FORGE-PRACTICE
(ELEMENTARY)
BY
JOHN LORD BACON
Instructor in Forge-work, JLewis Institute, Chicago
Junior Member, American Society of Mechanical Enfineert
FIRST EDITION1
SECOND THOUSAND.
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS
LONDON : CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
1905
Copyright, 1904
BY
JOHN L. BACON
ROBERT DRtlMMOND, PRINTER, NRVT YORK
Co m
WITHOUT WHOSE ASSISTANCE IT WOULD
NEVER HAVE BEEN WRITTEN,
THIS LITTLE VOLUME IS
DEDICATED.
2066037
PREFACE.
THIS little volume is the outgrowth of a series of
notes given to the students at Lewis Institute from time
to time in connection with shop work of the character
described.
It is not the author's purpose to attempt to put forth
anything which will in any way take the place of actual
shop work, but rather to give some explanation which will
aid in the production of work in an intelligent manner.
The examples cited are not necessarily given in the
order in which they could most advantageously be made
as a series of exercises, but are grouped under general
headings in such a way as to be more convenient for
reference.
The original drawings from which the engravings
were made were drawn by L. S. B.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I
PAGB
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS i
CHAPTER II.
WELDING 17
CHAPTER III.
CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES 41
CHAPTER IV
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING 51
CHAPTER V.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK 68
CHAPTER VI.
CALCULATION OF STOCK; AND MAKING OF GENERAL FORCINGS. ... 90
CHAPTER VII.
STEAM-HAMMER WORK , 120
CHAPTER VIII.
DUPLICATE WORK 146
Tii
Vlll CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IX.
PAGE
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL 159
CHAPTER X.
TOOL-STEEL WORK 174
CHAPTER XI.
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING .• 197
CHAPTER XII.
MISCELLANEOUS WORK 221
TABLES 243
INDEX 251
FORGE-PRACTICE.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS.
Forge. — The principal part of the forge as gener-
ally made now is simply a cast-iron hearth with
a bowl, or depression, in the center for the 'fire.
In the bottom of this bowl is an opening through
which the blast is forced. This blast-opening
is known as the tuyere. Tuyeres are made in
various shapes; but the object is the same in all,
that is, to provide an opening, or a number of
openings, of such a shape as to easily allow the
blast to pass through, and at the same time, as
much as possible, to prevent the cinders from
dropping into the blast-pipe.
There should be some means of opening the
blast-pipe beneath the tuyere and cleaning out
the cinders which work through the tuyere-open-
ings, as some cinders are bound to do this no
matter how carefully the tuyere is designed.
When a long fire is wanted, sometimes several
2 FORGE-PRACTICE.
tuyeres are placed in a line ; and for some special
work the tuyeres take the form of nozzles pro-
jecting inwardly from the side of the forge.
Coal. — The coal used for forge-work should be
of the best quality bituminous, or soft, coal. It
should coke easily; that is, when dampened and
put on the fire it should cake up, form coke, and
not break into small pieces. It should be as free
from sulphur as possible, and make very little
clinker when burned.
Good forge-coal should be of even structure
through the lumps, and the lumps should crumble
easily in the hand. The lumps should crumble
rather than split up into layers, and the broken
pieces should look bright and glossy on all faces,
almost like black glass, and show no dull-looking
streaks.
Ordinary soft coal, such as is used for "steam-
ing-coal," makes a dirty fire with much clinker.
" Steaming-coal " when broken is liable to split
into layers, some of which are bright and glossy,
while others are dull and slaty-looking.
Fire. — On the fire, to a very great extent, depends
the success or failure of all forging operations,
particularly work with tool-steel and welding.
In building a new fire the ashes, cinders, etc.,
should be cleaned away from the center of the
forge down to the tuyere. Do not clean out the
whole top of the forge, but only the part where
the new fire is wanted, leaving, after the old
material has been taken out, a clean hole in which
to start the fresh fire.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 3
The hearth of the forge is generally kept filled
with cinders, etc., even with the top of the rim.
Shavings, oily waste, or some other easily lighted
material should be placed on top of the tuyere
and set on fire.
As soon as the shavings are well lighted, the
blast should be turned on and coke (more or less
of which is always left over from the last fire)
put on top and outside of the burning shavings.
Over this the "green coal" should be spread.
Green coal is fresh coal dampened with water.
Before using the forge-coal it should be broken
into small pieces and thoroughly wet with water.
This is necessary, as it holds together better when
coking, making better coke and keeping in the
heat of the fire better. It is also easier to prevent
the fire from spreading out too much, as this
dampened coal can be packed down hard around
the edges, keeping the blast from blowing through.
The fire should not be used until all the coal on
top has been coked. As the fire burns out in the
center, the coke, which has been forming around
the edge, is pushed into the middle, and more
green coal added around the outside.
We might say the fire is made up of three parts:
the center where the coke is forming and the iron
heating; a ring around and next to this center
where coke is forming; and, outside of this, a ring
of green coal.
This is the ordinary method of making a small
fire.
This sort of fire is suitable for smaller kinds of
4 FORGE-PRACTICE.
work. It can be used for about an hour or two,
at the end of which time it should be cleaned.
When welding, the cleaning should be done much
oftener.
Large Fires. — Larger fires are sometimes made
as follows: Enough coke is first made to last for
several hours by mounding up green coal over
the newly started fire and letting it burn slowly
to coke thoroughly. This coke is then shoveled
to one side and the fire again started in the follow-
ing way: A large block, the size of the intended
fire, is placed on top of the tuyere and green coal
is packed down hard on each side, forming two
mounds of closely packed coal. The block is
taken out and the fire started in the hole between
the two mounds, coke being added as necessary.
This sort of a fire is sometimes called a stock 'fire,
and will last for some time. The mounds keep
the fire together and help to hold in the heat.
For larger work, or where a great many pieces
are to be heated at once, or when a very even
or long-continued heat is wanted, a furnace is
used. For furnace use, and often for large forge-
fires, the coke is bought ready-made.
Banking Fires. - - When a forge-fire is left it
should always be banked. The coke should be
well raked up together into a mound and then
covered with green coal. This will keep the fire
alive for some time and insure plenty of good
coke for starting anew when it does die out. A
still better method to follow, when it is desired
to keep the fire for some time, is to bury a block
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 5
of wood in the center of the fire when bank-
ing it.
Oxidizing Fire. — When the blast is supplied
from a power fan, or blower, the beginner generally
tries to use too much air and blow the fire too hard.
Coal requires a certain amount of air to burn
properly, and as it burns it consumes the oxygen
from the air. AVhen too much blast is used the
oxygen is not all burned out of the air and will
affect the heated iron in the fire. Whenever a
piece of hot iron comes in contact with the air the
oxygen of the air attacks the iron and forms oxide.
This oxide is the scale which is seen on the outside
of iron. The higher the temperature to which the
iron is heated, the more easily the oxide is formed.
When welding, particularly, there should be as
little scale, or oxide, as possible, and to prevent its
formation the iron should not be heated in con-
tact with any more air than necessary. Even on
an ordinary forging this scale is a disadvantage,
to say the least, as it must be cleaned off, and
even then is liable to leave the surface of the work
pitted and rough. If it were possible to keep air
away from the iron entirely, no trace of scale would
be formed, even at a high heat.
If just enough air is blown into the fire to make
it burn properly, all the oxygen will be burned
out, and very little, if any, scale will be formed
while heating. On the other hand, if too much
air is used, the oxygen will not all be consumed
and this unburned oxygen will attack the iron
and form scale. This is known as "oxidizing";
FORGE-PRACTICE.
that is, when too much air is admitted to the fire
the surplus oxygen will attack the iron, forming
"oxide," or scale. This sort of a fire is known as
an "oxidizing" fire and has a tendency to "oxidize"
anything heated in it.
Anvil. — The ordinary anvil, Fig. i, has a body
of cast iron, wrought iron, or soft steel, with a
tool-steel face welded on and hardened. The
hardened steel covers just the top face, leaving
the horn and the small block next the horn of the
softer material.
FIG. i.
The anvil should be so placed that as the work-
man faces it the horn will point toward his left.
The square hardie-hole in the right-hand end of
the face is to receive and hold the stems of hardies,
swages, etc.
For small work the anvil should weigh about
150 Ibs.
Hot and Cold Chisels. — Two kinds of chisels are
commonly used in the forge-shop: one for cutting
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS.
7
cold stock, and the other for cutting red-hot metal.
These are called cold and hot chisels.
The cold chisel is generally made a little thicker
in the blade than the hot chisel, which is forged
down to a thin edge.
Fig. 2 shows common shapes for cold and hot
chisels, as well as a hardie, another tool used for
cutting.
HARDIE
FIG. 2.
Both chisels should be tempered alike when
made.
The cold chisel holds its temper ; but, from con-
tact with hot metal, the hot chisel soon has its
edge softened. For these reasons the two chisels
should never be used in place of each other, for by
using the cold chisel on hot work the temper is
drawn and the edge left too soft for cutting cold
metal, while the hot chisel soon becomes so soft
that if used in place of the cold it will have its
edge turned and ruined.
It would seem that it is useless to temper a hot
chisel, as the heated work, with which the chisel
8
FORGE-PRACTICE.
comes in contact, so soon draws the temper. When
the chisel is tempered, however, the steel is left in
a much better condition even after being affected
by hot metal on which it is used than it would
be if the chisel were made untempered.
Grinding Chisels. — It is very important to have
the chisels, particularly cold chisels, ground cor-
rectly, and the following directions should be
carefully followed.
The sides of a cold chisel should be ground to
form an angle of about 60° with each other, as
shown in Fig. 3. This makes an angle blunt
FIG. 3.
enough to wear well, and also sharp enough to
cut well.
The cutting edge should be ground convex,
or curving outward, as at B. This prevents the
corners from breaking off. When the edge of the
chisel is in this shape, the strain of cutting tends
to "force the corners back against the solid metal
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. Q
in the central part of the tool. If the edge were
made concave, like C, the strain would tend to
force the corners outward and_snap them off. The
arrows on B and C indicate the direction of these
forces.
Hot chisels should be ground sharper. The
sides should be ground at an angle of about 30°
instead of 60°.
Another tool used for cutting is the hardie. This
takes the place of the cold or hot chisel. It has a
stem fitted to the square hole in the right-hand end
of the anvil face, this stem holding the hardie in
place when in use.
Cutting Stock. — When soft steel and wrought -iron
bars are cut with a cold chisel the method should
be about as follows: First cut about one-fourth
of the way through the bar on one side; then
make a cut across each edge at the ends of the
first cut; turn the bar over and cut across the
second side about one-fourth the way through;
tilt the bar slightly, with the cut resting on the
outside corner of the anvil, and by striking a sharp
blow with the sledge on the projecting end, the
piece can generally be easily broken off.
Chisels should always be kept carefully ground
and sharp.
A much easier way of cutting stock is to use
bar shears, but these are not always at hand.
The edge of a chisel should never under any circum-
stances be driven clear through the stock and allowed
to come in contact with the hard face of the anv.il.
Sometimes when trimming thin stock it is con-
IO FORCE-PRACTICE.
venient to cut clear through the piece; in this
case the cutting should be done either on the horn,
the soft block next the horn, or the stock to be
cut should be backed up with some soft metal.
An easy way to do this is to cut a wide strip of
stock about two inches longer than the width of
the face of the anvil, and bend the ends down to
fit over the sides of the anvil. The cutting may
be done on this without injury to the edge of the
chisel. It is very convenient to have one of these
strips always at hand for use when trimming thin
work with a hot chisel.
The author has seen a copper block used for
this same purpose. The block
was formed like Fig. 4, the stem
being shaped to fit into the hardic-
hole of the anvil. This block was
designed for use principally when
FIG. 4. trimming thin parts of heated
work with a hot chisel.
Care should always be taken to see that the
work rests flat on the anvil or block when
cutting. The work should be supported directly
underneath the point where the cutting is to be
done; and the solider the support, the easier the
cutting.
Hammers. — Various shapes and sizes of hammers
are used, but the commonest, and most convenient
for ordinary use, is the ball pene-hammer shown in
Fig. 5-
Tlie large end is used for ordinary work, and
the small ball end, or pene, for riveting, scarfing,
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS.
II
etc. These hammers vary in weight from a few
ounces up to several pounds. For ordinary use
about a i^- or 2 -pound hammer is used.
Several other types in ordinary use are illustrated
FIG. 5.
FIG. 6.
in Fig. 6. A is a straight-pene ; B, a cross-pene;
and C, a riveting-hammer.
Sledges. — Very light sledges are sometimes made
the same shape as ball-pene hammers. They are
used for light tool-work and boiler-work.
Fig. 7 illustrates a common shape for sledges.
This is a double-faced sledge.
FIG. 7.
Sledges are also made with a cross-pene or straight-
pene, as shown in Fig. 8.
12
FORGE-PRACTICE.
For ordinary work a sledge should weigh about
10 or 12 Ibs. ; for heavy work, from 16 to 20.
Sledges for light work weigh about 5 or 6 Ibs.
Tongs. — Tongs are made in a wide variety of
shapes and sizes, depending upon the work they
are intended to hold. Three of the more ordinary
shapes are illustrated.
The ordinary straight-jawed tongs are shown in
Fig. 9. They are used for holding flat iron. For
holding round iron the jaws are grooved or bent
to the shape of the piece to be held.
Fig. 10 shows a pair of bolt- tongs. These tongs
are used for holding bolts or pieces which are larger
on the end than through the body, and are so
shaped that the tongs do not touch the enlarged end
when the jaws grip the body of the work.
FIG. 9.
FIG. jo.
FIG. ii.
Pick-up tongs, Fig. n, are used for handling
small pieces, tempering, etc., but are very seldom
used for holding work while forging.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AXD TOOLS. 13
Fitting Tongs to Work. — Tongs should always be
carefully fitted to the work they are intended to
hold.
Tongs which fit the work in the manner shown
in Fig. 12 should not be used until more carefully
fitted. In the first case shown, the jaws are too
close together; and in the second case, too far
apart.
FIG. 12.
FIG. 13.
When properly fitted, the jaws should touch
the work the entire length, as illustrated in Fig.
13. With properly fitted tongs the work may be
held firmly, but if fitted as shown in Fig. 12 there
is always a very "wobbly" action between the
jaws and the work.
To fit a pair of tongs to a piece of work, the jaws
should be heated red-hot, the piece to be held
placed between them, and the jaws closed down
tight around the piece with a hammer. To pre-
vent the handles from being brought too close
together while the tongs are being fitted, a short
piece of stock should be held between them just
14 FORGE-PRACTICE.
back of the jaws. If the handles are too far apart,
a few blows just back of the eye will close them up.
Flatter — Set-hammer — Swage Fuller —Swage-block.
— Among the commonest tools used in forge-work
are the ones mentioned above.
The flatter, Fig. 14, as its name implies, is used
for flattening and smoothing straight surfaces.
The face of the flatter is generally from 2 inches
to 3 inches square, and should be kept perfectly
smooth with the edges slightly rounding.
FIG. 14. FIG. 15.
Fig. 15 shows a set-hammer. This is used for
finishing parts which cannot be reached with the
flatter, up into corners, and work of that character.
The face of this tool also should be smooth and
flat, with the corners more or less rounded, depend-
ing on the work it is intended to do.
Set-hammers for small work should be about
i or i^ inches square on the face.
"Set-hammer" is a name which is sometimes
given to almost any tool provided with a handle,
which tool in use is held in place and struck with
another hammer. Thus, flatters, swages, fullers,
etc., are sometimes classed under the general name
of set-hammers.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FORGE AND TOOLS. 15
Fullers, Fig. 16, are used for finishing up filleted
corners, forming grooves, and for numerous pur-
poses which will be given more in detail later.
They are made in a variety of sizes, the size
being determined by the shape of the edge A.
On a % inch fuller this edge would be a half -circle
^ inch in diameter ; on a f inch it would be f inch
in diameter, etc.
Fullers are made "top" and "bottom." The
one shown \vith a handle is a "top" fuller, and
the lower one in the illustration is a "bottom"
fuller and has the stem forged to fit into the square
hardie-hole of the anvil. This stem should be a
loose fit in the hardie-hole. Tools of this character
should never be used on an anvil where they fit
so tightly that it is necessary to drive them into
place.
A top and bottom swage is shown in Fig. 17.
The swages shown here are for finishing round
FIG. 16.
FIG. 18.
FIG. 17.
work; but swages are made to be used for other
shapes as well.
1 6 FORGE-PRACTICE.
Swages are sized according to the shape they are
made to fit. A i-inch round swage, for instance,
is made to fit a circle i inch in diameter, and would
be used for finishing work of that size.
All of the above tools are made of low-carbon
tool steel.
A swage-block is shown in Fig. 18. These blocks
are made in a variety of shapes; the illustration
showing a common form for general use. This
block is made of cast iron and is about 3^ inches
thick. It has a wide range of uses and is very
convenient for general work, where it takes the
place of a good many special tools.
CHAPTER II.
WELDING.
Welding-heat. — A piece of wrought iron or mild
steel, when heated, as the temperature increases
becomes softer and softer until at last a heat is
reached at which the iron is so soft that if another
piece of iron heated to the same point touches it,
the two will stick together. The heat at which
the two pieces will stick together is known as the
welding-heat. If the iron is heated much beyond
this point, it will burn. All metals cannot be welded
(in the sense in which the term is ordinarily used).
Some, when heated, remain very dense and retain
almost their initial hardness until a certain heat
is reached, when a very slight rise of temperature
will cause them to either crumble or melt. Only
those metals which, as the temperature is increased,
become gradually softer, passing slowly from the
solid to the liquid state, can be welded easily.
Metals of this kind just before melting become
soft and more or less pasty, and it is in this con-
dition that they are most weldable. The greater
the range of temperature through which the metal
remains pasty the more easily may it be welded.
In nearly all welding the greatest trouble is in
heating the metal properly. The fire must be clean
17
1 8 FORGE-PRACTICE.
and bright or the result will be a "dirty" heat;
that is, small pieces of cinder and other dirt will
stick to the metal, get in between the two pieces,
and make a bad weld.
Too much care cannot be used in welding ; if the
pieces are too cold they will not stick, and no
amount of hammering will weld them. On the
other hand, if they are kept in the fire too long
and heated to too high a temperature they will
be burned, and burned iron is absolutely worthless.
The heating must be done slowly enough to
insure the work heating evenly all the way through.
If heated too rapidly, the outside may be at the
proper heat while the interior metal is much colder ;
and, as soon as taken from the fire, this cooler
metal on the inside and the air almost instantly
cool the surface to be welded below the welding
temperature, and it will be too cold to weld by
the time any work can be done on it.
If the pieces are properly heated (when welding
wrought iron or mild steel), they will feel sticky
when brought in contact.
When welding, it is best to be sure that every-
thing is ready before the iron is taken from the
fire. All the tools should be so placed that they
may be picked up without looking to see where
they are. The face of the anvil should be perfectly
clean, and the hammer in such a position that it
will not be knocked out of the way when the work
is placed on the anvil for welding.
All the tools being in place, and the iron brought
to the proper heat, the tongs should be held in
WELDING. ig
such a way that the pieces can be easily placed in
position for welding without changing the grip or
letting go of them ; then, when .everything is ready,
the blast should be shut off, the pieces taken from
the fire, placed together on the anvil, and welded
together with rapid blows of the hammer, welding
(after the pieces are once stuck together) the
thin parts first, as these are the parts which
naturally cool the quickest.
Burning Iron or Steel. — The statement that iron
can be burned seems to the beginner to be rather
exaggerated. The truth of this can, however, be
very easily shown. If a bar of iron be heated in the
forge and considerable blast turned on, the bar will
grow hotter and hotter, until at last sparks will be
seen coming from the fire. These sparks, which are
quite unlike the ordinary ones from the fire, are
white and seem to explode and form little white
stars.
These sparks are small particles of burning iron
which have been blown upward out of the fire.
The same sparks may be made by dropping fine
iron-filings into a gas-flame, or by burning a piece
of oily waste which has been used for wiping up
iron-filings.
If the bar of iron be taken from the fire at the
time these sparks appear, the end of the bar will
seem white and sparkling, with sparks, like stars
similar to those in the fire, coming from it. If the
heating be continued long enough, the end of the
bar will be partly consumed, forming lumps similar
to the "clinkers" taken from a coal fire.
2O FORGE- PRACTICE.
f" To burn iron two things are necessary: a high
enough heat, and the presence of oxygen.
As noted before, when welding, care must be
taken not to have too much air going through the
fire; in other words, not to have an oxidizing fire.
If the fire is not an oxidizing one, there is not so
much danger of injury to the iron by burning and
the forming of scale.
Iron which has been overheated and partially
burned has a rough, spongy appearance and is
brittle and crumbly.
Use of Fluxes in Welding. — When a piece of iron
or steel is heated for welding under ordinary con-
ditions the outside is oxidized; that is, a thin film
of iron oxide is formed. This oxide is the black
scale which is continually falling from heated iron
and is formed when heated iron is brought in contact
with the air. This oxide of iron is not fluid except
at a very high heat, and, if allowed to stay on the
iron, will prevent a good weld.
When welding without a flux the iron is brought
to a high enough heat to melt the oxide, which is
forced from between the welding pieces by the
blows of the hammer.
This heat may easily be taken when welding
ordinary iron; but when working with some ma-
chine-steel, and particularly tool-steel, the metal
cannot be heated to a high enough temperature
to melt the oxide without burning the steel.
From the above it would seem impossible to weld
steel, as it cannot be heated under ordinary condi-
tions without oxidizing, but by the use of a flux
WELDING. 21
this difficulty may be overcome and the oxide
melted at a lower temperature.
The flux (sand and borax are the most common)
should be sprinkled on the part of the piece to be
welded when it has reached about a yellow heat,
and the heating continued until the metal is at a
proper temperature to be soft enough to weld, but
care should be taken to see that the flux covers
the parts to be welded together.
The flux has a double action; in the first place,
as it melts it flows over the piece and forms a
protecting covering wilich prevents oxidation,
and also when raised to the proper heat dissolves
the oxide that has already formed.
The oxide melts at a much lower heat when
combined with the flux than without it, and to
melt the oxide is the principal use of the flux. The
metal when heated in contact with the flux becomes
soft and "weldable" at a lower temperature than
when without it.
Ordinary borax contains water which causes it
to bubble up when heated. If the heating is con-
tinued at a high temperature, the borax melts
and runs like water; this melted borax, when
cooled, is called borax-glass.
Borax for welding is sometimes fused as above
and then powdered for use.
Sal ammoniac mixed with borax seems to clean
the surface better than borax alone. A flux made
of one part of sal ammoniac and four parts borax
works well, particularly when welding tool-steel,
and is a little better than borax alone.
22 FORGE-PR ACTIC'K.
Most patented welding compounds have boi\v:
as a basis, and are very little, if any, better
than the ordinary mixture given above.
The flux does not in any way stick the pieces
together or act as a cement or glue. Its use is
principally to help melt the oxide already formed
and to prevent the formation of more.
Iron filings are sometimes mixed with borax and
used as a flux.
When using a flux the work should always be
scarfed the same as when no flux is used. The
pieces can be welded, however, at a lower
heat.
Fagot or Pile Welding. — When a large forging
is to be made of wrought iron, small pieces of
"scrap" iron (old horseshoes, bolts, nuts, etc.)
are placed together in a square or rectangular
pile on a board, bound together with wire, heated
to welding heat in a furnace, and welded together
into one solid lump, and the forging made from
this. If there is not enough metal in one lump,
several are made in this way and afterward welded
to each other — making one large piece. This is
known as fagot or pile welding.
Sand is used for fluxing to a
large extent on work of this kind.
Sometimes a small fagot weld
is made by laying two or more
pieces together and welding them
their entire length, or one piece
may be doubled together several
times and welded into a lump. Such a weld is
WELDING. 23
shown in Fig. 19, which shows the piece before
welding and also after being welded and shaped.
Scarfing. — In a fagot weld the pieces are not
prepared or shaped for each other, being simply laid
together and welded, but for most welding the
ends of the pieces to be joined should be so shaped
that they will fit together and form a smooth
joint when welded. This is called scarfing. It
is very important that the scarfing be properly
done, as a badly shaped scarf will probably spoil
the weld. For instance, if an attempt be made
to weld two bars together simply by overlapping
their ends, as in Fig. 20, the weld when finished
would be something like Fig. 21. Each bar would
FIG. 20.
FIG. 21.
be forged into the other and leave a small crack
where the end came. On the other hand, if the
ends of the bars were properly scarfed or pointed,
they could be welded together and leave no mark —
making a smooth joint.
Lap-welds are sometimes made without scarf-
ing when manufacturing many pieces alike, but
this should not be attempted in ordinary work.
24 FORGE-PRACTICE.
Lap-weld Scarf. — In preparing for the lap-weld,
the ends of the pieces to be welded should be first
upset until they are considerably thicker than the
rest of the bar. This is done to allow for the
iron which burns off, or is lost by scaling, and
also to allow for the hammering which must be
done when welding the pieces together. To make
a proper weld the joint should be well hammered
together, and as this reduces the size of the iron
at that point the pieces must be upset to allow
for this reduction in size in order to have the weld
the same size as the bar.
If the ends are not upset enough in the first
place, it requires considerable hard work to upset
the weld after they are joined together. Too
much upsetting does no harm, and the extra
metal is very easily worked into shape. To be on
the safe side it is better to upset a little more than
is absolutely necessary — it may save considerable
work afterwards.
If more than one heating will be necessary to
make a weld, the iron should be upset just that
much more to allow for the extra waste due to
the second or third heating.
Flat Lap-weld. — The lap-weld is the weld ordinarily
used to join flat or round bars of iron together
end to end.
Following is a description of a flat lap-weld:
The ends of the pieces to be joined must be first
upset. When heating for upsetting heat only the
end as shown in Fig. 22, where the shaded part
indicates the hotter metal. To heat this way
WELDING.
place only the extreme end of the bar in the fire,
so the heat will not run back" too far. The end
should be upset until it looks about like Fig. 23.
FIG. 22.
FIG. 23.
When starting to shape the scarf use the round
or pene end of the hammer. Do not strike directly
down on the work, but let the blows come at an
angle of about 45 degrees and in such a way as to
force the metal back toward the base as shown in Fig.
FIG. 24.
FIG. 25.
24. This drives the metal back and makes a sort of
thick ridge at the beginning of the scarf. In
finishing the scarf, use the flat face of the hammer,
and bring the piece to the very edge of the anvil,
as in this way a hard blow may be struck without
danger of hitting the anvil instead of the work.
The proper position is shown in Fig. 25.
The scarfs should be shaped as in Fig. 26, leav-
ing them slightly convex and not concave, as
shown in Fig. 27.
26 FORGE-PRACTICE.
The reason for this is that if the scarfed ends be
concave when the two pieces are put together, a
C
FIG. 26. FIG. 27.
small pocket or hollow will be left between them,
the scarfs touching only the edges. When the
weld is hammered together, these edges being in
contact will naturally weld first, closing up all
outlet to the pocket. As the surface of the scarf
is more or less covered with melted scale and
other impurities, some of this will be held in the
pocket and make a bad place in the weld. On
the other hand, if the scarfs are convex, the metal
will first stick in the very center of the scarf, forc-
ing out the melted scale at the sides of the joint
as the- hammering continues.
The length of the scarf should be about i£ times
the thickness of the bar; thus on a bar \" thick
the scarf should be about f " long.
The width of the end A should be slightly less
than the width B of the bar. In welding the two
pieces together, the first piece should be placed
scarf side up on the anvil, and the second piece
laid on top, scarf side down, in such a way that
the thin edges of the second piece will lap over
the thick ridge C on the first piece as shown in
Fig. 28. The piece which is laid on top should
be held by the smith doing the welding, the other
may be handled by the helper.
WELDING.
The helper should place his piece in position
on the anvil first. As it is ralher hard to lay the
other piece directly on top of this and place it
exactly in the right position, it is better to rest
the second piece on the corner of the anvil as
FIG. 28.
FIG. 29.
shown at A, Fig. 29, and thus guide it into position.
In this way the piece may be steadied and placed
on the other in the right position without any
loss of time.
When heating for a lap-weld, or for that matter
any weld where two pieces are joined together,
great care should be taken to bring both pieces
to the same heat at the same time. If one piece
heats faster than the other, it should be taken
from the fire and allowed to cool until the other
piece "catches up" with it. It requires some
practice to so place the pieces in the fire that they
will be heated uniformly and equally. The tips
particularly must be watched, and it may be
necessary to cool them from time to time in the
water-bucket to prevent the extreme ends from
burning off.
The fire must be clean, and the heating should be
done slowly in order to insure its being done evenly.
Just before taking the pieces from the fire they
28 FORGE-PRACTICE.
should be turned scarf side down for a short time,
to be sure that the surfaces to be joined will be hot.
More blast should be used at the last moment
than when starting to heat.
The only way to know how this heating is going
on is to take the pieces from the fire from time
to time and look at them. The color grows lighter
as the temperature increases, until finally, when
the welding heat is reached, the iron will seem
almost white. The exact heat can only be learned
by experience; but the workman should recognize
it after a little practice as soon as he sees it.
To get an indication of the heat, which will help
sometimes, watch the sparks that come from the
fire. When the little, white, explosive sparks
come they show that some of the iron has been
heated hot enough to be melted off in small particles
and is burning. This serves as a rough indication
that the iron is somewhere near the welding heat.
This should never be relied on entirely, as the
condition of the fire has much to do with their
appearance.
Round Lap-weld. — The round lap-weld — the weld
used to join round bars end to end — is made in
much the same way as the ordinary or flat lap-
weld. The directions given for making the flat
weld apply to the round lap as
well, excepting that the scarf
is slightly different in shape.
The proper shape of scarf is
shown in Fig. 30, which gives
the top and side views of the piece. One side is
WELDING. 29
left straight, the other three sides tapering in
to meet it in a point. The length of the scarf
should be about one and one-half times the
diameter of the bar. Always be sure, particularly
in small work, that the pieces are scarfed to a
point, and not merely flattened out. The greatest
difficulty with this weld is to have the points of
the pieces well welded, as they cool very rapidly
after leaving the fire. The first blows, after stick-
ing the pieces together, should cover the points.
The weld should be made square at first and then
rounded. The weld is not so apt to split while
being hammered if welded square and then worked
round, as it would be if hammered round at first.
If the scarf were made wide on the end like
the ordinary lap-weld, it would be necessary to
hammer clear around the bar in order to close
down the weld; but with the pointed scarf, one
blow on each point will stick the work in place,
making it much more quickly handled.
Ring Weld, Round Stock. A ring formed from
round stock may be made in two ways; that is,
by scarfing before or after bending into shape.
When scarfed before bending, the length of stock
should be carefully calculated, a small amount
FIG. 31.
being added for welding, and the ends upset and
scarfed exactly the same as for a round lap-weld,
FORGE PRACTICE.
Care should be taken to see that the scarfs come
on opposite sides of the piece.
Fig. 31 shows a piece of stock scarfed ready for
bending.
After scarfing, the piece should be bent into
a ring and welded, care
being taken when bend-
ing to see that the points
of the scarf lie as indi-
cated at A, Fig. 32, and
not as shown at B.
When the points of
the scarfs are lapped as
shown at A, most of the
welding may be done
while the ring lies flat on
the anvil, the shaping
being finished over the
FIG. 32. horn. If the points are
lapped the other way, B, the welding also must
be done over the horn, making it much more awk-
ward to handle.
The second way of welding the ring is practically
the same as that of making a chain link, and the
same description of scarfing will answer for both,
the stock being cut and bent into a ring, with the
ends a little distance apart; these ends are then
scarfed the same as described below for a link
scarf and welded in exactly the same manner
as described for making the other ring.
Chain-making. — -The first step in making a link
is to bend the iron into a U-shaped piece, being
WELDING. 3 1
careful to keep the legs of the U exactly even in
length. The piece should be gripped at the lower
end of the U, the two ends brought to a high heat,
scarfed, bent into shape together, reheated, and
welded.
To scarf the piece place one end of the U on the
anvil, as shown in Fig. 33, and strike one blow on
it ; move it a short distance in the direction shown
by the arrow and strike another blow. This
should be continued until the edge or corner of
the piece is reached, moving it after each blow.
FIG. 33. FIG. 34.
This operation leaves a series of little steps on
the end of the piece, and works it out in a more
or less pointed shape, as shown in Fig. 34.
This scarf may be finished by being brought
more to a point by a few blows over the horn of
the anvil. The ends should then be bent together
and welded. Fig. 35 shows the steps in making
the link and two views of the finished link. The
link is sometimes left slightly thicker through
the weld. A second link is made — all but welding —
spread open, and the first link put on it, closed
up again, and welded. A third is joined to this
etc.
When made on a commercial scale, the links are
FORGE-PRACTICE.
not scarfed but bent together and welded in one
heat.
FIG. 35.
Ring, or Band. — A method of making a ring from
FIG. 36.
flat iron is shown in Fig. 36, which shows the
stock before and after bending into shape.
WELDING. 33
The stock is cut to the correct length, upset,
and scarfed exactly the same as for a flat lap-weld.
The piece is bent into shape and welded over the
horn of the anvil. The ring must be heated for
welding very carefully or the outside lap will
burn before the inside is hot enough to weld.
In scarfing this — as in making other rings — care
must be taken to have the scarfs come on opposite
sides of the tock.
Washer, or Flat Ring. — In this weld flat stock
is used bent edgewise into a ring without any
preparation. The corners of the ends are trimmed
off parallel after the stock is bent as shown in
Fig- 37-
FIG. 37. FIG. 38.
After trimming the ends are scarfed with a
fuller or pene end of a hammer and lapped ready
for welding (Fig. 38).
When heating for welding, the ring should be
turned over several times to insure uniformity in
heating.
If the work is particular, the ends of the stock
should be upset somewhat before bending into
shape.
34 FORGE-PRACTICE.
Butt-weld. — This is a weld where the pieces
are butted together without any slanting scarfs,
leaving a square joint through the weld.
When two pieces are so welded the ends should
be slightly rounded, simillar to Fig. 39, which
shows two pieces ready for welding. If the ends
are convex as shown, the scale and other impurity
sticking to the metal is forced out of the joint.
If the ends were concave this matter would be
FIG. 39. FIG. 40.
held between the pieces and make a poor weld.
The pieces are welded by being struck on the ends
and driven together. This, of course, upsets the
metal near the weld and leaves the piece something
like Fig. 40, showing a slight seam where the
rounded edges of the ends join. This upset part
is worked down to size at a welding heat, leaving
the bar smooth.
A butt-weld is not as safe or as strong as a lap-
weld.
When the pieces are long enough they may be
welded right in the fire. This is done by placing
the pieces in the fire in the proper position for
welding; a heavy weight is held against the pro-
jecting end of one piece — to "back it up" — and
the weld is made by driving the pieces together
by hammering on the projecting end of the second
piece. As soon as the work is "stuck," the weld
WELDING. 3 5
is taken from the fire and finished on the
anvil.
Jump Weld. — Another form of butt-weld, Fig. 41,
is the "jump" weld, which,
however, is a form which should
be avoided as much as possible,
as it is very liable to be weak.
When making a weld like this, the
piece which is to be "jumped,"
or "butted," on to the other FlG- 41.
piece should have its end upset in such a way as
to flare out and form a sort of flange the wider
the better. When the weld is made, this flange — •
indicated by the arrow — can be welded down with a
hammer, or set-hammers, and make a fairly strong
weld.
Split Weld; Weld for very Thin Steel. — Very thin
stock is sometimes difficult to join with the ordi-
nary lap -weld for the reason that the stock is so
thin that if the pieces are taken from the fire at the
proper heat they will be too cold to weld before
they can be properly placed together on the anvil.
This difficulty is somewhat overcome by scarfing
the ends, similar to Fig. 42. The ends are tapered
FIG. 42.
to a blunt edge and split down the center for half an
inch or so, depending on the thickness of stock.
One half of each split end is bent up, the other
FORGE-PRACTICE.
down; the ends are pushed lightly together and
the split parts closed down on each other, as shown
FIG. 43-
in Fig. 43. The joint may then be heated and
welded.
This is a weld sometimes used for welding spring
steel, or iron to steel.
Split Weld; Heavier Stock. — A split weld for
heavier stock is shown ready for welding in Fig.
FIG. 44.
FIG. 45-
FIG. 46.
45, Fig. 44 showing the two pieces before they are
put together. In this weld the ends of the pieces
are first upset and then scarfed, one piece being
WELDING. 3 7
split and shaped into a Y, while the other has its
end brought to a point with the sides of the bar
just back of the point bulging out slightly as shown
at A and B. This bulge is to prevent the two
pieces from slipping apart.
When properly shaped the two pieces are driven
together and the sides, or lips, of the Y-shaped
scarf closed down over the pointed end of the other
piece. The lips of the Y should be long enough to
lap over the bulge on the end of the other piece
and thus prevent the two pieces from slipping apart.
The pieces are then heated and welded. Care must
be taken to heat slowly, that the pointed part may
be brought to a welding heat without burning the
outside piece. Borax, sand, or some other flux
should be used. (Sometimes the faces of the scarfs
are roughened or notched with a chisel, as shown in
Fig. 46, to prevent the pieces from slipping apart.)
This is the weld that is often used when welding
tool-steel to iron or mild steel.
Sometimes the pieces are heated separately to a
welding heat before being placed together. Good
results may be obtained this way when tool-steel is
welded to iron or mild steel, as the tool-steel welds
at a much lower temperature than either wrought
iron or mild steel, and if the two pieces are heated
separately, the other metal may be raised to a much
higher temperature than the tool-steel.
Angle Weld. — In all welding it should be remem-
bered that the object of scarring is to so shape the
pieces to be welded, that they will fit together and
form a smooth joint when properly hammered.
FORGE PRACTICE.
Frequently there are several equally good methods
of scarfing for the same sort of weld, and it should
be remembered that the method given here is not
necessarily the only way in which the particular
weld can be made.
Fig. 47 shows one way of
scarfing for a right-angle weld
made of flat iron. Both pieces
are scarfed exactly alike. The
scarfing is done with the pene
end of the hammer. If neces-
sary the ends of the pieces
may be upset before scarfing.
As in all other welds, care
must be taken to so shape the
scarfs that when they are placed
together they will touch in the
center, and not around the edges, thus leaving an
opening for forcing out the impurities which collect
on the surfaces to be welded.
FIG. 47.
FIG. 48.
"T" Weld. — A method of scarfing for a
weld is illustrated in Fig. 48.
WELDING.
39
The stem, A, should be placed on the bar, B,
when welding in about the position shown by the
dotted line on B.
"T" Weld, Round Stock. — Two methods of
scarfing for a "T" weld made from round stock are
shown in Fig. 49.
FIG. 49.
The scarfs are formed mostly with the pene end
of the hammer.
The illustration will explain itself. The stock
should be well upset in either method.
Welding Tool - steel. — The general method of
scarfing is the same in all welding ; but when tool-
steel is to be welded, either to itself or to wrought
iron or mild steel, more care must be used in the
heating than when working with the softer metals
alone.
The proper heat for welding tool-steel — about a
bright yellow — can only be learned by experiment.
If the tool-steel is heated until the sparks fly, a
light blow of the hammer will cause it to crumble
and fall to pieces.
4O FORGE-PRACTICE.
When welding mild steel or wrought iron to tool-
steel, the tool-steel should be at a lower heat than
the other metal, which should be heated to its reg-
ular welding heat.
The flux used should be a mixture of about one
part sal ammoniac and four parts borax.
Tool-steel of high carbon, and such as is used for
files, small lathe tools, etc., can seldom be welded to
itself in a satisfactory manner. What appears to
be a first-class weld may be made, and the steel
may work up into shape and seem perfect — may, in
fact, be machined and finished without showing
any signs of the weld — but when the work is hard-
ened, the weld is almost certain to crack open.
Spring steel, a lower carbon steel, may be satis-
factorily welded if great care be used.
CHAPTER III.
CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES.
Calculating for Angles and Simple Bends. — It is
often necessary to cut the stock for a forging as
nearly as possible to the exact length needed. This
length can generally be easily obtained by meas-
ment or calculation.
About the simplest case for calculation is a plain
right-angle bend, of which the piece in Fig. 50 will
serve as an example.
This piece as shown is a simple right-angle bend
made from stock i" through, 8" long on the outside
of each leg.
*
.*'
n
FIG. 50.
FIG. 51.
Suppose this to be made of wood in place of iron.
It is easily seen that a piece of stock i" thick and
15" long would make the angle by cutting off 7"
41
4 2 FORGE-PRACTICE.
from one end and fastening this piece to the end of
the 8" piece, as shown in Fig. 51.
This is practically what is done when the angle is
made of iron — onlyf in place of cutting and fasten-
ing, the bar is bent and hammered into shape.
In other words, any method which will give the
length of stock required to make a shape of uniform
section in wood, if no allowance is made- for cutting
or waste, will also give the length required to make
the same shape with iron.
An easier way — which will serve for calculating
lengths of all bent shapes — is to measure the length
of an imaginary line drawn through the center of
the stock. Thus, if a dotted line should be drawn
through the center of stock in Fig. 50, the length of
each leg of this line would be 7^", and the length of
stock required 15", as found before.
No matter what the shape when the stock is left
of uniform width through its length, this length of
straight stock may always be found by measuring
the length of the center line on the bent shape.
This may be clearly shown by the following experi-
ment.
Experiment to Determine Part of Stock which
Remains Constant in Length while Bending. — Sup-
pose a straight bar of iron with square ends be
taken and bent into the shape shown in Fig. 52. If
the length of the bar be
measured on the inside
edge of the bend and then
FlG- 5 2- on the outside, it will be
found that the inside length is considerably shorter
CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES 43
than the outside; and not only this, but the inside
will be shorter than the original bar, while the out-
side will be longer. The metal must therefore
squeeze together or upset on the inside and
stretch or draw out on the outside. If this is the
case, as it is, there must be some part of the bar
which when it is bent neither squeezes together nor
draws out, but retains its original length, and this
part of the bar lies almost exactly in the center, as
shown by the dotted line. It is on this line of the
bent bar that the measuring must be done in order
to determine the original length of the straight
stock, for this is the only part of the stock which
remains unaltered in length when the bar is bent.
To make the explanation a little clearer, suppose
a bar of iron is taken, polished on one side, and lines
scratched upon the surface, as shown in the lower
drawing of Fig. 53, and this bar then bent into the
shape showrn in the upper drawing. Now if the
length of each one of these lines be measured and
the measurements compared with the length of the
same lines before the bar was bent, it would be
found that the line A A, on the outside of the bar,
had lengthened considerably; the line BB would
be somewhat lengthened, but not as much as A A ;
and CC would be lengthened less than BB. The
line 00, through the center of the bar, would meas-
ure almost exactly the same as when the bar was
straight. The line DD would be found to be
shorter than 00 and FF shorter than any other.
The line 00, at the center of the bar, does not
change its length when the bar is bent; conse-
44
quently, to determine the length of straight stock
required to bend into any shape, measure the
< — A— 5Vi >i
r
rA
AD
°n
r ~
5
LF
FC
*<
)
**
B
/
t —
r-
T
if
:-
-4-
j
FIG. 53.
FIG. 54.
length of the line following the center of the stock
of the bent shape.
As another example Fig. 54 will serve.
Suppose a center line be drawn, as shown by the
dotted line. As the stock is i" thick, the length of
the center line of the part A will be 5", at B 8",
C 5", D 2", E 3$", and the total length of stock
required 2\\" .
A convenient form for making calculations is as
follows :
A = 5"
Total. .. 2 1 £" = length of stock required.
Curves. Circles. Methods of Measuring. — On cir-
cles and curves there are several different methods
which may be employed in determining the length
of stock, but the same principle must be followed
CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES.
45
in any case — the length must be measured along
the center line of the stock.
One way of measuring is to lay off the work full size.
On this full-size drawing lay a string or thin, easily
bent wire in such a way that it follows the shape
of the bend through its entire length, being careful
that the string is laid along the center of the stock.
The string or wire may then be straightened and
the length measured directly.
Irregular shapes or scrolls are easily measured in
this way.
Another method of measuring stock for scrolls,
etc., is to step around a scroll with a pair of dividers
with the points a short distance apart, and then lay
off the same number of spaces in a straight line and
measure the length of that line. This is of more
use in the drawing-room than in the shop.
Measuring-wheel. — Still another way of measuring
directly from the drawing is to use a
light measuring- wheel, similar to
the one shown in Fig. 55, mounted
in some sort of a handle. This is a
thin light wheel generally made
with a circumference of about
24". The side of the rim is some-
times graduated in inches by
eighths. To use it, the wheel is
placed lightly in contact with the
line or object which it is wished
to measure, with the zero-mark on
the wheel corresponding to the point from which
the measurement is started. The wheel is then
FIG. 55.
46 FORGE-PRACTICE.
pushed along the surface following the line to be
measured, with just pressure enough to make it
revolve. By counting the revolutions made and
setting the pointer or making a mark on the wheel
to correspond to the end of the line when it is
reached, it is an easy matter to push the wheel over
a straight line for the same number of revolutions
and part of a revolution as shown by the pointer
and measure the length. If the wheel is gradu-
ated, the length run over can of course be read
directly from the figures on the side of the wheel.
Calculating Stock for Circles. — On circles and parts
of circles, the length may be calculated mathe-
matically, and in the majority of cases this is prob-
ably the easiest and most accurate method. This
is done in the following way: The circumference, or
distance around a circle, is equal to the diameter
multiplied by 3} (or more accurately, 3.1416).
As an illustration, the length of stock required to
bend up the ring in Fig. 56 is calculated as follows:
The inside diameter of the ring is 6" and the
stock i" in diameter. The length must, of course,
be measured along the center
of the stock, as shown by
the dotted line. It is the
diameter of this circle, made
by the dotted line, that is
used for calculating the
length of stock; and for
convenience this may be
FIG. 56. called the "calculating" di-
ameter, shown by C in Fig. 56.
CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES.
47
The length of this calculating diameter is equal
to the inside diameter of the ring with one-half the
thickness of stock added at each end, and in this
case would be \" + 6" + ^" = 7".
The length of stock required to make the ring
would be 7//X3}-=22//; or, in other words, to find
the length of stock required to make a ring, multi-
ply the diameter of the ring, measured from center
to center of the stock, by 3^-.
Calculating Stock for " U's." — Some shapes may
be divided up into straight lines and parts of circles
and then easily calculated. Thus k — s
the U shape in Fig. 57 may be
divided into two straight sides and _^j<--
a half -circle end. The end is half of
a circle having an outside diameter
of 3^" . The calculating diameter of
this circle would be 3", and the
length of stock required for an entire FIG. 57.
circle this size 3X3^ = 9!, which for convenience
we may call 9§", as this is near enough for ordinary
work. As the forging calls for only half a circle,
the length needed would be 9f" + % = 4{$".
As the circle is 3!" outside diameter, half of this
diameter, or if", must be taken from the total
length of the U to give the length of the straight
part of the sides ; in other words, the distance from
the line A to the extreme end of the U is half the
diameter of the circle, or if". This leaves the
straight sides each 4^" long, or a total length for
both of 8y. The total stock required for the
forging would be :
48
FORGE-PRACTICE.
Length stock for sides 84-"
end 4\l"
< < i <
Total
" forging i3vy.
|:
Link.- — As another example, take the link shown
in Fig. 58. This may be divided int(/the two semi-
circles at the ends and the
two straight sides. Calcu-
lating as always through
the center of the stock,
there are the two straight
sides 2" long, or 4", and the
FlG- 58- two semicircular ends, or
one complete circle for the two ends. The length
required for these two ends would be i?"X3|" =
f f " = 4i", or, nearly enough, 4^". The total length
of the stock would be 4" + 4li" = 8i£", to which
must be added a slight amount for the weld.
Double Link. — The double link in Fig. 59 is an-
other example of stock calculation. Here there
are two complete circles each hav-
ing an inside diameter of £", and,
as they are made of |" stock, a
4 ' calculating ' ' diameter of i " . The
length of stock required for one side
would be 3.1416'' X i" = 3.1416",
and the total length for complete FlG- 59-
links 3. 1416" X 2" = 6. 2832", which is about 6\"..
As a general rule it is much easier to make the
calculations with decimals as above and then
reduce these decimals to eighths, sixteenths, etc.
CALCULATION OF STOCK FOR BENT SHAPES. 49
Use of Tables.. — To aid in reduction a table of
decimal equivalents is given on p. 249. By using
this table it is only necessary to find the decimal
result and select the nearest sixteenth in the table.
It is generally sufficiently accurate to take the
nearest sixteenth.
A table of circumferences of circles is also given;
and by looking up the diameter of any circle the
circumference may be found opposite.
To illustrate, suppose it is necessary to find the
amount, of stock required to make a ring 6" inside
diameter out of f " round stock. This would make
the calculating diameter of the ring 6f .
In the table of circumferences and areas of circles
opposite a diameter 6f is found the circumference
21.206. In the table of decimal equivalents it will
be seen that -^ is the nearest sixteenth to the deci-
mal .206; thus the amount of stock required is
21-^-". This of course makes no allowance for
welding.
Allowance for Welding. — Some allowance must
always be made for welding, but the exact amount
is very hard to determine, as it depends on how
carefully the iron is heated and how many heats
are taken to make the weld.
The only stock which is really lost in welding,
and consequently the only waste which has to be
allowed for, is the amount which is burned off or
lost in scale when heating the iron.
Of course when preparing for the weld the ends
of the piece are upset and the work consequently
shortened, and the pieces are still farther shortened
50 FORGE-PRACTICE.
by overlapping the ends in making the weld; but
all this material is afterward hammered back into
shape so that no loss occurs here at all, except of
course the loss from scaling.
A skilled workman requires a very small allow-
ance for waste in welding, in fact sometimes none
at all; but by the beginners an allowance should
always be made.
No rules can be given; but as a rough guide on
small work, a length of stock equal to from one-
fourth to three-fourths the thickness of the bar will
probably be about right for waste on rings, etc.
When making straight welds, when possible it is
better to allow a little more than is necessary and
trim off the extra stock from the end of the finished
piece.
Work of this kind should be watched very closely
and the stock measured before and after welding in
order to determine exactly how much stock is lost
in welding. In this way an accurate knowledge is
soon obtained of the proper allowance for waste.
CHAPTER IV.
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING.
Drawing Out. — When a piece of metal is worked
out, either by pounding or otherwise, in such a way
that the length is increased, and either the width or
thickness reduced, we say that the metal is being
" drawn out," and the operation is known as " draw-
ing out."
It is always best when drawing out to heat the
metal to as high a heat as it will stand without
injury. Work can sometimes be drawn out much
faster by working over the horn of the anvil than on
the face, the reason being this: when a piece of
iron is laid flat on the anvil face and hit a blow with
the hammer, it flattens out and spreads both length-
wise and crosswise, making the piece longer and
wider. The piece is not wanted wider, however,
but only longer, so it is necessary to turn it on edge
and strike it in this position, when it will again in-
crease in length and also in thickness, and will have
to be thinned out again. A good deal of work thus
goes to either increasing the width or thickness,
which is not wanted increased; consequently this
work and the work required to again thin the forg-
ing are lost. In other words, when drawing out
iron on the face of the anvil the force of the blow is
52 FORGE-PRACTICE.
expended in forcing the iron sidewise as well as
lengthwise, and the work used in forcing the iron
sidewise is lost. Thus only about one half the
force of the blow is really used to do the work
wanted.
Suppose the iron be placed on the horn of the
FIG. 60.
anvil, as shown in Fig. 60, and hit with the hammer
as before. The iron will still spread out sidewise a
little, but not nearly as much as before and will
lengthen out very much more. The horn in this
case acts as sort of a blunt wedge, forcing out the
metal in the direction of the arrow, and the force of
the blow is used almost entirely in lengthening the
work.
Fullers may be used for the same purpose, and
the work held either on the horn or the face of the
anvil.
Drawing Out and Pointing Round Stock. — When
drawing out or pointing round stock it should always
be first forged down square to the required size and
then, in as few blows as possible, rounded up.
Fig. 6 1 illustrates the different steps in drawing
out round iron to a smaller size. A is the original
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 53
bar, B is the first step, C is the next, when the iron
is forged octagonal, and the last step is shown at D,
FIG. 61.
where the iron is finished up round. In drawing
out a piece of round iron it should first be forged
like B, then like C, and lastly finished like D.
As an example: Suppose part of a bar of •§"
round stock is to be drawn down to f " in diameter.
Instead of pounding it down round and round until
the f " diameter is reached, the part to be drawn out
should be forged perfectly square and this drawn
down to f", keeping it as nearly square as possible
all the time.
The corners of the square are forged off, making
an octagon, and, last of all, the work is rounded up.
This prevents the metal from splitting, as it is very
liable to do if worked round and round.
(KB
tA
FIG. 62.
FIG. 63.
The reason for the above is as follows: Suppose
Fig. 62 represents the cross-section of a round bar
54 FORGK-PRACTiCtf.
as it is being hit on the upper side. The arrows
indicate the flow of the metal — that is, it is forged
together at AA and apart at BB. Xow, as the bar
is turned and the hammering continued, the out-
side metal is forced away from the center, which
may, at last, give way and form a crack; and by
the time the bar is of the required size, if cut, it
would probably look something like Fig. 63.
The same precaution must be taken when forging
any shaped stock down to a round or conical point.
The point must first be made square and then
rounded up by the method given above. If this is
not done the point is almost sure to split.
Squaring Up Work. — A common difficulty met
with in all drawing out, or in fact in all work which
must be hammered up square, is the liability of the
bar to forge into a diamond shape, or to have one
corner projecting out too far. If a section be cut
through a bar misshaped in this way, at right angles
to its length, instead of being a square or rectangle,
the shape will appear something like one of the out-
lines in Fig. 64.
FIG. 64. FIG. 65.
To remedy this and square up the bad corners,
lay the bar across the anvil and strike upon the
projecting corners as shown in Fig. 65, striking in
such a way as to force the extra metal back into the
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 55
body of the bar, gradually squaring it off. Just as
the hammer strikes the metal it should be given a
sort of a sliding motion, as indicated by, the arrow.
No attempt should be made to square up a corner
of this kind by simply striking squarely down upon
the work. The hammering should all be done in
such a way as to force the metal back into the bar
and away from the corner.
Upsetting. — -When a piece of metal is worked in
such a way that its length is shortened, and either
or both its thickness and width increased, the piece
is said to be upset; and the operation is known as
upsetting.
There are several ways of upsetting, the method
depending mostly on the shape the work is in. With
short pieces the work is generally stood on end on
the anvil and the blow struck directly on the upper
end. The work should always be kept straight;
after a few blows it will probably start to bend and
must then be straightened before more upsetting is
done.
If one part only of a piece is to be upset, then the
heat must be confined to that part, as the part of
the work which is hottest will be upset the most.
When upsetting a short piece for its entire length,
it will sometimes work up like Fig. 66. This may
be due to two causes: either the ends were hotter
than the center or the blows of the hammer were
too light. To bring a piece of this sort to uniform
size throughout, it should be heated to a higher heat
in the center and upset with heavy blows. If the
work is very short it is not always convenient to
56 FORGE-PRACTICE.
confine the heat to the central part; in such a case,
the piece may be heated all over, seized by the tongs
in the middle and the ends cooled, one at a time, in
the water-bucket.
FIG. 66. FIG. 67.
When light blows are used the effect of the blow
does not reach the middle of the work, and conse-
quently the upsetting is only done on the ends.
The effect of good heating and heavy blows is
shown in Fig. 67. With a heavy blow the work is
upset more in the middle and less on the ends.
To bring a piece of this kind to uniform size
throughout, one end should be heated and upset
and then the other end treated in the same way,
confining the heat each time as much as possible
to the ends.
Long work may be upset by laying it across the
face of the anvil, letting the heated end extend two
or three inches over the edge, the upsetting being
done by striking against this end with the hammer
or sledge. If the work is heavy the weight will
offer enough resistance to the blow to prevent the
piece from sliding back too far at each blow; but
with lighter pieces it may be necessary to "back
up" the work by holding a sledge against the un-
heated end.
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 57
Another way of upsetting the ends of a heavy
piece is to "ram" the heated end against the side of
the anvil by swinging the work back and forth hori-
zontally and striking it against the side of the anvil.
The weight of the piece in this case takes the place
of the hammer and does the upsetting.
Heavy pieces are sometimes upset by lifting them
up and dropping or driving them down on the face
of the anvil or against a heavy block of iron resting
on the floor. Heavy cast-iron plates are sometimes
set in the floor for this purpose, and are called
' ' upsetting-plates. ' '
Fig. 68 shows the effect of the blows when upset-
ting the end of a bar. The lower piece has been
properly heated and upset with
heavy blows, while the other
piece shows the effect of light
blows. This last shape may also
be caused by having the extreme
end at a higher heat than the rest
of the part to be upset. FlG- 68-
Punching. — There are two kinds of punches used
for making holes in hot metal — the straight hand-
punch, used with a hand-hammer, and the punch
made from heavier stock and provided with a
handle, used with a sledge-hammer.
Punches should, of course, be made of tool-steel.
For punching small holes in thin iron a hand-
punch is ordinarily used. This is simply a bar of
round or octagonal steel, eight or ten inches long,
with the end forged down tapering, and the extreme
end the same shape, but slightly smaller than the
FORGE-PRACTICE.
hole which is to be punched. Such a punch is
shown in Fig. 69. The punch should taper uni-
formly, and the extreme end should be perfectly
square across, not in the least rounding.
FIG. 69.
FIG. 70.
For heavier and faster work with a helper, a
punch like Fig. 70 is used. This is driven into the
work with a sledge-hammer.
A, B, and C, in Fig. 71, show the different steps
in punching a clean hole through a piece of hot iron.
FIG. 71.
The punch is first driven about half-way through
the bar while the work is lying flat on the anvil;
this compresses the metal directly underneath the
punch and raises a slight bulge on the opposite side
of the bar by which the hole can be readily located.
The piece is then turned over and the punching
completed from this side, the small piece, "A1',
being driven completely through. This leaves a
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 59
clean hole ; while if the punching were all done from
one side, a burr, or projection, wrould be raised on
the side where the punch came through.
D and E (Fig. 71) illustrate the effects of proper
and improper punching. If started from one side
and finished from the other the hole will be clean
and sharp on both sides of the work; but if the
punching is done from one side only a burr will be
raised, as shown at E, on the side opposite to that
from which the punching is done.
If the piece is thick the punch should be started,
then a little powdered coal put in the hole, and the
punching continued. The coal prevents the punch
from sticking as much as it would without it.
Bending. — Bends may be roughly divided into two
classes — curves and angles.
Angles. — In bending angles it is nearly always
necessary to make the bend at some definite point
on the stock. As the measurements are much easier
made while the stock is cold than when hot, it is
best to "lay off" the stock before heating.
The point at which the bend is to be made should
be marked with a center punch — generally on the
edge of the stock, in preference to the side.
Marking with a cold chisel should not be done
unless done very lightly on the edge of stock. If a
slight nick be made on the side of a piece of stock to
be bent, and the stockbent at this point with the
nick outside, the small nick will expand and leave
quite a crack. If the nick be on the inside, it is apt
to start a bad cold shut which may extend nearly
through the stock before the bending is finished.
00 FORGE-PRACTICE.
Whenever convenient, it is generally easier to
bend in a vise, as the piece may be gripped at the
exact point where the bend is wanted.
When making a bend over the anvil the stock
should be laid flat on the face, with the point at
o
LJ
FIG. 72.
which the bend is wanted almost, but not quite, up
to the outside edge of the anvil.
The bar should be held down firmly on the anvil
by bearing down on it with a sledge, so placed that
the outside edge of the sledge is about in line with
the outside edge of the anvil.
This makes it possible to make a short bend with
less hammering than when the sledge is not used.
The bar will pull over the edge of the anvil
slightly when bending.
Bend with Forged Corner. — Brackets and other
/ forgings are sometimes made with
the outside corner of the bend
forged up square, as shown in
Fig- 73-
There are several ways of
bending a piece to finish in this
FIG. 73. shape.
One way is to take stock of the required finished
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING. 6 1
size and bend the angle, forging the corner square
as it is bent ; another is to start with stock consid-
erably thicker than the finished forging and draw
down both ends to the required finished thickness,
leaving a thin-pointed ridge across the bar at the
point where the bend will come, this ridge forming
the outside or square corner of the angle where the
piece is bent ; or this ridge may be formed by upset-
ting before bending.
The process in detail of the first method men-
tioned is as follows : The first step is to bend the bar
so that it forms nearly a right angle, keeping the
bend as sharp as possible, as shown at A (Fig. 74).
FIG. 74.
This should be done at a high heat, as the higher
the heat the easier it is to bend the iron and conse-
quently the sharper the bend.
Working the iron at a good high heat, as before,
the outside of the bend should be forged into a
sharp corner, letting the blows come in such a way
as to force the metal out where it is wanted, being
careful not to let the angle bend so that it becomes
less than a right angle or even equal to one. Fig.
62 FORGE-PR ACTIl I..
74, B, shows the proper way to strike. The arrows
indicate the direction of the blows.
The work should rest on top of the anvil while
this is being done, not over one corner. If worked
over the corner, the stock will be hammered too
thin.
The object in keeping the angle obtuse is this:
The metal at the corner of the bend is really being
upset, and the action is somewhat as follows: In
Fig. 75 is shown the bent piece on the anvil. We
will suppose the blows come on the part A in the
direction indicated by the heavy arrow. The
metal, being heated to a high soft heat at C, upsets,
part of it forming the sharp outside corner and
part flowing as shown by the small arrow at C and
FIG. 76
making a sort of fillet on the inside corner. If in
place of having the angle greater than 90 degrees it
had been an acute angle (Fig. 76), the metal forced
downward by the blows on A would carry with it
part of the metal on the inside of the piece B, and
a cold shut or crack would be formed on the inside
of the angle. To form a sound bend the corner
must be forged at an angle greater than a right
angle. When the piece has been brought to a sharp
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING.
FIG. 77.
corner the last step is to square up the bend over
the corner, or edge, of the anvil.
The second way of making the above is to forge
a piece as shown in Fig. 77,
where the dotted lines indi-
cate the size of the original
piece. This piece is then
bent in such a way that the
ridge, C, forms the outside
sharp corner of the angle.
This ridge is sometimes upset in place of being
drawn out.
The first method described is the most satisfac-
tory.
Ring-bending. — In making a ring the first step
of course is to calculate and cut from the bar the
proper amount of stock. The bend should always
be started from the end of the piece. For ordinary
rings up to 4" or 5" in diameter the stock should
be heated for about one-half its length. To start
bending, the extreme end of the piece should be
first bent over the horn of the anvil, and the bar
should be fed across the horn of the anvil and bent
down as it is pushed forward. Do
not strike directly on top of the
horn, but let the blows fall a little
way from it, as in Fig. 78. This
bends the iron and does not pound
it out of shape. One-half of the
ring is bent in this way and then the part left
straight is heated. This half is bent up the same
as the other, starting from the end exactly as before.
FIG. 78.
64
FORGE-PRACTICE.
FIG. 79.
Eye-bending. — The first step in making an eye
like Fig. 79 is to calculate the
amount of stock required for the
bend. The amount required in th in-
case, found by looking up the circum-
ference of a 2" circle in the table, is
7£". This distance should be laid off by making
a chalk-mark on the face of the anvil i\" from the
left-hand end.
A piece of iron is heated and laid on the anvil with
the heated end on the chalk-mark, the rest of the
bar extending to the left. A hand-hammer is held
on the bar with the edge of the hammer directly in
line with the end of the anvil. This measures off
7^" from the edge of the hammer to the end of the
bar. The bar is then laid across the anvil bringing
the edge of the hammer exactly in line with the
outside edge of the anvil, thus leaving 7^" project-
ing over the edge. This projecting end is bent
down until, it forms a right angle. The extreme
end of this bent part is then bent over the horn into
1st
2nd
4th
FIG. 80.
the circular shape and the bending continued until
the eye is formed.
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING.
The same general method as described for bend-
ing rings should be followed. The different steps
are shown in Fig. 80.
If an eye is too small to close
up around the horn, it may be
closed as far as possible in
this way, and then completely
closed over the corner or on
the face of the anvil, as shown
in Fig. 81.
Double Link. — Another good FlG- 8l-
example of this sort of bending is the double link,
shown in Fig. 59.
The link is started by bending the stock in the
exact center, the first step being to bend a right
angle. This step, with the succeeding ones, is
shown in Fig. 82.
2nd
1st
3rd
4th.
FIG. 82.
After this piece has been bent into a right angle,
the ring on the end should be bent in the same way
66 FORGE-PRACTICE.
as an ordinary ring ; excepting that all the bending
is done from one end of the piece, starting from the
extreme end as usual.
Twisting. — Fig. 83 shows the effects produced by
twisting stock of various shapes — square, octagonal,
FIG. 83.
and flat, the shapes being shown by the cuts in
each case.
To twist work in this way it should be brought to
a uniform heat through the length intended to
twist. When the bar is properly heated it should
be firmly gripped with a pair of tongs, or in a vise,
at the exact point where the twist is to commence.
With another pair of tongs the work is taken hold
of where the twist is to stop, and the bar twisted
through as many turns as required. The metal
will of course be twisted only between the two pairs
of tongs, or between the vise and the tongs, as the
case may be; so care must be used in taking hold
of the bar or the twist will be made at the wrong
points.
The heat must be the same throughout the part
to be twisted. If one part is hotter than another,
UPSETTING, DRAWING OUT, AND BENDING.
67
this hotter part, being softer, will twist more easily,
and the twist will not be uniform. If one end of
the bar is wanted more tightly twisted than the
other, the heat should be so regulated that the part
is heated hottest that is wanted tightest twisted;
the heat gradually shading off into the parts wanted
more loosely twisted.
Reverse Twisting. — The effect shown in Fig. 84
is produced by reversing the direction of twisting.
FIG. 84.
A square bar is heated and twisted enough to
give the desired angle. It is then cooled, in as
sharp a line as possible, as far as B, and twisted
back in the opposite direction. It is again heated,
cooled up to A, and twisted in the first direction;
and this operation is continued until the twist is of
the desired length.
CHAPTER V.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK.
Twisted Gate-hook.- — This description answers, of
course, not only for this particular piece, but for
others of a like nature.
Fig. 85 shows the hook to be made. To start
with, it must be determined what length of stock,
FIG. 85.
after it is forged to proper size, will be required to
bend up the ends.
The length of straight stock necessary should, of
course, be measured through the center of the
stock on the dotted lines in the figure. To do this
lay out the work full size, and lay a string or thin
piece of soft wire upon the lines to be measured.
It is then a very easy matter to straighten out the
wire or string, and measure the exact length re-
quired. If the drawing is not made full size, an
accurate sketch may be made on a board, or other
flat surface, and the length measured from this.
68
SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 69
The hook as above will require about 2\" length
for stock; the eye, about 2f".
The first step would be like Fig. 86.
FIG. 86.
After cutting the piece of -f~' square stock, start
the forging by drawing out the end, starting from
the end and working back into the stock until a
piece is forged out 2f" long and \" in diameter.
Now work in the shoulder with the set-hammer in
the following way:
Forming Shoulders: Both Sides — One Side. — Place
the piece on the anvil in such a position that
the point where the shoulder is wanted comes
exactly on the nearest edge of the anvil. Place
the set -hammer on top of the piece in such a way
that its edge comes directly in line with the edge of
the anvil (Fig. 87). Do not place the piece like
FIG. 87. FIG 88.
Fig. 88, or the result will be as shown — a shoulder
on one side only. As the shoulder is worked in the
piece should be turned continually, or the shoulder
7O FORGE-PRACTICE.
will work in faster on one side than on the other.
Always be careful to keep the shoulder exactly even
with the edge of the anvil.
When the piece is formed in the proper shape on
one end, start the second shoulder 4" from the first,
and finish like Fig. 86. Bend the eye and then the
hook; and, lastly, put the twist in the center.
Make the twist as follows:
First make a chalk-mark on the jaws of the vise,
so that when the end of the hook is even with the
mark the edge of the vise will be where one end of
the twist should come. Heat the part to be twisted
to an even yellow heat (be sure
that it is heated evenly) ; place
* it in a vise quickly, with the end
even with the mark; grasp the
piece with the tongs, leaving the
p g distance between the tongs and
vise equal to the length of twist
(Fig. 89) ; and twist it around one complete turn.
The eye should be bent as described before, and
the hook bent in the same general way as the eye.
Grab-hooks. — This is the name given to a kind
of hooks used on chains, and made for grabbing or
hooking over the chain. The hook is so shaped that
the throat, or opening, is large enough to slip eas-
ily over a link turned edgewise, but too narrow to
slip down off this link on to the next one, which, of
course, passes through the first link at right angles
to it.
Grab-hooks are made in a variety of ways, one of
which is given below in detail.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK.
71
Fig. 90 will serve as an example. To forge this,
use a bar of round iron large enough in section to
form the heavy part of the hook. This bar should
first be slightly upset, either by ramming or ham-
mering, for a short distance from the end, and then
flattened out like Fig. 9 1 .
FIG. 90
FIG. 92.
FIG. 93.
The next step is to round up the part for the eye,
as shown in Fig. 92, by forming it over the corner of
the anvil as indicated in Fig. 93. The eye should
be forged as nearly round as possible, and then
punched.
Particular attention should be paid to this point.
If the eye is not properly rounded before punching,
it is difficult to correct the shape afterward.
After punching, the inside corners of the hole are
rounded off over the horn of the anvil in the man-
ner shown in Fig. 94. Fig. 95 shows the appear-
ance of a section of the eye as left by the punch.
When the eye is finished it should appear as though
bent up from round iron — that is, all the square
corners should be rounded off as shown in Fig. 96.
When the eye is completed the body of the hook
72 tfORGE-PRACTlCE.
should be drawn out straight, forged to size, and
then bent into shape. Care should be taken to
FIG. 94.
keep the hook thickest around the bottom of the
bend.
As the stock is entirely formed before bending,
the length of the straight piece must be carefully
k A_ . measured, as indicated
(tS*~ 3^> at A (Fig. 97), where
the piece is shown ready
for bending. To deter-
mine the required length the drawing or sample
should be measured with a string or piece of flexible
wire, measuring along the center of the stock, from
the extreme point to the center of the eye.
The weakest point of almost any hook is in the
bottom bend. When the hook is strained there is
a tendency for it to straighten out and take the
shape shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 90. To
avoid this the bottom of the hook must be kept as
thick as possible along the line of strain, which is
shown by the line drawn through the eye. A good
shape for this lower bend is shown in the sketch,
where it will be noticed that the bar has been ham-
mered a little thinner in order to increase the thick-
ness of the metal in the direction of the line of
strain.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 73
The part of the hook most liable to bend under a
load is the part lying between the points marked
I and J in. Fig. 102.
Another style of grab-hook is shown in Fig. 98,
FIG. 98.
which shows the finished hook and also the straight
piece ready for bending.
The forming will need no particular description.
The hook shown is forged about f" thick; the out-
side edge around the curve being thinned out to
about |", in order to give greater stiffness in the
direction of the strain.
Stock about f" X i" is used.
A very convenient way to start the eye for a hook
of this kind, or in fact almost any forged eye, is
shown in Fig. 99. Two fullers, top and bottom,
are used, and the work shaped as shown. The bar
should be turned, edge for edge, between every few
blows, if the grooves are wanted of the same depth.
After cutting the grooves the edge is shaped the
same as described above.
A grab-hook, sometimes used on logging-chains,
is shown in Fig. 100. This is forged from square
74 FORGE-PRACTICE.
stock by flattening and forming one end into an eye
and pointing the other end; after which the hook
is bent into shape.
FIG. 99. FIG. ioo.
Welded Eye-hooks. — Hooks sometimes have the
eye made by welding instead of forging from the
solid stock. Such a hook is shown in Fig. 101,
FIG. 101,
which also shows the stock scarfed and bent into
shape ready for closing up the eye for the weld, and
also the eye ready for welding. Before heating for
the weld, the eye should be closed, and stock at the
end be bent close together. The scarf should be
pointed the same as for any other round weld.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK.
This sort of eye is not as strong as a forged eye
of the same size ; but is usually as strong as the rest
of the hook, as the eye is generally considerably
stronger than any other part.
Hoisting-hooks. — A widely accepted shape for
hoisting-hooks, used on
cranes, etc., is shown in
Fig. 102. The shape and
formula are given by Henry
R. Town, in his Treatise on
Cranes.
T = working load in tons
of 2000 Ibs.
A = diameter of round
stock used to form hook.
The size of stock to use
for a hook to carry any
particular load is given below. The capacity of
the hook, in tons, is given in the upper line — the
figures in the lower line, directly under any particu-
lar load in the upper line, giving the size of bar
required to form a hook to be used at that load.
FIG. 102.
=i i i
x}
4568 10
2\
2\
The other dimensions of the hook are found by
the following formula, all the dimensions being in
inches :
D= .5T +1.25
E= .647+1.6
F= .33r+ .85.
7 6 PORGE-PRACTICM.
G= .750
O= .3637+. 66
Q= .647+1.6
L=i.o5A
M= .5A
JV= .85^-. 16
[7= .866A
To illustrate, the use of the table, suppose a hook
is wanted to raise a load of 500 Ibs.
In the line marked T in the table are found the
figures \, denoting a load of one-quarter of a ton, or
500 Ibs. Under this are the figures \\, giving the
size stock required to shape the hook.
The different dimensions of the hook would be
found as follows :
£=.64XV4 + 1.6"= i. 76 = i3//' about.
H = i. 08 A = i. 08 X "/.!«=. 74 =V4 about.
When reducing the decimals, the dimensions
which have to do only with the bending of the hook,
that is, the opening, the length, the length of point,
etc., may be taken as the nearest i6th, but these
dimensions for flattening should be reduced to the
nearest 32d on small hooks.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 77
The complete dimensions for the hook in ques-
tion, 1000 Ibs. capacity, would be as follows :
7~) r3/ff r* Tff ZJ 3 / // J 23 / //
U= I/a ti - /4 L= /32
77— T3/'r O= 3/ " /"— 29/ " M—11/ "
L I \ /4 "/32 /82
F= tt/ie" Q=I3//' 7:
' 16
i n
32
TT — 9/
~ / 1
Bolts. — Bolts are made by two methods, upset-
ting and welding. The first method is the more
common, particularly on small bolts, where it is
nearly always used, the stock being upset to
form the head. In the second method the head is
formed by welding a ring of stock around the stem.
An upset head is stronger than a welded head,
provided they are both equally well made.
The size of the bolt is always given as the diame-
ter and length of the shank, or stem. Thus, a
\" bolt, 6" long, means a bolt having a shank \" in
diameter, and 6" long from the under side of the
head to the end.
Dimensions of bolt-heads are determined from
the diameter of the shank, and should always be
the same size for the same diameter, being inde-
pendent of the length.
The diameter and thickness of the head are meas-
ured as shown in Fig. 103.
The dimensions of both square and hexagonal
heads are as follows:
D = diameter of head across the flats (short
diameter) .
T = thickness of head.
5 = diameter of shank of bolt.
FORGE-PRACTICE.
r=s.
For a 2" bolt the dimensions would be calcu-
lated as follows :
Diameter of head would equal i^"X2" + |" =
,17 "
3/8 •
Thickness of head would be 2".
These are dimensions for rough or unfinished
heads; each dimension of a finished head is Yle"
less than the same dimension of the rough head.
FIG. 103.
Bolts generally have the top corners of the head
rounded or chamfered off (Fig. 103). This can
be done with a hand-hammer, or with a cupping-
c
FIG. 104. FIG. 105.
tool (Fig. 104), which is simply a set-hammer with
the bottom face hollowed out into a bowl or cup
shape.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 79
For making bolts one special tool is required,
the heading-tool. This is commonly made some-
thing the shape of Fig. 105, although for a "hurry-
up" bolt sometimes any flat strip of iron with a
hole punched the proper size to admit the stem of
the bolt can be used.
When in use this tool is placed on the anvil
directly over the square hardie-hole, the stem of
the bolt projecting down through the heading-tool
and hardie-hole while the head is being forged on
the bolt.
This heading-tool is made with one side of the
head flush with the handle, the other side project-
ing a quarter of an inch or so above it. The tool
should always be used with the flat side on the anvil.
Upset-head Bolt. — An upset head is made as fol-
lows : The stock is first heated to a high heat for a
short distance at the end, and upset as shown at
Fig. 1 06. The bolt is then dropped
through the heading tool, the up-
set portion projecting above. This
upset part is then flattened down
on the tool as. shown at B, and
forged square or hexagonal on the
anvil. FlG- Io6-
The hole in the heading-tool should be large
enough to allow the stock to slip through it nearly
up to the upset portion.
Welded-head Bolts. — A welded-head bolt is made
by welding a ring of square iron around the shank
to form the head, which is then shaped in a heading-
tool the same as an upset head. A piece of square
8o
FORGE-PRACTICE.
iron of the proper size is bent into a ring, but not
welded. About the easiest way to do this is to take
a bar several feet long, bend the ring on the end, and
then cut it off as shown in Fig. 107.
FIG. 107.
This ring is just large enough, when the ends are
slightly separated, to slip easily over the shank.
The shank is heated to about a welding heat, the
ring being slightly cooler, and the two put together
as shown in Fig. 107, B. The head is heated and
welded, and then shaped as described above.
When welding on the head it should be hammered
square the first thing, and not pounded round and
round. It is much easier to make a sound weld by
forging square.
Care must be used when taking the welding heat
to heat slowly, otherwise the outside of the ring will
be burned before the shank is hot enough to stick.
It is sometimes necessary when heating the bolt-
head for welding to cool the outside ring to prevent
its burning before the shank has been heated suffi-
ciently to weld ; to do this put the bolt in the water
SIMPLE FORGED WORK.
81
oideways just far enough to cool the outside edge of
the ring and leave the central part, or shank, hot.
Tongs. — Tongs are made in a great variety of
ways, several of which are given below.
Common flat- jaw tongs, such as are used for
holding stock up to about f inch thick, may be
made as follows: Stock about f inch square
should be used. This is first bent like A, Fig.
1 08. To form the eye the bent stock is laid
FIG. 108.
across the anvil in the position shown at B, and
flattened by striking with a sledge the edge of the
anvil, forming the shoulder for the jaw. A set-
hammer may be used to do this by placing the
piece with the other side up, flat on the face of the
anvil, and holding the set-hammer in such a way as
to form the shoulder with the edge of the hammer,
the face of the hammer flattening the eye.
82 FORGE-PRACTICE.
The long handle is drawn out with a sledge,
working as shown at C. When drawing out work
this way the forging should always be held with
the straight side up, the corner of the anvil forming
the sharp corner up against the shoulder on the
piece. If the piece be turned the other side up,
there is danger of striking the projecting shoulder
with the sledge and knocking the work out of shape.
For finishing up into the shoulder a set -hammer
or swage should be used, and the handles should
be smoothed off with a flatter, or between top and
bottom swages. The jaw may be flattened as
shown at D.
The inside face of the jaw should be slightly
creased with a fuller, as this insures the tongs grip-
ping the work firmly with the sides of the jaws, and
not simply touching it at one point in the center, as
they sometimes do if this crease is not made.
After the tongs have been shaped, and are fin-
ished in every other way, the hole for the rivet
should be punched. The rivet should drop easily
into the hole. The straight end of the rivet should
be brought to a high heat, the two parts of the
tongs placed together with the holes in line, the
rivet inserted, and the end "headed up." Most of
the heading should be done with the pene end of
the hammer. After riveting the tongs will prob-
ably be rather "stiff"; opening and shutting them
several times, while the rivet is still red-hot, will
leave them loose. The tongs should be finished
by fitting to a piece of stock of the size on which
they are to be used.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK.
Light Tongs. — Tongs may be made from flat stock
in the following way : A cut is made with a narrow
fuller at the right distance from the end of the bar
to leave enough stock to form the jaw between the
cut and the end, as shown at A, Fig. 109.
FIG. 109.
This end is bent over as shown at B and a second
fuller cut made, shown at C, to form the eye. The
other end of the bar is drawn out to form the handle,
as indicated by the dotted lines. The jaw is shaped,
the rivet-hole punched, and the tongs finished, as
at D, in the usual way.
Tongs of this character may be used on light
work.
Tongs for Round Stock. - - Tongs for holding
round stock may be made by either of the above
methods, the operations
in making being the
same, with the exception
of shaping the jaws>
which may be done in
this way: A top fuller
and bottom swage are FlG- Bo-
used, the swage being of the size to which it is
wished to finish the outside of the jaws, the fuller
84 FORGE-PRACTICE.
the size of the inside. The jaw is held on the swage,
and the fuller placed on top and driven down on
it, Fig. no, forcing the jaw to take the desired
shape, shown at A. The final fitting is done as
usual, after the jaws are riveted together.
Welded Tongs. — Tongs with welded handles are
made in exactly the same way as those with solid,
drawn-out handles excepting that, in place of draw-
ing out the entire length of the handle, a short stub
only is forged, a few inches long, and to this is
welded a bar of round stock to form the handle.
Fig. in shows one ready for welding.
FIG. in.
Pick-up Tongs. - - No particular description is
necessary for making pick-up tongs. The tongs
may be drawn out of a flat piece and bent as
shown in Fig. 112.
A
FIG. 112.
Bolt-tongs. — Bolt-tongs are easily made from
round stock, although square may be used to
advantage.
The first operation is to bend the bar in the shape
SIMPLE FORGED WORK.
«5
shown in Fig. 113. This may be done with a fuller
over the edge of the anvil, as shown at A. When
bending the extreme end of the jaw the bar should
be held almost level at first, and gradually swung
down, as shown by the arrow, until the end is prop-
erly bent.
FIG. 113.
FIG. 114.
The eye may be flattened with the set-hammer,
and the part between the jaw proper and the eye
worked down to shape over the horn and on the
anvil with the same tool.
The jaw proper is rounded and finished with a
fuller and swage, as shown in Fig. 114.
There is generally a tendency for the spring of
the jaw to open up too much in forging. This
may be bent back into shape either on the face of
the anvil, as shown at A (Fig. 115), or over the
horn, as at B.
Another method of making the first bend, when
starting the tongs, is shown in Fig. 116. A swage-
block and fuller are here used; a swage of the
86
FORGE-PRACTICE.
proper size could of course be used in place of the
block.
FIG. 115.
FIG. 116.
Ladle. — A ladle, similar to Fig. 117, may be
made of two pieces welded together, one piece
forming the handle, the other the bowl.
A square piece of stock of the proper thickness
is cut and "laid out" (or marked out) like Fig.
118; the center of the piece being first found by
drawing the diagonals.
FIG. 117.
FIG. 1 1 8.
A circle is drawn as large as possible, with its
center on the intersection of the diagonals; the
piece is cut out with a cold chisel to the circle,
excepting at the points where projections are left
for lips and for a place to weld on the handle. This
latter projection is scarfed and welded to the strip
forming the handle.
SIMPLE FORGED WORK. 87
The bowl is formed from the circular part by
heating it carefully to an even yellow heat and
placing it over a round hole in a swage-block or
other object. The pene end of the hammer is used,
and the pounding done over the hole in the swage-
block. As the metal in the center is forced down-
ward by the blow of the hammer, the swage-block
prevents the material at the sides from following
and is gradually worked into a bowl shape.
Fig. 119 shows the position of the block and the
piece when forging.
The bowl being shaped properly, the lips should
be formed, and the top of the bowl ground off true.
FIG. 119.
FIG. 120.
The lips may be formed by holding the part
where the lips are to be against one of the smaller
grooves in the side of the swage-block, and driving
it into the groove by placing a small piece of round
iron on the inside of the bowl as shown in Fig. 120.
For a ladle with a bowl 3^" in diameter, the diam-
eter of the circle, cut from the flat stock, should be
about 4", as the edges of the piece draw in some-
what. Stock for other sizes should be in about
the same proportion. Stock should be about \"
thick.
FORGE-PRACTICE.
FIG. 121.
Machine-steel should he used for making the
bowl. If ordinary wrought iron is used, the metal
is liable to split.
Bowls. — Bowls, and objects of similar shape,
may be made in the manner described above, but
care must be used not to do too much hammering in
the center of the stock, as that is the part most
liable to be worked too thin.
Chain-stop. — The chain-stop, shown in Fig. 121,
will serve as an example of a very numerous class
of forgings ; that is, forg-
ings having a compara-
tively large projection
on one side.
Care should be taken
to select stock, for pieces
of this sort, that will work into the proper shape with
the least effort. The stock should be as thick as
the thickest part of the forging,
and as wide as the widest part.
Stock, in this particular case,
should be *"Xii".
The different steps in making
the forging are shown in Fig.
122. First two cuts are made
\\'f apart, as shown at A ; then
these cuts are widened out with
a fuller, B. The ends are then
forged out square, as at C. To
finish the piece the hole is
punched and rounded and the
round.
FIG. 122.
ends finished
SIMPLE FORGED WORK
When the fuller is used it should be held
slightly slanting, as shown in
Fig. 123.
This forces the metal toward
the central part and leaves a
more nearly square shoulder, in
place of the slanting shoulder
FIG. 123.
that would be left were the fuller to be held exactly
upright.
CHAPTER VI.
CALCULATION OF STOCK; AND MAKING OF
GENERAL FORCINGS.
Stock Calculations for Forged Work. — When cal-
culating the amount of stock required to make a
forging, when the stock has its original shape
altered, there is one simple rule to follow: Calcu-
late the volume of the forging, add an allowance
for stock lost in forging, and cut a length of stock
having the total volume. In other words, the
forging contains the same amount, or volume, of
metal, no matter in what shape it may be, as the
original stock; an allowance of course being made
< —. 3 5?jf .
«,
IT
r i?« j
FIG. 124.
for the slight loss by scaling, and for the parts cut
off in making.
Take as an example the forging shown in Fig.
124, to determine the amount of stock required to
90
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 9 1
make the piece. This forging could be made in
much the same way as the chain-stop. A piece of
straight stock would be used and two cuts made
and widened with a fuller, in the manner shown
in Fig. 125. The ends on either side of the cuts
X
FIG. 125.
are then drawn down to size, as shown by the
dotted lines, the center being left the size of the
original bar. The stock should be \" Xi", as these
are the dimensions of the largest parts of the forg-
ing. For convenience in calculating the forging
may be divided into three parts: the round end
A, the central rectangular block B, and the square
end C.
The block B will of course require just 2" of
stock.
The end C has a volume of £" 'xtf' 'X^' '=f of a
cubic inch.
The stock (|"Xi") has a volume of f Xi"
X i" = ! of a cubic inch for each inch of length.
To find the number of inches of stock required to
make the end C, the volume of this end (f cubic
inch) should be divided by the volume of one inch
of stock (or \ cubic inch). Thus, £ -*• \ = \\" .
It will therefore require \\" of stock to make
the end C; with allowance for scaling, if".
The end A is really a round shaft, or cylinder,
4" long and \" in diameter. To find the volume
9 2 FORGE-PRACTICE.
of a cylinder, multiply the square of half the diame-
ter by 3Y7, and then multiply this result by the
length of the cylinder.
The volume of A would be '/4 X */4 X 3 1/1 X 4 = * !/14.
And the amount of stock required to make A would
be n/I4-*- V2 = i 4/7" m length, which is practically
equal to i5/8. To the above amount of stock must
be added a small amount for scaling, allowing alto-
gether about i3//'-
The stock needed for the different parts of the
forging is as follows :
Round shaft A if"
Block B 2"
Square shaft C if"
Total
First taking a piece of stock i"Xi"X5f", the
cuts would be made for drawing out the ends as
shown in Fig. 125.
In such a case as the above it is not always neces-
sary to know the exact amount of stock to cut.
What is known to be more than enough stock to
make the forging could be taken, the central block
made the proper dimensions, the extra metal
worked down into the ends, and then trimmed off
to the proper length. There are frequently times,
however, when the amount of material required
must be calculated accurately.
Take a case like the forging shown in Fig. 126.
Here is what amounts to two blocks, each 2"X4"
X6", connected by a round shaft, 2" in diameter.
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS.
93
To make this, stock 2" thick and 4" wide should
be used, starting by making cuts as shown in Fig.
-24-
FIG. 126.
127, and drawing down the center to 2" round.
It is of course necessary to know how far apart to
FIG. 127.
make the cuts when starting to draw down the
center.
The volume of a cylinder 2" in diameter and
24" long would be i" X i"X31/7"X24// = 75 3/7 cubic
inches, which maybe taken as 7 5 1/2 cubic inches.
For each inch in length the stock would have a
volume of 4"X2"X i" = 8 cubic inches. There-
fore it would require 75 l/2 + 8 = 97/16 inches of stock
to form the central piece; consequently the dis-
tance between cuts, shown at A in Fig. 127, would
have to be 97/16/'. Each end would require 6" of
stock, so the total stock necessary would be
Any forging can generally be separated into sev-
eral simple parts of uniform shape, as was done
above, and in this form the calculation can be
94 FORGE-PRACTICE.
easily made, if it is always remembered that the
amount of metal remains the same, and in forging,
merely the shape, and not the volume, is altered.
Weight of Forgings. — To find the weight of any
forging, the volume may first be found in cubic
inches, and this volume multiplied by .2779, the
weight of wrought iron per cubic inch. (If the
forging is made of steel, multiply by .2836 in place
of .2779.) This will give the weight in pounds.
Below is given the weight of both wrought and
cast iron and steel, both in pounds per cubic inch
and per cubic foot.
Lbs. per Lbs. per
Cu. Ft. Cu. In.
Cast iron weighs 450 .2604
Wrought iron weighs. . 480 -2779
Steel weighs 490 .2936
Suppose it is required to find the weight of the
forging shown in Fig. 124. We had a volume in
A of n/u cubic inch, in C of 3/4 cubic inch, and in
B of i cubic inch, making a total of 2 15/28 cubic
inches. If the forging were made of wrought iron,
it would weight 215/28X .2779 = .7 of a pound.
The forging shown in Fig. 126 has a volume in
each end of 48 cubic inches, and in the center of
75f cubic inches, making a total of 171^ cubic
inches, and would weigh, if made of wrought iron,
47.64 pounds.
A much quicker way to calculate weights is to
use a table such as is given on page 250. As steel
is now commonly used for making forgings, this
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS 95
table is figured for steel. The weight given in the
table is for a bar of steel of the dimensions named
and one foot long. Thus a bar i" square weighs
3.402 Ibs. per foot, a bar sV'Xi" weighs 11.9 Ibs.
per foot, etc.
To calculate the weight of the forging shown in
Fig. 126, proceed as follows: Each end is 2//X4//
and 6" long, so, as far as weight is concerned, equal
to a bar 4//X2// and 12" long. From the table,
a bar 4"Xi" weighs 13.6 Ibs. for each foot in
length; so a bar 4//X2//, being twice as thick,
would weigh twice as much, or 27.2 Ibs., and as
the combined length of the two ends of the forging
is one foot, this would be their weight. The table
shows that a bar 2" in diame.ter weighs 10.69 Ibs.
for every foot in length; consequently the central
part of the forging, being 2 ft. long, would weigh
10.69X2, or 21.38 Ibs. The total weight of the
entire forging would be 48.58 Ibs. (This seems to
show a difference between this weight and the
weight as calculated before, but it must be remem-
bered that before the weight was calculated for
wrought iron, while this calculation was made for
steel.)
Finish. — Some forgings are machined, or "fin-
ished," after leaving the forge-shop. As the draw-
ings are always made to represent the finished
work, and give the finished dimensions, it is neces-
sary to make an allowance for this finishing when
making the forging, and all parts which have to
be "finished," or "machined," must be left with
extra metal to be removed in finishing.
96
FORGE-PRACTICE.
The parts required to be finished are generally
marked on the drawing; sometimes the finished
surfaces have the word FINISH marked on them;
sometimes the finishing is shown simply by the
symbol /, as used in Fig. 128, showing that the
shafts and pin only of the crank are to be finished.
fr E* >
f
**
:
<^'
*fl/»
/7X
f ^
•r
f
FIG. 128.
When all surfaces of a piece are to be finished
the words FINISH-ALL-OVER are sometimes marked
on the drawing.
The allowance for finish on small forgings is gen-
erally about Vie'' on each surface ; thus if a block
were wanted to finish 4"X2"Xi", and Via" were
allowed for finishing, the dimensions of the forging
should be 4fc"X2i"Xii".
On a forging like Fig. 126, about £" allowance
should be made for finish, if it were called for;
thus the diameter of the central shaft would be
2^", the thickness of the ends 2\" , etc. On larger
work \" is sometimes allowed for machining.
The amount of finish allowed depends to a large
extent on the way the forging is to be finished. If
it is necessary to finish by filing the forging should
be made as nearly to size as possible, and having
a very slight amount for finish, V32"> or even yw",
being enough in some cases.
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS.
97
It is of course necessary to take this into account
when calculating stock, and the calculation made
for the forging with the allowance for finish added
to the drawing dimensions and not simply for the
finished piece.
Crank-shafts. - - There are several methods of
forging crank-shafts, but only the common com-
mercial method will be given here.
When forgings were mostly made of wrought iron,
cranks were welded up of several pieces. One
piece was used for each of the end shafts, one piece
for each cheek, or side, and another piece for the
crank-pin. Mild-steel cranks are now more uni-
versally used and forged from one solid piece of
stock. The drawing for such a crank is given in
Fig. 128; finish to be allowed only as shown, that
is, only on crank-pin and shafts. The forgings, as
made, will appear like the outlines in Fig. 129.
The metal in the throat of the crank is generally
removed by drilling a line of holes and then sawing
slots where the sides of the crank cheeks should
come, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 129.
A • •
1
0
* "•
r*^
1
FIG. 129.
The central block is then easily knocked out. This
drilling and sawing are done in the machine-shop.
This throat can be formed by chopping out the
98 FORGE-PRACTICE.
surplus metal with a hot chisel, but on small cranks,
such as here shown, it is generally cheaper in a well-
equipped shop to use the first method.
The first step is to calculate the amount of stock
required. Stock i^"X4" should be used. The
ends, A and B, should be left i|" in diameter to
allow for finishing. The end A contarhs 10.13
cubic inches. Each inch of stock contains 6 cubic
inches. It would therefore require 1.7" of stock
to form, this end provided there were no waste from
scale in heating. This waste does take place, and
must be allowed for, so it will be safe to take about
2" of stock for this end. E contains 5.22 cubic
inches, and would require .87" of stock without
allowance for scale. About \\" should be taken.
The stock should then be 7^" long. The first step
is to make cuts i\" from one end and 2" from the
other, and widen out these cuts with a fuller, as
shown in Fig. 130.
FIG. 130. FIG. 131.
These ends are then forged out round in the man-
ner illustrated in Fig. 131. The forging should be
placed over the corner of the anvil in the position
shown, the blows striking upon the corner of the
piece as indicated, As the end gradually straightens
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS.
99
out, the other end of the piece is slowly raised into
the position shown by the dotted lines and the
shaft hammered down round and finished up be-
tween swages.
Care must be taken to spread the cuts properly
before drawing down the ends, otherwise a bad
cold-shut will be formed. If
the cuts are left without spread-
ing, the metal will act some-
what after the manner shown
in Fig. 132. The top part of
the bar, as it is worked down,
will gradually fold over, leav-
ing, when hammered down to Fl&. 132.
size, a bad cold-shut, or crack, such as illustrated
in Fig. 132. When the metal starts to act this way,
as shown by the upper sketch in 132, the fault may
be remedied by trimming off the corner along the
dotted line. This must always be done as soon as
any tendency to double over is detected.
Double-throw Cranks. — Multiple-throw cranks are
FIG. 133.
first forged flat, rough turned, then heated and
twisted into shape.
The double-throw crank, shown in Fig. 133,
100
FORGE-PRACTICE.
would be first forged as shown in Fig. 134 ; the parts
shown dotted would then be cut out with the drill
and saw, as described above.
After the pins and shafts have been rough turned
— that is, turned round, but left as large as possi-
p
^ L
J r
i
1
i
i
1
, i
1 !
i
B
A
FIG.
134-
ble — the crank is returned to the forge-shop, where
it is heated red-hot and twisted into the finished
shape.
When twisting, the crank is gripped just to one
side of the central bearing, as shown by the dotted
line A. This may be done with a vise or wrench,
if the crank is small, or the crank may be placed
on the anvil of a steam-hammer and the hammer
lowered down on it to hold it in place.
The other end of the crank is gripped on the line
B and twisted into the required shape.
FIG. 135.
A wrench of the shape shown in Fig. 135 is very
convenient for doing work of this character. It
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. IO1
may be formed by bending a U out of flat stock,
bent edgewise, and welding on a handle.
Three-throw Crank. — Fig. 136 shows what is
known as a "three-throw" crank. The forging for
1
v^
1 7 — 3
f
'if
-1 f J
^
~^
__
2 /
£
.
.^
••*!£
l
<-wn
1-7V
1
-rU^
4 8s •
FIG. 136.
this is first made as shown by the solid lines in Fig.
137. The forging is drilled and sawed in the
.1
i j
1
In
n
* ! '
i
1
at/1
H 5V
01 >*
».
3J< —
— ts"
-T-83*-
< 8X—~
FIG. 137.
machine-shop to the dotted lines, and pins rough
turned, being left as large as possible. The forging
is returned to the forge-shop, heated, and bent into
the shape of the finished crank. It is then sent
to the machine-shop and finished to size. Four-
throw cranks are also made in this manner.
The slots are sometimes cut out in the forge-shop
with a hot chisel, but, particularly on small work,
it is generally more economical to have them sawed
out in the machine-shop. This is especially so of
multiple-throw cranks, which must be twisted.
102
FORGE-PRACTICE.
Knuckles. — There is a large variety of forgings
which can be classed under one head — such forg-
ings as the forked end of a marine connecting-rod,
the knuckle-joints sometimes used in valve-rods,
and others of this character, such as illustrated in
Figs. 139, 140, 141, E.
FIG. 141.
Connecting-rod End. — Fig. 138 shows the shaped
end often used on the crank end of connecting-
rods. The method of forming this is the same as
the first step in forging the other pieces above men-
tioned.
The stock used for making this should be as wide
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS.
10.3
as B and somewhat more than twice as thick as A.
The first step is to make two
fuller cuts as shown at A, Fig.
142, using a top and bottom
fuller and working in both
sides at the same time. When
working in both sides of a bar
this wray, it should be turned
frequently, bringing first one
side, then the other, upper-
most. In this way the cuts
will be worked to the same
depth on both sides, while if
the work is held in one posi-
tion, one cut will generally be
deeper than the other. After
the cuts are made, the left-
hand end of the bar is drawn
out to the proper size and the
right-hand end punched and split like B. Some-
times when the length D, Fig. 138, is compara-
tively short and the stock wide, instead of being
punched and split, the end of the bar is cut out, as
shown at C, Fig. 142, with a right angle or curved
cutter.
The split ends are spread out into the position
shown at D, and drawn down to size over the cor-
ner of the anvil, in the manner illustrated in Fig.
143. These ends are then bent back into the
proper position for the finished forging. Gener-
ally when the ends are worked out and bent back
in this manner, a bump is left like that indicated
FIG. 142.
104
FORGE-PRACTICE.
by the arrow-point at E, Fig. 142. This should
be trimmed off along the dotted line.
Knuckle. — The knuckle, Fig. 139, is started in
exactly the same way, but after being forged out
FIG. 143. FIG. 144.
straight, as above, the tips of these ends are bent
down, forming a U-shaped loop of approximately
the shape of the finished knuckle. A bar of iron
of the same dimension at the inside of the finished
knuckle is then inserted between the sides of the
loop and the sides closed down flat over it, Fig.
144.
Forked-end Connecting-rod. — Fig. 140 is made in
the same manner. The shaft 5 should be drawn
down into shape and rounded
up before the other end is
split. After the split ends
have been bent back
straight, the shoulder A
should be finished up with
a fuller in the manner shown
in Fig. 145. The rounded
FIG. 145.
ends B-B should be formed before the piece is bent
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 10$
into shape. The final bending can be done over a
cast-iron block of the right shape and size if the
forging is a large one and several of the same kind
are wanted.
Hook with Forked End. — Fig. 141, £ is a forging
which also conies in this general class. This is
made from f " square stock. The end of the bar is
first drawn down to 3/16" round. This round end is
put through the hole of a heading-tool, and the
square part is split with a hot chisel, the cut wid-
ened out, and the sides hammered out straight on
the tool. The different steps are shown in Fig.
141.
Wrench, Open-end. — Open-end wrenches of the
general class shown in Fig. 146 may be made in
FIG. 146.
several different ways. It would be possible to
make this by the same general method followed
for making the forked end of the connecting-rod
described above. Ordinary size wrenches are more
easily made in the way illustrated in Fig. 147.
A piece of stock is used, wide enough and thick
enough to . form the head of the wrench. This is
worked in on both sides with a fuller and the head
rounded up as shown. A hole is then punched
through the head and the piece cut out to form
the opening, as shown by the dotted lines at B.
This wrench could also be made by bending up
io6
FORGE-PRACTICE.
a U from the proper size flat stock and welding
on a handle.
FIG. 147.
The solid-forged wrench is the more satisfactory.
Socket- wrench. - - The socket- wrench, shown in
Fig. 148, may be made in several ways. About
the easiest, on "hurry-
up" work, is the method
shown in Fig. 149. Here
a stub is shaped up the
same size and shape as
the finished hole is to be. A ring is bent up of thin
flat iron and this ring welded around the stub.
FIG. 148.
FIG. 149.
The width of the ring should of course be equal to
the length of the hole plus the lap of the weld.
When finishing the socket, a nut or bolt-head
the size the wrench is intended to fit should be
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 107
placed in the hole and the socket finished over
this between swages.
A better way of making wrenches of this sort is
to make a forging having
the same dimensions as
the finished wrench, but
with the socket end
forged solid. The socket
end should then be
drilled to a depth slightly
greater than the socket is
wanted. The diameter of
the drill should be, as
shown in Fig. 150, equal to the shortest diameter of
the hole.
After drilling, the socket end is heated red-hot
and a punch of the same shape as the intended hole
driven into it. The end of the punch should be
square, with the corners sharp. As the punch is
driven in, the corners will shave off some of the
metal around the hole and force it to the bottom
of the hole, thus making it necessary to have the
drilled hole slightly deeper than the socket hole is
intended to finish.
While punching, the wrench may be held in a
heading tool, or if the wrench be double-ended, in a
pair of special tongs, as shown in Fig. 150.
Split Work. — There is a great variety of thin
forgings, formed by splitting a bar and bending
the split parts into shape. For convenience, these
can be called split forgings.
Fig. 151 is a fair sample of this kind of work.
io8
FORGE-PRACTICE.
This piece could be made by U.king two flat strips
and welding them across each other, but, particu-
FIG. 151.
FIG. 152.
larly if the work is very thin, this is rather a diffi-
cult weld to make.
An easier way is to take a flat piece of stock of
the proper thickness and cut it with a hot chisel,
as shown by the solid lines in Fig. 152. The four
ends formed by the splits are then bent at right
angles to each other as shown by the dotted lines,
and hammered out pointed as required.
If machine steel stock is used, it is not generally
necessary to take any particular precautions when
FIG. 153.
splitting the bar, but if the material used is wrought
iron, it is necessary to punch a small hole through
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS.
109
the bar where the end of the cut comes, to prevent
the split from extending back too far.
Fig. 153 shows several examples of this kind of
work. The illustrations show in each case the
finished piece, and also the method of cutting the
bar. The shaded portions of the bar are cut away
completely.
Expanded or Weldless Eye. — Another forging of
the same nature is the expanded eye in Fig. 154.
FIG. 154.
FIG. 155.
To make this, a flat bar is forged rounding on the
end, punched and split as shown. The split is
widened out by driving a punch, or other tapering
tool into it, and the forging finished by working
over the horn of the anvil, as shown in Fig. 155.
If the dimensions of the eye are to be very accu-
rate, it will be necessary to make a calculation for
the length of the cut. This can be done as follows:
Suppose the forging, for the sake of convenience in
calculating, to be made up of a ring 3" inside diame-
ter and sides \" wide, placed on the end of a bar
\\" wide. The first thing is to determine the area
of this ring. To do this find the area of the out-
IIO FORGE-PRACTICE.
side circle and subtract from it the area of the
inside circle. (Areas may be found in table, page
2430
Area of outside circle ............. =12.57 SCL- m-
" " inside " ............. 7.07
" "
= 5-5o " "
2//
3
The stock, being i£" wide, has an area of
sq. in. for every inch in length, and it will take 3
of this stock to form the ring, as we must take an
amount of stock having the same area as the ring.
This will be practically 3n/l6".
The stock should be punched and split, as shown
in Fig. 154. It will be noticed that the punch-
holes are f" from the end, while the stock is to be
drawn to \" . The extra amount is given to allow
for the hammering necessary to form the eye.
Weldless Rings. — Weldless rings can be made in
the above way by splitting a piece of flat stock and
expanding it into a ring, or they can be made as
follows: The necessary volume of stock is first
forged into a round flat disc and a hole is punched
through the center. The hole should be large
enough to admit the end of the horn of the anvil.
The forging is then placed on the horn and worked
to the desired size in the manner indicated in
Fig. i55- Fig. 156 shows the different steps in
the process — the disc, the punched disc, and the
finished ring.
Rings of this sort are made very rapidly under
the steam-hammer by a slight modification of this
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS.
Ill
method. The discs are shaped and punched and
then forged to size over a ' ' mandril. " A U-
FIG. 156.
FIG. 157.
shaped rest is placed on the anvil of the steam-
hammer, the mandril is slipped through the hole
in the disc and placed on the rest, as shown in
Fig. 157. The blows come directly down upon
the top side of the ring, it being turned between
each two blows. The ring of course rests only upon
the mandril. As the hole increases in size, larger
and larger mandrils are used, keeping the mandril
as nearly as possible the same size as the hole.
Forging a Hub, or Boss. — Fig. 158 is an example
of a shape very often met with in machine forging:
a lever, or some flat bar or shank, with a "boss"
FIG. 158.
FIG. 159.
formed on one end. This may be made in two
ways — either by doubling over the end of the bar,
as shown in Fig. 159, and making a fagot-weld of
sufficient thickness to form the boss, or by taking a
bar large enough to form the boss and drawing
down the shank. The second method will be
112
FORGE-PRACTICE.
described, as no particular directions are necessary
for the weld, and after welding up the end, the
boss is rounded up in the same way in either case.
The stock should be large enough to form the boss
without any upsetting.
A bar of stock is taken, for the forging shown
above, 2" wide and 2" thick. The first step is to
make a cut about 2" from the end, with a fuller,
like A, Fig. 160.
FIG. 160.
The stock, to the right of the cut, is then flat-
tened down and drawn out to size, as shown at B.
In drawing out the stock, certain precautions must
be taken or a " cold-shut ' ' will be formed close to
the boss. If the metal is allowed to flatten down
into shape like Fig. C, the corner at X will over-
lap, and work into the metal, making a crack in
the work which will look like Fig. E, This
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 113
is quite a common fault, and whenever a crack
appears in a forging close to a shoulder, it is gener-
ally caused by something of this sort — that is, by
some corner or part of the metal lapping over and
cutting into the forging. When one of these cracks
appears, the only way to remedy the evil is to cut
it out as shown by the dotted lines in E. For this
purpose a hot-chisel is sometimes used, with a
blade formed like a gouge.
Fig. D shows the proper way to draw out the
stock; the corner in question should be forged
away from the boss in such a manner as to grad-
ually widen the cut. The bar should now be
rounded up by placing the work over the corner of
the anvil, as shown in Fig. 161. First forge off the
FIG. 161.
corners and then round up the boss in this way.
To finish around the corner formed between the
boss and the flat shank, a set-hammer should be
used. Sometimes the shank is bent away from
the boss to give room to work, and a set-hammer,
or swage, used for rounding the boss as shown,
FORGE-PRACTICE.
After the boss is finished, the shank is straightened.
The boss should be smoothed up with a swage.
Ladle Shank. — The ladle shank, shown in Fig.
162, may be made in several ways. It is possible
to make it solid without
any welds, or the handle
may be welded on a flat
bar and the bar bent into
a ring and welded, or the
ring and handle may be
forged in one piece and
the ring closed together by welding. The last-
mentioned method is as follows : The stock should
be about i" square. It is necessary to make a
FIG. 162.
FIG. 163.
rough calculation of the amount of this size stock
required to form the ring of the shank. If the ring
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 115
were made of f'Xi" stock, about 23!" would be
required; now as i"Xi" stock is the same width
and about two and one-half times as thick as
f'Xi" stock, every inch of the i"Xi" will make
about r2\" of f'Xi", consequently about 9^" of
the i" square will be required to form the ring.
A fuller cut is made around the bar, as shown
at A, Fig. 163. This should be made about 9^"
from the end of the bar. The left-hand end of the
bar is drawn down to \" in diameter to form the
handle. If the work is being done under a steam
or power hammer, enough stock may be drawn
out to form the entire handle, but if working on
the anvil, it will probably be more satisfactory to
draw out only enough stock to make a "stub "4" or
5" long. To this stub may be welded a round bar
to form the handle.
After drawing out the handle, the q\" square
end of the stock is split, as shown by the dotted
lines at B. These split ends
are spread apart, as shown
at C, forged into shape, and
bent back to the position
shown by the dotted lines.
The ring is completed by FlG> l64'
cutting the ends to the proper length, scarring,
bending into shape, and welding, as indicated in
Fig. 164.
If for any reason it is necessary to make a forg-
ing of this kind without a weld in the ring, it may
be done by the method shown in Fig. 165. The
split in this case should not extend to the end of the
u6
FORGE-PRACTICE.
bar. About
at the end.
' or |" of stock should be left uncut
This split is widened out and the
FIG. 165.
sides drawn down and shaped into a ring as desired.
Starting-lever. — The lever shown in Fig. 166 is a
FIG. 166
shape sometimes used for levers used to turn the
fly-wheels of engines or other heavy wheels by
gripping the rim.
The method used in making the lever is shown
in Fig. 167. The end is first drawn down round
and the handle formed.
The other end is then
split, forged down to
size, and bent at right
angles to the handle,
u After trimming to the
n
B j-, proper length, the flat
' ends are bent into shape.
If this shaped end is
very heavy, it may be necessary to forge it in the
FIG. 167.
CALCULATION OF STOCK; GENERAL FORCINGS. 117
shape of a solid block, as shown in Fig. 168, and
then either work in the depression
shown by the dotted lines, with a
fuller and set-hammers, or the dotted
FIG. 168.
line may be cut out with a hot-chisel.
Moulder's Trowel. — The moulder's trowel shown
in Fig. 169 gives an example of the method used in
FIG. 169.
making forgings of a large class, forgings having a
wide thin face with a stem, comparatively small,
forged at one end.
The stock to be used for the trowel shown should
be about £"Xi". This is thick enough to allow
for the formation of the ridge at R.
FIG. 170.
Fig. 170 shows the general method employed.
The forging is started by making nicks like A, with
the top and bottom fuller. One end is drawn down
to form the tang for the handle. This should not
1 1 8 FORGE-PRACTICE.
be forged down pointed, as required when com-
pleted, but the entire length of handle should be
forged square and about the size the largest part is
required to finish to. The handle is then bent up
at right angles, as at B, and the corner forged
square in the same manner that the corner of a
bracket is shaped up sharp and square on the out-
side.
After this corner is formed, the blade is drawn
down to size on the face of the anvil.
When flattening out the blade, in order to leave
the ridge shown at R, Fig. 169, the work should
be held as shown at C, Fig. 1 70. Here the handle
is held pointing down and against the side of the
anvil. By striking directly down on the work, and
covering the part directly over the edge of the anvil
with the blows, all of the metal on the anvil will be
flattened down, leaving the metal not resting on
the anvil unworked. By swinging the piece around
into a reverse position the other edge of the blade
may be thinned down. If care be taken to hold
the trowel in the proper position while thinning
out the blade, a small triangular-shaped piece next
the handle will be left thicker than the rest of the
blade. This raised part will form the ridge shown
at R, Fig. 169.
The same result may be obtained by placing the
trowel, other side up, on the face of the anvil and
using a set-hammer, or flatter, to thin out the blade.
Welded Brace.— Fig. 171 shows a form of brace,
or bracket, sometimes used for holding swinging
signs and for various other purposes.
CALCULATION Of STOCK; GENERAL FORCING?.
119
The bracket in this case is made of round stock;
but the same method may be followed in making
one of flat or square material.
FIG. 171.
The stock is first scarfed on one end and this end
doubled over, forming a loop, as shown in Fig. 172.
FIG. 172.
The loop is welded and then split, the ends straight-
ened out and flattened into the desired shape as
illustrated.
FIG. 173.
Welded Fork. — The welded fork, shown in Fig.
173, is made in the same way as the brace de-
scribed above.
CHAPTER VII.
STEAM-HAMMER WORK.
General Description of Steam-hammer. — The gen-
eral shape of small and medium steam-hammers
is shown in Fig. 174.
This type is known as
a single - frame ham-
mer.
The size of a steam-
hammer is determined
by the weight of its
falling parts ; thus the
term a 4oo-lb. ham-
mer would mean that
the total weight of
the ram, hammer-die,
and piston-rod was 400
Ibs.
Steam-hammers are
made in this general
style from 200 Ibs. up.
The anvil is entire-
ly separate from the
FIG. 174.
separate foundation.
frame of the hammer,
and each rests on a
STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 121
The foundation for the frame generally takes the
shape of two blocks of timber or masonry capped
with timber — one in front and one behind the anvil
block. The anvil foundation is placed between
the two blocks of the frame foundation, and is
larger and heavier.
The object of separating the anvil and frame is to
allow the anvil to give under a heavy blow with-
out disturbing the frame or its foundation.
Hammer-dies. — The dies most commonly used on
steam-hammers have flat faces ; the upper or ham-
mer die being the same width, but sometimes
shorter in length than the lower or anvil die.
Tool-steel makes the best dies, but chilled iron
is also used to a very large extent. Sometimes,
for forming work, even gray iron castings are used.
Flat dies made of tool-steel are sometimes used
without hardening. Dies made this way, when
worn, may be faced off and used again without
the bother of annealing and rehardening.
For special work the dies are made in various
shapes, the faces being more or less in the shape of
the work to be formed. When the die-faces aie
shaped to the exact form of the finished piece, the
work is known as drop-forging.
Tongs for Steam-hammer Work. — The tongs used
for holding work under the steam-hammer should
be very carefully fitted and the jaws so shaped
that they hold the stock on all sides. Ordinary
flat-jawed tongs should not be used, as the work
is liable to be jarred or slip out sideways.
Fig. 175 shows the jaws of a pair of tongs fitted
122
FORGE-PRACTICE.
to square stock. Tongs for other shaped stock
should have the jaws
formed in a correspond
ing way; that is, the in-
side of the jaws, viewed
from the end, should have
FIG. I75.
the same shape as the cross-section of the stock they
are intended to hold, and should grip the stock
firmly on at least three sides.
Flat-jawed tongs can be easily shaped as above
in the manner shown in Fig. 176. The tongs are
FIG. 176.
heated and held as shown, by placing one jaw,
inside up, on a swage. The jaw is grooved or
bent by driving down a top-fuller on it. After
shaping the other jaw in the same way, the final
fitting is done by inserting a short piece of stock of
the proper size in the jaws and closing them down
tightly over this by hammering.
When fitting tongs to round stock, the finishing
STEAM-HAMMER WORK.
I23
may be done between swages, the stock being kept
between the jaws while working them into shape.
Tongs for heavy work should have the jaws
shaped as shown in Fig. 177. When in use, tongs
of this kind are held by
slipping a link over the
handles to force them to-
gether. On very large sizes,
this link is driven on with a
sledge.
To turn the work easily,
FIG. 177.
the link is sometimes made in the shape shown in
Fig. 178, with a handle projecting from each end.
FIG. 178.
Hammer-chisels. — The hot-chisel used for cutting
work under the hammer is shaped, ordinarily, like
Fig. 179. This is sometimes made of solid tool-
STEEL
FIG. 179.
FIG. 180.
steel, and sometimes the blade is made of tool-steel
and has a wrought-iron handle welded on. Fig.
1 80 shows the method of welding on the wrought-
iron handle.
124
FORGE-PRACTICE.
The handle of the chisel, close up to the blade, is
hammered out comparatively thin. -This is to
allow the blade to spring slightly without snapping
off the handle. The hammer will always knock
the blade into a certain position, and as the chisel
is not always held in exactly the right way, this
thin part of the handle permits a little ' ' give ' '
without doing any harm.
The force of the blow is so great when cutting,
that the edge of the chisel must be left rather
blunt. The edge should be square across, and not
rounding. The proper shape is shown at A, Fig.
FIG. 181.
181. Sometimes for special work the edge may
be slightly beveled, as at B or C, but should never
be shaped like D.
Sometimes a bar is cut or nicked with a cold-
chisel under the hammer.
The chisel used is shaped
like Fig. 182, being very
flat and stumpy to resist the
crushing effect of heavy blows. The three faces
of the chisel are of almost equal width.
Cutting Hot Stock. — Hot cutting is done under the
FIG. 182.
STEAM-HAMMER WORK.
steam-hammer in much the same way as done on
the anvil.
If the chisel be held perfectly upright, as shown
at A, Fig. 183, the cut end of the bar will be left
FIG. 183.
bulging out in the middle. When the end is wanted
square the cut should be started with the chisel
upright, but once started, the chisel should be very
slightly tipped, as shown at B. When cutting
work this way the cut should be made about half
way through from all sides. When cutting off
large pieces of square stock the chisel should be
driven nearly through the bar, leaving only a thin
strip of metal, \" or \" thick, joining the twc
pieces, A, Fig. 184. The bar is then turned over
FIG. 184.
on the anvil and a thin bar of steel laid directly on
top of this thin strip, as shown at B, Fig. 184.
One hard blow of the hammer sends the thin bar
of steel between the two pieces and completely
cuts out the thin connecting strip of metal. This
126 FORCE PRACTICE.
leaves the ends of both pieces smooth, while if the
chisel is used for cutting
on both sides, the end of
one piece will be smooth
and the other will have a
FIG. 185. . .
fin left on it.
For cutting up into corners on the ends of slots
bent cutters are sometimes used; such a cutter is
shown in Fig. 185. These cutters are also made
curved, and special shapes made for special work.
General Notes on Steam-hammer. — When working
under the hammer, great care should always be
taken to be sure that everything is in the proper
position before striking a blow. The work must
rest flat and solid on the anvil, and the part to be
worked should be held as nearly as possible below
the center of the hammer-die ; if the work be done
under one edge or corner of the hammer-die, the
result is a "foul" blow, which has a tendency to
tip the ram and strain the frame.
When tools are used, they should always be held
in such a way that the part of the tool touching
the work is directly below the point of the tool on
which the hammer will strike. Thus, supposing a
piece were being cut off under the hammer, the
chisel should be held exactly upright, and directly
under the center of the hammer, as shown at A,
Fig. 1 86. In this way a fair cut is made. If the
chisel were not held upright, but slantingly, as
shown at B, the result of the blow would be as
shown by the dotted lines, the chisel would be
turned over and knocked flat, and, in some cases,
STEAM-HAMMER WORK.
127
might be even thrown very forcibly from under
the hammer.
When a piece is to be worked out to any great
extent, the blows should be heavy, and the end of
v
/r\ 7 \
FIG. 186.
the stock being hammered should bulge out slightly,
like A, Fig. 187, showing that the metal is being
FIG. 187.
worked clear through. If light blows are used the
end of the piece will forge out convex, like B, show-
ing that the metal on the outside of the bar has
been worked more than that on the inside. If this
sort of work is continued, the bar will split and
work hollow in the center, like C.
Round shafts formed between flat dies are very
liable to be split in this way when not carefully
hand1ed.
The faces of the hammer- and anvil-dies are gen-
erally of the same width, but not always the same
1 28 FORGE-PRACTICE.
length. Thus, when the hammer is resting on the
anvil, the front and back sides of the two dies are
in line with each other, while either one or both
ends of the anvil-die project beyond the ends of
the hammer-die.
This is not always the case, however, as in many
hammers the faces of the two dies are the same
shape and size.
Having one die face longer than the other is an
advantage sometimes when a shoulder is to be
formed on one side of the work only.
When a shoulder is to be formed on both sides of
a piece the work should be placed under the ham-
mer in such a way that the top die will work in one
shoulder, while the bottom die is forming the other ;
in other words, the work should be done from the
side of the hammer, where the edges of the dies are
even, as shown in Fig. 188. If the shoulder is re-
quired on one side only, as in forging tongs, the
FIG. 188. FIG. 189.
work should be so placed as to work in the shoulder
with the top die, while the bottom die keeps the
under side of the work straight, as in Fig. 189, A,
STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 129
The same object, a shoulder on one side only,
may be accomplished by using a block, as shown
at B, Fig. 189. The block may be used as shown,
or the positions of work and block may be reversed
and the work laid with flat side on the anvil and
block placed on top.
This method of forming shoulders will be taken
up more in detail in treating individual forgings.
Tools: Swages. — In general, the tools used in
steam-hammer work, except in special cases, are
very simple.
Swages for finishing work up to about 3" or 4"
in diameter are commonly made as shown in Fig.
190. The two parts of the swage are held apart
FIG. 190.
by the long spring handle. This spring handle
may be made as shown at B, by forming it of a sep-
arate piece of stock and fastening it to the swage,
by making a thin slot in the side of the block with
a hot-chisel or punch, forcing the handle into this
and closing the metal around it with a few light
blows around the hole with the edge of a fuller.
Another method of forming the handle (C) is to
draw out the same piece from which the blocks are
FORGE- PRACTICE.
made, hammering down the center of the stock to
form the handle, and leaving the ends full size to
make the swages.
Swages for large work are made sometimes as
shown in Fig. 191. The one shown at B is made
FIG. 191.
for an anvil-die having a square hole, similar to
the hardie-hole in an ordinary anvil, near one end.
The horn on the swage, at x, slips into this hole,
while the other two projections fit, one on either
side, over the sides of the anvil. These horns, or
fingers, prevent the swage from slipping around
when in use.
END-VIEW
FIG. 192.
Tapering and Fullering Tool. — As the faces of the
anvil- and hammer-dies are flat and parallel, it
is not possible to finish smoothly between the bare
dies, any work having tapering sides.
STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 131
By using a tool similar to the one shown in Fig.
192 tapering work may be smoothly finished.
Taper Work. — The use of the tool illustrated
above is shown in Fig. 193. For roughing out
taper work, the tool is used with the curved side
FINISHING
FIG. 193.
down, the straight side being flat with the hammer-
die. When finishing the taper, the tool is reversed,
the flat side being held at the desired angle and
the hammer striking the curved side. This curved
side enables the tool to do good work through
quite a wide range of angles. If too great an angle
is attempted, the tool will be forced from under
the hammer by the wedging action.
Fullers. — Fullers such as used for ordinary hand
forgings are very seldom employed in steam-ham-
mer work. To take their
place simple round bars
are used. When much
used, the bars should be
of tool-steel.
One use of round bars,
j t. • -1 FlG"
as mentioned above, is il-
lustrated in Fig. 194. Here the work, as shown,
132 FORGE-PRACTICE.
has a semicircular groove extending around it,
forming a "neck." The groove is formed by plac-
ing a short piece of round steel of the proper size
on the anvil-die; on this is placed the work, with
the spot where the neck is to be formed directly
on top of the bar. Exactly above the bar, and
parallel to it on top of the work, is held another bar
of the same diameter. By striking with the hammer,
the bars are driven into the work, forming the
groove. The work should be turned frequently
to insure a uniform depth of groove on all sides;
for, if held in one position, one bar will work in
deeper than the other.
Adjusting Work Under the Hammer. — When work
is first laid on the anvil the hammer should
always be lowered lightly down on it in order to
properly "locate" it. This brings the work flat
and true with the die-faces; and if held in this
position (and care should be taken to see that it is),
there will be little chance of the jumping, jarring,
and slipping, caused by holding the forging in the
wrong position. This is particularly true when
using tools, as great care must be taken to see that
the hammer strikes them fairly. If the first blow
is a heavy one, and the work is not placed exactly
right, there is danger of the piece flying from under
the hammer and causing a serious accident.
As an illustration of the above, suppose that a
piece be carelessly placed on the anvil, as shown in
Fig. 195, the piece resting on the edge of the anvil
only, not flat on the face, as it should.
When the hammer strikes quickly and hard two
STEAM-HAMMER WORK.
133
FIG. 195.
things- may happen : either the bar will be bent (as
it will if very hot and soft) or
it will be knocked into the posi-
tion shown by the dotted lines.
If the hammer be lowered lightly
at first, the bar will be pushed
down flat, and assumes the dotted
position easily, where it may be
held for the heavy blows.
Squaring Up Work. — It frequently happens in
hammer work, as well as in hand forging, that a
piece which should be square in section becomes
lopsided and diamond-shaped.
To correct this fault the forging should be held
as shown in Fig. 196, with the long diagonal of
t>on
FIG. 196.
the diamond shape perpendicular to the face of the
anvil.
A few blows will flatten the work into the shape
shown at B ; the work should then be rolled slightly
in the direction of the arrow and the hammering
continued, the forging taking the shape of C, and,
as the rolling and hammering are continued, finally,
the square section D.
Making Small Tongs. — As an example of manipu-
FORGE-PRACTICE.
lation under the hammer, the making of a. pair of
ordinary flat-jawed tongs is a good illustration.
Fig. 197 shows the different steps from the straight
stock to the finished piece.
FIG. 197.
The stock is heated to a high heat and bent as
shown in Figs. 198 and 199. A and B (Fig. 198)
\ /
FIG. 198.
FIG. 199.
are two pieces of flat iron of the same thickness.
The stock is placed like Fig. 198, the hammer
brought down lightly, to make sure that every-
thing is in the proper position, and then one hard
blow bends the stock into shape (Fig. 199).
Fig. 200 shows the method of starting the eye
STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 135
and working in the shoulder. The bent piece is
laid flat on the anvil and a piece of flat steel laid on
top, in such a position that one side of the steel
will cut into the work and form the shoulder for
FIG. 200. FIG. 201.
the jaw of the tongs. The steel is pounded into
the work until the metal is forged thin enough to
form the eye. This leaves the work in the shape
shown in Fig. 201. The part A, Fig. 201, is after-
ward drawn out to form the handle, the jaw and
eye are formed up, and, lastly, the eye is punched.
The forming of the jaw and the punching of the
rivet-hole should be done with the hand-hammer,
and not under the steam-hammer.
The handle is, of course, drawn out under the
steam-hammer, but needs no particular descrip-
tion. For careful finishing, the taper tool illus-
trated in Fig. 192, may be used, or a sledge and
swages.
As a general thing, steam-hammer work does not
differ very much from forging done on the anvil.
The method of operation, in either case, is almost
the same; but, when working under the hammer,
the4 work is more quickly done and should be han-
dled more rapidly.
Crank-shafts.— The crank-shaft, shown in Figs.
136
FORGE-PRACTICE.
128 and 129, is a quite common example of steam-
hammer work.
The different operations are about the same as
described for making it on the anvil.
A specially shaped tool is used to make the cuts
each side of the crank cheek. This tool and its
use are shown in Fig. 202. When the cuts are
J-fl
FIG. 202.
FIG. 203.
very deep, they should first be made with a hot-
chisel and then spread with the spreading tool.
If the shoulder is not very high, both operations,
of cutting and spreading, may be done at once with
the spreading tool.
After marking and opening out the cuts, the
same precautions, to avoid cold-shuts, must be
taken as are used when doing the same sort of
work on the anvil. The work should be held and
handled much the same as illustrated in Fig. 131,
STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 137
only in this case the sledge and anvil are replaced
by the top and bottom dies of the steam-hammer.
A block of steel may be used for squaring up into
the shoulder, as shown in Fig. 203. If a shoulder
is to be formed on both sides, one block may be
placed below and another above the work, some-
what as shown before in Fig. 194; the round bars
in the illustration being replaced with square ones.
Knuckles. — A knuckle such as shown in Fig.
139 would be made by identically the same
process as described for making it on the anvil.
A few suggestions might be made, however.
After the end of the bar has been split and bent
apart, ready for shaping, the work should be han-
dled, under the hammer, as shown in Fig. 204. It
FIG. 204.
should first be placed as shown by the solid lines,
and as the hammering proceeds, should be gradually
worked over into the position shown by the dotted
lines. The other side is worked in the same way.
FORGE-PRACTlCK.
After drawing out and shaping the ends the
knuckle is finished by bending the ends together
over a block, in the same way as shown in Fig. 144,
the work being done under the hammer.
Connecting-rod. Drawing Out between Shoulders.—
The forging illustrated in Fig. 126, while hardly
the exact proportions of common connecting-
rods, is near enough the proper shape to be a good
example of that kind of forging.
The forging, after the proper stock calculation
has been made, is started by making the cuts near
the two ends, as shown in Fig. 127. The distance,
A, must be so calculated, as explained before, that
ZL
FIG. 205.
FIG. 206.
the stock represented by that dimension, when
drawn out, will form the shape, 2" in diameter and
24" long, connecting the two wide ends.
The cuts are made with the spreading tool used
in connection with a short block shaped the same
STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 139
as the tool, or a second tool, the tools being placed
one above and one below the work, as shown in
Fig. 205.
After making the cuts the stock between them is
drawn down to the proper size and finished.
It sometimes happens that the distance A is so
short that the cuts are closer together than the
width of the die-faces, thus making it impossible
to draw out the work by using the flat dies. This
difficulty may be overcome by using two narrow
blocks as shown in Fig. 206.
Weldless Rings — Special Shapes. — It is often nec-
essary to make rings and similar shapes without a
weld. The simple process is illustrated in Figs.
155-7. Rings may be made in this way under the
steam-hammer much more rapidly than is possible
by bending and welding. To illustrate the rapid-
ity with which weldless rings can be made, the
author has seen the stock cut from the bar, the
ring forged and trued up in one heat. The ring in
question was about 10" outside diameter, the section
of stock in rim being about
i" square. The stock used
was about 3" square, soft steel.
A forging for a die to be
made of tool-steel is shown in
Fig. 207. FlG- 2°7-
This is made in the same general way as weld-
less rings. The stock is cut, shaped into a disc,
punched, and worked over a mandril into the shape
shown at A, Fig. 208.
The lug, projecting toward the center from the
140
FORGE-PRACTlrE.
flat edge of the die, is shaped on a special mandril,
the work being done as shown at B, the thick side
FIG. 208.
of the ring being driven into the groove in the man-
dril and shaped up as shown at C, where the end
view of the mandril and ring is shown.
If the flat edge of the die is very long, it may be
straightened out by using a flat mandril and work-
FIG. 209.
ing each side of the projecting lug after the lug has
been formed.
STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 141
The forging leaves the hammer in the shape
shown in Fig. 209 at A. The finishing of the sharp
corner is done on the anvil with hand tools, in
much the same way that any corner is squared up,
Figs. B and C giving a general idea of working up
the corner by using a flatter.
Punches. — The punches used for this kind of
work, and in fact for all punching under the steam-
hammer, should be short and thick.
A punch made as shown in Fig. 210 is very satis-
factory for general work. This punch is simply
a short tapering pin with
a shallow groove formed
around it about one third
of the length from the big
end. A bar of small
FIG. 210.
round iron (f" is about
right for small punches) is heated, wrapped around
the punch in the groove and twisted tight, as shown.
The punching is done in exactly the same way
as with hand tools ; that is, the punch is driven to
a depth of about one half or two thirds the thick-
ness of the piece, with the work lying flat on the
anvil; the piece is then turned over, the punch
started with the work still flat on the anvil, and
the hole completed by placing a disc, or some other
object with a hole in it, on the anvil; on this the
work is placed with the hole in the disc directly
under where the punch will come through. The
punch is then driven through and the hole completed.
The end of the punch must not be allowed to
become red-hot. If the punch is left in contact
142 FORGE-PRACTICE.
with the work too long, it will become heated, and,
after a few blows, the end will spread out in a mush-
room shape and stick in the hole.
To prevent the above, the punch should be lifted
out of the hole and cooled between every few blows.
Sometimes, when a hole can be accurately lo-
cated, an arrangement like that shown in Fig. 211
is used. The punch in this case is only slightly
longer than the thickness of the piece to be pierced,
and is used with the big end down as shown.
FIG. 211. FIG. 212.
The punch is driven, together with the piece of
metal which is cut out, through into the hole in the
die, which is just enough larger to give clearance to
the punch.
A convenient arrangement for locating the punch
centrally with the hole in the die is shown in Fig.
212.
The die should be somewhat larger in diameter
than the work to be punched. The wrork is first
placed in the proper position on the die and the
punch placed on top. The punch is located by
using a spider-shaped arrangement made from thin
iron. This spider has a central ring with a hole in
the center large enough to slip easily over the
punch. Radiating from the ring are four arms,
three of which have their ends bent down to fit
STEAM-HAMMER WORK. 143
around the outside of the die, the fourth being
longer and used for a handle. The ends of the bent
arms are so shaped that where they touch the out-
side of the die the central hole is exactly over the
hole in the die.
After locating the punch with the spider, and
while the spider is still in place, a light blow of the
hammer starts the punch, after which the spider is
lifted off and the punch driven through.
Forming Bosses on Flanges, etc. — A boss, on a
flange or other flat piece, such as shown in Fig. 213,
may be very easily formed by using a few simple
FIG. 213. FIG. 214. •
tools. The special tools are shown in Fig. 214,
and are : a round cutter used for starting the boss,
shown at A, which also shows a section of the tool,
and a flat disc, shown at B, used for flattening
and finishing the metal around the boss.
The stock is first forged into shape slightly
thicker than the boss is to be finished, as it flattens
down somewhat in the forging.
The boss is started by making a cut with the
circular cutter, as shown at A, Fig. 215, where is
also shown a section of the forging after the cut
has been made.
144
FORGE-PRACTICE.
The metal outside of the cut is then flattened
out, as shown by the dotted lines. This flattening
^ .>
FIG. 215.
and drawing -'out may be done easily by using a
bar of round steel, as shown at C. The bar is
placed in such a position as to fall just outside of
the boss. After striking a blow with the hammer,
the bar is moved farther toward the edge of the
work and the piece is turned slightly. In this way
the stock is roughly thinned out, leaving the boss
standing. To finish the work, the forging is turned
bottom side up over the disc, with the boss extend-
ing down into the hole in the disc, as shown at B.
With a few blows, the disc is forced up around the
boss and finishes the metal off smoothly.
The disc need not necessarily be large enough to
extend to the edge of the work; for if a disc as
described above is used to finish around the boss,
the edge of the work may be drawn down n the
usual way under the hammer.
A disc is not absolutely necessary in any case;
but the work may be more carefully and quickly
finished in this way.
STEAM-HAMMER WORK.
Round Tapering Work. — A round tapering shape,
such as shown at A, Fig. 216, should be first
FIG. 216.
roughly forged into shape. It may be started by
working in the shoulder next the head with round
bars, in the way illustrated before in Fig. 194.
The roughing out may be done with square or
flat pieces, using them in much the same way; or
one piece only may be used and the work allowed
to lie flat on the anvil, with the head projecting
over the edge.
After roughing out, the work may be finished
with swages. As ordinarily used, the swages
would leave the forging straight, with the oppo-
site sides parallel. To form a taper, a thin strip
should be held on top of the upper swage close to
and parallel with one of the edges, as shown at
B, Fig. 216. The strip causes the swage to tip
and slant, thus forming the work tapering.
CHAPTER VIII.
DUPLICATE WORK.
WHEN several pieces are to be made as nearly
alike as possible, the work is generally more easily
done by using "dies" or "jigs."
Generally speaking, "dies" are blocks of metal
having faces shaped for bending or forming work.
The term "jig" may be applied to almost any
contrivance used for helping to bend, shape, or
form work. As ordinarily used, a jig, generally,
is simply a combination of some sort of form or
flat plate and one or more
clamps and levers for bend-
ing.
Dies, or jigs, for simple
bending may be easily and
cheaply made of ordinary
cast . iron ; and, for most
purposes, left rough, or un-
finished.
Simple Bending. - The
bend shown in Fig. 217 is
a fair example of simple
work. The dies for making
this bend are two blocks
"! B
FIG. 217.
of cast iron made as shown, one simply a rect-
146
DUPLICATE WORK. 147
angular block the size of the inside of the bend to
be made, the other a block having on one side a
groove the same shape as the outside of the piece
to be bent. The blocks should be slightly wider
than the stock to be bent.
The stock is cut to the proper length, heated,
placed on the hollow block, and the small block
placed on top, as shown by the dotted lines at B,
Fig. 217. The bend is made by driving down the
small block with a blow of the hammer.
Work of this kind may be easily done under a
steam-hammer; and the dies described here are
intended for use in this way, most of them having
been designed for, and used under, a 2oo-lb. ham-
mer.
Dies of this kind may be fitted to the jaws of an
ordinary vise, the bending being done by tighten-
ing up the screw.
A die such as described above should have a
little "clearance"; that is, the opening in the hol-
low die should be slightly larger at the top than at
the bottom. The small, or top, die should be made
accordingly, slightly smaller at the bottom.
To make the dies easier to handle, a hole may be
drilled and tapped in each block and pieces of
round bars threaded and screwed into the holes to
form handles. This is more fully described in the
following example:
Fig. 218, A, is a hook bent from stock f" X i", to
fit around the flange of an I beam. The hooks
were about 6" long when finished. To bend these,
two cast-iron blocks, or dies, were used, shown at
148
FORGE-PRACTICE.
B. The dies were rough castings. Patterns were
made by laying out the hook on a piece of 2" white
FIG. 218.
FIG. 219.
pine and then sawing to shape with a band-saw.
The block was "laid off" as shown in Fig. 219, A,
the sawing being done on the dotted lines. This
left the blocks of such a shape that the space be-
tween them, when they were brought together
with the upper and lower edges parallel, was just
equal to the thickness of the stock to be bent.
Patterns of this kind should be given plenty of
"draft," which may be quickly and easily done by
planing the sides, after the blocks are sawed out,
to taper slightly as shown in Fig. 219, B, where the
dotted lines show the square sides before being
planed of! for draft as indicated by the solid lines.
When the castings were made, a 13/32" hole was
drilled in the right-hand end of each block and
tapped with \" tap. A piece of \" round iron
about 30" long was threaded with a die for about
i\" on each end and bent up to form the handle.
DUPLICATE WORK. 149
A nut was run on each end and the blocks screwed
on and locked by screwing the nut up against them,
making the finished dies as shown in Fig. 218. The
handle formed a spring, holding the dies far enough
apart to allow the iron to be placed between
them.
As mentioned before, dies of this kind can be
easily made to cover a variety of work, and are
very inexpensive. The dies in question, for in-
stance, required about half an hour's pattern work,
and about as much time more to fit the handles.
Calculating shop time at 50 cents per hour and
castings at 5 cents per pound, and allowing for the
handle, the entire cost of these dies was less than
$1.25.
The same handle can be used for any number of
dies of about the same size, and if any one of these
dies should break, it can be replaced at a very
trifling cost.
Cast-iron dies of this character will bend several
hundred pieces and show no signs of giving out,
although they may snap at the first piece if made
of hard iron. On an important job it is generally
wise to cast an extra set to have in case the first
prove defective.
Almost any simple shape may be bent in this
way, and the dies may be used on any ordinary
steam-hammer with flat forging faces ; and not only
that, but, not having to be fastened down in any
way, they may be placed under the hammer, or
removed, without interfering with other work.
Loop with Bent-in Ends. — For larger work, it is
150 FORGE-PRACTICK.
often better to have a die to replace the lower die
of the hammer, as in the case mentioned below.
A number of forgings were wanted like .4, Fig.
220. The stock was cut to the proper length and
FIG. 220.
the ends bent at right angles. To make all the
pieces alike, one end of each piece was first bent,
as shown at B, in a vise. The other ends of the
pieces were then all bent the same way, by hooking
the bent end over a bar cut to the proper length
and bending down the straight end over the other
end of the bar, as shown at C. To make the final
bend, a cast-iron form was used similar to D. This
casting was about i\" thick, and the dovetail-
shaped base fitted the slot in the anvil base of the
hammer. When the form was used, the anvil-die
was removed and the form put in its place.
The strips to be bent were laid on top of this form
and a heavy piece of flat stock, i"X2", bent into
DUPLICATE WORK.
a U shape to fit the outside of the forging, placed
on top. A light blow of the hammer would force
the U-shaped piece down, bending the stock into
the proper shape. Fig. 221 shows the operation,
the dotted lines indicat- \_
ing the position of the
pieces before bringing
down the hammer.
The most satisfactory
results were obtained
by bringing the ham-
mer down lightly on
the work, then, by turn-
ing on a full head of
steam, the ram was
forced down compara-
tively slowly, bending
the stock gradually and
easily. This was much
more satisfactory than a quick, sharp blow.
It is not necessary to have the U-shaped piece of
exactly the same shape as the forging. It is suffi-
cient if the lower ends of the U are the proper dis-
tance apart. As the strip is bent over the form, it
naturally follows the outline; and it is only neces-
sary to force it against the form at the lower points
of the sides.
The last bend might have been made by using a
second die fastened to the ram of the hammer in
place of the U-shaped loop.
Two dies are necessary for much work ; but these
are more expensive to make. The upper die can
FIG.
152
FORGE-PRACTICE.
be easily made to fit in the dovetail on the ram and
be held in place with a key.
Right-angle Bending. — Very convenient tools for
bending right angles, in stock V' or less in thick-
ness, are shown in Fig. 222. The lower one is made
to fit easily over the anvil
of the steam-hammer, the
projecting lips on either
side preventing the die
from sliding forward or
back. The upper one has
a handle screwed in, as
described before. Both
of these bending tools are
made of cast iron, the
patterns being simply
sawed from a 2" plank.
Cast-iron dies of this
kind should be made of a tough, gray iron, rather
than the harder white iron, as they are less liable to
break if cast from the former.
Many of the regular hammer dies, that is, the dies
with flat faces for general forging, are made of cast
iron ; but the iron in this case is of another quality
— chilled iron — the faces being chilled, or hardened,
for a depth of an inch or more.
Circular Bending — Coil Springs. — The dies de-
scribed before have been for simple bends; the
blows, or bending force, coming from one direction
only. In the following example, where a complete
circle, or more than a circle, is formed, an arrange-
ment of a different nature is required.
FIG. 222.
DUPLICATE WORK.
153
The spring shown in Fig. 223 is an example of
this kind. In this particular case the bending
was done cold; but for hot bending the operation
is exactly the same.
FIG. 223.
FIG. 224.
This jig (Fig. 224) was built upon a base-plate, A,
about |" thick, having one end bent down at right
angles for clamping in an ordinary vise.
The post E was simply a i" stud screwed into
the plate. B was a piece of f'Xi" stock about
2" long, fastened down with two rivets, and served
as a stop for clamping the stock against while bend-
ing. C was a lever made of a piece of £"Xi"
stock about 10" long, having one end ground
rounding as shown. This lever turned on the
screw F, threaded into the base-plate. D was the
bending lever, having a hole punched and forged
in the end large enough to turn easily on the stud
E. On the under side of this lever was riveted a
short piece of iron having one end bent down at
right angles. This piece was so placed that the
distance between stud E and the inside face of bent
end, when the lever was in position for bending, was
I $4 FORGE-PRACTICE.
about Y6/' greater than the thickness of the stock
to be bent.
When in operation, the stock to be bent was
placed in the position shown in the sketch, the
lever C pulled over to lock it in place, and the bend-
ing lever D dropped over it in the position shown.
To bend the stock, the lever was pulled around in
the direction of the arrow and as many turns taken
as were wanted for the spring, or whatever was
being bent. By lifting off the bending lever and
loosening the clamping lever the piece could be
slipped from the stud.
With jigs of any kind a suitable stop should
always be provided to place the end of the stock
against, in order to insure placing and bending all
pieces as nearly as possible alike.
Drop-forgings. — Strictly speaking, drop-forgings
are forgings made between dies in a drop-press or
forge. Each die has a cavity in its face, so shaped
that when the dies are in contact the hole left has
the form of the desired forging. One of the dies is
fastened to the bed of the drop-press, directly in
line with and under the other die, which is keyed
to the under side of the drop, a heavy weight run-
ning between upright guides. The forging is done
by raising the drop and allowing it to fall between
the guides of its own weight.
There are generally two or more sets of cavities
in the die-faces, one set being used for roughing
out, or "breaking down," the stock roughly to
shape ; another set for finishing.
The dies mentioned above would be known as
DUPLICATE WORK. 155
the "breaking-down" and "finishing" dies, re-
spectively. Sometimes several intermediate dies
are used.
In a general way, the term drop-forging may be
used to describe almost any forging formed be-
tween shaped dies whether made by a drop-press or
other means.
Taking the word in its broadest meaning, the
example given below might be called a drop-forg-
ing, the work being done between shaped dies.
Eye-bolt — Drop-forging. — The example in ques-
tion is the eye-bolt given in Fig. 225. The differ-
ent steps in the making, and
the dies used, are shown in Fig.
226.
Round stock is used, and first
shaped like A, Fig. 226, the
forming being done in the die
B. This die, as well as the other
• .ru FlG- 22S-
one, is made in the same way
as ordinary steam-hammer swages ; that is, simply
two blocks of tool-steel fastened together with a
spring handle. The inside faces of the blocks are
formed to shape the piece as shown.
The stock is revolved through about 90 degrees
between each two blows of the steam-hammer, and
the hammering continued until the die-faces just
touch.
For the second step the ball is flattened to about
the thickness of the finished, eye between the bare
hammer-dies. The hole is then punched, under
the hammer, with .an ordinary punch.
156
FORGK-PRACTICr:.
The forging is finished with a few blows in the
finishing die D, which is shown by a sectional cut
and plan. This die is so shaped that, when the
two parts are together, the hole left is exactly the
SECTION AT X-X
FIG. 226.
shape of the finished forging. In the first die, how-
ever, it should be noticed that the holes do not con-
form exactly to the desired shape of the forging;
here the holes, instead of being semicircular, are
rounded off considerably at the edges. This is
shown more clearly in Fig. 227, A, where the dotted
lines show the shape of the forging, the solid lines
the shape of the die.
The object of the above is this : If the hole is a
semicircle in section, the stock, being larger than
the small parts of the hole, after a blow, is left
DUPLICATE WORK.
157
FIG. 227.
like B, the metal being forced out between the
flat faces of the die and
forming 'fins.' When
the bar is turned and
again hit, these fins are
doubled in and make a
bad place in the forging.
When the hole is a
modified semicircle, as de-
scribed above, the stock
will be formed like C,
and may be turned and
worked without injury
or danger of cold-shuts.
Forming Dies Hot.— Making dies for work of the
above kind is generally an expensive process, par-
ticularly if the work be done in the machine-shop.
Rough dies for this kind of work may be cheaply
made in the forge-shop by forming them hot.
The blocks for the dies are forged and prepared,
and a blank, or 'master,' forging the same shape
and size as the forgings the dies are expected to
form is made from tool-steel and hardened.
The die blanks are then heated, the master
placed between them, and the dies hammered to-
gether, the master being turned frequently during
the hammering.
This, of course, leaves a cavity the shape of the
master.
When two or more sets of dies are necessary
there, of course, must be separate masters for each
set of dies. Dies made in this way will have the
158 FORGE-PRACTICK.
corners of the cavities rounded off, as the metal is
naturally pulled away during the forming, leaving
the corners somewhat relieved.
Dies such as described above may be used to
advantage under almost any steam-hammer.
For spring hammers, helve hammers, and power
hammers generally the die faces may be formed
the same as above; but the die-blocks should be
fastened to the hammer and anvil of the power
hammer itself, replacing the ordinary dies.
Cast-iron Dies. — Much drop-forging is done with
cast iron dies, and for rough work that is not too
heavy they are very satisfactory, and the first cost
is very small as compared with the steel dies used
for the same purpose.
Drop-forging can be done in this way with the
steam-hammer, by keying the dies in the dovetails
made for the top and bottom hammer-dies.
Welding in particular is done in this way, as the
metal to be worked is in such a soft condition that
there is little chance of smashing the die.
CHAPTER IX.
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL.
Classification. — For intelligent working in iron
and steel some understanding of their chemical
nature and method of manufacture is necessary.
For convenience' sake, the irons and steels ordi-
narily used in the forge-shop may be divided into
three general classes, viz. :
1. Wrought iron.
2. Machine-steel, or low-carbon steel.
3. Tool-steel.
Cast iron should also be considered as being the
base product from which the above are derived.
Roughly speaking, the above metals may be con-
sidered as mixtures, or, better, compounds of iron
and carbon.
There is always present a small percentage of
other elements, such as manganese, silicon, sulphur,
phosphorus, etc., but for the present these need not
be considered.
The percentage of carbon commonly contained
in the several materials is about as follows :
Cast iron 2 . 50 to 4 . 50 per cent.
Wrought iron 02" .50" "
Machine-steel 02 " . 60 ' ' "
Tool-steel 70 " 1.50 " "
l6o FORGE-PRACTICE.
Cast Iron.— The crude material, from which all
iron and steel are manufactured, is iron ore; which
is, in its commercial forms, iron oxide. Some of
the common ores have much the same appearance
and color as iron rust.
To obtain cast iron, the ore is mixed with lime-
stone and melted in a blast-furnace. The blast-
furnace is a shell of iron round in section and lined
with fire-brick. For a short distance up from the
bottom the sides are straight, then rapidly con-
verge, and then contract again to about the same
diameter as the bottom. Such a furnace, with its
accompanying 'hot-stoves,' is shown, partly in
section, in Fig. 228.
The blast-furnace here illustrated is about 80 feet
high and 20 feet inside diameter at its largest point.
Heated air, under pressure, is blown into the fur-
nace through water cooled tuyeres placed a short
distance above the bed, or bottom, of the furnace.
When the furnace is in operation, there is a bed
of burning coke extending somewhat below the
level of the tuyeres ; on this is a charge, or layer, of
mixed ore and limestone, then a layer of fuel,
another layer of ore and limestone, etc., until the
furnace is nearly filled, more ore and fuel being
added as the mass settles down in the furnace.
The limestone acts as a flux and helps to carry off,
as slag, earthy impurities in the ore. The ore, as
it melts, is deoxidized; that is, the oxygen is car-
ried off, and the molten iron, being much heavier
than the other material in the furnace, sinks to the
bottom.
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. iCl
When enough melted iron has collected in the
bottom, or hearth, of the furnace, a small hole is
opened, and the molten metal flows out and runs
By Courtesy of The Scientific A merican.
FIG. 228.
into a series of small ditches, much like a gridiron,
where it cools, and is then broken up into pieces
4 or 5 feet long. These pieces are called ' pigs ' ; and
in this form cast iron is marketed.
When castings are to be made, these 'pigs' are
1 62 FORGE-PRACTICE.
remelted in the foundry, in a furnace called a cupola,
similar to, but considerably smaller than, the blast-
furnace.
It was the custom some years ago to allow the
hot gases to escape from the top of the furnace
and to blow in cold blast through the tuyeres.
Now the top of the furnace is kept closed by means
of a cone-shaped casting pulled upward against a
conical rim, slanting downward.
When new material is to be added to the charge,
the ore or fuel is dumped inside the slanting, funnel-
shaped rim and the cone is lowered, allowing the
material to slide downward, when the cone is again
raised, thus closing the furnace.
Just below the rim a large pipe opens into the
furnace. Through this pipe the hot gases are led
downward into the 'hot-stoves.'
The hot-stoves are iron cylinders about 20 feet in
diameter and 80 feet high, filled with fire-brick hav-
ing small holes, or flues, extending from top to
bottom of the stove. The hot gases rise through
one set of flues and descend through another, thus
heating the brick to a high temperature.
After leaving the stoves, the gases are carried
through underground pipes to a large stack, or
chimney, and discharged into the air. When a
stove has been thoroughly heated in this way the
gases are turned into other stoves, and the cold
blast from the blowing-engines is forced through
the flues in the heated brick on its way to the blast-
furnace.
Each stove is used in turn in this way.
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 163
The blast leaving a hot-stove is heated to a tem-
perature considerably over 1000° F. The use of
hot blasts effects a considerable saving in the
manufacture of cast iron; and its introduction is
regarded as marking an epoch in the iron indus-
tries.
Wrought Iron. — It will be seen from the table
that, while cast iron contains a comparatively
large amount of carbon, wrought iron and machine-
steel contain very little. It would seem only nec-
essary, then, in order to make either of the two
last-named metals, to remove some of the carbon
from cast iron. In most cases this is exactly what
is done. First, the high-carbon cast iron is made,
and then a large part of the carbon is burned out,
leaving the low-carbon wrought iron, or machine-
steel.
Both wrought iron and machine-steel are made
by very similar processes, the essential difference
being principally the temperature at which the
metals are worked.
Fig. 229 represents a "puddling" furnace used
for making wrought iron. The sketch shows a sec-
tion running the length of the furnace through its
center. At A is the fireplace; B, the hearth, or
puddle ; and the stack, or flue, at C.
A fire is built in the fireplace, and the flames on
their way to the stack are deflected downward, by
the roof of the furnace, upon the iron lying on the
hearth. The iron is thus brought under the influ-
ence of the flames without being in direct contact
with the fire.
164
FORGE-PRACTICE.
Cast iron, together with hammer scale, or some
other oxide of iron, is placed upon the hearth and
melted down. The fire is then so regulated as to
give an oxidizing flame; that is, more air passed
through the fire than can be burned, leaving a sur-
plus of oxygen in the flames which are playing over
FIG. 229.
the melted iron on the hearth. The oxygen in the
flames, as well as that in the hammer scale, or iron
ore, melted with the cast iron, gradually burns out
the carbon of the cast iron. The melted mass is
constantly stirred in order to expose all parts to
the influence of the flames.
As a general rule, the more carbon iron contains
the easier it melts ; so cast iron will melt at a much
lower heat than wrought iron. A temperature
which is high enough to melt cast iron will leave
wrought iron in sort of a pasty condition.
When making wrought iron, as the carbon is
burned out of the iron the temperature of the fur-
nace is kept below the melting-point of wrought
iron, but above that of cast iron ; and, as the carbon
is burned out, the metal stiffens and becomes pasty ;
and, as the process is completed, the pasty mass is
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 165
worked up into balls, which at the completion of
the process are taken from the furnace and ham-
mered or rolled into bars.
There is more or less slag with the iron in the
puddle, and some of this slag sticks to the iron,
and drops of it are mixed with the iron in the balls.
Some of this slag is squeezed from the balls, but
part of it remains in small drops all through the
mass. When the balls are drawn out into shape,
these small drops of slag are lengthened out and
form minute streaks running through the length of
the bar. These small seams of slag give wrought
iron its peculiar characteristics together with its
fibrous structure.
Machine-steel. — Machine-steel is variously known
as machine-steel, machinery-steel, low-carbon steel,
mild steel, and soft steel. The common shop name
is machine- or machinery-steel, while the more
correct technical term is low-carbon steel.
Machine-steel contains about the same amount of
carbon as wrought iron, but does not have the slag
seams of the iron. Like wrought iron, it is made
by reducing the amount of carbon in cast iron.
Machine-steel may be divided into two classes,
open-hearth and Bessemer, both deriving their
names from the method of manufacture.
Bessemer steel is made by blowing air through
melted cast iron, the oxygen in the air burning out
the silicon and carbon, all of the carbon, as nearly
as possible, being removed in this way, the proper
amount of carbon afterward being added to the
steel in the form of " spiegeleisen " — a form of
cast iron very rich in manganese, carbon, and silicon.
1 66 FORGE-PRACTICE.
In this process the cast iron is treated in a vessel
known as a converter. The converter is a large
barrel-shaped steel or iron vessel, 15 or 20 ft. high,
lined with fire-brick, and having a bottom pierced
with many small holes through which air is blown.
The top is covered, with the exception of a short,
spout-shaped opening about 3 ft. in diameter.
The converter is mounted on trunnions, and may
be turned upside down, right side up, or any inter-
mediate position.
In operation, the converter is turned in a horizon-
tal position, a charge of melted cast iron poured in
at the mouth, and the blast turned on. The blast
has sufficient pressure to prevent the melted iron
from flowing down into the tuyeres in the bottom.
The vessel is then turned on its trunnions into an
upright position and the air blown through the
metal until practically all the carbon has been
burned out. The exact condition of the metal is
shown by the flame coming from the mouth of the
converter, this flame changing in color and volume
as the silicon and carbon are gradually burned.
When the carbon has been consumed, the converter
is again turned on its side, the blast stopped, -the
necessary amount of spiegeleisen added to give the
proper per cent of carbon and manganese, and the
contents of the vessel poured into a large casting
ladle. From the ladle the metal is poured into
moulds and cast into ' ' ingots."
If the "blowing" is continued too long, the iron
itself will begin to burn, making the metal ' ' rotten"
and crumbly when working.
It seems like a waste of time to burn all the carbon
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL.
167
out and then add more; but it is easier to remove
nearly all the carbon and replace some of it than to
Stop the blow at just the moment when the carbon
content is right.
This process derives its name from Sir Henry
Bessemer, credited with its invention, and has been
used since about 1858.
Open-hearth steel is made by melting together
pig iron, cast iron, and scrap iron and steel, and
removing the carbon by the action of an oxidizing
flame of burning gas.
The process is carried out in a furnace the same in
principle as, but more elaborate in construction than,
the puddling-furnace used in making wrought iron.
A view and partial section of a large open-hearth
furnace is shown in Fig. 230. The fuel used is pro-
By courtesy of the Scientific American.
FIG. 230.
ducer-gas. This is made by burning coal in air-
tight retorts, not enough air being supplied to give
1 68 FORGK-PRA(TI(T..
complete combustion. The gas from these retorts
is forced into the furnace through valves and a
mass of heated brickwork pierced with holes. Air
is also supplied to the furnace through a similar
arrangement, the air and gas entering through
openings near each other and combining to make
an intensely hot flame. This flame plays over the
metal lying on the hearth of the furnace and per-
forms exactly the same work as the flame from the
fire in the puddling-furnace.
The hot gases from the furnace, instead of being
allowed to escape, are first led through an arrange-
ment of brickwork at the opposite end of the fur-
nace, similar to the heated brickwork through
which the entering gas and air were forced.
After a short time the valves, through which the
air and gas are admitted, are turned, and the air
and gas are forced through the brickwork which
has been heating, the flames being then led through
the first set of bricks, which is, in its turn, heated,
this reversal of the flow taking place several times
an hour. This arrangement is very similar to the
hot-stoves used with the blast-furnace.
Under the action of the gas-flame the carbon is
gradually oxidized, and when it has been reduced
to" the proper percentage the melted metal is
drawn from the hearth and cast into ingots.
This process takes much longer than the Besse-
mer, but may be stopped at any moment when the
steel contains the proper amount of carbon.
As a comparison of the two different processes, it
may be said that open-hearth steel, from the nature
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 169
of the process, may be tested and corrected from
time to time while it is being converted, while
Bessemer steel is converted so rapidly that none of
this testing can be done.
Bessemer steel is used mostly for rails, also to
some extent for structural shapes and cheaper
boiler-steel, etc.
Open-hearth steel is used for best grades of
boiler-plate, structural steel, etc.
The United States Government specifies that
sheet steel used in marine boilers must be made by
the open-hearth process.
When machine-steel is made, the temperature of
the furnace is high enough to keep the metal liquid
during the entire process. In this way the slag
floats to the top of the iron and does not remain
mixed with it, as when making wrought iron.
After sufficient carbon has been taken from the
iron,, and while the metal is still in a molten condi-
tion, it is drawn off from underneath the slag, cast
into ingots, and later rolled into bars. This gives
the steel a granular, not a fibrous, structure, and
leaves it free from the slag contained in wrought
iron.
Tool-steel. — Tool-steel may be made by the
process outlined above — that is, by making a
high-carbon open-hearth or Bessemer steel; but
the best steel is made by the ' 'crucible" process.
Ordinary tool-steel contains about i per cent car-
bon, and may be made either by taking some of the
carbon from cast iron, which might be done by the
methods above, or adding carbon to wrought iron.
1 70 FORGE-PRACTICE.
The last is the method in common use. In the
crucible process, small pieces of wrought iron, steel
scrap, and other material rich in carbon are mixed
in proper proportions to give the desired percentage
of carbon and are placed in a crucible. The cruci-
ble is covered with a lid to prevent the oxidation
of the melted metal, placed in a furnace and the
mixture melted down. When the metal has been
melted and properly mixed, the crucible is taken
from the furnace and the steel poured into a mold
and cast into an ingot, which is afterward rolled into
bars.
What was known as "blister steel" was once
made in almost the same way ' ' case-hardening ' ' is
now done. " Harveyizing " armor plate is also
done in somewhat the same way.
The process was based on the fact that when
wrought iron is heated in contact with some sub-
stance very rich in carbon, it will gradually absorb
the carbon from those substances and be converted
into high-carbon steel. This is the principle used
when making blister steel or in case-hardening.
Steel was at one time commonly made by sur-
rounding bars of wrought iron with charcoal and
sealing the bars and the charcoal in air-tight
boxes, this being necessary to prevent oxidation
during the heating which followed. The boxes
were heated to a high temperature and held at
that heat for several days. The outside of the bars
was carbonized first, thus making a shell, or coat-
ing, of tool-steel around a soft, wrought-iron center.
In other words, carbon was added to the low-carbon
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 17 r
wrought iron and converted it into high-carbon
tool-steel. As the heating was continued, the
carbon worked in deeper and deeper, but the inside
of the bar would not become as highly carbonized
as the outside and the steel was ' ' streaky."
After bars were carbonized in this way, they
were cut into lengths and welded together, making
the steel more uniform in structure, but not nearly
as uniform as modern "crucible" steel.
Comparison of Wrought-iron and Machine-steel. —
Both wrought-iron and low-carbon steel are chem-
ically about the same; that is, a sample of each
may contain about the same amount of carbon,
etc., and yet the two materials may be very differ-
ent.
The broken end of a bar of iron has a stringy,
fibrous appearance, while machine-steel shows a
more crystalline, grainy fracture. It is this struc-
tural condition that marks the distinction between
the two metals.
The fiber of the wrought iron is produced by
minute, slag seams. Each one of these slag seams
is more or less a source of weakness, as the slag,
being much weaker than the iron, is liable to give
way, causing a crack. The presence of the slag
is of some advantage when welding, acting as a
flux.
Wrought iron is much more liable to split than
machine-steel when being forged, and, while it
may be heated and worked at a slightly higher
temperature than steel, wjll not stand as much
hammering at a lower temperature.
172 FORGE-PRACTICE.
Machine-steel is stronger than wrought iron, hav-
ing a tensile strength very much higher.
Machine-steel may be welded easily without a
flux; but sound welds are more easily made when
a flux is used, the welding being done at a slightly
lower heat than the welding heat of wrought iron.
Machine-steel may not be distinguished from
wrought iron by the hardening test. Some irons
may be slightly hardened, while many low-carbon
steels can not be hardened to any appreciable ex-
tent. The Government specifications for boiler-
plate state that the steel used in boilers shall be
capable of being heated to a red heat, plunged in
cold water, and then bent double, cold — showing
by this that steel does not necessarily harden.
In brief: In a forging, when much welding is to
be done, wrought iron has some advantages; but,
for general work — particularly when much forging
is required — machine-steel is to be preferred, being
stronger and less liable to split.
The fibrous structure of wrought iron is well
shown by taking a piece 5" or 6" long and treating
it with weak acid for a day or so. The acid will
etch in the iron and leave the fibers of slag standing
in relief.
Properties of Wrought Iron, Mild Steel, and Tool-
steel. — In brief, the valuable properties of the
different metals are as follows:
Wrought iron : Easily welded ; easily hammered,
or forged, into shape while hot; can be worked to
some extent while cold; will not harden to any
extent ; particularly good for welds.
METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. 173
Mild steel: Easily welded; easily hammered, or
forged, into shape while hot ; can be worked to some
extent while cold ; will not harden to any -extent ;
particularly good for forging ; stronger than wrought
iron.
Tool-steel: Particularly valuable on account of
its hardening property; much stronger than mild
steel in tensile strength; used principally for mak-
ing tools and parts of machines where wearing qual-
ities are required; welds with difficulty, sometimes
not at all; properties depend to large extent upon
percentage of carbon present.
CHAPTER X.
TOOL-STEEL WORK.
Tool-steel. — Ordinary tool-steel is practically a
combination of iron and carbon. The kind com-
monly used for small tools contains about i per cent
carbon.
Steel which contains a large amount of carbon is
known as "high" carbon steel, while that having a
small amount is called "low" carbon steel. Steel-
makers use the word "temper" as referring to the
amount of carbon a steel contains; thus a steel-
maker speaks of a high-temper steel as meaning a
steel containing a large amount of carbon, and a
low temper as meaning a small amount of carbon.
Steel is also designated by the number of hun-
dredths of i-per-cent carbon which it contains.
For instance, a one-hundred-carbon steel contains
i per cent, or one hundred hundredths per cent
carbon, a forty-carbon steel contains forty hun-
dredths per cent carbon, etc.
The property of tool-steel which makes it par-
ticularly valuable is the fact that it can be hardened
to a greater or less degree to suit the purpose for
which it is intended.
Hardening. — If a piece of tool-steel be heated
174
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 175
red-hot and then suddenly cooled it becomes very
hard. This is known as "hardening." If the
reverse be done — the steel heated red-hot and
cooled very slowly — it will be softened. This is
known as "annealing." In other words — the speed
at which a piece of steel is cooled from a high heat
determines its hardness; thus, if steel is cooled
very fast it becomes very hard ; if cooled very slowly
it is softened, and by varying the speed of the cool-
ing the hardness of the steel may be varied.
The proper heat from which the steel should be
cooled varies with the percentage of carbon in the
steel. As a general rule, the greater the amount
of carbon, the lower the hardening heat — that is,
a "high" steel will harden at a much lower tem-
perature than a ' ' low" carbon steel.
The only way to determine the proper heat at
which to harden any particular kind of steel is by
experiment. This may be easily done as follows:
A small piece of the same kind of steel as that to
be hardened is hammered out into a bar about \"
or f" square. The end of this bar is heated until
it shows dull red and then cooled in cold water.
The end should be tried with a file and about \"
broken off over the corner of the anvil.
It will probably be found that the steel may be
filed, and breaks with difficulty, the grain of the
broken end being rather coarse and somewhat
stringy. The same experiment should be repeated
at a slightly higher heat. This time the steel will
be harder — shown by its being harder to file and
more easily broken — and the grain will be slightly
176 FORGE-PRACTIOF..
finer. This experiment should be repeated, rais-
ing the heat slightly each time, until a heat is
reached which, after cooling, leaves the steel so
hard that the file will slip over without catching
at all, and so brittle that it snaps very easily.
When broken, the break shows a very fine, even
grain. This is the proper heat at which to harden
that particular kind of steel, and is called the
' ' hardening heat."
If the experimenting be continued it will be seen
that each additional increase of temperature, above
the hardening heat, increases the coarseness of the
grain and makes the steel very brittle, indicating
that the steel, when hardened at these higher heats,
grows coarser and less fine in texture, and, conse-
quently, is not as strong, and will not hold as good
a cutting edge, as if hardened at the proper ' ' hard-
ening" heat.
The proper heat at which to harden any kind of
steel is, as noted above, that particular heat that
gives the steel the finest grain and leaves it file
hard.
The two general laws of hardening are these :
1. The more carbon a steel contains the lower
the heat at which it may be properly hardened.
2. The faster steel is cooled from the hardening
heat the harder it becomes.
Tempering. — Giving a piece of steel or a tool
the proper degree of hardness to do the work for
which it is intended is known as "tempering."
The steel-workers use the word "temper" in a
very different sense from the steel-makers. ' ' Tern-
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 177
per" is used by the tool-maker, or tool-smith, as
meaning the hardness of a tool or piece of tempered
steel, regardless of the amount of carbon it con-
tains.
Tools hardened as described above (heated to
hardening heat and cooled in cold water) are too
hard and brittle for most uses, and must be softened
somewhat to fit them to perform the work they are
intended for.
The operation of slightly softening the hardened
steel is known as ' ' drawing the temper, ' ' and this
is accomplished by slightly reheating the previ-
ously hardened steel.
If a piece of hardened steel be heated to a tem-
perature of about 430° F. it will be very slightly
softened and toughened, being left about hard
enough for engraving-tools, small lathe- tools,
scrapers, etc. If the heat be raised to 460° F. or
500° F., the hardness is about right for taps, dies,
drills, etc. Reheating to 550° F. or 560° F. makes
the hardened steel about right for cold-chisels, saws,
etc.; while a temperature of 570° F. leaves very
little hardness in the steel — just about right for
springs. When a temperature of 650° F. is reached
the ' ' temper ' ' is all gone and the steel is left soft
enough to be easily filed. With a slight increase
of temperature above this point the steel becomes
red-hot.
These temperatures to which the steel is reheated
may be measured in several ways. One way would
be to heat a bath of oil to the proper temperature
and, after hardening, dip the tools in this until they
178 FORGE-PRACTICE.
were of the same temperature as the bath. This
would answer for tempering on a large scale, but
is hardly practical when only a few tools are to be
treated.
The steel itself furnishes about the easiest means
of roughly determining this temperature. If a
piece of steel or iron be polished bright and heated,
a thin scale forms on the outside, which changes color
as the temperature is increased. When the scale
first commences to appear, at a temperature of
about 430° F., the surface of the steel seems to turn
a very pale yellow ; as the temperature increases and
the scale grows thicker, this yellow becomes darker,
changes into brown, which becomes tinged with
red, turning into light purple, dark purple, and
finally blue. These colors are due to the thin oxide
or scale formed and show nothing except the tem-
perature to which the metal was last heated.
A piece of wrought iron or soft steel will, when
heated, show these colors as well as tool-steel. The
colors are permanent and remain after the metal
is cooled. The colored scale is very thin and may
be easily removed by polishing.
If the tool is not properly hardened in the first
place the fact that it shows the proper temper color
on the outside means nothing.
About the only way to test the temper of a tool is
to try it with a file, and even then the grain may
be too coarse, due to hardening at too high a heat.
The complete process of tempering a tool (i.e.,
giving it the proper degree of hardness to perform
its work) consists of first hardening, by cooling sud-
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 179
denly from the hardening heat, and then slightly
softening, by reheating to a comparatively low
temperature.
After the reheating the steel may be suddenly
cooled or left to cool in the air. Sudden cooling
leaves it slightly harder.
The higher the temperature of the reheating, up
to a visible red heat, the softer the steel and the
' ' lower ' ' the temper.
If the steel is by accident or otherwise reheated
to too high a temperature when drawing the tem-
per, the tool must be rehardened and the temper
again drawn.
When there is any doubt as to the proper heat
at which to harden any piece of steel it is much
better to harden at too low rather- than too high a
heat. If hardened at too low a heat it may be
reheated and again hardened at a proper heat, but
if too high a heat is used the first time there is no
way of detecting the fact, and the tool will prob-
ably break the first time used.
As a general rule, a tool hardened at too high a
heat will have a crumbly and scratchy cutting
edge.
Tempering Tools. — In practice tools may be di-
vided for convenience in tempering into two gen-
eral classes:
First, tools which have only a cutting edge tem-
pered, such as most lathe-tools, cold-chisels, etc.
Second, tools tempered to a uniform hardness
throughout, or for a considerable length, such as
dies, reamers, taps, milling-cutters, etc.
l8o FORGE-PRACTICE.
Tempering Tools when Only an Edge is Hardened
— Cold-chisel. — The method of tempering a cold-
chisel will serve as an example of the tempering
of tools in the first class, the only difference in
the tempering of various tools in this class being
the temperature to which the tools are reheated, as
shown by the ' ' temper color."
A table showing the temperatures to which
various tools should be reheated after hardening to
properly ' ' draw the temper, ' ' together with the so-
called "temper colors," or color of scale, corre-
sponding to these temperatures, is given on page
248.
After the chisel has been forged it should be
allowed to cool until black. The cutting end is
then heated to the proper hardening heat for two
or three inches back from the edge, care being
taken no£ to heat the steel above the hardening heat.
(Steel should always be hardened at a rising heat.)
The heated end is then hardened by cooling about
two inches of the point in cold water, the end being
left in the water just long enough to cool it. The
chisel is then withdrawn from the water and the
end polished with a piece of emery-paper, old grind-
stone, or something of that character.
As part of the chisel is still red-hot the heat from
this hot part will gradually reheat the cold end,
thus "drawing the temper." "Temper colors"
will begin to show next the heated part, and as
the cold end is reheated the band of colors will
move toward the point of the chisel. When a deep
bluish-purple color shows at the cutting edge the
TOOL-STEEL WORK. l8l
tool is again cooled in order to prevent further
reheating and softening of the steel.
Should part of the chisel be still red-hot when
the end is cooled the second time, then only the
end should be dipped in the water and the tool held
there until all of the chisel is black, when the entire
length may be cooled.
If it were a lathe-tool being tempered the process
would be the same excepting the tool should be
cooled the second time when the yellow scale appears
at the cutting edge.
When hardening the ends of tools as described
above, the tool while in the water should be kept
in constant motion to prevent cooling the steel
along a sharp line, as well as to keep up a circula-
tion of water around the cooling metal.
Tempering Tools of the Second Class (Hardened
all Through). — Tools of the second class (those of
uniform hardness throughout) may be tempered as
follows : The whole tool is first heated to a uniform
hardening heat and cooled completely, thus harden-
ing it throughout. The surface is then polished
bright and the temper drawn by laying the tool on
a piece of red-hot iron until the surface shows the
desired color, generally dark yellow or light brown
for such tools as taps, dies, milling-cutters, etc.
While reheating on the iron the tool should be
turned almost constantly, otherwise the parts in
contact with the iron will become overheated, and
consequently too soft, before the other parts are
hot enough.
Sometimes the reheating is done on a bath of
1 82 FORGE-PRACTICE.
melted lead or heated sand. Large pieces arc
sometimes ' ' drawn ' ' over a slow fire or on a sheet
of iron laid over the fire.
Recalescence. — There is a peculiar fact which
helps to determine the proper hardening temper-
ature of a piece of steel. If a piece of steel be
heated to about a bright-red heat and allowed to
cool, it will cool gradually until a temperature is
reached at which it seems to grow hotter; that is,
it grows darker in color, and then, when the critical
temperature is reached, it becomes lighter for an
instant and then gradually cools down. The tem-
perature at which this seeming reheating takes
place is about the proper hardening heat.
This phenomenon is known as "Recalescence."
An attempt is made in Fig. 231 to illustrate the
FIG. 231.
action of the heated bar at the point of recales-
cence. A shows the heated bar as it comes from
the fire — the hottest part showing lightest. At
B the steel has cooled slightly and the heat of
recalescence begins to show at the light point about
the centre of the bar. At C the first streak has
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 1^3
shifted somewhat and the end begins apparently
to reheat, this second streak gradually moving up
as illustrated at D, E, and F, until at G the bar
has passed the critical temperature and cools down
normally.
This illustration is somewhat the same as that
shown by Howe in his "Metallurgy of Steel,"
which gives an excellent explanation of this phe-
nomenon.
The temperature at which this reheating occurs
depends upon the amount of carbon in the steel,
being higher for the lower carbon steel, and it is
at about this temperature that the steel will harden
properly.
The hardening heat of steel is often described
as a "cherry -red" heat. This term is very mis-
leading and means very little. Such an author-
ity as Metcalf says: "Cherries are all shades from
very light yellow to almost black; and 'cherry'
heat seems to mean almost any of these various
colors."
It is a good plan when taking the steel from the
fire to hold it for an instant in the shadow of the
forge, as the hardening heat may be distinguished
with more certainty in this way. The color of the
heat will appear quite different here than in the
sunlight, and there is a better chance of obtain-
ing uniform heat by judging in the shadow than
in the open sunlight, which varies so much in in-
tensity.
Rate of Cooling — Different Hardening Baths. — The
more quickly steel is cooled for a hardening heat
184 FORGE-PRACTICE.
(everything else being equal), the harder and more
brittle the steel is made.
Files, wanted very hard, are hardened by cooling
in a bath of cold brine ; as the brine cools the steel
faster than water the steel is left harder than if
hardened in water.
Springs wanted tough and not very hard are
cooled in oil, as oil cools much slower than water.
Sometimes articles delicately shaped and liable;
to crack when hardening are cooled in water having
a thin film of oil on top ; the oil sticks to the steel
as it is plunged into the water and the steel is not
cooled quite as quickly as in pure water.
The faster steel is cooled the more danger there
is of cracking.
Heating and Cooling — Importance of Uniform
Heating. — The greatest care must be taken when
hardening to have the steel uniformly heated. It
must not be left in the fire one minute longer than
is necessary to accomplish this ; but it must be uni-
formly heated or the results are liable to be disas-
trous. Take a milling-cutter, for example, with
sharp-pointed, projecting teeth. The points of
these teeth may become much hotter than the body
of the cutter while being heated. If dipped while
the points are hotter, they are almost certain to
crack off.
Too much importance can not be attached to uni-
form heating. It is safe to say that probably the
failure of three-quarters of the work spoiled in hard-
ening is caused by improper heating.
When it is necessary to heat milling-cutters and
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 185
flat tools in an open fire, it is a good plan to lay a
piece of thin, flat iron on the fire and heat the steel
on this. The steel does not then come in direct
contact with the fire and may be more uniformly
heated.
For heating taps, small-end mills, etc., a piece of
pipe may be laid through the fire and the tools
heated in this. The pipe forms a crude muffle,
which is very satisfactory for such work.
The most satisfactory way to harden is to use a
gas-furnace, but this is not always obtainable.
Lead Hardening and Tempering. — A bath of lead
is frequently used for heating both when hardening
and drawing the temper.
When hardening the lead is heated red-hot (hard-
ening heat of the steel) and the tools to be hardened
are held in the lead until heated to the proper tem-
perature.
The top of the hot lead is kept covered with char-
coal to prevent oxidation, otherwise, the lead
when exposed to the air would be rapidly oxidized
and wasted.
The steel is cooled in the ordinary way.
This is a very satisfactory way to harden, as the
steel may be very uniformly heated. For small
work the lead may be heated in an ordinary ladle;
for larger pieces some special arrangement is neces-
sary.
When drawing the temper the lead is not heated
as hot as when hardening, and the pieces to be tem-
pered are laid on top of the melted lead. The
steel, being lighter than lead, will float on top and
J86 FORGE-PRACTICE.
may then be easily watched during the heating.
The pieces to be tempered are polished and heated
until the proper colors appear — the same as when
heated in the ordinary way.
Warping in Cooling. — When heated steel is cooled
it contracts, and unless contracting takes place
uniformly on all sides the piece is liable to be
warped, or sprung, out of shape. If, for instance,
a long, thin, flat piece of steel were to be hardened
by dipping into the cooling bath edgewise or flat-
wise it would probably spring out of shape. If
dipped endwise the piece would be cooled from all
sides at once and would stand a better chance of
coming out of the cooling bath straight.
As a general rule, it is better to dip cylindrical
and long thin pieces endwise ; round, thin discs and
square flat pieces edgewise.
Cooling Thin Flat Work. — Very thin flat work of
uniform thickness is easily hardened as follows:
The piece is heated to a hardening heat and cooled
between two heavy plates of iron having flat faces
smeared with oil. The piece is laid on one plate
and the other quickly laid on top. This leaves the
work hard and very true and flat. Pieces which
would be warped all out of shape if cooled in water
or oil may be easily hardened in this way. The
temper is drawn in the ordinary way.
Hardening Files — Straightening Long Thin Work.
—The hardening of files is a good example of the
treatment of long thin work; and the method em-
ployed may be used to advantage for many other
pieces.
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 187
The files are heated in a pot of red-hot lead. They
are placed in this pot on end, and when properly
heated are plunged end first (being held in a verti-
cal position) into a vat of brine.
The files nearly always warp somewhat when
hardened, and when the warping is slight are
straightened as follows: Across the top of the
brine vat are fastened two wooden strips about two
inches apart, joined by two iron pins about six
inches from each other. The hardener draws his
file from the brine before it is entirely cold. The
metal has just heat enough left to cause the water
on the surface of the steel to disappear almost in-
stantly. The file is then placed between the pins,
under one and over the other, with the concave
side up, as shown in Fig. 232, which shows one of
FIG. 232.
the side strips removed. The hardener then bears
down on the end of the file, springing it straight,
and at the same time pours some of the cold brine
on top of the concave part. This will generally
straighten out the file and leave it perfectly true.
Of course if the files are too badly warped there is
nothing to do but reheat, straighten, and harden
again.
Bad Shape to Harden. — There are some shapes
i88
FORGE-PRACTICE.
which are very difficult to harden. Fig. 233 shows a
sectional view of a steel bear-
ing which should be hardened
very hard. The body of the
bearing is thick and contains
proportionately a large vol-
FIG. 233.
ume of metal, while the flange is very thin and light
and joins the body in a sharp angle, making a bad
shape to harden. The thin flange cools almost
instantly as it strikes the water, while the body
takes some seconds to cool and by that time the
flange is set. As the body contracts in cooling it
pulls away from the flange, cracking in the sharp
corner.
Of course shapes like this will not always crack,
but there is always a strong tendency to do so when
a thin body of metal joins a thick one with a sharp
corner between the two parts. This danger can be
lessened by leaving a fillet in the corner as shown in
the side sketch. This equalizes the strain some-
what by not leaving a distinct line between the
thick and thin parts.
Milling-cutter teeth when made with a sharp
angle at the bottom are liable to crack in harden-
ing. If left with a slight fillet between them they
very rarely crack if properly heated.
Tempering Springs — Blazing Off. — Spring temper-
ing done in oil is a good example of work where
the temperature of the reheating is determined
independently of the ' ' temper colors."
This method of tempering springs is known as
"blazing," and gives about as reliable results as
TOOL- STEEL WORK. 189
any, on a small scale, for ordinary work. The
spring is heated to a hardening heat and cooled in
oil. To draw the temper, the spring, still wet with
the oil, is reheated (ordinarily in the blaze of the
forge) until the oil blazes up and then plunged for
an instant into the oil-bath and again reheated until
it blazes. This is continued until the oil blazes
uniformly over the entire spring at the same time.
Springs are generally not uniform in thickness,
and the thin parts heat more quickly than the
thicker. This momentary plunge into the oil cools
the thin parts somewhat and affects very little the
thicker parts. As the reheating is continued all
parts of the spring are thus brought to the same
temperature at the same time. If the reheating
were continued without this partial cooling, by the
time the thicker parts were hot enough to have the
proper temper, the thinner parts would be heated
to too high a temperature and have no temper left.
Animal oil, and not mineral oil, should be used
for this kind of work, as the mineral oil is too uncer-
tain in its composition and will sometimes blaze at
one temperature, sometimes at another, while the
animal oil is fairly uniform in its composition and
generally blazes at about the same temperature.
Lard- or fish-oil is a good material for this purpose.
Another way of tempering springs (which is
rather risky but which is sometimes used) is to
harden the spring in the ordinary way in water.
It is then reheated over the fire, and to test the
temperature from time to time a dry, pine splinter
is scraped over the edge of the spring. As soon as
190 FORGE-PRACTICE.
the minute shavings thus made will catch fire the
right temperature is supposed to be reached, the
burning of the wood in this case taking the place
of the burning oil mentioned above.
Sometimes when no pine splinters are convenient
even the hammer-handle is made to serve the pur-
pose.
These last are not processes to be recommended,
but are given as illustrations of how the tempera-
ture of reheating for drawing the temper may be
determined in a variety of ways, viz., by the blue
color of the scale ; by the blazing of the oil ; by the
burning of the wood.
Hardening to Leave Soft Center. — Another method
of tempering used for milling-cutters and taps
which has proved very satisfactory is as follows :
The tools are heated in the ordinary way and are
cooled in water, but are not left in the water long
enough to become completely cold, being drawn
out of the water as soon as the "singing" stops.
(When red-hot metal strikes water the water in
immediate contact with the metal starts to boil,
and this boiling produces a decided humming 'or
singing noise and a throbbing sensation easily felt
through the tongs. This ceases when the outside
of the metal cools to about the temperature of
boiling water.)
When the tool is drawn out of the water it is in-
stantly plunged into lard-oil and left there for a
very short time (depending upon the size of the
tool) and then withdrawn. It is then held in the
flame of the forge or near the fire until the oil on
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 19 1
the outside just commences to smoke, when it is
again plunged for an instant into the oil and again
reheated, this being continued until the oil smokes
evenly all over the tool, when the tempering is
complete and the tool may be cooled off.
The object of the method is this: The first cool-
ing in water hardens the outside and cutting edges
of the tool. The tool is then taken from the water
and plunged into oil while the inside is still com-
paratively hot. As the oil conducts the heat more
slowly than water, the cooling of the tool is con-
tinued in the oil, thus leaving the center rather
tougher than if hardened in water. But even here
the metal is not completely cooled, but taken from
the oil-bath while there is still some heat left in the
center. This heat in the center helps to draw the
temper of the outside, and consequently the tool
is reheated much quicker than if entirely cooled.
The smoking oil serves to indicate the proper tem-
perature to which the reheating should be carried.
With a little practice the tool can be withdrawn
from the oil-bath while there is still heat enough
left in the central part to draw the temper. In
this way no reheating in the fire is necessary, the
tool being simply taken from the oil, allowed to
reheat itself until the oil commences to smoke,
and then plunged in water to prevent further re-
heating.
Annealing. — It may be said that annealing is the
reverse of hardening. To go back to first princi-
ples : If a piece of steel be heated to a proper ' ' hard-
ening heat" and cooled very suddenly, the steel is
192 FORGE-PRACTICE.
left very hard. The faster it is cooled the harder
the steel. On the other hand, if the steel be cooled
from this hardening heat very slowly it is left soft,
and the slower it is cooled the softer it becomes.
This softening process of heating and cooling slowly
is known as annealing, and steel so treated is called
annealed steel.
Water Annealing.— The quickest way of anneal-
ing is what is known as "water annealing." In
doing this the steel is heated until it just shows
very dull red when held in a dark place, and is then
cooled in water. This method leaves the steel soft
enough to be worked, but not as soft as it would be
if heated to a hardening heat and cooled very
slowly.
A bar of steel if hammered until cooled below a
red heat is rather hard, and can be made somewhat
softer and put in a better condition to work by
water annealing.
Water annealing is quite often used for work of
the following nature: A drill or tap is sometimes
broken off in a piece of work and must be softened
before it can be removed. Such work is generally
wanted in a hurry, and water annealing is resorted
to to soften the broken piece.
Soapy water gives good results for water anneal-
ing.
Annealing at the Forge. — A common way of an-
nealing is to bury the heated steel in the cinders
on the forge and keep it there until it is cold. This
method is very satisfactory for ordinary work. Still
another way, and about the most satisfactory, is
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 1 93
to bury the metal in a box filled with common lime.
The steel cools slowly in this, and is left in very
good shape for working.
The object in each case is to cool the metal as
slowly as possible by keeping the air from it, as heat
is lost to the air very rapidly. When the steel is
buried in some material which does not conduct
heat readily, it of course cools very slowly and is
left that much softer.
Box Annealing. — Sometimes a piece of polished
steel must be annealed without raising any scale on
the surface, such as would be left by any of the
methods described before. To do this the air must
be kept from the metal, both while it is being
heated and while cooling. The steel can be buried
in an iron box, filled with ground bone, burned
leather, or other carbonaceous materials and sealed
air-tight. The box may be slowly heated to the
right temperature and allowed to cool very slowly,
the steel being removed from the box after it is
cold.
There is a patented process for annealing polished
steel which is said to leave the metal as bright and
polished as it was before annealing. The method
is about as follows: The pieces to be annealed are
placed in a piece of large pipe having a cap on one
end; into this cap is screwed a small gas-pipe
which extends back through to the outside of the
furnace. When the pieces are all in the large pipe,
a second cap is screwed on the open end. This
cap has a small hole drilled in it. While the large
pipe containing the steel is being heated gas is run
194 FORGE-PRACTICE.
into it through the small gas-pipe. This gas fills
the pipe and escapes and burns at the small hole
through the second cap.
Ordinary illuminating-gas is used. Oxygen is
necessary to form scale on the steel, and as the gas
(containing very little or no oxygen) which fills
the pipe drives out the air, there is no oxygen left
to form scale and discolor the steel, consequently
the steel comes out of the pipe as bright as when
it went in. The pipe, of course, is kept full of gas
until the steel is cold.
Mr. William Metcalf, in his book on Steel, gives
as a substitute for the above-patented process
(known as the Jones process) the following method
(this description is taken verbatim from his book) :
' ' Let a pipe be made like a Jones pipe without a
hole in the cap or a gas-pipe in the end. To charge
it first throw a handful of resin into the bottom of
the pipe and screw on the cap. The cap is a loose
fit. Now roll the whole into the furnace ; the resin
will be volatilized at once, fill the pipe with carbon
or hydrocarbon gases, and with the air long before
the steel is hot enough to be attacked.
The gas will cause an outward pressure, and may
be seen burning as it leaks through the joint at the
cap. This prevents air from coming in contact
with the steel. This method is as efficient as the
Jones plan as far as perfect heating and easy man-
agement are concerned. It reduces the scale on
the surfaces of the pieces, leaving them a dark-
gray color and covered with -fine carbon or soot.
For annealing blocks it is handier and cheaper than
TOOL-STEEL WORK. 195
the Jones plan, but it will not do for polishing sur-
faces."
File blanks (the shaped pieces of stock ready to
have the teeth cut) are annealed by packing them
in cast-iron boxes 3^" or 4" long, i" deep, and 8"
or 10" wide, with just a little sprinkling of some
carbonaceous material over the steel. The box is
closed by an iron cover which fits inside the box
and comes about an inch and a half below the top
of the sides.
The box is made practically air-tight by packing
fire-clay (the damp dust or grit which collects be-
neath the grindstones is sometimes used) around
the inside the box on top of the cover.
These boxes are placed in a furnace and heated
for about forty-eight hours and then drawn out
and covered with sheet-iron covers lined with
asbestos, where they cool very slowly. A box put
under a cover Saturday is expected to be used
Tuesday; and the steel is sometimes so hot even
then that it can hardly be touched. This method
leaves the steel very soft and easy to work.
Steel is sometimes annealed by bringing it up to
a proper heat in a furnace and then allowing the
steel and the furnace to cool off together.
Annealing is done in pits by building up a fire-
brick pit, filling it with steel, either in piles or
packed in boxes, leaving spaces for the burning gas
to circulate between the piles or boxes, covering
the whole over with a fire-brick-lined cover, and
heating the pit up to the proper temperature by
burning gas in it. This gas is admitted through
196 FORGE-PRACTICE.
openings in the side of the pit left for the purpose.
When the steel has been heated evenly to the proper
temperature, the gas is turned off and the pit and
its contents slowly cooled. This is the method
used for annealing steel from which tin-plate is
made.
The underlying principle is the same in any case
— the steel is first heated uniformly to a " harden-
ing heat" and then cooled slowly, the slower the
better. Sometimes, to prevent oxidation, precau-
tions are taken to keep the air away from the steel
both during heating and cooling.
CHAPTER XI.
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING.
IT is assumed that the general method of tem-
pering as described before is understood, and only
special directions will be given in particular cases
in the following pages.
Forging Heat. — Any tool-steel forging on which
there is any great amount of work to be done
should have the heavy forging and shaping done
at a yellow heat. At this heat the metal works
easily and properly, and the heavy pounding re-
fines the grain and leaves the steel in proper condi-
tion to receive a cutting edge. When a tool is
merely to be smoothed off or finished, or forged to
a very slight extent, the work should be done at a
much lower heat, just above the hardening tem-
perature.
Very little hammering should be done at any
heat below the hardening temperature.
Cold-chisels. — The ordinary cold-chisel is so sim-
ple in shape that no detail directions are necessary
for forging. The stock should be heated to a yel-
low heat and forged into shape and finished as
smooth as possible. If properly forged the end, or
edge, will bulge out, like Fig. -2 34. This should be
nicked across with a sharp hot -chisel (but not cut
197
198 FORGE-PRACTICE.
off), as shown at C, and broken off after the tool
has been hardened. This broken edge will then
FIG. 234.
show the grain and indicate whether the steel has
been hardened at a proper temperature.
When hardening, the chisel should be heated red-
hot as far back from the point as the line A, Fig.
235. Great care must be taken to heat slowly
I — i enough to heat the thicker part of the
chisel without overheating the point. If
the point does become too hot, it should
not be dipped in water to cool off, but
allowed to cool in the air to below the
hardening heat and then reheated more
carefully.
k When the chisel has been properly heated
to the hardening heat, the end should be
hardened in cold water baclc to the line B,
Fig. 235. As soon as the end is cold the
chisel should be withdrawn from the
water and one side of the end polished
off with a piece of emery or something
of that nature, as described before.
The part of the chisel from A to B will be still
red-hot, and the heat from this part will gradually
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 1 99
reheat the point of the tool. As the metal is re-
heated the polished surface will change color, show-
ing at first yellow, brown, and at last purple. As
soon as the purple, almost blue color reaches the
nick at the end, the chisel should again be cooled,
this time completely. The waste end may now be
snapped off and the grain examined. To test for
proper hardness, try the end of the chisel with a
fine file, which should scratch it slightly. If the
grain is too coarse, the tool should be rehardened
at a lower temperature, while if the metal is too
soft, it should be rehardened at a higher tempera-
ture.
Cape-chisel. — The cape-chisel, illustrated in Fig.
236, is used for cutting grooves and working at the
bottom of narrow channels. The cutting edge A
should be wider than any part of the blade back to
B, which should be somewhat thinner in order that
the blade may "clear" when working in a slot the
width of A.
The chisel is started by thinning down B over
the horn of the anvil, as shown at A, Fig. 237. The
finishing is done with a hammer or flatter in the
manner illustrated at B. The chisel should not
be worked flat on top of the anvil, as shown at C,
as this knocks the blade out of shape.
20O
FORGE-PRACTICE.
The cape-chisel is tempered the same as a cold-
chisel.
FIG. 237.
Square- and Round -nose Cape-chisels. — The chisels
are started in the same way as an ordinary cape-
chisel, the ends being left somewhat more stubby.
The end is then finished round or square, as
shown in Fig. 238, and tempered the same as a
cold -chisel.
Round-nose cape-chisels are sometimes used to
center drills, and are then called "centering"
chisels.
Lathe-tools in General. — The same general forms
of lathe-tools are followed in nearly all shops; but
in different places the shapes are altered somewhat
to suit individual tastes.
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 2OI
Right- and Left-hand Tools, — Such tools as side
tools, oVamond points, etc., are generally made in
pairs — that is, right- and left-handed. If a tool is
made with the cutting edge on the left-hand side
(as the tool is looked at from the top with the shank
FIG. 238.
of the tool nearest the observer), it would be called
a right-hand tool. That is, a tool which begins its
cut at the right-hand end of the piece and cuts
towards the left is known as a right-hand tool;
one commencing at the left-hand end and cutting
towards the right would be known as a left-hand
tool.
The general shape of right- and left-hand tools
for the same use is practically the same excepting
that the cutting edges are on opposite sides.
Round-nose and Thread Tools. — Round-nose and
thread tools are practically alike, the difference
being in the grinding of the end. The thread tool
is sometimes made a little thinner at the point.
The round-nose tool, Fig. 239, is so simple in
shape that no description of the forging is neces-
sary. Care must be taken to have proper ' ' clear-
ance." The cutting is all done at or near the
202
FORGE-PRACTICE.
end, and the sides must be so shaped that they
"clear" the upper edge of the end. In other
words, the upper edge of the shaped end must be
FIG. 239.
wider at every point than the lower edge, as shown
by the section.
For hardening, the tool should be heated about
as far as the line A, Fig. 240, and cooled up to the
FIG. 240.
line B. Temper color of scale should be light yel-
low.
Cutting-off Tools. — Cutting-off tools are forged
with the blade either on one side or in the center of
the stock. The easier way to make them is to forge
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING.
203
the blade with one side flush with the side of the
tool. A tool forged this way is shown in Fig. 241.
^ '
1
/—
I
\l
]
x 1
i
\ / !
<
* ^i •^
FIG. 241.
The cutting edge is the extreme tip of the blade,
and the cutting is done by forcing the tool straight
into the work, the edge cutting a narrow groove.
The only part of the tool which should touch the
work is the extreme end, or cutting edge; there-
fore the th'ckest part of the blade must be the cut-
ting edge, the sides gradually tapering back in all
directions and becoming thinner, as shown in the
drawing, A being wider than B.
The cutting edge should be slightly above the
level of the top of the tool, or, in other words, the
blade should slant slightly upwards.
The clearance angle at the end of the tool is
about right for lathe-tools ; but for plainer tools the
end should be made more nearly square, about as
shown by the line X — X.
For hardening, the heat should extend to about
the line C — C, and the end should be cooled to
about the line D — D. Temper color should be light
yellow.
The tool may be forged by starting with a fuller
cut, as shown at A, Fig. 242. The blade is roughly
204
POROK-PRACTICT:.
forged into shape with a sledge, or, on light stock,
a hand-hammer, working over the edge of the anvil
to form the shoulder in the manner shown at B.
This leaves the end bulged out and in rough shape,
FIG 242.
similar to C. The end should be trimmed off with
a sharp hot-chisel along the dotted line.
The finishing may be done over the corner of the
anvil, using a hand-hammer or flatter, in the same
way as when starting the tool; or a set -hammer
may be used, as shown at D.
Care must be taken to have proper clearance on
all sides of the blade. It is a good plan to upset
the end of the blade slightly by striking a few light
blows the last thing on the end at the cutting
edge, then adding a little clearance.
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING.
205
When a tool is wanted with the blade forged in
the center of the shank, the two shoulders are
formed by using a set-hammer and working at the
edge of the anvil face, letting the corner of the
anvil shape one shoulder while the set-hammer is
forming the other. This process has been de-
scribed before under the general method of form-
ing double shoulders.
Bent Cutting-off Tool. — The bent cutting-off tool,
FIG. 243.
Fig. 243, is made and tempered exactly the same
as the straight tool, excepting that the blade is
bent backward toward the shank through an angle
of about 45 degrees.
\
FIG. 244.
Boring Tool. — The boring tool, illustrated in Fig.
244, needs no particular description. The length
of the thin shank depends upon the depth of the
2O6
PORGE-PRACTICE.
hole the tool is to be used in, but, as a general
rule, should not be made any longer than necessary.
This thin shank is started with a fuller cut and
drawn out in much the same way as the cutting-off
tool was started.
The cutting edge is at the end of the small, bent
nose. The only part of the tool required tempered
is the bent nose, or end, which should be given the
same temper color as the other lathe-tools — light
yellow.
Internal Thread Tool. — This tool, used for cut-
ting screw threads on the inside of a hole, is forged
to the same shape as the boring tool described
•above, the end being afterward ground somewhat
differently.
Diamond-points. — These tools are made right and
left.
FIG 245.
There are several good methods of making these
tools; but the one given below is about as quick
and easy as any, and requires the use of no tools
excepting the hand-hammer and sledge.
The diamond-point is started as shown at A, Fig.
246, by holding the stock at an angle of about 45
degrees over the outside edge of the anvil. It is
first slightly nicked by being driven down with a
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING.
207
sledge against the corner, and the bent end down
to the dotted position with a few blows, as indi-
cated by the arrow.
FIG. 246.
This end is further bent by holding and striking
as illustrated at B. The diamond shape is given
to the end by swinging the tool back and forth and
208
FORGE-PRACTICE.
striking as shown at C, which gives a side and end
view of tool in position on the anvil.
The tool is finished by trimming the end with
a sharp hot-chisel and so bending the end as to
throw the top of the nose slightly to one side, giv-
ing the necessary side ' 'rake" as shown in Fig. 245.
When hardening, the end should be dipped as
shown at D and the temper drawn to show light-
yellow scale.
Tools like the above made of stock as large as
£" Xi" may be made using the hand-hammer alone.
FIG. 247.
Side Tools. — Side tools, or side-finishing tools, as
they are also called, are generally made about the
shape shown in Fig. 247. These tools are made
right and left and are also made bent. The bent
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 2OQ
side tools leave the ends forged the same; but the
blade is afterward bent toward the shank, cutting
edge out, at an angle of about 45 degrees.
The side tool may be started by making a fuller
cut as shown at A, Fig. 247, near the end of the
stock.
The part of the stock marked x is then drawn
out by using a fuller turned in the opposite direc-
tion, working the stock down into the shape shown
at B. The blade is smoothed up with a set-ham-
mer and trimmed with a hot-chisel along the dotted
lines on C. The curved end of the blade is smoothed
up and finished with a few blows of the hand-ham-
mer.
The tool is finished by giving the proper ' ' offset ' '
to the top edge of the blade. This is done by plac-
ing the tool, flat-side down, with the blade ex-
tending over, and the end of the blade next the
shank about one-eighth of an inch beyond, the
outside edge of the anvil. A set-hammer is placed
on the blade close up to the shoulder and slightly
tipped, so that the face of the hammer touches the
thin edge of the blade only, as illustrated at D.
One or two light blows with the sledge will give
the necessary offset, and after straightening the
blade the tool is ready for tempering.
It is very important on these tools, as well as on
all others, to have the cutting edge as smooth and
true as possible ; it is, therefore, best, the very last
thing, to smooth up this part of a tool, using the
hand- or set-hammer. Above all things, the cut-
ting edge must not be rounded off, as this necessi-
2IO FORGE-PRACTICE.
tates grinding down the edge until the rounded
part has been completely ground off.
While the side tool is being heated for temper-
ing, it should be placed in the fire with the cutting
edge up. It is more easy to avoid overheating of
the edge in this way.
The blade is hardened by dipping in water as
shown at E, only a small part of back, A, of the
blade extending above the water and remaining
red-hot. The tool is taken from the water, quickly
polished on the flat side, and the temper drawn to
show a very light yellow. The same color should
show the entire length of the cutting edge. If the
color shows darker at one end, it indicates that
that end of the blade was not cooled enough, and
the tool should be rehardened, this time tipping
the tool in such a way as to bring that end of the
blade which was before too soft deeper in the water.
Centering Tool. — The centering tool, Fig. 248,
used for starting holes on face-plate and chuck
work, is started in
(I /I J much the same way
as the boring tool.
The end is flattened
out thin and trimmed
into shape with a hot-
chisel. The right-
hand side of the end should be cut from the top side
and the left-hand from the other, leaving the end
the same shape as a flat drill.
Tempered the same as other lathe-tools.
Finishing Tool.— This tool, Fig. 249, is started by
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING.
21 I
bending the end of the stock down over the edge of
the anvil in the same way .
as when starting the diamond- II — Li.
point.
The end is flattened and
widened by working with a
hand- or set-hammer, as FlG- 249-
shown at A, Fig. 250. This leaves the end bent
out too nearly straight; but, after being shaped, it
is bent into the proper angle, in the manner illus-
FIG. 250.
trated at B. The blade will then probably be bent
somewhat like C, but a few blows with a hammer, at
the point and in the direction indicated by the
arrow, will straighten this out, leaving it like D.
After trimming and smoothing, the tool is ready
212 FORGE-PRACTICE.
for tempering. The blade should be tempered to
just show the very lightest yellow at cutting edge.
When a tool of this kind is to be used on a planer,
the front end should make more nearly a right angle
with the bottom; or, in other words, there should
be less front "rake" or "clearance."
Flat Drills.— The flat drill, Fig. 2=51, needs no
FIG. 251
description, as the forging and shaping are very
simple. The end should be trimmed the same as
the centering tool. The size of the tool is deter-
mined by the dimension A, this being the same size
as the hole the drill is intended to make; thus, if
this dimension were i " , the drill would be known
as an inch drill.
The temper is drawn to show a dark-yellow scale.
Hammers. — As a general rule, when making ham-
mers of all kinds by hand the eye is made first. A
bar of steel of the proper size and convenient length
for handling is used, and the hammer forged on
the end, as much forging and shaping as possible
being done before cutting the hammer from the
bar.
The hole for the eye is punched in the usual way
at the proper distance from the end of the bar,
using a punch having a handle (Fig. 70).
The nose of the punch is slightly smaller but has
the same shape as the eye is to finish. Great care
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 213
must be taken to have the hole true and straight.
It is very difficult and sometimes impossible to
straighten up a crooked hole.
After punching the eye, the sides of the stock
are generally bulged out, and to prevent knock-
ing the eye out of shape while forging down this
bulge a drift-pin, Fig. 252, is used. This is made
of tool-steel and tapers from near the center to-
ward each end, one end being somewhat smaller
than the other. The center of the pin is the same
shape and size as the eye is to be in the hammer.
When the bar has been heated the drift-pin is
driven tightly into the hole and the bulge forged
down in the same way (B, Fig. 254) as a solid bar
would be treated. When the drift-pin becomes
heated it must be driven out and cooled, and under
no circumstances should the bar be heated with
the pin in the hole. The pin should always be
used when there is danger of knocking the eye out
of shape.
The steel used for hammers, and "battering
tools ' ' in general, should be of a lower temper (con-
tain less carbon) than that used for lathe-tools.
The eye of a hammer should not be of uniform
size throughout, but should be larger at the ends
FORGE-PRACTICE.
and taper slightly toward the center, as illustrated
in Fig. 253, which shows a section of a hammer cut
through the center of the eye.
When the eye is made in this
way (slightly contracted at
the middle), the hammer-
handle may be driven in
FIG. 253.
tightly from one end ; then by driving one or more
wedges in the end of the handle it is held firmly
in place and there is no chance for the head to
work up or down.
Cross-pene, Blacksmith's or Riveting Hammer. — A
hammer of this kind is shown at C, Fig. 6.
FIG. 254.
The different steps in the process of forging are
illustrated in Fig. 254. First the eye is punched
as shown at A. The pene is then drawn out and
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 215
shaped and a cut started at the point where the
end of the hammer will come (C), the drift-pin
being used, as shown at B, while forging the metal
around the eye.
The other end of the hammer is then worked up
into shape, using a set-hammer as indicated at D.
When the hammer is as nearly finished as may be
while still on the bar, it is cut off with a hot-chisel,
leaving the end as nearly square and true as pos-
sible.
After squaring up and truing the face the ham-
mer is tempered.
For tempering, the whole hammer is heated in a
slow fire to an even hardening heat; while harden-
ing, the tongs should grasp the side of the hammer,
one jaw being inserted in the eye.
Both ends should be tempered, this being done
by hardening first one end, then the other.
The small end is hardened first by cooling, as
shown in Fig. 255. As soon as this end has cooled,
the position is instantly
reversed and the large
end of the hammer dipped
in the water and hard-
ened. While the large
end is cooling, the smaller
one is polished and the
temper color watched for.
When a dark-brown scale
appears at the end the FIG. 255.
hammer is again reversed, bringing the large end
uppermost and the pene in the water. The face
2l6 FORGE-PRACTICE.
end is polished and tempered in the same way as
the small end. If the large end is properly hard-
ened before the temper color appears on the small
end, the hammer may be taken completely out of
the water and the large end also polished, the
colors being watched for on both ends at once. As
soon as one end shows the proper color it is promptly
dipped in water, the other end following as soon as
the color appears there.
Under no circumstances should the eye be cooled
while still red-hot.
For some special work hammer-faces must be
very hard; but for ordinary usage the temper as
given above is very satisfactory.
Ball Pene-hammer. — The ball pene-hammer, Fig.
5, is started by punching the eye.
The hammer is roughed out with two fullers in
the manner illustrated at .4, Fig. 256.
The size of stock used should be such that it will
easily round up to form the large end of the hammer.
After the hammer is roughed out as shown at A,
the metal around the eye is spread sidewise, using
two fullers as illustrated at B, a set-hammer being
used for finishing. This leaves the forging like C.
The next step is to round and shape the ball, which
is forged as nearly as possible to the finished shape.
After doing this a cut is made in the bar where
the face of the hammer will come, and the large end
rounded up, leaving the work like D.
The necked parts of the hammer each side of
the eye are smoothed and finished with fullers of
the proper size. Some hammers are made with.
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 21 7
these necks round in section, but the commoner
shape is octagonal.
After smoothing off, the hammer is cut from the
bar and the face forged true. Both ends are ground
true and tempered. This hammer should be tern-
FIG. 256.
pered in the same way as described above for tem-
pering the riveting-hammer.
Ball pene-hammers may be made with the steam-
hammer in practically the same way as described,
only substituting round bars of steel for use in
place of fullers.
Sledges. — Sledges are made and tempered in the
same general way as riveting -hammers. Sledges
may be forged and finished almost entirely under
the steam-hammer.
2 1 8 FORGE-PRACTICE.
Blacksmith's Cold-chisel. — This tool (Fig. 2) is
forged in practically the same way as the cross-pene
hammer described before. The end, of course, is
drawn out longer and thinner, the thin edge com-
ing parallel with the eye instead of at right angles
to it.
The cutting edge only of the chisel is tempered.
The temper should be drawn to show a bluish
scale just tinged with a little purple. Under no
circumstances should the head of the chisel be
hardened, as this would cause the end to chip
when in use and might cause a serious accident.
The tool shown in Fig. 192 may be used to ad-
vantage when making hot- or cold-chisels with the
steam-hammer. By using this tool, as illustrated
in Fig. 193, the blade of the chisel may be quickly
drawn out and finished.
Hot-chisel. — After forming the eye of the hot-
chisel (Fig. 2), the blade is started by making the
two fuller cuts, as il-
lustrated in Fig. 257.
-^ The end is drawn
^-'x down as indicated by
the dotted lines. The
head is shaped and
the chisel cut from the bar in the same way that
the riveting-hammer was treated.
This chisel should have its cutting edge tem-
pered the same as that of the cold-chisel.
Hardies. — Hardies such as shown in Fig. 2
should be started by drawing out the stem. This
stem is drawn down to the right size to fit the
TOOL FORGING AND TEMPERING. 2tQ
hardy-hole in the anvil and the piece cut from the
bar. This is heated, the stem placed in the hole
in the anvil, and the piece driven down into the
hole and against the face of the anvil, thus forming
a good shoulder between the stem and the head of
the hardy.
After forming the shoulder, the blade is worked
out, starting by using two fullers in the same way
as when starting the hot-chisel blade.
The cutting edge should be given the same tem-
per as a cold-chisel.
Blacksmith's Punches. — Punches shaped similar
to Fig. 70 are started the same manner as the hot-
chisel, excepting that
the fuller cuts are
made on four sides, as
shown in Fig. 258.
The end is then drawn
out to the shape FIG. 258.
shown by the dotted
lines.
Temper same as cold-chisel.
Set-hammers — Flatters. — The set-hammer, Fig.
15, is so simple that no directions are necessary for
shaping. The face only should be tempered and
that should show a dark-brown or purple color.
Flatters such as shown in Fig. 14 may be made
by upsetting the end of a small bar, the upset part
forming the wide face; or a bar large enough to
form the face may be used and the head, or shank,
drawn down.
The eye should be punched after the face has been
220
FORGE -PRACTICE.
FIG. 259.
made. The face should be tempered to about a
blue.
When many are to be
made a swage - block
similar to Fig. 259
should be used. Half
only of the block is
shown in the figure, the
other half being cut away
to show the shape of the
hole which is the size of the finished flatter.
When using this block the stock is first cut to
the proper length, heated, placed in the hole, and
upset.
Swages. — Swages may also be made in a block
similar to the one used for the flatter. The swage
should be first upset in the block and the crease
formed the last thing. The crease may be made
with a fuller or a bar of round stock the proper
size.
Fullers. — Fullers are made in the same way as
swages.
All of these tools may be upset and forged under
the steam-hammer, using the die, or swage, blocks
as described above. The swage-blocks may be
made of cast iron.
CHAPTER XII.
MISCELLANEOUS WORK.
Shrinking. — When iron is heated it expands, and
upon being cooled it contracts to practically its
original size.
This property is utilized in doing what is known
as "shrinking."
FIG. 260.
A common example of this sort of work is illus-
trated in Fig. 260, showing a collar "shrunk" on a
shaft. The collar and shaft are made separately.
The inside diameter of the hole through the collar
is made slightly less than the outside diameter of
the shaft. When the collar and shaft are ready
to go together the collar is heated red-hot. The
high temperature causes the metal to expand and
thus increases the diameter of the hole, making
it larger (if the sizes have been properly propor-
tioned) than the outside diameter of the shaft.
The collar is then taken from the fire, brushed
clean of all ashes and dirt, and slipped on the shaft
221
222 FORGE-PRACTICE.
and into the proper position, where it is cooled as
quickly as possible. This cooling causes the collar
to contract and locks it firmly in place.
If the collar be alowed to cool slowly it will heat
the shaft, which will expand and stretch the collar
somewhat; then, as both cool together and con-
tract, the collar will be loose on the shaft.
This is the method used for shrinking tires on
wheels. The tire is made just large enough to slip
on the wheel when hot, but not large enough to go
on cold. It is then heated, put in place, and
quickly cooled.
Couplings are frequently shrunk on shafts in this
way.
Brazing. — Brazing, it might be said, is soldering
with brass.
Briefly the process is as follows: The surfaces to
be joined are cleaned thoroughly where they are to
come in contact with each other. The pieces are
then fastened together in the proper shape by
binding with wire, or holding with some sort
of clamp. The joint is heated, a flux (gener-
ally borax) being added to prevent oxidation of
the surfaces, and the "spelter" (prepared brass)
sprinkled over the joint, the heat being raised until
the brass melts and flows into the joint, making a
union between the pieces. Ordinarily it requires a
bright-red or dull-yellow heat to melt the brass
properly.
Almost any metal that will stand the heat can be
brazed. Great care must be used when brazing
cast iron to have the surfaces in contact properly
MISCELLANEOUS WORK.
223
cleaned to start with, and then properly protected
from the oxidizing influences of the air and fire
while being heated.
Brass wire, brass filings, or small strips of rolled
brass may be used in place of the spelter. Brass
wire in particular is very convenient to use in some
places, as it can be bent into shape and held in place
easily.
A simple brazed joint is illustrated in Fig. 261,
which shows a flange (in this case a large washer)
brazed around the end of a pipe. It is not neces-
sary to use any clamps or wires to hold the work
together, as the joint may be made tight enough to
hold the pieces in place. The joint should be tight
enough in spots to hold the pieces together, but
must be open enough to allow the melted brass to
run between the two pieces. Where the pipe
comes in contact with the flange the outside should
be free from scale and filed bright, the inside of
the flange being treated in the same way.
FIG. 261.
FIG. 262.
When the pieces have been properly cleaned and
forced together, a piece of brass wire should be
bent around the pipe at the joint, as shown in Fig.
262, and the work laid on the fire with the flange
224 FORGE- PRACTICE.
down. The fire should be a clean bright bed of
coals. As soon as the work is in the fire the joint
should be sprinkled with the flux; in fact, it is a
good plan to put on some of the flux before putting
the work in the fire. Ordinary borax can be used
as a flux, although a mixture of about three parts
borax and one part sal ammoniac seems to give
much better results.
The heat should be gradually raised until the
brass melts and runs all around and into the joint,
when the piece should be lifted from the fire.
The brazing could be done with spelter in place
of the brass wire. If spelter were to be used the
piece would be laid on the fire and the joint cov-
ered with the flux as before. As soon as the flux
starts to melt, the spelter mixed with a large
amount of flux is spread on the joint and melted
down as the brass wire was before. For placing
the spelter when brazing it is convenient to have a
sort of a long-handled spoon. This is easily made
by taking a strip of iron about \" X 1" three or four
feet long and hollowing one end slightly with the
pene end of the hammer.
There are several grades of spelter which melt at
different heats. Soft spelter melts at a lower heat than
hard spelter, but does not make as strong a joint.
Spelter is simply brass prepared for brazing in
small flakes and can be bought ready for use. The
following way has been recommended for the prep-
aration of spelter: Soft brass is melted in a ladle
and poured into a bucket filled with water having
in it finely chopped straw, the water being given a
MISCELLANEOUS WORK.
225
swirling motion before pouring in the brass. The
brass settles to the bottom in small particles. Care
must be taken when melting the brass not to burn
out the zinc. To avoid this, cover the metal in
ladle with powdered charcoal or coal. When the
zinc begins to burn it gives a brilliant flame and
dense white smoke, leaving a deposit of white oxide
of zinc.
Another example of brazing is the T shown in
FIG. 263.
Fig. 263. Here two pipes are to be brazed to each
other in the form of an inverted T.
A clamp must be used to hold the pieces in proper
position while brazing, as one pipe is simply stuck
on the outside of the
other. A simple
clamp is shown in Fig.
264 consisting of a
piece of flat iron hav-
ing one hole near each
end to receive the two
small bolts, as illus-
trated. This strip lies
FIG. 264.
across the end of the
pipe forming the short
stem of the T, and the bent ends of the bolts hook
226 FORGE-PRACTICE.
into the ends of the bottom pipe. The whole is held
together by tightening down on the nuts.
The brazing needs no particular description, us
the spelter or wire is laid on the joint and melted
into place as before.
A piece of this kind serves as a good illustration ot
the strength of a brazed joint. If a well-made
joint of this kind be hammered apart, the short
limb will sometimes tear out or pull off a section of
the longer pipe, showing the braze to be almost as
strong as the pipe.
When using borax as a flux the melted scale
should be cleaned (or scraped) from the work while
still red-hot, as the borax when cold makes a hard,
glassy scale which can hardly be touched with a
file. The cleaning may be easily done by plunging
the brazed piece, while still red-hot, into water.
On small work the cleaning is very thoroughly done
if the piece, while still red-hot, is dipped into melted
cyanide of potassium and then instantly plunged
into water. If allowed to remain in the cyanide
many seconds the brass will be eaten off and the
brazing destroyed.
It is not always necessary when brazing wrought
iron or steel to have the joint thoroughly cleaned;
for careful work the parts to be brazed together
should be bright and clean, but for rough work the
pieces are sometimes brazed without any preparation
whatever other than scraping off any loose dirt or scale.
Pipe-bending. — There is one simple fact about
pipe-bending which, if always carried in mind,
makes it comparatively easy.
MISCELLANEOUS WORK.
227
Let the full lines in Fig. 265 represent a cross-
section of a piece of pipe before bending. Now
suppose the pipe be heated and an attempt made
to bend it without taking any precautions what-
FIG. 265.
FIG. 266
ever. The concave side of the pipe will flatten
down against the outside of the curve, leaving the
cross-section something as shown by the dotted
lines; that is, the top and bottom of the pipe will
be forced together, while the sides will be pushed
apart. In other words, the pipe collapses.
If the sides can be prevented from bulging out
while being bent it will stop the flattening together
of the top and bottom. A simple way of doing
this is to bend the pipe between two flat plates held
the same distance apart as the outside diameter of
the pipe (Fig. 266). Pipe can sometimes be bent
in a vise in this way, the jaws of the vise taking
the place of the flat plates mentioned above.
Large pipe may be bent something in the follow-
ing way: If the pipe is long and heavy the part to
be bent should be heated, and then while one end is
228
FORGE-PRACTICE.
supported, the other end is dropped repeatedly on
the floor. The weight of the pipe will cause it to
bend in the heated part. Fig. 267 illustrates this,
FIG. 267.
the solid lines showing the pipe as it is held before
dropping and the dotted lines the shape it takes as
it is dropped.
As the pipe bends the sides, of course, bulge out,
and the top and bottom tend to flatten together;
but this is remedied by laying the pipe flat and
driving the bulging sides together with a flatter.
Another way of bending is to put the end of the
pipe in one of the holes of a heavy swage-block (as
illustrated in Fig. 268), the bend then being made
FIG. 268.
by pulling over the free end. The same precau-
tion must, of course, be taken as when bending in
other ways.
The fact that by preventing the sides of the pipe
from bulging it may be made to retain its proper
MISCELLANEOUS WORK.
shape is particularly valuable when several pieces
are to be bent just alike. In this case a jig is made
which consists of two side plates, to prevent the
sides of the pipe from bulging, and a block between
these plates to give the proper shape to the curve.
A piece of bent pipe which was formed in this
-3
FIG. 269.
way is shown in Fig. 269, together with the jig
used for bending it.
The pipe was regular one-quarter-inch gas-pipe.
The jig was made as follows: The sides were made
of two pieces of board about i|" thick. Between
these sides was a board, A, sawed to the shape of
the inside curve of the bent pipe. This piece was
slightly thicker than the outside diameter of the
pipe (about VK" being added for clearance). The
inside face of the sides and the edge of the block A
were protected from the red-hot pipe by a thin
sheet of iron tacked to them.
A bending lever was made by bending a piece of
f'Xi" stock into the shape of the outside of the
pipe. This lever was held in place by a \" bolt
passing through the sides of the jig, as shown.
2JO FORGE-PRACTICE.
To bend the pipe it was heated to a yellow heat,
put in the jig as indicated by the dotted lines and
the lever pulled over, forcing the hot pipe to take
the form of the block.
A jig of this sort is easily and cheaply made and
gives good service, although it is necessary some-
times to throw a little water on the sides to prevent
them from burning.
Another common way of bending is to fill the
pipe with sand. One end of the pipe to be bent is
plugged either with a cap or a wooden plug driven
in tightly. The pipe is filled full of sand and the
other end closed up tight. The pipe may then be
heated and bent into shape. It is necessary to have
the pipe full of sand or it will do very little good.
For very thin pipe the best thing is to fill with
melted rosin. This, of course, can only be used
when the tubing or pipe is very thin and is bent
cold, as heating the pipe would cause the rosin to
run out.
Thin copper tubing may be bent in this way.
A quite common form of pipe-bending jig is
illustrated in Fig. 270.
The outside edge of the semicircular casting has
a groove in it that just fits half-way round the pipe.
The small wheel attached to the lever has a cor-
responding groove on its edge. When the two are
in the position shown the hole left between them
is the same shape and size as the cross-section of
the pipe.
To bend the pipe, the lever is swung to the ex-
treme left, the end of the heated pipe inserted in
MISCELLANEOUS V/ORK.
231
the catch at A (which has a hole in it the same size
as the pipe) , and the lever pulled back to the right,
bending the pipe as it goes.
The stem on the lower edge of the casting was
FIG. 270.
made to fit in a vise, where the jig was held while
in operation.
Annealing Copper and Brass. — Brass or copper
may be softened or annealed by heating the metal
to a red heat and cooling suddenly in cold water,
copper being annealed in the same way that steel is
hardened. Copper annealed this way is left very
soft, somewhat like lead. Hammering copper or
brass causes it to harden and become springy.
When working brass or copper, if much bending or
hammering is done, the metal should be annealed
frequently.
232 FORGE-PRACTICE.
Bending Cast Iron. — It is sometimes necessary to
straighten castings which have become warped or
twisted. .This may be done to some extent by
heating the iron and bending into the desired shape.
The part to be bent should be heated to what might
be described as a dull-yellow heat. The bending is
done by gradually applying pressure, not by blows.
For light work two pairs of tongs should give about
the right amount of leverage for twisting and bend-
ing.
When properly handled (very "gingerly"), thin
castings may be bent to a considerable extent.
Before attempting any critical work some experi-
menting should be done on a piece of scrap to deter-
mine at just what heat the iron will work to _ the
best advantage, and how much bending it will
stand without breaking.
Case-hardening. — Case-hardening is a process by
which articles made of soft steel or wrought iron
are given a hard wearing surface.
Wrought iron or machine-steel will not harden
to any appreciable extent, and this fact would pre-
vent the use of either metal in many places where
they would be the ideal materials if they could only
be given a hard surface.
This hard surface can, however, be had by
means of the process known as "Case-hardening."
(Wrought iron and machine-steel are taken as
being practically alike, as they are, so far as chemi-
cal composition is concerned.)
Practically the only difference between wrought
iron and tool-steel is that tool-steel contains a little
MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 233
more of the element called carbon than wrought
iron does. Tool-steel can be hardened by heating
to a red heat and cooling suddenly, because it does
contain this carbon; while wrought iron can not be
hardened, on account of the lack of it. If then by
some means carbon can be added to the metal on
the outside of an article made of wrought iron or
machine-steel, the outside part will be made into
tool-steel, and may then be hardened in the ordinary
manner, while the inside metal will be soft and
unchanged.
Wrought iron or machine-steel if heated to a high
heat in contact with charred leather, ground bone,
or other material containing a great deal of carbon
will "take up" or absorb carbon from that mate-
rial ; and the outside will be converted into a high-
carbon (tool) steel, which may be hardened by cool-
ing suddenly from a high heat. This process is
known as case-hardening, and is used for work
which requires a hard wearing surface backed up
by a softer and tougher material to resist shocks.
If a piece of wrought iron which has been
case-hardened be broken across, it will appear
something like Fig. 271. The out-
side layer, or coating, of hard steel
can be easily distinguished from
the inner core of softer unchanged
metal.
The " depth of penetration" of
the carbon (or, in other words, the
depth to which the iron is changed 2?I'
into steel) is determined by the temperature to which
234 FORGE-PRACTICE.
the metal is heated, the length of time it is kept at
that temperature, and the substance it is heated in
contact with.
The carbon penetrates faster at a high heat; but
a high heat can not always be used, particularly if
that mottled appearance so often seen on case-
hardened articles is wanted. Pieces which are to
be mottled should not be heated much above a
good red heat, as a higher heat destroys the color.
The longer the work is kept at the proper heat the
deeper the carbon penetrates. So, when the same
heat and the same case-hardening mixture are used
all the time, the depth of hardness on the pieces
treated can be determined by the length of time
the pieces are hot. For ordinary work, where it is
not necessary to have the mottled coloring on the
pieces, about a good yellow heat should be used—
about as high a heat as ordinary cast iron will stand
without danger of going to pieces.
As stated before, a case-hardened piece of iron
or machine-steel is really made up of two distinct
metals — the outside hard shell of high-carbon steel
(which is the same as tool-steel) and the inside
softer core of the original material. This outside
coating can be treated in the same manner as ordi-
nary tool-steel; that is, it can be hardened and
annealed just as tool-steel is. In fact, when a case-
hardened article is suddenly cooled from a red heat
exactly the same thing is done as when hardening
a piece of ordinary tool-steel, with, however, this dif-
ference: in hardening tool-steel the piece is hard-
ened clear through, and for ordinary purposes is so
MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 235
hard as to be almost useless; while with a piece of
case-hardened machine-steel, for instance, the out-
side only is hardened (because the outside only is
tool-steel), while the inside is left tough and com-
paratively soft. In the case-hardened piece there
is a tough inside core which will stand shocks
that would snap off a piece of hardened tool-steel
and an outside coating which is as hard and is the
same as hardened tool-steel. This gives a combi-
nation of hardness and toughness which is not pos-
sible with either machine-steel or tool-steel alone;
and it is this fact which makes case-hardened arti-
cles so valuable for many purposes.
To repeat: The object of case-hardening is to
convert the outside of a low carbon steel or iron into
a high-carbon steel that can be hardened easily;
and this converting is done by heating the piece in
contact with some substance containing a large
amount of carbon.
By taking certain precautions while heating and
cooling, the surface of the case-hardened pieces
may be given a mottled coloring of reds, blues, and
greens, which when rightly done is sometimes very
beautiful. Such coloring is often seen on gun-
locks, finished wrenches, etc.
Two common methods of case-hardening are in
use — what might be called the cyanide method
and the bone or animal-charcoal process.
Cyanide Case-hardening. — For the cyanide method
cyanide of potassium is used — the purer the better.
One way of using the cyanide is as follows : Small
pieces and pieces which need only a very thin shell
236 FORGE-PRACTICE.
of hard steel are heated to a high red heat, drawn
from the fire and sprinkled over with cyanide of
potassium, reheated for a few seconds to give the
carbon from the cyanide a chance to "soak in,"
drawn from the fire again, sprinkled with the cya-
nide, and cooled in cold water. This is an easy and
quick way when it will answer the purpose.
This method is also of use when case-hardening
in spots. When only a hole or some small part of
a piece is wanted hardened a small piece of the
cyanide may be placed on that particular spot
and the hardening confined to the area covered by
the cyanide.
Another method of using the cyanide is to melt
it and heat red-hot in a ladle or pot. The pieces to
be case-hardened are heated and placed in the red-
hot cyanide and left there for some minutes. After
"soaking" a proper length of time they are hard-
ened by cooling in cold water.
This method when properly carried out gives a
mottled appearance to the case-hardened surfaces
if they have been previously polished.
The longer the articles are left in the heated cya-
nide the deeper will be the penetration of the carbon,
although not quite in proportion to the time.
Heating in this way for about ten minutes will give
a penetration of perhaps one hundredth of an inch.
Case-hardening with Bone. — This method is used
when a deeper coating is needed. The pieces are
first packed in an iron box in such a way that they
are completely surrounded by ground bone or
some other material containing a great deal of ani-
MISCELLANEOUS WORK. 237
mal carbon. On the bottom of the box is placed a
layer of the ground bone about an inch deep; on
this are laid pieces to be case-hardened, leaving a
space about three-quarters of an inch wide on all
sides of every piece; over these pieces is put more
bone, covering them about one inch deep; then
more pieces and more bone until the box is full.
There must be a top layer of bone at least as thick,
if not somewhat thicker, than the bottom layer.
The box is then sealed up air-tight (to prevent the
oxidation of the bone) with fire-clay and it and its
contents heated in a furnace to the right heat and
kept at this heat for several hours. The deeper the
coating is needed the longer the box is kept hot.
When the box has been heated long enough it is
withdrawn from the fire, the top taken off, and the
pieces picked out while still red-hot and hardened
in cold water. Or, as is often done, after taking
off the top of the box it is turned bottom side up
over the tank and the whole contents, bone and all,
dumped into the water.
The boxes used are made of cast or wrought iron,
but cast-iron boxes are very satisfactory and are
easily replaced as they wear out.
The bone may be used several times before it is
"spent."
When it is desired to give the articles a bright
mottled color on the surface they must be polished
before case-hardening and should be packed in
"charred" bone; that is, fresh bone which has
been heated just hot enough to char it black.
When cooling, the cover of the box should be
238 FORGE-PRACTICE.
removed and the articles dumped by turning the
box upside down over the cooling-tank, keeping the
box very close to the surface of the water.
Good results are obtained by using a mixture of
about half and half charred bone and powdered
charcoal.
The penetration of the carbon is perhaps one
hundredth of an inch for each hour the pieces are
left hot. It is possible to convert a piece of wrought
iron to tool-steel clear through in this way.
Sometimes cyanide is mixed with the bone and
used as above. This hastens the penetration of
the carbon somewhat.
Milling-cutters and tools of that character which
are only to be used once, or on light work, may be
made of machine-steel and case-hardened by using
bone.
After case-hardening, or carbonizing, they may
be hardened, tempered, and ground in the usual
way.
Case-hardening, in Parts Only, of Pieces. — Some-
times it is desirable to case-harden only certain
parts of a piece. In such a case the parts to be left
untreated may be covered with a coating of clay
held in place with wire. Wherever the work is
protected by the clay it remains uncarbonized,
while the uncovered parts can be hardened. After
covering the parts with the clay as above, the case-
hardening may be done in the usual way by pack-
ing the object in bone and heating as usual.
Another way of obtaining the same result is to
carbonize the entire surface and then machine off
MISCELLANEOUS WORK.
239
the parts wanted untreated; thus, suppose a shaft
is wanted similar to Fig. 272, A, with only the parts
FIG. 272.
marked D, E, and F case-hardened. When the
shaft is first made, only the parts wanted hard
(D, E, and F) should be turned to size, the rest
being left in the rough.
The shaft is then carbonized in the usual way
and annealed instead of hardened. The rough parts
are then turned to size; the cut taken removes all
of the carbonized coating on these parts, exposing
the untreated metal underneath. After this the
shaft is heated in a fire and hardened, and as the
parts D, E, and F are the only parts left carbonized,
they will be the only parts hardened, leaving the
rest soft.
TABLES,
TABLE I.
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
1
•7854
.0490
3
9.4248
7.0686
%
.9817
.0767
i
9-8I75
7 . 6699
1
1.1781
. 1 104
i
IO . 2IO
8.2958
%
1-3744
•I5°3
10 .603
8 .9462
1
1.5708
.1963
|
10 . 996
9 .6211
%
1.7671
.2485 »
f
II/388
10.321
I
1-9635
.3068
I
II .781
11.045
:Ve
2.1598
•3712
1
12.174
H-793
I
2.3562
.4417
4
12 . 566
12 . 566
%
2-5525
.5184
*
I2-959
I3-364
J
2.7489
• 6013
i
!3-352
14.186
%
2.9452
.6902
1
J3-744
I5-033
i
3.1416
.7854
\
14-137
I5-904
Xe
3-3379
.8866
f
14.530
16 . 800
1
3-5343
.9940
I
14-923
17.728
%
3-73o6
1.1075
I
I5-3I5
18.665
i
3.9270
i . 2272
5
15.708
19-635
^6
4-1233
I-353°
i
16 . 101
20 .629
I
4.3197
i .4849
i
16.493
21 .648
&
4.5160
1.6230
t
16.886
22 .691
i
4.7124
1.7671
\
17.279
23-758
%
4.9087
I-9I75
f
17.671
24.850
i
S-JOS1
2.0739
f
18 .064
25.967
%.
5-30I4
2.2365
I
18.457
27 . lOQ
i
5-4978
2-4053
6
18.850
28 . 274
%
5-694i
2 .5802
i
19.242
29.465
*
5-8905
2 . 7612
i
I9-635
30 .680
%
6.0868
2.9483
t
20 .028
3I-9I9
2
6.2832
3.I4I6
\
20 .420
33.l83
X
6-4795
3-3410
f
20.813
34-472
J
6.6759
3-5466
f
21 . 2O6
35-785
%
6.8722
3-7583
I
21.598
37.122
i
7.0686
3-976I
7
21 . 991
38.485
%
7.2649
4 . 2000
i
22.384
39-871
1
7-46i3
4-4301
1
22 . 776
41 . 282
^6
7-6576
4 .6664
f
23.169
42.718
\
7-8540
4.9087
i
23-562
44.179
%
8-0503
5-I572
i
23-955
45.664
\
8.2467
5.4II9
f
24-347
47-I73
%
8.4430
5-6727
i
24.740
48.707
t
8.6394
5-9396
8
25.I33
50-265
%
8.8357
6 . 2126
f
25.525
51 -849
|
9.0321
6 .4918
i
25.918
53-456
%
9 . 2284
6.7771
t
26.311
55-088
243
244
TABLES.
TABLE I— (Continued).
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
; Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
8*
26.704
56-745
1 6J
51.051 207.39
I
27 .096
58.426
\
51-836
213.82
f
27.489
60.132
I
52 .622
220.35
1
27.882
61.862
17
53-407
226.98
9
28.274
63-617
1
54.192
233-71
i
28.667
65-397
*
54-978
240.53
v
29 .060
67 . 2OI
I
55-763
247-45
i
29.452
69 .029
18
56.549
254-47
Si
29-845
70.882
i
57-334
261.59
j
30-238
72.760
i
58.119
268.80
1 '
30-631
74 .662
f
58.905
276 . 12
i
31-023
76-589
J9
59-690
283.53
10
31.416
78-540
i
60 .476
291 .04
I
31.809
80.516
i
61 . 261
298.65
i
32 . 2OI
82.516
i
62 .046
306.35
I
32.594
84-541
20
62.832
3I4.I6
i
32.987
86.590
i
63.617
322 .06
33-379
88.664
*
64.403
33°-°6
33-772
90.763
J
65.188
338.i6
34-165
92.886
21
65-973
346 . 36
II
34.558
95-033
i
66.759
354-66
1
34-95°
97.205
*
67-544
363-05
••
35-343
99.402
I
68.330
371-54
i;
35-736
101 .62
22
69.115
380.13
36.128
103.87
i
69 .900
388.82
j-
36.521
106 . 14
*
70.686
397-6i
'.'
36.9*4
108.43
*
71.471
406 .49
1r
37-306
110.75
23
72.257
415-48
12
37-699
113.10
J
73-042
424-56
i
38-485
117.86
$
73-827
433-74
i
39.270
122.72
f
74.6i3
443 -OI
f
40.055
127.68
24
75-398
452.39
13
40 .841
132.73
1
76.184
461 .86
i
41 .626
J37-89
i
76 .969
47i -44
i
42.412
143 -J4
f
77-754
481 . ii
J
43-197
148.49
25
78.540
490-87
14
43-982
153-94
i
79-325
5°0-74
1
44.768
J59-48
i
80 . 1 1 1
510.71
5
45-553
165.13
f
80.896
520.77
*
46.338
170.87
26
81.681
530.93
15
47.124
176.71
i
82.467
54I-I9
i
47.909
182.65
i
83-252
551-55
*
48.695
188.69
f
84.038
562 .00
i
49 .480
194-83
27
84-823
572.56
16
50-265
2OI .06
1
85.608
583-21
TABLES.
245
Tx\BLE I— (Continued).
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
27i
86.394
593-96
38f
121.737
II79-3
I
87.179
604 .81
39
122 .522
1194 .6
28
87.965
6I5-75
i
123.308
1210 .O
i
88.750
626.80
i
124.093
1225.4
i
89-535
637-94
I
124.878
1241 .0
i
90.321
649 . 18
40
125.664
1256 . 6.
29
91 . 106
660 . 52
i
126 .449
1272.4
j
91 . 892
671 .96
\
!27-235
1288.2
^
92.677
683.49
1
128 ;O2O
1304.2
i
93-462
695 -13
4i
128.805
1320.3
3°
94.248
706.86
i
129.591
1336.4
i
95-°33
718.69
\
130.376
!352-7
i
95.819
730.62
I
131 .161
1369.0
i
96 .604
742.64
42
i3I-947
1385-4
31
97-389
754-77
\
132.732
1402 .0
i
98.175
766.99
*
!33-5l8
1418.6
i
98 . 960
779-31
1
134-303
1435-4
i
99.746
791-73
43
135.088
1452.2
32
100.531
804.25
i
I35-874
1469 . i
j
101 . 316
816.86
i
136.659
1486.2
i
102 . 102
829.58
I
J37-445
1503-3
i
102.887
842.39
44
138.230
1520.5
33
103.673
855-30
i
139-015
1537-9
I
104.458
868.31
\
139.801
1555-3
*
105.243
881 .41
I
140 . 586
1572.8
1
106 .029
894 .62
45
141 -372
i590-4
34
106 .814
907.92
i
142.157
1608.2
i
107 .600
921.32
i
142.942
1626 .0
i
108.385
934-82
1
143.728
1643-9
i
109 . 170
948.42
46
*44-5I3
1661 .9
35
109.956
962 . 1 1
i
145.299
1680 .0
i
i 10 . 741
975-91
\
146 .084
1698.2
*
111.527
989.80
I
146 .869
1716.5
I
112.312
1003 .8
47
I47-655
1734-9
36
113.097
1017 .9
i
148 .440
1753-5
i
113.883
1032.1
|
149 . 226
1772.1
\
114.668
1046.3
f
150 .01 i
1790.8
I
iiS-454
1060 . 7
48
150.796
1809 .6
37
116.239
1075.2
i
I5I.582
1828.5
i
117 .024
1089.8
\
152-367
1847-5
i
117 .810
1104.5
I
153.153
1866.5
1
118 . 596
1119.2
49
I53-938
1885.7
38
119.381
1134-1
i
154-723
1905.0
i
120 . 166
1149.1
i
I55.509
1924.4
\
120 .951
1164. 2
i
156.294
1943-9
246
TABLES.
TABLE I— (Continued).
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
5°
157.080
I963.5
62}
196-350
3068 .0
i
157.865
1983.2
63"
197.920
3117.2
|
158 .650
2003 . o
\
199.491
3166.9
£
159.436
2022 .8
64
2OI . 062
3217.0
51
l6o . 221
2042 .8
\
202.633
3267.5
i
161 .007
2062 . 9
65
204 . 204
3318.3
i
161 . 792
2083.1
\
2°5-774
3369.6
I
162.577
2103.3
66
2°7-345
3421 .2
52
163.363'
2123.7
\
208 .916
3473-2
i
164 . 148
2144.2
6?
2IO .487
3525-7
*
164.934
2164.8
\
212 .0^8
357s -5
1
165.719
2185.4
68
213.628
3631-7
53
166 . 504
22O6 . 2
\
215.199
3685.3
i
167 . 290
2227 .0
69
216 . 770
3739-3
i
168.075
2248 .0
\
218.341
3793-7
I
168.861
2269 . 1
70
219.911
3848.5
54
169 .646
2290 . 2
i
221 .482
3903-6
i
I70-43i
23II-5
7i
223-°53
3959-2
§
171.217
2332.8
\
224 .624
4015.2
|
172 .002
2354-3
72
226 . 195
4071.5
55
172.788
2375-8
\
227.765
4128 . 2
i
J73-573
2397-5
73
229.336
4185.4
174.358
2419 . 2
i
230.907
4242.9
£
J75 -J44
2441 . I
74
232.478
4300.8
56
175.929
2463.0
i
234-049
4359-2
1
176.715
2485 .0
75
235.619
44I7.9
*
177.500
2507.2
\
237.190
4477-0
*
178.285
2529-4
76
238.761
4536.5
57
179.071
2551.8
i
240.332
4596.3
i
179.856
2574.2
77
241 .903
4656.6
\
180.642
2596.7
\
243-473
47I7.3
\
181 .427
2619 .4
78
245-044
4778.4
58
l82 .212
2642 . I
i
246 .615
4839.8
182.998
2664 .9
79
248.186
4901.7
|
183.783
2687.8
\
249.757
4963.9
J
184 . 569
2710.9
80
25L327
5026.5
59
185.354
2734.0
\
252.898
5089.6
186.139
2757.2
81
254-469
5r53-o
186.925
2780.5
i
256 .040
5216.8
187 . 7IO
2803.9
82
257.611
5281 .0
60
188.496
2827 .4
i
259 . 181
5345-6
\
I9O .066
2874.8
83
260 . 752
5410.6
61
191.637
2922.5
\
262.323
5476.0
i
193.208
2970 .6
84
263.894
5541-8
62
194.779
3019.1
\
265.465
5607.9
TABLES. 247
TABLE I— (Continued).
CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
Diam-
eter.
Circumfer-
ence.
Area.
85
267.035
5674.5
93
292 . 168
6792.9
1
268 . 606
5741-5
i
293-739
6866.1
86
270.177
5808.8
94
295.310
6939.8
J
271.748
5876.5
i
296.881
7013.8
87t
273-3I9
5944-7
95
298.451
7088.2
$
274.889
6013 . 2
i
300 .022
7163.0
88
276 .460
6o82.I
96
301-593
7238.2
i
278.031
6151.4
i
303.164
7313-8
89
279 .602
6221 . I
97
304.734
7389.8
i
281 .173
6291 .2
i
306.305
7466 .2
90
282.743
6361.7
98
307.876
7543-0
i
284.314
6432.6
i
309-447
7620 . i
91
285.885
6503.9
99
311 .018
7697.7
4
287.456
6575-5
*
312.588
7775-6
92
289 .027
6647 .6
IOO
3I4-1S9
7854.0
i
290.597
6720 . i
248
TABLES.
TABLE II.
TEMPERATURES TO WHICH HARDENED TOOLS SHOULD BE HEATED
TO PROPERLY "DRAW THE TEMPER," TOGETHER WITH
THE COLORS OF SCALE APPEARING ON A POLISHED-STEEL
SURFACE AT THOSE TEMPERATURES, AND OTHER MEANS
OF DETECTING PROPER HEATING.
Kind of Tool.
Temper-
ature,
Fahr.
Color of
Scale.
Action of
File.
Other Indi-
cations.
Scrapers for ordi-
200°
Water dries
nary use.
quickly.
Burnishers.
Very pale
Can hardly
L a r d - o i 1
Light turning and
43°°
yellow.
be made
smokes
finishing tools.
to catch.
slightly.
Engraving-tools.
Can be
Lathe-tools.
made to
Milling-cutters.
460°
Straw - yel-
catch
Lathe- and planer-
low.
with dif-
tools for heavy
ficulty.
work.
Taps.
Dies for screw-cut'g.
Reamers.
Punches.
Dies.
Flat drills.
Wood- working tools.
500°
Brown-yel-
Plane-irons.
low.
Wood-chisels.
Wood-turning tools.
Twist drills.
Sledges.
Bl'ksmiths' ham'rs.
Cold-chisels for very
530°
Light pur-
Scratches.
light work.
ple.
Axes.
550°
Dark pur-
Cold-chisels for or-
ple.
dinary use.
Blue, ting'd
slightly
with red.
Stone-cutting chisels
Files with
Carving-knives.
great dif-
Screw-drivers.
ficulty.
Saws.
Springs.
58o°
Blue.
Files with
Lard-oil
610°
Pale blue.
difficulty.
burns or
630°
Greenish
flashes.
blue.
TABLES.
249
TABLE III.
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF FRACTIONS OF ONE INCH.
From Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book.
1/64
.015625
33/64
•5I5625
1/32
•03125
J7/32
•53125
3/64
.046875
35/64
•546875
1/16
.0625
9/16
•5625
5/64
.078125
37/64
•578l25
3/32
•09375
19/32
•59375
7/64
•109375
39/64
•609375
1/8
•125
5/8
.625
9/64
.140625
41/64
.640625
5/32
•15625
21/32
•65625
11/64
•I7l875
43/64
.671875
3/16
•1875
11/16
•6875
13/64
.203125
45/64
•703125
7/32
.21875
23/32
•71875
15/64
•234375
47/64
•734375
1/4
•25
3/4
•75
17/64
. 265625
49/64
•765625
' 9/32
.28125
25/32
.78125
19/64
.296875
5J/64
.796875
5/16
•3I25
13/16
.8125
21/64
•328125
53/64
.828125
11/32
•34375
27/32
•84375
23/64
•359375
55/64
•859375
3/8
•375
7/8
•875
25/64
.390625
57/64
.890625
13/32
.40625
29/32
.90625
27/64
.421875
59/64
.921875
7/16
•4375
I5A6
•9375
29/64
•453125
61/64
•953125
15/32
•46875
31/32
•96875
3J/64
•484375
63/64
.984375
1/2
•5°
i
i.
w
WEIGHTS OF BAR STEEL PER LINEAL FOOT.
The weight given in the table is for a bar of steel i foot long and of the dimensions named.
(From Jones & Laughlins.)
Thickness in Inches.
«
CO fico 0 re ir> 0 </-. 0 ir> 0 v. 0 ir 0 0 O O 0 0 0
XI Pl O HI 10 O X1 O w, re PI O O i^C re O i^ -t X "i
ro -1- -t .r. -0 u-.vo <-X O O - « P. re -, t^X O -. i^
S
CO 10 <N O i^ -t O »/". C" -tX ro t^- — O O C" i — O tr r^' O
ON ro r^* O "1~ X w C^O rt''H C" O "^t1-1 C* <"O X rO XXX
04 ro CO *"t" 't ^t" LO iOO t"^»X X C" O *-* i-< ro *t >C *"*• O <"O
s-t
to r-* O" -* ro 10 t>* O i^X w w> O fC f^ Q CC "% ro O <A O
f.VS - u-,cC •-» -t - t^ r--: O O 0) C" \r. w -rf i^ Q rC X -t
X
« c^o"' 0 ?°t Ji. NJf. POX "5; 3- 3 0 °- I^c'vS £xT 0
<N tN d (N rO'^rO*1'T^'Voi/~yONO r^t^-OC C^O *— ^] "1" *"**
X
O *N c* *f i/~, i^X O '"O it~, t^» O ro i/"-X O Iy~- O ^O O O O
-i HI CN Cl OJ (N fj ro ro -f "t 'O "~- »^~, O O t^'X C' O — ro
0
O X O w, «"O d OX LT"y d C1 O rO O X >^, O ^1" X ro — O
"tO 00 O C) -fO O* ro *^ O -tX <M i^- C^ i^ -t " C> -t C"
I-H M M CN cj CN ci (N ro ro rf -t -J- ir, ir, »^-O r^-X X O —
a**
CO ro O^O c* X ro "", i^. C1 -1 rO "". t-^-X O *1~ X r-i tr, ro O
<N rj- ir) i-^. C> O CJ i^-X — >*%X — -f I-* — I-. ro O O O CJ
M M M i-i KH c] rt rj d ro ro ro -t -t -t >O iv,O t^- t^X O
^O O roo C" f O O ci CN ir, c* O> '-O M C^ U">X --1 "1" X *1" O
M M M M t-i 1-1 M O* 01 C4 Ol rorOrOro-^-Tj-U~;iOO t^-X
*
O "OvO r^X CO O O -" (N -t "~/O X O O ro 10, r>» O ""• O
"fr •* 0
1
\O C^» I^*CO CT^
M N w rt "1
x
ro X ro 0s "^ w^ w^ 'O O ~O r** X X O1 O O Cj ro "^ *-O X O
MHIMMHMHIWCINCIINfO
e
M rf r^« O ci iff cC ro CO ro ^ ™t" w^ *o O l^ O r** t^» X 0s O
»?w3i
H*H^««:-^«»:C^ r^^C^* r^H«C^f ^N H^
•sqq ui
O Ci ON ^O ^t" ro o* ^* X "1" ^^ *™i X ""^ HI CO ^O d cO
10 t-^ o^ •"" ro *-O O *^> M t^*1 ^t" O^ *o d d ro^O w t*^
M M M c* dd rorOTt-'^>i/%iOCO O d TfOO^tH
M (-1 M HI M d
•sqq ui
O v> o t^^fci o d r-io r>*cO CO CO d ON C\ ro O
M co u^vO COO ^fOO dt^.d rf-oO^O d O O M
•saqouj
ui azig
d d d d d d corororo^rt-totoO'O t^r--CO
•sqq ui
dMrot^-ioiot^di-.OOO'-«ro u^cc M \O M
M M M d ro *3- iovO r>»cO O •-* ro
'sqq ui
'spiino^
Tft^M lowcO to-^t ro^o ddu^ddOrOrJ-
C^ ^O ^0 t^* "^ ^O ^t" ^ O ^T f"^* X t^* Wi M u^ CO ON ON
O H. d CO I/^NO oOOtoOOrot-t O O O M CONO
W M d d CO ^ l/^\O t^*00 ON O
HI
•soqouj
ui azig
\S v^ \S \J£
INDEX.
Annealing, in general, 175, 191.
at forge, 192.
copper and brass, 231.
" in boxes, 193.
" , special methods of, 194.
" water, 192.
Anvil, description of, 6.
Bending, in general, 59.
cast iron, 232.
duplicate work, 146.
pipe, 226.
Bessemer steel, making of, 165.
Blast-furnace, description of, 160.
Bolts, general dimensions of, 77.
" , cupping-tool for, 78.
" , heading-tool for, 78.
" , making of, 77.
" , upset-head, 79.
" , welded-head, 80.
Bone, for case-hardening, 236.
Borax, use as flux, 21.
Boss on flange, forging of, 144.
" " lever, forging of, in.
Bowls, making of, 88.
Brace, or bracket, welded, 119.
Brass, annealing of, 231.
Brazing, flux used, 226.
" , methods of, 223.
252 INDEX.
Brazing, process of, 222.
" , spelter for, 224.
Butt-weld, 34.
Calculation of stock, see Stock calculation.
Cape-chisels, forging and tempering of, 199.
Carbon, effect of, on iron and steel, 163, 164, 174, 175, 176,
" , percentage of, in iron and steel, 159, 169.
Case-hardening, in general, 232.
" , colored, 235, 236, 237.
" , different methods, 235.
" in boxes with bone, 236.
" in spots, 236, 238.
" , penetration of carbon in, 236, 238.
" with cyanide of potassium, 235.
Cast iron, bending of, 232.
" " , description of, 160.
Chain, making of, 29.
" , stock required to make link, 48.
Chain-stock, forging of, 88.
Chisels, blacksmith's, hot and cold, description and use, 6.
" , " , forging and tempering of, 218.
" , , grinding of, 8.
" or cutters for steam-hammer, 123.
Coal, requirements of forge, 2.
Cold-chisel, description of blacksmith's, 7.
" making of, 197.
" tempering of, 180.
Connecting-rod, forging of forked end, 104.
" , " with steam-hammer, 138.
" , stock calculation for, 93.
Copper, annealing of, 231.
Copper pipe, bending of, 226.
Crank-shaft, calculation of stock required, 91.
" , forging of, with steam-hammer, 135.
" , " " single-throw, 90, 97.
" , " " double-throw, 99.
" , " " triple-throw, 101.
Crucible-steel, 169.
Cupping-tool, for bolts, 78.
Cutting-block, description of, 10.
INDEX. 253
Cutting stock, methods of, q.
Cyanide of potassium, for case-hardening, 235.
Drawing-out, definition and methods of, 5 1 .
Drift, use of, for hammer-eyes, 213.
Drills, flat, 212.
Drop-forging, description of, 154.
" , eye-bolt, 155.
, forming dies hot, 157.
with steam-hammer, 155.
Duplicate bending with block, 147.
" with jig, 152.
Duplicate work, 146.
Eye, bending of, 64.
" , weldless, making of, from flat stock, IOQ
Eye-bolt, drop-forging of, 155.
Files, finish, allowance for, 95.
" , hardening and tempering of, 187.
Fire, banking of, 4.
" , building of, 2.
" , description of good, 3.
" , oxidizing, 5.
Flange, with boss, forging of, 143.
Flux, for brazing, 226.
" , use of, in welding, 20.
Forge, description of, i.
Fork, welded, 119.
Forked ends, forging of, 102, 107.
Fullers, description of, 15.
" , forging of, 220.
Gate-hook, making of, 68.
Hammers, description of, 10.
" , ball pene-, 216.
" , forging and tempering of, 212.
" , riveting, 214.
" , sledge, 217.
Hardening, laws of, 176. See also Tempering.
254 INDEX.
Hardie, description of, 7.
" , forging of, 218.
Heading-tool, for bolts, 78.
Hook, chain, 71.
" , gate, 68.
" , grab, 70.
" , hoisting, 75.
" , welded eye-, 74.
Hot-chisel, description of, 7.
, forging of, 218.
Iron, cast, making of, 160.
" , wrought, making of, 163.
Jump-weld, 35.
Knuckles; forging of various kinds, i ~>2.
Ladles, making of, 86.
Ladle-shank, forging of foundry, 114.
Lathe-tools, in general, 200.
" , boring, 205.
" , centering, 210.
" , cutting-off, 202.
, diamond-points, 206.
" , finishing, 210.
" , internal-thread, 206.
" , round-nose, 201.
, side-finishing, 208.
, thread, 201.
Machine-steel, making of, 165.
" , properties of, 171, 172.
Metallurgy of iron and steel, 159.
Molder's trowel, forging of, 117.
Open-hearth furnace, 167.
steel, making of, 167.
Oxide, formation of, on iron, 5
Oxidizing fire, 5.
Oxygen, effect on heating iron, .$.
INDEX. 255
Pipe-bending, in general, 226.
, copper, 230.
, different methods, 228.
with jigs, 229, 231.
Planer-tools, see undei Lathe-tools.
Pointing, precautions necessary, 52.
Puddling-furnace, 163.
Punch, for steam-hammer, 141.
Punching, method of, and tools used, 58.
" , tools for duplicate, 142.
Recalescence, description of, 182.
Rings, amount of stock required, 46.
" , bending up, 63.
' , forging under steam-hammer, 139
" , welding of flat-stock, 32.
" , " " round-stock, 29.
" , " " washer, 33.
' , weldless, making of, no.
Round-nosed chisels, 200.
Sand, uses of, as flux, 21.
Scarfing for weld, object of, 23.
Set-hammer, description of, 14.
, making of, 219.
Shaper-tocls, see under Lathe-tools.
Shrinking, process of, 221.
Sledges, description of, n.
, forging and tempering of, 217.
Socket-wrench, forging of, 106.
Spelter, for brazing, 224.
Split-work, shaping from thin stock, 107.
Spring-steel, welding of, 35.
Square corner, forging of, 60.
Steam-hammer, description of, 120.
, cutting work under, 127.
, forging taper work with, 130.
, general notes on, 126.
, tongs for, 121.
, tools and swages for, 129.
, tools for cutting, 123.
256 INDEX.
Steel, Bessemer, 165.
" , machine or soft, 165.
" , open-hearth, 167.
" , tool, 169.
Stock calculation, in general, 41.
for circles, 46.
" connecting-rod, 92.
" curves, 44.
" " " links, etc., 48.
" " " simple bends, 44.
" single-throw crank, 91.
" weldless ring, no.
Taper-work, with steam-hammer, 130, 145.
Tempering, in general, 179.
" , bad shapes for, 187.
" , definition and methods of, 176.
" , different methods of, 180, 181, 185, 188, 190.
" , heating for, 184.
" , straightening work after, 186.
" , thin flat work, 186.
" to leave soft center, 190.
" , see under individual tools.
Tongs, description and use of different kinds, 12,
" , fitting of, 13.
" for round stock, forging of, 83.
" for steam-hammer work, 121.
" , forging bolt-, 84.
" of lighthand-, 81.
" " pick-up, 84.
" , " with welded handles, 84.
" , forging with steam-hammer, 133.
Tool-forging, in general, 198.
Tools, see under individual tools; also under Lathe-tools.
Tool -steel, hardening, 173.
" , making of, 169.
" , properties of, 192.
" , tempering, 176.
" , " temper "-rating, 174.
Trowel, forging of moulders, 117.
Truing-up of work, 54.
INDEX. 257
Truing-up of work under steam-hammer, 133.
Tuyere, use and description of, i.
Twisting, for ornamental work, 66.
" , " gate-hook, 70.
Upsetting, definition and methods of, 55.
"Veight of forgings, calculation of, 94.
Weld, angle, flat-stock, 37.
" , butt, 34.
" , chain, 19.
" , faggot or pile, 22.
" , flat lap-, 24.
" , fork, 119.
" iron to steel, 36.
" , jump, 35.
" , ring, flat stock, 32.
" , " , round stock, 29.
" , round lap-, 28.
" , split, for heavy work, 36.
" , split, for light work, 35.
" , spring-steel, 35.
" , "T", flat stock, 38.
" , "T", round stock, 39.
" , washer or flat ring, 33.
Welding, in general, 17.
" , allowance of stock for, 39.
" , scarfing for, 23.
" , spring-steel, 35, 40.
" , tool-steel, 39.
" , use of fluxes, 20.
Wrench, for twisting crank -shaft, 100.
" , forging of open-end, 105.
" , " of socket-, 106.
Wrought iron, making of, 113.
" " , properties of, 171, 172.
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Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal
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Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 oo
* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo
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Williams and Hazen's Hydraulic Tables. . . . .• 8vo, i 50
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Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 oo
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50
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Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 5 oo
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Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50
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Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50
Marten's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols 8vo, 7 50
Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 oo
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Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users I2mo, 2 oo
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Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements 8vo, 3 oo
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Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France I2mo, i 25
7
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo
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Spalding's Hydraulic Cement i2mo, 2 oo
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Waddell's De Pontibus. (* Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.)- .i6mo, mor., 3 oo
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Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo
Wood'- (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and
Steel. 8vo, 4 oo
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3x5 inches, morocco, i 25
Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 oo
Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location. i6mo, morocco, i 50
Butt's Civil Engineer's Field-book i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Crandall's Transition Curve i6mo, morocco, i 50
Railway and Other Earthwork Tables 8vo, i 50
Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . i6mo, morocco, 5 oo
Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879) Paper, 5 oo
* Drinker's Tunnelling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills. 4to, half mor., 25 oo
Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25
Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . . i6mo, mor., 2 50
Howard's Transition Curve Field-book i6mo, morocco, i 50
Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em-
bankments 8vo, i oo
Mo lit or and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, i oo
Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Railroad Spiral i6mo, morocco, i 50
Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae and Earthwork 8vo, i 50
* Trautwine's Method of Calculating the Cube Contents of Excavations and
Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams 8vo, 2 oo
The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads.
\ , i2mo, morocco, 2 50
Cross-section Sheet Paper, 25
Webb's Railroad Construction i6mo, morocco, 5 oo
Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Small 8vo, 5 oo
DRAWING.
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50
* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 oo
* . " " " Abridged Ed 8vo, i 50
Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper i oo
Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi-
neers •. Oblong 4to, 2 50
Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo
Emch's Introduction to Project! ve Geometry and its Applications 8vo. 2 50
8
Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 2 oo
Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 50
Advanced Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo
Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50
Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo
MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 3 oo
Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo
Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 oo
Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50
* Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo, i 50
Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 3 50
Meyer's Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 oo
Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, 5 oo
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 oo
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo*
Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50
Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. i2mo, i oo
Drafting Instruments and Operations I2moi i 25
Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing I2mo, i 5*
Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and
Shadow ' I2mo, i oo
Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry I2mo, i 25
Primary Geometry I2mo, 75
Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 3 50
General Problems of Shades and Shadows 8vo, 3 oo
Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50
Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 50
Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and Klein)8vo, 5 oo
Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Ait of Letter Engraving i2mo, 2 oo
Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50
Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective 8vo, 2 50
Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering 8vo, i oo
Woolf's Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large 8vo, 3 oo
ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.
Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) Small 8vo, 3 oo
Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements. . . .I2mo, i oo
Benjamin's History of Electricity 8vo, 3 oo
Voltaic Cell 8vo, 3 oo
Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.).Svo, 3 oo
Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo, 3 oo
Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. i6mo, morocco, 5 oa
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von
Ende.) 1 2mo, 2 50
Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) 8vo, 4 oo
Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power iamo, 3 oo
Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.) 8vo, 2 50
Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained I2mo, i oo
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo, 2 oo
Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests. . . .Large 8vo, 75
Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-Current Machines 8vo, 2 oo
Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 oo
Le Chatelien's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess.) I2mo. 3 oo
Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) i2mo, i oo
9
* Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vols. I. and II. 8vo, each, 6 oo
* Michie's Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light 8vo, 4 oo
Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishback.) iimo, 2 50
* Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee — Kinzbrunner.). . 8vo, i 50
Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol. 1 8vo, 2 50
Thurston's Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50
* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, i 50
Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Small 8vo, 2 oo
Ulke's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo
LAW.
* Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50
* Treatise on the Military Law of United States 8vo, 7 oo
* Sheep, 7 50
Manual for Courts-martiaL i6mo, morocco, i 50
Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 oo
Sheep, 6 50
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
tecture 8vo, 5 oo
Sheep, 5 50
Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 oo
Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law 121110, 2 50
MANUFACTURES.
Bernadou's Smokeless Powder — Nitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose
Molecule I2mo, 2 5*
Holland's Iron Founder 1 2ino, a 50
" The Iron Founder," Supplement izmo, 2 50
Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used in the
Practice of Moulding I2mo, 3 oo
Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo
Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott.) 8vo, 3 oo
Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist I2mo, i oo
Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, i oo
Hopkin's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo, 3 oo
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of F«od with Special Reference to State
ControL Large 8vo, 7 50
Matthews's The Textile Fibres 8vo, 3 50
Metcalf's Steel. A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 oo
Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures — And the Administration of Workshops 8vo, 3 oo
Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 oo
Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco, i 50
* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing 8vo, 25 oo
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo
Spalding's Hydraulic Cement I2tno, 2 oo
Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses. ... i6mo, morocco, 300
Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. . i6mo, morocco, 2 oo
Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced 8vo, 5 oo
Thurston's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Opera-
tion 8vo, 5 oo
* Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo
Ware's Manufacture of Sugar. (In press.)
West's American Foundry Practice I2mo, 2 50
Moulder's Text-book. 12010, 2 50
10
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo
Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. .8vo, 4 oo
MATHEMATICS.
Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, I 59
* Bass's Elements of Differential Calculus I2mo, 4 oo
Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry i2mo, i oo
Campion's Manual of Logarithmic Computations I2mo, i 50
Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo, i 50
* Dickson's College Algebra Large I2mo, i 50
* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large I2mo, i 25
Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications 8vo, 2 50
Halsted's Elements of Geometry 8vo, i 75
Elementary Synthetic Geometry. „ 8vo, i 50
Rational Geometry i2mo, i 75
* Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size. paper, 15
100 copies for 5 oo
* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8X 10 inches, 25
10 copies for 2 oo
Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus. . Small 8vo, 3 oo
Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus. Small 8vo, i 50
Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates I2mo, i oo
Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise .on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations.
Small 8vo, 3 50
Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares. I2mo, i 50
* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics 1200, 3 oo
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) . i2mo, 2 oo
* Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other
Tables 8vo, 3 oo
Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, 2 oo
* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo, r oo
Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo
Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics 8vo, 5 oo
Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 oo
Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus. . Sm. 8vo, 3 oo
Differential and Integral Calculus. 2 vols. in one Small 8vo, 2 50
Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 oo
Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical i2mo, i oo
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Bacon's^ Forge Practice 1 21110, i 50
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings I2mo, 2 50
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery. 8vo, 2 50
* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 oo
* " " Abridged Ed " 8vo, i 50
Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes I2mo, 2 oo
Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 oo
Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo, 4 oo
Cary's Smoke Suppression in Plants using Bituminous Coal. (In Prepara-
tion.)
Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine Small 8vo, 4 oo
Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, i oo
Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En-
gineers Oblong 4to, 2 50
11
Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing I2mo, i 50
Treatise on Belts and Pulleys 121110, i 50
Dtirley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo
Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power I2mo, 3 oo
Rope Driving 12010, 2 oo
Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers i2mo, i 25
Hall's Car Lubrication i2mo, i oo
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Button's The Gas Engine 8vo, 5 oo
Jamison's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 50
Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50
Part IL Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo
Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 oo
Kerr's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo
Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods 8vo, 4 oo
*Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean. ). .8vo, 4 oo
MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo
Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 oo
Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50
Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 3 50
Poole s Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 oo
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo, 3 oo
Richard's Compressed Air I2mo, i 50
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo
Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill
Work 8vo, 3 oo
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. 1 2 mo, i oo
Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann —
Klein.) -. . 8vo, 5 oo
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann — Klein.). .8vo, 5 oo
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo
Wood's Turbines ..8vo, 2 50
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50
Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition.
Reset 8vo, 7 50
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8 vo, 6 oo
Johnson's Materials of Construction 8vo, 6 oo
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo,' 2 50
Lanza's Applied Mechanics Svo, 7 50
Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) Svo, 7 50
Merriman's Mechanics of Materials. Svo, 5 oo
Strength of Materials I2mo, i oo
Metcalf 's Steel. A manual for Steel-users I2mo. 2 »o
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish Svo, 3 oo
Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo
Thurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols,, Svo, 8 oo
Part II. Iren and Steel. Svo, 3 50
Part HI. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents Svo, 2 50
Text-book of the Materials of Construction. 8vo, 5 oo
12
Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on
the Preseivation of Timber 8vo, 2 oo
Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo
Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and
Ste«L ... 8vo, 4 oo
STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Berry's Temperature-entropy Diagram I2mo, i 25
Carnot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurston.) I2mo, i 50
Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . . .i6mo, mor., 5 oo
Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, i oo
Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 oo
Hemenway's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy I2mo, 2 oo
Button's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 5 oo
Heat and Heat-engines 8vo, 5 oo
Kent's Steam boiler Economy 8vo, 4 oo
Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo, i 50
MacCord's Slide-valves 8vo, 2 oo
Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 oo
Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator 121110. i 50
Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors 8vo, i oo
Thermodynamics of the Steam-eagine and Other Heat-engines 8vo, 5 oo
Valve-gears for Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50
Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers 8v», 4 oo
Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large 8vo, 2 50
Pupin's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors.
(Osterberg.) i2mo, i 25
Reagan's Locomotives: Simple Compound, and Electric i2mo, 2 50
Rontgen's Principles of Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo
Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management 12010, 2 oo
Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice lamo, 2 50
Snow's Steam-boiler Practice 8vo, 3 oo
Spangler's Valve-gears 8vo, 2 50
Notes on Thermodynamics 1 21110, i oo
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 oo
Thurston's Handy Tables 8vo. i 50
Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vols., 8vo, 10 oo
Part I. History, Structure, and Theory 8vo, 6 oo
Part II. Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 oo
Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and
the Prony Brake STO, 5 oo
Stationary Steam-engines ' 8vo, 2 50
Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice I2mo, i 50
Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 5 oo
Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo
Whitham's Steam-engine Design 8vo, 5 oo
Wilson's Treatise on Steam-boilers. (Flather.) i6mo, 2 50
Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . .8vo, 4 oo
MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50
Chase's The Art of Pattern-making ,. . . . i2mo, 2 50
Churches Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo
18
Church's Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 2 oo
Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working izmo, i 50
Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe 12010, i 50
Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing i2mo, : 50
Treatise on Belts and Pulleys i2mo, i 50
Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for Colleges and Schools. .I2mo, i 50
Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making i2mo, 2 oo
Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's
Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to half morocco, 5 oo
Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
VoL I. Kinematics 8vo, 3 50
Vol. II. Statics 8vo, 4 oo
VoL III. Kinetics 8vo, 3 50
Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. I Small 4to, 7 50
VoL II Small 4to ,1000
Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo
Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i6mo, i oo
Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power izmo, 3 oo
Rope Driving lamo, 2 oo
Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 oo
Hall's Car Lubrication i2mo, i oo
Holly's Art of Saw Filing i8mo, 75
James's Kinematics of a Point and the Rational Mechanics of a Particle. Sm.8vo,2 oo
* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics 1 2010, 3 oo
Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods 8vo, 2 oo
Jones's Machine Design :
Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50
Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vc, 3 oo
Kerrrs Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo
Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50
Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods 8vo, 4 oo
*Lorenz's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.). 8vo, 4 oo
MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo
Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50
Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo
Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 5 oo
* Elements of Mechanics i2mo, i oo
* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo
Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric i2mo, 2 50
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8 vo, 3 oo
Richards's Compressed Air I2mo, i 50
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism. 8vo, 3 oo
Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. VoL 1 8vo, 2 50
Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management I2mo, 2 oo
Smith's (O.) Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's (A. W.) Materials of Machines i2ino, i oo
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 oo
Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Y/ork in Machinery and Mill
Work 8vo, 3 oo
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws. of Energetics.
I2mo, I OO
Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo,
Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Herrmann — Klein. ) . 8vo,
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann — Klein. ).8vo.
Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo,
Principles of Elementary Mechanics I2mo,
Turbines 8vo.
The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to,
14
METALLURGY.
Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury:
VoL I. Silver 8vo, 7 50
Vol. U. Gold and Mercury 8vo, 7 50
** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage 9 cents additional.) I2mo, 2 50
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50
Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, I go
Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard — Burgess. )i2mo, 3 oo
Metcalf' s SteeL A Manual for Steel-users i2tno, 2 oo
Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo
Thurston's Materials of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo 8 oo
Part U. Iron and SteeL 8vo. 3 50
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents 8vo. 2 50
Hike's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo
MINERALOGY.
Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 2 50
Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 oo
Map of Southwest Virignia Pocket-book form. 2 oo
Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo, 4 oo
Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, paper, i oo
Cloth, i 25
Dictionary of the Names of Minerals 8vo, 3 50
Dana's System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50
First Appendix to Dana's New " System of Mineralogy." Large 8vo, i oo
Text-book of Mineralogy 8vo, 4 oo
Minerals and How to Study Them 12010, i 50
Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals Large 8vo, i oo
Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography i2mo , 2 oo
Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects tamo, i oo
Eakle's Mineral Tables 8vo, i 25
Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 2 50
Hussak's The Determination of Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.). Small 8vo, 2 oo
Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses 8vo, 4 oo
* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo. paper, o 50
Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals.
(Iddings.) 8vo, 5 oo
* Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Rocks 8vo, 2 oo
Williams's Manual of Lithology 8vo, 3 oo
MINING.
Beard's Ventilation of Mines I2mo. 2 50
Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 oo
Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket book form, 2 oo
Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects I2mo. i oo
* Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills . . 4to. hf . mor. . 25 oo
Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo. 4 oo
Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses I2mo, 2 oo
Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States i2mo . 2 50
Ihlseng's Manual of Mining 8vo. 5 oo
** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage gc. additional.) ~. 12010. 2 50
Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8ro. i go
O'DriscoU's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores. 8vo. 2 oo
* Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo
Wilson's Cyanide Processes ..„ izmo., i 50
Chlorination Process ...izmo, i 50
16
Wilson's Hydraulic and Placer Mining I2mo, 2 oo
Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation t2mo, i 25
SANITARY SCIENCE.
Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House I2mo, i oo
FolwelTs Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.). 8vo, 3 o»
Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 oo
Fuertes's Water and Public Health. izmo, i 50
Water-filtration Works I2mo, 2 50
Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection i6mo, i oo
Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Town's Refuse Demy 8vo, 3 50
Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 oo
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
Control 8vo, 7 50
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint) 8vo, 4 oo
Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) izmo, i 25
Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 2 oo
Ogden's Sewer Design I2mo, 2 oo
Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer-
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis I2mo, i 25
* Price's Handbook on Sanitation I2mo, i 50
Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in DUtaries xarno, i oo
Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitaiy Science I2mo, i oo
Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand-
point 8vo, 2 oo
* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, i 50
Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 50
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 oo
Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) I2mo, i oo
Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50
Woodhull's Notes on Military Hygiene i6mo, i 50
MISCELLANEOUS.
De Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.). . . .Large lamo, 2 50
Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the
International Congress of Geologists Large 8vo, i 50
Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vo. 4 oo
Haines's American Railway Management I2mo, 2 50
Mott's Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. Mounted chart, i 25
Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound i6mo, i oo
Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. .Small 8vo, 3 oo
Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) I2mo. i oo
Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament Large 8vo, 2 oo
Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 50
Totten's Important Question in Metrology .8vo, 2 50
The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4*°. i oo
Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, i oo
Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy I2mo, i 50
Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance;
Suggestions for Hospital Architecture : Plans for Small Hospital . I2mo, 125
HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.
Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar I2mo, i 25
Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, a oo
Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures.
(Tregelles.) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 oo
Uttews's Hebrew Bible 8vo> » 3S
16
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