Full text of "Forge work"

GIFT OF

FORGE WORK

BY
WILLIAM L ILGEN

FORGING INSTRUCTOR, CRANE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

WITH EDITORIAL REVISION BY

CHARLES F. MOORE

HEAD OF MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT, CENTRAL HIGH
SCHOOL, NEWARK, NEW JERSEY

NEW YORK-:- CINCINNATI : CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

<...-

FORGE WORK.
W. P. I

PREFACE

TEACHERS of forge work generally supply their own course of
instruction and arrange the exercises for practice. The necessary
explanations and information are given orally, and hence often
with very unsatisfactory results, as the average student is not
able to retain all the essential points of the course. It was the
desire to put this instruction in some permanent form for the use
of forge students that led the author to undertake this work.

The author wishes to express his thanks for the advice and
encouragement of his fellow-teachers, Dr. H. C. Peterson, Mr.
Frank A. Fucik, and Mr. Richard Hartenberg. Special obliga-
tions are due to Mr. Charles F. Moore, Head of the Mechanical
Department in the Central Commercial and Manual Training
High School of Newark, New Jersey, for his valuable editorial
service.

Figures 146, 147, 150, 153, 157, and 158 have been reproduced,
by permission of the publishers, from " Manufacture of Iron "
and " Manufacture of Steel," copyrighted 1902, by the Inter-
national Textbook Company. Acknowledgments are due also to
the Inland Steel Company for the privilege of using Figures 145,
148, 149, 159-163, 166 ; and to the Columbia Tool Steel Company
for the use of Figures 151, 152, 154-156.

WILLIAM L. ILGEN.

251288

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PACK

CHAPTER I. TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 1. The Forge ; 2. Fire Tools ;
3. Fuels ; 4. The Anvil ; 5. The Hammers ; 6. The ball peen ham-
mer ; 7. The cross peen hammer ; 8. The straight peen hammer ;
9. The sledges ; 10. The Tongs ; 11. The flat-jawed tongs ; 12. The
hollow bit tongs ; 13. The pick-up tongs ; 14. The side tongs ;
15. The chisel tongs ; 16. The link tongs; 17. The tool or box
tongs ; 18. Anvil and Forging Tools ; 19. The hardy ; 20. The cold
and hot cutters ; 21. The hot cutter ; 22. The flatter ; 23. The
square- and round-edged set hammers ; 24. The punches ; 25. The top
and bottom swages ; 26. The top and bottom fullers ; 27. The but-
ton head set or snap ; 28. The heading tool ; 29. The swage block ;
30. The surface plate ; 31. The tapered mandrels ; 32. Bench and
Measuring Tools ; 33. The bench or box vise ; 34. The chisels ;
35. The center punch ; 36. The rule ; 37. The dividers ; 38. The
calipers ; 39. The scriber or scratch awl ; 40. The square ; 41. The
bevel ; 42. The hack saw ; 43. The files 1

CHAPTER II. FORGING OPERATIONS. 44. The Hammer Blows ; 45. The
upright blow ; 46. The edge-to-edge blow ; 47. The overhanging
blow ; 48. The beveling or angle blows ; 49. The leverage blows ;
50. The backing-up blows ; 51. The shearing blow ; 52. Forg-
ing ; 53. Drawing ; 54. Bending ; 55. Upsetting ; 56. Forming ;
57. Straightening ; 58. Twisting ; 59. Welding ; 60. The Material
for Welding ; 61. Heating ; 62. Scarfing ; 63. The lap weld ; 64. The
cleft weld ; 65. The butt weld ; 66. The jump weld ; 67. The
Vweld 30

CHAPTER III. PRACTICE EXERCISES. 68. Staple; 69. Draw Spike;
70. S Hook; 71. Pipe Hook; 72. Gate Hook; 73. Door Hasp;
74. Hexagonal Head Bolt ; 75. Square-cornered Angle ; 76. Fagot
Welding; 77. Round Weld; 78. Flat Right-angled Weld;
79. TWeld; 80. Chain Making; 81. Welded Ring; 82. Chain
Swivel ; 83. Chain Swivel ; 84. Chain Grabhook .... 58

vii

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER IV. TREATMENT or TOOL STEEL. 85. Selecting and Work-
ing Steel ; 86. Uses of Different Grades of Steel ; 87. Injuries ;
88. Annealing ; 89. Hardening and Tempering ; 90. Casehard-
ening 83

CHAPTER V. TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION. 91. Tongs;
92. Heavy Flat Tongs ; 93. Light Chain Tongs ; 94. Lathe Tools ;
95. Brass Tool ; 96. Cutting-off or Parting Tool ; 97. Heavy Bor-
ing Tool ; 98. Light Boring or Threading Tool ; 99. Diamond Point
Tool ; 100. Right Side Tool ; 101. Forging Tools ; 102. Cold
Chisel ; 103. Hot Cutter ; 104. Cold Cutter ; 105. Square-edged
Set ; 106. Hardy ; 107. Flatter ; 108. Small Crowbar ; 109. Eye or
Ring Bolts; 110. Calipers; 111. Stock Calculation for Bending . 96

CHAPTER VI. STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES. 112. A
Forging; 113. The Drop Hammer ; 114. Presses; 115. The Steam
Hammer; 116. Steam Hammer Tools; 117. The hack or cutter;
118. The circular cutter; 119. The trimming chisel ; 120. The
cold cutter ; 121. The checking tool or side fuller ; 122. The fuller ;
123. The combined spring fullers ; 124. The combination fuller and
set ; 125. The combined top and bottom swages ; 126. The top and
bottom swages; 127. The bevel or taper tool; 128. The V block ;
129. The yoke or saddle ; 130. Bolsters or collars ,- 131. Punches ;
132. Steam Hammer Work ; 133. Crank Shaft ; 134. Connecting
Rod ; 135. Rod Strap ; 136. Eccentric Jaw ; 137. Hand Lever ;
138. Connecting Lever ; 139. Solid Forged Ring ; 140. Double and
Single Offsets 123

CHAPTER VII. ART SMITHING AND SCROLLWORK. 141. Art Smith-
ing ; 142. Scroll Fastenings ; 143. Scroll Former ; 144. Bending or
Twisting Fork ; 145. Bending or Twisting Wrench ; 146. Clip
Former; 147. Clip Holder; 148. Clip Tightener or Clincher;
149. Jardiniere Stand or Taboret ; 150. Umbrella Stand ; 151. Read-
ing Lamp ; 162. Andirons and Bar ; 153. Fire Set ; 154. Fire Set
Separated 146

CHAPTER VIII. IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING. 155. Iron
Ore ; 156. Magnetite ; 157. Red hematite ; 158. Limonite or brown
hematite; 159. Ferrous carbonate; 160. The Value of Ores;
161. Preparation of Ores; 162. Weathering; 163. Washing;
164. Crushing ; 165. Roasting or calcination ; 166. Fuels ;
167. Fluxes ; 168. The Blast ; 169. The Reduction or Blast Fur-

TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

PAGE

nace ; 170. Classification of Pig Iron ; 171. Bessemer iron ; 172. Basic
iron ; 173. Mill iron ; 174. Malleable iron ; 175. Charcoal iron ;
176. Foundry iron ; 177. Grading Iron 161

CHAPTER IX. THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL. 178. Re-
fining Pig Iron ; 179. The Open-hearth or Finery Process ; 180. The
Puddling Process ; 181. Steel ; 182. The Crucible Process ; 183. The
Bessemer Process ; 184. The Open-hearth Process . . . .177

FORMULAS AND TABLES .......... 197

INDEX 207

DEDICATED

TO THE MEMORY OF

MR. DAVID GORRIE

FORGE WORK

CHAPTER I
TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

i. The Forge. - - The forge is an open hearth or fireplace
used by the blacksmith for heating his metals. The kind
most commonly used by the general smiths is such as
can be seen in small villages or where the ordinary class of
blacksmi thing is done. (See Fig. 1.)

Forges are usually built of brick ; in form they are square
or rectangular, and generally extend out from a side wall
of the shop. The chimney is built up from the middle
of the left side and is provided with a hood B, which pro-
jects over the fire sufficiently to catch the smoke and
convey it to the flue.

The fire is kindled on the hearth A under the hood and
over the tuyere iron. This iron, the terminal of the blast
pipe that leads from the bellows E, is made in various forms
and of cast iron ; sometimes it has a large opening at the
bottom, but often it has none.

The bellows are operated by the lever F, which expands
the sides and forces air through the tuyere iron, thereby
causing the fire to burn freely and creating a temperature
sufficient for heating the metals.

The coal box C is to the right, where it is convenient.
The coal should always be dampened with water to prevent

FORGE WORK

the fire from spreading. This will produce a more intense
and more concentrated heat, so that a certain part of the
metal can be heated without danger of affecting the rest.

The water tub, or slack
tub D, as it is more prop-

F ~~"ffi / \ " Ss \ erly called, stands at the

right of the forge near
the coal box, where the
water for dampening the
coal can be most readily
obtained. It is used for
cooling
the iron
or tongs
and for
temper-
ing tools.

Modern

forges are made of
cast iron or sheet
steel. There are
various kinds de-
signed mostly for spe-
cial purposes. They
are generally used with
the fan blast instead of the
bellows and have a suction
fan for withdrawing the smoke.

The forge illustrated in Fig. 2 was designed for manual
training use and is excellent for such a purpose. The bot-
tom or base has six drawers which provide convenient
places for keeping exercises and individual tools. As each

FIG. 2. A MANUAL TRAINING
FORGE.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

drawer is provided with a special lock, much of the trouble
resulting from having the tools or the work mislaid or lost
is prevented.

The hearth A where the fire is built is provided with a
cast-iron fire pot or tuyere. This is constructed with an
opening at the bottom where there is a triangular tumbler
which is cast upon a rod projecting through the front
of the forge ; by revolving the rod and tumbler the cinders
or ashes can be dropped into the ash drawer at the bottom
of the forge without disturbing
the fire. A sectional view of these
parts is shown in Fig. 3, also the
valve which regulates the blast.

Suspended on the upper edge
surrounding the hearth, and lo-
cated to the right and left of the
operator, two boxes C and D are
located, which are used for stor-
ing an adequate supply of coal
and water, where they may be
conveniently obtained.

In front are two handles; the upper one operates the
clinker or ash valve, the lower one regulates the blast.

The front and back edges surrounding the hearth are
cut out, so that long pieces of metal can be laid down in
the fire. These openings can be closed, when desired, with
the hinged slides shown at G.

The hood B projects over the fire sufficiently to catch the
smoke and convey it to the opening of the down-draft
pipe E. When necessary the hood can be raised out of the
way with the lever F, which is constructed with cogs and
provided with a locking pin to keep the hood in position.

FIG. 3. SECTIONAL VIEW OP
THE FORGE SHOWN IN FIG. 2.

FORGE WORK

2. Fire Tools. The necessary tools required for main-
taining the fire and keeping it in good working condition are
shown in Fig. 4. A is the poker with which the coke can be
broken loose from the sides. B is the rake with which the

FIG. 4. FIRE TOOLS.
A, poker; B, rake; C, shovel; D, dipper; E, spriakler.

coke can be moved over the fire on top of the metal to pre-
vent the air from retarding the heating. The shovel C is
used for adding fresh coal, which should always be placed
around the fire and not on top. In this way unnecessary
smoke will be prevented, and the coal will slowly form into
coke. The dipper D is used for cooling parts of the work
that cannot be cooled in the water box. The sprinkler E
is used for applying water to the coal, or around the fire
to prevent its spreading.
3. Fuels. The fuels used for blacksmithing are coal,

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 5

coke, and charcoal. Most commonly a bituminous coal
of superior quality is used. It should be free from sul-
phur and phosphorus, because the metals will absorb a
certain amount of these impurities if they are in the fuel.
The best grade of bituminous coal has a very glossy ap-
pearance when broken.

Coke is used mostly in furnaces or when heavy pieces
of metal are to be 'heated. It is a solid fuel made by sub-
jecting bituminous coal to heat in an oven until the gases
are all driven out.

Charcoal is the best fuel, because it is almost free from
impurities. The most satisfactory charcoal for forging
purposes is made from maple or other hard woods. It is
a very desirable fuel for heating carbon steel, because it
has a tendency to impart carbon instead of withdrawing it
as the other fuels do to a small extent. It is the most
expensive fuel, and on that account, and because the heat-
ing progresses much more slowly, it" is not used so gener-
ally as it should be for heating carbon steel.

4. The Anvil. - - The anvil (Fig. 5) is indispensable to
the smith, for upon it the various shapes and forms of
metal can be forged or bent by the skilled workman.
Except for a few that have been designed for special pur-
poses, it has a peculiar shape which has remained un-
changed for hundreds of years. That the ancient smiths
should have designed one to meet all requirements is
interesting to note, especially as most other tools have
undergone extensive improvements.

Anvils are made of wrought iron or a special quality of
cast iron. In the latter case the face is sometimes chilled
to harden it, or is made of steel which is secured to the base
when the anvil is cast. Those that are made of wrought

FORGE WORK

iron are composed of three pieces : the first is the base i
which is forged to the required dimensions ; the second
the top which includes the horn C and the heel ; the thir
is the face A of tool steel which is welded to the top at th
place shown by the upper broken line. The top and base ai
then welded
together at
the lower
broken line.

After the

anvil has been finished,
the face is hardened with
a constant flow of water,
then it is ground true and
smooth and perfectly
straight lengthwise, but
slightly convex crosswise,
and both edges for about
four inches toward the
honr are ground to a
quarter round, thus pro-
viding a convenient place
for bending right angles. FlG - P-~ THE ANVIL -

This round edge prevents galling, which is liable to occi
in material bent over a perfectly square corner.

The round hole in the face is called the pritchel hol<
over which small holes can be punched in the materia
When larger ones are to be punched, they can be made o
a nut or collar placed over the square hole or hardy hob
This hardy hole is used mostly for holding all bottoi
tools, which are made with a square shank fitted loosel
to prevent their becoming lodged.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 7

The flat portion D at the base of the horn, and a little
below the level of the face, is not steel, consequently not
hardened, and is therefore a suitable place for cutting or
splitting, because there is not much liability of injuring
the cutter if the latter conies in contact with the anvil.

The horn C is drawn to a point and provides a suitable
place for bending and forming, also for welding rings,
links, or bands.

The anvil is usually mounted on a wooden block and is
securely held by bands of iron as shown in the illustration,
or it may be fastened by iron pins driven around the con-
cave sides of the base. It is sometimes mounted on a
cast-iron base made with a projecting flange which holds
the anvil in place.

A convenient height for the mounting is with the top of
the face just high enough to touch the finger joints of the
clenched hand when one stands erect. It is generally tipped
forward slightly, but the angle depends considerably upon
the opinion of the workman who arranges it in position.

For some time most of the anvils were made in Europe,
but at present the majority that are purchased here are
made by American manufacturers.

5. The Hammers. Of the multitude of tools used by
mechanics, the hammer is undoubtedly the most impor-
tant one. There was a time when man had only his hands
to work with, and from theni he must have received his
ideas for tools. Three prominent ones which are used ex-
tensively at present were most probably imitations of the
human hand. From the act of grasping, man could easily
have originated the vise or tongs for holding materials
that he could not hold with the hand. Scratching with
the finger nails undoubtedly impressed him with the need

8 FORGE WORK

of something that would be effective on hard substances,
and so he devised such tools as picks, chisels, and numer-
ous other cutting instruments.

The clenched fist must have suggested the need of a
hammer. The first thing to be substituted for the fist was
a stone held in the hand. Next a thong of fiber or leather
was wound around the stone, and used as a handle. From
these beginnings we have progressed until we have ham-
mers of all sizes and shapes, from the tiny hammer of the

jeweler to the ponderous
sledge. Workmen have
adapted various shapes
of hammers to their in-
dividual needs.

6. The ball peen ham-
mer (A, Fig. 6), some-
] times called a machinist's
hammer, is very conven-
FIG. 6. - HAND HAMMERS. iently shaped for forging,

A, ball peen hammer ; B, cross peen hammer ; aS the ball end is handy

for drawing out points

of scarfs or smoothing concave surfaces. A suitable
weight of this kind of hammer is one and a half pounds,
but lighter ones can be used to good advantage for fasten-
ing small rivets.

7. The cross peen hammer (B, Fig. 6) is one of the older
styles and is mostly employed in rough, heavy work or for
spreading metal.

8. The straight peen hammer (C, Fig. 6) is shaped simi-
larly to the ball peen hammer, except that the peen is flat-
tened straight with the eye. It is convenient for drawing
metal lengthwise rapidly.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

\ltiiihi

9. The sledges (A, B, and (7, Fig. 7) are used for striking
on cutters, swages, fullers, or other top tools ; when they
are used by the helper, the blacksmith can be assisted in
rapidly drawing out

metal. The only
difference between
these two sledges is
in the peen one is
crosswise with the
eye and the other
lengthwise. The
double-faced sledge
C is sometimes called
a swing sledge, be-
cause it is used mostly
for a full swing blow.

10. The Tongs. -
There is an old say-
ing that " a good mechanic can do good work with poor
tools," which may be true; but every mechanic surely
should have good tools, on which he can rely and thereby
have more confidence in himself. Among the good tools
that are essential for acceptable smith work are the tongs.

Very few shops have a sufficient variety of tongs to meet
all requirements, and it is often necessary to fit a pair to
the work to be handled. Sometimes quite serious acci-
dents happen because the tongs are not properly fitted.
They should always hold the iron securely and, if necessary,
a link should be slipped over the handles as shown in B,
Fig. 8. The workman is thus relieved from gripping the
tongs tightly and is allowed considerable freedom in
handling his work.

FIG. 7. THE SLEDGES.

FORGE WORK

ii. The flat-jawed tongs are shown at A, Fig. 8. They
are made in various sizes to hold different thicknesses of

FIG. 8. THE TONGS.

A, flat-jawed tongs ; B, hollow bit tongs ; C, pick-up tongs ; D, side tongs ; E, chisel tongs ;
F, link tongs ; G, tool or box tongs.

material. Tongs of this kind hold the work more securely
if there is a groove lengthwise on the inside of the jaw ;
the full length of the jaw always should grip the iron.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 11

12. The hollow bit tongs, shown at B, Fig. 8, are very
handy for holding round iron or octagonal steel. They
can be used also for holding square material, in which
case the depressions in the jaws should be V-shaped.

13. The pick-up tongs (C, Fig. 8) are useful for picking
up large or small pieces, as the points of the jaws are fitted
closely together, and the two circular openings back of the
point will securely grip larger pieces when seized from the
side.

14. The side tongs (D, Fig. 8) are used for holding flat
iron from the side. Tongs for holding round iron from the
side can be made in this form with circular jaws.

15. The chisel tongs are shown at E, Fig. 8. One or more
pairs of these are necessary in all forge shops. As the hot
and cold cutters frequently get dull or broken, it will be
necessary to draw them out and retemper them ; and, as
the heads of these cutters become battered considerably,
they are difficult to hold without chisel tongs. The two
projecting lugs at the ends of the jaws fit into the eye, and
the circular bows back of them surround the battered head
of the cutter, so that it can be held without any difficulty.

16. The link tongs (F, Fig. 8) are as essential as anything
else required in making chains or rings of round material.
They can be made to fit any size of stock.

17. The tool or box tongs (G, Fig. 8) should be made to
fit the various sizes of lathe tool stock that are used. They
should be made substantially and fit the steel perfectly
so that it can be held securely and without danger of
stinging the hand, while the tool is being forged. Another
style of tool tongs is made with one jaw perfectly flat;
on the other jaw, lugs are provided to hold the steel firmly.
These are not illustrated.

FORGE WORK

Almost an unlimited number of different tongs could
be explained and illustrated, but, from those given, any
one should be able to add to or change the tongs he has so
that his material can be securely held.

18. Anvil and Forging Tools. If a complete set of these
tools were to be illustrated and explained, a volume would
be required. Even then, the worker would very often
be compelled to devise some new tool to suit the particular
work at hand. One advantage that the blacksmith has
over all other mechanics is that when a special tool is re-
quired, if he is a thorough mechanic he can make it.

An almost unlimited number of tools might be required
in a general smith shop ; but only such tools as are essen-
tial in manual training or elementary smith work will be
considered here.

19. The hardy (A, Fig. 9) should fit the hardy hole of the

anvil loosely
enough so
that it will
not stick or
wedge fast.
It is made of
cast steel and
should be
tempered so
that it will
not chip or
batter from
severe use.
It is an indis-
pensable tool, especially to one who has to work with-
out a helper, for with it iron can be cut either hot or

FIG. 9.
A t hardy ; B, cold cutter ; C, hot cutter.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 13

cold, and steel when it is heated. The material should be
held on the cutting edge of the hardy, then struck with
the hammer. A deep cut should be made entirely around
the material, round, square, or flat, so that it can be broken
off by being held over the outer edge of the anvil and
struck a few downward blows with the hammer.

Material should not be cut through from one side, for
the cut would then be angular instead of square ; further-
more, there would be the effect of dulling the hardy if the
hammer should come in contact with it. The hardy is
frequently used to mark iron where it is to be bent or
forged, but it is not advisable to use it for such purposes,
unless the subsequent operations would entirely remove
the marks, for they might be made deep enough to weaken
the metal, especially at a bending point.

20. The cold and hot cutters (B and C, Fig. 9) are
made, as are all other top tools, with an eye for inserting
a handle, and should be held by the workman while some
one acting as his helper strikes on them with the sledge.
The handles can be of any convenient length from eighteen
inches to two feet. Cast steel should be used for making
both these cutters, but their shapes differ somewhat. The
cold cutter B is forged considerably heavier on the cutting
end than is the hot cutter, in order to give it plenty of
backing to withstand the heavy blows that it receives.
The cutting edge is ground convex to prevent the possi-
bility of the corners breaking off easily, and is ground
more blunt than the hot cutter. It should be used only
to nick the metal, which should then be broken off with
the hammer or sledge, as described in cutting iron with
the hardy.

21. The hot cutter (C, Fig. 9) is drawn down, tapering

14 FORGE WORK

from two depressions or shoulders near the eye to an edge
about | inch thick, which is ground equally from both sides
to form a cutting edge parallel with the eye. It should be
used exclusively for cutting hot metal, because the shape
and temper will not stand the cutting of cold iron. In
order to avoid dulling the cutter and the possibility of
injuring some one with the piece of hot metal that is being
cut off, the cut should be held over the outside edge of
the anvil when the final blows are being struck ; the opera-
tion will then have a shearing action, and the piece of metal
will drop downward instead of flying upward.

Great care should be taken in hardening and tempering
each of these cutters to prevent possible injury from small
particles of steel that might fly from them if they were
tempered too hard. The cold cutter should be hard enough
to cut steel or iron without being broken or battered on
its cutting edge. The hot cutter should not be quite so
hard and should be dipped in water frequently when it
is being used to prevent the temper from being drawn.

22. The flatter (A, Fig. 10) is as useful and as essential for
the production of smooth and nicely finished work as the
finishing coat of varnish on a beautiful piece of furniture.
Any work that is worth doing is certainly worth doing
well, and in order to make forge work present a finished
appearance the smith should use the flatter freely. With
it the rough markings of the various forging tools or
hammer can be entirely removed. By using it while the
work is at a dull red heat, and by occasionally dipping the
flatter in water before it is applied, all the rough scale can
be removed, thus leaving the work with a smooth, finished
appearance.

There are various sizes of this tool, but one with a 2-inch

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 15

face is convenient for use on light forgings. The edges of
the face may be made slightly round, so that markings
will not be left on the work, but frequently the edges are
left perfectly square.

It is not necessary to temper this tool ; in fact, the con-
stant hammering on it has a tendency to crystallize the

FIG. 10.
A, flatter ; B, square-edged set hammer ; C, round-edged set hammer.

steel, often causing it to break off at the eye. As the
constant hammering on the head of the flatter will also
cause the head to become battered, it is good practice
frequently to draw out the head and lay the flatter aside
to cool. This will anneal the steel and prevent crystalliza-
tion, at least for some time.

23. The square- and round-edged set hammers (B and C,
Fig. 10) are employed for various purposes. The former
is used for making square shoulders or depressions such as
could not be produced with the hand hammer alone, or
for drawing metal between two shoulders or projections.
The latter is used for the same purposes, with the excep-
tion that it produces a rounded fillet instead of a square
corner. It is also convenient for use in small places
where the flatter cannot be employed.

FORGE WORK

The sizes of these tools vary according to the require-
ments of the work, but it is advisable to have about three
sizes of the square-edged one. A good outfit of set ham-
mers consists of one f-inch, one f-inch, one 1-inch, all
square-edged ; and one round-edged set with a IJ-inch
face. These four should fulfill all requirements for light
forgings. These tools need not be tempered,
for the reason explained in connection with the
flatter.

24. The punches (A, B, and (7, Fig. 11) are
merely samples of the multitude of such tools

that may be required.
They may be of various
sizes, depending upon
the requirements of the
work, and either round,
square, or oval in shape
at the end. The hand
punch A is held with
one hand while blows
are delivered with the
other. It is conven-
ient for punching holes
in light pieces; but
when the work is
heavy the intense heat from the metal makes it impos-
sible to hold a punch of this kind.

In such cases the handle punches B and C are employed.
They eliminate the danger of burning the hand, but it is
necessary to have some one act as helper and do the
striking. The proper way to use a punch on hot metal is
to drive it partly through, or until an impression can be

FIG. 11. THE PUNCHES.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

seen on the opposite side after the punch has been re-
moved; then the punch is placed on the impression and
driven through the metal while it is held over the pritchel
hole, the hardy hole, or anything that will allow the punch
to project through without causing the end to be battered.
If heavy pieces of metal are to be punched, it is a great
advantage to withdraw the tool, drop a small piece of
coal into the hole, and cool the punch before again insert-
ing it. The coal prevents the tool from sticking fast, and
the operation can be repeated as often as necessary.

Punches need not be tempered, because the strength
of the steel from which they should be made will with-
stand the force of the blows, and also because the metal
is generally hot when the punches are used; therefore the
temper would be quickly drawn
out of them. If sheet metal or light
material is to be punched cold, it
is advisable to harden the punch
slightly; then the hole may be
punched through from one side,
while the metal is held on some-
thing containing a hole slightly
larger than the punch. This
method has the effect of producing
a smoothly cut hole, provided the
metal is properly placed.

25. The top and bottom swages
(Fig. 12) are made with semicir-
cular grooves of different sizes to
fit the various diameters of round
material. The former has an eye

- ,, ,. /.i 11 i FlG - 12. THE TOP AND

for the insertion of a handle by BOTTOM SWAGES.

FORGE WORK

which it is held when in use. The eye should be cross-
wise to the groove in the face. The bottom swage is
made with a square projecting shank to fit loosely into
the hardy hole of the anvil. It should be placed in posi-
tion for use with the groove crosswise to the length of
the anvil, unless the form of the forging should require
otherwise. Swages are conveniently used for smoothing
round material after it has been welded, or for swaging
parts of a forging after they have been roughly hammered
out. By dipping the top swage in water occasionally
while in use, the work can be made much
smoother and the scale of oxide removed ;
this is called water swaging.

26. The top and bottom fullers (Fig.
13) are made in pairs with convex semi-
circular projections or working faces,
whose diameters should correspond, if in-
tended to be used together. As the former
is quite frequently used alone, it may
be made of any desired size. The top
fuller, like the top swage, is made to be
used with a handle; the bottom fuller,
fitted to the anvil like a bottom swage,
generally is placed for use with the length
of its face parallel to the length of the
anvil.

They are used together for forming
depressions or shoulders on opposite sides
of the material ; from the shoulders thus
formed, the metal may be forged without disturbing them.
They are used also for rapidly drawing out metal between
shoulders or projections which may have been previously

FIG. 13. THE
TOP AND BOTTOM
FULLERS.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

made and are to be left undisturbed. The top fuller is
used singly in making scarfs for welding, in forming grooves,
in smoothing fillets and semicircular depressions, or in
forming shoulders on only one side of metal.

27. The button head set or snap (A, Fig. 14) as it is
sometimes called, has a hemispherical depression on its
face. It is used for making heads of rivets or
finishing the heads of bolts. Only a few different

sizes are required, unless considerable riveting or
bolt making is to be done.

28. The heading tool (B, Fig.

14) is used exclusively for form-
ing the heads of bolts or rivets.
Formerly a very large assortment
of these tools was required in a
general shop ; but as bolts can now
be made so cheaply by modern
machinery, there * are not many
made by hand. It would be ad-
visable to have a few general sizes,
however, because they are some-
times convenient in making other
forgings, and bolt making affords
an instructive exercise.

29. The swage block (A, Fig.

15) rests on a cast-iron base B. It is a very useful tool in
any smith shop and does away with the necessity of hav-
ing a large assortment of bottom swages, as only top
swages will be required for large-sized material. The
block is made of cast iron and of different thicknesses.
The depressions on the edges include a graduated series of
semicircular grooves that can be used in place of bottom

FIG. 14.

A, the button head set ; B, the
heading tool.

FORGE WORK

swages ; a large segment of a circle, which is handy in
bending hoops or bands ; graduated grooves for forming
hexagonal boltheads or nuts ; and sometimes a V-shaped
and a right-angled space used for forming forgings.

The holes through the
blocks are round, square,
or oblong. The round
ones can be used in place
of heading tools for
large sized bolts, or in
breaking off octagon or
round steel after it has
been nicked with the cold
cutter. The square holes
may be used either for
making and shaping the
face of a flatter or a
round-edged set ham-
mer, or in place of a
heading tool, when a square shoulder is required under the
head. They may be used, also, for breaking square steel.
The oblong holes are convenient for breaking lathe tool
material. Some swage blocks have in addition a hemi-
spherical depression on the side, convenient for forming
dippers or melting ladles.

The base upon which the swage block rests is con-
structed with lugs on the inner side, as indicated by the
broken lines on the sketch. Upon these it is supported,
either flat or on any of its four edges. These lugs prevent
the swage block from tipping sidewise.

30. The surf ace plate ((7, Fig. 16) is generally made of cast
iron about 1| to 2 inches thick, from 20 to 24 inches wide,

FIG. 15. THE SWAGE BLOCK.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

and from 3 to 4 feet long. It should be planed perfectly
smooth and straight on its face, the edges slightly round.
It should be supported on a strong wooden bench
D and placed somewhere in the middle of the shop so
that it is accessible

to all the workmen. .^ ^-^^^^ f;

On it work is tested
to see whether it
\ is straight, perpen-
dicular, or if projec-
tions are parallel.
The anvil is some-
times used for this
purpose, but as it
is subjected to such
severe use, the face
becomes untrue and
therefore cannot be depended upon. A true surface plate
is always reliable and convenient for testing work.

31. The tapered mandrels (Fig. 17) are made of cast
iron, and are used for truing rings, hoops, bands, or anything
that is supposed to have a perfectly circular form. The
height ranges from 2| to 5 feet; the largest diameter
varies from 8 to 18 inches. They are cone-shaped with a
smooth surface, and should be used with caution. The
blows should be delivered on the metal where it does not
come in contact with the mandrel; when bands of flat
material are to be trued, the best method is to place them
on the mandrel from each side alternately. Unless this
precaution is observed, the band will be found tapered the
same as the mandrel. Alternating is not so necessary
when bands or rings of round material are handled.

FIG. 16. THE SURFACE PLATE.

FORGE WORK

Mandrels are sometimes made in two sections, as shown
at B and C. As B is made to fit into the top of C, the two
parts become continuous ;
the smaller one can also be
held in the vise or swage
block and thus used sepa-
rately. They are frequently
made with a groove running
lengthwise, which allows
work to be held with tongs
and provides a recess for any
eyebolt or chain that may
be attached to the ring.

It should not be supposed
that all mandrels are of this
particular form ; any shape
of bar, block, or rod of iron

. . i p FIG. 17, THE TAPERED MANDRELS.

that is used for the purpose

of forming or welding a special shape is called a mandrel.
32. Bench and Measuring Tools. Another set of

blacksmith appliances
includes the bench
vise, chisels, center
punch, rule, divid-
ers, calipers, scriber,
square, bevel, hack
saw, and files.

33. The bench or
box vise (Fig. 18) is

not ordinarily used in general blacksmithing. The
back jaw of a general smith's vise extends to the
O floor, forming a leg, and is held in position on the

FIG. 18. THE BENCH VISE.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 23

floor by a gudgeon on its end. This vise is not illustrated,
because the bench or box vise is preferable for manual
training work.

The vise should be set so that the tops of the jaws are at
the height of the elbows, a position convenient in filing.
It is used for holding the work for filing, chipping, twisting,
and sometimes for bending. But when it is used for bend-
ing, especially when bending a right angle, the operation
should be performed cautiously, for the sharp edges of the
jaws are very liable to cut the inner corner of the angle
and cause a gall which will weaken the metal at the
bend.

34. The chisels (A and B, Fig. 19) are very familiar,
yet, though they are so common, they are the most abused
tools used by both skilled and unskilled workmen. The
mere name " cold chisel " seems to convey the impression
to most people that with it they ought to be able to cut
anything. But that impression is wrong; chisels ought
to be made of a certain grade of steel and drawn for either
rough or smooth work, as may be required. Then they
should be properly tempered to cut the material for which
they are intended.

A chisel for rough, heavy work should not be drawn
too thin or too broad at the cutting edge. If it is flattened
out into a fan-shaped cutting edge, there should be no
surprise if it breaks, for, in order to make a chisel stand
rough usage, it should have sufficient metal to back up
the corners. On the other hand, a chisel for smooth
finishing work can safely be drawn thin but not fan-
shaped, as the cuts that ought to be required of such a
chisel should not be heavy. A chisel for ordinary work
ought to be ground so that the two faces form an angle

FORGE WORK

of 60 degrees ; if the work is heavy, it should be ground
even more blunt.

The chisel illustrated at A represents a common cold
chisel, which can be used for various purposes. The
chisel B is called a cape chisel and is used for cutting and

1i H , 21 , 31 . 41 51 , 6 , 71 . 81 . 9

||||llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllililllllllllllllllllilililllll| III

110

FIG. 19.
A, cold chisel ; B, cape chisel ; C, center punch ; D, rule.

trimming narrow grooves and slots. It is indispensable
for cutting key seats in shafting or work of that kind. On
account of its being used in such narrow places it is neces-
sary to make the cutting edge somewhat fan-shaped to
prevent the chisel from sticking fast; but for additional
strength the metal is allowed to spread, as shown. When
using the cape chisel, it is a good practice occasionally to
dip the cutting edge in some oily waste, which will tend
to prevent its wearing away or sticking.

35. The center punch (C, Fig. 19) should be made of
the same quality of material as the cold chisel. It can be

TOOLS AtND APPLIANCES

made of steel from J to f of an inch in diameter ; octagon
steel is preferable. After it has been roughly drawn out,
it is ground to a smooth round point, then it is tempered
as hard as it will stand without breaking. It is used for
marking centers of holes to be drilled, or for marking
metal where it is to be bent, twisted, or forged. When
used for marking hot metal, it is frequently made with an
eyehole in the body, so that a small handle can be inserted ;
this will prevent burning the hands.

36. The rule (D, Fig. 19) should be of good quality. The
one best adapted for forge work is the 2-foot rule, which
is jointed in the center. It is f inch wide and is made of
either tempered spring steel or hard rolled brass.

37. The dividers (A, Fig. 20) are used for measuring dis-
tances and for describing circles. The points are clamped

l_ 'i'jny'i\!MyiiyiyiyM^iyiiy,ip

J^ii!!iii!ii^iiJij?liiiiifliiiiii%iilii?liiiiiifliiilii?liiiliitliMiffliiiiiii%iiii

FIG. 20.
A, dividers ; B, calipers ; C, scriber ; D, square ; E, bevel.

in a rigid position with the small thumbscrew, which
comes in contact with the segmental arc. Close adjust-
ments can be made with the milled-edge nut on the end
of the segmental arc. When metal is to be bent to a
circular form, a good method is to rub chalk on the surface
plate and describe the desired curve on this chalk. As

26 FORGE WORK

the markings thus made are not easily removed, this plan
is much better than drawing upon a board.

38. The calipers (B, Fig. 20) are used for measuring di-
ameters, widths, and thicknesses. Those illustrated are the
kind generally used in forge work. They are called double
calipers and are the most convenient because two dimen-
sions can be determined by them. As the accuracy of the
work depends on them, they should be well made. In the
illustration here given, each bow is held securely by an in-
dividual rivet. Sometimes they are secured with one ; if
so, the rivet should be square in the straight central part
and tightly fitted. The projecting ends of the rivet should
be filed round, and the holes in the bowed sides should be
made to fit the round ends of the rivet; then the sides
should be riveted on tight so that each bow may be moved
independently of the other.

39. The scriber or scratch awl (C, Fig. 20) is used in
marking holes, sawing, chipping, or in laying out dis-
tances, which can afterward be marked with a center
punch if required. It should be made of a good quality
of steel, and the point should be well hardened so that
it will cut through the surface scale of the metal. A
suitable-sized steel for making a scriber is T 3 F inch round
and the length over all about 6 inches.

40. The square (D, Fig. 20) is another indispensable
tool when accurate work is to be produced. Convenient
sizes for manual training work are the 8 X 12-inch, with
a 16 X 24-inch for general use.

41. The bevel (E, Fig. 20) should be used when bend-
ing and laying out angles of various degrees. When metal
is to be bent to a given angle, the pupil should set and
use the bevel.

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES

42. The hack saw (Fig. 21) is at present considered a
necessary part of any forge shop equipment. It is used for
sawing iron or untempered steel, and when a power shear
is not included in the equipment, considerable filing can
be saved by sawing. The frame illustrated is adjustable
so that the blades can be made of different lengths and
be set at right angles to the frame, which is sometimes
convenient.

When using the hack saw, make slow, full-swing strokes ;
when drawing back for another stroke, it will prolong the
efficiency of the blades if the saw is raised up to prevent
the teeth from bearing on the metal, as the backward
stroke is more destructive to the teeth than the forward
or cutting stroke. The blades are made from 8 to 12
inches in length, ^ inch in width, and with from 14 to 25
teeth to the inch. They are tempered so hard that they
cannot be filed, but are so inexpensive that when they
cease to be efficient they may be thrown away.

43. The files (Fig. 21) are illustrated merely to show that
they are to be used for special purposes. As finishing or

FIG. 21. THE HACK SAW AND FILES.

28 FORGE WORK

filing is almost a trade in itself, the file should not be used
in blacksrruthing, unless it is especially necessary. A
piece of smith's work that has been roughly forged is
much more admirable than a highly polished piece that
has been filed into elegance.

Files are round, flat, square, half round, and of numerous
other shapes, and vary in lengths and cuts for rough or
smooth filing. Any of them may be used as required, but
it should be remembered that filing is not blacksmithing.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

What is the main difference between the old type of smithing forge
and a modern one ? How is the air supplied for each ? What is a tuyere
iron ? Describe the hearth. What kind of coal is used for forging ?
Is coal the best fuel for heating all metals ? Why is charcoal the best
fuel for heating carbon steel ? How should the fire be built to prevent
making excess smoke ? What other fuel is used in forging ? What
kind of work is it used for ? Describe the different parts of the anvil.
How is a cast-iron anvil hardened ? How is a wrought-iron anvil
hardened ? Name and describe the different kinds of hammers. Why
should the tongs fit properly the iron to be handled ? Name and de-
scribe the different tongs you have been made familiar with. How
would you secure the tongs to relieve the hand ?

What is a hardy? What is it used for? Explain the proper
method of using it. Is it always good practice to use a hardy for
marking the iron ? Why ? What is the difference between a cold and
a hot cutter ? What is the general use for a fl'atter ? Should it be tem-
pered ? Why ? What are set hammers ? What is a punch used for ?
Explain the difference between a hand punch and a handle punch.
When punching a heavy piece of metal, how is the tool prevented
from sticking fast? Are all punches tempered? Why? Describe
and explain the use of top and bottom swages. How should the bot-
tom swage be placed for use? What is meant by water swaging?
State the effect it has on the iron. What are top and bottom fullers
used for ? Are they always used in pairs ? How is the bottom one

TOOLS AND APPLIANCES 29

placed for use ? What are the button head set and heading tool used
for ? What is the special advantage of having a swage block ? Ex-
plain some of the different uses of that tool. What is the special use
of the surface plate ? What is the tapered mandrel used for ? Are all
mandrels of this particular kind ? Explain others. Is it good practice
to use the vise for bending ? Why ? Describe the cold chisel. Should
all cold chisels be made alike ? What is the center punch used for ?
Describe the other bench and measuring tools mentioned. What is
the special objection to using the files?

CHAPTER II

FORGING OPERATIONS

44. The Hammer Blows. Metal can be forced into
desired shapes or forms by delivering the hammer blows
in different ways. All hammer blows are not alike ; some
will have one effect and others will produce an entirely
different result.

45. The upright blow is delivered so that the hammer
strikes the metal in an upright position and fully on
the anvil. Such blows force the metal equally in all
directions, providing the surrounding dimensions are

equal. They will also re-
duce the thickness of the
metal in the direction in
which they are delivered, the
reduction depending upon
the amount of force put into
the blows. They are used
for drawing where the metal
is supposed to spread equally
in all directions and for mak-
ing smooth surfaces.

Figure 22 shows an up-
right blow as delivered on a
piece of flat material. If the material is as wide as the
face of the hammer, or wider, the force of the blow will
spread the metal equally, but if it is narrower, the blow

FIG. 22. THE UPRIGHT BLOW.

FORGING OPERATIONS

will lengthen the material more rapidly, because the
hammer will cover more in length than in width.

46. The edge-to-edge blow is delivered so that the
edge or side of the hammer face will be directly above
the edge or side of the anvil. When blows are delivered
in this manner (a, Fig. 23), the hammer forms a depression

FIG. 23. THE EDGE-TO-EDGE BLOW.

on the upper side of the metal and the anvil forms one
on the bottom.

When a piece of metal is to be drawn to a smaller
dimension, with shoulders opposite each other, on either
two or four sides, these blows will produce the required
result to the best advantage. They are more effective
if the metal is held at a slight angle across the edge of the
anvil face, but then the hammer blows must be delivered
a little beyond the anvil edge, so that the upper and lower
depressions in the metal will be formed exactly opposite
each other, as shown at b, .where the depressions are in-
dicated by the broken lines.

In forming shoulders such as are required on the hasp
exercise (page 64) the first pair may be formed as shown

FORGE WORK

at b and the second pair as shown at c. In the latter
case the metal is held across the nearer edge of the anvil
face and the blows delivered in a manner similar to that
described in the preceding paragraph. Hammer blows of
this class may be used on any edge of the anvil as required.

47. The overhanging blow is delivered so that half the

width of the hammer
face extends over the
edge of the anvil. (See
Fig. 24.)

It is used for forming
shoulders on one side of
the metal and for draw-
ing out points of scarfs.
When blows are de-
livered in this manner,
the anvil will form a
depression or shoulder
on the lower side of the

metal, and the hammer will keep the metal straight on

the upper side.

This blow also will be more effective if the metal is held

at a slight angle across the edge of the anvil face, but the

blows must always be delivered squarely on the upper side

of the metal to keep it straight.

48. The beveling or angle blows are delivered at any
angle that the form of the work may require. When the
metal is to be drawn with a taper on one side, it must be
held level on the anvil and the blows delivered at an
angle determined by the amount of taper required.
Figure 25 shows the manner of holding the metal and the
way the blows are to be delivered.

FIG. 24. THE OVERHANGING BLOW.

FORGING OPERATIONS

When the metal is to be drawn tapering on two opposite
sides, it should be held to the proper angle on the anvil

FIG. 25. THE BEVELING OB ANGLE BLOW.

to establish the taper desired on the bottom, while the
hammer blows are delivered so as to form a similar taper
on the upper side. (See Fig. 25.)

FIG. 26. DRAWING METAL TO A POINT BY BEVELING OR ANGLE BLOWS,
A, correct position ; B, incorrect position.

FORGE WORK

FIG. 27. THE LEVERAGE BLOW.

Blows of this kind are used for chamfering corners or
edges, and may be delivered at any required angle. They

are also used when
drawing metal to
a point, either
square, round,
hexagonal, or oc-
tagonal, but the
metal should be
held on the anvil,
as shown at A,
Fig. 26. Then the
hammer will not
come in contact
with the face of
the anvil, as shown at B. If the hammer strikes the
anvil, small chips of steel are liable to break off from the
hammer at the
place indicated by
c, and cause seri-
ous injury.

49. The lever-
age blows are
used mostly for
bending, as they
will not leave
marks where the
bending occurs.
For instance, when
a ring is to be
formed, the metal is first held in the tongs and rested
on the horn of the anvil, as shown in Fig. 27. Note

FIG. 28. BENDING BY LEVERAGE BLOWS.

FORGING OPERATIONS

that the metal will bend at a, providing the heat is uni-
form. If, therefore, bending is required at a certain place,
that place should rest on the anvil and the blows should
be delivered beyond it-
After the first end has been bent to the required radius,
the other should be bent by holding it in the manner
shown in Fig. 28, because the joint of the tongs will pre-
vent its being struck out of them while the blow is being
delivered. When both ends have been bent to the proper
radius, the ring should be finished as described in the ring
exercise (page 74), where upright blows are used with a
leverage effect.

50. The backing-up blows are used to upset metal
when it is im-
possible to upset
it in the usual
manner, and in
backing up the
heel of a scarf.

Upsetting
with backing-up
blows is done in
the manner
shown in Fig. 29.
The metal should
be extended over
the anvil and thrust forward as the blow is being de-
livered, to get the best results. This will also prevent
jarring the hand. The metal should be as hot as possible
when being upset in this manner.

The heel of a scarf is formed with backing-up blows
after the metal has been upset in the usual manner. The

FIG. 29. THE BACKING-UP BLOW, FOR UPSETTING.

FORGE WORK

blows should be directed so that they will have an up-
setting effect, as indicated in Fig. 30, and not a drawing

one. After a few
blows have been de-
r , , livered with the face
y' of the hammer, they
should then be de-
livered with the ball
to form the heel bet-
ter and more rapidly.
51. The shearing
blow (see Fig. 31) is
conveniently used for
cutting off small por-
tions of metal in-
stead of employing
the hardy. It is de-
livered so that the
side or edge of the
hammer will pass by
and nearly against
the side or edge of
the anvil. A blow
so delivered will have
a shearing effect and
cut the metal. It is
perfectly proper to
use this blow for its
intended purpose, but it should not be used when the
edge-to-edge blow is the one really required.

52. Forging. Forging is the operation of hammering
or compressing metals into a desired shape. Seven

I -

FIG. 30. BACKING-UP BLOWS USED FOR
SCARFING.

FORGING OPERATIONS

FIG. 31. THE SHEARING BLOW.

specific operations are used. Sometimes a piece of work
or forging requires two, three, or even all of them to
complete it. These opera-
tions are designated by the
following names : drawing,
bending, upsetting, forming,
straightening, twisting, and
welding.

53. Drawing, the process
of spreading or extending
metal in a desired direction,
is accomplished by hammer-
ing or by pressing the metal
between such tools as the
swages and fullers, or by holding it on the anvil and using
either of the set hammers, the flatter, or the fuller. When
using any of these pressing tools for drawing, a helper
is supposed to use the sledge to deliver the blows upon
them.

It is always best to draw round metal with the swages,
as it will be smoother when finished than if it were done
with the hammer ; it should be rolled in the swage a little
after each blow of the sledge, and after a complete revolu-
tion in one direction it should be turned in the opposite
direction, and so alternately continued until finished.
Especially if iron is being drawn, this will prevent twisting
of the fiber, which, if prolonged, would cause the metal to
crack. Figure 32 shows the method of drawing with
the swages.

When drawing any shape or size of metal to a smaller
round diameter, it is best first to draw it square to about
the required size, delivering the blows by turns on all four

FORGE WORK

sides, then to make it octagonal, and finally round. The
finishing should be done with the swages, if those of proper

FIG. 32. DRAWING WITH THE SWAGES.

size are at hand ; if not, light blows should be used, and the

metal revolved
constantly in
alternate direc-
tions, to make
an acceptable
shape.

Drawing
with the top
and bottom
fullers, in the
manner shown
with the swages
(Fig. 32), ought

FIG. 33. DRAWING WITH THE FLATTER. to be done

FORGING OPERATIONS

tiously, as the metal decreases in size so rapidly that
there is danger of its becoming too small at the fullered
place before the operator is aware of it. When using the
top fuller alone, in. the same manner as the flatter (Fig. 33),
similar precautions should be observed. If the metal
is to be decreased between two shoulders, the top fuller
may be used to rough it out ; but the fuller marks should
be distributed between the shoulders, until one of the set
hammers or the flatter can be used.

If the metal is being drawn and is held crosswise on the
anvil, as shown at a, Fig. 34, it will increase in length
more rapidly than it will in width, and if held lengthwise
as at 6, it will increase more in width than in length.

FIG. 34. DRAWING WITH THE HAND HAMMER.

This is due to the fact that the anvil is slightly convex
on its face, so that it has the effect of a large fuller.

The most difficult drawing for the beginner is to form
metal into a square or hexagonal shape. To draw it
into a square form, the metal must always be turned
either one quarter or one half of a revolution to prevent
its becoming diamond-shaped, and the blows must be

FORGE WORK

delivered equally on the four sides to prevent its becom-
ing oblong. If it does become diamond-shaped, it can be
made square by delivering blows at a slight angle on the
corners and sides of its long diagonal as shown at A, B,

FIG. 35. SQUARING UP A DIAMOND-SHAPED PIECE.

and (7,Fig. 35. If it is but slightly diamond-shaped, the
method shown at B will prove satisfactory, but if badly
out of square, the method at A will be the best.

In drawing the hexagonal form, the metal should be
turned by sixths of a revolution. If it becomes distorted,
it may be forged with such blows as are shown at B and
(7; if held as at A, it would be marred by the edge e.

54. Bending is the operation of deflecting metal from
a straight line or changing its form by increasing the
deflection already present. Iron of any cross-sectional
shape can be bent, but some shapes are much more diffi-
cult than others.

The easiest to bend is the round, the only difficulty being

FORGING OPERATIONS 41

to prevent the hammer blows from showing. If the metal
is to be round in section when finished, the work will not
have a good appearance if the cross section is oval at
some places and round at others, and unless the hammer
blows are cautiously delivered this will be the result.

Bending metal of a square section at right angles with
the sides is not very difficult, but bending such a section
in line with the diagonal is quite difficult, because the
edges are liable to be marred where they rest on the anvil
and where the blows are delivered. The best method of
making bends of this kind is to heat the metal only where
the bend is to be, and then to bend it by pressure or pull-
ing, while the work is held securely in the vise, hardy hole,
or swage block. If the heating cannot be confined to the
desired space, all excessively heated parts should be cooled.

Oval sections are easily bent through their short
diameters, but in bending through the long diameters,
the same method should be pursued as described above
for bending the square section in the plane of its diagonal.
Further explanations for bending are given on pages
118-121.

55. Upsetting is the operation of enlarging metal at
some desired point or place. It is done by hammering,
ramming, or jarring. When a piece of metal is too long
it can be shortened by upsetting, or when it is too thin at
a certain place it can be thickened by the same method.
This is done by having the metal hot only at the point
or place where the upsetting is required. It is frequently
necessary to cool the metal where the heat is not needed
in order to confine the upsetting to the desired place.

Upsetting is not a very difficult operation as long as
the metal is kept perfectly straight ; otherwise the task

FORGE WORK

will prove tedious and the metal may break from the con-
stant bending back and forth. Bending will always take
place, but breaking generally can be prevented by having
the metal hot when it is straightened. The greatest
difficulty in this respect will be experienced when operat-
ing on common wrought iron.

Upsetting by hammering is done by holding the metal
perpendicularly on the anvil or something solid enough to

FIG. 36. UPSETTING BY HAMMERING.

withstand the blows which will be delivered upon it.
Figure 36 shows this method.

If the end of a bar is being upset, and the upsetting is
supposed to extend up through the bar for some distance,
the heated end should be placed on the anvil as shown in
the figure, because the anvil will slightly chill the end
of the bar, and the upsetting will continue much farther

FORGING OPERATIONS 43

than if the blows were delivered on the hot end. Strik-
ing the hot end with the hammer increases the diameter

of the end excessively,

because the contact

of the hammer does

not have a tendency

to cool the metal.
Another method of

upsetting with the

hammer, which is

called " backing up "

the metal, is shown in

Fig. 37. This method

does not upset the

metal so rapidly, because the force of the hammer blows

jars the hand and arm which hold the bar.

Upsetting by ramming or jarring is thrusting the metal

forcibly against
some heavy ob-
ject like the sur-
face plate, the
swage block, or
the anvil. Figure
38 shows upset-
ting by this pro-
cess. This method
is very effective
and is used mostly

FIG. 38. UPSETTING BY RAMMING. when the metal

is long enough to be held with the hands, as shown.

56. Forming is a term generally applied to the making
of a forging with special tools, dies, or forms. This

FORGE WORK

process may include .bending, punching, and other opera-
tions.

Swages are used for forming. A block of steel with a
depression of a special design is known as a forming die ;
a number of other tools and appliances may be used for
forming, but it is needless to mention them here.

57. Straightening is one of the most frequent opera-
tions. When metal
is being forged, the
various blows have
a tendency to make
it crooked, and if
the work is sup-
posed to be straight
when finished, it
should be so.

There is as much
skill required to
straighten properly
a piece of metal as
there is to bend it.
The most common
method (A, Fig.
39) is to hold the
metal lengthwise on
the anvil with the
bowed side or edge
upwards, then to
deliver the blows at
the highest point of the bow. The blows will be most
effective at the point where they are delivered, so they
should be distributed in order to get the object per-

FIG. 39. A, STRAIGHTENING WITH THE HAMMER
B, STRAIGHTENING WITH THE SWAGE.

FORGING OPERATIONS

fectly straight and to avoid making unsightly hammer
marks.

If the metal to be straightened is round, or if it is flat
with round edges, it is best to use a top swage of the
proper size and deliver the blows on the swage as shown
at B, Fig. 39. Then the surface of the round or the edges
of the flat stock will not show any marks. The flatter or
round-edged set hammer may be used in the same manner
on flat or square material.

When wide pieces of flat metal are to be straightened
edgewise, and
such blows as are
shown at A, Fig.
39, are not effec-
tive, then the
blows should be
delivered along

, i i FIG. 40. STRAIGHTENING WIDE METAL.

the concave edge

as shown in Fig. 40, and distributed as indicated by the
dotted circular lines. Blows delivered in this manner
will stretch or lengthen the metal on the concave edge
and straighten it.

58. Twisting is the operation of rotating metal to give
it a spiral appearance. It may be done either hot or cold,
as the dimensions of the material may require. It is done
by holding the material in the vise, the hardy hole, or the
swage block, and turning one end of it with a pair of
tongs or a monkey wrench as many times as may be re-
quired. The twisting will be confined between the places
where it is held with the vise, and where it is seized by
the tongs or wrench.

If the material to be twisted is heavy enough to re-

46 FORGE WORK

quire heating, a uniform heat is necessary or the twist will
be irregular, and, as an artistic appearance is usually
desired, this operation should be carried out with that re-
sult in view.

A, Fig. 41, illustrates a piece of ^-inch square stock that

has been twisted
while hot. B
shows a piece of
J X J-inch mate-

r ^ ^ na ^ nas k een
twisted cold.

FIG. 41. A, METAL TWISTED WHILE HOT ; B, METAL Another dlm-

TWISTED WHILE COLD. culty met with in

twisting a piece

of metal is that of its becoming crooked. It can be
straightened by laying the twisted portion on a wooden
block and striking it with a wooden mallet. This will pre-
vent the corners from becoming marred. A good method
of avoiding this trouble is to twist the metal inside of a
piece of pipe whose inside diameter is equal to the diam-
eter of the metal.

59. Welding, the most difficult operation in the art of
forging, is the process of joining two or more pieces of
metal into one solid mass.

- All the previous operations allow some time for thought ;
in welding, the worker must determine instantly where
each blow is to be delivered, as the welding heat of the
metal vanishes rapidly; therefore, he is compelled to
think and act very quickly.

A scientific analysis of a perfect weld shows that it
consists of several processes, and that each one must be
perfectly executed. If any of these operations are im-

FORGING OPERATIONS 47

properly done, the result will be a partial failure ; if they
are essential ones, the weld may readily be considered as
totally unfit.

60. The Material for Welding. This must be consid-
ered, because there are different qualities in each metal to
be operated upon, and some metals can be worked more
easily than others.

A cross section of a bar of iron viewed through the micro-
scope is seen to be made up of a great number of layers or
fibers, called laminae, resembling the grain or fiber in
wood. These were cemented together in the process of
rolling or 1 welding in the mill where the iron was manu-
factured, and are continuous through its length. This
makes the bar of uniform quality throughout.

In welding, these fibers are joined diagonally at the
ends, consequently the strength of the weld depends en-
tirely on how closely or perfectly this cohesion is made.
Careful hammering at the proper heat brings the fibers
in as close contact as possible, squeezes out the slag and
scale, and therefore greatly assists in strengthening the
weld.

Iron is an easy metal to weld. To prove this, place
two pieces of iron in a clean, non-oxidizing fire, allowing
them to attain a white or welding heat ; then place them
in contact and notice how readily they stick together,
proving that iron is easily welded at the proper tempera-
ture. But in order to make the contact thorough, the
pieces must be hammered. This shows that hammering
is a secondary operation, and that iron cannot be joined
by either heating or hammering aloiie.

By a similar experiment with soft steel, you will notice
that the pieces do not adhere like iron. If borax is applied

48 FORGE WORK

while they are heating, then slight indications of adhesion
will be noticeable. This shows that borax, sand, or
something of a like nature must be used in welding steel.
In this case hammering is not a secondary operation, but
an essential one.

A higher carbon or tool steel may be experimented
upon, with nearly the same result. The noticeable differ-
ence between the lower and higher qualities of steel proves
that the greater the quantity of carbon, the harder will be
the welding, and if the experiments were extended to still
higher carbon steels, it would be discovered that they could
not be joined except by the use of a specially prepared flux.
There are indeed some high carbon steels that cannot be
welded.

If a forging is to be made of a special quality of ma-
terial, it is frequently advisable to avoid welds, because
two pieces that are welded can hardly be considered so
strong as a piece of the same material that has not been
welded.

The weldings which are alluded to here are such as
are used by practical blacksmiths in their general work
without any special appliances or apparatus whatever.
The majority of the exercises on welding in this book
require the use of iron ; for this reason this preliminary
consideration of metals need not have any further special
attention.

61. Heating. When the word "fuel" is used here,
either coal or coke may be meant. Coal is the original
in either case, for coke is formed from it by the removal
of gaseous substances. It is better that the coal first be
converted into coke, and that only the coke should come
in direct contact with the heating metals.

FORGING OPERATIONS

Figure 42 shows a sectional view of a ^blacksmith-
ing fire: d is the bed of hot coke ; c is the dampened and
unburned coal which surrounds the fire, continually form-
ing more coke as it is needed and also holding the fire in
a compact form ; a shows the proper way of placing the

air

FIG. 42. SECTIONAL VIEW OF A BLACKSMITHING FIRE.

metal in the fire, 6, the improper way because the metal
is too near the entrance of the blast. As heating is such
an important operation, a thorough understanding of
what causes imperfect heats, as well as how to prevent
them, is necessary.

The best fire for perfect heating is a reducing one,
that is, one in which the combustion of the fuel is rapid
enough to use entirely the oxygen in the air which is
supplied. An oxidizing fire is one that does not use all
the oxygen in the blast for the combustion of the fuel.
The surplus oxygen will produce, on the surface of the
metal, oxide of iron, or a black scale, which is extremely
injurious. This scale will prevent welding, so all possible
precautions should be taken to avoid its forming.

A reducing fire can be maintained, and an oxidizing one
avoided, by having plenty of fuel surrounding the metal,

50 FORGE WORK

equally, and allowing the entrance of only sufficient air
or blast to provide the necessary heating.

If a piece of metal is left in a fixed position while heating,
the lower side will become the hottest. For that reason,
all metals to be welded are placed with scarfs downward.
If the required heat is to be a penetrating and thorough
one, the metal is turned frequently to bring all surfaces
in contact with the most intense point of heat.

Even though every possible precaution is taken in all
other steps of the welding, the pieces cannot be joined
perfectly if the heating is carelessly done.

62. Scarfing. - - This is the operation of preparing or
shaping metal for welding. There are five general kinds
of welds, the distinct form of each depending either on the
quality of the material or on the shape of the desired
forging. They are called the lap weld, the cleft weld, the
butt weld, the jump weld, and the V weld.

63. The lap weld (Fig. 43) is so called because the

pieces lap over each
other when placed in
contact. It is most
FIG. 43. LAP WELD SCAEFS. commonly used in

general practice, and all welds formed in a similar manner
belong to this class, regardless of the sectional form of the
material or the shape of the completed weld.

The pieces should always be upset where the scarfs are
to be formed, to provide excess metal for welding. They
should be formed with their end surfaces convex, and at
an angle of about 45 degrees, which would not make the
joining surfaces too long.

When the fire and all tools are ready, place both scarfs
face down in the fire ; when they are removed to the anvil,

FORGING OPERATIONS 51

the piece held in the right hand should be turned face up
and rest on the anvil, in order that the other may be placed
in position on top of it.

The left-hand scarf should be placed carefully, with
its point meeting the heel of the other. If placed too
high and overlapping, it will increase the surface to be
welded and perhaps decrease the dimensions of the ma-
terial where the points are welded down upon the exterior.
If placed too low, in all probability the surplus metal pro-
vided by upsetting will not be sufficient to form the weld
to a uniform dimension. A little practice with the scarfs
before heating is advisable to prevent this difficulty.

The hand hammer should be placed conveniently on
the anvil, with the handle projecting sufficiently over the
heel so that it can be grasped quickly with the right
hand as soon as the two pieces are in position. If this
precaution is not taken, the welding heat may disappear
before any blows can be struck.

The first blows after the pieces are placed should be
directed toward the center of the scarfs ; when the center
has been thoroughly united, the blows should be directed
toward the points to complete the operation, if this can
possibly be done in one heating.

It is impossible to give an invariable routine of blows ;
those given are sufficient for the beginning, the rest must
be left to the observation and skill of the operator. Prac-
tice and judgment will determine where the blows should
be delivered, and when they should cease.

As the welding heat vanishes very rapidly, it requires
careful judgment to determine when the pieces cease to
unite. All blows delivered after this will reduce the di-
mensions of the metal; if reheating is necessary, there

52 FORGE WORK

should be no metal sacrificed by unnecessary hammer-
ing. Welds are generally weaker than the metal from
which they are made ; consequently if the stock is made
smaller at the weld, its strength is greatly decreased.

The old adage " Haste makes waste " does not always
apply. If you hasten the operation of welding while the
pieces are sufficiently hot, you will not waste the metal.
If through want of haste you are compelled to reheat, you
will waste metal, for every time a piece is heated it loses
a fractional part of its area, regardless of any hammering.

Welds made with scarfs of this kind are considered to
be nearly as strong as the metal itself, because they allow
of a more thorough lamination by hammering than other
welds, consequently they are frequently used on various
qualities of metal when strength is considered a chief re-
quirement.

64. The cleft weld (A, Fig. 44) is so called because one
piece of metal is split to receive the other. It is used for

welding iron to iron

A Iron ~~C Steel \ ? T steel to iron (the

11 -^- inserted portion be-

ing the steel). What-
ever ^ ne me tal, the
inserted portion is

FIG. 44. A, CLEFT WELD SCARFS ; B, BUTT U SUallv roughened
WELD SCARFS. .,, " ,

with a hot cutter on

the pointed surfaces and the cleft hammered down and
securely fitted before the whole is heated. The pieces
should not be placed in the fire separately, but together,
as they have been fitted.

When a welding heat appears, if possible, light blows
should be delivered on the end of the inserted portion

FORGING OPERATIONS

while the two are in the fire ; these blows will partly join
the pieces and make them secure before removal. If this
cannot be done, the first blows after removal from the fire
should be on the end. When a final and thorough weld-
ing heat has been attained, they should be removed to the
anvil and securely joined. If heavy pieces are being
operated upon, they may be welded with the steam ham-
mer.

65. The butt weld (B, Fig. 44) is so called because the
pieces are butted together and almost thoroughly joined
by ramming or backing-up blows before any blows are
delivered on the exterior surface. The scarfs are easily
formed. The outer edges of the pieces are backed up
to form a rounded or convex end to insure their being
joined at the center first. As the blows are delivered
on the end, the metal will upset and the pieces will be
joined from the center to the outer edges. After they
have been quite thoroughly joined with these blows, they
should be hammered on their exterior to weld them se-
curely.

When scarfed in this manner, the pieces are frequently
placed in the fire for heating with the ends in contact,
then partly joined while in the fire and removed to the
anvil or the steam
hammer for final
welding.

66. The jump
weld is shown in
Fig. 45. The
scarfs require per-
fect forming, be-
cause the Oppor- FIG. 45. JUMP WELD SCARFS.

FORGE WORK

tunity for hammering is limited, as blows can be de-
livered only at certain places : on the end of the scarf
1 driving it into the concave groove 3 ; on a fuller which
is held in the fillet 4 J and on both the edges indicated
at 3.

The groove at 3 should be formed with sufficient metal
at points 0, to meet the projections X, and form a
fillet. The convex scarf 1 should first come in contact at
3, so that welding will proceed from that place.

Welds made in this way are considered the weakest
of those here described, on account of the limited assist-
ance which can be provided by hammering. Still they
are frequently used to avoid the laborious operations
required to make such forgings out of solid metal.

67. The V weld (Fig. 46) is a very important but diffi-
cult one. It is generally used on extremely heavy

FIG. 46. V WELD SCARFS.

work, such as locomotive frames (Fig. 47), beam straps,
rudder stems, and all cumbersome forgings.

The process is as follows: Pieces 5 and 6 are to be
welded. They are held in a rigid position with heavy
straps and bolts, as shown on the locomotive frame in
Fig. 47, sometimes while the V-shaped opening is being
formed ; however, they must always be held secure
while the welding heat is being obtained. The V-shaped

FORGING OPERATIONS 55

opening formed by the scarfs on 5 and 6 should penetrate
about two thirds of their thickness and form an angle
of about 50 degrees, with sufficient metal at 9 to provide
for the waste which will occur while a welding heat is be-
ing procured.

The wedge 7 is formed with some surplus metal for
filling the V-shaped opening. It is handled by a bar
which is welded to it. The angle of the wedge should
be not less than 5 degrees smaller than the angle of the
opening. This will insure that the welding proceeds from
the apex or point of the wedge outward.

Two fires are required ; 5 and 6, securely strapped and
bolted together, are placed in one with the V-shaped
opening turned downward. Plenty of coke is placed
around this opening, completely covered with moistened
coal, and securely packed with a shovel ; then two open-
ings or vents are made through the coal with a poker, one
on each side of the metal and leading to the scarfs. This
is called a covered fire. The blast is now turned on and
slowly increased until the proper heat is attained. The
progress of heating can be observed through the openings
thus made, and the fire replenished with coke when
necessary.

These operations are supervised by the smith who has
the work in charge, with two or more helpers or assistants,
according to the size of the forging. The wedge 7 also
is heated in a covered fire with only one opening on the
workman's side of the forge ; the wedge is inserted in that
opening, and is attended and handled by another smith,
who watches its progress in heating.

When the supervising and attending smiths have
signaled to each other that the heats are ready, 5 and 6

FORGE WORK

are removed, turned over, and placed on
the anvil or on the steam hammer die
to receive the wedge which is placed in
position by the attending smith. After
the wedge has been thoroughly welded
into place with either sledges or steam
hammer, the handle and all surplus metal
surrounding the openings are removed
by the aid of hot cutters and sledges.

This procedure must now be repeated
and another wedge welded into place
on the opposite side indicated by the
broken lines. With these two wedges 5
and 6 will be securely joined.

To insure a perfect weld, a, good qual-
ity of material should be selected for
the wedges. It should be thoroughly
hammered to produce good texture, and
if iron is operated upon, the fiber of the
wedges should run parallel to the fiber
of the piece to be welded. As this is
not generally observed, welds of this
character often break through the cen-
ters of the two wedges.

The broken locomotive frame shown
in Fig. 47 would be repaired by the
above method. The irregular line at
A shows where the break has occurred.
The straps and bolts at B indicate the
method of holding the parts in alignment.
Two tie rods at C prevent the parts
from separating.

FORGING OPERATIONS 57

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

What effect is produced by the upright blow ? By the edge-to-edge
blow? By the overhanging blow? By the beveling or angle blow?
By the leverage blows? What are the backing-up blows used for?
The shearing blows ?

What is meant by forging? How many different operations are
used in forging ? Name them. What is meant by drawing ? What
tools may be employed in drawing metal? If you desire to increase
the length more than the width, how should you hold the metal on the
anvil? Why? What precaution should be observed in revolving
metal when it is being drawn into a round form ? What is meant by
bending ? Can iron of any sectional shape be bent ? Which is the
easiest to bend ? What shapes are difficult to bend ? How are these
difficulties overcome? What is meant by upsetting? Explain how
it is done. What difficulty is often experienced in upsetting? What
is the difference in effect between resting the heated end on the anvil,
and striking on the heated end while upsetting ?

What is meant by forming? What other operations may be in-
volved? What special tools or appliances are sometimes used for
forming? State what has been said about straightening? Does it
require much skill ? Would it be as easy to straighten a wide flat piece
of metal, as it would a round one ? Why ? Explain the operation of
twisting. Why is it generally done ? How can twisting be done and
keep the work perfectly straight? Explain the essential parts of a
weld. Is a weld as strong as the original un welded bar ? Can all iron
and steel be welded ? What kind of fire is best for heating ? What is
meant by an oxidizing fire? What effect does it have on the metal?
How can an oxidizing fire be prevented ? How should scarfs be placed
in the fire ? Why ? If a penetrating and thorough heat is desired on a
piece of metal, how can it be obtained ? What is meant by scarfing ?
Are all scarfs formed alike ? Name and describe the different kinds of
scarfs and welds. Which one is considered the weakest? Why?
On what kind of work is the V weld used ?

CHAPTER III

PRACTICE EXERCISES

68. Staple. Fig. 48. Drawing and bending. Material
required : 5 inches of J-inch round iron.

Draw 1 inch of each end to a flat chisel-shaped point
| inch wide ; these drawn ends should be If inches long,

FIG. 48. STEPS IN MAKING
A STAPLE.

leaving 3 inches of round stock between them. Heat
the center and bend it, with points edgewise, to a semi-
circle of f inch inside diameter. These ends should be of
equal length, parallel and straight.

When drawing the ends, heat the metal to a white heat
to prevent the fibers from splitting or separating. Heat
only to a cherry red for bending, to prevent heavy scaling,
which is one cause of rough-appearing work. Rough work
may also be caused by improper use of the hammer in
striking too hard or frequently at one place. (See Fig. 48 j
for dimensions and stages.)

PRACTICE EXERCISES

69. Draw Spike. Fig. 49. Bending and drawing.
Material required : 7 inches of j-inch round iron.

Bend 3| inches of one end nearly to a right angle ; have
the inner corner almost sharp and square, the outer por-
tion circular at the corner. Then form a perfectly circular
eye of the 3J-inch end, having the center of the eye in line
with the central portion of the stem. When drawing the

FIG. 49. STEPS IN MAKING A DRAW SPIKE.

point, first draw it square, then octagonal, and then finish
it to a round. (See Fig. 49 for dimensions and stages.)

70. S Hook. Fig. 50. Drawing and bending. Ma-
terial required : 5 inches of |-inch round iron.

Draw inch of each end to a smooth, round point ; this
should make the length from point to point 6J inches, and
the central portion for 4 inches should be full-sized J-inch
round. Using half of the entire length, bend the first hook
to an inside diameter of inch, then bend the remaining
half in the opposite direction to the same diameter, bring-
ing both points directly toward each other, as shown.

FORGE WORK

When heating for bending, be careful to avoid burning the
points. (See Fig. 50 for dimensions and stages.)

50. STEPS IN MAKING AN
S HOOK.

71. Pipe Hook. Fig. 51. Upsetting, forging, and
bending. Material required : 9 inches of J-inch square.
Norway iron or soft steel is best for this exercise.

(Caution. To avoid injuring the fiber of the metal
and to upset it rapidly with the least amount of labor,
always have the metal perfectly straight, and heat it only
where the upsetting is required.)

Bring 4 inches of the central portion of the material to
a white heat ; if the heat extends beyond that distance,
cool 2-3- inches of each end, then the upsetting will be con-
fined to the desired place. Cool the ends quickly and
thoroughly, so that the upsetting blows may be delivered
before the heat has vanished. The material should be
held vertically with the lower end resting on the anvil,
while heavy blows are delivered on the top end, thus up-
setting the heated metal.

These operations should be repeated until the center
is | inch thick one way, with all excess metal forged on one
side, as at a, and the three others perfectly straight. Now
form a shoulder 6, with overhanging blows, about | of an

PRACTICE EXERCISES

inch from the center or thickest portion, but draw it no
smaller than -f s f an mc h at tne bottom. Then draw the
metal marked c to an approximate dimension of iX-&

FIG. 51. STEPS IN MAKING A PIPE HOOK.

inch. Form this shoulder perfectly square, by holding
it over a square corner of the anvil and delivering backing-
up blows on the heavy end, while the drawn part rests
flat on the anvil ; the metal should be hot at the shoulder
and cold on the end where the blows are to be delivered.
Then use the flatter on the drawn end to smooth and draw

62 FORGE WORK

it to the finished dimensions of ^xi inch, making it per-
fectly smooth and straight on all sides. Cut off this
drawn end 6 inches from the shoulder, as shown at d.

Draw the heavy end to a sharp, square point, making
it straight on the side opposite to the shoulder and
tapering from a point about 2 J inches from the shoulder ;
this should also be made smooth with the flatter. Sketch
e shows this so far completed.

Beginning f inch from the shoulder, bend the 6-inch
end backward through its smallest dimension, to a semi-
circle of 3 inches inside diameter. An outline of the re-
quired semicircle should be inscribed on a plate, or models
may be made to verify it. Sketch F shows the com-
pleted hook.

72. Gate Hook. Fig. 52. Drawing, bending, and
twisting. Material required : 7J inches of f-inch square
mild steel.

Mark lightly with the hardy on two edges 1 J inches from
one end, as shown at a. Form shoulders at these marks
on three sides of the metal ; do not make them too deep, as
surplus metal will be required for bending here. Draw
the metal at the shoulders just made, continuing to the
end to T 5 6 inch round and 2| inches long. Sketch b shows
the work completed to this point.

Mark the opposite end on the same edges and in a like
manner 4J inches from where the first shoulders have
been formed; form shoulders at these marks and also
draw down to T 5 g inch round, making the extreme end
a smooth, round point, 1\ inches long from the shoulders,
as at c. Both of these ends should be round and smoothly
drawn with the hand hammer.

Bend the straight, round end from the side e to a right

PRACTICE EXERCISES

angle, proceeding as follows: When placing the work
on the anvil, have the side e uppermost and the shoulder
projecting over the edge of the anvil the thickness of the
round, or -$ inch ; then when the metal is bent, the inside

/' A

a 9

7 ' "

HFH

FIG. 52. STEPS IN MAKING A GATE HOOK.

corner will be formed at the proper place and the shoul-
der will readily form into a right angle on the outer
side. Light upright and backing-up blows will aid in
forming the right angle after it. has been bent, provided
the piece is held with the round end vertical and resting

64 FORGE WORK

on the face of the anvil. If such blows are used while
it is being held over the edge of the anvil, they will reduce
the sectional dimensions and not materially aid in form-
ing the angle. Sketch d shows this angle in solid lines.
Now form the round portion of this angle into a circular
eye, making the inside diameter ^ inch, with the center on
a line with the center of the main stem. Sketch d shows
this eye in broken lines.

Bend the pointed end in the same manner and in the
same direction as the eye, having the distance between
the eye and the angle 4 inches, as shown in sketch F.
Now heat this end and cool the extreme corner of the
angle to prevent its straightening, then form the hook to
the dimensions given in the sketch.

Heat the central portion of the square metal to an even
cherry red ; hold the hook and 1 inch of the square por-
tion securely in the vise ; then grasp the other end with
the tongs or wrench 2 inches from the vise, and revolve
it once, thus forming a twist of the proper length. Be-
fore cooling this work, see that the eye and hook are
parallel and the body of the hook is perfectly straight.

73. Door Hasp. Fig. 53. Drawing, forging, punch-
ing, cutting, and bending. Material required : 7 inches
of 1 X ^ -inch mild steel.

Mark lightly with the hardy on the edges 1 inch and
3J inches from one end, as at a. Form shoulders at these
marks with edge-to-edge blows, as shown at 6, so that the
metal between them may be drawn to smaller dimensions.
The shoulders should be formed not deeper than inch at
first, and the metal between them should be drawn to a cor-
responding dimension. Then forge the 1-inch end into a
round eye, as at c, and punch a - t 5 6 -inch hole in its center,

PRACTICE EXERCISES

as shown at d. Now draw the metal between the eye and
the shoulders to exact dimensions, 3 inches long, f inch
wide, and
inch thick,
shown at
Mark

as
d.

the

other end in
the same man-
ner 1\ inches
from the shoul-
ders, and form
new shoulders
at these marks
with edge-to-
edge blows.
Draw the metal
to a length of
2| inches, mak-
ing it f X i 3 e
inch at the
shoulders and
\ X 4 inch at
the end ; the
extreme end
should be
forged round.
Sketch E shows
these operations completed.

Locate the center of the 2^-inch length; from that
point place a center-punch mark | inch each side of the
center and punch a T 5 g-inch hole at each mark with a hand
punch, by placing the outer edge of the punch at the

-r

^2f

_ /

'-K

3- ' '

-IZTtTa

)

FIG. 53. STEPS IN MAKING A DOOR HASP.

66 FORGE WORK

center-punch mark. Deliver no blows on the edges of
this metal after the holes are punched.

Using a sharp, hot cutter, remove the metal between
the holes, by cutting it equally from both sides, thus
forming the slot as indicated by the broken lines in sketch
E. By placing it over the hardy, straighten the metal
which forms the sides of this slot, and all other portions,
so that all edges will be straight and parallel to each other.
Smooth all flat surfaces with a flatter, using water to re-
move the scale of oxide. If the marking and punching
of the holes have been carefully done, the inside length
of the slot will now be 2 inches.

Bend the 2|-inch end to a right angle at the shoulders,
having the length from the inside of the angle to the out-
side of the eye about 7 inches. Heat this entire end and
quickly cool the extreme corner of the angle to prevent its
straightening there, then form the hook to the dimensions
given in sketch F. The inner edges of the slot may be
filed straight and parallel to the outside edges, but the
semicircular ends which have been formed by the punch
should not be disturbed.

74. Hexagonal Head Bolt. Fig 54. Upsetting and
forging to a hexagonal cross section. Material required :
7 inches of J-inch round iron.

Heat one end to a white heat, then cool off 4J inches
of the opposite end, thus confining the upsetting to the
required area ; upset the hot end until its diameter is
| inch, and the length over all is about 5f inches.

It is important that the 4J inches be kept perfectly cold,
to prevent upsetting there, also to prevent its sticking
fast in the heading tool, or possibly using more metal than
is required for forming the head.

PRACTICE EXERCISES

The upset metal should extend equally around the bolt.
This will tend to prevent the head from forming unequally
when the metal is being forged down on the heading
tool. The head can be prevented from forming on one

FIG. 54. HEXAGONAL HEAD BOLT.

side by directing the blows toward the opposite side.
Form the head by heating the upset end to a white heat,
by inserting the opposite end in the heading tool, and by
delivering upright blows on the heated end, unless others
are required, thus forging down the upset metal to f inch
thick. Remove it from the heading tool and forge the
head into a hexagonal form. It will be necessary to in-
sert the bolt in the heading tool several times to ob-
tain the exact dimensions of the head, which should be
| inch through its short diameter and | inch thick. The
chamfered finish on the top of the head is produced by
using a button head set while the bolt is held in the
heading tool.

75. Square-cornered Angle. Fig. 55. Upsetting, cham-
fering, and forging a square corner. Material required :
10 inches of 1 X J-inch iron.

Upset the center by cooling 3| inches of each end to

OS FORGE WORK

confine the operation to the required place. The center
should be inch thick, and all upset metal should be forged
to one side ; the opposite side and both edges should be
straight. Draw both ends tapering from where the upset-
ting ceases to f X | inch at the ends ; chamfer the edges
of the drawn ends on the straight, flat side, beginning

5 r. _^_ _ 5 j>-

FIG. 55. UPSETTING FOR A SQUARE CORNER.

about 2 inches from the center and continuing to the
ends. If the drawing and chamfering are properly done,
each end will be 5| inches from the center.

Heat and bend the stock at the upset center to a right-
angle, with the upset metal on the outer side to provide
for the square corner. The bending should be done over
the horn of the anvil to produce the quarter-round fillet
on the inner side, and may be confined to the center by
cooling both ends to where the upsetting begins.

As bends of this kind are somewhat difficult to make
correctly, it would be a great advantage to provide a form
which may be made to fit into the vise ; then one end of
the angle can be held securely with the form while the
opposite end is bent over it. By any simple form it is
impossible to make the outside corner perfectly sharp and
square with one operation; it is therefore necessary to

PRACTICE EXERCISES

ANVIL

FIG. 56. SQUARE-
CORNERED ANGLE.

forge the outside corner sharp and square by delivering
blows on both sides, somewhat in the manner shown in
Fig. 56, but good judg-
ment must be used in
doing this.

The chamfering may
be marred or entirely re-
moved in forging the cor-
ner ; if so, rechamfer, and
if the ends are of unequal lengths, the
longer one should be cut off equal with
the other. Then all surfaces should be
made straight and smooth with the flatter
and the scale removed by occasionally
dipping the flatter in water.

76. Fagot Welding. Welding and forg-
ing to dimensions. Material required : convenient pieces
of scrap iron and a bar of f-inch round stock from
24 to 30 inches long.

Temporarily weld several separate pieces of scrap on to
the bar until sufficient metal is provided for a thorough
welding and forging of a solid pieDe of square iron 3f
inches long and |J inch square. The welding should be
done so as not to show where the pieces were joined.
Forge it perfectly square and smooth with the flatter.
Cut one end off square with a sharp hot cutter, then cut
it to the required length.

77. Round Weld. Fig. 57. Scarfing, welding, and
swaging. Material required : two pieces of yVinch round
iron, 4| inches long.

Upset one end to T 9 g inch, as shown at a. To form the
scarf, deliver backing-up blows with the face of the

FORGE WORK

hammer, as shown at b, and finish with blows delivered
similarly with the ball. These backing-up blows will
form the heel of the scarf. Draw out the point of the
scarf with overhanging blows, as shown at c. The join-
ing surface should be convex so that welding will proceed

ANVIL

FIG. 57. STEPS IN SCARFING FOR A ROUND WELD.

from the center. Scarf both pieces in the same manner,
as at d.

Heat and weld according to instructions on welding
and finish the work smoothly with swages ; then cut to
a length of 6 inches, having the weld in the center.

Properly formed scarfs will produce perfect welds
provided they are heated to the welding temperature
when they are joined, but those improperly formed gener-
ally produce imperfect welds, although the heat is right.

78. Flat Right-angled Weld. Fig. 58. Material re-
quired : two pieces of iron f X f , 4J inches long.

Upset one end f inch larger than its diameters, as at a.
By using backing-up blows as in the previous exercise,

PRACTICE EXERCISES

form a heel on one side, as shown at b, then resting the
.straight side on the anvil, draw out the point with the ball
of the hammer, as at c. In drawing this point, the metal
will spread and form a wide fan-shaped end, but by resting
the right side d on the horn of the anvil and delivering

x_^

FIG. 58. STEPS IN SCARFING FOR A CORNER WELD.

blows on the left, the latter edge will be straightened,
leaving all projecting metal on the right.

Upset one end of the other piece to the same dimensions,
allowing this upsetting to continue along the metal about
1 inch. Form a scarf on the left edge at e, with the ball
of hammer, using blows similar to those shown at c and
leaving the end square. Place them together to see if the
points meet the heels ; if not, make necessary alterations
so they will.

Place the pieces in the fire, so that the side scarf will be

FORGE WORK

removed with the left hand and the end scarf with the
right. When placing for welding, the right-hand piece
should be laid on the anvil and the left-hand one placed
in its proper position on top of it. The inside corner
should form a quarter-round fillet, the outside should be
sharp and square, and the longer end cut off to make
them both equal. Smooth all surfaces with a flatter.
Sketch F shows the weld completed ; the dotted lines in-
dicate the location of the scarfs before welding.

79. T Weld. Fig. 59. Scarfing and welding. Ma-
terial required : two pieces of f X f-inch iron, 8 and 4|
inches long.

Upset one end of the shorter piece f inch larger than
its diameters, and form a scarf similar to the first one

FIG. 59. STEPS IN SCARFING FOR A T WELD.

for the right-angled weld, but "here allow it to form fan-
shaped and project equally over each edge, as shown at a.
Upset the center of the long piece to ^ inch or more
larger than its diameters, with the upset portion fully 1

PRACTICE EXERCISES

inch long, as at b. Form a scarf at this place with the ball
of the hammer, allowing the metal to bend edgewise, as at
c. Do not make this scarf quite so wide as the first one,
as its edges should be entirely covered by scarf a without
leaving any openings. See that they fit properly before
heating for welding.

Especial care should be taken to have a good fire. The
long piece should be placed in the fire so as to be removed
with the left hand, and the short one with the right.
Place the short piece on the anvil, with the long piece, held
in the left hand, on top of and overlapping it sufficiently
to prevent any openings. When welded, the long piece
should be perfectly straight, with the short one at a right
angle to it. Finish the weld with the flatter while it is
at a dull red heat. Sketch D shows the T completed.

FIG. 60. CHAIN MAKING.

80. Chain Making. Fig. 60. Bending, scarfing, and
welding links. Material required : 8 pieces of f-inch
round iron, 6 inches long.

Heat and bend the center of each piece to a semicircle

74 FORGE WORK

f inch inside diameter ; make the ends of equal length and
parallel from the semicircle, as at a. Take one of these
bent pieces and form a scarf on one end by holding it on
the edge of the anvil at an angle of 45 degrees, as shown
at 6, and delivering overhanging blows, as indicated by
the dotted circle, which represents the hammer. Turn
the link over, placing the other end in the same position
as the first, and scarf. Bend both scarfs toward each
other equally until they overlap sufficiently to prevent
any opening being formed, as at c ; this is called closing
the scarf.

Heat and weld the link by delivering the first few blows
on its sides while it is resting on the face of the anvil,
then by delivering lighter ones, while it is hung on the
horn. While striking the light blows, do not hold the
link in a fixed position, but move it to receive the blows
around the circumference. The finished dimensions are
2 X f inches inside ; a slight variation in length does not
make any difference, but their ends and widths should be
uniform.

Proceed with another piece in like manner, but after
scarfing it insert the finished link and continue adding
new ones, until there are five links all together. The
three extra pieces are for use in the next three exercises.

81. Welded Ring. Fig. 61. Bending, scarfing, and
welding a ring of round iron. Material required : one
piece of T Vinch round iron, 8 inches long.

Heat, and bend over the horn of the anvil about 1
inches of each end to an inside radius of no less than 1 inch,
as at A. Then heat the straight portion to a uniform
temperature and bend it by holding the piece in a verti-
cal position on the anvil, and delivering upright blows, as

PRACTICE EXERCISES

shown at B ; this should produce a form similar to that
shown at C. Continue the bending by holding the work
as at D. By carefully observing the effect of these

FIG. 61. STEPS IN MAKING A RING.

blows, you will be able to determine how the work
ought to be held to produce the complete ring. These
blows are used here to give the same effect as lever-
age blows. If the position of the metal is changed when
and where it should be, almost a perfect ring may be pro-

76 FORGE WORK

duced without holding it on the horn of the anvil. It is
not the best method to hold the work on the horn, be-
cause blows delivered in this way have a tendency to
produce oval sections where they hit. In forming this
ring the ends should be left open about 1 inch.

The directions for scarfing and welding are somewhat
similar to those given for links, except that the angle of
the scarf should be nearly a right angle. After the weld-
ing is completed, the ring should be made perfectly round
by placing it over a mandrel or the horn of the anvil.
When the ring is welded and complete, connect it to the
chain with one of the extra links.

82. Chain Swivel. Fig. 62. Bending, scarfing, weld-
ing, and riveting. Material : about 2 feet of ^-inch
round iron. Norway iron is the best, and this length is
the most convenient for the first operations.

For making this swivel, a special mandrel (Fig. 63)
should be provided, made of f-inch round, mild or tool
steel, with a short offset of f inch ; the gudgeon or pin

FIG. 62. CHAIN SWIVEL. FIG. 63. TOOL FOU WELDING A SWIVEL.

which is shown at a should be lj inches long, T 7 S inch in
diameter at the shoulder, and tapering to -^ inch at the
end. Any convenient length of handle that will prevent
burning the hand when welding, will do.

Bend about 2J inches of the -j%-inch round stock to a
right angle ; as at a, Fig. 64 ; make the corner as square as

PRACTICE EXERCISES

possible, by upsetting it before bending ; or after bending,
by using upright and backing-up blows. Flatten the
bent portion 6 parallel with the bar, by first delivering
the blows with the ball of the hammer to increase the
width as much as possible, then finish it to -f\ inch thick
with the face of the hammer. The corner should be

i ^

f\l

FIG. 64. STEPS IN MAKING A SWIVEL.

scarfed with the ball of the hammer and the rib worked
out, as shown at c.

Cut off the flat portion 2 inches from the bar, and form
a thin scarf at the end of b. Notice that this should be
formed on the same side with c. Beginning with the
scarf at the end, the flat portion should be bent or rolled
up so that the scarfs will overlap considerably, as indicated
in the end view d. The special mandrel should now be
inserted in the opening shown here, and all placed in
a f-inch bottom swage, while the scarfs are hammered
into close contact.

The long bar should now be cut off 4 inches from the
inside of the bend, and a fan-shaped scarf formed with

FORGE WORK

the ball of the hammer, as at e. This should be drawn
thin on the end and sides. The center of the 4^-inch
length is next bent and the last scarf placed in position
at / by again inserting the mandrel, placing it in the
swage, and closing down the edges around the portions
at /. It is then ready for welding. Figure 62 shows
this in solid lines.

A good clean heat should be procured for welding ; the
mandrel should be quickly inserted, placed in the swage,
and the welding done. This being completed, a small eye

is to be made of f-inch round
iron: first, by bending it in
the form shown at a, Fig. 65 ;
second, by inserting a punch
in the opening and hammer-
ing the ends together, forming
the eye, as shown at b ; third,
by welding these ends solidly
together, as at c, and forging the whole to fit loosely in
the swivel. The fitted end is now cut off square f inch
longer than the depth of the hole in the swivel, heated,
and, while the eye is held in the vise, it is quickly riveted
into place with a small straight or ball peen hammer. The
eye is shown in place by the broken lines in Fig. 62. Con-
nect this swivel to the chain with one of the extra links.

83. Chain Swivel. Figs. 66 and 67. Fullering, forg-
ing, bending, welding, and riveting. Material : a piece
of 1 X J-inch iron, 4 or more inches long.

Using top and bottom fullers, form two sets of depres-
sions not deeper than J inch, on each edge and opposite
to each other, the first pair to be 1 inch from the end, the
second pair 1 inch from the first, as at a.

FIG. 65. MAKING AN EYE FOR A
SWIVEL.

PRACTICE EXERCISES

Draw the 1-inch end to ^ inch round, leaving it slightly
heavier where it was fullered to provide excess metal for

FIG. 66. STEPS IN MAKING A SWIVEL.

further bending. The opposite end should now be cut off
1 inch from the fullered place and drawn to the same
dimensions as the first end. Forge the central portion
into a circular form and
punch a f-inch hole in its
center. Cut off all surplus
material, making the ends
3 1 inches long from the
center of the hole, as at b.

Bend each end to a right FlG ' 67 ' ~ THE CoMPLETED SWIVEL -
angle close up to the eye and make the arms parallel and
one inch apart, as at c. Drift the hole by driving the punch

FORGE WORK

through between the parallel ends, thereby forming a
slightly tapered hole. Scarf and weld the ends as you
would a link. Make a small eye of f-inch round stock,
proceeding in the manner explained in the previous exer-
cise, also following the same instructions as to fitting,
cutting, and riveting. Connect the link end of this swivel
to the chain with one of the extra links. (See Fig. 67.)

FIG. 68. STEPS IN MAKING A CHAIN GRABHQOK.

84. Chain Grabhook. Fig. 68. Forging, punching,
and bending. Material : one piece of f X f-inch iron, 4|
inches long.

Form a depression as at a, \ inch deep and J inch from

PRACTICE EXERCISES 81

one end with overhanging blows. (The opposite edge
should be kept perfectly straight during this and the
following operations.) Forge the f-inch end into a
circular-shaped eye f inch thick, and punch a J-inch hole,
in the center, as at 6. This hole should be drifted or
expanded with a punch driven through from both sides
alternately until the diameter becomes J inch.

By hanging this eye over the horn of the anvil so that
the inner corners of the eye rest on the horn, by deliv-
ering blows opposite to
those corners, and by
changing its location so
that blows will be deliv-
ered on all outside corners,
the sectional form will be
changed from square to

OCtagOn ; bv Similar ODer- FlG - 69 - ~ THE COMPLETED CHAIN
* GRABHOOK.

ations the form may be

changed from octagon to round. During this change,
light blows should be used in order to make the eye smooth.
This stage is shown at c with a sectional view of the eye.

Proceeding from the eye toward the opposite end, forge
both edges round to correspond with the eye, leaving the
metal f inch wide, 3 inches from the eye, as shown at d.

Draw the remaining section tapering from this extreme
width to J' inch, and forge the edges round as before. The
hook should be -f^ inch round at the end and 3 inches long
from the widest point, as shown at E. Heat the middle
portion; cool the point and the eye, and bend the hook
edgewise over the horn of the anvil toward the straight
side, until the point is opposite the depression first formed.
The inside semicircle formed by bending should be | inch

82 FORGE WORK

in diameter, the other inside lines straight and parallel.
The extreme point should be slightly curved away from
the eye, and all flat surfaces hammered smooth with light
blows while the hook is at a dull red heat. Figure 69
shows the hook completed. Using the remaining extra
link, connect the hook to the swivel.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

What forging operations are employed in making the staple and the
draw spike ? What hammer blows are used on them ? What caution
should be observed in heating the S hook for bending ? What opera-
tions are employed in making the pipe hook? Which is the most
difficult? Where was the most difficult forging encountered? How
was the point drawn ? What operations are employed in making the
gate hook ? Explain how the angle should be bent, and how the blows
should be delivered to make it square. Why should the extreme
corner of the angle be cooled off before bending the hook? What
operations are employed in making the hasp? Which one is used
first ? Into what form is the metal to be forged in making the bolt ?
What is meant by chamfering ? What kind of hammer blows should
be used in chamfering ? Why should the metal be upset for the round
weld? What special hammer blows are to be used in forming the
scarfs ? Explain how the scarfs are formed for the right-angled weld.
How should scarfs be placed in the fire ? How should they be placed
on the anvil? Explain how the scarfs are formed for the T weld.
Describe the scarfing of a link. Describe the welding of a link. What
is the effect of bending the ring over the horn of the anvil ? What
operaticns are used in making the chain swivel?

CHAPTER IV
TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL

85. Selecting and Working Steel. In making a tool,
the differences in quality of steel should be considered,
because steel suitable for a razor would not do for a
cold chisel or any battering tool. (See sec. 181.)

If the steel at hand is not exactly suitable, but the
selection must be made from it, then that should be chosen
which will most nearly meet the requirements, and temper-
ing must be relied upon to make up the deficiency. In
most large factories all grades of steel are kept on hand
and are assorted in the stock room so that there need be
no difficulty in making the proper selection.

The percentage of carbon in steel represents the amount
of carbon it contains. A steel that is called a 75-point
carbon steel is one that contains (.75) seventy-five one
hundredths of one per cent, each point representing (.01)
one one hundredth of one per cent.

Some steel makers use the word " temper " to indicate
the amount of carbon, expecting the user of the steel to be
familiar with the amounts of carbon each different temper
represents. For instance, a razor-temper steel represents
one that contains 1.50 per cent carbon and a tool- temper
steel represents one containing about 1.25 per cent. The
word " temper" as used in this connection should not be
confused with the word as it is used in the art of tempering,

84 FORGE WORK

where it indicates the operation of reducing the hardness
of the metal in order to make it less brittle and more
suitable for some particular use.

86. Uses of Different Grades of Steel. As the percent-
age of carbon, and consequently the quality of steel, will
vary somewhat with different makes, it is rather difficult
to give a rule that will apply generally, but the following
list of different grades of carbon will give a general idea
of how steel should be selected, forged, and hardened.

Steel of 0.7 to 0.8 per cent carbon should be used for
snaps, rivet sets, cupping tools, etc. This grade of steel
should be forged at a light red heat. It can be welded
easily and will harden at a light red heat.

Steel from 0.8 to 0.9 per cent carbon should be used
for drop-forging dies, hammers, cold sets, .track chisels,
blacksmith's tools, well drills, etc. It should be forged
at a light red heat ; it welds easily and hardens at a light
red heat.

Steel from 0.9 to 1 per cent carbon should be used
for large hand chisels, large punches, shear blades, dies, etc.
Forging should be done at a light red heat. It welds
readily and hardens at a bright red heat.

Steel from 1 to 1.1 per cent carbon should be used for
hand chisels, punches, punch dies, small shear blades, etc.
Forging should be done at a light red heat. It welds
readily and hardens at a bright red heat.

Steel from 1.1 to 1.2 per cent carbon should be used for
screw-cutting dies, large cutting and trimming dies, small
punches, small hand chisels, large milling cutters, cups,
cones, etc. Forging should be done at a light red heat.
It welds readily when care is taken in heating, and hardens
at a bright red heat.

TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL 85

Steel from 1.2 to 1.3 per cent carbon should be used for
drills, taps, reamers, milling cutters, circular cutters,
cutting and trimming dies, mill picks, engraving tools,
twist drills, etc. Forging should be done at a bright red
heat. Welding can be done when precaution is taken
against overheating and burning. It hardens at a dull
red heat.

Steel from 1.3 to 1.4 per cent carbon should be used for
small drills, taps, cutters, boring tools, etc. Forging
should be done at a bright red heat ; welding can be done
with care against overheating. It hardens at a dull red
heat. This steel should be handled carefully.

Steel from 1.4 to 1.5 per cent carbon should be used for
tools for working chilled castings or locomotive wheel
tires, lathe and planer tools, razors, or any tools required
to cut hard materials. Forging should be done at a dull
red heat. Welding can scarcely be accomplished with
this grade of stock. Hardening should be done at a
dark red heat.

87. Injuries. One of the most common injuries to steel
comes from carelessness in the heating for forging. It
is one of the important operations, for unless the metal
is uniformly heated, violent strains are liable to occur,
and, when hardened, the steel will show these strains by
cracking. These defects are known as fire cracks.

The smith should always have plenty of fuel surround-
ing the metal while it is in the fire so that the cold-air
blast will not come in direct contact with the metal. The
air should be heated by passing through a bed of hot coals
before it strikes the steel. It is always necessary to heat
| steel thoroughly to make it plastic, being careful not to
| overheat or burn any part of the metal. If it is over-

86 FORGE WORK

heated or burned, it cannot be completely restored to its
former state ; the grain becomes coarse and the structure
weak.

Never let steel lie in the fire to soak up heat after it is
hot enough to work. If for any cause it cannot be worked
when it is ready, it should be taken from the fire and left
to cool, then reheated when it can be worked. By this
precaution injury to the steel will be prevented.

If steel is heated so that the outer parts are hotter than
the center, the*.metal will forge unevenly. The outer
portion will be forged by the hammer blows, while the
center remains almost in the original form. This will
also cause an uneven grain, sure to produce cracks when
the tool is hardened. Forging at too low a heat will injure
the steel in the same manner as uneven heating.

After the steel has been properly heated, and forging has
begun, the first blows should be struck rather heavily
and followed by lighter ones as the heat vanishes. The
forging should cease when the steel gets too cold, but it
may be reheated as often as necessary to complete the
work.

88. Annealing. After the steel has been forged to the
desired shape, it usually is necessary to do some finishing
upon it before it can be hardened and tempered ; in order
to do this, it must be annealed or softened so that it can
be machined or filed into shape. Annealing is the process
of softening steel. It is done by heating the steel slowly
to an even low red heat and placing it in an iron box con-
taining unslaked lime or fine charcoal and leaving it
there until perfectly cold. The object of this process is
to retain the heat and prolong the cooling. The box is
usually of cast iron, but sheet steel is equally good. It

TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL 87

should be placed in a perfectly dry place and rest on
bricks, if necessary, to avoid any dampness.

If an annealing box is not at hand, small steel forgings
can be softened very satisfactorily by placing them
between two boards, then completely covering all with
dry ashes and leaving them there until entirely cold.
Precaution should be taken here, also, to leave them in a
dry place.

Another method, which is sometimes used, is called water
annealing. Some mechanics claim to have had good re-
sults with it, while others condemn it entirely. By this
method the article is heated to a dull red and allowed
to cool partly, out of any direct current of air. When
all redness has disappeared as it is held in a dark place,
it is plunged into water and left there until perfectly
cold.

The first method mentioned above is always the best;
the second is nearly as good ; and only when there is not
sufficient time to allow the metal to cool slowly, should
water annealing be attempted.

Such tools as cold chisels and lathe tools may be heated
and laid in or on warm ashes until nearly cold, when they
may be ground, hardened, and tempered. Quite fre-
quently, if not generally, these tools are not treated in
this manner, but it is no doubt the course to pursue to
get the best results.

89. Hardening and Tempering. .When steel has been
properly heated, forged, finished, or ground, the next two
steps are hardening and tempering. These two pro-
cesses are often understood as one, but they are en-
tirely different in their results/ The confusion arises
because the two operations are sometimes performed with

88 FORGE WORK

one heating of the steel as in hardening and tempering
a cold chisel, or other similar tools.

As the steel has been subjected to severe strains dur-
ing the heating and forging operations, its structure
may have been somewhat altered. It can be restored
to the proper crystalline structure by the hardening, sci-
entifically known as refining. The hardening or refin-
ing heat is always lower than the forging heat, and should
be only as high as is necessary to harden the steel to the
required density by sudden cooling. Then this first
operation of cooling will harden and refine the steel at the
same time.

Extreme hardness is always accompanied by extreme
brittleness, a quality undesirable in any cutting tool, and
especially so in a tool required to withstand sudden shocks.
As the hardness is reduced by subsequent heating, the
toughness increases. This modification, called tempering,
is accomplished by reheating the hardened portion of the
tool until a sufficient toughness has been obtained, when
the process is stopped by again plunging the tool into cold
water. The heat for tempering may be supplied from the
uncooled portion of the tool as in tempering a cold chisel,
from the forge fire, from another hot piece of metal, or from
a carefully heated furnace.

It has been found that the colored oxides formed on the
surface of a piece of polished steel or iron represent a
definite temperature in that metal. These colors have
been used, therefore, to determine the desired temperature
in tempering a tool. When we say " temper a tool to a
light straw," we mean that the hardened tool is to be
heated again to a degree which will produce that color;
namely, about 430 degrees Fahr. The colors as they

TREATMENT OP TOOL STEEL 89

appear are light straw, dark straw, bronze, bronze with
purple spots, purple, dark blue. The light color appears
first. Do not allow the colors to pass too quickly, as
will happen if the heat applied is too intense.

There are two distinct methods of hardening and
tempering. The one generally followed in tempering
cold chisels, lathe and various other tools, requires only
one heating. The tool is heated to a proper hardening
temperature at the end, where hardness is desired, and also
over an excess area to supply the
heat for tempering. About 2
inches of the cutting end is
heated ; about 1 inch of this is
plunged perpendicularly into
water, as shown in Fig. 70 ; it
is then kept in motion perpen-
dicularly between the places in-
dicated at a and b, while the
end is cooling. This will pre-
vent a fixed cooling point and
prevent a fracture that might

possibly occur if it were held in FlG - 7a C H EL DENIN A
one position while cooling. The

portion between b and c should retain sufficient heat to pro-
duce the necessary temper. When the end is perfectly cold
it should be removed and immediately polished with
, sandstone or emery cloth to remove the scale of oxide
so that the different colors may be more readily seen as
they move from 6 toward the point. The heat in the
portion between b and c flows toward the point, causing
the colors to appear as the heat extends. When the de-
sired color covers the point, it should again be plunged into

FORGE WORK

FIG. 71. HARD-
ENING A REAMER.

the water and left theqe until entirely cold. In this method
the first cooling is the hardening, and the second the
tempering. A comparative color chart is appended to
this chapter for guidance in obtaining the
tempers for various tools.

By the second method the steel is heated
as in the first method, then it is cooled
off entirely by immersing the tool exactly
perpendicularly, as shown in hardening a
reamer in Fig. 71 ; after this it is polished.
The temper is then drawn by holding the
tool in contact with a piece of heated
metal, cast iron preferably. In Fig. 72
the reamer is shown inside of a heated
bushing, which is a more practical way
than laying it on top of a heated flat
plate. The bushing will impart sufficient heat to the
tool to produce the desired color, when it should be again
cooled. This method is
used mostly for tempering
plane bits, wood chisels,
milling cutters, taps,
reamers, and various other
tools of a like nature.

Sometimes tools having
sharp protruding edges,
as milling cutters, taps,
reamers, etc., are very
liable to crack by the sudden cooling in water; this
difficulty is avoided by using oil for hardening and tem-
pering. Any so treated are called oil-tempered tools.
The above methods of tempering are such as are or-

FIG. 72. TEMPERING A REAMER.

TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL

dinarily used when only a common shop equipment is at
hand, and the operator must depend entirely upon his
judgment of the colors which represent the proper forging,
annealing, hardening, and tempering heats. The degree
of accuracy that has been attained in this practice is most
surprising.

In large manufacturing establishments where many
duplicate pieces are to be tempered, a more modern as
well as scientific apparatus is employed to relieve the
operator of dependence upon his discernment of colors.
Here the steel is heated in a furnace, to which is attached
a pyrometer that
registers the exact
degree of tempera-
ture. In this man-
ner all pieces can
be heated uni-
formly for any of
the four required
heats.

The views in
Fig. 73 were pho-
tographed from
the same grade or
bar of steel to show
the various granu-
lar structures pro-
duced by different
heat treatments.
A shows the con-
dition of the natural bar, which was broken to be photo-
graphed just as it was received from the steel makers.

C. Too hot.

D. Burned.

FIG. 73. SECTIONAL VIEWS OF TOOL STEEL,
SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF PROPER AND IMPROPER
TREATMENT.

92 FORGE WORK

The lower left side shows where it was nicked with
the cutter to be broken. B shows the structure when
proper conditions of heating and hardening have been
maintained. Notice how much finer the structure here
appears to be; this effect was caused by, and previ-
ously referred to as, the refining heat of steel. A similar
condition should be produced with any tool steel under
correct treatment. C shows a much coarser structure ;
it was heated too hot and hardened in the same manner.
If a tool were made thus, its weakness would be hardly
noticeable at the time, but the structure shows that it
is considerably weaker. D shows the condition of the
stock after being burned. It has produced from a
quality of steel that was valuable, a metal worthless for
any kind of tool.

90. Casehardening. Another method of hardening,
called casehardening, is used for wrought iron and low
carbon or soft steel parts which are to be subjected to con-
siderable friction. Neither of these metals could be hard-
ened by the other methods mentioned. This process adds
carbon to the exterior surfaces only, and for that reason
is called casehardening, as the outside is made extremely
hard, while the inner portion or core remains in a con-
dition like that produced by sudden cooling, thus pro-
viding a hard wearing surface and great strength at the
same time. It is similar to the old cementation process
of steel making, but is not prolonged sufficiently to allow
the hardening to continue through the entire structure.

The articles to be hardened are packed in a box some- '
what similar to an annealing box. This should be partly
filled with charred leather, ground bone, or wood or bone
charcoal, all of which are highly carbonaceous materials ;

TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL 93

then the articles are placed in and entirely surrounded
with a thin coating of cyanide of potassium, especially
if iron is being hardened. The remaining space in the
box is filled with the leather, bone, or pieces of charcoal.
The box should be provided with a lid that will drop
loosely between the outer projecting rims. The outer
edges of this lid should be luted with clay to keep it as air-
tight as possible. If a few small holes are provided in the
center of the lid, test wires can be inserted ; by removing
a wire and cooling it, the progress of the operation may
be known. These wires should be inserted before the box
is placed in the furnace. The box and its contents are
then placed in a suitable furnace and kept thoroughly
heated from 6 to 15 hours, depending upon the depth
of hardness required. Then it is withdrawn, the lid re-
moved, and the articles quickly plunged into a large tank
of water. This will complete the hardening.

(When a number of very small articles are to be hardened,
it is advisable to connect them with strong bailing wire
before they are placed in the box so that they can all be
removed at once. Beside holding the articles together,
the wire will provide a means of testing the depth and
quality of the process.

If only a thin coating of hardness is needed, or the labor
and expense are excessive, the following method may be
used: The article is heated thoroughly and evenly to
about a bright red and thoroughly sprinkled with, or
rolled in, cyanide of potassium. Then it is reheated so
that the cyanide may penetrate as deeply as possible, after
which it is quickly chilled in cold water. This is a good
method of hardening small tack hammers made of soft
steel, set screws, nuts, and very small tools.

94 FORGE WORK

TEMPERATURE AND COLOR CHART TO BE USED IN TEMPERING

Tools Temperature (Fahr.) Color

Degrees

Scrapers for brass 430 Very pale yellow

Light turning tools 430 Very pale yellow

Lathe and planer tools for steel . . 430 Very pale yellow

Steel engraving tools 430 Very pale yellow

Milling and boring cutters .... 460 Straw yellow

Screw-cutting dies 460 Straw yellow

Taps and reamers 460 Straw yellow

Punches and dies 480 Dark straw

Penknives 480 Dark straw

Twist drills 500 Bronze

Plane irons 500 Bronze

Surgical instruments 530 Dark purple

Cold chisels for steel 540 Dark purple

Cold chisels for cast iron .... 550 Dark blue

Cold chisels for wrought iron . . . 550 Dark blue

Springs 570 Very dark blue

SUITABLE TEMPERATURE (FAHR.) FOR :

Degrees

Annealing tool steel 900

Forging tool steel 1200 to 1500

Hardening tool steel 1200 to 1400

Casehardening iron or soft steel 1300 to 1500

COLORS AND CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURES (FAHR.) FOR IRON

Bright red in dark 750 to 760

Red hot in twilight 880 to 890

Dark red hardly visible in daylight 970

Red visible by daylight 1070

Brighter red by daylight - ... 1300

Cherry red by daylight 1450

Bright cherry red by daylight 1650

Light cherry red by daylight 1800

Orange 2000

Yellow 2150

White heat 2350

White welding heat 2600

White welding and dazzling 2800

TREATMENT OF TOOL STEEL 95

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

What is meant by the carbon contents of steel? Why is steel
graded according to its carbon content? Explain the cause of fire
cracks. How can they be prevented? Why should steel be thor-
oughly heated? If steel is overheated or burned, what is the effect?
Why sh6uld steel never be left in the fire to soak up heat ? How
does steel forge if it is unevenly heated ? How should the blows be
delivered in forging steel? What is annealing? Describe three
methods of annealing. Is it best to anneal cold chisels and lathe
tools? Explain the process of hardening steel. What effects does
hardening have ? Are the forging and the hardening heats the same ?
Why is steel polished after it is hardened ? Explain the process of
tempering. What is the effect of tempering? How may the heat be
supplied for tempering ? Name the colors in order as they appear
in heating steel. Explain the methods of hardening and tempering.
Why should a cold chisel be kept in motion when it is being har-
dened ? What is meant by oil-tempering ? What is meant by case-
hardening ? Explain different methods of casehardening.

CHAPTER V
TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION

91. Tongs. As tongs are among the most important
tools and quite difficult to make, they will be taken up in
this chapter on tool making. *

The weakest places in a pair of tongs are where the
shoulders or offsets are formed for the jaws and handles.
These places should be reenforced by fillets as large as
the usefulness and appearance of the tongs will permit;
they should never be made sharp and square, unless their
construction demands it.

All tongs for general blacksmi thing can be forged
properly with the hand hammer and the use of such tools
as the top fuller, the swages, and the round-edged set
hammer. Some assistance with a light sledge will be
necessary. The use of such tools as a square-edged set or
the file for forming shoulders or fillets is very objectionable,
especially in the hands of unskilled workmen. If the two
parts do not seem to fit as they should, due to the fillets
which are present, they will generally adjust themselves
when they are riveted together, heated, and worked
freely.

92. Heavy Flat Tongs. Fig. 74. Fullering, forging,
swaging, punching, and riveting. Material : 15 inches
of f-inch square mild steel.

Mark the center of the 15-inch length with a hardy or
cold chisel. Form two depressions f inch deep, with a

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION

top fuller, one 2 inches from the end at a, the other 3 inches
from the 'same end but on the opposite side. Form a
third depression to the same depth, but at an angle of 45
degrees, starting from the bottom of the first one, and on
the side indicated by the broken line, as at b. Draw the

r\ / b/

16'

FIG. 74. STEPS IN MAKING HEAVY FLAT TONGS.

2-inch end to 1 X J inch from a, tapering to 1 X f inch at the
end. This portion forms one jaw, as shown at c. Now
flatten out about 2 inches of the metal from the beveled
depression b toward the center mark, to T 9 6 - inch thick,
allowing the metal to spread as wide as possible. This
should then be forged and formed into shape for the
joint d, and the fuller again placed in the second depres-
sion to make the dimension there f inch, as shown at d.

98 FORGE WORK

Forge the other end in the same manner, exerting due
care to have all dimensions correspond ; cut the stock in
two at the center. Draw out the heavy ends for the
handles with the power hammer or with some assistance
from a sledge. They should be roughly forged at first
with an allowance for finishing as follows : Beginning
at the joint, use the top and bottom swages on the outer
edges through the greatest width, and swage to f X \ inch.
This swaging should be continued toward the end to form
the handle. By using the flatter during the swaging, the
sides may be kept straight, smooth, and slightly tapering
to a round section. Make the end f inch in diameter for
a length of 3 inches. Sketch F shows one side of a pair
of tongs drawn and swaged.

Place the parts together to see if they fit properly; if
they do not, make the necessary alterations. Use a top
fuller to form a groove e about J inch deep, lengthwise
on the inside of the jaws, and smooth the sides and
edges with a flatter. Then punch a f-inch hole in the
center of the joint, as shown in sketch F. This should be
done on both parts.

Heat thoroughly the end of a f-inch rivet, If inches
long, and with it rivet the two portions tightly together.
Heat the tongs, make them work freely, and adjust them
to hold f-inch flat iron, with the entire length of the jaws
in contact and with the ends of the handles 1 inch apart.
The jaws and handles should be adjusted so that a line
extended lengthwise across the center of the rivet would
pass midway between them.

93. Light Chain Tongs. Fig. 75. Forging, swaging,
punching, fullering, and riveting. Material : 13 inches
of f -inch square mild steel.

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION

Mark the center of this length with a hardy or cold
chisel. Form a shoulder 1 J inches from the end, and draw
this end to f X J inch at the bottom of the shoulder, tapering
to | X f inch at
the end, as at a.
Form a second
shoulder at an
angle of 45 de-
grees, starting
from the bottom
of the first one,
by holding the
work on the anvil,
as shown at b.
The blows should
be directed a lit-
tle toward the
center mark, to
flatten and spread
the metal for
forming the joint
of the tongs.
Form a third shoulder at c, 1 inch from and on the op-
posite side to the first and toward the center mark, the
thickness here being | inch. Note that these shoulders
should be made with overhanging blows and not by using
the fuller. The metal between the shoulders c and a
should now be forged into shape for the joint. Forge
the other end in a similar manner, being careful to have
all dimensions correspond ; then cut the stock in two at
the center.

Draw out the heavy ends for the handles with a power

lev

FIG. 75. STEPS IN MAKING LIGHT CHAIN TONGS.

100 FORGE WORK

hammer or with some assistance from a sledge. Roughly
forge them from | X ^ at c, down to T 5 g inch round, 3 inches
from the end. Finish the edges by using the top and
bottom swages. By using the flatter on the -sides during
the swaging, the handle may be kept straight, smooth, and
slightly tapered to where it terminates into round. Sketch
F in Fig. 74 shows the handle drawn out and swaged.

Place the two parts together to see if they fit properly;
if they do not, make the necessary alterations. Taking

1 i !

7 TT

A LJ

\ r

FIG. 76. THE COMPLETED LIGHT TONGS.

each piece separately, perform the following operations:
Fuller a groove \ inch deep, lengthwise on the inside of the
jaw, and another crosswise about J- inch from the end
as shown at A, Fig. 76. Then punch a T 5 g-inch hole in
the center of the joint. A -jVinch rivet \\ inches long
should be obtained, its end should be thoroughly heated,
and the two parts riveted tightly together. Heat the tongs
and make them work freely ; adjust them to hold y\-inch
flat iron with the full length of the jaws in contact, also
to hold f -inch round material in the cross groove when the
handles are 1 inch apart. They should be adjusted, so
that if a line were extended lengthwise through the center
of the rivet, it would pass midway between the jaws and

101

TOOL MAKING AND STQCK CALCULATION

handles. When complete these tongs will appear as in
Fig. 76.

94. Lathe Tools. A complete description of lathe tools
would require too much space in this book, therefore only
six common ones will be explained ; by applying the knowl-
edge received from making these, the operator should be
able to forge many others. These with the other tool
steel exercises should supply sufficient practice in forging,
hardening, and tempering tool steel.

If these tools are to be put into practical use, a good
quality of tool steel should be provided, cut about 8 inches
long for each one, and great care should be taken in the
heating, forging, and tempering. If, however, they are
to be made for practice alone, then much shorter pieces
may be conveniently used, also an inferior grade of steel;
mild or soft steel would be sufficiently good to provide the
needed practice in heating, forging, and tempering. Even
though the material is inferior, the operations should re-
ceive the most careful attention.

The material may be 1 X |-inch, J X f -inch, or any suit-
able stock size.

FIG. 77. BRASS TOOL. Section on a-a

95. Brass Tool. Fig. 77. Forging, hardening, and

tempering. Material : 6 to 8 inches of X 1-inch tool steel.

Starting about f inch from one end, draw to a uniform

102 i JFGRGE WORK

taper on both sides and on one edge only, so that the metal
is J inch thick and f inch wide at the end. The lower
or beveled edge also should be drawn thinner than the
upper to provide the necessary clearance amounting to
about 5 degrees on each side, as shown in the sectional
view. The end should be cut off at an angle of 70 degrees
and ground semicircular in form with the necessary
clearance.

Heat about 2 inches of this end and harden in the
manner described for the cold chisel, but in this case the
color for tempering is a very pale yellow.

96. Cutting-off or Parting Tool. Fig. 78. Fullering,
forging, hardening, and tempering. Material : 7 inches
of | X 1-inch tool steel.

With a top fuller form a depression across one side f inch
from the end, fullering the metal to ^ inch thick. Draw

FIG. 78. CUTTING-OFF OR PARTING TOOL.

this end down to 1 X T 3 g inch. The thickness of the metal
where it was fullered should also be decreased to | inch,
gradually increasing to T 3 g inch at the end, taking extreme
care to have sufficient clearance from front to back and
from top to bottom. The cutting edge is generally

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 103

allowed to project about | inch above the stock ; the
end is trimmed off at an angle of 75 to 80 degrees and
ground, as shown in Fig. 78, after which it is hardened
and tempered to a pale yellow.

97. Heavy Boring Tool. Fig. 79. Drawing, bending,
hardening, and tempering. Material : 7 inches of | X 1-
inch tool steel.

Draw about 2| inches tapering to | inch square at the
end; the taper on the top edge should be only f inch,

FIG. 79. HEAVY BORING TOOL.

while that on the bottom should be f inch, as shown at a.
With the metal resting flat on the anvil and the top edge
to the left, bend down f inch of the end to an angle of
about 80 degrees, then forge down the corners from the
point back to the heel, to a slight octagonal form, as shown
in Fig. 79. Grind the projecting end of the angle semi-
circular with a clearance of 15 degrees, then harden and
temper to a pale yellow.

98. Light Boring or Threading Tool. Fullering,
drawing, hardening, and tempering. Material : 5 inches
of X 1-inch tool steel.

104

FORGE WORK

Using a top fuller, form a depression T 7 g inch deep on one
edge and 2 inches from the end. Draw this metal slightly
tapering to ^ inch square at the end, keeping it straight
on the top. With the metal resting flat on the anvil and
the straight edge to the left, bend down f inch of the end
to an angle of 80 degrees, then forge the corners between
the angle and where the depression was formed to a slight
octagonal form.

For a boring tool, grind the projecting end of the angle
semicircular in form, with sufficient clearance for boring
a hole of the desired size ; for a threading tool grind it to
the proper angle of the thread with sufficient clearance,
then harden and temper it to a pale yellow.

99. Diamond Point Tool. Fig. 80. Forging, hardening,
and tempering. Material : 7 inches of X 1-inch tool steel.

FIG. 80. FIRST STEPS IN MAKING A DIAMOND POINT TOOL.

Using a top fuller, form a depression f inch deep on one
edge f inch from the end, as at a. Then holding the
depression over a round edge of the anvil and delivering

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 105

Top of Anvil

blows on the end, as indicated at 6, forge the f-inch end
into a square form, at an angle of 70 degrees to the lower
edge of the stock, as shown
at c. By resting the inner
corners of this end on the
face of the anvil and de-
livering blows on the op-
posite outside corners, as
shown in Fig. 81, its form
should be changed to T ^
inch square, projecting di-
agonally from the stock, as
shown at a, Fig. 82.

By using a sharp, hot
cutter and cutting entirely
from the right inside sur-
face (a, Fig. 82), and by
holding the point over the
edge of the anvil, so that
the operation will have a
shearing effect, the excess metal which extends more than
| inch above the upper line of the stock may be re-

Side of Anvil

FIG. 81. -CHANGING THE FORM OF c,
FIG. 80, TO THAT OF a, FIG. 82.

FIG. 82. DIAMOND POINT TOOL, FINISHED.

moved. For a right-hand tool the point should be set
| inch to the left, as shown at 6, the two outside surfaces

106

FORGE WORK

being ground smooth and forming an acute angle ; the
inside portion of the end on the side indicated by a should

be ground somewhat shorter,
producing a diamond-shaped
appearance. Harden and tem-
per to a very pale yellow.

Reverse the operations of
cutting, setting, and grinding
for a left-hand tool.

100. Right Side Tool. Fig.
83. Forging, offsetting, hard-
ening, and tempering. Mate-
rial : 7 inches of ^X 1-inch tool
steel.

Heat and cut off about f
inch of one corner, as at a,
Fig. 83, and form a depression
with the top fuller 1| inches
from the end on the side in-
dicated at 6, J inch deep at the
upper edge, leaving the metal full thickness at the lower
edge. Then the metal should be roughly spread out from

Anvil

FIG. 83. FIRST STEPS IN MAK-
ING THE SIDE TOOL.

FIG. 84. SIDE TOOL.

the upper edge of the stock by holding the fuller length-
wise, as shown at C, leaving the lower edge the full thickness,

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 107

FIG. 85. OFFSETTING THE SIDE TOOL
FOR CLEARANCE.

and smoothed with a flatter, drawing the upper edge to

inch in thickness. The above operations could be done

with a hand hammer, but

not without considerable

hard work.

Trim this end to the

form shown in Fig. 84, by

using a sharp, hot cutter

and cutting entirely from

the side indicated by d.

When this has been done

correctly remove all

metal extending more

than J inch above the

upper edge of the stock. When this has been forged

to the correct shape, heat and place the tool so that; the

fullered shoulder is just beyond the edge of the anvil,

then form the offset with a round-edged set hammer, as

shown in Fig. 85.
Grind the upper
edge parallel with
the stock but at a
slight angle, to pro-
duce a cutting edge,
and grind the face

FIG. 86. HARDENING THE SIDE TOOL.

side straight and

smooth. In cooling this tool for hardening it should be
placed in the water, as shown in Fig. 86, to insure
hardening the whole cutting edge. Leave sufficient heat
in the heel or bottom of the tool to draw the temper uni-
formly to a pale yellow.

IQI. Forging Tools, The following forging tools are

108

FORGE WORK

somewhat smaller than those used in general smith work, but
they are perfectly serviceable and sufficiently heavy for
manual training or considerable ordinary work. The
material for their construction should be tool steel of 0.80
to 0.90 per cent carbon, 1J inches square, unless other-
wise specified. The holes or eyes should be punched
straight, and the precautions formerly given under the
head of punches should be observed.

A tapered drift pin of an oval section f X f inch at the
largest end, also a smaller oval-shaped handle punch,
should first be provided.

102. Cold Chisel. Fig. 87. Forging, hardening, and
tempering tool steel. Material : 6^ inches of f-inch octag-
onal tool steel.

First draw \ inch of one end to a smooth, round taper
about | inch in diameter at the extreme end, then grind

FIG. 87. COLD CHISEL.

off the rough projecting edges until it is f inch in diameter.
This end should not be cooled quickly, because it might
harden somewhat, which would cause it to break easily.
Starting 2 inches from the opposite end, draw the tool taper-
ing to | inch thick and 1 inch wide, using the flatter on
these tapered sides and edges. They should be made

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 109

straight and smooth, with the edges perfectly parallel. Two
views with dimensions are shown in Fig. 87.

Grind the cutting edge of the chisel to the desired angle,
then harden and temper it as follows : Heat about 2
inches of the cutting end to a dull cherry red and plunge
about 1 inch of this perpendicularly into water ; withdraw
it about | inch, and keep it in motion between the first and
second cooling places until the end is perfectly cold. Re-
move the tool and quickly

polish one side with emery cloth
or sandstone, watching the
varying colors as they 'make
their appearance and move to-
ward the edge ; when the dark
purple or blue color entirely
covers the point, thrust it into
the water again and leave it
there until thoroughly cooled.
Regrind cautiously, protecting
the temper, and test its cutting
qualities on a piece of cast iron
or soft steel.

103. Hot Cutter. Figs. 88
and 89. Punching, fullering,
forging, hardening, and tempering. Material : 4 inches
of IJ-inch square tool steel.

Punch and drift an eyehole If inches from the end,
making all sides straight and smooth, as shown at a,

Fig. 88. With a pair of
f-inch fullers, form two
depressions on opposite
FIG. 89. HOT CUTTER. sides J inch f rom the eye,

1 1
1 1

FIG. 88. STEPS IN MAKING THE
HOT CUTTER.

110

FORGE WORK

as at 6, fullering the metal to f inch thick. From this
place draw the end tapering to l|Xf inch, and trim it
off at a right angle to the stock, as at c. Using a hot
cutter and working equally from all sides, cut the tool
from the bar \\ inches from the edge of the eye. Draw

the head end tapering to
about | inch from the
eye, draw the corners to
form a slightly octagonal
section. Remove all
projecting metal so as
to produce a convex
head. (See Fig. 89.)
This will be referred to
later as forming the head.
Grind both sides of the
cutting end equally to
form an angle of 60 de-
grees, with the cutting
edge parallel to the eye.
Harden, and temper to
a dark purple or blue.

104. Cold Cutter.
Figs. 90 and 91. Punch-
tempering. Material : 4

c \

1 1

1 1
1 1
1 1

d J

FIG. 90. STEPS IN MAKING THE COLD
CUTTER.

ing, forging, hardening, and
inches of lj-inch square tool steel.

Punch and drift an eye 2 inches from the end a, Fig. 90.
Draw this end tapering >.

on the sides parallel with /p ^ ~~ ^ ^ ^^.

the eye, forming convex
surfaces and terminating

in 1 X T 3 e inch, (See FJG. 91. COLP CUTTER

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 111

sketches b and c.) Cut the tool off at c, 1J inches from
the eye, and form the head.

Grind the cutting end equally from both sides to form
an angle of 60 degrees, and a convex cutting edge similar
to that shown at d.
Harden, and temper to
a dark purple or light
blue. The finished

tool is shown in Fig. [< jl'

91.

105. Square-edged
Set. Fig. 92. Punch-
ing and forging. Ma- ~~ " ^

terial: 3J inches Of FIG. 92. - SQUARE-EDGED SET HAMMER.

1-inch square tool steel. Heavier or lighter stock may
be used if desired.

Punch and drift an eye 1 \ inches from the end, then, using
a pair of f-inch fullers, form depressions about f inch deep
across the corners, as at a, Fig. 92. Cut the tool off 1-J
inches from the eye, and form the head to f inch at the
end. Heat and anneal in warm ashes ; when it is cold,
grind the face smooth, straight, and at right angles to the
stock.

1 06. Hardy. Fig. 93. Fullering, forging, hardening,
and tempering. Material : 3 inches of 2 X f-inch tool
steel.

Using steel 2 inches wide with a thickness equal to the
dimension of the hardy hole, fuller and draw a slightly
tapered shank If or 2 inches long, to fit loosely into the
anvil. The broken lines at a, Fig. 93, indicate the drawn
shank. Cut off the stock H inches from the shoulders
at b. Heat and drive the drawn end into the hardy hole

112

FORGE WORK

so as to square up the shoulders and fit them to the anvil.

Then draw the heavy end tapering gradually from the

sides, terminating f
inch thick
inches wide.

and 2
Grind

this tool similar to
the hot cutter ; har-
den, and temper to
a purple or blue.

107. Flatter. -
Fig. 04. Upsetting,
forging, and punch-
ing. Material : 4f
inches of IJ-inch
square tool steel.

In forming the
face of a flatter, the
metal should be up-
set. This may be

accomplished by ramming, but when so done, excess metal

is formed just above the wide portion, causing considerable

fullering and forging. If a

piece of steel 4f inches long

and 1J inches square is cut

off, and one end is drawn

slightly tapering, it may,

when heated, be placed in

a square hole of the right

size in the swage block, with

the drawn end supported

on something solid, leaving

FIG. 93. HARDY.

. .

inches projecting. The

-h

1 a \ W i

U-2--J
FIG. 94. FLATTER

SET HAMMER.

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 113

lot steel can then be hammered down with a couple of
sledges, until the face is formed to f inch thick or about 2
inches square, as at a, Fig. 94.

Punch and drift an eyehole 1J inches from the face,
then draw and form the head. Anneal in warm ashes.
When it is cold, the face should be ground perfectly
straight, smooth, and at a right angle to the body, with
he surrounding edges slightly round, as shown, or they
may be left sharp and square if desired.

A round-edged set hammer may be made in this manner,
>ut as the face should not be so large, less metal is re-
quired.

108. Small Crowbar. Fig. 95. Drawing, swaging,
welding, and tempering steel. Material: 16 inches of
'-inch square mild steel, also a small piece of tool steel.

FIG. 95. STEEL-FACED CROWBAR.

Draw 11 inches to the following dimensions: the first
inches to f-inch octagon, then beginning with f-inch
round gradually reduce to |-inch round at the end. This
should be smoothly forged and swaged.

Form a depression inch deep on one side of the square
portion 2 inches from the end ; from this, draw the metal
to | X f inch ; by using a hot cutter where the depression
was made, split and raise up a scarf fully f inch long, as
shown in the sketch. Prepare a piece of tool steel 2 X f X
nches ; on one end of this draw a long, thin scarf and

114 FORGE WORK

roughen it with a hot cutter, so it can be held in place
securely. (See Fig. 95.)

Heat the bar cautiously where the scarf was raised, to
avoid burning it ; slightly cool the tool steel and put it into
place. By holding the piece of steel against a hardy, swage,
or fuller, the scarf can be hammered down tightly over the
tool steel, which should hold it securely for heating.
Place the pieces in the fire and heat them to a red ; re-
move and thoroughly cover them with borax ; replace them
and raise the heat to a bright yellow or welding heat.

While the first light blows for the welding are being
delivered, the end should be held against something to
prevent the steel from being displaced ; when positive
that welding is proceeding, make the blows heavier and
complete the operation.

When the pieces are securely joined, cut off the corner
opposite to the steel face, and draw the bar tapering from
this side, to a sharp, flat edge 1 inch wide. Bend this
through its smallest dimensions to an inside radius of
about 3 or 4 inches and with the edge extending f inch
to one side of the bar, as in Fig. 95. File or grind the
outside surface and edge of this; then harden, and temper
to a blue.

109. Eye or Ring Bolts. An assortment of eyes is
shown in Figs. 96, 97, and 98. All eyes should possess
two essentials : the necessary strength and a good appear-
ance ; therefore the method of making should be chosen
to fulfill those requirements. Generally the eyes that
have the most strength require the greatest amount of
labor.

A, Fig. '96, is an open eye which is very easily made,
because bending is the only operation required. The

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 115

method of making this form of eye has already been
explained in section 69.

B is a welded eye. It is made by forming first a flat,
pointed scarf on the end of the bar and bending it through
its smallest diameter where the
drawing was begun. This bend
should be no less than 70 degrees
on the outer side. Determine the
length of the material needed for
forming a ring of the required di-
ameter, then subtract the diameter
of the material from the determined
length. Using this result, place a
center-punch mark / that distance
from e, and bend the piece at/ in
the same direction as e.

Form the metal between the
bends into a circle, and place the
scarf in position for welding, as at
B. During the heating for weld-
ing, if the circle heats more rapidly than desired, it should
be cooled off and the heating then continued. The weld-
ing should be done as quickly as possible and swaged if
required.

The eye bolt, shown in Fig. 97, is similar to a solid
forged eye. It is formed and welded with a specially
fqrged scarf called a butterfly scarf.

Determine the amount of material needed to form a
ring of the required diameter, and add to that a sufficient
allowance for upsetting and welding, which would, be
approximately equal to the diameter of the material
used. An invariable rule for that allowance cannot be

FIG. 96. EYE OR RING
BOLTS.

A, an open eye; B, a welded
eye.

116 FORGE WORK.

given, because the results of the upsetting are seldom
the same.

Place a center-punch mark the estimated distance from
one end of the bar; then upset the end J inch larger

than its original diameter, next
upset it at the mark to a similar
dimension, and bend it there to
an angle of no less than 70 de-
grees. Now with the bend lying
flat on the face of the anvil, draw
out a thin, narrow scarf with a
small ball peen hammer, not any
FIG. 97. EYE BOLT MADE WITH wider than the thickness of the

metal. The scarf may be drawn

also by holding the outer portion of the bend on a
sharp corner of the anvil and by drawing with over-
hanging blows. This scarf is shown in the upper view of
Fig. 97 as it should appear.

The butterfly scarf should now be formed on the oppo-
site side from the one just finished, by holding each side
of the end at an angle of about 45 degrees on the edge of
the anvil ; this scarf may be drawn with overhanging blows.
The extreme end should also be drawn thin in a similar
manner, while it is held at a right angle with the edge of
the anvil. All outer edges of this scarf should be thin
and sharp.

Bend the metal into a circle and place the scarfs in posi-
tion, as shown at C, having all edges overlapping slightly
and hammered down into close contact. Heat the work
for welding, observing the precaution given in the explana-
tion of the former eye. In welding, deliver the first few
blows uprightly on each side, then weld the edges of the

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 117

scarfs with the ball of the hammer. A few careful experi-
ments with these scarfs will show what is required, and
with practice no more labor will be needed than is
required for the previous eye. The finished product will be
more substantial and presentable.

D, Fig. 98, is generally called a ship-smith eye, because it
is commonly used in ship work w r here strength is essen-
tial. Special swages, convex
lengthwise, are usually pro-
vided for shaping the concave
curves where they are formed
and w r elded. The eye should
be circular between the places
indicated by / in sketch Z), and
the lines from / to where it is
welded should be as nearly
straight as possible, to increase

the Strength. FIG 98. D, A. SHIP-SMITH EYE

In estimating the material, E ' A SoLID FORGED EYE -
take two thirds of the length for a ring of the required
diameter, and add to that the proper allowance for the
stock which forms the portion from / to the weld, and
also an amount sufficient for the scarf. This scarf is
drawn similar to the one for the welded eye in Fig. 96,
but it should be made convex through its smallest dimen-
sion with a top fuller, whose diameter is equal to that
of the metal. This is done while the metal is held in a
bottom swage of corresponding size. When the scarf is
finished, bend the eye into shape and bring the scarf close
up to the stem of the eye.

Heat and weld with swages ; if convex swages are not
obtainable, others may be used by taking care to prevent

118 FORGE WORK

marring the curves. This eye may also be welded with
a large fuller while it is held over the horn of the anvil.
If the curves are severely marred, the strength of the eye
is lessened.

A solid forged eye is shown at E. When eyes like this
are drop-forged in special dies, as they generally are, they
do not require much skill, but when made entirely by hand
they require considerable experience.

In forging an eye of this kind, the volume of material
needed must first be determined, making some extra
allowance for the usual waste. A convenient size of
material should then be selected (round is preferable)
and the amount required for the eye marked off. The
round stem should be drawn down to size and the part for
the eye forged to a spherical shape, then flattened, punched,
and enlarged to correct dimensions.

no. Calipers. -- The calipers shown in Fig. 99 may be
easily made from the dimensions given; f xi-inch stock
should be used for the main piece, and ^xi-inch stock for
the legs.

in. Stock Calculation for Bending. In the expansion
and contraction of metals during the operation of bend-
ing, there is a fixed line, where the metal is left undisturbed ;
in other words, where it is not increased or decreased in
length. So all measurements taken to determine the
length of material required for producing any bent shapes
should be taken from that fixed or undisturbed location,
in order to attain accurate results.

All materials which have a symmetrical cross section,
such as round, square, octagonal, oval, or oblong, have the
above line at their true centers, no matter which way they
are bent. While the metal remains undisturbed at the

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 119

center of any of the above sections, the rest of it under-
goes a change ; the inner portion, in the direction of bend-

FIG. 99. STEPS IN MAKING CALIPERS.

ing, will contract and become thicker, and the outer
portion will expand and become thinner.

Other conditions arise, however, to modify these rules.
If the heat is unevenly distributed, or if the stock is not
of a uniform thickness, the results will not be exactly as

120

FORGE WORK

estimated. When a heavy ring is formed of oblong ma-
terial and bent through its larger diameter, as shown in
sketch A, Fig. 100, and the product is to be finished to
a uniform thickness/the expansion of the outer portion will
make it necessary to use somewhat thicker material, to
provide for the decrease of metal which will take place.

FIG. 100. CALCULATIONS OF LENGTHS FOR RINGS.

The inner half, then too thick, could be reduced to
the required size, but this operation always alters natural
conditions of bending, and changes the general results.
These conditions are not very noticeable and do not
require special attention when small-sized materials are
operated upon, but they must be observed when large
oblong or square stock is formed into a ring requiring
exact dimensions.

In all cases of this kind, the required length must be
established from the undisturbed center and the ends cut
at an angle of 85 degrees. If the material is to be welded,
it should be scarfed on opposite sides and lapped when
bent.

When hoops or bands of flat or oblong material are

TOOL MAKING AND STOCK CALCULATION 121

bent, scarfed, and welded through the small diameter,
then both scarfs should be formed on the same side while
straight, and bent as shown at B, Fig. 100 ; the scarfs then
will fit more readily than if they were formed on opposite
sides. Sometimes, in instances of this kind, only one end
is scarfed, and the piece is bent in a similar manner, with
the unscarfed end on the outside and just lapping enough
to cover the heel of the inner scarf.

Another form of ring requiring a calculation of the a^ea
as well as of the length is one of a wedge-shaped sec-
tion, as shown at C, Fig. 100. Here the area of the
required section is found and the material supplied with
the proper thickness and area. The length also must
be computed, then cut, scarfed, and welded, as previ-
ously explained ; after this the ring may be drawn to the
form desired.

The circumference of a circle may be found by multi-
plying its diameter by 3.1416 (TT). (See tables, pages
205-206.) For rings or bands the length of the center line,
c, Fig. 100, should be found. Example: If a equals 5
inches and b equals 2 inches, c will equal 7 inches, and
the length of stock for the ring will be 7 X 3.1416 = 21.991
inches, practically 22 inches. 3| may be used for the
value of TT instead of 3.1416.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

Describe the proper construction of a pair of tongs. What sort of
steel should be used in making lathe tools ? What operations are
employed in making them ? What is the color of the temper ? If
they were tempered to a blue, would they be tempered harder or
softer ? Are forging and hardening heats the same ? State the differ-
ence in grinding a boring and a threading tool. Explain the difference

122 FORGE WORK

in making a right- and a left-hand diamond point tool. How should
a side tool be hardened ? Why shouldn't the head of a cold chisel be
cooled off quickly when it is finished ? Explain the difference between
tempering a cold chisel and tempering a lathe tool. Describe the
shapes of the hot and the cold cutter. How should they be tempered ?
How are the square-edged set and the flatter treated in place of tem-
pering. Explain how it is done. Describe different methods of mak-
ing eye or ring bolts. How should measurements be made on stock
to be bent ? State what has been said about scarfing flat or oblong
material for rings.

CHAPTER VI
STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES

112. A Forging. A forging is an article made of metal,
generally steel or iron, and produced by heating and ham-
mering. It may be used for either practical or ornamental
purposes. The various forgings already described were
made by methods such as the older class of smiths practiced,
and are called hand forgings. From a practical standpoint
these smiths were familiar with the characteristic composi-
tion of metals and with the knowledge of how they should
be worked.

Many forgings are produced at present by machinery.
The product is satisfactory for most practical purposes,
and is generally equal to that made by hand. The ma-
chines used are the drop hammers, horizontal and vertical
presses, steam hammers, and numerous other devices.
The power used for operating them may be either steam,
air, water, or electricity.

113. The Drop Hammer. The drop hammer is pro-
vided with a pair of dies made of cast steel, one upper
and one lower, having suitably shaped depressions made
in them for forming the forgings. The lower die is held
stationary on a solid foundation block, and the upper one
is secured to a heavy weight or hammer. This is raised
perpendicularly and allowed to drop upon the metal,
which is held on the fixed die by the smith, thus forming
the forging.

123

124 FORGE WORK

If the work is small and simple, all depressions may
be made in a single pair of dies, and the forging can
be completed with one hammer and without changing
the dies. Work somewhat complicated may 'require
two or more pairs of dies, with various shapes of de-
pressions. The stock is broken down or blocked out
by the first pair and then completed by the stamping
and finishing dies. Larger pieces may require also a num-
ber of pairs of dies, then an equal number of hammers
may be used, each fitted with a set of dies. The material
is passed from one to the other, and the work completed
without changing dies, and possibly without reheating
the metal.

114. Presses. Presses may be either horizontal or verti-
cal and are generally used for bending or pressing the metal
into some desired shape or form ; they are quite convenient
for producing duplicate and accurate shapes. Forming-dies
or blocks are also required here, but they are generally
made of cast iron, and their construction need not be
so accurate. After the presses have been properly ad-
justed, very little skill is required in their operation,

simply the heating of the material and placing it
against a gauge or between the dies. One thrust of the
plunger will complete the operation.

115. The Steam Hammer. The steam hammer was first
recorded by Mr. James Nasmyth in his " scheme book" on
the 24th of November, 1839. Although this was the exact
date of its origin, he first saw it put into practical use by
the Creuzot Iron Works of France in 1842. Nasmyth's
invention legally dates from June, 1842, when his patent
was procured.

Of the various machines that have been devised for the

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 125

smith's use, to relieve him of the laboriousness of pounding
metal into shape, there is none that could take the place
of this invention. Numerous shapes and forms can be
produced more accu-
rately and rapidly by
the employment of
the steam hammer
than by the use of
hand methods.

Before proceeding
any further, a few
words of warning and
advice may not be
out of place. Al-
though this invention
is a great benefactor
to the smith, it is not
possessed with human
intelligence, nor is it
a respecter of per-
sons. The power of
steam will always
exert its utmost force
when liberated, so do
not let in too much
steam at first. Un-
less the material is held horizontally and flat on the
die, the blow will jar the hands badly and will bend the
material. All tools such as cutters and fullers should
be held firmly but lightly, so that they may adjust them-
selves to the die and the descending blow.

After the hammer has been put into motion, the blows

FIG. 101. A STEAM HAMMER EQUIPPED WITH
A FOOT LEVER.

126 FORGE WORK

will fall in a perfectly routine manner. By his careful
observation and a thorough understanding of the neces-
sary requirements, and by signals from the smith, the
hammer operator should regulate the force of the blows
to suit the smith's convenience.

A caution pertaining to the tongs used for handling the
material should be carefully observed. Whenever work
is to be forged with the steam hammer, the material should
be held with perfect-fitting tongs secured by slipping a
link over the handles ; a few light blows delivered on the
link will tighten their grip.

116. Steam Hammer Tools. First some necessary tools
will be explained, then exercises requiring their use will
be given, followed by a few operations where simple
appliances are needed.

117. The hack or cutter (Fig. 102) is used for nearly the
same purposes as the hot cutter already described. It should

M~o \

FIG. 102. THE HACK OR CUTTER.

be made of tool steel from 0.80 to 0.90 per cent carbon.
The head or top is made convex, as shown, and not more
than* f inch thick, tapering equally on both sides to the
cutting edge, which may be made either -^ or \ inch thick.
It should be ground straight and parallel to the top and
tempered to a dark blue.

The blade is about 2J or 2 J inches wide, unless intended
for heavy forgings, when all dimensions should be in-

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 127

creased. The width of the blade should not be too great,
however, for the broader the cutter, the greater its lia-
bility to glance sidewise or turn over when the blows are
delivered upon it. The length of this cutter may be from
3f to 4 inches.

The handle may be about 28 inches long, approximately
} inch in diameter at a and gradually tapered towards
the end, where it is about \ inch. The portion indicated
at b is flattened to an oblong section, as shown, to allow
springing when the blows are delivered and to prevent
bruising the hands.

118. The circular cutter (Fig. 103) is made of the same
material and with a handle of similar dimensions and form

FIG. 103. THE CIRCULAR CUTTER.

as the hack. A section of the cutting portion on a-a is
shown, and suitable dimensions given. If convex ends
are to be cut, the perpendicular side of the blade should
always be on the inner side of the curve, but on the outer
side for concave ends.

An assortment of these cutters with various-sized arcs
may be provided to suit requirements,
but quite frequently the curved cut-
ting portion is altered to suit the par-
ticular work at hand.

119. The trimming chisel (Fig. 104)
is made quite similar to an ordinary

, , ... . , , . !_ FIG. 104. THE TRIM-

hot cutter and likewise provided with MING CHISEL

128 FORGE WORK

a wooden handle. It should be strongly constructed,
perfectly straight on one side, and not too long from the
cutting edge to the top to avoid its being turned over
when the blows are delivered upon it. The grinding
should be done on the tapered side only, with the cutting
edge tempered to a dark blue.

120. The cold cutter (Fig. 105) is used for purposes similar
to those of the ordinary cold cutter. It should be strongly

FIG. 105. THE COLD CUTTER.

made in a triangular form, as shown in the end view, also
with a spring handle like that of the hack. The top is
made convex, and the sides taper to the cutting edge, which
should be ground equally from both sides. It should be
carefully tempered for cutting cold material.

In cutting stock with this tool, the material should be
nicked sufficiently deep on the exterior to allow it to be
broken. By holding the piece securely with the hammer,
and the nicked portion even with the edge of the dies,
it may be broken off by a few blows from a sledge. The

steam hammer may also be used to
break the stock when nicked with
the cold cutter. The piece should

t" 1 """ 1 fc *| be placed on the lower die of the
BOTTOM DIE hammer, as shown in Fig. 106, and

^^^-^~^*vs^ broken by one or two sharp blows

FIG. 106. -BREAKING COLD from the hammer< A piece o f

round stock can be used instead

of the triangular piece of steel, with the same result.
When material is being broken in this way, see that no

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 129

one is standing in a direct line with the stock, as there is
some liability of one or both pieces flying in either direc-
tion.

When using the hack (Fig. 102) for cutting square stock,
cut equally from all sides, as shown at a, Fig. 107. This
will produce smoother ends than if it were cut unequally

! 31

\
\

FIG. 107. CUTTING STOCK.

and will prevent the short end from turning upward when
the final blows are delivered. The fin or core that is
formed by the hack, shown at 6, generally adheres to one
of the pieces, but it can be removed by using the trimming
chisel in the manner shown. These fins are commonly
removed by the use of an ordinary hot cutter and sledge.

The hack, if held perpendicularly, will not cut the end of
either piece square. If one end is to be cut square, the
cutter should be held as shown at c. Round material
may be cut similarly, but to avoid marring its circular
section it may be held in a swage fitted to the hammer
die.

Flat stock may be cut equally from both sides, or if it
is cut nearly through from one side, the operation can be
completed by placing a small piece of square untempered
steel over the cut, as shown at e. A sharp blow of the

130 FORGE WORK

hammer will drive the steel through into the opening and
produce a straight, smooth cut.

When a semicircular end is to be produced, similar to
that indicated by the broken line at d, the circular cutter
should be used. Here, also, the cutting should be done
equally from each side.

121. The checking tool or side fuller (Fig. 108) is made of
tool steel with a carbon content, the same as for the cutters.

FIG. 108. THE CHECKING TOOL OR SIDE FULLER.

The handle also is the same, with the exception of part a,
which provides the spring. Here, on account of its being
used in two different positions, a twisted form is much
better, because the tool may spring in either direction.
From the end view you will notice that it has a triangular
section with one square corner and two curved ones.

A convenient dimension for this tool is about 2\ inches
over all from the square to the circular corners. It would
be convenient to have a smaller one also, of about If inches.
The length of this tool should correspond with that of the
cutters.

In use, one of the circular corners of the checking tool is
forced into the metal, forming a triangular-shaped de-
pression, as shown at b. Two depressions are shown in this
sketch in opposite directions to each other, made by hold-

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 131

ing the tool in different positions and using both the cir-
cular edges. The object of this operation is to set off
the rectangular portion b so that the ends c-c can be drawn
out without disturbing the center.

122. The fuller (Fig. 109) is made with a handle like
that of the checking tool, but the portion used for ful-

FIG. 109. THE FULLER.

lering is made circular in section and about 4 inches long.
An assortment of sizes should be provided, with di-
ameters of 1, 1, and 2 inches. When smaller sizes are
needed, a bar of round steel may be conveniently sub-
stituted. These tools may be properly termed top fullers,
because they are generally held on top of the metal and
the blows are delivered from above, thus forming depres-
sions on one side only. Sometimes double depressions
are required directly opposite to each other. In such
cases a short piece of round metal, the same size as the
fuller, is placed on the die directly under the top fuller,
with the metal between the two.

If the depressions are to be only semicircular, a short
piece of half-round material may be provided which is
not liable to be dislocated or jarred out of position on the
die.

123. The combined spring fullers (Fig. 110) are very
convenient for making double depressions. They are

FIG. 110. THE SPRING FULLERS.

132 FORGE WORK

similar to the single fuller, but are flattened out at a
and b, so that they may be opened for various sizes of
stock.

124. The combination fuller and set (Fig. Ill) may be
made with a straight, round handle, but a twisted one is
more desirable, because the tool is frequently used in dif-

FIG. 111. THE COMBINATION FULLER AND SET.

ferent positions. It should be made of a quality of steel
that will withstand severe hammering without becoming
battered. The heavy end which forms the tool is made
about 1 by 2^ inches; the corners on one side are left
sharp and square, while those opposite are made quarter-
round. One side of this tool may be made almost semi-
circular if it is intended to be used as a fuller. The length
may be about 4 inches.

This tool is used as a fuller or set in drawing metal be-
tween projections which have been formed by using the

FIG. 112. DRAWING AND FINISHING WITH THE COMBINATION FULLER AND

SET.

checking tool. In Fig. 112 the sections of metal, indicated
by a and c, are to be drawn to smaller dimensions. This

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 133

cannot be done with the hammer, because these places
are narrower than the width of the hammer dies. At
c the fuller or set is being used flatwise, which is the better
way, because the two round corners will not cause galling.
At a it is shown in use edgewise ; but this should not be
continued after the opening has been enlarged sufficiently
to use the tool as at c, unless perfectly sharp corners are
desired.

Another convenient use for this tool is for finishing
a roughly drawn tapered piece of metal, as at d. Here
are shown the roughened tapered surfaces, as tney have
been produced by the hammer, also the method of using
the set. If there is much of this kind of work to be done,
it would be advisable to provide a special tool with a
circular side which could be used solely as a flatter.

125. The combined top and bottom swages (Fig. 113)
are also called spring swages, because they are somewhat
flexible at the connecting loop, which keeps them in ad-

FIG. 113. THE COMBINED TOP AND BOTTOM SWAGES.

justment. The best material for these swages, on account
of the constant hammering to which they are subjected,
is a good quality of mild or soft steel. Much hammering
has a tendency to crystallize the metal and causes frequent
breakage.

The heavy parts forming the swages ought to be well
proportioned and made from sufficiently heavy stock.
The handles are drawn out from the same material and
welded, or merely stub ends may be drawn from this

134 FORGE WORK

material, and then flat stock welded on to form the handles.
In either case the edges should be swaged half-round pre-
vious to welding. The top and bottom of the handles
are not parallel with the upper and lower parts of the
swages, because the heavy parts only should receive ham-
mer blows.

The grooves should be perfect, semicircles, with the
exception of the edges indicated at e, which should be
slightly round, as shown. This prevents metal from
becoming lodged in the swages. If the metal sticks,
the smith will be unable to revolve it in the swages, and it
will become oblong in section. The corners on top of the
upper swage should be removed, as shown, so that the
blows will be received more directly through its center.

126. The top and bottom swages (A and B, Fig. 114) are
made separate, but of the same quality of material as

FIG. 114. THE TOP AND BOTTOM SWAGES.

those just described. The handle of the top swage A,
however, should be round, with a small portion flattened,
as shown. The bottom swage B is constructed with pro-
jecting lugs d, as shown. The distance between the lugs
should be equal to the width of the lower hammer die, over
which the swage should fit closely enough to prevent its
displacement. The swages may be used together or
separately, as desired, the lower one being convenient for
cutting round material, as it prevents marring the sectional
form of the stock.

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 135

FIG. 115. THE BEVEL
OR TAPER TOOL.

127. The bevel or taper tool (Fig. 115) is provided with
lugs and fits the hammer die. When constructed for
general use, the pitch should not be

too great, because it may be increased
by placing a short piece of metal
under one end, as shown, or decreased
by inserting metal under the opposite
end. The heavy end should be made
as nearly perpendicular as -possible, with the outer edge of
the die. This tool is very handy for drawing any taper-
ing work, such as cold chisels, levers, keys, etc.

128. The V block (Fig. 116) was introduced by the
inventor of the steam hammer, and was used instead of a
bottom swage. When large, round sections are to be pro-
duced, and swages of the proper size
are not obtainable, this tool may be
used.

When round stock is drawn without
a swage, only two portions directly
opposite to each other are acted on by
the hammer, thus causing some liabil-
ity of producing an oblong section or a
hollow centered forging. These difficulties are avoided
[to a certain extent by the use of the V block, because the
force of the blow acts in three directions.

129. The yoke or saddle (Fig. 117) should be made of
heavy flat material bent into the form of a U, with the ends
perfectly straight and parallel. It should be provided with
lugs fitted to the lower die so that both sides will stand
erect and at right angles to it, as at A. The distance be-
tween the sides may be of any convenient width, 2 J inches
or more, depending upon the character of the work to be

FIG. 116. -7- THE V
BLOCK.

130

FORGE WORK

done. Semicircular depressions should be made on the
edges, as shown at e.

Another view of the yoke is given at B, with one
side removed. As seen here, it is used to draw weldless

FIG. 117. THE YOKE OR SADDLE.

or solid rings after the stock has been blocked out and a
sufficiently large hole has been punched in it to allow it
to be hung over the pin p, which rests in the depressions
previously mentioned. Hammer blows can be delivered
on the exterior of the stock, thus drawing it and increasing
its diameter. As this is increased, larger pins should be
used, to produce a smoother and more evenly drawn
ring.

The yoke, shown at (7, is being used as a bridge for
drawing the ends of a solid forged jaw. By using it for

purposes like this, con-
siderable hand labor
I i I ' | mav be saved.
I I I I 130. Bolsters or col-

FIG. 118. A, BOLSTER ; B, A PLUG PUNCH IN lars (a, Fig. 118) are
POSITION FOR USE. -, f -, .

used for punching

holes, upsetting metal for bolt heads, and similar opera-
tions. They should be made of soft steel.

131. Punches. At 6, Fig. 118, a plug punch is shown
in position on the metal over a washer or bolster ready for
punching. When properly located, a few blows of the

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 137

hammer will force the punch through the metal and pro-
duce a smoothly finished hole.

Notice that the punch is made somewhat tapering, and
that the heavier portion is driven through first. Pre-
caution should be taken not to have the punch fit the
bolster too closely or be too long, also to have it directly
over the hole in the bolster before attempting to drive it
through.

Holes can be punched with ordinary handle punches,
but care should be taken not to have them too long; even
then a bolster or something must be used, so that the
punch can be driven clear through the metal and not come
in contact with the lower hammer die.

132. Steam Hammer Work. The following exercises
are known as machine forgings. They will require the
use of the steam or power hammer and the tools just de-
scribed. It will be necessary to know beforehand what
parts of the work are to be finished, so as to provide a
proper allowance at those places. The term " finished "
means that the surface is to be removed by the machinist,
and the work made smooth and to the required dimen-
sions.

All machine drawings should designate the parts that
require finishing, by either the entire word or just the let-
ter " F." The symbol is more convenient to use for only
certain parts, but if the entire forging is to be finished, it
may be indicated by " finished all over."

133. Crank Shaft. Fig. 119. This is shown without
dimensions or finish marks. Select stock sufficiently heavy
to produce a forging equal to that shown at b.

Make two depressions with the checking tool, as shown,
the distance c between them corresponding with the

138

FORGE WORK

dimension a on the crank. Draw the ends square and
straight on the lower side, as shown at d, then octagonal,
and then round. In this way the fillets and shoulders

FIG. 119. STEPS IN MAKING A CRANK SHAFT.

will be equal, as shown at e. The two ends should be
swaged smooth and round, then made perfectly straight
and at right angles to the crank.

134. Connecting Rod. Fig. 120. The volume of the
material required for section e must first be estimated.
Then ascertain how many inches of the selected material
will be required to give this volume. This will be the
distance b for the fullering shown at a. The sizes of the
fullers to be used should be the same as the required radii r.
Fuller in the depressions as shown, so that they will corre-
spond with the dimensions g, h, and / of the finished rod.
The metal between g and h should then be drawn slightly

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 139

tapered, as shown in the top view, and to a uniform
thickness 1. The small end must now be drawn to the
proper size and trimmed with the circular cutter. Make

FIG. 120. STEPS IN MAKING A CONNECTING ROD.

the rod perfectly straight, with the ends parallel to each
other and to the rod.

135. Rod Strap. Fig. 121. This forging is begun by
blocking out, as shown at B, with e a little greater than h
and plenty of stock at/. The length k must equal I, with a
slight allowance of surplus metal for the bending operation.

Sketch C shows the method of bending. A forming
block m should be provided for this, the width of which
corresponds nearly with the dimension g, and the thick-
ness is somewhat greater than that at d. The length may
be equal to the inside length of the finished strap, but it
could be used if shorter. By placing this block perpendic-
ularly on the bottom die, with the forging resting on it

140

FORGE WORK

and a small piece of metal n for a blocking on top of that,
the upper die may be brought down and a full head of
steam turned on while the stroke lever is held down.
Both ends can be bent down simultaneously with sledges.

FIG. 121. STEPS IN MAKING A ROD STRAP.

After the bending, there may be required more or less
labor with the flatter and sledge to square it up in proper
shape. Then the ends can be cut off to equal lengths

with the hack
or hot cutter.

136. Eccen-
tric Jaw. A,
Fig. 122. First
form the de-
pression c with
the checking
tool ; then draw

FIG. 122. STEPS IN MAKING AN ECCENTKIC JAW.

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 141

out the end d to the form e and punch a hole at / by
using an oblong punch.

Then using the hack, carefully cut from both sides
at the places indicated by the broken lines at /. Any
fin remaining after the cutting can be removed with a hot
cutter or the trimming chisel. The ends forming the jaw
can be drawn to the proper size by the use of the yoke.
The semicircular ends can also be cut by using the cir-
cular cutter, but these ends will require some trimming
with a hot cutter, because

all the work must be done ~3

from exterior sides.

137. Hand Lever. A,
Fig. 123. This illustrates
and explains a simple
method of stamping which

r~Lru^ I

L-TBJTL -

may be extended or ad- j J

justed to suit a variety

of forgings. d -*-_ - -. - >

In this case two stamp- " - ' "

ing rings are made to suit FlG - ^-~^ E f IN MAKING A HAND

.LEVER*

the work at hand, as fol-

lows : If the dimension h is 2 inches and the thickness of
the lever i is \ inch, the rings must be made of f-inch
round stock, and welded to an inside diameter correspond-
ing with the dimension k.

First draw the material to correspond exactly with the
dimension k in one direction and somewhat greater than
that of h in the opposite. The latter dimension is made
larger, to provide some excess metal for the stamping
operation, which is done in the following manner : Place
one of the rings centrally on the bottom die of the ham-

142 FORGE WORK

mer, as shown at B ; lay the material on this, with the
dimension h perpendicular and the proper distance from
the end to provide enough metal for forming the lever
and handle. Then place the other ring on top of the
material directly above the lower one, and deliver blows
on these rings until the entire thickness almost corre-
sponds with the desired dimension h. The rings will be
forced into the metal and form two depressions, as shown
at C. Next with a hot cutter or trimming chisel remove
the metal forming the corners e. Then draw out the lever
portion roughly, at first ; by using the taper tool a uniform
taper can be produced correctly. Cut off the extra stock
at the boss, and remove the surplus metal which projects
between the bosses as indicated at d, and finish the end
smoothly with a common top swage. The handle portion
can be formed at the anvil with top and bottom swages
after the end has been cut semicircular and to the desired
length.

138. Connecting Lever. A, Fig. 124. After drawing
the metal to an appropriate dimension, fuller two depres-

FIG. 124. STEPS IN MAKING A CONNECTING LEVER.

sions b on opposite sides, the proper distance from the
end, to form the jaw. A single boss c should be stamped
with one ring, at the required distance from b to provide
the necessary amount of metal for the length d of the

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 143

lever. Then remove the corners, as indicated by the
broken lines. Begin drawing the lever by using the com-
bination set, and finish the flat side with the hammer,
producing the taper edge with the taper tool. Punch a
square hole in the jaw and remove the metal indicated
by the broken lines at e, with a hot cutter. Finish the
jaw similar to the eccentric jaw and the boss as in the
previous exercise.

139. Solid Forged Ring. Fig. 125. This should be
made of soft steel, the dimensions being supplied by the
instructor to suit the stock

and equipment at hand. The
volume (see calculating rules
and tables, pp. 197-206) of
the forging must first be de-
termined and SOme Surplus FlG - 125. SOLID FORGED RING.

allowance for forging provided. The process of making
the ring will be found in the explanation of the use of the
yoke in section 129.

140. Double and Single Offsets. Fig. 126. The follow-
ing exercises are given to explain the use of simple appli-

FIG. 126. PRODUCING DOUBLE AND SINGLE OFFSETS.

ances for producing work accurately and rapidly. Examples
similar to the four following ones would require consider^

144

FORGE WORK

able care and skill if they were to be produced without the
use of the steam hammer.

At a is shown a double offset bend, the depth of which,
for illustration, may be \ inch. To produce this, place
two pieces of J-inch flat material, with width corresponding
to that of the material to be bent, on the lower die, and
sufficiently far apart to allow the offsets to form between
them. On these the material is placed, and on top of
that also, located midway between the J-inch supporting
pieces, a third piece of ^-inch stock is placed. The width
of this should correspond with the required dimension at a
and should be somewhat longer than the width of the ma-
terial to be bent. This arrangement is shown at c. By
delivering a sufficiently heavy blow upon them, the two
offsets, will be formed simultaneously and accurately.

In all operations of this kind the thickness of the lower
forming pieces should always correspond with the required

FIG. 127. SIMPLE METHODS FOR BENDING CLAMPS WITH A STEAM HAMMER.

depth of the offset, and the corners should be ground
round to prevent shearing or galling.

At d is shown a single offset which can be produced in
a similar way, with the exception that here only two
blocks are required. But the forming corners of these

STEAM HAMMER, TOOLS, AND EXERCISES 145

should also be ground as previously stated, and they are
placed in position as shown at e.

Figure 127 shows the method of bending a semicircular
pipe or rod clamp. Here a piece of round stock / is used
above for stamping, but as the lower blocks are easily
displaced, it would be advisable to make a stamping
block like that shown at g. This could be used instead
of the two lower pieces. If the clamps were to be made
square, then the stamping block should be like the one
shown at /i, and the upper piece as at / should be made
square.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

What is a forging ? Name the machines used in making forgings.
Who invented the steam hammer? How should material be held on
the dies ? What tool is used in place of a hot cutter at the hammer ?
How can a convex end be produced ? Describe the special form of a
trimming chisel. How should metal be broken after it has been nicked
with the cold cutter ? Describe the correct way of using a hack in
cutting square stock. Explain the use of a checking tool. Describe
the different fullers used at the hammer. Explain their uses. For
what is a combination fuller and set used ? Describe the hammer
swages. The bevel or taper tool. What is it used for ? What is the
advantage in the use of the V block ? Describe the yoke. Explain
its use. What is the difference between a plug punch and a handle
punch ? How is a bolster used for punching ? What does the word
" finished " mean on a drawing ? What hammer tools are brought
into use in making a crank shaft ? In making the connecting rod ?
Describe how the hammer is used in bending a rod strap. What tools
are brought into use in making the eccentric jaw? Describe the
method of forming the bosses on the hand lever. Explain some simple
methods of bending work with the steam hammer.

CHAPTER VII

ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK

141. Art Smithing. - - This subject might appropriately
be considered a separate branch, because many smiths,
who really deserve the credit of being excellent mechanics,
have never become proficient in this particular line of work.

Art smithing is the highest development of metal work.
The best art smiths are foreigners, as European countries
use much more of this kind of work for decoration than
this country does. The greater part of this work is
entirely too difficult for the average student unless it is
attempted with the assistance of machinery.

It is possible, however, to do a certain amount of scroll
work with accuracy and make simple decorative pieces.
One should commence with the design of the article to
be made. The harmonious combinations of straight and
curved lines and their adaptation for different purposes
should be studied. The study of design will not be taken
up here, but several examples which will furnish a basis
for further work along this line are given for considera-
tion.

Designing may be done on any convenient material such
as paper, wood, or blackboard. The last is preferable
because confusing marks can easily be erased. A sketch
thus made may be used as a working drawing. If the
design is to be used many times, a very convenient and
substantial method is to reproduce it on apiece of shellacked

146

ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK 147

pine board, and then paint it on in solid form. When
this is dry, a few more coats of shellac should be applied
to preserve it. If desired, the length of each individual
scroll may be indicated.

There are various methods of obtaining the different
lengths: by placing a strong string over the scroll and
then measuring the string ; by using a piece of soft wire
in the same manner, lead wire being preferred ; or by the
following method :

Take a piece of f-inch material 3 or 4 feet long, mark
it lightly on both edges into equal spaces either 3 or 6
inches long, and stamp the feet or inches upon it with
steel figures. After this is done, a small rolling curl, as
shown in Fig. 129, should be formed, and the entire length
bent on the scroll former while the material is cold. This
is the manner, minus the markings mentioned, in which all
scrolls are to be formed. This product with the markings
upon it should be kept for ascertaining the number of inches
required for either large or small scrolls. Always place
the curled end of this measure in position on the working
drawing and adjust it until it conforms to the outline of
the design. Then place a crayon mark on both the
drawing and the measure where they cease to correspond ;
the length of that portion which corresponds can be as-
certained from the markings on the measure, and all re-
maining irregular curves can be measured by a string,
wire, or rule. This measure will prove also to be quite a
satisfactory and accurate means of arranging new designs.

142. Scroll Fastenings. There are three different
methods used for joining scrolls : welding, riveting, and
banding with clips. The first is the most difficult and the
most artistic, but unless one is quite expert at welding,

148

FORGE WORK

especially in joining light material such as is generally used
for scroll work, it would perhaps be better to disregard
this method entirely.

Riveting presents a very neat appearance and makes the
product quite strong and substantial, but unless the
marking and drilling of holes is accurately done, the result
presents a? distorted and ill-shaped combination, which
cannot be remedied without drilling new holes.

It would be advisable, then, to adopt the last method
generally, resorting to riveting wherever it is impossible
to use clips or bands, or where strength is an essential
requirement. If a clip is misplaced, it can be replaced
with a new one, or it may be moved into the proper position

without showing that an
error has been made.

143. Scroll Former.
Fig. 128. This is a very
handy tool for producing
scrolls in a rapid and uni-
form manner! It should
be a perfectly designed
variable spiral. If several
are provided, they should
be exactly alike, otherwise
the scrolls produced with
them will be unequal and
irregular and will present
an inartistic appearance.
The former illustrated is
made of 1 X |-inch soft steel. Draw the end and form
the central portion, gradually tapering to about T 3 e of
an inch thick, but leave it of a uniform width. This

FIG. 128. THE SCROLL FORMER.

ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK

149

end should be slightly beveled from one side to form a

protruding edge, over which the small curled end of the

material is securely

held while the scroll

is being bent. A

view of the former

as it is used to start

a scroll is given in

Fig. 129 showing the

metal in proper po-

... f f FIG. 129. STARTING A SCROLL ON THE FORMER.

sition for forming.

The end indicated at a, Fig. 128, may be bent downward
and 'edgewise to a right angle, as shown, or, if desired,
it may be forged square to fit the hardy hole of the anvil,
but as this tool is most conveniently used when held in
the vise, the method shown at a is better.

144. Bending or Twisting Fork. Fig. 130. This fork
is shown with dimensions suitable for bending material J or

FIG. 130. BENDING OR TWISTING FORK.

T 3 g inch in thickness. For thicker material all dimensions
should be proportionately increased.

This tool is very serviceable and quite easily made of
round tool steel ; if such stock is not at hand, octagonal

150

FORGE WORK

tool steel can be swaged to the desired dimension. If it
is made of soft steel, it will meet requirements for a con-
siderable length of time.

145. Bending or Twisting Wrench. Fig. 131. This

MCO

FIG. 131. BENDING OR TWISTING WRENCH.

should be made from the same quality of steel of the same

dimensions as the preceding tool.

The bending wrench is used in connection with the

bending fork for shaping a scroll, as shown in Fig. 132.

When the wrench is placed over the material so that its

jaws will grip the sides and
the handle of the wrench
is pulled in the direction
indicated by the arrow,
bending will take place at
e. If the straight end of
the scroll were pulled in
the same direction, bending
would occur at /. Some-

when scro ll s are being

FIG. 132.-SCROLL BENDING.

connected with the band, they are sprung out of place.
By the use of this wrench they can be brought again into po-
sition by bending them close to where the band was put on.

ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK

151

These tools may be used together for twisting light

material, when the vise and monkey wrench could not

readily be utilized.

,146. Clip Former. Fig. 133. This and the two follow-
ing tools should be made of 0.80 to 0.90 per cent carbon

tool steel. A convenient size of material

for the one shown is 1 X J inch. The

portion forming the connecting loop must

be flattened and forged to about J inch

thick to provide a spring for retaining its

shape. The ends should be forged to two

different thicknesses. The j-inch side is

used in bending clips for banding two pieces

of | -inch material, and the f-inch side for

three pieces. When a different thickness

of material is to be used, these ends

should be made to correspond with it.

The inner and outer edges of these ends

should be made slightly rounding to pre-
vent cutting the material from which the

clips are made. Most of this light scroll work is made

from stock with round edges,
therefore it is not necessary
to have the clips bent sharp
and square.

The former should be so
proportioned that it can be
placed between the jaws of
the vise, as shown in Fig.
134. Here the loop is rest-
ing on the box of the vise,

which supports it and prevents it from falling out of posi-

FIG. 133. CLIP
FORMER.

FIG. 134. USE OF THE CLIP FORMER.

152

FORGE WORK

tion when the pressure of the vise is released. The ends
of the clip former should extend above the jaws of the
vise about 2 inches, so that the clips can be bent with-
out striking the vise with the hammer. A view of these
ends, with a piece of half-oval iron in position for bend-
ing, is shown at A, Fig. 137. One end of the clip
material should be placed between the ends of the former,
one half the width of the scroll stock, T 3 g of
an inch if the stock is f inch wide. By
tightening the jaws of the vise upon the
sides of the former, the half -oval iron will
I be securely held, while it is being bent over

JL_ I I js\ with the hand hammer to the form indi-
cated by the broken lines. The clip will
then be ready for fastening the scrolls to-
gether.

I4 ^' ^ p Holder - Fig. 135. Stock f
mcn S( l uare i g k 68 ^ suited for making this
tool. The central portion forming the loop
should be drawn and forged to about \ inch
thick, gradually increased to \ inch where
the shoulders are formed. The distance from these shoul-
ders to the outside end of
the loop should be less than
the distance from the top of
the vise jaws to the vise
box. Then the tool will be
supported entirely on these
shoulders, as shown in Fig.
136, and the tool may be
placed near the ends of the
vise jaws, which sometimes will prove to be quite an ad-

FIG. 135. CLIP
HOLDER.

FIG. 136. USE OF THE CLIP HOLDER.

ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK

153

FIG. 137. FORMING A CLIP.

vantage. The length from the shoulders to the ends may
be about 2 inches. These ends should be drawn tapering
from the outer sides to about \ inch square. On the in-
side a depression -f^ inch deep should be formed so that
the holder will fit over
the bent end of a clip, as
shown at B, Fig. 137.

The clip and a sec-
tional view of the two
pieces of material that
are to be connected are
shown at B as they are placed in this tool. By tighten-
ing the vise upon the holder, the lower portion of the
clip will be clamped securely on the pieces and held while
the upright end of the clip is bent over and around the
upper half of the material with the hand
hammer. Then the following tool will
be brought into use.

148. Clip Tightener or Clincher.
Fig. 138. The most convenient stock
from which to make this tool is f-inch
octagon tool steel. It is made by up-
setting and forging the end to about
1J X \ inches, then filing a depression
not more than ^ inch deep and wide
enough to fit tightly over the outer por-
tion of the bent end of a clip. The
corners indicated at e should be made
slightly round to prevent them from
marring the outside of the clips. This tool should be
about 6 1 inches long, with the head end drawn as for a
cold chisel.

i \

HC\|
NO

FIG. 138. CLIP
TIGHTENER OR
CLINCHER.

154

FORGP] WORK

By holding this tool on top of the bent-over clip, as shown
at (7, Fig. 137, and delivering a few heavy blows upon it,
the clip will be tightened and clinched securely over and
around the pieces.

149. Jardiniere Stand or Taboret. Fig. 139. The height
from the floor line to the top of the circular board is

FKJ. 139. JARDINIERE STAND OR TABORET.

26 inches ; the height from the floor line to the upper ring
E is 19| inches; the height from the floor line to the
lower ring F is 7 inches ; the extreme width is 18| inches.
The process of making this stand will be given here.
By following a similar course, any of the other designs given
in this chapter may be made. The material usually em-
ployed for making this .is J X f-inch, and there should be
four sections or legs, as shown at the left, also two bands
or rings, like the one shown in the upper right, and one
top board f inch thick and 8 inches in diameter, which is

ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK 155

shown under the ring. The following list gives the num-
ber and lengths of the various pieces required :-

4 pieces 45 J inches long. 4 pieces 15 inches long.

4 pieces 22^ inches long. 2 pieces 14| inches long.

4 pieces 15^ inches long. 4 pieces 13 inches long.

All pieces should be straightened immediately after
being cut to length. The main branch, 45J inches long,
should be marked with a center punch at all places where
bending or twisting is to be done. From the end of the
stock to A is 6 inches ; from A to B, 9 inches ; BtoC, 4|
inches ; the length of the twisted portion is 2| inches.

All ends that are to be scrolled, should be drawn,
curled, and fitted to the central portion of the former, as
previously indicated. When both ends of the same piece
are to be scrolled, observe carefully whether they revolve in
the same or in opposite directions. These ends should not
be cooled after drawing and fitting, because cooling will
have a tendency to harden them slightly and prevent
uniform bending. All ends that are to be connected to
another piece by clips should now be drawn out to a thin
edge, but of a uniform width.

Now proceed to form the main branch by making the
twisted portion between B and C ; straighten if necessary.
Form the upper angular bend of 90 degrees at A while
it is held in the vise; this can be done cold, by care-
fully avoiding breaking or cutting the material with the
sharp edge of the vise. Now form a scroll at the top on
the former. Next bend at B in the same manner and
direction as before, and make the two quarter circles be-
tween A and B, with the bending fork alone or by combin-
ing the use of it with the bending wrench. Exercise care

156 FORGE WORK

in doing this, in order to have the correct space for scroll 2
and ring E, which should be 5 inches outside diameter.
The lower angular bend at C should now be made,
followed by forming as much of the scroll D as possible
on the former. Then bend the irregular curve between
D and C.

The next member to be scrolled and fitted into position
is the 15J-inch piece, 4- This must be carefully made
in order to have the extreme height of the scroll at the
proper distance from the bottom line, also at the proper
distance from the center line, to provide an exact dimension
where the lower ring F is to be connected. The outside
diameter of ring F should be 5 inches. Then scroll and
fit the 15-inch piece, 3, followed by the 13-inch piece, 5,
and finish this leg by arranging the 22|-inch piece, 2,
last, so that it will not extend above the bottom line
of the circular board and will leave at least a J-inch
space between the center line and the sides of the
curves.

All parts should be assembled on the drawing after they
are fitted, and marked with crayon wherever the clips
are to be placed to secure them. The material for the
clips, which should be f-inch half-oval Norway iron,
should be cut up in lengths equal to the four outside
dimensions of the combined materials plus J of an inch
for bending, or If inches in this case. After these pieces
are bent on the clip former, fasten the scrolls together with
the clip holder and the clincher.

After the four legs or parts have been assembled, lay
each separately on the drawing, to make sure that the
places, where they are to be connected with the rings
and the circular board, are properly located. If they are

ART SMITHING AND SCROLL WORK 157

correct, mark these places with a center punch, and drill
sVinch holes where the rings are to be connected and
^ 3 g-inch holes where the top is to be secured.

The two 14|-inch pieces are for the rings. Drill a gV
inch hole f of an inch from each end in both pieces,
countersink one side of one end of each piece, and grind a
beveled edge on this end, but on the opposite side from the
countersink. Form them into rings having the countersink
inside. Connect the ends of each ring with a J X f-inch
round-head rivet, inserting it from the outside of the ring
and riveting the ends together, filling the countersink.
Place the rings separately on the mandrel and make them
perfectly round on the inside by forming a slight offset
on the outside end where it begins to lap over the beveled
inside end.

Draw a 5-inch circle on a piece of board and divide it into
quarters. Place the rings on this outline with the outside
end about J inch from one of the quarter lines. Mark
where each quarter line crosses the ring, center-punch
these places, drill ^-inch holes, and countersink them on
the inside. Then assemble the legs by riveting the upper
ring to the standard with f X ^-inch rivets, the lower one
with f X f-inch rivets, their heads toward the exterior
so that riveting will be done on the inside of the rings
filling the countersink. Place the circular top board in
position and secure it with 1 -inch #10 round-head wood
screws. This will complete the construction, with the
exception of a coat of black japanning, if a glossy finish is
desired, or a coat of dead black lacquer if a rich dull
black is desired.

150. Umbrella Stand. Fig. 140. Extreme height, 27|
inches ; extreme width, 18J inches ; upper rings, 9J inches

FORGE WORK

;

FIG. 140. UMBRELLA STAND.

FIG. 141. READING LAMP.

ART SMITHTNO AND SCROLL WORK

159

FIG. 142. ANDIRONS AND BAR.

inside diameter; lower ring, 5J
inches inside diameter. Provide
a small deep pan to rest on top
of this ring.

151. Reading Lamp. Fig. 141.
Extreme height, 23 inches ; height
of the stand, 14 inches ; base, 8J
inches wide ; shade, 14 X 14 inches
wide, 6J inches high, top opening,
4x4 inches.

152. Andirons and Bar. Fig.
142. Extreme height, 24 inches ;
extreme width of base, 18 inches ;
height from the floor line to the
top of the upper scroll, 11 J inches ;
length of bar, 40 inches.

153- Fire Set Fig. 143. Ex-
treme height, 30 inches; height

FIG. 143. FIRE SET.

160

FORGE WORK

to the holders, 24 inches ; height to the top of the upper
scroll, llf inches; extreme width of the base, 14 inches.

FIG. 144. FIRE SET SEPARATED.

Extreme length

154. Fire Set Separated. Fig. 144.
of implements, 22 inches.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

Explain three methods of obtaining the length of a scroll. Should
scrolls be bent hot or cold ? Why are the ends of the clip former
made to different thicknesses ? Why is the clip former made thinner at
the loop ? How is that tool placed in the vise ? Why is the clip holder
made with shoulders on its outer sides ? Give the rule for cutting off
clip stock. After the scroll material has been cut to length, what should
be done ? When ready to draw and bend the curl for a scroll what
should be observed ? Why shouldn't it be cooled after drawing and
curling ? What is done with the ends of a scroll if they are to be
fastened with clips ? Explain how the rings are made for the jardiniere
stand. Describe the process of making the umbrella stand in Fig. 140.

CHAPTER VIII
IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING

155. Iron Ore. An ore is a portion of the earth's sub-
stance containing metal for which it is mined and worked ;
the class to which it belongs depends upon the amount
and variety of the metal it contains. Any ore that is to
be used for the extraction of a certain metal must contain
the metal in sufficient amounts to make the operation
profitable.

Iron, ordinarily, does not occur in a native state or
in a condition suitable for use in the arts and manu-
factures. The iron in meteors, frequently called native
iron, is the nearest possible approach to it. Meteor-
ites, commonly known as falling stones or shooting stars,
are solid masses that have fallen from high regions of the
atmosphere and are only occasionally found in different
parts of the world. They are considered more valuable
as a curiosity than as material for manufacturing purposes.
The metallurgist, chemist, or geologist can readily dis-
tinguish them from other masses, because they invariably
contain considerable nickel, which seldom appears in any of
the ordinary iron ores. They are usually found in a mass
containing crystals and are nearly always covered with a
thin coating of oxide, which protects the metal from further
oxidation. Several large meteors have been found, one in
Germany weighing 3300 pounds and a larger one in Green-
land weighing 49,000 pounds. The largest one known was

101

162 FORGE WORK

discovered by Lieutenant Peary in the Arctic regions.
It weighs 75,000 pounds. He brought it to New York
City, where it can now be seen at the American Museum
of Natural History.

Pure iron is obtainable only as a chemical, and as such
it is used in the preparation of medicines. As a commer-
cial product, such as is used in the arts and manufactures
and by the smith, it is always combined with other sub-
stances, such as carbon, silicon, and phosphorus.

Iron is distributed through the earth very widely, but
not always in sufficient quantities to make its extraction
from the ore profitable ; consequently the ores used for
the extraction of iron are somewhat limited. There are
four general grades of iron ore, which are known by the
following names: magnetite, red hematite, limonite, and
ferrous carbonate. These are subdivided and classified
according to the particular composition of each.

156. Magnetite when pure contains about 72 per cent of
iron, and so is the richest ore used in the manufactures. It
is black, brittle, and generally magnetic, and leaves a black
streak when drawn across a piece of unglazed porcelain.
It sometimes occurs in crystals or in a granular condition
like sand, but generally in a massive .form. It is found
principally in a belt running along the eastern coast of
the United States, from Lake Champlain to South Caro-
lina. There are considerable quantities of it in New
Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania, but the greatest de-
posits are found in Missouri and northern Michigan ; some
is mined also in eastern Canada. It is a valuable ore in
Sweden.

A mineral known as franklinite, which is closely allied
to magnetite, is a mixture of magnetite and oxides of

IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING 163

manganese and zinc. In appearance it resembles mag-
netite, but is less magnetic. In New Jersey, where it is
found quite abundantly, it is treated for the extraction of
the zinc, and the residue thus obtained is used for the
manufacture of spiegeleisen, which is an iron containing a
large amount of manganese, usually from 8 to 25 per cent.

157. Red hematite is found in earthy and compact forms.
It varies in color from a deep red to a steel gray, but all
varieties leave a red streak on unglazed porcelain. It is
found also in a number of shapes or varieties, such as crys-
talline, columnar, fibrous, and masses of irregular form.
Special names have been given to these. The brilliant
crystalline variety is known as specular ore, the scaly
foliated kind as micaceous ore, and the earthy one as red
ocher. Each one of this class contains about 70 per cent
of iron, and on account of the abundance, the comparative
freedom from injurious ingredients, and the quality of
iron it produces, it is considered the most important of
all the ores in the. United States.

Until the discovery of large deposits of this ore in the
Lake Superior district it was chiefly obtained from a belt
extending along the eastern coast of the United States
just west of the magnetite deposits and ending in Alabama.
Some of this ore is found in New York, but there is not
a great amount of it north of Danville, Pennsylvania.
At present the greatest quantities that are used come from
the Lake Superior district. There, ore of almost any
desired composition may be obtained, and the enormous
quantities, the purity, the small cost of mining, and the
excellent shipping facilities have made it the greatest ore-
producing section of the United States.

158. Limonite or brown hematite contains about 60 per

164 FORGE WORK

cent of iron and is found in both 3ompact and earthy
varieties. Pipe or stalactitic and bog ore belong to this
grade. The color varies from brownish black to yellow-
ish brown, but they all leave a yellowish brown streak
on unglazed porcelain. It is found in a belt lying between
the red hematite and magnetite ores in the eastern United
States. Formerly there was considerable of this mined
in central Pennsylvania, Alabama, and the Lake Superior
district.

159. Ferrous carbonate contains about 50 per cent of iron.
It also is found in several varieties, called spathic ore, clay
ironstone, and blackband. Spathic ore when quite pure
has a pearly luster and varies in color from yellow to brown.
The crystallized variety is known as siderite ; this ore
frequently contains considerable manganese and in some
places is used for the production of spiegeleisen. When
siderite is exposed to the action of the air and water,
brown hematite is formed.

Clay ironstone is a variety that is found in rounded
masses or irregular shapes and sometimes in layers or
lumps, usually in the coal measures. It varies in color
from light yellow to brown, but the light-colored ore
rapidly becomes brown when exposed to the atmosphere.
Like the former it also contains considerable manganese.

Blackband is also a clay ironstone, but it is so dark in
color that it frequently resembles coal ; hence the name.
The ore is not very abundant in this country nor exten-
sively used ; it is generally found with bituminous coal or
in the coal measures, therefore it is mined to some extent
in western Pennsylvania and Ohio. It is an important
ore in England.

160. The Value of Ores. Ores are valued according to

IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING 165

the amount of iron they contain, the physical properties, the
cost of mining, the cost of transportation to the furnace, and
their behavior during reduction. The ores of the Mesaba
range in the Lake Superior district are very rich, and free
from many impurities ; they are soft and easily reduced,
and as they are found near the surface, they can be
mined with steam shovels. These are great advantages,
but the greatest disadvantage is the fact that the ore is
fine and some of it blows out of the furnace with the es-
caping gases ; this also fouls the heating stoves and clogs
the boiler flues.

161. Preparation of Ores. Mostof the ores are used just
as they come from the mines, but in some cases they are
put through a preliminary treatment. This is sometimes
done as an advantage and at other times as a necessity.
This treatment is very simple and consists of weather-
ing, washing, crushing, and roasting.

162. Weathering is a common process. Sometimes ores
that have been obtained from the coal measures and
others that may contain pyrites or similar substances are
left exposed to the oxidizing influence of the weather.
This separates the shale and the pyrites. The former can
easily be removed, and the latter is partly oxidized and
washed away by the water or rain falling upon it. The
ore piles shown in Fig. 149 are exposed to the atmosphere
and partly w r eathered before being used.

163. Washing is also done for the purpose of removing
substances that would retard the smelting process. For
instance, the limonite ores, which are generally mixe^i with
considerable clay or earthy compositions, are put through
an ore washer to remove those substances before they are
charged into the smelting furnace.

166 FORGE WORK

164. Crushing is done with machinery to reduce to a uni-
form size such refractory ores as are mined in rather large
lamps. If the ore were charged into the furnace as mined,
the coarseness would allow the gases to pass through the
ore too readily without sufficient action upon it. Smaller
pieces will pack more closely together, thus offering
greater resistance to the blast, and hastening the reduction.

165. Roasting or calcination is done to desulphurize ore
which contains an excess of sulphur. It is done also to
expel water, carbon dioxide, or other volatile matter
which it may contain. Ore, made more porous by roasting,
exposes a larger surface to the reducing gases. In the
case of magnetic ores, roasting converts the ferrous oxide
into ferric oxide, which lessens the possibility of the iron
becoming mixed with the slag, thereby preventing con-
siderable loss of metal.

Ore is frequently calcined in open heaps, but in more
modern practice stalls or kilns are employed. Where
fuel is cheap and space is abundant, the first process may
be used. A layer of coal a few inches thick is laid on the
ground, and a layer of ore is spread upon it ; then coal
and ore are laid in alternate layers until the pile is from
4 to 9 feet high. The coal at the bottom is then ignited,
and the combustion extended through the entire mass.
If at any time during the operation the combustion pro-
ceeds too rapidly, the pile is dampened with fine ore
and the burning allowed to proceed until all the coal
is consumed. Blackband ore frequently contains enough
carbonaceous matter to accomplish roasting without the
addition of any fuel except the first layer for starting
the operation.

When the ore is calcined in stalls, it is placed in a rectan-

IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING 167

gular inclosure with walls on three sides; these are from
6 to 12 feet high and are perforated to allow a thorough
circulation of air. This method is very much like that
of roasting in open heaps, but less fuel is necessary, for
the draft is under better control and a more perfect cal-
cination is accomplished.

When the same operation is performed in kilns, it is
more economical in regard to fuel and labor than either
of the two methods explained above. The process is
under better control, and a more uniform product is ob-
tained. The kilns are built in a circular form of iron
plates, somewhat like a smelting furnace and lined with
about 14 inches of fire brick. The most common size of
the kilns is about 14 feet in diameter at the bottom, 20 feet
at the widest part, and 18 feet at the top ; the entire height
is about 30 feet. They are capable of receiving about
6000 cubic feet of ore.

166. Fuels. A variety of fuels may be used in the blast
furnace reduction process, but the furnace should be
modified to suit the particular quality of fuel. In this
country the fuels most used are coke, charcoal, and anthra-
cite coal. Coke is the most satisfactory and is more
generally used than either of the others. Charcoal is
used to a certain extent on account of its freedom from
impurities and because it is generally considered that iron
produced with charcoal is better for some purposes than
that made by using other fuels. Anthracite coal is used
principally in eastern Pennsylvania because the coal
mines are near at hand, and it is therefore the cheapest
fuel available. In some instances a mixture of anthracite
and coke is used.

167. Fluxes. The materials that are charged into the

168 FORGE WORK

furnace with the ore, to assist in removing injurious ele-
ments that it may contain, are called fluxes. They collect
the impurities and form a slag which floats on top of the
molten iron and which is tapped off before the metal is al-
lowed to run out. The fluxes also assist in protecting the
lining of the furnace by thus absorbing the impurities
which would otherwise attack the lining and destroy
it.

Limestone is almost universally employed as a flux,
although dolomite is used also to some extent. The value
of limestone as a flux depends upon its freedom from im-
purities, such as silicon and sulphur.

Sulphur and phosphorus are two elements which must
be kept out of the product. When there is too much
sulphur, the iron is exceedingly brittle at a dull red heat,
although it can be worked at a higher or lower tempera-
ture. It is called red-short iron and makes welding
difficult. With steel, sulphur diminishes the tensile
strength and ductility. If there is too much phosphorus
combined with iron, the metal will crack when hammered
cold. Iron of this kind is called cold-short iron. This
metal can be worked, however, at a higher temperature
than ean the red-short iron just described.

168. The Blast. The air blown into the furnace to in-
crease and hasten combustion is called the blast. For-
merly when a cold blast was used, considerable extra fuel
was required to heat the air after it entered the fur-
nace, but a hot blast is used now almost exclusively.
The air is heated by passing through large stoves built
for that purpose. The stoves are heated by burning the
waste gases which are generated in the furnace, and which
are conducted from the top of the furnace through a pipe

IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING 169

FIG. 145. RUNNING METAL FROM THE BLAST FURNACE TO LADLES FOR

TRANSPORTING TO EITHER THE OPEN HEARTH FURNACE OR THE PlG MOLDER.

170

FORGE WORK

leading into the stoves. Four of these stoves are shown
in Fig. 149 at the left of the picture.

169. The Reduction or Blast Furnace. Fig. 145.
The reduction or blast furnace is almost universally

used for the reduction of
iron ore. It is a large barrel-
shaped structure, the exte-
rior of which is formed of
iron plates about ^ inch
thick, bent and riveted to-
gether like the outer shell
of a boiler. This is lined
with brickwork or masonry,
the inner portion being made
of fire brick to protect the
furnace from the intense
heat. Figure 146 shows a
sectional view of a furnace
of this kind.

The stack D is supported
on a cast-iron ring, which
rests on iron pillars. The
hearth K and the boshes
E are beneath the stack and
are built independent of it,
usually after the stack has
been erected. This is done
so that the hearth can be
repaired or relined whenever
it becomes injured. The hearth is also perforated for the
introduction of the tuyeres t, through which the blast
enters the furnace from the blast main B. The opening

FIG. 146. SECTIONAL VIEW OF A
BLAST FURNACE.

IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING 171

to the downcomer or pipe leading to the stoves is shown
at A.

Figure 147 shows the mechanical arrangement at the
top of the furnace, called the bell and hopper, for receiv-
ing and admitting the

ore flux and fuel. By ~tS=i

lowering the bell C the
material is allowed to
drop into the furnace.

The fuel, ore, and
flux are charged into
the furnace at the top
in alternate layers, as
previously explained ;
the iron settles down
through the boshes, is
melted, and drops to
the bottom or hearth.
The slag is drawn off
at the cinder notch c,
Fig. 146, after which the iron is tapped off at the iron notch
g. Hollow plates p for water circulation are inserted in
the boshes to protect the lining from burning out too
rapidly.

The melted iron runs from the tapping notch into a
large groove made in sand. This groove is called the
" sow." It is connected with smaller grooves called the
" pigs." Into these the metal runs and forms pig iron.
Considerable sand adheres to pigs thus formed, and /as the
sand is objectionable for foundry, Bessemer, and open-
hearth purposes, and as an enormous amount of hand
labor is required in breaking up and removing it, pig mold-

FIG. 147. SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE BELL
AND HOPPER.

172 FORGE WORK

ing machines are used. Figure 148 shows one of these
machines with a ladle pouring the metal into it.

The only objection to this method is that the metal is
chilled rather suddenly by the water through which the
molds are led. This sudden chilling causes a structure
different from that found in the same quality of metal
molded in the sand and allowed to cool off gradually, and
most foundry men as well as other users of iron judge the
quality by the appearance of a fracture. On this account
machine-molded pigs are objectionable. It is claimed,
however, that some machines in use at present have over-
come this difficulty.

The approximate dimensions of a modern coke-burning
furnace are as follows (see Fig. 146): The hearth K is
about 13 feet in diameter and about 9 feet high. The
diameter of the portion above the hearth increases for
about 15 feet to approximately 21 feet in diameter at
^the boshes E. From the top of the boshes the diameter
gradually decreases until it is about 14 feet in diameter
at the stock line. The throat, or top, where the fuel
and ore are charged in through the bell and hopper, is
about 70 feet above the hearth. On the brackets which
are connected to the pillars, the blast main rests, com-
pletely surrounding the furnace, and at numerous places
terminal pipes convey the blast to the tuyeres. After
the furnace has been charged, or " blown in," as it is
commonly called, it is kept going continually night and
day, or until it becomes necessary to shut down for repairs.

A general view of a smelting plant is shown in Fig. 149.
The four circular structures to the left with a tall stack
between them are the stoves for heating the blast. Next
to these in the center of the picture is the blast furnace,

IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING 173

FIG. 148. PIG MOLDING MACHINE.

somewhat obstructed by the conveyor which carries the
ore and fuel to the top for charging. The structural work
to the right is the unloader, which takes the ore from the
vessels and conveys it to the stock pile in the foreground,
where the ore is allowed to drop.

170. Classification of Pig Iron. The pig iron produced
by the blast furnace is graded as to quality, and is known
by the following names : Bessemer, basic, mill, malleable,
charcoal, and foundry iron. This classification indicates
the purpose for which each kind is best suited.

171. Bessemer iron is that used for making Bessemer
steel. In this grade the amounts of sulphur and phos-

174 FORGE WORK

phorus should be as low as possible. Bessemer iron is
generally understood to contain less than 0.1 per cent of
phosphorus and less than .05 per cent of sulphur.

172. Basic iron is that which is generally used in the basic
process of steel manufacture. It should contain as little
silicon as possible, because the silicon will attack the basic
lining of the furnace; therefore the surface of the pig
iron used for this purpose should, if possible, be free from
sand. By the basic process of making steel, most of the
phosphorus in the pig iron is removed, consequently
basic iron may contain considerably more phosphorus
than if it were to be used in the Bessemer process.

173. Mill iron is that which is used mostly in the pud-
dling mill for the manufacture of wrought iron. It should
contain a low percentage of silicon. Therefore pig iron
that has been made when the furnace was working badly
for foundry iron is sometimes used for this purpose.

174. Malleable iron is that used for making malleable
castings. It usually contains more phosphorus than Besse-
mer iron and less than foundry iron. The percentage of
silicon and graphitic carbon is also very low in this class.

175. Charcoal iron is simply that which has been made
in a furnace where charcoal has been used as the fuel. It
is generally used as a foundry iron for special purposes.

176. Foundry iron is used for making castings by being
melted and then poured into molds. For this purpose an
iron that will readily fill the mold without much shrinkage
in cooling is desired. Other properties of foundry iron
will depend upon the character of the castings desired.

177. Grading Iron. Iron is graded and classified accord-
ing to its different properties and qualities by two methods;
namely, chemical analysis and examination of fracture.

IRON ORE, PREPARATION AND SMELTING 175

176 FORGE WORK

Grading by analysis, although not universally used at
present, is no doubt the more perfect method, because the
foreign substances contained in the metal can be accu-
rately determined. Grading by fracture is more generally
used, although it cannot be considered absolutely perfect,
but when done by one who has had years of experience
and has trained his eye to discover the different granular
constructions and luster of the fractured parts, it is very
nearly correct ; unless the properties are to be known to
an absolute certainty, grading by fracture is sufficiently
accurate for all practical purposes.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

What is ore ? Name four grades of iron ore. What is native iron ?
What is the difference between it and other iron ores ? What class
of ore contains the largest percentage of iron ? Red hematite contains
less, so why is it considered more valuable than the magnetite?
What amount of iron do the limonite and ferrous carbonate ores con-
tain ? What determines the value of an ore ? How is ore prepared
for reduction ? What are the results of these preparations ? What
are fluxes used for ? What flux is most generally used ? What effect
does sulphur produce in wrought-iron ? What is the effect of phos-
phorus in wrought-iron ? How is air heated before it enters the blast
furnace ? What is the difference between sand-molded and machine-
molded pig iron? What is the objection to machine-molded pi^
iron ? Name the different classes of pig iron and state the use of each.
How is iron graded ?

CHAPTER IX

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL

178. Refining Pig Iron. --Two distinct methods have
been adopted for the conversion of pig iron into wrought
iron, each depending upon the kind of furnace used. They
are called the open-hearth or finery process, and the pud-

' dling process. The chemical reactions are similar in both
processes, being based on the oxidation of the impurities
in the metal. This is accomplished both by means of the
oxygen in the air supplied and by the oxide of iron in the
fluxes that are added to assist the operation.

179. The Open-hearth or Finery Process. This is car-
ried on in what is sometimes termed a " bloomery " from the
product which is called a bloom. The pig iron is placed
in direct contact with the fuel on the hearth which is
formed of cast-iron plates exposed to a current of air to
keep them cool. This mixture of the iron with the fuel
is objectionable, because while the fuel acts as a reducer
the excess air decarbonizes the product only partly, besides
prolonging the process considerably; by the addition of
hammer scale and rich slag, the operation is hastened
greatly. However, if some carbon is supposed to be con-
tained in the product, making it of a steely nature, then
the open-hearth process is considered a good method of
refining.

Fusion is allowed to take place gradually, so as to expose

177

178 FORGE WORK

the metal for a long period to the oxygen of the blast.
At the moment of fusion the foreign elements are rapidly
oxidized and form a fusible slag. After the slag becomes
neutral and has been partly removed, fresh basic slag and
hammer scale are added, to hasten the operation. Then
the mass of iron, which is now of a white spongy texture,
is lifted up in the furnace to a level with the tuyere, in
order that the combined carbon may be completely oxi-
dized. It is then formed into balls of about 60 to 80
pounds each, after which it is removed and formed into
a bloom by means of a squeezer or hammer. This fur-
nace is not illustrated, because most of the wrought iron
is produced by the puddling process. An open-hearth
furnace, such as is used in producing steel, is some-
what similar to the one here described and is shown in
Fig. 163.

180. The Puddling Process. - - The greatest amount of
wrought iron is produced from pig iron by this process, owing
to the superior quality of the product. The term "puddling' '
was originally applied to the process of working iron that
had never been completely melted, but had only reached
a puddled or pasty state. But later, when refined or pig
iron was similarly treated, it was discovered that it would
melt perfectly and boil up freely. The process was then
termed " pig boiling."

The furnace used in this process is of the reverberatory
type; the fuel does not come in contact with the iron.
(See Fig. 150.) It is built in a rectangular form ; the fire-
place A is located at one end, next to it is the hearth C
where the metal is placed, and beyond are the flue B and
the chimney D.

From the fireplace the heat is supplied and directed

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 179

upon the metal by the top or roof, which is curved down-
ward from the fireplace toVard the flue and chimney. The
fireplace also is separated from the hearth by a partial
partition wall E, called the fire bridge, which prevents the
fuel from coming in contact with the metal. Another

FIG. 150. PUDDLING FURNACE OF A REVERBERATORY TYPE.

similar partition F, located between the hearth and the
flue, prevents the metal from going into the latter and is
called the flue bridge.

Both of these and all interior portions that come in
contact with the heat and metal are constructed of fire
brick. The bridges are built over hollow iron castings,
through the openings of which there is a circulation of
water provided to keep them cool. The bottom of the
hearth is formed of iron plates rabbeted together; this

180 FORGE WORK

and the sides are sometimes provided also with hollow
castings for water circulation.

The hearth is lined with blue billy and the sides with
bulldog. The former is a fusible silicate, chiefly ferric
oxide, and is produced from tap cinder; it does not readily
unite with silica when heated. Bulldog is made from
burnt pyrites, a quality of ore used for the manufacture
of sulphuric acid ; the resulting oxide is sometimes called
blue billy, but more frequently bulldog, to distinguish it
from the former class of oxides. Both of these linings
are known as fettlings.

The flue slopes down toward the stack ; the draft is
regulated with a damper, located in the top and connected
by a chain, which hangs within reach of the operators.
Various forms of furnaces are used, such as stationary
and rolling furnaces ; but whatever the style of furnace,
the process is based on the decarbonization of the metal,
and the charge of pig iron does not come in direct contact
with the fuel, as in the open-hearth process. An advan-
tage gained in using the puddling furnace is that various
kinds of fuel can be employed without injury to the
product of iron, also various labor-saving devices, which
have recently been invented, can be better used.

In the pig-boiling process the furnace is first lined with
the fettlings and charged with about 500 pounds of white
foundry or forge pig iron. The refining process is divided
into four distinct stages known as melting down, mixing,
boiling, and balling.

A very high temperature is desired during the first stage,
which usually lasts about thirty-five minutes. During
this time the melting down occurs, and a partial removal
of the silicon from the pig iron is effected.

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 181

In the second or mixing stage, which lasts about seven
minutes, a comparatively low temperature is maintained
by lowering the damper in the stack, while the charge
is being thoroughly mixed with the oxidizing fluxes or
cinders that are added. The puddler draws down the
metal from around the sides into the center, where it will
become more rapidly refined and mixed.

During the third or boiling stage the damper is raised
to increase the temperature. At this time a violent reac-
tion occurs, caused by the release of carbonic oxide, which
is formed when the oxygen unites with the carbon in the
pig iron. The gas escapes through the slag on the surface
of the metal, thus causing it to appear as though it were
boiling, from which action the process derives its name.
During this stage, which lasts from twenty to twenty-
five minutes, a large portion of the manganese, sulphur,
and phosphorus contained in the pig iron is removed.

The oxidation is assisted by the constant stirring or
rabbling of the metal by the puddler, done for the purpose
of bringing it under the oxidizing influence of the air.
The boiling gradually ceases, and the surface of the charge
" drops," as it is called, and the whole mass lies in a pasty
state on the bed of the furnace, where it is worked by the
puddler as thoroughly as possible so as to allow the flames
to pass uniformly over it.

The fourth or balling stage requires from fifteen to
twenty minutes. This consists of breaking up the con-
tents into balls weighing from 60 to 80 pounds each.
After they have been formed, they are rolled near the
fire bridge to receive a final welding heat before they
are removed to the squeezer, or hammer, where the slag
is expelled and the bloom formed.

182

FORGE WORK

The blooms from either the open-hearth or puddling
process are treated similarly in what is termed the forge;
this includes hammering, rolling, and shingling.

Squeezers or hammers are used for forming the bloom
and expelling the inclosed slag. The bloom is then put
through the largest groove of the roughing rolls and
passed back through the next smaller, and so on until it

FIG. 151. ROLLING TOOL STEEL.

is rolled down to the desired size. Figure 151 shows 14-inch
rolls in use which, although somewhat similar to those em-
ployed for rolling iron, are larger and generally made with
more rolls.

The product of this first rolling is not usually con-
sidered of superior quality, so, in order to refine it more
thoroughly, the bars are cut up into short lengths, piled
into bundles, reheated, and again welded. This pro-
cess is called shingling and is done two or three times,
depending upon the desired quality of iron. This shin-
gling produces the laminae of the iron referred to in sec-
tion 60. For ordinary bar iron the piles are made
about 2 feet long by 4 inches square, and for larger sizes

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 183

they may be made 5 or 6 feet long by 10 or 12 inches
square.

The rolls are of various kinds. All shapes and sizes
of bar iron used in blacksmithing may be produced in
this manner. Rolling machines are known as two, three,
and four high, meaning that they are provided with that
number of rolls, one above the other. Universal rolling
machines have two pairs of rolls in one machine ; one
pair runs on horizontal axes and the other on vertical
axes. Each pair can be opened or closed independently,
thus giving the machine a wide range.

181. Steel. -- The word " steel " means very little to
those who are uninformed as to its different qualities and
the causes of the distinctions between them. People are
generally familiar with the various purposes for which
steel is used, but know very little about its nature. There
are, however, great differences in the qualities, and definite
reasons for them.

Formerly any combination of iron and carbon that
would harden by sudden cooling or quenching was con-
sidered steel. But since modern methods of manufac-
turing have been adopted, tons of metal, which would have
been classed as iron if judged by the cooling test, are at
present known as mild or soft steel.

Steel may properly be defined as an alloy of iron with
carbon, the latter not exceeding 1.8 per cent ; the materials
are completely fused and poured into molds, allowed to
cool, and then rolled into shape. In the processes of
making wrought iron the materials are only partly fused
and are not cast into molds, but are taken out of the fur-
nace in a soft, pasty condition suitable for immediate
working.

184

FORGE WORK

The older process of producing " blister " or " cementa-
tion " steel is not generally employed now. By this
method the bars of iron were put through a soaking or
prolonged heating, while they were packed in charcoal.
It was similar to the casehardening process, explained
in section 90.

We have at present three notable processes of making
steel; namely, the crucible, Bessemer, and
open-hearth.

182. The Crucible Process. Crucible
furnaces are flat structures containing from
two to twenty holes, each one capable
of receiving four or six crucibles. The
crucibles are earthen vessels made of fire
clay, mixed with refractory materials for
withstanding intense heat. Each one is capable
of receiving from 70 to 80 pounds of metal. (See
Fig. 152.) In this furnace the gas and air supply
may be applied independently to each hole, prac-
tically making each one a separate furnace, but
all of the holes are connected with one main stack
or chimney. A sectional , view of a four-hole

FIG. 152. A
CRUCIBLE.

FIG. 153. SECTIONAL VIEW OP A FOUR-HOLE CRUCIBLE FURNACE.

THE MANUFACTURE OP IRON AND STEEL 185

furnace is shown in Fig. 153, where the crucibles are
shown in position.

This process is the most simple. It consists of melting
the stock in the crucibles and pouring it, when completely
fused, into molds, as shown in Fig. 154, forming what is

FIG. 154. POURING STEEL INTO INGOT MOLDS.

known as ingots or steel castings. For that reason it is
very frequently called cast steel. The stock is carefully
selected and weighed so as to produce the required grade.
After the ingots are cooled, the piped or hollow ends caused
by shrinkage are broken off and graded by the appear-
ance of the granular structure and luster of the fractured
parts. They are then marked and piled away for future
use. On the ingots shown in Fig. 155, the piped ends can
be seen.

The ingots are heated in an ordinary heating furnace,
and rolled or hammered into suitable bars, the sizes being
fixed both by the amount of carbon contained in the

180

FORGE WORK

ingots and by the
dimensions re-
quired for the
manufacture of
special tools.
Figure 151 shows
the workmen in
the act of rolling
tool steel ; in Fig.
156 they are seen
drawing octagon
tool steel with the
tilting hammer.

Special alloys
of crucible steel such as Mushet, blue chip, high speed,
or other special brands are made by the same process,

FIG. 155. STEEL INGOTS.

FIG. 156. DRAWING OCTAGON TOOL STEEL WITH THE TILTING HAMMER.

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 187

the secret of the
difference lying
entirely in the se-
lection of the
stock.

183. The Bes-
semer Process.
This consists of

FIG. 157. CROSS SECTION OF A CONVERTER

THROUGH THE TRUNNIONS.

blowing air through molten pig
iron in a vessel called a con-
verter, sectional views of which
are shown in Figs. 157 and 158.
A converter is a pear-shaped
structure hung on trunnions
A, A y so that it can be tipped
forward. The ah- is forced
through one of the trunnions,
which is hollow, and is con-
nected with a pipe which con-
veys the air to the air chamber
/ at the bottom of the con-
verter. The bottom grate or
tuyere plate is located directly

FIG. 158. ANOTHER CROSS
SECTION OF THE SAME.

188

FORGE WORK

above the air chamber, and through the openings j, j,
in the tuyere plate, the air passes up through the metal.

FIG. 159. POURING METAL INTO MOLDS.

The converter is tipped forward into a horizontal
position while the molten metal is poured into it. The
air is then turned on, and the converter is raised to a per-
pendicular position. The air passes up through the en-
tire charge of iron ; consequently the metal is thoroughly

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 189

acted upon, while in the open-hearth process it is not.
The Bessemer process is based on oxidation ; it produces
a very high temperature and keeps the charge in a liquid
state during the time of blowing. This is continued until

FIG. 160. INGOT STRIPPER.

the sulphur and phosphorus are removed or the charge
becomes decarbonized, a condition termed burned steel,
owing to the presence of dissolved oxygen. This con-
dition is then changed or recarbonized by adding man-
ganese alloys, such as spiegeleisen or ferromanganese,

190 FORGE WORK

which give the necessary amount of carbon. By these
additions the iron is changed into steel.

The Bessemer process requires a very short time in
comparison with the puddling process. Three tons of
pig iron can be refined in about twenty minutes, while

FIG. 161. LOWERING AN INGOT INTO THE SOAKING PIT.

by the puddling process the same amount of metal re-
quires about twenty-four hours.

Considerable excitement was caused at the time the
process was invented, not only on account of the time
saved, but also because there was such a great saving in
fuel.

After the metal has been poured from the converter
into molds similar to those shown in Fig. 159, and has
cooled sufficiently to become solid, the molds are stripped

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 191

off, as shown in Fig. 160, and the ingots of metal placed in
the soaking pits, Fig. 161. These pits are somewhat
similar to a crucible furnace and are used for reheating
ingots before they are slabbed or rolled. Such a furnace
is generally made of the regenerative type and is divided

FIG. 162. A BLOOMING MILL.

into several compartments, each one capable of receiving
several ingots which are inserted on end.

From the pit furnace the ingots are taken and rolled
into slabs, rails, blooms, or other forms suitable for use.
When the plant is equipped with both blast furnace and
converter, this is all done without additional heating, but
when the plant is not so equipped, the pig iron is melted

192

FORGE WORK

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 193

in a cupola furnace before being put into the converter.
A blooming mill is shown in operation in Fig. 162.

184. The Open-hearth Process. Fig. 163. Here again
the process depends on the type of furnace. Open-hearth
steel is produced with a reverberatory furnace, and the
heat is supplied by regenerative gas and air. The furnace
is built mostly of brickwork with the exception of the sup-
porting beams, doors, tie rods, and hearth castings, which

FIG. 164. SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE.

are made of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel. All brickwork
that comes in contact with the intense heat is made of silica
brick, manufactured from rock crystals, flint, or other
varieties of quartz rock with about two per cent of quick-
lime. The roof of the furnace slopes toward the center,
so that when the air and gas enter they are directed down-
ward on the charge of metal. The bottom or hearth is
constructed of heavy steel plates riveted together and
supported on I beams. This bottom is first covered

194

FORGE WORK

with a layer of brick, then sand is applied to about the
thickness of one inch and well rammed down, then other
layers of brick and sand are added until the thickness is

\ N

FIG. 105. ANOTHER SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE.

about 14 to 16 inches. This bottom requires repairing
with more sand between successive heats. Figure 164
shows a cross section through the center of the charging
and discharging openings.

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 195

When the furnace has been charged, the gas and air
are allowed to enter at intervals of fifteen minutes, first
from one side, then from the other. When the air and gas
enter one side, the exhaust or waste gases pass out through
the other side. The reversing is done by means of levers

FIG. 166. OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE DISCHARGING.

which open and close the valves. A sectional view is
given in Fig. 165, showing the ah* and gas chambers and
the brick checker work through which the air and gas
pass and are heated. The broken lines represent the
passages leading to these chambers; the valves are also
shown.

When the metal has been fused sufficiently, a sample is

196 FORGE WORK

dipped out and analyzed, so that its composition may' be
known and sufficient carbonizing material added to
produce the desired quality. This is not possible with
the Bessemer process. It is finally tapped into a large
ladle, from which it is poured into molds forming the ingots,
which are treated in the same way as described in the
Bessemer process. The discharging is shown in Fig. 166.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

What methods are used for converting pig iron into wrought iron ?
Describe in full the two methods. What other name is sometimes
given to the puddling process ? Why is it so named ? Explain the
process of puddling. How is the first product of the puddling process
treated? What is the object of this treatment? What is steel?
Name the different qualities, giving the approximate carbon contents
of each. What is the old test for iron and steel ? How was " blister "
steel produced ? By what process is cast or tool steel made ? What
sort of vessel is used in melting the materials ? State the differences
between making tool and soft steel. What is an ingot ? What is
the difference between an ingot of tool steel and an ingot of soft steel ?
What is meant by the piped end of a tool steel ingot ? How are these
ingots classified ? How is octagon tool steel made ? What processes
are used in making soft steel ? Describe each. Which is the most
satisfactory ? Which is the most rapid ? Why is the product of the
open-hearth process the best? What is the purpose of "soaking"
the ingots ?

FORMULAS AND TABLES

(Prom the " Pocket Companion," published by the Carnegie Steel Co.)

1. WEIGHTS

The average weight of wrought iron is 480 pounds per cubic foot. A
bar 1 inch square and 3 feet long weighs, therefore, exactly 10 pounds.
The weight of steel is 2 per cent greater than the weight of wrought
iron, or 489.6 pounds. Cast iron weighs 450 pounds to the cubic foot.

2. LENGTHS

Circumference of circle = diameter X 3. 1416.

Diameter of circle = circumference X 0.3183.

Side of square of equal periphery as circle = diameter X 0.7854.

Diameter of circle of equal periphery as square ^ side X 1.2732.

Side of an inscribed square = diameter of circle x 0.7071.

Length of arc = number of degrees x diameter X 0.008727.

3. AREAS

Triangle = base X half altitude.

Parallelogram = base X altitude.

Trapezoid = hah* the sum of the parallel sides X altitude.

Trapezium, found by dividing into two triangles.

Circle = square of diameter X 0.7854 ; or,

= square of circumference X 0.07958.
Sector of circle = length of arc X half radius.

4. STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF NUTS AND BOLTS

Short diameter of rough nut = 1 X diameter of bolt + inch.
Short diameter of finished nut = 1 X diameter of bolt -f T a s inch.
Thickness of rough nut = diameter of bolt.
Thickness of finished nut = diameter of bolt T V inch.
Short diameter of rough head = 1| X diameter of bolt + | inch.
Short diameter of finished head = 1 x diameter of bolt + -fa inch.
Thickness of rough head = | short diameter of head.
Thickness of finished head = diameter of bolt T V inch.

197

198

FORGE WORK

5. DECIMALS OF AN INCH FOR EACH

3*2 ds.

6T ths -

Decimal

Frac-
tion

TrV<*s.

^ths

Decimal

Frac-
tion

.015625

.515625

.03125

.53125

.046875

.546875

.0625

1-16

.5625

9-16

.078125

.578125

.09375

.59375

.109375

.609375

.125

1-8

.625

5-8

.140625

.640625

.15625

.65625

.171875

.671875

.1875

3-16

.6875

11-16

.203125

.703125

.21875

.71875

.234375

.734375

.25

1-4

.75

3^t

.265625

.765625

.28125

.78125

.296875

.796875

.3125

5-16

.8125

13-16

.328125

.828125

.34375

.84375

.359375

.859375

.375

3-8

.875

7-8

.390625

.890625

.40625

.90625

.421875

.921875

.4375

7-16

.9375

15-16

.453125

.953125

.46875

.96875

.484375

.984375

1-2

FORMULAS AND TABLES

199

6. WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL

PER LINEAR FOOT
One cubic foot weighing 489.6 pounds

Thick-
ness in
inches

If"

2 t "

21"

2f"

.638

.797

.957

1.11

1.28

1.44

1.59

1.75

1 D

.850

1.06

1.28

1.49

1.70

1.91

2.12

2.34

_5_

1.06

1.33

1.59

1.86

2.12

2.39

2.65

2.92

1.28

1.59

1.92

2.23

2.55

2.87

3.19

3.51

T 7 *

1.49

1.86

2.23

2.60

2.98

3.35

3.72

4.09

1.70

2.12

2.55

2.98

3.40

3.83

4.25

4.67

1.92

2.39

2.87

3.35

3.83

4.30

4.78

5.26

2.12

2.65

3.19

3.72

4.25

4.78

5.31

5.84

2.34

2.92

3.51

4.09

4.67

5.26

5.84

6.43

2.55

3.19

3.83

4.47

5.10

5.75

6.38

7.02

2.76

3.45

4.14

4.84

5.53

6.21

6.90

7.60

2.98

3.72

4.47

5.20

5.95

6.69

7.44

8.18

3.19

3.99

4.78

5.58

6.38

7.18

7.97

8.77

3.40

4.25

5.10

5.95

6.80

7.65

8.50

9.35

.1*

3.61

4.52

5.42

6.32

7.22

8.13

9.03

9.93

3.83

4.78

5.74

6.70

7.65

8.61

9.57

10.52

1-^

4.04

5.05

6.06

7.07

8.08

9.09

10.10

11.11

4.25

5.31

6.38

7.44

8.50

9.57

10.63

11.69

4.46

5.58

6.69

7.81

8.93

10.04

11.16

12.27

4.67

5.84

7.02

8.18

9.35

10.52

11.69

12.85

4.89

6.11

7.34

8.56

9.78

11.00

12.22

13.44

5.10

6.38

7.65

8.93

10.20

11.48

12.75

14.03

1-9

5.32

6.64

7.97

9.30

10.63

11.95

13.28

14.61

If"

5.52

6.90

8.29

9.67

11.05

12.43

13.81

15.19

5.74

7.17

8.61

10.04

11.47

12.91

14.34

15.78

5.95

7.44

8.93

10.42

11.90

13-40

14.88

16.37

it 1

6.16

7.70

9.24

10.79

12.33

13.86

15.40

16.95

6.38

7.97

9.57

11.15

12.75

14.34

15.94

17.53

IT!

6.59

8.24

9.88

11.53

13.18

14.83

16.47

18.12

6.80

8.50

10.20

11.90

13.60

15.30

17.00

18.70

200

FORGE WORK

6. WEIGHTS OP FLAT ROLLED STEEL
PER LINEAR FOOT

(Continued)

Thick-
ness in
inches

3,"

31"

3}"

41"

4f"

1.91

2.07

2.23

2.39

2.55

2.71

2.87

3.03

2.55

2.76

2.98

3.19

3.40

3.61

3.83

4.04

3.19

3.45

3.72

3.99

4.25

4.52

4.78

5.05

3.83

4.15

4.47

4.78

5.10

5.42

5.74

6.06

4.46

4.83

5.20

5.58

5.95

6.32

6.70

7.07

5.10

5.53

5.95

6.38

6.80

7.22

7.65

8.08

_9_

5.74

6.22

6.70

7.17

7.65

8.13

8.61

9.09

f 6

6.38

6.91

7.44

7.97

8.50

9.03

9.57

10.10

7.02

7.60

8.18

8.76

9.35

9.93

10.52

11.11

7.65

8.29

8.93

9.57

10.20

10.84

11.48

12.12

8.29

8.98

9.67

10.36

11.05

11.74

12.43

13.12

8.93

9.67

10.41

11.16

11.90

12.65

13.39

14.13

9.57

10.36

11.16

11.95

12.75

13.55

14.34

15.14

10.20

11.05

11.90

12.75

13.60

14.45

15.30

16.15

1_1-

10.84

11.74

12.65

13.55

14.45

15.35

16.26

17.16

li 6

11.48

12.43

13.39

14.34

15.30

16.26

17.22

18.17

12.12

13.12

14.13

15.14

16.15

17.16

18.17

19.18

ll*

12.75

13.81

14.87

15.94

17.00

18.06

19.13

20.19

13.39

14.50

15.62

16.74

17.85

^18.96

20.08

21.20

14.03

15.20

16.36

17.53

18.70

19.87

21.04

22.21

1ft

14.66

15.88

17.10

18.33

19.55

20.77

21.99

23.22

15.30

16.58

17.85

19.13

20.40

21.68

22.95

24.23

1ft

15.94

17.27

18.60

19.92

21.25

22.58

23.91

25.24

16.58

17.96

19.34

20.72

22.10

23.48

24.87

26.25

}i.

17.22

18.65

20.08

21.51

22.95

24.38

25.82

27.26

17.85

19.34

20.83

22.32

23.80

25.29

26.78

28.27

113

18.49

20.03

21.57

23.11

24.65

26.19

27.73

29.27

19.13

20.72

22.31

23.91

25.50

27.10

28.69

30.28

l"i"f

19.77

21.41

23.06

24.70

26.35

28.00

29.64

31.29

20.40

22.10

23.80

25.50

27.20

28.90

30.60

32.30

FORMULAS AND TABLES

201

6. WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED STEEL

PER LINEAR FOOT

(Concluded)

Thick-
ness in
inches

5J"

12"

T 3 6

3.19

3.35

3.51

3.67

3.83

7.65

4.25

4.46

4.67

4.89

5.10

10.20

5.31

5.58

5.84

6.11

6.38

12.75

6.38

6.69

7.02

7.34

7.65

15.30

7.44

7.81

8.18

8.56

8.93

17.85

8.50

8.93

9.35

9.77

10.20

20.40

_9_.

9.57

10.04

10.52

11.00

11.48

,22.95

10.63

11.16

11.69

12.22

12.75

25.50

11.69

12.27

12.85

13.44

14.03

28.05

12.75

13.39

14.03

14.67

15.30

30.60

13.81

14.50

15.19^

15.88

16.58

33.15

14.87

15.62

16.36

17.10

17.85

35.70

15.94

16.74

17.53

18.33

19.13

38.25

17.00

17.85

18.70

19.55

20.40

40.80

l- 1 -

18.06

18.96

19.87

20.77

21.68

43.35

19.13

20.08

21.04

21.99

22.95

45.90

20.19

21.20

22.21

23.22

24.23

48.45

21.25

22.32

23.38

24.44

25.50

51.00

22.32

23.43

24.54

25.66

26.78

53.55

23.38

24.54

25.71

26.88

28.05

56.10

24.44

25.66

26.88

28.10

29.33

58.65

25.50

26.78

28.05

29.33

30.60

61.20

26.57

27.89

29.22

30.55

31.88

63.75

27.63

29.01

30.39

31.77

33.15

66.30

jii

28.69

30.12

31.55

32.99

34.43

68.85

if 6

29.75

31.24

32.73

34.22

35.70

71.40

i|f

30.81

32.35

33.89

35.43

36.98

73.95

31.87

33.47

35.06

36.65

38.25

76.50

1:1

32.94

34.59

36.23

37.88

39.53

79.05

34.00

35.70

37.40

39.10

40.80

81.60

202

FORGE WORK

7. WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS AND CIRCUM-
FERENCES OF ROUND BARS

Thickness
or Diameter
in inches

Weight of
n Bar
one foot long

Weight of
O Bar
one foot long

Area of
D Bar
in sq. inches

Area of
O Bar
in sq. inches

Circumference
of O Bar
in inches

.013

.010

.0039

.0031

.1963

.053

.042

.0156

.0123

.3927

.119

.094

.0352

.0276

.5890

.212

.167

.0625

.0491

.7854

.333

.261

.0977

.0767

.9817

.478

.375

.1406

.1104

1.1781

.651

.511

.1914

.1503

1.3744

.850

.667

.2500

.1963

1.5708

1.076

.845

.3164

.2485

1.7671

1.328

1.043

.3906

.3068

1.9635

1.608

1.262

.4727

.3712

2.1598

1.913

1.502

.5625

.4418

2.3562

2.245

1.763

.6602

.5185

2.5525

2.603

2.044

.7656

.6013

2.7489

2.989

2.347

.8789

.6903

2.9452

3.400

2.670

1.0000

.7854

3.1416

3.838

3.014

1.1289

.8866

3.3379

4.303

3.379

1.2656

.9940

3.5343

4.795

3.766

1.4102

1.1075

3.7306

5.312

4.173

1.5625

1.2272

3.9270

5.857

4.600

1.7227

1.3530

4.1233

6.428

5.049

1.8906

1.4849

4.3197

7.026

5.518

2.0664

1.6230

4.5160

7.650

6.008

2.2500

1.7671

4.7124

8.301

6.520

2.4414

1.9175

4.9087

8.978

7.051

2.6406

2.0739

5.1051

9.682

7.604

2.8477

2.2365

5.3014

10.41

8.178

3.0625

2.4053

5.4978

11.17

8.773

3.2852

2.5802

5.6941

11.95

9.388

3.5156

2.7612

5.8905

12.76

10.02

3.7539

2.9483

6.0868

FORMULAS AND TABLES 203

7. SQUARE AND ROUND BARS (Continued)

Thickness
or Diameter
in inches

Weight of
D Bar
one foot long

Weight of
OBar
one foot long

Area of
OBar
in sq. inches

Area of
O Bar
in sq. inches

Circumference
of O Bar
in inches

13.60

10.68

4.0000

3.1416

6.2832

14.46

11.36

4.2539

3.3410

6.4795

15.35

12.06

4.5156

3.5466

6.6759

16.27

12.78

4.7852

3.7583

6.8722

17.22

13.52

5.0625

3.9761

7.0686

18.19
19.18

14.28
15.07

5.3477
5.6406

4.2000
4.4301

7.2649
7.4613

20.20

15.86

5.9414

4.6664

7.6576

21.25

16.69

6.2500

4.9087

7.8540

22.33

17.53

6.5664

5.1572

8.0503

23.43

18.40

6.8906

5.4119

8.2467

24.56

19.29

7.2227

5.6727

8.4430

25.

20.20

7.5625

5.9396

8.6394

26.90

21.12

7.9102

6.2126

8.8357

1 o

28.10

22.07

8.2656

6.4918

9.0321

29.34

23.04

8.6289

6.7771

9.2284

30.60

24.03

9.0000

7.0686

9.4248

31.89

25.04

9.3789

7.3662

9.6211

.j.

33.20

26.08

9.7656

7.6699

9.8175

34.55

27.13

10.160

7.9798

10.014

35.92

28.20

10.563

8.2958

10.210

37.31

29.30

10.973

8.6179

10.407

38.73

30.42

11.391

8.9462

10.603

40.18

31.56

11.816

9.2806

10.799

41.65

32.71

12.250

9.6211

10.996

43.14

33.90

12.691

9.9678

11.192

44.68

35.09

13.141

10.321

11.388

46.24

36.31

13.598

10.680 -

11.585

47.82

37.56

14.063

11.045

11.781

49.42

38.81

14.535

11.416

11.977

51.05

40.10

15.016

11.793

12.174

52.71

41.40

15.504

12.177

12.370

204

FORGE WORK

7. SQUARE AND ROUND BARS (Concluded)

Thickness
or Diameter
in inches

Weight of
n Bar
one foot long

Weight of
O Bar
one foot long

Area of
n Bar
in sq. inches

Area of
Q Bar
in sq. inches

Circumference
of O Bar
in inches

54.40

42.73

16.000

12.566

56.11

44.07

16.504

12.962

12.763

57.85

45.44

17.016

13.364

12.959

59.62

46.83

17.535

13.772

13.155

61.41

48.24

18.063

14.186

13.352

63.23

49.66

18.598

14.607

13.548

65.08

51.11

19.141

15.033

13.744

66.95

52.58

19.691

15.466

13.941

68.85

54.07

20.250

15.904

14.137

70.78

55.59

20.816

16.349

14.334

72.73

57.12

21.391

16.800

14.530

74.70

58.67

21.973

17.257

14.726

J .

76.71

60.25

22.563

17.721

14.923

78.74

61.84

23.160

18.190

15.119

80.81

63.46

23.766

18.665

15.315

--f

82.89

65.10

24.379

19.147

15.512

85.00

66.76

25.000

19.635

15.708

87.14

68.44

25.629

20.129

15.904

89.30

70.14

26.266

20.629

16.101

91.49

71.86

26.910

21.135

16.297 .

93.72

73.60

27.563

21.648

16.493

95.96

75.37

28.223

22.166

16.690

98.23

77.15

28.891

22.691

16.886

100.5

78.95

29.566

23.221

17.082

102.8

80.77

30.250

23.758

17.279

105.2

82.62

30.941

24.301

17.475

107.6

84.49

31.641

24.850

17.671

110.0

86.38

32.348

25.406

17.868

112.4

88.29

33.063

25.967

18.064

114.9

90.22

33.785

26.535

18.261

-i

117.4

92.17

34.516

27.109

18.457

119.9

94.14

35.254

27.688

18.653

FORMULAS AND TABLES

205

8. CIRCUMFERENCES AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NUMBERS FROM

1 TO 100

No.

Number = Diameter

No.

Number = Diameter

Circumference

Area

Circumference

Area

3.142

0.7854

97.389

754.768

6.283

3.1416

100.531

804.248

9.425

7.0686

33 103.673

855.299

12.566

12.5664

34 106.814

907.920

15.708

19.6350

35 109.956

962.113

18.850

28.2743

36 113.097

1017.88

21.991

38.4845

37 116.239

1075.21

25.133

50.2655

38 119.381

1134.11

28.274

63.6173

122.522

1194.59

31.416

78.5398

125.66

1256.64

34.558

95.0332

128.81

1320.25

37.699

113.097

131.95

1385.44

40.841

132.732

135.09

1452.20

43.982

153.938

138.23

1520.53

47.124

176.715

141.37

.1590.43

50.265

201.062

144.51

1661.90

53.407

226.980

147.65

1734.94

56.549

254.469

150.80

1809.56

59.690

283.529

153.94

1885.74

62.832

314.159

157.08

1963.50

65.973

346.361

160.22

2042.82

69.115

380.133

163.36

2123.72

72.257

415.476

166.50

2206.18

75.398

452.389

169.65

2290.22

78.540

490.874

172.79

2375.83

81.681

530.929

56 175.93

2463.01

84.823

572.555

179.07

2551.76

87.965

615.752

182.21

2642.08

91.106

660.520

185.35

2733.97

94.248

706.858

60 188.50

2827.43

206

FORGE WORK

8. CIRCUMFERENCES AND CIRCULAR AREAS OF NUMBERS FROM
1 TO 100

(Concluded)

No.

Number = Diameter

No.

Number = Diameter

Circumference

Area

Circumference

Area

191.64

2922.47

254.47

5153.00

194.78

3019.07

257.61

5281.02

197.92

3117.25

260.75

5410.61

201.06

3216.99

263.89

5541.77

204.20

. 3318.31

267.04

5674.50

207.35

3421.19

270.18

5808.80

210.49

3525.65

273.32

5944.68

213.63

3631.68

276.46

6082.12

216.77

3739.28

279.60

6221.14

219.91

3848.45

282.74

6361.73

223.05

3959.19

285.88

6503.88

226.19

4071.50

289.03

6647.61

229.34

4185.39

292.17

6792.91

232.48

4300.84

295.31

6939.78

235.62

4417.86

298.45

7088.22

238.76

4536.46

301.59

7238.23

241.90

4656.63

304.73

7389.81

245.04

4778.36

307.88

7542.96

248.19

4901.67

311.02

7697.69

251.33

5026.55

100

314.16

7853.98

INDEX

[Figures in italics indicate pages upon which illustrations occur.]

Andirons and bar, 159.

Angle blow, see beveling blow.

Annealing, 86, 87.

Anvil, 5, 6, 7.

Areas, formulas of, 197.

Art smithing, 146.

Backing-up blow, 35, 36.

"Backing-up" metal, 43.

Banding with clips, 147.

Basic iron, 174.

Bellows, 1.

.Bench and measuring tools, 2228.

Bench vise, 22, 23.

Bending, 40, 41 ; stock calculation for,

118-121.
Bending or twisting fork, 149;

wrench, 150, 151.
Bessemer iron, 173 ;

process, 187-193.
Bevel, 25, 26.
Beveling blow, 32, 33, 34.
Bevel or taper tool, 135.
Blackband, 164.
Blast, 168-170.

Blast furnace, see reduction furnace.
Blister steel, 184.
Block, swage, 19, 20.
Bloomery, 177.
Blooming mill, 191.
Blue billy, 180.
Blue chip, 186.
Bolsters, 136.

Bolt, hexagonal head, 66, 67.
Boring tools, 103, 104.
Box tongs, see tool tongs.
Brass tool, 101, 102.
Brown hematite, sec limonite.
Bulldog, 180.
Burned steel, 189.
Butterfly scarf, 115, 116, 117.
Button head set, 19.
Butt weld, 52, 53.

Calcination, see roasting.
Calipers, 25, 26, 118, 119.

Cape chisel, 24-

Carbon, percentage of, in tool steel, 83-

85.

Casehardening, 92, 93.
Cast steel, 185.

Cementation steel, see blister steel.
Center punch, 24, 25.
Chain grabhook, 80, 81, 82. '
Chain making, 73, 74.
Chain swivel, 76-80.
Charcoal, 5, 167.
Charcoal iron, 174.

Checking tool or side fuller, 130, 131.
Chisel, trimming, 127, 128.
Chisels, 23, 24, 108, 109.
Chisel tongs 10, 11.
Circular cutter, 127.
Circumferences and circular areas of
numbers from 1 to 100 : 205, 206.
Classification of pig iron, 173.
Clay ironstone, 164.
Cleft weld, 52, 53.
Clincher, see clip tightener.
Clip, 148.
Clip former, 151, 152;

holder, 152, 153 ;

tightener or clincher, 153, 154.
Coal box, 1.
Coke, 5, 167.

Cold chisel, 23, 24, 89, 108, 109.
Cold cutters, 12, 13, 110, 111, 128-130.
Collars, see bolsters.
Colored oxides, 88, 89.
Combination fuller and set, 132, 133.
Combined spring fullers, 131, 132;

top and bottom swages, 133, 134.
Connecting lever, 142, 143 ;

rod, 138, 139.
Converter, 187, 188.
Crank shaft, 137, 138.
Crowbar, steel-faced, 113, 114.
Crucible, 184.
Crucible process, 184-187.
Crucible steel, alloys of, 186.
Crushing, 166.
Cutter, see hack.

207

208

INDEX

Cutter, circular, 127 ;

cold, 12 , 13, 128-130 ;

hardening, 14;

hot, 12, 13, 14, 109, 110.
Cutting-off or parting tool, 102, 103.
Cutting stock, 128, 189, 130.

Decimals of an inch for each ssth,

198.

Designing, 146.
Diamond point tool, .704-106.
Dies, 43, 123, 124.
Dimensions of nuts and bolts, 197.
Dipper, 4.
Dividers, 25, 26.
Dolomite as a flux, 168.
Door hasp, 64-66.
Double and single offsets, 143-145.
Double-faced sledge, 9.
Drawing, 37-40.
Draw spike, 59.
Drop hammer, 123, 124.

Eccentric jaw, 140, 141.

Edge-to-edge blow, 31, 32.

Eye or ring bolts, 114, lid, 116-118.

Fagot welding, 69.
Ferromanganese, 189.
Ferrous carbonate, 164.
Fettlings, 180.
Files, 27, 28.

Finery process, see open-hearth pro-
cess.

"Finished," definition of, 137.
Fire cracks, 85.
Fire set, 159, 160 ;

separated, 160.
Fire tools, 4.
Flat-jawed tongs, 10.
Flat right-angled weld, 70, 71, 72.
Flatter, 14, 15, 112, 113.
Fluxes, 167, 168.
Forge, XII, 1-3.
Forging, definition of, 36-37.
Forging, operations used in, 36-47.
Forgings, 123.

Forging tools, 12-28, 107-118.
Forming, 43, 44.
Formulas and tables, 197-206.
Foundry iron, 174.
Franklinite, 162.
Fuels, 4, 5, 48, 49, 167.
Fullers, combined spring, 131, 132;

top and bottom, 18, 19.

Gate hook, 62, 63, 64.
Grabhook, 80, 81, 82.
Grading iron, 174, 175.

Hack or cutter, 1
Hack saw, 27.
Hammer blows, 30-36.
Hammers, 7, 8 ;

ball peen, 8 ;

cross peen, 8 ;

drop, 123, 124 ;

hand, 8 ;

round and square-edged set, 15, 16,
111;

steam, 124, 125, 126 ;

straight peen, 8.
Handle punches, 16, 17.
Hand lever, 141, 142.
Hardening tool steel, 87-92 ;

wrought iron and soft steel, 92,

93.

Hardy, 12, 13, 111, 112.
Hasp, door, 64-66.
Heading tool, 19.
Heating, 48-50.

Heating air for blast furnace, 168-
170;

tool steel, 85, 86.
Heavy boring tool, 103;

flat tongs, 96, 97, 98.
Hollow bit tongs, 10, 11.
Hot cutter, 12-14, 109, 110.

Ingots, 185, 186.
Ingot stripper, 189.
Injuries to steel, 85.
Iron, cold-short, 168 ;

colors and temperatures for, 94;

distribution of, 162 ;

native, 161 ;

red-short, 168 ;

welding, 47 ;

wrought, 178.
Iron ore, 161-162 ;

ferrous carbonate a form of, 164;

limonite a form of, 163, 164 ;

magnetite a form of, 162, 163 ;

nickel in, 161 ;

red hematite a form of, 163.
Iron oxide in flux, 177.

Jardiniere stand or taboret, 154-157.
Jarring, see upsetting by jarring.
Jump weld, 53, 54.

Kiln, 167.

Lap weld, 50-52.
Lathe tools, 101-107.
Lengths, formulas of, 197.
Leverage blow, 34, 35.
Light boring tool, 103, 104 ;
chain tongs, 98-101.

INDEX

209

Limonite, 163, 164.
Link tongs, 10, 11.

Machine forgings, 137-145.
Magnetite, 162, 163.
Malleable iron, 174.
Manual training forge, 2, 3.
Material for welding, 47, 48.
Meteorites, 161.
Mild steel, 183.
Mill iron, 174.
Mushet, 186.

Nasmyth, James, 124.
Native iron, 161.

Offsets, 143-U5.

Open eye, 114, 115.

Open-hearth furnace, 192, 193, 194,

195.
Open-hearth process, 177, 178, 193-

196.

Ore, definition of, 161.
Ores, preparation of, 165 ;

value of, 164, 165.
Overhanging blow, 32.
Oxides, colored, 88, 89.
Oxidizing fire, 49.

Parting tool, see cutting-off tool.

Phosphorus in iron, 168.

Pick-up tongs, 10, 11.

Pig boiling, 178.

Pig iron, classification of, 173.

Pig molding machine, 171-173.

Pigs, cast-iron, 171.

Pipe hook, 60, 61, 62.

Plug punch, use of, 136.

Preparation of ores, 165.

Presses, 124.

Puddling process, 178, 179-183.

Punches, 16, 17, &4, 25, 136, 137.

Pure iron, 162.

Questions for review, 28, 29, 57, 82,
95, 121, 122, 145, 160, 176, 196.

Ramming, see upsetting by ramming.

Reading lamp, 158, 159.

Red hematite, 163.

Reducing fire, 49, 50.

Reduction furnace, 1 70-173.

Refining pig iron, 177.

Refining process, four stages of, 180,

181.

Refining steel, 88.
Jleverberatory furnace, description of,

179, 193, 194.
Right side tool, 106, 107.

Ring bolts, see eye bolts.

Riveting, 147, 148.

Roasting ore, 166, 167.

Rod strap, 139, 140.

Rolling machines, 183.

Rolling tool steel, 182.

Round-edged set hammer, 15, 16, 112,

113.

Round weld, 69, 70.
Rule, 24, 25.

Saddle, see yoke.

Scarfing, 50.

Scriber or scrateh awl, 25, 26.

Scroll bending, 150 ;

fastenings, 147, 148;

former, 148, 149.
Shearing blow, 36, 37.
Shingling, 182.
Ship-smith eye, 117, 118.
S hook, 59, 60.
Side fuller, see checking tool.
Side tongs, 10, 11 ;

tool, 106, 107.
Slag, 168.
Sledges, 9.

Snap, see button head set.
Solid forged, eye, 117, 118;

ring, 143.

Spathic ore, 164, 165.
Spiegeleisen, 163, 164, 189, 190.
Spring fullers, 131.
Spring swages, see combined top and

bottom swages.
Square, 25, 26.

Square-cornered angle, 67-69.
Square-edged set hammer, 15, 16,

111.
Standard dimensions of nuts and bolts,

197.

Staple, 58.

Steam hammer, 124, 125.
Steam hammer tools, 126-137.
Steam hammer work, exercises in, 137 -

145.

Steel, 183-196.

Steel, kind of, suitable for tools, 83.
Steel, tool, 83-95 ;

annealing of, 86, 87 ;

colors on surface of, 88, 89 ;

injuries to, 85, 86 ;

hardening and tempering of, 87-
92;

oil-tempered, 90 ;

percentage of carbon in, 83-85 ;

proper and improper heating of, 85,
86;

proper and improper treatment of,
91,92;

210

INDEX

Steel, tool, continued;

temperature and color charts for,
94;

two methods of hardening and
tempering, 89, 90 ;

water annealing of, 87 ;

welding of, 48.

Steel, uses of different grades of, 84, 85.
Stock calculation for bending, 118121.
Straightening, 44t 45.
Sulphur in iron and steel, 168.
Surface plate, 20, 21.
Swage block, 19, 20.
Swages, combined top and bottom, 133,
134;

top and bottom, 17, 18, 134.
Swing sledge, see double-faced sledge.
Swivels, 76-80.

Tapered mandrels, 21, 22.
Taper tool, see bevel tool.
Tempering, temperature and color

chart for, 94.

Tempering heat as determined by
colors, 88-91 ;

by scientific apparatus, 91, 92.
Tempering tool steel, 87-92.
Threading tool, see light boring tool.
Tilting hammer, 186.
Tongs, 9, 10, 11, 12, 96-101 ;

chisel, 10, 11 ;

flat-jawed, 10 ;

heavy flat, 96, 97, 98 ;

hoUow bit, 10, 11 ;

light chain, 98, 99, 100, 101 ;

link, 10, 11 ;

pick-up, 10, 11 ;

side, 10, 11 ;

tool, 10,11.
Tool, checking, 130, 131 ;

for welding a swivel, 76 ;

heading, 1 9.
Tools, bench and measuring, 22-28 ;

fire, 4 ;

forging, 12-28, 107-118;

lathe, 101-107.

Tool tongs, 10, 11.

Top and bottom, fullers, 18, 19;

swages, 133, 134.
Trimming chisel, 127, 128.
Tuyere, 3, 187, 188.
T weld, 72, 73.
Twisting, 45, 46.
Twisting wrench, sec bending wrench.

Umbrella stand, 157, 158, 159.
Upright blow, 30, 31.
Upsetting, 41-43 ;

by " backing-up," J^3\

by hammering, 4, 43 ;

by jarring, 43]

by ramming, 43.

Value of ores, 164-165.
V block, 135.
Vise, bench, 22, 23.
V weld, 54-56.

Washing ore, '165.

Water swaging, 18.

Weathering ore, 165.

Weights and areas of square and round

bars, 202-204.
Weights, formulas of, 197.
Weights of flat rolled steel per linear

foot, 199-201,
Welded ring, 74, 75, 76.
Welding, 46, 47, 147 ;

fagot, 69 ;

heat, 51, 52;

material for, 47, 48.
Welds, 50-56, 69-73 ;

butt, 52, 53 ;

cleft, 52, 53 ;

flat right-angled, 70, 71, 72 ;

jump, 53, 54 ;

lap, 50-52 ;

round, 69, 70 ;

T, 72, 73 ;

V, 64-56.

Yoke or saddle, 135, 136.

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