhe i Sou eile cilevarcac\ny stele Pe iat ct Syste SA oy one eer 
Legislation, encouraging private forestry, ............ceececeeees 114, 438 
Light, anfiiencei\versus water isupplyssieriascmers aceidelcen ohne eect 04 
* (Measurements, of). Requirements \i \i45--.\d mets i sven eet 414 
Logging, Costin Canadian iss soe sickiaale samy aieie vinta kaa oats eee 437 
DY peLSCEL THEY aiic cefatets Gi ays eater gals ieee AE are Mu hee nk Pere 106 
tf Fellini SAP PALracussiy cera er eRe hoo ee ne a 230 
LUE EG Bs article, SA ER PST REY ERED RMS NSE CHSC AION CENA SABES LITE uM 278, 282 
DASE ATE dg ag eee ac heade kas 951 TR Weve eas pa a rage) eat 237 
Maine; ‘report: PeViewis «\thcihe tks oka wlghete ee atehe he ad ooeaahe oe ee on 77 
Maeket, taro pes. iyocic fo siscapoteipiaiuid cosous ark arm lea re (esd Se eet tees 437 
MAYR,, Hy, ‘principles, articles 0012. 5 :.c0eunp Cumann eke Chaar a aanee 174 
Mensuration, Average log Crises i 2eistes cisions Mis otomeeeeere ae Sines eT 268 
% conifers; new, method, articles W000 oe leds eaeeee 29 
cg GENSHY yon 3 sie Sin era pete AOA wince WBE eae athe otk ae an 224 
. finance and management) iv) .u)0...005.... 99, 221, 337) 430 
bs new. method ‘by: Space numbers ii semen woe o> vere eee 221 
Mexico; “cOmmbersy.:c\ists aleiosis Sis se Saco eek RUSE AN IG es Etats hee a ee 90 
Michigan, FEPOTt,. TEVIEW Ls soiiee UE aed HOMES Nis we tec a Car 191 
FOFEStLry® “PLORTESS, ssssiese vine a Geers ORw WES MIG ITE cle SER 451 
Malls, modern; notes sis aoa eae 6:0 & Sind be HR AIO CN es Pope he's eee 106 
MOORE, BARRINGTON, Jarticle,,.0cs2 Rah wires «cs be 41 
Naval stores, notes. ois ches wis es cian « Wk arty ain ares tes oF thee a 105 
New Mexico, forest reserves planting, article, .............s...-00: II 
News and “NOtESi. iiirerciitiesace ayy wiv aniahs te stvna BoLaOaRei aah vas Ai 117, 248, 355, 446 
Nomenclature, 11 \COMrt, Wies dite dg eihica ioe devo eck ae iain is 116 


Nurseries, effective “SCLOOT vide ois denice esie me ok emia ely inc ee 367 


ime a 


— = 


vii 

Page 
OVA COMIPCERIOM ss ic eich hve a eiara ale v ovale sieves MaretePere Mleterk. sie Aniuh aerate ties 315 
BIKES Ral FOAGH Ee LatytaTiony Meine corp Haile ob ae eRN RR Rd isle k « lelalctere renee 27 
MOCALIO: LOLESEN CONGUE TRS AN ph gid ic) 6 ctw 's (cee a NMA AOK cle asteruk eeneeae 382 
Precon; Skandia bree ig esis ty gers spree Ghorea ee leeRer es Glee er cra cig er ates 246 
Penssylvania Ko@rest) Leos lation) ..'. «sss edavilaleewsidlens a6 clotentl 447, 455 
Periodical eirenatsreyy ey eae goss Gece eee aera 86, 197, 312, 412 
EAN ACHO LOR VMADGMEISECES Hh 's.c'e'seyt dis vcolol ep Grate Mn ereiete Sard lols ols slclet Gaba 315 
PELE Pe SPAIN F,article,. «60a bh deoaenaltee Sauvies feb oeals II 
Philippine Islands, lumbering, article, iy BREE BE re aed) Sah bate 385 
FOTESENWOR KK TIOCeN eos ou ee ene awe 448 
mS working plan, Everett, FEVIGWS ssc nse emo ee ene 50, 63 
- FEPOLE, TEVIGW y's) 5:5 0'f) 5d sinnely acai aia s OR ee aE Waa 8 65 
" tinben tests. Leview,.// 5/4 4ifvase cvs wad ae ae ME he CO 70 
PREC GIDERPIOME piesa Neen h ta eny a4 5 oa 2 ean eT ERE Af 314 
Pacie dome leat) Peview yal eek SOM Mo erin 70) Be TA ee a ee 307 
WHELILG A ANIMA U TIO Syste ey cv ae nant ay Sten, Tay Ou LAW aad AA Ea ARR NON eh 259 
Pines, Southern, Forest Management, article, ....................- I 
BlantineOnyheath lam dss ie ci ye ho he Ue 020) RE Pee 212 
> Mound Methods (Sore yeas peters iu hs oy CRO tk a 330 
“ VSoeNatural Remenerationy) sc8 sis cee uo alee oe 421 
a PRS SE WUENLS 20 1) Ve SIN ONG SS A110. Soe Ac oe a A 05 
- PRGA ALI CTE. iy aisychals cyare cloaked ean ad da delete aac lee 20 
HY E/E] oie SUT 0a S10 01 DA ga Aa LI RUAN SR oR Aen YEP Cao) SFU 423 
12 CUTS De Eo (0s RR AS 112, 438 
U2 12 SEMIS RI MA 80 a) (a nO EO Re A er eA a 159,165 
Ranelnnnence on! Change Of Wise. a a ee ks 436 
«CERISE eo} 22 Fe UN ee eee Ie aU Ut) PLES ae a em RT yuce pt III, 233 
“STENT hI ON EA LAU RT NEI CP HI RR RC 112 
“8 TST ERS (0 30 URE aes LD ee Se Op ALON en nT) 244 
Private Forestry, ENCOUTAM|MI|M Ee No yeep pee yay NON ter ere ai ae 438 
PIER tet GECSE PONMTICS!,) ci asdigiiy Pi ei Steak UNAM NSE otacer ste un Lease 438, 442 
3 POT EOS ee NT OM Cee HOT AU al SU a a RM Meta eR 352 
e POMEMCLAN DITEEAII uri loa MLO Sih 0 Or tea Oe ae aaa en 438 
PMO CIT EHITEC: PLOT 218) iN ea De. ILE Dre WOOD 105 
MBER ACHE EATEOA Ieee yn seis Li GW Sl uiratans Mu atl oN A tg tae 102 
alceada fOnest: plantations y aEtie) ey uti aaem alle, yee gure ane ete at 20 
ig 13) Ea art Co UR tae TA A eg Sy UL Ny ae 250, 364 
ri BUGS VoMRRCEAN Payer ayn cvelie ache uh) Muliice Ladle Oe au RIK Ie a) Sane Mts 253 
"FSIS Goss 6 5137 tens Og ODOM EN CR Agar Ge A 103 
of HES) IGHELRACHOS) Ws a nt) ORO ei ye Vier a ae 102 
Nema RO HC HOLESESUR CS aI ae hak TN ah As CRRA Ae na 419, 420 
LPT TSS 7) Pie gu (el COM I PN OD May aye ny! 206, 301 
ORO RNP EN CPG D et AE AETICNE: | 21)! /o wan didicy ue eistaeelars cE ee 403 

REVIEWS: 
Paear eS) REDOLE TOO ileal lve clsoting yuaebreese Bice eae eee 65 
British; India, Administration: Reporés (40s osuekgs goa) otek oak 82 
@aliornia. State. Foresters) Report )o seen ees ogee eae 78 
Sleaients.| Plant, Physiology, 76 yl ese ha i fy! vk eg 405 
Connecticut state, Borester’s Report. seen sc «hn ase ee oe bee 309 
English Quarterly Wournal, of Porestryjietveciy ey oot kc eee 83, 190 
Everett’s Negros Occidental Working Plan, ................6+- 59 
PEMA SEL ISTO VENI CED, «2a. a/'2 act SL pero fre ei skets «a pyr okh CL 54 
Forest Service, Use BOOK 2) .12/) Rea ic Td Sig 2S SORT A 306 
feat @iner sie ninppIMe: WOO. Tests; cities es ny ode sce @waae cee 70 
ar Per Sa Postal et Myer e s/s.nh eee ee OER ok ha oe Dae 407 
Rawat, Comiaussioners Report) i/oiiitl te dss ila hssis ve Auacdouen 75 
EXOT IO Se MBM AMMIRRTES oa. °9,5) 5c Wine aol en eis odie dig LORIE a toe 305 
ERTEEECLS Reem C050 A V0.5 56: «soi nlc gh le OA HR vay Vt wa dla 9 cee MEARE ES 302 
Hufnagl, Holzhandel, Sade) Seal San bheher cram neue cat tata aval pio eetes LR Si 304 
Jahresbericht, MEMMIN A 4035 aa, 2.) <2 tas lose ptekeaetasaigl Hore. sha reia lang SEE a 408 


Vili 


Page. 
REVIEWS, continued: 

Julius, Western Australian Timber WDEStS; Voc) s.jacteae Ne Oe 302 
Laris, .Holzhandelssebrauchseyeceicis oo. cos etree ee ee 305 
Maine; Comutissioner’s (Repetighi cose ss. =o). 0s cee eee 77 
Mathey’ Sie xplottation,( 5.2: Asem et be. oc. Oo eee 57, 406 
Merritt and Whitford’s Bongabon Working Plan, ............. 63 
Michigan, :Commission Reports jaeeceiess-> shed. ss. one ee IQI 
New ‘Hampshire, Society, Repotivtec: joes chase e Oocke eeee 8I 
Rhode Island, Commissioner’s Report, ......¢25.5..222.....00. 82 
Schwarz, Long Leat Pine; oc, aint: tale A. - Seen Geeks eo eee 307 
Southern Woodlands, Journal, Ek Lene MUS. x hee ha aN edea a eS 190 
Walmots Forest Iaflvences, v.13. /ocu seas sh eo ee 57 
Wisconsin, State: Forester’s Report;-...\ 29.4 bs o2s5.0. 2 oeee eee 73 
Rhode disland,. report imeviewsnecen:s soeoehac cele gee ee ee 82 
RODGERS, Ro US acticle yawn secon echeate doe eee ee 41 
Rotation and diameter, Spare tahctabenohs tolceyelomsh eke uated valle co Sates (6 7a es arte en ee ae 347 
a thinning, SEE Aaa Aen Ae ee eae ES Ad GRIESE UN A 8 436 
ROTHRKUGEL SMA Ke article Jeni. eg Cael iiatt |) aol ole ee I 
Roots, effects on Grass and ler CS A SRE moe LTS en RNC Pa 329 
“. \ stricture andubiologysss..qe cent tei et ee eee 201 
Russia, ‘market conditions, > iccr. iis cece bee an ae ee ee 197 
Ap MOvement: FOTCES, Lay ced ora yada OR eres eee ee 88 
sand “Soils. Cultivation,) oj. cds 0 O.k hee ee eae eek Oe eee 423 
SaAxOny; (StaHSHess. 25 so. ie cibemind CAs ities aaa ee hee eee 108 
Scaling, government timber, article, 22.5.2 5£ 22: 2s oe oe See 166 
SCHWARZ. AG; SHRUB AD Farticle, 2. i tejan7 Bite seek epee 122i = 

Schiffel’s Method of Measuring Conifers, ..........:.....-.-.se--e 
peed Supply Ga-c 6 ieee eee SEER By RA Cee: COraeIee 2075 2123 A 
Ne OMS HIG: Varo tao ate lejos Mae eicoalaere t otet Rinks bigs SiG. ale See en 204 
“ “testing of Scotch: pines. preemie teeter tee OTe ee 205 
pelecHion COPpPICelss \ oa!iz atari ae aR ede Rees ee ECS ee O7 
forest; -Difhiculties,, -ERcELee ee ee GRRL cickist eke aoe ee O7 
=e forests, telling bhudgetinios keane: cee ete eee eee eee 338 
te Sl, wonking iplan, \. hi... cee sik ee cote be Sa eee OP eee 345 
Silviculture, fundamentals; (Mays fee cen cones ee «ecole 174 
notes, Sowing Vs, Plantings, ve in.!n 2 > ss? un ere eee eee 05 
ie protection sand) ‘extension! )).. 522% .seeee ese ae Q5» 204, 330, 420 
r tenetsca/s S76 ie SRG EEE ES erst Ree tires Seni ee nee ee 420 
Slavonia; TOTeSESY 23 vk isae a tee cee ROR Peete eet Rees 412 
Smells, and “Insects... seeleetekt he ee ee rok bbe Reel Bea oer eee 420 
Soil; Pastunes, PTeServaHlOns seca ete wh eiehoaleh-luetav aw Nelelcieetele cxalele SE ee 324 
= Water and Climates acts su heel eane cece a ort, een eee QI, 202, 324, 417 
Sowite. ws: olan... Vu Uae eek cape chee Ny Gh le cee a miate ene ante 05 
Space ‘number, for measuring Stands; 1. te aise. - os cereale reer 221 
So \ “Palen, elie b ee & Neues teubed 2 le ois.b ole, © Soar RUNS Renee eC NS ee eae ec 224 
Spacing, inilnence,on prodtction,.).55.. here cee eee eee 213 
WDATK ALHESEELATIOW., +.1:)c-- ss siso stares bya be tarctelers siclal Atco eRemeIR Eis cs oe oP 08 
Sprout forests; anticle, «i. \. cn sls bi ess oh cared oo Creer eee ceo is ee 121 
Spruce; LOT, Hse isisk btiad eh 2G on ee URIs One eles sok. ane 86 
: migration in Sweden, 720.es. hak mae cites wien eee ee 312 
of MEW | SPECIES, Ebel s ech uke cosa CORRES SATE tees vs cs eee 314 
es DEOGUCHON; 152). visa b.6 es iss ereels el PEER EDs as 0 sit eee 215 
Statistics and HUStony, raves b:+ ios kdb ok SRT TNR EES cee ue ee 107, 237, 349 
Baddest, 0s sppis Hess os pW S Eee wa LOS sss soe 243 
¥ Bavaria, staheeNptaSopiele:Slal a: wie et Sela eta Peiwtata tea wate iis ki’ fel e hele aan 107 
Es Great Britain Supplies, 3 2. esiciig mathew castes «afeatehte sient 109 
i ELOSSE, "a ais 2 Vise d Wiaelec, 0.0) Aaialale Ore aaeaott cay tele a alo ota arnt 352 
4 Prussia; labor'cost, \s 6 cis sied iba Ga teenies ls a cern 352 
x TIS OF PTIGES, |. sd ss 0.5 Bo dalen hd ee ea VAs Aye Cee II2 
zi SaXOMnmys | bso iis sled beau. cesta pawcae meee beet ee Mee ee 108 


J 
J ix 
Page 
Statistics, continued : 
SEUIIG IE ICES Ta Ss ort go's chia alotente a Mamaely eisieiasa) sw avaiplalalats Ill 
. ry Soper late cc cicate sie sore! ease a nao shecnreidelen'a slnn.e sels we a ela atary 244, 245 
Pe Mee NEM tr eet a’ doo's\! os niches eaMitarate niet die ac oyaln on Seton 110, 237 
) Stumpage ERS Sar eta iata «2 ticcae'd clon» 0 bree eieteatdinlal rim im cle; o/e\ = x nietard III 
| Set eEREECLY Pots sas oso ab stand alecelere AMete wed ld @celel ep /aicetefete 233 
; Sweden forest COMAILIONS, .... 26... es pe wedeaenesesisncencncecwae 413 
= PrEAE Sts | COMGIELOTG.: eye. oiere ail cvese eksiere ciersreel olebaretctetek abel ay atintslcisierels 197 
" Switzerland, FOLESE POLICES, js § Dasacid rein a oi erneehaf eee a Mietalolais ie viel erals II5 
c cantonal forest management, ......00c00. 0 ssc. woe 245 
i GEACTSELCS yy ch ei a se ee ea ade aaa ead a eetemteratee gas oie 8 244 
: paabarikk Gals. Calsfornias) <2 5 oay seca vias 's «ud eeislnsle nea rate ees ams 105 
; Taxation, Principles, NESS SUAS Ceo G stds atau ere ta eet eet ete 441 
of Woodlands, ATEICION FSA jepsraeete hee obehetactebectare: Tele 373 
| = iT Gbmenlaclda Gee bouinemamebecnobUsoicno or vOOOL éio cp ecbe 112 
Testing, grading of structural timbers, ...........-..eeeseeeee cress 350 
PEST ChE I TETIEEE  EULES, 5 wie. d.0) = « re.n.0.n:vintetnle wis einiae 6 foieholeyeneietanane at aveyalialset~\ 233 
Al; hinning, Heck’s Method, RRR PERE Seti hihi. aS td ped Bian 334 
influence on production, 55 SAE ONS Gu TNS, poe Ure rev ME Ret en SFAOLG 215 
EACTICEH Secale Pheu is cicjols atofelaser asta shekad epee nth sk Redere teal ae 425 
£ Phavel WMoLaha Ol MAN iESmoGoeb Er onGomdGbeAs dd dodiopdooeoueuewon 430 
ss White Pine, Kconomy,rarticle, 72:7. .secaiesden sso «ss 308 
eat PetELEStSe AUStalias LEVIEWs ty cetlerierd 2 cle cleieletatteysiey helebe|lelefeter<\ t-te) 302 
MEME CHACE | CAIs! OL, )s,c/-ja lars tiara its s etait a diaetena cteatclsiayele/= lola seiale{el sels 233 
shrade ot wood 1m. Hurope, LeVISWs cee secre cl eleeicielolel ele) clels/s/cls) -1-1=)=1-1 tel 304, 305 
‘Tropical Wood Supplies, notes, . 05.5. coce teem ese see eecesewness 5I 
Turpentine from Pulpwood, ............. ee eee cee escecee eee e ee eees 105 
LMCI CHEVGLS Sos) Sy = sich cca Sespetov tote ps Sas oh ei heap olsl toieta crater ots anejm elas etshere re 105 
Utilization, Market and Technology, ..............-...- 102, 231, 348, 436 
. Fa(O1 SOU OY] Aa REE OH Oty 6 GOL ROIS HIS TIC COCR OC BIO ROM SIGe Ber 232 
Wangs, timeline, % Bob oon couconooeboooeag ugnduouds Doo Cue dODEIES OS 199, 207 
Mette TOLESE PLOCUCHOIN 6.0.1) o2lci- «ine « oe ales 2100 wise) sin iatolatsiqmieio'~alelae:e 198 
“ Woods, Growth, ........ 2. see cee cee ce eee e cence eceeteneees 315 
PRA Se TIS yooh ote ses aie) enc crelnyo aiioley Sela =) wiasietacaia) wieseleso™ala\ «js ie /d/0/0/ n'a) ce e\olel= 233 
Oe WON TRU VG ee UTELCLO Sty foie asain pein aiers oid. chs’ alone wate) efole ein shategein fo ieisieyel-s 268, 277 
Waste, Utilization Dye Distillation, Reviewsn ss tecnesse- teeta rset 407 
Wikitet OW s OLESE Milena acyern cise) siecle) cia are Steielie\e) cleyey ol s\elatokn! eint= QI, 325, 417 
*« supply, influence of forests, Wilmoteneviews cece ceecte te 57 
White Pine, economic thinning article; 6 cc. 5 ./sjc/s\e-.eleisiels cleie sieve eas 308 
“ring growth, article, ............se eee eeeeeeee ee ceees 250 
Wand, influence-on' different SpeCies)) 6.1. edae sels eens ejeinw wicies 216 
Cia Sieiwecie Abibakbtoiles, MON y AnT Adamo SHEme CoM ponc reed caun hots Otc 419 
MMUTTETHOGS (OL PLOLE CHO! yar yeioice sinless sieicterelssiotetereyeteraeiercealteret 217 
uA TEIMIENCE ON LEE STOWE). C)..5 at) Keles a) sleislers alaiel sielaje, Giadetni ste) a/sfasclate 
PUMESEAEC EMER SE ge cictea so ants Salers ay start o eieies oh vere nro mictodetetayaiefatoter © alaieorata a cpatal 87, 201 
WIS COMIN TEPOLty FEVIEW, fats c/c:0 «cele seiaiciere/ ois ore xl ale pi slohtanniera\ = < a aie/e)s Malate We 
\iviwdrts GBizcyoy on! Pd ee oem eomcic cot dic coca cbae tocpebeaolceason: 80 
} Wood Distillation, Harper’s Review, «06: .cccs.ecc.ccecsesecsteces 407 
= EPRCHAM EC LOE) SCs oie ac. e whee oro eet MOURNS ok tol allel ciel ara \0 e/a nintddate 437 
Po aS) | ca ISR eae by 3 BR cde olay bb.clcuae Bre Had pid ort 105 
RAEMIG GE CMEC Ite, TE VACNU se c:. «s,s saa ss ocd oumatamtalel ena 'efess le 0idigy sistas abeldore 190 
A OCC SH rims ait ALCICL.: (. i. .iccuisieterneees im ale ols) aye-a's alale tern nya aie 166, 173 
, Rite le COP PIC mere e aie a ics 01s, © «i n'a. spore nrepateeetetatevore la) daiareloielsseiei vieheietstetels 143 
mreld “Fables, praeiples: 1) CONStLUCtION, caieiaje-i< «0 «mies « 2 = slow ciuiesl atch 229 
A Rs) TNE RRC aa. rs © cjaia, «oo dja AO ease: @ Die) Siaid shale Sie Srvc ae 367 


RANDY Bess TR AMSRRMEMEMN ics cs cic ale cy aia ata Matopdle wis! le) eva wisle was wietmatalae 174 


vi 
,, 


4 
- 


FORESTRY QUARTERLY 


VoL. V] MARCH, 1907 [No. 1 


FOREST MANAGEMENT IN SOUTHERN PINES. 


Opportunities for foresters to secure employment with lumber 
companies in the southern pine region are beginning to develop. 
But as yet the duties required of a man holding such a position in 
the United States are indefinite in character and but slightly un- 
derstood. For this reason, the eighteen months’ experience of 
the writer as forester for a large lumber company, logging Lob- 
lolly Pine and other species at Hell Hole Swamp near Charles- 
ton, S. C. may prove of interest, as illustrating in one case what 
was expected of the forester and how the problems which arose 
were handled. 

On my arrival at Hell Hole Swamp, Mr. C. S$. Chapman, who 
had made a working plan for the tract, was busy instructing a 
tree marker to mark all pines above 14 inch D. B. H. Soon the 
writer was left alone to bear the inquisitive scrutiny of the na- 
tives, who knew only that we were trying to keep out fires, that I 
was the “fireman.” Necessarily the prevention of fires was the 
first work to be undertaken. But how to obtain protection? 
A man who never had this problem to solve probably does not 
see the danger and does not worry, but after some experience 
when he realizes that at any minute Io or 100 acres of the finest 
reproduction may be destroyed, he understands that to keep fire 
out is, in the South, the most vital and troublesome part of a 
forester’s work. To this problem, therefore, I shall devote the 
larger space. 

The freeing of the negroes and the invention of matches are 
the causes underlying the setting of forest fires in this region. 
Before the war when rice culture was booming and the land was 
owned entirely by intelligent rice planters, special stress was laid 
on keeping the woods “rough” (dense). Indeed, the woods were 
kept so “rough” that one could hardly see a deer unless it jumped 


2 Forestry Quarterly 


over a road. The purpose of keeping the woods in this condi- 
tion was to favor the raising of cattle and perhaps on certain 
areas with a view of raising hoop poles. The fact that on the 
same area 25 cows were then raised to one now, and that not 
half as many died in the spring, is not yet realized by the modern 
cattle raiser. 

In contrast to the North where the fire danger lasts only for a 
few months, in the South protection is needed through the whole 
year. In character, the fires are ground or grass fires, except in 
very dry seasons when the swamps dry out and then the humus 
itself may burn, and with it the lateral roots of the pine and 
cypress. After such injury these trees are blown down by the 
first wind; while the red maple which grows in the swamps falls 
down and covers the ground even before any wind blows. 

The effective system of protection finally adopted may be out- 
lined as follows: 

1. A good saddle horse (bought at the forester’s expense!) 
is indispensable to cover ground quickly and become acquainted 
with the ground. Horses raised in the woods which know how 
to travel through swamps and open woods and do not weigh over 
goo pounds are the best. 


2. A detailed knowledge of the whole tract, must then be ob- 
tained, locating all places which need immediate protection, 
noting the distances between certain points, observing every 
road, slough, swamp and little creek, and even the cow and hog 
trails, (for the purpose of back firing). This involved a lot of 
riding, and it took me half a year to become familiar with the 
tract of about 45,000 acres. 


3. The boundary line not being visible, it was made the first 
work to locate it by painting white or red rings on trees along 
the line. This was needed to prevent fighting fires on another 
man’s land, to facilitate patroling service, to note the adjacent 
areas where fires must be stopped, and to know the people living 
around the tract. 

4. An effort was made to establish friendly relations with the 
natives because four-fifths of the fires could be kept out if their 
co-operation was obtained. The fires are set mainly by the cat- 
tle and sheep men, who inherit the bad habit of burning the 
woods during March, and by coon and “fire” hunters. I never 


Forest Management in Southern Pines 3 


threatened to report the hunter found shooting in the closed 
season, but rather instructed him to be careful with the fire pan, 
or even hunted with him and, by example, taught him to be care- 
ful about fires. Many cattlemen tried to make me believe that 
the fires in this country are set by careless people and negroes who 
did not own any cows, but I proved them wrong since most of 
the fires occur at one and the same time of the year (in March), 
whereas, if the fires were set by careless people or those indif- 
ferent to stock interests, they would occur at any time of the year. 
Since these men believe that they cannot do without a burning I 
made agreements to burn every February several acres near their 
houses, a so-called “calf” or “tick” burning, which suited both 
parties. This worked all right and afterwards we were not 
much bothered with fires. 


5. On dangerous days after the dew was gone fire patrolling 
was done by two good men. ‘This patrol was needed about 300 
days a year. These patrol men should live on a road, or near 
places which need special protection. They should be men who 
are respected, or even feared, and who have few enemies. It is 
not necessary that the patrolmen be always strolling around the 
tract, they can do a certain amount of work every day, as e. g. 
the girdling of dogwood or rotten hardwoods (where this is re- 
quired) or the chopping down of myrtle bushes. This latter is 
best done with a sort of a chisel on a handle 5 feet long so that 
the myrtle drops from the stump and remains standing up. If 
it bends or falls over, many pine seedlings are injured. An axe 
cannot be used for this work, as more pine than myrtle would be 
chopped down. Myrtle is a bad weed to contend with, although 
it sheds many leaves which keep the grass growth off and pre- 
vent high flames; but it retards considerably the height growth 
which is needed so badly in order to bring the pines in the short- 
est time to a height where fire protection is not needed. A herd 
of goats is doing good service in keeping down myrtle and other 
bushes. 

6. A handcar on the logging road was found to be a necessity 
to carry the men and tools to work, or quickly to a fire. In ob- 
serving a fire shining on the sky at night, the distance may be 
very deceptive if one has no experience. But by a ride of two 
miles on the car up or down the track, observations may be made 


4 Forestry Quarterly 


of the bearings of the fire from each end of the route, and its 
location can be accurately obtained by intersection, and time can 
be saved in reaching the exact spot. 

7. The tools needed for hoeing fire lines and fighting fires are: 
A good small steel hoe costing 85 cents, and a file with which to 
sharpen the hoe; a good axe, and a double bitted axe, one sharp 
side to chop logs, the other blade for roots; a cross-cut saw with 
hollow back (to prevent bad pinching); a brush hook; a rake 
about 10 inches wide with long prongs. The rake should not be 
too wide or it catches between roots. The handle of the rake 
frequently gets loose when the lower part is burned. To prevent 
this, each rake should be fixed with a wire so that when it gets 
loose the rake will stay on the handle. 

These small items are important, for nothing is so annoying 
when fighting fire as bad tools which may break at a critical mo- 
ment. A dozen or more handles made of light wood should be 
kept on hand. Other wood, as ash or black gum, springs when 
green, and a man when hoeing fire lines the whole day becomes 
tired using such a handle. Avoid big and cheap rice hoes, as 
they bend and do not keep sharp. 

8. Fire lines are effective aids in controlling fires. Aside from 
roads, creeks and swamps, two kinds of fire lines are to be dis- 
tinguished, namely, hoed lines and burned lines. The hoed fire 
lines are the safest and in the end the cheapest. The width used 
was 4 feet, the cost averaged one cent per pace. Straight lines 
in the form of a hollow furrow were marked out with a hoe and 
then hoeing was commenced on both sides. The ground, loos- 
ened by the hoeing, was raked into the grass; and in this way 
the grass close to the line was covered up, really making the line 
wider. This prevents high flames close to the line and keeps 
hogs from rooting back the dirt into the line. It is advisable to 
make the lines perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing 
wind, 

Before staking out a line for the protection of several hun- 
dred acres, one must go thoroughly over the ground, especially 
around the edges, to find out the best place to which to tie on the 
line, as to a swamp, a creek, or a road. Otherwise the fire may 
work around the line. Old railroad tracks and cable roads as a 
rule should be selected as fire lines since there are no tops or other 


Forest Management in Southern Pines 5 


obstacles to clear away, the removal of which often makes the 
construction of lines expensive. 

Lines should be hoed over in September when the grass stops 
growing, and after December first when the leaves have fallen. 
From this time until May, the lines must be kept clean, being fre- 
quently swept with a broom, or raked. Wind and heavy rains 
bring leaves and pine needles into the lines, and when the water 
evaporates the needles mark the water line and give a chance 
for fire to cross the line. Cattle and hogs will travel on the lines, 
which improves them. All dead trees with rotting sap within 100 
paces of the line should be cut or the ground around them raked 
clear, for if they catch fire they may throw sparks across the 
line. 

Fire lines along main lines of railroads should be hoed 100 
paces from the track on both sides and the space between burned 
when the wind blows toward the track. Most fires start close 
to the track from cinders blown from the ash pan on windy days. 
A spark arrester for wood firing engines, made in Indiana, 
proved a total failure when lightwood was burned, because soot 
closed the holes of the wire and stopped the draught. They may 
be applicable where oak and other hardwoods are burned, but 
they cannot be used in the southern pine belt.* 

Burned lines are satisfactory along property lines and in long- 
leaf pine stands. Since here the width of the line does not affect 
the cost much, it can be made fom 10—30 paces wide. Dead 
trees outside the area to be protected must be cut and along 
property lines this may be done on the neighboring tract. 

The important question is how to burn the lines. One man 
with a hoe scrapes a furrow on the side of the line toward which 
the fire will blow. A large bunch of dead grass or needles is then 
gathered and drawn along with a rake on the other side of the 
line and the fire set in this. If the fire burns away from the line 
it is whipped out with the top of a longleaf or loblolly pine sap- 
ling. A sack soaked in water is another good tool to whip out 
fire. Where there is longleaf pine litter, a strip is raked on both 
sides of the line before firing. The best time for burning is 
toward evening or at night. Never burn on bright windy days. 
When the fire runs away from the line more damage than good 


*See description of an efficient spark arrester in this issue, p. 98. 


6 Forestry Quarterly 


is done. ‘To prevent accidental fires, burned lines should be made 
on both sides of much traveled roads to the distance of 5 paces 
from the edge of the road. ‘This is especially needed where many 
negroes pass, as they frequently build little fires on cool mornings. 

The disadvantages of burned lines are that they are good 
only for one season and are dangerous to burn. Moreover, some 
spots will not burn, as for example, through a little slough or 
around ponds, and to prevent fire from crossing in a dry time 
after the water has evaporated these spots must be burned over 
in a separate operation. 

g. Experience has shown that protection on each area should 
not start until the lumbering is completed; but the area to be cut 
during the succeeding year should be burned each winter, other- 
wise it is impossible to prevent fire around the steam skidders. 
If the grass is not burned before the trees are cut, the slash fires 
are very hot and may kill seed trees and other polewood. 
Besides the engines and skidders there are many other dangers 
while lumbering is in progress. First the tie cutter in cooking 
his dinner may leave a fire burning, then comes the right of way 
cutter, and later the sawyer who will surely burn the grass to kill 
the rattlesnakes. For three reasons the grass ought to be burned 
before lumbering: 1. It makes the cutting of the right of way 
cheaper. 2. It reduces the danger of cordwood stacked along 
the track for the engine being burned up. 3. It facilitates the 
marking of seed trees. 

The only work necessary on the cut-over areas is the removal 
of the slash from around the seed trees, chopping into the sap of 
standing dead trees, and finally the burning of all the debris. 
When all this is done and the railroad track has been removed, 
then, and then only fire protection should commence. 

To repeat briefly: First burn the grass before the timber is 
cut, then burn the slash, and finally protect the cutover land. 

On places where the cutover area remained “rough” by acci- 
dent and good reproduction has started, it is hard to secure pro- 
tection on account of the unburned slash. If a fire runs through 
such land, it is very hot and kills everything outright. Such 
burned areas will not recover for 10 years. Grass takes posses- 
sion of the ground and seedlings only start singly and develop in 
bushy form. Yet there are places where it is justifiable to leave 


Forest Management in Southern Pines 7 


cutover areas “rough.” This is true of isolated pine islands 
where the skidder remained only for one set up, usually at the 
end of the track. To secure protection here, a man must watch 
the skidder until the skidding is finished. Such islands sur- 
rounded by swamps have a chance of remaining unburned for 
many years. 

10. For how long a period is protection required? The young 
Loblolly Pine thickets need protection until they are twelve feet 
high. A maximum of about eight years is required for the re- 
production to attain this size. With seed trees present it takes 
from one to three years, according to site quality, for the seed- 
lings to become established and reach the height of one foot. 
Five years more must elapse before a height of twelve feet is 
reached. When the thicket is twelve feet high the first judicious 
burning takes place. The time must be carefully selected and 
the burning should be done against the wind. Select either the 
time just after a rain, when the litter is superficially dry, or a 
cloudy calm day in January or February, or night for the burn- 
ing. Blocks of from ten to thirty acres only should be burned 
over at one time. By this fire very few pines will be thinned out, 
but nine-tenths of the fire danger has passed. Definite results 
will soon be available from permanent sample plots established 
on this tract. 

The time when fire hurts seedlings at least two to three feet 
high is in spring when the new buds are about one inch long. 
At the same time, when hurt in winter the seedlings have no re- 
cuperative power at all. This may be due to the fact that the 
bark when the sap is “up” does not heat as much as in winter 
when the sap is “down.” 

Cost of Protection. For $1,000 a year the area logged by three 
steam skidders can be protected, provided that the fire protection 
commences a year after the lumbering is started and the money 
is spent regularly every year after that time. Do not hesitate to 
spend money on patrolling service, especially during March, for 
while it may cost $300 or more, the results secured justify the ex- 
penditure. 


Notes ON MANAGEMENT. 


The management of Loblolly Pine stands depends on the 
method of lumbering and the admixture of other species. Here 


8 Forestry Quarterly 


the lumbering is done with steam skidders and in cutting the 
trees no wedges are employed. Both practices, and especially the 
skidder cable, when the sap is up and in big timber, are destruc- 
tive to trees of smaller diameters. Small trees of fourteen or 
even sixteen inches D. B. H. are present only in patches or are 
not of the desired species. Another very important factor is the 
slackness of the logging superintendent towards the saw bosses in 
regard to the rules about “cutting marked trees only” and “low 
stumps.”’ 

The presence of Pond Pine as an inferior species in the forest 
also has an influence on the management of Loblolly Pine. Pond 
Pine in number of trees comprises 50 per cent. and in volume 
over thirty per cent. of the Loblolly Pine stands. It is mixed 
singly or in strips and occurs in belts around savannas. When in- 
terspersed singly or in strips, Loblolly Pines are the largest trees, 
hence the ordinary lumbering leaves Pond Pine as unprofitable 
trees to cut, or as seed trees. The result can be seen everywhere 
in South Carolina and Georgia, that Pond Pine forms the second 
crop, or the future stand. When it forms a belt around savan- 
nas it is almost pure, Loblolly Pine being only of scattered oc- 
currence. The reason why Pond Pine takes possession of such 
areas is, aside from the site quality, that it resists better than Lob- 
lolly the heavy grass fires, and moreover it has the capacity to 
sprout; frequently even Pond Pine cross-ties can be seen sprout- 
ing. All these factors made the rigid diameter limit method un- 
successful, and its use out of the question so long as the forester 
is not the logging superintendent. I am afraid this point will not 
be fully appreciated. 


A method involving less work and that to be done by the for- 
ester himself, because each acre needs his judgment, must be de- 
vised. The marking of trees above 14 inches D. B. H. was done 
formerly by one man at a cost of $35.00 per month. This system 
has now been changed to the following scheme: Three men, each 
provided with a pail of whitewash and a brush or pine twig, paint 
a white ring around each seed tree, and put on two white spots 
below stump height to identify the seed trees if they should be 
cut. One day’s work per week is sufficient to keep ahead of three 
steam skidders. I, myself, picked out each seed tree, and trained 
the men to learn to distinguish the Loblolly from the Pond Pine. 


Forest Management in Southern Pines 9 


One strip 100 paces wide can be marked at the same time. As 
seed trees were selected trees 12 inches and over in D. B. H. 
which were not liable to be smashed by big trees leaning towards 
them and were not burned at the butt. The number per acre 
varied from one to three, depending on the size of the seed tree, 
the admixture of Pond Pine, and the relative danger from fire due 
to the nature of the underbrush and the locality. One good- 
sized Loblolly Pine per acre is sufficient to start a good repro- 
duction after the ground has been wounded and ploughed up by 
the skidding of logs. But in case after two or three years a fire 
should kill the young seedlings, then the conditions for germina- 
tion would be only a fraction as favorable as immediately after 
lumbering, and more than one tree per acre would be required. 
In patches such as old rice fields which have grown up since the 
war and which contain much Loblolly of small diameters, no 
marking or cutting was done. In swamps and along their edges 
where Loblolly reproduces best the old trees decrease in number, 
and it would be best not to cut any pine. Just the reverse, how- 
ever, was done, all the pine being cut and the hardwoods left. 
The logs from the tract are towed 50 miles to the mill and the 
hardwoods would sink, hence they are not cut. One large pine 
ought to be left near each set up of the skidder, because, as a 
rule, for two acres around the skidder the ground looks as if it 
had been ploughed. It would be a good plan to collect some 
seeds in October each year and to sow them on such places. 

Experience has taught that our method of tree marking has 
secured excellent reproduction. 

If the diameter limit method is not used how will the sustained 
yield called for in the working plan be secured? The seed trees 
were to be considered as an intermittent yield and the young 
pine seedlings originating from the seed trees as the second crop. 
But the seed trees can not be utilized without doing great dam- 
age to the young second crop and hence must be left standing. 
So the second crop will consist of the second growth and the 
mother trees. There will be nothing to harvest except here and 
there, until the present crop of seedlings is mature. Therefore, 
calculations on second crop can be based only on good silvicul- 
ture, and not on figures. The most successful forester will be 
he who 1s able to raise a thrifty young growth! 


10 Forestry Quarterly 


OPPORTUNITIES FOR PLANTING. 


The open savannas with high grass and open stands of short- 
boled pines where reproduction comes too slowly—and fires are 
frequent—are at present unproductive lands. Planting of Lob- 
lolly Pine is the only way to bring such areas under forest with- 
out a long period of costly protection. Young seedlings could 
be raised in plots on the ground, or better, taken from the woods 
in places where the soil is loose, as under Dogwood. ‘The plant- 
ing should be done on rainy days in strips, 50 paces wide, and 
the strips 100 paces apart, for the present time. I have planted 
one acre with seedlings one foot high. Of course, the grass 
must be burned for several years around the planted strips. 

The savannas grown up with thicket and usually covered with 
almost stagnant water offer another chance for planting. Such 
thickets must be first burned over in a dry time. This would 
temporarily destroy the thick undergrowth. Meanwhile cotton- 
wood cuttings can be planted which will outgrow the thicket 
and ought finally to shade out the bushes, or even to a certain 
extent drain the savannah. Cottonwood already grows scatter- 
ingly in such places. There were 3,000 cuttings ordered for this 
purpose, but at the time of the writer’s departure they had not 
arrived. 

MANAGEMENT OF LONGLEAF PINE. 


The only way to secure and raise Longleaf Pine is to keep 
hogs off the tract. They are ten times worse than fire. In the 
case of this tree judicious burning, for example burning on a 
winter night, would make fire altogether harmless for the young 
seedlings. But the hogs eat nothing but seedlings during the 
winter. They root them out and eat the part just above the root. 
And before another seed year (five year intervals) occurs, the 
last seedling of the previous crop is chewed up. The danger 
done by hogs could be well demonstrated by fencing off a small 
area and comparing reproduction inside and outside of the fence. 


Max ROTHKUGEL.. 


PLANTING ON NEW MEXICO FOREST RESERVES. 


Few states have a greater need for reserve planting and 
intensive utilization of forest products than New Mexico. Areas 
capable of supporting high-class timber growth are confined to 
a few mountain ranges and are small in extent compared with the 
size of the region dependent upon them. Moreover, the Terri- 
tory is remote from the great forest centers and should be made 
as self-supporting as possible. 

Lumber values have risen steadily during the last decade and 
prices for the better grades are already prohibitive to poor people. 
Wood of all sorts, including the poorest of the native species 
used for fuel supply, is in high demand. Careful management 
which will prevent wasteful utilization of the remaining sup- 
plies and maintain the best possible stands of growing timber 
will materially benefit the entire Territory. Such action will be 
of especial benefit to the agriculturists and miners, who form a 
very large percentage of the population. 

Water supply is considered the most important factor in future 
development. Considerable study has been given to this ques- 
tion by the Reclamation Service, various city authorities, and 
those interested in ranching. Increase in population and further 
development of natural resources depend very largely upon bet- 
ter regulation and increase of flow, and in more conservative use 
of the available water. 

All the forest reserves have been well selected to serve their 
purpose. They have been located at the headwaters of many of 
the most important streams and usually where the timber was be- 
ing rapidly removed by short-sighted or unscrupulous operators. 
But the mere creation of the reserve is not sufficient. To main- 
tain the proper balance in the development of the various indus- 
tries it is necessary that the present forest be managed from the 
most conservative standpoint. As far as practical it is essen- 
tial that all understocked forest areas and all forest land lacking 
tree growth should be made more highly productive. 

Reproduction varies in each reserve. The principal influences 
limiting it in the past have been over-grazing and fire. Climatic 
conditions also limit reproduction to a considerable extent over 
the entire Territory. Seed years of most species occur at inter- 


12 Forestry Quarterly 


vals rather than annually and, since unusually severe climatic 
conditions may prevail during these seed years, there may be 
almost an entire lack of reproduction for a considerable period. 
Satisfactory reproduction depends on good seed crops followed 
by favorable climatic conditions. Even during the most favor- 
able years, however, the season of drought, which lasts from the 
time the snow melts in spring until some time in July, or early 
August, limits seedling growth considerably. 

Artificial forestation, then, becomes necessary on a large scale. 
In the most important of the various reserves different objects in 
planting assume various degrees of prominence. These depend 
on the general requirements of people in and about the reserves 
and, to a greater extent, on the prevailing site conditions. 


Gila Forest Reserve. 


A planting station under competent technical supervision has 
already been established on the Gila Forest Reserve. This sta- 
tion is intended primarily to supply seedlings for planting on the 
watershed which supplies Fort Bayard. This particular planting 
area is quite limited in extent and is covered with an open stand 
of pinon, junipers, and scrub oak. The project becomes of more 
than ordinary importance, however, because of the heavy ex- 
pense incurred by the Department of War in establishing and 
maintaining Fort Bayard as a sanitarium for the treatment of 
tuberculosis, for which within recent years the water supply has 
proven inadequate. The Department of War and the Forest 
Service are co-operating to the fullest extent in improving the 
water supply. With the entire exclusion of grazing, and con- 
siderable forest planting it is thought that the water supply will 
be materially increased and made adequate for all demands at 
the Fort. 

The nursery was established in the spring of 1905, and at 
present occupies nine-tenths of an acre. Two hundred thousand 
two-year-old Bull Pine have been transplanted in the nursery and 
field planting will be started during the coming year. The work 
is especially interesting since seedlings of all the species planted 
have made a very satisfactory growth, even on the heavy adobe 
soil. Field planting will be much more difficult on this water- 
shed than on most of the other proposed reserve planting pro- 


Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves 13 


jects, since climatic conditions are more severe and the soil is 
shallow, rocky, and largely a heavy adobe. 

During the past field season detailed examinations were made 
of the Lincoln, Jemez, and Pecos River Forest Reserves. Sev- 
eral large sites on which forest planting is highly advisable were 
selected. All of these projects show considerable variation in 
character and in each of the reserves the need of planting and 
the expected results are entirely distinct and should be treated 
separately. 


Lincoln Forest Reserve. 


The Lincoln Forest Reserve probably illustrates the need of 
reserve planting more fully than any other reserve in the Terri- 
tory. It was created on account of the protective value of the 
forest on stream flow and to conserve the limited timber supply. 
These become of more than usual importance when consideration 
is given to the fact that the reserve and adjoining areas are thickly 
populated. Before the creation of the reserve, surface fires had 
been common and had materially reduced reproduction. Added 
to this was the severe grazing to which the reserve was subjected. 
Naturally there has been a wide diversity in the use of timber by 
the numerous settlers. Portions of the reserve are honey- 
combed with mining claims, all of which show some timber cut- 
ting. In a large number the entire stand has been removed. 
In accessible coves and on favorable slopes some lumbering has 
been done. All classes of settlers used the reserve supply for 
fuel, posts, and construction timbers, and were usually wasteful 
in their methods of exploitation. The creation of a reserve to 
protect small owners and retain an efficient forest cover was pre- 
eminently necessary. 

But the creation and conservative management of the reserve 
are not sufficient to supply all present needs, secure good regu- 
lation of run-off, and provide for the future. The forest* at low 
elevations and on moderately level land, is an open stand of 
Pinon Pine, Alligator, Juniper, One-seeded Juniper, and Gamble 
Oak. Open stands of Bull Pine occur on slopes at moderate eleva- 
tions, while Englemann Spruce occurs in limited dense stands at 


* See “Forest Conditions in the Lincoln Forest Reserve, New Mexico,” 
by F. G. Plummer and M. G. Gowsell, U. S. Geological Survey. 


14 Forestry Quarterly 


high elevations. On che whole it is a forest in which there is a 
remarkably large proportion of low-class material. 

The sanitarium at Fort Stanton requires 1,200 cords of wood 
per year from reserve land. Naturally the large number of 
settlers secure a considerable amount under “free use permit.” 
Already there is a scarcity of the dead and down timber which 
has furnished these supplies. It seems impossible that the pres- 
ent stand of live timber will prove adequate in supplying future 
demands and at the same time retain a sufficient forest cover. 

There is also strong need for an improved water supply. The 
Rio Bonito and Rio Ruidoso watersheds comprise one-third of 
the reserve lands and furnish a large percentage of the water 
available for the Hondo irrigation project. Besides this, the 
numerous ranchers along these stream courses are practically 
dependent upon this water supply for their entire support. 
Analyses of soil from the valley of the Hondo show a greater 
fertility than the famous valley of the Nile, and only a very 
small fractional increase in total water supply will necessarily 
mean a large increase in the productiveness of the region. Ow- 
ing to decreased forest cover, floods have been increasing in 
frequency and severity during the last ten to fifteen years, and 
there is considerable local demand for flood prevention. 

An added need for better water supply and greater timber 
production is caused by the recent influx of settlers who intend 
to practice “dry farming”’ or a system of partial “dry farming.”’* 
Many of these farmers who use intelligence in selection of sites 
will undoubtedly succeed and become permanent settlers. This 
has already caused an increased demand on the timber supply of 
this reserve. Moreover, this system of agriculture depends to 
a large extent on conserving all moisture which results from 
natural sub-irrigation. Since the forest increases the amount 
of water available for such irrigation, the condition of forest 
cover is bound to have considerable influence on the success of 
such farms in and adjoining the reserve. 

There is, then, a stong and diversified demand for forest plant- 
ing on this reserve. The field investigation was carried on with 
three main considerations in view. 1. The improvement of ex- 
isting forest. 2. The enlargement of the forested area. 3. The 


*Modified Campbell system of “dry farming.’ 


Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves 15 


determination methods which will insure success in forest plant- 
ing. 
THe IMPROVEMENT OF ExistTING Forests. 

At least two-thirds of the drainage basin of the Rio Bonito 
and Rio Ruidoso is forested with open, understocked stands. 
Cutting is more permissible on level or moderately level areas 
than on slopes, where there is greater danger of injury to site. 
A large proportion of this woodland is stocked with Juniperus 
pachyphloea and Juniperus monosperma, and natural reproduc- 
tion will have to be depended upon to a considerable extent, 
since artificial propagation of these species is difficult. Pinon, 
Gamble Oak, and suitable introduced species should be planted 
experimentally, however. Site conditions because of a denser 
soil are as a rule less favorable for planting on the level than on 
the slope lands. - 

Slope land comprises an immense area, and is covered with a 
scattering stand of Bull Pine, Scrub Oak, or a mixture of the 
two. Many of these sites have supported dense stands in the 
past and the examination proves that practically all are capable 
of maintaining a better class of forest growth. Close compara- 
tive examination of sites shows that many of the best stands of 
slope timber are growing over areas where the soil and the 
amount of moisture supplied are identical with that of brush 
land or of the sparsely timbered areas. Conditions are so closely 
similar that it is advised that all slopes which are now lacking 
timber growth should be planted in the near future. Bull Pine, 
with a possible understory of Gamble Oak, seems best adapted to 
this site, and will, if planted, accomplish the desired results. 


THe ENLARGEMENT OF THE FoRESTED AREA. 


There are thirty or thirty-five sections of land entirely lacking 
timber growth, with the exception of small areas covered with 
brush and an occasional individual tree, or small groves of coni- 
fers. Most of this land is covered with a stand of broad-leaved 
mountain grasses, though grama grass is found in limited sec- 
tions. This open land, located largely on slopes, is one of the 
direct causes of the frequent floods. The soil on these sites 
varies from the usual adobe two to three feet in depth to a shal- 
low gravel of granitic origin. Similar soil and exposure prevail 


16 Forestry Quarterly 


over large areas of timber land. Furthermore, where there are 
occasional seed trees, as on Loma Grande, iimited natural re- 
production occurs. From these indications it is believed that 
forest planting can be accomplished with satisfactory results. 
The annual precipitation amounts to seventeen to eighteen inches 
at stations lower in elevation than the planting sites. 


Tue PossisLe Success oF Forest PLANTING. 


In all cases it is aimed to start work on sites which are in great 
need of planting and at the same time afford the greatest natural 
advantages. Planting should begin on protected slopes where 
soil and moisture conditions are most favorable, but it should be 
limited in extent until the best methods are determined for car- 
rying on the work extensively. Over most of this area it is 
thought that Bull Pine, Mexican White Pine, Red Fir and 
Gamble Oak will prove the most satisfactory indigenous species. 
Robinia neo-mexicana should be tried on north slopes. It is 
hoped that some introduced species will prove more satisfactory 
than any of the native species and the following have been re- 
commended for trial: Incense Cedar, Sugar Pine, Scotch Pine, 
Austrian Pine, Pinus muricata and Pinus contorta. 


Jemez Forest Reserve. 


This reserve contains the best body of Bull Pine south of 
Idaho. At high elevations there are excellent stands of Engel- 
mann Spruce with slight mixtures of Red Fir and White Fir. 
The reserve is considered of greater importance for timber sup- 
ply than for protection, although its value in this latter respect 
is great. 

The northern portion of the original reserve and a large por- 
tion of the recent Tres Piedras addition have been burned over 
by ancient forest fires. These fires have almost entirely de- 
stroyed the dense coniferous forests which formerly prevailed 
over the entire area. The burned area covers about twenty-two 
sections lying west of the Chama mountains, and also comprises 
nearly two-thirds of the drainage area of the Rio Antonio and 
its tributary the Rio Los Pinos.* Clear cutting for lumbering 


* This river received its name from dense pine forests which grew for- 
merly upon its banks, 


Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves 17 


was carried on over the rest of this drainage basin. The result 
is that out of two hundred thirty sections originally forested only 
fifteen to twenty sections retain a dense stand of conifers. Pos- 
sibly one-fourth to one-third of the drainage basin is covered 
with a second growth forest of Aspen and Scrub Oak which is of 
decided inferior value compared with the previous stand. Aside 
from the small area of coniferous forest and this poor woodland, 
the remaining portion of the watershed is entirely lacking in 
timber growth. 

Grasses and sedges have followed all fires. A species of 
Carex (probably) grows over the mesa land at high elevations, 
and forms in most cases a complete ground cover. Slopes are 
largely characterized by several species of bunch grass but are 
frequently over-grazed and in need of forestation to prevent 
erosion. On most of the burned area there is still considerable 
fallen timber. Judging from this and the uninjured stands on 
this area, as well as on the Tierra Amarilla grant, the original 
stand must have frequently reached 25 M board feet per acre, 
and an average of at least 5 M board feet per acre. The soil 
varies from four to sixteen inches in depth on mesa land, and 
from three to five feet at the bases of slopes. Most of it has an 
adobe base. 


Forest planting is advisable from several standpoints. This 
area once supported the highest type of coniferous forest and 
could do so again, thus furnishing a timber supply which would 
be of great future value to New Mexico and Colorado. Inci- 
dentally the forest growth would materially benefit water supply. 
The watershed adjoins the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad, con- 
tains numerous roads and is easy of access for a mountainous 
country. Natural regeneration in and about the small stands of 
living timber is entirely insufficient. Finally, planting can be 
carried on for several years with little or no interference to the 
present industry of sheep grazing. 

It is recommended that Bull Pine be planted over moderately 
level areas and on south slopes up to an elevation of nine thou- 
sand feet. On north slopes and at high elevations Engelmann 
Spruce, Red Fir, and White Fir are recommended, with prefer- 
ence for the first named species. Very small stands of dense re- 
production occur on both these classes of sites where seed trees 

2 


18 Forestry Quarterly 


have been left, and where the seedlings have been given a fair 
chance for growth. These small stands of reproduction com- 
bined with excellent site conditions show the possibilities of 
forest planting in this region. 


The Pecos River Forest Reserve. 


The work advised on the Pecos River Reserve is much more 
limited in extent. It is confined to city watersheds, and planting 
will undoubtedly prove difficult. Santa Fe Creek, with its head- 
waters in the western portion of the reserve, supplies water to 
Santa Fe; while the Rio Gallinas, with headwaters in the east- 
ern portion of the reserve, serves a like purpose for Las Vegas. 
Most of the planting areas are at high elevations or on areas 
where the soil conditions are unfavorable. In both cities, how- 
ever, there is a strong demand for improved water supply. This 
necessitates planting, even though the possibilities of success are 
not as great on these areas as is the case in the Jemez Reserve 
and on portions of the available sites in the Lincoln Reserve. 


Conclusion. 


Forest planting is essential to the proper development of the 
Territory of New Mexico. The degree of watershed develop- 
ment and suitable supply of forest products will determine to a 
great extent the future prosperity of the region. Present forests 
in most cases are inadequate on account of the limited area and 
a comparatively low productiveness. Forest planting, so planned 
that the forests will be improved and extended presents the only 
means of meeting the increasing demand for forest products and 
also lays the foundation for a proper watershed development. 

Success in forest planting depends upon the solution of purely 
technical problems. Proper methods can not be developed with- 
out extensive experiments, on the ground, with a wide range of 
species. Climatic conditions are such that only the most pains- 
taking work, regardless of method, can give hope of good results. 
Planting at various seasons will be required in order to deter- 
mine the time at which trees may be planted with least injury 
from seasonal drought. Satisfactory plans for the future can 
be made only with such means as a foundation. 

The expense of planting in the near future will be necessarily 
high. A fair demonstration of the relative merits of various 


Planting on New Mexico Forest Reserves 19 


species under different forms of treatment should be the first 

aim. Only when this has been determined will it be essential to 

confine the cost of planting to the lowest amount possible. 
FRANK J. PHILLIPS. 


RAILROAD FOREST PLANTATIONS. 


SomE MisTAKES MADE IN EsTABLISHING THEM. 


For a number of years there has been considerable discussion 
on the part of the railroads about the decreasing supply of cross- 
tie and construction material. In most cases they have taken no 
active steps to provide for a future supply and when measures 
were taken these were usually misdirected, costly and unsatisfac- 
tory. 

Stone, brick, concrete and steel have partially replaced wood 
for many purposes such as bridges, culverts, station houses, cars, 
etc., but notwithstanding this substitution the consumption of 
timber by railroads rapidly increases each year. So far, steel, con- 
crete, or other similar forms of cross-ties, of which many have 
been invented, are not as yet considered by American engineers as 
satisfactory substitutes for the wooden cross-tie most in use. 

It is possible, as many claim, that steel ties are not adapted for 
use in the United States, but in the various tests made in this 
country frequently the prejudices of the parties directly interested 
were not laid aside and the ties given a fair and impartial trial. 
Although the superior officials of the railroad sanctioned the test, 
the subordinates who actually performed the work have usually 
had no faith in the undertaking, and their very attitude was such 
as to insure the failure of the experiment. 

Among the objections offered by railroad engineers against the 
use of steel cross-ties may be mentioned the following: They 
are hard on the rolling stock because the track is so rigid that it 
does not yield to the weight of the passing train as it does when 
wooden ties are used; they do not hold firmly to the ballast; they 
have a tendency to become brittle and break when subject to 
heavy traffic; the track is expensive to keep in repair, and the 
first cost of the ties is now too great to warrant their use. 

For these reasons, real or imaginary, railroad engineers 
strongly favor wooden cross-ties and will continue to do so until 
a marked improvement is made in existing substitutes. 

For a large array of facts that steel ties have elsewhere given 
satisfaction, over 35,000 miles of steel track being in existence, 
see Bulletin 9 Forestry Division. 

The timber resources of the United States upon which the 


Railroad Forest Plantations 21 


railroads must depend for their supply of cross-ties have now be- 
come so depleted that not only has the quality become inferior 
and the price higher, but difficulty is experienced by railroads, in 
non-forested regions, in securing a sufficient number of cross- 
ties for their needs. Necessity, therefore, has forced the railroads 
to give thought to the source of their future supply, and for this 
reason they have become interested in practical forestry. 

About thirty years ago, as a result of a propaganda work con- 
ducted by ardent enthusiasts of forestry, some interest was 
aroused among railroads. The conservative management of 
woodlands was unknown and advocates of forestry urged the 
people to plant trees to replace the forests which were being reck- 
lessly exploited by lumbermen. 


The first efforts, in fact all efforts up to the present time, have 
been devoted, therefore, to establishing forest plantations because 
this was the measure advocated at first by those interested in the 
subject of forestry. This idea has been a hard one to overcome, 
and it is only during the past year that a prominent railroad, for 
the first time in the history of forestry in the United States, has 
determined to acquire and manage forest lands for the produc- 
tion of cross-ties. 


Many mistakes were made in establishing a growth not only in 
early plantations but in the more recent ones, because the rail- 
roads were ill-advised as to the relative merits of the various 
tree species suitable for producing cross-ties, the methods of cul- 
tivation demanded by the different soils in the various parts of 
the country and the care required by the plantations in order to 
insure success. 


The interest of the individual railroads has, with a few excep- 
tions, been enlisted through the personal efforts of enthusiastic 
but non-technical men who have placed before railroad men, busy 
with the conduct of a road, a scheme which was neither adapted 
to their needs nor practical. In other business matters men who 
conduct the affairs of railroads have shown business ability, but 
in matters pertaining to forestry they usually have shown poor 
business judgment and have engaged in forest work under impos- 
sible conditions, because they have allowed themselves to be in- 
fluenced by men who do not come to them as properly accredited 
foresters. Quick results are desired, and the man who comes be- 


22 Forestry Quarterly 


fore them with a proposition to plant trees which in 15 years will 
produce several cross-ties and fence posts per tree can secure 
their attention and enlist their interest far more easily and quickly 
than a named forester who tells them that such results can be se- 
cured only after a longer period has elapsed. Time and dearly 
bought experience have proved to some of the railroads that sat- 
isfactory results cannot be secured from the plantations in a few 
years. 

The importance of the selection of proper species for planting 
has not been given due consideration. Trees should be selected 
which will furnish a tie of considerable hardness, and the tree 
from which the cross-tie is cut should be of comparatively rapid 
growth, and be capable of renewing itself readily after cutting in 
order that a new crop may be quickly and cheaply secured. 

With the heavy motive power and rolling stock and the high 
speed now attained, cross-ties are subjected to considerable wear 
under the rail. This may be overcome in softer woods to a con- 
siderable extent, by the use of suitable tie plates, but on curves 
and other places where the strain is greatest a soft tie cannot be 
used with safety. 

Rapidity of growth and ease of reproduction while impor- 
tant factors should not be given too much weight over hardness ; 
such species as the Ailanthus, Paulownia and others possess 
these qualities, but are totally unfit for use as cross-ties, the 
wood being too soft. In general it may be said that satisfactory 
cross-ties cannot be produced in the United States in less than 
thirty or forty years. 

Durability in contact with the ground is not so important as 
the factors above mentioned because this quality may be secured 
at a comparatively low cost by means of chemical preservatives. 

Many tree species in the various parts of the United States 
are adapted, to a certain degree at least, for the production of 
cross-ties. Notwithstanding this, in making the majority of 
railroad plantations, only two species have been used, and for 
various reasons they are among the least desirable of the species 
eligible for this purpose. 

These two species are Catalpa and Black Locust and the 
reasons for their selection are not difficult to discover. The 
selection of the first species may be attributed largely to the 


Railroad Forest Plantations 23 


wide advertising the tree has received at the hands of ardent 
admirers who had and apparently still have, unbounded faith 
in the possibilities of the tree. Unfortunately they were able 
to convince certain railroad officials that Catalpa cross-ties 
possessed all the good qualities which cross-ties should possess, 
and none of the faults; and that in a period of fifteen years, 
each tree planted would produce five cross-ties and other valu- 
able material. 

Under favorable soil and climatic conditions, Catalpa, when 
properly cultivated, makes a rapid growth, but so far has never 
produced the cross-ties within the period named. Catalpa has 
been planted for many years, on a great variety of soils and on 
a wide range of territory, and although many plantations have 
reached an age of 25 years or more, so far as known, the trees 
in none of the plantations have reached a size suitable for cross- 
ties. The tree is well adapted for pole and fence post pro- 
duction in a short rotation. In regions where fence posts are 
high in price, farmers may profitably devote a very small portion 
of the richer soil of their farm to such purposes, but past ex- 
perience has well demonstrated, that on the class of soils usually 
devoted to forest growth, Catalpa cannot be grown, advan- 
tageously, for cross-ties. 

This tree requires a rich, fresh, well drained soil, and since 
such soils are well adapted for agricultural purposes, railroads 
will find that they cannot afford to hold such lands for forest pur- 
poses, when cheaper lands can be secured. The poor soils may 
not produce timber in the same length of time, nor in as large 
quantities as the rich soils, but the cheapened cost of production 
when the inferior soils are used, far more than offsets the time 
and extra yield gained by the use of agricultural lands. 

A number of the large Catalpa plantations made by railroads 
have failed of their purpose, because the silvical characteristics 
of the tree and their relation to the physical character of the 
soil were not understood. 

The plantation of the Illinois Central Railroad at DuQuoin, 
Illinois, offers a good example of this. The plantation was es- 
tablished some years ago on a fine, poorly drained silt soil. A 
portion of this site was covered with Pin Oak (Quercus palus- 
tris), Post Oak (Q. minor), Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styra- 


24. Forestry Quarterly 


ciflua) and other trees capable of enduring the existing soil con- 
ditions. Land in the vicinity is poorly adapted for agricultural 
purposes and only small crops reward the diligent efforts of the 
farmer. 

The site is totally unfit for Catalpa because of the excessive 
soil moisture, and the trees have made a very poor growth. 
The trees in this plantation, the latter about 200 acres in extent, 
were planted at a large expense and will never reach cross-tie 
size, the only yield which can be secured will be a comparatively 
small number of posts. 

Ignorance of the silvical characteristics of the tree has also 
been displayed in Eastern Virginia, where the Norfolk and West- 
ern Railroad owns several thousand acres at Ivor along its right 
of way. These lands were acquired for fuel purposes many years 
ago when wood-burning locomotives were in use on the railroad. 
Although good cross-ties can now be secured by this railroad 
at a reasonable price, the officials, because somewhat interested 
in the production of cross-ties and having heard much of the 
rapid growth of Catalpa, determined to establish small experi- 
ment plantations. The land is largely covered with an excellent 
growth of Loblolly Pine (P. taeda), a tree extensively used for 
cross-ties in Texas and other Southern States, but not yet in 
demand for this purpose in Virginia. The permanent water 
table is only 18 to 24 inches below the surface, making the site 
an unfavorable one for Catalpa. 

With considerable labor 16 acres of land were cleared of the 
pine and the few Sweet Gum and Water Oak which stood upon 
them, and Catalpa trees were planted, at a large cost. The plan- 
tation was visited by the writer during the summer of 1905, a 
few months after the trees had been planted, and the foliage 
of the majority of the trees looked yellow and sick. 

Had the railroad been properly advised, they would have un- 
derstood that the conditions were distinctly unfavorable for 
Catalpa, and that Loblolly Pine could be grown on the land at 
a greater profit than any other tree. In fact this pine will rapidly 
re-seed the area and crowd out the Catalpa unless steps are 
taken to prevent the encroachment of the surrounding forest. 


A further instance may be cited of the plantation made by the 
Illinois Central Railroad at Harahan, Louisiana. ‘The soil con- 


Railroad Forest Plantations 25 


sists of a rich alluvial deposit and was formerly employed for 
agricultural purposes. Louisiana is outside the natural range 
of Catalpa, and the tree when planted in this region, where the 
growing season is long, and the soil very rich, made such rapid 
growth that the wood was so weak and “‘cheesy”’ that it was un- 
able to support the heavy foliage of the tree. Winds have broken 
the weak stems and many trees in the plantation have become 
mere broken poles. On less fertile soil the tree might have 
grown successfully but under existing conditions the plantation 
is not a success, 

Various other instances where extremely poor judgment has 
been exhibited might be mentioned, and in nearly all cases the 
significant fact is evident that the physical character of the soil 
has been disregarded in the selection of sites for Catalpa plan- 
tations. 

It is scarcely credible that a body of men usually conserva- 
tive in business affairs should be ready and willing to expend, 
freely, large sums of money upon projects about which they are 
not properly informed. A study and analysis of the propositions 
placed before them, or consultation of any trained forester would 
have saved them from needless expense and costly mistakes 
because any one acquainted with tree growth and especially 
with the Catalpa could have informed them that the latter can 
not be grown profitably on all classes of soil and over a very 
wide range of climatic conditions. Some railroads have dis- 
covered the mistakes they have made and now appreciate that 
the large profits and quick returns promised from Catalpa plan- 
tations partake too much of the nature of our present “get rich 
quick” schemes to place much reliance upon them. 

The only extensive plantations of Black Locust made by rail- 
roads have been established in the State of Pennsylvania by 
the Pennsylvania Railroad. This railroad owns numerous tracts 
of land along its right of way which have been acquired during 
improvement of the roadbed or for the purpose of controlling 
some watershed from which water for the motive power and 
for the shops are secured. 


Many of the former tracts consist of portions of farms which 
at one time were used for agricultural purposes and under 


26 Forestry Quarterly 


ordinary conditions would be more valuable for that purpose 
than for forestry. 

The railroad frequently secured more lands than were needed 
for the purpose of improvement, because usually a whole farm 
could be purchased for a sum but little in excess of the cost 
of damages which the Company would be forced to pay for a 
portion of the farm. In some cases also it was found advisable 
to acquire lands in order to do away with objectionable rights. 
The policy of the railroad has been to refrain from leasing 
or selling these lands, and since the railroad itself carries on no 
agricultural operations, the lands remained unproductive until 
a few years ago when the subject of planting these lands to 
trees capable of producing material for cross-ties was taken 
under consideration. 

In selecting a species for planting several important factors 
were overlooked, one of which is of sufficient importance to 
render the work already done of questionable value. The rail- 
road had sufficient foresight to select an indigenous species, 
but the choice of Black Locust in preference to other native 
species shows that the selection was not made after a careful 
study of the merits of all the tree species eligible for the desired 
purpose. Black Locust is a hard wood, durable in contact with 
the soil, but in tracks which are not well drained and ballasted, 
difficulty is experienced in removing and respiking seasoned ties 
when the track has been disarranged by the heaving action of 
frost. However, ties made from this wood are very satisfac- 
tory, when they can be secured and, if available in sufficient 
quantities improved methods of spiking would be devised. 
Although the tree is a rapid grower and thrives on a variety 
of soils, it is so subject to the attack of an insect (Cyllene ro- 
bineae) that trees seldom reach a sufficiently large size to make 
cross-ties. Trees which do reach this size are usually so 
weakened by numerous cavities made by the borings of the 
insects that the wood cannot be used with safety. 

Due to ignorance the railroad believed that it was planting 
“Yellow” Locust and not “Black” Locust. It was claimed that 
the former was not only a different species but the wood was 
superior and more free from the attacks of the locust borer. 
There may be some difference in the character of the wood 


Railroad Forest Plantations 27 


of Black Locust when grown on different sites, but it is a well 
known fact that the Yellow Locust and Black Locust are not 
distinct species, and it is questionable if the wood from any one 
tree is more free from insect attacks than that from any other. 
Throughout the State of Pennsylvania the locust borer occurs 
in greater or less numbers wherever the Black Locust tree grows 
and although the trees are attacked to a greater extent in some 
regions than in others, there does not appear to be any reason 
for the belief held by some that the condition of partial im- 
munity is permanent. 

Many instances were seen in Pennsylvania where the natural 
growth of Black Locust from three to four inches in diameter 
were badly attacked by locust borers, and already the insects 
have appeared in the earlier plantations which have reached 
this size. The indications are that as rapidly as the planted 
trees reach this size, they will become infested, and although it is 
quite certain that some trees will reach a size sufficiently large 
for cross ties, yet it is equally certain that the yield of ties 
secured from these plantations will be insignificant in compari- 
son to the yield which might have been secured by the exercise of 
the same amount of time, energy and money, had more suitable 
species been used. 

Entomologists have not discovered any practical method of 
combating this insect, and until a suitable scheme is devised, 
it is unwise for any person OT corporation to expend large sums 
of money in planting this tree, for the failure of the enterprise 
can be foretold in advance. 

The region in which the plantations are located is adapted to 
the growth of Chestnut, Red Oak and many other trees, and on 
soil suited for their growth it is a better policy to encourage the 
formation of forests of the first two species, either by natural 
or artificial means, because they are reasonably free from the 
danger of destruction from insect or other pests, and returns 
from them can be calculated with considerable accuracy. 

Chestnut and Red Oak are slower growers and produce a 
softer and less durable wood than Black Locust, but under or- 
dinary conditions cross-ties can be secured in thirty-five to forty 
years. The softness can be overcome by the use of proper tie 


28 Forestry Quarterly 


plates, and durability can be readily secured by treating the wood 
with chemical preservatives. 

Dissatisfied with the results secured, the Pennsylvania Rail- 
road in 1906 requested the co-operation and assistance of the 
Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture 
in the examination of its holdings and in outlining a forest policy 
to be followed in the future. 

The report submitted recommended that the planting of Black 
Locust be discontinued at once. Tentative plans for the im- 
provement and management of the existing properties were out- 
lined and suggestions made regarding the purchase of additional 
lands in regions where trees suitable for cross-ties could be 
raised within a reasonable period of time and at a low cost. 

The result of the investigation was so favorable that the rail- 
road has employed a professional forester to look after the 
forest interests of the railroad, and put into force a policy which 
will provide for the production of a large proportion of the 
cross-ties required by the railroad twenty to thirty years hence. 

This appointment marks the beginning, in this country, of 
practical forestry by railroads, and it is hoped that other rail- 
roads will undertake soon the management of forests for the 
production of the wood supplies needed by them. 

The experimental era of forestry is past, and there is no reason 
why railroads should expend large sums of money in forest work 
from which no results can be secured. Technical advice on 
forest subjects can be readily secured, and if railroads will exer- 
cise the same business ability in dealing with forest matters 
that they do in handling their other affairs, there will be no seri- 
ous mistakes made like those which have occurred in the past. 


R. C. Bryan’. 


NEW METHOD OF MEASURING VOLUMES OF 
CONIFERS. 


Unquestionably the most important development in mensura- 
tion in later years is the substitution of the “form quotient,”’—as 
elaborated (after Schuberg’s proposition) by Schiffel—for the 
form factor. We refer the reader who wishes to familiarize him- 
self with the development of this most useful aid in measuring 
tree volumes to the articles by Dr. Clark in Vol. I, pp. 6-11, 
56-61 of the QUARTERLY, and to the briefs in the same volume p. 
154, and in Vol. II, pp. 186, 261-265. See also a brief descrip- 
tion of the method in Graves’s Mensuration p. 188. 

As a result of further investigations Schiffel reports* from the 
Austrian Experiment Station the important discovery that “all 
conifers (the European fir, spruce, pine, larch) can be approxi- 
mately but sufficiently accurately cubed upon the basis of one and 
the same form quotient table.” 

Larch is characterized by rapid taper, fir by cylindrical form, 
spruce by standing between larch and fir, pine by having the 
upper half of the bole cylindrical. Nevertheless practically the 
form of boles shows similar relations, and the most important 
factors which influence form, site and density, react similarly in 
all. 

Hitherto two methods of volume and value determination of 
stands have been practiced, namely the one based on direct fell- 
ing of sample trees, a circumstantial and expensive method, or 
the one based on volume tables 17. e. tables constructed from 
series of previous measurements of sample trees. The applica- 
bility of such volume tables, based on diameter b. h., height and 
form factor, if they exist at all (with us yet few are in exist- 
ence), is circumscribed by the great variation of sites and cor- 
responding forms, they are not very reliable, so that even the 
carefully constructed and classified (according to species, site and 
age class) German volume tables give results with errors up to 
15 per cent. As Prof. Clark has pointed out, in our forests, the 
result of natural forces without silvicultural care, such great 
variations in age classes occur that errors must still be greater. 


* Ueber die Kubirung und Sortierung stehender Nadelholzschafte. Cen- 
tralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, December, 1906, pp. 493-505. 


30 Forestry Quarterly 


Hence, to design a more accurate and at the same time less ex- 
pensive method, independent of volume tables, 7. e. applicable 
directly in each individual case has been Schiffel’s endeavor. 
His method, moreover, allows also much more readily than the 
usual volume tables a differentiation into grades or sizes of the 
log material. 

His method is based upon the practical ability of measuring 
diameters at different heights of the standing tree, say at one- 
quarter, one-half, three-quarters of its height (d4, d4, d?), and 
upon the theoretical consideration that these diameters have a 
constant relation to the breast-high diameter (D), this relation 
expressing more or less closely the form. If all four diameters 


: f SOR: 4 ; 
are used, this relation, the form quotient 3)= q, describes, of 


course, the form more closely, but it has been found that the re- 
lation of the median diameter d}, which for the sake of simplicity 
we will designate with d, diminished by a corrective coefficient 
or constant c, determined for each species, furnishes sufficiently 


2 
accurate results, so that the volume, Y =) hX (q—); 


the expression q—c, therefore, is equal to f (form factor). 
The corrective c has been found for Scotch Pine as .2, for Nor- 
way Spruce .21, for our Balsam (by Clark), and for several other 
conifers not far from .21, and now Schiffel has constructed 
formulas and tables applicable for all conifers. 


The practical difficulty of measuring the median diameter is 
according to Schiffel satisfactorily overcome by modern dendro- 
meters. (See footnote.) But in order to obviate the necessity of 
measuring the diameter in each case he develops a method and 
tables which require merely a classification of stands into form 
classes according to site, species, crown length, height and diam- 
eter, when by finding in the classification table the corrsponding 
form quotient, the volume data can be read from the form quo- 
tient table. 

After pointing out, that form and volume are closely related; 


* See Centralblatt, etc., 1808; see also description of Burton’s “Bilt- 
more Pachymeter” in vol. IV, p. 8 of the QuARTERLY. 


New Method of Measuring Conifers 31 


that accurate formulas for measuring of natural forms are im- 
practicable, hence that we must form groups and find character- 
istic relations of dimensions; that the more comprehensive the 
groups the less accurate the results; the author develops his 
formula which is to substitute the form quotient (q) for the form 
factor (f), namely, 
c 
feo ed oy te 
gh 
a, b, c being coefficients which differ with different species; but 
a practical average value of these coefficients for all conifers over 
20 feet in height has been established by numerous investigations 
which permit the definite change of the formula into 
32 
f= .14 + 6677+ — (1); 
qh 
and from this, when a and ad are the areas corresponding to 
the diameters D and d, at breast high and median— 


V =h (.14 a+ .66a3 + om) (2) 


The last member of this formula can be neglected with low 
heights; with heights over 60 feet its value lies bteween .032 
and .o1; assuming the average of .02, the formulas change into 
the approximate formulas 

f = .16 + .66q* (3), 
and V = hh (.16a + .66a4). (4) 

In words, the volume of a run of coniferous trees is a func- 
tion of average height and the areas at breasthigh and at half the 
height. 

A table shows comparisons of results according to this formula 
and according to actual sectioning. The largest error in single 
stems with the approximation formulas was 10%. In regular 
stands on any site, no matter how grown, the average error in 
using equation (2) if at least three sample trees are used, will 
not exceed 4%. 

The measurement of the median diameter, therefore, produces 
a considerable increase in accuracy of volume determination 
above the usual volume table method. 


32 Forestry Quarterly 


For practical objects of differentiating log classes, the author 
has developed the relation of the form quotient at one-quarter 
and three-quarter of the height ( q, and q,) to the form quotient 
at one-half the height (q) namely, 


q, = -46 + .469q? + *) (5) 
gh 


-20 
a= 14 + 66g — =) (6) 
gh 


and, since dj = Dq 3 d3 =Dq , » the two diameters are readily 
calculated. 

Applying for the last correcting members of the two equa- 
tions the experimentally determined averages, we secure the ap- 
proximation formulas for use with trees over 60 feet in height: 

q,= -485 + .46q? (7) 
q,— -13 + 669? (8) 

The degree of error in these formulas moves within the same 

limits for single trees as stated for the above formulas 1 to 4. 


The comparative table, demonstrates the general applicability 
of the formulas, and brings proof that in spite of the many forms 
which species, site and density produce, it is possible with suffi- 
cient accuracy to determine in all cases form and volume by 
measuring two diameters and height. 


No need of pointing out that form quotients and form factors 
do not correspond; with increasing height the form factors de- 
crease while the form-quotient remains the same. But the form 
quotients determined from the relation of diameters at three- 
quarter and one-quarter height, or at half and one-quarter, or at 
three-quarter and half height, remain approximately alike, so 
that for conifers probably quite generally these form quotients 
are form factors independent of the heights. 


A form quotient table based upon the foregoing formulas (see 
sample on p. 36), giving for different heights under the 
median form quotient the corresponding form quotient at one- 
quarter and three-quarter heights, the form factor and a calcu- 
lated breast high diameter, permits reading off the necessary data 


New Method of Measuring Conifers 33 


for calculating the volume, if the median diameter has been 
measured. 

If this, according to the author, easy measurement is to be 
avoided, and only one diameter (D) and h are to be measured, it 
is possible to find an expression for g as a function of hk and D 
(which is, however, only very roughly approximate and appli- 
cable only for large averages) by the consideration that, as is 
well known, on a large average of all sites and densities with 
equal heights and decreasing diameter the form factor dimin- 
ishes. 

Such a relation between height, diameter and form quotient 
was found in the following formula when D is expressed in 
centimeters : 


h—t h—t 
q= .385 + .345 a ar 0326 ( a ) (9) 
from which follows— 
h—I 
a (10). 


V36.7q + 16.27 — 5.3 

It is this average D thus calculated which figures in the form- 
quotient table. It would, therefore, be possible to use this table 
with measurement of height and one diameter, but this the au- 
thor does not feel warranted in recommending, except for rough 
approximations of the form-quotient. This diameter is, how- 
ever, to assist in classifying trees into form classes. To arrive at 
this classification it is taken into consideration that form is in 
general a function of density and site, which influences height, 
and the character of the crown, length, density and form also aid 
in the classification. 

Between the tree of the open with long, dense, regular crown 
and the slender, small-crowned whip in the dense stand as ex- 
tremes, the variations range themselves. The author recognizes, 
without reference to species, five form classes: I, very tapering; 
II, tapering; III, medium; IV, plump (Vollholzig); V, very 
plump. A form-class table (see sample on p. 36) then per- 
mits the determination of the form quotient of the class, and 
with this the use of the form quotient table without having meas- 
ured the median diameter. 


3 


34 Forestry Quarterly 


In estimating the form class, the habit of the species, height, 
diameter, site class and crown development must be considered. 
The following hints for classification are given by the author: 

For larch and pine, classes I to IV are usually sufficient and the 
average quotient for larch may be found as .65, for pine .66, 
while spruce is rarely found in class I, except when grown in the 
open, its average form quotient being .68, for fir, the plumpest, 
.70. Trees grown in close cover fall usually within the three 
middle classes. All stouter trees have a lower, all slender trees 
a higher form quotient, the dominant trees being the most taper- 
ing. Small crowns, except in entirely suppressed, or diseased 
trees are a sign of plumpness (cylindrical). The length of the 
crown, however, differs according to species (lightneeding and 
tolerant) and hence the species must be considered in applying 
this criterion. So does the site and height influence form differ- 
ently with different species. With the same species, same height 
and same site, the poorer site (slower height growth) has the 
plumper boles. On good sites, the codominant and laggards are 
the less tapering. 

In estimating, the procedure which the author proposes is first 
by judgment according to species, site and density to estimate the 
form class of the stand as a whole. Then, on the basis of height, 
crown character and diameter of the average tree, estimate its 
form quotient within this form-class, which would be applicable 
to the stand; then estimate what form quotients correspond to 
the several diameter classes, keeping in mind that in normal 
stands the difference between the lowest and highest diameter 
class will not exceed .10, so that if the average tree had been esti- 
mated to have a form quotient of .66, the lowest form-class might 
be estimated at .70, the stoutest at .62. 


This “form-class method” the author considers an improve- 
ment on the usual volume table method because it takes into con- 
sideration the individual character of the stand and in addition 
permits the differentiation into log sizes by means of the calcu- 
lated diameters at quarter and three-quarter height. 

We can afford here only to call attention to this important ad- 
vance in mensuration and to give a sample of the two tables, 
which are naturally in the metric system, in order to show their 
arrangement. 


New Method of Measuring Conifers 35 


It certainly would be worth while for those in this country who 
have to measure stands to investigate more closely the applica- 
bility of the method and of the figures furnished by Schiffel, and 
develop its practical application. 


B. E. Fernow. 


[See Tables on following page.] 


36 Forestry Quarterly 


FORM CLASS TABLE. 
q x Ioo: 54| 58 62| 66) 70| 76| 80 
Form Class:| I | II | III i IV | Vv 


eee ___ Diameters b b h. centimeter 
Io L2|05E 8.3 
20 35 30) 259 22 I9) 17 
24 53| 43} 36) 31] 274 23) 21 
30 | 67| 541 45] 391 34) 29] 27 
36 81) 651 54! 471 418 35| 32 


40 go} 72) 61| 52§ 46] 39] 36 


FORM QUOTIENT AND FORM FACTOR TABLE. 


Height (2. GO.) Sige dy a 2.3 er 
m qilqs| £{| D Gi | qs f| D qi qs| f | 
cm cm 
to §=—_: |861397|476] _12.1)872/415|492| 11.3)882/435|509 
15  |840/407/459| 18.8/852|426476| 17.6/863/444/493 
20 |830/412/451| 25.5/842/430|469| 23.91854|449|486 
25  |824/415|446| 32.3/837/433/464| 30.2/848/452/481 
30 — |820/41 7/443) 39 |833/436/461| 36.5/844)454\478 
35 |817/418)441) 35.7/830/437/458) 42.8)841|455|466 


40 |815/418)439| 52.4)/828|438/457| 49 |839|456/474 


TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FINANCIAL INCRE- 
MENT PER CENT. OF TREES BASED ON THEIR 
MARKET VALUES. 


This table was worked out by Erling Overland, Forest Esti- 
mator in the Norwegian Government service, with whose permis- 
sion it is here republished. 

The object of the table is to find the rate of interest which the 
growth of standing trees is earning, based on the market value of 
their contents. The table, in the form in which it is printed, is of 
universal application. 

The price increment per cent. can be obtained from it for any 
species, Or any variation in market values, provided the growth 
is measured in the English or Norwegian inch. The latter, on 
which the table is based, is about .03 larger than the English 
unit,—a difference not large enough to affect the validity of the 
table. 

Before the table can be applied, the necessary data must be ob- 
tained, namely, the contents of trees of each inch class which 
may be taken from a volume table and the net values for each 
inch class. This value may be obtained either directly by em- 
ploying market values of stumpage or, if preferred, from a cal- 
culation of the value of the marketed product minus the cost of 
the marketing. 

The proportion existing between the values for trees of each 
inch class and that of the next lower is then found by dividing 
the former by the latter. This proportion gives the basis for the 
application of the table. In column F are given proportions from 
1.1 to 4.0. If trees of 15-inch diameter are worth 1.6 times as 
much as trees of 14-inch diameter, their rate of price increment 
per cent. will be found opposite the figure 1.6 in column F, and 
it will, of course, depend on the rapidity of growth, as shown 
by the number of rings in the last one-half inch of the radius: the 
greater the number of these, the lower the rate. If for instance 
12 rings are found on the last one-half inch of the radius, which 
would be equivalent to 1 inch in diameter in 12 years, the per 
cent. will be found to be 4, for the given prices. 

Having obtained the needed proportions by dividing the value 
of each inch class by that of the next smaller, the diameter classes 


38 Forestry Quarterly 


represented by each proportion obtained, are entered in the blank 
column headed “Dimensions,” and the table is complete. 

For example, the contents in board feet and the net values may 
be based on a stumpage value of $10.00 per M board feet. 


8 trees contain 30 board feet. Net value $0 30 


“ec “ec ce “cc ce “cc 


9 47 47 
Io “ce “ec 65 “ce “ce “ec cc 65 
ce ce “ce ce “ec “ce 88 

II go 
12 e ce TIO cé “ce ce “cc I Io 
13 “ce it 140 “cc “cc “ce “cc I 40 
14 “ce “ce 180 “ec “cc “ ce I 80 
15 ce ce 220 ce “e ce “a 2 20 


Then F, or the proportion between the inch classes is found: 


Net value of 15” tree: Net value of 14” tree or 2.20: 1.80=1.2 
“ce “c 


“e ce “e 14” “ec ee ree “ce “e 1.80: 1.40=1.3 
ce “ce “ce 12) ‘é “ee 6é iss 12” “ce “ec 1.40: DiG— he 
“ce ee ce T2” ce ce &é “ec Teles ce “ec I.10: 881.3: 


Tie, “ce “cc ce ce 10” ‘é ce 88: 6524 


10 OF Obs aya 
“ce “ec “ee oi ee “ce “ec “e Su ce ce Eby fs .30=16 
Fill in under Dimensions: 
£4 sto WS. opposite 1.2 
Hi tO.42 212. dOULs 109 stay 6 eS 
g” to 10”, 10” to 11”, ) aie 
Bon, 4 ane 


and so forth. 

Next find the number of years required to grow 4 inch in ra- 
dius (I inch in diameter) for each diameter class. This is most 
easily done by means of an increment borer, but a knife or axe 
may sometimes do. 

When 4 per cent. interest is desired, it can be at once seen how 
rapidly the trees of each class must be growing in order to earn 
this rate of interest on the investment, and whether it is more 
profitable to cut or leave them. In other words, we can deter- 
mine the financial ripeness of the stand. 

If 4 per cent. interest is desired and the above example is used, 
then: 


Determining Financial Increment 39 


8” trees should be cut when they require 12 years to grow to 9g” 


9” ‘ec e “ce “cc “e se 9 “ec “ce “ec Io” 
TO” ae ce oe “ce “e “ce 9 “e se “ce Tene’ 
a bad “ce ‘ “ee ae “ce ‘ 4 “ce “ee “cc To! 
to" oe “ce “ce ae ce ee 4 “cc “ce “ce 13" 
Bas se oe “ “ec “ec “e 7 “e “ce “ec 14" 
14” oe “ce “ec ae “cc ae 5 “ “ec “ Te” 


smaller diameters will be found to grow more slowly than the 

In even-aged stands which are to be practically clear cut, the 
larger. At the same time, the larger trees, to earn the same rate 
of interest, must grow more rapidly than the smaller. So it will 
probably be found by the application of such a table, that the per 
cent. of increase in value for the whole stand can be determined 
from a very few measurements. 

The table is of equal value in uneven-aged stands, as in even- 
aged, since the rate of increase of each diameter class is deter- 
mined separately. In fact there are probably few conditions in 
America to which it cannot be successfully applied as a guide to 
determine the advisability of holding standing timber and as a 
rough indication of the most profitable rotation. 

Nizs B. Ecxzo. 


Forestry Quarterly 


40 


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*I9MOT 7X9 OY} PUB SSBID YOUT M10 Jo on[wA Jou UIaMjoq BOT}IOdOIg—7 


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NOTES ON BALSAM FIR. 


The following study was made in the north central part of 
Maine on Frenchtown, an unorganized township lying on the 
Moosehead Lake watershed. It is roughly 7 miles east of 
the Lake on a direct line from Lily Bay, which is 12 miles north 
of Greenville Junction, the terminus of a branch line of the 
Bangor and Aroostook Railroad. Attention was confined to the 
determination of a single main point, namely, to what extent 
the fir is replacing the spruce on different types after different 
methods of cutting, with the view of ascertainng the best practi- 
cal methods of handling the land so as to maintain the propor- 
tion of spruce wherever possible, and to get the best results 
from the fir. To properly determine this point it was necessary 
to make as careful observations as possible on the tolerance 
of the fir, power of recovery after suppression, its resistance 
to windfall, its soundness at different ages and under different 
conditions, and its rapidity of growth as compared with the 
spruce. 

Tolerance. Notes taken under various conditions of situa- 
tion and growth tend to show that in this region fir is less 
tolerant than spruce. The facts pointing to this conclusion are: 

1.—In dense stands there is less young fir than spruce, and 
in such stands spruce continually shows better thrift than fir. 

2.—In close stands fir prunes itself better than spruce. 

Several instances were found of increased growth in height 
and diameter after a period of 80 to 88 years’ suppression but it is 
doubtful if these trees would grow to a merchantable size. 

The age limit after which good recovery is obtained after 
suppression, was indicated to be approximately 50 to 60 years. 

Windfall. In situations which are even slightly exposed 
in this locality, fir is particularly subject to windfall after it 
reaches a diameter breast high of 15 inches. Unlike the wind- 
thrown spruce which is nearly always uprooted, the fir with 
few exceptions is broken off at a height of from 5 to 10 feet from 
the ground. If the tree is attacked by fungus rot, as many of 
them are, by the time it reaches a diameter of 15 to 18 inches the 
heart-wood is so weakened above the butt that it is easily thrown 
by wind. 


42 Forestry Quarterly 


Windfall is most prevalent on the slopes having a north- 
westerly aspect. 


Results of Observations of 301 Wind-thrown Fir. 


Av. hgt Average Percent 

Type obeeresGons batt pturap, UPFooted D. Bs es ieee 

feet butt 

PAE, Sous erent 82 80 5 2 15 97 
Lower slope, .. 193 182 7 II 16 04 
Upper slope, .. 37 30 6 7 14 81 


Soundness. The soundness of fir timber depends chiefly on 
the percentage of fir in the stand. It must also vary somewhat 
with the situation on which the tree is found and with the soil 
and moisture conditions under which it is growing. How far 
these latter influences affect the tree it was impossible to deter- 
mine, except to note that the age limit of sound trees is greater 
on the higher elevations. That is, on the flats the fir dies out 
of the stand at a comparatively young age, approximately 50-60 
years, whereas on the slopes and upper slopes it is found perfectly 
sound at 72 years, and even at 118 years it is only very slightly 
injured by rot at the centre. This applies to fir in a mixed stand. 
In a pure stand of even-aged fir, caused by windfall (or other 
accident), the trees begin to be attacked by rot as soon as they 
are 8 inches in diameter and between 50 and 60 years old. But 
the stand may safely be allowed to grow for 10 to 20 years longer 
till the trees reach a diameter of between 13-14 inches and an 
age of approximately 70 years. If they are left any longer than 
this the trees will be broken off by the wind, as described in 
the paragraph above on windfall. The yield of such a stand, 
of pure fir 60-70 years old, on lower slope, taking everything 
down to 11 inches inclusive as merchantable, and proportion of 
unsoundness was found to be: 


Vield Per Acre of Pure Fir Stand. 


Per cent 
Unit of measure Total volume Volume of Volume of of 
per acre. Sound Unsound Unsound 
Cubic Weetier oid emareaberiine 617.5 450.8 166.7 27 
BOard), sPCEL, wep on ituteleccnmioke 3,705 2,704.7 1,000. 3 27 


The best silvicultural method of treating land of this kind 
would be to cut the fir down to a diameter limit of 10 inches or 
possibly lower, exercising care to leave the spruce to seed up the 
area. If a ten-inch diameter limit is used, there is a fair chance 


Notes on Balsam Fir 43 


of a second cut after 25 years. This will accomplish two re- 
sults: 

First, the stand will eventually contain a very fair proportion 
of spruce; and, secondly, the fir which will then be left will 
occur in mixture, and hence will no longer be so subject to rot, 
and therefore much more valuable. 

Growth. Although it was impossible in the limited time to 
obtain the large amount of data which would be required for an 
exhaustive study of growth, yet enough measurements were taken 
to show the relative growth in height and diameter for compari- 
sons needed in this study. 

For the purpose of the study it is necessary to divide the trees 
into two classes: 

Ist. Those which have been suppressed in early life and at- 
tained their normal growth after the removal of the cause of 
suppression either by cutting, windfall or natural death. These 
are the trees which have grown up under natural conditions, 
and, with the exception of the pure stands on the areas of old 
windfall, they form the greater part of the mature fir. 

2nd. Those which have never been suppressed. These repre- 
sent the increase in the proportion of fir after cutting or wind- 
fall. That is, they are those trees which were not in the origi- 
nal under-story, but were seeded in after the opening was made. 
In view of the increase of the fir after cutting, this class will 
assume more importance in the future. On account of the 
comparatively recent cutting in this stand, it was impossible to 
get many measurements on mature trees to show the growth of 
this class. But such figures as were obtained are suggestive. 

The mean annual, minumum annual and maximum annual 
growth of the first class of trees during and after suppression 
is shown in the following table: 


Increase in Growth After Suppression. 
(Lower Slope—Spruce and Hardwood Type. Based on 43 Trees.) 


Period Mean annual Min. annual Max. annual 

growth, inches growth,inches growth, inches 

During suppression, ............. .044 .O14 .056 
PATEeT SUPPLeSSION). lavcee welsies hes .158 .044 286 


This shows the enormous stimulus which the growth receives 
after suppression is removed, the rate being more than three 
times as great as it was during suppression. 


44 Forestry Quarterly 


Under the best conditions of growth rings were found .31 of 
an inch wide for a single year. A maximum growth in height 
was 1.6 feet for a year; while a fair average of height growth 
under good conditions is 1.1 feet per year. 

The following table shows the rate of growth for the last 
two decades. 

Rate of Growth for Last Two Decades. 
(Based on 51 Trees.) 


Ment tAcianIUGrOmEn Time required to grow Thick- 


one inch ness of 
Age Class Tetadecade Deeds before Taek) eae ae 
Inches Years Inches 
Sapling up to 3 in. 
DAB IEG ttesse: .056 .036 18.1 28.6 .08 
Mature up to 13 in. 
Dr Be Hise see .18 .138 535 fay 527, 
Overmature — over 
ie sto ID) be Jak .150 .19 6.6 5-3 -33 


In a stand of pure fir yielding between 3000 and 4000 feet 
B. M. per acre, a mean sample tree of this first class which had 
been suppressed for 46 years before attaining its normal growth 
was taken. It contained 31 cubic feet or 186 board feet mer- 
chantable timber, taken down to 6 inches. It was 98 years 
old, 13.6 inches breast high and 68.6 feet high. Its average 
growth during suppression was .038 of an inch, which increased 
to .252 after suppression. 

The following table from the analysis of this tree will show 
what the fir can do under ordinary conditions: 


Rate of Growth in Height and Diameter of 98-Year-Old Fir. 
(Suppressed 46 Years.) 


: Diam. Diam. 164 ft. Diam, 32 ft. Diam. 48 ft. 
SS ae stump above ater above seam anets ime. 
10 Bhs 41 
20 z: 95 
30 10. 1.4 
40 14.7 1.9 
50 19.4 aye. | 
60 25-3 4.2 1.2 
70 32.5 rhe gyyi 1.5 
80 41.6 9.5 out Bay 
go 55- 12.6 8. 6. 2.1 
100 70. 15.2 Ti 8.9 Sak 


From such figures as could be obtained for mature trees which 
had never been suppressed, averaging 54 years old, the mean 


Notes on Balsam Fir 45 


annual growth was found to be .225 of an inch, and the number 

of years required for trees of this class to grow I inch was 4.4. 
The following table will show the difference between the rate 

of growth of fir and spruce, the figures on spruce being taken 

from R. T. Hosmer’s “A Study of Maine Spruce,” in the Report 

of the Forest Commissioner of Maine for 1902: 

time as great as it was during suppression. 


Comparative Rate of Growth of Spruce and Fir. 
Mean annual growth No. of years to 


Species inches grow one inch 
DRIER ITS (Gd) 25 cis AGA) eats asc! o's crave .126 8. 
Fir, natural condition, .......... . 180 5.5 
Bar masuppressed,” 6.2.5. bt. c ces 225 4-4 


Reproduction on Forest Types after Lumbering and Windfall. 


Flat type. A certain part of this type is virgin stand except 
for a culling here and there of the best timber made 30 years 
ago, when methods of lumbering were more crude and no tree 
with the slightest defect could be taken. Hence the present 
conditions are practically those which have been obtained under 
the influence of natural agencies without the interference of man. 
This stand may be divided into two sub-types according to the 
composition. First there is the nearly pure spruce, containing 
approximately 85 per cent. spruce, 10 per cent. hardwoods and 
5 per cent. fir, and secondly the spruce and hardwoods, contain- 
ing 55 per cent. spruce, 40 per cent. hardwoods and 5 per cent. fir. 

Although in each case in the mature stand the fir is greatly 
outnumbered, yet in the understory it makes a much more prom- 
inent showing. In the pure spruce stand it forms 35 per cent. 
of the coniferous reproduction, with 65 per cent. for the spruce; 
whereas in the spruce and hardwood stand the young fir actually 
surpasses to a slight extent the young spruce. Still in spite of 
the apparent abundance of the fir in the young growth in this 
type, its scarcity in the mature stand and the high percentage 
of rot, tends to demonstrate that in the long run, under natural 
conditons, it is unable to compete successfully with the spruce, 
and, however abundant it may be in the understory, it will never 
amount to much in the old stand. When, however, the large 
spruce is cut, as it necessarily must be, the fir is given an in- 
creased chance at the expense of the spruce. 


46 Forestry Quarterly 


The following tabular form illustrates the contrast between the 
mature stand and understory. 


Proportion of Spruce and Fir in Mature Stand and in Understory. 


Mature Stand Understory 
Type Spruce sae: Fir Spruce Fir 

Per cent. Per cent. 
Pure / Spices asso oboe 85 12 iB 65 35 
Spruce and Hardwood, ........ 53 43 4 46 54 


In studying the effect of windfall on the flat type, enough 
examples were seen to establish the fact that wherever areas of 
spruce have been blown down, nearly pure stands of fir follow. _ 

Spruce flats, subjected to windfall 61 years ago, show an 
average composition indicated by sample plots as follows: 


Composition of Stand following Windfall. 


(Flat Type.) 
Taken to 8 in. D. B. H. incl. Taken to 2in. D. B. H. incl. 
Per cent, Per cent. 
Fir 84 57 
Spruce 8 23 
Cedar 2 6 
Yellow Birch 2 5 
Maple 3 5 
White Birch 3 
Beech I I 
Total 100 100 


The decrease in percentage of fir when trees under 8 inches are 
taken, shows how the fir will eventually be replaced. 

Slope Type. The greater proportion of slopes are covered 
with a mixed stand of hardwoods (yellow birch, white birch, 
beech and maple), with spruce and fir in varying proportions, 
and with white cedar in the swales. 

On a spruce and hardwood slope a virgin stand which was 
beginning to open up of itself because of over-maturity, had an 
approximate composition, considering trees over 12 inches, of 
56% spruce, 22% fir and 22% hardwoods. Wherever the 
stand was opened up by wind-thrown, or by the dying out of old 
trees, hardwoods comprised the bulk of the young growth, while 
spruce lead the fir in a proportion of 5 to 4. The young fir, how- 
ever, did not show the same thrift as the spruce, and under a 
continuance of the conditions which have heretofore prevailed, 
the spruce would probably maintain its predominance over the 
fir. 


Notes on Balsam Fir 47 


In the case of a pure or nearly pure spruce stand, there is 
always the danger of windfall on exposed situations. In the 
event of such a windfall where the mature spruce has a large pro- 
portion of fir in the understory, a dense stand of nearly pure fir 
follows. A pure spruce stand which was blown down 56 years 
ago had the following composition to-day. 


Composition of Stand following Windfall. 
(Slope Type.) 


Down to 8 in. D. B, H. incl, Down to 2 in. D. B. H. incl. 
Per cent. Per cent. 

Fir 87 52 
Spruce 21 
Maple 7 II 
Yellow Birch 6 9 
White Birch 3 
Cedar 3 
Beech I 

Total 100 100 


If there is a scand predominantly spruce, that is about 70 per 
cent. spruce, with a fair proportion of hardwoods in mixture, 
and windfall occurs as a result of cutting part of the spruce on 
exposed situations, the future stand will be composed principally 
of hardwoods and fir. The hardwoods to a great extent sur- 
vive the windfall and hence are left to seed up the area, while 
the fir which is already present in the understory in abundance 
comes in still more abundantly in the opening, and hence leads 
the spruce in the new stand. The resulting composition on such 
an area was found to be 40% hardwoods, 32% fir and 28% 
spruce. Where clear cutting of the spruce is resorted to on ac- 
count of the danger of windfall the same consequences will fol- 
low. Hence on a tract of this kind it is advisable either to cut 
much more lightly than elsewhere, or to cut in strips so chosen 
that the timber left will be protected from windfall. 

Where hardwoods and conifers are present in about equal 
proportion, the amount of hardwoods and fir which will come in 
after lumbering increases with the heaviness of the cutting. On 
a small area which had been carelessly slashed over 26 years ago, 
the composition was found to be roughly 70% hardwoods, 25% 
fir, and only 5% spruce. Even the most careful cutting cannot 
help diminishing, to a certain extent, the proportion of spruce and 
increasing the hardwoods and fir. Nevertheless very fair results 


48 Forestry Quarterly 


haye been obtained by the method of cutting to a 12 inch breast 
high diameter limit, at present employed by the company oper- 
ating on this township. The composition on an area cut over in 
this manner was found to be: 


Stand of Cut to 12 Inches D. B. H. 


Species Old Stand Understory 
(Left after cutting) 

Spruce 26% 26% 

Fir 10% 21% 

Hardwoods 64% 53% 


This shows that the spruce in the young growth is exactly 
equal to the spruce left in the old stand after thinning, while the 
fir has increased more than double. Hence the spruce, in this 
case, has been diminished by precisely the amount which was cut, 
although this amount will vary, with different situations. The 
figures make it appear as if the proportion of hardwoods had de- 
creased from 64 per cent. to 53 per cent. But it must be con- 
sidered that the spruce has been cut and hardwoods left so that 
the original proportion of hardwoods before cutting could not 
have been roughly over 40 per cent. of the total stand. Hence 
in reality the hardwoods have increased from approximately 40 
per cent. in the original uncut stand to 53 per cent of the new 
growth. There is no doubt under the prevailing conditions that 
this method is the best practical one for retaining the spruce 
which can be devised. Although to prevent the great increase of 
fir, if that species continues to be of as little value to the company 
as at present, it should be entirely cut out, even if not utilized, 
wherever logging operations are carried on. 

Spruce Slope Type. This type is found on the mountain sides 
at higher elevations than the spruce and mixed hardwood slope. 
The composition is practically pure spruce growing where the 
soil is extremely shallow, or in a large part of the type almost en- 
tirely lacking, the roots of the trees and a layer of moss forming 
the only covering of the large loose boulders. 

In a mature stand the trees range from 2 to 15 inches in diam- 
eter, growing very close together. The understory is also of pure 
spruce with only about 2 per cent. of fir. When such an area 
is clear cut, as it is generally necessary to do on account of ex- 
posure to windfall, the fir and hardwoods come in but are still 


Notes on Balsam Fir 49 


well behind the spruce in percentage of the whole stand. The 
resulting composition of the young growth found on such a type 
cut over 8 years ago was 60 per cent. spruce, 22 per cent. hard- 
wood and only 18 per cent. fir. 

When the growth on the spruce slope has become somewhat 
over-mature and is beginning to open out of itself, we find the fir 
still composing only about 2 per cent. of the old trees, but form- 
ing approximately 50 per cent. of the understory. The explana- 
tion of this state of affairs is found in the respective require- 
ments of the two species. The spruce, on account of its ability 
to grow with almost no soil, will cover the poorest and rockiest 
situations where nothing else can subsist. Then as better soil 
and moisture conditions are developed by the action of weather- 
ing and of the roots of the trees, other species will gradually 
come in, 

Cutting an over-mature spruce slope then will bring in more 
fir than cutting on a younger slope. The spruce, however, will 
probably continue to be predominant in the natural course of 
events; because it will take such an area which has been clear 
cut a long while to contain merchantable timber anyway, and the 
spruce will always beat the fir out in the long run, on account of 
its greater longevity. 


Reproduction on Burned-Over Land. 


In contrast with the cases previously cited, it is interesting to 
note that on the areas of burned-over land, which were studied, 
spruce always leads the fir in the young growth. 

A tract of flat land lying along the north shore of Roach Pond 
which was entirely burned over 38 years ago and which, at 
present, is occupied by a good stand of White Birch, Yellow 
Birch, Poplar and Cherry was found to contain an excellent un- 
derstory of young spruce, while the only young fir discovered 
was limited to a narrow strip along the water edge. This fir in 
no case reached 25 per cent. of the composition of the understory. 
Over the burnt area birch and poplar seeded in the year follow- 
ing the fire, the spruce 6 years after, and the fir not until 8 years 
afterwards. 

On a slope, on the other hand, which was burned over 33 years 
ago, young fir was found in greater abundance than on the flat 


4 


50 Forestry Quarterly 


occupying approximately 40 per cent. of the understory to the 
spruce’s 60 percent. _ 

The explanation of the preponderance of the spruce over the 
fir in the young growth on these burned-over areas, seems to lie 
in the different soil and moisture requirements of the two species. 
Whereas the spruce can adapt itself to a soil leached by fire, the 
fir requires more moisture in the upper layers, and hence is only 
found seeding in along the water’s edge or on well drained 
slopes. 

Summary. A summary of points in regard to the character of 
fir may be here briefly stated: ; 

1. Fir is less tolerant than Spruce. 

2. Fir is especially subject to windfall in this locality, after a 
diameter of 15 inches breast high is reached. 

3. In pure stands fir is subject to rot at the butt after the age 
of 50 years is reached, particularly in moist situations. In mix- 
ture with hardwoods the percentage of rot is smaller and the 
trees are usually sound up to an average age of 85 years. 

In considering the treatment of the forest with relation to fir, 
the following point may be emphasized: 

1. In virgin stands on a flat or lower slope type under the in- 
fluences of natural agencies (exclusive of accidents due to wind- 
fall and fire), fir occupies less than 5 per cent. of the stand. On 
upper slopes the percentage is considerably higher. 

2. After windfall in a pure spruce flat or slope, a pure stand 
of fir follows. After windfall in a spruce stand containing hard- 
woods, a stand of predominantly hardwoods and fir results. 

3. On a mixed hardwood and spruce slope the proportion of 
fir is doubled after each cutting. If the cut is too heavy, the fir 
will surpass the spruce in the next generation. 

4. On a pure spruce slope which has to be cut clean on ac- 
count of danger from windfall, the fir will increase from ap- 
proximately 2 to 20 per cent. 

5. Although the fir is seen to be so abundant in the young 
growth after cutting, it is probable in many cases that it will 
eventually die out and its place be taken by the spruce. At the 
same time it must be considered that while the fir is growing it 
is not only retarding the spruce but occupying space, and hence 
causing just so many years’ loss of growing time to that species. 


BARRINGTON Moore, and 
Rosert L,. RocErs. 


NOTE ON TROPICAL WOOD SUPPLIES.* 


In the year 1900 the long predicted timber famine made its 
entrance into the United States, if a sudden rise in prices is the 
characteristic of dearth. It came on time, exactly as predicted. 
In that year the price of White Pine lumber, up to that time our 
principal staple, jumped all at once to almost double its previous 
value, and all other ‘umber staples increased in price rapidly, 
and have crept up ever since. Builders of houses especially, 
have begun to realize that the time of wood for building ma- 
terial is begining to pass away; other, better materials are be- 
coming relatively cheaper. This, the substitution of other ma- 
terials, is, of course, the first, best and natural remedy for the 
rapid increase of timber famine prices. All efforts at introduc- 
tion of forestry methods and at re-forestation are designed, and 
can be effective only for the days of a much more distant future. 

The opening up of the timber resources of the tropical coun- 
tries to the south of us has been often pointed out as our ulti- 
mate recourse. It becomes, therefore, of interest to learn what 
we may expect from this quarter, to learn what the character of 
the woods and the character of the forests in these warm coun- 
tries is, with a view to the possibility of substituting their pro- 
duct in our lumber market. 

Quality, quantity and expense are the three considerations of 
the market. 

We must realize first that our enormous lumber consumption 
consists to the extent of from 65 to 75 per cent. in soft wood 
material, only a little over one quarter, outside of fuelwood, 
comes from hard woods. And the soft woods which are most in 
demand are those of the conifer tribe, which furnish the best all 
round materials for the most varied uses, and especially for build- 
ing and box manufacture, two of the most important uses of 
wood. Moreover these conifers, pines, spruces, firs, grow gre- 
gariously on large areas, hence are most readily and economically 
logged. 

If we examine the woods and the forests of tropical countries, 
we find that the areas of coniferous wood are exceedingly lim- 
ited, that the character of these is as a rule inferior to our north- 


* Read before the Association for Advancement of Science, Dec., 1907. 


52 Forestry Quarterly 


ern product, and that woods of the greatest hardness make up the 
bulk of tropical growth. There are some few exceptions to this 
rule. Just as we find among our broadleaf trees a few species 
which produce a soft wood that can be used in substitution of 
coniferous material, so there are to be found a few tropical spe- 
cies of that description. 

Hitherto, from the tropics, only fancy cabinet woods, in which 
hardness is a virtue, have been able to secure recognition in the 
markets, and the character and behavior of the soft woods of the 
tropics is hardly known. 

The presumption is, that, just as our soft-wooded broadleaf 
trees, which form a small proportion of our broadleaf forest, 
furnish only an inferior substitute for coniferous wood, the tropi- 
cal soft-wood species will be of the same category; in addition, 
the climate will introduce difficulties in handling the material in 
such a manner as to avoid the shrinking and warping, the work- 
ing of the wood, which is the greatest drawback of all wood ma- 
terial except the coniferous. 

As far then as this portion of eventual substitutes is con- 
cerned, we can be sure, that it will be of much inferior character 
to what we have been accustomed. 


The next question is that of expense. The long distance to 
which lumber would have to be freighted not only from seaports 
but from interior sections, and not only to seaports but to interior 
sections, will in itself be for a long time an unsurmountable ob- 
stacle in the utilization of these sources of supply, but other 
natural conditions in the character of the forest growth create 
additional difficulties and expense. 

The character of the tropical forest differs very greatly from 
the northern forest, in that it is composed of a much greater 
variety of species, growing by no means gregariously as our most 
important species do, but participating in more or less equal de- 
gree in the composition. Hence to secure a quantity of any one 
class of wood large areas will have to be picked over, as is now 
done when the expensive cabinet woods, mahogany and cedar, 
are exploited. 

Another factor, increasing the cost of expense in logging, is 
the fact that the trees of commercial size are as a rule much more 


Note on Tropical Wood Supplies 53 


scattered than with us, in other words small quantities per acre 
of valuable forms and sizes is the rule. 

There are, of course, exceptions to these general features. 

There are on the plateau lands of Mexico extensive pineries in 
accessible locations, but compared with our requirements neither 
in quality nor quantity comparable to our own. Otherwise, 
tropical conifers are usually confined to inaccessible locations. 

There are lowlands, as for instance along the Magdalena River 
in Columbia, which bear heavy forest growth of commercial 
character, and contain even large proportions of soft woods that 
might be exploited profitably. But the general prevailing condi- 
tion is as we have described. In addition there are climatic and 
populational conditions, which are by no means to be overlooked 
in the problem of exploiting and marketing whatever supplies 
would be really available. 

The resident population is in most locations neither sufficient 
nor efficient, and the climate is not favorable to logging work. 
Even if the labor necessary to carry on logging and milling en- 
terprises could be eventually attained, efficient superintendence 
is still more difficult to secure under the undesirable social and 
climatic conditions. At any rate, cheap logging, which the low 
wage apparently warrants, will actually not be realized. 

We come then to the conclusion, that but little comfort can be 
expected in dealing with our timber famine, approaching and in 
progress, by securing supplies from our southern neighbors. 
While the increase in wood prices will perhaps make the profit- 
able exploitation of favorably located tropical forests possible, 
neither the character of their woods, nor the quantity they can 
supply promises to satisfy our needs readily. 


B. E. Fernow. 


CURRENT LITERATURE. 


Henry S. GrRAvEs, in Charge. 


A Brief History of Forestry, in Europe, the United States and 
other Countries. By Bernhard E. Fernow. New Haven, 1907. 
Advance Copy. 


The study of the development and practice of forestry in for- 
eign countries is very important for every forester. There is a 
common prejudice against the methods of forestry employed in 
other countries on the ground that our forest conditions and 
economic conditions are peculiar and that on this account there- 
fore, foreign methods are not applicable in this country. It 
is, of course, true that we cannot take European methods, appli- 
cable to forests which have been under management many years 
and apply them without modification to forests of different spe- 
cies, different form, and different silvical character. The prac- 
tice of forestry tends, however, to bring about more or less arti- 
ficial forms of stands which ultimately must be handled by 
methods very similar to those practiced in other countries. Most 
of the methods which we are practicing today are in reality modi- 
fications of methods practiced in Europe and as our silviculture 
develops we will approach more and more to the systems prac- 
ticed there, although undoubtedly some methods peculiarly 
American of silviculture will be developed. It is of great im- 
portance, therefore, that the student understands not only the 
practice of forestry in other countries, but how the present meth- 
ods have been developed. When one studies the development of 
forestry abroad one is immediately surprised to find that many 
methods which are now used in this country were used in Ger- 
many and elsewhere many years ago. One finds that in the 
early days in Germany a rough selection method by diameter 
limit was used, similar to that employed in Maine, that oak pole- 
woods were treated as we are in many cases handling our south- 
ern New England woodlands, and that many of the other 
methods of silviculture now employed by us have their counter- 
parts in the history of the different countries in Europe. In the 
same way, many of our methods of mensuration which some have 
supposed to be original with us were used in Germany when the 


Current Literature 55 


forests were irregular and unorganized. The development from 
these early beginnings to the refined methods of to-day is of 
great use in aiding the American forester in the development of 
silvicultural policies and in other work of organization. 

For this reason I welcome Dr. Fernow’s History of Forestry, 
which places in the hands of the student an excellent historical 
outline of the development and practice of forestry in the im- 
portant foreign countries. 

Dr. Fernow devotes a large space in the book to the history of 
forestry in Germany. This is in part due to the fact that there 
are much more complete records of the history of forestry in 
Germany than in other countries, but chiefly because, in the 
opinion of the author, forestry has there reached a higher plane 
of development than elsewhere. Dr. Fernow calls attention to 
the strong German influence which is to be found in the growth 
of forestry in most countries, including Austria, Hungary, Switz- 
erland, Russia, the Scandinavian States, and India. Even 
France did not remain uninfluenced by German ideas. 


The history of forestry in Germany is divided into three 
periods, namely, to the end of the middle ages, second, to the end 
of the 18th century, and third, the modern period. The author 
describes for each of these periods the political conditions of the 
country, which have a bearing on forestry, the development of 
the laws of forest policy, the progress in silviculture, forest or- 
ganization, mensuration, natural science, experimentation, litera- 
ture, etc. It is interesting to read of the controversies between 
the so-called practical men and those well trained in forestry. 
Apparently every country has to pass through the same contest 
between those who recognize the scientific character of the basis 
of forestry and those who regard the practice of forestry as 
essentially utilization. Foresters will be interested to compare 
the controversies toward the end of the 18th century in Germany 
with those of the present time in this country. 

The book covers also the history of forestry in Austro-Hun- 
gary, Switzerland, France, Russia, Finland, the Scandinavian 
States, the Mediterranean Peninsulas, and Great Britain and her 
colonies. 

The advance copies of the book in the hands of the reviewer 
were still incomplete. It is the author’s design before final publi- 


56 Forestry Quarterly 


cation to add an account of the history of forestry in Japan and 
the United States. 

Austro-Hungary is of particular interest to Americans be- 
cause of the large amount of private land, some of which is in 
large holdings. A study of the plans of co-operation between 
the State and the private owners is of peculiar value to us, as we 
are developing State forest policies in this country. One is 
naturally interested in Norway, Sweden, Russia, and other coun- 
tries which export timber and still have extensive virgin forests. 

With regard to India Dr. Fernow makes the point that, “Con- 
trary to a frequently expressed idea that the conditions and 
problems of India are comparable to the conditions and problems 
of the United Staces, so that the example of Great Britain in 
India rather than that of any European country might serve us 
in the United States, the writer thinks that the very opposite is 
true.” He admits, however, that there are certain points of 
similarity in problems, especially those dealing with fire, irriga- 
tion, organization of extensive areas, etc. I think that Dr. 
Fernow does not place enough emphasis on the value of the In- 
dian experience in silviculture. One finds in the teakpole man- 
agement a counterpart of our American polewood management 
of hardwoods; of the longleaf pine problems in the native chir 
of the Himalayas, of some of our Pacific Coast problems in the 
management of deodar, of Rocky Mountain conditions in the 
spruce of the mountains, and of chaparral in the management of 
scrub. Their methods of working plans and their experience in 
administration also seem to me of great importance. Their work 
is of special value to the American forester also because the re- 
sults are written in English. I would encourage students to 
study Indian forestry, not only in Dr. Fernow’s history, but also 
in the Government reports and other publications. 

Dr. Fernow has presented his material in a clear and readable 
style. While a great deal of it will be of interest to laymen, it 
is essentially designed for technical foresters who are already 
familiar with the principles and methods of silviculture, mensura- 
tion, and other branches of forestry. I commend this book to 
every forester as a valuable contribution to American literature. 


H. S. G. 


Current Literature 57 


Traite’ d’exploitation commerciale des bois. Par Alphonse 
Matthey. Tome premier. (Paris, 1906). 488 pp. Price, 15 
fres. 


This very exhaustive and profusely illustrated treatise on 
forest utilization is a decided addition to the French forestry liter- 
ature, enlarging on Boppe’s Cours de technologie forestiere. 

Although mainly intended for unprofessional lumbermen, some 
chapters are treated with a fullness which such readers hardly 
demand, indeed, the volume is as comprehensive and the treat- 
ment as thorough as any professional forester may demand. 

The volume is divided into five books. 

The first book on the constitution of wood contains in its first 
chapter a grouped description of many species of wood with very 
good illustrations of typical blocks showing schematically the 
microscopic structure. Some American and other exotic species 
are included. ‘The second book on Faults and Diseases of Wood 
is particularly well illustrated with colored plates showing the 
discolorations of fungus diseases, and with many black prints. 

A short “book” of 45 pages disposes of methods of stacking, 
drying and impregnating with preservatives, the weakest part of 
the volume. The fourth book treats of the tools, from the stand- 
point of the American reader also imperfectly. The last and 
longest book on methods of transportation is perhaps the most 
complete, although here too, as in all European publications, 
lack of familiarity with American methods is a serious detriment. 
Nevertheless there are many points of interest to be found which 
do not appear in English literature; especially interesting is a 
comparison of cost of transportation by different means. 


B. E, F. 


The Influence of Forests on the Storage and Regulation of the 
Water Supply. By S. Eardley-Wilmot. Indian Forest Service. 
58 pp. 8° Calcutta, 1906. 


The author divides his subject into two parts. I. European 
Research into Forest Influences. II. Application of results of 
European Research to Indian Conditions. Introductory to the 
general discussion of the subject, attention is called to the fact 
that during the 4o years since the creation of the Forest Service 


58 Forestry Quarterly 


but little attention has been given to joint influences, particularly 
the mechanical influence of the forest on the water supply. This 
was largely due to the great demands upon the Forest Service in 
the creation of state forests and in settling the state ownership of 
forest and waste lands. Also later in protecting and managing 
these lands. 

Recently the question of forest influences has come prominently 
before the people of India. There is, however, but little public 
record based upon scientific observation in India, regarding the 
influence of forests on climate, water supply, etc. France is se- 
lected by the author to supply the facts and statistics bearing 
upon the subject. French researches along these lines have not 
only continued for a long time, but the French Forest Staff are 
giving careful attention to forest influences at the present time. 
Furthermore their results have only recently been made known. 
In France the subject is of very large importance because of the 
extended areas in that country threatened by the consequences of 
denudation. 

In the first part of the paper, forest influences are discussed 
under the following heads: 

1—Influence on air temperature. 

2—Influence on soil temperature. 

3—Influence on humidity of the air. 

4—Influence on atmosphereic precipitations. 

5—Influence on springs. 

6—Influence on the amount of water withdrawn from the soil. 

7—Influence on the regulation of torrents. 

8—lInfluence on avalanches, 

g—Influence on moving sands. 


In the second part of the paper there is presented an interest- 
ing discussion of the river systems of India and the importance 
of the forests in their bearing upon variations in stream flow. 

The author’s Indian theories based upon European facts, are 
as follows: : 

I—Speaking generally the water supply of India is probably 
more than sufficent for the requirements, agricultural and indus- 
trial, of the country if not allowed to run to waste. 

2—The storage and regulation of this supply can be automati- 
cally and efficiently carried out by natural laws. 


> ———~_ 


Current Literature 59 


3—Provided that man permits the application of these laws, 
the distribution of water can be efficiently carried out by him in 
such localities where physical conditions do not prohibit it. 

4—If, on the other hand, interference with these laws is per- 
mitted the water supply is liable to become deficient or irregular 
and its distribution impossible or at least difficult. 

s—It is necessary therefore to aid the forces of nature in this 
respect and where necessary to prohibit such action as hinders or 
diminishes these forces with a view to reaping their full benefit 
in these localities when this may be possible. 

By specific illustrations the forest is shown to be the most 
important factor within the control of man, in the regulation of 
water supply. Where forests do not exist or are not maintained 
the agriculture is dependent more or less entirely on the flow of 
the rainfall from the surface of the soil and it does not afford 
a certain livelihood to the inhabitants, consequently frequent 
famines are likely to occur. 


A Preliminary Working Plan for the Public Forest Tract of 
the Insular Lumber Company, Negros Occidental, P. I. By H. 
D. Everett, Forester in charge of Forest District No. 8, and H. 
N. Whitford, Ph. D., Forester, Chief of the Division of Forest 
Products. Bulletin No. 5, Department of the Interior, Bureau 
of Forestry. Manila: Bureau of Printing 1906, pp. 54, plates 
XII, maps I. 


This bulletin is of special interest because it describes the first 
working plan made for the management of a tract in the Philip- 
pine Islands, which is being lumbered on an extensive scale. 
The tract described has added importance because it is being 
lumbered by a company organized in the United States, who pro- 
pose to carry on more extensive lumbering operations than have 
been previously undertaken. 

The tract covered by the working plan is located in the north- 
ern part of Negros Occidental and comprises an area of approxi- 
mately sixty-nine square miles, ninety per cent. of which is 
heavily forested. 

The operations are being conducted under a license agreement 
granted by the Philippine Bureau of Forestry which gives to the 


60 Forestry Quarterly 


Insular Lumber Company the exclusive privilege of cutting tim- 
ber on the tract for a period of twenty years. 

The tract is especially well located with reference to water 
transportation because the Himuguan River which flows through 
the tract is navigable for a distance of several miles from the 
coast, and lumber barges can be loaded directly at the mill, from 
which point they proceed to their destination without reloading. 

It is one of the few places where steam logging can be carried 
on successfully and profitably, and it is here a necessity because 
the logs are too large to be handled by animals. 

Three forest types are distinguished; namely, waste land type, 
river valley forest type, and upland forest type. The two latter 
are natural and the first is the result of clearings. The commer- 
cial forest is very largely composed of the upland forest type 
and covers broad gentle slopes and ridges leading to the foothills 
and peaks of Mt. Silay. The elevation above sea level varies 
between 150 and 1,200 feet. The forest is characterized by a 
dominant stand of large overmature trees belonging to the 
family Dipterocarpaceae. Six species of the above family com- 
prise over 90% of the commercial trees, 16” and above in diam- 
eter. An estimate of the standing timber on the tract showed an 
unusual amount of merchantable timber per acre, for a tropical 
forest, for nearly all the large timber is one genus and is in de- 
mand in the local markets. 

The amount of standing timber was determined by making a 
strip method survey of 135 acres of the concession, about 1% of 
the area. The result showed a stand of 50,000 ft. B. M. 
per acre of trees 16” and above in diameter, without making any 
allowance for defects. 

MANGACHUuPAY Shorea (sp.) though constituting but 21% of 
the total number of trees per acre furnished 45% of the above 
estimate, while Shorea squamata, constituting 15% of the total 
number of trees furnished 21% more. The genus Shorea com- 
prises 86% of the merchantable timber on the tract. This is a 
condition rarely met, because the forests of the Islands are 
usually very mixed and consist of many genera, the greater 
number of which are not in demand at the present time. 

The timber on this tract is usually defective, being attacked 
by an unknown fungus. For this reason it was found neces- 


Current Literature 61 


sary to make heavy allowances for defects, this allowance varying 
with different species. Allowing for defects the average stand 
of timber 16” and above in diameter per acre is 33,450 ft. B. M. 
and 20” and above in diameter 32,050 ft. B. M. (Doyle’s Scale). 
The total stand of merchantable timber is estimated at 1,207,000,- 
ooo ft. B. M. 

The Insular Lumber Company has in operation on the tract a 
small circular saw mill of a daily capacity of 15,000 ft. B. M. 
and a logging outfit consisting of a fifty horse power road engine 
equipped with one mile of 1” cable and 1 mile of $” “messenger” 
cable, and a 40 horse power yarding engine equipped with 2,000’ 
of }” yarding cable. 

The methods of yarding and hauling to the rollway are similar 
to those employed in steam logging on the Pacific coast. The 
logs are floated down the river from the rollway to the mill, but 
a narrow gauge logging railroad is now under construction and 
in the near future logs will be handled from the forest directly 
to the mill and the road engine will then be used for skidding 
purposes. 

The logging crew consists of one American logging superin- 
tendent who receives a salary of $2,100 per year and an Ameri- 
can assistant receiving $2.00 per day. The remainder of the 
crew, forty-two men, consists of natives who receive an average 
daily wage of about twenty-five cents. The above crew handles 
from 5,000 to $10,000 ft. B. M. of logs per day at an verage daily 
cost of $22.50. The average logging cost per 1,000 ft. B. M. is 
$3.50. 

The mill crew consists of three Americans; a sawyer at $2,000 
per year, a book-keeper at $75.00 per month and a setter receiv- 
ing $2.00 per day, and twenty-eight Filipinos receiving about 
twenty-five cents per day. The average daily labor cost at the 
mills being $21.00. The cost of manufacturing lumber and de- 
livering it by barge, in Manila 400 miles distant, is $18.60 per 
M ft. B. M., of which charge transportation is $5.00 and the 
average government stumpage charge $1.25. 

The company receives on an average more than $30.00 per M 
ft. B. M. in Manila for green lumber, so that the proportion 
shows a good profit. 

The company has now under erection a 100,000 ft. double band 


62 Forestry Quarterly 


mill, and are contemplating the erection of a tie treating plant if 
contracts can be made with the railroads which are now being 
built to supply them. 

The principal competitors of the lumber manufactured by this 
company will be American Redwood and Oregon Pine which are 
shipped to Manilla in large quantities. Oregon Pine is not well 
adapted for use in the tropics because it is readily attacked by 
the “anay” or white ant, and the product of the mill of this com- 
pany should find a ready sale in large quantities in competition 
with this wood. It is to be hoped that the company will make 
a success of their venture and that in a comparatively short time 
the Philippines may be in a position to produce at a low price the 
lumber demanded by her native markets. 


Large sums of money have been paid each year for foreign 
timber because the methods of lumbering in vogue in the Islands 
were too crude and inadequate to furnish, at a low cost, the con- 
struction of timbers demanded, and the advent of a corporation 
having the ability to install a large logging and milling plant and 
place native timber in the market should be welcomed with much 
satisfaction not only by consumers of lumber but by the govern- 
ment itself. 

A number of tentative recommendations are made for the 
management of the tract which will be enforced until a more de- 
tailed study can be undertaken and other changes made which 
further safeguard the forest. It is proposed to adopt two differ- 
ent systems of management, one for lands agricultural in char- 
acter and the other for lands non-agricultural in character. In 
the former case the forest will be treated under a clear cutting 
system and as fast as logged will be turned over to agriculturists 
for settlement. No attention will be paid to young growth and 
the main efforts of the inspection force will be directed toward 
securing the utilization of all merchantable timber on the tract. 


Where the land is non-agricultural in character the selection 
system will be practiced, and the forest will be managed with the 
idea of securing a continuous yield of the six species at present 
forming the greater part of the merchantable stand. Care will 
be taken to leave sufficient seed trees to provide for a future 
yield but at present no provision will be made for a regular and 
sustained annual yield. 


Current Literature 63 


On the non-agricultural land the maximum diameter limit has 
been set at 20 inches, and all logs from trees, which have 50% 
of clear sound lumber must be utilized. Provisions are made for 
the utilization of the inferior species for construction purposes 
and for the payment of charges on excessive amounts of timber 
cut for such purposes. 

The plan provides for the permanent assignment of a ranger 
to the tract whose duties shall be to patrol the tract and prevent 
forest fires and the making of clearings; to inspect the lumber 
operations, and to look out for the general interests of the 
Bureau of Forestry. 

This plan while preliminary in character and, as stated by the 
authors, inadequate in many ways, is a stepping stone towards 
the better management of the Philippine forest, and as such is to 
be greatly commended. 

Re Cabs 


A Preliminary Working Plan for the Public Forest Tract of 
the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Company, Bongabon, Min- 
doro, P. I. By Melvin L. Merritt, Forester in charge of Forest 
District No. 5 and H. N. Whitford, Ph. D., Forester, Chief of the 
Division of Forest Products, Bulletin No. 6, Department of the 
Interior, Bureau of Forestry. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 
1906. Pp. 55, plates XIV, maps 1. 


A tentative working plan for the management of a tract of 
public forest, 55 square miles in area, situated on the south-east- 
ern coast of the Island of Mindoro. The area at present is being 
exploited by a lumber company holding a twenty year license 
agreement. This agreement grants the Company the exclusive 
right to cut and gather forest products over an area of approxi- 
mately eighty-five square miles, a portion of which was not in- 
cluded in the working plan prepared. 

The forest conditions differ markedly from those found in 
Negros and more nearly represent the conditions found in the 
average commercial forest of the Islands. 

The tree species are more abundant but the amount of mer- 
chantable material is much less, because of the lack of market 
for many species. 

The map accompanying the working plan shows the extent of 


64 Forestry Quarterly 


the various types of forest, the latter being based largely upon 
the characteristic trees found within the areas. 

The maximum yield of merchantable timber, 20” and above in 
diameter, was found upon the “Narra” type, and amounted to 
12,200 ft. B. M. (Doyle Rule) per acre. Seventy-seven per cent. 
of this amount was composed of species representing three 
genera of the family Dipterocarpeae. In an upland type of 
forest known as the “Hagachac” (Dipterocarpus lasiopodus) 
type the yield of timber is estimated at 11,284 ft. B. M., three 
species in the family of Dipterocarpeae furnishing 91% of the 
amount. 

The lowest yield 4,464 ft. per acre, is found in “mixed” type 
growing in rich bottom land. The species on this type are very 
numerous, but large trees are scattering and species having a 
merchantable value, are not abundant. 

A study of the tables showing the stand per acre of trees 16” 
and above in diameter shows a variation between 15.8 trees per 
acre in the “mixed” type to 26.9 trees per acre in the “Narra” 
type. 

Volume tables for three different classes of trees are given; 
namely, for Narra, a low growing tree; Amuguis a medium 
height tree, and one for Dipterocarpeae which are tall and 
straight. The value of these tables is not apparent since the 
author states that the figures were not secured within the tract, 
but were compiled from data, collected in the provinces of 
Bataan, Tayabas and Negros. The soil in the area studied in 
Mindoro is alluvial in character, while the Dipterocarpeae forests 
of Bataan and Negros in which the measurements were secured 
grew upon soil formed by the disintegration of volcanic rocks, in 
situ. Further, the rainy and dry seasons are very distinct in 
Bataan and Negros while in Mindoro the rainfall is more equally 
distributed throughout the year. The regions from which the 
data were secured are, with the exception of Tayabas, too far 
removed from Mindoro to safely apply figures of tree growth 
secured in them, to the latter province and it is doubtful if the 
form and size of the trees growing under such widely divergent 
conditions have sufficient similarity to warrant combining meas- 
urements made from them into a simple volume table. 

Logging on this tract is carried on in a primitive way, 


Current Literature 65 


although a wooden tram road has been constructed from the 
forest to the beach. Water buffalo are used for skidding, and 
for motive power on the tram road. The character of the forest 
and the yield per acre are not such as to warrant the use of steam 
machinery, at least for the present. 

The average cost of felling, and skidding to the beach, a dis- 
tance of 14 miles varies between $4.85 and $9.00 per M ft. B. M. 
Contracts are occasionally made at $6.00 per M ft. B. M. 

The company has in the tract a portable saw-mill of a capacity 
of 10,000 ft. B. M., but so far only a limited amount of timber 
has been sawed. 

The cost of lumber delivered in Manila varies between 
$12.50—$17.50 per M ft. B. M. and since the greater part of the 
timber retails at $30.00 or more per M ft. B. M., a good profit 
should result from their operations. 

The main features of control recommended for the tract are 
that no Narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd) shall be cut which 
are not marked by the forester and that no trees of other species, 
less than 20” in diameter d. b. h. shall be cut. Rules relating to 
the protection of young growth are included as well as other 
details in regard to the time and manner of cutting and protec- 
tion of the forest. The Bulletin concludes with a list of plants 
thirty centimeters and over in diameter found growing on the 
tract. 

ey Coibe 

Annual Report of the Division of Forestry of the Philippine 
Islands, for the period from July Ist, 1905 to June 30th, 1906. 
Major George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry, Manila. Bureau 
of Printing, 1906. Pp. 27, plates 16. 


This report is of great interest because it deals with the 
reoganization of the Bureau of Forestry and discusses the char- 
acter of the work how being conducted by it. 

In October, 1905, by an act of the Philippine Commission the 
Bureau of Forestry was reorganized and the classification and 
appraisal of all forest products was transferred from the Bureau 
of Forestry, which had performed this work since the American 
occupation, to the Bureau of Internal Revenue. 

This transfer rendered unnecessary the services of the greater 
part of the large force of rangers and officials connected with the 


5 


66 Forestry Quarterly 


Division of Inspection and the latter division was abandoned. 
The office and field force of the Bureau was reduced from 171 
men to 55 men, and thirty forest stations in the provinces were 
abandoned. The Islands were divided into 10 forest districts, 
each in charge of a forester, whose duties are as follows: ““Map- 
ping the district; study of the forest resources; location and in- 
spection of cutting areas; data for a preliminary working plan 
for one concession in each district; official reports and other 
correspondence; licenses; inspection of the agricultural char- 
acter of land desired to be taken as homesteads, for purchase or 
lease; registration and inspection of private woodlands to be 
exploited for the market; caifigin or clearing permits; collec- 
tion of data, giving cost of gathering forest products, transporta- 
tion, labor; investigating future fields for forest exploration, 
etc: 

In addition to the above work some of the foresters are con- 
ducting investigations along special lines, such as gutta percha 
and rubber production in Mindanao, Mangrove swamps and their 
products; caifigins, etc. 

A uniform system of mapping commercial and non-commer- 
cial forests, cultivated and uncultivated lands has been adopted, 
and as rapidly as possible maps are being prepared showing the 
topographical features and forest areas of each District. 

Special silvicultural studies are being conducted and the re- 
sults will be published from time to time, as sufficient informa- 
tion becomes available. 

The act reorganizing the Bureau provided that, “For the 
period of five years from the date of the passage of this act, any 
resident of the Philippine Islands may cut or take, or hire cut or 
taken, for himself from the public forests, without license and 
free of charge, such timber, other than timber of the first group, 
and such firewood, resins, other forest products, and stone and 
earth, as he may require for housebuilding, fencing, boat build- 
ing, or other personal use of himself or his family. Timber thus 
cut without license shall not be sold nor shall it be exported from 
the province where cut.” 

While this privilege may have proven a great boon to the 
poor people of the provinces, it is an unfortunate thing that in the 
administration of the public forests of the Islands, the Philippine 


Current Literature 67 


Commission should have adopted such a shortsighted forest 
policy. 

For a period of five years the Bureau of Forestry struggled to 
build up a system of management and protection for the public 
forests which would not only render readily accessible to the 
people the products of the forest, but would at the same time 
safeguard the forests and insure their perpetuation, 

The act granting the free use of timber for the purposes 
mentioned above, applies nominally for a period of five years, 
but it will be difficult to put in force more strict measures at the 
expiration of this period, and the way is opened for the estab- 
lishment of rights of user in the forests which may prove em- 
barrassing to the forest department at a later date. 

It is a mistake to grant parties power to enter public forests 
and without license cut where and when they will, because their 
actions cannot be controlled. Indiscriminate and unrestricted 
cutting in a very short time will do great harm to the forest and 
the damage cannot be repaired within a long period of time. 


The sweeping changes made in this act are unnecessary, 
because before the passage of the act needy residents of any 
province could secure, from forest officials stationed in the prov- 
inces, a gratuitous license permitting them to secure from the 
public forests, free of charge, sufficient timber for the construc- 
tion of a house, boat, agricultural implements, etc. Such licenses 
could be secured by needy applicants, but parties of means 
were prevented from securing the free use of timber. 

By the license method the control of forest operations re- 
mained in the hands of the government and the forest could be 
managed in a conservative manner. If the former scheme was 
not sufficiently elastic, it could have been made so very readily, 
and it is to be regretted that the law-making body of the Islands 
felt called upon to sacrifice the future interests of the country to 
the greed of the present. 

There always has been opposition manifested by a considerable 
element of both natives and Americans against any scheme of 
governmental supervision and control of forest operations on 
public lands because such supervision and control does not permit 
them to exploit the forests for their benefit. No doubt it was 
the influence of this class of people who were not eligible to free 


68 Forestry Quarterly 


use of timber under the former act, which brought about the 
change of the law. 

The class of natives who should receive the privilege of the 
free use of timber for domestic purposes, require but a small 
amount, preferring bamboo wherever it can be used because it is 
easier to transport and to work. 

The cutting and use of timber cannot be controlled in a satis- 
factory manner under existing conditions, and the way is opened 
for the fraudulent use of timber and other forest products. 

The Philippine Commission which is charged with the care 
and wise use of the public forests has certainly laid itself open 
to just criticism and by the shortsighted policy adopted has 
shown that the Commission does not appreciate the value of the 
forest lands entrusted to their charge, and that they have failed 
to profit by the experience of the United States, whose forest re- 
sources were so recklessly handled. 

It is unfortunate that a backward step has been taken in the 
administration of the forests of our insular possessions, for there 
practically virgin forests exist which if properly protected and 
managed would continue indefinitely to be a most valuable 
asset of the Philippine government. 

It is to be hoped that the situation will be appreciated before 
it is too late and steps taken to stop the backward progress of 
forest administration. 


In the Philippines as in various parts of tropical Asia, the 
practice of shifting cultivation is prevalent. Large areas of 
forest are annually destroyed by the natives for the purpose of 
clearing a small area on which a few crops are planted and the 
land is then abandoned. 

Stern measures were adopted to stop the practice, but impris- 
onment and fines failed to secure the desired results. In India 
the forest department encountered similar difficulties, but there 
they have been able to turn what appeared to be an undesirable 
practice to good use by encouraging the natives to plant teak 
seedlings on the lands, before they are abandoned. 

The class of natives in the Philippines engaged in making such 
clearings are frequently ignorant and ill informed as to the law, 
and but little is gained by the imposition of a fine upon them or 
by imprisonment because they have no funds with which to pay 


Current Literature 69 


a fine, and imprisonment is no hardship because they are fed 
without exerting themselves to secure the food. 

Shifting cultivation has been practiced for so many genera- 
tions that the right to practice it cannot wholly be denied the 
people. 

The present practice of the Bureau of Forestry is to issue per- 
mits for making caifigins, permission being refused for clearing 
tracts covered with large or valuable timber. 

The Director of Forestry recommends that the law be changed 
and municipal presidents given authority to grant permits only 
on such areas are are designated by the Chief of the Forest Dis- 
trict. This will prevent the clearing of lands where such clear- 
ings are undesirable and the waste of large amounts of timber 
each year. 

Marked progress was made during the year in the investiga- 
tion of market timbers by the timber-testing laboratory. In ad- 
dition to the mechanical tests, especial attention was given to the 
behavior of the woods in the dry kiln and in various processes of 
manufacture. 


Reliable information regarding the mechanical properties of 
thirty of the more important woods is now possessed by the 
Bureau of Forestry, and the accumulation of data on many other 
species has been carried on to a considerable extent. 


Mention is made of the intention to establish a Division of 
Forest Products. Since the report was written this division has 
been established to carry on the following lines of work: “to 
investigate the amount, character, value and uses of Philippine 
forest products and to bring this information to the notice of 
Philippine and foreign markets; to make special efforts to find 
new uses for native woods and to bring out the useful qualities of 
certain abundant woods not as yet sought by the native lumber- 
man.” The field before this division is certainly a broad one 
and work along the lines suggested is urgently needed. 

There was a marked decrease over the previous year in the 
number of licenses of all classes, except gratuitous, which were 
issued. This was largely due to the passage of the act permit- 
ting the free use of timber. The amount of timber cut under 
license decreased 50,000 cubic meters, and the revenues from the 
public forests was lower than during any previous years, except 


70 Forestry Quarterly 


1go1, the first year the Bureau of Forestry was established. 
This reduction in revenue amounting to more than $32,000 was 
due largely to the free cutting of timber for personal use. 

The Bureau of Forestry is now largely engaged in scientific 
work and in the examination, classification and mapping of the 
forest lands. But little progress can be made in the wise ad- 
ministration of the public forests until the act permitting the 
free use of timber, without license, is abolished, and the control 
of logging operations again placed directly in the hands of the 
Bureau. 


R, Cl 


Mechanical Tests, Properties, and Uses of Thirty Philippine 
Woods. By Rolland Gardner, Manager of the Timber Testing 
Laboratory. Bulletin No. 4 of the Philippine Bureau of For- 
estry, Manila, 1906. 69 pages, seven tables, and twelve stress 
diagrams. Contains also three pages description of the lumber 
industry in the islands. 


The material presented is necessarily of a preliminary nature, 
giving in a simple and readable form the results of tests made 
thus far. The publication is particularly valuable as a popular 
introducton to the mechanical arid physical characteristics of the 
numerous and greatly divergent kinds of wood in commercial use. 
From this view alone it is established as an important publication, 
but it is also of interest in a lesser degree from the technical 
standpoint. 

In the introduction by H. N..Whitford, it is stated that the 
results “represent the present knowledge of the subject and are 
not to be considered final, for such results can be obtained only 
from a large number of tests of properly identified botanical ma- 
terial from many locations and habitats.” 

In the beginning is given a simple and clear explanation of the 
methods and terms used in making the tests and calculating the 
various strength values which should be understandable even to 
one familiar with the subject of mechanics. Following this are 
the three principal tables of results from crossbending, longitu- 
dinal compression and shearing tests, and 11 stress diagrams 
of transverse compression. A few hardness tests are tabulated. 


Current Literature 71 


Next is given a cyclopaedic list of the species, giving their quali- 
ties, uses, derivation, and concurrent names. 

In the tables in which the average, maximum and minimum 
values are given for each group of tests, the results are grouped 
into three moisture conditions, over 35 per cent., 20 to 35 per 
cent. and under 20 per cent. It is unfortunate that the tests 
were not all made in the green or soaked condition as they would 
then have been comparable. Judging from our American woods 
(See Bulletin No. 70, Forest Service. “The Effect of Moisture 
upon the Strength and Stiffness of Wood’’) the strength should 
begin to increase rapidly when the moisture falls below 30 per 
cent. and the author himself states that the strength increases 
quite rapidly below 30 to 35 per cent. Therefore, tests made at 
varying moisture degrees of less than this cannot properly be 
averaged. An increase of as much as 400 per cent. in strength 
may occur in some of our woods from the green to the very dry 
condition, yet in the tables in one instance tests from 1.7 to 19.2 
per cent. moisture content are average together. 


The column given for ‘‘moisture over 35 per cent.” should 
therefore be used where actual strength values are wanted. In 
this column an average compressive strength of 8,000 lbs. per 
square inch is given for Ipil from Palawan, although considerable 
variation appears in this species, that from another locality being 
only 5,450 and individual specimens varying from 2,390 to 9,470. 
The same remarks apply to the crossbending tests of these 
species, although in the latter tests Tindalo comes out slightly 
ahead with a modulus of rupture of 15,000. Of the weaker 
woods Colantas from Albay has an average strength of scarcely 
3,000 per square inch, and a modulus of rupture in crossbending 
of 5,650. Banuyo falls below Colantus in bending tests, with a 
modulus of rupture of 5,140, but has a compressive strength of 
nearly 3,300. Comparing these with our own familiar woods, 
green Red Spruce has a compressive strength of 2,400 and a 
modulus of rupture of 5,200 while the same strength values for 
Hickory are 6,100 and 8,800 respectively. 

The table of shearing strength shows excessive irregularity, a 
variation of over 600 per cent. being averaged for one species. 
The specific gravities given in the tables are evidently not 
that of the dry wood, but of the green wood less the moisture. 


fe Forestry Quarterly 


What these figures represent is not clearly stated, but it is ap- 
parent that no account was taken of the shrinkage. Presuming 
these woods to shrink at least as much as our chestnut, the values 
given in the column headed “Specific gravity of dry wvod” 
should then be increased by at least 10 per cent. to be what the 
heading indicates. 

Taking them as they stand, it is a surprise to find that none of 
the woods average as high as .go and but few .85. Of the lighter 
woods, the average specific gravity given for Lauan is .45 and 
for Mayapis .40. Our red spruce has a specific gravity (actual 
dry wood) of .41 and hickory of .89. Sequoia gigantea is as low 
as .2Q. 

Johnson’s “apparent elastic limit” is given also in the tables, 
but no good reason is shown why this value is used at all. 

Quoting from the text, the author makes the following inter- 
esting statements : 

“Most Philippine woods are brittle, Dungon and Malugay 
being the only ones which have been investigated and found to 
possess the property of toughness to any considerable degree.” 

“Yacal and Guijo are among the stiffest woods.” 

“A strong wood is not necessarily stiff, nor is a stiff wood 
necessarily strong.” 

Speaking of the durability of woods, the author says that “in 
temperate zones ten years is considered a long life for an un- 
treated tie, but in these islands the extremely durable woods, like 
Ipil and Molave, are known to have been in the ground for more 
than ten years without any sign of decay.” Arango and Betis 
are highly valued because of their durability in sea water where 
subjected to attack of the teredo. 

The tests were made almost entirely upon timber purchased 
in the market. All beams were either 34 by 34 inches or four by 
4 inches, with span of 60 inches. The longitudinal compression 
specimens were of the same cross section as the beams and 8 
inches long. 

The transverse compression tests were made in a similar man- 
ner to which a rail presses across a tie, but with two widths 
of compression blocks, so that the effect of the cutting edges is 
calculated as distinct from the direct compression of the fibres 
beneath the block. Stress diagrams for these tests are given. 


i Pie Be Dai 55 


Current Literature 73 


First Annual Report of the State Forester of Wisconsin, 1900. 
Madison, 1906, 67 pp. 


The appearance of the First Annual Report of the Wisconsin 
State Forester marks an epoch in the history of Wisconsin’s for- 
ests. It tells of conservative interests strong enough to pass a 
comprehensive code of forest laws, a state definitely committed 
to a forest reserve policy, and executive forces fit to cope with the 
Herculean task of the reboisement of the Pineries. 

In the spring of 1904 Mr. E. M. Griffith of the Forest Service 
was appointed State forester. He entered, a lone scout in the 
van of forestry, as the rear of the army of Pine Barons pulled 
out for the South and the West. His first summer’s reconnais- 
sance revealed a considerable amount of good hemlock and hard- 
wood still standing; but lone black ram pikes towering above a 
barren of charred slash, or at best a crop of fire weeds for the 
most part marked the trail of the despoilers of the pine. The 
conservative forces, led by Hon. John M. Olin of Madison, had 
succeeded in reserving some 40,000 acres of State land about the 
headwaters of the Wisconsin. A few of the more farsighted 
lumbermen were already considering forest replacement on their 
cutover lands and the paper companies were alive to the impera- 
tive need of insuring a permanent supply of pulp wood. The 
large water power interests, particularly of the Wisconsin River, 
were suffering so much from irregularity of flow that they had 
bought many of the driving dams on the northern lakes and 
were seeking to control their streams by this reservoir system. 
The summer folk who frequent Wisconsin’s beautiful lake re- 
gion, were pleading for forest protection. So the lone forester 
soon found allies and in the spring of 1904 Mr. E. M. Griffith of 
the Forest Service was appointed State Forester. Backed by the 
conservative interests, he went to the Legislature in the winter of 
1905 and obtained the passage of the present Forest Code. 

To carry out its provisions, the law provides for a State board 
of forestry consisting of the president of the university, the di- 
rector of the geological survey, the dean of the agricultural de- 
partment, the attorney general, and one other member to be ap- 
pointed by the governor. They appoint the Forester at a salary 
of $2,500 and he selects his assistant at a salary of $1,500; their 
technical training being certified to by the U. S. Secretary of 


74 Forestry Quarterly 


Agriculture. In May, 1906, Mr. F. B. Moody, a graduate of the 
Michigan Forest School and a man of wide practical experience 
in Maine, was appointed Assistant Forester. 

Fire protection was the first requisite to any forestry work. 
“The law provides that the State forester shall also be state fire 
warden and that he shall appoint one or more town fire wardens 
for those organized towns in which he deems it necessary. ‘The 
fire wardens have the authority to call upon any citizen to assist 
them in fighting fires and both they and those whom they sum- 
mon receive such compensation as the town board may allow, 
not to exceed 25 cents per hour and subject to the approval of 
the forester. They have the power to arrest without warrant 
and, most important of all, can absolutely prohibit the setting of 
any fires during a dangerously dry time.” The system has been 
in operation hardly long enough to pass judgment upon it. Over 
300 wardens have been appointed and 20,000 notices posted. 
Their reports for 1905 show 160 fires, 76,000 acres burned, the 
service costing $1,500. Most of this area was cutover land which 
the people not unnaturally regard as fitted only for their pyro- 
technics. The information as to origin is rather meagre, but 
indicates that 60 per cent. of the fires are caused by settlers clear- 
ing land and burning for pasture, and 17 per cent. by campers. 
An admirable feature of the law is that it admits of cooperation 
between the State and lumbermen as is done so beneficially in 
Maine, and it is highly encouraging that the railroads have been 
eager to assist the State wherever possible. 

Trespass on State and Federal land has been one of the black- 
est spots in the history of the State, a crime fostered by a lenient 
government too largely controlled by the lumber kings. A halt 
has been called. Double stumpage values are now collected and 
criminal as well as civil action brought, and as the forester says: 
“The man who deliberately steals timber is gradually coming into 
his own, and is looked upon as twin brother to the horse thief.” 

But even more significant than these important protective 
measures is the creation of the forest reserves. All State lands in 
the northern part of the State, some 234,000 acres, have been 
turned over to the board of forestry. In addition, Congress 
passed Senator La Follette’s bill granting 20,000 acres of vacant 
government land, justifying the gift from the fact that the Wis- 


Current Literature 75 


consin reserves control important tributaries to the Mississippi. 
It is a cardinal policy of the State that only absolute forest land 
shall be reserved, the forester being empowered to sell all agri- 
cultural land and scattered forties. ‘The proceeds from sales of 
State lands together with the receipts from all forest products 
constitute a fund which shall be disbursed only for the pur- 
chase of lands to be added to the reserve, for its protection and 
improvement, and the employment of the necessary assistance 
therefor. Moneys from the sale of Federal lands is to be used 
only for forest replacement on the permanent State reserves. 

The control of stream flow is determining the selection of 
lands. A fairly compact body of 130,000 acres has been chosen 
about the splendid lakes in which the Wisconsin and Chippewa 
systems head. A second reserve is being formed about the St. 
Croix, and the State has been promised the donation of a con- 
siderable area along the Brule. Some 47,000 acres of In- 
dian lands, comprising the finest forests remaining in Wisconsin, 
are claimed by the State under the swamp land grant of 1850; 
but however the title is decided, the lands will be conservatively 
lumbered in codperation with the Forest Service. 

Not the least of the forester’s effort has been directed toward 
instructing the people, upon whose enlightenment depends the 
ultimate solution of the vast problems of the pineries. The latter 
half of the report sets forth in simple words the basic principles 
of forestry, vindicated always on the ground of sound finance. 

Such are the achievements of the conservative forces which 
Mr. Griffith has led for less than three years. He and the people 
he serves are indeed to be congratulated on having so vigorously 
grappled the task; at last proclaiming the welfare of the State 
to be above the spoilers’ unchecked greed. Raby N. 


Second Report of the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture 
and Forestry of the Territory of Hawai. Honolulu, 1906. 
240 pp. 


The most important work done by the Division of Forestry in 
Hawaii in 1905 was the creation of forest reserves. Besides the 
two reserves set aside in 1904, three new ones were created in 
1905 and two more up to March 1906, the total area of these 
seven being 68,901 acres. These reserves have been accurately 


76 Forestry Quarterly 


surveyed and mapped and the principal points on the boundaries 
marked with permanent monuments. They will be constantly 
added to as the government leases expire. The planters are 
becoming more interested in forestry through the enthusiastic 
and most creditable labors of Mr. Ralph S. Hosmer, Superin- 
tendent of Forestry and one firm has already turned over to the 
Board the management of some of its forest land. 


In forest extension, advice and assistance has been given in 
the form of planting and working plans and the distribution of 
seeds and seedlings at cost. Three rubber plantations have been 
started on the island of Maui, the Ceara rubber being mostly 
planted. November 3 was proclaimed by the Governor as Arbor 
Day, and 3,554 plants were set out by school children on that 
day. 

A new forest fire law, modeled upon that prepared by the U. 
S. Forest Service for California was passed. While this law 
provides admirably for a fire-fighting organization and estab- 
lishes penalties there is no money available for carrying out its 
provisions. 

Some of the Koa forests are being lumbered by private con- 
cerns under regulations such as the observance of a diameter 
limit, protection from fire and of young growth, and prevention 
of waste, imposed by the Superintendent of Forestry. 

Very durable telephone insulator pins are being manufactured 
at Hilo from the native Ohia Lehua. An interesting experiment 
in the durability of treated and untreated ties of the exotic Iron- 
wood (Casuarina equisetifolia) was started in cooperation with 
the Oahu Railway and Land Company. 

The interesting reports from the District Foresters on the sev- 
eral islands show that forest areas exposed to the ravages of 
cattle are more susceptible in their weakened condition to the 
attacks of insects, but that when once protected from cattle and 
fire these areas will soon revert to a healthy and vigorous growth 
of native trees. On the island of Kauai from one district over a 
hundred head of cattle roaming wild in the woods were exter- 
minated. 

Through the energetic work of Mr. Hosmer the creation of 
new reserves will still hold first place. The next step, a most im- 
portant one, is to establish a proper system of forest reserve ad- 


Current Literature 77 


ministration. So far, the reserves have been practically only on 
paper, but it is to be hoped that the coming Legislature will 
appropriate sufficient funds to enable Mr. Hosmer to carry out 
his plans for an efficient ranger service for the administration of 
the reserves. 


Cine 


Report of Forest Commissioner, Maine, 1906. Augusta, 1906 
pp. 218. 


This report closely resembles preceding biennial reports. The 
brief notes on trees are an innovation, and an amplification of the 
information concerning each species, would make this part of 
much greater value in future reports. Professor Tower’s work- 
ing plan for Indian Township is an excellent piece of work and 
should be of value to owners of similar tracts of forest in eastern 
Maine. The major portion of Bulletin 24 of the Forest Service 
is included in the report with the purpose of extending ele- 
mentary knowledge of forestry. The illustrations throughout 
the volume are well chosen and add greatly to the value of the 
various articles published. 

In connection with the portion of this report dealing with the 
progress of forestry in the State, some facts are of especial in- 
terest. Until 1903 progress in practical measures of State for- 
estry had been slight. In that year an appropriation was made 
to begin educational work in forestry and to carry out a system 
of fire protection for unincorporated townships. The fire 
warden system was modified in 1905 to provide better fire pro- 
tection by dividing the State into districts in which the fire 
wardens report directly to the chief warden and he in turn to the 
commissioner. The chief wardens are given the right of arrest 
without warrant. The most important part of the law was the 
provision for adequate fire patrol in seasons of great fire danger. 
The 1906 report shows that the system, thus inaugurated, is efh- 
cient. An additional point of interest is the success of lookout 
stations. Several of these have been established on suitable 
points and maintained by cooperation of the State with certain 
lumber companies. The use of a range finder for locating fires 
from these stations and the reporting of fires by direct telephone 
connection with the house of the chief warden have been success- 
ful, and these measures may well be utilized in other States. 


78 Forestry Quarterly 


Educational work in forestry has been centered in the State 
University. Outside of this, lectures of instruction have been 
given to a limited number of clubs, farmers’ granges, and normal 
schools in the State. 

The recommendation of Professor Tower in the 1906 Report 
that Indian Township, Washington County, be made a State Re- 
serve would inaugurate a new policy of great value to the State. 

One phase of forestry as yet untouched is the practical cooper- 
ation by the State with landowners in making plans for forest 
management of woodlands and for forest planting. There is 
great need for such practical instruction in forestry in southern 
Maine, especially, and in other parts of the State. Much wider 
general instruction for the people by means of addresses is also 
essential. This work naturally constitutes part of the duties of 
a State Forester, and it cannot be expected that the professor of 
forestry at the State University can perform such work in addi- 
tion to his present duties. 

The next step in the progress of forestry in Maine should be 
the apointment of a technically trained man as State Forester in 
the State Department of Forestry. Besides the duties already 
mentioned the State Forester would be of great assistance to the 
Commissioner in directing the forest fire service of the State and 
superintending work on State Reserve land. A movement is 
now on foot to form a Maine Forestry Association, and such an 
organization should encourage this further development of for- 
estry in Maine. 


». N.S: 


Report of the State Forester of California, for 1905 to 1906. 
Sacramento, 1906. 39 pp. 


Those who have followed State forestry work and especially 
those who are interested in systems of fire protection, will wel- 
come the first public report of the California State Forester. 

The office of State Forester was created March 18, 1905, and 
the first officer, Mr. FE. T. Allen was succeeded by Mr. G. B. Lull, 
the present incumbent on July 1, 1906. 

The report covers the entire period since the creation of the 
office, and is presented in such an order and in such a manner, 
as to illustrate the arguments and aims of the forester. 


Current Literature 79 


The first part of the report is largely educational and discusses 
the effect of fire on the forests of the State, the influence of for- 
ests on stream flow, and the function of the State in regulating 
its resources. 

A brief retrospect of the forestry movement in the State, as 
well as a sketch of the co-operative work between the Forest 
Service is given. 

So far no technical forestry has been accomplished by the 
State, but a planting plan for one lumber company is now in 
preparation. 

The all absorbing problem so far has been that of fire protec- 
tion. The present system which was drawn up carefully unde1 
the guidance of the Forest Service and modified somewhat 
before passage by the State Legislature provides for fire districts, 
and wardens to be appointed by the forester for these districts. 

Wardens do not patrol, but have the power of arrest and serve 
without pay, unless remunerated by private individuals or coun- 
ties. Efforts have been made to persuade each county to appro- 
priate money to repay the wardens for actual service performed. 
So far only ten out of thirty-seven counties have responded. 
Three of these have appointed their Game Wardens, chief fire- 
wardens, with patrol duties, and this has proved to be the most 
satisfactory method. The wardens in the other seven counties 
are paid only for time spent in fighting fires, and aside from the 
posting of notices, nothing is done towards prevention. 

The present system was considered more or less of an experi- 
ment, and has served its purpose in as much as it has established 
a forest fire-warden system, although not a perfect one, yet one, 
the good results of which the people apreciate, and it has se- 
cured this protection at a minimum cost to the State. 

Probably, only in such a State as California where its citizens 
are accustomed to propagandist work, and where private individ- 
uals often serve the public free, could the present system of vol- 
untary fire wardens be of any practical value. 

The wardens generally have performed yeoman service, in dis- 
tributing circulars containing the laws, in posting warning no- 
tices, and in fighting fires, but they are not efficient in convicting 
offenders against the fire laws, and naturally are not required to 
patrol. 


80 Forestry Quarterly 


Magistrates also are loth to involve the counties in the expense 
of prosecution, so that arrests and convictions are few and con- 
fined mainly to the southern counties where timber is scarce. 

Most of the fires occurred during the dry period from May to 
November, and from the 120 reports sent in to the forester’s 
office, the following causes were attributed: 


Unknown and miscellaneous, (3. scoc ese) otc eee 51.02% 
Sparks, <dronmi? engines. ace ce cot oe ees oe Oe LEE ee 14.18 
Clearing Magid tic f Mtaacerd bee oboe eileen eee eee 10.00 
Camp wrest oes te ee oe OE Peo eee Eee 10.00 
JEST iach sl} aU S epee ha Actas Hoe mea lide GASH AE ailg coat 8.33 
MaliCiGUSnessst iy: Sic tase ot ks ine eel ee lee ee Eee 4.16 
TOPPING: 6 EL Uy te aces Src rnche tes dies es Uh teis eer ee ania oe ee 25 


The forester recommends several changes to the existing laws, 
the more important of which are briefly: 

1. That the district wardens should be salaried patrolmen, hay- 
ing no other business. 

2. That the State Forester should have control over these posi- 
tions. 

3. Reliable citizens desiring powers of wardens should still be 
appointed, but only district wardens should be empowered to 
compel assistance in putting out fire, and this work should be 
paid at the rate of 25 cents per hour, 

4. In case the county is willing to co-operate with the State, 
they should share equally the cost of the system of protection, 
but in case a county fails to co-operate and still there is need of 
protection, wardens should be appointed, and the State should as- 
sess the county one-half the expenses, but retain all the fees from 
fines as in the present law. 

A definite system of fire protection has been worked out in the 
California Redwood Park where a fire line 30-60 feet wide runs 
around the tract for 28 miles, and has cost from $150.00 to 
$175.00. In addition to the lines surrounding the park, several 
short secondary lines have been cut along cross spurs inside the 
park, to form further barriers in case a fire crosses the outside 
lines. 

As a further precaution a paid warden and other employees 
keep strict watch over campers and visitors, to prevent any out- 
break of fire. It is encouraging to point out that during the last 


Current Literature SI 


two years of this policy no fires have crossed over the lines into 
the park. 

In his report Mr. Lull has succeeded in touching upon nearly 
every phase of forestry work in California, and the report aside 
from its educational value, is a good index of the scope of for- 
estry work in that region. Bs he 


Fourth Annual Report of the Society for the Protection of 
New Hampshire Forests, for the year 1905-1906. 81 pp. 


The report of this society shows a large and increasing interest 
in the forestry situation in New Hampshire, largely brought 
about by the activity of this society. Among its achievements 
during the past year are: 

1. Aid toward securing a National Forest Reservation in the 
White Mountains. The bill has passed the Senate and has been 
favorably reported to the House by a unanimous vote of the 
Committee on Agriculture. 

2. The educational work of the society in New Hampshire 
has continued by means of addresses, the distribution of litera- 
ture, etc.; as in previous years. 

3. The forester has examined many pieces of woodland, mak- 
ing for some of them maps and plans for conservative cutting. 
These include two of the largest islands in Lake Winnipiseogee, 
one of which would otherwise have been swept clean. ‘The for- 
ester of the society has been made the forester of Dartmouth Col- 
lege and has charge of the college forest of twenty-six thousand 
acres of land in northern New Hampshire. 

4. In the spring three plantations of white pine were super- 
vised. 

5. Three nurseries of white pine and spruce seedlings have 
been established, germinating in the spring of 1906 nearly half a 
million seedlings. 

6. A study has been made of the forest work of other States 
in the Union, a printed statement of which occurs in the report. 

Included in the printed report are a number of articles of con- 
siderable importance relative to the details of the Forest Reserva- 
tion bill before Congress, the forest fire situation in New Hamp- 
shire, the present and future prospects of forestry in the State, 
the effect of logging on reproduction and a discussion of forest 

6 


82 Forestry Quarterly 


and fire legislation. In this last mentioned article the executive 
committee has brought out the important features of the forest 
laws in Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Vermont, Connecti- 
cut, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Indiana, Iowa, Louis- 
iana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Colorado and Utah, 
Washington, California and Canada and has shown how New 
Hampshire may profitably draw from the examples of these 
States a set of laws which will insure more protection from fire 
and inaugurate a forest policy fitted for the particular needs of 
the State of New Hampshire. 

The fifth annual meeting of the society was held at Concord, 
N. H., in May, 1906, when the usual routine business was trans- 
acted and reports of committees and officers received, followed 
by addresses from Mr. Asa F. Williams, forester of the Berlin 
Mills Co., on “Influence of Logging Upon Natural Reproduc- 
tion,’ and by Dr. Hopkins, of Washington, on “Insects Injurious 
to the Forests of New Hampshire.” 

The people interested in the welfare of New Hampshire seem 
to be waking up to the needs of greater activity throughout the 
State by efficient laws, encouragement to private lumbering con- 
cerns and individual owners. The Society for the Protection of 
New Hampshire Forests deserves great credit for its work of the 
past year. With this co-operation and encouragement, and the 
natural facilities of the State for forest growth, the future seems 
very bright for New Hampshire. J. Bake 


The First Annual Report of the Commission of Forestry of 
Rhode Island. Providence, 1907. 12 pp. 


This report is interesting as representing the first effort put 
forth by that State towards the establishment of a forest policy. 
It is written in a clear and pleasing popular style and contains 
many suggestions for the future work of the State, but no con- 
tributions of technical importance to foresters. 


Review of Forest Administration in British India, 1904-05. 
Calcutta, 1906. 61 pp. 


This report shows that marked progress has been made in In- 
dia in every feature of forest management. ‘The total area of 


Other Current Literature 83 


forest land now under the management of the Forest Department 
amounts to 232,941 sq. miles. Working plans are in operation on 
37,977 sq. miles, nearly 4,000 square miles being added each year. 
There is an attempt to protect from fire 39,464 sq. miles, suc- 
cessful on 95.4 per cent. Grazing is permitted on 195,138 sq. 
miles, although on a portion no browsers are admitted. The total 
number of grazing animals on public forest land is upwards of 
13,000,000 buffaloes, cows, bullocks, goats, sheep, and camels. 
The financial returns are greater than ever before. The net 
revenue was 11,062,094 rupees, 54 % of the gross receipts. 
FS.) G: 


The Quarterly Journal of Forestry. Volume 1. London, 
1907. $1. 


This publication replaces the “Transactions of the Royal 
English Arboricultural Society, and the Irish Forestry Society.” 
It is designed, not only to present the Transactions at the Asso- 
ciation meetings, but to contain original articles and book reviews 
which could not be included in an ordinary annual publication. 
The publication of this journal is an indication of the growing 
interest in forestry in England. It is edited by a Board of Edi- 
tors, of which W. R. Fisher of the English Forest School at Ox- 
ford is the head. The first number contains a number of original 
articles, chiefly of local interest in England. HS Gs 


OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. 


Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry of the Philip- 
pine Islands, 1905. From the Report of the Philippine Commis- 
sion, part 2, pages 265-290. Bureau of Insular Affairs, War 
Department. Washington. Government Printing Office, 1906. 


Opportunities for Lumbering in the Philippine Islands. Bu- 
reau of Forestry, Circular No. 1. Manila, P. I. December 1, 
1906. Government of the Philippine Islands. Department of 
the Interior. pp. 5. 


84 Forestry Quarterly 


Forest Nurseries and Nursery Methods in Europe. By Wil- 
liam F. Fox. Reprint from the Eighth and Ninth Reports of 
the Forest, Fish and Game Commission. State of New York. 
J. B. Lyon Company, State Printers, Albany, N. Y. pp. 34, 
plates 12. This publication contains an interesting description of 
nurseries, in various parts of Europe, which were visited by the 
author. 


Rules and Specifications for the Grading of Lumber. By. E. 
R. Hodgson. Bulletin No. 71. U.S. Forest Service. Washing- 


ton, 1906, 127 pp. 


Brief Review of the Depredations Upon the Adirondacks Ac- 
complished or Attempted During the Past Few Years. Circular 
No. 9 of the Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks. 
New York, 1907. 


Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, 
volume X, part 3. Studies of Mexican and Central American 
Plants No. 5. By J. N. Rose. Washington, 1906. 132 pp. 


A Study of Rhus glabra. By Edward L. Greene. Proceedings 
of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Washington, Decem- 
ber, 1906. 


Wolves, in Relation to Stock, Game, and the National Forest 
Reserves. By Vernon Bailey. Bull. No. 72, U. S. Forest Ser- 
vice. Washington, 1907. 31 pp. 


Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, vol. 
XX, part 1. Edinburgh, 1907. Contains among other interest- 
ing articles: Preparation of Working Plans for British Wood- 
lands, The Large Larch Sawfly, and Notes on Continental For- 


estry in 1906. 


Note on The Chilgoza Forests of Zhob and the Takht-l-Suli- 
man. By. E. P. Stebbing. Forest Bulletin No. 7, Calcutta, 1906. 


Instructions to Engineers of Timber Tests. By W. Kendrick 
Hatt. Circular No. 38, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, 


1906. 55 pp. 


Other Current Literature 85 


Forest Planting in Eastern Nebraska. By F. G. Miller. Cir- 
cular No. 45, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, December, 


1906. 32 pp. 


Holding Force of Railroad Spikes in Wooden Ties. By W. 
Kendrick Hatt. Circular No. 46. Washington, December, 1906. 


7 PP. 


Strength of Packing Boxes of Various Woods. By W. Ken- 
drick Hatt. Circular No. 47. Washington, December, 1906. 


8 pp. 


Kiln-Drying Hardwood Lumber. By Frederick Dunlap. Cir- 
cular No. 48, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, 1906. 


Timber Used in the Mines of the United States in 1905. By 
R. S. Kellogg. Circular No. 49, U. S. Forest Service. Wash- 
ington, December, 1906. 


Wood Used for Distillation in 1905. By H. M. Hale. Circu- 
lar No. 50, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, 1906. 3 pp. 


Wood Used for Veneer in 1905. By H. M. Hale. Circular 
No. 51. Washington, 1906. 4 pp. 


The Lumber Cut in the United States in 1905. By S. R. Kel- 
logge. Circular No. 52, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, 1906. 


Wood Used for Tight Cooperage Stock in 1905. By H. M. 
Hale. Circular No. 53, U. S. Forest Service. Washington, 1906. 


8 pp. 


Effect of Moisture upon the Strength and Stiffness of Wood. 
By Harry Donald Tieman. Bulletin No. 70, U. S. Forest Service, 


Washington, 1906. 14 pp. 


PERIODICAL LITERATURE. 


In Charge: 
Botanical TS Oarngds 2. nie seco win sie ieve webs ols ym eee R. T. FIsHER 
Foreign Journals .......... B. E. Fernow, R. Zon, F. DUNLAP 
POPAZAUGISEN IT OBTRALS |i /oh2 stata conte so vieiseie loins eines eile H. P. BAKER 
LPGRE FOUTWGIS OS. csi tee elects emis F. Rorg and J. F. KuMMEL 


BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 


A photograph of three spruces, standing to- 
Tree gether on a pasture near Le Locle, Switzer- 
Forms. land, are remarkable exhibits of the varia- 
bility in form of that species, which has 
been designated by Schréter as the most variable of European 
forest trees. Of the three trees, which Pillichody describes the 
most inexplicable fact is their occurrence side by side, the one a 
broad-crowned rather open-branched, tall tree of 90 feet, the 
second a narrow columnar crown with somewhat pendulous 
branches of 80 feet, the third a short stumpy, almost globular 
very compact form of about 60 feet height; all three between 32 
and 36-inch diameter, and between 100 and 120 years of age. 
What accident, the author asks, brought these three forms here 
together? If the columnar form owes its shape to the abundant 
snowfall, how could its companion develop its broad expanse of 
branches? If the wind is responsible for the compact globular 
form of the third, how have the other two escaped its influence? 
What is to be thought of adaptation to local conditions? And 
why did the tree with the broadest branches attain the greatest 
height, overreaching even the columnar form? No theories of 
explanation are offered. 


Ein Spiel der Natur. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen. No- 
vember, 1906, pp. 335-337. 


The biological causes of the annual leaf 

Annual fall, which according to Wiesner is sup- 

Leaf Fail. posed to be due to reduced transpira- 
tion, is on the hand of experiments ex- 

plained by Dingler to be caused by the physiological age of the 


Periodical Literature 87 


leaves. He removed on a number of trees of some nine species, 
in January and February, all branches, even the smallest that 
bore buds, and the top, leaving only naked boles. In these the 
leafing out not only, but the leaf fall took place much later than 
in the individuals left unimpaired for comparison. Leaves of the 
trimmed Blue Beech did not freeze in spite of a frost of several 
days duration. Not only the size of the leaves due to the more 
favorable relation of roots and buds, but to a degree also the per- 
sistence of the leaves on the trimmed trees continued the second 
year. 


Versuche und Gedanken zum herbstichen Laubfall. Bericht der Deut- 
schen Botanischen Gesellschaft, 1905. 


Winter rest, it appears from investigations 


Functions of Simon and others, and cessation of func- 
m tions may be due to internal disposition or 
Winter. to climatic changes. An autogenous rest 


pertains to diameter growth which is ended 
in August. A really autogenous rest also belongs to the buds 
of the year and, with exceptions, to poorly developed basal buds, 
but other buds for instance of oak and basswood may be started 
into life during the rest period by proper conditions. Of especial 
and practical interest is, that while the cambial meristem has in 
general a strongly accentuated rest period, it is capable of react- 
ing to wounds by callous formation during the whole rest period. 
Bark (of Ribes for instance) may be induced to form prolifera- 
tions even without wounding it at any time in the winter. 

While most meristem remains totally inactive, remaining in 
forced idleness, this is less pronounced in the root tips. 

Neither the wandering of materials, nor the respiration ever 
ceases, and under favorable conditions these functions may attain 
considerable intensity, possibly dependent in this respect largely 
upon the amount of reserve materials at disposal of the plant. A 
long continued frost produces increased respiration. 

Untersuchungen tiber das Verhalten einiger Wachstumsfunktionen sowie 


der Atmungstatigkeit der Laubhélzer wihrend der Ruheperiode. Jahr- 
buch fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik, 1906, H. I. 


88 Forestry Quarterly 


The question as to the forces at work as 


Movement well as the passages participating in the 
of movement of sap in trees, still remains only 
Sap. partially answered. Ursprung finds living 


cells do not always but do sometimes 
participate in conducting water. In most of the investigated 
stems and branches the lifting force of the living cells was oper- 
ative except in the bast cells of beech. Living wood cells are 
necessary to aid in conducting water through the whole length 
of the stem, if they are killed the rest of the conducting tissue 
does not carry sufficient water. In comparison to the purely 
physical forces the author attributes a very great significance to 
the lifting power of the living cells. 

[This finding lends color to the theory of the editor that even- 
tually it will be found that water movement is probably almost 
entirely dependent upon food movement and that the latter is not, 
as at present held, confined to certain tissues. The necessity of 
sawing through the sapwood of sap wood trees in order to kill 
them depends on this theory. B. E. F.] 


Die Beteiligung lebender Zellen am Saftsteigen. Jahrbiicher fiir wissen- 
schaftliche Botanik, 1906. 


In connection with the description of a 

Age of Trees Linden tree of unusual dimensions situated 

in the near Breingarten in the Aargau, namely 

Open. with a diameter of 8 feet and go feet in 

height in perfectly vigorous condition, Dr. 

Fankhauser raises the question in general of the estimate of age 

of trees grown in the open. Conflicting testimony regarding the 

time of planting of this particular tree places the age between 128 

and 180 years, an apparently low age for the size. But the 

author adduces a number of examples, which show that dimen- 

sions of trees grown in the open mislead in estimating the age. 

Thus an oak with about 5 feet diameter which had been estimated 

at 300 to 400 years, counted 105 rings, some an inch in width; 

another of 10 feet diameter, supposed to be over 1,000 years old 

was found to be 250. Elms of 34 feet diameter were only 82 

years old. English walnuts of similar dimension, supposed to 

have been planted 600 years ago were found between 100 and 145 
years. old. 


Periodical Literature 89 


Two spruces, growing on precisely the same site, the one en- 
tirely in the open, the other a co-dominant tree in close forest 
both exactly 25 m high were felled and carefully measured and 
analyzed, to establish a relationship between the amount of foli- 
age and the mass production, or inferentially between crown de- 
velopment and age. 

The open-grown spruce produced 3105 Kg of branch wood 
and brush and 1170 Kg or 137 million needles, 117,000 to the 
Kg. The one from the forest produced only 292 Kg. branch 
wood and brush with 95 Kg. or 14 million needles, 146,000 to the 
Kg. 

The first with 80 annual rings had a diameter of 23 inches, and 
a total of wood of 4.25 m*; the second had in 120 years attained 
only 14 inches diameter and a total wood content of only 1.22 m*, 
and in the 80th year its contents were only .40 m*, hardly one- 
tenth of the open grown tree. While the weight of foliage of 
the two trees was as 100 : 8.1, the amount of wood was as 
100 : 9.4. If allowance is made for the probable damage to the 
open grown tree by cattle during the first 20 years, these relations 
are indeed close. 


Ueber das Alter freistehender Baume. Schweizerische Zeitschrift ftir 
Forstwesen, January 1907, pp. I-12. 


A fungus disease, which had been supposed 

Witches’ Broom to be specific on Pseudotsuga taxifolia, has 

on been found by Dr. Zederbauer to be the 

Douglas Fir. same as Botrytis cinerea of the European 

fir and spruce. The young shoots are in- 

fected in spring and summer and, collapsing, hang down with 

their dead needles spun over by gray mycelium, black sclerotia 

appearing on them in large numbers. Usually only side shoots 

are attacked and when at the base of the dead shoot some 3 to 

5 dormant buds develop making short shoots in the same or fol- 

lowing year, to be again attacked and replaced by repair shoots, 
the result is a witches’ broom. 

[The Editor has seen in Southern Oregon a Douglas Fir forest 
of old timber in which for miles apparently every tree was full 
of witches’ brooms undoubtedly due to fungus disease, whether 
specifically the same or not. ] 


90 Forestry Quarterly 


The disease is very infectious. In the nursery spraying with 
copper poisons will arrest it, or else the removal of infected 
plants. 


Die Folgen der Triebkrankheit der Pseudotsuga Douglasti Carr. Cen- 
tralblatt fur das gesammte Forstwesen. November, 1906, pp. 459-462. 


The form of Fagus silvatica, known as var. 

Blood sanguinea, Copper Beech or Blood Beech 

Beech. had been supposed to have been first and 

alone found in the forests near Sonders- 

hausen, Thuringia, and that this tree, now estimated 200 years 

old, had furnished all the progeny of blood beeches. It now 

turns out that in 1680 and again in 1706 three beeches with red 

leaves were noted at Buch in the canton of Zurich; and a legend 

among the people has it that where they stand five brothers were 

murdered and as a result five beeches sprinkled with blood had 

grown up, of which the three remained. At present only one has 

survived without any progeny. There is also reported from the 

mountains at Roveredo in South Tirol that blood beeches are 

frequently found. 

It is, therefore, probable that this variation originated in sev- 

eral localities independently. 


Die Blutbuchen. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, Novem- 
ber, 1906, pp. 340-342. 


The well known publication of illustrations 

Mexican of vegetation by E. Stahl brings in its 

Conifers. third volume, second series well executed 

pictures of Mexican conifers, by Karten 

and Schenk. These Mexican conifers comprise 3 species of 

Cupressus, 5 species of Juniperus, one each of Taxus, Taxodium, 

Pseudotsuga and Abies, and 17 species of Pinus. Of these, Pinus 

patula, Taxodium mucronatum, Cupressus Bentham and Abies 
religiosa are represented on six sheets. 


Mexikanische Nadelhélzer. C. Stahl, II Reihe, Heft 3. 


Periodical Literature gl 


SOIL, WATER, AND CLIMATE. 


At the meeting of the International Associ- 
Forest Influence ation of Forest Experiment Stations, Prof. 
on Engler reported on the observations of the 
Water Flow. Swiss Station regarding the run-off from 
forested and de-forested slopes. The ob- 
servations were made for three years by tri-daily readings in 
specially constructed drainage channels, afterwards by self-regis- 
tering “limnigraphs” and 3 rain gauges (at three elevations), in 
addition to one self-registering. Two areas, one of about 140 
acres, the other 175 acres were brought in comparison, lying 
between gio and 1260 m elevation, the former to the extent of 
97% forested, of which 71% old timber, spruce, fir and beech, 
the latter 68% in meadows and pasture, 32% forested with coni- 
fers, mismanaged wood lots. Although the geological formation 
and character of the slope were nearly alike, there were slight 
differences in favor of the deforested slope, in that it had more, 
and more constant flow of springs and more terraces, which re- 
tard the run-off, than the forested slope. 
Altogether, the speaker pointed out, it is almost impossible to 
secure identical conditions, in which only the forest cover differs. 


The measurements of the run-off were made in channels by 
measuring the heights over weirs according to the formula 
g=mX1Xhv2gh, or else by measuring small quantities from 
time to time in gauged reservoirs, (limnigraphs) ; at each water 
station there are three run-off channels, which can be closed by 
a gate, so that the water may be made to flow through one, two 
of three channels, an electric apparatus regulating the opening. 
One of these channels is made to be self-recording by a pointer 
on a float, which registers every five minutes. 

Conclusions on three points were reached, namely as to the 
‘influence of forest cover in very intensive rain falls, in rapid 
melting of snow, and on springs during dry seasons. 

Since floods depend on maximum water stages, their observa- 
tion is specially important. For the behavior in the very largest 
rainfalls that may be experienced data are still absent, but for 
usual high water stages the measurements, corrected for differ- 
ences of condition, show that 30 to 50% less water runs off from 


92 Forestry Quarterly 


the forested slope. Especially in the beginning the difference is 
very large, the run-off from the deforested slope being very much 
larger than from the forested one, later there comes a time when 
more water flows from the latter, as is to be expected, the time 
element as well as the quantity of run-off varying. 

This variation is also noted in rapid thaws, although it is not so 
great. During snowy weather the run-off is very even, increas- 
ing in the afternoon. Snowfall reduces and retards run-off, so 
that, although precipitation is greater in the mountains, 
changing into snow prevents floods in the mountains. 

“In the torrents thaws do not have much significance; but in 
the rivers large water masses accumulate, and if the thaws are 
sudden, floods may be occasioned. At such times ponds and 
lakes in the mountains play a great role in retarding the flood 
waters.” 

The longer continuance of springs during dry periods on the 
forested slopes was satisfactorily demonstrated. 

Prof. Buhler in addition reported from the Wurtemberg Sta- 
tion on observations regarding the drying out of soils under 
vegetation, to the effect that a much lower ground water level 
was found under forest growth than in meadows. Ebermayer 
and Hartman in Bavaria had found no difference between forest 
and field as regards ground water level, while Ototzky in the 
steppes of Russia, where as in Tubingen low rainfall prevails, 
came to the same result as Buhler. 

Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- 


suchsanstalten. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, January, 1907, 
PP. 35-40. 


At the International Association of Forest 


Classification Experiment Stations, which convened in 
of September, 1906, in Wurtemberg, an inter- 
Humus. esting exhibition of different forms of 


humus, 369 samples in all, typical for a 
great variety of localities in all parts of Germany, Denmark and 
Hungary was made. The object was to furnish a basis for classifi- 
cation and formulation of a uniform nomenclature, which the As- 
sociation has undertaken. The samples were exhibited in boxes, 
5Ox16x10 cm., showing six differentiated and separated (by tin 
sheets) layers, namely, 1. the top layer of leaves, moss, heather, 


Periodical Literature 93 


huckleberry, grass, etc.; 2. the layer of litter in which humifica- 
tion has begun; 3. the upper layer of soil mixed with remnants 
of litter, etc.; 4. the layer darkly colored by humus; 5. the layer 
highly colored; 6. the next deeper uncolored layer of soil. 

The most complete series, from Wurtemberg, comprised sam- 
ples from all formations, all localities and climatic regions, ages, 
species of trees, etc., so that e. g. the spruce humus from lowest 
elevations to 1,000 m., from driest localities (7oo mm.) to the 
wettest of the Black Forest (2,000 mm.) was represented. 

In this connection Dr. Potonié, whose classification of humus 
formations was briefed in vol. IV, p. 323 of the QUARTERLY, ex- 
plained the formation of bog-iron ore (Ortstein) and other so- 
called bioliths, rock formations in which plant organisms partici- 
pate. These combustible bioliths are classified in three groups, 
sapropelites, humus rocks, and pyromonimites (amber). 


The sapropelites originate in stagnant and half stagnant 
waters under exclusion of oxygen, by deposit of water plants 
(plankton) and oily algae, they consist of fats and oils and not of 
carbohydrates. If the water is rich in lime, lime organisms 
(algae) grow and settling on the ground form “sea chalk.” If 
the water gradually loses the lime a chalky mud forms at the 
bottom, the so-called saprocoll, a gelatine-like or rubber-like 
tarry mass, and if silica-organisms are present a silicate (Kiesel- 
gur). 

The second class, humus rocks, originate from carbohydrates, 
on the sapropelite deposits when these reach the surface of the 
water; these then form boggy surfaces on which a vegetation of 
Scirpeae, cattails, etc., establishes itself and by their decay turf 
of varying description originates, varying as sapropelite compo- 
nents decrease; finally as the soil becomes securer tree growth 
establishes itself and a swamp forest turf forms. When this has 
grown away from the influence of the ground water level, a new 
vegetation, of mosses (sphagnum), comes in and, quickly in- 
creasing, prevents further tree growth. 

Potonié explains especially the origin of Alpine humus, which 
has been hitherto obscure; it is a raw humus of friable or granu- 
lar nature, washed down to lower levels, on which tree growth 
thrives well. In Alpine situations on account of the humidity of 
the air always raw humus is formed, which through the masses 


94 Forestry Quarterly 


of snow is compressed and pushed downward, opens up and is 
exposed to the air when it becomes granular and is washed to 
lower levels forming deep deposits. It is in these washed turf 
formations that amber of recent origin 7. e. resin of spruce and 
pine are found. 


Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- 
suchsanstalten in Wurtemberg, 1906. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte 
Forstwesen. January, 1907, pp. 30-33. 


SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION. 


At a meeting of the Silesian Foresters As- 


Influence sociation the question of the significance of 
of light requirements was discussed, depre- 
Light. ciating its importance. 


“The trees which are designated as in- 
tolerant can also grow well under cover and under side shade; 
not the light but also other conditions of life must be considered, 
especially the competition of other trees, whose roots remove 
moisture from the soil. If this competition is removed—if e. g. 
pine volunteer growth under the cover of older stands is sur- 
rounded by a ditch of 10 inch depth, cutting through all the 
roots of the old trees—the volunteer growth develops remarkably 
in spite of the shade.” Further investigation of the light re- 
quirement theory is to be recommended. 

Another speaker points out that volunteer growth is often 
absent in very open pine stands, in which he usually found stout 
shallow roots pervading the top soil, keeping it dry. 

By carrying out the proposition of ditching, not only did the 
soil flora change, but poor volunteer growth at once doubled the 
length of its annual shoots and needles. As a result of this ob- 
servation he had begun to regenerate large areas of pine by this 
means, contemplating a regeneration period of 70 to 80 years. 
To reduce the cost of the ditching the regeneration is to be made 
in continuous strips, these strips to be half the height of the old 
timber wide and running East to West, when the humus is kept 
moist and the young crop in the half shade develops a slender 
clear growth. To be sure, these strips also invite grass, which 


Periodical Literature 95 


may become injurious. [For an extended review of these ideas 
see ForESTRY QuARTERLY vol. II, pp. 226-230. 


Versammlungen norddeutscher Forstvereine. Allgemeine Forst-und 
Jagdzeitung. November, 1906, pp. 387, 288. 


The experiences in plantations during the 

Silvicultural prolonged drouth which prevailed in Switz- 

Notes. erland last summer leads Dr. Fankhauser 

to point out some silvicultural suggestions, 

applicable everywhere. The finest plant material, if not care- 

fully handled, from nursery to plant hole succumbs, hence espe- 

cially in drouthy years material grown nearby, even if not as fine 

is preferable as it is easier to protect it against drying out. The 

results with fresh, untransplanted stock, except where weed 

growth calls for transplants, have been satisfactory in many 

places. Dug material from natural regenerations is most unsat- 
isfactory, especially in drouthy years. 

The author asks why the cheaper sowing seems to have been 
superseded by planting, pointing out good results in various 
places (not on the dry limestone soils!), and that even if the sow- 
ing fails once or twice, it is so cheap as to permitseveral repetitions 
and yet be less expensive than planting. 

A special point is made on the value of a protective cover 
(Schutzholz) ; nowhere did plants suffer when planted under 
such cover. 

“Instead of allowing a plantation on poor soil and exposed 
position to worry along for decades or to see it decimated by 
frost and drouth, it would be more practical to follow nature, to 
first establish a nursecrop of easily started species and introduce 
the more valuable species later under its protection. A loss of 
time is hardly experienced, since it is fully offset by the better 
development. Nor is there any greater cost, since the total num- 
ber of plants is but slightly increased, or the nurse crop can be 
sown. Moreover often volunteer growth will come in, and only 
a filling out is required. 

Altogether natural volunteer growth appears to the author 
often all sufficient to rely on for reforestation, quoting Broillard: 
“That a slope reforest itself, it is mostly sufficient to leave it 
alone and for a few years keep out the cattle. From year to 


96 Forestry Quarterly 


year the area will cover itself more and more with a regeneration 
and soon will outgrow other vegetation.” 

[This advice should be accepted with caution in the United 
States where unfortunately weed trees and other weed growth 
is more prevalent and ready to take possession than in Switzer- 
land. B. E. F.] 


Einige Erfahrungen aus dem Kulturbetrieb. Schweizerische Zeitschrift 
fiir Forstwesen. January, 1906, pp. 353-358. 


A well illustrated article by Emeis, a con- 


Influence tinuation of a series on the unfavorable in- 
of fluences of wind on soil culture discusses 
Wind the effects on tree growth by reference to 

on the scrub forests (Krattbusch) in Schles- 
Tree Growth. wig-Holstein on the Jutland peninsula. 


Here the forests situated on the high 
plateau exposed to the westerly sea winds fall off in their height 
until the front does not attain more than meter height, while 
those on the East side grow up normally. The plantations made 
on the windward side of the islands in the Baltic sea show the 
crowns of the broadleaf species cut as with shears. 

The oak furnishes the best objects for study of effect and pos- 
sible remedy of the damage, since it grows on any soil and, due to 
its deep root system, persists even if the superior part is mal- 
treated. 

This species grows on the loamy soil of the East side of 
Schleswig to giant trees, on the sandy plateau exposed to the 
winds being reduced to a mere shrub, the trunks growing zig-zag 
fashion, for in the lower part creeping horizontally along the 
ground then perhaps erecting at right angles; the branches re- 
peating the zig-zag form. Such a shrub cut down to the base 
repeated the same form and in 20 years formed a prostrate 
rosette of one-half meter high and 4 meter diameter. This is 
due to the loss of endbuds in winter, and the late budding in 
spring preventing a ripening of the wood, and loss of branch tips 
in the early winter by frost, or drouth induced by rapid trans- 
piration under the influence of the winds and the rapid changes 
of temperature with land and sea winds. It is only the buds and 
shoots near the ground under protection that can develop for a 
time normally. Most curious forms are the result. 


Periodical Literature 97 


Beech, which occurs more rarely, behaves similarly; the rarity 
of seed years, every 20 or 30 years, and lack of sprouting 
capacity is the reason for its comparative rarity as compared 
with the oak, which seeds early and frequently, and as far as 
sprouting is concerned, seems indestructible. 

Under these wind conditions even the frugal Scotch pine does 
not thrive. All conifers in this province are introduced, the first 
plantation having been made about 1595. ‘These have developed 
well except where exposed to the seawinds. In the 18th century 
it was planned to establish protective forest belts on the exten- 
sive heaths and without taking into account the climatic condi- 
tions Scotch pine was sown. Little of these plantings has re- 
mained except here and there a specimen between birch and 
spruce which were later introduced. The “desert climate” of the 
open country with its extreme frosts, mists, cold and wind, 
killed the young plantations, especially where bog-iron ore still 
further delayed their development. Only in the protection of 
native oak and beech forest or of elevations of the ground were 
they successful. 

Finally, in the last half of the last century, Pinus montana was 
introduced and proved a perfect success as a protective species. 
Later, especially on the turfy heath soil, Pinus Murrayana was 
successfully tried, which grows more rapidly and with a single 
stem, and so far has shown itself hardy in the wind. 

With the protection of these conifers, planted into the scrubby 
oak forest, it is possible to bring by proper thinning even the oaks 
into proper form, as shown in one of the illustrations. 


Ungitnstige Einflusse von Wind und Freilage auf die Bodenkultur. All- 
gemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung. January, 1907, pp. I-5. 


A little known method of management in 

Selection coppice (taillis furetés) is practiced in cer- 
Coppice. tain parts of France and Switzerland, a full 
description of which with results by 

Badoux is found in Journal forestier suisse, 1906. ‘Through con- 
version into timber forest the area of selection coppice, hardly 
Over 50,000 acres, is gradually reduced, yet the method may well 
be applicable to farm wood lots, where fuel production is the main 
object. ‘The main feature is of course a diameter limit, which is 
placed at 4 to 5 inches, the return time being mostly 10, up to 20 


re 


98 Forestry Quarterly 


years. It is practiced specially on steep slopes with rocky or at 
least shallow soil, largely composed of beech, with ash, maple, 
basswood, oak, etc. Where spruce and fir come in, they are re- 
moved to protect the coppice. Besides the sprouts of proper 
diameter, damaged and poorly growing sprouts and those over- 
shadowing seedlings are taken out. 

The regeneration is excellent and rarely requires artificial aid. 
The resulting fuel wood is excellent, and there being a good local 
market the money returns are satisfactory. 

A particular case, that of the commune of Veytaux, is reported 
in detail, their woods, now over 300 acres, having been well man- 
aged since before the year 1759. The woods are situated on the 
limestone rocks and chalk of the Jura mountains from 1,200 to 
3,500 feet on rocky steep, North and East slopes, of 77 to 79% 
inclination, the wood being shot down into the valley on ground 
slides, 

The yield during the last 25 years averaged about 4 cord of 
timber wood equal to nearly 45 cubic feet and 90 faggots of 
brushwood, equal to 22 cubic feet solid or altogether 67 cubic 
feet of wood per acre and year, which by deducting 5 per cent. 
for waste land may be raised to 70 cubic feet, somewhat more 
than beech timber forest might yield on the same site. 

The gross money returns were slightly over $6 per acre and 
year and, allowing administration cost of 14 cents per acre, the 
net yield $3.50. Comparing this with timber forest results in 
the neighborhood, it is found to exceed these by from 35 cents to 
$1.00, and this in spite of the fact that there has been hardly any 
rise in prices for the coppice material while the net price of 
conifer workwood rose from 6 cents per cubic foot in 1881 to 
IO cents in 1905. 


Der Ertrag der Gefemelten Niederwaldungen im Forstkreise Vivis. 
Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. December, 1906, pp. 358-365. 


A new spark arrester has been adopted by 

Efficient the Quebec and Lake St. John Railroad, 
Spark Arrester. which is recommended by the Department 
of Lands and Forests of the Province of 

Quebec. It is constructed upon an entirely new idea and is quite 
a decided step in advance of anything heretofore tried. In brief, 
the device consists of a circular hood of wire spark cloth attached 


Periodical Literature 99 


a few feet above the rim of the stack, which serves to arrest 
and reflect the cinders downward either into the stack again or 
into a wire basket clamped around the stack, its upper edge being 
flush with the rim of the stack; if the former, the operation is 
repeated until ultimately the cinders fall into the basket and 
work their way through the mesh and to the ground. During 
the season of 1906 which was one of the driest ever known, no 
forest fires occurred along the railroad, while in former years 
there has always been a heavy loss from this source. The de- 
vice is the invention of Mr. W. C. J. Hall, Superintendent of the 
Forest Protection Service of the Province of Quebec. 


The Canada Lumberman, December, 1906. 


MENSURATION AND FINANCE. 


The choice of species on which to base 


Financial forest management is one of the most im- 
Comparison portant, for it influences not only the yield 
of Species. but the preservation, improvement or de- 


terioration of the soil. In discussing care- 
fully the results of forest management in the Alsatian State for- 
ests during 23 years, Oberforstmeister Pilz formulates as the 
proper aim of forest management “the continuous growing of 
marketable valuable material, workwood especially, under con- 
tinuous care of soil vigor and with an interest rate on the capital 
involved in the management commensurate with the condition 
of the property.” 

Hence judgment of the marketableness and financial effect of 
the species is most essential. Marketableness depends in the 
first place on technical qualities, hence species producing a large 
workwood per cent. and such as have an established world 
market, like oak, will on suitable sites be always profitable. 
Next the quantity in demand is to be considered, and in this re- 
spect the conifers stand foremost. Lastly the financial produc- 
tive capacity should be studied. A judgment regarding this 
capacity can only be had through study over large districts and 
long periods. Nothing is more dangerous in forestry, than to 


100 Forestry Quarterly 


draw conclusions from limited results, especially as regards 
choice of species. 

The author then brings forward the data of results secured on 
about 125,000 acres for the years 1882 to 1904, applying to five 
management classes, namely fir forests, beech forests, fir and 
beech mixed, pine-oak-beech type, and oak forest. Of course, 
none of the districts denoted by one species are really pure. 
After careful analysis and allowances for local conditions, dif- 
ference of rotations, etc., which might vitiate comparableness, the 
following results appear to have been attained: 


Annual Vield per Year and Hectar. 


Type Total wood Timber wood Money 
fm p. ha.* Mark p. ha.* 
Fir Forest 7 (lk) 6.76 76.90 
Beech Forest 3.890 3.19 34.75 
Fir-Beech 5.22 4.56 57.50 
Pine-Oak-Beech 4.22 3.19 49.06 
Oak Forest 6.56 5.02 IOI. 


*To translate into cu. ft. per acre, multiply by 14.1; into dollars per acre (approxi- 
mately), divide by to. 


The fir forest then produces more than double in quantity of 
the beech forest, and in money returns the difference is still 
larger, while the oak forest with a smaller production yields 20 
per cent. more than the fir forest. 

Comparing the results of the management with normal yield 
tables the following relations develop, setting the production of 
fir equal to 1. 


Fir Beech Oak Mixed 
Yield Table I 65 .70 61 
Actual results I 65 1.10 -70 


This comparison shows only an essential difference in the oak 
forest, which is explained by the statement that the area was 
small (500 acres) and of specially good quality. The author 
adds that there is no doubt that “our forests will in future pro- 
duce better not only qualitatively but quantitatively. The grow- 
ing young stands at least promise in regard to full stands, work 
wood and mass production more than the old timber, for these 
have grown mostly according to the free will of nature.” 

While in strictly comparable forest of fir and beech, on same 
sites, with same rotation, method of management, and same 


Periodical Literature 10l 


market conditions the former produced 77% more workwood, 
and 86% more money returns, the author “would never think of 
recommending everywhere to replace beech by fir, for besides the 
financial productivity the question of the rotation needs further 
scrutiny and the influence on soil needs to be considered.” But 
the growing of pure beech forest he decries as a managerial 
error, recommending the beech merely as an underwood and 
nurse. 

Referring to the further consideration of financial result ac- 
cording to the soil rent theory briefly, the author claims, that by 
using correct values for soil and stock it could be shown that 
fir forest produces nearly double the interest rate on the forest 
capital that the beech forest does. 

Leistungen der Hauptholzarten in einigen unterelsassischen Staats- 


forsten nach Zuwachs und Geldertrag auf Grund der Wirtschaftsergeb- 
nisse aus 23 Jahren. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd-Zeitung, November, 


1906, pp. 361-370. 


Black Locust has been planted in Europe 


Yield quite extensively, and especially in Hun- 
of gary (See Article in vol. IV). The fol- 
Black Locust. lowing material and financial results are 


reported from Switzerland the wood being 
used for wagon work, vinyard stakes and fuel. 

A 15 year old stand, 1.6 acres, the stoutest trees being 6 inches 
on the stump, produced 2,083 cubic feet or 1,300 cu. feet per acre, 
and nearly go cubic feet per year. With a cost of $30 for the 
wood chopper the net result was $310, or nearly $200 per acre 
and the net yield after deducting costs, taxes, etc., was $10.85 
per year. 

A 45 to 50 year old stand of # acre, the stoutest trees being 
14 inches on the stump 2,728 cubic feet per acre and 54 cubic feet 
per year. With about the same price per cubic foot, namely 15 
cents, the result per acre was nearly $420, the net yield per year 
$5.67. 

A third cut of half an acre of the same age yielded 71 cubic 
feet per acre and year and $7.24 in money results. Altogether 
a good showing. 


Material-und Geldertrige der Akazie. Schweizerische Zeitung fiir 
Forstwesen. January, 1907, pp. 23, 24. 


102 Forestry Quarterly 


For use, where small posts or poles are to 

A new be assorted according to prescribed dimen- 

Caliper. sions, the work can be expedited by con- 

structing a caliper which contains the 

various dimensions, say varying by two inches, permanently set. 

This may be constructed by fastening to a handled caliper stick 

short arms or processes at the varying distances, inscribing on 

the stick the number of inches corresponding to the distance be- 

tween the arms. The height of the arms varies naturally, each 
being about one-half of the size to be measured. 

It would appear that this simple, easily carried tool might do 
good service for rapid size classification in forest surveys of 
young growths. 

The tool, designed by Dr. Gehrhardt is sold by Wilhelm 
Gohler’s Wittwe at Freiburg, Saxony, for 2 Mark. Schemati- 
cally the tool has about the following figure: 


Eine neue einfache Kluppe zur Stairkensortirung der Stangen. Allge- 
meine Forst-und Jagdzeitung, November, 1906, p. 395. 


UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. 


The wood industry of Argentine has until 

Railroad Ties lately been so little developed that even 

of where native woods would have been su- 
Quebracho. perior, importations were used. Lately 
there has developed considerable activity, 

especially in exploiting the Quebracho forests both for tan ex- 
tract and wood, which is specially fit for water construction and 
railroad ties. In the latter use it has largely replaced the steel 
ties, owing largely to a law which made the use of Quebracho ties 
in new concessions obligatory. The opening up of the Que- 
bracho forests in the province of Chaco gave the incentive to 


Periodical Literature 103 


this law. Several corporations (some 29) were formed to ex- 
ploit this forest, either buying or renting lands from the govern- 
ment, some 8 to 9 million acres being invaded. One of these is 
planning to cut 7,000 ties per day. Yet there is difficulty to 
supply the suddenly increased demand for home need in new 
construction which is extravagantly estimated at over 5 million 
ties. 

Voices are heard against the probable ruthless exploitation 
which is likely to result. 

Quebracho grows very slowly and cattle like to feed on it, two 
disadvantages from the standpoint of reproduction. Railroad 
ties in Buenos Ayres cost about $2, on the interior railroads from 
$1.50 to $1.75, while steel ties (pot pattern) cost only $2 at sea- 
ports, so that according to location the relative cheapness of the 
steel tie may still be considered as favorable. German capital 
seems most prominent in these developments. 


Verwendung von Quebrachoschwellen, etc. Allgemeine Forst-und 
Jagdzeitung. January, 1907, p. 37. 


In a recent circular letter issued by the 


Notes United States Steel Corporation the predic- 
on tion is made that the next great impetus to 
Railroad the steel industry will be the general intro- 
Ties. duction of steel ties. Already, it declares, 


as the result of an experimental track laid 
in 1904, the Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad Company is in- 
stalling 105,000 steel ties covering 42 miles of road. In addition 
experiments are being made by ten other railroad companies. 

In connection with the above it is interesting to read the fol- 
lowing taken from the Southern Lumberman. “It seems that the 
civil engineers of the railroads are seriously considering the 
adoption of new dimensions for cross-ties; in fact are giving 
this subject more attention than that of finding a substitute for 
the wooden tie. In regard to the latter, it is said steel and iron 
ties have been experimented with, but it has been found that they 
do not last as long as either yellow pine or oak and are not by 
any means as satisfactory. The sulphur in the bituminous coal 
smoke injures the tie and exposure to water causes rust. A 
committee has recommended that for high speed tracks a tie 
10 feet long and from 8 to 10 inches wide be used. The regular 


104 Forestry Quarterly 


tie, it is contended, does not give sufficient base to the rail and 
being too short, allows the weight to lower on one end more than 
on the other.” 

In a statement issued by the tie and timber department of the 
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad in regard to the life of 
the treated tie, it appears that during the period between 1885 
and 1905, over thirteen million treated ties were put in the track 
of that system east of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The records 
of removals date back only to 1897 and show the average age 
of those taken out since that time to be 10.6 years. Of those put 
down in the year 1897, 84.95% are still in service. It appears 
furthermore that the life of the treated tie showed great variation 
in different parts of the country, due to different soil and mois- 
ture conditions. For instance, the average life in Missouri was 
only 4.5 years while that in the Rio Grande Division was 14.4 
years. The process employed from 1885 to 1890 was the Well- 
house (Chlorzinc with glue and tannin), from 1890 to March, 
1906, burnettizing (Chlorzinc) was employed, and since then 
creosoting has been tried. 

Meanwhile several railroad companies have begun planting to 
supply their needs of ties. According to the Railroad Gazette, 
the Pennsylvania Railroad has planted 1,278,000 Yellow Locust 
trees during the past five years; the Michigan Central R. R. 
80,000 Catalpa; the Illinois Central R. R. two large groves of 
Catalpa, one in Illinois and the other in Louisiana, and the Nor- 
folk and Western R. R. a grove of six acres in Virginia. [See 
article on Railroad planting in this issue. ] 

Who would expect to read of an American railroad buying 
ties in Japan? It is reported, however, that the Southern Pacific 
has let a contract for 1,500,000 oak ties from Japan to be deliv- 
ered at Quaymas, a port on the Pacific coast of Mexico, for 56¢ 
gold per tie. 

In regard to competition with Japan for railroad ties, the tie 
producers along the Pacific coast say they do not fear the com- 
petition, as it is claimed by them that Japan oak has been proven 
to be of little durability. [There is no good reason for this 
belief. ED.] 


St. Louis Lumberman, July, 1906. 


Periodical Literature 105 


In answer to inquiries as to new uses for 


Uses balsam, poplar and spruce, propounded by 
of the Canada Lumberman to several mem- 
W ood. bers of the trade, the majority replied that, 


(1) balsam would not make good shingles 
or weather-boarding as it would warp and rot too readily; (2) 
that spruce, poplar and balsam would make fairly good lath, but 
of course not as good as white pine. 


The Canada Lumberman, November, 1906. 


Experiments are being conducted by millmen in California to 
determine whether the wood of the tanbark oak, Quercus densi- 
flora, can be utilized. At present it is left to decay in the woods 
after the bark is removed. If properly seasoned it is claimed 
that it is as serviceable as hickory. 


Pacific Coast Wood and Iron, November, 1906. 


The New York Lumber Trade Journal, 


Turpentine January 1, 1907, is the authority for the 
from statement that a Maine pulp manufacturer 
Pulpwood. has succeeded in extracting turpentine as a 


by-product from the manufacture of wood 
pulp, thus creating an annual saving to the plant of $15,000. 


At a meeting of Hickory consumers held 


Scarcity last summer the question of the future sup- 
of ply of hickory was thoroughly discussed. 
Hickory. When it is considered that 250 million feet 


is used annually by vehicle and implement 
manufacturers, it is not surprising that the rapidly increasing 
scarcity of such stock is giving those manufacturers great con- 
cern. It seemed to be the general opinion that whereas no sub- 
stitute could be found, the only thing to do was to go into the 
business of raising hickory. Members of the Forest Service ad- 
vised the growing of hickory by the coppice system in wood lots. 
A committee was appointed to consider the idea, and it seems 
likely that some definite work along this line will be taken up by 
the individual companies. 


Southern Lumberman, 1906. 


106 Forestry Quarterly 


The Apple tree is not generally thought of 

Apple as a source of lumber, but recently there 

Wood. was stacked up in front of the depot at 

Hartford, Michigan, 100,000 feet of apple 

wood, awaiting shipment to the Atkin’s Saw Company, to be used 

for saw handles. The wood is hard, tough and without much 

grain, and when made into handles never splits or shreds. The 

lumber is all in short boards, for very seldom are any boards over 
six or eight feet long obtainable. 


Southern Lumberman, July 25, 1906. 


As an indication of the tremendous output 


Modern of a modern sawmill, the news that a com- 
Milling pany has recently been formed in Louisiana 

and to erect what will be the largest mill in the 
Logging. world with an annual capacity of 150,000,- 


000 feet, or 600,000 feet a day, is of consid- 
erable interest. It is reported that the syndicate has acquired 
about a million acres of timber lands in Louisiana and Missis- 
sippi, that it will build a railroad to tap this country and that a 
new town will be formed at the site of the mill. The mill will 
be of steel and concrete construction and the contracts which have 
already been let, call for an expenditure of $1,500,000. This is 
to include the cost of the houses also. It is expected that the 
plant will be in operation by March 1907. New Orleans will be 
the chief point of shipment for the product of this huge mill. 


Southern Lumberman. 


In Washington the first electric logging 


Logging engine on the Pacific coast has been in- 
by stalled. Power is transmitted from a 
Electricity. power company’s line a distance of 7,000 


feet to where the logging is going on. 
Two donkey engines have been fitted up with electric motors, 
and the lumbermen claim that the use of electric power has 
proved cheap, convenient and entirely satisfactory in every way. 


The Canada Lumberman, August, 1906. 


Modern lumber methods are again illustrated in the monster 
lumber raft which was recently towed from the Columbia River 


Periodical Literature 107 
to San Francisco. It was cigar-shaped, 725 ft. long, 55 ft. beam, 


22 ft. deep and contained 9,000,000 bd. ft. The voyage required 
6 days. 


The Pacific Coast Wood and Iron. 


STATISTICS AND HISTORY. 


In connection with a general industrial ex- 


Forestry position of the Kingdom of Bavaria at 
Exposition Nuremberg in 1906, the State Forest Ad- 

of ministration made in a separate building 
Bavaria. one of the most comprehensive exhibits of 


the field of forestry ever made anywhere, 
this being perhaps the most notable feature of the exposition. 
From the very complete account of the details of this many- 
sided exhibit, we may only abstract some of the statistics of 
Bavarian forestry conditions which were elaborately exhibited in 
charts. 


The total forest area is 6,464,000 acres, of which over one- 
third is State property. Municipalities and institutes own 970,- 
000 acres which property in 1901 was valued at over $40,000,000. 
This leaves in private ownership nearly 50 per cent. of the forest 
area. In Lower Bavaria this class of ownership rises to 79 per 
cent. of the county forest area. It originated in the first de- 
cades of the 19th century through partition of old mark or com- 
munal forests, much depreciated by servitudes. Here the State 
offers plant material at low cost, the use of which in the last de- 
cade has increased from 4.5 to 18.5 million. On the State prop- 
erty servitudes still require annually material valued at round 
$700,000. 

Due to the notorious damage by the pine moth in the Nurem- 
berg forest in 1894-7, over 30 per cent. of the area had to be 
cut, the age classes from 20 to 60 years suffering the most. with 
over 50 million cubic feet. The still more notorious damage of 
the Nun, which devastated Bavarian spruce forests in 1837-40, 
and again in 1890, as well as other insect pests were graphically 
exhibited. 


108 Forestry Quarterly 


The damage by factory fumes on a pine forest during 20 years 
was shown in the increment by comparison of affected and un- 
affected areas, the differences being— 


Damaged Undamaged 


Annual radial increment to the 53d year 2 mr 2 mm 
from 53-63 “ I.5 mm 2.7 mm 
from 64-73 “ .7 mm 2.I mm 


The influence of removal of litter was shown in a given lo- 
cality as— 


With Without 

removal 
Yield of an 80 year spruce forest per ha. 235 fm 735 fm 
Money value 2625 Mk 9175 Mk 


The price movement for oak in the Spessart was shown as fol- 
lows for logs, the classes being size classes rather than quality 
classes— 


1885 1905 
LL ACIISS SAS Nore brome eR ee ee ee ae 44.17 153.26 
LTEL VAI CIAS SO Rote Re EEE Ce ee 32.07 89.35 
[EAE WN bonwatal fo hain MORE etree nn SRA eH) aMnir mr Ch ny of Maye 26.70 39.31 


Interesting growth tables were also exhibited. 


Die Ausstellung der Staatsforstverwaltung, etc. Allgemeine Forst-und 
Jagdzeitung, December, 1906, pp. 419-429. 


The Saxon forests are among the most 


Forests profitable of Germany. From Dr. Mam- 
of men’s volume of 320 pages, describing their 
Saxony. condition and management the following 


statistics appear. 

The forest area of the Kingdom is 950,000 acres, or 25.8 per 
cent. of the land area. Of this 45.2% is State forest, 6% com- 
munal, 2.8% institute forest, and 46% owned privately, of which 
9.4% under government control. 

Nearly 89 per cent. of the area is stocked with conifers against 
68% for all Germany, spruce forest with 58.2% being in the lead. 
This accounts for the high yield which in 1900 was 67.7 cubic 
feet per acre as against 49.3 cubic feet for all Germany. The 
workwood per cent. is especially high with 71.5. 


Die Waldungen des Kénigreichs Sachsen. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd- 
zeitung. November, 1906, p. 378. 


Periodical Literature 109 


In a letter to Mr. E. Stewart, Dominion 
Timber Supply Superintendent of Forestry, Sir Dietrich 
of Brandis, the father of the present system of 

Great Britain. forestry in India, says: 

“I cannot sufficiently urge upon you the 
necessity of concentrating all your energies upon one point, that 
is, the constitution of as large an area of State Forests as possi- 
ble, to enable Canada (I mean the Dominion) to supply the 
greater portion of the coniferous timber now imported into Great 
Britain, permanently. 

“The timber now imported into Great Britain annually amounts 
to over nine million tons, valued at £24,000,000; and the greater 
part of this is coniferous timber. Of this quantity 


Sweden and Norway supply ........ 5 million tons. 

BetUS! sie. aye:tigndne ssi) «fetes Biot aes * 

Dominion of Canada supplies ....... By Piece i 
9 “ce “ee 


Russia, as soon as the present troubles have been overcome, 
will develop its trade and industries in a manner not anticipated 
at present, and the result will be that they will consume all the 
timber this country can produce. Germany formerly was a tim- 
ber exporting country and it now imports five million tons a year. 
And this, though the area of productive forests has been steadily 
increasing, and the annual yield per acre is now much larger 
than it was thirty years ago. 

Sweden and Norway, tempted by the high prices and the ready 
market in England, are cutting more than their forests annually 
produce. At the same time industry and manufactures are in- 
creasing and the result will be that that source also will come to 
an end. 

“The United States exports very little to England now, and 
the Dominion of Canada is the only country from which, if the 
forests are properly managed, a permanent supply of coniferous 
timber for Great Britain can be expected.” 

The inevitable result of these conditions will be a steady rise 
of prices, and ultimately a very considerable income for the Gov- 
ernment. The necessity is urged of getting under management 


IIo Forestry Quarterly 


as large an area as possible of State forests. The exploration of 
the northern wilderness region is particularly urged, for the 
reservation of lands from settlement at the sources of the great 
rivers. The writer states that Great Britain is compelled to im- 
port large amounts of timber instead of herself producing them, 
because the land is nearly all private property and as a rule the 
great proprietors are too rich to feel the necessity of increasing 
their incomes by making the forests pay. 


Views of a Distinguished Forester. Canadian Forestry Journal. De- 
cember, 1906. Pp. 210-212. 


As indicative of the waning timber supply 
Lumber Cut of the upper lakes district, it is stated that 
in mills in the neighborhood of Duluth, 

Various Regions. Minn., with a yearly production of 210 

million feet will go out of commission Jan- 
uary I, 1907. If to this there is added the advance sales by this 
field of 118 million feet for 1907 delivery, the grand total of 328 
million feet represents just so much less stock available for the 
trade during 1907 that this time a year ago—New York Lum- 
ber Trade Journal, December 1, 1906. 

While the Forest Service statistics show that the total lumber 
cut of the State of Michigan fell from third place in 1904 to fifth 
place in 1905, yet certain sections of the State seem to be holding 
their own and even show an increase. ‘his is true of the Sagi- 
naw Valley district. The output for 1906 was 114.8 million feet, 
an increase over that of 7 million, or equal to 64%.—New York 
Lumber Trade Journal, February 1, 1907. 

According to the report of the Secretary of the Yellow Pine 
Manufacturers’ Association, held in January, the total cut of 
yellow pine for the year 1906 is estimated at 9.6 billion feet. 
This shows an increased cut of 1.4 billion feet, equal to 17 per 
cent. over that of 1905. These figures are believed to be con- 
servative, but will be verified as the reports of actual output of 
each mill are received. 

Ever since the big hurricane of last fall in which it was esti- 
mated $10,000,000 worth of timber had been blown down in the 
turpentine properties in Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama, 
the timber men have been making strenuous efforts to haul, saw, 
or rush the logs into the nearest ponds and creeks in order to 


Periadical Literature TET 


prevent their final destruction in April or May, when the worms 
will appear—Southern Lumberman, November, 1906; Janu- 
ary, 1907. 

That the West is rapidly forging to the front rank in lumber 
production, and that the State of Washington intends to keep at 
the head of the list where the cut of 1905 placed it, appears cer- 
tain, when it is seen that the shipments of lumber for the first 
six months of 1906 were 30% in excess of those during the same 
period in 1905.—New York Lumber Trade Journal, September 
15, 1906. 

Redwood production in California is still maintaining the 
steady increase which it has shown during the past fifteen years. 
The cut for 1906 was 409.7 million feet, which was an increase of 
52 million or 144 per cent. over that of 1905.—American Lum- 
berman, January 26, 1907. 

The mischief which may be bred by statistics unless properly 
interpreted is pointed out by referring to the Census Bureau Bul- 
letin 57, which brings statistics for the year 1904 of the lumber 
industry among others. By change in method of statement it 
would appear that the cost of logs was less in 1904 than in 1900, 
as determined by the Census. This apparent absurdity is due to 
the fact that quite properly the value of lumber remanufactured 
in planing mills was taken out of the cost of materials for 1904, 
but the same deduction was not made in the figures for 1900. As 
a matter of fact cost of materials in the five years increased 25.3 
per cent., value of products 26.1 per cent., wages 23.7 per cent., 
salaries 59 per cent., miscellaneous expenses 106.3 per cent.— 
American Lumberman, February, 1907. 


The question whether high lumber prices 

Stumpage are due to increased price of stumpage, 

Prices. iS answered by reference to the change of 

price for particular tracts. Six years ago 

a tract of hardwood timber in Wisconsin was sold for $1.00 an 

acre. Two years later it was bought for $2.00 and then sold for 

$5.00. This past year it was bought by the Whiteman Lumber 
Company at a price averaging $20.00 per acre. 

Stumpage in the South also continues to increase in price. 

Recent sale of 560 acres in southeastern Mississippi brought the 


112 Forestry Quarterly 


record price of $57.00 per acre; another tract brought $44.00 
per acre and several sales are reported at $25.00 an acre. Fif- 
teen years ago any quantity could be had at from $1.00 to $6.00 
per acre——The New York Lumber Trade Journal, 1906. 


The price of Spanish cedar from both Cuba 


Rise and Mexico, from which cigar boxes are 
of made has gone up 8o per cent. This is 
Prices. due, it is said, not so much to a scarcity of 


material as to the inaccessibility of the 
timber, that near the coast having been used up.—The Barrel and 
Box, December, 1906. 

The Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association reports increases 
in all hardwood staples. Poplar lumber has lately increased $1 
on most sizes and from $2 to $5 on wide stock; plain and quar- 
tered oak has also increased $1 to $50 per M. for firsts and 
seconds, and to $71 for quartered stock; ash has increased from 
$3 to $5 according to size and quality; cottonwood for wide 
stock is $4 to $9 higher, and gum is 50 cents to $1.50 advanced.— 
American Lumberman, February, 1907. 

Prices are also rising in Germany, especially oak is advancing, 
the lowest price at Nurnberg being over 20 cents per cubic foot, 
the highest over 40 cents, while pine and spruce are between 6 
and 10 cents per cubic foot—American Lumberman, 1907. 


POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. 


in connection with the discussion of the 


Taxation necessity of changing the methods of tax- 
of ing woodlands in this country, it may be of 
Forests. interest to review the new general tax law 


of Wurttemberg in operation since 1905. 
An income tax forms the principal State tax, other modes of 
assessing taxes being employed only in a minor degree. Both 
income tax and realty tax is assessed by State and municipality 
(county or community) against forest property. For State pur- 
poses the income is the net yield of the entire forest manage- 


Periodical Literature 113 


ment. The income is the actual sale results, cash or credit, of 
the regular cut, principal and intermediary, as well as the do- 
mestic consumption of the owner at local average prices. Extra- 
ordinary cuts are taxed in their results if they were made to se- 
cure cash or to change the use of the cut area; if occasioned by 
natural disaster, like windfall, snow breakage, insects, etc., the 
results are not considered as taxable income, for this enforced 
cut is considered against the interests of the owner, disturbing 
his management, 

As expenses are considered the actual cost of the management, 
cost of administration, protection, cultures, woodchoppers’ wages, 
insurance, road building, houses, etc., and also bad debts of 
former years, if they had then been figured as incomes, costs 
occasioned by extraordinary cuts, including those for reforesta- 
tion do not figure any more than the incomes from such untimely 
utilization. 


This method of arriving at the income is the same as prac- 
ticed in Prussia, and, while especially in intermittent manage- 
ment it has the disadvantage of unevenness from year to year, it 
is found preferable to the Austrian arrangement, which is based 
upon the average annual increment and sustained yield manage- 
ment, a fiction. 


The tax rate is determined every two years, the law, however, 
states the normal rate, which varies from 2 mark on an income 
of 500 to 650 mark to 5 mark on an income of 200,000 mark or 
more. 


Besides the income tax, the hitherto customary realty tax is 
continued at a reduced rate. It is based on the net yield (not 
income) determined by a commission of experts, the said being 
ranged in site classes and the yield per acre determined for each 
class. The determination of values (Katastrierung) was made 
during the years 1875-1887. The gross yield was determined 
under a suppositive management usual under conditions at the 
time, and the costs under the same supposition were deducted to 
secure the net yield per unit area of each site class, the taxable 
value being found by multiplying by the areas involved in each 
case. This assessment of the “tax capital,” which does not con- 
sider individual conditions and special methods of management 
is supposed to be good for a long period and is only revised if 

8 


114 Forestry Quarterly 


changes in use and in property conditions arise. For the year 
1906-7 the realty tax was placed at 2 per cent. of the tax capital. 
Before the introduction of the income tax it was 3.9 per cent. 
The communal expenses, as far as they are not covered by 
income from municipal properties are met by distributing them 
among the property owners according to the recorded tax capital. 


Die Neuordnung des direkten Steuerwesens. Allgemeine Forst-und 
Jagdzeitung, December, 1906, pp. 417-4109. 


It is significant that the subject of private 

Encouragement forestry is again and again ventilated in 

of meetings of German foresters. These dis- 

Private Forestry, cussions are interesting to us as they indi- 

cate how much reliance in general may be 
placed on private forestry, and in what way it fails in a country 
where conservative ideas are more natural than with us. 

A speaker at the meeting of Silesian foresters, v. Salisch, a 
noted private forest owner, points out that “notoriously the ma- 
jority of the medium-sized and small private forests and quite a 
number of larger ones are managed in a very unsatisfactory man- 
ner, whereby the national wealth is heavily damaged.” This is 
the reason, he declares, why Germany does not produce all its 
wood requirements, and must import. Besides deficient regenera- 
tion and care, removal of litter, etc., low rotations are the cause 
of this condition. 

The coercion of small owners to combine into forest associa- 
tions, such as the law of 1875 provides as voluntary, is advo- 
cated, when on the connected forest properties professional 
foresters might be employed with profit. The State assists pri- 
vate owners to a considerable degree with funds, but with little 
effect, since on the many small areas supervision in the use of 
the funds becomes impracticable. 

The successful result of forest association in the district of 
Stade is pointed out, where some 15,000 acres have been brought 
under a uniform working plan, each owner being obligated to 
manage accordingly. Increased freedom for State foresters to 
assist in the management of private properties, a bureau of work- 
ing plans for private forests, and supervision of the same, special 
courses for private owners at the forest schools, and forest nur- 


Periodical Literature II5 


series from which private owners may supply themselves at near 
cost price, are among the measures advocated to encourage pri- 
vate forestry. 


Versammlungen Norddeutscher Forstvereine. Allgemeine Forst-und 
Jagdzeitung. November, 1906, pp. 390, 301. 


One of the most far-sighted laws embody- 

Forest Politics ing the modern forest policy of Switzerland 

im was enacted in 1902, especially reorganiz- 

Switzerland. ing the forest police, enlarging the sphere 

of State interference, increasing protective 

forest areas and surveillance of private management. Since, 

however, the execution is left to the different cantons, the prac- 

tice has still remained largely undeveloped and is by no means 

uniform, hence propositions for the methods of carrying the law 
into execution are still being ventilated. 

There are two classes of forest involved, namely municipal or 
corporation forests and private forests which have been declared 
protection forests. 

The former are managed according to sanctioned working 
plans, but the execution of the plans, especially the important 
marking of trees is not always, as it should be, done by a tech- 
nically educated forester. 

In private protection forests all considerable cutting and es- 
pecially clearing requires sanction of the cantonal authorities. 

It seems still doubtful which officials should exercise the super- 
vision, but it should naturally be in the hands of the forest admin- 
istration. ‘The permission to cut should only be given after ex- 
amination of the premises, and according to local conditions 
only under reservations as to the quantity, or number of trees, 
marking by foresters, and employment of experienced wood- 
choppers, measures to protect young growth, planting of cut 
areas, corrective works in water channels, exclusion of cattle, 
setting of a time for finishing the cut or performing cultures, 
etc. Inspections during the progress of cuttings are essential to 
insure obedience to the conditions. As to the interpretation of 
various details of the law there appear to be still wide differences 


116 Forestry Quarterly 


of opinion, especially as to the permission of clearings and the 
amount which may be cut without permission. 
Wie ist in den Gemeinde und Korporationswaldungen die Schlagan- 


zeichnung und in den Privatwaldungen die Holznutzung von Staates 
wegen zu ordnen? Schweizerische Zeitschrift fir Forstwesen. Novem- 


ber, 1906, pp. 329-334. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


In a suit recently decided in Tennessee, the 

Mistaken court held that ‘overcup’ or ‘burr oak’ is 

Nomenclature. not “white oak” in the ordinary meaning 

of the word “and that the defendants had 

no right to the ‘burr’ or ‘overcup’ oak on a certain tract when 

their contract specified ‘white oak.’” According to the wording 

of the question, the decision is correct, but a jury of timber ex- 

perts would certainly decide that the overcup or burr oak is of 

the same variety of oak as the white oak, the difference lying 
more in the leaves and acorns than in the wood. 


Prof. Friedrich, well-known for his ingen- 
Climbing ious devices—we recall the increment auto- 
Apparatus. graph referred to on page 52, vol. 1V—has 
designed a climbing apparatus (he calls it 
a ‘‘grimpeur,” from the French), which permits the climbing of 
trees, masts, poles without the injury which climbing irons occa- 
sion. It consists of two short ladders, each hung to a steel plate 
to which is fastened a spring steel band which can be thrown 
around the bole of the tree and then be tightened by an appro- 
priate ratchet work so that the ladder can be fastened to boles 
of any thickness. One ladder being fastened to the tree, the other 
may be fastened higher up, the first then to be unfastened and at- 
tached above the second and so on, the apparatus being so con- 
structed as to permit this movement readily. 


Steigapparat. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen. November, 
1906, PP. 449-459. 


NEWS AND NOTES. 


E. A. Sternine, In Charge. 


The reports on the free use business in the Forest Reserves for 
the past year show in round numbers that $75,000 worth of ma- 
terial was given away to 15,000 applicants. By far the greater 
part of this was inferior material such as cordwood, poles and 
posts. Saw timber formed an insignificant part. The total 
amount granted on a single reserve varies from $4,000 to $5 with 
an average of about $800. The reserves in Colorado, Utah and 
southern Idaho did the greatest amount of free use business, 
while those in western Oregon and Washington did the least. 
The work has taken an undue share of the rangers’ time because 
the demands of the applicants have been very exacting and the 
handling of the permits has not been systematized. Several of 
the Supervisors speak of it as the hardest problem they have to 
deal with. In the future the handling of free use permits will 
have to be more methodical, and more pains should be taken to 
see that the applicants improve the condition of the forest by 
cleaning out dead timber and suppressed and diseased trees. 


The Forest Service has recently secured several Assistant 
Lumbermen. They will be assigned to reserves where there are 
timber sales large enough to make the services of a woods fore- 
man of value. They will be charged with the duty of instruct- 
ing rangers in scaling, and of protecting the interests of the Gov- 
ernment in the sale and cutting of timber. 


The co-operative work which the Forest Service has been car- 
rying on with the State of California since July 1, 1903, will be 
brought to a close this coming spring. It is by far the most ex- 
tensive work of the kind ever attempted and will probably result 
in a more detailed knowledge of forest conditions in California 
than has been compiled for any State. The prime object was to 
determine a State forest policy. As a basis for this the ques- 
tions of forest distribution, extension, fires, chaparral, lumber- 
ing, etc., were carefully studied. A policy was outlined two 
years ago and a State Forester appointed. The remaining re- 


118 Forestry Quarterly 


ports are being compiled for publication and will contain data not 
only of value to the State Forester, but to the general profession 
as well. The results have already been very encouraging and 
with the proposed changes in the laws which it is hoped to make 
during the present session of the Legislature much more effective 
work should be done in the future. A special study of sugar and 
yellow pine of the State has already been published as a Service 
Bulletin. Reports on Lumbering and Market Study in the Red 
Fir Region, Forest Conditions in the Sierras, McCloud Working 
Plan, Eucalyptus, Forest Planting in Agricultural Regions, and 
possibly a Commercial Tree Study of White Fir will be published. 
Many general reports and miscellaneous papers have also been 
sent to the State covering such subjects as forest distribution, 
grazing, chaparral, forest fires, State lands and forest conditions 
in Southern California and in the Redwood Belt. 


It is an encouraging condition which is leading trained men to 
go into private work as consulting foresters. It has long been 
preached that commercial organizations would eventually need 
the services of such men and that this time is slowly arriving 
becomes more and more apparent. One of the recent steps in this 
direction has been the opening of an office of consulting and con- 
tracting foresters in Baltimore by A. K. Chittenden and A. P. 
Patterson, formerly of the Forest Service. Both men have had 
thorough training and a wide field of experience in government 
work which fits them for the management of timberlands in all 
regions. Their attractive prospectus, under the heading of 
“Management of Forest Lands,” indicates that they are prepared 
to take up any line of work, and they offer to give special atten- 
tion to such lines of work as: 

‘Advice on the best methods of managing forest estates, plans 
of management, execution and supervision of the necessary work. 

“Timber estimates and forest maps, appraisement of forest 
lands, future or prospective values. 

“Marking trees for cutting, improvement thinnings, cutting 
and sale of products. 

“Adjustment of logging methods, stumpage sale contracts. 

“Planting and nursery work.” 


News and Notes 119 


In Canada, three lumber companies of British Columbia have 
secured foresters as managers, Dr. J. F. Clark, Mr. Roland D. 
Craig, Mr. E. Stewart, Superintendent of Forestry, having left 
the government service to fill these positions. 


An important innovation has been made on the part of the 
Pennsylvania Railroad Company by engaging a professional for- 
ester to look after the woodland interests and tie interests of the 
Company. Mr. E. A. Sterling, well known as one of the chiefs 
of the Forest Service, a Cornell graduate, has been called to fill 
this position, with headquarters in Philadelphia. 


Mr. Asa F. Williams, formerly forester of the Berlin Mills 
Company, in New Hampshire, has become the representative of 
the Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company in Atlanta, Ga., and 
Mr. Max Rothkugel is the forester of John Craig and Sons, at 
Winterburn, W. Va. 


The State College of Pennsylvania proposes to inaugurate a 
forestry department in its school of agriculture on similar lines 
as the former college at Cornell University, and has called Dr. 
Fernow to organize the same. 

The first beginning has been made with an introductory course 
of lectures by Dr. Fernow during the present term, some forty 
students attending of whom about ten intend to follow the pro- 
fession. In the circular issued it is stated that twelve forestry 
courses are to be given, comprising not less than seventy hours, 
one-half of the time to be devoted to practical work. 


In several of the forest reserves of the Southwest where the 
protection of streams supplying water for irrigation is needed 
first of all, the use of large sized cuttings for planting is being 
recommended. Many slopes are either barren, brush covered, or 
scantily forested and the conditions are very unfavorable for 
planting. The run-off into the streams is very rapid and the 
torrential storms usually give rise to floods which carry down 
large quantities of silt and gully the stream beds. Along these 
streams the remaining soil usually retains some moisture. The 


120 Forestry Quarterly 


plan is to reforest these narrow stream valleys with large sized 
cuttings of cottonwood, usually—Populus angustifoha or P. 
trichocarpa. ‘These will help to hold the stream banks and it is 
hoped that the cover can be gradually extended for some distance 
up the slopes. 


It is quite generally acknowledged that an efficient system of 
State fire protection should provide for paid district fire wardens, 
but in most States it has been impossible to secure funds for such 
a force. ‘This was recommended in the forest laws for Califor- 
nia which were presented to the Legislature in the winter of 1905, 
but on account of the expense it was necessary to compromise 
and provide only for unpaid wardens. In the revision of these 
laws, which is at present pending, it is hoped to come nearer the 
desired end by securing an appropriation for paid wardens dur- 
ing the summer season. This will certainly be a step in the right 
direction and if the plan is successful it will probably be possible 
later to secure appropriations for a permanent force. 


That forest fires were scarce in California during the past 
summer is due to the efficient management of the National For- 
est Reserves by the Forest Service, according to the Pacific 
Coast Wood and Iron, October, 1906. Thus are the trade jour- 
nals coming to appreciate the work of the Forest Service. 


A reorganization of the inspection service of the Federal For- 
est Service is contemplated by which all inspectors are directly 
reporting to the forester through district inspectors, there being 
six districts into which the Forest Reserves are divided. 


One of the largest pine trees cut in Minnesota is said to have 
scaled 7,420 feet of lumber. The tree was said to be more than 
420 years old, was 126 feet high and 6 feet 4 inches across the 
stump. It was cut by workmen of the Swan River Logging 
Company working in Cass County for the Standard Lumber 
Company, of Dubuque, Iowa. 


FORESTRY QUARTERLY 


Vou. V] JUNE, 1907 [No. 2 


THE SPROUT FORESTS OF THE HOUSATONIC VAL- 
LEY OF CONNECTICUT. 


A SILVICAL STuDY. 


The importance of exact methods in silvical investigations is 
now universally recognized by American foresters. The condi- 
tions of growth in our natural forests, as compared with condi- 
tions in the more artificial forests of Europe, are sufficiently com- 
plicated even in pure stands; while stands in mixture, and par- 
ticularly broadleaf forests, offer many additional complications. 
Among the various classes of broadleaf forests the even-aged 
stands of sprout origin are in certain respects the most satisfac- 
tory objects of study. In them the interplay of natural forces is 
to a large degree systematized. 

The second-growth forests of the Housatonic Valley of Can- 
necticut fall within this class. To within comparatively recent 
years its wooded slopes supplied the charcoal and furnace wood 
for the iron and brass foundries of that region. In exploiting 
these forests the method of clear cutting was early adopted and 
gradually embraced practically all of the woodlands of the region. 
In course of time most of the young growth, like the older growth 
which had preceded it, fell under the axe, so that finally these 
forests presented the appearance of an irregular succession of 
even-aged blocks of various shapes and sizes, usually from fifty 
to several hundred acres in extent, and composed of some thirty 
species of the commoner northeastern trees, mainly of sprout 
origin, but including also occasional trees derived from seed. 
Some of the blocks had been cut over successively as many as 
five times. 

With the decline of the iron industry in this part of the country, 
some twenty-five years ago, the forest operations were discon- 


122 Forestry Quarterly 


tinued. When examined for the purposes of this study, in 1go01,* 
the forest growth included three distinct types, due to differences 
in soil conditions and relative position on the slopes. This study 
is based upon a detailed examination of selected areas within each 
of these types and upon comparisons of these areas with one 
another. ‘To arrive at reliable conclusions in such forests, where 
many species are mingled together, where variation in the condi- 
tions of growth exists, and where fire, grazing, and similar inter- 
ferences have added their influences, the study must necessarily 
enter into a large number of details. The aim has been to make 
the study intensive, rather than extensive. The total number of 
acres examined is comparatively small, but they have been chosen 
in such a way as to represent practically all the different condi- 
tions prevailing in the region under consideration. ‘The various 
features of the problem have been studied systematically within 
each tract according to a carefully considered plan. It is be- 
lieved that the areas examined, though limited, have been studied 
in such a way as to form the basis for reliable and accurate con- 
clusions. 


Forest TyPEs. 


The character of a forest, as is well known, is closely connected 
with the geology of the region in which it grows. The geologic 
forces have produced certain distinct physical conditions of rock 
and soil, exposure and moisture,—factors upon which distribution 
of trees and the expression of the forest largely depend. 

The most important geologic changes in the Housatonic Val- 
ley, from the forester’s point of view, were accomplished during 
the recent glacial age, when the surfaces of the hills were scoured 
by a moving ice-sheet. Upon the recession of the ice a glacial 
drift of boulders and till was deposited over the surface, cover- 
ing the underlying formation like a continuous mantle. The 
main soil constituents today are sand and loam, among which are 
interjected layers of white clay, beds of gravel, and scattered 
boulders of limestone and gneiss. Here and there pure white 
sand was deposited and washed by the melting ice, leaving small 


*The investigation was originally undertaken for the U. S. Forest 
Service, and is here published, for the first time, with the permission of 
the latter. 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut, 123 


pockets or layers and occasionally sandy hillocks of sufficient size 
to support small groves of White Pine. 

Such a soil is well adapted for the growth of our northeastern 
broadleaf trees, shrubs, and the various forms of surface growth 
commonly found in the leafy forests. Except along the ridges it 
is deep and fresh, offers no serious obstruction to the root-systems 
of the trees, and chemically is capable of supplying the necessary 
elements for all but the most exacting forest trees. 

Along the lower slopes and within depressions and valleys 
among the hills a talus of somewhat finer material has accumu- 
lated from the steeper sides of the mountains and has enriched 
and deepened the original top soil. In such places, Chestnut is the 
dominant species, both in size and numbers. It sufficiently char- 
acterizes the forest growth to justify the distinction of a sep- 
arate type as Chestnut Slope. The upper layer of soil, and 
especially the mold, is better in quality than that found on the 
higher slopes, which are steeper and somewhat opener in growth 
and therefore more exposed to erosion and the wind. ‘The char- 
acter of the Chestnut Slope type, which embraces about 15 per 
cent. of the forest areas of this region, may be seen in PI. I, 
Fig. I, and its condition is represented by the average figures in 
the first part of Table I. Within this type the principal associates 
of the Chestnut are the Red Oak, White Ash, Pignut and Bitter- 
nut Hickories, and Butternut. The Red and Hard Maple, though 
plentiful, are usually of small size. 

As one ascends the slopes, the chestnuts diminish rapidly in 
numbers, although they are taller and more vigorous than on the 
deeper, richer soil below. On these slopes they mingle with a 
general assortment of oaks, hickories, maples, chestnut oaks, and 
other species. This type, which has been designated Mixed 
Slope, is on the whole less thrifty-looking than the Chestnut 
Slope type, the majority of the trees (except chestnut) apparently 
not doing so well on the less favorable soil. The Mixed Slope 
type comprises about 65 per cent. of the total forest area. Plate 
I, Fig. 3 shows its character, while the second part of Table I 
gives the composition of the forest and the average diameter and 
age. 

The third type may appropriately be called Oak Ridge, since it 


124 Forestry Quarterly 


is confined to the tops and adjacent sides of the ridges, and is 
composed largely of Chestnut Oak, Red, and White Oak. The 
conditions of growth are very different from those of the slope 
types. Evidently the glacial ice-sheet did not cover these moun- 
tain tops as long and continuously as it did the lower slopes. 
Being of less depth, it did not erode them as much nor cover 
them as completely with glacial drift. In many places the under- 
lying bed rock is still exposed. In approaching the tops of the 
mountains from the main slopes this bed rock is frequently en- 
countered in the form of projecting ledges and cliffs that run 
along just below the ridges, with occasional breaks and interrup- 
tions, and enclose them, as it were, in a rough setting. These 
cliffs are the edges of synclinal, saucer-shaped folds, which inter- 
fere seriously with the drainage of the mountain tops. ‘The soil 
within the Oak Ridge type is, therefore, frequently over-moist or 
swampy. Where the rock is exposed the soil occurs only in little 
hollows and among crevices and scattered boulders. It is light 
yellow in color and is covered with a scant, somewhat acid, poorly 
decomposed mold. The surface growth is largely composed of 
dense huckleberry bushes, grass, and patches of moss, the first two 
of which have such dense, fibrous root-systems that they interfere 
seriously with reproduction. 

The result of these conditions is a stunted, scrubby forest that 
is opener than either the Mixed or Chestnut Slope, while the 
number of species is also more limited. Plate I, Fig. 2 illustrates 
this type, and the third part of Table I gives the average figures. 

In Table I the averages for Hemlock, White Pine and Red 
Juniper have not been included, because these species do not 
sprout from the stump, are found only occasionally, and are 
usually of small size. Such larger white pines as once existed 
were long ago removed by the axe. 

A glance at the table is suggestive. In passing from Chest- 
nut Slope to Mixed Slope and thence to Oak Ridge, there is a de- 
crease in the average number of trees per acre for Chestnut, Bit- 
ternut Hickory and Butternut. For White Ash, the maples and 
the birches, the largest numbers are attained on Mixed Slope and 
the lowest decidedly on Oak Ridge. On the other hand, there is 
a decicled increase in Chestnut Oak in going from the slopes to 
the ridges. The same is true in a less degree of the three other 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 125 


oaks, of Pignut, Shagbark Hickory, and of the scrubby Shadbush, 
which is a characteristic small tree of these stony situations. 

As regards the rate of growth in diameter the two columns at 
the extreme right show that the Mixed Slope forest is consider- 
ably behind Chestnut Slope even with a start of four years’ 
growth. In the Oak Ridge type a start of six to seven years is 
not sufficient to maintain equality in diameter growth even with 
the Mixed Slope; while in height growth, as previously pointed 
out, it falls far below both of the other types. 


REPRODUCTION IN SPROUT ForREsTs. 


The Relation of Sprout to Root System. As is well known, 
reproduction by sprouts takes place after a tree has been cut 
down, when new shoots are produced by the development of ad- 
ventitious and dormant buds at the edge of the cut and on the 
sides and base of the stump, and some of these in time grow to be 
young trees. The stump gradually decays or is covered over by 
the growth of the new tree; but the root-system, or a part of it, 
continues to live. The period of time, however, during which 
the root-system preserves its vitality, depends upon the species of 
tree, the condition of the stump, and the nature of the soil. Ii 
the stump has been carelessly cut, or is exposed to the hot sun, 
or has been injured by surface fires, it will decay more rapidly 
and the rot may extend into some of the roots. (PI. II, Fig. 3.) 
There is also an attempt at natural adjustment between the old 
root-system and the new sprout-growth. Where the sprouts are 
retarded in their development for special reasons, as, for instance, 
due to unfavorable situation, or to a defective stump, or to the 
shade of neighboring trees, a part of the root-system, being in ex- 
cess of the requirements, may gradually disappear. 

When the circumstances are more favorable, however, the old 
root-system may not only be tolerably well preserved, but itself 
continues to grow, producing new roots to supply the needs of 
the sprouts as some of the old roots decay and disappear. More- 
over, if the stump is low the sprouts have a tendency to send out 
rootlets where they come into contact with the surface of the soil, 
and these may afterwards develop into substantial and independ- 
ent roots. Such independent roots, it is true, may also be pro- 


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Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut, 127 


duced from sprouts that originate higher up on the sides of the 
stump; but this will be accomplished only after the base of the 
sprout has extended its growth downward over the stump to the 
ground. (Pl. II, Fig. 4.) This usually involves a delay of years 
and in the meantime the balance of demand and supply between 
the sprouts and the roots will have been less easily maintained. 

The tendency to produce an independent root-system from the 
base of the new sprout is more strongly developed in some species 
than in others. Among the trees included in this study, the Pig- 
nut and Bitternut Hickories, although they are not prolific 
sprouters, possess it to a remarkable degree. (PI. II, Fig. 1.) 
This power is decidedly of practical value, because sound, 
straight, and practically normal trees are thereby more easily pro- 
duced from mere stumps. 

It should be noted, also, that when sprouts are sent up from 
large stumps they usually come from a point close to or just 
beneath the surface of the soil, where the bark is less coarse, and 
the trees that ultimately develop from such sprouts are usually 
straighter and have more independent root-systems than sprouts 
that have originated higher up from stumps of smaller trees. 
Few species, however, develop sprouts from stumps of these 
mature ages. 

When the sprouts are cut at a seasonable age their stumps wilt 
in turn produce a sprout growth, and this process may be re- 
peated as long as some part of the root-system and stump retain 
any vitality. (PI. II, Fig. 2.) As stumps decay life is renewed 
by the formation of new roots and stems. In course of time, 
however, a number of factors operate against this constant pro- 
cess of renewal. The relation between the sprouts and the old 
root-system becomes more and more complicated; high or rough 
and misshapen stumps prevent the formation of new surface 
roots; the browsing of cattle, surface fires, and late spring frosts, 
injure the soft and tender first-year shoots, thereby producing 
scrubby forms. Moreover, the soil, unless exceptionally fertile, 
in time becomes exhausted; perhaps the rapidly growing sprouts 
take more from the soil than they return to it, but, above all, the 
frequent clearings expose it to the sun and wind and to washing 
rains. The resulting deterioration of the forest makes it neces- 
sary to replace a certain proportion of the sprouts by seedling 


128 Forestry Quarterly 


trees in each generation, and ultimately the area should be allowed 
to revert altogether to a seedling forest. 

Development of Sprout Forests. ‘The most satisfactory method 
of studying the habits and requirements of the trees that compose 
these forests is by a systematic comparison of each of the different 
species under the conditions existing within each type of forest. 
Such a comparative study was made in the field, and as a result 
average figures have been deduced for specified conditions. 
These results will be embodied under the following heads: the 
relative sprouting capacity of several of the more important 
species; differences in the tolerance of these species and conse- 
quent variations in form and development; preferences for par- 
ticular soils and situations. 

To ascertain the relative capacity for sprout reproduction in the 
leading species, several tracts were examined that had but very 
recently been cut over. Each clump of sprouts contained the 
stumps of one or two preceding generations, or at least traces of 
them. The number of live stumps in each clump, as well as the 
number of sprouts coming from these stumps, were counted and 
the results were averaged separately for each species within each 
of the tracts. These tracts were alike in soil and situation and 
were all either of the Chestnut Slope type or closely adjoining 
portions of the Mixed Slope type. 

The resulting averages are shown in Table II. The species are 
arranged from left to right in the order of their capacity as 
sprout producers. ‘The left-hand figures in each column repre- 
sent the average number of sprouts per clump, while the right- 
hand figures represent the average number of stumps from which 
they sprouted. The three figures in italics have been placed in 
advance of certain others which should rightfully have preceded 
them in the same line, in order to preserve uniformity in the con- 
secutive arrangement of species in columns. Where spaces have 
been left blank the figures have been excluded because the totals 
were too small to furnish reliable averages. 

As regards height growth the relation for the principal species 
was found the same in all five tracts: Chestnut, Red Oak, Chest- 
nut Oak, Red Maple, White Oak making the series from tallest 
to lowest. In Tract 4 (four years old) actual measurements 
make the average height for Chestnut 10 feet, for Red Oak 9 


a 


~ 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 129 


feet, for Red Maple 4 feet. Here the two Hickories exceeded the 
Maple by four feet, while White Ash remained shortest (3 feet). 


TasLe I].—Capacity for Sprout Reproduction of eight Leading Species as 
shown by Average Figures on five Tracts of Different Ages. 


Chestnut] Red Oak [{Chestnut| Red White Bitter- | Pignut | White 
As 


Oak Maple Oak nut h 
G a oe hn ets ee Bj EU eg Bh eR S83 By ok 
Beebe o eC te he ite a |S  heheuhet ain amie 
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we} o ag 2 ag 2 ag 2 ang» an» ad + ag + ag + 
_ Siped 3 Bias Scots Ss Bigs Biss 
Hial on on! us ga | ue on] 9S us| os os] os o2| oF 02/02 oS 
aise MO BO | BO BO | BAO BOO | DOU EO | BRO HO | EO BHO | BO BOY | BO HO 
BOSI SS SSL SS ES (SSSR ES SS| ES sels solSosolse se 
Bilinear Onl) & One oO: | eae eel pen wie: lee Bs eal Gee eal) Gael ie elec 
Ald << <4 qd q<€ ad qa< i <« q<4 
Ele ROO.) 7 |22) 22 5 5 
Zee 2500 63425 rhe me Nl Ra: SEO ths cy ke) 
Sisesibo. 3 6|19 4 IG) I 
4 4) 25 7 eat S ey hz Git tk 4 1 4502 
15] «Fete OAR ela | ie as de ae Zieh 


Perhaps the most significant fact brought out by these compari- 
sons is the uniform tendency of a correspondence between rapid 
height growth and average numbers of sprouts and stumps. The 
most prolific sprouters are likewise the most rapid growers. 
The only striking exception is the Red Maple, in which the growth 
in height does not keep pace with the number of sprouts pro- 
duced. 

At twenty-five or thirty years of age the more vigorous sprout 
producers retain from four to five sprouts per clump, while others 
are reduced to two or three. Other factors, however, enter into 
the problem. The ability to bear shade enables some kinds of 
trees to retain their sprouts more easily, although these have a 
tendency to remain stunted permanently under the boughs and 
foliage of the trees that surround them. Others, less tolerant of 
shade, like the chestnut, are able to retain a comparatively large 
number of sprouts, because by their rapid and persistent growth 
they soon secure for themselves the upper crown spaces in the 
forest. More important, they usually maintain that position be- 
cause of the early decline in the rate of growth common to all 
sprout reproduction. The development of seed-grown trees is 
notably different. In sprout forests, therefore, the occasional 
trees of seed origin will ultimately attain the ascendency over the 
sprouts, provided they are good shade bearers and well suited to 
the situation. 

There are thus two important factors, natural sprouting capa- 
city and shade endurance, that have a bearing upon the average 


130 Forestry Quarterly 


number of sprouts in a clump, but it is not easy to separate one 
factor from the other. Having considered the natural sprouting 
capacity in Table II, an attempt is made in Table III to determine 
the effect of light and shade, both upon the number of sprouts 
and upon their development. The figures have been derived from 
counts and measurements made upon two hundred and twenty- 
four felled sample trees selected from many different situations 
throughout the three types of forest. The ages ranged from 
twenty to forty years for the two slope types, and from thirty to 
sixty for Oak Ridge; or, in other words, the figures are based 
upon middle-aged to mature sprout forest conditions. As the 
question involved was the influence of light and shade, the sample 
trees were chosen from among the intermediate and dominant 
sizes within each tract, because the conditions of light are least 
complicated in the upper tiers of the forest and can therefore be 
more safely compared. 

By comparing the average heights of the sample trees by 
species, within each type, with the corresponding number of 
sprouts in the clump (columns 4 and 3 in the table), a general cor- 
respondence in the sequence of numbers is noticeable. The taller 
the dominant or intermediate tree within each type,* the greater 
also is the number of sprouts growing with it in the clump. 
This may be partly explained by a greater natural sprouting 
capacity, but undoubtedly it is due in part also to the fact that 
sprouts, having once secured a dominant position, maintain it 
without serious difficulty. 

The table shows no variation in the average number of sprouts 
per clump for chestnut on the two slope types. Chestnut Oak 
and Pignut, however, diminish in going from Mixed Slope to Oak 
Ridge, notwithstanding the decided increase that they show in the 
total number of trees to the average acre according to Table I. 
The decrease in the average number of sprouts per clump and the 
increase in the trees per acre are, in fact, due to the same cause: 
a decided falling off in the quality of the soil; for the exclusion 
of certain species from the Oak Ridge type leaves the less fas- 
tidious ones in undisputed possession of the ground. 


*On Oak Ridge, where the forest growth is unusually open, the cor- 
respondence between height and number of sprouts is not maintained 
throughout. 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 131 


Tass Il]—Effects of Light and Shade on the Development of Sprouts. 


n 7 ew ~ on 
ee ae 
aes ve CaS ET bbs 

Type Species v5 ous Sot os van 
i ee: Magi ayaa! |) aes 
23 Sok E%gas Bag 
< <q <q co 
Chestnut Slope. 
Ghestnutyo.1.- 4.5 48 .65 8 
Red Oak, ..... 3-5 39 .63 8 
White Ash, ... 2.0 26 .70 8 
White Oak, ... ies! 31 .63 9 
Mixed Slope. 
Chestnut st. 4.5 54 .64 8 
Red’ @alkiyss. 4. 2.8 40 .62 8 
Chestnut Oak,. 245 37 66 8 
White Ash, .. 22 34 .68 8 
IPAtenalbtn pe aes 1.9 34 .62 8 
White Oak, ... 13 34 .65 me) 
Oak Ridge. 
Red@aks oe. 2: 2.9 31 557 V7, 
Chestnut Oak,. Peat 2 .60 6 
White Oak, ... 2.0 2 .70 6 
JPateantbiow! Bea anes Wee 24 -69 6 


The figures in the.last two columns of the table show an in- 
teresting relation between crown densities and clear lengths. The 
figures in column 6 show in a rough general way the shade-en- 
during capacity of the several species within each type, according 
to the generally accepted law that trees with dense foliage (shade 
producers) are likewise good shade bearers. This principle is 
further supported by the figures in column 5. Comparing these 
figures with those in column 6, it will be noticed that the higher 
the degree of density the shorter is the clear length, or, in other 
words, the longer the crown in proportion to the full height of the 
tree. The notable exceptions are Red Oak and Pignut on Mixed 
Slope and Pignut on Oak Ridge. 

That greater densities should produce shorter clear lengths may 
appear surprising and contrary to general observation, but it 
should be remembered that these results refer to separate species 
as compared with one another on the same type of forest, thus 
showing individual characteristics rather than general tendencies. 
On the Oak Ridge type, when compared with the two others, Red 
Oak and Chestnut Oak show the usual effect of opener growth 
upon the development of the crowns. 

The figures for White Oak are the most interesting and indi- 
cate a tendency in this species that the writer has observed to be 


132 Forestry Quarterly 


rather general throughout its range. Since the plots from which 
the samples of White Oaks were taken show the greatest crown 
densities on the two slope types, we should expect from the fore- 
going the clear lengths to be shortest. That they are dispropor- 
tionately long is due to the fact that the White Oak is one of those 
long-suffering species that make no attempt to rise above the 
neighboring trees; or, :f so, do it only very slowly. While this 
species can hardly be called tolerant as compared with Hard 
Maple or Red Spruce, for example, it possesses the ability of 
the spruce, though in a minor degree, to bide its time and take 
advantage of the first opening to shoot upward. 

The number of sprouts to a clump depends not only upon 
natural capacity and light, but partly also upon the size of the 
stump. In connection with the measurements for Table III a 
record was kept for each sample tree of the size of the stump from 
which it had sprouted, of its position near the base or the top of 
the stump, of the extent to which the latter had decayed, and of 
the corresponding condition of the sprout at the butt. These 
records show that Chestnut stumps resist decay longest, while 
White Oak comes next in its power of resistance. But precisely 
the reverse is true of the sprouts, for these were found full of 
defects at the base in the case of Chestnut, while they were much 
sounder in the five remaining species. On Mixed Slope 25 per 
cent. of the Chestnuts were defective or rotten at the butt and 
on Chestnut Slope 50 per cent. were thus affected. Apparently 
the richer soil of the latter situation is better adapted for their 
early development, but the former seems to produce more favor- 
able results in the long run. Moreover, on Mixed Slope the 
height growth of Chestnut, as well as its rate of diameter growth 
(as will be shown later), is more rapid than on Chestnut Slope. 
When, therefore, we find it greatly exceeding in numbers on this 
lower slope, as was shown in Table I, we must conclude that the 
Chestnut has usurped the lower soils through some accidental 
circumstance, as, possibly, the greater ease with which the heavy 
nuts have found their way to the foot of the slope. 

In Table I the average number of trees per acre was given by 
species for each of the three types of forest. In making the sur- 
veys the following information was noted in addition to the num- 
ber and sizes of the trees: exposure, or the direction in which the 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 133 


tract faced; character of the topography; quality of the soil; 
condition of the humus; composition of the surfacegrowth and 
undergrowth; composition and amount of seedling reproduction; 
average crown density of the trees. A careful comparison of 
these records made it possible to determine some of the habits and 
requirements of some of the more important species, of which the 
following is a concise statement : 

Chestnut.—Most abundant on gentle and moderate slopes and 
on fresh, granular soil. Of thrifty growth under rich, well-de- 
composed mold; but is more persistent both in its height and 
diameter growth, and has fewer internal defects, on soils more 
meager in quality. Average crown density: .83.* 

White Ash.—Prefers a fresh to moist, granular, loamy soil and 
is found most frequently on easterly exposures. Average crown 
density: .87. 

Bitternut Hickory.—Prefers a fresh, loamy, somewhat deep and 
not too stony soil, and a rich, mellow humus. Generally occurs 
on easterly and westerly exposures, but tends to swing towards 
the north. Average crown density: .82. 

Pignut Hickory.—Occurs abundantly on loose, meager soil, and 
withstands a poor, acid humus. The top soil is often a dense, 
spongy tangle of huckleberry roots. Is found on easterly and 
westerly exposures, but like the bitternut tends to swing towards 
the north. Average crown density: .72. 

Black Birch.—Prefers a fairly good soil. Occurs most fre- 
quently on westerly exposures. Average crown density: .85. 

Hop Hornbeam.—Prefers a good, granular soil. Decidedly 
prefers westerly exposures. Average crown density: .82. 

Black Cherry.—Frequently occurs on rocky, shallow, inferior 
soil. Grows best, however, on moderately rich, well-drained soil, 
but is often excluded on account of its intolerance. 

Chestnut Oak, White Oak, Réd Oak.—These three species 
(also Pignut, see above) are decidedly the commonest on the poor, 
meager, yellow soil of the ridges, which is almost always over- 
laid by a tough, spongy, fibrous, acid surface soil. The Chestnut 


* The densities are the averages for the tracts where the species were 
found most abundantly, and probably represent the upper limits of density 
under otherwise favorable conditions. In the tables these densities, mathe- 
matically averaged, have been rounded off to the nearest decimal. 


134 Forestry Quarterly 


Oak is the typical tree in these situations. Blueberry, Huckle- 
berry, Shadbush and moss chiefly constitute the ground cover and 
undergrowth. 

Forms of Reproduction. Reproduction in sprout forests con- 
sists mainly of young sprouts, although seedlings find entrance 
here and there and ultimately grow into the stand. In addition to 
these two forms there is a third, commonly found throughout 
most of our second-growth deciduous forests, which may be said 
physiologically to stand between the two others. For want of a 
better name it may be called “seedling-sprouts.”’ 

At the first glance these seedling-sprouts appear to be merely 
seedlings, but on being removed from the soil it is seen that, in 
place of having a true independent root system, they are attached 
just beneath the surface of the soil to the stub of a former small 
stem. ‘The latter in turn is attached to a connected series of short, 
underground stems, which usually retain rounded scars near their 
upper ends. Sometimes this system of stems is fairly straight 
and of approximately even thickness throughout; but much 
oftener it is gnarled and twisted and has altogether the appearance 
of a disproportionately large, club-shaped, distorted root. True 
roots and rootlets appear at the farther extremity. (Pl. III, 
Figs. 1 and 2.) 

Such forms of growth are derived from true seedlings. This 
was shown by a study of several hundred specimens of various 
sizes and ages, including most of the species represented in these 
forests. The investigation showed that a large number of seed- 
lings are for various reasons sooner or later arrested in their de- 
velopment and then undergo a change in the following manner. 
Usually at the age of twelve to eighteen years, but in some cases 
much earlier, the seedling, which even until then has been grow- 
ing very slowly, shows a sudden loss of vitality. A sprout now 
appears at the base of the stem, generally at the surface or just 
beneath the surface of the soil. Its rate of growth, at first nor- 
mal, soon slackens, and before it has attained the size of the stem 
from whose base it sprang its annual growth is reduced to a mini- 
mum, A new sprout then apears as before at the base and pro- 
longs the underground stem. After a time there is a tendency to 
multiply the sprouts, so that from two to six appear at the same 
time. ‘This marks the final stage, for soon after this the whole 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 135 


plant usually dies and the subterranean root and stem system 
finally disappears. 

The age and size that these suppressed forms of growth will 
attain underground vary widely under different conditions. 
Thirty years is probably a moderate estimate of the average age, 
while extreme specimens will attain fifty or sixty years and may 
reach three or four feet in length and several inches in diameter 
at the thickest parts. The lease of life depends of course as much 
upon the presence of foliage above ground as upon the roots 
below. The underground stem portion, however, appears to be 
imperfect in its functions and the final cause of the death of the 
plant. For as this underground stem grows older it fulfills partly 
the office of a stem and partly that of a root, without being either 
of these distinctly. The annual rings which ought to be evident 
are imperfect and ill-defined, or wanting altogether. New roots 
rarely grow from these parts. Gradually decay, spreading out 
from the numerous scars left by the death of former sprouts, 
gains upon the younger sections of this underground growth. 
The connection between root system and sprouts becomes more 
and more imperfect as the walls of the intermediate stems become 
thinner and trough-like in form, until decay finally severs the con- 
nection altogether. 

This peculiar phenomenon of growth may be observ ae in most 
of our second-growth deciduous forests, though it appears hereto- 
fore to have received little or no attention from foresters. It is 
much more common in sprout forests of long standing and may 
be explained partly by the dense shade under which seedlings 
have to suffer in such forests, and partly also by the excessive 
amount of dead branches, bark, and leaves constantly shed from 
the surrounding trees, the greater number of which die as the 
forest grows older. Many seedlings were found bent over and 
pinned to the earth by such refuse, with a new sprout starting at 
the base of the stem. Finally, a certain number of the seedlings, 
especially among the oaks, are continuously kept back by nibbling 
squirrels, rabbits, and mice, and having small recuperative power 
are soon transformed into seedling-sprouts. 

To determine the relation between the older growth and these 
various forms of reproduction one or two sample plots were se- 
lected for study within each of the forty-four valuation surveys 


136 Forestry Quarterly 


referred to in Table I. These sample plots were made fifteen feet 
square. In most cases one plot sufficiently represented the aver- 
age conditions of the tract; in others two sample plots were 
selected, representing respectively the best and the poorest condi- 
tions within the tract. The quality of the soil and humus, and the 
age, compositon and general character of the surrounding stand 
within a radius of fifty feet, were noted. The result of this study 
is shown by averages in Table IV, the figures having, however, 
been approximated to areas of 1/20 acre. It should be added 
that only the younger seedling-sprouts, that still showed some 
vitality, were included in the counts, while all sprouts above three 
feet in height were excluded as belonging to the older growth of 
the forest. 

The salient features in this table are the following: Seedlings 
and seedling-sprouts predominate. Oak Ridge, with lowest 
crown density, leads the other two types in all three forms of re- 
production. If, however, we exclude the Chestnut Oak from the 
totals this type stands about midway between the two others. 
On the whole, the reproduction within each type is fairly well 
proportioned to the stand of the older trees, as may be seen by 
comparing the results with those in Table I. With some impor- 
tant exceptions the future composition of the forest is foreshad- 
owed in the present reproduction; although, of course, only a 
very small percentage of it ever grows into the stand, owing to 
the immediate domination of the larger sprouts after every clear 
cutting. 

The exceptional species in the table are the Chestnut, Bitternut, 
Ash and Hard Maple. On both of the slope types chestnut re- 
production is entirely disproportionate to its older representation 
in the forest, being even less on Chestnut Slope than on Mixed 
Slope. This may be partly explained by the intolerance of the 
Chestnut when compared with several of its competitors,* as well 
as by the somewhat greater crown density of the Chestnut Slope 
sample plots (.90). 

On Mixed Slope the reproduction of Bitternut and Ash is 
abundant as compared with Chestnut, but its promise is not quite 


* The following are average crown densities under which reproduction 
was found to occur most abundantly: For Chestnut, .80; Hard Maple, .85; 
White Ash, .86; Bitternut Hickory, .87. 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 137 


Taste 1V.—Amount and Character of Reproduction on Sample Areas 
of 1/20 Acre in Three Types of Forest. 


Chestnut Slope Mixed Slope Oak Ridge 
* 

n n n n 

2 Se 2 EAC EMME: FAMINE ii 0: 

Ss sa 8 Sn Ss Sa 8 

a a} ary rOea lS ey Gist arn pees 

n an n 77) 7) n wn no n 
CS Loe Se ane 7 STEAL | BY) ie 
Chestnut Oak, ... 22 Orage 100 49 II 452 68 68 
White Oak, ..... 2 aha 3 = Behe Toh 10 3 
eds Oaks oie c ae 2 inate 6 Grates 6 Soe 
Back @ale v.23. Se ty eR ro ake | Rage EON RA 
BIEENUE 5. <0,0 0c 4 5 I 16 Ay ees ARR, ig Oy 
Ley aT ae en ae 2 5 3 2 tel eae I 
Shagbark, SR Are JON ike [ahs Raed THY ee ned Eu ne 2 
Wihite: sAshe «./)5:.. 2 4 I 63 a 8 ME a nt» 
larde Maples...) 30:. T2160 x: 16 Ae eb Jen te ee 
Red Maple, ...... Fe MIDE TO 89 I I 5 6 
Hop Hornbeam, . 10 Bat: 8 I 2 40t 
Other Species .. 3. .. I By Al 3 4 

Perea, eh.) 89 46 18 316) V/88 43 537 122 102 


4 
Grand totals, 153 761 


is 


Average Crown densities of the Sample Areas and Average Ages and 
Heights of the Reproduction. 


Den- Seedlings Seed’l Sprouts Sprouts 

sity. yrs. in. yrs.) int yrs. in. 
Chesinur Slopes ies 55% .QO 5 5 Fi 7 4 9 
WIPE CUM SLOPE, so. 2. obec ds 85 4 5 4 5 Ay SAT 
OATES TT ee .80 4 5 4 6 4 9 


fulfilled in the amount of the later growth. (Cf. Table I.) The 
young reproduction of both species, especially of the Bitternut, 
favors the better soils. The older sprout growth is well main- 
tained in the much opener situations of the Oak Ridge type. 
The Hard Maple, on the other hand, maintains itself best on 
Mixed Slope. On Chestnut Slope its seedling reproduction, how- 
ever, is persistent and long-lived. 

The remarkably abundant seedling reproduction of Chestnut 
Oak is, of course, explained by its extremely frugal demands upon 
the soil. It is the characteristic tree of the rocky open situations 
of the Oak Ridge type, where its reproduction often crowds into 
the hollows between the rocks to the exclusion of all other species. 


* Only seedling-sprouts retaining some vigor and sprouts under three 
feet in height were included in these averages. 


+ Found on best soil and mould within this type. 


~ Under “other species” are included the following: Butternut, Beech, 
Black and Choke Cherry, Basswood, Dogwood, and Shadbush. 


138 Forestry Quarterly 


In a somewhat similar way Hop Hornbeam usurps the better situ- 
ations within this type. The reproduction on Oak Ridge of the 
four leading species of this type in Table I was found to be most 
abundant under the following average crown densities:* White 
Oak, .64; Pignut, .65; Red Oak, .71; Chestnut Oak, .73. 


RATE OF GROWTH. 


The basis for a study of the rate of growth was furnished by 
435 trees, including all the important species. Complete stem 
analyses were made of these trees in 8-foot sections and for 
5-year periods of growth. Small suppressed trees were separated 
from the remainder in recording the measurements. ‘These were 
sectioned into 4-foot instead of 8-foot lengths in order to pre- 
serve the same degree of accuracy in the results. The ages of 
trees of seed origin could be determined with fair exactness by the 
help of the averages in Table IV. While a large number of 
curves were constructed from these data, only a few have been 
chosen here for illustration. 

The trees upon which the curves in diagrams I to 3 are based 
were selected very carefully to represent average shape, crown 
density, health and general conditions of growth. It was not 
always possible to find representative trees in sufficient numbers 
for all species on every type. Consequently the curves indicate 
the averages only of those species within each type that were 
fairly well represented. On account of the careful method of 
selection, it is believed that the number of trees necessary in any 
case to construct a reliable curve was very much smaller than 
would ordinarily be required where trees are selected with less 
discrimination, perhaps, but the results made to depend upon 
averages of a larger number. 

At the end of each curve the second number, in brackets, refers 
to the actual number of trees analyzed and used for the curve. 
Whenever this number was insufficient to include trees of all ages, 
the intermediate points along the curve were found by tracing 
back the heights and diameters of some of the older trees to their 
earlier ages by help of the detailed measurements of the stem 
analyses. ‘These additional points, added to the actual number of 


*In the tables, these densities, mathematically averaged, have been 
rounded off to the nearest decimal. 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 139 


trees, have given the larger figure of specimens involved that pre- 
cedes the one in brackets on each curve. It was thus possible to 
find out how fast the trees grew during the earlier stages of 
development and to base a curve throughout its length upon uni- 
form conditions. In this way it is believed more accurate results 
have been obtained than would have been possible if small and 
suppressed trees that were then growing on the same tract had 
been selected for the earlier and intermediate periods of life. 
These suppressed trees are represented by separate curves in the 
diagrams. 

In diagram 1 the curves for dominant sprouts show a rapid 
rate of height growth, but it falls off rather early and thereafter 
diminishes gradually to the end of the curve. Thus on Chestnut 
Slope the rate is 12.5 feet for the first 5-year period and only 6 
feet for the sixth period. On Oak Ridge these proportions are 
nearly cut in half. On Mixed Slope the figures at first stand 
about midway between, but the rate as compared with Chestnut 
Slope is better maintained toward the end of the curve. For sup- 
pressed sprouts, on the other hand, the situation is reversed; for 
here the early rate is most rapid on Mixed Slope, and, as before 
for the dominant sprouts on Chestnut Slope, is followed by a more 
sudden diminution, until it falls to the rate of the corresponding 
curve on Chestnut Slope in the fifth 5-year period. On Oak 
Ridge the suppressed sprouts begin life much more slowly, but 
continue at a comparatively faster rate to the end of the curve. 
In a word, the same tendency runs through all the sprout curves: 
a rapid development at the beginning generally points to a com- 
paratively early decline. 

The curve for dominant seedling trees on Oak Ridge overtakes 
the sprout curve at 42 years of age, but remains behind on Mixed 
Slope. On the latter type the sprout curve is based upon a large 
proportion of chestnut trees, whose growth is decidely more rapid 
than that of any of the other species.* The suppressed seedlings 
on Chestnut Slope show a surprising increase up to the thirtieth 
year, after which the curve tends to turn and fall. The explana- 
tion probably lies in the good soil conditions of Chestnut Slope. 
The rapid growth of the dominant sprouts during the first ten 


*On Chestnut Slope the number of dominant seedling trees was not 
sufficient to construct an accurate curve; hence none has been given. 


140 


SYUVBA, NI 39V 


co OC Ce OF ce OF ¢2 Of ct O1 CS 0 09 cc Of Cb OF se 


Forestry Quarterly 


HEIGHT IN FEET 
Rae 


“or Fe To 


so 


“on 6000. ets ofice 06 oc) 


Ocuce. Ce v6! 
| Ah. 2 
f\ = 


ane 
i 
“aes 


Diagram 1.—RATES OF HEIGHT GROWTH 


: \ Sprouts 
Dominant Trees } Seedling Trees 


Suppressed Trees } Seeding lente on 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 141 


years apparently retards the development of the young seedling 
trees. The latter gradually recover in the course of the succeed- 
ing decades, but very few of them ever succeed in catching up 
with the much taller sprouts that have preceded them. ‘There is, 
in fact, strong reason to believe that a large proportion of what 
appear to be suppressed seedling trees in these forests are in 
reality seedling-sprouts. 

In diagram 2 the average curves for age and diameter are given 
for comparison with the height curves of diagram 1. The steady 
increase in the rate of growth for sprouts looks as if the growth 
energy had been gradually transferred from height growth to 
diameter growth. But the latter is also accelerated rather than 
diminished where the height growth is proportionately more 
rapid, as may be seen by comparing the rates of height growth of 
the dominant sprouts on Mixed Slope and Chestnut Slope 
(diagram 1) with the rates of diameter growth on the same types 
in 5-year periods. The same tendency is noticeable in the sup- 
pressed sprouts. On Oak Ridge it will be remembered these 
began with a slow height growth, but increased proportionately 
faster than the other two. A comparison of the diameter curves 
shows the same relation for the diameter increment. We may 
conclude, therefore, that up to the age of about thirty-five years, if 
not longer, sprouts growing under conditions similar to those of 
western Connecticut will be favorably rather than unfavorably 
affected in their diameter growth by a rapid increase in height. 

The seedling trees likewise show an increase in the rate for 
diameter with each succeeding 5-year period, but it is barely per- 
ceptible. Nor does the relative rate of diameter increment on the 
different types correspond with the relative rate of height incre- 
ment. ‘The latter is faster on Oak Ridge than on Mixed Slope for 
dominant seedling trees (up to 25 years), yet the diameter rate is 
comparatively a little slower. In the case of suppressed seedlings 
it is worth noting that a slow progress in height growth on Oak 
Ridge is accompanied by an increase in the rate of diameter 
growth that is distinctly more marked than on either of the other 
types. In other words, seedling trees show the effect of a rapid 
height growth in a diminished diameter growth. However, this 
interrelation between height and diameter growth in seedling 


142 


So OL ite Or) atl s Ol Gn. (On epnoe Ge Oe -7Sl esol 


SHVAA- NI JOvW 


Forestry Quarterly 


DIAMETER IN INCHES ‘AT BREAST HEIGHT; INCLUD!NG BARK 


i 


o9 .cS oc Cr Or 


Diagram 2—RATES OF DIAMETER GROWTH 


: {Sprouts 
Dominant Trees | Seedling Trees- 


Suppressed Trees { Seedling Trees lars tettee 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 143 


trees probably does not assert itself as early as here under ordi- 
nary forest conditions. 

Diagram 3 gives the results in volume.* These curves speak 
largely for themselves. The rapid rate for dominant sprouts on 
the two slope types is due chiefly to the very rapid diameter 
growth of chestnut. 


YIELD. 


To determine the yield forty-four half-acre sample areas were 
measured off in the form of rectangles on the three forest types 
as follows: twelve on Chestnut Slope, twenty-two on Mixed 
Slope, ten on Oak Ridge. All trees over six feet in height and 
one inch in diameter at breast height were included and were 
classified according to species and sprout or seed origin into 
1-inch diameter classes. The calculation of volume was made ac- 
cording to Robert Hartig’s method, the total number of inch 
classes being divided into three groups and three sample trees 
chosen within each group. The sample trees were sectioned into 


* The method of calculation for the volumes of the individual trees that 
supplied the points for these curves differed slightly from the method in 
ordinary use. It consisted in multiplying the sum of the areas at the 
section cuts in each tree (except the cut at the stump) by the common 
length of the sections, namely, 8 feet for dominant trees and 4 feet for 
suppressed trees. This obviated the necessity of finding the mean basal 
area of the two ends of each section, and at the same time extended the 
calculation a half section above the upper-most cut, while it also left a half 
section above the stump to be calculated separately. The very top of the 
tree, being small and spindling, could thus be disregarded altogether and 
classed with the branches, while the volume of the lower half of the lowest 
section could be found very approximately by multiplying the mean 
between the basal area at breast height (which is taken at 4.5 feet) and 
the basal area of the stump, by the length of this half section, namely, 
4 feet for the larger class of trees. For the suppressed trees a double 
mean had to be calculated for the butt end of 2 feet. 

This modification of the usual method was very well adapted for the 
present purpose, because the stumps were usually cut about 1 foot high 
and the basal area at breast height would thus fall 6 inches below the 
upper end of the half section whose volume was to be ascertained. Theo- 
retically it may seem that this would give a result slightly in excess of the 
actual values, but in reality it constitutes an approximate allowance in the 
case of larger trees for the flare above the roots; whereas in smaller trees, 
which are less bulgy at the base and which are usually cut only 6 inches 
high, the chosen diameters at breast height and at the stump would give 
the actual mean desired. This method of computing the volume greatly 
simplified the mathematical work, while the results were found by com- 
parison to be very close to those obtained by the ordinary method, being 
in general a little lower and therefore more conservative. In the curves 
the volume of the branches, as well as of the stump, was excluded. 


144 


Suv JA“ NIESOY 


&o9%cctoc’ Ce ow" Se OF C2 O27 GIY O1'K CO * CE’ OF "CZ 02 


Forestry Quarterly 


VOLUME ‘IN hain WITHOUT. BRANCHES &STUMPS) 


w . ee Or. N o o fo) 

=f 

TO RA IC Pan 
wag se a 


~ Ae | 
. 7 =. 
ae 
& ht 
=i ih § 


— adO7S daxIn 


ec7oc Ce Ov ce O¢ C2 Of" C1 oO SO 


Diagram 3—RATE OF VOLUME GROWTH 


7 = {Sprouts 
Dominant Trees | Seedling Trees 


SProOule Ai twucsescaewhusas 


Suppressed Trees { Seedling Trees 


Sprout. Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 145 


8-foot lengths for dominant trees and into 4-foot lengths for sup- 
pressed trees. ; 

In addition to the counts and measurements a complete record 
of the silvical conditions was kept for each sample area. This in- 
cluded a “quality of locality” in three grades, based upon the 
quality of the soil and mold and the thriftiness and general ap- 
pearance of the trees. 

The results of these records and measurements are shown in 
Table V. The yield is there referred to age and to basal area at 
breast height. As referred to basal area the yield on the whole 
shows more regularity in the sequence of the results; in other 
words, there is a consistency in the relation of silvical conditions 
to yield. Basal area is dependent on crown development and 
crown development on soil conditions and environment. It 
should also be remembered that trees are more tolerant and there- 
fore have denser, fuller crowns, the better the soil. This is shown 
in the table by the general tendency of higher densities for better 
qualities of locality within each type of forest. Of course, there 
are some marked irregularities in the columns of yield as referred 
both to age and to basal area, but these can in most cases be ex- 
plained by reference to the columns of “quality,” “crown density,” 
and especially “percentage of chestnut,’ which is a tree of ampler 
crown, more cylindrical bole and greater average height than the 
other species. Thus, on Chestnut Slope, sample areas 3 and 9 
yield more than 4 and Io of the same ages, because they have both 
ereater crown densities and higher percentages of chestnut. The 
same is true for areas 14 and 33, 26 and 27, and 16 as compared 
with 17, 15 and 30. In area 34 as compared with 33 the quality 
of locality and crown density are the determining factors. Special 
cases are areas II, 13 and 30, in which the comparatively low 
yield is explained by slow growth and scrubby forms resulting 
from years of excessive pasturage; area 19, in which the high 
yield is due to a very thrifty growth of oaks, which here form the 
dominant stand; area 8, in which a large number of trees per 
acre, in spite of their small size, has been the factor of influence; 
and areas 41 and 42, in which a proportion of 52% and 48% of 
hickories, with tapering crowns, has reduced the yield. Finally, 
area 5 with the highest yield of the entire series deserves special 
notice. This yield is explained partly by the very excellent 


146 Forestry Quarterly 


Taste V.—Yield of Sprout Forest in the Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 


Chestnut Slope. 


Sample area lit Crown Chestnut Basal area Average age Yield* 
No. Quality Density per cent. sq.ft.p acre years cords p. acre 
Il II 4C 61 53.4 19 8 
12 II 8 38 63. 19 11.6 
7 II 8 44 74.6 21 13.6 
I I 8 55 81.4 PAI 18.7 
2 I 8 45 60.2 22 14.1 
6 I I 39 109.6 28 19.8 
10 II 7 4I 89.8 29 20.1 
9 IT 8 54 92.9 29 21.4 
4 I 8 39 83.9 35 19.9 
3 I oe) 46 99.9 35 23-7 
8 II 8 32 118.5 30 26.3 
5 I 9 39 121.3 42 33-7 
Mixed Slope. 
21 II me) 2 35-9 12 3.4 
23 Il 8 I 30.5 12 Bes 
22 II .9 7 47.6 12 5.3 
13 II , 26 48.1 19 8.6 
25 I 8 28 61. 21 10.4 
27 II a7, oF 36.6 23 5.4 
26 II 8 8 58.1 23 10. 
29 II 8 36 86.4 24 Ges 
30 IQ 8 25 93.6 30 21.8 
15 I 9 23 Q2.1 30 21.9 
17 I 9 25 103.8 30 26.1 
16 I I. 26 IIS5.1 30 29.1 
28 II 9 10 76.1 31 16.2 
31 II 9 28 78.7 I 20. 
32 II 9 21 95.8 aM 23.6 
34 Ill 8 9 47.9 38 10.6 
33 II ae) A 70.3 38 14.5 
14 II 6 5 44.8 48 8.4 
18 Il vi 13 92.1 54 19.4 
21 II 6 2 78.6 55 Tie 
19 I 8 6 107.5 56 29.7 
20 I 8 15 88.1 57 18.6 
Oak Ridge. 
38 Ill 6 33.5 18 3.6 
43 II 8 54.9 2 6.7 
42 II oe Ra 60.7 32 8.5 
44 III 6 13 56.6 32 OQ. 
36 II 7 14 O1.9 35 16.1 
35 Ill 6 6 57.8 38 10.8 
4I II 6 Les 69.1 44 Tiss 
40 II 5 I 65.4 45 12.6 
39 VU W7 ag 81.3 53 16. 
37 III 6 68.1 50 I3K7 


*In the calculation of the yield the volume of the branches has not been 
included. Test measurements on four of the tracts indicate, however, that 
5 to 8 per cent can be allowed for utilizable material on stands over thirty 
years of age. 


— = 


~ 


L979 FYVNOS 
, ' i 


L¢OIPH LSVIVE LV 


AT VIUY *eove 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut, 147 


WELLO IN CORDS PER ACRE 
© ‘ny Ys “o o 3 ry 3 is & wr ‘e 
; ne Ae 8 cirerewen : Oo. ” sv 


© Se 


Diagram 4—YIELD IN CORDS PER ACRE, AS REFERRED TO BASALAREA. 


148 Forestry Quarterly 


soil conditions and a favorable situation, but mainly by the 
history of the area. For some twenty-five years past the owner 
of this tract had applied to it a careful system of improvement 
cutting, removing a considerable number of unshapely and other- 
wise undesirable trees. The number of trees per acre was thereby 
reduced from the average number for this type, 929, to 574, and 
210 of these remaining trees were of seed origin, mostly under 5 
inches in diameter. This shows that it is possible on good soil 
and by judicious treatment not only to increase the yield of sprout 
forests, but at the same time to improve their composition and 
consequently their commercial value. 

In Diagram 4 graduated curves have been constructed from the 
figures of yield in Table V, in order to show the differences in 
yield for like basal areas on different types of forest. In this 
diagram the two slope types have been combined into one curve 
on account of the similarity of the conditions of growth. The 
lower sections of the curves are only approximate, having been 
determined from the general direction of the middle and upper 
sections. 

From this table (V) the periodic yield may be approximated to 
run about as follows, rounded off to half cords: 


AIDES hi tos toch: mivikotoueeivelsie sts 20° 25.) 30) -35)) 40) 945) SOmayeanse 
Chestnut and Mixed Slope,. 11.5 15.5 10.5 21.5 23 -24 24.5 cords. 
Oak BRIdge: siPecS Ae eae te BENG 8.5 10.5 12:5 1350 140 eben 


The foregoing analysis shows how very important a factor 
silvical conditions must be in all estimates or predictions of 
volume and yield. These conditions must even be more carefully 
considered in our own country, even in comparatively regular 
forests, than in the well-organized and uniform forests of Europe. 


FrirES AND OTHER DANGERS. 


Fires.—The subject of forest fires has now been widely dis- 
cussed for years and our forest literature is full of information 
about the causes, character and means of prevention of this uni- 
versal evil. Very little remains to be said in this place. 

On account of the density of the stand and moderate heights of 
the trees, the crookedness and irregular forms of growth, and the 
low, straggly crowns, fires in sprout forests are more destructive 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 149 


than in seedling forests of similar type. In the former, also, 
there are more dead and dying trees and more litter accumulates 
among the clumps of sprouts. (PI. IV, Fig. 3.) In stands over 
twenty years of age some of the larger trees usually escape, par- 
ticularly those with tough bark, like Chestnut, Oak, or such as by 
their position in the group are protected by their neighbors. In 
young stands, however, the destruction is often complete, while 
the dead, half-burned stems that remain standing add, of course, 
to the danger of a second fire. 

In most fires all forms of young reproduction are destroyed. 
New shoots spring from the roots near the surface of the soil and 
thus constitute the reproduction in the new stand of trees. Much 
of this reproduction consists of “seedling-sprouts.” Pl. IV, Fig. 
I, shows a seedling sprout with two scars on the underground 
stem 21 and 25 years old, and three shoots, the largest of which 
followed the cutting of a sprout at the extreme left two years ago, 
while the two others are the result of a recent surface fire in 
which the larger sprout was killed. In Fig. 2 the sprouts are 
more vigorous, having come from a better preserved root-system. 

Cattle —Where pasturing is allowed in young sprout forests 
it retards the rate of growth and leads to scrubby forms. Most 
of the seedlings and surface growth are trampled to death and 
the soil is gradually hardened and compacted, the trees suffer, 
the leaf canopy grows more open, weeds and grasses enter and 
the forest gradually deteriorates. The number of cattle allowed 
to graze within an area should be regulated by the conditions of 
growth and the age of the trees. 

Frost and Snow.—First year sprouts are particularly sensitive 
to spring frosts and early frosts in the fall on account of their 
extremely rapid growth, which leaves the top shoots tender and 
ill-prepared for resistance. 

The danger from heavy snowfall when followed by rain and 
frost is generally recognized. Slender poles are bent over under 
the weight of the ice and snow and branches are cracked and 
broken off in the wind. 


Forest TREATMENT. 


Although the main object of this paper has been to set forth 
certain new facts regarding the silvics of these forests, a few 
paragraphs may here be added in reference to their treatment. 


150 Forestry Quarierly 


The forests of the Housatonic Valley in their present condition 
have comparatively little value as sources of wood supply. The 
manufacture of charcoal has been practically abandoned in this 
region and the supply of small wood is so plentiful that cordwood 
commands only a very low price. Most of the trees are of poor 
shape and small dimensions and the best that can be hoped for is 
a gradual improvement of the conditions through careful thin- 
ning and selective cutting. There is, therefore, no necessity at 
present for any regulation of the yield. 

As trees are removed for firewood or the minor necessities of 
the farm the aim should be, first of all, to improve the composi- 
tion of the forest. Slow growing species should be eliminated, 
resulting in combinations among the more valuable and rapid 
growing species. These combinations should, of course, be 
basd upon compatibility, as well as upon rate of growth* and 
intrinsic value. At the same time the effects of such changes in 
composition upon the soil conditions should be taken into con- 
sideration. The ultimate aim should be to transform the pres- 
ent crooked, partly diseased and defective, more or less effete, 
mixed stands, into stands of straight, thrifty, healthy trees, in the 
beginning largely of sprout origin, but to be replaced in course of 
time by seedling trees through natural regeneration. With the 
completion of these changes the time would come for a considera- 
tion of the best felling age as based upon marketable size, repro- 
ductive power, soundness as affected by age, and culmination of 
the “mean annual increment,” whether in volume or board foot 
contents. 

The best combinations appear to be the following—On Chest- 
nut Slope: the Oaks, especially Red Oak, with Chestnut in mod- 
eration; to which should be added in the opener places White 
Ash and Bitternut Hickory. On Mixed Slope: mainly Chestnut 
in combination with the Oaks, especially Chestnut Oak and 
White Oak, with admixtures of the Hickories, Ash and Maple 
in suitable situations. In both types occasional specimens of 
Basswood, Hop Hornbeam, Black and Yellow Birch, should be 


* The limits of space did not make it possible to include curves of growth 
for separate species in the section on Rate of Growth. Among the im- 
portant species the rates of volume growth on the two slope types showed 
the following sequence, beginning with the fastest: Chestnut, red oak, 
pignut hickory, white ash, chestnut oak, white oak. 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. I51 


favored in spite of their slower growth. In open or moderately 
open stands small Hard Maple and Beech should be retained for 
maintenance of the soil conditions and cleaning of branches of the 
older trees. On Oak Ridge cutting is unprofitable, except at very 
long intervals, on account of slow growth, scrubby forms and in- 
accessibility. Moreover, the soil conditions and situation point to 
the advisability of reserving these areas as protection forests. 

To facilitate the gradual conversion of the sprout into the seed 
system the selection cuttings should be kept fairly dense and the 
trees should preferably be cut during August or July. 

The foregoing operations, while reducing the stand of trees per 
acre, would almost certainly increase the yield; as was shown, 
for example, in the case of sample area No. 5. The improvements 
in selection of species and merchantable quality, as well as the 
ultimate rise of timber values that may confidently be expected, 
would all contribute still further to the increased returns per 
acre. 

In this connection it may be added, moreover, that the forests 
of the Housatonic Valley, as well as their extension into the 
Berkshire Hills of Massachusetts, have a decided esthetic value. 
The resorts and beautiful drives and walks in this region have 
for many years been the attraction of pleasure seekers from neigh- 
boring and distant States. Many owners will here set greater 
value upon their forests as adjuncts to their homes than as sources 
of wood supply. The conversion of sprout growth into a high 
selection forest, with the retention of some of the more orna- 
mental trees and shrubs among the undergrowth—such as Beech, 
Hornbeam, Dogwood and Shadbush—as a protective soil cover, 
will ultimately meet both of these conditions. 


Summary. 


(1.) The sprout forests of the Housatonic Valley can be 
classified into three distinct types: Chestnut Slope, occupying 
the bases of the hills, with chestnut predominating; Mixed Slope, 
on the sides of the hills, with a large admixture of the oaks, 
maples and hickories; Oak Ridge, along the crests, with much 
shallower, poorer soil, supporting a stunted growth chiefly com- 
posed of chestnut oak. 

(2.) Sprout reproduction varies according to species, condition 


152 Forestry Quarterly 


of stump and quality of soil. There is an attempt at adjustment 
between the old root system and the new generation of sprouts. 
Under favorable conditions new sprouts, especially of the hick- 
ories, send out independent roots near the surface of the soil. 
Successive cuttings complicate the connection between sprouts 
and root system; cattle, fires and spring frosts lower the quality 
of growth, and the soil, which is severely taxed, gradually be- 
comes exhausted. 

(3.) A study of the natural sprouting capacity of the various 
species shows that the most prolific sprouters (Chestnut, Red 
Oak, Chestnut Oak) are likewise the most rapid growers. Their 
rapid growth is of distinct advantage, because they are thereby 
enabled to reach and maintain the upper crown spaces. White 
Oak shows a valuable tendency to recuperate after long suppres- 
sion in the shade. 

(4.) Seedling reproduction is limited in these sprout forests on 
account of dense shade, injury and suppression through fallen 
branches, fires, browsing of cattle, nibbling of mice, etc. Most 
of the seedlings are ultimately transformed, by repeated attempts 
at sprouting, into “seedling sprouts” with disproportionately 
large, distorted, defective root systems. Many of the latter at- 
tain great age, but they become more and more complicated and 
imperfect in their functions as they enlarge by addition of parts 
of the overground growth, and finally succumb to decay. 

On the three types of forest the reproduction of seedlings and 
“seedling sprouts” is fairly well proportioned to the stand of the 
older trees. 

(5.)A detailed study of the rate of growth shows that although 
the sprouts, separated into dominant and suppressed trees, vary 
in their rate of height growth on the three types of forest, there 
is a tendency toward compensation: a rapid development at the 
beginning generally points to a comparatively early decline. 
Height growth, however, does not seem to interfere with diam- 
eter development, at least in sprouts; on the contrary a rapid 
height growth generally coincides with a rapid diameter develop- 
ment. In seedling trees this principle does not hold true, except 
perhaps in early life. In volume growth the two slope types 
greatly exceed the Oak Ridge type, chiefly owing to the very 
rapid rate of diameter growth of Chestnut. 


Sprout Forests of Housatonic Valley, Connecticut. 153 


6.) A detailed study of the yield shows a marked dependence 
of yield upon silvical conditions and a correlation between yield 
and basal area. Discrepancies in the tabulated results as referred 
either to age or to basal area can be explained in almost all cases 
by differences in “quality of locality,’ “crown density” and es- 
pecially “percentage of chestnut.’’ Graduated curves show a dis- 
tinct difference in yield for like basal areas on different types of 
forest. The yield can be greatly increased and its quality im- 
proved by intelligent methods of thinning and selection cutting, 
combined with protection. 

(7.)Fires are unusually destructive in sprout forests on ac- 
count of the density and shortness of the stand, crooked forms of 
growth, and excess of dead material. There is also great danger 
of repetition of fires. Other dangers, more marked in this class 
of forests than elsewhere, are spring and autumn frosts, heavy 
snowfall and sleet, and indiscriminate pasturage. 

(8.) On account of the economic conditions and excess of ma- 
terial of small dimensions and inferior shape, there is no neces- 
sity at present for a regulation of the yield. The aim of treat- 
ment should be to improve the conditions, especially the composi- 
tion of the forest, by careful thinning and selective cutting. The 
species allowed to remain should be considered from the point of 
view of mutual compatibility, rates of growth and commercial 
value. Effects upon the soil should likewise receive considera- 
tion. A gradual transformation of sprout into seedling growth, 
by methods of natural regeneration, is desirable. Oak Ridge for- 
ests should be reserved as protection areas. 

(9.) The forests of the Housatonic Valley, as well as of the 
neighboring Berkshire Hills of Massachusetts, should be consid- 
ered also for their esthetic value. The conversion of the sprout 
form into a high selection forest, with the retention of certain or- 
namental trees and shrubs among the undergrowth, serving also 
as a protective soil cover, will ultimately meet this condition. 

G. FREDERICK SCHWARZ. 


ABSOLUTE FOREST LAND. 


For the purpose of propaganda, before legislative bodies and 
in popular discussions, it is customary to assert that no agricul- 
tural land is required for forestry purposes; that all needs can 
be satisfied if the “waste lands” are devoted to timber growth. 
Probably these statements are accurate enough on such occasions, 
but it may be well if American foresters will in their own minds 
form a clearer notion of this subject. 

German foresters long ago established the category of “abso- 
lute” forest land, meaning thereby land on which agriculture is 
unprofitable, and which should therefore bear forests. Taking 
their notions from the circumstances of their own country, they 
apparently assumed that land unfit for agriculture would always 
be capable of producing woods.* Moreover, the concept was 
formulated at a time when settlement had long been completed 
and practically all lands were in use, in other words, when agri- 
culture was in a relatively static condition. In order to make 
the term “absolute forest land” serviceable generally, it must be 
analyzed more fully and defined more precisely than the Germans 
have found necessary. 

The ideal economic organization of a country would be one 
where each parcel of land was devoted to the use by which the 
highest wealth could be produced on the totality of the land. 

Productivity of land depends on two conditions: Fertility, de- 
termined by geological and climatic circumstances; and relative 
location, determined by the available means of transportation and 
distance from markets. Fertility changes but very slowly ;7 rela- 
tive location is changing all the time, especially in new countries, 
by the springing up of new markets as population increases. 
Moreover, as the available capital and labor of a community mul- 


* This assumption is not completely justified even in Germany. Not 
to mention the high Alps above timber line, it has been found during 
afforestations in such districts as the Luneburg Heath and the peat moors 
of Northwest Germany, that there are lands so utterly sterile that even 
Jack Pine will not grow except after difficult and expensive ameliorations. 


+ Except in case of natural catastrophies, as where a field is sanded 
up by a flood; also in cases of rapid erosion on a hill side. 


Absolute Forest Land. 155 


tiplies, it becomes economically practicable to make production 
more intensive. Consequently, under conditions as they now ex- 
ist and will for a long time continue on the larger part of the 
globe, the extent of land on which agriculture is possible must 
constantly vary, and on the whole increase. 

Agriculture supplies the first human necessity, and demands 
the first consideration in the parcelling out of the land. In thinly 
settled countries, only a part of the land fairly adapted to farm- 
ing is actually put to that use; but as development progresses, 
more and more land is brought under cultivation, and only those 
lands are left which on account of infertility or inaccessibility are 
unfit for the farmer. These then, so far as they are capable of 
bearing forests, would be absolute forest land. With further de- 
velopment more intensive methods of agriculture will become 
feasible, and a part of what was at first absolute forest land will 
now be agricultural. This process may conceivably continue until 
almost all the land is in agricultural use. For even the most ster- 
ile sands can be made fertile by manuring and irrigation, the most 
distant tracts accessible by roads, and the steepest mountain sides 
can be terraced if need be. It follows, then, that there is practi- 
cally very little absolute forest land in the physical sense. Almost 
all lands except those climatically incapable of economic plant 
growth of any sort are physically available for agriculture. The 
definition must be modified in this way: “Absolute forest land is 
land capable of bearing forest but unprofitable for agriculture at 
any given stage of economic development.” 

There are of course limited districts in which no absolute forest 
land is to be found. But taking the world as a whole, it will be 
a very long time before agriculture has conquered all the land 
capable of plant growth. At present a very large area is still 
bearing forest which would even now be more productive if tilled. 
But the tendency, under private competition, is everywhere to 
push the forest back upon what at the given time constitutes abso- 
lute forest land, or else to destroy the woods altogether. The 
question now arises: Will the permanent needs of this country 
be subserved by restricting forests to lands of this character? 

One must bear in mind that the world is not now, and shows no 
indication of becoming within a reasonable time, a national or 
economic unit. The people and government of each country 


156 Forestry Quarterly 


must therefore shape their policy with regard to their internal 
conditions and interests. Now it may well be that taking the 
world as a unit, there may be, practically forever, enough abso- 
lute forest land to supply everybody with timber without en- 
croaching on a single acre of farming area. Moreover, it will be 
probably a long time before the intensity of agriculture all over 
the globe has increased sufficiently to make material inroads upon 
the great body of what may constitute absolute forest land, ac- 
cording to present economic circumstances. But in many indi- 
vidual countries the facts are different. 

In the United States the lands which, at the present time and 
looking into the future for one or two generations, may be fairly 
claimed as absolute forest land, consist of the following classes: 
The steeper slopes and the plateaus of the higher altitudes within 
the Appalachian system; the mountains of the West, so far as 
they are climatically capable of tree growth; considerable areas 
of sandy, boggy, hilly or otherwise infertile soil in the Central 
West, and the Atlantic Coastal Plain. In many regions the area 
of forest land is almost continuous, with only here and there a 
little tract of farm land interspersed. Elsewhere the conditions 
are reversed. Little islands of untillable land are enclosed by 
wide stretches of agricultural country. There can be no doubt 
that under existing conditions of population these lands, if they 
were all stocked with prosperous forest, would be entirely suffi- 
cient for all our needs and even leave a surplus for exportation. 
At present, not all of it is so stocked, much being brush land of 
little value. But if we assume that all of it will in the future be 
brought under productive forestry, this objection will disappear. 

However, there are a number of considerations making it im- 
probable that the absolute forest land of the country will be 
forever adequate to the needs of the people, so that no agricul- 
tural land need be encroached upon. In the first place, we have 
already seen that a part of it will be capable enough of agricul- 
ture as soon as a little more intensive methods shall have become 
profitable. The sandy areas, for instance, could be made fairly 
productive by farming on a large scale and the application of 
considerable capital. Lands no better than these are farmed at a 
reasonable profit in Brandenburg and other parts of Northern 
Germany. For a long time to come such enterprises will be unat- 


Absolute Forest Land. 157 


tractive to Americans. But with increased population and 
greater relative abundance of capital the time will surely come 
when such lands will be as truly agricultural here as in older 
countries. 

It is altogether likely then, that with advancing economic de- 
velopment the extent of absolute forest land will be reduced far 
below the twenty-five per cent. of total land area that is roughly 
assumed to be the proper proportion. When this high develop- 
ment is reached, such lands will be confined to tracts so steep and 
rocky that plowing or even hoeing is out of the question, and to 
a narrow strip in the mountains between the upper limit of agri- 
culture and timber line. 

But another fact must not be lost sight of. Trees no more than 
agricultural plants reach their best development on poor soil. The 
tracts ultimately left as absolute will be, almost without exception, 
among the poorest site classes, where neither a profitable rate of 
growth nor good quality can be expected. Even at the present 
time it is not safe to give up all agricultural areas if the forests of 
the future are to be good ones. For instance, it is now assumed 
without discussion that in the Lake States clay lands are to be 
left to the settler. Only the sandy tracts, the “pineries,” are 
claimed by the forestry advocates. But it is a fact that the best 
white pine never grew in the pineries, not even in the least sandy 
of them. ‘The great “cork pines,” which furnished the last gen- 
eration with an abundance of the splendid, clear white pine tim- 
ber that has now practically disappeared from the market, came 
from the clay lands. On the sandy areas the trees never reached 
great size, although the rings on the stumps tell us that their age 
was respectable enough. It is very probable that the rate of 
growth in such situations is not sufficient to make re-growth 
profitable from the purely financial. standpoint. Furthermore, 
are we to confine ourselves altogether to species capable of grow- 
ing on the poorer lands? Then how about such valuable species 
as sugar maple, or tulip tree? We cannot escape the conclusion 
that if our policy is to be a rigid confinement to absolute forest 
land the forestry of the future will be seriously handicapped. 

This is a matter to be well considered by all who are in any way 
responsible for the shaping of land and forest policies, either 
under the federal government or the several States. The cry 


158 Forestry Quarterly 


about agricultural lands not being needed is very helpful in over- 
coming opposition to forest reservations in the initial stages and 
as long as settlement is still in active progress. But by giving 
way too much in this respect great future embarrassment may be 
caused. It will of course be exceedingly difficult to regain, for 
forestry, lands of fair quality after they have once been cleared 
and cultivated. 
ERNEST BRUNCKEN. 


CALIFORNIA RED FIR IN THE TAHOE FOREST RE- 
SERVE. 


California Red Fir (Abies magnifica) or Shasta Fir is often 
confused with the true Red Fir, by botanists called Douglas 
Spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). The common name, California 
Red Fir is given to the tree from the dark-red color of the inner 
bark as distinguished from the white inner bark of the White Fir 
(Abies concolor). The range and habitat serve to further distin- 
guish these two species. California Red Fir occurs on slopes in 
the high Sierras in almost pure stands. Douglas Spruce is chiefly 
found in the Coast Range, and as scattered individuals along the 
river courses of the lower Sierras, and is not an associate of the 
other species. 

California Red Fir is rapidly becoming of economic importance 
in the northern Sierras, the more so as the pine becomes ex- 
hausted. It presents a problem in forest management distinct 
from that of pine because of the different silvical characteristics. 
The following observations apply to this species as found in the 
Tahoe Forest Reserve, California: 


Botanical Characteristics. 

This species is closely allied to White Fir (Abies concolor) 
from which it is distinguished by its dark-red brown, ridgy bark, 
on the older trees 4-6 inches thick; by its erect, incurved, four- 
sided leaves crowded against the stem, completely hiding the 
upper side of the branch; and by its oblong cylindrical cones, 6-9 
inches long, of a dark purplish brown color. Like those of all 
true firs the cones stand erect on the ends of the branches, the 
scales falling from the axes at maturity. 

The trees bud in May, flower in June and mature their cones 
about the middle of October. In the Lake Tahoe region the av- 
erage height is over 120 feet, the maximum 150 feet, average 
diameter 30 inches, maximum 6 feet. The taper is rapid, there 
being an average of from 3 to 5 logs toa tree. The trunk is sym- 
metrical and clears itself at an early age, the clear length being 
much greater than in White Fir. The crown is occasionally flat 


160 Forestry Quarterly 


in old trees, but the younger trees have graceful, spire-like tops 
with branches extending at regular intervals from the trunk, giv- 
ing the foliage a compact appearance. 

The shape of the butts is peculiar, buttressed and flaring, show- 
ing their adaptation for withstanding the pressure of snow, espe- 
cially in those on the slopes. The root-system is strong from the 
need of the location, the untoward conditions having brought 
about the survival of the fittest, all the weaker trees being up- 
rooted or broken down by wind and snow. 


Habitat. 

The Red Fir occurs as a rule in damp, sheltered situations of 
eastern and northern slopes, at an elevation of 6,500 feet or more. 
It reaches its best development in a fairly deep soil derived from 
disintegrated rocks, and containing a fair amount of humus. It 
will grow on a rocky soil, but here is noticeably unsound and 
scrubby. Light is apparently required at all periods of life, the 
tolerance not being as great as that of Abies concolor. The ten- 
dency of the seedlings to come in by groups has brought about 
even-aged bunches of young growth in a stand which is chiefly 
composed of mature uneven-aged trees. 


Associated Species. 


At the lower limit of distribution the common associate is 
White Fir, but above 6,500 feet the stand becomes composed 
chiefly of Red Fir with a few hemlocks (Tsuga mertensiana) 
and Silver Pine (Pinus monticola) intermixed. The stand can 
be said to be 95 per cent. Red Fir and 5 per cent. of the other two 
species. In the gulleys and along stream courses, at an elevation 
of from 7,500-8,000 feet, more Hemlocks and Silver Pine come in, 
as well as a few Lodgepole Pine (Pinus murrayana). Red Fir 
is rarely associated with Sugar or Yellow Pine, usually occupying 
situations above the range of these two species. 


Reproduction. 


Reproduction occurs chiefly in bunches in depressions or 
benches where there is abundant light. It is sparse on slopes 
where snow-slides combined with the short length of the vegeta- 
tive season prevent it from getting a foothold. In the summer of 


California Red Fir. 161 


1906, for instance, the snow did not go off these slopes until the 
last of July, and came again the middle of November. Except in 
gulleys where hemlock has come in, the seedlings found on the 
Red Fir type are almost entirely of that species. The few Silver 
Pine seedlings which occur are destined to vanish in the future 
composition of the stand by suppression. 

The seeds, which are dark-reddish brown, fall in October, but 
do not germinate as a rule until the following spring, owing to 
the frozen condition of the ground. The growth of the seedlings 
is exceedingly slow at first. They are often distorted by the snow, 
but show ability to recover from the hard times, and develop into 
thrifty trees after the slow-growing period has passed, and they 
enter upon the middle period with the most rapid rate of growth. 

The seed is borne prolifically every other year, although some 
cones are borne each year, as in all firs, generally appearing in 
the tops of the trees. The seeds are insured wide dissemination 
because of their wings and because of the height from which 
they fall. 


Diseases and Enemies. 


The trees on more level ground show the best condition of 
health. Those on the slopes in many cases have their butts in- 
jured by snow slides, and although they do not become unsound 
as quickly as does the White Fir after being injured, yet most of 
them require long-butting in logging. Spike tops, caused by wind 
or snow, are common, but unless a tree is very badly affected 
otherwise, spike-tops will not destroy its usefulness for lumber. 

The waste due to defective trees is ten per cent. in Red Fir, as 
contrasted with 50 per cent. in White Fir. 

Defective butts make the trees liable to wind-throw, but it is 
not often that uprooting takes place. Injury from fire is not se- 
vere, owing to the thick bark on the older trees. Insects or mistle- 
toe (Arcenthobium occidentale) do not injure the Red Fir to any 
appreciable extent. 


Commercial Value. 

Red Fir lumber closely resembles that of White Fir, and is 
used for much the same purposes. Very little of it has been cut 
until recently because of the lack of demand. This, together with 


162 Forestry Quarterly 


the high altitude at which it is found, did not offer any induce- 
ment to the lumbermen to log it. The opening of the mines in 
Nevada has created a demand for Red Fir, however, and it com- 
mands a price very nearly equal to that of pine. Besides being 
valuable for lumber, it is used for pulp and will be of much im- 
portance in the future development of the paper industry on the 
Coast. 


CONSIDERATIONS IN MARKING FOR CUTTING. 


Red Fir, even though it has defects which would render White 
Fir (Abies concolor) unfit for lumber, will be found merchant- 
able. Spike-tops, defective butts, and cancerous-looking growths 
are no indication that the trees contain no merchantable lumber. 
Such trees on being felled often contain several logs free from 
defects. No dead fir, however, should be marked for cutting, 
although recent wind-falls contain sound logs and should be 
taken. Hemlock and Silver Pine should be marked irrespective 
of defect, providing there is one merchantable log in the tree. 

Taken as a whole, the Red Fir type presents a uniformly 
healthy condition. Counts show the condition of health to be as 
follows: 

Thrifty. Mature. Decadent. Dead. 


Per Cent. 
Ted Bay aL ree ie oi 40 30 25 5 
Rlemlock acictewa cote cee OI 5 3 I 
Silver) Piste; veces ee 85 5 8 


Defects are not caused, as a rule, by fire or insects, but by snow. 
Its weight breaks the tops and branches, giving fungus-spores 
easy access. Spike-tops often result from wind-break or light- 
ning, an old stand presenting a ragged appearance by the irregu- 
larity of the crowns. 

The group system with modifications is deemed the best suited 
to the Red Fir type. In marking for cutting, there are four para- 
mount considerations to be kept in mind. 1. To afford protection 
against wind-throw; 2. To retard snowslides on steep slopes; 
3. To insure abundant seeding; 4. To leave a nucleus for a fu- 
ture crop. 


Protection Against Wind-throw. 
Comparatively few trees are uprooted by the wind in closed 
stands, but it is very probable that the opening up of such stands 


California Red Fir. 163 


would result in wind-throw. ‘The tall, slender trees which have 
always been protected by the closeness to their neighbors, would 
be the first to feel the force of the wind. The leaving of groups 
stands are uneven-aged, yet bunches of young trees frequently 
of young trees in exposed situations, lessens this danger. The 
alternate with bunches of mature timber, an ideal condition for 
the operation of the group system. 

Young trees which would be isolated by the removal of sur- 
rounding mature trees that had afforded them protection, and 
permitted the attainment of tall, cylindrical boles, and a superfi- 
cial root-system, should not be left to the mercy of the wind. It 
is only when compact bunches, the members of which afforded 
each other mutual protection, are found, that trees of this char- 
acter can be left. Only trees that are wind-firm, such as those on 
exposed points, should be left. These trees have demonstrated 
their ability to withstand the stress of the elements, their root 
systems having become developed to meet the strain. 

When the removal of mature or defective trees endangers the 
compactness of a group of young trees, such trees should be left. 
In marking, it is not uncommon to leave trees up to four feet in 
diameter when it is thought that their removal will open up a 
neighboring group of young trees and nullify the purpose for 
which they are leit. 


Retardation of Snow on Steep Slopes. 


Especial care should be taken in marking timber on steep slopes 
where danger from snow-slides is great. Owing to the rocky 
nature of the soil on which this type occurs, the danger from 
landslide is not a consideration even after the timber is removed. 
It is noteworthy, however, that young growth is conspicuously 
absent on the steep slopes where the openness of the stand per- 
mits snow-slides. The young seedlings are torn from their slen- 
der foothold by the moving masses of snow, or so badly injured 
that they do not recover. 

There is generally snow in the high altitudes in which Red Fir 
flourishes at or soon after the time of seeding. The seeds are car- 
ried by the snow or washed down by the rains, to find lodgment 
in the more level places. The density of reproduction in such 
places is in marked contrast to the nearly barren slopes above. 


164 Forestry Quarterly 


The snow is on the ground from November until June or later, 
allowing the seedling but a short vegetative season. Conse- 
quently, the growth is slow and is further retarded by the weight 
of snow which causes the development of the curved bases so 
universally found in fir growing on slopes in high altitudes. 

In guarding against the baring of slopes by snow-slides it is 
essential to leave bunches of strategically placed trees. Wherever 
possible, strips of young timber, extending from the base of the 
slope to the crest should be left, the continuous line forming a 
more effective barrier than isolated bunches scattered at irregu- 
lar intervals. All thrifty trees, isolated or in bunches, should be 
left on the crests of slopes to protect them from the snow which 
would drift from the benches above. The young growth in 
ravines and on benches requires no protection by selective mark- 
ing inasmuch as the question of snow-slide does not enter into 
consideration here. 

The buttressed butts of the trees on the slopes show their adapt- 
ability to withstand snow pressure. These curved bases neces- 
sitate long butting in logging operations as well as the cutting of 
high stumps. Defective butts, caused by the barking occasioned 
by dislodged boulders are common on slopes. Debris, lodged 
against the upper sides of the butts of trees, when burning, causes 
extensive fire scars. These weakened butts make the tree liable 
to wind-throw and offer easy access to insects and fungi. Such 
trees should be marked for cutting, when their removal will not 
be detrimental to the continuity of the strips left for protective 
purposes. 


Insurance of Abundant Seeding. 


Judging from the amount of reproduction in the Red Fir type, 
there is no doubt but that the opening up of the forest will result 
in a prolific stand of seedlings. Abies magnifica, although not 
as tolerant as concolor, is exceedingly hardy when once estab- 
lished. As stated, seedlings occur in groups as a rule, coming in 
where there is abundant light. The removal of all timber except 
that in the groups will give this species a chance to occupy the 
ground to the almost total exclusion of any other species. ‘The 
few Hemlock and Silver Pine seedlings cannot compete with Red 
Fir in its characteristic situations because of the close relation of 


California Red Fir. 165 


the factors of the locality to the laws of growth governing the 
latter species. 

Thrifty Hemlock and Silver Pine when found mixed with Red 
Fir should be left, inasmuch as these species occupy situations not 
especially adapted to fir. Hemlock is found chiefly in sheltered 
ravines where the shade is too dense for fir. Silver Pine, because 
of its intolerance, needs no consideration in marking, as it could 
not compete with the fir even though favored, because of the ad- 
max type in the belt which it occupies, and never reverts to any 
verse conditions working against it. The Red Fir type is the cli- 
extent because of the inability of associated species to assume its 
place. This fact is a great help in marking, as the certainty of 
the future dominant species is known. 


Leaving the Nucleus of a Future Crop. 

The consideration of a future crop is of great importance in 
marking Red Fir. This species is destined to form an important 
item in the economic development of the region in which it grows. 
It is becoming recognized as valuable for pulp, a mill at Foriston, 
California, using it exclusively for the making of a high grade of 
paper. This mill is buying fir wherever it can get it. Millions of 
feet a few years ago considered practically worthless, are now 
coming on the market for pulp. During the past summer a large 
sale was made on the Tahoe Forest Reserve for saw timber, the 
lumber finding a ready market in Nevada. The mines use fir 
poles extensively while the lumber brings nearly as high a price 
as pine. A box factory at Truckee, California, uses fir exclusively 
in making cracker boxes, and it will be only a short time until 
many other classes of boxes will be made from it. If treated, fir 
would be valuable for ties, posts and poles. It is very evident that 
fir is destined to take the place of pine in the northern Sierras at 
the rate pine is being cut at present. 

In view of the certain demand for fir timber and the increased 
stumpage value which will ensue, the cut should be made as light 
as is consistent with the character of the stand. Ina tract recently 
marked, about Io per cent. of the stand was left, this nucleus be- 
ing considered sufficient to insure a future crop. 

M. B. Pratt. 


SCALING GOVERNMENT TIMBER. 


When the Forest Service was given control of the National 
Forests, on January I, 1905, one of the many problems presented 
was the accurate and practical scaling of all logs sold in public 
timber sales. Very few of the Forest Supervisors or rangers 
who had served under the General Land Office had had experi- 
ence along these lines of work, since timber had been sold to only 
a very limited extent and it is doubtful if accurate scaling was 
thought of much importance. 

The Forest Service has solved the problem by employing prac- 
tical woodsmen (assistant lumbermen and expert scalers) of ex- 
perience, whose duty it has been to start all big timber sales and 
aid and train the technical assistants and rangers in the Govern- 
ment supervision of logging. I, for one, fully appreciate the wis- 
dom and necessity for this training. No matter how well the 
young technical man knows logging, he is sure to have trouble 
with lumber companies in starting a new scale. The very rules he 
has difficulty in enforcing, the practical woodsman can put into 
effect without friction, just because he is known to have had a 
lot of practical experience. 

The scaling of the logs, is of course, by far the most important 
item in the management of a sale. The difference between a close 
accurate scale and an ignorant one, may easily amount to from 
$4,000 to $6,000 in a thirty million foot sale. It is no exaggera- 
tion to say that on the San Francisco National Forest the expert 
scaler saved the Forest Service from $5,000 to $10,000 during 
the past year and a half, by the system of scaling which he in- 
augurated. Many of the lumbermen have styled the Government 
scale as “penurious,” but on the whole it has been fair, if it is 
based on the correct policy. Whether the scale should aim to in- 
clude merchantable Mill Culls, or whether the basis should be all 
grades above Second Common (and Box) is a vital question that 
must be answered before unsound logs can be scaled with intelli- 
gence. At present on this National Forest, the official scale in- 
cludes the “better grade of Mill Culls,” and I believe that most 
rangers scale an unsound log (using the Scribner decimal rule), 


Scaling Government Timber. 167 


on the basis of having their scale hold out, instead of having it 
overrun by the same per cent. as do sound logs. On the whole 
my impression is, that if anything, the scale should be made a 
trifle more lenient. To conform to the standards throughout the 
country, I personally feel that culls (mill culls and shipping culls) 
should not be scaled and that the Government scale should over- 
run on unsound logs in the same ratio as if they were sound 
(perhaps 12 per cent. with the Scribner decimal C rule). What- 
ever method is used there will be no great loss, since the stump- 
age price will usually adjust itself to a “hard” or “easy” scale. 

Before a ranger is allowed to scale officially, he is given a thor- 
ough training by the expert scaler, and then, when he scales on a 
timber sale his work is checked once a week on at least 100 logs. 
If the total differs more than about 2 per cent., his methods are 
more closely scrutinized and his mistakes corrected. If he can- 
not keep within 2 per cent. of the official check scaler after being 
given a thorough trial, he is put on some other kind of work. 
This involves the Government in considerable extra expense, but 
the aim is to give the purchaser a fair scale no matter if it does 
cost more. Usually, in making a check scale the logs are taken as 
they come. Personally, I prefer to check a definite percentage of 
sound and unsound logs—say 50 per cent. of each. The check 
of the sound logs only deals with the scaler’s honesty and his 
ability to read the rule, while a check of the unsound logs hits 
the vital point,—his judgment. If only 5 or 10 per cent. of the 
logs checked are unsound, a poor scaler might not be corrected 
for some time. 

While most foresters in the United States are no doubt familiar 
with the details of the Government methods of handling the scale, 
yet there may be some steps which are in use only on this Forest 
(San Francisco) that may be interesting, especially to officers in 
the Southwest. Lumbermen and especially future purchasers of 
stumpage will be benefited by first understanding what “they will 
be up against.” The work naturally divides itself into (1) a 
clerical and (2) a practical side. 

Clerical.—Each log is marked (by soft black crayon) with a 
serial number (1 to 10,000) and book letter on the small or scal- 
ing end, and the section number on the big end. A scale book 
(100 pages for 100 logs each) shows the serial number, length, 
and actual scale of each log tallied. The first book in a sale is 


168 Forestry Quarterly 


lettered “A” and so on until the alphabet is exhausted, when “a,” 
““‘b,” etc., may be used. Where there are a very large number of 
logs and the country is not sectionized, but merely divided into 
lumbering compartments or watersheds, a new alphabet and se- 
ries of books may be begun for each compartment. Each page 
has blanks for the section, township, range (or compartment if 
country is not surveyed), date, where scaled (at the railroad or in 
the woods), purchaser, timber sale and end mark. Each page also 
shows the total for each column, for the page, total since the last 
weekly report and the total cut in the sale. A weekly scale card 
report (see form below) is sent the officer in charge at the end 


WEEKLY SCALE CARD. 


U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE 


Form 606 


Scale sReportoNo; oc ccsaccess For week enginor st Sascc cat vecemaiie sep e aces 5 190% sicie 
PUTCHASET Yast eras cecasinoecaendentenieeriene Scaled upyir wciscnicrssiee cecil eeielee nena 
ONLTACLOL ins o/s) cls see uisieioloeinis cists sls civteeuaine DEAT EG oe stato siols elvis ciaisinis eislatn fos ais eee 
Compartment........ SECIS Sees 2) ae FSi 1 LR a End Mark..:. Book......0« 
| Number of Pieces | Feet B. M. 
Species Scaled in| I treviously Scale for | Previously} Total 


Total 


week rep’d week | rep’d 


Cee eee OEE CHO THEE See THEE EEE H SHEE EEE HE EeEHSEEHEEEH SHEE HEE EE EH TEESE EEEES 


PEPPER ee ee eee wee eee Hl we eee eee HEHEHE EHD HEHEHE HEE H HEHEHE EEE EH EEE EEE EEE EH EHH EEE EDS 


i ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ee 


PRR RRR ERE EEE HEE EHH HEHEHE EEE EE FHP EEH EH EHEH EHH EEE EHH E HEHEHE HD HEHE EEE EEE 


SRR Ree RR EEE HEHEHE EEE HHO EH EEE E HH HEHEHE EEE CHEE EEE EEE HERE EE EEE EH HEHEHE HEED 


PEPER eee Hee meee HEHEHE Eee H ERE eH Hee ee ee HEHEHE EE HS SHEET HEE HEE HEHEHE HEE EH THEE HOES 


Scaling Government Timber, 169 


(Reverse of above card.) 
Remarks 


Cut for week: dry, 1950, green, 220490 


of each week, including the last even hundred logs scaled. A 
copy of this report is then approved and mailed to the purchaser. 
Since all timber must be paid for before it is cut, it is important 
that these weekly statements be forwarded promptly and a call 
for further payments made (usually in installments of $5,000 in 
large sales) if the value cut approaches the value paid for. 
When a scale book is completed it is sent the local office and the 
purchaser (or his duly authorized agent) has a right to inspect it 
in the presence of the forest officer in charge of the National For- 
est or an inspector, and copy such portions as he desires for com- 
parison. The Government does not furnish a duplicate detailed 
scale other than this. If a company wishes to “get a line” on the 
scaling they can keep their own scale of each log and then later 
make the comparison. One company on this Forest is now mak- 
ing a test on the scaler by this method. 

In 1905, on the first sale made by the Forest Service here, the 
ranger was instructed to put the actual scale and the amount al- 
lowed for defect on the end of each log. The result was rather 
unsatisfactory. Whenever he had allowed too little for defect he 


170 Forestry Quarterly 


was called to the mill and shown his mistake. Whenever he al- 
lowed too much nothing was said. The result was a lowering of 
the Government scale, until the “game” was detected. Whether 
the inspection of the detailed scale books will tend to a similar 
result cannot be predicted. ‘These intricate clerical methods are 
designed to give inspectors or “check scalers’’ a chance to verify 
the accuracy and honesty of all the work done by Government 
scalers. On this Forest each dead log is marked with a cross in 
the scale book and the weekly report shows the amount of ““dead*” 
and “green” timber scaled during the week. In addition, special 
notes are kept in the column headed “remarks,” of skids, sway 
bars, etc., cut and scaled. 

To insure the accuracy of all figures, each week’s figures are 
edded by two men and both their names should appear on the 
weekly report. As a further check this office has sent the scale 
books to Washington to be checked by comptometer. I believe 
that the Government owes it to all large purchasers of timber, to 
have the records officially checked once or twice a year and at 
the end of a sale. Mistakes are bound to occur, and it seems to 
me to be preferable to have a periodical check of all figures, rather 
than to have the books checked as they are completed. It in- 
creases the office detail (which is too large already) to be con- 
tinually correcting small mistakes, often of a few feet, which have 
occurred in the past and which I fear will occur in the future, no 
matter how carefully guarded against. 


The Practical Side.—Scaling costs the Government about $0.15 
per M., and where a regular check scaler is employed it costs 
5 cents per M. extra. Of course these figures vary from month 
to month according to the cut. The scalers are paid $80 to $100 
per month. The scale rule used is the Scribner Decimal C rule, 
giving values for 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 foot logs to the nearest 
tenth: (7. e. 103 board feet is given 100 on the rule). An 18 foot 
log is scaled as two logs; a top log of 8 feet in length and a sec- 
ond log of 10 feet. The shorter log is always scaled by the actual 
top diameter. While the scaler may use his judgment on the 
taper to be allowed for the second log, it has been customary here 


*In western yellow pine, the cut of dead is 1% to 3% per cent of the 
green. 


Scaling Government Timber. 171 


to increase the diameter of the log one inch, although the writer 
has at times used calipers and taken the exact “rise.” It is a sim- 
ple matter to construct a table of “rises’”’ for any species or local- 
ity. Scaling logs over 16 feet as two logs on a test case (where 
15 to 17 per cent. of the logs were over 16 feet) increased the 
scale by about 14 per cent. The diameter is usually measured 
twice and the average taken. Some men “give and take” on the 
nearest figure on the rule while others (preferably on account of 
check scaling) give the average of the two scale readings. 

In the actual scaling of partially unsound logs (usually all the 
logs that scale 1/3 the full scale must be logged, with variations 
depending on the length of haul, etc.), and the allowance for de- 
fect by docking the straight and sound scale, a detailed knowledge 
of how the logs saw out at the mill, is of course absolutely neces- 
sary. In addition to the thorough training with the expert scaler, 
each scaler is expected to study logs that are being sawed at the 
mill and if possible check his scale on unsound logs by tallying 
the boards cut. Unfortunately the men have been too busy and 
the force too small to allow enough of this practical sort of work. 

All contracts on this Forest require that tops be cut to 8 inches 
inside bark where merchantable, and it is usually “up to” one of 
the scalers (if he scales in the woods instead of the landing) to 
see that this rule is being enforced. Cutting to an 8-inch limit in- 
side bark is only required where the top is reasonably straight and 
tnerchantable, so it often happens that the average actual top 
limit is 9, 10, or even 11 inches. Whether to strictly enforce a 
rule of this kind is a problem. On account of the rapid taper in 
the western yellow pine it often happens that the scale is as 
large and sometimes larger if the top log is cut two or even four 
feet shorter on account of the increase in scaling diameter. For 
example it is often a question between scaling a 16-foot log, 8 
inches at the small end, or a 14-foot log, 9 inches, which gives 
the same scale in either case. Cutting the shorter logs and not 
having to do much trimming work saves money for the company, 
although if they do their own brush piling it is just so much work 
accomplished. 

When defect appears in the end of a log its size is measured 
and the scaler deducts roughly according to whether it can be 
eliminated by a 4x4, 6x6, 8x8, etc., taking into consideration 


172 Forestry Quarterly 


whether the defect runs straight through the log or is irregular. 
If the ordinary rot appears at one end of the log and not at the 
other it is considered as running half way through unless loose 
knots show positively where the defect started. In his book en- 
titled “Forest Mensuration,” page 71, Professor Henry S. Graves 
gives a table showing the amount to be deducted for defects of 
different sizes. The figures for 16-foot logs are given below and 
although they seem a trifle too liberal, they can be used as a guide. 
They should not be used literally, but should merely be made a 
basis for calculating the rot. 


Loss by Defects of Different Diameters Near the Center of Logs. 


Diameter 16 foot logs 
of defect loss 
inckes board feet 
2 8 
3 15 
4 23 
5 32 
6 44 
7, 57 
8 72 
9 89 
10 107 
II 128 
12 I51 
13 175 
14 200 
15 226 


A large per cent. of the logs are defective, and certain kinds of 
defects are met with which, with slight variations, may be scaled 
on a fairly uniform basis. Ground rot, for example, rarely ex- 
tends into the butt log more than four feet. ‘“‘Peckiness,” though 
unsightly, will often grade into merchantable mill or shipping 
culls. Fire scars do not affect the scale as much as they appar- 
ently do, since after the log is slabbed, they disappear entirely. 
No allowance need be made for blueing due to lightning, unless 
soft rot has set in. This is, of course, on the basis that all mer- 
chantable mill culls are to be scaled. Special care should be 
taken in allowing for “winding” defects, which of course cause 
more of a shrinkage than when straight. When a log is both 
crooked and defective a larger allowance should be made. A\l- 
though theoretically the only difference would be short boards, 
yet practically there is a much larger waste in sawing. Crook in 
butt logs must be allowed for, but in the species here under con- 


Scaling Government Timber. I 
& : 


sideration, it is usually the fault of the sawyers, if the other logs 
are not sawed so as to eliminate the crook. Dead logs are always 
sealed rather liberally. Where the sap has become defective the 
heart of the dead log is scaled as though it were a sound log. 
Where there is rot in a dead log, a much larger per cent. (about 
25 per cent.) should be allowed for rot than if green, since there 
will always be a great loss on account of the brittle character of 
the wood when it has been dry for a long time. Where a dead 
log is badly checked to the heart it is usually unsuitable for mer- 
chantable timber. 

Mature men make the best scalers and it is absolutely neces- 
sary that they know the species they are scaling. The men here 
have had it impressed upon them so frequently that they must be 
“silent scalers’ and not discuss or argue about individual logs 
that quite an air of mystery has arisen regarding the Government 
scale. This is not necessary and the more outsiders know about 
the careful methods employed, the better it will be. I know the 
aim of all the scalers is to give the Government and purchaser 
alike “what is coming to them.” 

T. S. WooLsEyY, JR. 


SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF SILVICUL- 
TURE AS STATED BY PROF. HEINRICH MAYR* 


Of all the branches of forestry, the theory of silviculture or 
silvics undoubtedly comes closest to being a science in the sense 
that it is not a mere collection of facts and rules, but establishes 
relationships and deductions which are true all the world over. 
Unfortunately there are still many foresters who claim that there 
is no science in silvics, but only a collection of rules applicable to 
limited conditions and that, therefore, each country and each re- 
gion has its own laws of tree growth. Prof. Heinrich Mayr, more 
than any one else, has helped to dispel this misconception. His 
intimate acquaintance with the forests of the Old and New World, 
and his extensive experiments in introducing exotics into his 
own country have given him a wonderfully rich and varied ma- 
terial upon which to base his observations and conclusions. He 
has formulated a set of principles which he believes will hold true 
wherever tree growth occurs. These principles represent the 
accumulated experience, the crystallized net achievement of many 
years’ observation of tree growth under the most varied conditions 
of soil and climate. 

In this country there is still a vast and practically untouched 
field of investigation in the life and habits of forest trees. Pro- 
fessor Mayr’s fundamental principles should therefore be of es- 
pecial value to us, because they should help us to orientate our- 
selves amid the numberless phenomena which our daily observa- 
tions are continually bringing before us. For this reason it has 
been determined to make them available to American foresters by 
the following translation. 

R. Zon. 
A. T. BOoIsen. 

1. Wherever the average temperature during the four months 
of the vegetative period is as low as 50° F., the forest becomes 
scrubby in character, no matter whether this temperature is due 
to latitude or to altitude. This law is equally true for Europe, 
Asia, and America, and for the northern and southern hemis- 


* From the Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdscitung for 1901. 


Fundamental Principles of Silviculture. 175 


pheres. At the equator, for instance, the limit of the forest zone 
occurs at an elevation of about 11,500 feet. At this altitude the 
average annual temperature and consequently that of the four 
months of the growing season is 50° F., since the temperature at 
the equator is uniform throughout the whole year. At this alti- 
tude the evergreen broad-leaved forest ends, and soon after, the 
deciduous broadleaved and coniferous forest which forms its outer 
fringe, and the chaparral growth begins. Above this, all arbor- 
escent vegetation ceases. Within this equatorial forest zone with 
50° F., temperatures below 32° F. seldom occur; the forest ends 
there at an annual temperature at which in Germany the oak 
forests, the tobacco, and the grape find their optimum. At the 
equator as well as in the southern hemisphere, the extra eight 
months with an average temperature of 50° F. do not help in any 
way the growth of the forest. They are as useless as if they were 
eight months of cold winter; their only influence is found in the 
fact that the stunted growth of our latitudes is replaced there by 
evergreen broad-leaved shrubs. From this follows a physiolog- 
ically and therefore silviculturally important conclusion that a 
prolonged low temperature is by no means equivalent to a tem- 
perature that is higher but of shorter duration; and that the total 
amount of heat is not a sufficient criterion for the climatic char- 
acteristics of a plant. This conclusion is not without practical 
interest in solving questions concerning the effects of shading 
(e. g. regeneration under shade, thinnings, etc.). 

2. In the whole northern hemisphere wherever there exists an 
average temperature of 53° to 59° F. during the months of May 
to August inclusive, there is found a forest vegetation which cor- 
responds closely to our own vegetation with the same average 
temperature in those months. In other words, if with us under 
such climatic conditions spruces and firs are found, then in the 
rest of Europe, America, and Asia, spruce or fir, or both, must 
predominate. Wherever throughout the northern hemisphere the 
temperatures of the growing season are the same, the arborescent 
genera are the same. To similar temperatures throughout the 
northern hemisphere similar species correspond. It is therefore 
sufficient to know the temperature for the four months of the 
growing season to be able to form an idea as to what species are 
indigenous to it or can be cultivated there. For instance, beech 


176 Forestry Quarterly 


grows with us as well as in eastern America, and eastern Asia at 
an average temperature of 59°to 64° F. during the four vegetative 
months. At such average temperatures during the four vegeta- 
tive months can be cultivated also all other species of the genus 
Fagus as well as the species which accompany it, viz. the genera 
Quercus, Acer, Tilia, Tsuga, Chamaecyparis, etc. 

The knowledge of the climatic ranges of the native as well as of 
the foreign arborescent species is therefore fundamental for their 
cultivation. 

3. Conversely, if we find in a region of the northern hemis- 
phere spruces or beeches or chestnut, etc., we can with the great- 
est accuracy infer from the original natural occurrence of these 
species that in this locality the same climate must prevail as in 
our zone of spruces or beech or chestnut; we can consequently 
use definite species to determine the climate of a region for which 
there are no meteorological data at hand. This method may be 
widely applied because meteorological stations are lacking in 
many forest regions of Europe and especially of America and 
Asia. 

4. In determining vegetative climatic zones, the species best 
adapted for this purpose are not annuals or biennials, not the low 
plants which grow upon or just above the ground, but tree species 
alone, and of these only such as occur in a limited climatic zone, 
as, for instance, spruce, beech, chestnut, basswood, and mountain 
ash. Our pine, for instance, could not serve as an index of cli- 
matic conditions because its range extends from the southern 
limit of the distribution of chestnut on the other side of the Alps, 
to the northernmost limit of the forest in general, occurring in all 
the intervening forest zones. Rare species which occur singly, 
such as Taxus, Pyrus, etc., are also unserviceable. 

5. Each species can also be cultivated outside of its natural 
geographic range (e. g., larch, or Pinus cembra, in the north of 
the Alps), provided special situations are selected for it which 
possess a climate similar to that of its native home. If the region 
into which the new species is introduced is cooler than that of the 
region in which it occurs naturally, it requires warm situations, 
southern slopes, and consequently drier, and poorer soils; species 
which are introduced into a region warmer than that in which 
they occur naturally require cool situations (northern slopes, or 


Fundamental Principles of Silviculture. 177, 


moister soils over which the air is cooler) as in the case of oak, 
spruce, and larch on the Bavarian plateaus. 

6. Where the temperature is favorable, the extension of the 
range of a species is limited by the soil. From the fact that the 
situation is warmer, the drier and poorer it is, and cooler the 
moister it is, it follows that soil is the deciding factor in the 
adaptability of a species to a new region, in which the tempera- 
tures correspond to those of the natural range of the species. 

7. Where the soil conditions are favorable, the extension of 
the range of a species is limited by the climate; for instance, 
spruce and larch in the lowlands, oak, walnut, in the cooler situa- 
tions of Germany. 

8. By silvicultural methods like shading and thinning, we 
are able to change light conditions and consequently temperature 
conditions to a perceptible degree. The further we depart in the 
cultivation of a species from its native climate, the more difficult 
its cultivation becomes, because of the diminution of natural re- 
production, the need of greater protection against frost and 
drouth, and the great change in its light requirements. The spe- 
cies disappears from such situations as soon as man withdraws his 
hand. 

9. From paragraphs 5, 6, 7, and 8, it follows that there is no 
such thing as adaptation of an arborescent species to a*‘climate 
radically different from that of its native range. The whole sil- 
vicultural practice in the raising of native species as well as ex- 
periments upon exotics tends to prove this. Since no perceptible 
change in the temperature requirements of species has taken 
place for centuries (e. g. the native walnut and black locust) it 
is justifiable to say that for practical purposes there does not 
exist any acclimatization of tree species. In those cases where 
acclimatization of species has been generally thought to exist, it 
has been found that the climate did not differ essentially from 
that of the native habitat of the species, and when the climate did 
differ essentially there was no adaptation. 

10. Since trees grown in the coolest situations do not acquire 
any special power to resist frost and trees grown in the warmest 
situations do not become for this reason especially sensitive to 
frost, but each individual is capable of thriving equally well in the 
coolest and in the warmest situations within its native range, the 


178 Forestry Quarterly 


origin of the seed is not of any consequence in determining the 
climatic requirement of the individual. The origin of the seed 
no matter whether it is collected in the most northern or the most 
elevated situations or in the southermost limits of the range of 
the species is not of any practical consequence in producing hardy 
or sensitive races. 

11. Between heat and light on the one hand, and the quality 
of the soil on the other, a certain relation exists; the soil require- 
ments of a plant decrease somewhat with a more open stand and 
on warmer situations, and the reverse is true in a dense stand 
and on cold situations. 

12. There is also a relation between light and temperature re- 
quirements. All species are more tolerant in a warmer climate 
than in their climatic optimum and conversely they require more 
light in the colder portions of their range. Just as climate has not 
produced varieties within the species capable of enduring ex- 
tremes of heat or of cold, just so it has not produced tolerant or 
intolerant varieties. The same individual which in its climatic 
optimum may be semi-tolerant (ash, maple, elm, white pine, etc.), 
in a warmer region becomes tolerant, and in a cooler intolerant; 
intolerant species (oak, Scotch pine, etc.), in warmer regions be- 
come semi-tolerant; while tolerant species (beech, spruce, fir, 
etc.), in cooler regions become semi-tolerant or even intolerant. 

13. Ina level country or in a hilly country with altitudes rang- 
ing from 300 to 600 feet, the climatic zones of the tree species 
tend to follow the parallels. Sea and air currents however, are 
very important disturbing factors. Thus the climatic zones of 
the western part of northern and central Europe follow rather 
the meridians than the parallels. The presence of high moun- 
tains, however, produces new vertical vegetative zones, on account 
of which the recognition of the climatic relations of a species is 
made more difficult. This is especially true of Germany. If 
we were to plot the vertical zones according to certain height in- 
tervals on an ordinate, and the horizontal zones according to the 
degree of latitude on the corresponding abscissae, and then con- 
nect the zones of like temperature and like species we would find 
that the same vegetative and climatic zones which occur in the 
south at higher elevations will be present in the level country in a 
more northern latitude. Consequently a species whose original 


Fundamental Principles of Silviculture. 179 


home in the south lies in the mountains may possess a second 
home in the northern latitudes of the level country. Whether 
the first and second home of the species is connected (e. g. the 
spruce which extends from the Alps to the Baravian forest, Giant 
Mountains; Erz Mountains, East Prussia to the west and north 
of Russia), or whether this connection is lacking (e. g. the spruce 
of the Alps, of the Harz Mountains and of Norway), or whether 
finally one variety is replaced in the second home by another (e. 
g. the Alpine larch and the larch of northeastern Russia), all 
depends upon the configuration of the country, on the geological 
origin of the tree species, and its ability to migrate, etc. From 
what has been said above, the following lessons may be deduced: 
Arborescent species occurring in the mountains in the south are 
not necessarily mountain species. Our European spruce like the 
Douglas fir of western America is a mountain species for the 
same reason that it is in the north a species of the plains. The 
terms “mountain” and “ plain” as applied to tree species are not 
only unscientific but harmful in practice, because they may lead 
to a wrong conception of the nature of the tree and the method of 
its cultivation. 

14. If the vegetative zone from which a given species has come 
is known, its climatic requirements are determined closely enough 
for silvicultural purposes. Where there are no climatic data, the 
mentioning of the elevation has as little value as the giving of 
the degree of latitude, which only misleads. In such a case it is 
preferable to know the latitude and altitude together, although 
there are but few foresters and horticulturists who would know 
the climate corresponding to 46° north latitude, and 5,000 feet 
above sea level (European larch) or the climate of eastern Asia 
at 38° north latitude and 6,500 feet above sea level (Japanese 
larch.) But when it is mentioned that both larches grow, in Eu- 
rope, as well as in Japan, in the zone of the spruces and firs, then 
every educated forester will know the climatic zone in which these 
larches have their home. 

15. If within the same climatic zone there are two or three 
species of the same genus, (e. g. three species of oak, (Germany), 
or three species of spruce (Europe), these species did not origin- 
ally mix with each other, but occurred on distinct situations and 
under slightly different climatic conditions. Only the silvicul- 


180 Forestry Quarterly 


tural activity of man has brought together the two most important 
species of oak, which originally had entirely distinct ranges. The 
present silvicultural practice does not sufficiently consider these 
minor climatic peculiarities of each. Still better examples of this 
principle are furnished, of course, by the American and Japanese 
forest regions so much richer in species. 

16. In the natural mixture those species are generally grouped 
together, which in their climatic and silvicultural properties stand 
very close, and in their botanical properties, and, therefore geneti- 
cally, very far apart (beech-fir, oak-pine, maple-ash-linden). 

From Rule 15 it follows naturally that two tree species which 
in their external characteristics stand so close that systematic 
botany thinks it necessary to regard them as varieties or even as 
identical forms must for this very reason be regarded as tree 
species, because they are geographically separated, and therefore, 
physiologically (e. g. climatic requirements) different. 

It is, moreover, not permissible to ascribe morphological var- 
iations exclusively to climatic differences, as for example, when 
it is said that the Russian spruce (P. obovata) is merely a climatic 
form of the German spruce. If the climate were the cause of 
the variation between the two species of spruce, Russian spruce 
would be found in the higher Alps, Bavarian Forest, Fichtel 
Mountains and Harz Mountains, just as well as in Russia, of 
whose climate we think with horror because and altho we know 
nothing at all about it. 

17. The accurate systematic classification of species is of great- 
est importance for determining the peculiarities inherent to tree 
species. In Taxonomy it is therefore extremely undesirable that 
the classification of species should be made by those who know 
neither the climatic nor the biological requirements of the tree, 
or even by those who are not sufficiently prepared for necessary 
studies of this sort. 

18. All injuries to plants by frost, in so far as any part of the 
plant is killed, are to be attributed directly to the killing of the 
protoplasm by low temperature. Blackening, browning, and 
withering are merely the result of this phenomenon. The proto- 
plasm is most sensitive at the time of its greatest activity (cell 
formation), 7. e. during the growing season. It is least sensitive 
in the diluted watery consistency which is found in the periods of 


Fundamental Principles of Silviculture. 181 


vegetative rest (fall, winter, and early spring). During this time 
the green colored part of the protoplasm (chlorophyll) is more 
sensitive than the colorless parts. The browning and shedding 
of needles during winter is caused by the killing of the chlorophyll 
through sunlight and low temperature and not by drying and low 
temperature. The air-dry protoplasm of seeds in their prolonged 
period of rest is not in the least sensitive to frost. 

1g. All arborescent species (e. g. spruce and fir) transferred 
from a cool climate into a warmer one, or to exposed situations, 
suffer from late frosts when the vegetative activity has been stim- 
ulated by a previous warm spell, while they are not sensitive to 
fall and winter frosts. All arborescent species transferred from a 
warm climate to a cooler one are not sensitive to spring frosts 
because their vegetative activity begins late, but they suffer from 
fall and winter frosts, because their vegetative activity ends com- 
paratively late. 

20. All silvicultural operations which result in retarding the 
vegetative activity of a plant (e. g. late sowing, transplanting, 
manuring, late cutting back,) increase the danger from fall and 
winter frosts. 

21. Any individual variations as regards sensitiveness to frost, 
which occur promiscuously on the warmest and on the coolest 
situations, are constant only for the given individual, and not for 
the coming generation. The breeding of species in this direction 
is therefore impracticable. 

22. With increasing age and height, all tree species become less 
sensitive to frost, not because of adaptation to climate, but simply 
because they gradually rise from the lower and colder strata of 
the atmosphere which lie directly above the ground, and because 
with increase in diameter the tree becomes more independent of 
the fluctuation in the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. 

23. As the tree grows in diameter its wood begins to play the 
part of a water reservoir, which makes it more independent of the ~ 
fluctuations in the moisture contents of the soil and of the atmos- 
phere. This explains why at a greater age the annual increment 
of a tree remains almost the same from year to year, and the an- 
nual layers show a uniformity which contributes much to the tech- 
nical qualities of the wood. 

Atmospheric humidity plays a very important part in the life 
of the plant and in the management of the forest. 


182 Forestry Quarterly 


24. Observations which I made at the extreme limits of the 
forest zone in North America showed me that the limit of the 
forest lies at a point where the average relative humidity of the 
air during the four vegetative months falls below 50%. Beyond 
this limit the forest gradually falls off in height and is gradually 
replaced by shrubs or by grass prairie. 

25. Not all arborescent species indigenous to a forest region 
extend to this extreme limit of humidity. The forest near this 
limit consists mainly of oak and 2-and-3-needled pines. With the 
increase in the humidity of the air the number of species increases 
(provided, of course, that the temperature is suitable) there ap- 
pear spruce, fir, 5-needled pines, cedars and others. For this 
reason broadleaved species as well as 2-and-3-needled pines must 
be particularly suitable for situations with a low or rapidly chang- 
ing atmospheric humidity, (for planting in the steppes or waste 
land, for clear cutting systems, and for forest management in 
continental climates). 

26. An accumulation of trees on a given area and the forma- 
tion by them of a more or less dense stand tends to increase the 
humidity of the air beneath the crown cover by a maximum of 
10%. The greatest increase is effected by tolerant coniferous 
species (spruce, fir, hemlock, cedars, Douglas fir, etc.), while 
pines, larches, etc., and the intolerant broad-leaved species accu- 
mulate but a small percentage of humidity. We can merely men- 
tion here how important this function of the forest and its compo- 
sition must be for the existence of the forest wherever an air 
humidity of 50% for the four vegetative months is approached (e. 
g. the successful growth of artificially established plantations, pro- 
tection against evaporation from the forest soil, maintenance of 
springs, etc.). 

27. The increase in atmospheric humidity which is found in 
large bodies of forest acts upon the plant in the same moderating 
and beneficial manner as the humidity of a sea climate, whose 
most destructive companion, the wind, is subdued by the forest. 
Since with the decrease of temperature the atmospheric humidity 
increases, cold forest regions, (high elevations and northern lati- 
tudes) are characterized by a more uniform climate during the 
vegetative period. Asa result of this, the increment although not 
large, is the same from year to year; the annual rings are narrow 
and uniform, and wood of the finest technical quality is produced. 


Fundamental Principles of Silviculture. 183 


28. A high atmospheric humidity facilitates all silvicultural 
measures (natural as well as artifical reproduction in all its 
forms). It determines the choice of the method of regeneration, 
(e. g. Schwarzwald, Harz Mountains on the eastern and western 
slopes) the degree of thinning, etc. 

29. Atmospheric humidity apparently favors the formation of 
better and straighter boles in the pines and in all other species as 
well (e. g. the increase of the straightness of the bole of pine from 
southwestern Germany to eastern Prussia and western Russia). 

30. Atmospheric humidity modifies the demands upon soil 
moisture in a species. With high atmospheric humidity the spec- 
ies makes less demand upon soil moisture (compare the growth 
of ashes and alders in southwestern Germany and northwestern 
Russia). 

31. As regards the amount of precipitation during the vegeta- 
tive period it is known that lack of rain even for a couple of days 
may be fatal to tender young seedlings. With age and de- 
velopment of the root system, the capacity of the tree to resist 
drought increases also. A mature tree can withstand a drought 
of several months’ duration with the assistance of its reserve sup- 
plies of water. This resistance in old trees is assisted also by the 
increased surface of crown and bark which absorb atmospheric 
moisture. If, however,the drought occurs repeatedly during 
several vegetative periods, and the amount of precipitation during 
the four months is less than 2 inches, the forest disappears even 
when the atmospheric humidity is above 50%. 

32. Precipitation outside of the vegetative period is especially 
valuable in wetting the soil thoroughly, because during the vege- 
tative period when the trees are in foliage, the soil seldom receives 
a thorough wetting. Where the amount of precipitation during 
the winter is great, or the soil on account of its capillarity, draws 
moisture from neighboring water reservoirs, (e. g. shores of lakes 
or rivers), the total amount of precipitation for one vegetative 
period may be even lower than the minimum of 2 inches without 
detriment to the forest;in such places a forest once established 
will grow without human assistance (California). 

33. A moderate amount of moisture in the soil (“fresh soil’) 
generally improves its quality (spruce on sand). Any further in- 
crease in soil moisture,as in moist or wet soils, decreases its 


184 Forestry Quarterly 


quality. If in the climatic optimum of a species the most favor- 
able soil is a fresh soil, at a higher temperature and a lower rela- 
tive humidity the soil must be very fresh or moist; at a lower 
temperature and a higher relative humidity the soil must be mod- 
erately fresh or even dry. 

34. Deep snow during winter means protection against low 
temperature in those cases when the plants are covered entirely, 
but for the tender parts of the plant which project out of the 
snow, it greatly increases the danger from frost because the air 
near the surface of the snow in calm clear weather becomes ex- 
ceedingly cold. The death of such shoots is due entirely to freez- 
ing and not to drying. During winters with heavy snowfall the 
temperatures generally fall much lower than in winters with light 
snowfall. Winters with heavy snowfall are beneficial to young 
plants (in middle Europe 20 inches and under-the average maxi- 
mum depth of the snow), but are injurious to any shoots which 
project out from the snow; winters with light snow-fall are 
harmful to low plants (the lowest temperature is directly above 
the ground) but are beneficial to the taller plants. 

35. The direction in which the most dangerous storms move 
is parallel to the direction of the cyclone or of the barometric low 
pressures. This direction in Europe is from west to east, in east- 
ern America from east to west,* in eastern Asia from south to 
north. Less dangerous are the storms traveling in the opposite 
direction, in Furope the eastern, in America, the western, in Ja- 
pan, the northern. Of still less danger are the winds from the 
other direction. Each elevation above the ground produces a de- 
flection of the air current, a whirl-wind whose height is equal to 
the height of the elevation and which on account of its rotary 
motion diminishes the force of the wind blowing on the surface of 
the ground and makes it blow in the opposite direction. For this 
reason, on the windward side, dangerous winds often arise which 
in Europe have a direction of east to west, in eastern America 
from west to east and in Japan from north to south. This fact 
must be taken into consideration in locating the cutting areas and 
in all problems of regeneration. Thus in Europe in regenerating 


*Tt is a little hard to see how Prof. Mayr came to this conclusion. The 
path of the barometric low pressures in eastern America seems to be from 
west to east. (See Henry’s Climatology, p. 14.) 


Fundamental Principles of Silviculture. 185 


an eastern mountain slope by a system of clear cutting in strips, 
the strips should run from northeast to southwest, while the cut- 
tings should begin on the nortwestern side and proceed toward 
the southeast. In Japan under similar conditions, the strips 
should run from the northwest to southeast, and the cuttings 
should proceed toward the northeast. 

36. Without belittling the influence which the mineral com- 
position of the soil exerts upon the growth and development of 
tree species, it must be emphasized that in forestry and especially 
in horticulture the influence of different soil constituents upon the 
growth of the tree species, even to the point of causing their en- 
tire disappearance (a favorite dictum with reference to exotics) 
is entirely too much exaggerated. 

All plants in their youth are very modest in their demands up- 
on the quality of the soil; only as the trees grow older do their 
demands upon soil become greater. 

37. In its climatic optimum each tree species is omnivorous, 
1. e. it can thrive on soil of any geological or mineralogical deriva- 
tion, provided, its physical condition and mineral composition do 
not prohibit plant life. With the approach to the limits of heat 
or of cold for a given climatic region, it becomes more and more 
necessary for the tree to have a greater amount of certain defi- 
nite nutritive substances (e. g. beech at the northern and southern 
limits of its range). 

38. The greater the difference of climate or treatment from 
those characteristic of the native home of the plant, the greater is 
the need of a more careful selection of nutritive substances as 
well as of the different physical properties of the soil, (e. g. park 
and garden trees and particularly pot plants for which the right 
selection of soil and its proper physical condition is of the utmost 
importance). From this it follows that the more the conditions 
of growth deviate from the natural conditions the less the species 
is suited for growth in the forest or life in a wild state. 

39. Provided the climate is favorable, all plants find the opti- 
mum for individual development on so-called normal soils, viz. 
on soils sufficiently rich in mineral substances, porous, fresh, and 
deep. When one of these factors is absent, certain species are 
excluded from the general struggle for existence ; only such spec- 
ies enter then into the composition of the forest which have the 


186 Forestry Quarterly 


greatest adaptability (on poor, loose, dry, and deep soils, pine; on 
good, loose, but wet soils, alder; on good, loose, moist soils, 
spruce). 

40. The light which 1s most favorable for the activity of the 
chlorophyll and consequently for plant growth is reflected light, 
produced by a sky partly covered by light clouds, and not the 
direct rays of the sun or the diffused light of cloudy, foggy or 
rainy days. 

41. From this it is clear how various is the influence of shaded 
plants. This influence in some cases is very favorable; this is 
the case with the intolerant broad-leaved species whose light 
crown-cover moderates the direct action of the sun rays, and the 
resultant heating of the plants, or in case of lateral shading which 
protects young growth and seedlings. The influence of shading is 
unfavorable to undergrowth when in a two storied forest the up- 
per story consists of tolerant species. 

42. Since in a continentai climate the number of cloudless days 
with strong light and high temperature is generally greater than 
in an insular climate, and since in a continental climate the in- 
creased temperature (southern latitudes, southern exposures, 
etc.), means at the same time a longer exposure to light and heat 
while in an insular climate the favorable light conditions decrease 
the more the temperature decreases, therefore, the effect and the 
significance of overhead and of lateral shading, of degree of thin- 
ning, must be altogether different in a continental climate than in 
a maritime climate. These silvicultural operations must there- 
fore depend not only upon the tree species, quality of soil, and 
purpose, but also upon the climate and the prevailing light con- 
ditions (exposure, etc.) ; silviculture must also in this case be 
guided not by recipes but by the laws of nature. 

43. Since Germany in general occupies an intermediate place 
between the insular climate of western Europe and the continental 
climate of eastern middle Europe, it possesses the most favorable 
light conditions for the growth of all tree species; only the south- 
ern slopes approach the continental climate, the higher elevation 
the insular climate; the first because of greater exposure to heat 
and light, the second because the plants get along entirely without 
overhead shade, since shade is furnished by the fogs and the in- 


Fundamental Principles of Silviculture. 187 


creased cloudiness. In the latter case no underplanting and no 
artificial regeneration of tolerant species is admissible. 

44. The true value of the knowledge of the natural laws is 
shown nowhere more clearly than in those operations which deal 
with the regeneration of stands, since to choose the right system 
of management for a stand on a large forest is to solve the pro- 
blem as to which system of management will secure regeneration 
most certainly, easily, and quickly. 

45. Stands of all species are reproduced most easily at the be- 
ginning of their full reproductive maturity, 7. e. just before they 
are fully ready to cut. At such an age any form of regeneration 
or natural reproduction, can be chosen for each species. Finan- 
cial consideration may, of course, in practice lead to other con- 
clusions in regard to the kind and the time or regeneration, but 
such practical considerations do not invalidate the correctness of 
the natural law. They can merely decide as to the expediency of 
making use of such a natural law. 

46. All forms of regeneration are easiest on normal soils and 
in the climate optimum of the tree species. Towards the warmer 
regions, tolerance and seed production increase but the relative 
humidity of the air and freshness of the soil decrease. On ac- 
count of the greater intensity of light the necessary overhead 
shading decreases the amount of precipitation which reaches the 
ground, etc. Towards the cooler climate the humidity of the air 
and the amount of rain increases, but tolerance and seed produc- 
tion decrease. 

47. The regeneration of mixed stands rests on the same nat- 
ural laws which govern pure stands; the artificial regeneration of 
mixed stands is more difficult than the natural, since in the former 
there enters an arbitrary complication of laws and phenomena, 
whose reciprocal action we do not know. In natural regenera- 
tion of mixed stands each stand is divided into as many stands 
as there are species in the mixed stand. The reproduction 
takes place therefore at different times for the different species 
(the division of the regeneration of stands, conceived as pure 
stands according to time), or the different species are regenerated 
on different areas (division of regeneration according to space) 
viz. clumps, when the areas are less than 5 ares groups, when 
larger than 5 ares, and compartments, when larger than 20 ares 


188 Forestry Quarterly 


and less than 1 hectar, (e. g. selection cuttings, gradual cutting 
in group cuttings, regeneration cuttings). 

48. The smaller the area which is to be regenerated, the 
greater consideration must be given to the choice of the proper 
time for commencing the regeneration of the different species the 
better the chance of beginning regeneration of all species at the 
same time. The greater the number of species in mixture, the 
greater the need of choosing for the regeneration of each species 
separate areas (clumps, groups, compartments) and of beginning 
the regeneration at different times. 

49. In reproducing a mixed stand by individual trees or groups 
of trees it is necessary first to regenerate the species which is en- 
dowed with the greatest tolerance, for instance, first fir and 
beech, and then spruce, ash, elm, etc. (the order in accordance 
with the degree of tolerance for the first decade of their life). 
The regeneration therefore begins with a slight opening up of 
the crown-cover. Of species with equal tolerance those which 
have the heaviest seeds and consequently scatter less readily must 
be regenerated first (fir, and spruce; beech and fir; oak and 
pine; beech, fir and spruce; beech and pine, etc.). 

The species which is in danger of being over-topped by its 
neighbors in the third or fourth decade of its life should be re- 
produced first (Jarch and spruce; larch and beech; beech and 
fir; beech and spruce). 

The foregoing points have no bearing upon the question 
whether the mixture may not be attained more easily by artificial 
and natural means at the same time. Thus undoubtedly the mix- 
ture of spruce and larch,and of beech and larch can be more 
easily and quickly affected by combining the two methods of re- 
generation than by natural regeneration alone, but no one who is 
unfamiliar with the natural laws of regeneration and mixture of 
tree species can select the right method of establishing a mixed 
forest. 

50. The best conditions for guarding the forest against dan- 
gers of all sorts are: 1, a method of regeneration which resembles 
most closely natural regeneration; 2, a mixture of tree species 
which corresponds to the natural mixture, and which is best 
adapted to the variations of soil and site; 3, a form of management 
which resembles most closely the virgin forest, (selection sys- 


Fundamental Principles of Silviculture. 189 


tem). The same conditions answer also all other requirements 
of forest management and silviculture, viz. the attainment in the 
shortest time of the greatest amount of wood (volume) of all 
grades and species and of the best qualities. In the last state- 
ment the point in regard to the greatest amount of wood ob- 
tained per unit may be disputed. This fact can be determined 
only by means of experiments and investigation of the increment 
and profitability of a mixed selection forest. 

The more silviculture will rest upon its only true foundation, 
the laws of nature, the more clearly it will be shown that no other 
form of management corresponds better to these laws of nature 
than the selection system, but not that selection system whose 
chief aim is exploitation alone without thought of the future con- 
dition of the forest, but the regulated selection system which 
takes into consideration the age-classes, and the species, a selec- 
tion system which does not remove a single tree without taking 
care of the reproduction and of the future crop. The unregu- 
lated selection system is the oldest, the easiest, and the crudest 
form of forest management, the regulated selection system with 
its individualization is the most perfect and the most delicate and 
the most difficult form of forest management and approaches 
closest to the unattainable ideal. 


[The translators have undoubtedly done a good service by bringing this 
interesting set of statements to the attention of our readers. The careful 
student of ecology, however, and observer of the behavior of exotics will 
probably find a number of these “principles,” categorically stated as if they 
were proven beyond peradventure, not supported by his own observations. 
While Prof. Mayr’s statements are most suggestive, and most of them 
undoubtedly well based, there are some which foresters will do well not 
to accept without specific verification.—Eprror. ] 


CURRENT LITERATURE. 


H. S. Graves, in Charge. 
Quarterly Journal of Forestry, London, England, April, 1907. 
202 pp. 
Contains a number of short articles dealing with local condi- 
tions in Great Britain and India. There is but little in this num- 
ber of interest to American foresters. 


Southern Woodlands, A Journal of Forestry, Lumbering, 
Wood Manufacture and Related Sciences and Industries. 
Athens, Ga. 18 pp. 

One of the most important steps in the development of forestry 
in the South is the establishment of a department of forestry at 
the University of Georgia. Mr. Alfred Akerman, formerly State 
Forester of Massachusetts, has been appointed the Professor of 
Forestry and the head of the department. Professor Akerman is 
in every way fully qualified to undertake this important work. 
He has already organized a Forestry Association in Georgia and 
established a journal of forestry entitled “Southern Woodlands, 
A Journal of Forestry, Lumbering, Wood Manufacture, and Re- 
lated Sciences and Industries.” The first issue appeared in April 
containing a paper by Professor Akerman entitled “Forest Edu- 
cation,” and one by Mr. Alfred Gaskill entitled “Progress of 
Forestry in the United States.” We welcome this magazine and 
we extend to Professor Akerman and his assistants our hearty 
congratulations and best wishes for their new undertaking. 


Making a Woodlot From Seed. A. Knechtel, Albany, N. Y. 
7 PP- 

This circular is a concise description of how to raise from the 
seed chestnut and white pine. Mr. Knechtel covers the whole 
process of collecting, preserving and sowing the seed, and of set- 
ting out the plants. The description is very practical and should 
be helpful to tree planters in New York. 


Fifth Annual Bulletin of the Connecticut Forestry Association. 
Hartford, Conn., 1907. 56 pp. 

This bulletin comprises the proceedings of the Connecticut 
Forestry Association at the winter meeting in New Haven. The 


Current Literature I9I 


papers deal for the most part with local conditions in Connecti- 
cut and are of value to foresters interested in the southern New 
England region. 


Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station for 
the Year 1906. Part. V. Report of the Station Botanist. 368 
pp. Illustrated. 


Contains an interesting article on certain fungus diseases, by 
Dr. G. P. Clinton. Among other diseases are mentioned an in- 
teresting leaf blight and rust of pine. 


Webster's Foresters’ Dairy & Pocket Book for 1907. London, 
England. Published by William Rider & Son, Ltd. 

This is a diary with a large amount of general information of 
interest to foresters in Great Britain. The information is chiefly 
of local value. 


The Timber Supply of the United States. By R. S. Kellogg. 
Circular No. 97. U.S. Forest Service. 16 pp. 

This circular is designed to call attention to the rapid diminu- 
tion of our timber supplies. It is chiefly a resumé of statistics, 
from different sources, of the estimated annual cut and probable 
amount of standing timber. It does not attempt to give any new 
facts about the estimated stumpage in the country, but, using old 
data, draws the conclusion that we are rapidly using up our for- 
est capital and that our annual consumption is about four times 
as great as the annual increment of our forests. These statistics 
emphasize our lack of knowledge of the actual amount of avail- 
able merchantable timber in the country. We hope that the 
present efforts of the U. S. Bureau of Corporations may receive 
the support of the country and that a serious census of standing 
timber may be taken in the near future. 


Report of the Michigan Forestry Commission for the Years 
1905-1906. Lansing, Michigan. 197 pp. Illustrated. 


The most important feature in this bulletin is the biennial re- 
port of Professor Filibert Roth, Forest Warden of Michigan. 
This article is a report of the work done on the State forest re- 


192 Forestry Quarterly 


serves. The work during the past two years has been mainly 
along three lines; protection against fire and trespass, reforesta- 
tion and improvement, and the survey and classification of land. 
Professor Roth’s discussion of the forest fires is of a great deal 
of interest. It happened that the spring of 1906 was especially 
difficult on account of the open winter and late spring. The re- 
sult was special danger from fire. In spite of the difficulty, how- 
ever, the fires of the spring covered only about 670 acres, or 
about 1 per cent. of the total area protected; and the total dam- 
age amounted to about $700. Under ordinary circumstances the 
fires would have burned over at least four times the area actually 
covered. The author estimates that out of every county of 360, 
000 acres, approximately 15,000 or more is burned off every year, 
and that for 10 million acres, fully 400,000 acres burn over with 
a loss of not less than 200 million young trees. Such a loss is 
indeed appalling and it is a matter of great credit that the Forest 
Warden has succeeded in making so great a reduction in the 
damage on the reserves during an exceedingly difficult season. 
It is a demonstration that fire protection is possible in the Lake 
States. 

It is interesting to note that fire lines are being constructed. 
This work was begun in 1905 and 30 miles have already been 
completed. ‘The plan is first to survey and brush out the lines, 
and then to plow a strip one-half to one rod in width. Such lines 
cost about $10.00 per mile in the plains and three or four times 
that much on the higher and rougher ground. The cost of fire 
protection on the reserves is estimated at two cents per acre for 
the entire area protected, which certainly is reasonable. 

The Forest Warden has established a large nursery and has 
already begun planting on an extensive scale. In 1904, 51,000 
trees were planted; in 1905, 79,000; in 1906, 200,000. Professor 
Roth is certainly making an excellent beginning in forestry work 
under exceptionally unfavorable conditions. He is very much to 
be congratulated. 

The bulletin also contains an interesting article by Professor 
FE.. E. Bogue, on “Early Harvest Forest Trees.” It is interesting 
to note that he has found the catalpa unsuited to the conditions of 
southern Michigan. 


Other Current Literature 193 


The remainder of the bulletin comprises short articles on local 
problems in Michigan and an account of the meeting establishing 
the Michigan Forestry Association. 

H.-S. G, 


OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. 


The Relation of Forestry to Lumbering. Presented by ELS. 
Graves at the Second Annual Meeting of Yellow Pine Manutfac- 
turers Association. New Orleans, La. January 22 and 23, 1907. 
4 Pp. 


Reasons Why the Constitution of the State of New York 
Should Not Now be Amended so as to Permit Water Storage in 
the Adirondack Park. Address of H. S. Graves before Associa- 
1907. Ip. 


Value of Swallows as Insect Destroyers. H. W. Henshaw. 
Circular No. 56, Bureau of Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture. 4 pp. 


The Elm Leaf Beetle. W.E. Britton. Bulletin 1 55, Connecti- 
cut Agricultural Experiment Station. New Haven, Conn. 14 
pp., illustrated. 


Second Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State 
Geological and Natural History Survey. 1905-06. Bulletin No. 
g, Connecticut. 23 pp. 


Forestry: An Exhibition Illustrating the Beauty of the Trees, 
their Growth, their Cultivation and Preservation, their Useful- 
ness to Man, their Part in Literature and Art. Free Public Li- 
brary, Newark, N. J. April 12 to May 5, 1907. II p. 


The Fractional Distillation of Coal-tar Creosote. Arthur L. 
Dean and Ernest Bateman. Circular No. 80, Forest Service. U. 
S. Dept. of Agriculture. 31 pp. 


194 Forestry Quarterly 


Third Report of the Board of Commissioners of Agriculture 
and Forestry of the Territory of Hawai for the year ending De- 
cember 31, 1906. Honolulu, H. I. 212 pp. 


Report of the Division of Forestry for the year ending De- 
cember 31, 1900. R.S. Hosmer, Supt. Honolulu, H. I. 137 pp. 


Progress Report of Forest Administration in the Andamans, 
7905-1906. Calcutta, India. 31 pp. 


Forest Products of the United States, 1905. R.S. Kellogg and 
H. M. Hale. Bulletin No. 74, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. of 
Agriculture. 69 pp. 


Biennial Report of the Register of the State Land Office and 
Commissioner of Forestry to the Governor, 1904-06. Baton 
Rouge, La. 21 pp. 


A General Consideration of Timber Under Conditions of Mod- 
ern Demand and Growth. Paper read by Dr. Hermann von 
Schrenk before New England R. R. Club. February, 1907. 46 pp. 


Tupelo: Character, Uses, Treatment. Dr. Hermann von 
Schrenk. Reprint from “Southern Lumbermen.” December 25, 


1906. 13 pp. 


The Longleaf Pine in the Virgin Forest. <A silvical Study. G. 
Frederick Schwarz. John Wiley & Sons, New York.  Illus- 
trated. 135 pp. 


Evergreens for the Iowa Planter. Bulletin No. 90, Experi- 
ment Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture and the Me- 
chanic Arts. Ames, Jowa. Illustrated. 39 pp. 


Farm Forestry. By E. J. Zavitz. Bulletin No, 155, Ontario 
Dept. of Agriculture. Toronto, Canada. Illustrated. 39 pp. 


Sixth Annual Report of the President of the Association for 
the Protection of the Adirondacks. New York City, April 9, 


1907. 30 pp. 


Other Current Literature 195 


Imperial Forest College Rules, Dehra Dun, India. 15 pp. 


The Control of Forest Fires at McCloud, California. A. W. 
Cooper and P. D. Kelleter. Forest Service Circular No. 740 JADE 
S. Department of Agriculture. 16 pp. 


Forest Planting in Illinois. R. S. Kellogg. Forest Service Cir- 
cular No. 81, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 32 pp. 


Hardy Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa). Forest Service Circular 
No. 82, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 8 pp. 


White Ash (Fraxinus americana). Forest Service Circular 
No. 84, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 4 pp. 


Public Roads of Texas: Mileage and Expenditures in 1904. 
Circular No. 85, Office of Public Roads, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 6 pp. 


Boxelder (Acer negundo). Forest Service Circular No. 86, 
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 3 pp. 


White Willow (Salix alba). Forest Service Circular No. 87, 
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 4 pp. 


Black Walnut (Juglans nigra). Forest Service Circular No. 
88, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 5 pp. 


Tamarack (Larix laricina). Forest Service Circular No. 89, 
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 4 pp. 


Osage Orange (Toxylon pomiferum). Forest Service No. go, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 3 pp. 


Coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus). Forest Service Circular 
No. 91, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 4 pp. 


Green Ash (Fraxinus lanceolata). Forest Service Circular No, 
92, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 4 pp. 


196 Forestry Quarterly 


Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera). Forest Service Cir- 
cular No. 93, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 4 pp. 


Black Cherry (Prunus serotina). Forest Service Circular No. 
94, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 3 pp. 


Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum). Forest Service Circular No. 
g5, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 4 pp. 


Quantity and Character of Creosote in Well Preserved Tim- 
bers. Gellert Alleman. Forest Service Circular No. 98, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture. 16 pp. 


Germination of Pine Seed. Unnumbered Circular of U. S. 
Forest Service. I2 pp. 


Preparation of the Forest Atlas. Unnumbered Circular of the 
U. S. Forest Service. 4 pp. 


PERIODICAL LITERATURE. 
In Charge: 


RAMEE GL: SOUTIIILS ( « @'s:.d.ahn i> xin ain) cman ve walaeci a R. T. FISHER 
Foreign Journals, .......... B. E. Fernow, R. Zon, E. DUNLAP 
Propagandist Journals, .......0ecceres Nielas take eale H. P. BAKER 
MMT OUPILLS 0 2.57 a9. eon) o's) wale «sehen a mish F. Roru, J. F. KUMMEL 


FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. 
A very interesting report on forest condi- 


Conditions tions and wood trade in Russia, Finland, 
mm Sweden and Norway by an expert forester 
Northern is published by the German Department of 
Europe. the Interior. The report gives also insight 


into the silvical changes which similar 
methods of exploitation as practiced in our country have brought 
about. 

The effect of the Russo-Japanese war had occasioned a de- 
pression in export trade which in the years 1904 and 1905 re- 
sulted in an estimated decline of 25 million dollars of trade. 
Now both demand and prices are on the rise. Mills are being 
moved northward where stumpage is still plentiful and cheap. 
Swedish sawmill men, especially, are buying logs in northern 
Finland, where the government owns 8o per cent. of the stump- 
age, taking them in large rafts along the coast to their mills. 

The development of North Russian stumpage is proceeding 
slowly on account of the unsatisfactory water conditions of the 
broad rivers (Petchora and Dwina) and the financial trouble 
of the government, which forbids expenditures for improvement 
of canals and rivers. A certain district, the Kola peninsula and 
adjacent territory, accessible to the Baltic, the White and the 
Arctic Sea, will be most immediately developed. 

Small dimension material for mine props, pulp and charcoal 
wood is being more and more marketed. This demand could be 
made favorable not only to the pocket of forest owners, but to the 
growth conditions of their forest, if properly supplied, but it is 
more likely to lead to devastation. Only 50 years ago spruce in 
the northern forests had no value; the stout pines alone were cut. 
As a result the spruce secured preponderance in the composition, 
and, where not killed by fire, it suppressed gradually the pine. 


198 Forestry Quarterly 


This change has been often detrimental by changing the soil 
more and more into swampy conditions, with consequent decrease 
of increment, and finally moor formation. Large areas of such 
stagnant spruce moors exist, which, before pine can return, will 
have to be drained and the spruce removed. Large areas consist 
of pine and spruce mixed in all stages of transition to spruce 
forest, where timely reduction of the spruce would re-establish 
desirable proportions of the mixture. Very large areas consist of 
natural moors or swamps (as in Canada), which can never pro- 
duce sizeable material and where, therefore, the utilization of 
small dimensions is the only rational thing. Unfortunately thrifty 
young growth in other parts has been largely cut to supply this 
demand and the government regulations have not been able to 
prevent it. There is a law, applicable to a large part of Sweden, 
limiting the diameter to which an owner may cut (the favored 
12-inch rule, we believe!), except by permit from a government 
officer, and export tariffs on mine props and pulp wood exist also. 

The effect of this law is double-edged, for it also makes diffi- 
cult the utilization of minor material in cases where the interest 
of the forest would be thereby subserved. Hence a large number 
of competent men are working for the repeal of these laws. For 
the same reason the foresters in Finland are opposed to the export 
tariff (of 1/3 cent per cubic foot) on small dimension stuff, in- 
augurated in 1906, because it hinders the conscientious forest 
manager more than it prevents the conscienceless forest butcher 
in squandering his thrifty young stands. 


Waldbenutzung und Holzshandel in Nordeuropa in den Jahren 1005/6. 
Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, Feb., 1907, pp. 73/74. 


That in Europe giant trees used to exist is 


Age, Size attested by some measurements in a Fir 
and forest (Abies pectinata) on the slopes of 
Production the Emme in Switzerland. Here on five 
im and one-fifth acres old trees, managed in 
Virgin Forest. selection forest, have been allowed to grow 


to ages of over 250 years. 

Of the 574 firs, which with 34 spruces and 7 beech, compose 
the stand (118 trees to the acre), 16 reach diameters over 3 feet 
and heights of over 130 feet, with 156 reaching diameters of 
20 to 36 inches and heights over 118 feet. The average volume 


Periodical Literature 199 


per acre is over 11,000 cubic feet, but the best corner of the oldest 
trees would measure at a rate of over 27,000 cubic feet. 

The tallest tree measures 176 feet, with a diameter of 58 inches 
and over 1,400 cubic feet in the bole, perfectly sound and clear to 
about one-half its height, the crown just beginning to round off 
(cessation of height growth). This tree is estimated from count- 
ings on other stumps to be about 300 years old. A companion 
measures 163 feet height, and 56 inch diameter. Several count- 
ings on stumps show the following relations: 


Diameter 
of Stump— Annual Rings. 
inches. 

61 255 (95 years suppressed) 
48 280 (105 years suppressed) 
38 260 
34 275 (several periods of suppression) 
30 180 
26 130 


During the period of suppression the first two trees made only 
4- and 8-inch diameter, respectively. 


Diz grossen Tannen auf Diirsriitti im Emmenthal. Schweizerische 
Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, March, 1907, p. 77-85. 


FOREST BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 


That botanical species are not constant in 
Climatic their forms but are subject to continuous 
Varieties. changes by mutations, sudden variations 
and reactions to the factors of environment, 
is a well accepted fact. The most important of the latter factors 
are the climatic conditions of the site, which produce morphologi- 
cal and biological variations, so that the same species living under 
different climatic conditions can be recognized more or less readily 
as having produced climatic varieties. Plants with short genera- 
tions can experimentally be varied in a short time, while in nature 
thousands of years may have been required to produce the 
variation. 
The recognition of the existence of these climatic varieties is of 
greatest moment to the forest-grower. We have, therefore, 
briefed the important contribution of Doctor Cieslar on this sub- 


200 Forestry Quarterly 


ject in another place and under a different heading as a silvicul- 
tural subject. Here we brief only the botanical portion of his 
exposé. 

Nobody doubts to-day that the species of trees in regard to bio- 
logical moments, like rate of growth, time of leafing, of leaf fall, 
of flowering, habitus, have not always been the same as now. 
Most of the species have, since the ice age, made wide peregrina- 
tions, changing their climate, while also the climate changed in 
their sites. For Norway Spruce it seems proved that the spe- 
cies in Sweden is still moving southward coming by way of Fin- 
land from the continent, while the pine has come from the south. 
Changed exterior conditions produce morphological and biolog- 
ical variations in the organism and these produce variations in 
habit which then are acquired ones. The proof that these are ac- 
quired characteristics is most readily found by studying them on 
a species which like the Norway Spruce, ranges from the base of 
the Alps to the 6,500 foot level. That these acquired habits are 
inheritable has been asserted by Lamark, and proof of the fact 
has been furnished from all fields of botany, the most striking of 
which are rehearsed by Cieslar. 

Englemann succeeded by long continued influence of colored 
light in changing the color of an alga of the genus Oscillaria and 
in propagating this color in the progeny. 

Ricinus communis is a woody tree in the tropics, not so the 
European form, which is an annual and remains so even in the 
hot house, while the seed from the tropical locality when sown 
in a hot house produced the woody form, which did not flower 
until three years old; an intermediate form is found in Egypt 
(v. Wettstein experiment). 

The fungus Puccinia Smilacearum was for ten years limited 
by Klebahn upon Polygonatum multiflorum as only host, which 
weakened its ability to infect its usual hosts Convallaria majalis, 
Majanthemum bifolium and Paris quadrifolia the stimulus of 
Polygonatum having changed the habit, and the change becoming 
an inheritance through the spores. 

Goebel produced striking changes in the fungus Micrococcus 
prodigiosus, and the changes were the stronger and the more 
persistent the longer the influential stimuli were continued, 

The intermediate forms which are found in nature between two 
exclusive fields of distribution are also in response to changed 


Periodical Literature 201 


surroundings and their acquired characters become hereditary. 
The fact that the floras of the seacoast and those of high Alps in 
all parts of the world bear the same physiognomy and are anal- 
ogous (convergence phenomena), is also a good proof of adap- 
tations becoming hereditary. 


The recognition of the fact of hereditary characteristics due 
to locality make the question of seed supply one of the most im- 
portant in forestry. 


One of the most interesting generally instructive places for the 
study of this question is to be found in Vilmorin’s testing grounds 
at Barres, now owned by the French government. Here the 
genus Pinus is represented with 72 species and varieties; P. 
silvestris alone with 30 different numbers, the seed locality of 
which is known. [See continuation on p. 207. ] 


Die Bedetitung Klimatischer Varietéten unserer Holzarten fiir den 
Waldbau. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, Jan., 1907, pp. 1-4. 


Investigations on 416 species of plants by 

Winter Period Howard showed that there is no necessary 

of rest period in growth and _ respiration. 

Trees. More than half the species investigated 

budded forth from cut twigs in winter 

when kept in a temperature of from 15 to 22° C. Others could be 

forced to do so by various means, like etherizing, frost, drying, 

keeping dark. The most difficult to induce to sprout were Carya, 

Fagus, Fraxinus, Liriodendron, Quercus, Juglans regia. ‘Twigs 

of species from the Mediterranean, however, Buxsus, Ficus, etc., 

when transferred from the cold to the hot house did not bud; in 
these apparently the rest period is fixed. 


Jahrbuch fir wissenschaftliche Botanik, 1906, p. 516 ff. 


At the meeting of the International Asso- 


Structure ciation of Forest Experiment. Stations in 

and September, 1906, a program for the study 

Biology of the structure, growth and physicological 

of functions of roots was proposed, with a 

Roots. view to the use of the information in silvi- 
culture. 


The investigations are to be made on trees in the open, on bor- 


202 Forestry Quarterly 


der trees, and trees within stands to find whether differences in 
structure are produced by different factors, and especially how 
working the soil to different depths, and various fertilizers and 
competition with roots of other plants influence root formation. 

The period of root growth, the influence of root rot and loss 
of parts in different soils, the influence of depth to water table or 
impenetrable strata are also to be investigated. 


Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- 
suchsanstalten 1906. Centralblatt f. g. d. Forstwesen, Feb., 1907, p. 86 


The value of a bird fauna to counteract in- 


Fostering sect damage has led one of the leading 
of ornithologists of the world, v. Berlepsch in 
Bird Life. Thuringia, to develop and observe in their 


results various devices for fostering bird 
life. Their construction and their value are discussed in a longer 
article by Kullmann. The surprisingly favorable results of the 
systematic protection of birds for a long series of years prove the 
methods correct and worthy of imitation They are: 1, increase 
of species and numbers by properly constructed breeding places 
(as described) ; 2, construction of brush heaps in open spots for 
ground breeders, and traps for their enemies, until a breeding 
shrubbery can be established; 3, feeding birds in winter by spe- 
cially devised methods; 4, providing water tanks; 5, decimating 
enemies systematically ; 6, co-operation with all neighbors. 


Die Berlepschen Vogelschutzbestrebungen. . . . Allgemeine Forst u. 
Jagdzeitung. Febr., 1907, pp. 50-50. 


SOIL, WATER. AND CLIMATE. 


After extensive discussions the Interna- 

Humus tional Association of Forest Experiment 
Formations. Stations has adopted a final classification 

of humus formations for use in forest de- 

scriptions, limiting itself to the formations on forest soil. Since 
the Association has also undertaken to translate its classification 


Periodical Literature 203 


into English and French, in order to secure uniformity of terms 
we defer the details until that translation materializes. 


Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- 
suchsanstalten in Woiirtemberg, 1906. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, 
Feb., 1907, pp. 72-76. 


Bogs covering mountain tops have usually 


Value been looked upon as reservoirs holding in 
of themselves the water from heavy rainfalls 
Alpine Bogs. and doling it out to the soil beneath and 


to the brooks taking their rise along their 
lower edges. In the Harz mountains, Kautz reports, the spread 
of these bogs has been accompanied by severe floods in the 
streams heading in bogs, which latter are held responsible for the 
same. 

The flow of small streams from the slope just below the bog 
is intermittent; gullies that remain dry the greater part of the 
time become torrents after heavy rainstorms. The detritus from 
the upper slopes near the bog appears scattered far down the 
river courses but the stones are angular, indicating recent re- 
moval from their bed. Since the bog itself is to all appearances 
and in common report of recent growth, covering soil once occu- 
pied by forest growth, it is probably correct to attribute the floods 
which bore this detritus down stream to the bog itself. 

How such results might come from a bog is clearly presented. 
At all seasons the whole area and depth, possibly excepting a few 
centimeters at the surface, is saturated with water. Light show- 
ers complete the saturation of the surface while heavy storms 
result in immediate loss of water along the whole lower edge of 
the sponge-like mass. The water pressure is transmitted more 
rapidly than the flow over the surface of bare soil would be, re- 
sulting in torrents such as have caused the recent floods in the 
Harz streams. 

For control a series of large ditches with moderate grade run- 
ning along the face of the slope should be provided to carry 
away the flood waters slowly and to curb the downward exten- 
sion of the bog. Later remedial measures would look to the 
drainage of the bog preparatory to planting it to forest as the 
proper way to permanently hold back the flood waters. 


Die Bedeutung der Hochmoore in der Koniglichen Oberférsteret Stber 
im Harz. Zeitschrift fiir Forst und Jagdwesen: October, 1906, pp. 668-682. 


7 


204 Forestry Quarizrly 


SILVICULTURE, PROTECTION, AND EXTENSION. 


During the seasons 1903 to 1906 inclusive, 


Experiences the fourth to seventh years of its existence, 
in the tree seed testing station at Eberswalde 
Seed Testing. has according to Schwappach made from 


150 to 180 odd tests each year, the number 
rising gradually. Most of the tests were coniferous seeds, 
Scotch Pine, Norway Spruce, and Larch. The average viability 
lay near 75 per cent. for the pine, 80 per cent. for the spruce, and 
40 per cent for the larch. Special long time tests on White Pine 
seeds ran through nine months, when 82 per cent. had sprouted. 
Such protracted tests are no criterion of the value of seeds for 
planting, and commercial tests are limited to eight weeks’ dura- 
tion. Shortened to this period but 55 per cent. of the White 
Pine had sprouted, and 50-60 per cent. is about the best that can 
be expected of this species. 

During the early years of the operation of this station methods 
of testing have been under improvement, results here attained 
being checked with results from the same seeds tested elsewhere, 
especially at Zurich. The porcelain dishes used were changed for 
others free from calcium carbonate, and the temperature was 
raised from 20° C. to 25° C., these changes giving more uniform 
results. And lastly the tests are now carried on in the light and 
not in darkened chambers, for light has a decided influence on the 
sprouting of some seeds, but apparently not of others. Further it 
was found that fir seeds sprout better in sand than in dishes and 
give higher results in autumn than in spring. 

The value of seeds from trees of different ages was found to 
vary. The heaviest seeds came from trees under 50 years old 
but their viability was low. Again seeds from very old trees— 
nearly 150 years,—though moderately heavy gave also a low 
germination per cent. ‘Trees, 80-100 years old, bear seeds of 
moderate weight but they show the highest viability. Compara- 
tive vigor of the seedlings produced from these seeds is now 
being studied. Darkness of color of pine seeds was found to go 
with a higher viability agreeing with results obtained in Sweden. 

Even when stored most carefully, each year brings depreciation 
of sprouting per cent., but to an even greater degree lowers the 


Periodical Literature 205 


vigor of seeds, that is, the rapidity with which viable seeds 
sprout. In two years the number of seeds sprouting in 28 days 
fell off 60 per cent. 

Mitteilungen aus der Priifungsanstalt fiir Waldsamen in Eberswalde. 
Zeitschrift tur Forst und Jagdwesen, August, 1906, pp. 505-515. 


In the very earliest stages of their develop- 


Test ment seedlings of Scotch Pine show differ- 
of entiation into clearly marked types charac- 
Pine Seed. ized mainly by the vigor of growth in the 


root. In seedlings which have the inher- 
ent capacity of growing quickly into healthy young trees the root 
develops first, and attains a length of I to 2 centimeters before 
the cotyledons leave the protection of the seed. This early 
growth of the root is the only way in which the seedling can per- 
manently care for its own needs. 

In testing the viability of seeds between folds of moist flannel 
Hook found that some seeds merely absorb water, possibly burst- 
ing their seed coats but pushing out no growing point. There is 
no question about their worthlessness. Some, however, go fur- 
ther and send out a root-tip which either remains short and per- 
fectly straight or else twists and bends upon itself again and 
again as it grows. Occasional monstrosities occur which put 
forth the cotyledons first, leaving the radicle inclosed in the husk 
incapable of further development. All such aberrant types of 
development are to be reckoned as due to worthless seeds. The 
viability of a sample of seeds is represented by the number of 
healthy normal seedlings produced. Conditions in the germinat- 
ing tests are so much more favorable than those met in the seed- 
beds that individuals at all backward in their development are to 
be cast out. 

Light is of direct influence on germination of Scotch Pine seeds 
whether it be the bright light of day or that of kerosene lamps, 
one-fourth to one-half candlepower, 9 feet distant. Unprotected 
seeds exposed to direct sunlight produce fewer seedlings, which 
may be due however to unfavorable conditions of transpiration. 
But in diffuse daylight as with seeds protected by folds of flannel 
or by a layer of earth the influence of light is beneficial, germina- 
tion being hastened and the number of healthy seedlings being in- 
creased. Unfavorable light conditions thus interfere with the 


206; -* Forestry Quarterly 


best development of seeds planted too deeply. As in photosyn- 
thesis, so here, too, it is the rays of the left half of the spectrum, 
the broad red waves, which are potent rather than the chemically 
active violet rays. Dark colored seeds suffer more than light 
colored when sprouted in the dark. 

Tests in diffuse light give more uniform results though source 
and intensity must also be considered; artificial light of constant 
intensity gives most uniform results. The optimum temperature 
for germinating Scotch Pine seeds is 24° C., but variations of a 
few degrees are of small importance. Because of the water they 
evaporate the damp seeds are cooler than the surrounding air, 
hence it is recommended to keep the germinating chamber at 
Dow NG. 

It is of prime importance to know how to interpret germina- 
tion per cent. figures—to know in what relation indoor results 
stand to what is attained in the nursery rows. In planting seed 
of 60 per cent. viability shall we use one and one-half times as 
much seed as required of 90 per cent. seed? Inquiry reveals that 
the value of seeds for practical planting falls off much more 
rapidly than the viability indicates. Of course the seeds must not 
be mixtures of portions with various viabilities. 


Indoor Results. Outdoor Results. 
Viability. Vigor. Sprinkled Daily. Unsprinkled. 
95 % QI % 75. %o 39 Ye 
go ‘ 78 “ 63 26 “ 
go “ce 57 ae 52 . 10 “ee 
&4 “ Obs Istshon 18 “ 
60 “ 2I “ 25 “ 3 “ 


Another problem is the influence of humidity of the atmosphere 
in the drying chamber where seeds are extracted from the cones. 
When seeds are dry and are heated in dry air they may be ex- 
posed to a temperature of 80° C. without hurt; but, as they come 
to the kiln, fresh cones are never dry, and the seeds they contain 
suffer if heated above 50° C. Just below this point lies the tem- 
perature at which kilns for separating Scotch Pine seeds from the 
cone should be operated. Thorough and vigorous ventilation is 
of great value in preventing the humidity from rising too high. 


Ueber die Keimung und Bewertung des Kiefernsamens nach Ketmpro- 
ben. Zeitschrift fiir Forst- und Jagdwesen. July, 1906, pp. 441-475. 


Periodical Literature 207 


Dr. Cieslar, the well-known investigator 


Importance and author, reports in an exceedingly inter- 
of esting article from the Austrian Experiment 
Seed Supply. Station the results of experiments through 


17 years with seeds derived from different 
localities. [See botanical part on p. 199.] 

The species are Picea excelsa, Pinus silvestris and Larix Euro- 
paea. The question which was the object of the experiments was 
“whether and to what degree the influences of high altitude on 
the typically decreasing rate of growth and on form, and the 
characteristic phaenology of the highland trees were hereditary, 
and what deductions for forestry practice, especially for planting 
in high and low altitudes the answer involves.” 

In a preliminary investigation it was found that weight of cone 
and of seed of spruce decreases in general with the altitude, first 
more slowly, towards the upper limit more rapidly; and the same 
change takes place with higher latitudes. In the very first years 
it was found that both spruce and larch from higher altitudes or 
latitudes, when planted in lowland situations grow slower than 
those grown from lowland seed trees, and the larch showed in the 
first 8 years the peculiar form of crown of the highland trees as 
well as the late leafing and early leaf fall. The hereditariness 
of characteristics was unmistakable, and the question was only 
whether it would continue to show itself. 

In addition to the original plantations in 1890 two other series 
were begun in 1894 and 18096, the one with seed collected from 
area horizontally very limited, but showing considerable altitu- 
dinal variation, the other by planting seeds from different alti- 
tudes in different altitudes, one station at 227 m, another at 1380 
m, and an intermediate one at 800 m. Altogether 53 sample plots 
furnish the basis for the tabulations and deductions after respec- 
tively 17, 13 and II years. 

The spruce plantations from seed of lower (below 1000 m) 
situations not only grew much more rapidly in height, but closed 
up much more rapidly, a most important point both from the 
standpoint of soil protection and development of stand, as well 
as cost of plantation (fewer plants needed). ‘The lowland spruces 
closed up in 1903-1905, while the highland spruces are still far 
from closing up. Heights of 112 to 140 cm. compare with heights 


208 Forestry Quarterly 


of 50 to 75 cm. for highland seedlings and 29 cm. for Swedish 
seedlings, while those from intermediate elevations run from 70 
to 95 cm. 

That a change in rate is not soon to be expected is indicated by 
the trend of the height curves which run still in the same sense in 
the later as in earlier years. 

Most strikingly is this relation exhibited by the plants from 
seed collected within a narrow horizontal field at 510, 860, and 
1140 m, which at 12 years show heights of 110 to 121, 94, and 58 
to 59 cm. respectively, the height curves running almost parallel. 

An interesting fact was brought out by the unusual summer 
drouth of 1904. While on the dry soils unsuitable for spruce the 
lowland plantations lost 20 to 21 per cent., the highland and 
Swedish plots were almost exterminated, losing 80 and 73 per 
cent. While the highland spruces have a relatively better devel- 
oped root system, absolutely those of the lowland type are stouter 
and strike deeper, reaching into a more reliable source of water 
supply. 

The experiment of locating plantations at different altitudes 
showed that the relation of lowland to highland seed supply re- 
mained the same, the tallest plants come from lower altitudes, 
while those from higher altitudes show about half the height 
growth, and their closing up condition is also as above noted. 
The author calls attention to the fact that locally favorable situ- 
ations may occur in high altitudes, and that, therefore, besides 
the altitude the growth conditions of the stand must not be over- 
looked, in other words the characteristics of growth in the mother 
stand will have become hereditary and repeat themselves. The 
altitude, therefore, also can only be a relative term, for in the 
southern Alps the spruce finds favorable localities higher up than 
in the northern (Tirol). 

Of other characteristics it was noted that the highland spruces 
are apt to make double leaders and are many-branched and fuller 
in foliage. It was determined that in the rapidly growing low- 
land spruces 1g needles corresponded to 1.646 respectively 1.899¢ 
wood, while in the highland spruces this relation remained usually 
below 1.000g of wood. ‘The question arises whether the assimi- 
lation of the latter even at lower levels and under all conditions 
is slower, than that of the highland type, and whether the same 


Periodical Literature. 209 


may not hold true for the transpiration which would account for 
the death by drouth, 

Regarding frost hardiness the following significant remarks 
are made: ‘‘a greater absolute frost hardiness cannot be ascribed 
to the highland spruce; young shoots of either type will be killed 
with equal assurance by certain temperatures. The relative frost 
hardiness, however, 7. e. the probability due to time of budding, 
that a plant with tender shoots will be hit by frost temperature, is 
greater for the northern and highland spruce, planted in lower or 
more southern situations; because they bud later. The later a 
plant buds in the spring, the safer in general it is against frost 
damage because the low temperatures occur more rarely as the 
season advances; but it may nevertheless happen that an early 
budding plant escapes on account of the time of occurrence of 
the frost, which just happens to hit the later comer while the new 
shoots are still tender. 

Silvicultural deductions are made as follows: In lowland 
plantations it is most advantageous to use seed from a similar 
locality, which, produces more rapidly growing plants such as 
can escape the competition with grass, are less likely to be 
crowded out in mixture with other species, and shorten the period 
of frost danger because growing quickly out of the frost region. 
The earlier closing up of such rapidly developing material (8 to 
IO years) is a great advantage and will allow a reduction in 
plant material. Instead of the lately advocated spacing of 4 feet 
for poor, 5 feet for medium, and 5.5 feet for best soils, the spac- 
ing may be enlarged by one foot or so when using thrifty mater- 
ial, and a saving of 20 to 30 per cent. in cost may be effected 
without danger of delaying the closing up too long. 

Plants grown from heavy seed (not less than Iog per 1000 
seeds) collected from thrifty lowland growth will repay the 
trouble of securing it. For planting in high altitudes the high- 
land spruce finds its optimum condition, while the lowland spruce 
is depressed in its rate and the loss from frost and snow pressure - 
is greater. In the trial plantation at an altitude of 1380 m ina 
very unfavorable situation the rate of height growth of plant 
material from lower levels was at first greater than that of high- 
land stock, in the fourth year they were alike, but in the next two 
years it fell behind. While the plantation of highland stock in 


210 Forestry Quarterly 


the first six years had lost 20.6 per cent. of the plants; the loss of 
lowland stock had been 42.7 per cent. The gradual decline of the 
latter was also noticeable in color and character of foliage, suffer- 
ing from snow pressure, while the highland stock was most 
thrifty, so that here also the use of seed from a similar locality is 
indicated. 

But the growing of seedlings for use in such situations should 
be done in lower altitudes to avoid the difficulties to which in the 
critical early youth the plants would succumb. [The same 
could be said regarding growing of stock for our dry plains 
country.—REY. | 

If grown in nurseries at medium altitudes the seedlings of low- 
land spruce are retarded in height growth, becoming stockier, 
and then form most desirable plant material for use in higher 
altitudes, for they will then not suffer so much from snow- 
pressure, which otherwise troubles the lowland spruce trans- 
planted into high altitudes. 

Comparison with stock from northern seed leads to the con- 
clusion that it is not desirable to use it, for slow growth is its 
inheritance, and poor root development leads to heaving and loss 
by drouth. 

Experiments with larch, which have been going for 20 years, 
showed the same relations as those with spruce. The lowland 
larch produces a better, heavier wood, which is due to more 
favorable climatic conditions, but this as all the other silvical 
characteristics are hereditary. 

Regarding the behavior of Scotch Pine there are besides the 
author’s series a line of experiments by Dr. Schott which have 
been taken into consideration. 

Northern stock is found to lag behind in increment in every 
respect in comparison with stock from middle Europe; also 
shorter needles and lighter wood are typical of it. This retarda- 
tion of growth of northern stock is also maintained in high alti- 
tudes, so that the use of such stock is not advisable anywhere: 
seed of home production insures best results. This has also been 
proved in Sweden, so that the use of other than Swedish seed is 
forbidden by the forest administration. ‘The same has been ex- 
perienced in Finland, 

Schott experimented with pine seed from 62 different localities. 
Great variation was observed in physiological characteristics of 


Periodical Literature. 211 


the plants, in budding, flowering time, ripening, and wood 
growth, form, color, rate of growth. The greater the difference 
of the regions of supply the more striking the difference in ap- 
pearance of the plants. The results, after 2 to 3 years only, are 
formulated as follows: 

(a) The pine seedlings from home grown seed are stoutest in 
growth; they bud early; yearlings are not; two-year-olds hardly 
affected by “Schiitte,” and the affected plants recover. 

(b) Seeds from North Germany and Belgium furnish similar 
satisfactory results and produce a very stout root system. 

(c) Seeds from northern Russia, Sweden and Norway pro- 
duce the smallest plants, they bud the earliest, their foliage is 
thin, increment small. They resist “Schiitte” well. 

(d) Seedlings from seeds of western Hungary, hill country, 
remain smaller than the home grown, suffer from “Schttte” 
much, and form side branches in the fall. 

(e) Seedlings grown from southern French seed, mountain 
country, remain small and succumb to the “Schiitte.” 

The pine being originally endemic in the whole of Southern 
and Western Europe, had after the ice age been displaced by the 
deciduous species and crowded to the North East, remaining only 
in islands in Southern France, Austria-Hungary and South-west- 
ern Germany. These widely separated, climatically different re- 
gions, naturally produced climatic varieties with a number of 
transition forms. Older authors recognizing these differences 
have named them e. g. Pinus silvestris wralensis Fisch., P. s. 
nevadensis Christ., P. s. haguenensis Loud., P. s. altaica Ledeb., 
P. s. rigensis Desf. 

The deduction is made that pine seed of foreign derivation is 
not to be used without question. If home grown seed cannot 
be secured a seed supply should be found which physiologically 
or biologically promises adaptation to home conditions. 

The end result of all these experiences and discussions is, 
that it is essential in forest planting to use seeds from localities 
which climatically correspond closely to the conditions of the 
locality where the plant material is to be used. 

Die Bedeutung Klimatischer Varietiten unserer Holzarten fiir den 


Waldbau. Centralblatt fiir das gesammte Forstwesen, Jan., Feb., 1907, 
pp. I-19, 49-62. 


212 Forestry Quarterly 


Similar experience regarding the influence 


Influence of seed supply to those reported above, 
of have been had with the Scotch Pine. 
Seed Supply Trials of 22 years’ standing at Eberswalde 
m with pine seed from Finland and Norway 
Pine. show at the age of 22 a lower height, by 1 


to 1.64 m, a smaller diameter by 1 to 1.8 cm 
than those from home grown seed. 

A plantation of 750 acres made with seed of southern French 
origin (6500 lbs.) is calculated to have suffered a loss of over 
$6,000 by reason of slow growth; the difference of three-year 
olds being in height 65 to 94 : 30 to 49 in needle length 6.9 : 2.4, 
in favor of the home origin. 

It is proposed to institute more complete investigations in this 
direction. 


Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- 
suchsanstalten 1906. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, Feb., 1907, p. 82/3. 


Forest planting on heath land is always a 


Planting difficult undertaking because the mineral 
on soil is too poor to support any sort of 
Heaths. growth as well as the heath itself which 


naturally covers it, and because the heath 
has strengthened its hold immensely by forming above the min- 
eral soil a vegetable soil so rich in humic acids and sour humus 
constituents that it makes tree growth impossible. Forest plant- 
ing on heath land is at best difficult and is liable to be very expen- 
sive unless intimate knowledge of soil conditions demanded by the 
species to be planted is used to advantage. ‘The problem is often 
complicated by the presence at shallow depths of hard pan or 
bog iron ore. 

In any case, according to Greve, the first operation is to burn off 
the surface with as little injury to the ground cover and vegetable 
soil as possible. Then the surface of vegetable humus is to be 
thoroughly mixed with the upper portion of the underlying min- 
eral soil but is under no circumstances to be buried by deep plow- 
ing with steam plows. In such burying of the little humus which 
heath soil contains lies the cause of many failures. Hard pan 
may be broken when necessary by using a subsoil plow, but this 
may not be needed. For two years the ground should lie fallow 


Periodical Literature. 213 


before a plantation is made; in most cases lupines sowed the 
second year may profitably increase the nitrogen in the soil. A 
rolling cutter or Randall (disc) harrow should be used to work 
the soil and humus together after plowing and before sowing to 
lupines but the soil is best not broken just before planting. The 
decayed lupine roots offer openings in the soil along which tree 
roots find both humus and nitrogen as well as desirable aeration. 

Drainage by narrow open ditches is often required before 
heath land can be reclaimed or even burned over. Scotch Pine 
is almost alone available for planting but it is doubtful if Pine 
will supply humus in necessary amounts to the soil. Under- 
planting with oak or beech is strongly recommended to prevent 
deterioration of the soil. 


Flachbearbeitungs—V erfahren bei Heideaufforstungen. Zeitschrift fur 
Forst- und Jagdwesen, September, 1906, pp. 581-604. 


In a long and lengthy article of 24 double 


Douglas Fir pages John Booth, the owner of the well- 
in known Flottbeck nurseries, sings the praises 
Europe. of Douglas Fir for forest planting in 


Europe. It was by his influence through 
Bismark that the German forest administrations were induced to 
systematically begin the introduction of exotics some 30 years 
ago. Foresters being naturally and properly conservative, they 
did not quickly and unconditionally change allegiance to the new 
introductions, and, being empiricists, raised tenable and unten- 
able objections to the displacement of the native species on a 
large scale before more of the behavior of the new ones in new 
surroundings was found out. The same notions or lack of 
proper notions regarding ecological adaptation, which we have 
heard discussed in the United States regarding European species 
prevented a rapid realization of the wishes and hopes of the 
enthusiastic reformers, who, like Booth, naturally had to take a 
polemic attitude. Unfortunately most of the experiences re- 
garding the behavior of the exotic species was gained from park 
specimens and were not convincing to the foresters, while silvical 
behavior was known only during the early stages. 
Booth has here carried together what experiences there have 
been had with his special favorite, Pseudotsuga taxifolia. As is 
natural, the collection of such statistical data must be one-sided ; 


214 Forestry Quarterly 


failures are not so apt to be recorded, and there are none on 
record here. 

The conclusion from the many (100) exhibits coming from 
England, France, Belgium, Denmark, various parts of Germany, 
Switzerland, Italy, is, that in Europe Douglas Fir thrives on 
almost any soil, from sea shore to Alps, grows much more rapidly 
(doubly as fast) than any of the native species, has none or 
hardly any enemies, is more frost-hardy than the native species, 
and will make surely a wood “which in its poorest quality is equal 
to the best quality of spruce or fir, and in its best quality is close 
to larch.” 

It has sustained this favorable judgment on alluvial sand, sand 
dunes and pine site of IV class, as well as on the various grades 
of loamy soils, even in hard and dry soils where spruce succumbs. 

The best record as to growth is furnished by the measurements 
of a 29 year old plantation of somewhat over one acre on Prince 
Bismarck’s own estate. The plantation on loamy sand (spruce 
III class) was set out one-half with 4 year old Douglas Fir, 
spaced 4 feet, and one-half with Norway Spruce, spaced 34 feet 
square. 

The volume of the Douglas Fir at 29 years was 407 fm as 
against 207 fm for the spruce, or twice as large; the latter 
ranged from 6 to 16 m in height and 4 to 20 cm in diameter; the 
Douglas Fir from 8 to 22 m in height and 4 to 32 cm in diameter. 
A value calculation on the basis of price ruling for spruce, owing 
to the better dimensions as well as to larger quantity, made the 
fir around $250 as against $oo for spruce, or nearly three times 
as large. 

Dimensions of older trees up to 70 years—the Douglas Fir was 
discovered and first seeds imported between 1827 and 1829— 
show that the same differences of dimensions will be maintained ; 
the oldest on record, between 50 and 7o years, showing diameters 
of 60 to 96 cm. 

[Some peculiar notions regarding climatic adaptations and 
varieties creep out during the discussion: Frost hardiness seems 
to be referred to low winter temperatures, not to early and late 
frosts, and a distinction as to frost resistance is made between 
the “green” and the “gray” variety. Booth maintains that the 
“green” variety, which comes from the Pacific Coast, is the 
“absolutely” frost hardy one. The “gray,” slower growing one, 


Periodical Literature. 215 


he thinks, has been planted by mistake, and he also holds that 
there is a great similarity between the East American climate 
and the English and German one. (sic!) 

No wonder that such errors and incongruities make the know- 
ing plant ecologist skeptical as to other facts in Mr. Booth’s ex- 
position. He should revise his knowledge of zonal distribution 
by referring to the article on climatic varieties briefed in this 
issue. We know, the reviewer believes, that Douglas Fir from the 
Pacific is not hardy on the Eastern Coast, which differs climati-, 
cally as widely as it does from the English climate. The Ger- 
man experience as to climatic adaptation should, therefore, be 
accepted with caution for Eastern United States.—REv. | 

Die Douglas Fichte seit threr Einfithrung nach Europa (1828-1906). 


Allgemeine Forst-u. Jadgzeitung. Jan., Feb., Mch., Apr., 1907, pp. 5-10, 
45-50, 87-93, 113-118. 


An enormous product of Norway Spruce is 

Spruce reported from a Wurttemberg experimental 

Production. area, which with now 300 trees to the acre, 

79 years old, had by only slight thinnings 

furnished 5400 cubic feet and had a present volume of 9630 cubic 

feet, altogether 15,000 cubic feet, which corresponds to an in- 
crement in the last 30 years of 330 cubic feet per acre per year. 

In the same neighborhood an 83-year-old spruce stand on sand 
soil of first quality, having been more severely thinned contained 
243 trees of excellent development and form, with 60 feet of 
clean bole and near 40 feet of crown. In 25 years the thinnings 
had furnished 6810 cubic feet and the present volume was 9200 
cubic feet, closely approaching the former stand. 

In a 30 year old stand five degrees of thinning on a quarter 
acre each had been practised for 10 years. The best increment 
was attained with a light thinning (B degree) which left 1500 
trees to the acre, the increment being 177 cubic feet per annum. 
Severe thinning in the dominant proved itself not adapted to the 
spruce, for within Io years out of the 1400 trees left in the 
sub-dominant 820 died, the spruce not being able to support the 
shade of the spreading isolated trees of the dominant; of the 
800 of these left in the 10 years nearly 10% had succumbed. 

The influence of various spacing in plantations in rows, 8 m 


216 Forestry Quarterly 


apart is exhibited by five trial plantations of one quarter acre 
each, on glacial drift, at the time 31 years old, as follows: 


AGC EAM Oe Rea ae eee I II Ill IV V 
Spacing: {ROL given einem te m.. I 7225 1.50 | 2:00 .0e2ram 
Original number, ........02..-.- 10576 7676 6940 6044 4712 
PH ESCNESNUM DERE Atta eran pista a eicke 2730 2499 2292 2148 1776 
Cross section area of stand,..m*.. 25.6 273 27.9 26.6 27.6 
Diameter average tree, .....cm.. 10.9 11.8 T2565 12.6 14.1 
Average Wevgntis . cen eek « WG aD LS7, 12.4 rans 1235 1307, 
Present volume, ........... fm.. 241 274 283 2590 280 
Total increment in 31 yrs.,..fm.. 464 437 437 408 434 
Crown length of dominant, ..m.. 6.0 7.8 MET lp ef AS. 8.8 
BreadiN oj (Cnown,, .- assess mM.. 2.8 2.9 AAG) 2.0 Be 


These results would all in all give the spacing of 1.5 m, or say 
24x5 feet, the preference. 

The diameter in the direction of the rows (difference of 
spacing) compared with those vertical thereto were in I and II 
respectively .5 mm and .I mm smaller in II], IV, Visegeee 
2.2 mm larger. 

In another set of such trial plantings in 10 various spacings 
varying in both directions, the spacing of 3x5 feet (1IxI.5 m) 
showed after 30 years the largest product (272 fm) and the 
largest yield in thinnings (30 fm), while the widest spacing 
(3x2 m) showed the smallest result (151+8 fm), besides, the 
trees spaced 2x2 m and 3x2 m were short, branchy and still with 
crowns to the base. ‘These trial plantings showed that square 
spacing gives the best results. 

A number of other interesting results in larch, fir and beech 
stands are recorded in the same report. 


Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- 
suchsanstalten. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, March, 1907, pp. 124-127. 


In continuation of the article by Emeis 


Influence briefed on p. 96, the author discusses the 
of behavior of different species under the in- 
Wind. fiuence of strong winds. 


Norway Spruce, which had been used 
for wind mantles, has in the long run not proved efficient, being 
either broken when 30 to 4o years old or succumbing to drying 
out due to the continuous motion of its slender stems in wind 
swept exposure. This latter effect is observed even in 15 to 20 
year plantations. Large groups in the deciduous forest are apt 


Periodical Literature. 217 


to be broken, only single intermixture in beech forest furnishes 
satisfaction. 

Larch is less liable to breakage, but strong winds lead to a 
broom-like development, damaging its usefulness. 

Fir supports longest and best the untoward conditions of wind 
and weather. Its thick glossy foliage resists wet and cold and it 
thrives on poorer soils than it is often given credit (like our 
Balsam!). Yet under the strong sea-winds it is apt to lose the 
end buds and make double leaders. 

The American White Spruce and the Austrian Pine are the 
best adapted to such exposed positions, where the soil is adapted 
quire the wind.” In the mixed forest, when crown cover closes 
up, they succumb in the wet climate under consideration except 
to them. They require open position, and, the author claims, ‘‘re- 
on the windswept exposures. 

Birch (White), when 5 to 6 m. high, mostly dies down to its 
base, sprouting then uselessly in these open situations exposed to 
the sea-winds. 

The history of these windswept heaths of Schleswig-Holstein 
in general is the impoverishment of many enterprising agricultur- 
ists, yet within short distances climatically favorable conditions 
permit flourishing farm industries. To protect the fields earth 
walls are thrown up and planted with the dwarf shrubbery de- 
scribed, “Knickbusch,” to break the force of the winds. 

Co-operative work to improve conditions is advocated by the 
writer. 


Ungiinstige Einfliisse von Wind und Freilage auf die Bodenkultur. All- 
gemeine, Forst-u. Jagdzeitung, Feb., 1907, pp. 41-45. 


This theme was discussed at the meeting 


Measures of the Saxon forestry association. The 

ot only possibility is prevention by systematic 
Protection effort to secure wind-firm stands. In addi- 
Against tion, since in the modern forester’s forest 


Wind Damage. as many sound, cylindrical clear trees as 
possible are to be grown, the close stands 

must be provided on the endangered side with a wind mantle of 
windfirm trees and an interrupted crown surface. Forest pro- 


218 Forestry Quarterly 


tection must borrow from all other branches of forestry, notably 
silviculture and forest regulation. 

In Saxony the extensive planting of spruce, historically forced 
upon the administration, as the speaker pointed out, has accentu- 
ated the necessity of looking out especially for wind damage, and 
the speaker contends that Saxon foresters have done all that hu- 
man ingenuity could invent. The preventive measures lie in the 
manner of planting and in the aftercare. Instead of sowing or 
bunchplanting, the use of first class plants set singly, and drain- 
ing or proper distribution of water over the ground have been 
the silvicultural measures. Lately, admixture of broadleaf spe- 
cies, not in single individuals, but in rows along the outer boun- 
daries and through the spruce plantations vertical to the wind 
direction has been introduced. 

In the aftercare appropriate thinnings play the main role, and 
especially preparatory thinnings which have in view the estab- 
lishment of windfirm portions in extensive even-aged stands pre- 
paratory to possible severance fellings. 

In the conduct of the fellings, the cutting of strips in echelons 
and the unregulated selection felling have been abandoned, and a 
combination of strip and nurse-tree system starting from the lee- 
ward, or else direct clearing have been introduced. By progres- 
sive fellings. proceeding from the leeward side, a slanting roof 
of crowns is to be secured. 

The establishment and care of wind mantles has been lately 
specially prescribed by official orders. The main aim is to secure 
on a strip of 20 to 40 m. a number of well rooted and full crowned 
trees in single open position, using in planting about 1,600 trees 
to the acre, but in the course of years thinning them out to I in 
10. Our White Pine, Scotch Pine, Larch, and broadleaf trees are 
available for this purpose. The windmantle is not to be a close 
wall changing the direction of the wind, but a real “wind break.” 

Measures of forest regulation which have been found desirable 
are the evening out of boundaries, avoiding projecting angles, 
the introduction of lower rotations; the progress of fellings from 
the leeward to the windward and proper locations of age classes 
for which the clearing system gives the quickest opportunity, 
which also requires a desirable systematic sub-division. 

Severance fellings which originated in Saxony are one of the 


Periodical Literature. 219 


best means to counteract wind damage. They are to be made of 
sufficient width; “the not insignificant sacrifices of productive 
area have paid for themselves abundantly in Saxony.” Forma- 
tion of small felling series are another means of reducing wind 
danger. 


Bericht iiber die 50. Versammlung des Sachsischen Forstvereins. All- 
gemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung, Feb., 1907, pp. 65-67. 


The methods employed in Switzerland to 


Prevention prevent or reduce the damage from ava- 
of lanches are described by Prof. Engler 
Avalanches. in some detail. The first great work on 


this subject was published by Dr. Coaz in 
1881. The practices in Austria were described in a volume by 
Pollack in 1891. As in the treatment of torrents both mechanical 
means and reforestation are employed. 

The mechanical means consist of horizontal ditches, terracing, 
setting rows of posts, or, on rock, of T iron connected by wooden 
braces, snow bridges, walls of stone, or earth walls, sheds, wire 
netting, etc. All these structures have the object to make the 
movement of the snow at places in the region of the origin of 
avalanches impossible, or at least to limit it, to prevent the sliding 
on the ground and the blowing, the formation of snow shields 
which in breaking off are apt to occasion snowslides, or else to 
quiet the moving snow. 

The author discusses at length the forces which the works 
must withstand, quantities and density of snow, friction and co- 
hesion, etc. Details of caluculations are given. The conclusion 
is reached that a maximum depth of 6 to 10 feet and a weight of 
25 lbs. to the cubic foot of snow will be usually sufficient to pro- 
vide against. A table gives the calculated pressures to be with- 
stood by the works, and careful determination of dimensions for 
different classes of works are presented, and a few pictures illus- 
trate their disposal. 

Rows of well seasoned piles 5 to 6 feet long, split to 5 or 6 
inch face, driven into the ground to half their length, 14 to 2 feet 
apart, the rows according to the steepness of slope from 8 (at 
40°) to 40 (at 30°) feet apart, can be useful only where the soil 
is deep enough and only in the upper slopes near timberlimit, as a 


220 Forestry Quarterly 


temporary works before reforesting. Where reforestation is 
impossible or too difficult or the rate of growth too slow, and in 
very snowy and steep situations, where the ground is liable to 
landslides, pilework is not applicable. It must altogether not be 
overlooked that after the works have been established the soil 
must take up the water of the melting snow masses which for- 
merly went down as avalanches and this on permeable loam soils 
is apt to produce landslides. Such places must be drained by 
open ditches. Pile works especially must be carefully maintained 
in good order for a long time to be effective, and that is expen- 
sive, so that walls and terraces although somewhat higher in 
first cost are more satisfactory. The piles may be used in less 
unfavorable situations, smaller locations within the forest area, 
and in combination with walls and terraces to reduce cost, the 
character of soil and slope furnishing the basis for choice of 
works. 

A combination of walls and terraces is the most effective pre- 
ventive of avalanches. The most effective height of a dry wall 
is 4 to 6 feet and about 3 feet at the top, at the foot at least 4 
feet. The base is best cut into the slope and made somewhat 
slanting towards the mountain side. To prevent somewhat, wa- 
ters from penetrating the wall and to protect it generally, the 
top is covered with sod, deeply cut, or after placing first earth 
on it so that the sod will grow. With stone close at hand and 
labor at $1 per day the cubic foot of such walls may cost 3.5 to 
4 cents. The main points to keep in mind in constructing such 
walls are that they must not slip on their foundations or turn 
over their outer edge. A table shows for different grades and 
with dimensions as above the distances at which walls should be 
placed, the horizontal distances varying from 20 feet (at 45°) 
to over 100 feet (at 30°) as outside limits. 

Horizontal terraces of 14 to 3 feet width, with the balk built 
up on the down slope side give added stability to the snow when 
placed behind walls and piles. By themselves they will be rarely 
found efficient. 

As regards the ability of forest to prevent avalanches, it must 
be admitted that in even-aged, open forest snow on steep, slippery 
ground may get into motion; only in well stocked selection forest 
is entire security to be attained, when dense young and middle- 


Periodical Literature. 221 


aged groups and old timber alternate. Dense, even-aged young 
growths also furnish protection, but they thin out with age and 
become less effective. At timberlimit on steep slopes even the 
uneven-aged forest becomes too open to be effective, and only 
solid, permanent walls will furnish protection. Since then the 
effectiveness of reforested areas which are naturally even-aged, 
diminishes with age, assistance by artificial works, walls and ter- 
races must in such conditions be planned for, and these even 
when dilapidated in combination with the forest growth remain 
effective, like anything which increases unevenness of the 
ground. Leaving of high stumps is, therefore, a proper measure. 
The forest is effective not only by the mechanical barrier of the 
stems, but less snow reaches the ground (as much as 40% less 
in coniferous stands) much being intercepted by crowns, and the 
blowing being prevented. 

In reforesting, all means should be employed which make it 
easy gradually to change the even-aged into uneven-aged forest. 
This is done by holding over any existing volunteer growth which 
does not hinder the plantation, by proper mixture, by avoiding 
planting in rows and instead planting in groups, 3 to 5 plants to 
the group, the groups 6 to 12 feet apart, avoiding depressions 
near the foot of plants, where snow would accumulate and persist, 
retarding growth, hence also no planting should be done on the 
balks of terraces. Early beginning of group wise reproduction 
will secure the desired end. 


Ueber Verbau und Aufforstung von Lawinenziigen. Centralblatt f. d. 
g. Forstwesen, March, April, 1907, pp. 93-102, I41-161. ; 


MENSURATION, FINANCE, MANAGEMENT. 


Mr. Schleicher, whose investigations into 
Rapid, Accurate the value of the space number for meas- 


Method uring the volume of stands were briefed 
of in vol. IV, p. 166, has in a long article elab- 
Measuring orated with all detail the proper methods of 
Stands. employing this aid. The method by sample 


areas, which was known as far back as the 
seventeenth century, admittedly requires a large amount of judg-- 


222 Forestry Quarterly 


ment in selecting the sample and properly relating it to the un- 
measured parts. The value of this method and the limitations 
of its application are discussed at length on the basis of a series 
of investigations which, the author concludes, justify Dr. 
Kuntze’s declaration that the “sample area method of determin- 
ing the volume of stands should finally be entirely discarded.” 

After pointing out the defects of the hitherto proposed use of 
the space number, he develops his new method, which involves 
the measuring of circular sample plots according to Zetzche’s 
proposition merely for the purpose of determining the factors of 
the space number; namely, the determination of the average di- 
ameter of the stand, and the determination of the average stand- 
ing room. 

Before beginning operations the stand to be measured must be 
superficially studied in its character by a reconnaisance, and on 
an outline map the direction should be noted with pencil which 
it is desirable to travel in order to touch more or less uni- 
formly the differences in the stand conditions. Then with a light 
but stiff lath or bamboo of say 10 feet (3 m.) length, which can 
be easily held horizontally at arm’s length walk through the 
stand in the noted directions, stop at regular intervals and caliper 
all the trees which can be reached with stretched arm tangent to 
the lath in a radius with the breast of the observer as center. The 
size of the area enclosed varies, of course with the personal 
equation of the observer and must be calculated for each accord- 
ingly. To avoid duplication the lines traversed should be marked 
by paper tags or otherwise. The results of each small sample plot 
are kept separate. The distance of sample plots from each other 
(measured by stepping) should be uniform, longer in regular 
and large stands (say 75 to 80 paces), shorter in irregular and 
smaller stands (50 paces), so as to secure a larger or smaller 
number of samples as desirable. No attempt at selection of plots 
should be made but the regular interval kept which insures a bet- 
ter averaging than would be secured by selection, hence while 
walking observe the soil cover rather than the character of the 
stand: nor should there be an attempt to reach trees, but on the 
contrary to enclose each time as near as possible the same area. 
In the plain, a uniform distribution of sample plots is easy; in 
mountainous country it is best done by starting from the lowest 


Periodical Literature. 223 


portions and running lines in more or less parallel directions 
along and up the slope. In very irregular topography it is ad- 


visable to make first subdivisions, and operate each separately. 
The calipering is, of course, done by diameter classes. Since the 


sample plot measuring is done to determine standing room and 
average diameter, the four to eight diameter classes lying near 
the presumable average diameter (estimated beforehand) should 
be made closer, say 1 inch or half-inch, while the stouter, slimmer 
classes may be taken more summarily and do not need to be cali- 
pered, but merely counted. 


The average diameter is found by dividing the total number 
of trees in the middle diameter class and the four lower and 
higher diameter classes into their total cross-section area, and 
finding the diameter corresponding to the quotient area The 
middle diameter class is readily found according to. Weise’s pre- 
scription by counting to 40 per cent. in intolerant, 45 per cent. in 
tolerant species from the stoutest class down. In regular stands 
the dameter of the goth or 45th per cent. tree has approximately 
the arithmetical mean diameter. 


The side (s) of the square of average standing room may be 
read from a table which is constructed upon the consideration 
that in a regular stand in which trees stand 44 m. apart a cir- 
cular plot, if a 4 m. radius is used, would contain 4 stems; if the 
trees were 33 m. apart, 5.78 stems; if 2X2 m. 12 stems, and 
so on. From the platted curve of this relationship all interme- 
diate positions can be found. For a 3 m. radius the following 
table can be deduced. 


Average Side of Standing Room when Radius of Sample Plot equals 3 m. 


Number of Side of Number of Side of Number ot Side of 
stems on standing stems on standing stems on standing 
plot room plot room plot room 
32 —30.5 I 12.4—I1I.5 LZ 6.4— 6 2.4 
30.4—26 Dot II.4—I0.5 1.8 5.9— 5.5 vig = 
25.Q9—22 hoe 10.4— 9.5 1.9 5.4— 5 2.6 
21.9—18 1 9.4— 8.5 2 4.9— 4.6 2.7 
17.9—16 1.4 8.4— 7.5 ZA 4.5— 4.3 2.8 
15.Q—I4 Bes 7.4—7 PIE 4.2— 4.1 2.9 
13.Q—I2.5 1.6 6.9— 6.5 263 4 — 3.9 3 


The average number of trees per sample plot is of course 
found by dividing the number of plots into the total number of 
trees found. 


224 Forestry Quarterly 


= . s 3 
Now the space number is a ae and the cross-section area for 
tha may be read from the following table: 


SPACE TABLE 


mn mn nD 

© o © 

o o o 

= “ 

5 = a} a 3 
bond — 

a) 2 a oa 2 

= a gi z ae 5 a8 
= os = og tes on 
aNd ahead AEP: 
Lani ~~ Ll 

a4 — oY — o — 
S aie = aes 3 & & 
"ey rev ao a a 
D fq Dn fQ n Q 
om om om 


12 54.54 | 15 34.90 | 18 24.24 
£235) | (50:27 || 1525 -°324690)|| 515-55 22205, 
13 46.47 | 16 30.68 | I9 21.76 
13.5 43-09 | 16.5) °-28:85))| 19's)" 20:66 
14 40.07 | 17 27.18 | 20 19.64 
14:5 ) 537-300) 2725) 25-05") 20.5 6:00 


21 17.81 | 24 13.64 | 27 10.77 
21.5 16:99'|'124°57 — 13.08 | 2725 10138 


22 16.22 | 25 12.56 | 25 10.02 
22.5 Ue || Boni 12.07 | 28.5 9.67 
23 14.85 | 26 TEO2 )e2G 9.34 


22°50 dd4'22 2655) br.ES 2015 9.03 


[To translate qm per ha. into square feet per acre multiply by 4.35] 


It is claimed that this method of volume measurement gives 
results very closely approximating individual calipering, saves 
labor, one assistant being sufficient, and requires 24 to 4 times 


less time. 
It is not to be recommended for stands of less than one acre 


and in very open, or very irregular stands. 


Neue Methode zur raschen und genauen Ermittlung des Holzgehaltes 
ganzer Bestinde. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung, March, 1907. pp. 77-89. 


Dr. Ramann has inventetd an apparatus for 


Measuring measuring light effects, which can be prac- 
Density. tically applied for determining density of 


crown cover. ‘The apparatus records light 
intensities in absolute measure of normal candle power. Sixty 
measurements can be made in one hour. The apparatus is based 
on the principle of the metal Selenium becoming an electrical con- 
ductor by the influence of light in proportion to the intensity of 


hs 


Periodical Literature. 225 


the light. It consists of a selenium cell connected by wire with a 
explained by the fact that this diameter is not in any relation to 
exactly measures the intensity. 

Fiinfte Versammlung des Interationalen V erbandes forstlicher Versuchs 


anstalten in Wiirttemberg, 1906. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, 
1907, p. 128. 


Calipers ingeniously constructed on the 


Small principle elucidated by Gleinig (see p. 102 
Dimension of this volume) for measuring small dimen- 
Calipers. sions are manufactured in four sizes and 


gradations by Wilhelm Gohler’s Wittwe 
at Freiburg, Saxony. 

Model A with 2 cm. divisions, fit for measuring mine propes 
from 6 to 20 cm., costing 9 mks, and Model D with 1 cm. di- 
visions running from Io to 30 cm., fit for calipering small trees 
below 12 inches costing 18 mk, seem the most practical. The 
former is especially useful for woodchoppers to find the diameter 
at which to cut. 

A much simpler caliper, however, is the home-made one of 
the construction indicated in the schematic figure, which is best 
cut out from a sufficiently stout sheet of iron, supplied with a 
wooden handle, or, not so well, out of a board. 


3 
4 


5 
6 


Die Forstmeister Gleinigsche Grubenholz Kluppe “Einfach,’ and Eine 
alte einfache Stangenkluppe. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. March, 
Apr., 1907, pp. I10, 146. 

A series of trial measurements by Dr. 

Economy Hemman, reported with tabulated detail, 

of brings out the fact that calipering with 

Recording Calipers. Wimmenauer’s automatic recording calip- 

pers—besides being more accurate—saves 

half the time and two-thirds the cost of calipering with ordinary 
calipers. 


226 Forestry Quarterly 


The proportion of hourly performance with the two instruments 
was: 
in pure, level spruce stand, 1:1.9; 
in mixed spruce, pine and hardwood understand, I :1.4; 
in old open beech stand with dense undergrowth, 1 :2.6; 
in general, on 62,050 stems, 1:2. 
Dispensing with the tally keeper and saving in time reduced the 
cost in the proportion of 2.7:1. 

The excess in purchase price of the registering calipers over 
the common of 65 Mark (39,144 stems costing with ordinary 
calipers 126 Mark), is refunded with interest at 3% after 32,078 
trees are calipered. 


Die finanziellen Vorsiige der selbstregistrirenden Wimmenauer schen 
> > 


Kreisflachenzahlkluppe. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. Mch., 1907, 
PP. 93-96. 


In presenting the results of form factor 


Form Factor measurements the Forest Service gives this 
of very clear explanation of the form factor: 
Trees. “Any one estimating timber or having 


any connection with the woods end of lum- 
bering knows that one species of tree will scale and cut more 
lumber than another of exactly the same diameter and height. 
This is due to the shape of the tree. The one will be full bodied 
and keep its diameter well up into the short, bushy top, while the 
other is more slender with more rapidly tapering logs and long, 
narrow top. In the East the old White Pine was an example of 
the full bodied tree, the Hemlock of the tapering tree. In the 
West Yellow Pine grown in the Black Hills, Arizona, or the 
lower Rockies is much fuller bodied than the same species on the 
west slope of the Sierras in California and Oregon. Douglas Fir 
in the Rockies is fuller bodied than the same species around 
Puget Sound. The cause of this difference is that the form of 
the tree is by nature different in different species of the same 
locality, or environment causes different forms of the same spe- 
cies under widely different conditions and localities. ‘Thus 
White Pine and Hemlock vary in the Fast under the same condi- 
tions, and Western Yellow Pine of the Black Hills varies radi- 


Periodical Literature. 227 


cally from Western Yellow Pine of the upper Sierras in Califor- 
nia. The cause of the latter difference is the slower growth and 
open forest of the Black Hills against the very rapid growth and 
dense forest of California. 

In estimating, a lumberman mentally makes allowance for this 
difference in form. It can however be expressed accurately by 
comparing the volume of the tree with the volume of a cylinder 
of equal diameter and height. Thus if a tree 24 inches in diam- 
eter breast-high and 100 feet in height had a volume of 157 
cubic feet, and a cylinder of the same dimensions had a volume 
of 314 cubic feet, the relation would be 157/314, or 4, or deci- 
mally .50. This mathematical relation is called a form factor. 
If the volume of another tree of the same dimensions were 188 
cubic feet, its form factor would be 188/314, or .60, which would 
show a more full bodied tree and would scale 60/50 or 120 per 
cent. of the first tree’s scale, were the same number of logs cut 
from each, 

From a large number of accurately measured trees the Forest 
Service has established the average form factor for Lodgepole 
Pine in Montana to be .55 with a range of from .58 for 6-inch 
trees to .42 for 22-inch trees. Douglas Fir in Idaho and Wyom- 
ing varies from .58 for 10-inch trees to .40 for a.40-inch tree, with 
an average of .49 for merchantable trees. Western Yellow Pine 
in the Black Hills has an average form factor of .53 which 
does not vary much. In the Sierras of California it is .42 
with a range from .45 to .39 as extreme averages—a very small 
variation. In other words, Western Yellow Pine in the Black 
Hills would be expected to give a scale of 55/42 of the scale of 
a tree of the same dimension in the Sugar Pine—Yellow Pine 
belt of California. This would be more than 4+ more in the 
former region and is further greatly increased by the closer cut- 
ting in the Black Hills where better local markets are found for 
the lower grades of lumber.” 


Forest Service Trade Bulletin No. 15. May 17, 1907 


228 Forestry Quarterly 


From the Austrian Experiment Station 


Bark Schiffel reports interesting investigations 
Per Cent. into the thickness and contents of the bark 
im of Scotch Pine, which may correspond to 
Pine. conditions in some of our own pines. The 


investigations were made on 136 trees. It 
was found that for volume determination satisfactory results can 
be secured by measurements on stump, breast-height, 4, 4 and 2 
of the height, when the volume is found by the formula— v=.6 


The results show, that the thickness of bark (different from 
spruce, fir, larch) varies very greatly in different regions of the 
bole and, expressed in per cent. of the diameter with the bark, 
is greatest on stump and top diameter, while at ? height it reaches 
a minimum. With age, increased diameter and height both bark 
thickness and volume per cent. sink, with an exception at breast- 
height, where such a lawful decrease is not observable. This is 
galvanic dry battery and galvanometer, which latter rapidly and 
the height, as the other diameters are. Altogether the measure- 
ments lead to the conclusion that while age and diameter (density 
and site quality) may have an influence on thickness of bark, prac- 
tically it is mainly a function of the height. In a given case the 
base one-quarter of the bole showed a bark per cent. of 19.2 (at 
stump 26.1), which in the second quarter had fallen to 10.4% (at 
45 feet 6.4%), and at three-quarters had again risen to 14.2% 
(at 60 feet 18.2%), the average of the whole shaft being 14%. 
While for the bole with bark the form factor was .451, without 
bark it was .505; without bark, the pine is equal to the spruce 
in taper. A practical deduction may be made from these rela- 
tions: Measured with the bark, the top logs contain proportion- 
ately more wood than the butt logs. 

The difference of bark per cent. in different parts may vary 
from 7 to 20 per cent. 

The volume per cent. in trees of 60 to 125 feet in height, varies 
between 16 and 12 per cent. Hence in making reductions for 
bark when measuring standing timber, the height of the stand 
must be taken into consideration. 


Stirke und Inhalt der Weissfohrenrinde. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forst- 
wesen. March, 1907, pp. 102-108. 


Periodical Literature. 229 


At the meeting of the International Asso- 


Principles ciation of Experiment Stations, Flury 
mn points out the need of better agreement on 
Constructing the principles which should rule in the 


Yield Tables. making of yield tables. 

For volume determination, he admits, the 
different sample tree methods, if samples are successfully chosen, 
give good results, but not for the determination of increments. 
Especially the methods of Speidel and Kopezky with volume 
curves, in which the diameters of the different sample trees appear 
as abscissae and the volumes taken from volume tables as ordi- 
nates are criticized. A better method is to use as abscissae the 
cross section areas and the volumes corresponding to these, these 
points forming the basis for the equalizing curve, which, how- 
ever, is also liable to errors. 

Sa. ah 


A 
undoubtedly gives the correct average height, yet in practical ap- 


plication of the yield table, when it is customary to determine 
the height of the stand to be compared by arithmetic means, a 
correction becomes necessary, for the latter is always smaller 
than the correctly calculated height of the yield table. The yield 
tables should, therefore, contain both heights. 

Regarding age determinations, it has been found that when the 
age was determined as arithmetic mean of the age of all sample 
trees a later survey of the stand often shows a higher age than 
the addition of the actually passed time to the originally deter- 
mined age would make it. 

Lorey has pointed out, that not only an absolute growing older 
of stands takes place but a relative aging by virtue of the dying 
out of younger age-classes, so that the remaining trees show a 
greater average age, hence the above experience. Whether the 
actual or the “managerial” age should determine has been a mat- 
ter of controversy, the reporter deciding for the latter, siding 
with Lorey. Lorey had investigated the height and diameter 
development in the narrow-ringed center of long suppressed 
young growth and decided to assume as their correct age the 
number of years which these trees would have probably needed to 
make their diameters and heights under ordinary circumstances. 

In the Sihlwald the reporter found that suppressed spruce, cut 


As regards calculation of height, the formula h = 


230 Forestry Quarterly 


out in A and B grade thinnings, showed a loss of 8 years in their 
age as determinable by the whole, while those coming out in the 
C and D grade showed their proper age. In another investiga- 
tion on spruce sample trees, he found that almost 80 per cent. of 
the trees below the arithmetic mean stem had a lower age than 
the calculated one. 

Regarding the determination of site quality by either volumes 
or heights, the latter because most independent of the treatment 
of the stands and least changeable is the best index, yet since the 
volume is the important item it should also be considered, but 
such volume determinations must not be adopted promiscuously 
for large territories as site qualifiers. 

A great source of error is found in the determination of the 
form factor through the use of only a few stems instead of whole 
stands. This is the reason that the laws of the relations of form 
factors appear often contradictory. 

Great discrepancies in yield tables of different authors and with 
different species arise also in volume and stem numbers due to 
different site classification and different treatment of stands which 
have been used for the yield tables, whereby some stands become 
really unserviceable for comparative study and should be ruled 
out. The experiment stations must investigate the influence of 
a certain factor without reference to what the practice may de- 
termine in its application. 

Fiinfte Versammlung des Internationalen Verbandes forstlicher Ver- 


suchsanstalten. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. March, 1907, pp. 
117-121. 


UTILIZATION, MARKET, TECHNOLOGY. 


Acknowledging the woodchoppers’ aver- 


Felling sion to any new tools, the foresters’ business 
Apparatus. is innovation all around, new ways of look- 


ing at things, new methods, perhaps new 
tools. An innovation in tools is ‘Buttner’s Baumwinde,” which 
we may call felling boom, the invention of a German forester, the 
accompanying picture describing it and its application. It en- 
ables the wood chopper to throw a tree, even a leaning one, in 


Periodical Literature. 231 


any desired direction, without cutting a kerf by merely cutting 
off the stouter roots, and then pulling the balance. Besides 
throwing the tree with least labor precisely where wanted, it per- 
mits to cut the butt as close to the base as possible, which may 
mean a saving of 8 to Io per cent. of saw material. It is also a 
good and simple stump puller and can be used as loading appar- 
atus or general power work. The lower portion, a steel plate 
rack with pinion and curble, a winch, weighs 325 lbs, the push 
pole adding 125 Ibs. the cost being about $60 in Austria, but can 
probably be built for less. It can develop a power of from 
25000 to 50000 lbs. with two men at the winch. It takes three 
to four minutes to adjust the device to the tree and two to three 
minutes to throw it after the roots have been severed, which may 
require as much as fifteen minutes. 


| i Mae B_ 

i il 

y Z 4, < 

) FE ee Ee aS 
TUN WN Oeics Cc 
“Tipps Gym. a 


Wij 
In some trial fellings at Mariabrunn, under favorable conditions 
(deep and stout root system and tenacious soil, the trees having 


232 Forestry Quarterly 


very stout branches, hence precision of direction essential), 7 trees 
of about 70 feet height and 14 inches diameter of various species 
were quickly and satisfactorily thrown, the device was declared 
excellent, wherever it is desirable to use it. 

A number of testimonials in a circular by the patentee are of 
the same tenor, among them one referring to the felling of 25 
beech trees, with an average diameter of 3 feet, leaning over a 
neighboring spruce stand; these had been left standing because 
of the unavoidable damage, if the felling had been attempted by 
usual means. 

It is claimed that a gang of woodchoppers can, in a given time, 
fell twenty to thirty per cent. more trees with this device than 
in the ordinary way. The device is patented, and H. J. Bild- 
hauser, No. 44 Broad street, New York City, has control of the 
patent in the United States. 


Biittner’s Baumwinde. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Feb., 1907, pp. 
62-67. 


A series of very interesting articles upon 


Notes “The Utilization of Wood Waste by Distil- 
on lation,” written by W. B. Harper, M. &., 
Utilization. is appearing in the St. Louis Lumberman. 


They treat the subject in great detail and 
are well illustrated —The St. Louis Lumberman, February 15, 
1907, and later. 


There is located at Lynchburg, Virginia, a plant with a capacity 
of thirty to forty cords daily, which is experimenting with a re- 
cently discovered process by which paper pulp can be success- 
fully manufactured from the longleaf pine. In experimenting 
on a method for extracting turpentine from the slabs and edgings 
by a mechanical or chemical process it was discovered that the 
wood was available for paper pulp, particularly fit for straw 
board. It was found that a cord of the yellow pine would pro- 
duce about a ton of pulp and from 20 to 30 gallons of turpentine. 
In as much as the present waste in sawing equals almost 50 per 
cent. of the contents of the log, this process, if it can be devel- 
oped to a point where the cost will allow a general marketing of 


Periodical Literature. 233 


the product, will mean a great saving to the lumberman.—The 
Southern Lumberman, February 10, 1907. 


“The once despised tamarack has come to the front to stay 
until the supply shall have been exhausted. Substitutes for white 
pine in box making have carried tamarack into the list. One 
concern in Michigan manufactured over one million feet of tam- 
arack lumber in 1906.”—American Lumberman, February 2, 
1907. } 

A continuous rise in stumpage and log 


Prices prices is noticeable in the sales reports 
of from Switzerland. 
Stumpage The advances for logs are generally 
in more than I cent or over 10% per cubic 
Switzerland. foot over the previous year, and in many 


instances two to three times that amount, 
ranging between 14 and 20 cents per cubic foot (or, say $30 
p. M. BM.) in the woods, the haul adding usually from I to 3 
cents. 


Holzhandelsbericht Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen, from 
month to month. 


The following comparison of wages paid 


Rise in the hemlock camps of Wisconsin and 
in Michigan in 1896 and 1906 will explain in 
Wages. part the increased cost of lumber. In these 

prices board is included. 
Deine SS ie Ae se ay RRR Da ae ae Lg $16 $31—$45 
SOSTBNT TS S g eR ce ee I cea 13 24— 35 
WEA GUS Aro, tise. Ei th he YE oleh aedld lain iaialetyelaa sae s 14 30— 38 
MPRVARC ES treo VK eet gree ci die xls 6 otters de eR OE 20 35— 48 
eITRP EN Ss evict tte rad WraneohNe tous cuceisseckooranits/bel aon 13 28— 35 
PERI PITEEGCHIICL Se to. 2) oysr5. 5, rio; AMC dls) exo dig 20) Pe ovapoaxepoas) bla ere 16 28— 35 
PPPOISTUNE LS) grey, Pein tc) 2 nxaiare Oat Meters viet, c chi oie soem 35 45— 75 
“va he VCS ae PS aoe! Ao a va Re en iat tant 40 35— 85 


Northwestern Hemlock Manufacturers Convene. American Lumber- 
man, February 9, 1907. 
The detailed method for timber testing 
Rules adopted by the fourth meeting of the In- 
for ternational Union for Testing materials, at 
Timber Tests. Brussels, in September, 1906, are essentially 
as follows, as reported by Schwappach: 


234 Forestry Quarterly 


I. Origin of Material. 

Site and stand from which taken; growth of the tree and form 
of bole and crown; origin and silvicultural treatment. Age. Sea- 
-son of felling. Kind and amount of drying before testing; posi- 
tion of test piece in the bole. 

The height from which test pieces are to be cut depends upon 
the purpose of the tests. To obtain average figures for the whole 
tree take beams 7-10 meters from the ground and compression , 
pieces just above or below. For testing poles for use as sup- 
ports—mine props—take the middle portion. To study the influ- 
ence of height on strength take specimens every 6 meters. In 
tests made for whatever purpose the height of the piece from 
the ground should be noted. 


II. Characters Evidently Affecting Strength. 

On the longitudinal faces note course of wood fibers (grain) 
and knots. On cross section note breadth of annual rings and 
variation; the linear measure of the annual rings in one square 
centimeter surface; the form of the ring, whether annular or 
excentric; proportion of spring and summer wood, though this 
may be drawn from the specific gravity where a large number of 
pieces are concerned. 


III. The Technique of Testing. 


A. STRENGTH. 


Compressive strength is the most important knowledge to be 
gained of structural timber; next come bending and shearing 
strengths, and lastly tensile and splitting strengths. Compressive 
strengths are the best for determining variations in strength in 
different parts of the same stem, in wood from different sites and 
from stands differently thinned, etc. Because the rate of loading 
is of importance, all loads are to be applied at the rate of 20 kg 
per sg. cm. per minute. The moisture per cent. at the time of 
test is to be determined, and strengths reduced to 15 per cent. 
moisture for comparison. 


1. The Compression Test. 


A complete compression test determines: (a) the fiber stress 
at the elastic limit; (b) the modulus of elasticity; (c) the fiber 
stress at the yield point; (d) the compression with increasing 


Periodical Literature. 235 


load up to the yield point; (e) the quotient i aie A when 


Specific gravity 
the moisture per cent. is normal (15%). 


The maximum load is to be measured on cubical test pieces, 
while fiber stress is to be determined on prisms square in section 
and in length equal to three times the depth of one side. The 
test shall be made between smooth plates, one of which is move- 
able, as with a spherical head, and the fiber must be straight and 
parallel to the load. The sides of the pieces are to be planed; 
careful sawing of the ends is as good as planing. 

For general values test pieces are to be cut quarterly from the 
stem so that the rings run diagonally; for special detailed studies 
pieces are to be cut so that the rings run parallel to one side. 
The proportions of sap and heartwood should be given when 
they occur; pith should never be present in any test piece. 


2. The Bending Test. 

Bending tests are to be made on rectangular beams, supported 
on roller bearings at both ends and loaded in the middle. Local 
comparison is avoided by applying the load through a hardwood 
block as wide as the beam, one-tenth as long as the span and 
one-eighth as thick as the beam. 

For general values beams are to be cut quarterly, four from a 
round stick as with compression pieces; for detailed studies the 
rings should run parallel to the direction in which the load is 
applied. Actual position in each test is to be indicated in a 
sketch. 

A complete bending test shows: (a) The fiber stress at the 
the maximum load; (d) a stress-strain diagram showing deflec- 
elastic limit; (b) the modulus of elasticity; (c) fiber stress at 
tion with increasing load up to rupture; (e) the work at the 
elastic limit and at rupture. 

Beam deflections are to be read to 0.01 mm. The elastic limit 
is to be determined from the stress-strain diagram in the usual 
way, the fiber stress to be calculated for the maximum load, as- 
suming this rate of deflection to be maintained. The work done 
is to be reduced to a normal beam, 10 x 10 centimeters in section 
and 1.5 meters long, for comparison. 


3. The Shearing Test. 
Shearing tests shall be made both along the radius and at right 


236 Forestry Quarterly 


angles thereto along the rings on rectangular projections, the load 
of the fibers. The load is to be applied to a surface one centi- 
being applied parallel to the axis of the stem and to the direction 
meter high and, when radial, 5 centimeters, when tangential, 
the height to which the load is applied. Stress at failure only is 
3 centimeters wide. The length of the shear shall be four times 
calculated and any indentation is disregarded. 


4. The Tension Test. 
Tension shall be measured on plates I cm. thick and at least 
2 cm. wide and 22 cm. long, preferably prepared from split ma- 
terial so that the rings run parallel to the faces or to the edges. 


5. Cleavage Test. 

The form of test introduced by Nordlinger is to be followed 
with the plane of cleavage both along the rings and along the 
radius. In case the material is not long enough for these tests, 
Rudeloff’s method may be substituted. Only the maximum 
strength is observed. 


B. MOISTURE. 

Moisture is to be calculated in per cent. of the dry weight. 
When possible, use the whole piece for moisture determinations ; 
in large pieces, discs 2-5 cm. thick and including the failure shall 
be removed directly after the test, using a hand saw. Drying is 
to be carried on in a well-ventilated oven at temperature a few 
degrees below the boiling point and until variations of three- 
tenths per cent. of the dry weight no longer occur. The pieces 
are to be cooled to the temperature of the room in a dessicator 
over sulphuric acid before weighing. Fifteen per cent. is to be 
regarded as the normal moisture per cent. for making tests and 
results are to be reduced to this for comparison. 


C. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

For determining specific gravity the volume is to be measured 
on carefully squared and planed pieces or to be found by sub- 
mersions, using Friedrich’s precise xylometer. Small-sized pieces 
are to be protected against the entrance of water by painting with 
linseed oil or dipped in a solution of paraffine in benzine. Such 
treatments introduce no appreciable error. Large pieces absorb 
so little water during the brief submersion as to render these pre- 
cautions unnecessary. 


Periodical Literature. 237 


D. SHRINKING AND SWELLING. 

Variations in volume are to be determined directly by sub- 
mersion or by linear measurements on squared sticks. The 
simultaneous change in weight is also to be noted. 

E. DURABILITY. 


Uniform methods for determining durability can not be formu- 
lated due to lack of information. Dr. von Tubenf has undertaken 
to supply this need. 


Priifung der technischen Eigenschaften des Holzes. . . . Zeitschrift fur 
Forst und Jagdwesen, January, 1907, pp. 56-64. 


SEATISTICS AND HISTORY. 


The annual statistics of the lumber produc- 


Statistics tion in Maine, Vermont, New York, Penn- 
of sylvania, Maryland and West Virginia as 
Lumber Cut. compiled from the reports of 807 operators 


by the American Lumberman indicates a 
total of 2} billion feet. Of this, Hemlock comprises 46.4 per 
cent.; Spruce, 17 per cent.; White Pine, 9 per cent., and mixed 
hardwoods, 27 per cent. The salient feature of the statement is 
that the east is not going to be out of the manufacturing busi- 
ness at a very early date. 

It is significant to note that the meeting expressed disap- 
proval of the methods advocated and practiced by the United 
States Forest Service regarding the testing of commercial sizes. 

The reports of the cut in Virginia, North and South Carolina 
give a total lumber production of 14 billion feet against a cut of 
one billion in 1905. This shows an increase of 50 per cent. The 
number of firms reporting, however, was 25 per cent. greater 
than in the previous year. Of this total cut, one billion or about 
65 per cent. was North Carolina Pine, indicating a gain of 42 
per cent. over that of 1905; Longleaf Pine, 8 per cent.; White 
Pine and Cypress, 5 per cent.; Hemlock, 14 per cent., and hard- 
woods about 20 per cent. By States, North Carolina leads with 


238 Forestry Quarterly 


50 per cent. of the total cut, Virginia comes next with 33 per 
cent., and South Carolina, the least, with 17 per cent.—American 
Lumberman, March 23, 1907. 


Statistics for the northern pine cut for 1906, aggregating 
3,293 million feet, naturally show a continued decrease of 10 per 
cent. over that of 1905. This, however, is less than the decrease 
of 13 per cent. that occurred the year previous, and of 12 per 
cent. in 1904. According to districts the cut last year was dis- 
tributed as follows: West of Chicago District, 2.8 billion feet 
equals 85 per cent.; Chicago District, 407 million equals 12 per 
cent.; East of Chicago District, 81 million equals 3 per cent. 

The Chicago district comprises all of the territory which ships 
lumber to Chicago by boat, such as Eastern Wisconsin, Upper 
Michigan and the west shore of Lower Michigan. Furthermore, 
the westward trend of operations is shown by the figures indicat- 
ing a decrease of only 8 per cent. in the district west of Chicago, 
over twice as much or 17.7 per cent. in the Chicago district, and 
almost twice as much again or 33 per cent. in the district east of 
Chicago. 

Other figures for the cut by districts and in total are given for 
each as far back as 1873. They show the rise of the lumbering 
industry to a maximum pine cut of 8.6 billion in 1890 and again 
-in 1892, followed by a constant decrease to the past year, when 
the cut was less than that in 1873. 

The shingle output shows a total of 1.2 billion. This is a 20 
per cent. decrease. Lath on the other hand shows an increase of 
13 per cent., the total aggregating 1.2 billion pieces, 

While the increase in the pine output amounted to some 371 
million feet, this was partially made up by an increased produc- 
tion of hemlock, especially in Wisconsin, of 118 million or 9 per 
cent. over that of 1905, making the total hemlock cut 1.3 billion 
feet. This was distributed as follows: Chicago District, 440 
million equals 33 per cent.; West of Chicago District, 640 million 
equals 48 per cent.; Michigan Railroad, 151 million equals 12 per 
cent.; Saginaw District 88 million equals 7 per cent.—American 
Lumberman, February 23, 1907. 


Statistics issued by the Northwestern Hemlock Manufacturers’ 
Association compiled from reports of 238 concerns in Wisconsin 


Periodical Literature. 239 


and Michigan indicates a cut for the year 1906, of 974 million 
feet of hemlock, 256 million lath, and 212 million shingles. Of 
this amount Wisconsin is credited with two-thirds and Michigan 
one-third.—American Lumberman, February 9, 1907. 


No changes of importance are shown in the grand totals of 
northern hardwood production during the year 1906. There was 
turned out in the neighborhood of 1,044 million feet which is 
only .4 per cent. increase over the cut of 1905. 

In round numbers the cut for the past six years has been as 
follows: 1906, 1,044 million feet BM.; 1905, 1,040 million feet 
BM.; 1904, 1,044 million feet BM.; 1903, 800 million feet BM. ; 
1902, 730 million feet BM.; 1901, 790 million feet BM.; 1900, 
940 million feet BM. 

It is evident that the hardwood lumbering industry has reached 
its greatest development in this region and that the future will 
show little, if any increase. 

While the output during the past six years has increased ma- 
terially, the number of mills has decreased from 771 in IgoI1 to 
512 in 1906, and the average cut per mill has increased from 1.1 
million feet in 1901 to 2 million in 1906. This plainly indicates a 
tendency toward consolidation and centralization of operation, 
for the number of firms decreased 28 per cent. and the average 
cut per mill increased 38 per cent. 

The distribution of the 1906 hardwood cut was as follows: 
West of Chicago District, 409 million equals 39 per cent.; Chi- 
cago District, 336 million equals 32 per cent.; Michigan Rail- 
road, 200 million equals 19 per cent.; Saginaw District, 99 mil- 
lion equals Io per cent—American Lumberman, March 2, 1907. 


The Michigan Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association has is- 
sued a tabulated analysis of the hardwood lumber industry in 
that State during the year 1906, and the outlook for the year 
1907. A comparison of the actual cut of the year 1906 and the 
estimated cut for the year 1907 shows a decrease in the amount 
of beech, birch and rock elm; a slight increase in the amount of 
soft elm; an increase of about Io per cent. in maple (due to in- 
creased production of flooring), and the amount of basswood 
and ash remaining about the same. 


240 Forestry Quarterly 


The following figures for the cut of 1906 represent 80 to 85 
per cent of the total hardwood cut: 

Ash, 84 million feet; Baswood, 26 million feet; Beech, 43 mil- 
lion feet; Birch, 29 million feet; Rock Elm, 3 million feet; 
Maple, hard and soft, 241 million feet; all others, 15 million feet. 
Total, 387 million feet—Hardwood Record, February 25, 1907. 


Reports from 896 operators in yellow pine, cypress and cen- 
tral states hardwoods give the following estimate of the cut of 


1906,— 

Yellow pine, 5.8 billion feet, estimated total, 7.5 billion; cy- 
press, exclusive of South Carolina, 718 million feet. Of the yel- 
low pine production, Louisiana leads with 26 per cent.; Mis- 
sissippi, Texas, and Arkansas, each 16 per cent.; Alabama, 13 
per cent.; Florida, 8 per cent.; Georgia, 5 per cent. 

In Cypress, Louisiana also leads with 82 per cent.: Florida 
comes next with 8 per cent.; Arkansas, 4 per cent., and Ala- 
bama, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Ten- 
nessee and Texas, 6 per cent. 

The hardwood cut in the Central States aggregated 2.1 billion 
feet. This included the product from Alabama, Arkansas, Flor- 
ida, Georgia, Indiana, Indian Territory, Kentucky, Louisiana, 
Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee and Texas. ‘Tennessee 
leads with 22 per cent.; Arkansas, 17 per cent.; Mississippi, 10 
per cent.; Indiana and Ohio, each 9 per cent., and all the others 
33 per cent. 

The species cut were as follows: Oaks, 38 per cent.; Yellow 
Poplar, 15 per cent.; Gum and Tupelo, 14 per cent.; Elm, 3.3 
per cent.; Ash, 2.8 per cent.; Hickory, 2.8 per cent.; Walnut, 
1.5 per cent.; all others, 22.6 per cent—American Lumberman, 
March 9, 1907. 


Reports from the coast indicate record breaking shipments of 
Redwood during February, when the total movement aggregated 
over 39 million feet, an increase of 50 per cent. over that of Feb- 
ruary, 1906. A similar large gain was shown in the reports for 
the month of January, so that the total shipments for the first two 
months of this year amounted to almost 73 million board feet as 
against 49 million the year previous. Practically all this gain was 


Periodical Literature. 241 


in shipments to San Francisco.—American Lumberman, March 
23, 1907. 


The report comes from the State of Washington that during 
the fiscal year of 1906, there was produced a total of 10$ billion 
shingles, which equaled 684 per cent. of the total output of shin- 
gles in the United States. This was the production of 459 mills 
representing a daily capacity of 48 million, an increase of 12 per 
cent. over that of 1905.—The New York Lumber Trade Journal, 
February 15, 1907. 


An estimate of the winter’s log cut in the Province of Ontario, 
compiled by the Ontario forestry officials, shows one billion feet 
of pine, 70 million feet of hemlock, 1.5 million spruce, 1.2 million 
cubic feet of square timber, 100,000 cords pulp, and 44 million 
ties—American Lumberman, February 23, 1907. 


Detailed reports of the amount of imports 


Imports of various woods into this country show 
for that it is no small item and, moreover, is 
1905. on the increase. During the fiscal year 


ending June, 1906, the total quantity of 
mahogany imported equaled 36.6 million feet with a value of 
$2,500,000. This was an increase over the previous year of 15 
per cent. in quantity and 25 per cent. in value. All other cabinet 
woods showed an increase from $1,077,000 in 1905 to $1,244,000 
in 1906. 

The importation of logs and round timbers amounted to 100 
million feet; hewn and square timber, 256,000 cubic feet; lum- 
ber, 950 million feet; shingles, 900 million, and wood pulp, 157,- 
224 tons. The total value of all of these items exceeded $21,- 
000,000, and all except the wood pulp showed an increase in 
quantity—American Lumberman, March 9, 1907. 


Almost without exception statistics of the 


Exports export trade during 1906 in “lumber and 
in manufactures thereof” show an increase 
1900. over 1905. The total value represented in 


1906 was over $77,000,000 as against 
$60,000,00 in 1905 or an increase of 28 per cent. Of the several 


242 Forestry Quarterly 


kinds, that of sawed timber aggregated 597 million as compared 
with 494 million in 1905, an increase of 21 per cent.; hewn tim- 
ber remains practically the same with 3.45 million cubic feet in 
1906. ‘The value of all timber and logs exeeded $17,000,000 as 
against $11,000,000, which was the very large increase of 55 per 
cent. 

It is perhaps still more interesting to compare this with the 
value of the imports which for all those classified as “wood and 
manufactures thereof” amounted to over $40,000,000 and repre- 
sented an increase of 25 per cent. over that of 1905. The excess 
of exports over imports was valued at $36,000,000 or go per cent. 
more export than import. In 1904 the exports exceeded the im- 
ports by 116 per cent. Thus it is apparent that the tendency is 
towards an equalization of export and import of wood material. 
American Lumberman, February 23, 1907. 


No absolute figures as to yellow pine ex- 


Export ports are available, since the custom house 
of reports specify merely sawed lumber, tim- 
Yellow Pine. ber, staves, etc., without naming the kinds. 


The following figures are the total export 
of all timber from the Southern States, and therefore include 
some cypress and considerable hardwood export, particularly 
from New Orleans and Mobile, but by omitting all Virginia and 
Maryland, which are large exporters of yellow pine, it may be 
assumed that these figures approximately represent the exports of 
yellow pine sawed lumber and timber. 


TOON Vice Pe NAP tee SNS Gites eee 378 million feet BM. 
TITS: Os kicks bd bed dis VO te ia cable Re gate 47 s 
TOE EL shig te kA Esk Se ee 42 . 
DOI A OE cine shuts Ge 4A ta tel nts Wines Rion SEO) 
LOGOS eth tone mira each Gt nse late whee Ae 620). 
EQOL PY ceo ias & Stace ee eee ba a a oe 6800.5 
LOA SMG SEA SU Nahs Slats Wie teraleahecaee at edete ia ere rf aay 
TOO Ss ibs eid Bae osha is eta bem een 502. 08 
LOA, Wye Sates Xen Se ts aie ety ae 830. 
BOOS 7h ya sod vase Wot ace S RUE Ra cee 306. = 


Lotaltor ten wears sci. a tee 5.954 million feet BM. 


Periodical Literature. 243 


A close examination of these exports for 1905 shows that the 
various States in the order of their importance was as follows: 
Florida, 33 per cent. ; Mississippi, 21 per cent.; Alabama, 15 per 
cent.; Texas, 13 per cent.; Louisiana, 9 per cent.; Georgia, 6 
per cent.; North and South Carolina, 3 per cent.—American 
Lumberman, February 9, 1907. 


In connection with the Agricultural Exhi- 


Statistics bition at Karlsruhe in 1906, full information 

of regarding the notable forest administration 

Forest Managementof Baden was furnished in statistical tables. 
im This country, famous among Americans on 

Baden. account of the Black Forest (a mountain 


range, not a forest!), vies with Saxony for 
first rank in excellence of its forestry system. 

Of the round 1,350,000 acres of forest only 17.6 per cent. are 
state forest, but the corporation and municipal forests which oc- 
cupy nearly 50 per cent. of the forest area also not only under 
direct control but for the most Part under direct management of 
the state forest administration (for which the government charges 
a small fee), hence 67 per cent. of the forests is surely well man- 
aged, and 33 per cent. of the forests is surely well controlled 
in its management in so far as for “clearing or, in its conse- 
quences, similar cutting” a permit must be secured from the state 
forest administration. How this restriction has worked may be 
seen from the statement that in 20 years from 1882, 3,467 permits 
were asked for, 3,417 were issued, and round 5,000 acres were 
cleared. Due to the rise of prices improvement in the manage- 
ment of private forests is noticeable, for while in 188> nearly 
30 per cent. of the private forests were reported as destructively 
lumbered, in 1902 this per cent. appears reduced to 12. During 
the 25 years, 1880-1904, private owners have reforested nearly 
12,000 acres and the state and corporations about 14,000 acres, 
while clearings reduced the forest area by only 7,500 acres, a gain 
of over 18,000 acres. To foster this reboisement work the state 
sells plant material cheaply, pays small premiums and subven- 
tions; in the years 1900 to 1904 $6,000 were thus paid in effect- 
ing the reforesting of about 1,500 acres, this area needing the 
protective cover. The distribution among species and classes of 


244 Forestry Quarterly 


management shows that over 50 per cent. is coniferous forest, and 
even private and corporation forest shows over 45 per cent. of 
this type. Only 16 per cent. is coppice and coppice with stand- 
ards, 8.5 per cent. in transition from the latter to timber forest. 
Of the 84 per cent. of timber forest, not 8 per cent. are in selec- 
tion forest, and over 26 per cent. are under a clearing system, 58 
per cent. under nurse-tree or group system. 

The results are admirable, for the total gross income of all 
the forests with a cut of 76 cubic feet per acre is $7,000,000, and, 
since the cost of administration requires only 30 per cent. of the 
gross income, a net result of round 5 million dollars is obtained, 
which figuring at 3 per cent. makes the value of this property 
165 million dollars. 

Prices have risen from 1850, when the cubic foot of all kinds 
and sizes brought 4 cents, to 74 cents in 1900. In the state forests 
specifically, every financial item has more than trebled in that 
period, namely, the gross income from I to 3.5, the expenditures 
from I to 3.4, the net income from I to 3.66. 

The state forests are, of course, the best managed, and show 
the largest cut, namely, 81 cubic feet per acre or $6.07, while the 
corporation forests have a budget of 72 cubic feet, due to a large 
percentage of deciduous wood, servitudes, forests in transition to 
timber forest, and more conservative calculations. 


Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, April, 1907, pp. 135-I4I. 


The cut for 1906 in Switzerland was for 


Activities State forest (93,000 acres) 179,872 m’*, 

in for corporation forests (1,300,000 acres) 

Switzerland. 1,725,909 m*, altogether 1,915,781 m*, or 
1 ID9F—S ’ 5 


67.6 million cubic feet. From the 800 acres 
of nurseries of the federal government .5 million plants, mostly 
conifers, were furnished for planting, and some 20,000 pounds of 
seed were sown in forest and nurseries. Over $100,000 were 
spent on reboisement work, the federal government contributing 
about three-fifths of that sum. Plans for over $300,000 of such 
work were approved, with a two-thirds grant of the government. 
Over 170 persons participated in the eight short lecture courses 


Pertodical Literature. 245 


of two to eight weeks duration, given in various parts of the fed- 
eration to underforesters and others. 


Aus dem Jahresbericht des eidg. Departments des Innern, Forstwesen, 
1906. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fir Forstwesen, April, 1907, pp. 136-138. 


The decennial revision of the working plans 


Cantonal of the Bernese cantonal forest department 
Forest exhibits the change of conditions in a well- 
Management. managed forest area of now round 35,000 


acres, mostly timber forest, during the last 
40 years. The area during this period has been increased by 
purchases, by nearly 30 per cent. and its tax value is now placed 
at $3,000,000. The wood sales, which in the first decade aver- 
aged $130,000 per annum, now amounts to $210,000 ($6 per 
acre). This increase in excess of the proportionate increase in 
area is accounted for by changes in four directions, namely an 
increased main felling budget from 1,500,000 to 1,670,000 cubic 
feet; an increase to almost double the amounts for thinnings, or 
altogether a rise in cut from 1,750,000 to 2,120,000 cubic feet (60 
cu. ft. per acre) ; an increase of the workwood per cent. from 30 
to 38 (maximum 42) per cent.; and the rise of the average price 
for wood from 7 cents to 9 cents per cubic foot (in 1905 to 12 
cents; see log prices above!). 

Regarding the rotations the report says that they are to be 
gradually increased in some of the holdings, because “‘the less 
private forests are managed for saw timber production, the more 
obligation in the public forests to produce these sizes.” “This is 
by no means a sacrifice on the part of the State, on the contrary 
it insures larger yield of material and money; only it requires a 
larger wood capital in older age classes than firewood produc- 
tion.” “This measure has, however, not had a depressing effect 
on the sustained yield, for the stock corresponding to the higher 
rotations was mostly already in existence, so that we are in the 
fortunate position of simultaneously being able to raise the rota- 
tion and the felling budget.” 

For road building during the next decade $10,000 are allowed. 


Der neue Wirtschafts plan iiber die bernischen Staatswaldungen. 
Scheizerische Forstzeitung, March, 1907, p. 100-104. 


246 Forestry Quarterly 


Recent compilations credit Oregon with 

Oregon 300 billion feet of standing timber with a 

Forests. present value when manufactured of 4} 

billion dollars. It is claimed that the State 

contains one-sixth of the total amount of standing timber in the 

country. The estimated cut in 1906 was 2 billion, in 1905 13 bil- 

lion; and in 1904, 1 billion—American Lumberman, March 23, 
1907. 


In a paper read before the State Farmers’ 
Forest Resources Institute of Kentucky, Mr. H. M. Hale, of 
of the Forest Service, gave some interesting 

Kentucky. estimates of the forest resources of that 

State. The total stand of timber was esti- 
mated at nine billion feet, of which White Oak leads with 28 per 
cent., Red and Black Oak represent 21 per cent., Yellow Poplar 
19 per cent., Chestnut Oak and Chestnut, each 13 per cent., and 
White Pine and Hemlock together 6 per cent. 

The annual value of the forest products was roughly put at 
$14,000,000. Of this 5 per cent. represented lumber, 25 per 
cent. tight cooperage, 7 per cent. ties, and 3 per cent tanbark, 
veneer and mine props.—The Southern Lumberman, March 10, 


1907. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 
An interesting case of political rather than 
Rights forestal import is under discussion and legal 
of adjudication in Prussia referring to the in- 
Officials. voluntary retirement and pensioning of the 


well-known, late director of the forest acad- 
emy of Minden, Dr. Borggreve. He was pensioned before the 
legal age of retirement undoubtedly because of his outspoken 
criticisms of government policies had made him offensive, and 
he is contesting the right of the government to remove him 
prematurely, since this injures his financial condition, and be- 
cause the enforced premature pensioning can legally be effected 
only if the immediate chief of the officer declares that “the officer 


Periodical Literature. 247 


on account of bodily or mental infirmity is permanently incapable 
of attending to his work; which declaration had not been made, 
and everybody who knows the vigorous claimant knows it could 
not be made. 

The legality of taking recourse to judicial procedure was sus- 
tained in the first court. But in the second instance the judgment 
was against the claimant, and the case has been appealed. The 
remarkable democratic provision of the law will probably be 
tested to the very last resort, the Landtag. 


The question of the methods of education 

Forestry for foresters have lately been strenuously 

Education. discussed in the European journals. Espe- 

cially the conditions at the Prussian forest 

academies have been severely criticised, and their transfer to the 

University or else their greatly improved and extended curricu- 

lum demanded. Weise, the director of Miinden, lately resigned, 
has issued a forceful pamphlet on the subject. 

We note with satisfaction that a reform in Baden has copied 
almost precisely the plan, which was originally adopted in the 
New York State College of Forestry at Cornell University, 
namely a four years’ course, in which the fundamental branches 
are completed during the first two years, the forestry branches in 
the last two years, and two six weeks’ practicums in the woods, 
only that the first practicum there antecedes the entire course, in- 
stead of both following the forestry studies. 


Die Ausbildung fiir den héheren Forstverwaltungsdienst. Allgemeine 
Forst u. Jagdzeitung, Feb., 1907, pp. 63-65. 


NEWS AND NOTES. 


E. A. Stertine, In Charge. 


In April of this year the University of Toronto established the 
first forestry school in Canada as a separate Faculty (one of five 
faculties composing the University), with Dr. B.-E. Fernow as 
Dean. 

The course will be an undergraduate one, with a curriculum 
similar to the one originally adopted at the New York State Col- 
lege of Forestry, but the entrance requirements have been raised 
above those accepted by the other Faculties of the University. 
The four-year course leads to the degree of Bachelor of the 
Science of Forestry, and after three years’ practical employment 
and presentation of a thesis the degree of Forest Engineer 
(F. E.) is conferred. A three years’ course leading to a diploma 
as Forester will also be instituted. The sessions begin on Octo- 
ber 1. It is expected that the government will set aside a large 
reservation for practice and demonstration ground, where the 
juniors and seniors will spend a six to eight weeks’ term at the 
end of the academic work, besides visiting lumber camps during 
the Christmas vacations. Since the University is financially able 
to satisfy the needs of a first-class school, and the forestry inter- 
ests of the Province of Ontario, which has not less than 45,000 
square miles of timber lands in its possession, are considerable, 
the future of this new institution would seem assured. 

The Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph, which a year ago 
instituted a course in farm forestry and established nurseries for 
the purpose of distributing plant material to farmers, is affiliated 
with the University of Toronto, and this affiliation will be made 
closer by having Mr. E. J. Zavitz, in charge of the course and 
the nurseries, act as instructor in the University also. Mr. A. 
H. D. Ross, M. A., M. F. (Yale), is expected to be a member 
of the Faculty. 


A rather striking evidence of the broadening field of forestry 
practice in this country and abroad is shown in the plans of the 
men graduating from the Yale Forest School this year. For- 


News aud Notes 249 


merly most of the graduates took up government work, and either 
remained permanently with the United States Forest Service or 
went from this Field of training into private work after a few 
years. This year, out of the 29 men in the graduating class, only 
15 have taken the civil service examination. It is interesting to 
note the plans of the remaining 14 graduates. 

Those to enter foreign service are: Mr. C. C. Robertson, who 
will enter the Department of Forestry in the Orange River Col- 
ony aiter visiting the forests of England, France and Germany ; 
and Messrs. G. C. Piche and Avila Bedard, who expect to take up 
work with the province of Quebec, the latter after further study 
in Europe. 

Mr. E. S. Woodruff has accepted a position with the New 
York State Forest, Fish and Game Commission. 

The men who plan to engage in private work are: 

Messrs. Stephen M. Crowell and Clyde S. Martin, who are to 
work for the Weyerhaeuser syndicate on the Pacific Coast; 
Messrs. Jack Bentley and C. P. Miller, who are to be employed by 
the Ritter Company in West Virginia; William Menter, who has 
a position with Mr. Millard; W. C. Shepard, with the Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad, and Messrs. B. T. Harvey and Raymond Davis, 
who go with pulp concerns in Maine. 

The only graduate to go into entirely independent work is Mr. 
Hoyt Weber, who will open an office as Consulting Forester in 
Connecticut. 


A new scheme of organization in the U. S. Forest Service went 
into effect on April 17, as Service Order No. 132. It is an at- 
tempt to perfect an organization for handling with greater econ- 
omy the rapidly growing volume of business attendant upon the 
intensive administration of the National Forests. This is pre- 
sented in the form of a somewhat elaborate chart which shows the 
relations of the various branches, offices and sections to each other 
and to the head office of the Forester and Associate Forester. 
One of the aims was to reduce the number of independent offices 
reporting to the Forester, and as a paper organization this seems 
to have been accomplished since the main units of administration, 
called branches, are reduced to four: Grazing, Operation, Silvi- 
culture and Products. Each of the above “branches” is sub-di- 
divided into two, five, three and three offices respectively, each 


250 Forestry Quarterly 


office having its own chief, who is responsible to the head of his 
respective “branch.” The offices in turn are sub-divided into 
sections, each nominally under a chief. In effect, it reduces sey- 
eral offices which formerly reported direct to the Forester, to a 
place under a branch, and elevates several sections to the rank of 
semi-independent offices. In the office of the Forester are 
grouped Law, Information, Dendrology and Inspection, the first 
and third of which were formerly offices. It is, of course, difficult 
in a scheme of this kind to secure a natural grouping, which 
probably accounts for the curious grouping of “Publication” 
under “Products,” “Computing” and “Drafting” under “Wood 
Utilization,” etc. 


As part of its forest policy the Pennsylvania Railroad estab- 
lished several large plantations this spring on vacant lands adja- 
cent to the right of way. These lands in most cases were ac- 
quired in connection with the straightening and widening of the 
main line, and in order to escape excessive cost of right of way 
and damages by reason of stream changes in drainage, or to avoid 
expensive overhead or undergrade crossing entire farms were 
often purchased. The utilization of these lands is obviously an 
economic proposition, and in many cases forest planting promises 
the highest returns, in addition to a step towards providing 
for a future supply of cross-ties and construction woods. It also 
offers an object lesson to land owners adjacent to the railroad 
lines. The planting this year was confined to lands near Altoona 
and Mt. Union in west central Pennsylvania, where 280,000 red 
oak, 180,000 black locust, 7,000 European larch, 5,000 tamarack, 
6,000 Scotch pine, 2,500 chestnut, 10,000 pin oak and 1,000 hardy 
catalpa were planted—a total of about 791,000 trees. In addition 
nearly 75,000 seedlings were set in transplant rows and 135 
pounds of seed planted in the nursery at Hollidaysburg, Pa. The 
species planted in the nursery, in addition to the above, includes 
such trees as Norway Spruce, Arborvitae, and Norway Maple, 
which will be used for screens or snow fences, or for ornamental 
planting. 

The spring field work of the Senior Class of the Yale Forest 
School is being conducted this year at Grandin, and in Shannon 
County, Missouri, on the lands of the Missouri Lumber and Min- 


News and Notes 251 


ing Company. The students, 27 in number, left New Haven, 
March 3, and reached Grandin March 7. The work will occupy 
a period of three months. 

Although the entire endowment fund of $150,000 promised by 
the National Lumber Manufacturers Association to the Yale 
Forest School for the purpose of founding a Chair of Applied 
Forestry and Practical Lumbering has not been raised, a large 
portion of the fund is now available for use, and its accessibility 
has made possible the reorganization and extension of the pres- 
ent course in lumbering. 

Through the kindness of Mr. J. B. White, general manager of 
the Missouri Lumber and Mining Company, the entire plant at 
Grandin has been thrown open to the students, who have an ex- 
cellent opportunity to study logging, transportation, milling and 
manufacturing methods. 

In order that suitable practice in surveying and estimating 
might be obtained the lumber company constructed two camps in 
Shannon County for the use of the students. These camps are 
frame structures, each 16 by 32 feet in size, and are located in the 
center of the company’s holdings, 26 miles from Winona, Mis- 
souri. This camp is in charge of Mr. H. H. Chapman, Instruc- 
tor in Forestry, who trains the men in surveying, estimating, and 
laying out and determining the costs of logging jobs. He is as- 
sisted in this work by Mr. J. C. O’Dell, a timber cruiser and 
surveyor of thirty years’ experience. 

The students have made a topographic map of an area go 
square miles in extent, comprising a portion of the holdings of the 
company. This map was prepared under the direction of Henry 
Gannett, Geographer of the United States Geological Survey, 
who spent four weeks in camp supervising the field work and the 
assembling of the data into a map. The main lines of the sur- 
vey were run with transits and the secondary part was made by 
running traverses up the largest ravines or on the most prom- 
inent ridges and sketching in the topography on a traverse board. 
The elevations were determined from barometer readings, 
checked by a line of levels run through the tract. 

The map shows all artificial features, such as roads, trails and 
buildings, and also the direction and elevation of all ridges. Ele- 
vations are shown by 20-foot contour intervals. A party of three 


252 Forestry Quarterly 


men ran an average of four to five miles of secondary traverse 
per day, without appreciable error of location or distance. The 
map will be of assistance to the lumber company which has al- 
ready begun active logging operations in the region. 

Since the completion of this map the students have been re- 
locating the original survey of 1821, blazing the original lines and 
marking corners, and have begun to estimate the pine timber on 
the tract. 

The field work in camp occupies eight weeks’ time and the re- 
maining four weeks are spent in Grandin studying milling, manu- 
facturing methods and grading, and in Reynolds and Center 
counties studying the logging methods employed by the company. 
This work is under the direction of R. C. Bryant, Instructor in 
Forestry. 

The company operates about 40 miles of main line and many 
miles of spurs and has a very competent equipment of rolling 
stock and motive power. Two mills are in operation in Grandin, 
one of which has a maximum capacity of 150,000 feet B. M., cuts 
pine, and the other which has a capacity of 10,000 to 12,000 feet 
B. M., cuts oak of several species. 

A shingle and lath mill, dry kilns, extension yards, a large 
planing mill, small but well-equipped shops, a general company 
store, and a hospital constitute the main departments aside from 
the mills. 

The students have an unexcelled opportunity to study, in detail, 
the general scheme of the plant and the methods of conducting a 
large lumber business. 

The grading of yellow pine lumber is given especial attention 
for the successful forester must understand thoroughly this 
phase of the work before he can direct intelligently any forest 
operation of which logging forms a direct part. 

Mr. George K. Smith, secretary of the Yellow Pine Manufac- 
turings Association, visited the camp and gave several talks on 
grading lumber, lumber prices, lumber associations, their objects 
and methods, etc. 

The term closes June toth, at which time the students scatter 
to all parts of the United States, some to join the United States 
Forest Service, others to engage in private forest work, or to 
enter the employ of lumber companies. 


News and Notes 253 


The German Foresters Association has at present 1,897 mem- 
bers, which gives an idea of the number of practising foresters 
and forest owners of higher grade in the Empire. 


On March 1 of this year, at the age of 85, died the veteran 
teacher of forestry, Prof. Dr. Karl Gayer, one of the leading 
lights of modern German forestry, before his retirement pro- 
fessor at the University of Munich. He is especially known by 
his classical volume on silviculture, in which he preached return 
from the rapidly growing practice of clear-cutting to natural re- 
generation and mixed forest, and altogether a closer adherence to 
the methods of nature and the basing of silviculture on biological 
study. This volume, published 27 years ago, now in its fourth 
edition, has been translated into French, and is unquestionably 
the best book on silviculture. 

Gayer’s “Forest Utilization” (Forstbenutzung) is another clas- 
sic handbook on the subject. 


The Pennsylvania Railroad engineers who investigated the re- 
cent wreck which occurred on a mile stretch of track equipped 
with steel cross-ties, reported that “if the accident had occurred 
on the section of track laid with wooden cross-ties it is our judg- 
ment that less injury would have been done to the track structure” 
and they recommend that, “on account of the fact that the damage 
subsequent to the derailment was more serious than would have 
been the case with wooden ties, that the remaining steel ties 
should be removed.” 


Beginning with its issue of February 1st, The St. Louis Lum- 
berman commenced the publication of a series of papers trans- 
lated from the German, entitled “Concerning American Fores- 
try,” by Professor Jentsch and Dr. Riebel, who visited this coun- 
try during the World’s Fair at St. Louis, for the purpose of mak- 
ing a report on the lumbering conditions of the United States. 
While many of the facts presented in these articles will be famil- 
iar to most persons in this country who are interested in forestry 
and lumbering, it is of considerable interest to learn what im- 
pression conditions and methods in the United States made upon 
the distinguished foreigners. 


254 Forestry Quarterly 


In the readjustment of boundaries of national forests some 
four million acres of land suitable for settlement have been re- 
leased this year, which thereby become open to entry. 

Homesteading of agricultural lands within the reservations is 
also permitted under Act of June 11, 1906, which is largely taken 
advantage of, especially by stockmen. The Forest Service seems 
to welcome these settlements on the limited agricultural areas. 


M. Smith, Jr., Cornell, 04, who has been in the employ of the 
Federal Forest Service during the past three years, has resigned 
to accept an appointment as an Assistant State Forester of Cali- 
fornia. Mr. Smith assumed his new duties on May Ist, filling the 
vacancy made by the resignation of Raymond Tyler, who re- 
turned to the Federal service after a year with the State. 

State forest work in California is showing increased activity 
with the opening of the dry season. The State Forester is busily 
engaged in procuring the financial co-operation of County Boards 
of Supervisors in an attempt to prevent and extinguish forest 
fires. Last year eleven counties, mainly in the southern part of 
the State, appropriated sums for this purpose ranging from $250 
to $1,500 per county. Although the fire season is only just open- 
ing, two new counties in the northern part of the State, which has 
always been considered indifferent to forestry, have been added 
to the list. These are Lake and Mendicino, which have appro- 
priated $500 each. It is hoped that before the close of the present 
dry season many more counties in the northern part of the State 
will be won over. 

Associations of stockmen and irrigators, which have always 
been interested in preventing forest fires, are manifesting unusual 
interest this spring. The State Forester is co-operating with 
many powerful organizations of this kind, all of which are paying 
the salaries and expenses of the patrolmen appointed fire wardens. 
Several lumber companies also are showing gratifying interest. 

The planting season in California has ended. During the past 
winter the State Forester has co-operated with the Union Lumber 
Company, Fort Bragg, one of the largest owners of redwood 
timber on the Coast, in preparing a plan for the planting of 
eucalyptus among redwood sprouts on land cut over by this com- 


News and Notes 255 


pany. The redwood sprouts are of varying ages, but in most 
cases stand too far apart to produce merchantable trees. The 
object of interplanting with Eucalyptus is to force these sprouts 
into rapid height growth by the lateral shading of the more 
rapid-growing eucalypts. 


Co-operation with the Central Counties Land Company, which 
owns over 35,000 acres of land on Clear Lake in Lake county, 
has resulted in the construction of a 40’x128’ lath-house, for the 
propagation of Eucalyptus and ornamental species which will be 
used for commercial and ornamental planting on the holdings of 
this company. The land of the company extends in a narrow 
strip around the borders of the lake, with a frontage of 74 miles, 
and includes also blocks of varying area located in the valleys 
four or five miles back from the lake shore. The object of plant- 
ing is to ornament the holdings near the lake, which will be sold 
for residence purposes, and to establish commercial plantations 
on the holdings remote from the lake, where colonies of settlers 
will be placed. Actual planting will be commenced next winter 
with the seedlings grown in the lath-house now under construc- 
tion at Lakeport. Assistant State Forester C. H. Sellers is in 
charge of the construction of the lath-house and the establishment 
of the nursery. 


Two important bills relative to State forestry were introduced 
in the last Legislature. One provided for the assemblying of all 
provisions relating to punishment for setting forest fires, for the 
more certain conviction of those arrested, and for the more equal _ 
distribution of the fines collected. This bill became a law. Un- 
der its provisions the dry season which was formerly defined as 
“the period between May 15 and the first soaking rains of autumn 
or winter’ was changed to read “a dry season.” In the past some 
trouble has been experienced through defending attorneys seek- 
ing to prove that “a dry season” did not actually exist at the time 
when fires were started, because in some cases a little sprinkle had 
occurred between that time and the previous May 15. The fines, 
which formerly varied from $50 to $1,000, were changed to $25 
as a minimum and $500 as a maximum. This change will result 
in the conviction of a larger percentage of those who violate the 


250 Forestry Quarterly 


forest laws, in as much as it will eliminate the objection of many 
magistrates to imposing a fine greater than the value of the prop- 
erty destroyed. It will also place the jurisdiction of cases before 
the justices, while formerly the maximum fine being over $500 
placed the jurisdiction in the Superior Courts and made long, ex- 
pensive trials, which were objected to by the counties, which for- 
merly received no portion of the fines. The disposal of fines also 
has been changed. Previously the State received the entire sum, 
but under the new law the county in which a conviction is pro- 
cured divides the net fine equally with the State. 

The other bill related to the administration and personnel of 
the State Forestry Department. This bill passed the Assembly 
without opposition, but was amended in the Senate in such form 
that it threw a greater burden on the State than on the several 
counties. On this account it was vetoed by the Governor. The 
opposition to this bill in the Senate was led by Senator Weed, a 
former lumberman and at present Chairman of the Board of 
Supervisors of Siskiyou county, who objected principally to the 
section giving power to the State Forester to compel lumber com- 
panies to clear up dangerous slashings, and to compel county offi- 
cials to clear the brush from their rights-of-way. The defeat of 
this bill forced the Department to forego some improvements 
that were contemplated, but as the old law containing the provi- 
sions objected to still stands, the power to compel lumber com- 
panies to take care of their cut-over land and counties to clear 
their rights-of-way is retained. 


The Fifteenth National Irrigation Congress is scheduled to 
meet this year in California, at Sacramento, during the first part 
of September, and will be accompanied by an Interstate Exposi- 
tion of irrigated-land products and forest products. ‘The intimate 
relationship between water supply and forest cover has given an 
impetus to forestry development in the West which no considera- 
tion of the question of husbanding forest supplies could have 
secured, and it is only fit that the forestry interests should be 
fully represented at the meeting. 


Another propagandist forestry journal has been launched in the 
mafiazine of the Georgia Forestry Association, Southern lWood- 


News and Notes 257 


lands, the first number appearing in April under the editorship of 
Prof. Alfred Akerman, Professor of Forestry at the University of 
Georgia. The educational value of such local publications cannot 
be over estimated. 


With the month of May the Forest Service has begun to add to 
the monthly Field Program a very useful section of Notes, con- 
taining brief references to new developments in the different 
branches of the service. 


HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE 
offers a two-years’ course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of 
Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on 
application to W.C.SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge, 


Mass. 


Yale University Forest School 


NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT 


A two-year graduate course is offered, lead- 
ing to the degree of Master of Forestry. Grad- 
uates of collegiate institutions of high standing 
are admitted upon presentation of their college 
diploma. 

The Summer School of Forestry is conducted 
at Milford, Pike County, Pa. The session in 
1907 will open early in July and continue 


seven weeks. 


For further information, address 


HENRY S. GRAVES, Director, New Haven, Connecticut 
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO 
Offers a four-year course in forestry leading to the 

degree of Bachelor of the Science of Forestry. 


For further information address 


B. E. FERNOW, Dean, 
Faculty of Forestry University of Toronto, 
Toronto, Canada 


FORESTRY QUARTERLY 
Vou. V] SEPTEMBER, 1907. [No. 3 


THE FORMATION OF THE ANNUAL RING OF WOOD 
IN THE EUROPEAN LARCH AND THE WHITE PINE. 


Our forest trees increase their trunks by an annual layer or 
ring of wood of varying thickness, according to conditions of soil 
and exposure. This has been so long known and has such slight 
exception that it is universally accepted, and forms the basis of 
al! our calculations. The phenomena and conditions of the for- 
mation of this layer are known in but small part and are largely 
inferences from our general knowledge of plant physiology and 
the laws of growth. 

Especially the time during which the annual ring is formed, 
how its formation progresses, and when it is finished, has been 
rarely made a subject of definite investigation. According to 
Robert Hartig’s and other investigators’ findings the duration of 
cambial activity varies, as well as its beginning, with climate and 
species disposition. It lasts longer than leaf activity in oak and 
beech, shorter in other species. The bast formation continues 
much longer, mostly until cold or dry weather sets in, and mostly 
ceases during the latter part of August. In single trees (open 
stand) the upper portions cease first; in dense growth, the lower 
(temperature?). In poorly fed individuals, the base stops early, 
even to the absence of the ring. The total time of cambial ac- 
tivity differs with the species. With beech it begins late and lasts 
two and one-half months, with oak four months, with Scotch Pine 
and Norway Spruce three months (May, June and July; lower 
parts: June, July, August). Time of forming different parts of 
the ring varies and seems uncertain, probably dependent upon 
weather conditions. Beech (50 to 150 years) had formed one- 
third by middle of June, one-half by beginning of July, three- 
fourths by end of July, the whole by middle August. Oak begin- 


260 Forestry Quarterly 


ning the end of April had formed one-half by middle June, the 
whole by middle August (but not in branches). 

The writer, some years ago, made a series of observations 
through four seasons on two trees, one a European Larch (Larix 
Europaca), the other a native White Pine (Pinus Strobus), 
which are worth while recording, especially for the striking 
divergence of the results in the White Pine, which goes far to 
explain the remarkable productive capacity of that species. 

Presumably, there are considerable differences between all 
species of trees with respect to the progress of wood formation. 
These particular ones were chosen chiefly because of con- 
venience, satisfactory specimens being near at hand, so that the 
necessary frequent measurements could be readily taken. It may 
Le noted, however, that the European Larch and the White Pine 
are probably the best representatives of opposite poles of the 
evergreen class—opposite, at least, in their practical forest re- 
lations. 

It was hoped also, that some relation might be established 
between the rate and time of growth on the one hand and 
meteorological conditions on the other, although the length of 
time during which the observations were conducted is confessedly 
very short. Likewise the constancy of habit of a species from 
year to year, and also in general, the comparative value of these 
two species for wood or timber production might be more clearly 
and positively brought out by these observations. But for each 
and all points the figures and results obtained should be made 
to speak for themselves. 

The European Larch used is one of a group of six set as very 
small trees for landscape purposes, but rather closer than 
ordinarily, the particular tree in question being six feet and ten 
feet, respectively, from its nearest neighbors. Trees of other 
kinds surround this group at moderate distances, so that the 
conditions are more those of a rather thin and open forest than 
2 park. The trees were about forty-five years old. The records 
are such that the variations can be but a year or two either way. 
The individual selected for measurement is now (1907) about 
474 inches in circumference, breast high, and 68 feet in height. 
It seems to be making a height growth of a few inches per year. 


ae 


Formation of Annual Ring of Wood. 261 


One of the group is larger, girthing 55 inches, and two are 
smaller. Two trees were removed a few years ago. 

The White Pine stands but a stone’s throw away under nearly 
similar conditions. It is further away from its fellows, how- 
ever, and has less of clear trunk and a better chance to develop 
side branches. One or two series of lower branches have been 
pruned off within the last few years. It is approximately the 
same age as the Larch, and is 55 feet high. It has a circum- 
ference of 50 inches; the level chosen, however, was inadvertently 
made about 12 inches higher than in the Larch. The measure- 
ments were taken by a steel tape at intervals of a few days, vary- 
ing as seemed necessitated by the changes in growth rate. 
Several small nails were driven slightly through the bark at a 
uniform level, so that the tape line should be accurately and uni- 
formly applied to the circumference, and care was used to keep 
the bark surface as even as possible throughout the season, and 
to avoid taking note of any false enlargement through swelling 
of the outer bark during wet weather. It is believed that no 
great error has entered, although it seems probable that, during 
the latter part of the season particularly, it is not possible 
properly to take into account the effect of the breaking away of 
the bark, its swelling in wet weather or its drying and curling 
at points along the line of measurement. 

The observations were made during the four years 1897, 1808, 
1899 and Ig00. 

It will be seen that in each case the growth of the layer of wood 
began during the last week in April. The exact day seems im- 
possible to determine, at least by this method. Moreover, sea- 
sonal differences of temperature and moisture, which doubtless 
there were, seem to have had no appreciable effect upon the time 
of beginning of the layer. The beginning of wood formation is 
likewise practically coincident with the appearance of the new 
leaves of the Larch. Upon this point a second record of another 
observer gives the date of leafing out of the Larch as April 22nd, 
1897, 25th in 1898, 22nd in 1899, and 25th in 1goo. 


262 


Forestry Quarterly 


Formation of Annual Ring of Wood. 263 


Dine 


Larch 


Nw Fn nw @ Hw 


HEsttesag pages 


264 Forestry Quarterly 


In the annexed diagrams attempt is made to show the varia- 
tions in seasonal growth. Starting with the last week in April, 
the tracings in dotted line and solid line show the course and 
fluctuations in Larch and Pine respectively. Horizontally is 
marked the time in five-day periods to beyond the end of the 
growing season. Vertically, by relatively large spaces, sixteenths 
of an inch of circumference increment are shown. The first and 
perhaps most obvious point of difference is in the greater abso- 
lute growth of the White Pine, it being credited with nearly 15-16 
in 1897, 16-16 in 1808, 15-16 in 1899, and 10-16 in 1900, while 
the Larch shows 12-16, 13-16, 10-16 and 9-16 respectively. This 
result was not unexpected. Knowledge of the two species at this 
age, under various conditions and in various situations had per- 
haps already determined this point. 

The second point brought out is the longer growing season of 
the Pine. Its growth continues well up to and into September, 
while the Larch grows but little, I incline to think not at all, after 
July, although the tracings vary somewhat in different years. I 
am disposed to credit this latter variation, at least in part, to the 
drying and curling of adhering bark plates or swelling in wet 
weather, causing a false appearance similating true growth. 
What bearing, if any, this difference in length of growing season 
has upon the so-called “spring”? wood and “summer” wood por- 
tions of the annual ring is not clear. The wood layer of the 
White Pine is notably of the spring formed type, the summer 
formed being relatively small in amount and not sharply de- 
fined, while that of the Larch always shows a liberal portion of 
summer formed, the cells of which have very thick walls and are 
highly resinous. It is doubtful whether these two parts of the 
annual layer (better called primary and secondary), have such 
relations to the seasons as to warrant continuing to call them 
spring and summer formed. Certainly the summer growing tree 
in this case forms relatively the least amount of so-called “sum- 
mer’? wood, and the one which grows but little, if any, after mid- 
summer, the most. 

In order to gain light upon this point, attempt was made micro- 
scopically to examine the annual ring at two different times of 
the year. Small blocks were cut out of each tree on the 19th of 
June, 1900, and the 21st of December of the same year. These 


—————_————— 


Formation of Annual Ring of Wood. 265 


were sectioned, stained and mounted in balsam and photographed 
from the microscope. 

The cutting, particularly of the Larch, proved difficult with the 
means at hand and the photographic scale is rather too small to 
satisfactorily show the full ring of the year. The ring, more- 
over, was this year, 1900, the thinnest for the four years of ob- 
servation, and the difference between the species the smallest. 
Although the Larch was 1/16 inch less in circumference meas- 
ure, the section of the ring in the microscopic slide proved to be 
a trifle the thicker. The greater hardness of its summer wood 
and the easy separation of the wood rings from one another and 
from the bark gave also a less clear result. Nevertheless if cor- 
rectly represented in these sections, and I believe there is no 
doubt on that score, the two species may, season for season, be 
legitimately compared with one another as to their wood rings. 

It is plain that on the 19th of June the Larch in spite of its 
larger cells and the imperfection of the scale, had made the 
greater growth. At that date in each species a little less than 
half of the ring is still in the active condition with abundant cell 
contents, and neither shows any tendency to the thickening of 
walls, which is the visible evidence of summer wood when ma- 
ture. 

On the 21st of December, both had, of course, completed the 
year’s ring, and the essential difference between the two species is 
marked. The Larch has greatly thickened the walls of over a 
third of its ring without materially flattening the cells, except a 
layer or two at the extreme periphery, while the Pine has slightly 
thickened a much smaller area, but has, in addition tangentially 
flattened a much larger proportion of them. 

It becomes obvious from a comparison of these sections that 
the full history of the annual ring can be obtained only by a 
series of sections made at intervals during the year. The me- 
chanical difficulties in such a study would be considerable, even 
then there would be the variations between the lower and upper 
parts of the trunk, between limbs and trunk together with such 
as are due to meteorological causes, as have been shown by the in- 
vestigation of Hartig and others.* 


* Pop. Sci. Monthly. 1883. 22, 204. 


266 Forestry Quarterly 


The Pine shows generally greater uniformity in amount of 
yearly growth. Perhaps also there is a little less sudden fluctua- 
tion during the season in the case of the Pine, but it is not very 
marked. ‘The sharp fluctuations all occur early in the season; 
such as occur later are slower and less violent. It may be sur- 
mised that a correlation exists between the sharp and sudden ac- 
celerations of growth and the temperature and moisture condi- 
tions, as have been noted by Child} in the Red Maple, but no at- 
tempt was made to determine this. 

Incidentally these structural and physiological differences have 
their bearing upon the geographical distribution of the two trees. 
The Larch with its high alpine, narrower range, and short and 
cool season location quickly forms its annual ring in two or a 
little over two months, while the White Pine of lower latitudes, 
wider range, and longer growing season is more leisurely, taking 
double the time and forming a thinner and softer walled wood. 
It is probable that this particular Larch tree (Larix Europaea) 
has passed the time of maximum yearly growth. It is not in 
the most favorable soil and surroundings, and is likely to mature 
early even though it may grow slowly and add thin rings of wood 
for many more years. Certainly there is nothing in our know- 
ledge of these two species of trees to warrant expecting as long 
life and as great bulk of wood from the Larch as from the Pine. 
Experimental plantings of Larch, so far as I have known them, 
have been on too small a scale and either too crowded or too 
loosely grouped to give the best conditions. This species, how- 
ever, has several advantages where quick growth and use are 
desired. The trees can be advantageously grown a little closer 
than pines; while not free from disease and injury they are but 
little troubled by the pine tree weevil (Pissodes strobi) which so 
grievously mutilates our young pines and spruces, destroying 
the leading shoot and seriously checking growth. The wood is 
harder, heavier, more durable and better withstands strains of 
all kinds. ‘These qualities fit it for many uses where it would 
be sheer waste to employ White Pine. Altogether, the European 
Larch is sufficiently well known in various details of growth and 
structure of wood to warrant recommending it for artificial 
plantations in the northeastern states. 


+For new data on this subject see this issue, p. 316 ff. 


Formation of Annual Ring of Wood. 267 


On the other hand, our native White Pine (Pinus Strobus) 
has superior staying qualities. While not as slow growing in 
early life as the spruces, it is considerably less rapid than the 
European Larch. But when the Larch has approached or even 
reached maturity the Pine is still growing at an increasing rate 
and passes its maximum probably many years later. Hence, it 
is capable of producing a much greater bulk of material on the 
same area. In the beginning of the year 1897 the Larch girthed 
one-fourth of an inch more than the Pine; in April, 1898, they 
were equal. In April 1907 the Pine exceeded the Larch by two 
and three-fourths inches. 

This indicates that between the 4o and 50 year under the 
given conditions the Larch has reached its maximum rate of 
diameter growth, and is then surpassed by the White Pine. 

It may be worth while to call attention to the “double ring” 
which appears clearly on the section of the White Pine, and to 
put the old query, apparently still unanswered, what determines 
the formation of the “summer wood,’ and what gives rise to a 
double ring? Is it varying bark pressure? And furthermore, 
have we absolute proof that the condition and structure of the 
ring remains fixed as at the end of the year, or may not after 
all a change take place, obliterating for instance such double 
rings? 

W. A. BuckHovt. 
State College, Pennsylvania. 


“AVERAGE LOG” CRUISE. 


So many and varied are the duties incumbent upon the forester 
under present conditions in the United States, and so great is the 
scope that his training is popularly supposed to cover, that it is 
often with difficulty the younger men in the profession meet 
the initial tests imposed upon them. This is especially true in the 
first associations between the young forester and the lumberman. 
Often the ability of the forester is judged by how he acquits 
himself at his first test and from its result the whole cause is 
either belittled or fostered. The lumberman will often listen 
interestedly to statements and theories and will then propound 
a trite question, based on his exact knowledge and testing to the 
extreme the accuracy of the forester’s snap judgment. How 
often, on a tour of inspection with a lumberman, is the conver- 
sation interrupted by— ‘“‘How much will that tree cut?’ “What 
would you place as the average yield of the slashings we are now 
in?’ ‘What will this tract go to the acre?’ And on the ability 
of the forester to assume the position of an expert cruiser, is 
largely judged the value of the practice that he is recommend- 
ing. Lucky is he who can closely approximate the facts as known 
to the lumberman, for his case is nine-tenths won. 

In the general condition of our American forests no more 
difficult practical test is imposed upon the forester than to 
correctly estimate the volume of the standing timber. Our 
national, state, and private data for volume are entirely inade- 
quate to cover the multitude of variations in our forest growth. 
Specialized, they are good; generalized, they are often most 
misleading; individualized, they are at times ludicrous. Thus, to 
devise a method of estimating that will meet the exigencies of 
all conditions it is necessary to leave the beaten track and to 
enter the field of an adaptable table of volume. 

For two years the writer has been examining and purchasing 
timberlands on the Pacific coast. Probably two million acres 
have been looked over and group-estimated. Some 200,000 acres 
have been carefully estimated by him or by men under his super- 
vision. ‘The ‘‘average log” method of estimating evolved in that 


Oe 


ee ee 


“Average Log” Cruise. 269 


experience, but which is now far from perfected, permits of many 
objections on practical and theoretical grounds. Nevertheless it 
is simple, and admits of a surprising degree of accuracy, as shown 
by actual woods and log scales. To obtain a detailed estimate 
of a timber tract the work is grouped under two captions, (1) 
field work—collecting data, (2) office work—computing data. 
In order to better understand the method it may be well, however, 
to first consider the underlying principles and theories governing 
the work. 


I. PRINCIPLES. 


It is readily apparent to the forester that work in complicated 
forests of mixed species, such as exist throughout the United 
States, is greatly handicapped by the use of volume tables pre- 
pared in other localities. These tables can apply only to the given 
species for which they were prepared. Furthermore their error 
under extreme conditions, or if used in individual cases (incor- 
rect use), is often 75 per cent. or even more. Thus in a 
mixed stand of five merchantable species, five distinct volume- 
tables must be used, each subject to wide error. It is therefore im- 
practicable, often impossible, in the limited time allowed to ex- 
amine a tract, to correctly estimate the stand on this basis. Fur- 
thermore a large force of well-trained, experienced cruisers at 
correspondingly high rate of wage would be needed to do the 
work by the ordinary method of cruise. It was therefore neces- 
sary to devise some means for treating all trees uniformly regard- 
less of species, and to apply some system of reducing their con- 
tents readily to board feet. 

For a long time no good method for doing this was found. 
Many theories were worked out and discarded. Finally an old 
cruiser, whom the writer happened to meet, suggested the key- 
note in a then unheard-of formula for obtaining the scale of the 
average log of a tree. This formula, to the writer’s great interest 
is presented as a rule of thumb in Professor Graves’ Forest Men- 
suration, p. 153, and is as follows: Subtract 60 from the square 
of the middle diameter and multiply by 0.8, thus giving the con- 
tents in board feet of the average 16-foot cut in the tree. The 
volume of the tree in board feet is then easily calculated by multi- 
plying the volume of the average log by the number of 16-foot 
logs in the tree. This formula was checked on many trees of 


270 Forestry Quarterly 


varying forms and species, and the writer has yet to find a case 
where the results given do not closely coincide with the actual 
scale. ‘The results thus found are necessarily based on the suppo- 
sition that the tree is sound. All cull deductions are made later 
from cull scales or tables based on previous experience. 

With the fundamental principles given, the application natur- 
ally evolved. For expediency in the woods the trees should be 
measured at breast-height. Some hypothetical top diameter or 
taper must be chosen and heights determined, to permit office 
computation. In deciding upon top-diameters the personal equa- 
tion of the forester is involved. His decisions must be based on 
species, form, economic conditions, etc. Aside from the com- 
mercial limitations, which must be known by the forester, the 
other points are practically all embodied in factors of site. These 
factors may be readily approximated by a general survey of the 
tract in question, the height growth being the fundamental con- 
sideration to be noted. This may be done in one or two days, and 
a few hours at night will complete the tables necessary. If the 
forest is homogeneous one table will suffice. If conditions vary 
greatly, make tables to match. 

As a concrete example the writer will cite the table that he is 
now using for work in some 40,000 acres of exceedingly tall 
“yellow fir” (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). 


AVERAGE Loc TABLE. 


D1: B; Dit. 
at 5. a; Vol. at By Es Vol. 
inches Feet B. M. inches Feet B. M. 
14 83 25 290 
15 100 26 315 
16 116 27 339 
17 132 28 364 
18 148 29 386 
19 170 30 413 
20 183 31 444 
2006 32 472 
22 226 33 501 
244 34 527 


24 266 35 557 


“Average Log’ Cruise. 271 


D. I. B. Di lta. 

at B. H. Vol. at B. H. Vol. 

inches Feet B. M. inches Feet B. M. 
36 585 44 865 
37 625 45 904 
38 658 46 932 
39 686 47 960 
40 721 48 989 
41 757 49 1018 
42 798 50 1047 
43 834 


After the preliminary examination of the tract, the following 
top diameters were decided upon. Fifteen inches* was taken as 
the lowest diameter breasthigh for the estimate and 12” its cor- 
responding top diameter (short piling). For 45” D. bh. a top 
diameter of 24” was chosen. The intermediate middle diameters 
for each inch D. bh. class were figured from a plot on cross-sec- 
tion paper. 

In order to insure that margin of safety desirable in any esti- 
mate, the ratio between D. bh. and top diameters (as just stated) 
was figured by straight averaging instead of by the (proper) use 
of the areas of circles. Thus the middle diameters of the average 
log table as used, represent a double means of safety, in being 
less than the mathematical average between the end circles, and 
also in that the tree form is herein treated more as the frustrum 
of a cone than that of a paraboloid. As matters of interesting 
comparison the following results are presented. 

In result I the values as given are from the table actually in use. 


I. V=(D2—60).8 


D at bh Diatec. Av. D. Board Logs 
feet in tree 
35 20” BTR 557 X6=3342 board feet 


In Record II the same form is cubed as the frustrum of a para- 
boloid. 


iT. V=Sh=4.4315 sq. ft. XK 96=425.424 cu. ft. 


* All diameters given are measurements inside the bark. Fir bark 
varies too much to allow of other standards. 


272 Forestry Quarterly 


For reducing this to board feet, a co-efficient of 8 (8:12) is 
used in rough practice for the large circular and top saws, and 9 
for the ordinary band. With very large logs, in canting for U. 
G. flooring, and balance in dimension stock; and sawing with 
most improved bands Io is sometimes allowed. Thus: 


8=3403. board feet; 9=3829. board feet; 10=4254. board 
icom 


Actual scale by Spaulding rule of 6-log tree 35” D. i. b. at D. 
bh. to 20” top gives the following result (III): 


Log. Scale Diameter. Board Feet. 
I 33 796 
2 31 701 
3 29 612 
4 27 528 
“ils 24 412 
6 20 276 
35325 


Based on middle diameter reduced by 1” for taper and scaled 
by Spaulding rule, the result IV is obtained: 
Middle diameter (35”—20”)=27.5” 28” log= 561 


2 


27.5=approx. 544; hence the 6 log tree=3264. 
Comparing the methods, we find then: 


Method. Board Feet. 
I. 3342 
3403— 8 
is 38290— 9 
4254—I10 
1 BT 3325 
[V. 32604 


* Limbs. 


“Average Log’’ Crutse. 273 


It is interesting to note the volume for such a tree as given in 
a Forest Service volume table prepared by Mr. E. T. Allen in 
Cowlitz county, Washington. Herein a tree 35” outside bark at 
breastheight, (D. A. B.) cutting to a 12” top, scales 2545; to a 
16” top, 2295 board feet. The measurements here, however, were 
taken outside the bark at breast height. Figuring bark at 5”, 
about right for good Yellow Fir of this size, a 40” tree in Mr. 
Allen’s table is comparable with the 35” tree under consideration. 
Thus a 40” scale 3340 to a 12” top, and 3.070 to a 16” top. The 
Cowlitz growth is similar to the growth for which the Average 
Log table was made. Compare with this Cowlitz, or localized 
volume table, the more general one of an average of six counties 
in Washington cutting to about 26” top diameter (also from Mr. 
Allen’s work)—36” tree (no 35” class is given), 1,962; 40”, 
2,496 board feet. In order to approximate the volume of the Cow- 
litz tree (3,340) a 46” tree from the general table is necessary 
(3395). It will be noted that the varying of the cutting limits is 
partly responsible for these differences. Still it would not be 
difficult in Cowlitz county to find areas where a 35” (D. i. b.) 
tree would show 8 logs to a 20” top. In this case we would have 
by the average log table 4,456 feet, against a possible 3000 feet 
for a tree of corresponding diameter read from the general table. 

Referring again to results I, II], and IV, it will. be remarked 
that I is in the excess. This seems dangerous. But comparison 
with result II shows its safeness, and also that it is close enough 
to prevent any “errors of omission” in passing by a good tract 
because of an underestimate. 

On this principle a complete table of volume is figured for the 
range of diameters and heights encountered in the tract to be 
estimated. 

It is desirable, from many points of view, in the estimate of a 
tract to procure data of the distribution of the stand and also for 
crude maps, etc. For this the ‘forty cruise’ is well adapted, 
and to this has been fitted a further adaptation of the full circle 
method. Where the U. S. rectangular surveys prevail the best 
system for a detailed cruise, to the writer’s mind, is as follows: 

Given a section of land (640 acres) to estimate, the crew con- 
sists of one tally-man, and one line-man, who also paces the dis- 
tance. The ground has been viewed previously, though perhaps 


274 Forestry Quarterly 


only from a distance, and the trend of the topography determined. 
The crews are instructed to cross this trend, thus getting a truer 
average of stand as influenced by site, in cafion, on bench, slope 
and ridge. The line-man is supplied with a pocket sight compass 
and a small tally register to count his paces. ‘The start is made 
from a government corner, and the section line that parallels the 
trend of the country is followed. 

A government “forty” is + mile square, and the line-man knows 
that it takes 500 of his steps to travel this distance (250 double 
steps, commonly known to the western cruisers as “D. Ps.” 
[double paces], is the usual unit of measure for + mile). The 
method of pacing is usually to start with the left foot, and press 
the plunger of the register, which is held in the right hand, each 
time that the right foot strikes the ground. The line-man thus 
paces off 125 D. Ps. along the section line to the middle of the 
boundary of the forty, and then turns a right angle. A circle 
that contains an acre is slightly less than 118 ft. in radius, or 
approximately 23 D. P. The line-man, therefore, takes his sight 
and starts. As he registers 2 paces, he calls “Back,” and the 
tally-man notes a tree, bush, or well-defined mark to serve as an 
outer limit, to the rear, for his circle. The line-man on reaching 
25 D. Ps. calls “Center” and the tally-man comes up. The line- 
man then proceeds to 48 and stops after calling “Fore.” Thus 
the tally-man is at the middle of a line 46 D. Ps. in length. He 
has a sight 23 D. Ps. to the rear, and the line-man is 23 D. Ps. 
in advance of him. It is thus an easy matter for him to swing his 
eye in a circle covering an acre and to count the number of sound 
merchantable trees therein. ‘These he tallies in their proper col- 
umns in his book. He then studies his trees and determines ocu- 
larly the average or sample-tree on the acre. This he measures 
with a diameter-circumference tape, and then deducts for the 
thickness of the bark. The diameter inside the bark at breast 
height he then records. Given this, he knows to what top-diame- 
ter limit he can go. He then steps back to the center of the circle, 
or to any convenient point, and estimates the number of 16’ logs 
to the given top diameter. Herein enters the judgment of the 
tally-man. But he soon learns to size his trees very well, and if he 
errs at all it will be on the safe side. His notes might then read 
thus: 


“Average Log” Cruise. 275 


Section Town Range Date 
First Forty SE* SE* 
Siar Fir. Red Cedar. White Cedar. Hemlock. 


I 15 7/38 2 4/27 8 4/22 I 6/20 


Thus there are on the first circle counted fifteen fir trees whose 
average merchantable length is seven logs, and whose average 
diameter inside the bark at breast-height is 38”. 

The count completed the line-man steps off four more D. Ps. to 
52 and again calls “Back.” Then comes “Center” at 75 and 
“Fore” at 98. The count is taken at 75. This method is con- 
tinued across the forty, counts being taken with centers at 25, 75, 
¥25,975 and 225 D. Ps, At 250 D. Ps. the line of that forty 1s 
crossed and the next forty entered. While facing the distance in 
thus sub-dividing the forty, the line-man takes such topographical 
and lumbering notes as may be required. As the claim or forty 
is completed, the tally-man notes the “Claim Factor,’ C. F. This 
is his own idea as to whether or not he has been travelling 
through a fair average of the forty. If he decides that he has 
he notes C. F. O. K. But if he thinks that for some reason, 
which he states in notes, the five counts do not represent a fair 
average he expresses this relation by, say, C. F. 4+ meaning that 
to the stand computed from the five actual counts must be added 
4 to get the full estimate. With C. F. 1—, that amount must be 
deducted. If there are any prairies, burns, or barrens on the 
forty their area and location are noted. The C. F. however, ap- 
plies only to the timbered areas, the open spaces are taken care 
of in the computation. Second growth is also noted, and also 
items of interest to the forester according to his directions. When 
the day’s work is completed the sheets are sent to the office. 


Ill. OFrrice Work. 


The computation in the office from the data for each forty 
is exceedingly simple. It amounts to merely substituting for the 
fraction, expressing the form of the tree, the board feet in the 
tables for the corresponding diameter and log-lengths. This sam- 
ple tree volume is multiplied by the number of trees to the count, 
and the stand for that species is entered in its proper place. Each 


276 F orestry Quarterly 


count and each species is thus treated. It will be readily seen 
that on a full forty, five acre-counts represent 4 or 123 per cent. 
of the area as actually scaled. Therefore, with C. F. O. K., the 
total of the five counts has merely to be multiplied by 8, thus giv- 
ing the total stand of each species on the forty. These totals 
cross-footed into a grand total give the entire merchantable yield 
of the forty. If the forties are not full for any reason, 1. e. frac- 
tional government lots, presence of burned areas, or grass land, 
the average acre is found from the counts and its value multi- 
plied by the acreage of timber in the forty. Changes in totals due 
to + or — in the C. F. are also made accordingly. 

The speed and cheapness of this method, coupled with its ac- 
curacy, greatly lends it to a wide trial. There is also an advan- 
tage of secrecy, in that the tally and line-man do not know what 
the full estimates are. Good woodsmen may be readily secured 
in many places where experienced cruisers are at a very high pre- 
mium. In ordinary “going” two men can cover 320 acres a day 
in the heavy coast fir, 480—8o0o0 acres in mountainous pine lands, 
and occasionally up to 1280 acres in flat, open, pine lands. The 
cost of these men will rarely exceed $6 and expenses for the crew, 
and will occasionally go as low as $4.50 per day. An experienced 
cruiser commands $10 or more, and his one or more line-men $2 
to $3 per day. Furthermore, they cannot cover ground as fast, 
and it is doubtful if they can do it as well as the cheap crew 
under the system just outlined. 

When once a man becomes acquainted with this method he can 
easily carry with him the average size of the trees passed. This, 
on a rapid examination, will be constantly shifted and adjusted, 
but with very little attending mental effort. It is merely averag- 
ing and comparing, two duties that the eye fulfills daily. Counts 
on acres over a tract may be made even while strolling along on 
a horse. A small tally register will quickly and safely record the 
trees, and it is only necessary to remember the number of counts 
in order to easily secure the average acre. The eye soon gets to 
measure the 118 feet of the radius and the count may be made 
about as fast as the head may be turned. Experience will soon 
tell of diameters, and practice in computing will carry a clear 
recollection of the scale of the average logs. ‘Thus when a snap 
judgment is requested on the contents of a tree, the stand on an 


“Average Log” Cruise. 277 


acre of virgin timber or even of cut-over, or, perchance, of the 
forest of the last six hours, the answer will be forthcoming im- 
mediately, and it will not be far from the facts of the case. 

The system of the average log, with minor changes, has been 
employed by the writer for about a year. Many are the objec- 
tions that may first be raised regarding the volume theory. On 
short, quickly tapering trees the results do appear large against 
log scale. Still the ordinary log scales do not approach the mill 
scale on short-boled timber. The true test of the system will be 
from the woods directly to the results on the grading table. As 
yet the writer has had no opporttinity for checking in this way. 
In this, time alone will tell. 

A year’s use, and that in limited practice, is, however, no cri- 
terion on which to judge the value of the system. New objec- 
tions are bound to be entered. The writer would request all for- 
esters who can, to utilize the system, and to report wherein the 
tables may be improved. New formulas may be devised that will 
more closely cube the average log. Criticism is wanted about all 
things, and suggestions desired on all phases of the system. ‘The 
more the “Average Log” method is used, the more severe will be 
its ““‘try-out,” and therein only may the system be perfected—if it 
proves at all worthy of the same. 

W. J. Warp. 


THE FOREST LAWS OF CALIFORNIA.* 


During the 35th session the Legislature of California enacted 
forest laws which were approved by Governor Pardee on March 
18, 1905. They mark the renewed adoption by California of a 
movement to perpetuate the forest that has found favor within 
recent years by the National Government and by a majority of 
the States. Here, as elsewhere, legislative action followed a 
period of propaganda for the purpose of creating a realization of 
the need of pursuing methods favorable to forest preservation. 
The progress of the agitation work was marked in this State first 
by the passage of an act in 1885 entitled, “An act to create a 
State Board of Forestry and to provide for the expenses thereof.” 
This board was functionally a bureau of education. It issued 
three reports which were botanical in character. In 1887 it was 
endowed with police powers and given an appropriation of $29,- 
500. In 1893, however, this board was abolished. 

From 1893 to 1903 there was no surface indication of the un- 
dercurrent of feeling in favor of forest preservation. Yet this 
period was one of marked need and of rapid development along 
other lines. It was the decade during which the lumbermen from 
the Lake States and Southern pineries flocked to California to 
invest in timberlands, and during which time the State disposed 
of the bulk of its sole forest possessions by the sale of school 
lands for the ridiculously low price of $1.25 per acre. Then, in 
1903, those in favor of forest preservation made another stand 
and secured the passage of an act empowering the State Board 
of Examiners to contract with the Federal Bureau of Forestry to 
study and report on the forest resources of the State with recom- 
mendations regarding the best means of conserving them. This 
study has been in progress ever since, but will end on July 1st 
with all its objects attained. Before it had progressed a year, 
enough was learned to warrant the recommendation of a policy 
for the State to pursue with reference to her forest lands. ‘These 
recommendations were submitted by the Bureau of Forestry in 
the form of a bill which provided for the appointment of a State 


*A paper read at Petaluma June 7, 1907. 


The Forest Laws of California. 279 


Forester and two Assistant State Foresters, and in addition a 
field force of ten district fire wardens. The bill made provision 
for technical assistance to forest owners in the management of 
their property, advisory aid to those desiring to establish forest 
plantations and included punitive restrictions in the use of fire on 
forest land. ‘These latter were to be enforced by the fire wardens 
under the supervision of the State Forester. 

This bill failed of passage in its original form chiefly because 
the Legislature was not assured the time was ripe for such an 
elaborate system, and because of an objection, ill-grounded in 
my opinion, to the policy of making the taxpayers as a whole 
bear the burden of protection more or less local. Some men 
doubted the necessity or practicability of any action; others felt 
that the work would be educational at best. A compromise was 
effected at the last moment by hastily cutting out of the bill nearly 
all the provisions for a field force and leaving only the means of 
maintaining an agitation bureau at Sacramento, with which local 
interests could co-operate if they should see fit. 

The result was the Act of March 18, 1905, under which State 
forestry work is being conducted. Its underlying principle is that 
the State’s duty ends with urging and permitting its interested in- 
dustries to protect their forest resources at their own expense; 
and the machinery it provides for this purpose in the insufficiently 
altered detail of the original bill, devised for a wholly different 
system. But although this was as far as the Legislature was 
willing to go in the beginning, the apparent policy expressed was 
not expected to serve permanently. The measure was intended 
to be experimental; to provide means by which the people and 
the administration could learn by mutual experience the possibili- 
ties of the movement and the equitable share of expense to be 
borne by each. The knowledge thus gained was to guide the 
enactment of new laws. 

Forestry work under the new law began on July 12, 1905, when 
the Board of Forestry was organized and a State Forester was 
appointed. The general policy for early work consisted of a 
lively campaign against forest fires, because it was recognized 
that they constitute the chief destructive agency in California, 
and until their prevalence is decreased activity along the other 
two lines is of doubtful practicability. Education and publicity 


280 Forestry Quarterly 


were aimed at first, rather than rigid enforcement of the penal 
sections, both because no machinery for the latter existed and be- 
cause it was not deemed advisable to risk making the movement 
unpopular in the beginning. 

During the following year it was possible to reap some of the 
benefits created by the agitation of the first year. Among the 
achievements can be noted the co-operation of ten counties which 
appropriated sums ranging from $250 to $1,500 to pay the claims 
for salaries and expenses of the fire wardens acting within them. 
These ten counties had 103 fire wardens. There were 128 em- 
ployes of the Forest Service, acting under State appointment, 
who did good work in enforcing the law on private lands within, 
and contiguous to, the forest reserves where their Federal au- 
thority did not apply. Their claims were paid by the Forest Ser- 
vice. In addition 136 men accepted appointments as volunteer 
fire wardens to protect their own or their employer’s interests. 
These men either bore their own expenses or were paid by their 
employers. Of all the fire wardens appointed none received any 
money from the State. 

From the fire wardens and other sources it was learned that 
120 forest fires, exclusive of those in the forest reserves, occurred 
last year. The fire wardens worked on 76 of them. More than 
650,000 acres of forest land were burned over, destroying in some 
cases only the vegetation, in other cases houses, stock, and valua- 
ble timber. In every case, however, the loss to the State was a 
real one, for it meant either the direct destruction of taxable 
property or the lowering of productive power. During the sum- 
mer 24 arrests were made for violation of the forest laws and 16 
persons were convicted and fined. 

It may be said then that the forest laws are very useful. On 
the other hand, this cursory view of the situation would be very 
misleading, did it not admit great need for their improvement, 
both in detail and general scope. Their object will not be at- 
tained without still further assumption of responsibility by- the 
State, for the theory of voluntary co-operation upon which they 
are based is too ideal. ‘The indifferent element of the population 
is still too large. The present system leaves the regions where 
indifference predominates unprotected, whereas it is the one really 
in greatest need of protection. Let me illustrate by citing the ob- 


The Forest Laws of California. 281 


stacles to be overcome in securing county appropriations as a 
means of preventing fires. This condition obtains excepting in 
the southern counties: 

(1) The mountain counties which are the timber-bearing ones 
in California are sparsely settled; are assessed highly already for 
their necessities such as roads, bridges, buildings, etc., and hence 
are literally too poor to spare any of their funds to protect their 
forest property. 

(2) The valiey counties, which are our agricultural and horti- 
cultural sections depend for lumber, fuel wood, fence material, 
stakes and even for the water to grow their crops on the protec- 
tion of the forests in the mountain counties. Yet the valley coun- 
ties cannot appropriate money to be used in the neighboring 
mountain counties even if they would. 

(3) Then consider the county of San Francisco. The cry is 
heard that the city should not be taxed to protect the forest, but 
I tell you that it should. Does not the city of San Francisco use 
mountain water? Do not the inhabitants of San Francisco de- 
light in excursions through the mountain forests? Is the city not 
dependent for existence itself on a plentiful supply of lumber for 
building purposes? It is useless to attempt to solve this State- 
wide problem by local applications. The forests of the State must 
be protected by the State if they are ever protected. I[ believe 
that the State should have an appropriation for forestry purposes 
large enough so that it could meet the counties half way. Let 
the State and each forested county bear jointly the expense of 
maintaining one fire warden, who shall have no other than patrol 
duties; who, in case of a fire shall take active charge, summon 
men, secure provisions, etc., and at other times shall go about 
among the people instructing them regarding the forest laws, se- 
curing their confidence and enlisting their support. The men 
called upon by a warden should be paid for their services from 
the joint appropriation made by the State and the county in which 
the services are performed. At present the wardens have the 
authority to warn men out to fight fire and they may be fined if 
they refuse to go, yet there is no fund from which they can be 
paid unless the county bears the expense. The State cannot justly 
refuse to accept its share of this burden. 

There is just one other feature of the forest law I want to call 


282 Forestry Quarterly 


to your attention. It is provided that there shall be two Assistant 
State Foresters, who shall receive a salary of $1,200 per year. 
Whether the requisite is general address and ability to enlist con- 
fidence and co-operation in a new movement or, as it will be more 
and more, technical and practical training in forest work, it 
cannot be obtained at this price. It is absurd to leave the solu- 
tion of a problem involving millions, and by its nature requir- 
ing enterprise and originality, largely to depend upon the im- 
pression made by men who must be secured for less compensa- 
tion than is received by a minor clerk or mechanic. Unless this 
situation is improved the State will fail, at least partially, to 
meet the demand for assistance which it is trying to encourage. 

Owing to the low salary it has been found impossible to secure 
technically-trained men as assistants, yet technical training in 
forestry is as essential to the forester as the study of medicine 
is to the physician. For example, before giving advice in plant- 
ing, except the tract is small and in a well-known region, it is 
necessary to visit the tract and make a close study of the many 
natural factors important to tree growth. A tract of forest 
land, real or potential, is to the forester what a patient is to the 
physician, and the former must be quite as sure as the latter that 
the treatment recommended applies to the particular case at 
hand. “Absent treatment’ is unsafe. 

To prove that there is a call for this work I need only state 
‘the fact that since last August I have received applications from 
30 landowners for advice in planting a little over 75,000 
acres of land. Planting plans for 65,000 acres have been made 
in this period and general advice has been furnished for much 
more. In most cases the examinations have been made too 
hurriedly, however. This situation will not be fully met until a 
more liberal salary permits the securing of technical men who 
can be relied on to do part of the work. 

These improvements can be secured if there is a universal 
demand for them, and I look to the California Promotion Com- 
mittee to continue its good work in creating this demand and 
focussing it on the next Legislature. 


Gro. B, Luu. 


TREATMENT OF HARDWOOD LANDS IN SOUTH- 
WESTERN CONNECTICUT. 


The purpose of this article is to outline in a preliminary way 
the methods of treatment which appear the best adapted to the 
hardwood stands typical of southwestern Connecticut. Emphasis 
has been placed especially on theoretical considerations, but 
since market conditions in this territory are most excellent, the 
practical and the theoretical are both attainable in the average 
case. 

The forest products most in demand are telephone and tele- 
graph poles, piles, and ties, making possible comparatively low 
rotation. Cordwood, the chief output of thinnings, except at 
distances of over six miles from a market, can be disposed of 
profitably. 

For the owner who has only a temporary interest in the forest, 
no change from the present system is advisable. But where the 
land is held permanently it is believed that the quantity and 
quality of the yield can be best increased under some such sys- 
tem of management as that here outlined. 

As yet but little definite data on the results of treatment have 
been secured. This is but natural, as the scientific management 
of Connecticut woodlands is just beginning. 

So the exact results of many of the operations advised cannot 
be accurately stated. As more information is gathered regard- 
ing the results of treatment, better methods may be developed. 

Southwestern Connecticut is essentially a region of mixed 
hardwoods with chestnut, oaks, (red, white, black, scarlet, chest- 
nut,) hickories (pignut, mockernut, shagbark) and soft maple 
as the leading wood producing species. 

The composition of the forest may range from stands of chest- 
nut, oak, hickory, or maple to complex mixtures containing 10 
or 15 commercial species. Mixtures are much more frequent 
than pure stands. Owing to the fact that the woodlands have 
been cut over again and again and usually cut clear, timber of a 
large size is rare. As a further consequence of the clear cutting 
the present stands are chiefly of sprout origin, while the trees in 


284 Forestry Quarterly 


a single stand are of practically the same age. Surface fires 
running at short intervals—often annually—over the same area 
are responsible for serious injuries to the forest. But few stands 
can be found which do not show the effects of fire, either in poor 
soil conditions and lack of thrifty seedlings and saplings, or in 
the scarred and hollowed butts of mature trees. The amount of 
fire damaged timber which dies each year from the direct injuries 
or the subsequent attack of fungi is undoubtedly large, though no 
definite estimate can be made at this time. Were these surface 
fires stopped the condition of the forest would improve rapidly. 

An even aged mixed forest of sprout hardwoods showing too 
plainly the harmful effects of forest fires characterizes the wooded 
areas of southwestern Connecticut. The treatment for this par- 
ticular type of woodland only is here considered. Without 
doub: these sprout stands of mixed hardwoods form the prevail- 
ing forest type, usually referred to as the Mixed Hardwood Type. 
Before taking up the detailed consideration of its management it 
may be well to enumerate the other chief types and to distinguish 
them from one another. 

On swampy land stands of soft maple or of mixed hardwoods 
thrive, but they differ from the mixed hardwood stands already 
described by the absence of chestnut and hickory and most of 
the oaks, which give place to species capable of growing in ex- 
cessive moisture. The swamp hardwoods thus furnish a type by 
themselves needing special treatment. 

Another very extensive type, the Old Field Type, is found on 
fields formerly under cultivation or in pastures which are now 
growing up again to forest. The trees are of seedling origin and 
vary greatly in age. These two points, together with the presence 
of red cedar, and grey birch, serve to separate such stands from 
our main type of hardwoods. The old field type at first con- 
tains but a small percentage of chestnut, oak, and hickory; but 
gradually these species increase in proportion and by their more 
enduring qualities drive out the grey birch and red cedar. They 
tend gradually to approach the mixed hardwood type in char- 
acter and after being cut over once, change into this latter type. 

3esides the main types, other minor types occasionally exist. 

Stands of the mixed hardwood type may be separated into two 
classes for the purposes of this article: 


Treatment of Hardwood Lands. ' 285 


1. Untreated stands first taken under management when 30 
or more years of age. 

2. Stands from early youth under forest management. The 
general method of treatment for the two classes is the same, but 
as the details differ somewhat each class will be considered 
separately. 


I. Untreatep StTanps First TAKEN UNDER MANAGEMENT 
WHEN 30 oR More YEARS OLD. 


In an untouched forest allowed to grow naturally a vast num- 
ber of inferior trees accumulate, ranging all the way from indi- 
viduals already dead to others just becoming over-topped. That 
the competitive struggle for existence in such crowded stands is 
intense is well known to every forester. Nor is it necessary to 
enlarge on the need of, and benefits to be derived from thinning 
the stand. The point to be emphasized is that, while even in well 
managed forests dead and suppressed material gradually gathers 
between thinnings, yet in the forest which has remained untreated 
until middle age, the accumulation of these classes of trees is 
much greater. Indeed the presence of large quantities of dead 
and suppressed trees may serve to characterize untreated hard- 
wood stands. 

This characteristic indicates the line along which treatment 
must be first directed. The stand must be freed of the excessive 
quantity of inferior trees and improved by being brought into 
condition for healthy rapid development. 

A preliminary cutting of this nature is a true thinning, but 
since the stand has previously been untreated the inferior 
material has accumulated and exceeds in amount the quantity 
which would come out from a stand of the same age, but regu- 
larly thinned in the past. To express the same idea in another 
way, a preliminary cutting and thinning made in accordance with 
European standards, whether of grade A, B, C or D, removes, 
in taking out the same classes of trees, a higher percentage of 
the total volume than is laid down in European textbooks for 
the different grades of thinning. 

In many cases a preliminary cutting is more than a thinning, 
in that occasional gaps may be made in the canopy by removing 
badly diseased trees. It is then an improvement thinning rather 


286 Forestry Quarterly 


than a thinning in the more restricted and technical sense of the 
word. 

To illustrate the difference between preliminary cuttings made 
(1) as an ordinary thinning, and (2) as an improvement thin- 
ning, tables 1 and 2 have been prepared, each one representing 
one-quarter acre. Table 1 was taken in a stand about 40 years 
in age which had been but little damaged by fire, insects, and 
fungi. Table 2, on the other hand, represents a stand approxi- 
mately 10 years older which has suffered severely from fire and 
the subsequent attacks of fungi. In the former stand a pre- 
liminary cutting (thinning) was made, taking out dead, sup- 
pressed, overtopped and a few intermediate trees. In the case 
of such tolerant species as beech, black birch, and hard maple 
certain suppressed and overtopped individuals were left, provided 
they did not interfere with the main stand. The purpose of the 
cutting illustrated in Table 2 was to remove dead, suppressed, 
overtopped, and part of the intermediate trees, but also to take 
out all the badly damaged trees which probably would not survive 
until the next cutting (10 years hence). ‘Thus openings in the 
crown cover were allowable and as a consequence (although the 
cutting did not have this end in view) a certain amount of seed- 
ling reproduction may be expected. 

At first glance the two tables seem to show similar thinnings. 
But on observing the stand of 7” and over D. B. H. we find that 
out of 50 trees in Table 1, 9 are removed, or 18%, while in 
Table 2 out of 43 trees 11 are cut, or 26%, indicating a much 
heavier cutting in the main stand in the improvement thinning 
than in the ordinary thinning. The number of trees per plot in 
Table 1 is more than twice as great as in Table 2, due to the 
difference in age, and to the fact that on the latter plot more 
frequent fires have hastened the death and decay of small trees, 
and also because small beech, birch, and hard maple, tolerant 
species and able to grow under a cover of oak and chestnut, 
abound in Table 1 but are lacking in Table 2. The number of 
trees 7” and over in D. B. H. corresponds quite closely on the 
two plots. ‘The figures at the foot of Table 1 serve to support 
the statement in a previous paragraph that a preliminary cutting 
in an untreated stand removes a larger per cent. of the volume 
than the amount usually credited to such a thinning. For this 


Treatment of Hardwood Lands. 287 


chinning taking out dead, suppressed, most of the overtopped, 
and a few intermediate trees, without breaking the cover would 
be classed as a Grade C thinning (see QuarTrERLY, Vol. — p.—), 
and theoretically would remove not over 15% of the volume of 
the stand. As a matter of fact fully 29% was cut out in this 
stand. Probably 25% of the volume represents a fair average. 

The character of this style of cutting is well brought out in 
Table 3, which gives the stand before and after cutting with the 
trees tallied by crown classes. The figures were taken in the 
same type of stand as those of Table 1, the two plots lying within 
100 yards of each other and representing the same thinning. It 
is seen that all the dead and suppressed trees were removed, 
together with more than half the overtopped and about 1/3 of 
the intermediate trees, representing 23% of the total volume. 
No dominant trees were cut. The large percentage of over- 
topped trees left after the cutting are composed mostly of hard 
maple and black birch. 

Where the preliminary cutting is largely an improvement cut- 
ting the volume per cent. removed will vary greatly, depending 
chiefly on the extent to which the stand is damaged, probably 
never falling below 20%. 

Five to ten years after a preliminary cutting the average stand 
will need further treatment. Whether another thinning or a 
cutting to secure reproduction is in order will be determined by 
the age of the stand and by the length of the rotation on which 
it is managed. 

With the prevailing market conditions a rotation of more than 
80 years is inadvisable for the average owner; and where stands 
are taken under management at 30 years of age or younger, a 
60 to 70-year rotation is sufficiently high. This would hold 
especially for mixed hardwoods with a considerable percentage 
of oak. If chestnut occurs pure or in predominating amount, a 
much lower rotation, say 40 to 50 years, can frequently be used 
to advantage. 

Whatever the length of the rotation a time will finally come 
when the question of harvesting the old crop and providing for 
a second crop must be considered. The customary method in the 
past has been to cut clear, harvesting the entire crop at one time 
and obtaining reproduction by sprouts. Under certain circum- 


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290 Forestry Quarterly 


stances this works well, in other cases poorly, as will be ex- 
plained later. 

In considering methods of reproducing stands, a distinction 
should be made between (a) chestnut stands and (b) those con- 
taining other hardwoods with but little chestnut. 

Chestnut stands are best adapted for reproduction on a clear 
cutting system (simple coppice). Owing to the fact that chestnut 
sprouts so thriftily, good reproduction of this character is as- 
sured. Then again, in many localities it is well nigh impossible to 
secure chestnut seedling reproduction. Between man, squirrels 
and insects, the nuts have difficulty in germinating and producing 
seedlings. So the leaving of a few seed trees after cutting is 
practically useless in securing seedling reproduction. If a re- 
production cutting or a partial cutting of any sort is made, the 
sprouts which start from the stumps of the felled trees cannot 
develop unhindered. Chestnut being an intolerant species the 
shade of the remaining stand stunts the growth of the young 
sprouts and may finally kill them. 

As there is no hope of sufficient seedling reproduction, efforts 
to secure it should be abandoned and directed toward getting the 
best possible sprout reproduction. ‘This can be attained in no 
other way so well as by clear cutting. 

Whenever a clear cutting system is used, the cutting should be 
done very late in the fall, in winter, or in early spring. 

With mixtures of oak, hickory, etc., seedling reproduction is 
attainable and the system of reproducing such stands should aim 
to secure the largest possible percentage of seedlings in the 
second crop. The fact that the stumps, of the older oaks espe- 
cially, fail to send out any sprouts after a cutting makes neces- 
sary the presence of seedling reproduction. Under the employ- 
ment of a clear cutting system no seedling reproduction of the 
valuable species comes in, and many of the stumps sprout poorly 
or not at all, the result being shown in frequent blanks which 
gradually seed to poplar and grey birch. The removal of the old 
stand in a series of reproduction cuttings furnishes the proper 
treatment. It is unnecessary to enter into a discussion of the 
theory governing reproduction cuttings. Suffice it to say that by 
the average owner two or at most three cuttings at intervals of 


a 


A ag hr PS ee wy 


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— 


—— ee) oe 


Treatment of Hardwood Lands. 291 


5 to 10 years, depending on the rapidity with which seedlings 
spring up, should be used in cutting off the mature timber. 

Often after a preliminary cutting (improvement) as previously 
noted, conditions favorable for seedling reproduction are created. 
Where such a cutting has been made late in the rotation it may 
serve as a preparatory reproduction cutting. But frequently 
when the preliminary cutting takes place early in the rotation it 
will be necessary to allow the stand to close up and suppress the 
advance growth which has arisen prematurely. 

The methods of reproduction outlined for mixed hardwood 
stands and for pure chestnut should be applied whether the two 
types occur on distinct areas of considerable extent, or, as is 
quite common, in small groups. In a woodlot of any size, groups 
of chestnut are apt to be distributed among mixed groups of oak 
and other hardwoods. These groups of chestnut, even if com- 
posed only of the trees on two or three stools, should be repro- 
duced by clear cutting, while the small areas covered with mixed 
hardwoods are handled in a series of reproduction cuttings. 
Thus a combination of the seed method with the simple coppice 
system is applied to the same body of timber. 

The percentage of the volume taken out by the reproduction 
cuttings in mixed hardwood stands will vary greatly. In the first 
cutting, influenced by the condition of the seedbed and by the 
amount of advance growth on the ground, the percentage cut in 
stands previously thinned may run from as low as 15 to over 50. 
The succeeding cuttings before the final one, necessarily reniove a 
much higher percentage than the first; or rarely under 50 per 
cent. of the total volume. 


II. Sranps From Barty YoutH Unpser Forest MANAGEMENT. 


So far in southwestern Connecticut very few stands have from 
early youth received careful treatment. But perhaps the most 
comprehensive view of the treatment required by a mixed hard- 
wood stand can be secured by outlining its management from 
youth onward. This will include a partial repetition of the 
treatment advised in the case of untreated stands. 

The first operation for which there is need in the young 
stand is a cleaning. A cleaning as distinguished from a thinning 
has for its object the regulation of the mixture of species in 


292 Forestry Quarterly 


the stand, and the favoring of seedlings as against sprouts; and 
being made ordinarily in young growth it usually fails to show 
a financial profit. 

After a woodlot is cut clear a great many undesirable species 
seed in and compete with the valuable sprout and seedling 
growth. Such worthless species as grey birch and poplar by 
their rapid growth may overtop and suppress oak and hickory. 
Often sprouts are found shading seedlings of the same species. 
As the latter are wanted in the main stand, it is desirable to cut 
out the hindering sprouts. Such operations are cleanings. They 
can theoretically, in the majority of cases, be employed to ad- 
vantage after the ordinary clear cutting. Of course, where a 
fully stocked stand of thrifty sprouts or valuable seedlings occu- 
pies the ground after cutting, a cleaning is unnecessary. Whether 
in stands successfully reproduced by successive cuttings, a clean- 
ing will be required cannot be definitely stated. In pure chestnut 
stands cut clear, cleanings are unnecessary. 

The age at which the cleaning should be made will depend on 
the density of the stocking and the rapidity with which the 
young trees close together. It should not be made until the 
crown cover is complete. Between the ages of 10 and 15 years 
will be the best period. If longer delayed, a cleaning will be too 
late to accomplish its purpose. 

Fifteen sample plots each of from 1/16 to 1/8 acre in size, taken 
in an 8-year old coppice in which a cleaning had just been made, 
produced the following figures: 

The chief species were chestnut, white, black, red and chest- 
nut oaks, hickory, grey birch, poplar, and soft maple. 

Average number of trees per acre before the cleaning, 6,800. 

Number of trees removed by the cleaning ranged from 15 to 
45% of the total number, average 30%. 

No salable wood produced by the cleaning. 

Cost of the cleaning, $2.00 to $2.50 per acre. 

The cleaning would have been more effective here if delayed 
a few years, as the canopy had scarcely closed in many places. 

While undoubtedly cleanings furnish valuable aid in regulat- 
ing the mixture, it is extremely questionable whether they are 
justified on a financial basis, at an expenditure of $2.00 per 
acre. 


<.eS 


Treatment of Hardwood Lands. 293 


By the time the young stand is 20 years old the need of a 
true thinning will be felt. If no cleaning has been made at an 
earlier date, this first thinning will aid in regulating the mixture. 
But in stands of this character (which have lacked a cleaning) 
many individuals of undesirable species will have gained such 
positions that they cannot be removed by the thinning without 
creating large gaps in the forest cover. 

No reliable data is yet at hand to show the volume per cent. 
which can be removed. It will probably fall somewhat below 
that removed by the preliminary cutting shown in Table 1. 

A thinning in 20-year old stands ordinarily will at least pay 
the expenses. 

Following the first thinning at regular intervals of 5 to 10 
years, successive thinnings afford the necessary treatment which 
the stand demands until the time for reproduction arrives. 

In pure chestnut stands or wherever sprout reproduction is 
sought by a clear cutting system, the successive thinnings con- 
tinue right up until the crop is cut clear. 

In stands otherwise handled when the time for reproduction 
arrives, reproduction cuttings, as have been already described, 
are initiated. 

Unless protection from forest fires can be obtained, manage- 
ment of hardwood lands on a permanent basis should never be 
attempted. The same is true as regards protection from grazing. 
Grazing, however, is here a lesser evil and is confined almost 
wholly to small woodlots adjacent to farms. The control of this 
evil is in the hands of each individual owner and presents few 
difficulties. Control of the frequently recurring surface fires 
presents an altogether different proposition. The damages to 
the producing power of the soil, and to the crop caused by these 
fires are too well understood to need elaboration here. Control 
of forest fires while devolving to a certain extent upon every 
owner is at the same time in its broadest aspect a matter requir- 
ing State effort to be effective. Each owner, however, when 
putting his forest land under management can take such pre- 
cautionary steps as will help him to prevent the entrance of fire 
on his land and to control it should it once get started. 

By disposing of the limbs and tops left after thinnings and 
cuttings, danger of a severe fire can be avoided. If brushy tops 


204 Forestry Quarterly 


are allowed to remain untouched, they dry out, and, rotting slowly, 
present for a number of years a serious fire trap. The ordinary 
surface fire reaching an area covered with these tops increases 
greatly in violence and becomes very difficult to control. In 
order to confine the fires to light surface fires which do less 
damage and can be controlled more easily than hot brush fires, 
the brush and tops should either be burned after the cutting or 
lopped into small pieces and scattered over the ground. When 
tops are cut up so that after being scattered they lie flat on 
the ground, decay soon starts and the tops almost immediately 
cease to be inflammable. This method is perhaps the best in 
dry weather, when it would be dangerous to burn the brush. 

When the cutting goes on in the winter time or in wet weather, 
the tops and limbs can be thrown by the choppers directly onto 
fires and burned. By choosing small openings for the fires, 
the standing trees escape injury. 

The cost of disposing of the logging debris is low. When the 
workmen become familiar with the operation, burning the brush 
can often be included in the cutting price without greatly in- 
creasing the latter. One case near New Haven can be cited 
where burning brush has been carried on for five years. At first 
somewhat higher, the contract price per cord for cutting and 
piling wood cut out in thinnings has been reduced to $1.00 to 
$1.10, which includes the burning of the brush. Lopping of the 
tops instead of brush burning could be contracted for at the same 
price. Where the brush is disposed of in a separate operation 
about ten cents per cord of wood cut should be allowed. 

The maintenance of fire lines is often urged as the best method 
of protecting woodlands. But whether in the particular type of 
forest and region under consideration the expense of constructing 
and maintaining fire lines is justified by the results secured is 
debatable. A large percentage of the wooded area lies in com- 
paratively small blocks interspersed by farmland. No fire lines 
are here required. In other places where continuous forest 
spreads over considerable areas the woodland is broken into sec- 
tions by the country roads, and further subdivided by the numer- 
ous woods roads. ‘These roads in case of need can act as lines for 
fighting fire and for back firing, even if not kept as fire lines 
constantly bare of litter. Only occasionally do big tracts of a 


Treatment of Hardwood Lands. 205 


thousand or more acres occur untraversed by country roads and 
even such tracts ordinarily have woods roads. 

Instead of spending money annually for the construction and 
maintenance of fire lines, it is believed that the small owner can 
better protect his hardwood stands by personal work among his 
friends and neighbors, looking toward the establishment of a 
better sentiment regarding the setting and fighting of forest fires. 
The names of towns could be given which, formerly overrun by 
frequent surface fires, in the last few years as a result of a better 
understanding among the inhabitants of the damage done by 
fires, now are nearly immune. 

By inculcating the spirit of carefulness in setting fires and of 
willingness to fight them when started, the private owner can 
accomplish more toward protection than by constructing fire 
lines. 

What has been said regarding fire lines should not be taken 
as applying to other regions however near, or to other types of 
forest. Fire lines properly arranged and cared for undoubtedly 
further excellent protection, but in this particular case their 
maintenance appears unwarranted. 

Raupu C. HAWLEY. 


THE FORESTS OF ARKANSAS. 


The State of Arkansas covers an area of 52,000 square miles. 
Originally this entire area was clothed with forests with the ex- 
ception of about goo square miles of prairie land located mostly 
in Prairie and Arkansas counties. Fully 80 per cent. of the State 
remains in woodland, of which two-thirds is commercial forest. 
This places Arkansas in the foremost rank of the timbered States 
and makes it the center of unusual activity in the lumber industry. 
The delay in opening up these vast forests is more than com- 
pensated by the present vigor of exploitation. 

Geographically, the State is divisible, roughly, into upland 
and lowland. The lowland, comprising three-fifths of the area, 
occupies the east and south portions of the State. Along the 
Mississippi River it lies in a low, level strip 50 to 100 miles wide. 
South of the Arkansas River and west of these flood plains is a 
gradually undulating region which ascends northward to the 
Ozark Mountains. The upland occupies the entire northwest 
portion of the State. 

Conforming to these general topographic divisions we recognize 
three forest regions. They are (1) alluvial bottoms; (2) 
rolling lowlands; (3) Ozark Mountains. Within each 
are several types, usually difficult to define because of the gradual 
transition of one into another. The State’s location, diversity of 
topography and soil, together with a moderate, humid climate, 
are especially favorable to the occurrence of a rich and valuable 
flora. There are fully 60 tree species of commercial importance 
growing within its bounds. 

1. The alluvial bottoms are the flood plains along the Missis- 
sippi, Arkansas and Red Rivers and their tributaries. The land 
is low and flat, covered with dense forests interspersed with lakes 
and marshes, and submerged frequently by the river floods. 
Practically every river and bayou running through this region is 
characterized by a rather narrow strip of bottom land adjacent to 
either bank, becoming narrower as one leaves the main region. 
There are occasional low ridges lying parallel to the Missis- 


The Forests of Arkansas. 297 


sippi. The most important one is known as Crowley’s Ridge and 
lies between White and St. Francis Rivers. 

The soil of the bottoms is deep and rich. It is made up of 
layers of sand, loam and clay which have been deposited by the 
rivers during flood time. The fallen leaves and twigs do not 
have a chance to accumulate on the surface but are covered over 
by the alluvial deposits. Were it not for the frequent inundations 
such soil would be exceptionally valuable for agriculture, as are 
the drier ridges along the river banks. 

Three types are distinguishable, viz: Ridge, glade and slough. 
The ridges are long, low, meandering elevations above water 
level during the overflow season. The species of merchantable 
importance most commonly found on these situations are red 
gum, 40 per cent.; cow and white oak, 30 per cent.; white and 
green ash, Io per cent.; cottonwood, 5 per cent.; together with 
sycamore, mulberry, white elm, persimmon and hackberry. As- 
sociated with them are many inferior species, such as red and 
silver maple, boxelder, slippery elm, dogwood, honey locust and 
pawpaw. 

The glades occur between the ridges just described, being fre- 
quently interrupted by cross ridges. During floods water backs 
up from the sloughs and stands for several months, often being 
withdrawn by evaporation or through percolation.- The char- 
acteristic species are red and black gum; cow, willow, swamp 
white and red oak; hackberry, pecan hickory, red maple, white 
elm, river birch, willow, cottonwood and cypress. There is 
usually a dense undergrowth of sedge, elbow-bush, poison ivy, 
wild grape, cane and coarse wiry grass. 

The sloughs are covered with water most of the year. Cypress 
and tupelo gum are the only species occurring in this type, which 
is relatively least important. It is more prevalent in the immedi- 
ate proximity to shallow rivers and their tributaries than farther 
back where only the ridges and glades are found. Reproduction 
is usually lacking. 

The alluvial bottoms afford special inducements for conserva- 
tive management. Most of the land is not naturally cultivable 
and much of it cannot be reclaimed with reasonable expense. 
Tree growth is very rapid and reproduction is readily secured. 


298 Forestry Quarterly 


Most important of all, the danger from fire and wind is extremely 
small, making expensive protective measures unnecessary. 

Best results can be secured by clear cutting in strips not ex- 
ceeding 600 feet in width and at right angles to the prevailing 
winds, leaving strips of standing trees of the same width. All of 
the inferior species should be removed or destroyed. Logging 
with steam skidders is recommended. ‘They can be placed along 
a railroad at the end of each strip to haul in the logs for a dis- 
tance of one-half a mile or more on each side of track. In this 
way little swamping is required, heavy hauling by teams is un- 
necessary and the ground is put in good condition for seeding. 
Its advantages over the selection system are that logging is made 
easier and cheaper, marking of trees is obviated, and better 
natural reproduction of the desirable species is secured. The 
reserve strips should be cut over as soon as the young growth on 
the intervening strips begins to bear seed, which will be in about 
20 or 25 years. By this method the second cutting will equal the 
first, and subsequent crops are assured. 

2. The rolling lowlands comprise about one-fifth of the State’s 
area. The soil varies from deep, stiff sandy loam in the flats to 
gravelly clay on the ridges. It is poorly adapted to agriculture 
unless heavily fertilized. Tree growth is usually rapid and in 
most instances will afford better returns than farm crops. The 
forest may be divided into three general types. They are ridge, 
flat and creek bottom. 

The ridges are usually well-drained and occupied mostly by 
shortleaf pine. In many places it is the only species, but the hard- 
woods encroach where the soil conditions become more favor- 
able. The principal species are Spanish and post oak, rarely 
above medium size. Wax myrtle and huckleberry form the prin- 
cipal underbrush. 

The flats are largely covered with loblolly pine associated with 
hardwood growth peculiar to moist soil. The prevailing species 
are red and black gum, white, Spanish, post and willow oak, 
hickory, red maple and holly. The ground cover varies from 
weeds and grass to dense thickets of wax myrtle, brambles, 
sumac and hardwood sprouts. Loblolly pine will grow on the 
uplands and also in the creek bottoms, but the shortleaf is con- 
fined to the better drained soils. 


The Forests of Arkansas. 299 


The creek bottoms are similar to the Mississippi bottoms in 
character of tree growth. The principal species are gums, willow 
oak, red maple, cypress and loblolly pine. It is here that the lob- 
lolly attains its largest dimensions but it occurs only as scattered 
individuals among the hardwoods. 

The stand of timber on the rolling lowlands will vary from 
5,000 to 15,000 feet per acre, with a probable average of 7,000 
feet. Growth of the pines is quite rapid where they have suf- 
ficient room, and reproduction is usually excellent in all openings 
and abandoned fields. The wood of the two species cannot be 
readily distinguished, and since loblolly pine grows faster than 
shortleaf, it is to be preferred. From 40 to 60 years is required 
for a tree to attain merchantable dimensions. Nearly all of the 
timber now cut is over 100 years of age. ‘The selection system of 
cutting is applicable to this region, the proper diameter limit 
varying from 12 to 16 inches at breastheight. 

Windfall is common, especially on the flats, and much damage 
is also caused by insect attacks. But by far the greatest danger 
is from fire and all successful plans for continued lumbering in 
this region must provide adequate protection. Probably the best 
system is to burn the slash at a time when the least damage will 
result to the young growth and standing trees. From that time 
until the seedlings have reached a height of six feet all fires must 
be rigorously excluded. This can be done by patrolling the lands 
during the danger season and burning out fire lines 200 feet wide 
to connect with roads and streams. When the pines are six feet 
high the tract should be carefully burned over at a favorable time 
in order to lessen the danger of a more serious conflagration later. 
In this way lands may be adequately protected at annual cost of 
about 4 cents per acre. 

The price of pine stumpage has risen enormously within late 
years. Fifteen years ago it was possible to buy timbered land for 
from $1.25 to $2.50 per acre, or from 10 to 30 cents per thousand 
feet for the timber alone. At present such timber is worth from 
$2.00 to $4.00 per thousand. The next five years will probably 
witness a continued increase. 

3. The Ozark region occupies the northwest portion of the 
State and comprises about two-fifths of the entire area. North 
of the Arkansas River are hills and irregular, poorly-defined 


300 Forestry Quarterly 


mountains, reaching their culmination in the Boston range. 
South of the river the ridges are steep and well-defined. ‘They 
attain their greatest altitudes in Mounts Magazine and Fourche, 
whose peaks rise 2,800 feet above sea level. 

The soil of this region is mostly rocky, shallow and sterile. 
There is great variation in the composition and quality of the 
forests, due to differences in elevation, and conditions of soil and 
moisture. Three common types are distinguishable, viz: ridge, 
slope and river bottom. 

The ridge type occupies the crests of the ridges and some of 
the poorest knolls and foothills. The soil is very poor and stony, 
and subjected to the action of severe winds. The trees are small, 
short and scrubby. The prevailing species are blackjack oak, 
red oak, black locust, chinquapin-chestnut, wing-elm, and hickory. 
The open undergrowth consists of huckleberry and briars. 

The slopes are usually well wooded, the timber being best 
near the base of the hills and gradually entering the ridge type. 
The forests of the north slopes are better than on the south, due 
to difference in the moisture conditions. South of the Arkansas 
River shortleaf pine is a very important tree and is especially 
abundant on the south slopes, though usually in open stand. It 
is of fair quality but of smaller dimensions and closer grain than 
that grown on the rolling lowlands. It makes its best development 
in the gulches and on the lower slopes. ‘Trees in mixture are 
red, white and post oaks, chinquapin chestnut, black locust and 
cherry. White oak is the principal tree on the north slopes. 
North of the Arkansas River the shortleaf pine occurs sparingly. 
The most important trees are the oaks, gums and black walnut, 
chough most of the walnut has been removed. 

The river bottoms are usually narrow and much of the ground 
has been cleared for farming. ‘The prevailing species are syca- 
more, black and red gum, white, red, willow and burr oak, black 
walnut, basswood, holly, red maple, beech, elm and hickory. The 
forest is usually dense and with much underbrush. Trees reach 
their largest dimensions in such situations. 

The forests of the Ozark region are being seriously injured by 
fire. ‘The reproduction of pine is largely prevented and an unde- 
sirable growth of inferior hardwood sprouts results. Proper 


ng ocinaee 


The Forests of Arkansas. 301 


management of these forests will include fire protection, removal 
of inferior species and cutting by the selection system. 

The State of Arkansas as a whole is not well adapted to agri- 
culture. Most of its area is absolute forest land and if properly 
managed will become a prime factor in the future prosperity of the 
State. If present methods are continued, most of this land will 
become barren and unproductive. ‘The total amount of standing 
timber in the State is approximately 100,000,000,000 feet, of 
which pine comprises one-fifth. The total cut for the year 1906 
was nearly 2,000,000,000 feet, the largest in the history of the 
State. At this rate 50 years will be required to cut off all of the 
timber, assuming that the factor of growth will be offset by de- 
terioration and waste. In all probability the rate of cutting will 
increase so materially that the available timber supply will be 
largely exhausted within, 20 years. Most of the Pine mills wil! 
cut out within 1o years, while the cypress industry is rapidly near- 
ing an end. 

The time is certainly opportune to begin active work in forestry 
instead of waiting as so many other States have done until the 
forests have been destroyed. So far the policy has been wholly 
destructive, and little thought has been given to the perpetuation 
of so valuable a resource. The National Government has lent 
assistance by withdrawing from public entry nearly a million 
acres of vacant land in the Ozark region as a proposed national 
forest. It marks a good beginning, but since most of the lands 
are private property it remains for the State to demonstrate to 
the owners the practicability of forestry and to direct and encour- 
age their efforts. 

SAMUEL J. RECORD. 


CURRENT LITERATURE. 


Henry S. Graves, in Charge. 


Economic Forestiére. ‘Tome III. By G. Huffel. Paris 1907. 
5i2 pp: Price, TO at. 

The third volume, completing the great work of Professor 
Huffel, forms a worthy part of the whole series of studies. It is 
composed, like the other volumes, not as a systematic textbook, 
but as independent studies which permit diversions, and dispro- 
portions of matter which would be welcome but not permissible 
in a more methodical textbook. The principal subject of this 
volume is Forest Management or Forest Regulation. As in 
former volumes the historical element plays a considerable role, 
and, indeed, a whole study of nearly 200 pages is devoted to the 
history of the subject in France. This historical treatment is in 
our days most useful as well as entertaining and forms the at- 
tractive feature of the treatment. Certainly the usage in France 
and its historical development are clearly and interestingly 
brought out. 

Such a work deserves a longer critical review, but limitation 
of space forbids at this time to bring more than this mere notice, 
which hardly does justice to the value and importance of the 
work. 


BO Eaae 


Western Australian Timber Tests, 1906. The Physical Char- 
acteristics of the Hardwoods of Western Australia. By G, A. 
Julius. Perth, 1906. 36 pp. 72 plates. 

These tests, some 16,000 in number, the first of their kind on 
Australian timbers, were undertaken in the Railway Department 
of the Government. They were executed according to the 
methods devised by the former U. S. Division of Forestry (so 
acknowledged), which set the standard everywhere for this kind 
of testing. The results develop the superior quality of Australian 
hardwoods, of which 21 species and varieties were tested, most 
of them belonging to the Eucalyptus. The tabulated results are 
also exhibited in curves and a long series of photographic repro- 


4 
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4 


3 a a ee San! ee ee 


Current Literature 303 


ductions of typical breakages are given, as well as descriptions 
and illustrations of the apparatus of most modern character, the 
whole publication being of the first order. 

The following interesting general deductions are made: 

(1). Timbers in which the grain is closely twisted and inter- 
woven are in general very hard, dense and heavy; high in com- 
pressive strength both edgewise and crosswise, and also in shear- 
ing strength along the grain; comparatively low in moisture 
relatively to the straight-grained timbers, they are low in tensile 
strength, and therefore to a certain extent less strong where used 
as “beams.” Such timbers are Wandoo, Tuart, and York Gum. 

(2). Timbers in which the fibres are straight and even, are 
relatively less hard and dense, and are lighter ; considerably higher 
in moisture percentage when green; stronger in “tension,” and 
therefore generally stronger as beams, but correspondingly lower 
in compressive strength and in shearing strength along the grain. 
Such timbers are Karri, Red Gum, Blackbutt, and Jarrah. 

(3). Timbers lying midway between these two conditions, 
although not so “dense” and “hard” as those coming under the 
first heading, are in general stronger than either; such timbers 
being Yate, Salmon Gum, and Morrell. 

(4). Timbers coming under the first and third headings in 
general are to be found either in districts where the rainfall is 
comparatively light (such timbers being Wandoo, York Gum, 
Salmon Gum, and Morrell) or in localities where the soil is 
porous and does not retain the moisture, such as the sandy coun- 
try to which Tuart is almost wholly confined. 

The straight-grained timbers are to be found in districts with 
a heavier rainfall, and particularly in soils that hold the water. 

(5). In every case, in the timber grown in the dry districts— 
viz: Wandoo, York Gum, Salmon Gum, and Morrell—the moist- 
ure percentage is very low, the average of the four, when green, 
being 28 per cent., and the sap is of a thick viscous nature. 
These timbers, when cut, season very slowly, and shrink to a 
comparatively small extent in seasoning. 

In timbers growing in loose “porous” country, such as Tuart 
and Yate, the moisture percentage is higher, averaging 37 per 
cent., and the sap is of a more fluid nature. 


304 l’orestry Quarterly 


These “season” more rapidly, but shrink very little in the pro- 
cess, this being markedly the case with Tuart. 

In the straight-grained timbers—Karri, Jarrah, Red Gum, and 
Blackbutt—the moisture percentage when green averages 60 per 
cent., the sap being very fluid; and these timbers season more 
rapidly and shrink to a greater extent than those with lower 
initial moisture. 

The strongest timber, probably the strongest in the world, and 
far ahead of all others, is one as yet practically unknown, Yate 
(Eucalyptus cornata) which developed a breaking load of 35,000 
pounds, five times the usual specifications for wrought iron. 
The average figures for it are 24,200 for tension, 21,500 for cross- 
bending, 11,600 for end compression, 3,200 for shearing, with a 
green weight of 79 pounds per cubic foot. Salmon Gum (Euca- 
lyptus salmonophloia) and Ironbark (E. Sideroxrylon) from 
New South Wales are close neighbors to this strongest wood. It 
is a tree growing to 24 or 3 feet in diameter and 100 feet in 
height, common in the southwest portion of the State. 

The relations of density, weight, moisture and strength, .so 
fully brought out by the tests of the U. S. Division of Forestry, 
were fully corroborated in these tests, except for tensile strength 
(unreliable tests !). 

The remarkable durability, particularly of Jarrah and Wandoo, 
was demonstrated on sleepers, for over I9 years in service (with 
a 20-inch rainfall in four months, the remainder of the year being 
very hot and dry). Some Jarrah piles were found sound after 
72 years, “although completely saturated with saltwater,” the 
author says instead of “because.” ‘These were not even attacked 
by Teredo. Holding power of spikes were also tested. 

If there were more likelihood of importing these timbers, it 
would pay our railroad companies to study these reports. As it 
is, at least those engaged in testwork will find suggestive reading 
in this volume. 


B. E. F. 


Handbuch der Kaufmdnnischen Holszverwertung und des 
Holzhandels. Von Leopold Hufnagl. Second edition. Berlin, 
1907. 340 pp. Price, mk. 8. 

Although naturally written for the conditions prevailing in 


a 
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Se ee ee ee ee 


es 


Current Literature 305 


Europe, this treatise on wood markets and wood trade, perhaps 
the first and only one of its kind (possibly with exception of the 
following one), contains much of general interest both for the 
student of political and industrial economy and for the practi- 
tioner. Certainly the conditions and methods of wood trade in 
the various European states are nowhere so fully discussed. 

The book is divided into five chapters. ‘The first treats of the 
methods and usages of wood sales and wood trade in general, 
including measurements of wood, tariffs,. statistics and calcula- 
tions as regards choice of sortiments, mill enterprises, etc. ‘The 
second chapter discusses the various sortiments of wood and 
their most advantageous preparation and use in various indus- 
tries; the third treats in detail of saw-milling; the fourth dis- 
cusses the trade according to species and their best use; the 
fifth deals with methods of transportation. The financial side is 
everywhere made prominent, and in the suggestions regarding 
calculations for the most advantageous utilization of the wood- 
crop lies the main feature of the book. 

Even if much of the business methods described is of no direct 
value to us, there is always something suggestive in what others 
are doing, and, as we are just in the period of changing methods 
toward a more thorough and rational utilization those in actual 
commercial forest management will benefit from the perusal of 
this thoroughly practical, yet scientifically sound volume. 


B. E. EF: 


Holzproduktion, Holzverkehr und Holzhandels-gebraiiche in 
Deutschland. By Eugen Laris. 1907. 349 pp. Price, k. 7.20. 

This book, of somewhat similar import as the preceding, 
confines itself to the description of usages, written and unwritten, 
in the German wood market, and has less general, although prob- 
ably considerable local value. 


Ueber Diingung im forstlichen Betriebe. By Dr. M. Helbig. 
Neudamm, 1906. Price 3 mk. 

Contains in convenient form, critically viewed, all that is 
known about the use of fertilizers in forest growing, with a full 
list of the literature. It contains also a discussion on the nutri- 


306 Forestry Quarterly 


tive elements of the soil, tabular statements of the requirements 
of various crops and other material in the same line. 

The financial results receive full consideration without opti- 
mistic tendencies. When an expenditure of 48 mark per hectar 
for a lime dressing was found in the fourth year to have lost all 
influence, the profitableness of the use of fertilizers, except in 
rare cases, becomes questionable. 


Mitteilungen aus der Kaiserlichen Biologischen Anstalt fir 
Land—und Forstwirtschaft. Heft 1 und 2. Springer, Berlin, 
1906. 

The Biological Institute for Agriculture and Forestry, which 
formerly was a branch of the Imperial Health Department and 
became independent in 1905, has begun to issue, besides its leaf- 
lets, non-periodical Mitteilungen. Among the forestry subjects 
investigated the rust on Pinus Strobus, and the aphids on Abies 
are found. 


The Use Book. Regulations and Instructions for the use of 
the National Forests. U.S. Forest Service, Washington, July 
I, 1907. 248 pp. A revised and enlarged edition of the Use 
Book, containing the latest rules for the use of the National For- 
ests. 


The Use of the National Forests. U.S. Forest Service, Wash- 
ington, D. C., 1907. 42 pp. 

This publication is apparently designed as a primer to show 
the policy of the Forest Service on the National Forests. It is 
published in attractive form as a booklet, bound in cloth, and 
profusely illustrated with excellent photographs. It is written 
in very simple and clear style, and explains in a popular way what 
the purposes of the National Forests are, and how they benefit 
the public. This publication should go a long way toward allay- 
ing the suspicions of the western people, and in popularizing the 
work of the Forest Service. It is understood that the book was 
written by Mr. F. E. Olmsted, District Inspector, National For- 
ests, although his name does not appear on the title page. 


~~ <ee 


aa Sa) 


Current Literature 307 


The Longleaf Pine in Virgin Forest. A Silvical Study. G. 
Frederick Schwarz, New York, 1907, 135 pp. 

As explained in the title, this book presents a study of the life 
history of Longleaf Pine as it occurs in the virgin forest. It is 
the result of original observations made in the Gulf States from 
western Florida to western Louisiana. The study was, there- 
fore, general in character, as distinguished from the detailed in- 
vestigations which must be made in different restricted localities 
before our knowledge of the tree will be adequate. 

Mr. Schwarz discusses the distribution of the Longleaf Pine, 
the character of the forests, the evolution of the forest, the silvi- 
cal characteristics of the tree including tolerance, demands on 
soil, relation to fire, disease, wind, and other injurious influences, 
the growth of the trees, and finally the management of the for- 
est from the standpoint of forestry. 

Mr. Schwarz describes the forest as by far the greater part 
purely longleaf growth. He states that while there are groves 
of middle aged and young trees in small patches, the bulk of the 
forest is composed of trees that have passed the early and more 
vigorous stages of growth. He calls attention to the uniform 
character of the forest, growing, as it does, largely in even-aged 
groups. This is the result in part of the reproduction of the. 
tree, but is due also to the fact that it is a very intolerant species. 

The author gives many interesting facts regarding the effect 
of fires on Longleaf Pine. His conclusions are as follows: 

“1. They undoubtedly destroy a considerable number of seeds, 
occurring as they do at all seasons and being particularly severe 
in the fall of the year. 

“2. While seedlings offer a remarkable resistance to injury 
from fires, those under two years of age rarely escape. Even 
among older seedlings a certain proportion is killed where fires 
occur at frequent intervals. 

“3. The injuries to the bark and buds of saplings and young 
trees sometimes lead to unsoundness as the trees grow older. In 
mature trees recurring fires may gradually burn into the lower 
parts of the trunk, lessening its value and so weakening the tree 
as to expose it to the danger of being thrown by the wind. 

“4. The constant repetition of surface fires greatly impover- 
ishes both the seed-bed and the soil. The mold, which not only 


308 Forestry Quarterly 


furnishes nutrition but also protects and improves the condition 
of the soil, is thereby destroyed, and the germination of seeds as 
well as the growth of trees at all ages is unfavorably affected.” 

The chapter on rate of growth is based on only a small num- 
ber of tree analyses which are given as illustrations rather than 
as data from which to draw definite conclusions. 

The chapter on forest management is of special interest as 
showing the principles upon which a system of silviculture must 
be based. It is of course impossible to lay down any definite 
rules of treatment because the study is of a general character. 

The book is well illustrated with attractive photographs. The 
style of writing is simple and direct, and while distinctly techni- 
cal in character, the book is exceedingly readable. 


The Forest Service: What It Is and How It Deals with Forest 
Problems. Circular No. 36 (3rd edition), U. S. Forest Service, 
Washington, D. C., 1907, 38 pp. 

This circular is of exceptional interest as it explains the new 
organization of the Forest Service. On account of the new 
duties of the Service in connection with the administration of 
the national forests, it has been necessary to make changes from 
time to time to meet new conditions. Apparently the organiza- 
tion is now on a very permanent basis and it is acknowledged to 
be as efficient as any department in the Government. The new 
organization is much simpler than formerly, in spite of the mul- 
tiplication of new duties. Under the new plan there are four 
branches and fourteen offices. The branches are called Grazing, 
Operation, Silviculture, and Products, and each is directly re- 
sponsible to the office of the Forester. The Forester has imme- 
diate charge, in his own office, of law, information, dendrology 
and inspection. The branch of Grazing is charged with all mat- 
ters connected with grazing within the national forests: com- 
pared to the other branches, this is small, but if the Forest Service 
should be placed in charge of grazing outside of the national 
forests this branch would be able to handle the work. The 
branch of Operation has charge of all matters connected with the 
business of administering the national forest: technical matters, 
however, are assigned to the branch of Silviculture. This branch 
has three offices, Extension, Silvics and Management, which 


Current Literature 309 


conduct all technical work, not only on the national forests, but 
that connected with co-operation with States and private owners. 
Under the branch of Products are the offices of Wood Utilization, 
Wood Preservation and Publication. Apparently the last office 
was placed under Products for convenience and in order not to 
overburden the other branches. : 

The Service is to be congratulated on its new organization. 


Annual Report of the State Forester of Connecticut, 19006. 
Part VI, Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion. 

The report shows very satisfactory progress. Considering the 
very small appropriation which the State of Connecticut gives to 
forestry, Mr. Hawes is to be congratulated on the results of his 
work. The report describes the experimental work at the State 
plantations on the State forest, and the assistance to private 
owners. A small working plan is shown to illustrate the assist- 
ance which the forester gives to the private owner who takes 
advantage of offered co-operation. The report shows that pri- 
vate owners planted during the year nearly 100,000 plants of 
pine, chestnut, oak and other trees. The work of the State For- 
ester in organizing a fire service has been admirable. By an ex- 
penditure of $500 the fires have been kept down to relatively 
few, only 88 being reported for the year. This undoubtedly 
does not cover all the fires, but shows a large decrease over pre- 
ceding years. It is believed by the State Forester that by this 
system the damage has been reduced from $120,000—$160,000 
to $30,000—$40,000. It is a pity that the State of Connecticut 
does not make more liberal appropriations for this valuable work. 


Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 1906. Contains 
the following articles on forestry: National Forests and the Lum- 
ber Supply. By Thomas H. Sherrard; Forestry Associations 
(table) ; Schools of Forestry (table); Progress of Forestry in 
1906. 

Production of Red Cedar for Pencil Wood. Circular No. 102, 
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1907, 19 pp. By L. L. 
White, Forest Assistant. 

An uncommonly interesting study of an important species 
The author has taken up the subject of management and shown 


310 Forestry Quarterly 


how Red Cedar may be profitably raised. His conclusions are 
as follows: “1. In order to have a constant supply of cedar on a 
sixty-year rotation, it would be necessary to have approximately 
225,000 acres fully stocked. 2. The present ownership of cedar 
lands is entirely unsatisfactory in supplying the demand for 
cedar. 3. Existing methods of cutting all classes of second- 
growth cedar for posts, etc., are unprofitable and wasteful. It 
should be preserved wherever quality and quantity are suitable 
for pencil wood or other more valuable products. 4. As a means 
of perpetuating a constant future supply on a paying basis, it is 
suggested that companies interested in this wood purchase large 
holdings of suitable cedar land and manage the tract for cedar 
production on a basis of sustained annual yield. Cedar can be 
grown at a very fair profit for lead pencils.” 


Seasoning of Telephone and Telegraph Poles. Circular No. 
103, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1907. 16 pp. By 
Henry Grinnell, Forest Inspector. 


Brush and Tank Pole Treatments. By Carl G. Crawford. 
Circular No. 104, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1907, 


24 pp. 


Suggestions for Forest Planting in the Northeastern and Lake 
States. Circular No. 100, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. 
GETOO7e)\/iL5 (Dp: 


The Open-Tank Method for the Treatment of Timber. By 
Carl G. Crawford. Circular No. 101, U. S. Forest Service, 
Washington, D. C., 1907. I5 pp. 


Suggestions for Forest Planting on the Semi-Arid Plains. 
Circular No. 99, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1907. 


15 pp. 
White Oak in the Southern Appalachians. By W. B. Greeley 


and W. W. Ashe. Circular No. 105, U. S. Forest Service, 
Washington, D. C., 1907. 


SS ae oe ae ~ 


LE OOS POM A I he 


por Se 


Current Literature 311 

Location, Date of Latest Proclamation, and Area of the Na- 
tional Forests in the United States, Alaska, and Porto Rico. 
Circular, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., July 1, 1907. 
4 Pp. 

This circular shows that there are now a total of 156 National 
Forests in the United States, covering an area of 145,855,835 
acres. There are in addition 2 reserves in Alaska of 4,909,880 
acres, and one in Porto Rico of 65,950 acres. 


Further Studies on the Properties of Unproductive Soils. By 
Burton Edward Livingston. Bulletin No. 36, U. S. Bureau of 
Soils, Washington, D. C., 1907. 71 pp. 


Studies on the Movement of Soil Moisture. By Edgar Buck- 
ingham. Bulletin No. 38, U. S. Bureau of Soils, Washington, 
Pee e1O07., OT pp. 


Effects of Shading on Soil Conditions. By. J. B. Stewart. Bul- 
letin No. 39, U. S. Bureau of Soils, Washington, D. C., 1907. 
19 pp. 


Some Factors Influencing Soil Fertility. By Oswald Schreiner 
and Howard S. Reed. Bulletin No. 40, U. S. Bureau of Soils, 
Washington, D. C., 1907. 40 pp. 


Report of the Superintendent of Forestry. Part IX, Annual 
Report, 1906, Department of the Interior, Dominion of Canada. 
32 pp. Ottawa, Canada, 1907. 


Brief Instructions to Massachusetts Fire Wardens. By F. W. 
Rane, State Forester, Boston, Mass. Pamphlet, 11 pp. 


Third Annual Report of the Shade Tree Commission of the 
City of Newark, New Jersey. 1906. 27 pp. 


Production of Lumber, Lath, and Shingles, by States and 
Species, 1906, 1905, and 1904. Chart, U. S. Forest Service and 
Bureau of the Census, Washington, D. C., 1907. 


PERIODICAL LITERATURE. 


In Charge: 


Bonimicah Journals, ooo s. Pal sie Oke oa ee R. T. FISHER 
Foreign Journals, ......... B. E. Fernow, R. Zon, F. DUNLAP 
Propasandist Journalgeys 2825) 2 3.22 SOgE SMES ike H. P. BAKER 
Tide TOURS! Oak Osteen F. Rotu anv J. F. KuMMEL 


FOREST BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 


Interesting studies are made by the 


Spruce Swedish Experiment Station on the history 
Migration of distribution of species. According to 
in Hesselmann and Schotte the spruce (Nor- 
Sweden. way) did not enter Sweden from the South 


as most other tree species, but from the 
East through Finland, and did not arrive before pine and oak 
and other deciduous trees had formed extensive forests. For this 
assumption the fact is cited that the fossil remains found in bogs 
become fewer and fewer southwards and reach their most south- 
erly finds at Jonkoping. Moreover a definite southwest limit of 
the spruce is demonstrable at present, with a zone in front where 
this species is sparsely distributed. 

The spruce is a very aggressive species and capable of entering 
most plant and forest formations, gradually changing them to 
spruce forest. In pine woods the spruce finds satisfactory seed- 
ing conditions, grows rapidly in the light shade, then interferes 
with pine regeneration and the mixed forest soon becomes pure 
spruce, if not interfered with by man. 

The unregulated selection method has fostered this change, the 
pine finding too little light in the openings. In birch and oak 
forests the same favorable conditions for the spruce exist, only 
the beech on account of its tolerance can wage war with the 
spruce, and these two species can replace each other according to 
soil and other conditions, the one more readily than the other. 

On the mossy heaths the spruce takes rapidly possession of the 
ground, but on the pure heaths and the lichenous heaths it does 


4 
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; 


Periodical Literature. 313 


not thrive, especially as these latter are frequently burnt over for 
the grass. 

From good historic evidence it appears that 200 years ago in 
the district of Nord Skane the spruce was very limited, but dur- 
ing that time has conquered a large territory, the early seeding, 
when 25 to 30-year old, contributing to its progress. The present 
southern boundary, then, is a historical limit and does not deter- 
mine the possibility of extension, to which neither soil nor climate 
offer impediments. 


Die Fichte an ibrer Siidgreuze in Schweden. Meddelander fra Statens 
Skogsf6rso ksanstalt. Heft 3. 1907. 


The Hungarian Central Forest Experiment 

Growth Station publishes a journal containing re- 

im ports of its work which has special interest 

Virgin Woods. because dealing largely with conditions in 

virgin woods. Bartha reports on growth 

conditions of the Norway Spruce in virgin growth, especially 

relation of height and diameters measured at 1/16, 4, 4, 2, 4, 2, 

8 Z of total height. On the basis of his measurements he formu- 

lates certain propositions: The size of the root collar he finds in 

direct relation to age and the surest means for determining the 

age. Tree heights incline—without reference to age, diameter. 

tapering or root form—to maxima rather than minima. Be- 

tween tapering on one hand and age, height and diameter on 

the other no direct relation is recognizable. The largest portion 

of the volume—80%—lies below the middle of height, only 3% 
on the last quarter of tree height. 

For the calculations the author used a number of different 
formulz, and found Schiffel’s (see QuaRTERLY, Vol. II, p. 262) 
the best, but somewhat complicated; for general use he recom- 
mends Huber’s method. 

In virgin beech stands of Hungary, in which man has had no 
hand, Fekete finds the following proportions between diameter 
and height. His procedure in using the measurements is to place 
all the calipered trees in sequence by diameters, then by dividing 
their number by 100 he determines the number of trees to be 
counted in one diameter class, for instance if 300 are measured, 


314 Forestry Quarterly 


3 go to each class. The middle stem of these he takes as the 
typical stem of the class. 


Diameter class Dy EOS & Total height 

ie cm m 
10 5-3 5-5 
20 FA 7.8 
30 9.9 10.7 
40 12.8 13.8 
50 16.4 TIT 
60 20.8 20.2 
70 26.2 Feo 
80 3255 25.8 
go AO. 28.2 
100 50.5 30.5 
82.4 34.5 


From Erdészeti Kisérletek. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, May, 1907. 
Pp. 212-215. 


A description of a new Spruce from the 

A New Spruce. Canadian Rockies has just been published 

by Mr. Stewardson Brown. “The species,” 

he says, “has been referred by authors to both Picea Canadensis 

(Mill.) B. S. P., and P. Mariana (Mill.) B. S. P., to both of 

which it bears a certain resemblance, but from two months’ ex- 

perience with the tree during the past season, in the region from 

Banff, Alberta, to Field, B. C., I am satisfied that it is distinct 

from either. * * *” Mr. Brown describes the new species 
under the name Picea Albertiana. 


A new Spruce from the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Torreya, June 
1907. 


Among various teratological abnormalities 


Bark in tree growth which Badoux records in 
of the Journal forestier suisse, mention is 
Fir. made of a fir with thick, deeply fissured, 


rough, brown bark for 18 feet of its height, 
the tree being otherwise thrifty and normal, g-inch in diameter, 
standing among its companions with their characteristic smooth 
white bark. According to the description it must resemble our 
Abies nobilis. 'The author proposes to call it Abies pectinata cor- 
ticata, although so far only one specimen is known. Another 
freak are three warty firs, with rings of pyramidal, inch high ex- 


: 


Periodical Literature 315 


crescences or warts on the bark, which are not occasioned, as 
might be suspected by branch growth. 


Abnorme Rindenbildung der Tanne. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir 
Forstwesen, July 1907. p 210. 


Dr. Roland Harper depicts two oaks from 


Competition the campus of the University of Alabama, 
of showing that Quercus Phellos (the decidu- 
Trees. ous species) has prevented Quercus lauri- 


folia (the evergreen species) from develop- 
ing half its branches, crowding it out. The same competition is 
observed in other cases. In explanation Dr. Harper says: 
“From the standpoint of succession of vegetation the two species 
are far apart, Q. laurifolia being a sort of pioneer tree, almost con- 
fined to the sandy hammocks of the coastal plain from Virginia 
to Louisiana, while Q. Phellos is a tree of the climax forest, more 
common in the fertile valleys and alluvial bottoms of the palaeo- 
zoic region. In temperate Eastern North America all climax 
species are shade-loving while the reverse is true of many if not 
most pioneer plants. So it seems likely that when the branches 
of the two trees tended to interlace those of Q. laurifolia failed to 
develop for lack of sufficient light.” 


Dr. Hopkins, observing that certain linden 

Phaenology trees in Washington budded a whole fort- 

and night earlier this abnormally warm spring, 

Insect Control. than others, he supposes them to be early 

varieties [overlooking the fact that soil con- 

ditions do, and may have in this case been the effective agents.— 

Rev.} Phaenological data collected during the past ten years 

show quite conclusively that the average time of the beginning 

of seasonal activity of certain species and varieties may be util- 

ized as an index to the dates each season when at different alti- 

tudes and latitudes the conditions are most favorable for action 
against certain insect pests and plant diseases. 

Hopkins makes the normal variation in a given phenological 
phencmenon about four days for a difference of 400 feet altitude, 
or one degree latitude. The practical application of the principle 
here outlined is to be found in Bulletin 58, Bureau of Entomology, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 


Sctence, May, 1907, p. 862. 


316 Forestry Quarterly 


A number of articles on this broad subject 


Relations have appeared in the later issues of maga- 

of zines, several of which we brief here. The 

W eather drouth year of 1904, results of which are 

to recorded further on, probably gave the in- 
Increment. centive to this active inquiry. 


Dr. Cieslar brings a more general, ex- 
haustive article as a result of investigations at the Austrian Ex- 
periment Station. The first part is devoted to a discussion of 
the relation of weather to height growth, the second of the rela- 
tion to diameter growth. The first relation has apparently never 
been investigated except by Hesselmann of the Swedish Station, 
on the pine during the years 1900 to 1903, the year Igo1 being 
hot and dry, that of 1g02 cold and wet. 

It is to be kept in mind that the buds formed in one period of 
vegetation have all the embryonic elements of the shoots of the 
next season, therefore for the number of short shoots or needle 
bundles in the pine the preceding season is of import. Kuster 
found the same for Abies and for broad leaved trees. Since dur- 
ing the first season also reserve materials are accumulated, Hes- 
selmann argues that the weather conditions of that season also 
influence the length of the next season’s shoots. This surmise 
was borne out by the actual observations, namely so that the 
shoots of 1902, the cold year, were unusually long, 50 to some- 
times 100 per cent. longer than those of the preceding year, the 
warm dry summer of that year having, according to Hesselmann, 
produced this result. In 1903, with a favorable summer, the 
shoots were unusually short, sometimes consisting only of ter- 
minal needle bundles, evidently showing the influence of unfavor- 
able conditions of the preceding season. Plant physiology con- 
firms this causation. We know that the products of assimilation 
are not all used at once, but partly stored, to be used the next 
spring in developing the buds. According to Lutz normal young 
pines show a minimum of reserve materials by July; then an 
increase of the materials is noted until September. In the young 
trees observed their use for flowering and fruiting, as Hartig 
intimates, is excluded. A small storage, therefore, influences the 
next year’s performance. 

In Middle Europe in 1904 the months July and August were 


i 


4 
y 
& 
i 
4 


Periodical Literature 317 


excessively hot and very dry, as is shown by comparative tables. 
As a result only the length of shoots in 1905 was reduced, as 
the following averages of three 6 to g-year-old plantations of 
spruce show, the length of shoots being in centimetres: 


1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 

I II.9 13.3 13. FAS 17.5 
II 14.2 75 20. 16.7 24.9 
Ill 6.7 10.4 8.4 4.9 12.8 


The height growth of the drouth year suffered only slightly in 
the first, not at all in the second, but in the drier soil of the last 
very appreciably. Weather conditions, which in Sweden accord- 
ing to Hesselmann effected increased height growth in the follow- 
ing year had the opposite effect in Middle Europe. It is there- 
fore apparent that an abnormal condition of weather may in one 
climatic zone be advantageous, in another disadvantageous. As 
demonstrated by Wollny the vegetative activity of plants is gov- 
erned by that factor of growth which is. present in smallest or 
insufficient amount or else near the maximum in intensity. Fresh 
soils can produce higher yields only when satisfactory tempera- 
ture conditions prevail; when all factors of production are at 
their optimum the maximum of production is reached, when 
the relation of moisture to temperature, or as the author calls it, 


the vegetation quotient, ae (by the reviewer long ago, with more 


directness, called transpiration factor) is most favorable. The 
author, to show the value of this vegetation quotient in express- 
ing weather conditions furnishes a table for the various stations 
under his observation, which give the following means: 


March-April May-June July-August Average 
1902 28 20 14.1 20.7 
1903 33.9 11.6 23.4 23. 
1904 27 10. 9.9 14.2 
1905 34.7 8.2 12.9 18.6 
Averages, 29.8 12.4 15.1 


A comparison of the curves of height growth with those of 
the vegetation quotients, especially in July-August of the pre- 
vious year show obvious parallelism, the storing of reserve ma- 
terials upon which the height growth relies beginning in July. 

To explain the divergence of his results from Hesselmann’s, the 


318 Forestry Quarterly 


author points out that for both spruce and pine Sweden is not an 
optimum region, precipitation generally being higher than evap- 
oration, hence the warm dry summer is an improvement on the 
usual climate, and the result in growth and storage of materials 
an increase. In other words the influence on height growth by 
the meteorological factors of July-August of the preceding year 
occurs in positive or negative sense according to whether the 
abnormal weather conditions compared with the normal is an 
approach or a departure from optimum conditions of vegetation. 
A similar law will be found exemplified further on in regard to 
diameter growth. These observations make clearer what “opti- 
mum locality” and climatic zones really mean. 

The relation of weather to diameter growth has been before 
developed by Friedrich, who discovered that the weather of the 
year’s growing season is determinative, while Schwarz in his 
work on the pine assigns to the temperature of the months Jan- 
uary to March the most important influence on the amount of in- 
crement; on dry and medium moist soils, i. e., under normal con- 
ditions. He found that early beginning of warm weather in 
spring produced large, retarded spring small increment. 

Cieslar secured his data by means of a Pressler borer on cores 
taken breast high for a series of years, including the drouth 
year 1904, on a variety of species, ages and sites, the ring growth 
being examined with a magnifier of 23 diameters. The data of 
131 trees, which include measurements of the summerwood per 
cent., are tabulated in full on 16 pages. 

We can give only samples and have selected the two species 
for which Prof. Buckhout brings data in this issue (see p. 259), 
together with deciduous species for.comparison, leaving out some 
of the data of site and character of tree. Unfortunately the sum- 
merwood per cent. was not in all cases measured. 

These data as well as all the others with few exceptions show 
the detrimental influence of the summer drouth in the year of its 
occurrence on diameter growth, proving that temperature and 
moisture conditions after January to March have a decided in- 
fluence, contrary to Schwarz, especially since the weather condi- 
tions in 1902 and 1905 did not produce any proportionate diame- 
ter growth. Those specimens which did not react to the drouth 
were found near water courses, and those reacting only slightly 


9 
§ 
y 


Periodical Literature. 319 


species.  “tigu pos. AE® ee or perenee 
m. 1905 1904 1903 1905 1904 1903 
Pinus Strobus,.. . 400-500 plain 65 2.304 (2013 2.58 
open 
Larix europea, .. 1200 Ss 15 (?) 3:20) 4.21 2.58 27 51 40 
= 1400 N old 12 15 15 not noticeable. 
we 1400 S young 3.90 5.70 6. 35 17 15 
as AT 1400 N old -18 rs -30 33 22 20 
ae Sy 1000 E old -78 -51 426) | 35 18 25 
se aie 500 W 25-30 2:25) 3.65 21 26 38 
Fagus silvatica, . . 500 plain 6 inch 2.70 2.25 2.55 15 12 12 
c . - 650-750 S 60 2.25 2.40 1.75 
s¢ 1450 SW 60 -65 95 1.50 
Qnercus sessilifiora, 320y aN 60-80 2:64.) “2:07 © 12.850 057 50 37 
Ks 320 S old, open 1.35) oleae 1.50 77 51 67 
bs 350 S 30,sprout 1.50 1.20 1.50 
sf 400 old 1.44 1.35 1.65 
Pinus sylvestris, . . 300 plain very old 48, .96 -96 25 9 31 
ue 3 320 Ss 18 66 1.74 2,04 24 10 23 


320 S 12inchd, 2.55 3.24 3:96 41 16 45 


came from fresh soils, or else were situated in districts which 
demonstrably had not experienced the drouth. 

A special series of measurements on 50 pines from one dis- 
trict show strikingly not only the effect of the drouth, but 
its after effect in the following year, which was also hot although 
rainy. 

Highly interesting is the observation that in higher elevations 
(1400 m), although drouthy conditions prevailed in 1904 and 
1905, of 16 trees only 4 showed minimal reduction of increment, 
while the others made even larger increment. This observation 
coincides with that made by Hesselmann in Sweden. With ele- 
vation we depart from the warmer optimum, when higher tem- 
perature and less precipitation become favorable factors. Two 
spruces standing on a swampy meadow most strikingly showed 
the benefit of the drouth year in increased increment. A south- 
ern, steep exposure may, however, wipe out the advantages, as is 
shown by another series of measurements. 

Very striking is the influence of the drouth on the summer 
wood per cent. with very few exceptions, sometimes to the extent 
of practically wiping out summer wood formation. Losses from 
the normal 19 per cent. to 3, 31 per cent. to 9, 62 per cent. to 32, 
37 per cent. to 4, 43 per cent. to 13, 45 per cent. to 16, 31 per cent. 
to 7, 41 per cent. to 10, are noted in the neighboring rings. 
Usually the color of the summer wood is paler, so that not only 


320 Forestry Quarterly 


amount but structure seems to be influenced, and that means the 
quality of the wood (lighter) ! 

It is well known that in conifers as a rule with the broadening 
of the annual ring the summer wood per cent. decreases and the 
quality sinks and vice versa. In the abnormal drouth (hunger !) 
year this rule is entirely lost: the smaller rings are absolutely 
and relatively reduced in summer wood and hence furnish poorer 
wood. 

There are, outside of Sachs’ bark pressure theory, two theories 
regarding the formation of spring and summer wood. R. Hartig 
refers the thin-walled springwood to poorer nutrition and the 
necessity of forming conductive tissue, the thick-walled summer- 
wood being referred by him to better nutrition during the warm 
and sufficiently moist summer. Wieler, on the other hand, claims 
that the more unfavorable the conditions of nutrition the slower 
the development of assimilating organs, hence the more summer 
wood. 

The author inclines from the data collected to side with Har- 
tig’s conception. That conditions of nutrition are responsible is 
also made evident from the observation that even in the cases 
where the ring of 1904 was as broad or broader than that of 1903, 
the summer wood in the former was percentically and absolutely 
smaller than in the latter year. 


Einige Beziehungen zwischen Holzzuwachs und Witterung. Central- 
blatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. June, July, 1907. . pp. 233-246, 289-311. 


A further contribution on the influence of 


Effects weather on increment is brought by Boh- 
of merle, who studied the effects of the drouth 
Drouth of 1904 on the various experimental areas 
on of the Austrian Experiment Stations. 
Increment. Speaking in general on the influence of 


weather on increment the author quotes Dr. 

Pokorny, from an address delivered 40 years ago, as follows: 
“The conditions which now retard, now promote the increment 
of trees are partly constant, partly temporary ones. ‘The latter, 
like open position, severe wounds, etc., show mostly very obvious 
effects on the annual ring, which as a rule are readily recognized 
as abnormal. The constant factors, like site, age, character of 


a ee 


ee 


a eee, ee 


Periodical Literature. 321 


species, can be calculated, and only one factor remains, which in 
the great average is constant, but in the single years varies, namely 
the weather conditions. The principal sign by which the influence 
of this factor can be recognized is that all trees of a region of 
equal weather conditions must show its effects no matter what 
age or other conditions might be. In this manner the annual ring 
becomes a phenological datum, and it is only necessary to find a 
proper method of observing it. The best basis for such is to 
make comparative studies of annual rings of the same years, to 
find years of special meteorological character in the cross section 
of trees and relate them to weather records.” 

The various experimental areas of the Austrian Station, which 
are annually carefully calipered gave a special opportunity for 
relating the performance during the drouthy year 1904 with pre- 
ceding and subsequent years. Eleven such areas, mostly thin- 
ning areas, were utilized. 

Without going into details, we have from the data furnished 
made the following tabulation, the Roman numbers referring to 
various measured areas, variously thinned and of varying density, 
the percentages being related to the cross section area of the 
year 1900 or some other one year preceding the drouth year: 


Cross Section Increment Per cent. 


Year I II TE TINE CVS VEIN) AV STOTT Ilr) Teepe 
1901 2H 3G SPM HOM At ort SEO if 
1902 POAC WAU el FA Ie Hae Meier | Pre 
1903 3: 4.3 2.2 3. 4.2 5.9 1.6 2.3! (B05) ane 
1904 2d 2:8 yy Ay fils 21 dae | 1.4 22) aero 
1905 Pes Dias Oh Peg SES lage, 1.8 2.) eho aes 
1906 admis sits ZO Shaye y hese at 

Be SOE SEE NE EV UL | SWE CIT RTE epee 
1902 i eee 27) tS! RAL 3.9 4.4 4.4 4.9 
1903 ES AG EO. Biome Deo” “Su 2S Pea Buz Se Sas 
1904 13:6) 19:6: (11-8. 50. 14 1.7 1.6 2.3 Py 
1905 i fe eke WS ee Wad ease) | TST reets pe re 2.9 Bie t 226 
1906 BG 2s IO Se ps Bre eae #) 3 Sug | ¢3aG 


The losses of increment, as is evident are felt in most cases in 
the following year as well as in the drouth year. They vary in 
amount from a fraction to 1.8 per cent. in the different areas. 
The more open the areas, as is to be expected, the more severely 
they suffer. For some of the areas the loss in dead trees per ha. 
is recorded, as for instance: 


322 Forestry Quarterly 
1903 8 16 
1904 68 60 
1905 20 112 
1900 fe) hake 


In one of the areas not included in the table Austrian Pine, 82 
years old, on diluvial soil with impenetrable subsoil at 24 inches, 
the increment loss during the drouth year figured for variously 
thinned stands as much as 1.8, 2.5, 3.6, 3.5 per cent., the more 
open stands showing the greater loss. 

An area of the same species and character in which on one part 
(1) the litter is not removed, on a second (II) is removed an- 
nually, on a third (III) only every five years, showed the follow- 
ing losses: I, 3.8 %;, II, 3.4%; III, 3.9 %; the first and sec- 
ond suffering alike, a two year layer of litter being sufficient to 
eradicate the difference. 

On two areas used for fertilizer experiments, the one with the 
litter hoed under every 3 years, the other under removal of litter 
every 3 years and surface dressing of street manure showed the 
following increment and loss per cents.: 


I II 
Increment Loss Increment Loss 
1903 5.8 5.5 
1904 3.3 2.5 2.6 2.9 
1905 ita} 4.5 hes} 4.2 
1906 5.6 5-4 


The loss of increment in these cases is repaired in the second 
year due to the soil improvement in 1905. 

The influence of the drouth on height growth in young 
plantations in the years of drouth and the subsequent one is 
strikingly exhibited in the following table giving the annual 
average height growth in four 10 to 15-year-old plantations of 
spruce : 


Year I II Ill IV 
Meter 

1902 .58 .49 61 .44 

1903 - 37 ats ie 44 

1904 oF 525 .27 20 

1905 .31 pi2 2i .18 

1906 .49 or 52 35 


At another place entire plantations up to 15 years of age are 
reported to have died, even the frugal birch succumbing. 


« ea 


ee ee ee Se ee ee 


Periodical Literature. 323 


Lastly, areas used for irrigation experiments are investigated 
as to the loss in different stem classes. Naturally the unirrigated 
area suffered more than the irrigated, but it is less directly evi- 
dent why the middle classes suffer more than the stouter or 
smaller trees, and why the subsequent year shows greater losses. 
The losses in the drouth year and the year following were: 


Class Irrigated Non-irrigated 
1904 Lowest .48% .22% 
Middle .Q2 81 
Stoutest ig) “12 
1905 Lowest i .70 
Middle ied i. ht 
Stoutest 18 81 


The stoutest class reacts less to the irrigation as well as to the 
drouth (deeper root system?), the medium class is most bene- 
fited and damaged, the lowest responds relatively less in both 
directions. 


Die Diirreperiode 1904 und unsre Versuchbestinde. Centralblatt f. 
d. g. Forstwesen. May 1907, pp. 192-208. 


Dr. Friedrich, with the aid of his ingenious 


Influence auxanometer (see QUARTERLY, Vol. IV, p. 
of 52), has been studying the influence of 
Frost weather on increment, and especially the in- 
on fluence of frost on diameter. The results 
Diameter. of observations through three winter 


months on maple, basswood and spruce are 
graphically presented, on other species in tables, and show a de- 
cided parallelism between temperature changes and diameter 
variation. 

In these studies the fact has been demonstrated that even dur- 
ing the winter rest the diameters of living trees remain rarely 
constant. ‘There is no difference in this respect between the leaf- 
less trees and the leafy conifers, the transpiration of the latter in 
an air of prevalent high relative humidity making small differ- 
ence. In temperatures above zero (c) the diameter changes 
show contradictions, which the author believes due to the partial 
influence of the sun, and also to the shading influence of the 
crown, as in spruce. A short duration of frost conditions effects 


324 Forestry Quarterly 


little diameter variation, but continued frost weather effects first 
slowly, then more rapidly a decrease in diameter which may 
amount to maxima of 230 mm in basswood, 85 mm in maple, 145 
mm in spruce, 70 in white pine, etc., the different species reacting 
very differently. 

A beech stand was carefully calipered in mild and frosty 
weather, the result even by this cruder method showing a de- 
crease of 4 mm. Measurements of freshly felled logs in frosty 
weather would also show decreases, but, owing to the varying 
moisture per cent. a direct proportion could not be established. 


Ueber den Einfluss des Frostes auf den Durchmesser lebender Baume. 
Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. May 1907, pp. 185-192. 


SOIL, WATER AND. CLIMATE. 


After having described conditions of pas- 

Preservation tures and forest in the Alps and Jura, and 

of especially the wasted pastures, which fail 

Soil Fertility. to be useful, Pillichody points out that here 

the forest is the only practicable and cheap 

means of improvement. ‘That forest cover improves the soil is 
proved by the fact that even on poor soils forest growth not only 
thrives at the start, but if properly treated its yield increases and 
it advances into a better site class. Soil physicists explain this 
soil improvement by the leaf fall; the constant, moderate hu- 
midity, the rapid oxygen production, which together with the 
even temperature favors humification; porosity and full aeration 
of the forest soil, which promotes the decomposition of the min- 
eral constituents. This did not, however, explain why with in- 
tensive utilization of the wood, i. e. removal of these materials, 
especially nitrogen, the soil fertility did not retrograde. Not 
until Hellriegel and Willfarth in 1888 demonstrated the capacity 
of certain plants, especially leguminous ones of accumulating 
nitrogen from the air, and Henry of Nancy showing in 1894 that 
the decomposing leaf litter has the same capacity under co- 
operation with micro-organisms was the enigma solved. In 1905 
Suchting, Montemartini, and Wiesner have fully verified this lat- 
ter discovery. The annual enrichment of the soil by this means 
may vary from 10 to 20 pounds per acre, a production which 


a ee ee See en ae 


Periodical Literature. 325 


assures the highest wood production without deterioration of the 
soil. Hence, the writer argues, on worn-out alpine or mountain 
pastures the coming in of trees should not be prevented but en- 
couraged as a welcome natural rotation of crops. 


Ueber Erhaltung der Bodenkraft der Wytweiden. Schweizerische Zeit- 
schrift fiir Forstwesen. May, 1907. pp. 162-165. 


In spite of the strenuous efforts to make 


Influence the climatic influence of forests the promi- 
of nent argument for government forestry, 
Forest this function is by no means fully demon- 
on strated and the latest publication from the 


Ground Water. Russian Forest Experiment Station this 
year by Otozki makes at least a favorable 
influence on the ground water level doubtful as a result of 15 
years of investigation. The very painstaking work is reviewed 
by Guse. The literature on the subject is more or less fully cited 
and the author himself acknowledges that he began his investiga- 
tions convinced of the importance of the influence, hypnotized as 
it were by the generally accepted theories, and when his results 
brought out other conditions doubting them at first himself. 

Investigations of Wollny and King left no doubt as to the low- 
ering of the ground water level by forest growth, and Otozki’s 
very extensive observations, which are described in detail, con- 
firm that in all variations of topography, geological formation, 
time, plant cover, etc., without exception, the fact appears that 
under the forest the first horizon of the ground water during the 
period of vegetation lies lower than on the neighboring uncovered 
area, and indeed sometimes vanishes. The difference of the levels 
in and out of forest varied between 5 and 3 m, physico geographic 
factors explaining the variation. 

Similar observations as those made in the forest regions were 
made in the steppes or plains and in the forest islands of the same, 
as also in the artificial plantations; always with the same result. 

All the exhaustive investigations permit the following deduc- 
tions by the author: 

I. In consequence of the rapid transpiration the forest con- 
sumes more moisture than under otherwise similar conditions on 
open area or one covered with other vegetation, 


326 Forestry Quarterly 


2. The average amount of the transpired moisture in the forest 
approaches the average precipitation. In the cold humid North 
it is often less, in the southern latitudes more. 

3. These facts occasion everywhere more or less depression of 
the water table within the reach of the root system. 

4. The nearer to the surface the water conducting horizon, the 
more pronounced is its lowering, the easier the re-establishment 
of the status quo ante; the lower it lies, the smaller but the more 
permanent the depression. 

5. With low ground water level and water consumption active, 
the lowering of the water takes place principally in summer. 
Later there is a tendency to equalize with the water table of the 
neighboring field. If the water conducting layers contain only 
little water it often vanishes entirely under the forest cover. 

6. With the age of the forest its depressing effect increases to 
a certain degree and then remains constant. 

7. The usual deficit caused by the excess of transpiration above 
precipitation is covered by the waters of the neighboring open 
areas, mostly subterranean. 

8. In consequence there occurs in the neighboring areas a tem- 
porary or progressive lowering of the water table, the extent of 
which depends on physiographic conditions, among others on the 
size of either forest or field. 

g. With small areas and slow water conductivity the yearly 
balance is variable, which not rarely leads to a progressive lower- 
ing of the water table in the forest as well as in the adjoining 
field. 

10. The depressing influence of the forest is so great, that it 
often masks or even paralyzes the hydrologic influence of geo- 
logical, orographic, meteorological and other factors. 

11. The difference between deciduous and coniferous forest is 
not entirely established, appears, however, not great, since the 
lower transpiration of the latter is to an extent compensated by 
its longer duration and the interception of a considerable amount 
of the precipitation by the foliage. 

12. The doctrine of the hydrologic activity of the forest is a 
physiographic ideology, which is contradicted by exact observa- 
tions and investigations. 

The question as to what becomes of the enormous volume of 


— 


Sra Fal titi ieia mi atiagte x 


Periodical Literature 327 


water transpired by the forest, its influence on rainfall, etc., or 
the general beneficial influence of forests is not touched. To the 
student of natural history, the author pertinently remarks, there 
is nothing beneficial or the opposite in nature, only law and in- 
struction. 

Die russischen Untersuchugen iiber den Einfluss des Waldes auf den 


Grundwasserstand. Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. July, 1907. pp. 
311-318. 


There is hardly a question farther from 


Forest being settled, or, we should perhaps say, 
Influences lately become again more unsettled than 
in General. that of the influence of forest on climate 


and water conditions. The above briefed 
results of Otozki (who by the way is a geologist) are, to be sure, 
only applicable to the plain country and do not apply to water 
conditions in the mountains. Nor, have any of the other investi- 
gators of ground water levels—Henry, Ebermayer, Hartman, 
Wollny (the latter in small box experiments )—had opportunity 
to study the behavior of mountain waters and the influence of 
mountain forests. 

In a very illuminating report before the International Forestry 
Congress at Vienna this year, Dr. Fankhauser rehearses what 
knowledge exists or rather the lack of definite knowledge upon 
which the argument of forest influences rests. Diametrically op- 
posite opinions have been based upon observed facts. Surrell 
seemed in 1841 to have beyond peradventure proved the benefi- 
cial action of forest cover on torrents. On the other hand the 
hydrographers Lauda in Vienna, Honsell in Karlsruhe, Hensel 
in Munich, Cipolletti and Ponti in Rome, Keller and Wolfschiitz 
in Brinn have denied wholly or partially the influence of forests 
on floods, the large floods being caused by climatic conditions 
which render the forest influence zero or so small that it may be 
neglected. These maintain that the amounts of water of severe 
and continuous flood rains are so large that the water taken up 
by the forest is relatively small. This is undoubtedly true, 
since, according to Hoppe, a 60-year-old spruce forest intercepts 
in its crowns of a precipitation of 20 mm only about 6 mm, a 
pine forest about the same, a beech forest half that amount, prob- 
ably somewhat more in heavier precipitations—in the mountains 


328 Forestry Quarterly 


thunderstorms precipitate 60 to 80 mm, continued land rains sey- 
eral hundred millimetres (408 mm measured). The forest cover, 
litter and moss, may absorb, according to Ney-Ebermayer at 
most 1.80 mm in spruce stands, 2.82 in pine, and 2.36 in beech. 
Transpiration while the air is near saturation, can be only mini- 
mal. In the most favorable case the forest would, therefore, re- 
duce the waters by 10 to 15 mm, the balance as soon as the forest 
soil is soaked would have to flow off superficially. Actual experi- 
ence, however, has abundantly proved the favorable influence of 
forests and reforestation on the regime of torrents, and we come 
readily to the conclusion that this must be due not to the absolute 
capacity of retention, but to the ability to retard the run-off, to 
distribute it over a longer period. Real torrents originate as a 
rule in consequence of unusually severe but short rains of limited 
area, and usually in the summer time when the retentive capacity 
of the forest is ata maximum. ‘Then, on the steep slopes of the 
upper water basin, when only a few minutes would suffice to col- 
lect and discharge enormous water masses the retarding effect of 
the forest cover becomes of value. 

The floods in large rivers are conditioned by quite different 
phenomena, rapid snow melting and continuous rains. Here the 
value of the retarding quality becomes nugatory, and, even with 
the same forest per cent. the effect of an intensive precipitation 
will be different in each case. Nevertheless, even here, the forest 
has its value, for, besides the water volume there is to be con- 
sidered the erosion and detritus carried by the river, which have 
a very important bearing on floods. This office is freely acceded 
to by nearly all authorities as commanding conservative, rational 
treatment of mountain forests. Thus the hydrographer of Hun- 
gary, Krassay, states: If the considerable shortening in the 
length of the important Hungarian rivers has not led to their being 
filled with debritus (Geschiebe), this is due solely to the strict 
measures for the preservation of the mountain forests. 

Nevertheless, the author contends, we cannot be satisfied either 
with these general statements and arguments or with the opposite 
general assertions of hydrographers. 

All the general assertions that are found in the literature need 
more careful investigations. The author questions, for instance, 
the long accepted idea that owing to the root system of forest 


Periodical Literature 329 


growth the soil is made stable by forest growth and less liable to 
landslide and erosion, when only crowns and soil cover are the 
really effective agents. Hence the often advised clearing on 
territory which shows movement “in order to remove weight,” is 
a mistaken measure; hence also the value of coppice is less than 
of deep rooted, fully crowned timber forest. The general asser- 
tion of the forest influence on snow melt also needs closer study. 
In referring to Otozki’s observations the author announces that 
similar investigations into ground water conditions have been 
made by the Swiss stations and will soon be published. The 
author closes with a resolution that in all governments concerned 
a thorough scientific investigation of the subject on a uniform 
plan be secured. 


Wald und Wildbache. Schweizerische Zeitschrift far Forstwesen. July, 
Aug. 1907. pp. 197-202, 236-244. 


i An interesting cause of competition be- 
Effects of tween different crops is worked out by Chas. 
Tree Roots A. Jensen of the Bureau of Soils. Noting 

and the frequent failure of grass under the drip 
Grasses of trees, the author discusses and dismisses 
on as insufficient the usual explanations of 
Soil. shade, withdrawal of nutrients and of water 


by the trees. He also refers to experiments 
by the Duke of Bedford in trying to find the cause of the dele- 
terious influence of grass on apple and pear trees in which the 
conclusion was reached that the effect was due to poisonous sub- 
stances in the soil around the tree roots, leaving the question open 
as to whether these substances were due to direct excretions from 
the yrass or to a changed bacterial action in the soil induced by 
the grass. 

A similar relation between Juglans cinerea and the shrubby 
cinque foil, Potentilla fructicosa, the latter being killed by the 
former, was demonstrated by Jones and Morse, and other such 
relations have been shown. The author made a series of tests 
with tree seedlings of maple, dogwood, cherry, tulip, pine, sowing 
wheat in the same pots, with check tests without the trees. From 
these pots nine crops of wheat were harvested with the result that 
all pots planted with seedlings yielded less in the average than 


330 Forestry Quarterly 


the check pots, although in several cases the single crop yielded 
more. ‘The retarding influence differs with different species, 
maple and pine apparently the most, but it would be hazardous 
from the experiments to establish a series. The injurious effect 
of the trees on wheat are referred to toxic excretions, because, 
the author states, other conditions could not have been influential. 


Science, May, 1907, pp. 371-874. 


SILVICULTURE AND PROTECTION. 


On dry, shallow limestone soils Mathey of 
Method Dijon has practised with satisfaction the 
of following method: In the fall before the 

Mound Planting. planting year, short ditches are made 20 

inches wide and about 30 inches long, down 
to the rock or at least to 12-inch depth. The soil is laid down on 
one side, rock material on the other, preferably the southern. 
This soil is left to itself for a year, so that it will be thoroughly 
decomposed, aerated and mellow, and enriched with nitrogen. 
The planting is done the next fall. The ditches are filled first 
with sod from the neighborhood, then with the loose soil so that 
the planting bed reaches 4 to 6 inches upon the surroundings. 
In these mounds moisture is better retained by the loose soil and 
weed growth cannot at once compete with the trees. If planting 
is done in holes or in depressions the soil quickly settles and the 
plant standing deep soon dries out. 

There may be 160 mounds to the acre, and 4 to Io plants per 
mound, which, leaving all existing volunteer growth and shrub- 
bery, is considered sufficient as a base, to be filled out by natural 
volunteer growth. The cost, when 8 to 10 plants (1,450 to the 
acre) were used at $1.10 per M, was altogether $24 per acre. 

In spite of the unusual drouth of the summers 1905 and 1906 
the plantings stood perfectly and hardly four fail places per acre 
had to be replanted. 

For very poor soils, the addition of mineral fertilizer, 400 Ibs. 
Thomas slag and 150 to 200 Kainit per acre, are advocated. 


Hiigelphanzung auf trockenem, flachgriindigem Kalk. Schweizerische 
Zeitschrift far Forstwesen. June, 1907. p 169-170. 


Periodical Literature. 331 


A somewhat extended discussion by Hamm 


Aethod gives an insight into the methods and re- 

of sults of composite forests in the overflow 
Composite ee the Rhine Valley. ' 

Porter There is, no doubt, that in the United 


States, especially in farmers’ woodlots, this 

method of management will eventually be 
largely employed, but it is questionable whether first-class agri- 
cultural land, if capable of drainage, will be so used. 

It consists, as is well known, of a combination of coppice with 
seedling or coppice overwood, all age classes mixed as in the 
selection forest, the rotation of the different parts of the over- 
wood being a multiple of the rotation of the underwood or cop- 
pice. 

As an argument for the composite forest with hardwoods, the 
following interesting statement is made: With conifers, clear 
bole and cylindrical trunk are the main issue, and these qualities 
are of much greater influence in making price than the diameter ; 
with hardwoods the reverse is the case, as was evidenced by re- 
cent sales in the Black Forest, when for Spruce logs of 10-inch 
middle diameter 14 cents per cubic foot was paid, while 16-inch 
logs brought only 3 cents more. On the other hand, Ash of the 
same size brought 18 cents for the smaller and 55 cents for the 
larger dimension; Oak, 15 and 28 cents respectively; Maple, 
14 and 28 cents; Elm, 11 and 25 cents; Poplar, 13 and 26 cents. 
Hence, the argument is made, the aim should be to secure in 
shortest time the stoutest dimensions. Of course, clear boles are 
also more desirable in hardwoods than the branchy tops, yet the 
latter are always salable, and crooks, especially in stout dimen- 
sions, are no detriment, sometimes even an advantage (for wagon 
and shipbuilding). 

The composite forest is then to be specially employed for the 
growing of stout dimensions. ‘That it is mainly the time element 
in securing stout sizes which is the advantage of the composite 
forest (wherever all the material is salable!) is shown by a com- 
parison of actual results from timber forest and composite forest 
on I and II site, these results being, so it is said, also characteris- 
tic and similar in the hill country. 

In 100 years the timber forest furnished 9870 cubic feet, be- 


332 Forestry Quarterly 


sides 5358 cubic feet in thinnings, or 152 cubic feet per acre and 
year. The composite forest during the same time would have 
given only 110 cubic feet. 

The calculation of assortments and returns per 100 cubic feet 
would have been for the composite forest: 


20 cubic feet of 16 inch and more at 64 cents = $12.80 
25 cubic feet of 10 to 16 inch at 35 cents = 8.75 
10 cubic feet below 10 inch at 21 cents = 2.10 
23 cubic feet billets at 7 cents = 1.61 
17 cubic feet brush at 5 cents = .85 


5 cubic feet bark 


$26.11 


To which an addition is to be made for four thinnings with 700 
cubic feet at 4 cents. The total returns for the 100 years, then 
figure up in round numbers to $2,630, while the returns from 
the high forest, with hardly any difference in the more valuable 
assortments, figure up to $2,900. If, however, the fact of the 
earlier returns in the composite forest is taken into consideration 
with a compound interest calculation at 3 per cent., the timber 
forest in the 100 years has produced only $3,790 as against $11,- 
ooo for the composite forest. 

Regarding the management of the composite forest the follow- 
ing hints may be of interest. A proper conception of the crown 
area which the overwood is to occupy is very necessary if satis- 
factory silvicultural results are to be attained. If at the end 70 
per cent. of the area is to be occupied by overwood, then under 
the conditions of the overflow lands under consideration at the 
beginning of the rotation it must not occupy more than half, or 
35 per cent., to prevent closing up and choking out. 

The final distribution might be as follows: 


Coppice, at end of 25 year rotation, 0.3 of ated. =) Fane 
Oak, with 125 year rotation, 0:2 (Of areay—seRe 
Ash, with 100 year rotation, 0.15 of area; ase 
Poplar, with 50 year rotation, 0.20 of area = 10 
Elm, with 75 year rotation, 0.15 of area = TI.25 
Average rotation, 68.75 


Since coppice shoots outgrow seedling growth until about the 
1oth or 12th year, the latter must be protected by timely thin- 
ning, first in the 3rd to 5th year, then in the 9th to 12th year, 
when some money can be made from the thinning; in the 18th 


ee eee 


eee 


aK tins? 


; 


Periodical Literature. 333 


year a third thinning with about 250 cubic feet to the acre will be 
found desirable. 

The cut is then made in such a manner that the aimed-at dis- 
tribution (as above) is attained at the end of the next rotation. 
The species should be distributed according to soil conditions, 
the more frugal on the poorer sites; if in groups, these should be 
open, so as to secure continuously the advantage of the com- 
posite forest, 7. ¢., increment due to open position. 

It is, to be sure, also admissible to have timber forest groups, 
e. g. of conifers; but they must be grown in dense position from 
the start, not forced into it from the original overwood position. 
The selection of appropriate overwood, when the felling is to be 
made, is important. Those with poorly developed crowns are un- 
desirable, the poorer the crown the sooner water sprouts will 
form and the pole will be crippled. At first a larger number is 
left, when after two years or so the less desirable are removed. 
In cutting in the overwood, not only the mature, but all those 
trees of younger classes are taken which have an undesirable 
crown and would interfere with better material ; it may be prefer- 
able to leave a tree with a moderate frost split than a poorly 
crowned one which does not produce and which damages its 
neighbors, The stout ones which promise well are, of course, to 
be favored. At the time of the cut, pruning may also be done by 
taking away water sprouts and shortening overlong branches on 
older, or on younger ones cutting the latter off. Of course all 
the precautions of good pruning must be kept in mind. 

When planting to repair the overwood, it must be kept in mind 
that on account of the rapid development of the sprouts, the plant 
material must have an advantage in height, and be set 8 to 10 
feet from the stocks, say normally at the rate of 50 to 8o plants 
(poles) to the acre, to be set in spring into holes made in the fall 
16 inches Wleep and 24 inches wide. Oak, Ash, Maple, Elm, Black 
Walnut, Poplars, Birch, Basswood, Willow are fit species. 

The rotation of the underwood is preferably kept between 20 
to 25 years, when the stocks sprout best; for poplars and willows 
15 to 20 years suffice. In these overflow lands our cottonwood 
makes in 50 years 28 to 32-inch diameters, and remain perfectly 
sound. 

The cut may be regulated by estimating the stock and utilizing 


334 Forestry Quarterly 


using for r the average figured as above. The rest is proper 
2 
silviculture. 


Auen-Mittelwald und Lichtwuchs. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fiir Forst- 
wesen. May, June, July, 1907, pp. 149-155, 197-208. 


In an explanatory note, trying to set right 


Heck’s Hess’ strictures (in Heyer-Hess Waldbau) 
Method on the Freie Durchforstung of Heck (see 
of QuARTERLY, vol. III p. 40) which might be 
Thinning. translated into Individualized Thinning, 


Heck protests against the assumption that 
he proceeds without rule or direction. The freedom which Heck 
advocates is the absence of a scheduled form and predetermined 
degree of thinning; the principal thought is to select and favor 
the best shaft forms in graded stem classes, based on the observa- 
tion that the best stem forms also make the largest increment. 


Fiir die freie Durchforstung. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jadgzeitung. July, 
1907, Pp. 240-243. 


Damage suits by owners of timberlands and 
Damage other property against metallurgical works, 
by emitting noxious gases, especially sulphur- 
Noxious Gases. ous fumes have lately become frequent. The 
difficulty is to establish beyond doubt the 
claim that the fumes are the real and only cause of the damage. 
To expedite such investigations Forstrat Gerlach at Waldenburg, 
Saxony, has constructed and described a complete, yet convenient 
apparatus thoroughly tested in ten years’ experience, the special 
feature of which is that aspirators are connected by rubber tubes 
of varying length with the chemical apparatus, so as to secure air 
from different strata. ‘The reagent recommended is a 5 per cent. 
solution of purest potash (carbonate) to which bromine is added 
until slightly yellow. Details of construction and use are given, 
as also the results of trial analyses. A feature of the apparatus 
is the addition of a Woulfe bottle to the usual potash apparatus 
to avoid a source of error which comes from the uneven, jerky 
movement of the gases caused by mechanical impediments in the 
potash apparatus, and causing a partial uncontrollable displace- 
ment of reagent solution into the connecting tube. 


Periodical Literature. 335 


The best time for measurements is in the fall when winds are 
more steady and strong. Especially steadiness is of importance. 
as it insures sufficient amounts of collected gases, which should 
not be less than 2 to 3 cbm, or 2,000 to 3,000 liter. The writer 
points out that the diffusion with distance and consequent de- 
crease of damage can only be determined by simultaneous use of 
similar apparatus. According to St6ckhardt and Schréder the 
minimum of innocuousness of SO? lies at the proportion of I in 
1,000,000 of air; according to Wislicenus an obnoxious effect on 
spruce and fir cannot be confirmed at less than 1 in 500,000. The 
author properly contends that site and continuity of influence 
must be important factors in this proportion. His measurements 
prove that the decrease in concentration does not take place in 
direct proportion to the distance. Taking into consideration the 
time element of influence, the author inclines to agree with Stock- 
hard: and Schréder’s minimum as the lowest permissible concen- 
tration. 

Separates of this article can be had for MK 1.20 by applica- 
tion to the author. 

[In this connection we call attention to a most valuable com- 
pilation of the literature on this subject (the best in English) by 
Dr. Persifor Frazer, printed in the Transactions of the Institute 
of Mining Engineers for 1907, to be also had as separate-—Ep. ] 

Ein Apparat zur qualitativen und quantitativen Ermittlung der aus tn- 


dustriellen Etablissements entweichenden sauren Rauch-und Abgase. 
Allgemeine Forst und Jadgzeitung. May,, 1907, pp. 150-157. 


Although we are still in the period of forest 


Use exploitation, when the finer methods even of 
of forest protection are still impracticable and 
Insect Lime. insect pests are simply to be endured, 


hardly to be systematically fought, vet the 
time will come soon when other insect pests than the gypsy moth 
will call for thousands of dollars of annual expenditure, and it 
behooves us to become familiar with effective methods. 

A leaflet issued by the Imperial Biological Institute for Agri- 
culture and Forestry describes proceedings against the pine spin- 
ner (Bombyx pint). 

If trial collecting develops at the foot of trees (10 to 20 per 
ha.) 15 to 20 caterpillars per tree in thickets, 30 to 40 in pole- 


336 Forestry Quarterly 


woods, 50 or more in timber woods, it becomes necessary to pre- 
pare for combat. 

Properly placed bands of insect lime are entirely effective 
against this pest. Before liming the stand should be thinned, — 
partly to save liming, partly to make it more effective; for 
smaller suppressed trees or underwood furnish bridges which en- 
able the caterpillars to reach trees above the bands. ‘Then each 
tree is to have a ring of 8 to 10 inch width, the rough bark to 
be removed without damaging the cambium. ‘The band of lime 
is then applied by a rapid working instrument (Boden’s or Fiss) 
which makes an even application 3 to 34 cm wide and .4 cm thick: 
This liming must be finished by end of March. The amount 
needed is 50 to 60 kgs. per I ha., the cost, varying greatly, under 
normal conditions should not be more than 16 to 18 m per I ha., 
say $1.75 per acre with wages as given on p. 352 of this issue. 


Der Kiefernspanner (Bombyx pini). Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. 
May, 1907, p. 215. 


In a long article Dr. Schinzinger accen- 


Birds tuates the great value which the fostering 
in of insect-eating birds has in forest protec- 
Forestry. tion, and the great necessity of general re- 


cognition of this fact. And this means not 
only care for the useful and prevention of the destruction of 
species which, although occasionally undesirable, are yet essen- 
tially useful. 

The investigations of stomach contents have disproved the idea, 
that birds destroy noxious and useful insects together; in the 
main they feed on the former. An effort to secure codperation 
has been made by the Prussian Minister of Agriculture, issuing in 
1906 a pamphlet of instructions, but these must be modified ac- 
cording to local conditions. 

The author then discusses under six heads the measures which 
are required to secure effective bird protection. 

Energetic suppression of indiscriminate shooting of birds; 
persistent and rapid reducton of the actual enemies of our useful 
birds, among which are mentioned cats, hawks and falcons; fur- 
nishing breeding places for dwellers in hollow places which 
through culture have been deprived of these; preservation of 


Periodical Literature. 337 


shrubs, especially thorny ones and berry shrubs, which are being 
reduced by the progress of cultivation; winter feeding; spread- 
ing of knowledge and special instruction to game and forest 
wardens. 

The cultural importance of a number of birds on the value of 
which mistaken notions exist, is specially discussed. Owls, buz- 
zards, and some other rapacious birds are more useful in catch- 
ing mice than obnoxious in killing birds. Circus cyaneus and 
cineraceus of the crow family are good mousers, while Circus 
aeruginosus is most obnoxious to birds breeding on the ground. 
Corvus corax and monedula are great robbers, but Corvus frugi- 
legus, although omnivorous, and especially feeding on the farm 
ers’ crop, and robbing birds’ nests, does nevertheless more good 
than damage by destroying worms, beetles, pupae, larvae, etc 
Hence in this case only a prudent keeping in check, not extinction 
is indicated. 

Indeed, Naumann asserted that in the end every bird does 
more good than damage. 

Lanius excubitor is an unmitigated bird killer, but the smaller 
species of this family, contrary to general opinion, feed mostly on 
insects. Although woodpeckers may be classed as tree despoilers, 
eating seeds and ants, as well as insects, yet the author believes 
these too will be found more useful than obnoxious. 


Moderne Forstwirtschaft und Vogelschutz. Allgemeine Forst-und 
Jagdzeitung. July, 1907, pp. 229-239. 


MENSURATION, FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT. 


At a meeting of the Hessian Society of 

Douglas Foresters, Muller reports on the production 

Fir. of Douglas Fir in comparison with Nor- 

way Spruce during the first two decades in 

a mixed stand of 1% acres, 18 years old from planting, northwest 
exposure, humous loamy soil, 200 m elevation. The planting 
was done with 4 to 5 year old transplants of spruce, and in every 
third row one Douglas Fir to two spruces. The Douglas Fir 
plants, 4 years old, were untransplanted stock of spindly and 
weak growth. For the first five years they made hardly any 
growth, then began to assert themselves, and now after 18 years 


338 Forestry Quarterly 


have suppressed the neighboring spruces entirely. At 17 years 
of age the dominant stand contained 544, the subdominant 134 
trees, per acre; the diameters of the Douglas Fir ranged from 
3 to 64 inches, the average height 36 feet, the total volume 2100 
cubic feet of which only 45% brushwood. Compared with spruce 
on best sites, the two species produce about the same yield but 
the timber wood per cent. in this case was higher, due probably 
to open position of the stand examined. Sample pieces of wood 
showed concentric growth in upper portions, but in lower sec- 
tions the diameters in the direction of the rows were shorter 
than those vertical to this direction. Root development showed 
the same difference. Douglas Fir making both tracing and heart 
roots, stands, therefore, in its root system between spruce and fir. 
Other silvicultural advantages of the Douglas Fir were pointed 
out. 

These results were obtained with the “green” variety. The 
“blue” variety, the speaker contended, lags behind the spruce and 
is less desirable than the green variety, except that it does not 
make summer shoots, which form on the “green” variety and are 
liable to frost killing. Another speaker assigns also a better 
duality of wood to the green variety. 


Die 15 Versammlung des Forstvereins fiir das Grossherzogtum Hessen. 
Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. June, 1907, p. 222, 223. 


Mathematics and formulas, the basis of 

Felling Budget schematic and systematic procedure, have 

m been introduced into forestry practice to 

Selection Forest. secure a sustained yield, to make sure that 

we leave to posterity at least as much capi- 

tal as we had received, and to ascertain the portion to which we 
are entitled. 

The methods of forest regulation—regulation of the felling 
budget—in timber forest and coppice are well developed, but the 
selection forest has remained the step-child of regulation, prob- 
ably because of the rapidly changing and seemingly lawless con- 
ditions of accretion, and the difficulty of ascertaining volume and 
increment. 

An anonymous writer, V. G., discusses briefly the methods of a 
simplified procedure, based upon stem numbers, which he has ap- 


Periodical Literature. | 339 


plied in an Alpine selection forest of spruce with 1/10 admixture 
of fir, belonging to a canton in Switzerland. 

As such procedure has been rarely discussed, we reproduce the 
author’s exposition almost verbatim. 

A regulation of the felling budget requires, of course, the as- 
certainment of the volume of stock on hand and of the increment 
or yield. After general inspection and suitable subdivision of the 
area, the first question to be decided is to what lowest diameter 
class to caliper for stock taking purposes, and to ascertain the per- 
centic relation between the calipered and the unmeasured por- 
tions of the stand. 

In the given case the calipering was done down to 16 cm (6 in.) 
by 4 cm diameter classes; plotting the numbers of stems in each 
diameter class as ordinates and diameters as abscissae, the result- 
ing curve was found to approximate very nearly the curve of a 
compound interest series, 7. e. the age class conditions were found 
approximately normal. Continuing the normal interest curve to 
the 8 cm (3 in.) diameter, the normal stem number for the lower 
diameter classes would be indicated. In the given case there was 
by trial measurement found very close approximation to this 
curve 7. e. the stand was found normal in the lower classes also. 
The volume of these lower diameter classes was found to repre- 
sent 8 per cent. of the total, which may then be considered a satis- 
factory reserve for this class of stands on sites of third class. 

The determination of age in the selection forest is most diffi- 
cult, especially for the lower diameter classes. Longer or shorter 
periods of suppression alternate with sudden or gradual transi- 
tions to normal or rapid increment. ‘To place this irregular in- 
crement of the diameter classes in relation to time, as is neces- 
sary for budget regulation, is also a problem. 

There is a difference made between the actual age and the 
“management” (Wirtschafts) age, which is ascertained for the 
period of suppression by a formula in which actual diameters are 
placed in comparison with normal diameter increment. The 
author proposes the construction of standard measures, based on 
ascertained average values for different sites, the subdivisions of 
which give annual average diameter increments. ‘These are then 
to be applied in ascertaining the age of the suppression period. 
[See actual measurements on p. 199]. 


340 Forestry Quarterly 


It has been proposed to dispense with age determinations in 
the selection forest and rely upon the current increment as a 
basis for budget regulation, but the author considers this pro- 
cedure unsafe, because the current increment is extremely 
changeable and even more influenced by the condition of the 
stand than the average increment. A stand of second quality, 
shortly before cut over may show a larger current increment (due 
to light influence) than a fully stocked stand of first quality; or 
the diameter class of rapid increment may be present in larger 
number in the first stand than in the second. This age class 
(respectively diameter class) relation is of utmost importance in 
the selection forest in determining the budget, and unless it is 
employed as a corrective, the basing of the budget on the curren. 
increment may become fatal. 

Even the average increment, or better, the sum of average in- 
crements is not a reliable criterion. Although the oldest age class 
may have attained the maximum average increment, the summary 
current increment of the whole stand is by no means equal to the 
summary average increment. 


b 


Ye 


5) 


“Sith 


SY 


EE Ln fa ad Mo 113 448 Age 


Periodical Literature. 341 


These two values are equalized the later the poorer the site. 
This is shown in the accompanying curves of average and cur- 
rent increments for spruce on sites I and III, the areas inclosed 
by each set in front and end part being equal 7. e. the two values 
being equalized, the area dabC = BaD. 

This on site I occurs in the r1o year, on site III it would be de- 
layed till the 148 year. Silvicultural considerations (red rot!), 
would make it doubtful, whether such equalization is desirable. 

In a given case the yield based on current increment was found 
1100 m*, based on average increment 770 m’*, a difference of 
nearly 50 per cent. Which would be nearer the truth? Would 
the average be more satisfactory ? 

The author then discusses briefly methods of determining vol- 
umes. Since it has been shown, that even in the calipering of 
experiment areas errors of 2 to 3 per cent. in cross section area 
can occur, it would appear that the use of general volume tables 
(like the Bavarian) leads to sufficiently close results. Moreover 
if sample trees are selected after the Draudt method, which is 
usually done, 7. e. a proportional number for each diameter class, 
a further source of error is introduced, for the higher diameter 
classes, which contain a small number but large volume, will be 
allotted few sample trees; the lower classes with large numbers 
but small volume a large number of sample trees. 

To determine the form height ( Ye! ) tolerably accurately, 
each diameter class should be allotted from four to five sample 
trees. A peculiarity of the form height, the author has found, 
probably occurring only in selection forest, is that in older trees 
it tends to sink. For this, the author offers the following ex- 
planation: In the higher diameter classes, height growth has 
ceased; the trees are mostly elite in open stand with free crowns. 
They are branched low, so that wind pressure produces incre- 
ment mainly in the lower section, the form approaches more and 
more a cone, and hence form height sinks, as is graphically 
shown in the accompanying drawing, in which F is the form 
height corresponding to the diameter DD, F, to the diameter 
DD; 

The fact, that on one hand the current increment, however 
accurately determined, is so variable as to rule it out as basis 
for budget determination, and that volumes determined by form 


342 Forestry Quarterly 


height or by volume tables differ little, proves that a reliable 
basis for budget regulation in selection forest is so far lacking. 
The author now proposes to utilize for this purpose the law of 
the decimation of stem numbers. The natural consequence of 
limited standing room, 7. e. nutrition, is that the numbers in the 


lower diameter classes are dependent upon those in the higher. 

If mature trees predominate, young and medium growth will be 

in the minority. Weber says: “As long as the period of rapid 

height growth continues, stem numbers sink according to the 
10,000 

reciprocal series ————, in which the denominator is an expo- 
I. op* 

nential function of time (10,000 being the area in meters of one 

hectar)—the curves of the diminution in numbers represent in a 

way the negative picture of the height curves.” 

This law is deduced from the behavior of even-aged stands, 
but it may be utilized for the selection forest, by conceiving the 
age classes of the separate areas in a compartment forest mixed, 
when the diameters would be conceived as functions of time and 
the stem numbers as moving in the same curve; this would be 
a normal selection forest to be used as standard for comparison 


ry OE Satine an eS 


Periodical Literature. 343 


with actual stock. But while diameters are a function of age, the 
same diameter intervals are not conditioned by same time in- 


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tervals. It is a peculiarity of the selection forest, that the single 
individuals, escaping suppression at different times, exhibit the 
maximum area increment in different diameter classes. From 


344 Forestry Quarterly 


this, however, we can deduce that equal diameter intervals rep- 
resent in the average equal time intervals, as is also shown by 
the results of about Ig00 increment borings in diameter classes 
from 14 to 50 centimetres, and in altitudes from 900 to 1700 
meters, which are tabulated. - 

Not only the result of the measurements, but a simple consid- 
eration shows that the higher diameter classes in the selection 
forest must be represented in the smaller numbers, since owing to 
their greater crown development they require larger standing 
room—and since the stem number is the result of total area 
divided by standing room of the single tree, the same area in the 
selection forest will give a smaller stem number. The normal 
curve in the higher diameter classes will decline more rapidly 
than the curve of the compound interest series, while in the 
lower diameters one or two age classes will be found crowded 
in the same diameter difference, and here the stem number curve 
will run above the interest curve. 

A graphic representation of the diminution of stem numbers 
can be easily constructed for every stand and makes conditions 
of stock clear, and if compared with a normal curve, it becomes 
at once apparent where future management should interfere 
and how the stand is to be ranged in the felling budget. The 
use of the stem number curve is elucidated by an example from 
the actuality illustrated in the accompanying diagram. In this 
case the curve of actual diameter classes of 32 to 44 cm rise 
above, the lower ones below the normal curve, 7. e. they show a 
deficit; hence, a cut (thinning) in the diameter classes 32 to 44 
is indicated. By removing this surplus the young growth is 
freed and the deficit in the lower classes will slowly vanish. 
For sake of comparison the volume curves are also given, show- 
ing similar relationship. 

The author then summarizes the procedure in determining the 
felling budget: 

1. Caliper down to 16 cm (6-inch). 

2. Analyze a few mature trees to determine site class and 
progress of increment. 

3. Determine age and rotation. 

4. Determine volume by form height, or if available, by volume 
tables. 


Periodical Literature. 345 


5. Construct stem number curve and a normal curve for com- 
parison. 

6. Calculate average increment, based on age determination 
in the stem analyses for the different age classes, and add up to 
show the possibility (yield capacity). 

7. Determine budget by use of Heyers’ formula, basing ni 
(normal increment) by comparison with the possibility. 

The advantage of this procedure lies in avoiding or reducing 
sample tree fellings and placing the criterion of stock conditions 
not upon vague increment data, but upon comparison of actual 
and normal numbers. 

Einiges tiber Plenterbestinde, deren Massen-und Zuwachsberechnungen 


Bape ceusehe Zeitschrift fiir Forstwesen. Apr., May, 1907, pp. 127-142, 
156-161. 


An article by Hobart-Hampden hits the 
Working Plan nail on the head as regards the application 
for of any budget regulation in the selection 

Selection Forest. forest under the primitive conditions of In- 

dia (and the same will be true for most 
conditions of this continent). The conclusion of the article con- 
tains almost all the argument: “There does not appear to be 
any necessity to insist on equal annual outturn, and with it nor- 
mality in age classes; a ‘possibility’ check by number of trees 
cannot be anywhere near accurately fixed, nor, a fortiori, a ‘pos- 
sibility’ by volume, and may lead to unsilvicultural acts: it is 
true economy to fell a tree when it is mature whenever that may 
be, and it is false economy to fell an immature, thriving and 
well-shaped tree. Therefore, for species to which the selection 
method is applicable, there is no necessity for expending time 
and money, as at present, in making enumerations for working 
plans, and an improvement felling based only on cultural con- 
siderations, in following out which the forest is constantly im- 
proving, is all that is wanted.” 

In the body of the article the writer explains improvement fell- 
ings as either excluding or including the regeneration idea. He 
has in mind the usually very irregular condition of forest growth, 
which falls into the hands of the forester, after most mature 
trees are removed and much badly grown timber left, interfering 


346 Forestry Quarterly 


with the better, which must be saved. Such a first improvement 
felling which does not include regeneration, the author proposes 
to call “‘transition felling,’ for this method is only provisional, 
intended to carry the forest through a short transition period 
and to be abandoned as quickly as possible when we pass on to 
a regular method—group method, selection, or successive re- 
generation. By adding considerations for an after growth, the 
author proposes to make mere improvement fellings in the ex- 
tended sense a permanent system. The other methods, the author 
contends, involve the removal of immature trees, which, al- 
though the end to be attained might justify it, is an unsilvicultural 
act. The improvement or transition felling leads gradually to 
selection method, but with this difference, that no attention is 
paid to the budget regulation of removing a certain number of 
trees or given volume; we should be treating the forest cultur- 
ally without caring whether or not we were removing more than 
the possibility in any given year. All being done to secure a 
better forest, it is true economy. 

The aim of regular methods of treatment is to obtain a regular 
succession of age classes whether in even-aged or in mixed crop, 
and a regular annual outturn the one connecting the other. A 
reference to market conditions is made showing that the equal 
annual sustained yield is no requirement of it. 

The “possibility” by number or by volume can only be an ap- 
proximation, and a poor one at that; the latter practically impos- 
sible in an Indian forest. The ascertainment of the increment is 
even more hazardous. 

Not to fell trees that are mature is an unsilvicultural act, though 
perhaps not so bad as to fell immature trees, hence the sticking 
to the “possibility” may be uncanonical and unsilvicultural. 

All of which points to the conclusion above noted, namely the 
adoption of a permanent improvement felling method. ‘Such a 
method will have one great advantage in India (and on this con- 
tinent just the same!). The attempt to regenerate a forest by 
drastic opening of the cover to give light for a new, but at pres- 
ent non-existent crop, is, in India, fraught with great risk from 
the growth of grass and weeds, and from frost, while the habit 
of many of our species of dying back for a succession of years 
renders a thorough opening of the cover, and consequent drying 


Periodical Literature. 347 


up of the soil especially dangerous before the seedlings have be- 
come established. Once established they generally respond well 
to the admission of light. With the proposed cultural method this 
risk would not occur and the seedlings would appear here and 
there and receive plenty of lateral shelter.” 

This unfettered cultural method is proposed only for species 
suitable for selection method. 


A permanent method for treating selection forests without calculating 
the possibility. The Indian Forester. May, 1907, pp. 224-230. 


A very suggestive article by Blum dis- 


Rotation cusses the desiderata for determining rota- 
and tions in Saxony. While, as is well known, 
Diameter. Saxony works with low rotations such as 


the soil rent theory justifies, the author 
points out that in the Saxon mountains mere general considera- 
tions bring the rotation to 80-85 years at most, for in that time 
these forests furnish the wood which is mostly desired in large 
quantities, namely, of a 9g to 10 inch middle diameter, which 
brings the best price. Coniferous wood over 14 inch diameter 
secures often a lower price than the 12 inch class. Moreover, 
there is to be considered deterioration in quality in those stands 
which are exposed to wind danger and to hoar frost and the dif- 
ficulty and expense of transportation of stouter material from 
higher mountain ranges. These considerations are against higher 
rotations, especially as the mills can import the stouter sizes more 
cheaply from outside. The substitution of iron, and the prefer- 
ence of narrow floor boards has greatly changed the mail-et for 
stout material. Good prices—i1o cents per cubic foot—fo1 smal! 
dimensions and poles prevail, while wood 20 years older brings 
hardly 2 cents more. 

As Dr. Martin puts it: “The difference in the managerial aims 
of Saxony and Prussia is the consequence of the general rule, 
that the diameters of the final yield trees must be the larger, the 
farther the forest from the place of consumption.” Saxony with 
its highly developed industries (like Massachusetts!), with its 
excellent system of roads and railroads marches in this respect 
on the extreme left, if the high rotations are to be considered as 
results of conservatism. The nearer the woodworking industry 


348 Forestry Quarterly 


locates near richly forested districts or these become more acces- 
sible by means of transportation, the more vanish the contradic- 
tions of the Saxon and other policies. 


Zur Umtriebsfrage. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung. July, 1907, 
Pp. 239-240. 
UTILIZATION, MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY. 


In a report of the German imperial forest 


Canada’s expert at Montreal appears the following 
Wood estimate of the prospects of Canada’s wood 
Market. export trade: 


Of greatest importance for the wood trade 
of Canada are the forest conditions of its neighbor, the United 
States. For, on one hand, the latter still supply a part of the 
European demand, on the other hand they are themselves the best 
customers of Canada. The more the forests of the United States 
are exploited and reduced, the more will not only the States but 
Europe attempt to buy in Canada. For Germany this would 
mean only a change of market, if it could secure as desirable ma- 
terial, like the pitch pine (P. palustris), which is not the case. 
Hence there will be only slow progress in changing to that 
market. 

It is different with England and the United States, the countries 
with well established trade relations. From decade to decade the 
export trade to these countries has grown in proportion to the 
depletion of the northern pineries. While Canada was desirous 
of finding markets for its wood products, she also tried to keep the 
wood industries in her own limits and to export manufactured 
materials. ‘To this end various legislative measures were en- 
acted. Export tariffs and restrictions have done good work. 
Mills were built in Canada by Americans, and in spite of tariffs 
lumber exports are increasing. 

The United States and England are to-day the regulators of 
Canada’s wood trade. If these do not buy, the market is de- 
pressed, if they are eager to buy, the prices in Canada rise. 


Die Bedeutung Kanadas fiir den Holzhandel. Allgemeine Forst-und 
Jagdzeitung. June, 1907, p. 226. 


Periodical Literature. 349 


The record year of wood imports into Great 
Britain was 1897 with 2,129,000 standards. 
The import for the year 1905 with 1,814,- 
ooo standards was at a minimum for the 
last decade, while the import for 1906 with 
2,028,000 standards must be looked upon as 
normal. Up to the year 1901 it was Sweden 
that supplied the bulk of this import, but with that year ‘‘Russia’s 
century” began, and Sweden is now considerably behind; while 
in 1897 the amounts were 601,800 standards for Sweden, and 
536,000 standards for Russia, they were for 1906 494,300 and 
702,300 respectively. In the meantime Norway showed an in- 
crease of 26,000 standards, Canada of 80,000, United States of 
7,000, other countries 8,000, or, altogether an increase of about 
214,000 standards over the total import of 1905, yet still 100,000 
standards less than in 1897. 


Wood 
Consumption 
mn 
Great Britain 


Traévarumarknaden. Skogsvards Foreningens Tidskrift, 1907, pp. 53-55. 
STATISTICS AND HISTORY. 


An article by Dr. J. F. Clark shows wherein 

Canadian the usual methods adopted in Canada for 

Forest Policy. the sale of government timber are wrong 

in principle and cannot fail to result in de- 

structive methods of lumbering. A number of suggestions are 

made as to a change in policy, which, if adopted, would be cer- 

tain to produce far more satisfactory results from the standpoint 

not only of the forest but of the government and of the lumber- 

man as well. If the state offers its timber for sale under condi- 

tions which put a premium on forest destruction, the forest will 

surely be destroyed, all kinds of forestry propaganda to the con- 
trary notwithstanding. 

The principle of sale at public auction, after ample advertise- 
ment and opportunity for inspection, has been found most satis- 
factory and is coming into general use in Canada. This sale by 
public auction may take either one of two forms. (1) The stump- 
age due (i. ¢., the price to be paid per thousand feet when the 
timber is cut) may be fixed in advance of the sale and bids may 
be asked for a ump sum or “bonus,” which will represent the es- 


350 Forestry Quarterly 


timated value of the stumpage over and above the fixed stumpage 
dues; or (2) bids may be asked on the amount of stumpage dues 
to be paid per thousand feet board measure when the timber is 
cut. 

The first or “bonus” system is in almost universal use and has 
in general proved iniquitous in its results. From the standpoint 
of the operator it is bad because (1) the payment of a portion of 
the stumpage cash-in-advance locks up a large amount of capital 
(or credit), which should normally be used in the development of 
the business. The effect of this is to limit the number of com- 
petitors to those having large capital and thus to reduce the 
prices realized. (2) Since not only the value of the stumpage 
but its amount must be carefully estimated by the purchaser, the 
cost of inspection preliminary to the sale is greatly increased, 
thus again limiting competition, to the detriment of the public. 
(3) Since estimates of the amount of standing timber are at 
best but approximations, a large speculative element is intro- 
duced and the purchaser never knows the cost of his raw material 
until the end of the operation. 

From the standpoint of the province as seller, the “bonus” 
system is bad because (1) it is in reality a discounting of the 
future revenue-producing capacity of the forest, and introduces 
the undesirable element of irregularity in forest revenues. (2) 
It tends to limit the number of competitors in a position to bid 
at timber sales. (3) Since the amount of the “bonus” is based 
upon an estimate rather than upon an accurate scale, and since 
the scale frequently largely overruns the estimate, the inevitable 
result is large loss of revenue to the State. This loss is intensi- 
fied through the steady rise of stumpage values, the increment 
by growth, and the development of a market for timber which, 
owing to its small size or unfavorable location, was not taken 
into consideration as having any value at the time of sale. (4) 
The whole tendency of a lump sum or bonus, with small stump- 
age dues, is toward clean-cutting, as contrasted with the opposite 
tendency where the amount to be paid per thousand feet is made 
the basis for the auction. (5) the “bonus” system leaves a con- 
stant temptation to carry the clean cutting system to the extent 
of leaving no merchantable timber for seed trees and thus places 
a premium on violation of the cutting regulations. 


s 
4 
= 
rd 
5 

a 


ro he Sel en a ee eR 


te Set - ge fee Did ee 


Periodical Literature. 351 


To remedy these evils it is recommended that the whole of the 
purchase price be paid in the form of so much per thousand feet, 
to be paid when the logs are cut, such price to be determined at 
public auction, with stipulations as to the cutting regulations to be 
followed. The lack of any effective measures to control the cut- 
ting on Canadian limits has brought about most deplorable con- 
ditions from the standpoint of the forester. It is not even to the 
interest of the lumberman to guard effectively against fire, since 
the greatest danger from this menace is on cut-over lands and 
young stands of coniferous timber, in which the lumberman is 
not financially interested. 

A feature of all Canadian timber sales is the imposition of an 
annual land tax or “ground rent” per unit of area. British Col- 
umbia has made the imposition of a very high land tax a distinc- 
tive feature of her forest policy. It is shown that where the 
province grows the timber and merely sells the stumpage when 
it is mature, distinctly specifying what trees are to be cut and 
when they are to be cut, there can be no objection to the pay- 
ment in this way of a small portion of the market value of the 
timber sold, and it may indeed serve a very useful purpose in 
preventing purchase for speculative purposes by others than bona 
fide operators. Where, however, the lumberman is the operator, 
the whole influence of a ground rent is toward early utilization 
and clean cutting, with the abandonment of the land after the de- 
struction of the forest. The higher the ground rent the more in- 
exorable is this tendency. 

Sales far in advance of trade requirements are deprecated, and 
the setting of a time limit for the removal of timber recom- 
mended. A sale policy is advocated which includes the making 
of preliminary estimates by the government of the amount of 
timber to be sold, proper advertisement in advance of sale, and 
the adoption and enforcement of cutting regulations to secure the 
protection and reproduction of the forest. It will be noted that 
practically all of the changes advocated are in substance already 
in effect in the sales of timber made upon the national forests in 
the United States. 


Forest Revenues and Forest Conservation. Canadian Forestry Journal. 
March, 1907, pp. 19-30. 


352 Forestry Quarterly 


Forestry in Hesse is carried on very inten- 


Statistics sively on the small forest area which in 
of 1900, according to official statistics, com- 
Hesse. prised 597,300 acres, or about $ acre per 


capita. Ownership is nearly evenly dis- 
tributed between state, corporations and private, namely, about 
in proportion of 31:38:31. In 1901 and 1902 there are g2 forest- 
fires recorded, of which 26 and 28 per cent. were caused by rail- 
roads. 

The results of a progressive improvement in conditions is in- 
dicated by the administration of the grand duke’s personal prop- 
erty. Here the timberwood per cent. rose from 7.8 in 1861 to 22.9 
in 1902 on a cut in the latter year of 84.3 cubic feet per acre, 
producing a net income per cubic foot of 5 cents (a little less than 
I1 cents for workwocd, and less than 3 cents for fuelwood) and 
$4 per acre as against $2.40 in 1861. For planting purposes the 
expenditure is only about 52 cents per acre and for roads 36 cents. 

In the larger corporation forests (over 125 acres) the cut av- 
eraged only 7.5% less than in the domainial property, namely 78 
cubic feet. In the state forests, with round 10,000 acres, the in- 
crease in jabor wages in 1902 of 20 per cent. for logs and 5 per 
cent. for fuelwood caused a reduction in gross money returns 
of 13 per cent. from those of 1go1, the average of the two years 
being still $9 per acre. 


Mitteilungen aus der Forst-und Kameralverwaltung fir das Jahr 1906. 
Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung. May, 1907, pp. 171-178. 


The Prussian forest department, with its 


Labor nearly 7,000,000 acres in 1905, employed 
Cost 156,971 laborers on 10,287,180 days, wages 
im being in summer (9.9 hours) for men 37 
Prussia. cents in the average, 65 cents maximum, 


for women 20 cents and 39 cents respec- 
tively; in winter (8.1 hours) for men 29 and 62 cents; for 
women 16 and 35 cents. In piecework men earned as much as 
81 cents in summer and 71 cents in winter. 
The administration also paid nearly $24,000 to the insurance 
fund for their laborers. 
Nachweisung tiber die von der Preussischen Staatsforstverwaltung be- 


schaftigten Arbeiter, etc. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung. May, 
1907, pp. 187-188. 


Periodical Literature. 353 


The following brief note on forest condi- 


Early tions in England by Dr. Hausrath may be 
History of interest: Until the beginning of the 
in fourteenth century, the forests of England 
England. were well preserved by the kings of Eng- 


land, who used them as hunting parks. But 
with the accession of Edward III in 1327 their destruction be- 
gan and continued steadily, until now less than 4% is forested. 
The orginal forest area is uncertain; the dominant tree was oak, 
next came beech; conifers are not mentioned in the records, ex- 
cept fir, yew and juniper, which only appear in single instances. 
The growing of hazel nuts for game cover was one of the forest- 
er’s duties. As early as the thirteenth century the English forests 
formed quite an important source of income. Sales of wood ma- 
terial for building and firewood took place regularly. The use 
of underbrush and fallen trees was generally permitted to the 
settlers. In 1260, the average tree fit for use or firewood was 
valued at 12 pence, although it varied from 3 pence up to 2 
shillings for stout beech, which, allowing for change in the 
value of money, is equivalent to about $3 of our present cur- 
rency, about 4 to 5 cents per cubic foot. Two other methods of 
obtaining income from the forests were employed. Those ap- 
pointed to the office of guarding the forest were obliged to pay 
for the privilege; they in turn squeezed money out of the peas- 
ants to recoup themselves. Fines were laid for offences against 
the forest and for hunting. The fine for felling a green oak in 
1255 was, on the average 14 shillings. The owners of forest land 
were allowed to use the underbrush and small material, but not 
to fell green oak, under penalty of fine of several pounds. This 
system, of course, required a large number of officers. The 
highest were the Justices of Forest, whose business it was to in- 
vestigate and punish offences against the forest. The real forest 
officers were the Wardens, the executive officers of the king. 
Under these were the forest guards. Private owners of forest 
land were also obliged to employ forest guards, and if a royal 
officer discovered an offence against the forest before the private 
guard, the forest was forfeited to the crown. 


Aus Englands Forst-und Jagdgeschichte. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeit- 
ung. June, 1907, pp. 189-193. 


354 Forestry Quarterly 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

At this time when forest schools multiply 
Educational in the United States at a dangerous rate, 
Question. it is of interest to come to a conception of | 


standards in forestry education. In this 
connection the discussions in an entirely different sphere, namely, 
at the sessions of the German Forstwirtschaftsrath, may be sug- 
gestive. One of the points of difference in opinion we shall prob- 
ably never be called upon to consider, namely, the question of 
whether special academies or universities should undertake the 
higher teaching of forestry. 

The academy at Mont Alto, Pennsylvania, is, to be sure, mak- 
ing attempts to get away from its orginal praiseworthy plan of 
educating forest rangers, and may give rise to controversies on 
this point. 

In Germany special schools have for a hundred years been in 
existence and it is probably only the momentum of their exist- 
ence which has prevented their transfer to the universities. Only 
Munich, Giessen and Tubingen have forestry faculties. 

The following theses were formulated by Dr. Endres for the 
discussion, and appear to represent the sense of the majority: 

1. Isolated technical schools cannot any more be considered as 
fit educational institutions. 

2. Since the practical activity of a forest manager consists to 
at least fifty per cent. in purely administrative work which re- 
quires thorough knowledge of political economy, administrative 
and judicial subjects, for this reason alone connection with a 
university is necessary. Other mental, social and educational ad- 
vantages are also cited. 

3. The time of studies at the university should be four years 
(double the time of our present forestry schools). 

4. The usefulness of a so-called practical institution before the 
university studies is in no proportion to the expenditure of time 
for it. 

5. The connection between agricultural and forest schools can 
only impede the latter and is objectional. 

6. It is most desirable that the number of higher forest schools 
for Germany be restricted to three or four. 


Unsre Forst-Akademien. Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung. July, 
1907, Ppp. 240-251. 


NEWS AND NOTES. 


EK. A. STERLING, In Charge. 


On May 30th one of the best known foresters among English 
speaking people, Sir Dietrich Brandis, died at Bonn, Germany. 
His fame was made through the successful introduction of for- 
estry principles into India, and the original organization of the 
Indian Forest Department. Born and educated in Germany, a 
pupil of Gustave Heyer at Giessen, hence thoroughly versed in 
forestry he succeeded in grasping the needs of entirely different 
conditions in India from the start, when over half a century ago 
he was called to the sperintendency of the teak forests of Pegu. 
He was, to be sure, loyally and vigorously supported by Lord 
Dalhousie’s government, and in 1864 became the first Inspector 
General of Forests to the Government of India. In a different 
spirit from the know-nothing attitude that sometimes has ani- 
mated American forest reformers, Mr. Eardley Wilmot writes, 
“To him and to his successors and pupils, Messrs. Schlich and 
Ribbentrop (also two Germans) is due primarily the credit for 
the creation and organization of the forest department and for 
the introduction of methods of management adapted from the 
best European schools to suit the various circumstances for the 
vast forests of India.” His last work, a large manual on Indian 
Trees, only lately published, was the result of his leisure since 
1883, when he had retired to Bonn, without however losing con- 
nection with the department of his creation. 


Probably no other gathering of industrial interests has been so 
assiduously and broadly advertised as the Fifteenth National Ir- 
rigation Congress to be held in Sacramento, California, in Sep- 
tember. Forestry also is to be made a special feature, especially 
in the Interstate Exposition which will be a part of the proceed- 
ings. Among the prizes and trophies to be offered for special 
exhibits the Diamond Watch Company and the Pacific Hardware 
Company have each presented one for the best collective State 
exhibit of forest products, but the most suggestive trophy is 


356 Forestry Quarterly 


offered by the California Wine Association, which is to be for a 
suitable substitute for oak staves, accentuating the growing 
scarcity of the supply which is coupled by a constant and rapidly 
increasing demand. 


A committee of the American Society for Testing Materials 
has made its final report at the tenth annual meeting this year on 
standard specifications for the grading of structural timbers, in- 
cluding the definition of standard defects, standard names for 
structural timbers, and standard specifications for bridge and 
trestle timbers. 

The definitions of standard defects, modified as above, are as 
follows: 

Measurements which refer to the diameter of knots or holes 
should be considered as referring to the mean or average diam- 
eter. 

1. Sound Knot.—A sound knot is one which is solid across 
its face and which is as hard as the wood surrounding it; it may 
be either red or black, and is so fixed by growth or position that 
it will retain its place in the piece. 

2. Loose Knot.—A loose knot is one not firmly held in place 
by growth or position. 

3. Pith Kuot.—A pith knot is a sound knot with a pith hole 
not more than + inch in diameter in the center. 

4. Encased Knot.—An encased knot is one which is sur- 
rounded wholly or in part by bark or pitch. Where the encase- 
ment is less than 4 of an inch in width on both sides, not exceed- 
ing one-half the circumference of the knot, it shall be considered 
a sound knot. 

5. Rotten Knot.—A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood 
it is in. 

6. Pin Knot.—A pin knot is a sound knot not over 4 inch in 
diameter. 

7. Standard Knot.—A standard knot is a sound knot not over 
14 inches in diameter. 

8. Large Knot.—A large knot is a sound knot, more than 14 
inches in diameter. 

9g. Round Knot.—A round knot is one which is oval or circular 
in form, 


News and Notes 357 


10. Sptke Knot.—A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise 
direction; the mean or average width shall be considered in 
measuring these knots. 

11. Pitch Pockets——Pitch pockets are openings between the 
grain of the wood containing more or less pitch or bark. These 
shall be classified as small, standard and large pitch pockets. 

(a) Small Pitch Pocket.—A small pitch pocket is one not over 
4 of an inch wide. 

(b) Standard Pitch Pocket.—A standard pitch pocket is one 
not over ~ of an inch wide, or 3 inches in length. 

(c) Large Pitch Pocket.—A large pitch pocket is one over 2 
of an inch wide, or over 3 inches in length. 

12. Pitch Streak.—A pitch streak is a well-defined accumulation 
of pitch at one point in the piece. When not sufficient to de- 
velop a well-defined streak, or where the fiber between grains, 
that is, the coarse-grained fiber, usually termed “Spring Wood,” 
is not saturated with pitch, it shall not be considered a defect. 

13. Wane.—Wane is bark, or the lack of wood from any cause, 
on edges of timbers. 

14. Shakes.—Shakes are splits or checks in timber which usu- 
ally cause a separation of the wood between annual rings. 

15. Rot, Dote and Red Heart.—Any form of decay which may 
be evident either as a dark red discoloration not found in the 
sound wood, or the presence of white or red rotten spots, shall 
be considered as a defect. 

i6. Ring Shake.-—An opening between the annual rings. 

17. Through Shake-—A shake which extends between two 
faces of a timber. 

The following trade names are those now recommended by 
Committee Q: 

1. Southern Yellow Pine——Under this heading two classes of 
timber are used, (a) Longleaf Pine, (b) Shortleaf Pine. 

It is undertsood that these two terms are descriptive of quality, 
rather than of botanical species. Thus, shortleaf pine would 
cover such species as are now known as North Carolina pine, 
loblolly pine, and shortleaf pine. “‘‘Longleaf Pine” is descriptive 
of quality, and if Cuban, shortleaf, or loblolly pine is grown under 
such conditions that it produces a large percentage of hard sum- 
mer wood, so as to be equivalent to the wood produced by the 


358 Forestry Quarterly 


true longleaf, it would be covered by the term “Longleaf Pine.” 

2. Douglas Fir—The term “Douglas Fir” to cover the timber 
known likewise as yellow fir, red fir, western fir, Washington 
fir, Oregon or Puget Sound fir or pine, northwest and west coast 
fir. 

3. Norway Pine, to cover what is known as “Red Pine.” 

4. Hemlock, to cover Southern or Eastern hemlock; that is, 
hemlock from all States east of and including Minnesota. 

5. Western Hemlock, to cover hemlock from the Pacific coast. 

6. Spruce, to cover Eastern spruce; that is, the spruce timber 
coming from points east of Minnesota. 

7. Western Spruce, to cover the spruce timber from the Pacific 
coast. 

8. White Pine, to cover the timber which has hitherto been 
known as white pine, from Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin and 
Minnesota. 

9g. Idaho White Pine, the variety of white pine from western 
Montana, northern Idaho, and eastern Washington. 

10. Western Pine, to cover the timber sold as white pine com- 
ing from Arizona, California, New Mexico, Colorado, Oregon 
and Washington. ‘This is the timber sometimes known as “West- 
ern Yellow Pine,” or ‘“‘Ponderosa Pine,” or “California White 
Pine,” or “Western White Pine.” 

11. Western Larch, to cover the species of larch or tamarack 
from the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast regions. 

12. Tamarack, to cover the timber known as ‘“Tamarack,”- or 
“Eastern Tamarack,” from States east of and including Min- 
nesota. 

13. Redwood, to include the California wood usually known 
by that name. 

The standard specifications for bridge and trestle timbers are 
as follows, to be applied to solid members and not to composite 
members : 

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. 

Except as noted all timber shall be cut from sound trees and 
sawed standard size; close grained and solid; free from defects 
such as injurious ring shakes and crooked grain; unsound knots ; 
knots in groups; decay; large pitch pockets, or other defects that 
will materially impair its strength. 


2 
> 
’ 


News and Notes 359 


Standard Size of Sawed Timber.—Rough timbers when sawed 
to standard size, shall mean that they shall not be over 4 in. scant 
from actual size specified. For instance, a 12 in. x 12 in, shall 
measure not less than 11? in. x 11? in. 

Standard Dressing of Sawed Timbers.—Standard dressing 
means that not more than } in. shall be allowed for dressing 
each surface. For instance, a 12 in. x 12 in. shall after dressing 
four sides, not measure less than 114 in. x 11g in. 


STRINGERS. 


No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir.—Shall show 
not less than 8o per cent. of heart on each of the four sides, meas- 
ured across the sides anywhere in the length of the piece; loose 
knots, or knots greater than 14 in. in diameter, will not be per- 
mitted at points within 4 inches of the edges of the piece. 

No. 2. Longleaf Yellow Pine, Shortleaf Pine, Douglas Fir, 
and Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged, except it may 
have I in. wane on one corner. Knots must not exceed in their 
largest diameter } the width of the face of the stick in which they 
occur. Ring shakes extending not over 4 of the length of the 
piece are admissible. 


Caps AND SILLS. 


No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir—Shall show 
85 per cent. heart on each of the four sides, measured across the 
sides anywhere in the length of the piece; to be free from knots 
over 24 in. in diameter; knots must not be in groups. 

No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir and 
Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged, except it may have 
I in. wane on one corner, or 4 in. wane on two corners. Knots 
must not exceed in their largest diameter + the width of the face 
of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes extending not 
over } the length of the piece are admissible. 


Posts. 

No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir.—Shall show 
not less than 75 per cent. heart, measured across the face any- 
where on the length of the piece; to be free from knots over 24 
in. in diameter, and must not be in groups. 


360 Forestry Quarterly 


No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir and 
Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged, except it may have 
I in. wane on one corner, or $ in. wane on two corners. Knots 
must not exceed, in their largest diameter, } the width of the face 
of the stick in which they occur. Ring shakes shall not extend 
over + of the length of the piece. 


LONGITUDINAL STRUTS OR GIRTS. 


No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir.—Shall show 
one face all heart; the other face and two sides shall show not 
less than 85 per cent. heart, measured across the face or side 
anywhere in the piece; to be free from knots 14 in. in diameter 
and over. 

No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, and 
Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged and sound; to be free 
from knots 14 in. in diameter and over. 


LONGITUDINAL X-BrAcES, SASH BRACES AND SwWAy BRACES. 


No. 1. Longleaf Yellow Pine and Douglas Fir.—Shall show 
not less than 80 per cent. heart on two faces and four square 
edges; to be free from knots over 14 in. in diameter. 

No. 2. Longleaf and Shortleaf Yellow Pine, Douglas Fir, and 
Western Hemlock.—Shall be square edged and sound; to be free 
from knots 24 in. in diameter and over. 


Mr. L. D. Van Rensselaer, of Ithaca, N. Y., advertises insur- 
ance against fire for standing timber and for cut wood lying in 
the forest. 


In Michigan a bill was passed by the Legislature, withdrawing 
40,000 acres of Agricultural College lands from sale, with a view 
of ultimately turning them into a forest reservation. The Senate 
also passed a bill providing for a commission to investigate the 
question of reforesting, but we are not informed that it has be- 
come a law. 


The State of Washington has entered the number of States 
providing educational facilities for forestry in connection with 
the College of Agriculture, Prof. W. S. Thornber in charge. 


News and Notes 361 


The State Forester of Maryland has begun a detailed study of 
the forest resources of the State by counties. The work done by 
the Forest Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in sev- 
eral counties is being revised and greatly extended to give accu- 
rate and complete reports. In addition to this, two counties not 
heretofore studied have been taken up in detail and will be com- 
pleted before the end of the season. After August 15th the State 
Forester will co-operate with the Forest Service in examining 
lands in western Maryland for the proposed Appalachian Na- 
tional Forest. 


In connection with the plans of the Santa Fe Railroad to propa- 
gate eucalyptus on a large scale in California, EK. O. Faulkner, 
manager, Tie and Timber Department, will go to Australia about 
the middle of September to study the various species of eucalyp- 
tus in their native habitat. It is understood that species suitable 
for railroad cross-ties will be planted in southern California; so 
the question of rapid-growing species suitable to the soil and cli- 
mate conditions of the land acquired, and which will take treat- 
ment readily, is to be carefully investigated. This recognition 
of eucalyptus by such a commercial organization should give 
added impetus to the planting of this tree where conditions are 
favorable. 


That the policy of wood preservation by the Northern Pacific 
Railroad is to be put on a more permanent basis is evident from 
an official circular to the effect that Mr. Andrew Gibson was ap- 
pointed Superintendent of Timber Preservation and Tie Treating 
Plants, on August 1. The Company now operates treating plants 
at Brainerd, Minn., and Paradise, Mont. 


The following changes in the teaching staffs of the Forestry 
Departments in several western colleges have been made: Prof. 
F. G. Miller, of the University of Nebraska goes to the University 
of Washington, at Walla Walla, his place at Lincoln being taken 
by F. J. Phillips, of the Forest Service; while E. O. Siecke, also 
of the Forest Service, is to teach in a new school of Forestry es- 
tablished in connection with the State College of Washington, at 
Pullman. Professor Phillips graduated in forestry from the 
University of Michigan in 1906 and Professor Siecke did like- 


362 Forestry Quarterly 


wise from the lowa State College of Agriculture and the Me- 
chanic Arts the same year. Both have had wide experience in 
the extension of the Forest Service. Prof. H. P. Baker has left 
the Iowa State College of Agriculture to organize the Depart- 
ment of Forestry which Dr. Fernow instituted at the Pennsyl- 
vania State College. 


The registration at the Yale Summer School of Forestry at 
Milford, Pa., has this year been exceptionally large. It will be 
recalled that Yale conducts two courses in connection with its 
summer school: first, the regular summer term which is required 
of the Junior Class; second, a short course designed for pros- 
pective rangers, woods foremen, and others who wish a short 
general course of forestry. This year sixteen men are taking 
the short course and fifty are enrolled in the long course. 

The summer work is in charge of Prof. H. S. Graves, who has 
associated with him this year in the technical forestry work 
Prof. H. H. Chapman, Dr. A. H. Graves and Mr. N. C. Brown, 
and in the work of surveying Prof. J. C. Tracy, Mr. C. S. Farn- 
ham and Prof. Wheeler. 

Mr. H. H. Chapman has recently been promoted from the 
position of instructor in Forestry to an assistant professorship. 

Prof. J. W. Toumey is inspecting, for the Forest Service, the 
work of planting on the national forests. Mr. R. C. Bryant, who 
has charge of the work in lumbering at Yale, is travelling in 
the South inspecting the plants of different large manufacturers 
of lumber. Mr. R. C. Hawley, instructor in Forestry, is working 
during this summer for the Bureau of Corporations in connec- 
tion with their investigation of the amount of standing timber 
in the country. 

The fall term of the Forest School opens October Ist. 


S. B. Detwiler, who received his training at Yale and Univers- 
ity of Minnesota, has left the Forest Service to become assistant 
to Prof. Green at the University of Minnesota. 


John Foley left the Forest Service to become assistant to F. A. 
Sterling, forester to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. Max 
Rothkugel has re-entered the Forest Service. 


i 
Pi 
3 


> + 


News and Notes 363 

Mr. Robert C. Rosenbluth (Yale, ’o7) after entering the 
Forest Service July 1st resigned at the end of the month to ac- 
cept a similar position in the Philippine Bureau of Forestry. Mr. 
Rosenbluth sailed early in August to enter upon his duties in the 
islands, 


Dr. W. C. Geer (Cornell, ’02) severed his connection with the 
Forest Service August rst to accept the position of superintendent 
with the B. F. Goodrich Rubber Company at Akron. Ohio. Dur- 
ing the past year Dr. Geer has made an exhaustive study of the 
destructive distillation of wood. 


The legislature of Massachusetts this year improved upon its 
forest legislation by consolidating and re-organizing the forest 
warden system and making the appointment of forest wardens 
(formerly forest fire wardens) subject to approval by the State 
Forester. The measures for preventing forest fires due to loco- 
motive sparks are also improved by enforcing the use of spark 
arresters and burning over right-of-way for 200 feet each side 
as well as cleaning up unimproved land adjoining. It also pro- 
vides for a trained forester who has had a technical education 
as State Forester, with a salary of $3,000 per annum. 


The Dominion Government of Canada in its Department of the 
Interior has begun to publish in elegant style a preliminary edition 
of a set of maps of the Provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and 
Alberta and of the railway belt of British Columbia on a scale of 
124 and 7.89 miles to the inch respectively. This scale permits 
the showing by color of character of ownership down to quarter 
sections, namely, homesteads patented, unpatented and entered, 
Indian Reserves, Forest Reservations, Timber Berths, and Special 
Grants. The information is corrected to July 1, 1907. In addi- 
tion the character of the country, whether prairie, park country, 
chiefly wooded or timbered is indicated. 

A broken line in gold, limits these various types of country of 
course only approximately. It would appear that while outside of 
British Columbia there is little timber four commercial use, the 
country is nevertheless largely woodland, where wood for local 
use should be husbanded, for Canada is a country practically 


304 I orestry Quarteriy 


without coal. Just 12 forest reservations, mostly small ones, are 
located in various parts of the prairie country, besides 8 larger 
ones in the Railway Belt. Altogether there appears to be much 
more settled country in these sections than one is accustomed to 
think and the country open to entry is mostly away from rivers 
or rail. 


That forest planting is part but not all that enters into the 
practice of forestry by private corporations is an axiom of the 
profession. Despite the propaganda, for some years past the 
unfortunate fact remains that little reliable data is available on 
the cost of private planting in the East. Since the utilization of 
waste lands by planting is part of the forest policy of the Penn- 
sylvania Railroad, figures on the cost of the work done this spring 
may be interesting and suggestive. 

The planting was done during April and May on ten sites in 
three localities between Harrisburg and Altoona. The seedlings 
used were I to 3 years old, purchased for $5.25 per M. Where 
Italians planted the trees 6’ x 6’ in holes prepared with mattocks, 
the cost was $5.12 per 1,000. With American labor and the trees 
planted 4’ x 6’ apart in furrows 5’ apart, the cost was $7.85 per 
1,000 in one place and $4.82 in another. The greater expense in 
the one case was due to clearing brush and resetting fences. In 
all 448,226 seedlings were planted at an average expense of $6.04 
per M. If their purchase price were included the set-out trees 
cost $11.29 per M. or $15.93 per acre. The species handled are 
shown in the following table: 


Number 
Species of seedlings 

planted 
ERS CANE aR he | Ne Mele ea anise Ror oe cn en 252,154 
Black GOCust, es tee sat ee atten Rises 175,716 
BMaropean Wakely k Uae eet ees 6,970 
Bite: Da kes! iy eatwreie aayanerk alate peat meee ore 4,570 
MCOLEN Ee MIG, cu supe Ree eae eens 3,500 
hike 90 hy: (ol aR ENR Se me ear tT ote 3,000 


RG TESTLLUR Gs i tao sfo-lesn sha ab ete aks Dut Aceh teh aera 2,316 


f H 
‘% 
> 
bJ 


News and Notes 305 


Circular No. 23, issued from the office of the Second Vice- 
President of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System, 
under date of July 24th, 1907, states that: “Mr. Hermann von 
Schrenk is hereby appointed Consulting Timber Engineer, with 
headquarters at St. Louis, Mo. Effective August 1, 1907. A 
circular letter dated July 1st gives the further information that 
Dr. Von Schrenk is to be one of a firm of Consulting Timber 
Engineers. His associates being E. B. Fulks, and Alfred L. 
Kammerer. This follows Dr. Von Schrenk’s resignation as 
Pathologist in charge of investigatons of timber diseases and 
methods for preventing the same, in the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. This firm has established a technical labo- 
ratory and consulting office at St. Louis, devoted to the prosecu- 
tion of investigations into the uses of timber, and are prepared to 
carry on investigations and make reports on all problems dealing 
with the utilization of timber, the closer adaption of all kinds of 
woods to special uses, and determination as to the kind and value 
of various preservative processes. 


BRRATALIN VOL. V, N@e2- 


The following serious errata have, after proofreading, crept 
into tables and plates accompanying the article on The Sprout 
Forests of the Housatonic Valley, which readers are asked kindly 
to correct. 

Page 125, Plate II, Fig. 3. In the title change “at right” to 
“at base.’ 

Page 129, Table II. In fifth column, drop “25” to line below 
In eleventh column, reverse “17” and “18”. In seventeenth 
column, change “4” to “3”. 

Page 134, Plate III. Interchange titles, and insert in title for 
lower figure, “two Chestnuts” after “Hickories.” 

Pages, 140, 142, 144. In the title of these diagrams, interchange 
readings so that dominant seedling trees are represented by heavy 
dots, suppressed sprouts by light unbroken line. 


HARVARD UNIVERSITY 


THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE 


offers a two-years’ course in FORESTRY leading to the degree of 


Master in Forestry. The descriptive pamphlet will be sent on 
application to W.C. SABINE, 15 University Hall, Cambridge, 


Mass. 


Yale University Forest School 


NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT 


A two-year graduate course is offered, lead- 
ing to the degree of Master of Forestry. Grad- 
uates of collegiate institutions of high standing 
are admitted upon presentation of their college 
diploma. 

The Summer School of Forestry is conducted 
at Milford, Pike County, Pa. The session in 
1907 will open early in July and continue 


seven weeks. 


For further information, address 


HENRY S. GRAVES, Director, New Haven, Connecticut 


UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO 


Offers a four-year course in forestry leading to the 
degree of Bachelor of the Science of Forestry. 
For further information address 
B. E. FERNOW, Dean, 
Faculty of Forestry University of Toronto, 
Toronto, Canada 


FORESTRY QUARTERLY 


Vor. V] DECEMBER, 1907. [No. 4 


AN EFFECTIVE SCREEN FOR NURSERIES. 


Screens for shade in evergreen seedling work, form one of the 
factors in adding to the cost of plants. A simple and cheap form 
of screen being used in the Government nurseries at the Agricul- 
tural College, Guelph, Ontario, is shown in the illustration 
( frontispiece ). 

This screen is made in a machine which was constructed for 
the manufacture of picket fence. A four foot lath is used and is 
woven with six strands of wire as shown in the cut. The screen 
was made and delivered for seventy cents a rod. A comparison 
with the screens previously used, might be of interest, taking for 
granted that the supports are the same in both cases. The old 
screen was made by nailing lath on a frame 4 ft. x 10 ft. requir- 
ing six screens for a sixty foot bed. The material (lath, strips 
and nails) for the sixty foot bed would cost about $3.75, without 
the labor. The woven roll ready to place on supports costs about 
$2.55 per sixty feet. 

The advantages in handling these screens are obvious. In re- 
moving or replacing the screen it takes less time to handle this 
roll and it can be so placed that it will not interfere with weeding 
or other operations. The screens in the illustration have been 
in use three seasons, and appear as though they would give ser- 
vice for several more years. 


E. J. ZAvItz. 


ECONOMIC THINNING OF WHITE PINE. 


Low prices for chestnut cordwood have so far prevented any 
widespread interest in improvement thinnings in the New Eng- 
land woodlot, and enthusiasm in forestry has therefore centered 
about planting. To the owner of a white pine lot, however, thin- 
nings may be made a source of revenue not to be despised. Such 
thinnings from an eight acre lot in Connecticut recently brought 
the owners a net income of $354.55—or $44.32 per acre. 

This grove of pines is situated on the boundary between the 
towns of Windsor and Bloomfield, Connecticut, about three miles 
from the former village, and ten miles from Hartford. It is 
owned by the Loomis Institute, an educational establishment 
anxious to preserve it, not only for financial and esthetic pur- 
poses, but to maintain a place for the study of applied forestry by 
the students. The average age of the trees is fifty years, although 
there are groups considerably older from which the others evi- 
dently seeded. The land was originally under cultivation, but is 
a light sand soil characteristic of the region, largely abandoned 
during the last century, but now quite extensively used for tobacco 
by means of heavy fertilization. 

The many pine groves throughout Southern New England have 
suffered severely from a cause which is still unsettled. Pro- 
fessor Stone, of Amherst, believes the death of large numbers of 
pines throughout New England to be due to a winter injury to 
the roots. Whether this is the primary injury or not remains to 
be proved, but certainly the roots of these trees have suffered 
extensively. Windfalls have been very numerous, and in every 
case, even of trees apparently in good health, the roots were found 
to be all rotted off, nothing remaining to hold the trees. In some 
of the trees the foliage has turned brown and died, which may 
point to fungus disease or injury by insects. An examination by 
Dr. Britton, State Entomologist, showed that while some were 
infested with a number of borers, these usually confined their 
attention to the dead or dying parts of the trunk and were not 
species liable to directly cause such injury. 


Economic Thinning of White Pine. 369 


The insects found were identified by Dr. Hopkins as Tomicus 
pint; Pityogenes sp.; Pytho Americanus, and Pytho niger. 

An examination of the roots by Dr. Clinton, Botanist of the 
Experiment Station, showed that the mycelium of some hyme- 
nomycetous fungus was present in the dead roots and to some 
extent on the surface of the living. This fungus was not deter- 
mined, as its fruiting stage was not present at the time of the 
examination in March. It is, of course, possible that the fungus 
was present merely as a saprophyte. 

The high mortality in this grove was well shown by’ survey 
plots indicating that 15% of the standing trees were dead. ‘This 
is not the whole story, however, as dead trees have been cut out 
from time to time for esthetic reasons and enumeration showed 
that the average number of trees per acre alive and dead was 292. 
Professor Graves in his “Forest Mensuration” shows for Scotch 
Pine that the normal number of trees in stands fifty years old are: 
on Quality I, 464 trees; Quality III, 848 trees; Quality V, 1588; 
and Spring in his bulletin No. 63 of the U. S. Forest Service 
shows that the average number of trees in New England white 
pine groves fifty years old is 400, or 108 more than the grove in 
question. There is a white pine plantation seventy years old in 
northeastern Connecticut with 524 trees per acre. 

Besides the dead trees which were mostly of diameters under 
twelve inches, there were a great many partially or nearly sup- 
pressed trees with very slender stems and almost no tops. The 
unevenness of the stand, which might have been avoided by early 
thinnings, had resulted in many large openings and corresponding 
dense spots. The diameters of the live trees ranged from six 
to eighteen inches with little difference between the trees of small 
and large diameters. 

This grove has escaped damage from fire and the result is a 
most encouraging reproduction of white pine. While many lum- 
bermen of New England are becoming interested in forest plant- 
ing, they overlook entirely the possibility of perpetuating forests 
by natural reproduction. The advanced groups of pine seedlings 
in all the openings of this grove and the innumerable little seed- 
lings scattered throughout all point to the possibility of harvesting 
the mature timber in such a way as to get complete reforestation. 

It was determined to make a light thinning for the three-fold 


370 Forestry Quarterly. 


purpose of improving the growth of the best trees while utilizing 
the dead and inferior trees and for assisting the reproduction 
already started. The thinning was primarily “Improvement” and 
on account of the great danger from windfall was made con- 
servatively, many trees being left, which under other conditions 
would be cut. All dead and dying timber was cut and all sup- 
pressed trees ,and where there was not too much danger from 
windfall, intermediate trees interfering with the development of 
better individuals. It is hoped that the increased opportunity for 
crown development will result in growth of new roots and that 
the stand will become more wind firm before it is time for another 
trimming in six or eight years. 

All trees to be removed were marked twice: once at breast 
height to be plainly seen, and once on the roots for checking up 
after the work. The marking required about two days’ labor. 

The following table shows the stand of one representative quar- 
ter acre. The volume in board feet are obtained from Mr. Haw- 
ley’s Volume Table published in an annual report of the State 
Forester of Massachusetts : 


Survey of One Quarter Acre. 


Diam. No. of Vol. of No. of Vol. of No. of Vol. of 
Breast Trees Trees Trees Trees Others to Others to 
High Left Left Dead Dead Be cut Be cut 
Inches Board Ft, Board Ft. Board Ft. 
6 3 90 2 60 
7 6 300 6 300 
8 2 130 2 130 3 195 
9 7 700 4 400 
10 7 771 I 110 
II 6 840 2 280 
12 7 T155 I 165 
13 6 1,140 
14 5 1,075 I 215 
15 4 
16 3 810 I 270 
17 2 600 
18 
19 2 800 
‘Total, ‘51 Q,000 14 965 18 1,550 


Average Per Acre. 


Number Volume B. M. 
Treesttojbe eth 3 Sieuics Oocr ee ae lesen ete 204 36,000 
DOAd trees ee ae eee lary Aer eter oho ents 56 3,860 
Other trees: tos Descuts sic, ou nis ccioetien te vise kivighs 72 6,200 


Dota lyst fia Pie asd eee viv salar Goe wba acne tars Bole ney Cok Ar eS oe 46,060 


Economic Thinning of White Pine. 371 


Number Volume B. M. 
Trees alive, eo a aimebid dV viene gig bie via pinlg aaah 276 42,200 
Pen CPI wR TIVE CERES, eS tk eta pned ued eamee ne 83 gI 
ESET Cs Re a faa ae IR OA ce pee MS 128 10,060 
Wer cent of trees to be ctit, .. ccs csc cwe sae wea ge 37 21 


In the above table, the volumes of the dead trees are given in 
board feet just as the others, but as a matter of fact, only a few 
of the dead trees were sound enough to be sawed into lumber. 

Three quarter acre plots similar to the above were surveyed in 
the grove and the results are given in the following table: 


Surveys of Three One Quarter Acre Plots. 


~c Trees Left Dead Trees Other Trees to Be Cut 
. No. Vol. B. M. No. Vol.B.M. No. Vol. B.M. 
I 51 9,000 14 965 18 1,550 
2 42 8,250 8 630 9 770 
3 47 6,050 10 1,305 20 1,085 
ST Se 140 23,300 32 2,900 47 3,405 
Av. per % acre, 47 7,767 II 966 16 1,135 
Av. per acre, .. 188 31,068 44 3,864 64 4,540 
Total volume to be cut per acre, ........ 8,404 feet B. M. 


Total volume to be cut from 8 acres, ..67,232 feet B. M. 


After the trees were marked, the various lumbermen of the 
region were asked to bid on the stumpage and inquiries were 
made as to letting out contracts for the cutting, hauling and saw- 
ing, and the final value of the finished lumber. While it seemed 
possible that a greater profit might be realized by doing the lum- 
bering themselves, the trustees of the Institute were too busy to 
undertake the supervision, and the stumpage was therefore sold 
to a lumberman of Windsor who set up a portable mill on the lot. 
He paid six dollars per thousand for lumber and one dollar and 
a quarter for cordwood, cutting all dead trees and tops into wood. 
The work was done carefully, only one unmarked tree being in- 
jured in the felling. After the cutting a few more trees were 
marked and cut, amounting perhaps to two thousand feet, board 
measure. The lumberman’s figures of the cut were accepted. 
These were: 

ign Meee: Gh SOOO, ds te Sevese ah ety $310 80 


Se eee WON, ete! fs o's 2 ccc nwde age 4 43 75 


372 Forestry Quarterly. 


Allowing five hundred feet of lumber as the equivalent of one 
cord of wood, the thirty-five cords equal 17,500 feet. ‘Therefore 
the total volume cut was 69,300 feet, almost exactly the estimated 
amount plus the volume of the few trees marked later. Besides 
illustrating the feasibility of improvement thinnings in white 
pine this grove shows very well what may be expected in the way 
of financial results from such pine forests in Southern New Eng- 
land. The stand before cutting contained in all 40,000 feet per 
acre. It had therefore, grown an average of 800 feet per acre 
per annum, worth at $6.0co—$4.80. The land around it covered 
with brush is worth about $8.00 an acre. Undoubtedly if it has 
produced 800 feet without management, it can be made to pro- 
duce 1,000 feet by a little care, and will then yield its annual 
revenue of $6.00 per acre, and as prices increase the revenue will 
be larger. There is every reason to expect that by judicial cut- 
ting this forest can be made to produce such a revenue perpet- 
ually. 

In the case under consideration the money received from the 
thinnings was expended in burning tops, clearing out brush to 
favor reproduction, and in planting an adjoining piece of waste 
land to pie. 

AusTIn F, Hawes. 


—— 


Ee ne 


aaa 


ak 


mops; 


TAXATION OF WOODLANDS.* 


The subject of the taxation of woodlands has been for some 
time urged as one which is of importance to the development of 
forestry practices in the handling of timberlands. And the dis- 
cussions have charged the absence of such practices to excessive 
taxation, which forces the lumberman to be satisfied with a mere 
rapid exploitation instead of management for future crops. 

Two main questions arise when discussing forest taxation: 
First, What points must be considered in securing the assessment 
of an equitable tax? Second, Will such equitable taxation or else 
tax reduction or exemption secure the application of forestry 
practice to timberlands? 

The first thing to recognize is that very widely differing kinds 
of property, of widely different value, are liable to be taxed as 
woodland. 

There are at least three classes of woodland: the virgin uncut 
marketable timber; the cut-over lands with promising growth of 
value; the stumplands without value, unless through special 
effort. And a fourth class may be added, as yet little developed, 
namely, of artificial plantations. 

That these three or four classes deserve different treatment will 
be readily admitted. 

What are the points regarding the first class, the uncut tim- 
berlands? It is property of high value, immediately available by 
mere exploitation—by destructive lumbering. It is also capable 
of being made a continuous revenue producer, by conservative 
lumbering. How does the tax assessor approach it? 

In all political questions—and taxation is a political question in 
the broadest sense—principle and expediency 7. e. theoretical and 
practical considerations are involved, and, especially in a com- 
munity still in the pioneering stage, the latter considerations, 
those of expediency, will often outweigh the force of acknowl- 
edged correct principles. The argument that the timber land 
owner, being the richer man, possesses greater tax-paying faculty, 
1. e. can afford to pay a relatively higher tax rate than the poorer 


*Presented at the Conference of the Lake States at Saginaw, Nov. 1907. 


374 Forestry Quarterly. 


settler, is sufficient to justify the neglect of the principle of jus- 
tice and equal treatment. The argument that the settler has in 
view permanency, continuity in creation of values from the soil, 
continuous improvement, that all his work tends to form a perma- 
nent asset for future assessment and taxation, while the lumber- 
man has in view merely exploitation and the removal of values 
which he has not created—this argument, at least in a pioneering 
community, very naturally and properly weighs with the tax 
assessor so as to set the principle of justice at naught. He 
naturally favors the farmer, and “sticks” the logger, whose 
greater wealth enables him to contribute at a higher rate towards 
the development of the country, the county, the township. It is 
human nature to do so, and human nature forms an unavoidable 
third factor in solving political questions. While the tax assessor 
maintains equality in the rate, he considers inequality in valuation 
justifiable according to tax faculty; effectiveness rather than jus- 
tice is his aim. He also takes into consideration the attitude of 
the owner. It is this attitude towards his property that distin- 
guishes settler and lumberman, and that seems to explain and to 
justify a seemingly unjust distribution of the burdens of taxation. 
If it could be shown that the timberland owner had the intention 
of making his property the basis of a permanent enterprise, the 
case would perhaps be looked at differently, but until such bona 
fide change of attitude can be shown, I fear, practical considera- 
tions will favor continuance of present practice. In this connec- 
tion a few questions may be formulated, which should be consid- 
ered as pertinent from the practical point of view. 

1. Does the lumberman as a rule buy land, or does he buy 
timber? That is, does he consider in his purchase the soil and its 
capacity for production, or only the product? 

2. Is any lumberman known to have bought timber for any 
other purpose than exploitation or speculation ? 

3. Does not every lumberman with business capacity, in buy- 
ing timber, anticipate the tax assessment and discount it in his 
price? 

4. Has actually any lumberman been induced to cut his timber 
in order to avoid the tax rate, or are not other motives than ex- 
cessive taxation invariably or usually the reason, or at least more 
potent reason, for his removal of it? 


Taxation of Woodlands. 375 


5. Has any lumberman become poorer by risking the higher 
tax rate, when compared with the settler and his lower tax rate 
or assessment? 

6. Does not the lumberman shift the tax on the consumer of 
his goods, wholly or in part, the tax being counted as part of the 
cost of production? 

7. Does not, in view of the rapidly increasing stumpage value, 
the tax rate appear to be a relatively small matter? 

In Ontario, at least as far as I can find out, there is as a rule no 
complaint on the part of the timberland owners on this score of 
iniquitous tax. On the contrary, although in a given case, which 
lately came to my knowledge, the per acre assessment is not 
changed after the timber is cut, the owner is satisfied, and un- 
willing to clamor for justice, because in comparison with the 
stumpage price and possible future values of timber and land the 
average assessment of cut and uncut lands is fair enough. 

Timberlands have been, and are still, among the most profitable 
properties, and these more than any other properties increase 
in value by ‘‘unearned increments.” Even the principle of jus- 
tice seems to be satisfied by charging profitable properties with 
higher tax assessment than unprofitable ones, and this principle 
of uneven assessment, is found in all systems of taxation. While 
then, in pioneering communities and considering the attitude of 
the exploiter, a higher assessment for timberlands would appear 
justified than for farm properties, yet even here some just and 
fair principle should be applied in the assessment, and a check to 
arbitrariness supplied. 

That forest properties are mostly unfairly taxed admits hardly 
of doubt, especially when it is considered that such properties 
do not receive the protection or other considerations they are 
entitled to from the municipalities which collect the tax. Not 
only does there seem to be no uniform principle behind the 
assessor's method, but the ability of the assessor to make a 
true and reasonable valuation is often doubtful, and his assess- 

ient is more or less a guess, a “hit or miss”, but mostly a “miss”’. 

There are only three equitable methods of assessing land prop- 
erty; namely, by the actual or estimated sale value as it stands 
with improvements, which supposedly represents its income pro- 
ducing value; by the actual or estimated average income or 


376 Forestry Quarterly. 


profit or revenue which it produces; by the possible or eventual 
income or profit or revenue it might produce—its productive 
power, its rent value; or else, a tax system in which any two 
or all three methods are employed, supplementary to each other, 
might be devised. 

In the case of the rent value assessment it is not the actual 
yield, but the yield capacity that is assessed, no matter whether 
the owner lets the land lie barren or uses it not in a manner 
most suitable to its capacity, and leaving out of consideration 
whether the land bears forest or is improperly stocked. What 
it could under reasonable management produce by its annual 
growth or increment, can be established for a forest acre as well 
as for a farm acre. 

In the case of the income tax the actual net income is assessed, 
but in forest properties it may also be conceived to consist in 
the money value of the annual wood increment on the actual 
stock, no matter whether this is harvested annually or inter- 
mittently, or not at all, for if not utilized it becomes capital, re- 
invested income, invested in woodgrowth; and if it is thrifty 
crowing timber it increases the rent producing capacity of the 
property by the increased wood value which comes with in- 
creased size. 

Logically, the assessment based on actual income would ap- 
pear the most reasonable, for eventually all taxes must be paid 
out of income. The practical objections are that it is difficult to 
ascertain actual income, and that properties allowed to lie idle 
would escape taxation to the detriment of the community; 
hence, a mixed system is more likely to produce satisfactory 
results. 

It is, of course, irrevelant in principle whether the tax is 
assessed directly on income, actual or potential, or on its 
capitalized value, although in practical operation one or the 
other method may appear preferable. In the end expediency 
will vary the application of the method under different condi- 
tions. 

Thus in the old settled countries with fully established per- 
manent communities and practically unchangeable conditions the 
rent value method may be practicable, while it would be pre- 


Taxation of Woodlands. 377 


posterous to apply it to the unsettled conditions of communi- 
ties in the pioneering stage. 

With regard to forest properties it has been urged that the 
timber is really a crop and not a part of real estate, hence, 
should not be taxed any more that the farmers’ crop. But those 
advocating this theory overlook that the crop idea involves the 
idea of human effort, and that in most cases in this country the 
grown timber is an asset secured without such effort. 

Only when an effort has been put forward to make the soil 
produce can we speak of a crop. Here again the attitude of the 
owner and the condition of the forest is of moment in character- 
izing the stand either as accumulated capital to be taxed, or as 
growing crop to merely serve in determining the capital value 
of the soil, which is then the taxable property. 

At any rate, it would appear reasonable to distinguish in the 
assessment between the soil value and the stumpage value, the 
former to be based on the productive capacity of the soil either 
for farm use or for forest use, and the tax on stumpage to be 
based on market values, and, of course, to cease when the timber 
is removed. In this connection it should not be overlooked that 
if stump lands are to be assessed on their farm value, that the 
cost of preparing them for farm use is properly deducted from 
the final farm value. 

When you come to analyze the assessor’s procedure, you will 
probably find that unconsciously, or half consciously, he makes 
such subdivision in his mind, although the assessment is stated 
in a lump, and the methods of arriving at the valuation are only 
crude guesses. 

One of the latest contibutors to the discussion of equitable 
timberland taxation, having first raised the crop idea, somewhat 
inconsistently contends that “land should not be taxed at all, 
but the timber after it is cut into logs. This would relieve the 
necessity for cutting half-grown trees, allowing them to grow to 
maturity first.” He then raises the very practical point that “a 
crop of logs is a definite value, obtainable from scale bills, while 
the value of wild land is something on which no two timberland 
explorers ever agree.” 

It has been pointed out again and again that timberlands afford 
no income until the timber is cut, and since taxes are, or ought 


378 Forestry Quarterly. 


to be, paid out of income, the tax should be levied when the 
timber is cut, assessing the actual cut at its fair stumpage value. 
The principle would appear just, but the practical objection to 
this method is that administrations have annual needs for funds, 
and cannot be dependent on the whim of owners as to when and 
how much they propose to cut, and hence an annual tax must be 
levied. The method of assessment must therefore be modified 
to meet this necessity, which is, perhaps, also best done by a 
separation of land tax and stumpage tax. 

This is the principle on which German forests are taxed, and 
it may be of interest to briefly recite the latest development in 
forest taxation in that country, although the methods may not 
be applied directly under our conditions. 

In that country forestry practices, 7. e. management for con- 
tinuity being general and to a large extent enforced, all forest 
properties are treated in the tax scheme from that point of 
view. While there are variations in the method of assessment 
in the different States they all are, in the last analysis, based on 
the productive power of the soil and the tax is assessed usually 
both against the income and the capital invested in the business. 

When a sustained yield management exists, i. e. one which 
yields an anual cut, the capital represented in the growing stock 
or timber is considered taxable as well as the income, while in 
intermittent management, instead of the growing stock, the soil 
rent value, 7. e. the soil considered on the basis of its produc- 
tive capacity, is the taxable property. 

In Wurttemberg a revision of the tax law was effected in 1905, 
following closely the Prussian precedent. Both state and county 
taxes are assessed against forest property. For state purposes 
the taxable income is the actual sale results, cash or credit, of the 
regular cut, principal and intermediary harvest. The domestic 
consumption of the owner at local average prices is considered in- 
come as well. Extraordinary cuts are taxed if they are made to 
secure cash or to change the use of the area, as for farm purposes; 
but, if occasioned by natural disaster, like windfall, insect pests, 
snow breakage, etc., the results are not considered taxable income, 
for this enforced cut is considered a misfortune, a loss against the 
owners’ interests, because it disturbs his regular management. 

As expenses are charged not only all the usual expenditures 


Taxation of Woodlands. 379 


incurred in the management, but the cost of new plantations also, 
and bad debts of former years if they had been figured as in- 
comes, but costs occasioned by extraordinary cuts, including those 
of reforestation, do not figure any more than the incomes 
from such untimely utilization. 

Besides this income tax the hitherto customary realty or soil 
tax is continued at a reduced rate. This is based not on the in- 
come, but on the possible net yield—the possibilité of the 
French—and this yield capacity is determined once for all by ex- 
perts, after classification of the land according to quality. This 
assessment of the so-called ‘‘tax capital,” which does not consider 
individual conditions or special methods of management, is sup- 
posed to hold good for a long period, and is changed only when 
changes in use and in property conditions arise. 

For municipal taxation this tax capital forms the basis, the 
annual county or town expenditure, as far as not otherwise satis- 
fied, being apportioned among the owners. The rate on the tax 
capital varies from year to year, and in 1906 was 20 mills—the 
same as on real estate in Toronto. The rate on incomes is de- 
termined every two years. The law, however, states a normal 
rate on a sliding scale, which varies between 2 and 5 marks, ac- 
cording to size of income. 

It is evident that we have not yet reached such stable condi- 
tions in the lake states to permit the application of this method, 
but it is, at least, suggestive. It may be of interest to add that 
the forest soil in Prussia is assessed in the tax lists upon the basis 
of a net yield varying from 18 cents to $1.25, averaging about 50 
cents, while farm soils are taxed on a basis of a net yield of 81 
cents to $3.96, or, $1.82 on the average. 

I may not, without exhausting my time, analyze in detail the 
conditions of the other classes of woodland, stumplands, good and 
bad, from the standpoint of the tax assessor, except to point out 
that the attitude of both owner and assessor are naturally changed 
when the timber is cut, and hence entirely different principles and 
practical considerations enter. But still, expediency, 1. e., justice 
to the commonwealth or to the communal interests as a whole in 
the broadest sense, rather than theoretical personal justice, will 
probably dictate the procedure, and the attitude of the owner 


380 Foresiry Quarterly. 


towards his cut-over lands will, and ought to, influence the assess- 
ment. 

At this point my second main question comes in: how far may 
the taxing power be utilized to favor the introduction of forestry 
methods in the treatment of woodlands, 7. ¢., to induce owners of 
timberlands to make them permanent revenue producers? This, 
no doubt, is the question which interests this convention even 
more than the first, namely, that of just taxation. 

The principles which would justify the consideration of such 
woodland properties dedicated to forest purposes as special 
objects for tax release or exemption have been rehearsed again 
and again and are familiar. It is claimed, with more or less good 
reason, that forest growth is a condition beneficial to the com- 
munity at large, through its influence on climate and water flow. 
I call your attention to the fact that these influences are not 
under all conditions evident or proven, and that the location of 
the forest areas has much to do with the value of their protective 
function. That is to say, not all forest growth has protective 
value. 

Another argument is, that the long time involved in producing 
forest crops, the risks involved in this kind of crop and various 
other characteristics of the business of forest cropping are dis- 
couraging elements to private enterprise, and hence, taking also 
into consideration the general need and the general benefit which 
come to the community at large, this business is considered as 
needing the encouragement of an infant industry by reduction or 
exemption from tax. 

I have, myself, again and again, attempted to show that for- 
estry is a business sui generis, that owing to the long time element 
mainly, it is exceptional, and may, therefore, justify exceptional 
treatment even by the tax gatherer. But, admitting all the argu- 
ments in favor of the principle of partial or entire tax release as 
a theoretical proposition, two practical questions must not be lost 
sight of, namely, first, the difficulty of devising and administer- 
ing an adequate tax release law, and the still more important 
question: Is there any reason for expecting that the benefit of 
the tax release will offset the objectionable features of the for- 
estry business from the point of view of private enterprise. 

There have been and there are, as you know, statutes in various 


Taxation of Woodlands. 381 


states designed to encourage forestry by tax release, tax exemp- 
tion and bounties. If you will investigate the results of the 
earlier attempts at such encouragement, you will find that they 
are practically mil. And if you will scrutinize even the newer 
legislation you will find that it is mostly not only crude, imprac- 
ticable to administer and from the forester’s point of view inade- 
quate, but they usually limit the area which is to enjoy the release 
to small wood lots, as if a larger area devoted to timber growth 
would not be a:benefit to the community. They limit the kind of 
trees to be considered eligible for tax release specifically, instead 
of in general terms. They prescribe lowest limits of the number 
of trees which would never produce satisfactory results. They 
limit the length of time for which the release is given, without 
adequete reasons. 

While I would not deny the possibility of framing adequate 
legislation and its practical administration in states where com- 
petent forest commissions are in charge, I wish to raise doubts 
as to whether this encouragement can reasonably be expected to 
do much good, except perhaps in the case of the small farmer’s 
wood lot. When it comes to raising a nation’s and even a state’s 
log supply—the much more important problem—the maiter is 
very different. 

Even with the small wood lot plantation the benefit of tax 
release compared with the necessary expenditure on one hand aad 
compared with the financial result of the venture on the other 
hand, can hardly be adequate. At best the tax release would 
average barely more than 10 cents per acre, which at 5 per cent. 
would at the end of 30 years have accumulated to $7.90. But to 
plant the acre and keep it in condition the expenditures would 
certainly not have been less than $1o in the first place, and at the 
end of the period would have accumulated to $50. That is to 
say, you invite the owner to invest six times the amount of the 
release to secure its benefits, if this were the amount and time for 
the tax release. On the other hand, if a log proposition of white 
pine were involved, I have no doubt that with the increase in 
timber values in 60 years the original investment of $15.00 would 
prove a 12 per cent. investment, and more likely 20 per cent. 
would be realized. How does such encouragement compare with 
that of the tax release? 


382 Forestry Quarterly. 


But, on the other hand, will even the promising returns from a 
forest growing venture induce private enterprise to engage in this 
business, the profits of which are so long in coming, the risks of 
which are not only great, but the future of which is clouded 
somewhat in uncertainty ? 

If I were for a moment to abandon the position of the charg- 
ing judge and express an opinion, I would declare that forestry 
is the business of the state, or the community, if for no other 
reasons than because of the long time element involved; that 
only large capital and large continuous corporations can really 
afford to go into this long-winded business, and that to such the 
small tax releases cannot possibly act as an inducement. 

The sooner, therefore, the stumplands either by abandonment 
for tax or otherwise fall into the hands of the state or corpora- 
tion, and the sooner these realize that the future of timber sup- 
plies and favorable monetary returns are their concern, the 
simpler will become the tax question. 

There is one other form of taxation which has sometimes been 
believed to have a bearing on forestry practices, namely, a cus- 
toms tariff. I remember a committee of lumbermen waiting on 
me at Washington to ask me to assist their tariff agitation by an 
argument which should show that a tariff of $2 per 1,000 feet 
would promote forestry. I promised to do so, if they in turn 
could vouch that at least one-half of this tax on the public would 
find its way from their pockets into the woods for improved 
practice. Needless to say, that the argument was not called for. 
Where, as in Germany, a well established forestry system needs 
protection against the imports from exploiting countries, the 
argument might appear reasonable, but as a matter of fact, even 
there the tariff duty was counterbalanced by a reduction in 
freight rates of the exploiting countries, and has not had the 
desired effect. Theoretically, an import duty on lumber should 
make timber lands so valuable as to induce the conservative use 
of them, practically such a result has not been experienced, the 
present dollar being a greater attraction than the possible future 
two. 

CONDITIONS IN ONTARIO. 


I may be expected to add a few words as regards conditions 
in Ontario, my newly chosen field of activity. As is well known, 


Taxation of Woodlands. 383 


the bulk of forest properties, some 90,000 square miles, is owned 
by the crown, or virtually by the province, and hence pays no 
taxes. The so-called “ground rent” which is paid by the lumber- 
men, holding timber limits from the crown, in addition to the 
stumpage dues and the bonus, can hardly be classed as a tax; it 
is rather a payment per unit area irrelative of values for the 
privilege of continuing to hold on to the limits. It can be readily 
demonstrated that the present method of selling timber limits, 
while, for the moment financially successful, is really destructive, 
and inimical to forestry practice. But this is a subject which 
does not belong here. 

Regarding the taxation of privately owned lands, and timber 
lands especially, the same or even a greater lack of equitable and 
uniform methods of assessment than in the states exists through- 
out Canada. Since only towns and municipalities raise direct 
taxes and no uniform law of taxation exists, each assessor is a 
law to himself, and an all pervading principle of assessment is 
not discoverable. On the whole the burden has not been great, 
and hence clamor for tax reform has not been heard. Lately, 
however, some municipalities had undertaken to levy excessive 
taxes on crown timber limits, and this provoked appeal to the 
courts, which naturally declared the limits exempt. 

Ontario, in its 222,000 square miles of country, equal in size 
to the States of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, exhibits 
such a great diversity of cultural and populational conditions, that 
necessarily from region to region at least different points of view 
and different methods of assessment must continue to prevail for 
a long time to come. The southwestern portion, the rich agri- 
cultural section, bordering on the lakes, where the bulk of the 
2,500,000 people live, is almost destitute of timber, and even 
farmers’ wood lots are scarce. The northeastern part is largely 
covered with cut-over timber limits and stump limits, and since 
the agricultural soils are rather scanty, this will be eventually the 
great forest region. It is from this region that I cited the case 
of a timber land owner who is satisfied with tax conditions. Con- 
ditions of transportation rather more than taxation are the promi- 
nent considerations. North of Lakes Huron and Superior the 
districts of Rainy River, Thunder Bay, Algoma and Nipissing, a 


24 


384 Forestry Quarterly. 


territory of some 90,000 square miles is, still almost entirely in 
the woods, to a large extent of inferior character, and mostly 
still government land where the tax gatherer has not yet found 
entrance. In the agricultural regions the government of the 
province has very properly, for the last two years, begun to en- 
courage forest planting on waste lands by furnishing cheap plant 
material and advice. Whether the municipalities will release 
these plantations remains to be seen. 

There is on the statutes an act, passed in 1906, providing for 
the exemption of woodland from taxation, one acre in ten, and 
not more than twenty-five, with the usual limitation of numbers 
of trees ridiculously low, and limitation of species. ‘The applica- 
tion of this law is optional with the council of the township, and 
so far does not seem to have found acceptance anywhere. On the 
whole, as far as I have been able to ascertain the tax question in 
Ontario is not a burning one, like such others as fire protection, 
export tariffs, settlers’ restrictions and reform in timber limit 
sales. 

In conclusion, while I may have left the impression that not 
much hope is to be placed on the use of the tax power for ad- 
vancing forestry practices, I am convinced that the discussion of 
the subject of taxation must be of considerable educational value, 
and that the effort to devise an equitable and uniform tax assess- 
ment, wherever such uniformity is practicable, is to be encour- 
aged. 

B. E. Fernow. 


ee a eee ee 


Cnseees_- 


LUMBERING IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 


Although the future prosperity of the Philippine Islands de- 
pends mainly on their agricultural development, yet it is generally 
recognized that the proper exploitation of the extensive Philip- 
pine forests will add exceedingly to the future prosperity and also 
aid greatly in agricultural development of the country. 

More than one half of the land area of 120,000 square miles 
in the Islands is forested, that is, covered with a tree growth. 
Of the 60,000 square miles of forest, 40,000 square miles are 
in the more thinly settled islands of Mindoro, Samar, Palawan 
and Mindanao, or about eighty per cent. of their total area. 
This leaves 20,000 square miles of forest in Luzon and the other 
well settled islands, or about 30 per cent. of their total area. 

It must be admitted however, that large parts of this timbered 
area cannot be considered commercial forest by lumbermen. 
Scattered stands of small unmerchantable trees and inaccessible 
mountain forests cover considerable areas. Estimating con- 
servatively there are 25,000 square miles or 16,000,000 acres of 
timber per acre on this area is a conservative estimate, giving a 
scale. An average yield of 2,500 board feet of merchantable 
timber per acre on this area is a conservative estimate giving a 
total supply of forty billion board feet. The total annual cut 
in the Islands is now about forty million feet or only one-tenth 
of one per cent. of the probable supply. This cut is an insig- 
nificant item of the annual growth in these forests. The forests 
under conservative treatment should furnish an annual supply of 
at least 400,000,000 feet without seriously affecting the timber 
supply of the future. 

The timbers of the Islands include a great variety, ranging 
from the Benguet Pine and Calantas, or soft tropical cedar, to 
the extremely heavy and hard Dungon and Mancono. In general, 
Philippine woods are hard and heavy yet there are not lacking 
abundant supplies of light and strong construction timbers which 
can well be substituted for the White Pine, Oregon Pine and 


386 Forestry Quarterly. 


California Redwood, which are imported. Lauan is a fairly 
soft, strong wood and can well take the place of White Pine 
and California Redwood. Apitong, harder, heavier and stronger 
than Lauan, is equal or superior to Oregon Pine and Longleaf 
Pine, for general construction. Lauan and Apitong and the 
other species of the same family, Dipterocarpaceae, are not only 
the most abundant timbers occurring in the archipelago, but they 
are very large trees. Timbers up to ninety feet in length can 
be secured from them. ‘They are also excellent finishing woods, 
equal to most American woods used for interior finish. 

The following comparative figures of weight and strength are 
taken from Bulletin No. 4, Bureau of Forestry, ‘Mechanical 
Tests, Properties and Uses of Thirty Four Philippine Woods.” 


Compression ; 
aaeihele cia Cross-bending. 
zs £ £2 otyaites 
I = | gees 
g 2. 8 % 
5 Ih Nea 3 ues = 
= ee = w VY S > 
aa) =] a of ws ss 
n 2 a sta} od = 
ae = ae Oo n S 
NAME. e, ah = Ds : eRe 
35 832 3 36o 4a 
S 12) S =~ on Bom eT 
Oo os o eS; +; oS Dele 
1 oa o 2 te 
5 £2. 6.230 
ia") n & a ws fo 
ia) Sm 80 & ws wo woo 
= = are < £0 Sie 
33 3) ov o om oF oO S 
re} > > & > > 
x < < < < < < 
PAAR olen sent ee Phil.Is. 12.4 6,180 10.4 9,760 1,653 .446 
Cer On) Pate A ig cle veo U.S. he 5,700 qe 7,900 1,680 .51 
California Redwood, ...U.S. 13.3 5,560 12.3 9,110 1,320 .445 
A DItON es iii, sous Phil. Js. 14.4° 73,250 14. 11,620 2,144 .645 
Ou ledd,| aes cin eae ise UW... 15. 6900 15. 10,900 T6000 cus 
ORE a Een Brae Phil.Is. 14.6 7,940 13.7 15,150 2,158 .708 
Witte Oak os Seance ae Was 12. 8,500 12. 13,100 2,090 .80 
Bignit Hickory: ines Urs: I2. 10,900 12. 18,700: 27s ee 
Dineony 4.8 ski oie Phil. Is. 10.7 9,420 11.6 17,110 2,209 .857 
Geer EPA SOP OREN EBRD, 8 Phil Is; 0g.a) \ 0220. | eS one 2,583 .843 
WMolave; ees ce ceed eee Phil. Is. ' 1237’ “8330 10.4 8580 1,614 .785 


Some of the finest cabinet woods in the world are found in 
the Philippines. Ebony, Acle, Narra, Camagon and Tindalo give 
the greatest choice in beautiful color and grain. These and others 
would make superior substitutes for the American cabinet woods. 


Lumbering in the Philippines. 387 


which are so rapidly disappearing. For Cherry and Mahogany, 
Narra, Tanguile, Balacbacan, Calantas and Lumbayao, though 
differing somewhat in grain and hardness, can be used; for 
Black Walnut, Acle and Banuyo can be used; and so on, every 
American furniture wood having numerous Philippine substi- 
tutes. Besides there are valuable woods such as Ebony, Cama- 
gon and Tindalo which have no counterparts in the United States. 

The principal commercial woods are equal to our best Ameri- 
can hardwoods and can well take their place. 

At present Phillipine lumber is produced almost exclusively 
for the local demands. In the fiscal year 1904-5 the Islands 
used about seventy-five million board feet of lumber, of which 
they produced about forty million feet. The remainder was im- 
ported from the Pacific coast. It seems anomalous that a country 
so rich in timber should not produce more than one-half of the 
supply necessary for its own people. The reasons are that lum- 
bering is generally on such a small scale and with so inefficient 
methods, and facilities for transportation of timber among the 
islands at present are so poor that Oregon Pine is sold in Manila 
and other large cities, cheaper than most native lumber. 

Conditions demand the development of a modern lumber in- 
dustry and the installation of large sawmills and suitable trans- 
portation facilities so that Philippine lumber can dominate in 
the Philippine Islands and penetrate to foreign markets. Large 
operations, well capitalized and efficiently managed, are necessary 
if the Philippine people are to receive a proper economic benefit 
from the possession of their valuable forests. 

The company desiring to establish a large lumbering opera- 
tion in the Philippines cannot study too carefully the factors 
governing the lumber industry here. These factors are the 
character of the forests, the accessibility of the timber, trans- 
portation facilities, labor conditions, stumpage prices and market 
conditions. 


CHARACTER OF PHILLIPINE ForESTS. 


A lumberman demands in a commerical forest, accessibility, 
_comparatively few species per acre, most of which are mer- 
chantable, and enough merchantable timber per acre to permit 
the use of modern logging methods. Large areas of Philippine 


288 Forestry Quarterly. 


forest although containing the most valuable timber fail to 
answer these requirements. 

In general Philippine forests are tropical rain forests, most 
of which in the world are found in Central and South America 
and in the East Indies. They are generally characterized by an 
exuberance of tropical growth and a bewildering variety of tim- 
ber species. The greatest variety of forests is found in those 
regions subject to an island climate as in the Philippines. The 
many types of forest in the Philippines are all of economic im- 
portance. 

In Benguet and neighboring provinces at an altitude of more 
than two thousand feet are the open pine forests. Along the 
coasts, especially at the mouths of the rivers, are extensive salt 
water or tidal swamps, known as manglares, from which come 
firewood, tanbark and dyebark. The low coast flat is another 
forest type, characterized by scattered trees of Ipil and a few 
other valuable species The tangled forests of the deltas and 
river bottoms present the greatest variety in species but are not 
satisfactory for extensive lumbering Finally there is the ex- 
tensive hill or upland type of forest which is the most suitable for 
lumbering operations 

The upland forests are the most extensive and are the ones in 
which the lumbermen will be most interested in the future. There 
are two general classes of upland forest, depending generally on 
soil conditions. 

On rocky, exposed, and thin-soiled uplands the forest is thinner 
and is characterized by a smaller proportion of commercial spe- 
cies. Here Molave, Narra, Tindalo, Acle and other of the most 
valuable trees are found scattered through a stand composed 
mostly of small unmerchantable trees. The other type of up- 
land forest is found on the better, deeper soils. Here is gener- 
ally found a fairly dense stand of large trees principally mem- 
bers of one family, Dipterocarpaceae. The best example of 
this type is the forest in northern Negros where the Insular 
Lumber Co. is now operating. Here Balacbacan, Red Lauan, 
Almon, White Lauan and Apitong make up a stand of 32,000 
feet B. M. of merchantable timber per acre. ‘This type of forest 
naturally answers best the requirements of modern logging and 
upon it will largely depend the development of an extensive lum- 


Lumbering in the Philippines. 389 


ber industry. Both classes of hill forests are found throughout 
the Islands. Good examples of the former are the tracts of the 
Philippine Lumber and Development Co. in Camarines; the 
Tayabas Sawmill and Lumber Co. in Tayabas; the coast forest 
of southern Negros. Examples of the latter are, besides the 
forests of northern Negros, those of the mountains of the 
Bataan peninsula and east of the head of the Cagayan River in 
Cagayan and Isabela Provinces. 

The Bureau of Forestry is gradually locating and roughly 
mapping the best commercial forests of all these types. The 
information thus collected is available to all interested parties. 


ACCESSIBILITY OF CoMMERCIAL Forests AND TRANSPORTATION. 


The commercial forests are found either along the coast where 
the timber can be skidded directly to the beach and loaded in 
suitable harbors, along navigable and floatable rivers, where it is 
skidded directly to the rivers and floated or rafted down them, or 
at some distance inland, so far from deep water that short rail- 
roads are advisable or necessary. As long as timber remains close 
to the beach and large rivers, logging is easy and cheap; requiring 
but little capital. In such forests there are a large number of 
small operators, cutting insignificant quantities of timber. But 
these forests are being fast destroyed by the farmer. Lumbering, 
in the future, will be in the extensive forests some distance from 
the coast where carabao will not serve for hauling and logging 
railroads are indicated. 

The difficulties and expense in transporting lumber to the 
markets are great. A lumberman who does not own his own 
boats is handicapped. Few of the interisland steamers are 
adapted for carrying lumber and freight rates are high and some- 
times prohibitive. From the island of Palawan to Manila, a 
distance of about three hundred miles, the freight rate for logs 
is about $30 gold per 1,000 feet, B. M. Such rates are mani- 
festly absurd. From Manila to New York, thousands of miles, 
the rate is only $15 gold per 1,000 feet, B. M. Only the good 
prices in Manila make it possible to ship native lumber under 
such conditions. 

A company operating on a large scale should own its own 


390 Forestry Quarterly. 


means of transportation from the woods to the market. The 
Insular Lumber Co., who are operating more extensively than 
any other lumbermen in the Islands, have a fleet of steamers and 
barges to transport the sawn lumber to the markets of Cebu, 
Iloilo and Manila. Freight from their mill in the island of 
Negros to Manila costs them less than $5 per 1,000 feet, B. M. 
It is reasonable to expect that lumber can be shipped between 
most points in the islands at a cost not exceeding this figure. 


LABOR CONDITIONS. 


The oft repeated saying that Filipino labor is inefficient does 
not apply in the lumber industry. Dollar for dollar of outlay 
much better results will be secured, both in the woods and in 
the sawmill, from Filipino labor than from American labor. The 
Filipino has a natural aptitude for running machines and is easily 
taught. Given a good American foreman it is surprising how 
well a Filipino crew can handle a sawmill. They work for small 
wages—$.25 and $.75 (gold) per day—and, given fair treatment, 
make fairly steady and permanent workmen. 

In the thinly settled forest regions it is necessary to import 
labor from the more thickly settled districts. Yet there are 
tracts of commercial forests so located that there is an abundant 
and good supply of labor available in the regions themselves. 
The Insular Lumber Company is located in the sugar growing 
district of Negros where labor is abundant and cheap. It has 
found no difficulty in securing a force of several hundred men 
most of whom it pays $.25 per day. The laborers are satisfied 
and work well. 

A lumberman will not find the labor problem a difficult one. 
He will find that he has escaped many of the vexatious labor 
difficulties of the United States to meet comparatively few in 
the Philippine Islands. Patience and fairness in treating the 
Filipinos will secure most excellent results. 


SrUMPAGE PRICES. 


The Philippine Government sells its timber unusually cheap. 
The government charges range from $.25 to $1.25 gold per cubic 
meter, Or approximately $1.00 to $5.00 per 1,000 board feet. 


Lumbering in the Philippines. 391 


$1.00 per 1,000 board feet is charged for Lauan which sells in 
Manila for $35 per thousand board feet. Similar grades of 
California Redwood for export are worth $25 to $30 in San 
Francisco and stumpage at present cannot be secured for less than 
$2 per thousand feet. The cheap Philippine stumpage is still 
more marked in the fine cabinet woods. For Narra and the other 
most valuable woods, it is but $5 gold per 1,000 board feet, less 
than pine stumpage in some parts of the United States. 


MARKETS. 


The lumberman, however, is not satisfied alone with a satisfac- 
tory forest, cheap labor and stumpage and good transportation, 
but probably wants to know first what the market is for Philippine 
timber. 

Approximately 80,000,000 feet B. M. of lumber is used each 
year in the Philippines; of this more than thirty-five million feet 
is imported, being mostly Oregon Pine and California Redwood. 
The imported timber is being driven out of the Islands’ markets 
by the cheaper and more abundant kinds of native timbers. 
About 5,000,000 board feet has recently been added to the con- 
sumption of native timber by the decision to use native lumber 
almost exclusively in construction for the U. S. Army in the 
Philippines. China and Australia used of American pine during 
the past year 85,000,000 and 63,000,000 board feet respectively, a 
large part of which demand can be furnished by the Philippine 
Islands when their Apitong and Lauan have been introduced in 
those markets by large lumber companies properly equipped and 
capitalized. 

Per 1,000 feet B. M. 


LGC De TS wha IA eee LP EAP A AY RG Py Vr $ 35 00 to $ 45 00 
in TIES 5 A, OS a ae fed rs ad 50 00 
Mee Bt asisicl elo capers aq ts x ois totaal ncaa 49 00 “ 70 00 
Teneo) rn As Sta Ohad 107 50 “ 150 00 
CE oI BR A ats a> Ae ee 80 oo “ 100 00 
eG ehy Lcliehichip 5 aca io cereus dlurarS ave onhote 125; 60 % I50 00 
PCRtIRCHAG ue ytkD tie, 2 47 50 “ 60 00 
Sr Ue See oo an yt ee go 00 “ ~—s- 112 00 
epan Pimepe ti aesss aes tose. 37 50 


California Redwood, ........... 47 50 


292 Forestry Quarterly. 


It is evident from these prices that a lumber company, properly — 
equipped and managed and operating on a suitable timber tract, 
should be able to deliver many kinds of native lumber in Manila 
at a cost about one-half of these prices. Cheap labor and low 
stumpage offset the increased expense of machinery and manage- 
ment in the Philippines. Experience has shown that Lauan can 
be logged to a sawmill for less than $5 gold per 1,000 board feet, 
sawn for $3 and delivered in Manila for a total cost of about 
$15.00. 

There should always be an opportunity for small operators in 
supplying the local provincial demands but the growth of a lum- 
ber industry worthy of the Islands will depend on the investment 
of considerable capital. Lumbermen should be prepared to 
handle the lumber in all stages from the forest to the market. In 
this way they can compete successfully, not only in the Philippine, 
but also in Chinese, Australian and even American markets. 

The following distances to markets show the advantageous 
position of the Philippine Islands in competition with the Pacific 
Coast: 


al . . a 
4 — al op ~ — 
Ay f A (apis = =) 
= Ay om Od a8 wk 
DISTANCE FROM = 3 = i) eee 00.S 587) 
x = S Se Ss ss 
w 3 ‘5 oO =o ea 
=e ©) = ee wn an 


Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. 


Seattle, Us SivAs cue O40! aero! eee eee 6,300 6,200 6,800 
Cadiz, Negros Occ. .... 400 140 70 800 1,300 3,370 
Bongabon, Mindoro, ... ZOO}. Bioeeeaaeeee 700 1,200 3,570 


A market for Philippine lumber should also be secured in the 
United States. Most Philippine timbers are unexcelled for cabi- 
net work, interior finishing, etc., where beautiful hard woods 
capable of high polish are required. Such woods are rapidly dis- 
appearing in the United States. The difficulty has been that 
there were no lumbermen in a position to supply a strong demand, 
Consequently the fine Philippine woods are still unknown in the 
United States. The Insular Lumber Company has taken an im- 
portant step in developing an American market by shipping to 
the United States sample lots of its Balacbacan, a beautiful red 
wood, which is very abundant in Negros. 


Lumbering in the Philippines. 393 


The lumbermen, however, who now contemplate lumbering in 
the Philippine Islands can not figure entirely on what the market 
may be but must depend mostly on what it is now. He must feel 
that he can secure his share of the local trade. The following 
were the prevailing prices in Manila, August I, 1907, for some 
of the principal native woods, Oregon Pine and California Red- 
wood. 


PRESENT LUMBERING OPERATIONS. 


Lumbering at present is mostly carried on in a crude, inefficient 
way by numerous small butters, few of whom cut a significant 
amount. ‘There is also a great waste in logging. Skidding and 
hauling are done with carabao, which are poor draught animals 
for this purpose. Several carabao are needed to move an ordi- 
nary log and much of the timber is too large to be hauled by 
them. In this kind of logging the requirements for cheap log- 
ging are lacking, and the output is necessarily small. 

Islands. 

The following is a list of sawmills now operating with their 

location and output: 


List of Sawmills. 


Maximum 
LOcaTION. daily output Principal Markets. 
(board feet). 
Witetibimmbsn tan Wee Sud 8 eee 30,000 Manila. 
5 POR A eae Saeed aL A CEN 20,000 6 
a FN) UNAS ee ee aR ey oe 20,000 ; 
es RS iach tia ts ee chotonn es 10,000 of 
re eel eet aS SE Le 10,000 of 
Cadiz and Sagay, Negros Occi- 15,000 Manila, Cebu, Iloilo and 
dental. New York. 
Cadiz and Sagay, Negros Occi- 60,000 Manila, Cebu, Iloilo and 
dental. New York. 
Gattarat, Cagayan, 2 sides selves (a) Local. 
Fiuelisen, Lepanto-Bontoc, ....:. 1,500 e 
Batt On SCUSTICL: | ves. 1. 5 oietele «o's 2,500 < 
$ BAe a, hay -fetavs als ears 3,500 a 
a Sie be aS Zo 3 es 4,000 ie 
Bayombong, Nueva Viscaya, ..... (a) - 
SaieatOniay Vatlac,.”.. Joes shia 2,500 Manila. 
MUR Eatt batlaCy cere scp etoee (a) Local. 
oOlnaO, Pangasinan, iiccccicc ae es\e (a) y 
Pinamalayan, Mindoro, ......... 5,000 Manila. 
Mamburao, Mindoro, ........... 5,000 Local. 
WMansarin, Mindoro, ..c...0..20% 10,000 Manila. 
Guinayangan, Tayabas, ......... 15,000 . 


“ 


Ragay Gulf, Ambos Camarines, .. (ai) 


304 Forestry Quarterly. 


Maximum 
LocaTION. daily output Principal Markets. 

(board feet). 
Maclobanwlveytes ve cins seca eee eee 3,000 Local. 
Palompane Leyie, ee emeee rene 4,000 Cebu and local. 
Dumaguete, Negros Oriental, .... 3,500 Local. 
Lolo: Miloilos Nee aeons 4,000 Iloilo. 
Isabela, Basilan* Island) 222.2. 222 6,000 Zamboanga. 
Zampoanea Moron cass veces (a) Local. 
Cotabatos Moro aces ae eee ee (a) United States Army. 
Parang, wiMlono: wi. seme miseries eis 6,000 x 4 2 
Mara li MOTTON seers rice. (a) . s ef 
Sibuguey Bay, Moro, ........... (a) Local and Philippine Ry. 


(a) Small <mill. 


Since the American occupation, the number of small sawmills 
has greatly increased yet a large part of the native timber used 
in the Islands is whip sawed. The last two years have seen the 
greatest increase in the number of sawmills operated. 

These mills are well distributed through the Islands, most of 
them supplying purely local demands, such as those in Benguet 
manufacturing Benguet Pine. Some have been installed to cut 
timber for the construction of the new railroads. The mills in 
Manila and the larger ones outside saw almost exclusively for the 
Manila market. 

These thirty-one sawmills cannot manufacture more than 
250,000 board feet of lumber per day. Of this 90,000 feet can 
be cut by the five Manila mills. One sawmill in Negros has a 
nominal capacity of 100,000 feet B. M. and should cut at least 
60,000 feet per day. This indicates well the condition of the lum- 
ber industry at present. Extensive lumbering is only beginning 
in the Philippine Islands. Yet, there are a few operations now 
being successfully carried on which indicate to lumbermen the 
possibilities in the Philippine forests. 

The operatons of the Insular Lumber Company in Negros 
Occidental are more extensive than those of any other company 
in the Islands. It is operating two sawmills on a tract of sixty- 
nine square miles, sixty square miles of which are covered with 
an unusually heavy stand of timber, averaging about 32,000 board 
feet of merchantable lumber per acre. The smaller mill which 
has been in operation since 1902 has a capacity of 20,000 board 
feet per day but the daily output is about 12,000 feet. The other 
mill which has recently been completed is a modern band mill of 


na etn 
Prete 7 Se 


> ee 
$0 AI hg Et pS I 


Lumbering in the Philippines. 395 


the best type with a capacity of 100,000 board feet and should 
manufacture at least 60,000 board feet per day when a mill crew 
has been trained. ‘This company is able to sell Lauan and Api- 
tong cheaper than other lumbermen and can sell it in Manila at 
a much lower price than that prevailing for Oregon Pine or Cali- 
fornia Redwood. ‘Their operation is an example of what can be 
done in the Philippines by a well equipped company operating 
with modern methods. Donkey engines are employed to skid the 
timber to a logging railroad on which the logs are hauled to the 
mills. ‘The company’s steamers and barges carry the lumber to 
Manila, Iloilo and Cebu. 

Another operation worthy of mention is that of Mr. John Gib- 
son in Mindoro. He is operating over a large tract in which 
Narra, often called the Philippine Mahogany, is fairly abundant. 
His mill is located in Manila, to which he transports the logs in 
his own steamers. 

Other companies operating on large tracts are the Philippine 
Lumber and Development Company in Camarines, the Tayabas 
Sawmill and Lumber Company in Tayabas, and Williamson and 
Redding near Zamboanga. Considerable interest 1s being shown 
by capitalists in Philippine lumbering. The Bureau of Forestry 
has recently received a number of applications for exclusive 
licenses for large timber tracts. 


SuITABLE TIMBER TRACTS AVAILABLE. 


In pursuance of. its policy to do everything possible to stimu- 
late the forest industries of the Philippine Islands, the Bureau of 
Forestry, during the past two years has located and roughly 
mapped timber tracts suitable for large operations. It is now in 
a position to give definite information regarding some such tracts 
to prospective lumbermen. 

In northern Negros are sixty square miles of dense virgin 
forest, similar in species and equal in yield to the forest of the 
Insular Lumber Company which adjoins it. This forest covers 
the slopes of Mount Silay, ranging in elevation from two hun- 
dred to four thousand feet above the level of the sea. About 
forty square miles lie below one thousand feet and are an ex- 


306 Forestry Quarterly. 


cellent lumbering proposition for a company with a large capital. 
The new railroad in Negros is planned to pass within three miles 
of the edge of the forest. A company could build its sawmill on 
this railroad, run its own logging railroad into the forest and 
ship its lumber to a port on the coast to be loaded for Cebu, Iloilo, 
Manila or Hongkong, and New York. On the forty square miles 
most accessible is a total stand of about 800 million board feet of 
merchantable lumber, enough to supply a mill cutting 50,000 feet 
per day more than fifty years. It is a Dipterocarp forest, that is, 
composed mostly of Lauan, Apitong and Tanguile. 

In the well forested region of northwestern Mindoro is another 
suitable tract of forty square miles. It is located southwest of 
lake Naujan and about thirteen miles from Calapan, the provin- 
cial capital. This also is a Dipterocarp forest composed mainly 
of Almon, Lauan, Tanguile and Apitong.. A rough survey 
showed an average stand of about 20,000 board feet per acre or 
a total of 512,000,000 board feet standing on the forty square 
miles. ‘The topography is suitable for lumbering, characterized 
by clay hills running up to eight hundred feet above sea level. 
The slopes are gradual, making logging easy. Logs may be 
rafted across the Lake and down the river to the coast, or a 
tramway built direct to Calapan which is about twelve hours by 
steamer from Manila. In addition to this tract there are others 
somewhat smaller in the same region which deserve attention. 

On the peninsula of Bataan across the Bay from Manila, cov- 
ering the slopes of Mariveles mountain is another forest tract 
suitable for a large lumbering operation. Although logging is 
much more difficult here than on the other tracts mentioned, the 
proximity to Manila makes it a good proposition. Extensive 
lumbering will soon begin on this tract. 

Other important forests which will soon be explored and 
studied by the Bureau of Forestry are found east of the Cagayan 
River in the Province of Isabela and Cagayan, in the undeveloped 
southern portion of the island of Negros, on the Agusan River in 
Surigao, Mindanao, and on the Sibuguey Bay, Moro, Mindanao. 
These forests are said to be accessible and suitable for exploita- 
tion on a large scale. Many other good commercial forests will 
be investigated as soon as possible. 


> 


Lumbering in the Philippines. 397 


OBTAINING A TRACT OF TIMBER. 


The public forests of the Philippine Islands are not sold, but 
are exploited under a license system. Small cutters generally 
operate under ordinary yearly licenses for definite small areas. 

In the case of large operations involving the investment of 
considerable capital in permanent enterprises, exclusive licenses 
are granted for periods up to twenty years for definite large tracts 
of timber, which licenses are practically equivalent to consessions. 

Application for tracts not exceeding 2,500 acres in area are 
forwarded by the Director of Forestry, after due investigation, to 
the Secretary of the Interior with recommendations. The Sec- 
retary may then grant an exclusive license if he decides that it is 
to the public interest. 

For an area of more than 2,500 acres, when the Secretary of the 
Interior is convinced that the granting of an exctusive license is 
to the public interest, proposals for bids to secure the said privi- 
lege are published in the Official Gazette and other newspapers. 
The license will then be granted to the highest and best bidder 
who offers to install the most complete and efficient plant most 
promptly and to do the greatest amount of annual development 
work and who furnishes the best bond as a guarantee of per- 
formance. 

The right to reject any and all bids is expressly reserved and 
in general it may be stated that no exclusive license will be ap- 
proved except upon a reasonable showing that the licensee will be 
able within the period fixed in his license actually to exploit the 
resources of the forest tract covered by it. The man who means . 
business must show the government that he really intends to 
develop the tract he secures an exclusive license for and will 
protect the interests of the public in the concession. 

The exclusive license agreements are contracts between the 
Government and the lumbermen. The latter can feel assured 
that if they comply with the forest laws and regulations and show 
good faith that they will be entirely safe in making large inves- 
ments and installing permanent modern plants. 

The Bureau of Foresry is now in a position to assist lumber- 
men desiring to locate here. Some have recently made applica- 
tions for exclusive licenses for large tracts and have found the 


308 Forestry Quarterly. 


maps and information furnished them by the Bureau, of great 
value. ‘Trained foresters with two or more years of experience 
in the Philippine forests will be placed at the service of lumber- 
men to assist them in finding suitable forest tracts. The available 
publications of the Bureau will be sent on application to interested 
parties. 

Lumber is bound to become one of the greatest sources of 
wealth in the Philippine Islands. The growth of the industry 
may be slow but present indications point to a bright future for 
Philippine lumber. 

H. D. Everert. 

Bureau of Forestry, Manila. 


THE TREATMENT OF FENCE POSTS TO INCREASE 
DURABILITY. 


The past two decades have witnessed a wonderful develop- 
ment of the agricultural resources of our middle West. We no 
longer find open stretches of prairie of great extent, but fields and 
pastures and wood-lots divided by fences of various kinds, which 
call for a large number of fence posts. The census of 1900 re- 
ports the annual production of fence posts in the regular logging 
camps of the country as 8,715,661, while no figures exist to show 
how many times greater than this is the annual cut from the home 
wood-lot. 

By taking the total number of farms and their acreage and 
making a conservative allowance for posts in fences enclosing 
these farms, it has been estimated that upwards of 1,000,000,000 
posts are set each year. This figure can hardly be realized be- 
cause of its immensity, but we may approach realization when 
we know that the above number stated as required each year 
would make a fence, with posts a rod apart, 121 times as long as 
the greatest circumference of the earth. This enormous annual 
consumption of posts on our farms, to say nothing of posts used 
by railroads and in our villages and cities, is causing an increasing 
scarcity of post timber, until one must pay now from 15 to 30 
cents for only fair grades of hard wood and cedar posts. 

To simplify the fence post problem on our farms and to de- 
crease the large expense of fencing, many are now turning to the 
use of various preservatives which at a small cost will increase the 
life of the post two or three times. It is true that many are 
tempted to use substitutes of various kinds, such as cement and 
iron posts. It is believed that a thorough trial or these substitutes 
will turn the farmer back to the use of a wooden post thoroughly 
treated with creasote or some similar antiseptic. 

Four things are necessary for the decay of timber, namely, air, 
warmth, water and some fungous growth. If we can eliminate 
any one of these factors of decay, we can preserve wood almost 
indefinitely. All processes of timber treatment are based upon 


25 


400 Forestry Quarterly. 


this fact and treatment is given simply to prevent the entrance of 
a fungus. The value of any method of treatment lies then in the 
value of the preservatives used as an antiseptic, in its power to 
hold itself in the wood, and in its cheapness and ease of applica- 
tion. 

Too often lack of time causes the farmer or stockman to go to 
his wood-lot and cut the posts when they are needed, which may 
be at any season of the year. The posts are then set without 
peeling or seasoning of any kind. What is the usual result? 
The posts, because of the presence of bark and because green will 
go out in from 3 to 5 years when if cut at the right season of the 
year, peeled and thoroughly seasoned they would last from two to 
three times as long. 

The best time to cut hard wood posts is in late summer or early 
autumn when the “‘sap is up,” or during the time which the lum- 
berman calls ‘the second running of the sap.” If the posts are 
peeled immediately and ricked up so as to allow free circulation 
of air between them, they will season rapidly and be much more 
durable than as if cut during the winter or early spring. Sea- 
soning may be aided by allowing the fallen trees to lie on the 
ground after cutting until the leaves are thoroughly wilted. It 
would be practical business economy for the user of posts to keep 
a considerable number cut and piled so that when needed he 
would always have a seasoned post. 


METHOops oF INCREASING DURABILITY. 


One of the cheapest and a very effective method of increasing 
durability is thorough seasoning. With fence posts this may be 
accomplished as described above in from 8 to 16 months, de- 
pending upon the species, size and whether properly peeled and 
piled. Under no circumstances should posts be stood on the 
end during seasoning, as when so piled the post absorbs water 
and a condition which invites the entrance of fungi is brought 
about. 

Since 30 to 60 per cent. of the weight of green timber is due to 
the sap present in the wood, it will be seen readily that seasoning 
is also an important factor in case of handling and cost of trans- 
portation. 


Treatment of Fence Posts. 401 

A method formerly much used and of considerable value js 
that of thoroughly charring over a slow fire the portion of the 
post which is placed in the ground, breaking as little as possible of 
the charcoal from the post during setting, 

Water and smoke seasoning are methods sometimes used when 
unusually thorough seasoning is required. There is no doubt but 
what immersion in water dissolves such soluble substances in the 
wood as starch, sugar and tannin. The leaching out of these 
materials takes away the substances which often invite the en- 
trance of insects and fungi. The U. S. Forest Service has been 
carrying on a series of experiments in Michigan and Wisconsin 
in which Cedar and Tamarack telephone and telegraph poles are 
being submerged in water for varying lengths of time. ‘The time 
required for seasoning by these methods is the chief drawback. 

We often see a combination of linseed oil and charcoal 
dust advised for increasing life of timber. Linseed oil is good 
but not nearly so effective as creosote, and a mixture of linseed 
oil and charcoal dust is more disagreeable to handle, more ex- 
pensive, and less effective in increasing durability than creosote. 

Numerous salts, such as those of zinc, copper, iron and mag- 
nesium are often used and they have a high antiseptic value, but 
as they are easily leached out of the wood and not as easily ap- 
plied as creosote they are undesirable for use in preserving fence 
posts. Some of our railroads are using chloride of zinc very ex- 
tensively in the treatment of ties, but the ties are only used in the 
dry climate of our southwest where there is comparatively little 
danger of the leaching out of the salt. 

Antiseptic salts and oils are applied to timber to increase dura- 
bility. First by pressure in cylinders, second by natural pressure, 
third boiling in liquids, fourth in the case of oils by application 
with brush or merely soaking the timber in the ofl. The pre- 
servative may have simply a physical effect on the wood, by en- 
crusting the cell walls, or may have a chemical effect, by com- 
bining with the wood fibres or cell contents. 

From all standpoints, the best material so far found for in- 
creasing the life of fence posts is the oil of tar or some trade com- 
pound in which the oil of tar is the active principle. Creosote is 
the most common form of this oil used in timber preserving plants 


402 Forestry Quarterly. 


of the country and by farmers and stockmen in preserving fence 
posts. 

The most usual method of applying oil to posts is by painting 
the lower half of a seasoned post with the hot oil. Two coats will 
be more effective than one, and if this process is followed, by 
allowing the lower end of the post to stand in the oil for several 
days it will be more effective. The manufacturers of trade 
preparations containing tar oil usually advise this method of ap- 
plication because it is simple and easy and by testing it has been 
found to be fairly effective in preventing decay. 

By experiments carried on in several places in this country, it 
has been found that the most valuable method of treating posts 
with creosote or other oils is to boil the lower 36 to 40 inches of 
the second post in a shallow tank. By giving this treatment from 
four to six hours the lower one-third of the post will take up 
from four to eight pounds of the oil. When evenly absorbed it 
has been found that this amount is sufficient to increase the life 
of the post by three to four times. Such soft wooden fence posts 
as those of soft maple, boxelder, cottonwood, and willow can be 
treated at a cost of from 6 to Io cents and when so treated will 
last as long as the best grades of white cedar. A tank which 
would be perfectly satisfactory for this work could be built and 
set in place upon any farm for from ten to fifteen dollars. 

Experiments along this same line are being carried on by the 
United States Forest Service and splendid results are being ob- 
tained. It is impossible to estimate the importance of making it 
a practical thing for the many wood-lot owners of the state to 
utilize for posts the trees which are of little value for Jumber. 

Hucu P. BAKER. 


“CONGRESSIONAL TOURS.” 


The last six months have seen a new departure in co-operative 
work with private owners, a change from the old method of 
elaborate working plans (?) or wood lot examinations which 
did little real good, and at best reached only a small percentage 
of the population. The copious distribution of literature on for- 
estry is not enough; for in order to be of any profit to the recipi- 
ent he must be already instructed in the subject, otherwise his 
reading will be desultory. In order to interest the farmer in 
forestry, it is necessary to put it up to him personally and show 
him clearly (1) what to do, (2) the advantage it will be to him 
to do so. We must not forget that the chief appeal is to a man’s 
purse strings, when urging him to take up a new thing. 

This new departure is the “Congressional Tour” as it has come 
to be known, or “Farmers’ Institute” as the Congressmen prefer 
to call it. One of them aptly named it “A Tour of Material De- 
velopment,” and this, in truth, is what it is. 

The credit of evolving this scheme belongs to Captain Hob- 
son, of Alabama, who was the first to organize a tour. The 
“experts” were chosen from the Department of Agriculture—the 
Bureaus represented being that of Plant Industry, Soils, the 
Office of Roads, and the Forest Service. The Hobson tour was 
such a great success that other Southern Congressmen hastened 
to follow suit, and now there have been besides another tour in 
Alabama, three in Georgia, two in North Carolina, two in Ten- 
nessee, and one in Mississippi. 

These tours have, in all cases, been fully advertised and the 
attendance, if not large, representative. The audiences varied in 
number between fifty and two thousand, with the average some- 
where around one hundred and fifty. 

The talks were plain and matter of fact. The “experts” con- 
tented themselves with “’splanifyin’”’ and “argifyin’”’ and left it 
for the Congressman to put in “de rousements’ if he saw fit. 
Politics were not mentioned and many of the audiences were, I 
believe, secretly disappointed because of the lack of invective and 
personal recrimination which characterize the political speech. 


“er 


404 Forestry Quarterly. 


Questions from the farmers were encouraged and in this way 
the real need of the people brought out. It was much more of a 
“heart to heart” talk than a set speech and consequently the cases 
of listeners going to sleep were very rare. Indeed the interest 
throughout was good and the real needs of the farmers were met 
as never before in the old days of bulletins and voluminous long- 
distance reports. 

It is not a pleasant thought that in spite of all the propaganda 
work which has been done, the knowledge of forestry encountered 
was largely negative. It can only be explained by the fact that 
the methods employed were not conducive to overcoming the 
local spirit of indifference which expressed itself in “We folks 
don’t know nothing about nothing, and we don’t want anybody 
to tell us nothing about nothing.” 

No, the men on the tour found a virgin field as far as forestry 
is concerned, and it was necessary to start out with a brief ac- 
count of what forestry means and the need for it throughout the 
whole country, and how that need could be best met in the im- 
mediate region. To this end I found the most effective means to 
be a couple of enlarged photographs showing “‘the right and the 
wrong way.” One was of “skinned” land in northern Michigan, 
the other a cutting area on the Minnesota National Forest. These 
two pictures, illustrating, as they do, the difference between 
Improvident Exploitation and Conservative Lumbering, served 
to draw and hold the interest of the audience and to impress the 
point on them better than any verbal description. 

Great interest was shown in the conservative treatment of farm 
timbers, especially fence posts. The simplicity of the open tank 
treatment and its adaptability to the ‘“‘sorry” second growth trees 
appealed to the farmer as a good common sense proposition, and 
inclined him to think favorably of “the forestry business.” 

It was in the town of Andover, New Hampshire, that an old 
farmer told me that “there ain’t much forestry in Andover.” 
Wherever these tours have been held they may not result in much 
intensive forestry, but if the farmers will realize the value of 
their woods, cut conservatively and utilize completely what they 
do cut, a great deal of good will have been accomplished. 

A. B. RECKNAGEL. 


CURRENT LITERATURE. 


Henry S. Graves, in Charge. 


Plant Physiology and Ecology. By Frederic Edward Cle- 
ments, Ph.D. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1907. Pp. 15+ 
315 with 125 illustrations. 

Two years ago Professor F. E. Clements gave to advanced 
students of botany a very interesting and instructive volume en- 
titled “Research Methods in Ecology,’ in which he marked out 
the field of plant ecology, described apparatus and methods of 
experimentation and of recording observations, and discussed the 
terminology of the subject. This has now been followed up by 
a textbook “based largely upon ‘Research Methods,’ but contain- 
ing matter new or re-written” and adapted to meet the require- 
ments of undergraduate students of the lower years. 

As to the plan of the book, as stated in the preface, “the plant 
is first considered as an individual, with respect to factor, func- 
tion, and form, and then as a member of a plant group of forma- 
tion.” The author’s point of view is that physiology and ecology 
are essentially the same, and that a study of the vital activities of 
protoplasm, or of the living organism should properly be merged 
with a study of the living plant in its relation to the factors of. 
the habitat and its adaptations to these factors. 

It need scarcely be pointed out that Professor Clement’s view 15 
not the orthodox one. Pfeffer in the introduction to his Pflanzen- 
anatomie maintains that description of the relations subsisting 
between the plant and its environment, or its struggle with the 
variable and external conditions presented to it” lies quite out 
side the province of a textbook of physiology. Ecology, or 
bionomy is clearly defined as “the sum of our knowledge with 
regard to the vital economy of the plant, and its relations with, 
and adaptations to, its dead and living organic and inorganic sur 
roundings,” and tersely by Haeckel (Systematische Phylogenie) 
as the “principles of plant economy.” 

Whatever may be thought of the author’s creed, there is no 
question however, as to his enthusiasm, and his book will be wel- 


5 


406 Forestry Quarterly. 


comed as a distinct addition to our useful elementary text books 
of botany that deal with the subject of ecology. 

Chapter I, on irritability in plants serves as a brief introduc- 
tion to what follows. Chapters II and III deal in a very sug- 
gestive manner with the water of the habitat, and with such 
physiological matters as absorption, conduction and transpiration 
in which little new is presented. That an exact and statistical 
study of the physical factors of the habitat should be emphasized 
is highly to be commended. Chapter IV deals similarly with 
light. . Chapter V, the least satisfactory of all is given over to a 
brief exposition of Respiration, Nutrition, Growth, etc. Pur- 
porting to be a textbook of Physiology, one cannot help express 
the view that such important phenomena are all too superficially 
and briefly expounded. Chapter VI is entitled “Adjustment to 
Gravity, Contact and Shock.” The two succeeding sections are 
purely ecological, dealing with adaptations of plants to water and 
light, while the third is philosophical, a chapter on Evolution. 

The remainder of the book is given over to an account of plants 
as members of plant groups or formations and is well done. 
Methods of studying vegetation, the plant formation, aggregation 
and migration, competition and ecesis (establishment of migrating 
plants), invasion and succession, and alternation and zonation are 
discussed in turn with a freshness and enthusiasm that give 
character to this latest addition to the ranks of elementary 
botanical texts. 


J. HLF. 


Traité D’Exploitation Commerciale Des Bois. Vol. Il. By 
Alphonse Mathey. Paris, 1908. 835 pp., 429 plates. Price, 
20 fres. 

This second volume adds over 800 pages, profusely illustrated 
with explanatory cuts, to the 488 pages of Vol. I, making probably 
the most ambitious work on Forest Utilization. 

While the first volume was devoted to timber physics, including 
preservative processes, and to logging methods, this volume dis- 
cusses the saw-mill practice and the application of wood in the 
arts and industries. The author does not only record the prac- 


Oe ee Se ee 


Current Literature. 407 


tice but is full of suggestions as to improvement of the practice, 
and especially as to uses of various woods now neglected. He 
criticises indeed, the inefficiency in the use of wood at home, 
although viewing the matter from our usage here it would appear 
most efficient. 

The book is most profusely enriched with tabulations, and cost 
and price questions occupy much of the discussions. 

The volume is divided into eight books, each sub- vided: into 
chapters. The first book is devoted to cordwood and its uses for 
fuel, charcoal, pulp and other fibre uses. The second book dis- 
cusses small dimension material, used in turnery, inlaid work, and 
posts, poles, props, etc. The third book treats the measurement 
and classification of logs, and the utilization and classification of 
barks; the fourth with lumber ready for use, and railroad ties. 
The saw-mill practice is treated in the fifth, cooperage and other 
split ware in the sixth book. Small wooden ware—the small 
forest industries—fill one part of book seven, and the great in- 
dustries a second part. Finally, the eighth book discusses the 
by-products, tan, cork, naval stores, distillation. While, to be 
sure, the work is written entirely from the standpoint of French 
usage, by a French forester, and would perhaps, not interest the 
average American forester, no teacher, or especially investigator 
in the subject of forest utilization can afford to overlook this 
work, written in lively style. Especially as the time for more 
careful and intensive use of wood in our own country approaches 
will the value of this volume increase. 


BoB. Bs. 


Utihzation of Wood Waste by Distillation. By Walter B. 
Harper. 1907, pp. 156, 20: St. Louis Lumberman, St. Louis, 
Mo. Price, $3.00. 

Next to fire, the difficulty of disposing of the enormous wood 
waste which especially in virgin mixed woods forms the larger 
bulk of the contents is the greatest hindrance to satisfactory re- 
production, especially to natural regeneration. Indeed these two 
impediments go together. If the wood waste could be removed, 
fires would not be half as detrimental. Hence any development 
of methods for using the inferior wood materials must be con- 


408 Forestry Quarterty. 


sidered a boon to forestry not only from the economic but also 
from the silvicultural point of view. 

It is rare that a trade paper produces contributions even to 
technical literature which have more than ephemeral value. Mr. 
Harper’s articles on the utilization of wood waste by distillation 
is a distinct exception and the St. Louis Lumberman deserves 
credit and is to be congratulated for its enterprise in publishing, 
now in book form, such a treatise of permanent value. The 
work, while mostly a compilation, is done with the proper scien- 
tific spirit and at the same time with due regard to the practical 
questions. Especially the financial aspects are taken care of. 
This is the more to be commended as this essential condition of 
success is so often overlooked by those who are concerned only 
in the technical possibilities. 

Unfortunately from the forester’s point of view, the author 
confesses, that no economical or successful method of utilizing the 
waste in the forest, even of pine and fir has been developed—and 
the outlook is not promising. It was such use we had in mind 
when speaking of the subject of waste in relation to reproduction 
in the forest, but our hopes aroused by the broadness of the title 
of the volume were disappointed, for it deals after all only or 
almost exclusively with the distillation of pine wood, refuse at 
mills and especially selected in the woods. The practical utiliza- 
tion of the enormous hardwood forest waste is still an unsolved 
problem, except its limited use in expensive wood alcohol plants. 

To give an idea of the contents of the volume we may give 
the headings of the thirteen chapters into which it is divided, 
namely: Introduction; Historical Connection; from which we 
learn that wood distillation dates back to the beginning of 
last century; Principles of Distillation; Apparatus necessary 
for destructive distillation; Refining Methods; Special Combi- 
nation of Apparatus; Execution and Processes; Refining Pro- 
cesses; General considerations for the establishment of plants; 
Composition of wood and products of distillation; Yields and 
Disposal of Products; Chemical Tests and Combinations; 
Chemical Control of Plant. 

The chapters on apparatus and processes are fully illustrated 
and occupy over half the space of the book. 


B. E. F. 


es 


Other Current Literature. 409 


Jahresbericht tiber Veréffentlichungen wid wichtigere Ereig- 
nisse im Gebiete des Forstwesens, etc., fiir das Jahr 1900. 
Frankfurt, 1907. 100 pp. 

This annual report, which is published as a supplement to the 
Allgemeine Forst-und Jagdzeitung is a most valuable index to 
the literature in the field of forestry and cognate subjects. The 
field is divided into nine sections, each being reviewed by a 
specialist. Unfortunately, Germans have not yet learned the con- 
struction of a good index. To find out what has been published 
on any given point it is necessary to do much hunting through the 
pages with greater chances of missing the reference than would 
be the case if the clearer latin print were used. Naturally the 
references are mainly to German literature, although an attempt 
is made to include some French and English publications. 
Nevertheless it is a valuable work indispensable to any one who 
would keep au courant with the development of the profession. 


OTHER CURRENT LITERATURE. 


A Key to the Genera of the Native Forest Trees and Shrubs 
of Indiana, based chiefly upon Leaf Characters. By Stanley 
Coulter and Herman B. Dorner, Lafayette, Ind., 1907. 24 pp. 
Price 20 cents. A new edition, including the shrubs. 


Farm Weeds of Canada. By Geo. H. Clark and James 
Fletcher. Published by Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, 
1906. 106 pp. 2° 56 plates. This unusually well illustrated 
volume with colored plates includes, of course, the common weeds 
of the Northern United States. Besides the latin and various 
common names and a description, the time of flowering, method 
of propagation occurrence by localities, the injury it does, and 
the remedies are given. 


Forest Planting Leaflets, (U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. 
Circs. 76, pp. 3; 77, pp. 4; 82, pp. 8; 83, pp. 3; 84, pp. 4; 85, pp. 4; 
86, pp. 3; 87, pp. 4; 88, pp. 5; 890, pp. 4; 9°, pp. 3; OI, pp. 4; 
92, PP. 4; 93, PP- 45 94, PP. 3; 95, pp. 4). These leaflets treat 


410 Forestry Quarterly. 


of the form and size, habits and growth, economic uses, methods 
of propagation, planting, cultivation, and care of the following 
species of trees, which are given in order corresponding with 
the circular numbers above: Silver maple (Acer saccharinum), 
Cottonwood (Populus deltoides), Hardy Catalpa (Catalpa spe- 
ciosa), Russian Mulberry (Morus alba tartarica), White Ash 
(Fraxinus americana), Slippery Elm (Ulmus pubescens), Box- 
elder (Acer negundo), White Willow (Salix alba), Black Wal- 
nut (Juglans nigra), Tamarack (Larix laricina), Osage Orange 
(Toxylon pomiferum), Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus dioicus), 
Green Ash (Fraxinus lanceolata), Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron 
tulipifera), Black Cherry (Prunus serotina), and Sugar Maple 
(Acer saccharum). 


Proceédings of the Society of American Foresters. Vol. 11., 
No. 1, July, 1907. Contains the following articles: Some Philip- 
pine Forest Problems, by R. C. Bryant; Striking Features of 
the Forest and Water Situation in California, by E. A. Sterling; 
Some Problems in Hawaii, by Ralph $. Hosmer; Some Prob- 
lems in Forest Education, by Henry $. Graves; Object and 
Methods of Establishing Permanent Sample Plots, by W. D. 
Sterrett; A New Explanation of the Tolerance and Intolerance 
of Trees, by Raphael Zon; Forest Fire Insurance in Germany, 
by Samuel J. Record; A Rough System of Management for Re- 
serve Lands in the Western Sierras, by W. B. Greely; Some 
Government Timber Sales in the Southwest from the Practical 
and Technical Standpoint, by T. S. Woolsey, Jr. 


Silvical Leaflets Nos. 1 to 14, U. S. Forest Service, 1907. These 
comprise Alpine Fir, Port Orford Cedar, Engelmann Spruce, 
White Fir, Lowland Fir, Sitka Spruce, Nobel Fir, Red Fir, In- 
cense Cedar, Bigcone Spruce, Yellow Cedar, Western White 
Pine, Western Larch. 


Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Forestry for the 
years 1905 and 1906. Harrisburg, Pa., 1907. 149 pp. 


Twelfth Annual Report of the Forestry Commission of Minne- 
sota for the year ro06. St. Paul, Minn. 149 pp. 


Other Current Literature. 411 


Twelfth Annual Report of the Forest, Fish and Game Com- 
mission of New York. Albany, N. Y., 1907. 209 pp. 


Fifth Report of the Forest Preserve Board of New York. 
Albany, N. Y., 1907. 35 pp. 


Annual Report of the Superintendent of State Forests of New 
York. Albany, N. Y., 1907 . 39 pp. 


Prolonging the Life of Mine Timbers. By John M. Nelson, 
Jr. Circular No. 111, U. S. Forest Service ,Washington, D. C. 


22 pp. 


Use of Dead Timber in the National Forests. By E. R. Hod- 
son. Circular No. 113, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 


1907. 4 pp. 


Wood Distillation. By W. C. Geer. Circular No, 114, U. S. 
Forest Service, Washington, D. C., 1907. 8 pp. 


Second Progress Report on the Strength of Structural Timber. 
By W. K. Hatt. Circular No. 115, U. S .Forest Service, Wash- 


ington, D. C., 1907. 39 pp. 


The Waning Hardwood Supply and the Appalachian Forests. 
By William L. Hall. Circular No. 116, U. S. Forest Service, 
Washington, D. C., 1907. 16 pp. 


Location, date of Latest Proclamation, and Area of the Na- 
tional Forests in the United States, Alaska, and Porto Rico. 
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Oct., 1907. 


Pflanzenphysiologische Studien im Walde. By Max Wagner. 
Berlin, 1907. 177 pp. 


PERIODICAL LITERATURE. 


In Charge: 


BOtnICOl | JOWPAIS: voirecls Nis Sa he ae ec ee R. T. FisHEer 
Foreign Journals ....2..... B. E. Fenrow, F. Dunuap, R. Zon 
ELOPESUN GIST SOWIHAIS ta oer shoei cha ee Wine ee ete H. P. BAKER 
T PARC PO GIS Nk ae te ane age F. Rory, J. F. KuMMEL 


FOREST GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. 


The characteristic features of Slavonia’s 
Slavonia’s forests, according to Martin, are the ex- 
Forests. tent of the old stands of nearly pure 
pedunculate oak, the volume of marketable 
wood they contain, and the size of the trees. Forest conditions, 
either physically or economically, are far from what they should 
be. The stand is open and the soil occupied too largely by un- 
dergrowth; nearly all the trees are stag-headed, due only to 
their extreme age. The increment is less than 40% of the nor- 
mal, the stock about 35%, while there is almost no approach 
toward a proper distribution of age classes. Most of the area 
is occupied by over-matured trees and the young growth has 
lacked nearly every care that should have been given it. 

Natural regeneration alone is practiced. The area is closed 
to grazing and the undergrowth of adventitious species is re- 
moved. After the mast has fallen the entire stand is removed 
at once and a thicket of brush springs up. Under this protec- 
tion, which is heavy enough to be an impediment, the young 
trees grow, kept alive by the rich soil, and at length break through 
and overtop the thicket. The stands so produced are very un- 
even and some form of gradual removal of the parent stand 
extending over several years would give better results. But the 
management in Slavonia is extensive throughout and, on the 
whole, fair results are attained. 

Stumpage is sold in large lots after careful estimates, usually 
to French or German syndicates owning large saw mills in the 
neighborhood. The price is very high and firm, giving best evi- 


? 


Periodical Literature. 413 


dence of the strength of the market for large amounts of oak. 
The best grades of oak are worth 3$ times as much as the cor- 
responding grade of ash, and 5 times as much as beech of the 
same grade. 

Slavonia’s forests cry out against unthinking conservatism in 
forest management. Here the observer is impressed more than 
anywhere else with the foolishness of retaining, as a definite policy, 
old stands past their prime. The conditions in the stand go 
steadily downward from bad to worse and the prospects for 
return to the proper distribution of age classes and to normal ac- 
cretion are pushed farther into the future. As a warning against 
over-zealous conservatism these forests well repay study. The 
forester can best apply to the soil whatever conservatism is in 
him. Stands require a century for their growth and finally must 
be renewed, soils once exhausted renew themselves more slowly 
still, if at all. 


Mitteilungen iiber die forstlichen Verhdltnisse in Slavonien. Zeitschrift 
fiir Forst-und Jagdwesen. Pp. 719-727. Nov. 1906. 


At the International Agricultural Con- 


wedish gress, at Vienna, Dr. Anderson explained 
Forest why Sweden was so favorably located for 
Conditions. forest exploitation, pointing out that the 


number of drivable streams and _ their 
water conditions are so favorable for transportation from stump 
to ocean, as in no other country. Twelve large rivers of an 
average length of 200 miles each traverse the entire forest area 
of 50,000,000 acres (48% of the whole country), and some 30 
shorter rivers of 60 to 120 miles in length, add to the transporta- 
tion means in the lowlands. ‘The fall in these rivers varies from 
5 to 8 feet per mile, the most favorable for driving and rafting. 
The harbors are free from ice for six to seven months, and the 
ice in the rivers breaks up at the mouth first, also a favorable 
feature. Precipitation at 3,000 feet altitude is 900 mm, at 5,000 
feet altitude 3,000 mm, 70 to 80% of which is carried off by 
the rivers, as against 30% in Middle Europe, giving rise to good 
spring floods which carry the wood from the small to the main 
rivers. The total length of rafting waters is about 12,000 miles, 
and to each mile 3 to 6 square miles of forest. 


414 Forestry Quarterly. 


In 1865 the transport of logs, 12 to 30 feet long, cost between 
6 and 7 cents; in 1902, about 3 cents for a distance of around 
120 miles. 


Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. October 1907, p. 436. 


FOREST BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 


The importance of the different require- 

Measurement ments of light by different species and 

of their relation to other factors like water 

Light Requirements absorption and transpiration has, since 

Gustav Heyer, been fully appreciated by 

silviculturists although only empirical data without any exactitude 

have been at the basis of the classification into tolerant and in- 
tolerant species. 

The well known physiologist, Wiesner, attempted 15 years ago 
to determine more accurately and numerically the light require- 
ments, and devised an improvement on the Bunson-Roscoe method 
of measuring light (Photometrische Untersuchungen, Vienna, 
1893), which others have also followed, in which a chlorsilver 
paper is exposed until the color changes to a constant tone of a 
scale. Actually this is only measurement of the chemically active 
rays of the light. 

Dr. Cederbaur, of the Austrian Experiment Station, has 
through two years tested the method and has found it inadequate. 

The first question to be settled is, which light rays are required 
by the trees—the quality of the light—before the quantitative de- 
termination can be of value. It has been demonstrated that the 
chlorophyll in the single leaf has selective power. Referring to 
Frauenhofer’s spectrum, the maximum absorption lies between 
the lines B and C (red), considerable absorption takes place at 
F (blue) and at G (violet) and H (indigo), while at C and S$ 
(orange, yellow) the absorption is small. The degree of absorp- 
tion varies with different leaves and the number of leaves above 
each other; a sunleaf of the beech absorbs much more than a 
shade leaf. Exposing a spectroscope under a uniformly close 
each other; a sunleaf of the beech absorbs much more than a 
beech stand absorbs different rays from an oak or a pine stand. 
All absorb red rays, between B and C, also rays at F and towards 


Periodical Literature. 415 


H, but in different degrees. The light-needing pine and larch 
absorb very similarly in red, blue, and violet, while the shade en- 
during species, spruce and beech, absorb blue and violet more 
strongly than red, and also some yellow. Ash and oak stand be- 
tween these extremes and allow considerable quantity of indigo 
rays to pass through. 

To determine the quantity of the different kinds of rays ab- 
sorbed, a rather crude spectral photometer was used, in which a 
benzine flame, with a range of not over 500 meter candle power, 
served as standard of comparison. While absotutely the figures 
may not be reliable, the author claims at least relative value for 
the measurements. They show that the tolerant species absorbed 
nearly 10 times as much of the red rays than the intolerant. 

For example the measurements of one day with cloudy sky 
may be given, the numbers referring to units of the spectrum of 
the benzine flame permitted to pass through. 


red orange yellow green blue indigo violet 


ECON CRCCISO, \oics sedis oss 2 7 12 100 40 200 100 
Pinus Stlvesiris; 2.0... 150 200 470 soo+ 500+ 500+ 200 
Larix europaea, ...... 50 80 (ere) 250 200 500-++ 100 
Quercus pedunculata, ... 24 100 100 100 150 250 50 


From all measurements it appeared that spruce, fir, beech ab- 
sorbed strongly in red, blue to violet, while pine, larch birch ab- 
sorb less of these rays and very little of indigo. A pine, therefore, 
overtopping a spruce leaves it very little red light but much blue 
and indigo which the spruce is able to utilize. A spectrum below 
a fir or spruce reproduction under larch or pine becomes very 
poor in red, blue, indigo and violet, the light being sifted a 
second time by the undergrowth. 

Altogether, red rays are absorbed most intensely, green least so, 
blue and violet somewhat less than red, except by the shade en- 
during species which also absorb indigo and yellow. 

The author having demonstrated the method, and that the 
quality of the light must be taken into consideration, expects with 
an improved apparatus to furnish the definite data for a classifi- 
cation of the species. 

Das Lichtbediirfniss der Waldbaiime und die Lichtmess methoden. 


Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. Aug., Sept. 1907, pp. 325-330. 
26 


416 Forestry Quarterly. 


Investigations on over 2,000 trees of Scotch 

Heartwood Pine by Pilz have developed the manner in 
Formation. which heartwood formation progresses in 

this species, and probably some more gen- 

eral laws of this process. The practical value of the investiga- 
tions is readily understood when it is considered that heartwood 
and sapwood differ greatly in technical value. ‘The durability 
of the former is well known, and Gayer points out that it is in 
direct proportion to the intensity of the color, and “‘since heart- 
wood is superior to sapwood in nearly all properties, the amount 
of heart in the total wood volume is of moment in the sale value.” 

The tabulation shows that the heartwood formation begins 
early, below the 30 year; that the number of sapwood rings at 
the butt remains larger than those of heartwood to old age (at 
230 years the relation is 83 to 150) ; that heartwood rings form 
a per cent. of all rings up to the 65 years of 29%, from 70 to 95 
years of 39%, from 100 to 150 years of 44%, over 150 years 
56%. The following unexpected results were had. 

The countings from different sites, provided a large number 
was averaged, did not show great differences, but on the same site 
within the same age class, especially in old trees (over 100 years) 
showed great variations. In one case the variation was from 32 
to 89, in another 43, 46, 47, 50. The progress of heartwood 
formation is not the same in all parts of the tree, the number of 
sapwood rings at the top is smaller than at the butt, 7. e. the 
change takes place in younger wood earlier than at the base. 
The average of 214 trees showed sap to heart 60 to 42 rings at the 
butt, 36 to 28 rings at the top, that is, 24 rings which were still 
sapwood at the base were already heartwood at the top. Even 
I m above the butt a similar increase in heart is noted, so that 
while in young trees, at the base 25% of the rings lie in heart- 
wood, at I m 33% are heart, and in old trees the relation is 
33% and 50%. 

Measurements on 761 of 115-year-old pines showed in the 
average at the base 178 mm sap and 279 mm heart, or 37 per 
cent. of the cross section, at the top 93 mm sap and 173 mm heart, 
or 42 per cent. of the cross section. ‘The analysis of a tree from 
meter to meter, showed that the maximum of heartwood forma- 
tion lay between 4 and 12 m above the base cut, varying here 


Periodical Literature. 417 


between 35 and 44 per cent. of the cross section, while below it 
sinks gradually to 22 per cent., and above to 14 per cent. 

The cause of heartwood formation is still an open question. 
It is known that the heart does not participate in water conduc- 
tion, the cells being dead and certain materials, coloring matter, 
tannins, etc., being deposited in lumen and wall. It is likely that 
the more water is required the less tendency to heartwood exists. 
There being a relation between water requirement and transpira- 
tion, it is to be expected that broad crowned trees form less heart 
than small crowned, those on warm sites or open stand where 
transpiration is rapid form less than those in humid sites or 
dense crown cover, unless the influence of light tends the other 
way. 

Incidentally the author refers to the importance of such a study 
with a view of finding out how to influence heartwood formation. 
Germany produces 1700 million cubic feet of wood of which 700 
million is workwood. In addition, in 1906, she imported 476 
million, mostly workwood of high quality, 86% of which is conif- 
erous. Not only quantity but quality of production needs to be 
considered. 


Einiges tiber die Verkernung der Kiefer. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagd- 
zeitung. September 1907, pp. 265-272. 


SOIL, WATER AND CLIMATE. 


The Russians have lately given much atten- 

Forest tion to the investigation of forest cover in 
Influences. relation to hydrologic conditions and have 
come often to negative results. Under the 

title of Principles of Forest preservation, Wysotzki discusses in 
the organ of the Russian Forestry Association the relation of 
forest cover to water conditions adversely, based largely on Rus- 
sian “‘discoveries.’”’ We know now, he says, that forest growth 
pumps its needs of water from great depths and preserves mois- 
ture only near the surface. Hence it lowers the ground water 
table, and hence also the water level of streams during summer, 
although this effect is reduced in mountainous regions. Its in- 
fluence, therefore, is useful only in preventing the run off of rain 
water; as regards the moisture that has penetrated the soil it 


418 Forestry Quarterly. 


can only be detrimental. Hence the hydrologic role of the forest 
must be judged in each single case. A general judgment is im- 
possible. 

The deterioration of waterways, which is ascribed to devasta- 
tion at the headwaters, is to be credited not to a diminution of 
the running waters but to denudation, broadening of stream beds 
and filling them with the wash and debris from the deforested 
parts. 

The ideal cover for dry rocky sites with dry climate is, the 
author claims, a gravel or rock debris with sand and soil under- 
neath which holds the moisture. 

Sand areas do not increase their water contents by being for- 
ested, on the contrary, the large entirely bare sand wastes, other 
things being equal, carry the most water. Their dryness is only 
on the surface. Only their denudation and filling up of river 
beds from their wash are detrimental. Hence forest and brush- 
land should be kept along the river courses and wherever on 
account of the slope soil washes are likely. 

As regards the influence on the humidity of the air, by the fact 
that the forest pumps up water from the depths and retains a 
large amount of precipitation, it increases transpiration and cools 
the atmosphere. 

This is undoubted for the forest interior. But this effect is 
soon dissipated in the open. In a moist climate and for small 
countries like Sweden, according to Hamberg, the influence is 
almost nil, only for large continents like Siberia, the influence on 
the humidity of the climate is acknowledged. 

Yet the author admits that the forest conditions of the North 
German plain, of Denmark, southern Sweden, of the Russian 
West Provinces, must be of real significance for the vast Russian 
interior plain and even for a part of Central Asia and Siberia, 
and he draws the conclusion that forest preservation has for 
Russia only a meaning in the cited West Provinces. 

The influences on temperature and winds are also minimized by 
the author, and altogether the conclusion is reached that forest 
influence is by no means as potent as has been claimed. ‘The 
author relies, to be sure, only on his philosophy without bringing 
new data, and in the subsequent discussion was charged as de- 


Periodical Literature. 419 


sirous to promote a toning down of the existing laws of forest 
preservation. 


Lesnoj journal. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. September 1907, pp. 
318-320. 


The windbreaking effect of forests is prob- 


Forest ably one of the most evident forest influ- 
and ences, but has rarely been studied carefully. 
Winds. St. Murat, director of the Meteorological 


Institute of Roumania has made a special 
study of the retarding effect of forest growth on wind velocity. 
He finds that at 500 meters about (1640 feet) the effect is lost, 
that at 50 to 100 meters the retardation may amount to 4 to 74 
miles an hour, varying of course according to the initial velocity 
of the wind; after 100 meters the velocity again increases until 
it is re-established at 500 meters. 


Annals of the Roumanian Academy, 1907. After Science. October 1907, 
p. 518. 


Earlier studies of the influence which 


Forests forest cover exerts upon rainfall have been 
and reviewed in these columns again and again. 
Rainfall. Data for the provinces of West Prussia and 


Posen have now been worked up by Schu- 
bert and are here summarized. Further work has been carried 
on in Liberia, and Swedish data are introduced and shown to 
agree closely with results obtained in Prussia. Correlating these 
three series of data it may be stated generally that at altitudes 
under 500 meters an elevation of 100 meters increases the rainfall 
8-12%—the higher figure for the drier region—while in a coun- 
try averaging 15-25% forest an increase of 10% in the forested 
area gives a corresponding increase of 1 to 2% in the rainfall. 

The data from West Prussia and Posen were obtained as usual 
from paired stations one within, and the other the same distance 
from the edge of the forest in the open field. When summarized 
such data show that a rain-guage 1 kilo-meter within the forest 
registers not more than 1to 2% more rainfall than an instrument 
in the open 1 kilometer from the forest. This is the upper limit 
and carries with it the error due to wind. 


420 Forestry Quarterly. 


Wind tends to reduce the amount of rainfall measured by a 
guage and the same is true to greater extent of snowfall. Taking 
advantage of this difference the author proposes to use the ratio 
of the additive correction to be applied to an exposed guage dur- 
ing rainy weather to the further additive correction to be ap- 
plied during snowy weather as a measure of the influence of wind. 
This ratio he finds pretty constantly equal to 0.17-++0.04, the vari- 
ation being due to wind velocity. In this way the upper limits 
of the excess of rainfall measured in forests is reduced further 
until the excess itself becomes problematic. 

Comparisons of the methods of measuring the influence of 
winds on the behavior of rain guages with guage measurements 
checked by anemometers shows satisfactory agreement. 


Wald und Niederschlag und die Be-einflussung der Regen-und Schnee- 
messung durch den Wind. Zeitschrift fir Forst-und Jagdwesen. Novem- 


ber 1906, pp. 728-735. 


Although the result of the observations at 


Forests seventeen comparative stations in forest, 
and forest edge and in the open, of the rainfall 
Rainfall. through five years in the Letzlinger forest 


showed the greater precipitation in the 
forest and the least in the open, Dr. Schubert points out that 
this does not show an influence of the forest, for the observed 
difference in the catch of 5.2 per cent. is compensated by cor- 
rections for snowfall and for difference in exposure of the gauges 
as regards wind, in other words the probability of error is about 
equal to the apparent difference in amount of precipitation. 
The influence of wind on measurement of rain and snow in 
gauges was made a special study furnishing the correction 
factor. 


Der Niederschlag in der Letzlinger Heide. Zeitschrift f. Forst-und 
‘Jagdwesen. August 1907, pp. 509-513. 


SILVICULTURE AND PROTECTION. 


The aims of silviculture with regard to the 

Silvicultural production of large increment and good 
Tenets. quality has been a subject for discussion by 
authorities at the International Agricultural 

Congress at Vienna last May. It is worth while to brief the wis- 


Periodical Literature. 421 


dom expressed in the form of referee’s findings, to show that 
many silvicultural questions are still unsolved, even in the father- 
land of forestry. 

The question whether pure or mixed stands are preferable, 
according to Schwappach, is still an open one, the friends of the 
mixed type prevailing in the literature, while in the practice pure 
stands gain more and more ground. The attempt to grow mixed 
forest according to recipe is usually a failure. The cause of the 
frequent failures lies in the fact that the stands are not tended 
according to the original plan. Often a few years neglect suffice 
to turn a hopeful young mixed growth into an open branchy pine 
stand, or the most beautiful oaks in a spruce stand into thin 
spindling poles. 

Regarding even-aged and uneven-aged stands Schwappach 
very properly declares, that the selection forest is, to be sure, the 
natural form, but a well managed selection forest is a very labor- 
intensive form, which requires of the manager a high degree of 
intelligence, and the most accurate knowledge of local conditions, 
almost of every single stem, a requirement which is probably 
rarely attainable. Moreover, he asks whether the evenaged tim- 
ber forest does not produce as much or even more than the selec- 
tion forest. 

Speaking of artificial and natural regeneration Schwappach 
warns against the exaggerated partiality for natural regeneration, 
which is to be forced like a kind of legerdemain even under un- 
suitable conditions. On the other hand he warns against false 
economy in plantations. 

Reuss, who advocated natural regeneration, admits that in gen- 
eral this method is quite unreliable and in many cases not satis- 
factory from the standpoint of a sustained yield. But in artificial 
regeneration stress must be laid on securing good seed material 
from healthy vigorous trees, ripe and properly kept. Regarding 
planting he uses the following significant language: 

“Objected to on account of its obvious disadvantages, often 
maligned on principle, often much discredited through various 
misapplications and failures, the method of planting has after all 
everywhere victoriously conquered recognition as the surest prop 
of rejuvenation, the ultima ratio, to which the manager every- 


422 Forestry Quarterly. 


where turns when natural regeneration and sowing has left him 
in the lurch. Especially where any difficulties of soil are encoun- 
tered, planting becomes the sole sovereign of the field, and, in 
spite of all resistance of theory and practice, it stands to-day, un- 
touched and unassailable, the most important and most widely 
used form of reforestation, which, if correctly executed, is capable 
of securing sound and thrifty stands, which as regards volume 
and value production equals, nay excels, any other form of re- 
generation. To be sure, planting calls for considerable knowl- 
edge and care, much more than is usually given to it. It sounds 
perhaps absurd and unreasonable but is correct and important 
to demand that planting, an act of force par excellence composed 
of unnatural operations should, as far as possible, conform to 
nature’s demands, if the disadvantages and dark side are to be 
successfully overcome.” 

Regarding the further tending of stands by thinnings, the 
speaker rehearses the accepted rules that during the period before 
the culmination of height growth the crown-cover be little inter- 
rupted. Frequency, rather than degree of thinning, is import- 
ant. When the first object, good, clean shafts of proper height, 
is attained, severer thinnings are indicated to secure the maximum 
of diameter increment. Since, with age and increasing crown 
diameter, the removal of any member makes a considerable break 
in the crown cover, the return of the thinning comes in longer 
intervals, and since violent changes produce undesirable response 
in the ring growth to the detriment of wood quality the thin- 
ning should after all be slight. He advocates the selection of an 
élite predestined to become the final harvest which, by an annular 
opening of the crown cover, can be developed in the most desir- 
able manner, 

Another speaker bringing in the field of statistics and ques- 
tions of market, pointed out that the wood exports of all export 
countries had doubled in the last 20 years; that Germany in the 
last 40 years liad quintupled its import of wood, while the pro- 
duction of the home forests had in the last 70 years increased only 
by two thirds. 


Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen, October 1907, pp. 382-387. 


Sg IO te Nin Be, 


nage ine rs 


Periodical Literature. _ 423 


In an article which breathes the woodsy 


Cultivation flavor of a practitioner lacking academic 
of precision, Schenk v. Schmittburg describes 
Sand soils. the troubles of growing pines in the poor 


sands of the Main valley, in which some 
academically accepted theories are being disturbed. 

Not only is the soil a poor diluvial sand but the locality is one 
of the most rain-poor of Germany, especially in summer, insect 
pests abound in the dry situation, especially June bug and Tortrix 
species, game is abundant and damaging young plantations, labor 
too expensive and hardly obtainable. Thirty year old plantations, 
when clearing followed by sowing was practiced, seem to show 
that conditions then were not as bad as now. For successful 
planting under these conditions the author advocates two methods 
of soil treatment, namely removal of the soil cover and deep 
plowing. “Here in our sand—lI should perhaps say: in spite of 
our sand, the loosening of the soil cannot be deep enough; only, 
it soon becomes too expensive.” The author, therefore, places 
special value on baring of the surface, which not only allows 
more rain water to penetrate but also utilizes the dew. These ad- 
vantages outweigh the disadvantage of the insolation, which, after 
all, dries out only the surface. To further benefit from the larger 
moisture supply below, the plants are set deeper than usual, even 
shallow rooted spruces are placed with the roots hanging down, 
which physiologically appears wrong: the first need is to start the 
plant, later it can secure the horizontal spread of the root system. 

The labor trouble is such that machine work becomes neces- 
sary—the use of two plows, one following the other immediately, 
the first a surface plow with disk coulter knife close before the 
nose of the plow to prevent roots from catching the latter, fol- 
lowed by a subsoil plow of similar construction. A double plow 
combining the two functions is not as serviceable. 

With these plows broad furrows are opened and either stout 
plants are set or seed is sowed in the furrows. The success of the 
latter method, namely sowing, has, contrary to expectations, 
given excellent results, better than plantations and sowings exe- 
cuted in different manner. 

The amount of seed used per acre was rather plentiful, namely 
12 lbs. to the acre mixed seed of Scotch Pine, White Pine and 


424 Forestry Quarterly. 


= 


Spruce in proportion of 10 : 2 : 2. The cost of this method is 
of course, less than planting, but, the author states, cheap methods 
have no value under such conditions. 


Erfahrungen iiber die Kiefernkultur in dem Diluvial sand, etc. Allge- 
meine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, October 1907, pp. 339-346. 


A long series of trial plantings conducted 


Silvics for 40 years on various soils with the Euro- 
of pean Ash may be of interest, as in some 
Ash. respects this species resembles our own 


White Ash. The results of the observa- 
tions are formulated by Neumann as follows: ‘The best silvicul- 
tural success is attained on the overflow lands of natural water 
courses, on fresh to moist, loose, permeable humous to peaty soil. 
To be avoided are impermeable soils, or those with impermeable 
subsoil, heavy clay and loam, as well as poor thin sand soils, too 
wet and sour soils, and frosty situations. Ash is not fit for pure 
plantations, where it soon ceases to grow and permits the soil to 
deteriorate. Nor is it fit to mix it with other species in rows, 
where the same unsatisfactory conditions as in pure stands re- 
sult, even when a number of rows of the admixture is placed 
between two rows of Ash. The rapidly growing Ash with a 
spreading habit is apt to suppress the admixture entirely. It is, 
therefore, best used in single specimens or very small groups 
within groups of oak, beech, and Black Alder. On account of its 
liability to frost and the usually dense sod on soils where it 
thrives, it should be planted in larger sizes and a soil cover by 
underplanting of shadier species be provided. The volunteer 
erowth in the neighborhood of old mother trees can be very well 
used either for transplanting in nursery rows or into the woods. 

Another speaker doubted the advisability of artificial cultiva- 
tion, leaving to natural regeneration the propagation of the 
species, which takes place readily wherever old seed trees exist. 

A third speaker doubted the necessity of providing an under 
growth, because Ash “loves a sun warmed foot,” and “a volun- 
teer undergrowth establishes itself mostly under it.” 


Pommerscher Forst verein. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung, October 
1907; p. 364-5. 


Periodical Literature. 425 


It appears that among German foresters 
Know Nothings the same misplaced patriotism has _ pre- 
m vented an earlier and more persistent effort 
Germany. to introduce exotic species into German 
forestry, which has characterized the atti- 
tude of some of our compatriots in such matters. John Booth, 
the veteran nurseryman, who has labored for years for the intro- 
duction of exotics, has found that in 1820 the University of 
Heidelberg offered a prize for an essay on the value of intro- 
ducing foreign species. This essay which secured the prize, 
whose author has remained obscure, named—86 years ago !—the 
very species which in rgo1 were declared by Schwappach to have 
proved their right to recognition by the experiments began nearly 
60 vears later. In 1721—just 100 years earlier—Reaumur in 
France had made precisely the same recommendations without 
making any impression. Even to-day there is considerable op- 
position to the use of exotics, based on ignorant conservatism. 


Die Universitit Heidelberg und die auslindischen Holzarten. Allge- 
meine Forst-und Jagdzeitung. August 1907, pp. 279-282. 


According to Rave it has been at a rela- 


Practice tively recent time that German foresters 
m departed from the thesis “the more volume- 
Thinnings. capital the more increment” and recognized 


the new truth that smaller volumes_ may 
afford not only larger increment percentages but even increments 
of larger volumes. The present tendency is to increase the yield 
by increasing the value and amount of the thinning, and by in- 
creasing the value of the main crop even to the extent of dimin- 
ishing the volume. Under the supervision of the experiment 
station at Eberswalde numerous sample areas throughout Prussia 
are being regularly thinned in accordance with carefully elabor- 
ated plans and accurate data kept of the results of the special 
treatment given each plot. The lines along which progress is 
promised have been indicated by the forest officer under whose 
direct supervision this work has been done. These are roughly 
as follows: 
In young stands of beech, cut out all wolf trees where there is 


426 Forestry Quarterly. 


any chance for nearby trees to fill the gap. There had best be no 
choice made during the earlier thinnings of trees to be held for the 
final crop. The earlier thinnings are solely to relieve the stand, 
so far as possible, from injury by its own too vigorous members. 
The effort should be to give no individual an advantage but to 
grow a stand of young trees of even size, height and crown de- 
velopment, which means even vitality. Removal of over-vigor- 
ous trees as soon as they appear never results in injury to such a 
stand. 

Older stands which have not received such care earlier can not 
be so treated. Here care must always be taken to further the 
growth of certain trees which are by this act selected for retention 
until the final cut. 

All suppressed beech is usually to be held in young stands and 
removed later so far as its value permits; but there are exceptions 
to this general rule depending on density of the stand and quality 
of the site. On very rich limestone soils, where beech thrives best 
and seed-years are frequent and heavy, it is well to retain sup- 
pressed growth throughout the life of the stand to prevent prema- 
ture, undesirable regeneration after thinning. When suppressed 
erowth is absent as is the case in most stands grown under past 
practices special precaution must be taken to destroy this adven- 
titious growth before actual regeneration of the area is attempted, 
and to this end the method of thinning must often be varied. 

The treatment of oak during the early years of its growth fol- 
lows closely that outlined for beech, but greater stress is placed 
upon the need for retaining suppressed trees in order that the 
boles may be kept clear and the production of water sprouts held 
in check. Water sprouts are always found in pure stands of oak 
but the proper use of beech as a second story keeps the oak clear. 
In pure oak forests advantage is taken of the growth of water 
sprouts and a second story of suppressed trees is produced by 
allowing some of the weaker individuals to become overtopped 
and stag-headed before a thinning is made. Abundance of light 
then makes a new crown from water sprouts that have covered the 
stem, while corresponding sprouts on the stems of the main stand 
are killed by the full crown overhead. Attempts at under-plant- 


te * 


esa ee 


- 
‘ 
¢ 
i 
4 
t 
| 


Periodical Literature. 427 


ing mature stands of oak are not usually satisfactory. For the 
best results the beech must be of the same age as the oak, must 
be carefully cut back and kept out of the upper crown level and 
must not be removed until the oak itself is removed. 

When thinnings have reduced the number of trees per acre to 
twice what the number is to be in the mature stand, definite choice 
is to be made of that half of the number to be retained and no 
effort spared to favor these. At this point the immediate end in 
view in removing trees from the stand changes radically. No 
tree is removed which does not interfere with one of these selected 
trees and every tree is removed that does so interfere. In the 
best stands choice must be arbitrarily made between neighboring 
trees exactly alike in every way. There may be some hesitancy 
about removing one tree to make place for another no better, but 
the increment justifies the removal in every case. 

With spruce or pine a second story as undergrowth is not re- 
quired, for these trees clear their boles readily and protect the 
soil sufficiently. Only on poorer soils and in the case of Pine is 
under-planting (with beech) for soil protection sometimes ad- 
visable late in the life of the stand. 

On better sites forests of either species are rendered more pro- 
ductive by severe thinnings: this is especially true of spruce. 
The increment varies directly as the living crown surface in which 
assimilation takes place. In dense stands the crown cover is 
smooth; severe thinning fills this smooth surface with cuplike 
depressions so that its area is greatly increased. At the same 
time the increment is more valuable, being distributed over fewer 
stems. A concurrent advantage is that this breaking up of too 
dense stands renders them firmer against wind and against snow 
pressure. 


Uber Durchforstungen von Laub-und Nadelhdélzern. Zeitschrift fur 
Forst-und Jagdwesen. November 1906, pp. 736-748. 


Forest plantations in reclaimed heather land 

Non-parasitic in Prussia have to contend with adverse 
Diseases, soil conditions in middle and later life as 

well as in the first year of their growth. 

Deep cultivation and proper measures for rendering the humus 


428 Forestry Quarterly 


in the soil available for tree growth may result in marked thrift 
in the early life of the stand. From observations on spruce at 
Libberstedt it is evident, says Graebner, that during the middle 
life of the stand, or even later, the untoward soil conditions reme- 
died at planting time may set in again and result in the death of 
the roots by suffocation. 

At first the main roots strike deep into the soil and grow vigor- 
ously. Year by year the litter collects and does not readily decay 
in the damp climate; the soil is covered more deeply and freezing 
is prevented. In this way an agency active in maintaining healthy 
soil conditions is removed. ‘The soil becomes almost impervious 
to air and is at the same time farther removed from the action of 
air by the thick cover of wet litter above. Finally the deeper 
roots die outright some season when the weather emphasizes the 
unfavorable soil condition in which they are growing. Under the 
continued influence of these conditions the lateral roots which re- 
main alive grow on their upper sides only, forming narrow, board- 
like plates. 

When the deeper roots are small as when the change in the soil 
is gradual, the tree may tide over the crisis and live on, supported 
by the lateral roots. In the opposite event it succumbs. 

The effects on the tree both in appearance of crown and foliage 
and in minute structure, the growth and decay of the elements at 
the base of the stem and in the roots is described in detail. De- 
terminations of resistance offered by soil samples to the passage 
of air were made and are here recorded. Damp raw-humus 
which was slowly pervious to air under pressure of half-a-meter 
of water became entirely impervious when packed firmly. 

In and under heavy soil covers of moss and litter enormous 
pseudolenticels develop on the bases of coniferous stems and by 
the failure of the secondary corky growth of the stem to extend 
across them, entrance is given to injurious fungi and serious 
damage results. In a number of instances the mycelium of the 
root-rot (Polyporus annosus) was detected in these pseudolenti- 
cels. 

Measures to remedy stands suffering from an accumulation of 
litter may easily go too far and result in immediate death of the 
diseased stand. Removal of the raw-humus is indicated but must 


2 ec hs Keats 


7 
4 
4 
A 
mM 
i 
F 


Periodical Literature 429 
be done either in strips or in patches only, and not over the whole 
area at once. 

Beitrége sur Kenntnis nichtparasitarer Pflanzenkrankheiten an forst- 
lichen Gewichsen. Zeitschrift fur Forst-und Jagdwesen. November 1906, 


PP. 705-719. 


That insects are sensitive to certain smells 


Insects has been long recognized and used to keep 
and them from doing damage, but that they are 
Smells. also attracted by other smells and influenced 


by them in their biological relations seems 
to be a new discovery by the Russian, S$. Golowianko. His obser- 
vations refer to the May beetle (June beetle), the larva of which 
is so destructive underground to young pine plantations. The 
author finds a relation of its occurrence to the existence of unde- 
composed humus materials, on which it feeds exclusively during 
the first year of its underground life. The female is attracted by 
the smell of humus to deposit its eggs, just as Coprophagae, 
‘Arenicolae, etc., follow smells. White sand remains unmolested, 
but plantations in sinks of gray soil succumb. On soil, only re- 
cently covered with grass, the beetle does not lay eggs, altho the 
rootlets would furnish good feed. The more humus a soil con- 
tains, the stronger the smell, the more attractive it is to the 
beetle. 

Smell is decreased by shade, either of litter, weeds or stand, 
increased by humidity and by insolation. 

A large-sized, open area—a cut—because of the increased inso- 
lation and consequent smell, attracts beetles more than smaller 
areas. The burning of the soil increases the smell and is attrac- 
tive. On the other hand buckwheat smell is objectionable; smoke 
also; charcoal pits are avoided. Since it is possible to increase 
the humus smell on certain areas and thus to attract beetles, this 
may be used to keep them from more valuable areas and to bait 
them. To do this the areas must be tolerably large, kept without 
vegetation and furrowed or hoed before the beetle flies. 

The attempts to reduce the damage of the beetle by growing 
grain in the infested areas for some time to reduce the humus, 
the author believes to be good policy, although experiments have 


430 Forestry Quarterly 


failed to produce results, which has been due to the manner in 
which they were conducted. 


Lesnoj Journal, 1906. Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitung. September 
1907, pp. 320-21. 


In discussing means for preventing 


Spraying ‘Schutte’ or damping-off at the Pommer- 
against anean forestry association meeting, it was 
Damping-off. accentuated that to be effective spraying 


must be done at the right time namely, 
when the fungus spores are being sown, which is in July and 
August. The proper mixture of the copper-lime liquid can and 
should be controlled by the discoloration of curcuma paper. 


MENSURATION, FINANCE, AND MANAGEMENT. 


An interesting contribution to the question 


Influences of the influence of exposure and altitude is 
on contained in a series of measurements on 
Increment. over 6500 firs (Abies pectinata) by Usener, 


which probably express at least the rela- 
tionships for other species on similar sites in a degree. 

Relying upon diameter measurements of trees 60 to 200 years 
old, the south exposure showed invariably the maximum de- 
velopment, then follow in descending order, east, north, west and 
plateau, without, however, any uniform regularity, from age 
class to age class. The differences between the first (.S.) and last 
position (plateau) vary from 8 to 16 cm, the larger difference 
generally to be found in the older age classes. Similar increase 
of difference with age is found in other positions, the difference 
between South and East exposure varying from o to 15 cm, 
between East and North from 0 to 19 cm. The North some- 
times showing, however, better diameters, as occurs also when 
West and North diameters are compared. 

Diameter measurements classed by altitudes varying by 200 
meters brought out the fact that the zone 400 to 600 showed 
maximum development, the diameter of all age classes decreasing, 
although only slightly, both at lower and higher altitudes. For 
instance the go-year and 100-year classes show the series: 


4 
4 


Periodical Literature. 431 


Altitude 9o-year ro0-year 
200—400 40 cm 42 
400—600 41 44 
600—800 39 AG 
S800—1000 35 38 cm 


On a smaller number of trees a calculation of value increment 
was made which may not prove uninteresting. 

The average 100-year old tree was analyzed as regards the 
sortiment classes and the six-year average of prices was applied, 
the periodicai value as well as volume increment being calculated 


M—m 200 
by the well known formula ——— || ——. The different 
M+m n 


classes of stem wood vary in price from 16 cents to 8 cents, split 
billets 3.2 cents, small round billets 2.8, and brush 2.5 cents per 
cubic foot. This makes the total value per cubic foot of the tree 
from the 50 to the 170 year change from 6.3 to 10.8 cents, or for 
timberwood alone from 8 to 12.8 cents. 

Adding a calculation of price increase in the market based upon 
the actual increase for 20 years of 2.35% as the initial figure the 
following results were obtained: 


Age 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 139 140 150 160 170 
Volume per cent. (a) BL Ae 2k Rls 8) 6h eb Sh an ae SU A: 
Value per cent. (b) EB Bucks Ol 1 kcOnb Ou aia een ie 0. 

Price increase percent. (c) 2.4 23 22 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.56 18 12 11 41.1 11 11 
a and bandc per cent. 6.3 5.8 53 48 43 3.8 34 3. 2.7 2.4 2.2 2 19 


These calculations refer, to be sure, to the single tree only, and 
with regard to whole stands they have value only as far as the 
increment per cent. of the single stem is a factor of the volume 
increase of the total stand, the stem number, or else the volume 
of the whole, being the other factors. Increment per cents of 
single stems and volume increment of stands often move in op- 
posite direction. After a severe thinning the increment per cent. 
of the stem increases but the total volume increment is decreased. 
Moreover, in the mixed stands in question, the result of selection 
forest treatment, other difficulties arise, making a reasonable 
calculation of the increment per cent. of the over-mature stands 
hazardous. Yet, to get at least an approximation of the truth, a 
method had to be devised, by utilizing the measurements and 
figures for the average trees to the actual trees in the calipered 

26 


432 Forestry Quarterly 


stands, leaving out all trees with less than 20 cubic feet corres- 
ponding to a diameter of 9 inch. It was found that there were 
then on the average just 100 trees to the acre with a volume of 
8.475 cubic feet and a market value of $848, and an increment 
(volume+value+-price) of $21.50. Making the comparison 
from decade to decade, with full realization of the difficulties in 
age determinations, etc., the author presents the following per 
acre tabulation: 


Age Stems Volume Value Increment Per cent. 
No. Criske: (a, b and c) 
$ $ 

100 105 7,805 740 24 3n2 
IIO QI 8,050 798 22.66 2.9 
120 80 8,580 845 21 aie 205 
130 73 8,037 938 20.16 252 
140 69 9,295 960 19.20 2. 


The application is self evident. If rot does not do any damage 
the holding over of such old stands for reasons of management 
does not entail a great loss. 


Zuwachsuntersuchungen an Tannen. Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. 
September 1907, pp. 305-310. 


The aims and methods of regulating forest 


Aims use—forest regulation—formed a subject 

of for discussion at the International Agricul- 
Forest tural Congress at Vienna, and, as usual, 
Management. very divergent opinions were heard. Sev- 


eral speakers pronounced the principle of 
profitableness as the only tenable, or at least the prominent, aim. 
V. Guttenberg declared for such regulation as would secure the 
“highest” forest rent and a “satisfactory” interest on the capital 
represented by soil and stock, which could best be attained by the 
method of stand management, not however, confining the work- 
ing plan to the next decade as Judeich advocates, but extending it 
to several decades. Stotzer on the other hand, advocating the 
index per cent. and a soil rent calculation as basis for the financial 
aim, considers the old schematic (Fachwerk) methods good 
enough. 
A radical divergence of opinion was expressed by Kopetzky 
who also advocated the use of forest for grazing purposes under 
systematic reeulation, 


Periodical Literature. 433 


Where, he says, a population can only by the aid of forest 
pasture maintain the live stock necessary for a settlement, forest 
management must take this into consideration. Where it is in the 
interest of the state to favor the cattle industry in regions specially 
adapted to it, the most profitable use of the pasture must be bal- 
anced with the most profitable use of the forest, so as to make 
the total resulting income a maximum. Rise in prices of milk 
and meat products will force this policy. While in the last cen- 
tury the industries concerned in transforming, transporting and 
distributing materials have reaped the best recompense, the pro- 
duction of materials, which seemingly was only a means to an 
end, is bound to secure its reward, and forest regulation, a sub- 
ject of national economy, must take cognizance of it. With the 
change of social forms, of human communal life, the aims of 
forest regulation must change. 


Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. October 1907, pp. 438-440. 


In that part of Prussia lying to the left of 


Problems the Rhine, and more specifically between 
of the Nahe and Mosel in the highest mountain 
Management. masses of the lower Rhine, lie four forest 


districts forming a continuous forest area 
of 16,000 ha. (40,000 acres) extent. During the seventeen years 
between 1885 and his retirement in 1902 this area was under the 
supervision of Forstrat Otto Kaiser. His work has made its 
deepest imprint here in the splendid system of woods roads de- 
signed to render every part of the forest accessible to the highest 
degree, and no less to serve as a basis for a permanent system of 
subdivision for the area. Of this achievement we already have 
the report in two volumes, “Forest Subdivision” (‘‘Eintheilung 
der Forsten”’) Berlin, 1902, and “The Technical Works of Subdi- 
vision” (Ausbau der wirtschaftlichen Ejintheilungen) Berlin, 
1904. Now we have a brief discussion of the more general prob- 
lems these districts have contained, a review of historical develop- 
ment and, as always, a strong care for what the author believes, 
the true interpretation of the facts and the course of action they 
indicate. 
Geological conditions and soil, silvicultural conditions and the 
condition of the game are taken up in detail. 


434 Forestry Quarterly 


The rocks are: above, Taunus quartzite bordered below with 
a talus of the same rock mixed with sandstone more or less weath- 
ered into a loamy soil. Third and lowest is a shale. Schist and 
sandstone outcrops and the soils, resulting from their weathering, 
occur in places. The upper formation is dense and carries little 
water, the soil, a light shallow sand, stony and dry ane very poor, 
is absolute forest soil. 

The lower talus and sandstone is richer in water and gives rise 
to numerous springs. Here the soil is heavy and stony; deep, 
fresh, and better adapted to tree growth than above. The low- 
est shale stratum yields a light, shallow, clayey soil, poor in lime 
and sand but rather rich in potash. Rock analyses are given so 
far as they have been made. 

Beech and oak made up the forest in this as in the whole adjac- 
ent region. Growth conditions, especially in the poorer soils at 
high altitudes, give chance for but poor development. Though 
nature was once able to maintain forest growths of these species 
over nearly the whole area, human activity has so altered things 
that attempt at renewal fails. A change to conifers, to spruce es- 
pecially, is clearly indicated, while the beech is to be retained in 
the lower altitudes wherever good soil and protected situation 
favor it. The oak must probably be dispensed with. This 
is a radical change from the importance which up to our author’s 
coming had been attached to the beech and oak in this forest. 
Radical though it may be, only by this change can best results be 
secured. 

The poorer quartzite soil of the higher ridges is fitted for 
nothing but spruce. It is even dubious whether under spruce an 
income can be depended upon; even so, some cover must be main- 
tained and under spruce, soil conditions at such altitudes improve 
as under no other species. Soil conditions in the heavier loam 
zone next below are better; but spruce here makes excellent 
growth while beech thrives much less satisfactorily. There are 
islands of richer soil in protected situation and upon these beech 
may profitably be retained. The lowest zone made up of clay soils 
from shale rocks is hardly richer than the second, only the ex- 
posure is milder. More beech may be retained here, but still 
spruce should predominate as elsewhere. 

Game was most abundant in this region in 1880. Under this 


ROD eee Se 


Periodical Literature. 435 


term are included first in order of importance the red deer, and in 
much smaller numbers the roe, and at an earlier date the wild 
boar. The wolf which, too, found harbor in these forests is now 
probably exterminated. The boar is much less plentiful than for- 
merly, though during the past 30 years the average kill per year 
has been 4co head. 

Early in the eighties the damage inflicted upon adjacent prop- 
erties assumed such large proportions that the forest officers 
under ministerial direction and with the willing aid of the whole 
community enclosed about two-thirds of the state forest with a 
deer fence. The first winter after this work was completed was 
very open. The second winter, 1884-5, was one of the severest 
known, being equalled or approached only by that of 1859-60. 
Game suffered heavy loss in numbers and severe decline in vi- 
tality. The three winters following were but little less severe and 
the reduction game would otherwise have suffered was aggra- 
vated by the enclosure holding the starving animals at high alti- 
tudes. Hay was furnished as liberally as it could be procured, 
and every care taken but still the loss was severe. A large per- 
centage were bucks of which the ratio was but one to three does 
at the time the fence was closed. The weakened deer were mean- 
while attacked by botflies and loss every winter amounted to sev- 
eral hundred. 

The inclosing fence is fifty miles long and cost in its day $9,000. 
It seems not improbable that the purpose could have been better 
attained otherwise than by this fence; but be that as it may the 
need for it has now disappeared and further maintenance at in- 
creasing cost, now that the structure is 25 years old, will be more 
and more unprofitable. The chase alone is sufficient to keep the 
stand of game as low as desired. 

Forest conditions have suffered from the confinement of the 
deer. Young trees have had their bark torn away and heavy 
damage to whole stands has resulted, the final yield being reduced 
in amount and in quality. Young trees set out have suffered 
severely from browsing and plants coming up from seed sown 
have been eaten off by the acre. For the forest an unconfined 
range will bring nothing but advantages. 

Finally hunting rights upon adjacent holdings will become more 


436 Forestry Quarterly 


valuable upon the release of the game within the inclosure. Thus 
the prime reason for the inclosure is removed and its maintenance, 
much more its renewal, at heavy expense is out of the question. 


Beitrige sur Betriebs und Ertragsregelung der Walder. Zeitschrift fiir 
Forst-und Jagdwesen. January, February 1907, pp. 21-44, 91-103. 


A simple diagrammatic method of explain- 


Rotation ing rotation and thinning and the net reve- 
and nue of forest management and of showing 
Thinning. the influence of changes in the first two on 


the third cannot fail to be of service. Schu- 
bert has developed such graphical representations of the methods 
of changing from one rotation to another, from one degree of 
thinning to another, and of the simultaneous change of both rota- 
tion and thinning over the whole as over a portion of the normal 
forest. The calculation of the differences in net revenue arising 
from these changes is also carried out and represented on a system 
of rectangular co-ordinates. ‘These diagrams relieve the paper of 
much of the mathematical maze usually found in such discussions 
and make clearer the reasons underlying and demanding such 
changes. 


Umtrieb, Durchforstung und Reinertrag. Zeitschrift fir Forst-und Jagd- 
wesen. January 1907, pp. 8-21. 


UTILIZATION, MARKET, AND TECHNOLOGY. 


The high price of certain woods in the 


Price English market forces users to seek for 
and cheaper substitutes. The price of White 
Change Pine firsts fetching £34 turns buyers to 
of canary colored whitewood. This new de- 
Use. mand raises in turn the price of this com- 


modity to from 3s 3d to 4s, and this price 
again makes former users of this wood look for the cheaper cot- 
tonwood as a substitute at 2s 6d, and “hazel” pine ( Banksian?) 
at about 2s 3d. Scarcity of oak and proper grades are commented 
on, and oak shipped from Japan and Tasmania has begun to be a 
rival of the American, which is said to be poorly manufactured 


a at cn fi eh 


Periodical Literature. 437 


under “slap dash” methods. “There are those among the 
prophets of the trade who do not hesitate to predict that it will 
be but a couple of seasons before the export of Pine deals from 
the ports of St. Lawrence will virtually cease,” owing to a huge 
home demand. New woods find now ready consideration. 


Canada Lumberman, October, 1907, p. 22. 


Black walnut which, until lately, furnished 


Prepared about 80% of the fine furniture in Germany, 
Furniture is being to a large extent superseded by 
Woods. native woods, oak, elm, birch, also pine and 


spruce. These latter, which are unsatisfac- 
tory in color, are first prepared in the following manner: 

The freshly felled wood is at once placed in soil mixed with 
lime and other materials and left for 3 to 5 months, which im- 
parts to the wood a remarkably fine color, so that it can be used 
without staining or painting. The color changes throughout and 
is supposed to be due to a change of the tannins. Moreover this 
treatment—the tanning of the wood—reduces or entirely cures the 
wood of its worst feature, swelling and shrinking, so that solid 
hardwood like beech may be used without fear from that source. 

To reduce the liability to indentation, the springwood in coni- 
fers is removed by machines operating a kind of metal brush. 
Another method of using native woods for furniture is in cross- 
sections which furnish a durable face. 


Centralblatt f. d. g. Fortswesen, October 19067, p. 368. 


Lately a sale of pine timber was made by 


Cost the Ontario government on Georgian Bay, 
of which brought $12.26 as a bonus for the 
Logging. right to cut, besides the $2 stumpage dues 


per M feet actually cut. It is calculated 
that the logging may cost $5 per M, towing $1, and sawing $3, 
making the total cost of production $23.26. To this is to be 
added a towing loss of 75 cents, and 6 per cent. interest on the 
money invested, which will make the total somewhere above $25 
for the product on the market. 


The Canada Lumberman, October, 1907, p. 20. 


438 Forestry Quarterly 


From a report of the German consul at 


Wood Riga, interesting side lights on the wood 
Markets market conditions of Europe are gleaned. 

of Riga is one of the principal export ports, 
Europe. shipping during the last six years at the 


rate of around 48 million cubic feet. A 
stagnation in the business was noted in 1905 due to labor strikes 
and lack of log supply, but enough old stock on hand allowed a 
continuance of shipments to the amount of 46.5 million cubic 
feet. In 1906 prices rose “because shipments from America had 
been reduced, and the buyers in Western Europe had to a larger 
extent to look to Russia for supplies.” 


Allgemeine Forst u. Jagdzeitung. October 1907, p. 367. 
POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. 


It is well known that the remarkable in- 


Prussian dustrial development of Germany in the last 
Provincial 30 years is due to the well organized educa- 
Information tional and administrative systems. To 
Bureau. foster the interests of agriculture and for- 


estry in Prussia there were organized, since 
1899 and later, in every province which desired it (now 8 or 9) 
one or more so called “Landwirtschafts Kammern” or agricul- 
tural information bureaus. These are entirely outside of the 
administrative departments. They are divided like our Depart- 
ment of Agriculture into divisions, the forestry division being one 
of them. Every seven years a report of the activity of these 
bureaus is made, which is as varied as the work of our depart- 
ment, the first of which reports (1901-1906) has just appeared. 

The work of the forestry divisions can be classified under fif- 
teen heads. 

I. Advice to private forest owners, as consulting engineers for 
which the owners pay. The bureau in Brandenburg had in 
1905-6 some 78,000 acres in 43 parcels of 1,200 to 5,000 acres 
each under permanent advice, for which a fee of over $2,000 was 
collected. ‘The bureau in Posen had also over 70,000 acres under 
advice and the bureaus of other provinces smaller areas. 

II. Temporary or occasional consultations were given in some 


4 
i 
{ 


Periodical Literature. 439 


200 cases covering nearly 250,000 acres, also paid for. This 
usually ends in a permanent arrangement. 

III. Special technical expertise and financial calculations in 
sales, divisions among heirs, estimates of stands, plantations, 
thinnings, cuts, etc., is also paid for, some hundred cases having 
been attended to. 

IV. Working plans, just as is done by the Federal Forest Ser- 
vice, is a rapidly growing function of the bureaus. In Branden- 
burg of the 38 working plans called for, 26 involving somewhat 
Over 50,000 acres were completed at a charge—a definite tariff 
exists—of $6,350. In Pomerania 45 working plans comprising 
65,000 acres, in Posen, over 100,000 acres in one year were com- 
pleted and smaller areas in other provinces. 

V. Wood Sales with a view of a better use of wood materials 
and keeping owners informed as to market conditions or even 
conducting the sales. In Pomerania, for instance, sales to the 
amount of $230,000 were effected, the fee for which is I per cent. 
to cover expenses of scaling, valuation, advertisements and sales. 
Especially a combination of small owners is attempted to avoid 
the expense of many small sales. 

VI. Securing seed and plant material, to protect the small 
owner from fraudulent practices. This service is given nearly 
gratuitously, including seed testing, guarantee from the seller, in- 
spection of nurseries. Lower price is usually also the result so 
that the small fee added still leaves an advantage. In this the 
forest administration also aids with cheap plant material. The 
bureau of the Province of Saxony, in 1906, negotiated 9,200 Ibs. 
of seed and 2,400,000 plants, of Pomerania in 1905, 25,000 lbs. 
worth $4,200, of Posen over 7 million plants and 8,000 lbs. of 
seed. 

VII. Reforestation of waste lands and poor pastures. With 
regard to this work which is considered specially important the 
plan of the different provinces is not uniform. In Saxony the 
assistance is given to private owners, only when it can be shown 
that reforestation without aid exceeds the financial ability of the 
owner, and in the case of corporation work, which is considered 
a care of the State only when the subsidies from the State are not 
sufficient. Furnishing of plant material and only in rarest cases 


440 Forestry Quarterly 


of cash is the form of this aid. In no case is the assistance to be 
more in value than half the estimated cost (by an expert). The 
planting is done under supervision of the bureau, and a register is 
kept of all plantations. The applications must be made before 
September 1. A second subvention for the same plantation is 
not to be given. Care is taken not to furnish this aid for 
“luxurious” completion of plantations or for areas cut under the 
regular management. Especially associated efforts at reforesta- 
tion are to be encouraged. The funds for this assistance come 
from the State Treasury and have not been sufficient to satisfy all 
applications. Yet in 6 years over 600 owners with over 2,000 
acres received subventions of nearly 5,000 lbs. of seed and over 
5 million plants to the total value of nearly $4,000. 

In Brandenburg a special reforestation fund was started in 
1g02 by setting aside the income from the forest administration. 
Here the subventions are given mostly to corporations, munici- 
palities and associations, some $2,500 so far. In other provinces 
the payment of money subventions is usual. 

VIII. Price quotations for wood are collected and published, 
mostly weekly, which is also an advantage to the State forest and 
other forest administrations. These are distributed without 
charge. 

IX. Formation of forest associations, not to discuss but to 
practice forestry, so-called Waldgenossenschaften, is encouraged, 
but, with the exception of Hanover, where 48 such associations 
with 7,500 acres have been brought into existence to secure the 
benefit of united action and uniformity of management, no suc- 
cess of note has been accomplished, and the desirability of trying 
enforced association by law is discussed. 

X. Mutual Fire Insurance. ‘This idea has so far not material- 
ized. In 1901 a number of private owners in Brandenburg 
(mostly city corporations) were ready to pool nearly 200,000 
acres and negotiations with a fire insurance were entered into, 
but the demand for an initial insurance fund of $750,000 pre- 
vented the arrangement. In other provinces the Munich-Glad- 
bach fire insurance company is usually recommended, but since 
its premiums are still rather high, owners are usually advised first 
to use the money for better protection by fire lines, ete. The 


Periodical Literature. 441 


proposition for the State to deposit without interest charge the 
desired security fund has not found acceptance. 

XI. Forest Loans are made in Silesia and East Prussia by 
the admirable mutual provincial credit banks, separating soil 
and stand. This method has been found desirable because it was 
found that the forest owning farmer in need of funds cleared 
the very areas of forest soil, in order to secure on the new “farm” 
soil a higher mortgage loan. 

XII. Forest protection is especially fostered in the direction 
of insect predations. The Posen bureau, e. g., negotiated at low 
prices 65 pumps and 35,000 lbs. of copperas, for fighting the 
“Schutte,” which has grown to dangerous dimensions. The cost 
of the work itself came to only 42 cents per acre with satis- 
factory results. 

XIU. Experimentation is not yet much developed but assist- 
ance has been given in Saxony and Brandenburg, to determine 
value of manuring, and in introducing exotics. 

XIV. Employment agency. Not only are proper contracts 
drawn between employer and employed, but efficient employes 
are recommended and to some extent their efficiency guaranteed. 
Some 32 foresters were employed in Pomerania through the me- 
dium of the bureau. 

XV. Education is fostered through lectures and addresses 
before agricultural societies and short courses designed for 
owners and underforesters. A better education of the latter is 
attempted by sending experts of the bureau, as examiners, to the 
private foresters’ associations and by employing such in the 
forest divisions. Brandenburg and Saxony support in part a 
private underforesters’ school. In Hanover, of 19 lectures be- 
fore the Agricultural Society, 18 were given in forest work 
with practical demonstrations in planting, marking for thinning, 
etc. Similarly the bureau of Brandenburg carries on regular 
courses. 

This, in brief, and without exhausting all the activities re- 
ported, are the admirable and strenuous efforts to foster private 
forestry in a country which has been noted for over one hundred 
years for its State forestry. 


Die Forstabtcilungen der preussischen Landwirtschaftskammern. All- 
gemeine Forst u. jagdzeitung. August, 1907, pp. 288-206. 


442 Forestry Quarterly 


Just as in this country the principles of 

Forest just taxation of woodlands forms still a 

Taxation. subject for discussion in the old countries. 

A contribution towards this question was 

furnished in the following resolutions agreed to at the Interna- 
tional Agricultural Congress, at Vienna. 

1. The income from extraordinary cuts shall remain exempt 
if occasioned by natural accidents, even in intermittent manage- 
ment. 

2. ‘The income from forests under intermittent management 
is to be taxed separately from other taxable income. 

3. Tax is to be assessed only on actual income, not on expected 
income. 

4. Costs for new plantations of hitherto blank areas are to 
be deducted from the taxable income of the taxpayer. 

5. In those states in which the soiltax (which is considered 
antiquated), is still in vogue, it is desirable to take measures 
for reducing its rigidity as far as possible, by ascertaining the 
net yield under consideration of surrounding conditions. 

6. Favor in taxation is to be given to protective forests, tax 
exemption for new plantings, tax reductions in case of damage by 
natural agencies. 


Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen. October 1907, p. 436. 


In a thoughtful article Martin contrasts 


Forest the policies of the two leading German 
Politics countries. Few planting projects have at- 
m tracted such wide attention as that going 
Austria on in the Karst of southwestern Austria, 
and both on account of the natural difficulties, 
Prussia. of severe climatic conditions to be over- 


come, and because of the great political 
importance of reclaiming these devastated areas. Yet this very 
region, now being planted at such expense, but a few centuries 
ago furnished the lumber from which the fleets were built which 
made Venice the mistress of the seas. 
The soil of the Karst is of limestone origin and the bed rock 
is hollowed out into caves, through which most of the rainfall 
drains away, so that the soil is extremely dry. Successful plant- 


Periodical Literature. 443 


ing is impeded further by grazing privileges and by lack of pro- 
tection against the sun, which is important in this warm climate. 

Austrian pine succeeds best, with Corsican pine and other 
maritime species near the shore and Scotch pine farther inland. 
Larch and fir thrive in the higher altitudes. Broadleaved species, 
even the black locust, have not proven of any value. Planting of 
large, vigorous plants, with the addition of some rich soil in 
the hole, is the method chosen. 

The political policy of non-interference, of “Jaissez-faire,”’ is 
responsible for the Karst. The direct causes are improper usage 
and pasturing by sheep and goats. In Austria-Hungary, the 
Karst covers some 230 square miles. This example of the ex- 
treme effects of a “do-nothing” policy, in forest protection, brings 
us to a consideration of the policies of different European states 
in this regard. 

The states of southernmost Europe have adhered to this policy 
of non-interference with private interests in forest matters and 
have depended entirely upon private enterprise to maintain forest, 
where forest should be. The most northern states, Russia and 
Scandinavia, have until recently, followed the same _ policy. 
France, Austria-Hungary and Germany have on the other hand, 
recognized the state’s duty to care for the interests of the whole 
communities, where they conflict with personal interests and of 
the interests of future generations, when the foresight of the 
present users of the forest threatens to fail. The degree of recog- 
nition varies. In this respect, as in her whole political history, 
France has had widest experience. Here and in Prussia, the 
policy of close supervision of private forests is steadily gaining 
ground, while in southern Germany and in Austria-Hungary, 
supervision in minute detail is already practiced. 

The Prussian law regarding protective forests is not broad 
enough or far reaching enough. In trying to proportion the cost 
of establishing protective forests (and establishment must usually 
be by planting, which is in itself a disadvantage), too many 
factors are drawn into the consideration of each case and too 
great cost is laid upon the complainant who calls this law into 
use against an adjoiner. Besides, he must prove that the results 
to be expected will exceed the cost entailed, which, reasonable 
though it may look, does not permit of numerical proof. 


444 Forestry Quarterly. 


The provisions of the Prussian protective forest law may be 
applied, (a) when drifting sand threatens injury to adjacent 
property, public property, rivers or canals; (b) when on steep 
slopes, public or private property below is in danger of being 
flooded with talus or landslip, or when a landslip threatens in- 
jury to property above the area in question; (c) when the forest 
in question directly protects the banks of a stream; (d) when 
removal of the forest would diminish the flow of a stream; (e) 
when removal of a forest would expose arable land to the de- 
teriorating action of winds. 

In Hungary protective forests are defined by ministerial pro- 
clamation as follows: 

1. Areas lying at timber line upon which forest growth must 
be maintained to protect protective areas lower down. 

2. The upper edge (strip 75 rods wide), of all forests ex- 
tending to timber line. 

3. Forests on steep slopes where clearing might lead to land- 
slips, gullying, ete. 

4. Forests whose sudden removal would seriously affect the 
productivity of adjacent fields or endanger public or other works. 

These measures deal clearly with only such forests as are pro- 
tective in the narrowest and most immediate sense of the word. 
There is a less clearly definable protection afforded by nearly 
all mountain forests and this has escaped attention for the very 
reason that the influence is so general and indefinite. Should ex- 
tensive clearings be undertaken in mountain forests now outside 
state jurisdiction, the shortcomings of the law would be quickly 
noted. The definition of protective forests is not general enough. 
The remedy lies in determining, as is done notably in France, 
what forests are protective by careful study of local conditions 
and local tendencies in forest management, and extending the 
area of protection where excessive cutting makes it necessary. 

The doctrine of full restitution, where private forests are pro- 
claimed protective and subjected to state laws governing such, 
has impeded the extension of these laws. ‘Though individual 
freedom may increase the recognition of the rights of whole com- 
munities has been less rapid. Historically, the protective forest 
law of 1876, marks the turning point in Prussian policy, the 
departure from the laissez-faire policy, adopted in 1811. This 


} 


Periodical Literature. 445 


law at first glance seems to have produced little result; there are 
less than 200 acres in Prussia now subject to its provisions. But 
indirectly, it has brought vaster results if we ascribe to it all the 
benefits the abandonment of the laissez-faire policy has brought. 
The state has other potent means by which its influence for good 
is exerted upon private holdings. By buying up and reforesting 
all sorts of waste lands, by controlling public and private corpora- 
tions to holding forest lands, by levying fees for numerous privi- 
leges involving the use of public forests, and by actively determin- 
ing the limits of various crops an immense amount of good has 
been done by the Prussian state. Higher wood prices, even for 
wood of the poorer grades, has tended to increase the forest area, 
especially in regions with a ready outlet to market. 

Die Richtung und die Erfolge der Waldschutzpolitik in Osterreich-Un- 


garn im Verhdltniss zum gegenwartigen Stande der Waldschutzpolitik in 
Preussen. Zeitschrift fir Forst-und Jagdwesen. February 1907, pp. 76-91. 


NEWS AND NOTES. 


EF. A. Stertine, In Charge. 


As a result of a resolution adopted by the 15th National Irri- 
gation Congress, California will probably try out an entirely new 
policy as regards the control of lumbering operations on private 
lands. It is, in short, a plan to restrict timber cutting and to 
prevent the denudation of drainage basins at the headwaters of 
streams valuable for irrigation. Since most of these Jands are 
privately owned it remains to be seen whether the State, through 
the office of the State Forester, can dictate to the lumberman the 
manner and extent of his cutting. It is simply a case of the 
minority (the lumbermen) being forced to sacrifice, for the sake 
of the many (the agriculturists). Precedent is found in State 
action which restricted, and eventually practically stopped, hy- 
draulic mining because the debris worked injury to agricultural 
lands in the valleys and interfered with the flow of streams. In 
the case of lumbering operations, restrictions can probably be 
imposed, which will protect the irrigationist, and at the same 
time, permit the use of most of the merchantable timber on the 
important catchment areas. In connection with this action, or 
better preceding it, must come intensive fire protection. A care- 
fully lumbered slope, if allowed to burn over, it will be little 
better as a watershed cover, than the scene of unrestricted cut- 
ting. 


Reports from various parts of the country indicate that the 
seed crop of most species will be very poor this year. Mr. L, C. 
Miller, who has returned to Washington from two months in 
the field, where he has been personally directing seed collecting 
operations for the Forest Service, reports that practically no seed 
can be obtained in Southern California. The only places where 
collecting could be done satisfactorily were the Sawtooth, Henry’s 
Lake and the Lewis and Clark National Forests. In these 
forests red fir and lodgepole pine were the only species which 
fruited heavily, although a limited quantity of Engleman spruce 


News and Notes. 447 


seed was obtainable. In the East the chestnut crop was almost 
a total failure and the few nuts collected were held by dealers 
at from $9 to $12 a bushel. The production in the southern 
Appalachains was more plentiful, but few of the nuts reached 
the dealers. The crop of acorns was also light, although those 
who placed early orders for the more important species, will 
probably get them filled. In the Adirondacks white pine and 
Norway pine seed were fairly abundant, but it is reported that 
the crop in the Lake states, particularly of Norway pine, was very 
light. 


Forest legislation in Pennsylvania made little progress at the 
last session of the Legislature, although the machinery for the en- 
forcement of the State forest fire laws was considerably im- 
proved and rather rigid measures adopted to prevent forest fires 
on lands in which oil wells or gas wells are situated. This 
last Act provides for a close season each year from the Ist of 
April to the 20th of May and from the 1oth of September to 
the 10th of November, during which time it shall be unlawful 
to burn fallows, stumps, logs, or debris of any kind in any forest 
lands on which there are producing oil or gas wells. Excepting 
during the close season named, fires may be set upon such lands 
by securing written permission of the local fire warden and by 
having him present when such fires are started, with other res- 
trictions regarding setting fire during a strong wind, having help 
enough present to control it, and guarding it until it is entirely 
extinguished. Section 2 of the Act requires that any owner or 
lessee of forest lands under the above head shall at least once 
each year remove all brush and debris from within 100 feet of 
all wells or rigs and also all inflammable material within 100 
feet of the right of way of any railroad company operating 
through oil lands. Section 3 names the duties of railroad com- 
panies in the oil country and requires them to keep their right- 
of-way clear and to take other measures towards preventing and 
extinguishing fires and makes them liable for damages to the 
owners of any property destroyed and also subject to a penalty 
of $100 for each violation of the Act. Although such legislation 
as that mentioned above is a step in advance, there still remains 


27 


448 Forestry Quarterly 


the need for more systematic action which will give to the State 
as a whole an effective code of forest laws with the necessary 
machinery for their enforcement. ‘The tendency seems to have 
been to pass rather too drastic laws covering minor points with- 
out sufficient co-operation between the Legislature and the Forest 
Commission to solve the main problem. The present unsettled 
condition as regards forest taxation for example is sufficient to 
discourage those desiring to plant or maintain forests, yet the 
partial solution which has advanced in the form of a new bill 
failed of enactment. 


The Pennsylvania Railroad Company has decided to establish 
a new nursery near Morrisville, Pa., and will develop about 12 
acres for this purpose. This change of results from the fact 
that the nursery near Hollidaysburg, Pa., was found to be too 
small and generally unsuited for a main distribution point and 
most of the work will be concentrated at Morrisville, where about 
300 bushels of acorns and chestnuts will be planted or stored 
this fall, and a large amount of coniferous seed planted in the 
spring. 


During the fiscal year 1907-1908, the investigation and study 
of the forest resources of the Philippine Islands will be made 
a much more important branch of the work of the Bureau of 
Forestry than in former years. The Division of Forest Products, 
organized last year to collect and place in an available form in- 
formation concerning Philippine forests and forest products, has 
been enlarged and its name changed to Division of Forest In- 
vestigation. Three foresters and three rangers will devote their 
entire time to the work of this division. 

Up to a little less than two years ago the collection of the taxes 
on forest products occupied nearly all the time of the forest 
officers, leaving little opportunity for forest investigations. The 
transfer of the work of collecting taxes to the Internal Revenue 
officials, however, allows much more time for purely technical 
work, 

The division of Forest Investigation, as its name implies, will 
aim to secure and place in the most available form, information 
regarding the forest resources of the Islands. For the present 


News and Notes. 449 


its principal work will be to locate and map the forest lands and 
to determine approximately how much and what kinds of timber 
can be secured from each place. This work will be done as 
rapidly as possible and large areas will be covered during the 
coming year. Detailed studies of the forests will be made in a 
few places, though mapping and exploration come first in the 
plans. When the location and character of the existing forests 
are determined, tracts suitable for modern lumbering operations 
can be designated, forests which should be protected can be 
reserved, and a definite forest policy can be outlined for the 
future. 

Other lines of investigation will also be carried on. ‘The most 
important of these will be a thorough test of different timbers 
for railroad ties and paving blocks. Only a few of the most 
valuable of the Philippine timbers are now accepted as ties, and 
it is highly important to determine what kinds of wood, if any, 
may be substituted for these. Tests will be made on a number 
of the most promising kinds. 

The duties of administration will now be performed by a 
Division of Forest Administration having a field force of six 
foresters and about eighteen rangers. This division will attend 
to the licenses for the collection of forest products, to the in- 
spection of lumbering operations, to violations of the forest laws 
and regulations, to the examination of homesteads, etc. 

By this new division of labor it is believed that the work of 
the Bureau will be rendered much more effective and that better 
results will be secured. As far as possible each division will 
co-operate with the other to make the work of each more efficient. 


Within the next few months, a comprehensive scheme of re- 
districting a number of the National Forests will be put into 
effect. The principal changes will occur in Oregon, Washington, 
California, Montana, Idaho and Colorado. Under the new plan, 
the administration of the Forests will, in many cases, be greatly 
simplified, by making divides or mountain summits the division 
line between administrative units, rather than valleys. As a re- 
sult, a Forest Supervisor having headquarters in a valley town 
between two mountain ranges, will, in general, administer the 
slopes of each range draining toward his headquarters, rather 


450 Forestry Quarterly 


than both slopes of the same range of mountains, as previously. 
Tn this way, Supervisors will be enabled to keep in communica- 
tion with their rangers all through the winter months, instead 
of being cut off by snow during a considerable portion of the 
year, as heretofore. The change will also be a great convenience 
for the users of the forests, who in the past have frequently 
found it impracticable to reach the Supervisor’s headquarters in 
order to transact business with him, without going a long dis- 
tance around. 


During October a very profitable series of ranger meetings was 
held in Oregon and Washington. In California, similar meet- 
ings were held in November. It is planned to hold a series of 
ranger meetings and also a number of Supervisor meetings in 
Colorado and South Dakota during the month of February. In 
addition to rangers and Supervisors, these meetings are attended 
by Inspectors and by representatives from the Washington office. 
By this means the efficiency of the field force is very greatly in- 
creased. 


At the beginning of November, approximately 163,000 acres of 
agricultural land in the National Forests had been listed under the 
Agricultural Homestead Act, approved July 11, 1906. A large 
force of examiners has been engaged all through the past field 
season in making examinations of lands under this Act, and when 
the reports are all received and action taken, the total area listed 
for entry will have reached a sum considerably in excess of that 
named. Lands in the National Forests for ranger headquarters 
or other administrative purposes are not listed under this Act but 
are withdrawn from all forms of entry for the permanent use of 
forest officers. Cabins and pasture fences have been constructed 
during the past season on a large number of sites thus withdrawn. 


In addition to the $500,000 set aside by Congress for the con- 
struction of permanent improvements on the National Forests, 
$100,000 has been set apart for the same purpose, by the Forest 
Service, from its regular appropriation. Practically the whole 
$600,000 has been allotted to the various Forest Supervisors, and 
the money will be expended by the close of the fiscal year, June 


News and Notes. 451 


30 next. Of this amount, a large sum has gone for the construct- 
ion of telephones, and the balance principally for roads, trails and 
cabins, and for pasture and drift fences. Through this expendit- 
ure the administration of the National Forests will be greatly sim- 
plified. This, however, marks but the beginning of the improve- 
ment work which must be carried on in the Forests, and it 
is greatly to be hoped that Congress will see fit to make an ap- 
propriation this winter for its continuance during the fiscal year 


1909. 


Upon recommendation of the Forest Service, there have been 
withdrawn from entry, in western and northwestern Arkansas 
1,421,120 acres of public land, for the proposed Arkansas and 
Ozark National Forests. It is expected that final action with 
regard to the creation of these Forests will be taken some time 
during the early months of 1908. 


Early in November, the total area of National Forests in the 
United States, Alaska and Porto Rico reached 161,633,894 acres. 
The total number of National Forests was 162. Of the area 
named, practically thirty-five million acres were added within the 
preceding twelve months. Under the terms of the amendment 
to the Agricultural Appropriation Act, no further forests or ad- 
ditions to existing forests can be created, without special Act of 
Congress, in the states of Oregon, Washington, Montana, Wyo- 
ming, Idaho and Colorado. Just prior to March 4, 1907, the date 
on which this Act was to take effect, proclamations were signed 
by the President adding approximately seventeen million acres 
to the National Forest area. This included within permanent 
reservations practically all the remaining Government timber- 
lands in the states named, in which the percentage of alienations 
was not too high to render administration impracticable. It is 
probable that no further additions will be made to the forest area 
in these states. Some comparatively slight additions are, how- 
ever, contemplated in other states and territories, for which tem- 
porary withdrawals have already been made. 


During the month of October there were placed on the Wich- 
ita National Forest and Game Preserve fifteen buffaloes from the 


452 Forestry Quarterly 


New York Zoological Park, of which Dr. William T. Hornaday 
is Director. A high woven wire fence has been erected, enclos- 


ing the buffalo range, and every precaution taken in order that the » 


animals may not become infected with the Texas fever tick. 


The litigation regarding the status of the Cornell College Forest 
has proceeded on its dreary way through the first stages, with 
the result that the Appellate Court has ruled adversely to the con- 
tentions of the Attorney General that the Act establishing the 
College was unconstitutional and that it was unconstitutional for 
the State to purchase the tract and hand it over to Cornell Uni- 
versity. 

The litigation will now proceed on the ground that under the 
law prescribing the management under forestry practices the Uni- 
versity exceeded its powers by making a contract for selling all 
the wood, or at least some of the provisions of the contract may 
for the same reason be invalidated. 


The initial semester of the Forestry course at the Pennsylvania 
State College has opened with a very promising attendance and 
good prospects for a thorough course of instruction under Prof. 
H. P. Baker. Ejighteen men are classified in the first three 
years of the course with a promise of five additional men at the 
beginning of the second semester. A new instructor will be ap- 
pointed to the Department by February 1, 1908. A temporary 
frame building two stories high was built for the work last year. 
In it over 70 large specimens of the trunks of mature trees, ex- 
hibited at the Chicago Exposition, and nearly 200 small speci- 
mens collected from the roth Census are installed. For a work- 
ing library there are $300 worth of Forestry books purchased by 
Dr. B. E. Fernow, which with those already in the College library 
make a fairly large collection. In connection with the academic 
course, which calls for about 45 hours per week, special stress 
will be laid upon practical work, and as soon as arrangements 
can be made the men will be required to spend at least 4 weeks 
in lumber camps in various forest regions. 


Notable progress in forestry has been made in Michig’an in 
1907, which may be briefly summarized as follows: 


ee ee 


re 


CNN tg 


News and Notes. 453 


1. Legislation—The following new forestry measures were 
passed: 

a. A forty thousand acre tract in Iosco and Oscoda Counties 
was set aside from the lands owned by the Michigan Agricultural 
College, to be managed as a Forest Reserve by the Michigan 
Agricultural College. 

b. The fire warden law of 1903 was abolished and in its place 
a law was passed making the game wardens forest wardens. 
Thus it is really a State-paid patrol. It is right in principle, but 
there is much criticism as to the details of the plan. 

c. A law was enacted creating a special “Commission of In- 
quiry, Tax Lands and Forestry” which is independent of the 
permanent State Forestry Commission. The special Commission 
is a temporary body composed of ten members, non-paid but al- 
lowed all the means necessary to do its work. The personnel as 
appointed by Gov. Warner is of the very best and is non-political. 
It represents a variety of business activities and is composed 
entirely of representative citizens. The duty of the Commission 
is to report to the next Legislature the forest conditions and 
needs of the State, and to draft a set of forestry and tax laws. 
The report is to. be printed and ready for distributtion by Oct. 
I, 1908. The personnel of the Commission is: B. D. Graham, 
President, Grand Rapids; C. V. R. Townsend, Negaunee; Geo. 
B. Horton, Fruit Ridge; A. L. Palmer, Kalkaskia; Chas. B. 
Blair, Executive Agent, Grand Rapids; A. B. Cook, Secretary, 
Owosso; Francis King, Alma; D. B. Waldo, Kalamazoo; W. E. 
Osmun, Montague; Carl E. Schmidt, Detroit. 

A bill to create a State Farm Forester was introduced and was 
very favorably considered. It was, however, withdrawn at the 
request of the friends of the Michigan Agricultural College, who 
claimed that this line of work could and would be attended to by 
the Agricultural College. 

For the first time in the history of Michigan a special para- 
graph was devoted to forestry in the Governor’s message. 

2. The Michigan Forestry Commission.—The Michigan For- 
estry Commission is continued as before, except that Arthur Hill, 
of Saginaw, is replaced by W. M. Mershon, of Saginaw. 

3. The State Forest Reserve-—During the fiscal year 1906- 
1907 over three thousand dollars’ worth of dead timber was sold 


454 Forestry Quarterly 


from one of the two districts of the Reserve, while there was an 
expenditure of less than one thousand dollars, thus proving that 
the Reserve can readily be made self-sustaining and more. Over 
60 miles of fire lines have been built. The fire patrol this year 
prevented all fires. The forest plantations, the nurseries, and the 
natural reforestation are progressing as well as could possibly be 
expected. 

4. Forest Schools—The Forest School of the University of 
Michigan, at Ann Arbor, gained fully 50% in attendance, the 
students in forestry now numbering over ninety men. The plan- 
tations of the Saginaw Forestry Farm, at Ann Arbor, are becom- 
ing a valuable object lesson not only for school and experimental 
purposes, but for the general public. These plantations are es- 
tablished jointly by the Forest School of the University of Michi- 
gan and the U. S. Forest Service. 

The Forest School of the Michigan Agricultural College, at 
East Lansing, lost its Director, Prof. E. E. Bogue, by death. 
The position was filled by the appointment of Prof J. Frederick 
Baker. 

5. Private Forestry.—The Cleveland Cliffs Iron Co. have in- 
creased their staff of foresters and are planning reforestation on 
a large scale. Hon. W. B. Mershon and associates are preparing 
for extensive reforestation of a tract on the Ausable River. John 
Newhall and Sons are carrying on good forestry work on Mani- 
tou Island. Nelson Mickelson, of Grayling, and R. Hanson, of 
the same place, are gathering up lands and making preparations 
to convert these into regularly managed forest properties. Hon. 
Carl EF. Schmidt, of Detroit, is carrying on work in reforestation 
at Cedar Lake, Iosco County. 

Application has been made to the Governor by lumbermen, 
offering to manage certain forest areas as regular permanent 
forest properties if the matter of taxation can be equitably ad- 
justed, 

6. Distribution of Seedlings—The Forestry Commission dis- 
tributed over 60,000 seedlings for experimental plantations among 
various land owners in the State. 

7. Public Sentiment.—The forestry sentiment among the 
people, among legislators and with the press, is steadily growing. 
One of the best illustrations was the enthusiastic meeting of the 


News and Notes. 455 


Northern Michigan Press Association at Traverse City, where, 
without any suggestion from “forestry enthusiasts,” an entire 
evening was devoted to forestry, and reforestation was strongly 
advocated. 

8. Forestry Convention—A forestry convention was held at 
Saginaw, Nov. 12 and 13, 1907. Four sessions were devoted 
to the third annual meeting of the Michigan Forestry Association, 
an organization with between six and seven hundred members. 
Two sessions were occupied by an important conference of the 
forestry officials of the Great Lake States and Ontario, with the 
aim of bringing concerted action in the several commonwealths. 
Representatives were present from Ontario, Michigan, Wiscon- 
sin, Minnesota, Ohio and Illinois. Several resolutions expressing 
the opinions of the convention upon important forestry matters 
were adopted. It was decided that a committee consisting of 
one member from each state and province of the Great Lake re- 
gion shall be organized whose duty it shall be to draft a set of 
forestry laws, which latter shall be submitted to the respective 
legislatures. 


During the past summer wide-spread publicity has been given 
to certain tentative plans looking toward the control of the flood- 
waters of the Ohio River and its two main tributaries. Promi- 
nent dailies and other periodicals throughout the country have 
published news notes and editorials apparently inspired by some 
authority which do not hesitate to point out that the ultimate 
control of these floods depends upon forest plantings on a scale 
surpassing anything ever attempted on this Continent. The 
various articles in question point out that at least 2,000,000,000 
trees must be planted and give the impression that this wholesale 
planting will prove an effective method of meeting the flood 
problem. 

Just what authority there may be for these statements is not 
known, but it would certainly be interesting to learn what has 
been the basis for their publication. Competent observers, fa- 
miliar with the area about the headwaters of these streams are 
of the opinion that forest planting could be of little benefit for 
the very obvious reason that there is compaiatively little land 
which could be planted and in addition there are practically no 


450 Forestry Quarterly 


» . me 
absolutely denuded areas. It is quite apparent that the 
ments given to the press were based upon a general theor: 
than upon any proper examination of local conditions. 
the Pennsylvania forests at the headwaters of the A 
River have been wastefully exploited and it may be asst 1 
all probability that floods are more frequent and destructive 2 
a result, it yet remains the fact that, in spite of the frequent fires, ‘ 
the cutover areas are at present covered with tree growth of va- a 
rious sizes and the problem there is one of forest protection rather Kae. 5. 
than artificial reforestation. ‘There is little doubt that it is of 
benefit to awaken a wholesome interest in forestry and to point — t 
out the advantages of well managed forest, but it is surely open — aa 
to question that interest should be aroused by statements which 
trade on the lack of knowledge of the readers. Saale 


A 5” 
* at , i = - : 
* ” 8 6 3 a Y, 
, © ; 
yt ‘ 
i 
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ws 


The Sprout Forests of the Housatonic Valley of Connecticut. 


Plate I 


Fig. 1.—Chestnut Slope Type. Fig. 2,—Oak Ridge Type. 


2 ee 


= ot ees 


Fig. 3.—Interior of a Mixed Slope Forest. 


Plate IT. 


Fig. 1.—Shagbark Hickory Sprout with new, Fig. 2.—Stub of an Old Chestnut Sprout show- 
independent root system. ing three generations. 
Stub of former tree at trowel. 


Fig. 3.—Chestnut Sprout with Old Stub and Fig. 4.—Parent Stock and Independent Root 
two Decayed Roots (near middle) System (at right), 
and New Root System (at right), 


Plate IIT 


"®& 


Fig. 1.—One and Two Year Old Seedlings taken from a Sprout Forest 
Beginning at trowe l'wo White Ast two Hard Maples, Pignut, two Shagbark Hickories, White Oak u 
urs old stnut Oak, Red Oak 


Fig. 2.—Seedling Sprouts 


Beginning at left Sassafras, Bitternut, Red May W t A 


Plate 1V 


* 

* desi? 

Fig. 1.—Underground stem of Pignut Hick- Fig. 2.—White Ash, showing recent sprouts 
ory with sprout killed in recent and former sprouts (at left) burned 
surface fire, showing Fungus at in same fire. 


Base, followed by two others. 


Fig. 3.—A Clump of Butternut Sprouts killed by fire. 


Shows form of growth leading to accumulation of litter among the old, half-decayed stumps 


June 


MA 4 


cae 


We ee 


Deceniber 


White Pine 


Larch 


June 


uropean Larch in 


4 


E 


al ring of White Pine and 


Cross Sections through annu 


and December 


; = ae 


a 


‘SOLIOSINN 1OF UdITIG GUI[[OY 


1) 


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