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THE 

FOUNDER'S   MANUAL 

A    PRESENTATION    OF    MODERN 
FOUNDRY    OPERATIONS 

FOR   THE    USE   OF 

FOUNDRYMEN,    FOREMEN,    STUDENTS 
AND    OTHERS 


BY 

DAVID    W.    PAYNE 

EDITOR   OF   "  STEAM  " 


245  ILLUSTRATIONS 


SECOND   PRINTING,  CORRECTED 


NEW  YORK 
D.   VAN    NOSTRAND    COMPANY 

25   Park  Place 
1920 


'S  ^^^ 


Copyright,  1917,  by 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 


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Stanbopc  jprcss 

F.    H.GILSON   COMPANY 
BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

While  there  is  li-ttle  a  foundryman  needs  to  know 
which  has  not  been  fully  treated  by  competent  authori- 
ties, there  is  not,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  any  summary  of 
this  great  mass  of  publications. 

In  a  foundry  experience  covering  many  years,  I  have 
frequently  spent  hours  at  a  time  in  searching  for  special 
information.  Believing,  therefore,  that  a  compilation  of 
this  matter,  with  authoritative  instruction  for  the  solu- 
tion of  the  many  problems  which  are  continually  pre- 
sented in  the  foundry,  all  properly  arranged  for  ready 
reference,  would  receive  a  favorable  reception,  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  meet  this  need  by  the  production  of 
this  book. 

The  material  for  the  Manual  has  been  drawn  from 
every  available  source.  The  proceedings  of  the  American 
Foundrymen's  Association  have  furnished  no  end  of 
information.  The  publications  of  Professors  Turner, 
Porter,  Reis,  Dr.  Moldenke,  Messrs.  Keep,  Longmuir, 
Outerbridge,  West  and  others  have  been  most  carefully 
searched.  Much  has  been  taken  from  "  The  Foundry," 
"  Castings "  and  "  Iron  Age."  A  great  many  of  the 
"  Foundry  "  records  are  given  in  full. 

Possibly,  in  some  cases,  special  credit  for  extracts 
has  not  been  accorded;  for  such  omissions  indulgence 
is  asked,  as  there  has  been  no  intentional  neglect  or 
lack  of  courtesy. 


iv  Preface 

In  tlu-  sck'ction  of  the  iiKilcrial  for  the  Ijook,  i)ropcr 
consideration  has  Ijccn  takt-n  of  Ix-Kinners  and  others 
who  niay  ha\e  not  gotten  xcry  far  in  their  acfjuisition 
of  foundry  information.  For  such  men,  it  is  also  hoped 
the  bo(jk  will  be  of  good  service. 

As  regards  the  price  lists  and  discounts  which  are 
given  in  connection  with  man)-  ftjundry  supplies,  it 
should  be  stated  that  these  are  not  quoted  as  current 
prices.  They  are  olTered  simply  as  furnishing  a  guide 
to  close  approximation  of  costs. 

The  matter  for  the  preliminary  portion  of  the  book 
relating  to  elementary  Mathematics,  Mechanics,  etc., 
has  been  taken  in  large  part  from  such  authorities  as 
Rankine,  Bartlett,  Wentworth,  Trautwine,  Kent,  Jones 
and  Laughlin,  Carnegie  Steel  Co.,  and  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica. 

D.  W.  P. 

New  York,  Jan.,  1917. 


CONTENTS 

Page 
CHAPTER  I 

Elementary  Mathematics i 

Ratio  and  Proportion,  i.  Root  of  Numbers,  3.  Percentage, 
5.  Algebra,  7.  Equations,  11.  Plane  Geometry,  15.  The 
Parabola,  22.  The  Hyperbola,  23.  Properties  of  Plane  Fig- 
ures, 24.     Mensuration,  Plane  Surfaces,  26.     Solids,  30. 

CHAPTER  II 

Weights  and  Measures 35 

Commercial  Weights  and  Measures,  36.  Metric  Weights  and 
Measures,  40.  Measures  of  Work,  Power  and  Duty,  45. 
Mathematical  Tables,  46. 

CH.\PTER  III 

Natural  Sines,  Tangents,  Etc 107 

Solution  of  the  Right-angled  Triangle,  109.  Solution  of  Ob- 
lique-angled Triangles,  109.  Tables  of  Sines,  Tangents  and 
Secants,  no.  Approximate  Measurement  of  Angles,  115. 
Tapers  per  foot  and  Corresponding  Angles,  117. 

CHAPTER  IV 

Materials 119 

Wire  and  Sheet  Metal  Gauges,  119.  Weights  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  122.  Cold-rolled  Steel  Shafting,  140.  Galvanized  and 
Corrugated  Sheet  Iron,  141.  Sheet  Tin,  142.  Copper  and 
Brass,  143.  Metal  Fillets,  145.  Iron  Wire,  146.  Nails  and 
Tacks,  148.  Threads,  149.  Bolts,  Nuts  and  Washers,  150. 
Set  Screws,  160.  Turnbuckles,  162.  Cotters,  164.  Thumb- 
screws, 165.  Rivets,  166.  Iron  Pipe,  167.  Tin  and  Zinc, 
169.  Lead  Pipe,  171.  Chains  and  Cables,  173.  Sprocket- 
wheels,  176.  Modulus  of  Elasticity,  181.  Deflections,  184. 
Modulus  of  Rupture,  185.  Moment  of  Inertia,  187.  Strength 
of  Beams,  188. 

V 


vi  Contents 

PaKC 

CIIAITKR   V 

Mk(  nANics 191 

Acceleration  of  Falling  Bodies,  igi.  Center  of  Gravity,  194. 
Radius  of  Gyration,  197.  Si>ccific  Gravities,  108.  Physical 
Constants,  202.  Kxpansion  of  Solids,  205.  Measurement 
of  Heat,  207.  Radialiun  of  Heat,  208.  Equivalent  Tem- 
IKTalurcs,  211.  Strength  of  Materials,  213.  Properties  of 
Air,  215.  Pressure  of  Water,  219.  Electrical  and  Mechanical 
Units,  220. 

(IIAITKR    \I 

Alloys 222 

Alloys  of  Cop|)er,  Tin  and  Zinc,  222.  Aluminum  bronze,  226. 
Bearing  Metals,  226. 

Belting 227 

Formulas  for  Width  of  Bells,  228.  Speed  of  Belts,  229.  Rules 
for  Speeds  and  Diameters  of  Pulleys,  231.  Formulas  for  Cast 
Iron  Fittings,  232. 

CIL\PTER  VII 

Useful  Information 234 

Shrinkage  of  Castings,  234.  Window  Glass,  236.  Fire  Clays, 
236.     Weight  of  Metals,  239.     Iron  Ores,  240. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Iron 241 

Physical  Properties  of  Iron,  241.  Grading  Pig  Iron,  242. 
Standard  Specifications  for  Pig  Iron,  246.  Machine-cast  Pig 
Iron,  248.     Charcoal  Iron,  250.     Grading  Scrap  Iron,  250. 

CH.\PTER  IX 

Chemical  Constituents  of  Cast  Iron 252 

Influence  of  Carbon,  252.     Loss  or  Gain  of  Carbon  in  Re-, 
melting,  254.     Influence  of  Silicon,  256.     Influence  of  Sulphur, 
260.     Influence  of  Phosphorus,  263.     Influence  of  Manganese, 
265.     Aluminum,  266.     Nickel,  267.     Titanium,  267.     Vana- 
dium, 268.     Thermit,  270.     Oxygen,  270.     Nitrogen,  271. 

CHAPTER  X 

Mixing  Iron 273 

Mixing  by  Fracture,  273.  Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis,  274. 
Castings  for  Agricultural  Machinery,  Cylinders  and  Fly- 
wheels, 277.     Castings  for  Chills,  Motor  Frames  and  Gas  En- 


Contents  vii 

Page 
gines,   278.     Castings  for  Gears,  Hydraulic  Machinery  and 
Locomotives,  280.     Castings  for  Pulleys,  Radiators  and  Heat- 
ers,  284.     Castings  for  Weaving,  Woodworking  Machinery, 
etc.,  287. 

CHAPTER  XI 

Steel  Scrap  in  Mixtures  of  Cast  Iron 290 

Recovering  and  Melting  Shot  Iron,  291.  Burnt  Iron,  293. 
Melting  Borings  and  Turnings,  293. 

CHAPTER  XII 

Test  Bars 294 

Report  of  Committee  on  Test  Bars  of  American  Foundry- 
man's  Association,  294.  Proposed  Specifications  for  Gray 
Iron,  296.  Patterns  for  Test  Bars  of  Cast  Iron,  297.  Erratic 
Results,  298.  Table  of  Moduli  of  Rupture,  299.  Comparison 
of  Test  Bars,  302.  Casting  Defects,  304.  Circular  Test  Bars, 
304.  Effect  of  Structure  of  Cast  Iron  Upon  its  Physical  Prop- 
erties, 306.  Mechanical  Tests,  307.  Chemical  Analysis,  308. 
Chilled  and  Unchilled  Bars,  310.  Forms  of  Combination  of 
Iron  and  Carbon,  313. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Chemical  Analyses 315 

Strength,  315.  Elastip  Properties,  322.  Hardness,  324. 
Grain  Structure,  329.  Shrinkage,  329.  Fusibility,  332. 
Fluidity,  334.  Resistance  to  Heat,  335.  Electrical  Proper- 
ties, 338.  Resistance  to  Corrosion,  340.  Resistance  to  Wear, 
342.  Coefficient  of  Friction,  342.  Casting  Properties,  343. 
Micro-structure  of  Cast  Iron,  345. 

CHAPTER  XIV 

Standard  Specifications  for  Cast  Iron  Car  Wheels 350 

Chemical  Properties,  350.  Drop  Tests,  350.  Marking,  351. 
Measures,  351.  Finish,  351.  Material  and  Chill,  351.  In- 
spection and  Shipping,  352.  Retaping,  353.  Thermal  Test, 
353.     Storing  and  Shipping,  354.     Rejections,  354. 

Standard  Specifications  for  Locomotive  Cylinders 355 

Process  of  Manufacture,  355.  Chemical  Properties,  355. 
Physical  Properties,  355.  Test  Pieces,  355.  Character  of 
Castings,  355.     Inspector,  355. 


viii  Contents 

Standard  SPECiricATioNS  for  Cast  Iron  Pipe 356 

Allowable  Variations,  356.  Defective  SpJRots,  357.  Si)ccial 
Castings,  357.  Tables  of  (Jeneral  Dimensions,  358.  Marking, 
360.  Quality  of  Iron,  360.  Tests,  361.  Cleaning  and  Coat- 
ing, 301.  Contractor,  Engineer,  Inspector,  362.  Tables  of 
Weight  of  I'ipc,  364. 

CHAPTER  XV 

Mechanical  Analysis 371 

Shrinkage  Chart,  372.  Keep's  Strength  Table,  375.  Stand- 
ard Methods  for  Determining  the  Constituents  of  Cast  Iron, 

377- 

CJLVPTER  XVI 

Malleable  Cast  Iron 382 

Black  Heart,  382.  Ordinary  or  Reaumur  Malleable  Iron,  385. 
Temperature  Curve  for  Annealing  Oven,  386.  Analysis  Be- 
fore and  After  Annealing,  387.  American  Practice,  389. 
Specifications,  392.     Comparison  of  Tests,  392. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Steel  Castings  in  the  Foundry 394 

Normal  Steels,  396.  Bessemer  Process,  396.  The  Baby  Con- 
verter, 397.  Annealing,  400.  Tropenas  Process.  401.  Chem- 
istry in  the  Process,  403.  Converter  Linings,  404.  Standard 
Specifications,  409.  Open  Hearth  Methods,  411.  Compara- 
tive Cost  of  Steel  Castings,  417.  Basic  Open  Hearth,  418. 
Acid  Open  Hearth,  419.  Converter,  420.  Converter  with 
Large  Waste,  421.  Crucible  Castings,  423.  Electric  Fur- 
nace, 424. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Foundry  Fuels 425 

Anthracite  Coal,  425.  Coke,  425.  By-product  Coke,  426. 
Effect  of  Atmospheric  Moisture  Upon  Coke,  427.  Specifica- 
tions for  Foundry  Coke,  428.  Fluxes,  429.  Comparison  of 
Slags,  432.  Fire  Brick  and  Fire  Clay,  434.  Fire  Sand,  435. 
Magnesite,  436.     Bauxite,  436. 

CHAPTER  XIX 

The  Cltola 437 

The  Lining,  437.  Tuyeres,  439.  The  Breast,  440.  Sand 
Bottom,  441.     Zones  of  Cupola,  442.     Chemical  Reaction  in 


Contents  ix 

Page 
Cupola,  443.  Wind  box,  445.  The  Blast,  446.  Sturtevant 
Blowers,  448.  Buffalo  Blowers,  449.  Root  Blowers,  449. 
Diameter  of  Blast  Pipe,  450.  Dimensions  of  Cupolas,  451. 
Charging  and  Melting,  452.  The  Charging  Floor,  453.  Melt- 
ing Losses,  454.  Melting  Ratio,  461.  Appliances  About 
Cupola,  462.  Ladles,  462.  Tapping  Bar,  463.  Bod  Stick, 
463.  Capacities  of  Ladles,  464.  Applying  Metalloids  in  La- 
dles, 465.     Cranes,  466.     Spill  Bed,  466.     Gagger  Moulds,  467. 

CHAPTER  XX 

Moulding  Sand 468 

Bonding  Power,  468.  Permeability  and  Porosity,  468.  Re- 
fractoriness, 469.  Durability,  469.  Texture,  469.  Grades, 
470.  Sand  for  Brass,  472.  Testing  Sand,  473.  For  Dry  Sand 
Moulding,  477.  Skin  Drying,  469.  Core  Sand,  479.  Core 
Mixtures,  480.  Dry  Binders,  481.  Parting  Sand,  486. 
Facings,  486. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

The  Core  Room  and  Appurtenances 492 

Core  Oven  Carriages,  496.  Mixing  Machines,  497.  Sand 
Conveyors,  497.  Rod  Straighteners,  497.  Wire  Cutter,  497. 
Sand  Driers,  49S.  Core  Plates,  498.  Core  Machines,  499. 
Cranes  and  Hoists,  499. 

CHAPTER  XXII 

The  Moulding  Room 501 

Cranes,  502.  Hooks,  Slings  and  Chains,  502.  Lifting  Beams, 
503.  Safe  Loads,  504.  Binder  Bars,  505.  Clamps,  506. 
Flasks,  506.  Iron  Flasks,  510.  Sterling  Steel  Flasks,  515. 
Snap  Flasks,  517.  Slip  Boxes,  519.  Pins,  Plates  and  Hinges, 
519.  Sweeps,  522.  Anchors,  Gaggers  and  Soldiers,  523. 
Sprues,  Risers  and  Gates,  524.  Top  Pouring  Gates,  526. 
Whirl  Gates,  527.  Skim  Gates,  527.  Horn  Gates,  527. 
Strainers  and  Spindles,  528.  Weights,  528.  Chaplets,  528. 
Liquid  Pressure  on  Moulds,  529.  Nails,  536.  Sprue  Cutters, 
537- 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
Moulding  Machines 538 

Jigs,  540.    Flasks,  547.    Moulding  Operations,  549. 


X  Contents 

Pace 

cnAi'iik  xxi\' 

CoNTiNLors  .Mki.tin<; 551 

Multiple  Moulds,  555.  iVrmancnt  Moulds,  558.  Centrif- 
ugal Castings,  561.  Castings  Under  Pressure.  562.  Direct 
Casting,  562.  Car|K'ntiT  Shoj)  and  Tool  Room,  502.  The 
Cleaning  Room,  563.  Tumbling  Mills,  563.  Chipping,  566. 
Grinding,  566.     Sand  Blast,  566.     Pickling,  567. 

CHAPTER  XXV 

IJktkrmination  ov  Weight  ok  Castings 56Q 

My  Wci^hl  of  Patterns,  504.  Weight  of  Pallern  Lumber,  569. 
I'orniulas  for  Finding  Weight  of  Castings,  570.  Formulas 
for  Weight  on  Cope,  575. 

CIIAl'TER  XXVT 
Water,  Lighting,  Heating  and  Ventilation 577 

Water  Supply,  577.  Lighting,  57S.  Heating  and  Ventila- 
tion, 579. 

CHAPTER  XXVn 

r'ouxDRv  Accounts 587 

Foundry  Requisition,  588.  Pattern  Card,  589.  Pig  Iron 
Card,  590.  Core  Card,  591.  Heat  Book,  592.  Cleaning 
Room  Report,  597.  Weekly  Foundry  Report,  600.  Monthly 
Expenditure  of  Supplies,  601.  Comparison  of  Accounts,  605. 
Transmission  of  Orders,  611.  American  Foundrymen's  As- 
sociation Methods,  612.  Cost  of  Metal,  617.  Moulding,  619. 
Cleaning  and  Tumbling,  620.  Pickling,  621.  Sand  Blast- 
ing, 622.  Core  Making,  623.  A  Successful  Foundry  Cost 
System,  625.     Castings  Returned,  629. 

CHAPTER  XXVni 
Pig  Iron  Directory 633 

Classification  and  Grades  of  Foundrj'  Iron,  633.  Coke  and' 
Anthracite  Irons,  635.     Chnrcoal  Irons,  655. 

Authorities 660 

Index ? ; 663 


Most  readers  of  this  book  will,  without  doubt,  be  familiar  with  the 
ordinary  mathematical  processes;  to  them,  such  brief  references  as  may- 
appear,  will,  perhaps,  seem  superfluous.  There  may  be,  however,  those 
who,  from  disuse  or  otherwise,  are  not  so  circumstanced.  For  their 
convenience  such  information  will  be  given  as  may  facilitate  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  formulas  and  calculations  herein. 


SIGNS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS 


A  prime  mark  '  above  a  number 
means  minutes  or  linear  feet; 
as  lo'  means  ten  minutes  or  ten 
linear  feet. 

Two  prime  marks  "  likewise  mean 
seconds;  or  linear  inches;  as  lo" 
indicates  lo  seconds  or  lo  linear 
inches. 

The  sign  D  means  square,  as  D' 
square  foot,  D  "  square  inch. 

The  sign  O  means  round  or  cir- 
cular, as  O"  circular  inch. 

The  sign  /  means  an  angle. 

The  sign  L  means  a  right  angle. 

The  sign  J-  means  a  perpendicular. 

The  sign  ir,  called  Pi,  means  the 
ratio  of  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  to  the  diameter,  and  is 
equal  to  3.14159. 

The  sign  g  means  acceleration  due 
to  gravity  and  equals  32.16  foot 
pounds  per  second. 


The  sign  E  indicates  the  coefl&cient 

of  elasticity. 
The  sign  /  indicates  the  coefficient 

of  friction. 
The  sign  M  indicates  modulus  of 

rupture. 
The  sign  log  indicates  the  common 

logarithm. 
The  sign  log  e )  hyperbolic 
or      log  hyp. )  logarithm. 
R.p.m.  revolutions  per  minute. 
H.P.  horse  power. 
K.W.  Hr.  Kilowatt  hours. 
A.W.G.  American  wire  gauge. 
B.W.G.  Birmingham  wire  gauge. 
A.S.M.E.    American    Society    of 

Mechanical  Engineers. 
A.F.A.    American    Foundrymen's 

Association. 
B.  F.  A.     Birmingham    Foundry- 
men's  Association. 
I.S.I.  Iron  and  Steel  Institute. 


FOUNDERS   MANUAL 


ELEMENTARY    MATHEMATICS 


CHAPTER  I 
SECTION   I 

ARITHMETIC 

It  is  deemed  unnecessary  to  present  anything  under  this  branch  of 
mathematics,  except  Ratio  and  Proportion,  Square  and  Cube  Roots, 
AUigation  and  Percentage.  These  operations  are  applied  so  frequently 
in  the  foundry  that,  it  is  believed,  a  simple  explanation  of  them  will  not 
be  out  of  place. 

Ratio  and  Proportion 

The  ratio  of  two  numbers  is  the  relation  which  the  first  bears  to  the 
second  and  is  equivalent  to  a  fraction  obtained  by  dividing  the  first 
number  by  the  second. 

Thus:  5:7  =  5     or     7:5  =  1. 

When  the  first  of  four  numbers  is  the  same  fraction  of  the  second,  as 
the  third  is  of  the  fourth,  the  first  has  the  same  ratio  to  the  second  as  the 
third  has  to  the  fourth,  and  the  four  numbers  are  in  proportion.  Pro- 
portion, therefore,  is  the  equality  of  two  ratios. 

Thus: 

I  =  T5  =   I- 

The  proportion  is  expressed,  4  :  6  ::  10  :  15,  and  is  read,  4  is  to  6  as  10 
is  to  15.  The  first  and  fourth  terms  are  called  the  extremes;  the  second 
and  third  the  means. 

The  product  of  the  extremes  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  means; 
thus  in  the  above  proportion  4  X  15  =  6  X  10  =  60.  Hence  where 
three  terms  of  the  proportion  are  known  the  fourth  can  be  found. 


,  .1      c 

,       BC    „      BC    „      AD   ,.      AD 

BC,  —  =  T-,  - 

=   -^,  D  =  —r,  B  =    ,r,  C  =  - ..- . 

^'  B      D' 

D'            .1  '            C  '            B 

2  Arithmclic 

Thus:   Find  the  numlxir  to  which  lo  bears  the  same  ratio  as 4  does  to  6. 
4  :  f)  ::  lo  :  re(iuired  number. 

Required  number  e(|uals  "/  =  '5- 

Where  one  extreme  and  both  means  are  known,  to  find  the  other 
extreme,  divide  the  product  of  the  means  by  the  known  extreme. 

Where  Ijolh  extremes  ami  one  mean  are  known,  to  find  the  other  mean, 
divide  the  prcKiuct  of  the  extremes  by  the  known  mean. 

I'or  the  purpose  of  illustrating  these  rules  replace  the  figures  in  a 
proportion,  by  the  letters  .1,  B,  C,  D,  and  write  .1  :  B  ::  C  :  D;    then, 

AD 

To  state  the  terms  of  a  simple  proportion  where  three  are  given; 
l)lacc  that  as  the  third  term  which  is  of  the  same  kind  as  the  required 
lerm;  then  consider  whether  the  required  term  should  be  greater  or  less 
than  the  third  term;  if  greater,  make  the  greater  of  the  two  remaining 
terms  the  second  and  the  other  the  first  term.  But  if  the  required  term 
should  be  less  than  the  third  term,  place  the  smaller  of  the  first  two  as 
tiie  second  term  and  the  greater  as  the  first. 

Thus:  What  is  the  price,  per  net  ton,  of  pig  iron  sold  at  $17.50  gross 
ton? 

.'Vs  the  price  is  required,  Si 7.50  becomes  the  third  term.  Since  the 
net  price  is  less  than  the  gross,  2000  is  the  second  term  and  2240  the  first. 
Tlie  proportion  is  then  written: 

2240  :  2000  ::  Si 7.50  :  answer. 

2000  X  Si 7.50 


2240 


Si 5. 62  =  required  price. 


.'\gain  the  ratio  of  net  to  gross  is  m^  =  .892  +.  Therefore,  the  net 
price  is  equal  to  the  gross  multiplied  by  0.892  +;  or  Si 7.50  X  .892  = 
S15.62;  or  the  net  price  being  known  the  gross  is  equal  to  the  net  miilli- 
]jiied  by  UU;  $15.62  X  1.12  =  Si7-50- 

Compound  Propojtion 

Where  the  ratio  of  two  quantities  depends  upon  a  combination  of 
other  ratios,  the  proportion  becomes  a  compound  proportion.  In  this 
as  in  simple  proportion,  there  is  but  one  third  term,  and  it  is  of  the  same 
kind  as  the  required  term;  there  may  be  two  or  more  first  and  second 
terms.  Set  down  the  third  term  as  in  simple  proportion;  consider  each 
pair  of  terms  of  the  same  kind  separately  and  as  terms  of  a  simple  pro- 
portion, and  arrange  them  in  the  same  manner,  making  the  greater  of 


Men 

25  : 

36:: 

Days 

16  : 

17  :: 

Fifths  of  work 

3  : 

2 

36  X  17 

X  2 

X  10 

25  X 

16X3 

Roots  of  Numbers  3 

the  pair  the  second  term,  if  the  answer  considered  with  reference  to  this 
pair  alone  should  be  greater  than  the  third  term;  or  the  reverse  if  it 
should  be  less. 

Set  down  the  terms  under  each  other  in  their  order  of  first  and  second 
terms.  Multiply  the  product  of  all  the  second  terms  by  the  third  term 
and  divide  this  product  by  that  of  all  the  first  terms. 

Example.  —  If  36  men  working  10  hours  per  day  perform  f  of  a  piece 
of  work  in  17  days,  how  long  must  25  men  work  daily  to  complete  the 
work  in  16  days? 

The  length  of  the  day  will  be  greater  the  fewer  the  men,  and  the  fewer 
the  days  are;  and  less,  the  less  the  work  is;  hence,  the  above  problem 
is  stated  as  follows: 


5ji-  =  10.2  hours  per  day. 


Roots  of  Numbers 

To  Extract  the  Square  Root  of  a  Given  Number 

Point  off  the  number  into  periods  of  two  figures  each,  beginning  with 
units;  if  there  are  decimals,  begin  at  the  decimal  point,  separating  the 
whole  number  to  the  left  and  the  decimal  to  the  right  into  such  periods, 
supplying  as  many  ciphers  in  groups  of  two,  as  may  be  desired. 

Find  the  greatest  number  whose  square  is  less  than  the  first  left  hand 
period  and  place  this  to  the  right  of  the  given  nvunber  as  the  first  figure 
of  the  root.  Subtract  its  square  from  the  first  left  hand  period  and  to 
the  remainder  annex  the  second  period  for  a  dividend. 

Place  before  this  as  a  partial  divisor,  double  the  root  figure  just  found. 
Find  how  many  times  the  dividend,  exclusive  of  its  right  hand  figure, 
contains  the  divisor,  and  place  the  quotient  as  the  second  figure  of  the 
root,  and  also  at  the  right  of  the  partial  divisor. 

Multiply  the  divisor  thus  completed,  by  the  second  root  figure  and 
subtract  the  product  from  the  dividend.  To  this  remainder  annex  the 
next  period  for  a  new  dividend,  and  double  the  two  root  figures  for  a 
new  partial  divisor.  Proceed  as  before  until  all  the  periods  have  been 
brought  down. 


Arithmetic 

Example.  —  Extract  the  s^iuarc  root  of  7840.2752  +• 
78'40-27'52/88.S4S3 
64 


168)1440 
1344 


1765)9627 
882s 


[7704)80252 
70816 


177085)943600 
8S5425 


1770903)5817500 
5312709 

To  Extract  the  Square  Root  of  a  Fraction 
Find  the  roots  of  the  numerator  and  denominator  separately;    or 
reduce  to  a  decimal  and  take  its  root. 

*  /Q         "^9        3  9,-  / 

Example.— \/^=  —p^  =  7;  "r  r^  =  0.5625,  V0.5625  =  0.75. 
T   lb       V16       4  10 

To  Extract  the  Cube  Root  of  a  Number 
Beginning;  at  the  right,  point  off  the  number  into  periods  of  three 
figures  each.  If  there  are  decimals,  begin  at  the  decimal  point,  separate 
the  whole  number  to  the  left,  and  the  decimal  at  the  right  into  such 
periods;  find  the  greatest  cube  conLained  in  the  left-hand  period,  and 
write  its  root  as  the  first  figure  of  the  root  required. 

Subtract  the  cube  of  the  first  root  figure  from  the  left-hand  period, 
and  to  the  remainder  annex  the  ne.\t  period  for  a  dividend.  Then 
multiply  the  square  of  the  first  figure  of  the  root  by  300  and  use  the  prod- 
uct as  a  trial  divisor;  write  the  quotient  as  the  second  root  figure. 
Complete  the  trial  divisor  by  adding  to  it  30  times  the  product  of  the 
first  root  figure  by  the  second,  and  the  square  of  the  second;  multiply 
the  com[ileted  divisor  by  the  second  root  figure  and  subtract  the  product 
from  the  di\adend.  To  the  remainder  annex  the  next  period  and  proceed 
as  before,  to  find  the  third  figure  of  the  root,  i.e.,  square  the  first  two 
figures  of  the  root  and  multiply  by  300  for  a  trial  divisor.  To  this  add 
30  times  the  product  of  the  first  two  root  figures  by  the  third,  and  the 
square  of  the  third  for  the  completed  divisor,  etc. 

The  cube  root  will  always  contain  as  many  figures  as  there  are  periods 
in  the  given  number. 


Percentage 

Example.  —  Extract  the  cube  root  of  78,  402,  752 

78'402'752/428. 
64 

4^  X  300  =       4800        14402 
4  X  2  X  30  =         240 


5044       10088 


42^  X  300  =  529200   4314752 
42  X  8  X  30  =  10080 
82  =     64 


539344   4314752 


Alligation 
Alligation  is  the  process  of  determining  the  value  of  a  mixture  of 
different  substances,  when  the  quantity  and  value  of  each  substance 
is  known.  * 

Ride.  —  Take  the  sum  of  all  the  products  of  the  quantity  of  each 
substance  by  its  respective  price,  and  divide  it  by  the  total  quantity; 
the  result  is  the  value  of  one  unit  of  the  mixture. 

Example.  —  What  is  the  value  per  ton  of  a  mixture  containing  500  lbs. 
of  pig  iron  at  $18.00  per  ton,  275  lbs.  at  $16.50  and  800  lbs.  of  scrap  at 
$14.00? 

500  X  18     =    9000 
275  X  16.5  =    4537-5° 
800  X  14     =  11200.00 


1575  24737.50 

=  $15,706  per  ton. 

1575 

Percentage 
Per  cent  means  so  many  parts  of  100,  and  is  expressed  decimally 

as  three  per  cent  .03,  meaning  yf  q;    one-fourth  of  one  per  cent  .0025  = 

2  5 

lOCJOO- 

Percentage  covers  the  operations  of  finding  the  part  of  a  given 
number  at  a  given  rate  per  cent;  as  6  per  cent  of  2750,  2750  X  .06  = 
165.00;  of  finding  what  per  cent  one  number  is  of  another  as:  WTiat 
per  cent  of  780  is  39? 

39  -^  780  =  .05  per  cent; 
of  ascertaining  a  number  when  an  amount  is  given,  which  is  a  given 
per  cent  of  that  number;  as  62.5  is  .04  per  cent  of  what  number? 
62.5  -H  .04  =  1562.5. 


Arithmclic 


Dkcimal  EguivALENTs  OF  Parts  of  One  Inch 

1-64 

.015635 

17-64 

.365625 

33-64 

.515625 

49-64 

57662s 

1-32 

.O.^Ii^O 

<)-32 

.381250 

17-32 

.531250 

25-32 

781250 

3-64 

.'  ■/  ^  ■  : 

..,64 

.29687s 

35-64 

.546875 

51-<i4 

796875 

1-16 

.'  '  , 

■;  16 

.313.S00 

9-16 

.562500 

13-16 

813500 

s-64 

,07M-'.S 

ii-64 

.328125 

37-64 

.578125 

53-64 

828135 

3-33 

.  09.17  >° 

n-32 

..343750 

19-32 

.593750 

27-32 

843750 

7-U 

.  109.173 

2J  64 

•  359.175 

39-64 

.609375 

55-64 

85937s 

1-S 

.liSooo 

3-8 

.375000 

5-8 

.625000 

7-8 

875000 

9-64 

. 140625 

25-64 

.390625 

41-64 

.64062s 

57-^4 

89062s 

S-32 

.156250 

I.?-32 

.406250 

21-32 

.656250 

29-32 

906350 

11-64 

.171875 

27-64 

.42187s 

43-64 

.671875 

59-64 

93187s 

3-16 

.187500 

7-16 

.437500 

11-16 

.687500 

15-16 

937SOO 

13  64 

.203125 

29-64 

4.53125 

45-64 

.703125 

61-64 

953125 

7-32 

.218750 

15-32 

.468750 

23-32 

.718750 

31-32 

968750 

iS-64 

.234375 

31-64 

.484375 

47-64 

.734375 

63-64 

98437s 

1-4 

.250000 

I -a 

.500000 

3-4 

.750000 

I 

I 

:ncues  to 

Decimals 

OF  A 

Foot 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

% 

9 

10 

II 

0833 

.1667 

.2500 

.3333 

.4167 

5000 

.5833 

.6667 

7500 

8333 

9167 

A 

.0026 

.0859 

.1693 

.2526 

3359 

.4193 

.5026 

5859 

■  6693 

7526 

8359  .9193 

i\> 

0052 

.0885 

.1719 

.2552 

.3385 

4219 

.5052 

.5885 

.6719 

7552 

838s  .9219 

A 

0078 

.0911 

1745 

.2578 

3411 

.4245 

.5078 

59" 

6745 

.7578 

8411   9245 

i 

0104 

.0938 

I77I 

.2604 

3138 

.4271 

.5104 

5938 

6771 

7604 

8438  .9271 

A 

.0130 

.0964 

•  1797 

.2630 

.3464 

4297 

.5130 

.5964 

6797 

76.30 

8464 

9297 

A 

.0156 

.0990 

.1823 

.2656 

3490 

.4323 

.5156 

5990 

.6823 

7656 

8490 

.9323 

i. 

.0182 

.1016 

.1849 

.2682 

.3516 

.4349 

.5182 

6016 

.6849 

7682 

8516 

9349 

J 

.0208 

.1042 

.1875 

.2708 

3542 

.4375 

.5208 

■  6042 

.6875 

7708 

.8542 

■  9375 

31 

0234 

.1068 

.1901 

.2734 

3568 

4401 

.5234 

6068 

.6901 

7734 

8568 

9401 

ft 

.0260 

.1094 

■  1927 

.2760 

3594 

.4427 

.5260 

6094 

.6927 

7760 

8594 

.9427 

a 

.0286 

.1120 

1953 

.2786 

3620 

.4453 

.5286 

6120 

6953 

7786 

8620 

9453 

i 

0313 

.1146 

.1979 

.2813 

.3646 

•  4479 

.5313 

6146 

6979 

■  7813 

8646 

9479 

hi 

.0339 

.1172 

.2005 

.2839 

3672 

.450s 

5339 

.6172 

.7005 

.7839 

8672 

9505 

I'e 

.0365 

.1198 

2031 

.2865 

.3698 

4531 

.5365 

■  6198 

7031 

■  7865 

8698 

9531 

li 

.0391 

.1224 

2057 

.2801 

.3724 

■  4557 

5391 

■  6224 

7057 

■  7891 

8724 

■  9557 

i 

0417 

.1253 

2083 

.2917 

3750 

.4583 

■  5417 

■  6250 

7083 

■  7917 

.8750 

9583 

a 

0443 

.1276 

.2109 

.2943 

.3776 

.4609 

5443 

.6276 

7109 

7943 

.8776 

.9600 

i% 

.0469 

.1302 

2135 

2969 

.3802 

■  463s 

.5469 

.6302 

7135 

.7969 

.8802 

.963.=; 

is 

.0495 

.1328 

.2161 

■2995 

.3828 

.4661 

.5495 

.6328 

■  7161 

7995 

.8828 

.9661 

8 

0521 

1354 

.2188 

3021 

.3854 

.46S8 

.5521 

.6354 

.7188 

.8021 

8854 

.96SS 

u 

0547 

.1380 

.2214 

■  3047 

.3880 

.4714 

5547 

.6380 

7214 

8047 

.8880 

.9714 

u 

0573 

.1406 

.2240 

3073 

.3906 

.4740 

5573 

.6406 

.7240 

.8073 

.8906 

.9740 

li 

0599 

1432 

.2266 

■3099 

.3932 

.4766 

.5599 

.6432 

.7266 

.8099 

.8932 

9766 

i 

0625 

1458 

.2292 

3125 

.3958 

.4792 

.5625 

■  6458 

7292 

8125 

8958 

9792 

a 

.0651 

.1484 

.2318 

31SI 

3984 

.4818 

.5651 

.6484 

.7318 

.8151 

.8984 

.9818 

[i 

.0677 

1510 

.2344 

3177 

.4010 

.4844 

.5677 

.6510 

.7344 

■  8177 

.9010 

■  9844 

3i 

.0703 

1536 

.2370 

3203 

.4036 

.4870 

.5703 

■  6536 

.7370 

■  8203 

9036 

.9870 

I 

.0729 

.1563 

.2396 

3229 

.4063 

.4896 

■  5729 

.6563 

7396 

.8229 

9063 

.9896 

IS 

0755 

.1589 

.2422 

3255 

4089 

.4922 

5755 

■  6589 

7422 

.8255 

.9089 

.9922 

\l 

.0781 

.1615 

2448 

.3281 

4115 

4948 

.5781 

.661s 

.7448 

.8281 

.9115 

.9948 

a 

.0807 

.1641 

2474 

3307 

1 

4141 

4974 

.5807 

.6641 

7474 

8307 

9141 

9974 

Algebra 
Products  of  Fractions  Expressed  in  Decimals 


0 

I 

i'b 

i 

« 

1 

i^e 

i 

/b 

h 

i^; 

.0625 

.0039 

k 

.1250 

.0078 

.0156 

A 

.1875 

.0117 

.0234 

.0352 

i 

.2500 

.0156 

.0313 

.0469 

.0625 

j% 

.3125 

.0195 

.0391 

.0586 

.0781 

.0977 

i 

.3750 

.0234 

.0169 

.0703 

.0937 

.1172 

.1406 

i'b 

.4375 

.0273 

.0547 

.0820 

.1093 

.1367 

.1641 

•  I9I4 

i 

.5000 

.0313 

.0625 

.0938 

.1250 

.1562 

.1875 

.2188 

.2500 

Is 

.5625 

.0352 

.0703 

.1055 

.1406 

.1758 

.2109 

.2461 

.2813 

1 

.6250 

.0391 

.0781 

.1172 

.1562 

.1953 

.2344 

.2734 

•  3125 

H 

.6875 

.0430 

.0859 

.1289 

.1719 

.2148 

.2578 

.3008 

.3438 

i 

.7500 

.0469 

.0938 

.1406 

.1875 

.2344 

.2813 

.3281 

.3750 

H 

.8125 

.0508 

.1016 

.1523 

.2031 

.2539 

.3047 

.3555 

.4036 

i 

.8750 

.0547 

.1094 

.1641 

.2187 

.2734 

.3281 

.3828 

•  4375 

il 

.9375 

.0586 

.1172 

.1758 

.2344 

.2930 

.3516 

.4102 

.4688 

I 

I. 0000 

.0625 

.1250 

.1875 

.2500 

.3125 

.3750 

.4375 

.5000 

0 

1% 

1 

ih 

3 

s 

Ji 

I 

it 

I 

T% 

.3164 

i 

.3516 

.3906 

H 

.3867 

.4297 

.4727 

1 

.4219 

.4688 

.5156 

.5625 

il 

.4570 

.5078 

.5586 

.6094 

.6601 

i 

.4922 

.5469 

.6016 

.6563 

.7109 

.7656 

H 

.5273 

.5859 

.6445 

.7031 

.7617 

.8203 

.8789 

I 

.5625 

.6250 

.6875 

.7500 

.8125 

.8750 

.9375 

I. 0000 

SECTION  II 
ALGEBRA 

In  algebra  quantities  of  every  kind  are  denoted  by  letters  of  the 
alphabet. 

The  first  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used  to  denote  known  quantities, 
and  the  last  letters  unknown  quantities. 

The  sign  +  (plns)  denotes  that  the  quantity  before  which  it  is  placed 
is  to  be  added  to  some  other  quantity.  Thus:  a  +  b  denotes  the  sum 
of  a  and  b. 

The  sign  —  (minus)  denotes  that  the  quantity  before  which  it  is 
placed  is  to  be  subtracted  from  some  other  quantity.  Thus:  a  —  b 
denotes  that  b  is  to  be  subtracted  from  a. 

When  no  sign  is  prefixed  to  a  quantity,  +  is  always  understood. 

Quantities  are  said  to  have  like  or  unlike  signs,  according  as  their 
signs  are  like  or  unlike. 


8  AlReljra 

A  quantity  which  consists  of  one  term  is  said  to  be  simple;  but  if  it 
consists  of  several  terms  connected  ljy  the  signs  +  or  — ,  it  is  said  to  be 
comjKJund.  Thus:  a  or  —  b  arc  simple  quantities;  but  —  a  —  6  is  a 
compound  <|uaiility. 

Addition  of  Like  Quantities 

Add  together  the  tocliiLicnts  uf  ihc  c|uanlilies  having  like  signs,  and 
subtract  the  negative  sum  from  the  positive.  Thus:  Add  7  a  +  2  a, 
^a  —  a,  and  60  —  40. 

7  (i  —     a 

2  a  —  4  a 

3a 
6a 


18a  —  5  a  =  13  o. 

Addition  of  Unlike  Quantities 

If  some  of  the  quanlilics  are  unlike,  proceed  as  before  with  each  like 
quantity,  and  write  down  the  algebraic  sum  of  all  the  quantities.  Thus: 
Add  70  +  26,  3  a  —  i,  66  —  4a  and  50-46. 

70-40        26—     b 
Sa  —  66  —  46 

150- 40        86  —  56 
-40  -  5  6 

11  a  36 

Ans'd'cr  =  11  o  +  3  6. 

The  process  is  the  same  with  compound  quantities.  Thus:  Add 
0-6  +  2  cd^  to  -  2  a^b  +  c(P  =  3cd"-  -  a^b. 

Subtraction 

Change  the  sign  of  the  subtrahend  and  proceed  as  in  addition.  Thus: 
Subtract  3  0-6  —  9  c  from  40^6  +  c;  changing  the  signs  of  the  subtra- 
hend and  adding,  the  expressions  may  be  written 

4  0^6  —  3  o''6  +  f  +  9  f    or    0*6  -(-  10  c. 

Multiplication 

If  the  quantities  to  be  multiplied  have  like  signs,  the  sign  of  the 
product  is  +;  if  they  have  unlike  signs,  that  of  the  jiroduct  is  — . 


Powers  of  Quantities  9 

Of  Simple  Quantities 

Multiply  the  coefficients  together  and  prefix  the  +  or  —  sign,  accord- 
ing as  the  signs  of  the  quantities  are  like  or  unlike.     Thus: 
Multiply  +  ahy  +  b.     Product  equals  -{- ab. 
Multiply  +  5  6  by  —  4  c.     Product  equals  —  20  be. 
Multiply  —  3  ax  by  +  7  a&-     Product  equals  —  21  a'bx. 

Of  Compound  Quantities 

Multiply  each  term  of  the  multiplicand  by  all  the  terms  of  the  multi- 
plier, one  after  the  other  as  by  former  rule;   collect  their  products  into 
one  sum  for  the  required  product. 
Example.  — 

Multiply     a   —    b  +    c 
by  a  -\-    b  —     e 


-a<r 

-  &2  +     be 
+     be  - 

-C2 

Multiply 
by 

2x  -\-       y 
X  —     2  y 

-V^^  2be- 
2  y 

-C2 

2  x"^  -\-    xy 
-  4xy  - 

2  x^  —  2,  xy  —  2  y^ 

Powers  of  Quantities 

The  products  arising  from  the  continued  multiplication  of  the  same 
quantity  by  itself  are  called  powers  of  that  quantity;  and  the  quantity 
itself  is  called  the  root. 

The  product  of  two  or  more  powers  of  any  quantity  is  the  quantity 
with  an  exponent  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  exponents  of  the  powers. 
Thus: 

a^  X  d^  =  fl';     a^b  X  ab  =  aW;     4  a5  X  —  3  ac  =  —  12  a%e. 
The  square  of  the  sum  of  two  quantities  equals  the  sum  of  their 
squares  plus  twice  their  product. 

{a  +  &)2  =  a2  +  52  4.  2  ab. 
The  square  of  the  difference  of  two  quantities  is  the  sum  of  their 
squares  minus  twice  their  product. 

(a  —  6)2  =  a^  -f  6^  —  2  ab. 


lo  Algebra 

The  prmlutl  of  the  sum  an<l  difTcrencc  of  two  quaotilics  is  equal  to 
the  difTcrencc  o{  liieir  squarcb. 

(a  f  b)  (a-b)  =a^-  I?. 

The  squares  of  half  the  sum  of  two  quantities  is  equal  lo  their  product 
plus  the  scjuarc  of  half  their  difTcrencc. 

Thus:                          (a  +  A)»         ,    ,    (<j  -  6)» 
— — =  u«  i 

2  2 

The  square  of  a  trinomial  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  each 
term  plus  twice  the  product  of  each  term  by  each  of  its  following  terms- 

Thus:  (a  +  6  -f  c)*  =  a*  -f  t^  +  c'  +  2  aft  +  2  or  +  2  6c. 

(a  —  6  —  c)*  =  a'  +  6*  +  c'  —  2  a6  —  2  ac  +  2  6c. 

Parenthesis  (     ) 

When  a  parenthesis  is  preceded  by  a  plus  sign,  it  may  be  removed 
without  changing  the  value  of  the  expression. 

Thus:  {a-\-b)  +  {a-\-b)  =  2a  +  2h. 

But  if  preceded  by  a  minus  sign,  if  removed,  the  signs  of  all  the  terms 
within  the  parenthesis  must  be  changed. 

Thus:  {a-\-b)-{a-b)=a-\-h-a  +  h  =  2b. 

When  a  parenthesis  is  within  a  parenthesis,  remove  the  inner  one -first. 

Thus:  a-\h-[c-{d-  c)]]  =  a  -  [b  -  [c  -  d  +  e]]  = 

a  —  [b  —  c-\-d  —  c]  =  a  —  b-^c  —  d-\-c. 

WTiere  the  sign  of  multiplication  ( X )  appears,  the  operation  indicated 
by  it  must  be  performed  before  that  of  addition  or  subtraction. 

Division 

If  the  sign  of  the  divisor  and  dividend  be  like,  the  sign  of  the  quotient 
is  plus  (+);  but  if  they  be  unlike  the  sign  of  the  quotient  is  minus  (  — ). 

To  Divide  a  Monomial  by  a  Monomial 

Write  the  di\idcnd  o\er  the  divisor  with  a  line  between  them.    If  the 

expressions  have  common  factors  remove  them. 

Thus:  ,,  ,         a-bx      ax       o'       i  , 

a^bx  -J-  aby  =  -7—  =  — ;     -b  =  -;  =  <i~ 
aby        y       a"      or 

To  Divide  a  Polynomial  by  a  Monomial 

Divide  each  term  of  the  polynomial  by  the  monomial. 
Thus:  (8a6  —  i2ac) -r- 40  =  26  —  3c. 


Simple  Equations  il 

To  Divide  a  Polynomial  by  a  Polynomial 

Arrange  the  terms  of  both  dividend  and  divisor  according  to  the  as- 
cending or  descending  powers  of  some  letter,  and  keep  this  arrangement 
throughout  the  operation.  Divide  the  first  term  of  the  dividend  by 
the  first  term  of  the  divisor,  and  write  the  result  as  the  first  term  of  the 
quotient. 

Multiply  all  the  terms  of  the  divisor  by  the  first  term  of  the  quotient 
and  subtract  the  product  from  the  dividend.  If  there  is  a  remainder 
consider  it  as  a  new  dividend  and  proceed  as  before. 

Thus:  (o2  -  b^)  -^(a  +  b) 

a  +  b)a^-bHa-b 

a-  -\-  ab 


-ab-b^ 
—  ab  —  b^ 

(i)  The  difference  between  two  equal  powers  of  the  same  quantities 
is  divisible  by  their  difference. 

(2)  The  difference  between  two  equal  even  powers  of  the  same  quan- 
tities is  divisible  by  their  sum  or  difference. 

(3)  The  sum  of  two  equal  even  powers  of  the  same  quantities  is  not 
divisible  by  their  sum  or  difference. 

(4)  The  sum  of  two  equal  odd  powers  of  the  same  quantities  is 
divisible  by  their  sum. 

(5)  The  sum  of  two  equal  eveti  powers,  whose  exponents  are  composed 
of  odd  and  even  factors,  is  divisible  by  the  sum  of  the  powers  of  the 
quantities  expressed  by  the  even  factor. 

Thus:  (.1"®  +  y^)  is  divisible  by  (x^  +  y^). 

Simple  Equations 

An  equation  Is  a  statement  of  equality  between  two  expressions;  as 
a  +  b  =  c  +  d. 

A  simple  equation,  or  equation  of  the  first  degree,  is  one  which  contains 
only  the  first  power  of  the  unknown  quantity. 

If  both  sides  of  the  equation  be  changed  equally,  by  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication  or  division,  the  equality  will  not  be  disturbed. 

Any  term  of  an  equation  may  be  changed  from  one  side  to  the  other 
provided  its  sign  be  changed. 

Thus:  a  +  b  =  c  +  d,       a  =  c  +  d  —  b. 


1 7  AlKchra 

To  Solve  an  Equation  Having  One  Unknown  Quantity 

TransiK>sc  all  the  terms  cuntaining  the  unknown  quantity  to  unc  side 
'if  the  equation,  and  all  llic  other  terms  to  the  other  side. 

Combine  like  terms,  and  divide  both  sides  by  the  coefficient  of  the 
unknown  quantity. 

Thus:  8  X-  —  29  =  26  —  3  X,     1 1  jr  =  55,     x  =  $. 

Simple  algebraic  problems  containing  one  unknown  quantity,  are 
solved  by  makinj^  x  equal  the  unknown  quantity,  and  stating  the  con- 
ditions of  the  problem  in  the  form  uf  an  algebraic  equation,  then  solving 
the  equation. 

Thus:  What  two  numbers  are  those  whose  sum  is  48  and  difference  14? 

Let  X  =  the  smaller  number. 

Then  x  -{-  14  =  the  greater  number. 

a;  +  X  +  14  =  48, 

2  X  =  34. 

Therefore  x  =  17, 

and  X  -f  14  =  31, 

31  +  17  =  48. 

Find  the  number  whose  treble  exceeds  50  by  as  much  as  its  double 
falls  short  of  40. 

Let  X  =  the  number. 

Then  3  x  —  50  =  40  —  2  x, 

5  X  =  90,        X  =  18. 

Equations  Containing  Two  Unknown  Quantities 

If  one  equation  contains  two  unknown  quantities,  an  indefinite  number 
of  pairs  of  values  for  them  may  be  found,  which  will  satisfy  the  equation; 
but  if  a  second  equation  be  given,  only  one  pair  of  values  can  be  found 
that  will  satisfy  both  equations.  Simultaneous  equations,  or  those 
which  may  be  satisfied  by  the  same  values  of  the  unknown  quantity, 
are  solved  by  combining  the  equations  so  as  to  obtain  a  single  equation 
containing  only  one  unknown  quantity. 

This  process  is  called  elimination. 

Elimination  by  Addition  or  Subtraction 

Multiply  the  equations  by  such  a  number  as  will  make  the  coefficients 
of  one  of  the  unknown  quantities  equal  in  both.  Add  or  subtract 
according  as  they  have  like  or  unlike  signs. 


Elimination  by  Comparison  13 


Solve  2  a;  +  3  3*  =    7 

4X-  sy  =    3 

Multiply  by  2  4^  +  6  y  =  14 

Subtract  4-*-— 5y=    3 


II  y  =  II 

y  =    I. 

Substituting  the  value  of  y  in  the  first  equation 
2  a;  +  3  =  7,     .:  X  =  2. 

Elimination  by  Substitution 

From  one  of  the  equations  obtain  the  value  of  one  of  the  unknown 
quantities  in  terms  of  the  other.  Substitute  this  value  of  this  unknown 
quantity  for  it,  in  the  other  equation,  and  reduce  the  resulting  equations. 

Solve  2  re  +  3  y  =  8  (i) 

3  A-  +  7  y  =  7  (2) 

From  (i)  X  =  ^~^^ 

2 

Substituting  this  value  in  (2) 

(8  —  3  3') 
3 1-7  3' =  7,    24-9y  +  I4y  =  14,      .•- y  =  —  2. 

Substituting  this  value  in  (i); 

2  a;  —  6  =  8,     .'.  X  =  "/. 

Elimination  by  Comparison 

From  each  equation  obtain  the  value  of  one  of  the  unknown  quantities, 
in  terms  of  the  other.  Form  an  equation  from  these  equal  values  of  the 
same  unknown  quantity  and  reduce. 

Solve  2  .T  —  9  y  =  II  (i) 

Sx-4y=    7  (2) 

From  (I)  X  =  '-1±^ 

2 

From  (2)  X  =  ^±43: 

3 
Placing  the  values  of  a;  in  a  new  equation 

11  +  93'       7  +  4y 


2  3 

Substituting  this  value  of  y  in  (i) 
2x  +  g  =  II, 


I9y=-I9,     A  y=-i. 


1 4  AlKfl)ra 

If  three  simultaneous  equations  are  ^iven  containinK  three  unknown 
f|uantilics,  one  of  the  unicnown  quantities  must  he  eliminated  between 
two  pairs  of  the  ecjuations,  then  a  second  between  the  two  resulting 
efjualions. 

Quadratic  Equations  or  Equations  of  the  Second  Degree 
A  quadratic  equation  contains  the  square  of  the  unknown  quantity, 
but  no  higher  power.     A  i)urc  quadratic  contains  the  square  only;   an 
adfected  quadratic  contains  both  the  square  and  the  first  power. 

To  Solve  a  Pure  Quadratic 
Collect  the  unknown  (|uantities  on  one  side,  and  the  known  quantities 
on  the  i)lher;    divide  by  the  coefl'icient  of  the  unknown  quantity  and 
extract  the  square  root  of  each  side  of  the  resulting  equation. 
Solve  3r'  —  15  =  0. 

3A-=  =  i5.      .-.  X-' =  5,     X  =  V5. 

A  root  which  is  indicated,  but  can  only  be  found  approximately  is 
called  a  surd. 

Solve  3  a;^  +  15  =  o.  

3  .v2  =  -  15,     .v=  =  -  5,      :.x  =  \/-  5. 

The  square  root  of  a  negative  quantity  cannot  be  found  even  approxi- 
mately, for  the  square  of  any  number  is  positive;  therefore,  a  root  which 
is  indicated,  but  cannot  be  found  approximately  is  called  imaginary. 

To  Solve  an  Adfected  Quadratic 

First.  —  Carry  all  the  terms  invuhini^  the  unknown  (juantities  to  one 
side  of  the  equation  and  the  known  quantities  to  the  other  side.  Arrange 
the  unknown  quantities  in  the  order  of  their  exjxjnents,  changing  the 
signs  of  the  equation  if  necessary,  so  that  the  sign  of  the  term  containing 
the  square  of  the  unknown  quantity  shall  be  positive. 

Second.  —  Divide  both  terms  by  the  coefficient  of  the  square  -of  the 
unknown  quantit}'. 

Third.  —  To  complete  the  square. 

Add  to  both  sides  of  the  equation,  the  square  of  half  the  coefficient 
of  the  unknown  quantity.  The  side  containing  the  unknown  quantity 
will  now  be  a  perfect  square. 

Fourth.  —  Extract  the  square  root  of  both  sides  of  the  equation  and 
solve  the  resulting  simple  equation. 

Example.  —  x^  -\-  2  x  =  35. 

.Add  the  square  of  half  the  coefficient  of  .v,  which  is  i,  to  both  sides; 
then  A-*  +  2  x  +  I  =  35  +  I  =  36. 


Plane  Geometry  15 

Extracting  the  square  root 

X  +  I  =  ^36  =  ±  6 

X  =  6  -  I  =  s 
a;=— 6  —  i  =  —  7. 

•    Example:  3  .t^  —  4  .r  =  32. 

Divide  by  the  coeiEcieat  of  x- 

x^-^  =  ^. 
3         3 

Add  the  square  of  half  the  coefScient  of  x,  which  equals  (,f)^  =  |; 

then  .i;^-f^  +  f  =  ¥  +  !• 

Extracting  the  square  root,  the  equation  becomes 

1-  _  2  _  -v/100  _  10 
-'-       3  —  ^    9  3 

a-—    3-1-3  —  4,  or:^-—         s^T^a—        3~2  3. 

Since  the  square  of  a  quantity  has  two  roots  ±,  a  quadratic  equation 
has  apparently  two  solutions.  Both  solutions  may  be  correct;  but  in 
some  cases  one  may  be  correct  and  the  other  inconsistent  with  the  con- 
ditions of  the  problem. 

For  the  solution  of  quadratic  equations  containing  two  unknown 
quantities,  or  for  that  of  equations  of  a  higher  order,  a  more  extended 
treatment  of  the  subject  is  required,  than  is  permissible  in  a  book  of  this 
character. 

SECTION  III 

PLANE   GEOMETRY 

Problem  1 

To  Bisect  a  Straight  Line,  or  an  Arc  of  a  Circle 

With  any  radius  greater  than  half  AB  and  with 
A  and  B  as  centers,  describe  arcs  cutting  each  other 
at  C  and  D.    Draw  the  line  CD,  which  will  bisect      ^' 
the  straight  line  at  E  and  the  arc  at  F. 


Problem  2  Fig.  i. 

To  Draw  a  Perpendicular  to  a  Straight  Line,  or  a  Radial  Line  to  the  Arc 
of  a  Circle 
This  is  the  same  as  Problem  i,  Fig.  i. 
CD  is  perpendicular  to  AB,  or  is  radial  to  the  arc. 


i6 


Plane  (Icomctry 


Problem  3 

To  Draw  a  Perpendicular  to  a  Stritifilil  Line,  from  a  Given  Point  on  that 

Line 


to 


U 
Fig.  2. 


With  any  convenient  radius  and  the  given  fxjint  C, 
as  a  center,  cut  the  line  AB,  at  A  and  B.  Then 
with  a  radius  longer  than  AC,  describe  arcs  from  A 
and  B  intersecting  each  other  at  D  and  E.  Draw 
DC,  perpendicular  to  AB. 


In  laying  out  work  on  the  ground  or  in  places  where  the  straight  edge 
and  dividers  are  inapplicable: 

Set  off  six  feet  from  .1  to  B.  Then  with  .1 ,  as  a  cen- 
ter and  AC  =  8'  taken  on  a  tape  line,  describe  an  arc  at 
C;  with  B,  as  a  center  and  a  radius  BC  =  lo',  cut  the 
other  arc  at  C.  A  line  through  CA ,  will  be  perpendicu- 
lar to  AB.  3,  4  and  s  may  be  used  instead  of  6,  8  and 
lo;  or  any  multiples  of  6,  8,  lo  will  serve. 


\L '^ 

Fig.  3. 


Problem  4 

From  a  Point  at  the  End  of  a  Given  Line  lo  Draw  a  Perpendicular 


From  any  point  C,  above  the  line,  with  the  radius 
AC,  describe  an  arc,  cutting  the  given  line  at  B. 
Draw  BC,  and  prolong  until  it  intersects  the  arc  at  D. 
Then,  DA  will  be  perpendicular  to  .-IB,  at  .4. 


Fig.  4. 


Problem  5 

From  Any  Point  Without  a  Given  Straight  Line,  to  Draw  a  Perpendicular 
to  the  Line 


Let  BC,  be  the  given  line;  then  from  any  point  A, 
with  any  radius  AB,  describe  arcs  cutting  the  line  at 
B  and  C.  From  B  and  C  as  centers  and  any  radius 
greater  than  half  of  BC.  describe  arcs  intersecting  at 
D.    Draw  AD,  perpendicular  to  BC.     (Fig.  5.) 


;:d 
Fig.  s. 


Plane  Geometry 


17 


Problem  6 

To  Draw  a  Straight  Line  Parallel  to  a  Given  Line  at  a  Given  Distance 

from  That  Line 

B  D 

From  any  two  points  on   the  given  line  as    — -y "y^ 

centers   and    the   given   distance   as   a   radius,  I  ; 

■describe  the  arcs  B  and  D.     Draw  BD  parallel  A.  c 

to  AC.     (Fig.  6.)  Fig.  6. 

Problem  7 

To  Divide  a  Given  Straight  Line  into  Any  Nnnher  of  Equal  Parts 

Let  AB  he  the  given  line.     Draw  any 

—  c       line  AC,  intersecting  the  given  line  and  lay 

ofE  on  it,  say,  5  equal  parts.     Join  the  last 

point  5  with  B.     Then  through  each  of  the 

Fig.  7.  other  divisions  on  AC,  draw  lines  parallel  to 

B  5,  dividing  y4B  into  5  equal  parts.  (Fig.  7.) 

Problem  8 

To  Draw  an  Angle  of  60°,  also  One  of  30° 

From  A  with  any  radius  describe  the  arc  CB,  then 
with  the  same  radius  and  5,  as  a  center,  cut  the  arc  at 
C.     Then  the  angle  CAB  =  60°. 

From  C  drop  CD  perpendicular  io  AB.  The  angle 
ACD  =  30°. 

Problem  9 

To  Draw  an  Angle  of  45° 


Draw  BC,  perpendicular  to  AB.     Make  BC  =  AB, 
and  draw  AC.     The  angle  CAB  =  45°.     (Fig.  9.) 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 

Problem  10 

To  Bisect  an  Angle 

Let  ABC  be  the  given  angle.  With  5  as  a  center  and 
any  radius,  draw  the  arc  AC.  Then  with  A  and  C  as 
centers  and  a  radius  greater  than  one-half  AC,  describe 
arcs  cutting  each  other  at  D.  Draw  BD,  which  will 
bisect  the  angle  ABC.     (Fig,  10.) 


Fig.  10. 


x8 


Plane  (icornctry 


Problem   11 

Through  Two  Given  Points  and  W  ilh  a  Given  Radius  Describe  I  he  Arc 

of  a  Circle 

Referring  to  I'ig.  lo.  Let  .1  and  C  be  the  given  jKiinls  and  a  distance 
AB  the  given  radius. 

From  ,1  and  C,  with  AB  as  a  radius  describe  arcs  cutting  each  other 
at  B,  then  with  B  as  a  center  strike  AC. 

All  Angles  in  a  semicircle  are  Kiglit  Angles. 


Problem  12 

An  Angle  al  the  Center  of  a  Circle  is  Twice  the  Angle  at  the  Circumference 
when  Both  Slatul  on  the  same  Arc 


C         Thus  the  angle  BAC  is  equal  to  twice  the  angle 
BDC.     (Fig.  II.) 


Fig.  II. 

Problem   13 

All  the  Angles  Between  an  Arc  and  its  Chord,  the  Sides  of  the  Angle  Pass- 
ing Through  the  Extremities  of  t/ie  Chord,  are  Equal.     (Fig.  12.) 


Thus,  the  angle  EFG  =  FJIG. 


Fig.  12. 


Problem  14 
To  Find  the  Center  of  a  Circle  or  of  an  Arc.     (Fig.  13.) 

Take  an}'  three  convenient  points  on  the  circum- 
ference, and  with  anj'  radius  greater  than  half  the 
distance  between  any  two  points,  describe  arcs  cut- 
ting each  other  at  d,  c,  f  and  g.  Through  d,  f  and 
e,  g,  draw  the  lines  df  and  eg;  the  center  is  at  their 
Fig.  13.  intersection  H. 


Problem  15 
To  Pass  a  Circle  Through  Three  Given  Points 
Referring  to  Problem  14,  let  a,  b  and  c  be  the  three  given  points. 
Proceed  in  the  same  way  as  to  find  the  center  H. 


Plane  Geometry 


19 


Problem  16 

To  Describe  an  Arc  of  a  Circle  Passing  Through  Three  Given  Poitils 
when  the  Center  is  not  Accessible.     (Fig.  14.) 

Let  A ,  B  and  C  be  the  three  given  points. 

From  A  and  B  as  centers  and  with  AB  a.s  a,  radius,  describe  the  arcs 
AE  and  BD. 

Draw  AD  and  BE  through  C.  Lay  ofi  on 
the  arc  AE,  any  number  of  equal  parts 
above  E  and  on  BD,  the  same  number  be- 
low D,  numbering  the  points  i,  2,  3,  etc.,  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  taken.  Draw 
from  A,  lines  through  i,  2,  3,  etc.,  on  the 
arc  BD;  and  from  B,  lines  through  i,  2,  3, 
etc.,  on  the  arc  AE.  The  intersections  of 
lines  having  corresponding  numbers  will  be  points  on  the  required  arc 
between  C  and  B. 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  find  points  between  C  and  A.     Then 
draw  the  arc  through  the  points. 


Fig.  14. 


Problem  17 

From  a  Point  on  the  Circumference  of  a  Circle  Draw  a  Tangent  to 
the  Circle.     (Fig.  15.) 


Through  the  given  point  A  draw  the  radial  line 
AC.  Then  on  AC  erect  the  perpendicular  BE,  as 
in  Problem  3. 


Fig.  is. 


Problem  18 

From  a  Point  Without  a  Circle  Draw  a  Tangent  to  the  Circle.     (Fig.  16.) 


Let  A  be  the  center  of  the  circle,  and  B  the 
given  point.  Join  A  and  B,  and  on  the  line  AB 
describe  a  semicircle,  with  a  radius  equal  to  one- 
half  oi  AB.  Through  the  intersection  of  the 
semicircle  and  the  given  circle  draw  the  tangent 
BC. 


Fig.  16. 


20  Plain-  (icomclry 

Problem  19 

Through  a  Point  on  a  Line,  liiurling  the  Anglf  Betwern  Two  Lines,  Draw 
a  Circle  Which  Shall  be  Tangent  to  the  Given  Lines.     (Fig.  17.) 


Fig.  17. 


Let  A  he  the  point  on  a  line  bisect- 
ing the  angle  between  BC  and  DE. 
Through  .1  draw  CVipcrjjendicuIar  to 
AF.  Bisect  the  angles  at  C  and  E. 
The  intersection  G  of  the  bisecting 
lines  will  be  on  AF  and  at  the  center 
of  the  required  circle. 


Problem  20 

Describe  an  Arc,  Tangent  to  Two  Given  Arcs  and  at  a  Given  Point 
on  one  of  the  Arcs.     (Fig.  18.) 


Let  A  and  B  be  the  centers  of  the  given  arcs 
and  C  the  point  of  tangency  on  the  arc,  whose 
center  is  B.  Join  A  and  B  and  draw  BC  through 
the  given  point.  Make  CE  equal  to  the  radius 
AD. 

Bisect  AE,  draw  a  perpendicular  at  its  middle 
point  and  prolong  to  intersection  with  BC  at  F, 
which  is  the  center  of  the  arc  required. 


Fig.  18. 


Problem  21 

To  Construct  a  Pentagon  having  a  Given  Side  AB.     (Fig.  19.) 

At  B  erect  a  perpendicular  BC,  equal  to  one-half  AB.  Draw  AC  and 
make  CD  equal  BC.  Then  BD  is  the  radius  of  the 
circle  circumscribing  a  pentagon  having  sides  equal 
to  AB. 

The  radius  of  a  given  circle  is  the  side  of  an  in- 
scribed he.xagon. 

The  radius  of  a  circle  circumscribing  a  hexagon, 
is  equal  to  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  hexa- 
gon to  the  e.xtremity  of  one  of  its  sides. 


Fig.  19. 


Plane  Geometry 


21 


Problem  22 

To  Construct  an  Ellipse  ■when  the  Transverse  attd  Conjugate  Axes 
are  Given.     (Fig.  20.) 

Draw  the  axes  AB  and  CD  intersecting  at  G.  From  C,  with  one- 
half  ^jB  as  a  radius,  cut  .45  at  £  and  F.  Divide  GB  into  any  number 
of  parts  as  at  i,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

With  £  as  a  center  and  4  i  as  a 
radius,  and  with  F  as  a  center  and 
radius  B  i,  strike  arcs  cutting  each 
other  at  i,  i,  above  and  below  the 
transverse  axis. 

Again  with  E  and  F  as  centers 
and  A   2  and  B  2,  respectively  as 
radii,    describe    arcs    cutting    each 
other  at  2,  2.     Find  as  many  points  as  desired  in  the  same  way  in  both 
halves  of  the  ellipse,  then  trace  the  curve. 

This  construction  depends  on  the  property  of  an  ellipse;  that  the  sum 
of  the  distances  from  the  foci  to  any  point  on  the  ellipse  is  equal  to  the 
transverse  axis. 


Problem  23 

To  Describe  an  Ellipse  Mechanically  when  the  Transverse  and  Con- 
jugate Axes  are  Known.     (Fig.  21.) 

Draw  the  axes  and  determine  the  foci  as  in  Problem  22.     Drive  two 
pins  at  the  foci  E  and  F.     Fasten  to  each  of  the  pins  one  end  of  a  cord 

whose  length  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
transverse  axis. 

Then  with  a  pencil,  so  placed 
within  the  loop  of  the  cord  as 
always  to  keep  it  taut  and  uniformly 
strained,  trace  one-half  of  the  curve, 
from  one  extremity  of  the  trans- 
verse axis  to  the  other.  The  other 
half  of  the  curve  is  traced  by  chang- 
ing the  cord  and  pencil  to  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  transverse  axis.  This 
method  is  seldom  satisfactory  on 
account  of  the  unequal  stretching 
of  the  cord. 

A  better  mechanical  method  of   describing  an  ellipse  is  to  place  a 
straight  edge  along  and  above  the  transverse  axis  and  another  along  and 


1° 

0 0"                 1 

A 

B          C 

Fig.  21. 

22  I'laiii-  (icomelry 

al  one  side  of  the  ronjunate  axis,  as  at  AB  and  CD  (Fig.  21),  leaving  a 
slight  o|)cning  belwctn  llic  end  of  the  straightedge  CZ^and  the  transverse 
axis. 

There  must  also  Lc  a  tliin  strip  of  wood  with  a  hole  for  pencil  |>oint  al 
A  and  small  pins  at  B  and  C;  AB  being  equal  to  one-half  of  the  conju- 
gate axis;  and  AC  equal  to  one-half  the  transverse  axis.  By  moving 
this  strip  so  that  the  pin  B  is  always  in  contact  with  AB  and  the  pin  C 
in  like  contact  with  CD  the  upper  half  of  the  ellipse  may  be  de- 
scribed. 

The  straight  edges  are  placed  in  corresponding  positions  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  transverse  axis  to  describe  the  other  half  of  the 
ellipse. 

Except  where  extreme  accuracy  is  required,  it  is  more  convenient  to 
approximate  the  ellipse  with  circular  arcs. 
Thus:  Lay  off  AB  and  CD  (Fig.  22) 
equal  to  the  transverse  and  conjugate  axes 
respectively.  Make  Oa  and  Oc  equal  to 
the  difference  between  the  semi-transverse 
and  semi-conjugate  axes,  and  ad  equal  to 
one-half  ac.  Set  off  Oe  equal  to  Od.  Draw 
di  parallel  to  ac;  join  e  and  /  and  draw  the 
parallel  lines  dm  and  em.  From  m,  with  a 
radius  mC,  strike  an  arc  cutting  jnd  and  me.  From  i,  with  iD  as  a 
radius,  strike  an  arc  cutting  id  and  ie.  Then  from  d  and  e,  with  radius 
Ad,  strike  arcs  closing  the  figure. 


The  Parabola 

A  parabola  is  a  curve  every  point  of  which  is  equidistant  from  a  line 
called  the  directrix  and  from  a  point  on  its  axis  called  the  focus.  The 
directrix  is  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  axis  and  at  the  same  distance  as 
the  focus  from  the  apex  of  the  curve. 

.'\  line  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  drawn  through  the  focus  to  the  cur\e, 
is  called  the  parameter. 

If  a  line  be  drawn  from  any  point  of  the  curve,  perpendicular  to  the 
axis,  the  distance  from  the  apex  to  the  intersection  of  the  perpendicular 
with  the  axis  is  called  the  abscissa  of  that  point  and  the  distance  from 
the  intersection  at  the  axis  to  the  curve  is  called  the  ordinate  of  that 
point. 

Abscissae  of  a  parabola  are  as  the  squares  of  corresponding  ordi- 
nates. 


The  Hyperbola 


23 


Problem  24 

To  Construct  a  Parabola  -when  the  Focus  and  Directrix 
are  Given.     (Fig.  23.) 
Let  AB  he  the  directrix,  and  C  the 
focus  of  a  parabola.  Bisect  CD  at  E,  which 
point  is  the  apex  of  the  curve. 

Then  with  C  as  a  center  and  any  radii, 
as  C  I,  C  2,  etc.,  strike  arcs  at  i,  2  and  3, 
etc.  From  D  as  a  center  and  with  the 
radii  equal  to  C  i,  C  2,  C  3,  etc.,  cut  the 
a.xis  at  i',  2',  3',  etc.  Through  these  points 
draw  hnes  parallel  to  AB. 

The  intersection  of  corresponding  parallels  and  arcs  are  points  on  the 
required  curve. 

Problem  25 

To  Construct  a  Parabola  when  an  Abscissa  and  Its  Corre- 
sponding Ordinate  are  Given.     (Fig.  24.) 


Fig.  23. 


Fig.  24. 


Let  BA  be  the  given  abscissa  and  AD 
the  ordinate. 

Bisect  AD  at  E.  Draw  EB,  and  EF 
perpendicular  to  EB.  Set  off  BG  and  BK, 
each  equal  to  AF.  Then  will  G  be  the 
focus  and  LM  (through  K)  perpendicular 
to  ^B,  the  directrix.  Construct  the  curve 
as  in  Problem  24. 


The  Hyperbola 

An  hyperbola  is  a  cur\'e,  such  that  the  difference  of  the  distances  from 
any  point  of  it  to  two  fixed  points  is  always  equal  to  a  given  distance. 

The  two  fixed  points  are  called  the  foci  and  the  given  distance  is  the 
transverse  axis.  The  conjugate  axis  is  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  trans- 
verse axis  at  its  middle  point;  and  its  length  is  equal  to  the  side  of  a 
rectangle,  of  which  the  transverse  axis  is  the  other  side  and  the  distance 
between  the  foci,  the  diagonal. 


Problem  26 

To  Construct  an  Hyperbola  when  the  Foci  and  Transverse  Axis  are  Given 

Let  A  and  B  be  the  foci  and  EF  the  transverse  axis.     From  A  set  oflf 

AG  equal  to  EF.    Then,  from  .4  as  a  center  and  with  any  distance 

greater  than  AF  as  a  radius,  strike  an  arc  CD,  cutting  the  transverse 


24 


Plane  CJcomelry 


axis  (pri)IonKC<l)  at  //.  From  ^  as  a  center  and  flG  as  a  radius,  describe 
arcs  cutting  the  arc  CD  at  C  and  D.  C  and  D  will  l>e  jxjints  on  the  curve; 
in  like  manner  any  number  of  (joints  arc  determined,  Uirough  which  the 
curve  may  be  traced. 

Proceeding  in  the  same  way  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  conjugate  axis,  the  other  branch  of  the  curve 
is  constructed. 

The  diagonals  of  a  rectangle  constructed  on  the 
transverse  and  conjugate  axes  are  called  the 
asymptotes  and  are  hnes  to  which  the  cur\'e  is 
tangent  at  an  infinite  distance.  When  the  asymp- 
totes are  at  right  angles  the  cur\e  is  called  an  equi- 
lateral hjTJerbola. 
It  is  a  property  of  the  equilateral  hyperbola,  that  if  the  asymptotes 
be  taken  as  the  co-ordinate  axes  the  product  of  the  abscissa  and  ordinate 
of  an}-  point  of  the  curve  is  equal  to  the  corresponding  product  of  the 
co-ordinates  at  any  other  point;  or  that  the  diagonal  of  a  rectangle  con- 
structed by  the  ordinate  and  abscissa  of  any  point  of  the  curve  passes 
tlirough  the  intersection  of  the  axes. 


Fig.  25. 


Problem  27 

Given  the  Asymptotes  and  any  Point  on  lite  Curve,  to  Construct 
the  Curve.     (Fig.  26.) 


Let  AB  and  AG  he.  the  asymptotes  and  D  the  given 

point.     Multiply  AB  by  AE  and  divide  the  product 

AB  X  AE 
by  any  other  distance  AF;  then  AG  =  ' ye ' 

and  the  intersection  at  /  of  lines  through  F  and  G, 
parallel  to  the  axes,  is  another  point  on  the  cur\'e. 


/ 


Fig.  26. 


Properties  of  Plane  Figures 

(i)   In  a  right  angle  triangle,  the  square  of  the  hypothenuse  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  other  two  sides. 

(2)  In  an  equilateral  triangle  all  the  angles  are  equal. 

(3)  In  an  isosceles  triangle  a  line  drawn  from  the  vertex  perpendicular 
to  the  base  bisects  the  base  and  also  the  angle  at  the  vertex. 

(4)  An  exterior  angle  of  a  triangle  equals  the  sum  of  the  two  opposite 
angles. 

(s)    Similar  triangles  have  equal  angles  and   the  sides  opposite  to 
corresponding  angles  are  proportional. 


Properties  of  Plane  Figures  25 

(6)  In  any  polygon,  the  sum  of  all  the  interior  angles  is  equal  to  twice 
as  many  right  angles  as  the  figure  has  sides,  less  four  right  angles. 

(7)  In  any  polygon  the  sum  of  all  the  exterior  angles  is  equal  to  four 
right  angles,  or  360°. 

(S)  The  diagonals  of  any  regular  polygon  intersect  at  the  center 
of  the  figure. 

(9)  A  circle  may  be  passed  through  any  three  points,  not  on  the  same 
straight  line. 

(10)  In  the  same  circle,  arcs  are  proportional  to  the  angles  at  the 
center. 

(11)  Any  two  arcs  having  the  same  angle  at  the  center  are  propor- 
tional to  their  radii. 

(12)  Areas  of  circles  are  proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  diameters 
or  the  squares  of  the  radii. 

(13)  A  radius  perpendicular  to  the  chord  of  an  arc  bisects  the  arc 
and  its  chord. 

(14)  A  straight  line  tangent  to  a  circle  is  perpendicular  to  the  radius 
at  the  point  of  tangency. 

(15)  An  angle  at  the  center  of  the  circle  is  equal  to  twice  the  angle 
at  the  circumference  subtended  by  the  same  arc. 

(16)  Angles  at  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  standing  on  the  same 
arc,  are  equal. 

(17)  Any  triangle  inscribed  in  a  semicircle  is  a  right  angled  tri- 
angle. 

(18)  In  any  triangle  inscribed  in  a  segment  of  a  circle,  the  angles  at 
the  circumference  are  equal. 

(19)  Parallel  chords  or  a  chord  and  a  parallel  tangent  intercept 
equal  arcs. 

(20)  If  two  chords  of  a  circle  intersect,  the  rectangles  made  by  the 
segments  of  the  respective  chords  are  equal. 

(21)  If  one  of  the  chords  is  a  diameter  of  the  circle  and  the  other  is 
perpendicular  to  it,  then  one-half  of  the  chord  is  a  mean  proportional 
between  the  segments  of  the  diameter. 

(22)  In  any  circle,  with  the  center  as  the  origin  of  co-ordinates,  the 
sum  of  the  squares  of  the  abscissa  and  ordinate  of  any  point  is  equal  to 
the  square  of  the  radius,  or  x^  +  y^  =  I^- 

(23)  In  any  ellipse  with  same  origin,  the  square  of  the  abscissa  of  any 
point  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the  semi-conjugate  axis  plus  the  square 
of  the  ordinate  of  same  point  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the  semi- 
transverse  a.xis  is  .equal  to  the  square  of  the  product  of  the  semi-axes. 

Thus:  5lv^  4-  A'^'f  =  A^B'^,  where  A  and  B  are  the  semi- transverse 
and  semi-conjugate  axes. 


26 


Mensuration 


(j4)  In  an  ellipse,  lines  drawn  from  any  j)<)inl  to  the  foci  make  equal 
angles  with  a  LanKcnt  at  that  [Kjint. 

(25)  The  sum  of  the  distances  from  any  f)»jint  <jf  an  ellipse  to  the  foci 
is  equal  to  the  transverse  axis. 

(26)  If  from  any  point  of  a  parabola  a  line  be  drawn  to  the  focus,  and 
one  |)arallcl  to  the  axis,  they  will  make  equal  angles  with  the  tangent  at 
that  point. 

(27)  The  apex  of  a  parabola  bisects  the  distance  on  the  axis  from  the 
focus  to  the  directrix. 

(2S)  The  angle  Ijctween  two  tangents  to  a  parabola  is  equal  to  half 
the  angle  at  the  focus,  subtended  by  the  chord  joining  the  points  of 
tangency. 

(29)  The  area  included  between  any  chord  of  a  parabola  and  the  cur\'e 
is  equal  to  two-thirds  that  of  the  triangle  formed  by  the  chord  and 
tangents  through  its  extremities. 

(30)  The  difTerence  between  the  focal  distances  of  any  point  of  an 
hyperbola  is  equal  to  the  transverse  axis. 

(31)  The  product  of  the  perpendiculars  from  the  foci  to  any  tangent 
of  an  hyperbola  is  constant. 

(32)  .\  tangent  at  any  point  of  an  hyperbola  makes  equal  angles  with 
the  focal  distances  of  the  point. 


SECTION  IV 
MENSURATION 


PL.Wl-:   .SUklACKS 
Triangles 


The  area  of  any  triangle  is  equal  to  half  the 
base  multiplied  by  the  altitude.     (Fig.  ^7.) 

Area  =  ^^  X  CD. 


To  solve  a  triangle,  three  sides,  two  angles 
and  one  side  or  two  sides  and  one  angle  must 
be  given. 

The  area  of  a  parallelogram  is  equal  to  the 
base  multiplied  by  the  perpendicular  distance 
between  the  sides  =  AB  X  CD.    (Fig.  28.) 


Fig.  28. 


Triangles 


27 


The  area  of  a  trapezoid  is  equal  to  half  the 
sum  of  the  parallel  sides  multiplied  by  the  per- 
pendicular distance  between  them.     (Fig.  29.) 


Area  = 


AB  +  CD 


X  CE. 


Fig.  29. 
is   equal 


The  area  of  a  trapezium  is  equal  to  the 
diagonal  multiphed  by  half  the  sum  of  the 
perpendiculars  dropped  to  it  from  the  vertices 
of  the  opposite  angles.    (Fig.  30.) 

^„      AE  +  DF 
Area  =  CB  X 


The  area  of  any  quadrilateral  is  found 
by  multiplying  the  diagonal  by  one-half  the 
sum  of  the  perpendiculars  dropped  from  the 
vertices  of  the  opposite  angles.    (Fig.  31.) 
DE  +  BF 


Area  =  AC  X 


Fig.  31. 


If  the  diagonal  falls  without  the  figure,  the 
area  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  diagonal 
by  half  the  difference  of  the  perpendiculars. 
(Fig.  32.) 

Area  =ABCD  =  AC  X  ^^  ~  ^^ . 


A  polygon  is  a  plane  figure  bounded  by  three  or  more  straight  lines; 
it  is  regular  or  irregular  according  as  the  lines  bounding  it  are  equal  or 
unequal. 

If  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  the  center  of  a  regular  polygon  to  each 
of  the  vertices  of  the  interior  angles,  the  polygon  will  be  divided  into  as 
many  isosceles  triangles  as  it  has  sides.  Each  triangle  will  have  for  its 
base  one  of  the  sides  of  the  polygon  and  for  its  altitude  the  perpendicular 
distance  from  the  center  of  the  polygon  to  that  side.  The  area  of  the 
polygon  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  all  the  triangles,  and  is 
found  by  multiplying  one-half  the  sum  of  all  the 
sides  of  the  polygon  by  the  perpendicular  distance 
from  the  center  to  one  of  its  sides. 

To  find  the  area  of  an  irregular  polygon,  divide 
the  polygon  into  triangles  and  take  the  sum  of 
their  areas. 


!S^D 


I  !5t56789IO 


Fig.  33. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  Any  Irregular  Plane  Figure 

Let  C  D  E  F  G  he  any  irregular  figure.     Draw  any  straight  line  AB 
as  a  base;    through  the  extremities  of  the  figure  drop  perpendiculars 


a3  Mensuration 

CA  and  Fli  to  the  base.  Divifle  AB  into  any  number  of  equal  parts, 
say  ID.  'I'hrough  llic  middle  points  of  each  of  the  equal  divisions  draw 
|)cr|)cndiculars  cutting  the  [boundaries  of  the  figure  on  opposite  sides. 
Take  the  sum  of  the  lengths  of  all  these  lines  within  the  figure  and  divide 
such  sum  by  the  number  of  divisions;  the  quotient  is  the  mean  width  of 
the  figure  which  nuilliplied  by  its  length  AB  gives  the  area. 

Thus:     ab  +  cd  -\-  cf  etc.  =  //;     then     ~  X  AB  ecjuals  the  area  of 
CDEFG. 

The  Circle 

The  ratio  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  to  its  diameter  is  equal  to 
3.14159.     This  is  represented  by  the  Greek  letter  t,  pronounced  Pi. 

Let         C  =  the  circumference  of  any  circle. 
D  =  the  diameter  of  any  circle, 
r  =  the  radius  of  any  circle. 
A  =  area  of  any  circle. 

The  areas  of  circles  are  as  the  squares  of  their  diameters,  or  as  the 
squares  of  their  radii. 

C  =  wD  =  3.14159  X  D. 
C  =  2Trr  =  6.28318  X  r. 
A  =  Trr-  =  3.14159  X  r^ 
A  =  InET-  =  0.7854  X  Zr-. 

CP 

A  =  —  =  0.07958  X  (?. 

47r 
A  =  0.7854  X  4  r^ 

A  =^  =  — 

~   2         4  * 

Z?  =  -  =  0.3183  X  C. 


2  \'—  =  i.i: 


84V/I, 


r  =  —  =  0.5642  Va. 

2  TV 


The  Ellipse 


29 


The  Ellipse 

The  ellipse  is  a  curve  formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  plane  inclined 
to  the  axis  of  a  cone  or  cylinder,  where  the  plane  does  not  cut  the  base. 


To  Find  the  Length  of  any  Ordinate,  HK  or  LM,  Knowing  the  Two 
Diameters  AB  and  CD,  and  the  Abscisses  OK  and  OM 


HK 


AB'  :  CD^  ::  AK  X  KB  :  HK\ 
^  J  CD'  X  (AKX  KB) 


AB^ 


CD 
AB 


VaK  X  KB, 


The  circumference  of  an  ellipse  is  found  from  the  formula  below, 
wherein  D  =  transverse  diameter  and  d  =  conjugate  diameter.     C  = 

d{D  -  d) 


d)- 


circumference  =  2,-T-A'iS  d  -\-  2  {D 

V        2  8.8 


V{D  +  d)x{D  +  2d) 


C  =  3.1415 


These  formulas  apply  where  large  D  is  not  more  than  five  times  as 
long  as  d. 

The  area  of  an  ellipse  is  equal  to  that  of  an  annular  ring  of  which  the 
siun  and  difference  of  the  radii  of  the  limiting  circles  are  respectively 
equal  to  the  semi-axes  of  the  ellipse. 

Thus  TT  (f2  —  r'^)  ==Tr{r  +  r')  X  {r  —  r') ;  then  if  (r  +  r')  equals  the  semi- 
transverse  axis  equals  A,  and  (r  —  r')  equals  the  semi-conjugate  axis 
equals  S,  the  area  of  the  ellipse  equals  tt  {AB)  or  w  into  the  product  of 
the  semi-axes  or  into  the  product  of  the  axes,  divided  by  four. 


30  Men  Ml  rat  ion 

SOLIDS 
The  Priam 

A  prism  is  a  solid  whose  bases  or  ends  arc  similar,  equal  and  parallel 
polyj^ons  and  wiiose  sides  arc  parallelograms.  The  prism  is  right  or 
ohli(iuc  according  as  the  sides  are  jK-Tpemlicular  to  or  inclined  to  the  ends; 
regular  or  irregular,  as  the  ends  are  regular  or  irregular  polygons. 

The  surface  of  any  prism  is  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  sides  added  to 
that  of  the  ends. 

To  find  the  surface  of  a  right  i)rism,  multiply  the  i>erimeler  of  its  base 
liy  its  altitude;  to  this  i)roduct  add  the  areas  of  the  ends. 

The  volume  of  any  prism  is  ecjual  to  the  area  of  its  base  multiplied 
by  its  altitude,  or  perpendicular  distance  between  the  ends. 

The  volume  of  any  fruslum  of  a  prism  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the 
sum  of  all  the  edges  (divided  by  their  number;,  and  the  area  of  the  cross 
section  perpendicular  to  those  edges. 

The  Pyramid 

A  pyTamid  is  a  solid  having  any  jjolNgun  for  its  base;  and  for  its  sides 
triangles,  terminating  at  one  point  called  the  apex 

The  a.xis  of  a  pyramid  is  a  straight  line  from  the  ape.x  to  the  center  of 
gravity  of  its  base. 

A  pyramid  is  right  or  oblique  according  as  the  a.xis  is  perpendicular 
or  inclined  to  the  base;  regular  or  irregular,  as  the  base  is  a  regular  or 
irregular  figure. 

The  slant  height  is  the  distance  from  the  vertex  of  any  of  the  tri- 
angular sides  to  the  middle  point  of  its  base. 

The  surface  of  any  pjTamid  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  all  the 
triangles  of  which  it  is  composed  plus  the  area  of  the  base. 

The  surface  of  a  right  regular  pyramid  is  equal  to  the  perimeter  of  its 
base  multiplied  by  half  the  slant  height  plus  the  area  of  the  base. 

The  volume  of  any  pyramid  is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  base  multiplictl 
by  one-third  of  the  altitude;  or  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the  apex 
to  the  base.  It  is  also  equal  to  one-third  the  volume  of  a  cylinder  having 
the  same  base  and  altitude;  or  to  one-half  the  volume  of  a  hemisphere 
having  the  same  base  and  altitude. 

The  volumes  of  a  pyramid,  hemisphere  and  cylinder,  having  the  same 
base  and  altitude  are  to  each  other  as  i,  2  and  3. 

Frustrum  of  a  Pjrramid 

The  frustrum  of  a  pyramid  is  the  section  between  two  i)lanes  which 
may  or  may  not  be  parallel. 


Polyhedra  31 

The  slant  height  of  any  side  of  a  frustrum  of  a  pyramid  is  measured 
from  the  middle  points  of  the  top  and  bottom  sides  of  the  trapezium 
forming  that  side. 

To  find  the  surface  of  any  frustrum  of  apyramid,  take  the  sum  of  the 
areas  of  all  the  trapeziums  forming  the  sides,  to  which  add  the  sum  of 
the  top  and  base. 

The  surface  of  a  frustrum  of  a  right  regular  pyramid,  where  the  top 
and  base  are  parallel  planes,  is  equal  to  one-half  the  sum  of  the  perimeters 
of  top  and  base  multiplied  by  the  slant  height  plus  the  sum  of  the  areas 
of  the  top  and  base. 

The  volume  of  any  frustrum  of  any  pyramid,  with  top  and  base 
parallel,  is  equal  to  one-third  the  perpendicular  distance  between  top 
and  base  multiplied  by  the  sums  of  the  areas  of  top  and  base,  and  the 
square  root  of  the  product  of  those  areas. 

Thus  H,  being  the  perpendicular  and  A  and  A'  the  areas  of  top  and 
base,  respectively,  then  the  volume  equals  \  H  X  {A  -\-  A'  -\-  ^ A  X  A') 
or  A"  being  equal  to  the  area  of  a  section  midway  between  and  parallel 
to  base  and  top,  the  volume  =  V  =  I  H  {A  +A'  +  4A"). 

A  prismoid  is  a  solid  having  six  sides,  two  of  which  are  parallel  but 
unequal'  quadrangles,  and  the  other  sides  trapeziums. 

To  find  the  Volume  of  a  Prismoid 

Let         A  =  area  of  one  of  the  parallel  sides. 
a  —  area  of  the  other  parallel  side. 
M  =  area  of  cross  section  midway  between  and  parallel  to 

the  parallel  sides. 
L  =  perpendicular  distance  between  the  two  parallel  sides. 
Then  Volume^  £X  ^4  +  «  +  4^/j. 

The  Wedge 

The  wedge  is  a  frustrum  of  a  triangular  prism.  Its  volume  is  equal 
to  the  area  of  a  right  section  multiplied  by  one-third  the  sum  of  the 
lengths  of  the  three  parallel  edges. 

Let  A  equal  area  of  section  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  prism  and 
BC,  DE  and  FG,  the  lengths  of  the  parallel  edges  respectively. 

Then  Volume  of  wedge  =  A • 

3 

Polyhedra 

A  polyhedron  is  a  solid  bounded  by  plane  surfaces. 
A  regular  polyhedron  is  one  whose  bounding  faces  are  all  equal  and 
regular  polygons. 


32 


Mcii.suratiun 


There  are  five  regular  polyhcdra  as  follows: 


Name 

Bounded  by 

Surface 
"  sum  of  sur- 
faces of  all  the 
faces 
=  square  of 
the  length  of 
one  edg«;  by 

\'olume 
•     tof 
Kth 
,,.  by 

Tetrahedron 

Cube  or  hexahedron 

Octahedron 

Dodecahedron 

4  Equilateral  trianRlcs.. . 

6  squares 

8  EquiLiteral  trianRles.. 
12  Equilateral  pentagons. 
20  Equilateral  triangles. . 

1.7320 
6.000 
3  4641 
20.6458 
8.6602 

.1178 
1.000 

.4714 
7.6631 
2.1817 

The  Cylinder 

A  cylinder  may  be  delincd  as  u  pri.-^m,  oi  which  a  section  perpendicular 
to  its  axis  is  a  circle.     It  may  be  right  or  oblique. 

The  base  of  a  right  cylinder  is  a  circle,  that  of  an  oblique  cylinder  an 
ellipse. 

The  surface  of  any  cylinder  is  ccjual  to  the  product  of  the  circumference 
of  a  circle  whose  plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  by 
the  length  of  the  axis,  plus  the  area  of  the  ends. 

The  volume  of  a  cylinder  is  equal  to  the  area  of  a  circle  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  multiplied  by  its  altitude. 


The  Cone 

A  cone  is  a  pyramid  having  an  infinite  number  of  sides. 

Cones  are  right  or  oblique  according  as  their  axes  are  perpendicular 
or  inclined  to  their  bases. 

The  surface  of  a  right  cone  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  perimeter 
of  the  base  by  half  the  slant  height,  plus  the  area  of  the  base. 

The  surface  of  an  oblique  cone,  cut  from  a  right  cone  having  a  circular 

base,  is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  base,  multiplied  by  the  altitude  and 

divided  by  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the  axis  at  the  point  where 

it  pierces  the  base,  to  the  surface  of  the  cone,  plus  the  area  of  the  base; 

AH 
or  the  curv^ed  surface  of  the  cone  equals  -^  •     Wherein  A  is  the  area 

K 

of  the  base,  II  the  altitude  and  R  the  perpendicular. 

The  volume  of  any  cone  is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  base  multiplied  by 
one-third  of  the  altitude. 

The  volume  of  a  cone  is  equal  to  one-third  that  of  a  cylinder,  or  one- 
half  that  of  an  hemisphere  having  same  base  and  altitude. 


The  Sphere  33 

The  surface  of  a  right  circular  frustrum  of  a  cone  with  top  and  base 
parallel  is  found  by  adding  together  the  circumferences  of  top  and  base, 
multiplying  this  sum  by  one-half  the  slant  height;  to  this  product  add 
the  area  of  top  and  base  to  get  the  total  surface. 

The  volume  of  a  frustrum  of  any  cone,  with  top  and  base  parallel,  is 
equal  to  one-third  of  the  altitude  multiplied  by  the  sum  of  the  areas  of 
top  and  base  plus  the  square  root  of  the  product  of  those  areas,  or  equals 
I  the  altitude 


X  (area  of  top  -\-  area  of  base  +  v  area  of  top  X  area  of  base). 


The  Sphere 

A  sphere  is  a  solid  generated  by  revolving  a  semicircle  about  its 
diameter. 

The  intersection  of  a  sphere  with  any  plane  is  a  circle. 
A  circle  cut  by  the  intersection  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere  and  a  plane 
passing  through  its  center  is  a  great  circle. 

The  volume  of  a  sphere  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  solid  having 
an  equal-surface. 

The  surface  of  a  sphere  equals  that  of  four  great  circles. 
Surface  =  ^wr"^. 
=  ttDK 
"         =  curved  surface  of  a  circumscribing  cylinder. 
"         =  area  of  a  circle  having  twice  the  diameter  of  the  sphere. 

The  surface  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  that  of  a  circumscribing  cube 
multiplied  by  0.5236. 

Surfaces  of  spheres  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their  diameters. 

Volume  of  a  Sphere 

Volume  =  ^irr^  =  4.1888  r'' 
"       =  lirD' =  0.5236  D^ 
"       =1  volume  of  circumscribing  cylinder. 
"       =  0.5236  volume  of  circumscribing  cube. 

Volumes  of  spheres  are  to  each  other  as  the  cubes  of  their  diameters. 
Radius  of  a  sphere  =  0.62035  v  volume. 

Circumference  of  sphere       =  v  59.2176  volume. 

=  V3.1416  X  area  of  surface. 
_  Area  of  surface 
Diameter 


34  Mfiisiiniiion 

I'hf  urea  of  the  rurvwl  surface  c)f  a  spherical  segment  is  Cfjual  to  the 
l>r<Kluct  of  the  circumference  of  a  ureal  lirclc  !)>'  the  height  of  the  scg- 
minl  =  rrDII ,  where  I)  is  the  diameter  of  the  sjjhere  and  //  the  height 
of  the  spherical  segment. 

The  curved  surface  of  a  segment  of  a  sphere  is  to  the  whole  surface 
of  the  sjjhere  as  the  height  of  the  segment  is  to  the  diameter  of  the 
s|)heru. 

To  Find  the  Volume  of  a  Spherical  Segment 

Let  R  =  radius  of  base  of  segment. 

//  =  height. 

Then  volume  of  segment  =  ^  nil  (3  /?^  +  //'). 

To  tind  the  curved  surface  of  a  spherical  zone,  multiply  the  circum- 
ference of  the  sphere  by  the  height  of  the  zone. 

To  find  the  volume  of  a  spherical  zone,  let  A  and  A'  be  the  radii  of 
tlic  ends  of  the  zone  and  //  be  the  height  and  V  the  volume. 

Then  K  =  i  t//  (jC-F  +  -'1=')  +  IP). 

Guldin's  Theorems 

(i)  If  any  plane  curve  be  revolved  about  any  external  a.xis  situated 
in  its  plane,  the  surface  generated  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  perimeter 
of  the  curs'c  and  the  length  of  the  path  described  by  the  center  of  gravity 
of  that  perimeter. 

(2)  If  any  plane  surface  be  revolved  about  any  e.\ternal  axis  situated 
in  its  plane,  the  volume  generated  is  equal  to  the  area  of  the  revolving 
surface  multiplied  by  the  path  described  by  its  center  of  gravity. 


CHAPTER  II 

WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 

In  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  measures  of  length  and  weight 
are,  for  the  same  denomination,  essentially  equal;  but  liquid  and  dry 
measures  for  same  denomination  differ  widely.  The  standard  measure 
of  length  for  both  countries  is  that  of  the  simple  seconds  pendulum, 
at  the  sea  level,  in  the  latitude  of  Greenwich;  in  vacuum  and  at  a  tem- 
perature of  62°  F. 

The  length  of  such  a  pendulum  is  39.1393  inches;  36  of  these  inches 
constitute  the  standard  British  Imperial  yard.  This  is  also  the  stand- 
ard in  the  United  States. 

The  Troy  pound  at  the  U.  S.  Mint  of  Philadelphia  is  the  legal  standard 
of  weight  in  the  United  States. 

It  contains  5760  grains  and  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  Imperial  Troy 
pound  of  Great  Britain. 

The  avoirdupois  pound  (commercial)  of  the  United  States  contains 
7000  grains,  and  agrees  with  the  British  avoirdupois  pound  within  o.ooi 
of  a  grain. 

The  metric  system  was  legalized  by  the  United  States  in  1866  but  its 
use  is  not  obligatory. 

The  metre  is  the  unit  of  the  metric  system  of  lengths  and  was  supposed 

to  be  one  ten  millionth, ,  of  that  portion  of  a  meridian  between 

10,000,000 

either  pole  and  the  equator. 

The  metric  measures  of  surface  and  volume  are  the  squares  and  cubes 
of  the  metre,  and  of  its  decimal  fractions  and  multiples. 

The  metric  unit  of  weight  is  the  gramme  or  grain,  which  is  the  weight 
of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  pure  water  at  a  temperature  of  40°  F. 

The  legal  equivalent  of  the  metre  as  established  by  Act  of  Congress 
is  39.37  inches  =  3.28083  ft.  =  1.093611  yards. 

The  legal  equivalent  of  the  gramme  is  15.432  grains. 

The  systems  of  weights  used  for  commercial  purposes  in  the  United 
States  are  as  follows: 

35 


36  Weights  aiul  Mcxisurcs 

Troy  Weight 

For  Gold,  Silver,  Plalimim  and  Jewels,  except  Diamonds  and  Pearls 
24  grains  =  i  (x-nnyweight  (dwt.). 

20  pennyweights  =  i  ounce  =  480  grains. 
12  ounces  =  i  pound  =  5760  grains. 

Apothecaries  Weight 

{For  I'nscriplions  only.) 
20  grains       =  i  scruple     O) 

3  scruples    =  i  drachm    (3)  =      60  grains. 

8  drachms   =  i  ounce      (5)  =   480       " 
12  ounces      =  i  pound      (lb)  =  5760      " 

Avoirdupois  Weight 

For  all  Malcrials  except  those  above  named 
16  drachms  or  437.5  grains  =  i  ounce  (oz.). 
16  ounces  =  i  pound  (lb.)  =  7000  grains. 

28  pounds  =  I  quarter  (qr.). 

4  quarters  =.  i     hundredweight    (cwt.)  = 

112  lbs. 
20  hundredweight  =  i  long  or  gross  ton  =  2240  lb. 

2000  pounds  =  I  short  or  net  ton. 

2204.6  pounds  =  I  metric  ton. 

I  stone  =  14  pounds. 

I  quintal  =  100  pounds. 

The  weight  of  the  grain  is  the  same  for  all  systems  of  weights. 
A  troy  ounce  =  i  .097  avoirdupois  ounces. 

An  avoirdupois  ounce     =     .91146  troy  or  apoth.  ounce. 
A  troy  pound  =     .822S6  avoirdupois  pound. 

An  avoirdupois  pound     =  i .  21528  troy  or  apoth.  pounds. 
The  standard  avoirdupois  pound  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  27.7015  cu. 
in.  distilled  water  at  39.2°  F.,  at  sea  level  and  at  the  latitude  of  Green- 
wich. 

Long  Measure 
12  inches    =  i  foot  =  .3047973  metre. 

3  feet        =  I  yard  =  36  in.  =  .9143919  metre. 

S§  yards    =  i  rod,  pole,  perch  =  i6i  feet    —     198  in. 
40  rods       =  I  furlong  =  220  yards  =    660  ft. 

8  furlongs  =   i  statute  mile       =  320  rods   =  1760  yds.  =  5280  ft. 

3  miles      =  I  league  =    24  furlongs  =  960  rods  =  5 280  yds. 


Square  Measure  37 

Land  Measure 

7.92  inches  =  i  Knk;  100  links  (66  ft.)  =  i  chain  =  4  rods. 

10      chains  =  i  furlong;   8  furlongs  (80  chains)  =  i  mile. 

10  square  chains  =  i  acre. 

Measures  occasionally  used 

y^5  inch         =  I  point;  6  points-x\  in.  =  i  line. 
1000  mils     =  I  inch;  3  in.  =  i  palm;  4  in.  =  i  hand;  9  in.  =  i  span. 
2  yards        =  i  fathom  =  6  feet;  120  fathoms  =  i  cable  length. 
A  geographical   (nautical)   mile  or  knot  =  6087.15   ft.  =  1855.345 

metres  =  1.15287  statute  miles. 
I  knot  =  I  minute  of  longitude  or  latitude  at  the  equator. 

1°  latitude  at  the  equator      =  68.  70  statute  miles. 
1°       "        "  latitude  20°      =68.78 
1°        "        "       "         40°      =69.00       " 
1°        "        "       "         60°      =69.23       " 
1°        "        "       "         90°      =69.41       "  " 

Square  Measure 

144  square  inches  =  i  square  foot. 
9       "      feet       =1      "      yard. 
2,o\       "      yards    =1      "      rod,  perch  or  pole  =  272^  sq.  ft. 
40      "      rods      =  I  rood  =  1210  sq.  yds.  =  108,908  sq.  ft. 
4  roods  (10  sq.  chains)  =  i  acre  =  160  sq.  rods  =  4840  sq.  yds  = 
43,560  sq.  ft. 
640  acres     =  i  sq.  mile  =  i  section. 
An  acre       =  a  square  whose  side  is  208.71  ft. 
A  half  acre  =  a  square  whose  side  is  147.581  ft. 
A  quarter  acre  =  a  square  whose  side  is  104.355  ^t. 
A  circular  inch  is  the  area  of  a  circle  i  inch  in  diameter  and  =  .7854 
sq.  inches. 

I  square  inch  =  1.2732  circular  inches. 

A  circular  mil  is  the  area  of  a  circle  i  mil  or  .001  in.  in  diameter. 

looo^  mils  or  1,000,000  circular  mils  =  i  circular  inch. 

I  square  inch  =  1,273,239  circular  mils. 

A  cylinder,  i  inch  in  diameter  and  i  foot  high,  contains: 
1 .3056  U.  S.  gills. 
.2805  U.  S.  dry  pints. 
.3246  U.  S.  liquid  pints. 
A  cylinder,  one  foot  in  diameter  and  i  foot  high,  contains: 
1357. 1712  cubic  inches.  i-8§.oo64  U.  S.  liquid  gills. 

.7854      "    feet.  47.0016  U.S.      "      pints. 

.02909    "    yards.  23.5008  U.S.      "      quarts. 


38 


\\  eights  and  Measures 


5.8752  U.  S.  liquid  gallons. 
40.3916  U.  S.  dry  pints. 
20.1958  U.S.     "    quarts. 


2.5254    U.  S.  dr)'  pecks. 
0.63112  U.S.    "    bushels. 


Liquid  Measure 

[United  Stdtrs  only) 
4  frills  =  I  pint    =  28.875  cubic  inches. 

2  pints  =  I  quart  =  57.75  cu.  ins.  =  8  gills. 

4  quarts         =  1  gallon  =  231  cu.  in.  =  8  pts.  =  32  gills. 
T,\\  gallons        =  I  barrel  =  126  quarts  =  4. 2 11  cu.  ft. 
63  gallons         =  1  hogshead. 
2  hogsheads   =  i  pipe  or  liull. 
2  pipes  =  I  tun. 

A  puncheon  contains  84  gallons. 
A  tierce  contains  42  gallons. 

A  cube  1. 61 5  ft.  on  edge  contains  3.384  U.  S.  struck  bushels;   or  31 J 
gallons  =  1  bbl.;  or  4. 211  cu.  ft. 


Approximate 
measure 

Diameter 

Height 

iMiatc 

;re 

Diameter 

Height 

I  Gill 
J  Pint 
I  Pint 
I  Quart 

Inches 
1.75 

2.25 

3.50 
3.50 

Inches 
3 
3S 
3 
6 

1  Gallon 

2  Gallons 
8  Gallons 

10  Gallons 

Inches 

7 

7 
14 
14 

Inches 
6 
12 
12 
IS 

The  basis  of  this  measure  is  the  old  British  wine  gallon  of  231  cubic 
inches;   or  8.3388  lbs.  of  distilled  water  at  39°  F.  and  30"  barometer. 
A  cubic  foot  contains  7.48  gallons. 

Apothecaries'  or  Wine  Measure 


Measure 

Symbol 

Pints 

Fluid 
ounces 

Fluid 
drachms 

Minims 

Cubic 
inches 

Weight  of  water 

Ounces 

Grains 

I  Minim 

I  fluid  drachm. 
I  fluid  ounce. . . 

I  pint 

I  gallon 

m 

0 
Cong. 

I 
8 

I 
16 

138 

I 
8 

128 
1034 

I 
60 
480 

7680 
61440 

0.0038 
0.2356 
1.8047 

28.87s 
231 

I  043 
Pounds 
avoir. 
1.043 
8.345 

0-95 
57.05 
456.4 

7301.9 
S84IS 

British  Imperial  Liquid  and  Dry  Measures 


39 


Dry  Measure 

{United  Stales  only) 
2  pints  =  I  quart  =  67.2006  cubic  inches  =  1. 16365  liquid  quarts. 
4  quarts   =  i  gallon  =  8  pints  =  268.80  cubic  inches  =  1. 16365  liq.  gal. 
2  gallons  =  I  peck     =  i6  pints  =  8  qts.  =  537.60  cu.  inches. 
4  pecks  =  I  struck  bu.  =  64  pints  =  32  qts.  =  8  gallons  =21 50.42  cu.  in. 
The  old  Winchester  struck  bushel  containing  2150.42  cubic  inches  or 
77.627  pounds,  avoirdupois,  of  distilled  water  at  its  maximum  density 
is  the  basis  of  this  table. 

Its  legal  dimensions  are  those  of  a  cylinder  i8|  inches  in  diameter  and 
8  inches  deep.  When  heaped,  the  cone  must  not  be  less  than  6  inches 
high;  (the  bushel)  containing  1.5555  cubic  feet  and  equal  to  ij  struck 
bushels. 

Miscellaneous  Measures 

12  pieces    =  i  dozen.  20  pieces    =  i  score. 

12  dozen    =  i  gross.  24  sheets   =  i  quire. 

T  2  gross     =  I  great  gross.  20  quires    =  i  ream. 

2  pieces    =  i  pair. 

Weights  of  Given  Volumes  of  Distilled  Water  at  70°  F. 

United  States  Liquid  Measure 
I  gill        =     .  26005  lt)S. 
I  pint       =  1 .  1402     " 
I  quart    =  2 . 0804     " 
I  gallon   =  8  lbs.  55  oz.  =  8.345  lbs. 
I  barrel   =  315  gals.  =  262. 1310  lbs. 

United  States  Dry  Measure 
I  pint  =     I.  2104  lbs. 

I  quart  =     2 . 4208    " 

I  gallon  =    9.6834    " 

I  peck  =  19.3668    " 

I  bushel  (struck)    =  77.4670    " 

British  Imperial  Liquid  and  Dry  Measures 

Liquid  and  Dry  Measures 
31214  lbs.  avoir,  of  distilled  water. 
24858 


I  gill 
I  pint 
I  quart 
I  gallon 
I  peck 


=    9 
=  19 


I  bushel  =  79 


4971S 


9772 


40 


Weights  and  Measures 


This  system  su|>crse<lcs  the  uld  ones  throughout  flreat  Britain,  and 
is  based  on  the  Imperial  gallon  of  277.274  cubic  inches,  ecjual  to  10  {X)unds 
avoirduiX)is  of  pure  water  at  62°  I'.,  30  in.  Har. 


Metric  Measures 

I  litre  =        2. 1981  lbs.  avoir,  of  pure  water. 

1  centilitre  =  .02198   "       "       "      "        "  =  153,866  gr. 

1  decilitre  =  .2198     "       "       "      "        "  =  3.516902. 

I  decalitre  =       21.9808     "       "       "      " 

I  metre  or  sterc  =  2198.0786     "       "       "      "        " 


Metric  Measures  of  Length  in  U.  S.  Standard 


Inches 


Feet 


Yards 


Miles 


Millimetre*.. 
Centimetref. 
Decimetre — 

Metret 

Decametre  i 
Hectometre  I 
Kilometre  f 
Myriametre  J 


.039370 
.393704 
3  93704 
39  3704 
393  704 
Road 
measures 


.003281 
.032809 
.328087 
3  28087 
32.80869 
328  0869 
3280.869 
32808.69 


. 1093623 
1.093623 
10.93623 
109.3623 
1093.623 
10936.23 


■062137s 

.6213750 

6.213750 


•  About  A  of  an  inch. 


t  About  i  of  an  inch. 


t  About  3  feet  3g  inches. 


Metric  Square  Measure  by  U.  S.  Standard 


Measures  Square  inches      Square  feet      1   Square  yards        Acres 


Square  millimetre... .              .001550  .00001076 

Square  centimetre....              .1,^5003  .00107641] 

Square  decimetre 1 5  5003  .10764101 

Square  meter  or  cen 

tare 1550.03  10.764101 

Square  decametre  or 

aire '1SS003  1076. 4101 

Square  decare* 10764. loi 

Hectare I  Square  miles  107641 .01 

Square  kilometre .3861090  10764101 

Square  myriametre. .         38.61090    1  


.0000012 
.0001196 
.0119601 

1.19601 

119.6011 
1196.011 
11960.11 
1196011 


.000247 

.024711 
.247110 
2.47110 
247-110 
247110 


Seldom  used. 


Metric  Weights,  Reduced  to  Avoirdupois  41 

Metric,  Cubic  or  Solid  Measure  by  U.  S.  Standard 


Cubic  inches 

Millilitre  or  cubic  cen- 

. 0610254 

Liquid 

.0084537  gill. 

Dry 

.0018162  pint. 

.610254 

Liquid 

.084537    gill. 

Dry 

.018162    pint. 

6.10254 

Liquid 

.84537      gill. 

Dry 

.18162     pint. 

61.0254 

Liquid 

1. 05671  quart  =  2.1134  pints. 

Dry 

.11351  peck  =  .9031  qt.  =  1. 816  pts. 

610.254 
Cubic  feet 

■353156 

Liquid 

2.64179  gallons 

Dry 

.283783  bu.  =  1.1351  pks.  =  9.081  qts. 

3  53156 

Liquid 

26.4179  gallons. 

Dry 

2.83783  bushel. 

Kilolitre  or  cubic  metre 

35.3156 

Liquid 

264.179  gallons   )                          , 

Dry 

28.3783  bushels  ) 

Myrialitre  or  decastere. 

353.156 

Liquid 

2641.79  gallons   ) 

Dry 

283.78    bushels  j 

Metric  Weights,  Reduced  to  Avoirdupois 


Measure 


Milligramme 

Centigramme 

Decigramme 

Gramme 

Decagramme 

Hectogramme 

Kilogramme 

Myriagramme 

Quintal 

Tonneau,  millier  or  tonne 


Avoirdupois 


.015432  grains 

.15432 

I. 5432 

15.432 

.022046  lbs. 
.22046 
2.2046 
22.046 
220.46 
2204.6 


The  base  of  the  French  system  of  weights  is  the  gramme;  which  is 
the  weight  of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  distilled  water  at  maximum  density, 
at  the  sea  level  and  at  the  latitude  of  Paris,  Barometer  29.922  inches. 


42 


Weights  an<l  Measures 


Mktkic  LiNKAi.  Mkasuke 


Millimetre.  . 
Centimetre- . 
Decimetre. .. 

Metre 

Decametre . . 
Hectometre. 
Kilometre. .. 
Myriametre. 


Metres    |    Inches 


100 
1000 
lOOOO 


.<J.W,»7 
3937 
3  937 
39  368S 


Feet 


.00328 
.0328 
.3280 
3.2807 
32.807 
328.07 
.^280.7 
32807 


Yards 


.10936 
I  0936 
10.936 
109  36 
1093.6 
I09,j6 


Miloi 


.0621347 
.621347 
6.21347 


Metric  Square  ^^Ieasurz 


Measures 


Square  centimetre 
"  decimetre. 
"       centare.. . . 

Are 

Hectare 


Square 
metres 


Square 
inches 


■  IS5 
155 
1.549-88 
154.988 


Square  kilometre 

"       myriametre . 


Square 
feet 


. 10763 
10.763 
1.076.3 
107,630 


Acres 


Square 
yards 


Acres 


.01196 
1.196       I       .00025 

TTO  <■'  .0247 

2.47 


Square  miles 


247 
24.708 


.38607 
38.607 


Metric,  Cubic  or  Solid  Measure 


Measures 


Cubic  centimetre 
"      decimetres 

Centistere 

Decimstere 

Stere 

Decastere 

Hectostere 


Cubic 
metres 


.0001 
.001 


Cubic 
inches 


.061016s 
61.0165 
610.16s 
6101.6s 


Cubic  feet 


.353105 
3  S3I05 
35.310S 
353. los 
3531 .OS 


Cubic 
yards 


.13078 
1.3078 
13.078 
130.78 


Circular  Measure 


43 


Metric  Weights 


Weight 

Grammes 

Troy  grains 

Avoirdupois 
ounces 

Avoirdupois 
pounds 

.001 
.01 
.1 
I 

10 

100 

1,000 

10,000 

100,000 

1,000,000 

.01543 
.1543 
1.543 
15.43316 

.03528 
.3528 
3.52758 
35.2758 

Decigramme 

Gramme 

Decagramme 

.0022047 
.022047 

.  2204737 

2.204737 

22.04737 

220.4737 

2204 . 737 

i 

Metric  Dry  and  Liquid  Measures 

Measures 

Litres 

Cubic  inches 

Cubic  feet 

Millilitre i 

.001 
.01 
.1 
I 
10 
100 
1,000 
10,000 

.061 
.61 
6.1 
61.02 
610.16 

Litre       

3. 531 

Kilolitre           ...       .           

35  31 

353.1 

Circular  Measure 

60  seconds  (") i  minute  (')• 

60  minutes  (') i  degree  (°). 

90  degrees  (°) i  quadrant. 

360  degrees  (°) circumference. 

Time 

60  seconds i  minute. 

60  minutes i  hour. 

24  hours I  day. 

7  days I  week. 

365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  48  seconds  =  i  year. 
Every  year  whose  number  is  divisible  by  4  is  a  leap  year  and  contains 
366  days. 

The  Centismal  years  are  leap  years  only  when  the  number  of  the  year 
is  divisible  by  400. 


44 


Weights  niid  Measures 


Board  and  Timber  Measure 

The  imil  of  nie;i>iiremeiil  i.^  ;i  Ixiard  i  j  Iik  Ik>  s(iii;irc  by  one  inch  thick. 

To  ascertain  the  number  of  feel  lM)ar(J  measure  in  a  plank  or  piece  of 
square  limber,  multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth  in  feet  and  by  the 
thickness  in  inches. 

To  fmd  the  cubic  contents  of  a  stick  of  limber  (all  the  measurements 
beinK  reduced  to  feet),  lake  one-fourth  the  product  of  the  mean  girth  by 
the  diameter  and  the  length. 

To  fmd  tiie  cubic  contents  of  square  limber,  reduce  all  measurements 
to  feel,  then  the  product  of  the  length  by  the  breadth  and  thickness  will 
be  the  volume  in  cuiiic  feel. 

Miscellaneous  Measures  and  Weights 

1  barrel  of  9our  weighs  196  pounds. 

I  barrel  of  salt  weighs  280       " 

I  barrel  of  beef  or  pork  weighs        200       " 
I  bushel  of  salt  (Syracuse)  weighs    56       " 
Anthracite  coal  (broken)  averages  54  lbs.  to  the  cubic  foot. 
Bituminous  coal  (broken)  averages  49    "     "     "       ''         " 
Cement  (Portland)      weighs         96  lbs.  to  the  bushel. 
G\T3sum  (ground)  "  70     "    "     " 

Lime  (loose)  "  7°     " 

Lime  (well-shaken)  "  80     "    "     "         " 

Sand  "  98     "     "     "   cubic  foot  or  1.181  tons 

to  the  cu.  yd. 

Useful  Factors 


Inches 

X 

X 

0.08333 

0.02778 
0  00001578 

0.00695 
0.0007716 

0.00058 
0  0000214 
0  004.329 

0  MM 
0.00019 

144  0 

0    II12 

1728 
0  03704 

7  48 

=  feet 
=  vards 

.< 

X 

=  miles 

Square  Inches. .    . . 

X 

.  . . .      X 

=  square  feet 
=  square  yards 

Cubic  inches 

X 

X 

=  cubic  feet 
=  cubic  yards 

.< 

X 

=  U.  S.  gallons 

Feet 

X 

X 

=  yards 
=  miles 

Square  feet   

....      X 
X 

=  square  inches 
=  square  yards 

Cubic  feet 

..        X 

X 

=  cubic  inches 
=  cubic  yards 

•. 

X 

=  U.  S.  gallons 

Measures  of  Work,  Power  and  Duty 


45 


Useful  Factors  —  {Continued) 

Yards X  36  =  inches 

••      X  3  =  feet 

"      X  0.0005681       =  miles 

Square  yards X       i ,296  =  square  inches 

"  "      X  9  =  square  feet 

Cubic  yards X     46,656  =  cubic  inches 

"     X  27  =  cubic  feet 

Miles X     63,360  =  inches 

"     ; . .     X       S  ,280  =  feet 

"     X       1,760  =  yards 

Avoirdupois  ounces X  .0.0625  =  pounds 

X  0.00003125     =  tons 

"  pounds X  16  =  ounces 

"  "       X  .001  =  hundredweight 

"  "      X  .0005  =  tons 

"  "      27.681  =  cubic  inches  of 

water  at  39.2°  F 

"  tons X    32,000  =  ounces 

"  "    X      2,000  =  pounds 

Watts X  0.00134  =  horse  power 

Horse  power X  746  =  watts 

Weight  of  round  iron  per  fool  =  square  of  diameter  in  quarter  inches  -f-  6. 

Weight  of  flat  iron  per  foot  =  width  X  thickness  X  io-3. 

Weight  of  flat  plates  per  square  foot  =  5  pounds  for  each  1-8  inch  thickness. 


Measures  of  Work,  Power  and  Duty 

Work  is  the  result  of  expenditure  of  energy  in  overcoming  resistance. 
Tiie  unit  of  work  is  tiie  pressure  of  one  pound  exerted  through  a  distance 
of  one  foot  and  is  called  one  foot  pound. 

Horse  Power.  —  Term  employed  to  measure  the  quantity  of  work. 
The  unit  is  one  horse  power;   or  the  quantity  of  work  performed  in 
raising  33,000  lbs.,  one  foot  in  one  minute 

=  33,000  foot  pounds  per  minute 
=  550  foot  pounds  per  second 
=  1,980,000  foot  pounds  per  hour. 
A  heat  unit  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water 
at  maximum  density  i°  F.,  or  i  pound  of  water  from  39°  F.  to  40°  F.  = 
778  foot  pounds. 
One  horse  power  =  2545  heat  units  per  hour 
33,000 


778 


=  42.146  heat  units  per  minute 


=  .7021  heat  units  per  second. 


.,6 


Mathematical  Tables 


Tadlk  of  SguAKKS,  CuHKS,  Sqi:akk  Rocjts  and  Cube 
Ruurs  OF  Numbers  fkou  .i  to  io 


No. 

Square 

CulJc 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

.1 

.01 

.001 

.3163 

.4642 

4.1 

16.81 

68  921 

3.03S 

1. 601 

IS 

.0225 

.0034 

.3873 

5313 

4-2 

17  64 

74.088 

3.049 

1. 613 

.3 

04 

.008 

.4472 

.58.18 

4  3 

18.49 

79  S07 

2  074 

I  626 

.25 

.0635 

.0156 

■  Soo 

.6300 

4  4 

19  36 

85  184 

2098 

1  639 

.3 

09 

•037 

.5477 

.66<J4 

4  5 

20  25 

91    125 

2  121 

1  651 

.35 

.1225 

.0429 

.5916 

.7017 

46 

21.16 

97  336 

2  145 

1  663 

.4 

.16 

.064 

•  652s 

.7368 

4  7 

23.09 

J03  833 

3.168 

I  675 

45 

.203S 

.0911 

.6708 

.7663 

4.8 

23.04 

110.592 

3.191 

1  687 

5 

25 

125 

•  7071 

.7937 

4.9 

24.01 

117  649 

2  314 

1698 

55 

3025 

.1664 

7416 

.8193 

5 

25 

125 

2  3361 

I  710 

.6 

.36 

.316 

.7746 

•  84.VI 

5-1 

36.01 

132.651 

2   358 

I  721 

.65 

■422s 

.3746 

.8063 

.8662 

52 

37-04 

140.608 

2.380 

I  732 

.7 

•49 

•  343 

.8367 

.8879 

5-3 

38.09 

148.877 

2.302 

I  744 

.75 

.562s 

.4219 

.8660 

.9086 

5  4 

39.16 

157.464 

2.324 

I  754 

.8 

.64 

■  512 

8944 

•  9283 

S-5 

30.35 

»66.375 

2  345 

I  76s 

.85 

.7225 

.6141 

,9219 

•  9473 

S-6 

31.36 

175.616 

2.366 

I  776 

.9 

.81 

•729 

.9487 

•  9655 

5-7 

33.49 

185.193 

2.387 

1  786 

95 

.9025 

.8574 

9747 

.9830 

5.8 

3364 

195- 112 

2.408 

"797 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

5  9 

34.81 

20s -379 

2.429 

1.807 

I  05 

I . 1025 

1.158 

1.025 

1. 016 

'• 

''^ 

216 

2.4495 

1.8171 

I.I 

I    31 

I  331 

1.049 

1.032 

-  21 

226.981 

2  470 

1.837 

1.15 

I    3225 

1. 521 

1.072 

1.048 

-■-  44 

238.328 

2  490 

I  837 

1.2 

I  44 

1 .  728 

1.09s 

1.063 

'■)  3 

39.69 

250.047 

2  sio 

1.847 

1-25 

1.5625 

I  953 

1. 118 

1.077 

6-4 

40.96 

262.144 

2  530 

I  857 

13 

1.69 

2.197 

1. 140 

1.091 

6-5 

42.35 

274.625 

2.S50 

1.866 

I  35 

1.822s 

2.460 

I  163 

I.ios 

6.6 

43-56 

287.496 

2.569 

1.876 

14 

1.96 

2.744 

1. 183 

1.119 

6-7 

44-89 

300.763 

2.588 

1.885 

1  45 

2.1025 

3.049 

1.304 

1. 132 

6.8 

46.34 

314-432 

2.608 

I  «9S 

1-5 

2.25 

3.375 

1.3247 

I. 1447 

6-9 

47.61 

328.509 

2.627 

1.904 

I  55 

2.402s 

3  724 

1.345 

1.157 

7 

49 

343 

2.6458 

I. 9129 

16 

256 

4.096 

1.265 

1. 170 

7.1 

SO.  41 

357. 9" 

2.665 

1.923 

I  65 

2  7225 

4.492 

1.285 

1.183 

7.2 

51.84 

373.248 

2  683 

I  931 

17 

2.98 

4.913 

1.304 

I  193 

7.3 

53.29 

389.017 

2.702 

1.940 

1  75 

3  062s 

5.359 

I  323 

1.20s 

7.4 

54-76 

405.334 

3.730 

I  949 

1.8 

3  24 

5.832 

I  342 

l,3l6 

7.5 

56.25 

431.875 

2.739 

1.9S7 

1.85 

3  422s 

6.332 

1.360 

1.338 

7-6 

57-76 

438-976 

2.757 

1.966 

19 

361 

6.859 

I  378 

1.339 

7.7 

59  29 

456.533 

2.775 

1. 975 

I  95 

3  8025 

7.415 

I  396 

1.349 

7.8 

60.84 

474.553 

2.793 

1.983 

2 

4 

8 

I. 4142 

1.2599 

7.9 

62.41 

493.039 

2.811 

1.992 

2.1 

4  41 

9.26 

1.449 

1. 281 

8 

64 

513 

2.8384 

3 

33 

4.84 

10.648 

1483 

1.301 

8.1 

65.61 

531 -441 

2.846 

2.008 

33 

5  29 

13.167 

I  517 

1.330 

8.2 

67.24 

551.368 

2.864 

3.017 

34 

5.76 

13.824 

1.549 

1.339 

8.3 

68.89 

571-787 

2.881 

"2.035 

2.5 

6.25 

IS  625 

I.S81 

1-357 

8.4 

70.56 

593.704 

2.898 

3.033 

3.6 

6.76 

17.576 

I.6l3 

1-375 

8.5 

72.25 

614.135 

2.915 

3.041 

3.7 

7.29 

19  683 

I  643 

I  392 

8.6 

73-96 

636.056 

2-933 

3.049 

3.8 

7.84 

21.952 

1.673 

1.409 

8.7 

75.69 

658.503 

2.950 

3.057 

2.9 

8.41 

24.389 

1.703 

1.426 

s  s 

-7  44 

681.473 

2.966 

3.06s 

3 

9 

27 

I    7,?2I 

1.442 

-  f  21 

704.969 

2.983 

3.073 

3.1 

9  61 

29  791 

I  761 

1-458 

729 

3 

3.081 

3.2 

10  34 

.12   76S 

1.789 

1  474 

".'  1 

«2  8l 

753-571 

3.017 

3.088 

3  3 

10.89 

.J5  937 

1. 817 

I  489 

9.2 

84.64 

778-688 

3033 

3.09s 

3.4 

11.56 

39  304 

I  844 

I..S04 

9  3 

86.49 

804.357 

3  oso 

3.103 

3.5 

13. 35 

42.87s 

1. 871 

1-518 

9.4 

88  36 

830.584 

3-066 

3.110 

36 

13.96 

46.656 

1.897 

1-533 

9.5 

90.2s 

857.3-5 

3- 082 

3.118 

3  7 

13  69 

50.653 

1.924 

1-47 

9.6 

92.16 

884.736 

3.098 

3.135 

3.8 

14  44 

54.872 

1.949 

I-560 

9-7 

94-09 

912.673 

3. 114 

2.133 

3.9 

IS  21 

59  319 

1.975 

1-574 

9.8 

96.04 

941.192 

3.130 

2.140 

4 

I6 

64 

3 

I.S874 

9.9 

98.01 

970-399 

3.146 

2.147 

Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots     47 


Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  iooo 

Remark  on  the  Following  Table.  Wherever  the  effect  of  a  fifth  decimal  in  the 
roots  would  be  to  add  i  to  the  fourth  and  final  decimal  in  the  table,  the  addition  has 
been  made. 


No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 
50 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

I 

I 

I 

2,500 

125,000 

7.0711 

3.6840 

2 

4 

8 

I. 4142 

1.2599 

SI 

2,601 

132,651 

7 

1414 

3 

7084 

3 

9 

27 

I . 7321 

1.4422 

52 

2,704 

140,608 

7 

2111 

3 

7325 

4 

16 

64 

2 

1.5874 

53 

2,809 

148,877 

7 

2801 

3 

7563 

5 

25 

125 

2.2361 

I. 7100 

54 

2,916 

157,464 

7 

3485 

3 

7798 

6 

36 

216 

2.4495 

1.8171 

55 

3.025 

166,375 

7 

4162 

3 

8030 

7 

49 

343 

2.645S 

I. 9129 

56 

3.136 

175,616 

7 

4833 

3 

8259 

8 

64 

512 

2.8284 

2 

57 

3.249 

185,193 

7 

5498 

3 

8485 

9 

81 

729 

3 

2.0801 

58 

3.364 

195,112 

7 

6158 

3 

8709 

10 

100 

1,000 

3  1623 

2.1544 

59 

3.481 

205,379 

7 

6811 

3 

8930 

II 

121 

1. 331 

3.3166 

2.2240 

60 

3.600 

216,000 

7 

7460 

3 

9149 

12 

144 

1,728 

3.4641  I2.2894 

6i 

3.721 

226,981 

7 

8102 

3 

9365 

13 

169 

2,197 

3-6056 

2.3513 

62 

3.844 

238,328 

7 

8740 

3 

9579 

14 

196 

2,744 

3.7417 

2.4101 

63 

3,969 

250,047 

7 

9373 

3 

9791 

15 

225 

3.375 

3.8730 

2.4662 

64 

4,096 

262,144 

8 

4 

16 

256 

4.096 

4 

2.S198 

65 

4.225 

274,625 

8 

0623 

4 

0207 

17 

289 

4,913 

4.1231 

2.5713 

66 

4.356 

287,496 

8 

1240 

4 

0412 

18 

324 

5.832 

4.2426 

2.6207 

67 

4.489 

300,763 

8 

i8S4 

4 

061S 

19 

361 

6,859 

4.3.S89 

2.6684 

68 

4,624 

314,432 

8 

2462 

4 

0817 

20 

400 

8,000 

4.4721 

2.7144 

69 

4.761 

328,509 

8 

3066 

4 

1016 

21 

441 

9.261 

4.5826 

2.7589 

70 

4.900 

343,000 

8 

3666 

4 

1213 

22 

484 

10,648 

4.6904 

2.8020 

71 

5.041 

357,911 

8 

4261 

4 

1408 

23 

529 

12,167 

4.7958 

2.8439 

72 

5.184 

373,248 

8 

4853 

4 

1602 

24 

576 

13.824 

4.8990 

2.8845 

73 

5.329 

389.017 

8 

5440 

4 

1793 

25 

625 

15.625 

5 

2.9240 

74 

5.476 

405.224 

8 

6023 

4 

1983 

26 

676 

17,576 

5.0990 

2.9625 

75 

5.62s 

421.875 

8 

6603 

4 

2172 

27 

729 

19,683 

5.1962 

3 

76 

5.776 

438.976 

8 

7178 

4 

2358 

28 

784 

21,952 

5.2915 

3.0366 

77 

5.929 

456,533 

8 

7750 

4 

2543 

29 

841 

24,389 

5.3852 

3.0723 

78 

6,084 

474,552 

8 

88x8 

4 

2727 

30 

900 

27,000 

5.4772 

3.1072 

79 

6,241 

493.039 

8 

8882 

4 

2908 

31 

961 

29,791 

5.5678 

3.1414 

80 

6,400 

512,000 

8 

9443 

4 

3089 

32 

1,024 

32,768 

5.6569 

3.1748 

81 

6,561 

531,441 

9 

4 

3267 

33 

1,089 

35,937 

5.7446 

3.2075 

82 

6,724 

551,368 

9 

0554 

4 

3445 

34 

1,156 

39,304 

S.8.?io 

3.2396 

83 

6,889 

571,787 

9 

1 104 

4 

3621 

35 

1.225 

42,875 

5.9161 

3.2711 

84 

7.056 

592,704 

9 

1652 

4 

3795 

36 

1,296 

46.656 

6 

3.3019 

85 

7.225 

614,125 

9 

2195 

4 

3968 

37 

1,369 

50,653 

6,0828 

3.3322 

86 

7,396 

636,056 

9 

2736 

4 

4140 

38 

1.444 

54.872 

6.1644 

3.3620 

87 

7,569 

658,503 

9 

3274 

4 

4310 

39 

1,521 

59.319 

6.2450 

3.3912 

88 

7,744 

681,472 

9 

3808 

4 

4480 

40 

1,600 

64,000 

6.3246 

3.4200 

89 

7,921 

704,959 

9 

4340 

4 

4647 

41 

1,681 

68,921 

6.4031 

3.4482 

90 

8,100 

729,000 

9 

4868 

4 

4814 

42 

1,764 

74.088 

6.4807 

3.4760 

91 

8.281 

753,571 

9 

5394 

4 

4979 

43 

1,849 

79.S07 

6.5574 

3.5034 

92 

8,464 

778.688 

9 

5917 

4 

5144 

44 

1.936 

85,184 

6.6332 

3.5303 

93 

8,649 

804,357 

9 

6437 

4 

5307 

45 

2,025 

91.125 

6.7082 

3.5569 

94 

8,836 

830,584 

9 

6954 

4 

5468 

46 

2,116 

97,336 

6.7823 

3.5830 

95 

9.025 

857,375 

9 

7468 

4 

5629 

47 

2,209 

103,823 

6.8557 

3.6088 

96 

9,2l6 

884,736 

9 

7980 

4 

5789 

48 

2,304 

110,592 

6.9282 

3.6342 

97 

9,409 

912.673 

9 

8489 

4 

5947 

49 

2,401 

117.649 

7 

3.6593 

98 

9.604 

941.192 

9 

8995 

4 

6104 

48 


Rlallicmalical  Tables 


Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 
Of  Numbers  from   i  i<>  iooo  —  {Continued) 


No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

99 

9.801 

970.299 

9  9499 

4  6261 

152 

23.104 

3.S11.808 

12  3288 

5  3J68 

loo 

10,000 

1.000.000 

10             4  6416 

I. S3 

23.409 

3.581. 577 

>2  3fi<J\ 

;  34«s 

lOI 

10,201 

I.O.W.IOI 

10  0499 

4  6570 

154 

21.716 

3.652.264 

12.4097 

5  3601 

I02 

10.404 

1.061,208 

10,0995 

4  6723 

155 

24X325 

3.723.87s 

12.4499 

S.3717 

103 

10,609 

1.092,727 

10  1489 

4.687s 

156 

24.336 

3.796.416 

12.4900 

s  38.32 

104 

10,816 

1.124,864 

10  1980 

4.7027 

157 

24.649 

3.869,893 

12  S300 

s  3947 

los 

II. 02s 

1. 1 57 .625 

10.2470 

4.7177 

158 

24.964 

3.944.312 

125698 

S.4061 

io6 

11.236 

1,191.016 

10,2956 

4.7326 

159 

25.281 

4.019,679 

12  6o9S 

S.4I7S 

107 

11.449 

1.225.043 

10.3441 

4.7475 

160 

25.600 

4.096.000 

12.6491 

S.4288 

108 

11.664 

1. 259.712 

10.3923 

4.7622 

161 

25.921 

4. 173. 281  ;  12.6886 

S.4401 

109 

11.881 

1,295.029 

10.4403 

4.7769 

162 

26.244 

4.251.S28 

12.7279 

5  4514 

no 

12.100 

1. 331. 000 

10,4881 

4.79U 

163 

26.569 

4.330.747 

12.7671 

S-4626 

III 

12.321 

1.367.631 

10,5357 

4.8059 

164 

26,896 

4.410.944 

12.8067 

5  4737 

112 

12.S44 

1.404,928 

10.5830 

4.8203 

16s 

27,225 

4.492.12s 

12.8452 

5  4848 

113 

12,769 

1.442.897 

10.6301 

4  8346 

166 

27.556 

4.574.296 

12.8841 

5-4959 

114 

12.996 

1.481.544 

10.6771 

4.8488 

167 

27.889 

4.657.463 

12.9228 

5  S069 

IIS 

13.22s 

1.520,87s 

10.7238 

4.8629 

168 

28.224 

4.741.632 

12.961S 

S.S178 

116 

13.456 

1,560,896 

10.7703 

4.8770 

169 

28.561 

4,826.809 

13 

S.S288 

117 

13.689 

1.601,613 

10.8167 

4  8910 

170 

28,900 

4.913.000 

13.0384 

S  5397 

118 

13.924 

1.643.032 

10.8628 

4  9049 

171 

29.241 

S.OOO,2II 

13.0767 

S.5505 

119 

14. 161 

1.685.159 

10.9087 

4.9187 

172 

29.584 

s.088.448 

13.1149 

s  5613 

lao 

14.400 

1,728.000 

10.9545 

4.9324 

173 

29.929 

S.I77.717 

13.1529 

S  5721 

121 

14.641 

1.771,561 

II 

4.9461 

174 

30.276 

s.268.024 

13.1909 

5. 5828 

122 

14.884 

1.815.848 

II.04S4 

4.9597 

175 

30.625 

5.359.375 

13-2288 

5.5934 

123 

IS. 129 

1,860.867 

11.0905 

4-9732 

176 

30.976 

5.451.776 

13.2665 

5  6041 

124 

IS. 376 

1.906.624 

II  1355 

4.9866 

177 

31.329 

3.545.233 

13.3041 

5.6147 

I2S 

15.62s 

1.953,125 

11.1803 

5 

178 

31.684 

5. 639.752 

13.3417 

5. 6252 

126 

IS. 876 

2.000,376 

1 1 . 22SO 

5.0133 

179 

32.041 

5.735.339 

13.3791 

5-6357 

127 

16.129 

2.048.383 

11.2694 

5.0265 

180 

32.400 

S. 832 .000 

13.4164 

5-6462 

128 

16.384 

2.097.152 

"■3137 

5. 0397 

181 

32.761 

5.929.741 

13.4536 

5-6567 

129 

16.641 

2.146,689 

11.3578 

5.0528 

182 

33.124 

6.028.568 

13.4907 

5 -6671 

130 

16,900 

2.197.000 

11,4018 

5.0658 

183 

33.489 

6,128,487 

13  5277 

5 -6774 

131 

17.161 

2,248,091 

11.4455 

5.0788 

184 

33.856 

6,229,504 

13.5647 

5- 6877 

132 

17.424 

2.299.96S 

I I. 4891 

S.0916 

185 

34.225 

6.331.625 

13  60IS 

5.6980 

133 

17.689 

2.352.637 

11.5326 

S1045 

186 

34.596 

6.4.34,856 

13.6382 

5-7083 

134 

17.956 

2,406,104 

11.5758 

5. 1172 

187 

34.969 

6.539.203 

13.6748 

5.718s 

I3S 

l8,225 

2.460,375 

II. 6190 

5.1299 

188 

35.344 

6,644,672 

13.7113 

5. 7287 

136 

18,496 

2.515.456 

11.6619 

S.1426 

189 

35.721 

6.751,269 

13.7477 

5.7388 

137 

18.769 

2.S7I.353 

11.7047 

5.1551 

190 

36.100 

6.859.000 

13.7840 

5-7489 

138 

19.044 

2.628,072 

"7473 

5.1676 

191 

36.481 

6.967.871 

13.8203 

5  7590 

139 

19.321 

2,685.619 

11.7898 

5.1801 

192 

36.864 

7.077.888 

13.8564 

S.7690 

140 

19.600 

2.744.000 

11.8322 

5.1925 

193 

37.249 

7.189.057 

13.8924 

5  7790 

141 

19.881 

2.803.221 

11.8743 

5.2048 

194 

37.636 

7.301.384 

13.9284 

5.7890 

142 

20.164 

2.863.288 

11.9164 

S.2171 

195 

38.02s 

7.414.875 

13.9642 

5  7989 

143 

20.449 

2.924.207 

11.9583 

S  2293 

196 

38.416 

7.529.536 

14 

5.8088 

144 

20.736 

2. 98s .984 

12 

5.2415 

197 

38.809 

7.645.373 

14.0357 

5.8186 

MS 

21.025 

3.048,625 

12.0416 

5.2536 

198 

39.204 

7.762.392 

14.0712 

5.828s 

146 

21.316 

3.I12.136 

12.0830 

5.2656; 

199 

39.601 

7.880.599 

14.1067 

58383 

147 

21.609 

3.176.523 

12.1244 

5.2776^ 

200 

40,000 

8.000.000 

14  1421 

5.8480 

148 

21.904 

3.241,792 

12.1655 

5.2896, 

201 

40,401 

8.120.601 

M   1774 

).8S78 

149 

22,201 

3.307.949 

12   2066 

5.3015; 

202 

40.804 

8,242,408 

14.2127    . 

;867S 

ISO 

22,500 

3.375.000 

12.2474 

5  3133 

203 

41,209 

8.365.427 

14-2478    . 

;  8771 

151 

22.801 

3.442.951 

12.2882 

5  32SI 

1 

ao4 

41.616 

8,489.664 

14  2829    . 

8868 

Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots     49 


Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  iooo  —  (Coniinued) 


No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 
258 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

20s 

42,02s 

8,615,125 

14.3178 

5. 8964 

66,564 

17,173,512 

16.0624 

6  3661 

206 

42,436 

8,741,816 

14-3527 

5  9059 

259 

67,081 

17,373,979 

16.093s 

6  3743 

207 

42,849 

8,869,743 

14-3875 

S-9IS5 

260 

67,600 

17,576,000 

16.1245 

6.3825 

208 

43,264 

8,998,912 

14.4222 

5-92.S0 

261 

68,121 

17,779,581 

16.1555 

6.3907 

209 

43,681 

9,129,329 

14-4568 

5-9345 

262 

68,644 

17,984,728 

16.1864 

6.3988 

210 

44,100 

9,261,000 

14.4914 

S-9439 

263 

69,169 

18,191,447 

16.2173 

6  4070 

211 

44.521 

9.393.931 

14.5258- 

5 -9533 

264 

69,696 

18,399,744 

16.2481 

6  41SI 

212 

44,944 

9,528,128 

14-5602 

5. 9627 

265 

70,225 

18,609,625 

16.2788 

6  4232 

213 

45,369 

9,663,597 

14-5945 

5.9721 

266 

70,756 

18,821,096 

16.3095 

6  4312 

214 

45,796 

9,800,344 

14.6287 

5.9814 

267 

71,289 

19,034,163 

16.3401 

6  4393 

215 

46,225 

9,938,375 

14.6629 

5 -9907 

268 

71,824 

19,248.832 

16.3707 

6  4473 

216 

46,656 

10,077,696 

14.6969 

6 

269 

72,361 

19,465,109 

16.4012 

6  4553 

217 

47,089 

10,218,313 

14.7309 

6.0092 

270 

72,900 

19,683,000 

16.4317 

6  4633 

218 

47,524 

10,360,232 

14.7648 

6.0185 

271 

73,441 

19,902,511 

16.4621 

6.4713 

219 

47,961 

10,503,459 

14.7986 

6.0277 

272 

73,984 

20,123,648 

16.4924 

6.4792 

220 

48.400 

10,648,000 

14.8324 

6.0368 

273 

74.529 

20,346,417 

16.5227 

6.4872 

221 

48,841 

10,793,861. 

14.8661 

6.0459 

274 

75,076 

20,570,824 

16.5529 

6.4951 

222 

49,284 

10,941 ,048 

14-8997 

6.0550 

275 

75,62s 

20,796,875 

16.5831 

6.5030 

223 

49.729 

11,089,567 

14-9.332 

6.0641 

276 

76,176 

21,024,576 

16.6132 

6.5108 

224 

50,176 

11,239,424 

14.9666 

6.0732 

277 

76,729 

21,253,933 

16.6433 

6.5187 

22s 

50,625 

11,390,625 

IS 

6.0822 

278 

77,284 

21,484,952 

16.6733 

6.5265 

226 

51,076 

II,.543.I76 

15.0333 

6.0912 

279 

77,841 

21,717,639 

16.7033 

6-5343 

227 

51,529 

11,697,083 

15.0665 

6.1002 

280 

78,400 

21,952,00c 

16.7332 

6-5421 

228 

51,984 

11,852,352 

15.0997 

6.1091 

281 

78,961 

22,188,041 

16.7631 

6-5499 

229 

52,441 

12,008,989 

15- 1327 

6.1180 

282 

79.524 

22,425,768 

16.7929 

6-5577 

230 

52,900 

12,167,000 

15-1658 

6.1269 

283 

80,089 

22,665,187 

16.8226 

6.5654 

231 

53.361 

12,326,391 

IS -1987 

6.1368 

284 

80,656 

22,906,304 

16.8523 

6  5731 

232 

53,824 

12,487,168 

IS-23IS 

6.1446 

28s 

81,225 

23.149,125 

16.8819 

6.5808 

233 

54,289 

12,649,337 

IS -2643 

6.1534 

286 

81,796 

23,393,656 

16.9115 

6.588s 

234 

S4,7S6 

12,812,904 

15-2971 

6.1622 

287 

82,369 

23,639,903 

16.9411 

6.5962 

235 

55,225 

12,977,875 

15-3297 

6.1710 

288 

82,944 

23,887,872 

16.9706 

6.6039 

236 

55,696 

13,144,256 

15.3623 

6.1797 

289 

83,521 

24,137,569 

17 

6-611S 

237 

56,169 

13,312,053 

IS. 3948 

6. 1885 

290 

84,100 

24,389,000 

17.0294 

6.6191 

238 

56,644 

13,481,272 

15.4272 

6.1972 

291 

84,681 

24,642,171 

17.0587 

6.6267 

239 

57.121 

13,651,919 

15.4596 

6.2058 

292 

85,264 

24,897,088 

17.0880 

6.6343 

240 

57.600 

13,824,000 

15.4919 

6.2145 

293 

85,849 

25,153,757 

17.1172 

6.6419 

241 

58,081 

13,997,521 

15.5242 

6.2231 

294 

86,436 

25,412,184 

17.1464 

6.6494 

242 

58,564 

14.172.488 

15.5563 

6.2317 

29s 

87,025 

25,672,375 

17.1756 

6.6569 

243 

59,049 

14.348.907 

15.5885 

6.2403 

296 

87,616 

25,934,336 

17.2047 

6.6644 

244 

59.536 

14,526,784 

15.6205 

6.2488 

297 

88,209 

26,198,073 

17.2337 

6.6719 

245 

60,025 

14,706,125 

15.6525 

6.2573 

298 

88,804 

26.463,592 

17.2627 

6.6794 

246 

60,516 

14,886,936 

15.6844 

6.2658 

299 

89,401 

26,730,899 

17.2916 

6.6869 

247 

61,009 

15,069,223 

15.7162 

6.2743 

300 

90,000 

27,000,000 

17. 320s 

6.6943 

248 

61,504 

15,252,992 

15.7480 

6.2828 

301 

90,601 

27,270,901 

17.3494 

6.7018 

249 

62,001 

15,438,249 

15.7797 

6.2912 

302 

91,204 

27,543,608 

17.3781 

6.7092 

250 

62,500 

15,625.000 

IS.8II4 

6.2936 

303 

91,809 

27,818,127 

17.4069 

6.7166 

251 

63,001 

15,813,251 

15.8430 

6,3080 

304 

92.416 

28,094,464 

17.4356 

6.7240 

252 

63,504 

16,003,008 

IS. 8745 

6.3164 

305 

93.025 

28,372,62s 

17.4642 

6.7313 

253 

64,009 

16,194,277 

15  -  9060 

6.3247 

306 

93,636 

28,652,616 

17.4929 

6-7387 

254 

64,516 

16,387,064 

15-9374 

6.3330 

.307 

94,249 

28.934,443 

17.5214 

6  7460 

255 

65,025 

16,581  ,.375 

IS -9687 

6.3413 

308 

94,864 

29,218,112 

17.5499 

6.7533 

256 

65.536 

16,777,216 

16 

6.3496 

309 

95,481 

29,503,629 

17.5784 

6  7606 

257 

66,049 

16,974,593 

16.0312 

6. 3579 

310 

96,100 

29,791,000 

17.6068 

6.7679 

so 


Malhcmalicul    Tables 


Tabix  op  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  looo  —  (Continued) 


Square 


96.721 
97.344 
97.969 
98.596 
99.225 
99.856 
100,489 
101,124 
101,761 
102,400 
103,041 
103,684 
104,329 
104,976 
105,625 
106,276 
106,929 
107,584 
108,241 
108.900 
109,561 
110,224 
110,889 
111.556 
112,225 
112,896 
113.569 
114.244 
114.921 
115.600 
116,281 
116,964 
117.649 
118,336 
119.02s 
119.716 
120,409 
121,104 
121,801 
122. soo 
123.201 
123.904 
124.609 
125.316 
126.025 
126,736 
127,449 
12S.164 
128.881 
i29.(Joo 
130,321 
131.044 
131,769 


Cube 


30.371,328 
30.664,297 
30,959.144 
31.255.875 
31.554.496 
31.855.013 
32.157.432 
32.461,759 
32,768.000 
33.076.161 
33..i.S6.248 
33.698.267 
34.012.224 
34.328.125 
34.645.976 
34.965.783 
35.287.552 
35.611,289 
35.937.000 
36,264.691 
36.594.368 
36.926,037 
37.259.704 
37.595.375 
37.933.056 
38.272.753 
38.614,472 
38,958,219 
39.304.000 
39.651.821 
40,001,68s 
40,353.607 
40,707.584 
41.063,625 
41.421.736 
41.781.923 
42.144.192 
42.508,549 
42.875.000 
43.243.551 
43.614.208 
43.9S6.977 
44.361.864 
44.738.875 
45.118.016 
45.499.293 
45.882.712 
46,268,279 
46,656.000 
47.045.881 
47.4.37.928 
47.832.147 


Square 

Cube 

v#* 

root 

root 

.^0. 
364 

17  6352 

6  7752 

17663s 

6  7824 

365 

17  6918 

6  7897 

366 

17.7200 

6  7969 

367 

17.7482 

6.8041 

368 

17  7764 

6.S113 

369 

17  804s 

6.8185 

370 

17.8326 

6.8256 

371 

17.8606 

6.8328 

372 

17.888s 

6.8399 

373 

17.9165 

6.8470 

374 

17.9444 

6.8541 

375 

17.9722 

6.8612 

376 

18 

6.8683 

377 

18.0278 

6. 8753 

378 

18.0555 

6.8824 

379 

18.0831 

6  8894 

380 

18.1108 

6  8964 

381 

18.1384 

6.9034 

382 

18.1659 

6.9104 

383 

18.1934 

6  9174 

384 

18.2209 

6.9244 

385 

18.2483 

6.9313 

386 

18.2757 

6.9382 

387 

18.3030 

6.9451 

388 

18.3303 

6.9521 

389 

18.3576 

6.9589 

390 

18.3848 

6.9658 

391 

18.4120 

6.9727 

392 

18.4391 

6.979s 

393 

IS. 4662 

6.9864 

394 

18.4932 

6.9932 

395 

18.5203 

7 

396 

18.5472 

7.0068 

397 

18.5742 

7.0136 

398 

18.6011 

7 .  0203 

399 

18  6279 

7.0271 

400 

18.6548 

7.0338 

401 

18.6815 

7.0406 

402 

18.7083 

7.0473 

403 

18.7350 

7.0540 

404 

18.7617 

7.0607 

40s 

18.7883 

7.0674 

406 

18.8149 

7.0740 

407 

18.8414 

7.0807 

408 

18.8680 

7.0873 

409 

18.8944 

7  0940 

410 

18.9209 

7  1006 

411 

18  9473 

7 . 1072 

412 

18.9737 

7.I138 

413 

19 

7.1204 

414 

19  0263 

7.1269 

415 

19.0526 

7.1335 

416 

Square 


132.496 
1.33.225 
13.5.956 
134.689 
135.424 
136.161 
136.900 
137.641 
138.384 
139.129 
139.876 
140.625 
141.376 
142.129 
142,884 
143.641 
I44,.»oo 
145.161 
145.924 
146,689 
147,456 
148.225 
148,996 
149.769 
150.544 
151.321 
152,100 
152,881 
153.664 
154.449 
155.2.56 
156,025 
156,816 
157,609 
158.404 
159.201 
160,000 
160,801 
161,60.1 
162,409 
163,216 
164,025 
164.836 
165,649 
166.464 
167.281 
168.100 
168.921 
169.744 
170.569 
171.396 
172,225 
173.056 


Cube 


48.228,544 
48,627,125 
49/527,896 
49.430.863 
49.836/532 
So.243,409 
50,653.000 
51.064,811 
51.478.848 
51.895,117 
52,313.624 
52.734.375 
53,157.376 
53.582.633 
54.010,152 
54.439.939 
54.872.000 
55Jo6,34l 
55,742,968 
56,181,887 
56,623,104 
57,066,625 
57,512,456 
57.960,603 
58,411,072 
58,863,869 
59.319.000 
59.776.471 
60,236,288 
60,698,457 
61,162,984 
61,629,875 
62,099.136 
62,570,773 
63,044.792 
63.521.199 
64,000.000 
64.481.201 
64.964.808 
65,450.827 
65.939.264 
66,430.125 
66.923,416 
67,419.143 
67,917.312 
68,417.929 
68,921,000 
69,426,531 
69,934,528 
70,444.997 
70.957.944 
71 .473.375 
71.991.296 


Square 

fXX>t 


0788 

.1050 

1311 

1572 

1833 

2094 

23S4 

2614 

2873 

3132 

3391 

3649 

3907 

416s 

4422 

4679 

4936 

5192 

5448 

9  5704 

9  5959 

9  6214 

9  6469 

9  6723 

9  6977 

19  7231 
9  7484 
9  7737 
9  7990 
9  8242 
9  8494 
9  8746 
9  8997 
9.9249 
9  9499 
9  9750 

20 

20  0250 
20.0499 
20.0749 
20.0998 
20.1246 
20  1494 
20.1742 
20. 1990 
20.2237 
20.2485 
20.2731 
20.2978 
20.3224 
20.3470 
20  371s 
20  3961 


Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots      51 


Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  aistd  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  iooo  —  {Continued} 


No 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

417 

173.889 

72,511.713 

20.4206 

7.4710 

470 

220,900 

103,823,000 

21.679s 

7.7750 

418 

174,724 

73,034,632 

20.4550 

7.4770 

471 

221,841 

104,487,111 

21.7025 

7.7805 

419 

175,561 

73,560,059 

20.4695 

7.4829 

472 

222,784 

105,154,048 

21.7256 

7.7860 

420 

176,400 

74,088,000 

20.4939 

7.4889 

473 

223,729 

105,823,817 

21.7486 

7.7915 

421 

177,241 

74,618,461 

20.5183 

7.4948 

474 

224,676 

106,496,424 

21.7715 

7-7970 

422 

178,084 

75,151,448 

20.5426 

7.5007 

475 

225,625 

107,171.875 

21.7945 

7  8025 

423 

178,929 

75,686,967 

20.5670 

7  5067 

476 

226,576 

107,850,176 

21.8174 

7.8079 

424 

179,776 

76,225,024 

20.5913 

7.5126 

477 

227.529 

108,531,333 

21.8403 

7-8134 

425 

180,625 

76,765,625 

20.6155 

7.5185 

478 

228,484 

109,215,352 

21.8632 

7.8188 

426 

181,476 

77,308,776 

20.6398 

7.5244 

479 

229,441 

109,902,239 

21.8861 

7.8243 

427 

182,329 

77,854,483 

20.6640 

7.5302 

480 

230,400 

110,592,000 

21.9089 

7-8297 

428 

183,184 

78,402,752 

20.6882 

7.5361 

481 

231,361 

111,284,641 

21.9317 

7.8362 

429 

184,041 

78,953,589 

20.7123 

7.5420 

482 

232,324 

111,980,168 

21.9545 

7.8406 

430 

184,900 

79,507,000 

20.7364 

7.5478 

483 

233,289 

112,678,587 

21.9773 

7.8460 

431 

185,761 

80,062,991 

20.7605 

7.5537 

484 

234,256 

113,379,904 

22 

7.8514 

432 

186,624 

80,621,568 

20.7846 

7.5595 

485 

235,225 

114,084,125 

22.0227 

7.8568 

433 

187,489 

81,182,737- 

20.8087 

7.5654 

486 

236,196 

114,791,256 

22.0454 

7-8622 

434 

188,356 

81,746,504 

20.8327 

7.5712 

487 

237.169 

115,501,303 

22.0681 

7.8676 

435 

189,225 

82,312,875 

20.8567 

7.5770 

488 

238,144 

116,214,272 

22.0907 

7-8730 

436 

190,096 

82,881,856 

20.8806 

7.5828 

489 

2.39,121 

116,930,169 

22.1133 

7.8784 

437 

190,969 

83,453,453 

20.9045 

7.5886 

490 

240,100 

117,649,000 

22.1359 

7.8837 

438 

191,844 

84,027,672 

20.9284 

7.5944 

491 

241,081 

118,370,771 

22.1585 

7-8891 

439 

192,721 

84,604,519 

20.9523 

7.6001 

492 

242,064 

119,095,488 

22.1811 

7.8944 

440 

193,600 

85,184,000 

20,9762 

7.6059 

493 

243,049 

119,823,157 

22.2036 

7-8998 

441 

194,481 

85,766,121 

21 

7.6117 

494 

244.036 

120,553,784 

22.2261 

7-9051 

442 

195,364 

86,350,888 

21.0238 

7.6174 

495 

245,025 

121,287,375 

22.2486 

7 -9105 

443 

196,249 

86,938,307 

21.0476 

7.6232 

496 

246,016 

122,023,936 

22.2711 

7-9158 

444 

197,136 

87,528,384 

21.0713 

7.6289 

497 

247,009 

122,763,473 

22.2935 

7.9211 

445 

198,025 

88,121,125 

21.0950 

7.6346 

498 

248,004 

123.505,992 

22.3159 

7-9264 

446 

198,916 

88,716,536 

21.1187 

7.6403 

499 

249,001 

124,251,499 

22.3383 

7.9317 

447 

199,809 

89,314,623 

21.1424 

7.6460 

500 

250,000 

125,000,000 

22.3607 

7-9370 

448 

200,704 

89,915,392 

21 . 1660 

7.6517 

501 

251,001 

125.751,501 

22.3830 

7.9423 

449 

201,601 

90,518,849 

21.1896 

7.6574 

502 

252,004 

126,506,008 

22.4054 

7.9476 

450 

202,500 

91,125,000 

21.2132 

7.6631 

S03 

253,009 

127,263,527 

22.4277 

7-9528 

451 

203,401 

91,733,851 

21.2368 

7.6688 

S04 

254,016 

128,024,064 

22.4499 

7.9581 

452 

204,304 

92,345,408 

21.2603 

7.6744 

505 

255,025 

128,787,625 

22.4722 

7-9634 

453 

205,209 

92,959,677 

21.2838 

7.6801 

506 

256,036 

129,554,216 

22.4944 

7.9686 

454 

206,116 

93,576,664 

21.3073 

7.6857 

507 

257,049 

130,323,843 

22.5167 

7-9739 

455 

207,02s 

94,196,375 

21.3307 

7.6914 

508 

258,064 

131,096,512 

22.5389 

7-9791 

456 

207,936 

94,818,816 

21.3542 

7.6970 

509 

259,081 

131,872,229 

22.5610 

7-9843 

457 

208,849 

95,443,993 

21.3776 

7.7026 

510 

260,100 

132,651,000 

22.5832 

7-9896 

458 

209,764 

96,071,912 

21.4009 

7.7082 

511 

261,121 

133,432,831 

22.6053 

7-9948 

459 

210,681 

96,702,579 

21.4243 

7.7138 

512 

262,144 

134,217,728 

22 . 6274 

8 

460 

211,600 

97,336,000 

21.4476 

7.7194 

513 

263,169 

135,005,697 

22.6495 

8-0052 

461 

212,521 

97.972,181 

21.4709 

7 .  72.S0 

514 

264,196 

135,796,744 

22.6716 

8  0104 

462 

213,444 

98,611,128 

21.4942 

7.7306 

515 

265,225 

136,590,875 

22.6936 

8.0156 

463 

214,369 

99,252,847 

21.5174 

7.7362 

516 

266,256 

137,388,096 

22.7156 

8.0208 

464 

215,296 

99,897,344 

21.5407 

7.7418 

517 

267,289 

138,188,413 

22  7376 

8.0260 

465 

216,225 

100,544,625 

21.5639 

7.7473 

518 

268,324 

138,991.832 

22.7596 

8.0311 

466 

217.156 

101,194,696 

21.5870 

7.7529 

519 

269,361 

139.798.359 

22.7816 

8.0363 

467 

218,089 

101,847,563 

21.6102 

7.7584 

520 

270,400 

140,608,000 

22.8035 

8.0415 

468 

219,024 

102,503,232 

21.6,333 

7-7639 

521 

271,441 

141,420,761 

22.8254 

8.0466 

469 

219,961 

103,161,709 

21.6564 

7.7695 

522 

272.484 

142,236,648 

22.8473 

8.0S17 

52 


Matliematical  Tables 


Table  op  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  iooo  —  {CotUinucd) 


No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

N'  . 

root 

Cube 
root 

S2i 

273.529 

143.oss.667 

22.869a 

8  0569 

576 

131.776 

191,102.976 

24 

8  3203 

524 

274.576 

143.877.824 

22.8910 

8  0620 

577 

332.929 

192,100,033 

24  oao8 

8  3251 

S2S 

275.625 

144.703.12s 

22  9129 

8.0671 

578 

334.084 

193.100.ss2 

24  0416 

8  3J00 

526 

276,676 

145.531.576 

22  9347 

8  0723 

579 

3.55.241 

194.104 .539 

24  0624 

8  3348 

527 

277.729 

146,363.183 

22.9565 

8  0774 

.SKo 

.5.56.400 

l9S,ll2/xx> 

24  0832 

8  .5396 

528     278.781 

'47.I97.9.S2 

22  9783 

H  0H25 

.581 

337.561 

196,132,941 

24  1039 

8  .VW5 

529     279.811 

148.035.889 

2i 

8  0876 

S82 

338.724 

197.137368 

24  1247 

8  .54QI 

530     280,900 

148.877,000 

23.0217 

8.0927 

S8.» 

339.889 

198.155.287 

24  1454 

K  .55.19 

S3I      281. y6i 

119.721,291 

23  04.3.J 

80978 

584 

341.056 

199.176.704 

24  1661 

8  .5587 

S.?2       2S,<.024 

l.W.568,768 

23  o''i5l 

8.1028 

58S 

342.22s 

200.2OI  ,625 

24  1868 

83634 

Si?     284.089 

151.419.437 

23.0S68 

8.1079 

586 

343.396 

201 ,230/556 

24  2074 

8  .3682 

534     285.156 

152.273.304 

23.1084 

8.11.50 

587 

344.569 

202.262.003 

24  2281 

8  3730 

S.V5     286.225 

153. 130.375 

23.1.501 

8.1180 

588 

345.744 

203.297.472 

24  2487 

8  3777 

536  1  2S7.296 

153.990.656 

23.1517 

8.1231 

S89 

346.921 

204.336.469 

24  2693 

8  382s 

537  J  288.369 

154.854.153 

23.1733 

8.1281 

590 

348,100 

20s  .379.000 

24.2899 

8.3872 

538  !  289,441 

155.720,872 

23.1948 

8.1332 

591 

349.281 

206.425,071 

24  310s 

8  3919 

S?9  ,  290.521 

1.56,590.819 

23.2164 

8.1382 

592 

350.464 

207.474.688 

24  33" 

83967 

540     291.600 

157.464.000 

23.2379 

8.14.53 

593 

351.649 

208.526.857 

24.3516 

8.4014 

541 

2y2.68i 

158.3.10,421 

23.2594 

8.1483 

594 

352,836 

209..584.584 

24  3721 

8.4061 

542 

293,764 

l59.2JO,o88 

23.2809 

8. 1533 

595 

354 .02s 

210,644.875 

24. 5926 

8.4108 

543 

294.819 

160,103.007 

23.3024 

8.1583 

596 

355.216 

211,708.7,56 

24  4131 

8  415s 

544 

295.936 

160,989,184 

23.3238 

8.163.5 

597 

356.409 

212,776,173 

24  4536 

8  4202 

545 

297.025 

161.878,62s 

23.3452 

8.1683 

598 

357.604 

213.847.192 

24  4540 

8  4249 

546     298.116 

162.771.336 

23.3666 

8.1733 

599 

358.801 

214.921.799 

24  4745 

8  4296 

547 

293.209 

163.667,323 

23.3880 

8.1783 

600 

360,000 

216.000,000 

24  4949 

8.4343 

548 

300.304 

164.566,592 

23.4094 

8. 1833 

601 

361,201 

217.081 .801 

24  5153 

8.4390 

549 

301,401 

165,469.149 

23.4307 

8.1882 

602 

362,404 

218,167.208 

24  5357 

8.4437 

550 

,502.500 

166,375,000 

23.4521 

8.1932 

603 

363.609 

219,256.227 

24  5561 

8  4484 

551 

.503.601 

167,284,151 

23 -4734 

8.1982 

604 

364.816 

220,348.864 

24  5764 

8.4530 

552 

304,704 

168,196.608 

23.4947 

8  2031 

60s 

366.02s 

221.445.125 

24.5967 

8.4577 

553 

305.809 

169,112,377 

23.5160 

8.2081 

606 

367.236 

222,545.016 

24.6171 

8  4623 

554 

306.916 

I7o.o3l.46» 

23.5272 

8.2130 

607 

368.449 

223.648,543 

24  6374 

8.4670 

555 

30S.025 

170,953.875 

23.5584 

8.2180 

608 

369.664 

224,755.712 

24.6577 

8.4716 

556 

.309,136 

171,879.616 

23.5797 

8.2229 

609 

370.881 

225,866,529 

24.6779 

8.4763 

557 

310,249 

172,808,693 

23.600S 

8.2278 

6io 

372,100 

226,981 ,000 

24.6982 

8.4809 

558 

311.364 

173.741. 112 

23.6220 

8.2327 

611 

373.321 

228.099.131 

24.7184 

8.4856 

559 

312.481 

174.676,879 

23.6432 

•*.  2377 

612 

374.544 

229.220,928 

24.7386 

8  4902 

s6o 

313.600 

175,616,000 

23.66.13 

S.2426 

613 

375.769 

230,346.397 

24.7588 

8.4948 

561 

314.721 

176.s58.48l 

23.6854 

8.247s 

614 

376,996 

231.475.544 

24.7790 

8.4994 

562 

315.844 

177.504,328 

23.7065 

S.2524 

615 

378.22s 

232,608,375 

24  7992' 

8.S040 

563 

316,969 

178,453.547 

23.7276 

8.2573 

616 

379.456 

233.744.896 

24.8193 

8  S086 

564 

318.096 

179.406,144 

23.7487 

S.2621 

617 

380.689 

234.885,113 

24.8395 

8.S132 

565 

319.225 

180,362,12s 

23.7697 

8.2670 

618 

381,924 

236,029,032 

24.8596 

8.5178 

S66 

320,356 

181,321,496 

23.7908 

8.2719 

619 

383.161 

237.176,659 

24.8797 

8.5224 

567 

321.489 

182,284,263 

23.8118 

8.2768 

620 

384.40c 

238.328.000 

24.8998 

8.5270 

568 

322,624 

183.2.50,432 

23.8328 

8.2816 

621 

385.641 

239.483.061 

24.9199 

8.5316 

569 

323.761 

184,220,009 

23.85,57 

8  2865 

622 

386.884 

240.641,848 

24  9399 

8.5362 

S70 

,524.900 

185,193.000 

23  8747 

8.2913 

623 

,588,129 

24 1, 804  .,567 

24.9600 

8.5408 

571 

326.041 

186. 169.411 

23  8956 

8  2962 

624 

389.376 

242.970,624 

24.9800 

8  5453 

572 

327,184 

187,149,248 

23  916s 

8  3010 

625 

,590.625 

244.140,62s 

25 

8.5499 

573 

328.329 

188,132.517 

23  9374 

8  ..5059 

626 

391.876 

245.314.376 

25  0200 

8  5544 

574 

329.476 

189,119.224 

23  95«3    8.3107 

627 

.593.129 

246.491,883 

2S  0400 

8  5590 

575 

330,625 

190.109.375 

23  9792    8.31SS 

628 

394.384 

247.673.152 

25.0590 

8.5635 

Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots      53 


Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Squaije  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  iooo  —  {Continued) 


No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 
682 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

629 

395,641 

248,858,189 

25.0799 

8.5681 

465,124 

317,214,568 

26.1151 

8.8023 

630 

396,900 

250,047.000 

25.0998 

8.5726 

683 

466,489 

318.611.987 

26.1343 

8.8066 

631 

398,161 

251.239,591 

23.1197 

8  5772 

684 

467,856 

320,013,504 

26.1534 

8.8109 

632 

399.424 

252,435,968 

25.1396 

8.5817 

68s 

469,225 

321,419,125 

26.1725 

8.8152 

633 

400,689 

253,636,137 

25.1595 

8.5862 

686 

470,596 

322,828,856 

26.1916 

8.8194 

634 

401,956 

254,840,104 

25.1794 

8.5907 

687 

471,969 

324,242,703 

26.2107 

8.8237 

635 

403,225 

256,047,875 

25.1992 

8.5952 

688 

473.344 

325,660,672 

26.229S 

8.8280 

636 

404,496 

257.259.456 

25.2190 

8.5997 

689 

474,721 

327,082,769 

26.2488 

8.8323 

637 

40s. 769 

258.474,853 

25.2389 

8.6043 

690 

476,100 

328.509.000 

26.2679 

8.8366 

638 

407,044 

259,694,072 

25.2587 

8.6088 

691 

477,481 

329,939,371 

26.2869 

8.8408 

639 

408,321 

260,917,119 

25.2784 

8.6132 

692 

478,864 

331,373,888 

26.3059 

8.8451 

640 

409,600 

262,144,000 

25.2982 

8.6177 

693 

480,249 

332,812,557 

26.3249 

8.8493 

641 

410,881 

263.374.721 

25.3180 

8.6222 

694 

481,636 

334,255,384 

26.3439 

8.8536 

642 

412,164 

264,609.288 

25. 3377 

8.6267 

695 

483,025 

335.702,37s 

26.3629 

8.8578 

643 

413,449 

265.847,707 

25.3574 

8.6312 

696 

484,416 

337.153.536 

26.3818 

8.8621 

644 

414,736 

267,089,984 

25.3772 

8.6357 

697 

485,809 

338.608.873 

26 . 4008 

8.8663 

645 

416,025 

268,336,12s 

25.3969 

8.6401 

698 

487,204 

340,068.392 

26.4197 

8.8706 

646 

417.316 

269,586,136 

25.4165 

8.6446 

699 

488,601 

341. 532.099 

26.4386 

8.8748 

647 

418,609 

270,840,023 

25.4362 

8.6490 

700 

490,000 

J43.ooo.ooo 

26.4575 

8.8790 

648 

419,904 

272,097,792 

25.4558 

8.65.35 

701 

491,401 

344.472,101 

26.4764 

8.8833 

649 

421,201 

273,359.449 

25  4755 

8.6579 

702 

492,804 

345.948,408 

26.4953 

8,8875 

650 

422,500 

274,625,000 

25.4951 

8.6624 

703 

494,209 

347.428.927 

26.SI41 

8.8917 

6sr 

423,801 

275,894.451 

25.5147 

8.6668 

704 

495,616 

348.913,664 

26.5330 

8.8959 

652 

425,104 

277,167,808 

25-5343 

8.6713 

70s 

497,025 

.350.402.625 

26.5518 

8.9001 

653 

426,409 

278,445,077 

25  5539 

8.6757 

706 

498,436 

351.895,816 

26.5707 

8.9043 

6S4 

427,716 

279,726,264 

25.57.34 

8.6801 

707 

499.849 

353,393,243 

26.5895 

8.9085 

6S5 

429,025 

281,011,375 

25  5930 

8.684s 

708 

501,264 

354.894,912 

26.6083 

8.9127 

656 

430,336 

282,300,416 

25.6125 

8.6890 

709 

502,681 

356,400,829 

26.6271 

8.9169 

657 

431,649 

283,593,393 

25.6320 

8.6934 

710 

504,100 

357 .91 1. 000 

26.6438 

8.9211 

658 

432,964 

284,890,312 

25.6515 

8.6978 

711 

505,521 

359.425.431 

26.6646 

8  925.  J 

659 

434,281 

286,191,179 

25.6710 

8.7022 

712 

506,944 

360.944.128 

26.6833 

8  9295 

660 

435,600 

287,496,000 

25.6905 

8.7066 

713 

508,369 

362.467.097 

26.7021 

8.9337 

661 

436,921 

288,804,781 

25.7099 

8.7110 

714 

509,796 

363.994.344 

26.7208 

8.9378 

662 

438,244 

290,117,^28 

25.7294 

8.7154 

715 

511,225 

365.525.87s 

26.7395 

8.9420 

663 

439,569 

291,434,247 

25.7488 

8.7198 

716 

512,656 

367.061,696 

26.7582 

8.9462 

664 

440,896 

292.754.944 

25.76S2 

8.7241 

717 

514,089 

368.601.813 

26.7769 

8.9503 

66s 

442,225 

294,079,62s 

25.7876 

8.7285 

718 

515,524 

370.146,232 

26.7955 

8.9545 

666 

443,556 

295,408,296 

25.8070 

8.7329 

719 

516,961 

371.694.939 

26.8142 

8.9587 

667 

444.889 

296,740,963 

25.8263 

8.7373 

720 

518,400 

373.248.000 

26.8328 

8.9628 

668 

446,224 

298,077,632 

25.8457 

8.7416 

721 

519,841 

374.805.361 

26.8514 

8.9670 

669 

447,561 

299,418,309 

25.8650 

8.7460 

722 

521,284 

375,367,048 

26 . 8701 

8. 971 I 

670 

448,900 

300,763,000 

25.8844 

8.7503 

723 

522,729 

377,933,067 

26.8887 

8.9752 

671 

450,241 

302.111,711 

25.9037 

8.7547 

724 

524.176 

379,503,424 

26 . 9072 

8.9794 

672 

451,584 

303,464,448 

25.92.50 

8.7590 

725 

525,62s 

381.078,12s 

26.9258 

8.9835 

673 

452,929 

304,821,217 

25.9422 

8.7634 

726 

527,076 

382,657.176 

26.9444 

8.9876 

674 

454,276 

306,182.024 

25.9615 

8.7677 

727 

528.529 

384,240,583 

26.9629 

8.9918 

67s 

455.625 

307.546.875 

25.9808 

8.7721 

728 

529,984 

385,828,352 

26.981S 

8.9959 

676 

456,976 

308.915,776 

26 

8.7764' 

729 

531.441 

387,420,489 

27 

9 

677 

458,329 

310,288,733 

26.0192 

8.78071 

730 

532.900 

389,017,000 

27.0185 

9.0041 

678 

459,684 

311,6.65.752 

26.0384 

8.7850! 

731 

534,361 

390,617,891 

27.0370 

9.0082 

679 

461,041 

313.046.839 

26.0576 

8.7893' 

732 

535.824 

392,223.168 

27.0555 

9.0123 

680 

462,400 

314.432.000 

26.0768 

8. 7937 1 

733 

537.289 

393,832,837 

27.0740 

9.0164 

681 

463,761 

315.821. 241 

26.0960 

8.7980 

734 

1 

538,756 

395,446,904 

27.0924 

9.0205 

54 


Mallu-m;ilit;il    luiilcs 


Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  avd  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  looo  —  (CotUinutd) 


Squnre 

Cube 

Square 

Cube 

No. 

Sc|uare 

Cube 

root 

root 

No. 

S(juarp 

Cube 

root 

root 

135 

540.225 

397,065.375 

27.1109 

9.0246 

788 

620.944 

489.303.872 

28  0713 

9  236s 

736 

541.696 

398,688.256 

27.1293 

9  0287 

789 

622.521 

491.169.069 

28  0891 

9  2404 

737 

543.169 

400.315.553 

27.1477 

9  0328 

790 

624,100 

493.039.000 

28  1069 

9  2443 

738 

544.644 

401.947.272 

27.1662 

9  0369 

791 

625,681 

494.913.671 

28  1247 

9  2482 

739 

546.121 

403.583.4 19 

27.1846 

9  0410 

792 

627,264 

496.793.088 

28  142s 

9  2521 

740 

547.600 

405.224,0D0 

27 . 2029 

9  0450 

793 

628,849 

498.677.257 

28  1603 

9.2560 

741 

549.081 

406,869,021 

27.2213 

9  0491 

794 

630,436 

500,566,184 

28  1780 

9  2599 

742 

550,564 

408,518,488 

27.2397 

9  0532 

795 

632,025 

502,459.875 

28  1957 

9.2638 

743 

552.019 

410,172,407 

27.2580 

9  0572 

796 

63.},6i6 

504  ,,3.58,336 

28  2135 

9  2677 

744 

553.536 

411,8,50.784 

27  2764 

9  0613 

797 

6,55,209 

506.261,573 

28  2312 

9  2716 

745 

555.025 

413.493,625 

27.2947 

90654 

798 

636,804 

508,169.592 

28.2489 

9  2754 

746 

556.516 

415,160,936 

27  31. JO 

90694 

799 

638,401 

5 10.082. ,599 

28  2666 

9  2793 

747 

558.009 

416,832.723 

27.3313 

9  07.55 

800 

640,000 

512.000.000 

28  3843 

9  2832 

748 

559.504 

418.508.992 

27.3496 

9  077s' 

801 

641,601 

513.922,401 

28  3019 

9.2870 

749 

561.001 

420,189.749 

27.3679 

9.o8i6| 

802 

643.204 

5iS.849.608 

28  3196 

9  2909 

7SO 

562.500 

421,875.000 

27.3861 

9  0856 

803 

644.809 

Si7.78l.627 

28  3373 

9  2948 

751 

564.001 

423.564,751 

27.4044 

9.0896' [804 

646.416 

Si9.718.464 

28  3549 

9  2986 

752 

565.504 

425.259,008 

27.4226 

9.0937  805 

648,02s 

52 1. 660. 125 

28  3725 

9  3025 

753 

567.009 

426.957.777 

27.4408 

9.0977I  806 

649.636 

523.606.616 

28  3901 

9  3063 

754 

568.516 

428.661.064 

27.4591 

9.1017  1807 

651.249 

525. 557. 943 

28.4077 

9  3102 

755 

570.025 

430.368.875 

27.4773 

9.1057  1 808 

652.864 

527.514. 112 

28  4253 

9  3140 

756 

571.536 

432.081,216 

27. 4955 

9.1098 

809 

654.481 

529.475,129 

28  4429 

9  3179 

757 

573.049 

433.798.093 

27.5136 

9  1 138 

810 

6.56.100 

531.441.000 

28  4605 

9  3217 

758 

574.564 

435.519.sl2 

27.5318 

9.1178 

811 

657.721 

53,5,411,731 

28.4781 

9  32SS 

759 

576.081 

437.245.479 

27.5500 

9.1218 

812 

659.344 

535,387,328 

28  4956 

9  3294 

760 

577.600 

438,976.000 

27.5681 

9.12581 

813 

660.969 

537,-567.797 

28  5132 

9  3332 

761 

579.121 

440.71 1. 081 

27.5862 

9.1298; 

814 

662.596 

S.W.353.I44 

28.5307 

9  3370 

762 

580.644 

442,450,728 

27.6043 

9.1338I 

815 

664.225 

541.343.375 

28.5482 

9  3408 

763 

582.169 

444.194,947 

27.6225 

9- 1378, 

816 

665.856 

S43.338.496 

28.5657 

9  3447 

764 

583.696 

445.943.744 

27.6405 

9.i4i8''8i7 

667,489 

545..538.513 

28.5832 

9  348s 

765 

585.225 

447.697.125 

27.6586 

9. 1458'!  818 

669,124 

547.iJ3.432 

28.6007 

9  3523 

766 

586.756 

449.455,096 

27.6767 

9.1498 

819 

670,761 

549.353.259 

28.6182 

9  3561 

767 

588.289 

451.217,663 

27.6948 

9-1537 

820 

672,400 

551,368,000 

28  6356 

9  3599 

768 

589,824 

452,984.832 

27.7128 

9- 1577 

821 

674.041 

553,387.661 

28.6531 

9  3637 

769 

591.361 

454.756,609 

27.7308 

9.1617 

822 

675.684 

555.412.248 

28 . 6705 

9-3675 

770 

592,900 

456,533.000 

27.7489 

9- 1657 

823 

677.329 

557.441.767 

28.6880 

9  3713 

771 

594.441 

458,314.011 

27.7669 

9.1696 

824 

678,976 

559.476.224 

28.7054 

9  37SI 

772 

595.984 

460,099,648 

27.7849 

9-1736 

82s 

680.625 

561.515.625 

28.7228 

9  3789 

773 

597.529 

461,889.917 

27.8029 

9-1775 

826 

682,276 

563.5s9.976 

28.7402 

9  3827 

774 

599.076 

463,684,824 

27.8209 

9-1815 

827 

683,929 

S65.609.283 

28.7576 

9  386s 

775 

600,625 

465,484.37s 

27.8388 

9-1855 

828 

685.584 

!;67.6(>3.552 

28.7750 

9.3902 

776 

602,176 

467.288.576 

27.8568 

9.1894 

829 

687.241 

569.722,789 

28.7924 

9  3940 

777 

603,729 

469.097.4.33 

27.8747 

9- 1933 

830 

688.900 

571,787.000 

28.8097 

9  3978 

778 

605,284 

470.910,952 

27.8927 

9-1973 

831 

690.561 

573,856,191 

28.8271 

9.4016 

779 

606,841 

472,729,139 

27.9106 

9.2012 

832 

692.224 

573.930,368 

28.8444 

9  4053 

780 

608,400 

474.5S2.ooo 

27.9285 

9-2052 

833 

693.889 

578,009.5.57 

28.8617 

9  4091 

781 

609,961 

476.379.541 

27.9464 

9.2091 

834 

695.556 

580,093,704 

28 . 8791 

9  4129 

782 

611,524 

478.211.768 

27.9643 

9  2130 

835 

697,225 

582,182,87s 

28.8964 

9  4166 

783 

613,089 

480.048.687 

27.9821 

9.2170 

836 

698,896 

584,277,056 

28  9137 

9  4204 

784 

614,656 

481.890.304 

28 

9.2209 

837 

700.569 

S86,376,2.S3 

28  9310 

9  4241 

78s 

616,225 

483.736.625 

28.0179 

9.2248 

838 

702.244 

588.480.472 

28.9482 

9  4279 

786 

617.796 

485.587.656 

28.0357 

9.2287 

839 

703.921 

590.S89.719 

28.9655 

9  4316 

787 

619.369 

487,443.403 

28.0S3S 

9.2326 

840 

705.600 

592.704,000 

26.9828 

9  4354 

Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots      55 

Table  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  iooo  —  (Continued) 


No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 
894 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

841 

707,281 

594.823,321 

29 

J.439I 

799,236 

714.516,984 

29.8998 

9  6334 

842 

708,964 

596,947,688 

29.0172 

J.4429 

895 

801,025 

716,917.375 

29.9166 

9.6370 

843 

710,649 

599,077,107 

29-0345 

J.  4466 

896 

802.816 

719.323.136 

29.9333 

9.6406 

844 

712,336 

601,211,584 

290517 

).4503 

897 

804,609 

721,734,273 

29.9500 

9.6442 

84s 

714,025 

603,351,125 

29.0689 

)-454i 

898 

806,404 

724.150.792 

29.9666 

9.6477 

846 

715.716 

605,495.736 

29.0861    ( 

).4578 

899 

808,201 

726,572,699 

29-9833 

9.6513 

847 

717.409 

607,645,423 

29.1033    < 

)-46i5 

900 

810,000 

729,000,000 

30 

9-6549 

848 

719.104 

609,800,192 

29.1204    ( 

).4652 

901 

811,801 

731,432,701 

30.0167 

9.658s 

849 

720,801 

611,960,049 

29.1376    c 

^.4690 

902 

813,604 

733,870,808 

30.0333 

9.6620 

850 

722,500 

614,125,000 

29.1548    c 

)-4727 

903 

815,409 

736,314.327 

30.0500 

9  6656 

851 

724,201 

616,295,051 

29.1719    c 

)-4764 

904 

817,216 

738,763,264 

30  0666 

9.6692 

852 

725,904 

618,470,208 

29.1890    c 

).48oi 

905 

819,025 

741.217.625 

30.0832 

9.6727 

8S3 

727.609 

620,650,477 

29.2062    c 

.4838 

906 

820,836 

743.677.416 

30.0998 

9  6763 

8S4 

729.316 

622,835,864 

29,2233    c 

.4875 

907 

822,649 

746.142,643 

30.1164 

9  6799 

8SS 

731.025 

625,026,375 

29.2404    c 

.4912 

908 

824,464 

748,613,312 

30. 1330 

9  6834 

856 

732,736 

627,222,016 

29.2575    c 

-4949 

909 

826,281 

751,089,429 

30.1496 

9.6870 

857 

734,449 

629,422,793 

29.2746    c 

.4986 

910 

828,100 

753,571,000 

30.1662 

9.6905 

858 

736,164 

631,628.712 

29.2916    c 

■  5023 

911 

829,921 

756,058,031 

30.1828 

9  6941 

859 

737,881 

633.839.779 

29.30S7    c 

.5060 

912 

831.744 

758,550,528 

30.1993 

9.6976 

860 

739.600 

636.056,000 

29  3258    c 

-5097 

913 

833.569 

761,048,497 

30.2159 

9.7012 

861 

741,321 

638,277.381 

29.3428    c 

■  5134 

914 

8.?S.396 

763.551,944 

30.2324 

9.7047 

862 

743.044 

640,503,928 

29.3598    c 

-5171 

915 

837.225 

766.060,87s 

30.2490 

9.7082 

863 

744.769 

642,735.647 

29.3769    c 

-5207 

916 

8,?9.056 

768,575,296 

30.2655 

9.7118 

864 

746.496 

644,972,544 

29-3939    g 

.5244 

917 

840,889 

771,095.213 

30.2820 

9  7153 

86s 

748.225 

647,214,625 

29.4109    c 

-5281 

918 

842.724 

773  620,632 

30.2985 

9.7188 

866 

749.956 

649,461,896 

29.4279    S 

-5317 

919 

844.561 

776,151.559 

30.3150 

9.7224 

867 

751.689 

651,714.363 

29.4449  S 

-5354 

920 

846,400 

778,688,000 

30.3315 

9.7259 

868 

753.424 

653.972.032 

29.4618    5 

-5391 

921 

848,241 

781,229.961 

30.3480 

9.7294 

869 

755.161 

656,234.909 

29.4788   g 

-5427 

922 

850,084 

783.777.448 

30.3645 

9.7329 

870 

756,900 

658,503.000 

29.4958   s 

-5464 

923 

851,929 

786,330,467 

30.3809 

9-7364 

871 

758,641 

660,776,311 

29.5127   5 

-5501 

924 

853,776 

788.889,024 

30.3974 

9.7400 

872 

760,384 

663,054.848 

29.5296   s 

-5537 

925 

855.625 

791,453,125 

30.4138 

9-7435 

873 

762,129 

665,338,617 

29.5466   g 

-5574 

926 

857.476 

794,022,776 

30.4302 

9.7470 

874 

763.876 

667,627,624 

29.563s    c 

.5610 

927 

859.329 

796,597.983 

30.4467 

9 -7505 

875 

765.625 

669,921,875 

29.5804   s 

-5647 

928 

861,184 

799.178.752 

30.4631 

9-7540 

876 

767,376 

672,221,376 

29.5973  S 

-5683 

929 

863,041 

801,765,089 

30.4795 

9-7575 

877 

769.129 

674,526,133 

29.6142   c 

-5719 

930 

864,900 

804,357,000 

30.4959 

9.7610 

878 

770.884 

676,836,152 

29.6311    c 

-5756 

931 

866.761 

806,954,491 

30.5123 

9  7645 

879 

772,641 

679.151.439 

29.6479  g 

-5792 

932 

868,624 

809,557,568 

30.5287 

9.7680 

880 

774.400 

681,472,000 

29.6648    c 

.5828 

933 

870,489 

812,166,237 

30.5450 

9-771S 

881 

776.161 

683,797.841 

29.6816    c 

-5865 

934 

872.356 

814,780,504 

30.5614 

9-77SO 

882 

777.924 

686,128,968 

29.6985  g 

■  5901 

935 

874.225 

817,400,375 

30.5778 

9.7785 

883 

779.689 

688,465,387 

29-7153  g 

.5937 

936 

876,096 

820,025.856 

30.5941 

9  7819 

884 

781,456 

690,807,104 

29-7321  g 

5973 

937 

877.969 

822,656,953 

30.6105 

9.7854 

885 

783.225 

693.154.125 

29.7489  g 

.6010 

938 

879.844 

825,293,672 

30.6268 

9.7889 

886 

784.996 

69s. 506. 456 

29.7658  c 

.6046 

939 

881,721 

827.936.019 

30.6431 

9.7924 

887 

786,769 

697.864,103 

29.7825    c 

.6082 

940 

883,600 

830.584,000 

30.6594 

9-7959 

888 

788.544 

700,227,072 

29-7993  g 

.6118 

941 

885,481 

8,«.2.37,62l 

30.6757 

9.7993 

889 

790.321 

702,595,369 

29.8161    c 

.6154 

942 

887,364 

8,?5 ,896,888 

30 . 6920 

9.8028 

890 

792,100 

704,969,000 

29.8329  g 

.6190 

943 

889.249 

838,561,807 

30.7083 

9.8063 

891 

793.881 

707,347,971 

29.8496  f 

).6226 

944 

891.136 

841,232,384 

■?o  7246 

9.8097 

892 

795.664 

709,732,288 

29.8664    c 

).6262 

945 

893.025 

843,908,625 

30.7409 

9.8132 

893 

797.449 

712,121,957 

29.8831  Ig 

(.6298 

946 

894,916 

846,590,536 

30.7571 

9.8167 

56 


Mathcmalical  Tal)les 


Table  of  Squares,  Ci'bes,  Square  Roots  avd  Cube  Roots 
OF  Numbers  from  i  to  iooo      (Continued) 


No. 

Square 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

biiuiirr 

Cube 

Square 
root 

Cube 

947 

8y6.8o9 

8.19,278,123 

30.7734 

9.8201 

974 

948,676 

924/>lo.424 

31  2090 

9.9126 

948 

898,704 

851,971,392 

30.78969  82j6| 

975 

950,625 

926.8s9.375 

31    22SO 

9.9160 

949 

900,601 

854,670,3.19   30.80589.8270! 

976 

952.576 

929.714.176 

31-2410 

9  9«94 

9SO 

902. soo 

857,375,000 

30.8221  9  830s 

977 

954.529 

932.S74.833 

31-2570 

9  9227 

9SI 

904,401 

860,085,351 

30.83839  8339 

978 

956.484 

935.441.352  31-2730 

9  9261 

952 

906.304 

862,801,408 

30.85459  8374 

979 

958.441 

938.313.73931-2890 

9  929s 

953 

908,209 

865,523,177 

30.8707  9.8408 

980 

960.400 

941.192.000  31. 30SO 

9  9329 

954 

910,116 

868,250,664 

30.88699.8443 

981 

962.361 

944,076, Ul'31. 3309 

9  9363 

955 

912,025 

870,983,875 

30.9031  9  8477 

982 

964.324 

916,966,168^31.3.369 

9  9396 

956 

9«3.936 

873,722,816 

30.9192  9. 851! 

983 

966.289 

949.862.087  31.3528 

9  9430 

957 

915,849 

876,467,493 

30.93549  8546 

984 

968.256 

952.763.904  31   3688 

9.9464 

9S8 

917,764 

879.217,912 

30.95169.8580 

985 

970,225 

955.671.62s  31.3847 

9-9497 

959 

919.681 

881,974,079 

30.96779  8614 

986 

972.196 

958.585. 256  31.4006 

9  9531 

960 

921,600 

884,736,000 

30.98399  86.18 

987 

974,169 

961.504.803  31.4166 

9  956s 

961 

923,521 

887.503,681 

31           9-8683 

988 

976,144 

964.4.^0,272  31.4.325 

9  9598 

962 

925.444 

890,277,128 

31.0161  9  8717 

989 

978,121 

967.361,66931.4484 

9  9632 

963 

927,369 

893,056,347 

31.03229.8751 

990 

980,100 

970.299,00031.4643 

9.9666 

964 

929,296 

895.841,344 

31.04839  878s 

991 

982,081 

973.242.271  31.4802 

9  9699 

965 

931.22s 

898.632.125 

31.0644  9.8819 

992 

984.064 

976.191.48831.4960 

9-9733 

966 

933.156 

901.428,696 

31.0805  9  8854 

993 

986,049 

979.146.657  31 -SI  19 

9  9766 

967 

935.089 

904,231,063 

31.0966  9.8888 

994 

988.036 

982,107.784  31.5278 

9-9800 

968 

937.024 

907.039.232 

31.1127  9  8922 

995 

990.025 

985.074,87531-5436 

9  9833 

969 

938.961 

909.853.209 

31.1288  9  8956 

996 

992.016 

988,047,93631.5595 

9.9866 

970 

940,900 

912.673,000 

31.14489  8990 

997 

994,009 

991,026,97331.5753 

9.9900 

971 

942,841 

915,498,611 

31.16099  9024 

998 

996,004 

994,011,99231.5911 

9-9933 

972 

944,784 

918,330,048 

31.17699  9058 

999 

998.001 

997,002,99931.6070 

99967 

973 

946,729 

921,167,317 

31.19299-9092 

IOOO 

1,000,000 

1,000,000,000  31.6228 

10 

To  find  the  square  or  cube  of  any  whole  number  ending 
with  ciphers.  First,  omit  all  the  final  ciphers.  Take  from  the  table  the 
sfiiKirc  (ir  tul)c  (as  the  case  may  be)  of  the  rest  of  the  number.  To  this 
square  add  twice  as  many  ciphers  as  there  were  final  ciphers  in  the  original 
number.  To  the  cube  add  three  times  as  many  as  in  the  original  number. 
Thus,  for  90,500^,  905*  =  819,025.  Add  twice  2  ciphers,  obtaining 
8,i9o,2So,cxx).  For  90,500',  905*  =  741,217,625.  Add  3  times  2  ci- 
phers, obtaining  741,217,625,000,000. 


Table  of  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots  of  Numbers         57 


Table  of  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots  of  Numbers 
FROM  1000  TO  10,000 

No  errors 


No. 

Sq. 

Cube 

No. 

Sq. 

Cube 

No. 

Sq. 

Cube 

No. 

Sq. 

Cube 

root 

root 

root 

root 

root 

root 

root 

root 

IOCS 

31-70 

10.02 

1270 

35-64 

10.83 

1535 

39-18 

11.54 

1  1800 

42.43 

12.16 

lOIO 

31.78 

10.03 

1275 

35-71 

10.84 

1540 

39-24 

II. 55 

180S 

42 

49 

12.18 

1015 

31.86 

10.05 

1280 

35-78 

10.86 

1545 

39-31 

11-56 

1810 

42 

-54 

12.19 

1020 

31.94 

10.07 

128S 

35-85 

10-87 

1550 

39-37 

II. 57 

181S 

42 

60 

12.20 

1025 

32.02 

10.08 

1290 

35-92 

10.89 

1555 

39-43 

11-59 

1820 

42 

66 

12.21 

1030 

32.09 

10.10 

1295 

35-99 

10.90 

1560 

39-50 

II -60 

1825 

42 

72 

12.22 

I03S 

32.17 

10.12 

1300 

36.06 

10.91 

1565 

39-56 

II. 61 

1830 

42 

78 

12.23 

1040 

32.25 

10.13 

1305 

36.12 

10.93 

1570 

29.62 

11.62 

1835 

42 

84 

12.24 

104s 

32.33 

10.  IS 

1310 

36.19 

10.94 

1575 

39.69 

11.63 

1840 

42 

90 

12.25 

1050 

32.40 

10.16 

1315 

36.26 

10.96 

1580 

39.75 

11-65 

1845 

42 

95 

12.26 

1055 

32.48 

10.18 

1320 

36.33 

10.97 

158s 

39-81 

11.66 

1850 

43 

01 

12.28 

1060 

32.56 

I0.20 

1325 

36.40 

10.98 

1590 

39-87 

11.67 

i8S5 

43 

07 

12.29 

1065 

32.63 

10.21 

1330 

36.47 

II 

1595 

39-94 

11.68 

i860 

43 

13 

12.30 

1070 

32.71 

10.23 

1335 

36.54 

II. 01 

1600 

40 

11-70 

1865 

43 

19 

12.31 

1075 

32.79 

10.24 

1340 

36,61 

11.02 

160S 

40.06 

II. 71 

1870 

43 

24 

12.32 

1080 

32.86 

10.26 

1345 

36.67 

11.04 

1610 

40.12 

11.72 

187s 

43 

30 

12,33 

1085 

32.94 

10.28 

1350 

36.74 

11.05 

161S 

40.19 

11-73 

1880 

43 

36 

12.34 

1090 

33  02 

10.29 

1355 

36.81 

11.07 

1620 

40.25 

11-74 

188s 

43 

42 

12 -3S 

1095 

33.09 

10.31 

1360 

36.88 

11.08 

1625 

40.31 

11.76 

1890 

43 

47 

12-36 

1 100 

33.17 

10.32 

1365 

36.95 

11.09 

1630 

40.37 

11.77 

1895 

43 

53 

12-37 

1 105 

33.24 

10.34 

1370 

37.01 

II. II 

163s 

40.44 

11.78 

1900 

43 

59 

12.39 

mo 

33.32 

10.35 

1375 

37.08 

II. 12 

1640 

40.50 

11-79 

190S 

43 

65 

12.40 

iiiS 

33.39 

10.37 

13S0 

37.15 

II. 13 

164s 

40.56 

11.80 

1910 

43 

70 

12.41 

1 120 

33.47 

10.38 

1385 

37.22 

II. IS 

1650 

40.62 

11.82 

191S 

43 

76 

12.42 

II2S 

33. 54 

10.40 

1390 

37-28 

II.  16 

1655 

40.68 

11.83 

1920 

43 

82 

12-43 

1 130 

33.62 

10.42 

1395 

37. 35 

II. 17 

1660 

40.74 

11.84 

1925 

43 

87 

12.44 

1 135 

33.69 

10.43 

1400 

37.42 

II. 19 

1665 

40.80 

11.85 

1930 

43 

93 

12. 4S 

1 140 

33.76 

10.45 

1405 

37.48 

11. 20 

1670 

40.87 

11.86 

1935 

43 

99 

12.46 

1 145 

33.84 

10.46 

1410 

37-55 

II. 21 

167s 

40.93 

11.88 

1940 

44 

OS 

12.47 

I  ISO 

33.91 

10.48 

1415 

37-62 

II -23 

1680 

40.99 

11.89 

1945 

44 

10 

12.48 

"55 

33.99 

10.49 

1420 

37-68 

11-24 

168S 

41-05 

11.90 

1950 

44 

16 

12.49 

1 160 

34.06 

10.51 

1425 

37-75 

II -25 

1690 

4I-II 

II.  91 

I9S5 

44 

22 

12.50 

1165 

34.13 

10.52 

1430 

37-82 

11.27 

1695 

4I-17 

11.92 

i960 

44 

27 

12.51 

1 170 

34.21 

10.54 

1435 

37-88 

11.28 

1700 

41-23 

11.93 

1965 

44 

33 

12.53 

1175 

34.28 

10. 55 

1440 

37-95 

11.29 

170S 

41-29 

11-95 

1970 

44 

38 

12.54 

1180 

34.35 

10.57 

1445 

38.01 

II. 31 

1710 

41-35 

11-96 

1975 

44- 

44 

12.55 

1 185 

34.42 

10.  sS 

1450 

38.08 

11.32 

1715 

41-41 

11-97 

1980 

44 

SO 

12.56 

1190 

34.50 

10.60 

I4SS 

38.14 

11-33 

1720 

41.47 

11.98 

1985 

44- 

55 

12.57 

1 195 

34.57 

10.61 

1460 

38.21 

11-34 

1725 

41.53 

11.99 

1990 

44 

61 

12.58 

1200 

34.64 

10.63 

146s 

38.28 

II -36 

1730 

41.59 

12 

199s 

44 

67 

12.59 

1 20s 

34.71 

10.64 

1470 

38.34 

11-37 

1735 

41.6s 

12.02 

2000 

44- 

72 

12.60 

1210 

34.79 

10.66 

1475 

38.41 

11-38 

1740 

41-71 

12.03 

200s 

44- 

78 

12.61 

1215 

34.86 

10.67 

1480 

38.47 

11.40 

•1745 

41-77 

12. 04 

2010 

44 

83 

12.62 

1220 

34.93 

10.69 

1485 

38.54 

II-4I 

1750 

41-83 

12.05 

201s 

44 

89 

12.63 

1225 

35 

10.70 

1490 

38.60 

1I-42 

1755 

41-89 

12.06 

2020 

44 

94 

12.64 

1230 

35.07 

10.71 

149s 

38.67 

11-43 

1760 

41.95 

12.07 

2025 

45 

12.65 

1235 

35.14 

10-73 

1500 

38.73 

11-45 

1765 

42.01 

12.09 

2030 

45 

06 

12.66 

1240 

35.21 

10.74 

IS05 

38.79 

11.46 

1770 

42.07 

12.10 

2035 

45 

II 

12.67 

1245 

35.28 

10.76 

1510 

38.86 

11-47 

1775 

42.13 

12. II 

2040 

45 

17 

12.68 

1250 

35.36 

10.77 

1515 

38.92 

11-49 

1780 

42-19 

12.12 

2045 

45 

22 

12.69 

I2SS 

35-43 

10.79 

1520 

38.99 

11-50 

1785 

42.25 

12.13 

2050 

45 

28 

12.70 

1260 

35-50 

10.80 

1525 

39.05 

11-51 

1790 

42-31 

12.14 

2055 

45 

33 

12.71 

126s 

35-57 

10.82 

1530 

39-12 

II-S2 

1795 

42-37 

12.15 

2060 

45 

39 

12.72 

S8 


Mathematical  Tallies 


Table  of  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots  of  Numbers  from 
looo  to  io,(x>o  —  {Conliitued) 


No. 

Sq. 

Cut* 

No. 

Sq. 

Cube 

No. 

Sq. 

Cube 

No. 

Sq. 

Cube 

root 

root 

root 

root 

root 

root 

root 

root 

3o6s 

45  44 

13.73 

2330 

48.27 

13.26 

2740 

52. 35 

1399 

3270 

57  i« 

14.84 

3070 

45.50 

12.74 

2335 

48.32 

13  27 

2750 

52.44 

14  01 

3280 

57-27 

14.86 

ao7S 

45  55 

12.75 

2340 

48.37 

13.28 

2760 

52.54 

14  03 

3290 

57  36 

14.87 

3n8o 

45  61 

12.77 

2345 

48.43 

13  29 

2770 

52  63 

14  04 

3300 

57-45 

14.89 

ao8s 

45.66 

12.78 

i   23SO 

48,48 

13.30 

2780 

52,73 

14  06 

3310 

57-53 

14.90 

ao9o 

45.72 

12.79 

2.555 

48.53 

13  30 

2790 

52.82 

14.08 

3330 

57-62 

14.93 

2095 

45.77 

12.80 

2j6o 

48.58 

13.31 

2800 

52,92 

14.09 

3330 

57.71 

14.93 

3 100 

45  83 

12. 8i 

236s 

48.63 

13  32 

2810 

S3. 01 

14  11 

3340 

57-79 

14  95 

3I05 

45.88 

12.82 

2370 

48.68 

13.33 

2820 

S3, 10 

14.13 

3.M0 

57.88 

14  96 

31 10 

45. 93 

12.83 

2375 

48.73 

13.34 

2830 

S3. 20 

14  14 

3360 

57  97 

14  98 

3IIS 

45.99 

12.84 

2380 

48.79]   13  35 

2840 

53.29 

14.16 

3370 

58.05 

14.99 

2120 

46.04 

12.8s 

238s 

48.84I   13.36 

28,50 

53  39 

14.18 

3380 

58.14 

15  01 

21 25 

46.10 

12.86 

2390 

48.89 

13.37 

2860 

53-48 

14.19 

3390 

58.23 

15.02 

2130 

46.15 

12.87 

2395 

48.94 

13.38 

2870 

53. 57 

14.21 

3400 

58.31 

15  C4 

3135 

46.21 

12.88 

2400 

48.99 

13.39 

2880 

53  67 

14.23 

ilio 

58.40 

IS  05 

3140 

46.26 

12.89 

2405 

49  04 

13  40 

2890 

53.76 

14.24 

3420 

58.48 

15.07 

3I4S 

46.31 

12.90 

2410 

49.09 

13  41 

2900 

S3  85 

14.26 

3430 

58.57 

15.08 

3150 

46.37 

12.91 

2415 

49.14 

13.42 

2910 

S3  94 

14  28 

3440 

58.65 

15.10 

3ISS 

46.42 

12.92 

2420 

49.19 

13  43 

2920 

54.04 

14-29 

3450 

58.74 

15.11 

3i6o 

46.48 

12.93 

3425 

49.24 

13.43 

2930 

54.13 

14-31 

3460 

58.82 

15.12 

2i6s 

46.53 

12.94 

2430 

49.30 

13.44 

2940 

54.22 

14-33 

3470 

58.91 

IS. 14 

2170 

46.58 

12.95 

2435 

49.35 

13.45 

2950 

54.31 

14-34 

3480 

58.99 

15  15 

2175 

46.64 

12.96 

2440 

49.40 

13.46 

2960 

54. 41 

14  36 

3490 

59  08 

IS.  17 

3i8o 

46.69 

12.97 

2445 

49-45 

13.47 

2970 

54.50 

14-37 

3500 

59.16 

IS  18 

2185 

46.74 

12.98 

24SO 

49.50 

13.48 

2980 

54. 59 

14-39 

3510 

59.25 

15.20 

2190 

46.80 

12.99 

2460 

49.60 

13.50 

2990 

54.68 

14-41 

3S20 

59. 33 

IS. 21 

2195 

46.8s 

13 

2470 

49.70 

13.52 

3000 

54. 77 

14-42 

3530 

5941    15.23 

2200 

46.90 

13  01 

3480 

49.80 

13. 54 

3010 

54.86 

14-44 

3S40 

5950    15.24 

2205 

46.96 

13  02 

2.190 

49.90 

13  55 

3020 

54. 95 

14  45 

35SO 

59.58 

15.25 

2210 

47.01 

13.03 

2500 

50 

13  57 

3030 

SS.  05 

14.47 

3560 

59.67 

15.27 

22IS 

47.06 

13.04 

1  2510 

50- 10 

13.59 

3040 

55.14 

14.49 

3570 

59.75 

15.28 

2220 

47.12 

13  05 

2520 

SO. 20 

13  61 

3050 

55.23 

14  SO 

3580 

59.83 

IS-30 

2225 

47.17 

13  05 

2530 

50.30 

13.63 

3060 

55  32 

14. 52 

3590 

5992 

IS. 31 

2230 

47.22 

1306 

2540 

50.40 

13  64 

3070 

55. 41 

14.53 

3600 

60 

IS  33 

3235 

47.28 

13.07 

2550 

SO.  50 

13.66 

3080 

55. SO 

14  55 

3610 

60  08]  15.34 

2240 

47.33 

13.  oS 

2.i6o 

SO. 60 

13.68 

3090 

55.59 

14,57 

3620 

60.17 

15.35 

3245 

47.38 

13.09 

2570 

SO.  70 

13.70 

3100 

55.68 

14  S8 

3630 

60.2s 

15.37 

3250 

47.43 

13  10 

2580 

SO.  79 

13.72 

3110 

55-77 

14  60 

3640 

60.33 

15.38 

2255 

47-49 

13.11 

2590 

50.89 

13.73 

3120 

55-86 

14.61 

3650 

60,42 

15.40 

2260 

47.54 

13.12 

2600 

50.99 

13.75 

3130 

55.95 

14,63 

3660 

60. so 

15.41 

2265 

47.59 

13  13 

2610 

SI. 09 

13.77 

3140 

56,04 

14.64 

3670 

60.58 

15.42 

3270 

47.64 

13.14 

2620 

SI. 19 

13.79 

3150 

S6,l2 

14.66 

3680 

60.66 

15.44 

3275 

47.70 

13.15 

26.30     SI.  28 

13.80 

3160 

56.21 

14-67 

3690 

60.75 

15.45 

238o 

47.75 

13.16 

2640 

51.38 

13.82 

3170 

56.30 

14  69 

3700 

60.83 

15.47 

328s 

47.80 

13.17 

2650 

51.48 

13.84 

3180 

56.39 

14.71 

3710 

60.91 

15.48 

2290 

47.85 

13  18 

2660 

51.58    13.86 

3190 

56,48 

14.72 

3720 

60.99 

15.49 

339s 

47.91 

13.19 

2670 

51.67    13.87 

3200 

S6,S7 

14.74 

3730 

61.07 

15.51 

2300 

47.96 

13.20 

2680 

51.77    1389 

3210 

56.66 

14.75 

3740 

61.16 

15.52 

2305 

48.01 

13.31 

2690 

SI. 87   13.91 

3220 

56.75 

14.77 

3750 

61.24 

15. 54 

3310 

48.06 

13  22 

2700 

SI. 96   13  92 

3230 

56.83 

14.78 

3760 

61.32 

15-55 

3315 

48.11 

13.23 

2710 

52.06    13.94 

3240 

56.92 

14.80 

3770 

61.40 

15.56 

3330 

48.17 

13.24 

2720 

S2.I5    13.96 

3250 

57.01 

14  81 

3780 

61.48 

15  58 

232s 

48.22 

13.25 

3730 

S2.2S    13.98 

3260 

57.10 

14-83 

3790 

61.56 

15. 59 

Table  of  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 


59 


Table  of  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots  of  Numbers  from 
looo  TO  10,000  —  {Continued) 


No. 

Sq. 
root 

Cube 
root 

IS. 60 

No. 

Sq. 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

Sq. 
root 

Cube 

root 

No. 

Sq. 
root 

Cube 

root 

•3800 

61.64 

4330 

65.80 

16.30 

4860 

69.71 

16-94 

S390 

73-42 

17 -S3 

3810 

61.73 

15.62 

4340 

65.88 

16.31 

4870 

69.79 

16.95 

5400 

73-48 

17.54 

3820 

61.81 

15.63 

4350 

65-95 

16.32 

4880 

69.86 

16.96 

5410 

73 -SS 

17-55 

3830 

61.89 

IS.  65 

4360 

66.03 

16.34 

4890 

69.93 

16-97 

5420 

73-62 

17-57 

3840 

61.97 

15.66 

4370 

66.11 

16.35 

4900 

70 

16.98 

S430 

73.69 

17-58 

3850 

62.05 

15.67 

43S0 

66.18 

16.36 

4910 

70.07 

17 

5440 

73-76 

17-59 

3860 

62.13 

15.69 

4390 

66.26 

16.37 

4920 

70.14 

I7-OI 

S450 

73-82 

17-60 

3870 

62.21 

15.70 

4400 

66.33 

16.39 

4930 

70.21 

17.02 

5460 

73-89 

17-61 

3880 

62.29 

15.71 

4410 

66.41 

16.40 

4940 

70.29 

17-03 

5470 

73.96 

17-62 

3890 

62.37 

15-73 

4420 

66.48 

16.41 

49SO 

70.36 

17.04 

5480 

74-03 

17-63 

3900 

62.45 

15.74 

4430 

66.56 

16.42 

4960 

70.43 

17.05 

S490 

74-09 

17-64 

3910 

62.53 

15.75 

4440 

66.63 

16.44 

4970 

70.50 

17.07 

SSoo 

74-16 

17-65 

3920 

62.61 

15.77 

44SO 

66.71 

16.45 

4980 

70.57 

17.08 

55 10 

74-23 

17-66 

3930 

62.69 

15.78 

4460 

66.78 

16.46 

4990 

70.64 

17.09 

5520 

74.30 

17-67 

3940 

62.77 

IS.  79 

4470 

66.86 

-16.47 

Sooo 

70.71 

17.10 

5530 

74-36 

17-68 

3950 

62.8s 

15.81 

4480 

66.93 

16.49 

5010 

70.78 

17-11 

S540 

74-43 

17-69 

3960 

62.93 

15.82 

4490 

67.01 

16.50 

5020 

70.85 

17.12 

5S50 

74-50 

17.71 

3970 

63.01 

15.83 

4500 

67.08 

16.51 

5030 

70.92 

17.13 

5560 

74-57 

17.72 

3980 

63.09 

IS.  85 

4510 

67.16 

16.52 

5040 

70.99 

17 -IS 

S570 

74-63 

17.73 

3990 

63. 17 

15.86 

4520 

67-23 

16.53 

S050 

71.06 

17- 16 

5580 

74-70 

17-74 

4000 

63.2s 

15.87 

4530 

67-31 

16.5s 

5060 

71.13 

17.17 

5590 

74-77 

17-75 

4010 

63  32 

IS.  89 

4S40 

67.38 

16.56 

5070 

71.20 

17.18 

5600 

74-83 

17.76 

4020 

63.40 

15.90 

4S50 

67.4s 

16.57 

5080 

71.27 

17-19 

5610 

74-90 

17-77 

4030 

63.48 

15.91 

4560 

67.53 

16.58 

5090 

71.34 

17 -20 

5620 

74-97 

17.78 

4040 

63.56 

15-93 

4S70 

67.60 

16.59 

5100 

71.41 

17-21 

5630 

75-03 

17-79 

4050 

63.64 

IS.  94 

4580 

67.68 

16.61 

Siio 

71.48 

17.22 

5640 

75-10 

17.80 

4060 

63.72 

15 -9S 

4590 

67 -75 

16.62 

5120 

71-55 

17.24 

5650 

75-17 

17.81 

4070 

63.80 

IS- 97 

4600 

67.82 

16.63 

5130 

71.62 

17.25 

5660 

75-23 

17.82 

4080 

63.87 

IS -98 

4610 

67.90 

16.64 

S140 

71.69 

17.26 

5670 

75.30 

17.83 

4090 

63.95 

15.99 

4620 

67.97 

16.66 

51S0 

71.76 

17.27 

5680 

75-37 

17.84 

4100 

64.03 

16.01 

4630 

68.04 

16.67 

5160 

71.83 

17.28 

5690 

75-43 

17-85 

41T0 

64.11 

16.02 

4640 

68.12 

16.68 

S170 

71.90 

17.29 

5700 

75.50 

17.86 

4I20 

64.19 

16.03 

4650 

68.19 

16.69 

S180 

71-97 

17.30 

S7IO 

75-56 

17.87 

4130 

64.27 

16.04 

4660 

68.26 

16.70 

S190 

72-04 

17. 31 

5720 

75-63 

17-88 

4140 

64.34 

16.06 

4670 

68.34 

16.71 

5200 

72.11 

17.32 

5730 

75-70 

17-89 

4150 

64.42 

16.07 

4680 

68.41 

16.73 

5210 

72.18 

17.34 

5740 

75.76 

17-90 

4160 

64.50 

16.08 

4690 

68.. 48 

16.74 

5220 

72.25 

17. 35 

S750 

75.83 

17-92 

4170 

64.58 

16.10 

4700 

68.56 

16.7s 

5230 

72.32 

17  36 

5760 

75-89 

17.93 

4180 

64.65 

16. II 

4710 

68.63 

16.76 

5240 

72-39 

17.37 

S770 

75-96 

17-94 

4190 

64.73 

16.12 

4720 

68.70 

16.77 

5250 

72.46 

17.38 

5780 

76.03 

17 -9S 

4200 

64.81 

16.13 

4730 

68.77 

16.79 

5260 

72.53 

17.39 

5790 

76.09 

17-96 

4210 

64.88 

16.  IS 

4740 

68.85 

16.80 

5270 

72.59 

17.40 

5800 

76.16 

17.97 

4220 

64.96 

16.16 

4750 

68.92 

16.81 

5280 

72.66 

17.41 

5810 

76.22 

17-98 

4230 

65.04 

16.17 

4760 

68.99 

16.82 

5290 

72.73 

17.42 

5820 

76.29 

17.99 

4240 

65.12 

16.19 

4770 

69.07 

16.83 

5300 

72.80 

17-44 

S830 

76.35 

18 

4250 

65.19 

16.20 

4780 

69.14 

16. 85 

5310 

72.87 

17-45 

5840 

76.42 

18.01 

4260 

65.27 

16.21 

4790 

69.21 

16.86 

S320 

72.94 

17.46 

5850 

76.49 

18.02 

4270 

6S.35 

16.22 

4800 

69.28 

16.87 

5330 

73.01 

17-47 

5860 

76. 55 

18.03 

4280 

65.42 

16.24 

4810 

69.35 

16.88 

5340 

73.08 

17 -48 

5870 

76.62 

18.04 

4290 

65.50 

16.25 

4820 

69.43 

16.89 

S3SO 

73-14 

17-49 

5880 

76.68 

18.  OS 

4300 

65.57 

16.26 

4830 

69.50 

16.90 

5360 

73-21 

17 -SO 

5890 

76.75 

18.06 

4310 

65.65 

16.27 

4840 

69.57 

16.92 

5370 

73-28 

17. SI 

5900 

76.81 

18.07 

4320 

65.73 

16.29 

4850 

69.64 

16.93 

5380 

73-35 

17-52 

S9IO 

76.88 

18.08 

6o 


Malhcmaticjil  Tables 


Table  of  Square  Roots  ajo)  Cuue  Roots  of  Numbers  from 
looo  TO  10,000  —  (CotUinued) 


Sq. 

Cube 

root 

root 

76,94 

18.09 

77.01 

18.10 

77.07 

18.11 

77.14 

18.12 

77.20 

18  13 

77.27 

18.14 

77.. W 

18. IS 

77.40 

18.16 

77.46 

18.17 

77.52 

18.18 

77.59 

18.19 

77.65 

18.20 

77.72 

18.21 

77.78 

18.22 

77.85 

18.23 

77.91 

18.24 

77.97 

18.2s 

78.04 

18.26 

78.10 

18.27 

78.17 

18.28 

78.23 

18.29 

78.29 

18.30 

78.36 

18.31 

78.42 

18.32 

78.49 

18.33 

78.55 

18.34 

78.61 

18.3s 

78.68 

18.36 

78.74 

18.37 

78.80 

18.38 

78.87 

18.39 

78.93 

18.40 

78.99 

18.41 

79.06 

18.42 

79  12 

18.43 

79-18 

18.44 

79.25 

18.45 

79.31 

18.46 

79.37 

18.47 

79  44 

18.48 

79  50 

18.49 

79  56 

18.  so 

79.62 

18. SI 

79- 69 

18.52 

79.75 

18.  S3 

79.81 

18.54 

79.87 

18.  SS 

79  94 

18.56 

80 

18  .S7 

80.06 

18.58 

80.12 

18.59 

80.19 

18.60 

80.2s 

18.60 

No. 


6450 
6460 
6470 
6480 
6490 
6500 
6s«o 
6520 
6530 
6540 
6550 
6560 
6570 
6580 
6590 
6600 
66io 
6620 
6630 
6640 
6650 
6660 
6670 
6680 
6690 
6700 
6710 
6720 
6730 
6740 
6750 
6760 
6770 
6780 
6790 
6800 
6810 
6820 
6830 
6840 
6850 
6860 
6870 
6880 
6890 
6900 
6910 
6920 
6930 
6940 
6950 
6960 
6970 


Sq. 

Cube 

root 

root 

80.31 

18  61 

80.37 

18  62 

80.44 

18  63 

80.50 

18  64 

80.56 

18.65 

80.62 

18.66 

80. 68 

18.67 

80. 75 

18.68 

80.81 

18.69 

80.87 

18.70 

80.93 

18.71 

80.99 

18.72 

81.06 

18.73 

81.12 

18.74 

81.18 

18.7s 

81.24 

18.76 

81.30 

18.77 

81.36 

18.78 

81.42 

18.79 

81.49 

18.80 

81.55 

18.81 

81.61 

18.81 

81.67 

18.82 

81.73 

18.83 

81.79 

18.84 

81.85 

18.8s 

81.91 

18.86 

81.98 

18.87 

82.04 

18.88 

82.10 

18.89 

82.16 

18.90 

82.22 

18.91 

82.28 

18.92 

82.34 

18.93 

82.40 

18.94 

82.46 

18.95 

82.52 

18.95 

82.58 

18.96 

82.64 

18.97 

82.70 

18.98 

82.76 

18.99 

82.83 

19 

82.89 

19.01 

82.95 

19.02 

83.01 

19.03 

83.07 

19.04 

83.13 

19.0s 

83.19 

19.06 

83.25 

19.07 

83.31 

19.07 

83.37 

19.08 

83  43 

19.09 

83.49 

19.10 

No. 


6980 
6990 
7000 
7010 
7020 
70.50 
7040 
7050 
7060 
7070 
7080 
7090 
7100 
71 10 
7120 
7130 
7140 
7150 
7160 
7170 
7180 
7190 
7200 
7210 
7220 
7230 
7240 
7250 
7260 
7270 
7280 
7290 
7300 
7310 
7320 
7330 
7340 
73SO 
7360 
7370 
7380 
7390 
7400 
7410 
7420 
7430 
7440 
7450 
7460 
7470 
7480 
7490 
7SOO 


Sq. 

root 


Cube 
root 


83.  SS 
83.61 
83.67 
83 .73 
83.79 
83.85 
83  90 
83.96 
84.02 
84.08 
84.14 
84.20 
84.26 
84.32 
84.38 
84.44 
84.50 
84.56 
84.62 
84.68 
84.73 
84.79 
84.85 
84.91J 
84.97 
85.03' 
85.09! 
85.15; 
85.21] 
85.26; 
85.32] 
85.38' 
85.44 
85.S0I 
85.56] 
85.62 
85.67 
85.73 
85.79J 
85. 85 I 
85.911 
85.97 
86.02 
86.08 
86.14 
86.20 
86.29 
86.31 
86.37 
86.43 
86.49 
86.54 
86.60 


No. 


7SIO 
7S» 
7S*> 
7540 
7SSO 
7S6o 
7S70 
7580 
759° 
7600 
7610 
7620 
7630 
7640 
7650 
7660 
7670 
7680 
7690 
7700 
7710 
7720 
7730 
7740 
7750 
7760 
7770 
7780 
7790 
7800 
7810 
7820 
7830 
7840 
7850 
7860 
7870 
7880 
7890 
7900 
7910 
7920 
7930 
7940 
7950 
7960 
7970 
7980 
7990 
8000 
8010 
8020 
8030 


Sq. 
root 


Cube 
root 


86.66 
86.7a 
86.78 
86  83 

86  89 
869s 
87.01 
87.06 
87.12 
87.18 
87.24 
87.29 
87.3s 
87.41 
87.46 
87. S2 
87.58 
87.64 
87.69 
87.7s 
87.81 
87.86 

87  92 
87.98 
88.03 
88.09 
88. IS 
88.20 
88.26 
88.32 
88.37 
88.43 
88.49 
88.S4 
88.60 
88.66 
88.71 
88.77 
88.83 
88.88 
88.94 
88.99 
89.0s 
89.11 
89.16 
89.22 
89.27 
89  33 
89  39 
89.44 
89. SO 
89.55 
89.61 


Table  of  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots 


6i 


Table  of  Square  Roots  and  Cube  Roots  of  Numbers  from 
looo  TO  10,000  —  {Continued) 


No. 

Sq. 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

Sq. 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

Sq. 
root 

Cube 
root 

No. 

Sq. 
root 

Cube 
root 

8040 

89.67 

20.03 

8540 

92.41 

20.44 

9040 

95.08 

20.83 

9540 

97.67 

21.21 

80S0 

89 

72 

20.04 

8550 

92 

47 

20. 45 

9050 

95 

14 

20.84 

9S50 

97 

72 

21.22 

8060 

89 

78 

20.05 

8560 

92 

52 

20.46 

9060 

95 

18 

20.85 

9560 

97 

78 

21.22 

8070 

89 

83 

20.06 

8570 

92 

57 

20.46 

9070 

95 

24 

20.8s 

9S70 

97 

83 

21.23 

8080 

89 

89 

20.07 

8580 

92 

63 

20.47 

9080 

95 

29 

20.86 

9580 

97 

88 

21.24 

8090 

89 

94 

20.07 

8590 

92 

68 

20.48 

9090 

95 

34 

20,87 

9590 

97 

93 

21.25 

8100 

90 

20.08 

8600 

92 

74 

20.49 

9100 

95 

39 

20.88 

9600 

97 

98 

21.25 

81 10 

90 

06 

20.09 

8610 

92 

79 

20.50 

91 10 

95 

45 

20.89 

9610 

98 

03 

21.26 

8120 

90 

II 

20.10 

8620 

92 

84 

20.50 

9120 

95 

50 

20.89 

9620 

98 

08 

21.27 

8130 

90 

17 

20.11 

8630 

92 

90 

20.51 

9130 

95 

55 

20.90 

9630 

98 

13 

21.28 

8140 

90 

22 

20.12 

8640 

92 

95 

20.52 

9140 

95 

60 

20.91 

9640 

98 

18 

21.28 

8150 

90 

28 

20.12 

8650 

93 

01 

20.53 

9150 

95 

66 

20.92 

9650 

98 

23 

21.29 

8l6o 

90 

33 

20.13 

8660 

93 

06 

20.54 

9160 

95 

71 

20.92 

9660 

98 

29 

21.30 

8170 

90 

39 

20.14 

8670 

93 

II 

20.54 

9170 

95 

76 

20.93 

9670 

98 

34 

21.30 

8l8o 

90 

44 

20.15 

8680 

93 

17 

20. 55 

9180 

95 

81 

20.94 

9680 

98 

39 

21.31 

8190 

90 

SO 

20.16 

8690 

93 

22 

20.56 

9190 

95 

86 

20.95 

9690 

98 

44 

21.32 

8200 

90 

55 

20.17 

8700 

93 

27 

20.57 

9200 

95 

92 

20.95 

9700 

98 

49 

21.33 

8210 

90 

61 

20.17 

8710 

93 

33 

20.57 

9210 

95 

97 

20.96 

9710 

98 

54 

21.33 

8220 

90 

66 

20.18 

8720 

93 

38 

20.58 

9220 

96 

02 

20.97 

9720 

98 

59 

21.34 

8230 

90 

72 

20.19 

8730 

93 

43 

20.59 

9230 

96 

07 

20.98 

9730 

98 

64 

21.3s 

8240 

90 

77 

20.20 

8740 

93 

49 

20.60 

9240 

96 

12 

20.98 

9740 

98 

69 

21.36 

8250 

90 

83 

20.21 

8750 

93 

54 

20.61 

9250 

96 

18 

20.99 

9750 

98 

74 

21.36 

8260 

90 

88 

20.21 

8760 

93 

59 

20.61 

9260 

96 

23 

21 

9760 

98 

79 

21.37 

8270 

90 

94 

20.22 

8770 

93 

65 

20.62 

9270 

96 

28 

21.01 

9770 

98 

84 

21.38 

8280 

90 

99 

20.23 

8780 

93 

70 

20.63 

9280 

96 

33 

21.01 

9780 

98 

89 

21.39 

8290 

91 

OS 

20.24 

8790 

93 

75 

20.64 

9290 

96 

38 

21.02 

9790 

98 

94 

21.39 

8300 

91 

10 

20.25 

8800 

93 

81 

20.65 

9300 

96 

44 

21.03 

9800 

98 

99 

21.40 

8310 

91 

16 

20.26 

8810 

93 

86 

20.65 

9310 

96 

49 

21.04 

9810 

99 

05 

21.41 

8320 

91 

21 

20.26 

8820 

93 

91 

20.66 

9320 

96 

54 

21.04 

9820 

99 

10 

21.41 

8330 

91 

27 

20.27 

8830 

93 

97 

20.67 

9330 

96 

59 

21.05 

9830 

99 

IS 

21.42 

8340 

91 

32 

20.28 

8840 

94 

02 

20.68 

9340 

96 

64 

21.06 

9840 

99 

20 

21.43 

8350 

91 

38 

20.29 

8850 

94 

07 

20.68 

9350 

96 

70 

21.07 

9850 

99 

25 

21.44 

8360 

91 

43 

20.30 

8860 

94 

13 

20.69 

9360 

96 

75 

21.07 

9860 

99 

30 

21.44 

8370 

91 

49 

20.30 

8870 

94 

18 

20.70 

9370 

96 

80 

21.08 

9870 

99 

35 

21.45 

8380 

91 

54 

20.31 

8880 

94 

23 

20.71 

9380 

96 

85 

21.09 

9880 

99 

40 

21.46 

8390 

91 

60 

20.32 

8890 

94 

29 

20.72 

9390 

96 

90 

21.10 

9890 

99 

45 

21.47 

8400 

91 

6S 

20.33 

8900 

94 

34 

20.72 

9400 

96 

95 

21.10 

9900 

99 

50 

21.47 

8410 

91 

71 

20.34 

8910 

94 

39 

20.73 

9410 

97 

01 

21. II 

9910 

99 

55 

21.48 

8420 

91 

76 

20.34 

8920 

94 

45 

20.74 

9420 

97 

06 

21.12 

9920 

99 

60 

21.49 

8430 

91 

82 

20. 35 

8930 

94 

50 

20.75 

9430 

97 

II 

21.13 

9930 

99 

65 

21.49 

8440 

91 

87 

20.36 

8940 

94 

55 

20.75 

9440 

97 

16 

21.13 

9940 

99 

70 

21.50 

8450 

91 

92 

20.37 

8950 

94 

60 

20.76 

9450 

97 

21 

21.14 

9950 

99 

75 

21.51 

8460 

91 

98 

20.38 

8960 

94 

66 

20.77 

9460 

97 

26 

21.15 

9960 

99 

80 

21.52 

8470 

92 

03 

20.38 

8970 

94 

71 

20.78 

9470 

97 

31 

21.16 

9970 

99 

85 

21.52 

8480 

92 

09 

20.39 

8980 

94 

76 

20.79 

9480 

97 

37 

21.16 

9980 

99  90 

21.53 

8490 

92 

14 

20.40 

8990 

94 

82 

20.79 

9490 

97 

42 

21.17 

9990 

99-95 

21.54 

8500 

92 

20 

20.41 

9000 

94 

87 

20.  So 

9500 

97 

47 

21.18 

lOOOO 

100   1 

21.54 

8510 

92 

25 

20.42 

9010 

94 

92 

20.81 

9SIO 

97 

52 

21.19 

8520 

92 

30 

20.42 

9020 

94 

97 

20.82 

9520 

97 

57 

21.19 

8530 

92 

36 

20.43 

9030 

95 

03 

20.82 

9S30 

97 

62 

21.20 

'>2  iMalhciiKilicil    I'aliles 

To  find  Square  or  Cube  Roots  of  large  numbers  not  con- 
tained in  the  column  of  numbers  of  the  table 

Sinli  routs  may  sDniclimcs  Ijc  taken  at.  ontc  from  llic  taljlc,  by  mtrtly 
rcf^ardin^  ihc  columns  of  |K)\vers  as  bfing  columns  of  numbers;  and  tliosc 
of  numljcrs  as  bein^  those  of  roots.  Thus,  if  ihe  si/iiiirc  root  of  25281 
is  required,  first  find  thai  number  in  the  column  of  squares;  and  opix>silc 
to  it,  in  the  column  of  numbers,  is  its  square  root  159.  For  the  cube  root 
of  857375,  find  that  number  in  the  column  of  cubes;  and  opposite  to  it, 
ill  the  column  of  numbers,  is  its  cube  root  95.  When  the  exact  number 
is  not  contained  in  the  column  of  squares,  or  cubes,  as  the  case  may  be, 
\vc  may  use  instead  the  number  nearest  to  it,  if  no  great  accuracy  is 
required.  But  when  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy  is  necessary,  the 
following  very  correct  methods  ma>'  be  used. 

For  the  square  root 

This  rule  applies  both  to  whole  numbers  and  to  those  which  are  parlly 
(not  wholly)  decimal.  First,  in  the  foregoing  manner,  take  out  the 
tabular  nunil)cr,  wliich  is  nearest  to  the  gi\-en  one;  and  also  its  tabular 
square  root.  Multiply  this  tabular  numl)cr  b}'  3;  to  the  product  add 
the  given  number.  Call  the  sum  A.  Then  multiply  the  given  number 
l)y  3;  to  the  product  add  the  tabular  number.  Call  the  sum />.  Then 
A  :  B  ::  Tabular  root  :  Required  root. 

Example.  —  Let  the  given  number  be  946.53.  Here  we  find  the  nearest 
tabular  number  to  be  947;  and  its  tabular  square  root  30.7734.     Hence, 


947        =  tabular   numl)cr 
3 

2841 
946.53  =  given  number 


3787-53  =  -•!• 


and 


94*'^-53  =  given  number 
3 


2839-59 
947       =  tabular  number 


I  3786.59  =  B. 


A  B  Tab.  root        Req'd  root 

Then  3787-53     :     3786.59     ::     30-7734     :     30-7657+- 

The  root  as  found  by  actual  matliematical  process  is  also  30.76574-. 

For  the  cube  root 

This  rule  api)lics  lioth  to  wiiole  nunil)crs  and  to  those  whicli  are  parlly 
decimal.  First  take  out  the  tabular  number  which  is  nearest  to  the  given 
one;  and  also  its  tabular  cul)e  root.  ^lultiply  this  tabular  number  by 
2;  and  to  the  product  add  the  given  number.     Call  the  siun  A.    Then 


Cube  Root 


63 


multiply  the  given  number  by  2;   and  to  the  product  add  the  tabular 
number.     Call  the  sum  B.     Then 

A  :  B  ::  Tabular  root  :  Required  root. 

Example.  —  Let  the  given  number  be  7368.  Here  we  find  the  nearest 
tabular  number  (in  the  column  of  cubes)  to  be  6859;  and  its  tabular  cube 
root  19.     Hence, 

6859  =  tabular  number 


13718 
7368  =  given  number 


21086  =  A. 


and 


7368  =  given  number 


14736 
6859  =  tabular  number 


I  21595  =  B. 
B  Tab.  root    Req'd  root 

Then  21086     :     21595      "       ^9        :     I94585. 

The  root  as  found  by  correct  mathematical  process  is  19.4588. 


A 

21086 


64 


Mallienuitical  Tallies 


Areas  and  Circuukkkknces  ok  Circles  for  Diaueteks  in 
Units  and  Eiciiths,  etc.,  from  ^4«  to  ioo. 


Uiam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

itLT 

ference 

eter 

2H 

ference 

elcr 

ference 

Area 

<B4 

.049087 

.00019 

7.068S8 

3  9761 

S«6 

I7.47SI 

24.301 

•42 

.09817s 

.00077 

c>1. 

7  26493 

4  2000 

H 

17  671S 

24  850 

H« 

.147J62 

.00173 

H 

7.46128 

4  4.V3I 

'M« 

17  8678 

25  406 

M. 

.1963S0 

.00307 

lit 

7.65763 

46664 

H 

18  0642 

25  967 

9)3 

.294524 

.00690 

W 

7.85398 

4.9087 

'»i« 

18. 260s 

26  S3S 

^ 

.392699 

.01227 

Wo 

8  0S0.33 

S-1S72 

H 

18.4.569 

27  109 

Ma 

.490874 

.01917 

H 

8.2466K 

S.411  . 

18  6532 

27  688 

^0 

•589049 

.02761 

'!ir> 

«  41P3 

567.: 

18  8496 

28  274 

li2 

.687223 

.03758 

^4 

8.63938 

5  g-v'' 

19  2423 

29  465 

M 

.785398 

.04909 

'■dfl 

8.83573 

6  2126 

1     ^* 

19.6.V50 

JO  680 

Wj 

.883573 

.06213 

li 

9  03208 

6.4918 

\     H 

ao.0277 

31.919 

M. 

.981748 

.07670 

'■''is 

9  22843 

6.7771 

'  . 

20.4204 

33  183 

>Hj 

1.07992 

.09281 

3 

9  42478 

7.o«.- 

20.8131 

34  472 

^6 

1.17810 

.11045 

Mo 

9  62113 

7-3'"- 

21.2058 

35  78s 

'?42 

1.27627 

.12962 

'6 

9  81748 

7-6699 

>H 

21.5984 

.37  122 

?<« 

I. 37445 

.15033 

9io 

10.0138 

7-9798 

7 

21.9911 

38.48S 

'Hi 

1.47262 

. 17257 

M 

10.2102 

8,2958 

yi 

22.3838 

39  871 

)i 

1.57080 

.  1963.1 

v'io 

10.406s 

8.6179 

M 

22.776s 

41  282 

'"^fc 

1.66897 

.22166 

% 

10.6029 

8   01*^2 

H 

23.1692 

42.718 

9i« 

1.7671S 

.24850 

?i» 

10.7992 

'•J 

23  5619 

44  179 

>%•.■ 

1.86532 

.27688 

!i 

10.9956 

■4 

23  9546 

45664 

H 

1.96350 

.30680 

?lo 

11.1919 

■'•4 

24  3473 

47  173 

2J.42 

2.06167 

.33824 

56 

11.3683 

10.321 

yi 

24.7400 

48.707 

«H« 

2.15984 

.37122 

'Ho 

11.5846 

10.680 

8 

25.1327 

50.265 

2^2 

2.25802 

.40574 

?1 

I I. 7810 

1I.04S 

W 

25  5254 

51  849 

^4 

2. 35619 

.44179 

'?i6 

11  9773 

11.416 

M 

25.9'8i 

S3  4S6 

*542 

2.454.37 

.47937 

H 

12.1737 

11-793 

94 

26  3108 

SS  .088 

'^6 

2.55254 

.51849 

'■?io 

12.3700 

12.177 

W 

26.703s 

56.745 

"/42 

2.65072 

.55914 

4 

12.5664 

12.566 

94 

27.0962 

S8.426 

% 

2.74889 

.60132 

'io 

12.7627 

12.962 

•M 

27.4889 

60.132 

»H2 

2.84707 

.64504 

'H 

12.9591 

13  364 

;8 

27.8816 

61.862 

'^fl 

2.94524 

.69029 

r»s 

13  1554 

13.772 

9 

28.2743 

63  617 

3)42 

3.04342 

.73708 

H 

13.3518 

14.186 

% 

28.6670 

65.397 

I 

3.14159 

.78540 

5ia 

13.5481 

14.607 

li 

290597 

67.201 

Mfl 

3  33794 

.88664 

H 

13-7445 

15  0.33 

9s 

29.4524 

69  039 

!-4 

3  53429 

.99402 

1U 

13.9408 

15466 

^4 

29  8451 

70.882 

?(« 

3  7,?o64 

I . 1075 

H 

14.1372 

IS  904 

H 

30  2378 

72.760 

U 

3.92699 

I . 2272 

?1a 

14.3335 

16.349 

94 

30.6305 

74662 

''10 

4.12334 

1.3530 

5(i 

14-5299 

16.800 

'A 

31.0232 

76589 

■'4 

4.31969 

1.4849 

"16 

14.7262 

17.257       1 

10 

31.4159 

78.540 

^io 

4.S1604 

1.6230 

•M 

14.9226 

17.721       ' 

H 

31.8086 

80.SI6 

^^ 

4-712.39 

1.7671 

';'ifl 

15-1189 

18'.  190 

M 

32.2013 

82.516 

»io 

4.90874 

1.9175 

H 

IS.3153 

18.665 

96 

32.5940 

84 -541 

H 

5.10509 

2.07.39 

'Mo 

15.5116. 

19  147 

H 

32.9867 

86.590 

'!i» 

5.30144 

2.236s 

S 

IS.70S0 

19  63s 

96 

33  3794 

88.664 

^4 

5.49779 

2.4053 

Mo 

15.9043 

20.129 

94 

33  7721 

90.763 

'^i8 

S. 69414 

2.5802 

H 

16.1007 

20.629 

li 

34.1648 

92.886 

^/6 

5.89049 

2.7612 

9io 

16.2970 

21. 135 

II 

34.5575 

95  033 

'Mo 

6.08684 

2.9483 

M 

l6.49.i4 

21.648 

H 

34  9.502 

97.20s 

2 

6.28319 

3.1416 

■Mo 

16.6897 

22.166 

M 

35.3429 

99.402 

H» 

6.47953 

3.3410 

H 

l6.885l 

22.691 

96 

35-7356 

101.62 

^ 

6.67588 

3  5466 

■/i« 

17.0824 

23.221 

W 

36.1283    103.87 

^0 

6.87223 

3.7583 

!'i 

17.2788 

23  758 

H 

36.5210    106.14 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 


6S 


Areas  and  Circxjmterences  of  Circles  for  Diameters  in 
Units  and  Eighths,  etc.  —  {Continued) 


Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

eter 

ference 

eter 

ference 

eter 

ference 

iiH 

36.9137 

108.43 

l8?i 

57-7268 

265.18 

25 

78.5398 

490-87 

'A 

37.3064 

no. 75 

Vi 

58.1195 

268.80 

A 

78-9323 

495.79 

12 

37.6991 

113. 10 

5i 

58-5122 

272.45 

Vi 

79.3252 

500.74 

H 

38.0918 

115.47 

Vi 

58.9049 

276.12 

■H 

79.7179 

50s. 71 

M 

38.484s 

117.86 

li 

59  2976 

279.81 

A 

80.1106 

510.71 

% 

38.8772 

120.28 

19 

59-6903 

283.53 

H 

80.5033 

515.72 

H 

39.2699 

122.72 

H 

60.0830 

287.27 

% 

80.8960 

520.77 

•>i 

39.6626 

125.19 

M 

60.4757 

291.04 

A 

81.2887 

525-84 

H 

40.0553 

127.68 

5i 

60.8684 

294.83 

26 

81.6814 

530.93 

T^ 

40.4480 

130.19 

Vi 

61.2611 

298.65 

A 

82.0741 

536.0s 

13 

40.8407 

132.73 

% 

61.6538 

302.49 

H 

82.4668 

541-19 

H 

41.2334 

133.30 

H 

62.0465 

306.35 

% 

82.8595 

546.35 

Vi 

41.6261 

137.89 

'A 

62.4392 

310-24 

A 

83.2522 

551-55 

% 

42.0188 

140.50 

20 

62.8319 

314.- 16 

H 

83.6449 

556.76 

'/^ 

42.411S 

143.14 

A 

63.2246 

318.10 

H 

84.0376 

562.00 

% 

42.8042 

143.80 

M 

63.6173 

322.06 

A 

84.4303 

567.27 

?4 

43.1969 

148.49 

% 

64.0100 

326.05 

27 

84.8230 

572.56 

'A 

43.5896 

151 . 20 

M 

64 . 4026 

330.06 

A 

85.2157 

577.87 

14 

43.9823 

153.94 

% 

64.7953 

334.10 

H 

85.6084 

583.21 

W 

44.37SO 

156.70 

94 

6S-1880 

338.16 

H 

86.0011 

588.57 

Vi 

44.7677 

159.48 

Ji 

65-5807 

342.2s 

A 

86.3938 

593  96 

H 

4S.1604 

162.30 

21 

65-9734 

346.36 

^A 

86.7865 

599.37 

H 

4S.5S3I 

165.13 

A 

66.3661 

350.50 

% 

87.1792 

604.81 

H 

4S.94S8 

167.99 

\i 

66.7588 

354.66 

A 

87.5719 

610.27 

Vi 

46.338s 

170.87 

H 

67.151S 

358.84 

28 

87.9646 

615-75 

•A 

46.7312 

173.78 

\'i 

67.5442 

363.05 

A 

88.3573 

621.26 

IS 

47.1239 

176.71 

H 

67-9369 

367.28 

H 

88.7500 

626.80 

H 

47.S166 

179.67 

% 

68.3296 

371.54 

H 

89.1427 

632.36 

H 

47-9093 

182.6s 

'A 

68.7223 

375.83 

A 

89-5354 

637-94 

% 

48.3020 

185-66 

22 

69.1150 

380.13 

H 

89.9281 

643-55 

^ 

48.6947 

188.69 

A 

69.5077 

384.46 

% 

90.3208 

649  18 

^6 

49-0874 

191-75 

M 

69.9004 

388.82 

A 

90.713s 

654.84 

% 

49-4801 

194.83 

?i 

70.2931 

393-20 

29 

91 . 1062 

660.52 

-A 

49.8728 

197-93 

y2 

70.6858 

397-61 

A 

91.4989 

666.23 

16 

50.2655 

201.06 

A 

71.0785 

402.04 

H 

91.8916 

671.96 

H 

50.6582 

204.22 

% 

71.4712 

406.49 

H 

92.2843 

677.71 

W 

51-0509 

207.39 

A 

71-8639 

410.97 

A 

92.6770 

683.49 

?i 

51.4436 

210.60 

23 

72.2566 

415-48 

H 

93-0697 

689.30 

'/i 

51.8363 

213.82 

A 

72.6493 

420.00 

?4 

93-4624 

695.13 

5/i 

52.2290 

217.08 

H 

73.0420 

424.56 

A 

93-8551 

700.98 

% 

52.6217 

220.3s 

% 

73.4347 

429.13 

30 

94.2478 

706.86 

?6 

53.0144 

223.65 

A 

73-8274 

433-74 

A 

94.6405 

712.76 

17 

53.4071 

226.98 

A 

74.2261 

438.36 

A 

95-0332 

718.69 

A 

53-7998 

230.33 

U 

74-6128 

443  01 

3i 

95-4259 

724.64 

H 

54-1925 

233.71 

A 

75.005s 

447.69 

A 

95 -8186 

730.62 

^ 

54-5852 

237.10 

24 

75.3982 

452.39 

^A 

96.2113 

736.62 

H 

54-9779 

240.53 

A 

75-7909 

457.11 

H 

96.6040 

742.64 

H 

55-3706 

243.98 

Vi 

76-1836 

461.86 

A 

96.9967 

748.69 

M 

55-7633 

247.45 

H 

76.5763 

466.64 

31 

97-3894 

754-77 

5i 

56.1560 

250-95 

A 

76.9690 

471.44 

H 

97-7821 

760.87 

18 

56.5487 

254-47 

H 

77.3617 

476-26 

H 

98.1748 

766.99 

V6 

56.9414 

258.02 

H 

77-7544 

481. II 

H 

98.567s 

773- 14 

H 

57-3341 

261.59 

A 

78.1471 

485.98 

A 

98.9602 

779-31 

60 


Malhcm.ilic;il    T.ildes 


ArF.AS    and   CiRClTMFERKNCKS   OF    CIRCLES   FOR    DIAMETERS   IN 

Units  and  Kichtus,  etc.  —  {Continued) 


Diam- 

Circuit 

IJiam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

cUt 

fcrcnu. 

ctcr 

ference 

eter 

ference 

31H 

99  3S29 

785.51 

H 

120.166 

"49  I 

aaH 

140.979 

1581.6 

94 

99  7456 

791  73 

H 

120  559 

1156.6 

4S 

141 

372 

1590 

4 

Th 

100  1.38 

797  98 

W 

120.951 

1164.3 

M 

141 

764 

1599 

3 

32 

100  531 

804.2s 

H 

121.344 

"71. 7 

M 

142 

157 

i6og 

3 

H 

100.924 

810  54 

94 

121.737 

"79  3 

96 

142 

SSO 

1617 

0 

U 

101.316 

816.86 

J6 

122.129 

1186.9 

^6 

142 

942 

1626 

0 

H 

loi . 709 

823  21 

39 

122.522 

1194.6 

96 

143 

33S 

1634 

9 

H 

102.102 

829.58 

H 

122.915 

1202.3 

94 

143 

728 

1643 

9 

5i 

102.494 

83s  97 

M 

123.  yjs 

1210.0 

H 

144 

121 

1652 

9 

H 

102.887 

842.39 

96 

123  700 

1217.7 

46 

144 

S13 

1661 

9 

% 

103.280 

848.83 

H 

124.093 

1225.4 

H 

144 

906 

1670 

9 

33 

103  673 

855.30 

96 

124  486 

1233.2 

M 

145 

299 

1680 

0 

H 

10.J.065 

861.79 

94 

124.878 

1241.0 

96 

I4S 

691 

1689 

I 

y* 

104.458 

868.31 

Zi. 

125.271 

1248  8 

W 

146 

084 

1698 

3 

96 

104.851 

874.85 

40 

12s  664 

1256.6 

96 

146 

477 

1707 

4 

H 

105.243 

881.41 

H 

126  056 

1264.5 

94 

146 

869 

1716 

5 

fi 

105.636 

888.00 

H 

126  449 

1272.4 

"^6 

147 

262 

1725 

7 

94 

106.029 

894.62 

96 

126.842 

1280  3 

47 

147 

65s 

1734 

9 

^ 

106.421 

901.26 

V6 

127.235 

1288.2 

H 

148 

048 

1744 

3 

34 

106.814 

907.92 

96 

127.627 

1296.2 

H 

148 

440 

1753 

S 

H 

107 . 207 

914-61 

94 

128  020 

1304.2 

96 

148  833 

1762 

7 

y* 

107.600 

921.32 

H 

128.413 

1312.2 

'/4 

149  226 

1772 

I 

96 

107.992 

928.06 

41 

128. 80s 

1320.3 

H 

149  618 

1781 

4 

H 

108.385 

934-82 

H 

129.198 

1328.3 

94 

150.011 

1790 

8 

96 

10S.778 

941-61 

H 

129.591 

1336.4 

J6 

150.404 

1800 

I 

94 

103.170 

948-42 

96 

129.983 

1344-S 

48 

ISO  796 

1809 

6 

•yi 

109.563 

955-25 

H 

130.376 

1352.7 

W 

ISI  189 

1819 

0 

35 

109.956 

962.11 

96 

130.769 

1360.8 

H 

151  582 

1828 

S 

^6 

no.  348 

969-00 

94 

131. 161 

1369  0 

96 

151  975 

1837 

9 

K4 

no. 741 

975-91 

li 

131  554 

1377.2 

H 

152  367 

1847 

S 

96 

III. 134 

982.84 

42 

131  947 

1385.4 

96 

152  760 

1857 

0 

H 

111.527 

989.80 

^6 

132.340 

1393  7 

94 

153  153 

1866 

s 

96 

111.919 

996.78 

H 

132.732 

1402.0 

J6 

153  545 

1876 

I 

94 

112.312 

1003.8 

96 

133  125 

1410.3 

49 

153  938 

18S5 

7 

^ 

112.705 

1010.8 

\i 

133 -Si8 

1418.6 

H 

154.331 

189s 

4 

36 

113.097 

1017-9 

96 

I33-9IO 

1427.0 

y* 

154-723 

190S 

0 

H 

113.490 

1025.0 

94 

134-303 

1435  4 

96 

ISS  "6 

1914 

7 

H 

113.883 

1032.1 

?6 

134-696 

1443  8 

H 

155-509 

1924 

4 

96 

114.275 

1039.2 

43 

135  088 

1452.2 

96 

155  902 

f934 

3 

« 

114.668 

1046.3 

H 

135-481 

1460.7 

94 

156.294 

1943 

9 

96 

115  061 

IOS3-S 

H 

135-874 

1469.1 

J6 

156.687 

1953 

7 

94 

115.454 

1060.7 

96 

136-267 

1477.6 

so 

157  080 

1963 

S 

J6 

US  846 

1068.0 

H 

136.659 

1486.2 

H 

157  472 

1973 

3 

37 

1 16. 2,39 

1075.2 

96 

I37-OS2 

1494.7 

M 

IS7  86s 

1983 

3 

H 

116  632 

1082.5 

94 

137-445 

1503.3 

^8 

158  258 

1993 

I 

M 

117  024 

1089.8 

J6 

137  837 

15". 9 

!4 

158.650 

2003 

0 

96 

117.417 

1097. I 

44 

138  230 

1520.5 

96 

159  043 

2012 

9 

H 

117.810 

II04.5 

V6 

138  623 

1529-2 

94 

159  436 

2022 

8 

96 

118  202 

nil. 8 

H 

139  ois 

1537-9 

//6 

159  829 

2032 

8 

94 

118.596 

1119.2 

96 

139  408 

1546.6 

SI 

160.221 

2042 

8 

J6 

118.988 

1126.7 

H 

139  801 

I55S-3 

M 

160  614 

2052 

8 

38 

119  381 

"34-1 

96 

140.194 

1564  0 

y* 

161.007 

2062 

9 

yi 

119-773 

1141  6 

94 

140  586 

1572-8 

96 

161.399 

3073.O 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 


67 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for  Diameters  in 
Units  and  Eighths,  etc  —  {Continued) 


Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

eter 

ference 

eter 

ference 

eter 

ference 

Si!-^ 

161.792 

2083.1 

58'/^ 

182.605 

2653.5 

64?i 

203.418 

3292.8 

H 

162.185 

2093.2 

w 

182.998 

2664.9 

% 

203.811 

3305.6 

% 

162.577 

2103.3 

3^ 

183.390 

2676.4 

65 

204 . 204 

3318  3 

?i 

162  970 

2113  5 

1 2 

183.783 

2687.8 

M 

204  596 

3331  I 

52 

163  363 

2123.7 

5^ 

184 . 176 

2699.3 

H 

204.989 

3343.9 

M 

163.756 

2133  9 

H 

184.569 

2710.9 

H 

205.382 

3356  7 

H 

164.148 

2144,2 

k 

184.961 

2722.4 

H 

205.774 

3369  6 

?i 

164  541 

2154-5 

59 

185.354 

2734.0 

H 

206.167 

3382.4 

^^ 

164  934 

2164.8 

M 

185.747 

2745.6 

H 

206 . 560 

3395  3 

5i 

i6s  326 

2I7S.I 

U 

186.139 

2757.2 

I'i 

206 . 952 

3408.2 

H 

165.719 

2185.4 

% 

186.532 

2768.8 

66 

207.345 

3421.2 

li 

166. 112 

219s -8 

H 

186.925 

2780.5 

H 

207.738 

3434.2 

53 

166  504 

2206.2 

% 

187.317 

2792.2 

H 

208.131 

3447.2 

H 

166  897 

2216.6 

Vi 

187.710 

2803.9 

H 

208.523 

3460.2 

H 

167.290 

2227.0 

^/i 

188.103 

281S.7 

\i 

208.916 

3473.3 

% 

167.683 

2237-5 

60 

188.496 

2827.4 

5i 

209.309 

3486.3 

54 

168.075 

2248.0 

H 

188.888 

2839.2 

% 

209.701 

3499-4 

^i 

168.468 

2258.5 

H 

189.281 

2851.0 

'yi 

210.094 

3512. S 

H 

168.861 

2269.1 

?i 

189.674 

2862.9 

67 

210.487 

3525.7 

^ 

169.253 

2279.6 

I'i 

190.066 

2874.8 

H 

210.879 

3538.8 

54 

169.646 

2290.2 

H 

190.459 

2886.6 

H 

211.272 

3552. 0 

Iri 

170.039 

2300.8 

% 

190.852 

2898.6 

H 

211.665 

3565.2 

H 

170.431 

2311.5 

li 

191.244 

2910.5 

H 

212.058 

3578. S 

H 

170.824 

2322.1 

61 

191.637 

2922.5 

H 

212.450 

3591. 7 

H 

171. 217 

2332.8 

H 

192.030 

2934.5 

% 

212.843 

3605.0 

% 

171.609 

2343  5 

U 

192.423 

2946. 5 

% 

213.236 

3618.3 

% 

172.002 

2354. 3 

H 

192. 81S 

2958.5 

68 

213.628 

3631.7 

% 

172.395 

2365.0 

H 

193.208 

2970.6 

H 

214.021 

3645.0 

55 

172.788 

2375.8 

H 

193.601 

2982.7 

w 

214.414 

3658.4 

H 

173.180 

2386.6 

H 

193.993 

2994.8 

H 

214.806 

3671.8 

H 

173-573 

2397.5 

~A 

194.386 

3006.9 

\i 

215.199 

3685.3 

H 

173.966 

2408.3 

62 

194.779 

3019. I 

H 

215.592 

3698.7 

Vi 

174.358 

2419.2 

H 

195. 171 

3031.3 

H 

215.984 

3712.2 

^ 

174.751 

2430.1 

M 

195.564 

3043.5 

% 

216.377 

3725.7 

H 

175.144 

2441. 1 

% 

195-957 

3055.7 

69 

216.770 

3739.3 

■'A 

175.536 

2452  0 

\i 

196.350 

3068.0 

M 

217.163 

3752.8 

56 

175.929 

2463.0 

^A 

196.742 

3080.3 

M 

217.555 

3766.4 

H 

176.322 

2474.0 

H 

197.13s 

3092.6 

^i 

217.948 

3780.0 

H 

176.715 

2485.0 

li 

197.528 

3104.9 

^^ 

218.341 

3793.7 

H 

177.107 

2496.1 

63 

197.920 

3117.2 

H 

218.733 

3807.3 

H 

177. Soo 

2507.2 

H 

198.313 

3129.6 

?4 

219.126 

3821.0 

5i 

177.893 

2518.3 

H 

198.706 

3142.0 

'A 

219.519 

3834.7 

H 

178.285 

2529.4 

% 

199.098  ■ 

3154.5 

70 

219.911 

3848. 5 

li 

178.678 

2540.6 

Vi 

199.491 

3166.9 

'/i 

220.304 

3862.2 

57 

179  071 

2551. 8 

r& 

199.884 

3179.4 

M 

220.697 

3876.0 

H 

179.463 

2563.0 

H 

200.277 

3191.9 

H 

221.090 

3889.8 

H 

179.856 

2574.2 

li 

200.669 

3204.4 

'A 

221.482 

3903.6 

% 

180.249 

2585.4 

64 

201.062 

3217.0 

^A 

221.875 

3917. S 

V^ 

180.642 

2596.7 

H 

201.455 

3229.6 

¥i 

222 . 268 

3931.4 

H 

181 .034 

2608.0 

H 

201.847 

3242.2 

% 

222 . 660 

394S.3 

?4 

181.427 

2619.4 

H 

202.240 

3254.8 

71 

223.053 

3959.2 

H 

181.820 

2630.7 

Vi 

202.633 

3267.5 

A 

223.446 

3973.1 

58 

182.212 

2642 . I 

•>6 

203.025 

3280.1 

Vi 

223.838 

3987.1 

68 


Mullu'malii;il  Tables 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for  Diaueters  in 
Units  and  Kighths,  etc.  —  {Conlimud) 


Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

Area 

Diam- 

Circum- 

elor 

ference 

eter 

ference 

eter 

ference 

Areft 

7iH 

224.231 

4001. I 

78 

245  044 

4778  4 

84H 

265.857 

5634.5 

W 

224.624 

4015.2 

^6 

245  437 

4793.7 

?4 

266.350 

5641  2 

94 

22S.OI7 

4029.2 

H 

245  830 

4809  0 

56 

266.643 

56.57.8 

94 

225   409 

4043.3 

H 

246  222 

4824.4 

85 

267.03s 

5674  5 

J6 

225.802 

4057.4 

M 

246.615 

4839 .8 

H 

367.438 

S691    3 

7a 

226.195 

4071.5 

56 

247.008 

4855.2 

5i 

367.831 

5707  9 

^6 

226.587 

4085.7 

94 

247  400 

4870.7 

96 

368  213 

5724  7 

\i 

226.980 

4099  8 

J6 

247.793 

4886.2 

H 

368  606 

5741  5 

9* 

227.373 

4114  0 

79 

248.186 

4901.7 

96 

268.999 

5758  3 

W 

227.76s 

4128.2 

H 

248.579 

4917.2 

94 

269.393 

5775.1 

H 

228.158 

4142.5 

y* 

248.971 

4932.7 

56 

269.784 

579«  9 

94 

228.551 

4156.8 

H 

249  364 

4948.3 

86 

270.177 

5808.8 

Ji 

228.944 

4171  1 

M 

249-757 

4963.9 

H 

270  570 

582s  7 

73 

229.336 

4185.4 

•?6 

250.149 

4979.5 

y* 

270.962 

58.J2  6 

'/6 

229.729 

4199  7 

94 

250.542 

4995.2 

H 

271.355 

5859  6 

H 

230.122 

4214. I 

56 

250.935 

5010.9 

H 

271.748 

5876  5 

% 

230. SI4 

4228,5 

80 

251  327 

5026. 5 

96 

272.140 

5893  5 

Vi 

230.907 

4242.9 

^6 

251.720 

S042.3 

94 

272.533 

59«o  6 

56 

231.300 

4257.4 

H 

252.113 

5058.0 

56 

272.926 

5927  6 

94 

231.692 

4271.8 

96 

252.506 

5073-8 

87 

273  319 

5944  7 

56 

232.08s 

4286.3 

H 

252.898 

5089.6 

56 

273.711 

5961  8 

74 

232.478 

4300.8 

96 

253.291 

S105.4 

y* 

274.104 

5978.9 

yi 

232.871 

4315.4 

94 

253.684 

5121.2 

96 

274.497 

5996.0 

M 

233  263 

4329.9 

56 

254.076 

5137. I 

H 

274.889 

6013  2 

9i 

233.656 

4344.5 

8l 

254.469 

5153- 0 

96 

275.282 

6030.4 

^ 

234.049 

4359.2 

56 

254.862 

S168.9 

94 

275.675 

6047.6 

96 

234  441 

4373  8 

54 

255.254 

S184.9 

56 

276.067 

6064.9 

94 

234.834 

4388.5 

96 

255.647 

5200.8 

88 

276.460 

6082  I 

J6 

235.227 

4403.1 

^ 

256.040 

5216.8 

56 

276.853 

6099.4 

75 

235.619 

4417.9 

H 

256.433 

5232.8 

H 

277.246 

6116.7 

>6 

236.012 

4432.6 

54 

256.825 

5248.9 

96 

277-638 

6134-I 

M 

236.40s 

4447.4 

", 

2=57.218 

5264.9 

H 

278.031 

615I-4 

96 

236.798 

4462.2 

S7.611 

5281.0 

96 

278.424 

6168.8 

!^ 

237.190 

4477.0 

..-,8.003 

5297.1 

H 

278.816 

6186.2 

96 

237.583 

4491.8 

■  1 

258.396 

5313-3 

56 

279-209 

6203-7 

94 

237.976 

4506.7 

H 

258.789 

5329.4 

89 

279.602 

6221 . I 

T6 

238.368 

4S2I.S 

}4 

259.181 

5345.6 

H 

279.994 

6238  6 

76 

238.761 

4536. 5 

H 

259  574 

5361.8 

H 

280.387 

6256.1 

!^ 

239  154 

4SSI.4 

?4 

259.967 

5378 -I 

96 

280.780 

6273  7 

5-4 

239.546 

4566.4 

56 

260.359 

5394-3 

H 

281.173 

6291.2 

96 

239-939 

4581.3 

83 

260.752 

5410.6 

56 

281.565 

6308.8 

« 

240.332 

4596.3 

56 

261 . 145 

5426.9 

94 

281.958 

6326.4 

96 

240.725 

4611.4 

'4 

261.538 

5443-3 

56 

282.351 

6344. 1 

94 

241. 117 

4626.4 

1      H 

261.930 

5459-6 

90 

282.743 

6361 . 7 

56 

241. Sio 

4641.5 

M' 

262.323 

5476.0 

56 

283.136 

6379  4 

77 

241.903 

4656.6 

'•i 

262.716 

5492-4 

54 

283.529 

6397.1 

M 

242.29s 

4671.8     1 

•?4 

263.108 

5508.8 

96 

283.921 

6414.9 

H 

242.688 

4686.9 

56 

263.501 

5525-3 

5i 

284.314 

6432.6 

96 

243081 

4702.1 

84 

263.894 

5541-8 

96 

284.707 

6450.4 

H 

243.473 

4717.3 

56 

264.286 

5558.3 

94 

285.100 

6468.2 

96 

243.866 

4732.5 

n 

264.679 

5574.8 

56 

285.492 

6486.0 

94 

244.259 

4747.8 

H 

265.072 

5591  4 

91 

285.885 

6503.9 

56 

244.652 

4763.1     1 

54 

265.465 

5607.9 

56 

286.278 

6521.8 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 


69 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for*Diameters  in 
Units  and  Eighths,  etc.  —  {Concluded) 


Diam- 
eter 


91 54 


Circum- 
ference 


286 . 670 
287.063 
287.456 
287.848 
288.241 
288.634 
289.027 
289.419 
289.812 
290.205 
290.597 
290.990 
291.383 
291.775 
292 . 168 
292 . 561 
292.954 
293  346 
293 -739 
294.132 
294.524 
294.917 
295 -310 
295.702 


Area 


6539.7 
6557.6 
6575.5 
6593.5 
6611.5 
6629.6 
6647.6 
6665.7 
6683.8 
6701.9 
6720.1 
6738.2 
6756.4 
6774.7 
6792.9 
6811.2 
6829.5 
6847.8 
6866.1 
6884.5 
6902.9 
6921.3 
6939.8 
6958.2 


Diam- 
eter 


94'/4 


96 


Circum. 
ference 


296.095 
296.488 
296.881 
297.273 
297 . 666 
298.059 
298.451 
298.844 
299 .237 
299.629 
300.022 
300. 41S 
300.807 
301 . 200 
301.593 
301.986 
302.378 
302.771 
303.164 
303.556 
303.949 
304 -342 
304.734 
305.127 


Area 


6976.7 
6995.3 
7013  8 
7032.4 
7051.0 
7069 . 6 
7088.2 
7106.9 
7125.6 
7144.3 
7163.0 
7181.8 
7200.6 
7219.4 
7238.2 
7257.1 
7276.0 
7294.9 
7313.8 
7332.8 
7351.8 
7370.8 
7389.8 
7408.9 


Diam- 

Circum- 

eter 

ference 

97W 

305.520 

H 

305.913 

H 

306.305 

% 

306.698 

H 

307.091 

I'i 

307.483 

98 

307.876 

yi 

308.269 

H 

308.661 

% 

309  054 

Vi 

309.447 

% 

309.840 

?i 

310.232 

■A 

310.625 

99 

311. 018 

M 

311. 410 

H 

311.803 

H 

312.196 

H 

312.588 

54 

312.981 

?i 

313.374 

5i 

313.767 

100 

314.159 

Area 


7428.0 
7447.1 
7466.2 
7485.3 
7504. S 
7523.7 
7543.0 
7562.2 
7581. 5 
7600.8 
7620.1 
7639.5 
7658.9 
7678.3 
7697.7 
7717. I 
7736.6 
7756.1 
7775.6 
7795.2 
7814.8 
7834.4 
7854.0 


70 


Mathematical  TaMcs 


Areas  and  CiRciTMFERENrES  of  Circles  for  Diameters 
PROM  !io  TO  loo  Advancing  by  Tenths 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumfcrcnccll  Diar 

netcr 
3 

Area 

Circumference 

0  0 

S 

32.0618 

16.6S04 

.1 

.007854 

.31416 

4 

22.9022 

16.9646 

.3 

.031416 

.62832 

S 

23  7583 

17.3788 

.3 

.070686 

.94248 

.6 

24.6301 

17  S929 

.4 

.12566 

1.2566 

.7 

25.5176 

17  9071 

.5 

.196.JS 

1.5708 

8 

26.4208 

18  2313 

.6 

.2«27.» 

1.8850 

.9 

27  3397 

18  5354 

.7 

.38485 

2.1991                   6 

0 

28.2743 

18.8496 

.8 

.50266 

2.S133 

I 

29.2247 

19  1637 

•9 

.63617 

2.8274 

.2 

30.1907 

19  4779 

l.o 

.7854 

3.1416 

.3 

31.172s 

19.7920 

.1 

.9503 

3  4558 

4 

32.1699 

20  1062 

.3 

I.I3IO 

3  7699 

S 

33.1831 

30. 4204 

3 

I  3273 

4.0841 

6 

34.2119 

20.734S 

•  4 

I. 5394 

4.3982 

7 

35.2565 

21.0487 

.5 

1-7671 

4.7124 

8 

36.3168 

31  3628 

.6 

2.0106 

S.0265 

9 

37.3928 

21  6770 

•  7 

2.2698 

5.3407                   7 

0 

38.4845 

21    9911 

.8 

2.5447 

5.6549 

I 

39  5919 

22.3053 

•9 

2.8353 

5.9690 

2 

40.7150 

22.6195 

2.0 

3.1416 

6.3832 

•3 

41.8539 

22.9336 

.1 

3.4636 

6.5973 

4 

43.0084 

23  2478 

.2 

3.8013 

6.911S 

5 

44.17S6 

23  5619 

•3 

4.1548 

7.2257 

6 

45.3646 

23  8761 

•  4 

4  5239 

7.5398 

7 

46.5663 

24  1903 

■5 

4.9087 

7.8540 

8 

47.7836 

24.5044 

.6 

5.3093 

8.i68i 

9 

49.0167 

24.8186 

•  7 

5. 7256 

8.4823                    8 

0 

50.2655 

25.1327 

.8 

6.IS75 

8.7965 

I 

SI. 5300 

25  4469 

•9 

6.6052 

9.1106 

2 

52.8102 

25.7611 

3.0 

7.0686 

9.4248 

3 

54.1061 

26.0752 

.1 

7.5477 

9.7389   . 

4 

55.4177 

26.3894 

.3 

8.042s 

10.0531 

5 

56.7450 

26.703s 

•  3 

8.S530 

10.3673 

6 

58.0880 

27.0177 

•4 

9.0792 

10.6814 

7 

59.4468 

27.3319 

.5 

9.6211 

10.9956 

8 

60.8212 

27.6460 

.6 

10.1788 

11.3097 

9 

62.2114 

27.9602 

.7 

10.7521 

11  6239                  9 

0 

63.6173 

28.2743 

.8 

11.3411 

II. 9381 

I 

65.0388 

28.5885 

•9 

11.9459 

12.2522 

2 

66.4761 

28.9027 

4.0 

12.5664 

12.5664 

3 

67.9291 

29.2168 

.1 

13.2025 

12.8805 

4 

69.3978 

29.5310 

.2 

13.8.S44 

13.1947 

5 

70.8822 

29.84SI 

.3 

14  5220 

13.5088 

6 

72.3823 

30.1593 

•  4 

15  2053 

13.8230 

7 

73.8981 

30.4734 

.5 

15  9043 

14.1372 

8 

75.4296 

30.7876 

.6 

16.6190 

14.4513 

9 

76.9769 

31 . IOI8 

.7 

17.3494 

14.7655                 10 

0 

78.5398 

31.4159 

.8 

18.0956 

15.0796          j 

I 

80.1185 

31.7301 

•  9 

18.8574 

IS. 3938 

2 

81.7128 

32.0442 

so 

19.6350 

15.7080 

3 

83.3229 

32.3584 

.1 

20.4282 

16.0221          |j 

4 

84.9487 

32.6726 

.2 

21.2372 

i6.,w63           1 

5 

86.5901 

32.9867 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 


71 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for  Diameters 
FROM  Mo  TO  100  Advancing  by  Tenths  —  {Continued) 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumference 

Diameter 

Area 

Circumference 

10.6 

88.2473 

33.3009 

15.9 

198.5565 

49. 9513 

.7 

89 . 9202 

33.6150 

16.0 

201.0619 

50.2655 

.8 

91.6088 

33.9292 

.1 

203.5831 

50.5796 

•9 

93  3132 

34.2434 

.2 

206.1199 

so. 8938 

II. 0 

95.0332 

34.5575 

.3 

208,6724 

51.2080 

.1 

96.7689 

34.8717 

.4 

211.2407 

51    5221 

.2 

98.5203 

35.1858 

.5 

213.8246 

51.8363 

•  3 

100.287s 

35.5000 

.6 

216.4243 

52.1504 

.4 

102.0703 

35.8142 

■  7 

219.0397 

52.4646 

•  5 

103.8689 

36.1283 

.8 

221.670S 

52 . 7788 

.6 

10S.6832 

36.4425 

.9 

224.3176 

53  0929 

.7 

107.5132 

36.7566 

17.0 

226.9801 

53.4071 

.8 

109.3588 

37.0708 

.1 

229.6583 

53.7212 

.9 

III. 2202 

37.3850 

.2 

232.3522 

54.0354 

12.0 

113.0973 

37.6991 

.3 

235.0618 

54.3496 

.1 

I 14. 9901 

38.0133 

.4 

237.7871 

54  6637 

.2 

116.8987 

38.3274 

.5 

240.5282 

54.9779 

.3 

118.8229 

38.6416 

.6 

243.2849 

55 . 2920 

•  4 

120.7628 

38.9557 

.7 

246.0574 

55.6062 

.5 

122.7183 

39.2699 

.8 

248.8456 

55.9203 

.6 

124.6898 

39.5841 

.9 

251.6494 

56.234s 

•  7 

126.6769 

39.8982 

18.0 

254.4690 

56.5486 

.8 

128.6796 

40.2124 

.1 

257.3043 

56.8628 

.9 

130.6981 

40.5265 

.2 

260.1553 

57.1770 

13.0 

132.7323 

40.8407 

.3 

263.0220 

57.4911 

.1 

134.7822 

41 . 1549 

.4 

265.9044 

57.8053 

.2 

136.8478 

41.4690 

.5 

268.8025 

58.119s 

.3 

138.9291 

41.7832 

.6 

271.7164 

58.4336 

•  4 

141. 0261 

42.0973 

■  7 

274.6459 

58.7478 

.5 

143.1388 

42.411S 

.8 

277.5911 

59.0619 

.6 

145.2672 

42.7257 

■9 

280.5521 

59.3761 

.7 

147. 41 14 

43.0398 

19.0 

283.5287 

59.6903 

.8 

149.5712 

43-3540 

.1 

286.52x1 

60.0044 

•9 

151.7468 

43.6681 

.2 

289.5292 

60.3186 

I4-0 

153.9380 

43.9823 

.3 

292.5530 

60.6327 

.1 

156.1450 

44.2965 

.4 

295.592s 

60.9469 

.2 

158.3677 

44.6106 

.5 

298.6477 

61.2611 

.•3 

160.6061 

44.9248 

.6 

301.7186 

61.5752 

.4 

162.8602 

45.2389 

.7 

304.8052 

61.8894 

•5 

i6s . 1300 

45.5531 

.8 

307.9075 

62.2035 

.6 

167.4155 

45.8673 

.9 

311.0255 

62.5177 

.7 

169.7167 

46.1814 

20.0 

314.1593 

62.8319 

.8 

172.0336 

46.4956 

.1 

317.3087    ■ 

63.1460 

•9 

174.3662 

46.8097 

.2 

320.4739 

63.4602 

iS.o 

176.7146 

47.1239 

.3 

323.6547 

63.7743 

.1 

179  0786 

47.4380 

.4 

326.8513 

64.088s 

.2 

181.4584 

47.7522 

.5 

330.0636 

64.4026 

.3 

183.8539 

48.0664 

.6 

333.2916 

64.7168 

.4 

186.2650 

48.3805 

.7 

336.5353 

65.0310 

■  5 

188.6919 

48.6947 

.8 

339.7947 

65.3451 

.6 

191 . 1345 

49.0088 

•9 

343.0698 

65.6593 

.7 

193.5928 

49.3230 

21.0 

346.3606 

65.9734 

.8 

196.0668 

49.6372 

.1 

349.6671 

66.2876 

72 


Muthcmalical  Tallies 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for  Diameters 
FROM  Ho  Tu  loo  Advancing  by  Tenths  —  (Contimud) 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumference    IJiair 

cler 
5 

Area 

Circumference 

21    . 

■■    '    i.s                36 

5SX.S4S9 

83.3522 

.3 

350.3^73 

06  y I 59 

6 

sss  7163 

83 

5664 

4 

3S9  6809 

-67.2301 

7 

559  902s 

83 

880s 

5 

363  OS03 

67.5442 

8 

564.1044 

84 

1947 

6 

366  43S4 

67.8S84 

9 

S68  3220 

84 

S088 

7 

369  8361 

68.1726         '         27 

0 

572. 5553 

84 

8230 

8 

373  252C 

68.4«''7 

1 

576  8043 

85 

1372 

9 

376  6848 

68  80V 

581.0690 

8S 

4513 

23 

o 

.^.1327 

69.1150 

i 

585.3494 

8s 

765s 

I 

383  S963 

69.4292 

4 

589.6455 

86 

0796 

2 

387.0756 

69  74.« 

5 

593  9574 

86 

.W38 

3 

390.5707 

70.0575 

6 

598.2849 

86 

7080 

4 

394  0814 

70.3717 

7 

602.6282 

87 

032I 

S 

397.6078 

70.6858 

8 

606  9871 

87 

3363 

6 

401 . 1500 

71.0000         1 

9 

611. 3618 

87 

6504 

7 

404 . 7078 

71.3142                 28 

0 

615.7522 

87 

9646 

8 

408.2814 

71.6283 

I 

620.1582 

88 

2788 

9 

411.8707 

71.9425 

2 

624  5800 

88 

5929 

23 

o 

415.4756 

72.2566 

3 

629  017s 

88 

9071 

I 

419.0963 

72.5708 

4 

633.4707 

89 

3212 

.2 

422.7327 

72.8849 

•  5 

637  9397 

89 

5354 

.3 

426.3848 

73.1991 

.6 

642.4243 

89 

849s 

.4 

430.0526 

73  5133 

•  7 

646 . 9246 

90 

1637 

•  S 

433.7361 

73.8274 

.8 

651.4407 

90 

4779 

.6 

437.4354 

74.1416 

9 

655  9724 

90 

7930 

•7 

441.1503 

74.4557                 29 

0 

660.5199 

91 

1063 

8 

444.SR0O 

74.7699 

.1 

665.0830 

91 

4303 

9 

44S  'i.-:-; 

75.0841 

.2 

669.6619 

91 

734S 

24 

o 

452  .  .y^.l  i 

75.3892 

■  3 

674  256s 

92 

0487 

I 

456.1671 

75.7124 

4 

678.8668 

92 

3628 

2 

459  9606 

76.0265 

5 

683.4928 

92 

6770 

3 

463.7698 

76.3407 

6 

688.1345 

92 

991 1 

4 

467.5947 

76.6549 

7 

692.7919 

93 

3053 

S 

471.4352 

76.9690 

8 

697.4650 

93 

619s 

6 

475.2916 

77.2832         1 

9 

702.1538 

93 

9336 

7 

479  1636 

77.5973         1        30 

0 

706.8583 

94 

2478 

8 

483.0513 

77. 91 IS 

I 

711.5786 

94 

5619 

9 

486.9547 

78.2257 

2 

716.3145 

94 

8761 

25 

o 

490.8739 

78.5398 

3 

721 .0662 

95 

1903 

I 

494.8087 

78.8540 

4 

725.8336 

95 

S044 

2 

498.7592 

79.1681 

5 

730.6167 

9S 

8186 

3 

502,7255 

79  4823 

6 

735.4154 

96 

1327 

4 

506.7075 

79.7965 

7 

740.2299 

96 

4469 

S 

510.7052 

80.1106 

8 

745.0601 

96 

761 1 

6 

514.7185 

80.4248 

9 

749  9060 

97 

0752 

7 

518.7476 

80.7389     ;     31 

0 

754  7676 

97 

3894 

8 

522.7924 

81.0531 

I 

759  6450 

97 

703S 

9 

526.8529 

81.3672 

2 

764..^38o 

98 

0177 

26 

o 

530.9292 

81.6814 

3 

769.4467 

98 

3319 

I 

535.0211 

81.9956 

4 

774.3712 

98 

6460 

2 

539.1287 

82.3097 

5 

779-3113 

98 

9602 

3 

543.2521 

82.6239 

6 

784.2672 

99 

2743 

4 

547-39" 

82.9380 

7 

789.2388 

99 

S88s 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 


73 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for  Diameters 
FROM  Ho  TO  loo  Advancing  by  Tenths  —  {Continued) 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumference  Diair 

leter 

Area 

Circumference 

.  31.8 

794  2260 

99.9026      37 

I 

1081.0299 

116.5531 

9 

799-2290 

100.2168 

2 

1086.8654 

116.8672 

32 

o 

804.2477 

100.5310 

3 

1092 .  7166 

117.1814 

I 

809.2821 

100.8451 

4 

1098.5835 

117.4956 

2 

814  3322 

101 . 1593 

5 

I 104. 4662 

117.8097 

3 

819.3980 

101.4734 

6 

I  no.  3645 

118.1239 

4 

824.4796 

101.7876 

7 

1116.2786 

118.4380 

S 

829.3768 

102.1018 

8 

1122.2083 

118.7522 

6 

834.6898 

102.4159 

9 

1128. 1538 

119.0664 

7 

839.8185 

102.7301      38 

0 

1134.1149 

119.3805 

8 

844 . 9628 

103.0442 

I 

1140.0918 

119.6947 

9 

850.1229 

103.3584 

2 

1146.0844 

120  0088 

33 

o 

855.2986 

103.6726 

3 

1152.0927 

120.3230 

I 

860.4902 

103.9867 

4 

I 158. 1167 

120.6372 

2 

865.6973 

104.3009 

5 

1164.1564 

120.9313 

3 

870 , 9202 

104 . 6150 

6 

1170.2118 

121.2653 

4 

876.1588 

104.9292 

7 

I I 76. 2830 

121.5796 

5 

881.4131 

105 . 2434 

8 

1182.3698 

121.8938 

6 

886  6831 

105.5575 

9 

1188.4724 

122 . 2080 

7 

891.9688 

105.8717      39 

0 

1194.5906 

122.5221 

8 

897.2703 

106.1838 

I 

1200.7246 

122.8363 

9 

902.5874 

106 . 5000 

2 

1206.8742 

123. 1504 

34 

o 

907 . 9203 

106.8142 

3 

1213.0396 

123.4646 

I 

913.2688 

107.1283 

4 

1219.2207 

123.7788 

2 

918.6331 

107 . 4425 

5 

1225. 4175 

124.0929 

3 

924.0131 

107 . 7566 

6 

1231.6300 

124.4071 

4 

929.4088 

108.0708 

7 

1237.8382 

124.7212 

5 

934.8202 

108 , 3849 

8 

1244. 1021 

125.0354 

6 

940.2473 

108 . 6991 

9 

1250.3617 

125.3495 

7 

945.6901 

109.0133      40 

0 

1256.6371 

125.6637 

8 

951 . i486 

109.3274 

I 

1262.9281 

125.9779 

9 

956.6228 

109.6416 

2 

1269.2348 

126.2920 

3S 

o 

962.1128 

109.9557 

3 

1275.5573 

126.6062 

1 

967 . 6184 

110.2699 

4 

1281.8955 

126.9203 

2 

973.1397 

110.5841 

5 

1288.2493 

127.2345 

3 

978.6768 

110.8982 

6 

1294.6189 

127.5487 

4 

984 . 2296 

111.2124 

7 

1301.0042 

127.8628 

S 

989.7980 

111.5265 

8 

1307.4052 

128.1770 

6 

995  3822 

111.8407 

9 

1313.8219 

128.4911 

7 

1000. 9821 

112.1349      41 

0 

1320.2543 

128.8053 

8 

1006.5977 

112.4690 

I 

1326.7024 

129.1195 

9 

1012.2290 

112.7832 

2 

1333. 1663 

129.4336 

36 

o 

1017.8760 

113.0973 

3 

1339  6458 

129.7478 

I 

1023.5387 

113.4115 

4 

1346. 1410 

130.0619 

2 

1029. 2172 

113.7257 

5 

1352.6520 

130.3761 

3 

1034. 91 13 

114.0398 

6 

1359. 1786 

130.6903 

4 

1040. 6212 

114.3540 

7 

1365 . 7210 

131.0044 

S 

1046.3467 

114.6681 

8 

1372.2791 

131. 3186 

6 

1052.0880 

114.9823 

9 

1378.8529 

131.6327 

7 

1057.8449 

113.2965      42 

0 

1385.4424 

131.9469 

8 

1063. 6176 

115.6106 

1 

1392.0476 

132.2611 

9 

1069 . 4060 

115.9248 

2 

1398.6685 

132.5752 

37.0 

1075. 2101 

116.2389 

3 

1405. 3051 

132.8894 

74 


Mallicmalical    laljlcs 


Akeas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for  IJiameters 
FROM  Ho  TO  loo  Advancing  by  Tenths  —  {Continued) 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumference    Diair 

ictcr 

Area 

Circumference 

42.4 

I4II.9S74 

i33.ao3S             47 

7 

1787.0086 

149  8540 

S 

1418.6254 

Ii3.S«77 

8 

1794. S091 

l.So  itXl 

.6 

1425.3092 

133.8318 

9 

I802  02S4 

ISO    iHiJ 

.7 

1432.0086 

13.1.1460               48 

0 

1809  5574 

ISO  -,'/h 

.8 

1438.7238 

134.4602 

I 

1817.1050 

ISI   1106 

•9 

I44S  4546 

134  7743 

2 

1824.6684 

IS«  4248 

43  o 

1452.2012 

135.0885        ' 

3 

1832  2475 

151  7389 

.1 

1458.9635 

135  4026 

4 

1839  8423 

152  0531 

.2 

1465.7415 

135.7168        , 

5 

1847.4528 

152  3672 

■  3 

1472.5352 

136.0310        i 

6 

1855.0790 

152  6814 

■4 

1479  3446 

136  3451        1 

7 

1862. 7210 

152  9956 

.5 

i486. 1697 

1366593 

8 

1870.3786 

153  3097 

.6 

1493.0105 

136.9734 

9 

1878.0519 

153  6239 

•  7 

1499  8670 

137.2876              49 

0 

1885.7409 

153  9380 

.8 

1506.7393 

137  6018 

I 

1893  4457 

154  2S22 

-9 

1513  6272 

137  9159 

2 

1901   1662 

154  5664 

440 

1520.5308 

138.2301 

3 

1908.9024 

154  8805 

.1 

1527.4502 

138.5442 

4 

1916.6543 

155  1947 

.2 

1534.3853 

138.8584 

5 

1924.4218 

155  .5088 

.3 

1541.3360 

139  1726        [ 

6 

1932.2051 

155  8230 

.4 

1548.3025 

139.4867      I 

7 

1940.0042 

156.1372 

•  S 

1555.2847 

139  8009 

8 

1947.8189 

156  4513 

.6 

1562.2826 

140.1153 

9 

1955.6493 

156  7653 

.7 

1569.2962 

140.4292              50 

0 

1963  4954 

157  0796 

.8 

1576.3255 

140.7434 

I 

1971.3572 

157  3938 

•9 

1583.3706 

141.0575 

2 

1979  2348 

157  7080 

45. o 

1590.4313 

141. 3717 

3 

1987.1280 

158  0221 

.1 

1597.5077 

141.6858 

4 

1995.0370 

IS8  3363 

.2 

1604.5999 

142.0000 

S 

2002.9617 

158.6504 

•  3 

161 I. 7077 

142.3142 

6 

2010.9020 

158.9646 

4 

1618. 8313 

142.6283 

7 

2018.8581 

159  2787 

•  5 

1625.9705 

142.9425 

8 

2026.8299 

159  5929 

.6 

1633. 1255 

143.2566 

9 

2034.8174 

159  9071 

•  7 

1640.2962 

143.5708              51 

0 

2042.8206 

160.2212 

.8 

1647.4826 

143.8849 

I 

2050.8395 

160  5354 

9 

1654.6847 

144.1991 

2 

2058.8743 

160  849s 

46.0 

1661.9025 

144.5133 

3 

2066.924s 

161 . 1637 

.1 

1669. 1360 

144.8274 

4 

2074.9905 

161.4779 

.2 

1676.3853 

145.1416 

S 

2083.0723 

161 . 7920 

.3 

1683.6502 

145. 4557 

6 

2091.1697 

162 . 1062 

.4 

1690.9308 

145.7699 

7 

2099.2829 

162.4203 

•  5 

1698.2272 

146.0841 

8 

2107.4118 

162.734s 

.6 

1705.5392 

146.3982 

9 

2115.5563 

163.0487 

.7 

1712.8670 

146.7124              52 

0 

2123. 7166 

163.3628 

.8 

1720.2105 

147.0265 

I 

2131.8926 

163.6770 

•9 

1727.5697 

147.3407 

3 

2140.0843 

163.9911 

47.0 

1734.9445 

147.6550 

3 

2148.2917 

164.3053 

.1 

1742. 3351 

147.9690 

4 

2156.5149 

164.6195 

.2 

1749.7414 

148.2832 

5 

2164.7537 

164.9336 

.3 

1757.1635 

148.5973 

6 

2173.0082 

165.2479 

•  4 

1764.6012 

148.9115 

7 

2181.2785 

165.5619 

•  S 

1772.0546 

149.2257        1 

8 

2189.5644 

165.8761 

.6 

1779.5237 

149.. 5398        ! 

1 

9 

2197. 8661 

166.1903 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 


75 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for  Diameters 
FROM  i-io  to  ioo  .\dvancing  BY  TENTHS  —  {Continued) 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumference 

Diameter 

Area 

Circumference 

S3.0 

2206.1834 

166.5044 

58.3 

2669 . 4820 

183.5914 

.1 

2214.516s 

166.8186 

.4 

2678.6476 

183.4690 

.2 

2222.8653 

167.1327 

.5 

2687.8289 

183.7832 

.3 

2231 . 2298 

167.4469 

6 

2697.0259 

184.0973 

•  4 

2239 . 6100 

167.7610 

.7 

2706 . 2386 

184. 41 IS 

.5 

2248.0059 

168.0752 

.8 

2715.4670 

184.7256 

.6 

2256.417s 

168.3894 

•  9 

2724. 7112 

185.0398 

•  7 

2264.8448 

168.7035 

59.0 

2733.9710 

185.3540 

.8 

2273.2879 

169.0177 

.1 

2743.2466 

185.6681 

•9 

2281.7466 

169.3318 

.2 

2752.5378 

185.9823 

540 

2290.2210 

169.6460 

.3 

2761.8448 

186 . 2964 

.1 

2298. 7112 

169 . 9602 

.4 

2771.167s 

186.6106 

.2 

2307. 2171 

170.2743 

•5 

2780.5058 

186.9248 

.3 

2315.7386 

170.5885 

.6 

2789.8599 

187.2389 

.4 

2324.2759 

170.9026 

.7 

2799.2297 

187.5531 

•  5 

2332.8289 

171. 2168 

.8 

2808.6152 

187.8672 

.6 

2341-3976 

171. 5310 

.9 

2818.016s 

188.1814 

•  7 

2349.9820 

171. 8451 

60.0 

2827.4334 

188.4956 

.8 

2358.5821 

172.1593 

.1 

2836.8660 

188 . 8097 

■9 

2367 . 1979 

172.4735 

.2 

2846.3144 

189.1239 

55. o 

2375.8294 

172.7876 

•3 

2855.7784 

189.4380 

.1 

2384.4767 

173.1017 

.4 

2865.2582 

189.7522 

.2 

2393.1396 

173.4159 

•  5 

2874.7536 

190.0664 

■  3 

2401. 8183 

173.7301 

.6 

2884.2648 

190.3805 

■  4 

2410. 5126 

174.0442 

.7 

2893.7917 

190.6947 

•  S 

2419.2227 

174.3584 

.8 

2903.3343 

191.0088 

.6 

2427.9485 

174.6726 

.9 

2912.8926 

191.3230 

■  7 

2436.6899 

174.9867 

61.0 

2922.4666 

191.6372 

.8 

2445.4471 

175.3009 

.1 

2932.0563 

191. 9513 

■9 

2454.2200 

175.6150 

.2 

2941.6617 

192.265s 

56.0 

2463.0086 

175.9292 

3 

2931.2828 

192.5796 

.1 

2471. 8130 

176.2433 

4 

2960.9197 

192.8938 

.2 

2480.6330 

176.5575 

5 

2970.5722 

193.2079 

.3 

2489.4687 

176.8717 

6 

2980.2405 

193  5221 

.4 

2498.3201 

177.1858 

.7 

2989.9244 

193.8363 

•  5 

2507.1873 

_  177.5000 

.8 

2999.6241 

194.1504 

.6 

2516.0701 

177.8141 

.9 

3009.3395 

194.4646 

■  7 

2524.9687 

178.1283 

62.0 

3019. 070s 

194.7787 

.8 

2533.8830 

178.4425 

.1 

3028.8173 

195.0929 

.9 

2542.8129 

178.7566 

.2 

3038.5798 

195.4071 

S7.0 

2551.7586 

179  0708 

•  3 

3048.3580 

195.7212 

.1 

2560.7200 

179.3849 

.4 

3058 .  1520 

196.0354 

.2 

2569.6971 

179.6991 

.5 

3067.9616 

196.349s 

.3 

2578.6899 

180.0133 

.6 

3077.7869 

196.6637 

.4 

2587.6985 

180.3274 

.7 

3087.6279 

196.9779 

.5 

2596.7227 

180.6416 

.8 

3097.4847 

197.2920 

.6 

2605.7626 

180.9557 

•  9 

3107.3571 

197.6062 

■  7 

2614. 8183 

181.2699 

63.0 

3117.2453 

197.9203 

.8 

2623.8896 

181.5841 

.1 

3127.1492 

198.234s 

.9 

2632.9767 

181  8982 

.2 

3x37.0688 

198.5487 

58.0 

2642.0794 

182.2124 

.3 

3147.0040 

198.8628 

.1 

2651. 1979 

182.526s 

.4 

3156.9550 

199.1770 

•2 

2660.3321 

182.8407 

.5 

3166.9217 

199. 49" 

76 


M.ithem:ili<  :il  'I'aliles 


AkEAS    ANU    (.JKC  TMl-KKKNCKS    OV    CiRCI-ES    FOR    DlAMl   M 
FROM    !io    TO    lOO    AUVANI  l\G    HY    TKNTHS  —  (Co////' 


Diiimetcr 

An-.-x 

Circumference 

Diameter 

Area 

CircumUTi-ncc 

63.6 

3176.9043 

199  8oS3 

68.9 

3728. 4SC» 

216.4556 

.7 

3186  9033 

300  119s    ' 

69.0 

3739 

3807 

216  7699 

.8 

3196.9161 

aoo.4336   ! 

.1 

37SO 

1270 

217  0841 

■  9 

3206  94S6 

200.7478 

.2 

3760 

9891 

217  398» 

64.0 

3216.9909 

201.0620 

•  3 

3771 

8668 

217  7124 

.1 

3227  651 » 

201.3761 

.4 

3782 

7603 

218  0265 

.2 

3237  128s 

201.6902 

5 

3793 

669s 

218  3407 

■  3 

3247  2222 

202.0044 

.6 

3804 

5944 

318  6548 

.4 

3257  3289 

202.3186 

•7 

3Sts 

S350 

318  9690 

S 

3267.4527 

202.6327 

.8 

3826 

4913 

219  2832 

.6 

3277.5922 

202 . 9469 

.9 

3837 

4633 

219  5973 

■  7 

3287.7474 

203.2610 

70.0 

,3848 

4510 

219  9H 5 

.8 

3297  9183 

203.5752 

.1 

.3859 

4544 

220  2256 

•9 

3308.1049 

203.R894 

.2 

3870 

4736 

220  5398 

6s.o 

3318.3072 

204  2035 

•  3 

3881 

5084 

220  8540 

.1 

3328.5253 

204.5176 

.4 

3892 

5S90 

221.1581 

.2 

3338.7590 

204.8318 

■  5 

3903 

6252 

221.4823 

.3 

3349  008s 

205.1460 

.6 

3914 

7072 

221.7964 

.4 

3359.2736 

205.4602 

■  7 

3925 

8049 

222.1106 

•  S 

3369  5545 

20s. 7743   1 

.8 

3936 

9182 

222  4248 

.6 

3379  8510 

206.0S85 

•  9 

3948 

0473 

222  7389 

.7 

3390.1633 

206.4026 

71.0 

3959 

1921 

223.0531 

.8 

3400.4913 

206.7168 

.1 

3970 

3526 

223.3672 

•  9 

3410.8350 

207.0310 

.2 

3981 

5289 

223.6814 

66.0 

3421. 1944 

207.3451 

.3 

3992 

7208 

223  9956 

.1 

3431.5695 

207.6593 

.4 

4003 

9284 

224  3097 

.2 

3441.9603 

207.9734 

•5 

4015 

1518 

224.6239 

.3 

3452.3669 

208.2876 

.6 

4026 

3908 

224  9380 

.4 

3462.7891 

208.6017 

.7 

4037 

6456 

225 . 2522 

.5 

3473.2270 

208.9159 

.8 

4048 

9160 

225.5664 

.6 

3483.6807 

209.2301 

•9 

4060 

2022 

225  880s 

.7 

3494.1500 

209.5442 

72.0 

4071 

5041 

226  1947 

.8 

3504.6351 

209.8584 

.1 

4082 

8217 

226  S088 

•9 

3515. 1359 

210.1725 

.2 

1094 

ISSO 

226.8230 

67.0 

3525.6524 

210.4867 

.3 

4105 

5040 

227.1371 

.1 

3536.1845 

210.8009 

■4 

4116 

8687 

227.4513 

.2 

3546.7324 

211.1150 

5 

4128 

2491 

227.7655 

.3 

35S7 .  2960 

211.4292 

.6 

4139 

6452 

228  0796 

.4 

3567.8754 

211.7433 

•  7 

4151 

0571 

2?8  3938 

.S 

3578.4704 

212.0575 

.8 

4162 

4846 

228.7079 

.6 

3589. 081 I 

212.3717 

•  9 

4173 

9279 

229.0221 

■  7 

3599  7075 

212.6858 

73  0 

4185 

3868 

229.3363 

.8 

3610.3497 

213.0000 

.1 

4196 

861S 

229.6504 

•9 

3621 .0075 

213.3141 

.2 

4208 

3519 

229.9646 

68.0 

3631. 681 I 

213.6283 

.3 

4219 

8579 

230.3787 

.1 

3642.3704 

213  9^25 

.4 

4231 

3797 

230.5929 

.2 

3653.0754 

214.2566 

.5 

4242 

9172 

230.9071 

.3 

3663.7960 

214  5708 

1     -^ 

4254 

4704 

231.2213 

■4 

3674.5324 

214.8849 

1     .7 

4266 

0394 

23I.S354 

•  S 

3685.2845 

215.1991 

i     •* 

4277 

6240 

231.8495 

.6 

3696.0523 

215  51.3.5 

1     -9 

4289 

2243 

232.1637 

.7 

3706.8359 

215.8274 

74.0 

4300 

8403 

232.4779 

.8 

3717. 6.351 

216.1416 

i     •* 

4312 

4721 

232.7920 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 


77 


Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles  for  Diameters 
FROM  Ho  TO  loo  Advancing  by  Tenths  —  {Continued) 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumference  Dian 

leter 

Area 

Circumference 

74.2 

4324  I 195 

233.1062      79 

5 

4963.9127 

249.7566 

3 

4335.7827 

J33.4203 

6 

4976.4084 

250.0708 

4 

4347.4616 

233.7345 

7 

4988.9198 

250.3850 

5 

4359  1562 

234.0487 

8 

5001 . 4469 

250.6991 

6 

4370.8664 

234.3628 

9 

5013 .  9897 

251  0133 

7 

4382.5924 

234.6770      80 

0 

.S026.5482 

251.3274 

8 

4394  3341 

234.9911 

I 

5039.1225 

251.6416 

9 

4406.0916 

235.3053 

2 

5051. 7124 

251.9557 

75 

o 

4417.8647 

235.6194 

3 

S064 . 3180 

252 . 2699 

I 

4429.653s 

235  9336 

4 

5076.9394 

252 . 5840 

2 

4441.4580 

236.2478 

S 

5089.5764 

252.8982 

3 

4453.2783 

236.5619 

6 

5102 . 2292 

253.2124 

4 

4465.1142 

236.8761 

7 

5114.8977 

253  5265 

5 

4476.9659 

237 . 1902 

8 

5127. 5819 

253.8407 

6 

4488.8332 

237.5044 

9 

5140. 2818 

254.1548 

7 

4500.7163 

237.8186      81 

0 

S152.9973 

254 . 4690 

8 

4512.6151 

238.1327 

I 

5165.7287 

254.7832 

9 

4524 . 5296 

238 . 4469 

2 

5178.4757 

255.0973 

76 

o 

4536.4598 

238.7610 

3 

5191.2384 

255.4115 

I 

4548.4057 

239.0752 

4 

5204  0168 

255 . 7256 

2 

4560.3673 

239.3894 

5 

5216. 8110 

256  0398 

3 

4572.3446 

239.7035 

6 

5229  6208 

256 . 3540 

4 

4584.3377 

240.0177 

7 

5242.4463 

256.6681 

5 

4596.3464 

240.3318 

8 

5255 . 2876 

256.9823 

6 

4608.3708 

240.6460 

9 

5268.1446 

257 . 2966 

7 

4620. 41 10 

240.9602      82 

0 

5281. 0173 

257  6106 

8 

4632 . 4669 

241.2743 

I 

5293.9056 

257.9247 

9 

4644.5384 

241.588s 

2 

5306.8097 

258.2389 

77 

o 

4656.6257 

241.9026 

3 

5319.729s 

2S8  5531 

I 

4668.7287 

242.2168 

4 

5332.6650 

258 . 8672 

2 

4680.8474 

242.5310 

5 

5345 . 6162 

259.1814 

3 

4692 . 9818 

242.8451 

6 

5358.5832 

259.4956 

4 

4705. 1319 

243.1592 

7 

5371.5658 

259.8097 

5 

4717.2977 

243.4734 

8 

5384 . 5641 

260.1239 

6 

4729.4792 

243.7876 

9 

5397.5782 

260  4380 

7 

4741.6756 

244.1017      83 

0 

5410.6079 

260.7522 

8 

4753.8894 

244.4159 

I 

5423.6534 

261.0663 

9 

4766. 1181 

244.7301 

2 

5436.7146 

261 . 380s 

78 

o 

4778.3624 

245.0442 

3 

5449. 7915 

261 . 6947 

I 

4790.6225 

245.3584 

4 

5462.8840 

262.0088 

2 

4802.8983 

245.672s 

5 

5475.9923 

262.3230 

3 

481S.1897 

245.9867 

6 

5489. I 163 

262.6371 

4 

4827.4969 

246.3009 

7 

5502.2561 

262.9513 

5 

4839.8198 

246.6150 

8 

5515. 4115 

263.265s 

6 

4852.1584 

246.9292 

9 

5528.5826 

263.5796 

7 

4864.5128 

247.2433      84 

0 

5.S41.7694 

263  8938 

8 

4876.8828 

247.5575 

I 

55,54.9720 

264.2079 

9 

4889.2685 

247.8717 

2 

5568 . 1902 

264 . 5221 

79 

o 

4901.6699 

248.1858 

3 

5581.4242 

264.8363 

I 

4914. 0871 

248.5000 

4 

5594.6739 

265.1414 

2 

4926.5199 

248.8141 

5 

5607.9392 

265.4646 

3 

4938.9685 

249.1283 

6 

5621 . 2203 

265.7787 

4 

4951.4328 

249.442s 

7 

5634.5171 

266.0929 

78 


Matluinalical    Tables 


Akkas  and  Circumferences  of  Cfrcles  for  Diameters 
FROM  Ho  TO  loo  Advancing  by  Tenths  —  (Continued) 


Diamt'tLT 

Area 

Circumference 

Diameter 

Area 

Circtimfcrcnco 

84.8 

S647.8.'. 

'.  4071 

90.1 

637s  8701 

283.0575 

9 

seeiisTf^ 

.•'!<>.  7212 

■2 

6390 

0309 

283  3717 

85 

0 

5674  SOI? 

267  03.54 

3 

6404 

2073 

283  6858 

I 

5687  8614 

267.3495 

.4 

6418 

3995 

284  0000 

3 

5701  2367 

267  6637 

5 

6432 

6073 

284  3«4I 

3 

S7«4  6277 

267.9779 

.6 

6446 

8309 

284  6283 

4 

5728.  oi4S 

268  2920 

7 

6461 

0701 

284  9425 

5 

S741.4569 

268.6062 

6475 

3251 

285  2566 

6 

S7S4.89SI 

268.9203 

'.( 

6489  5958 

28s  S7o8 

7 

5768.3490 

269.2345 

91.0 

6503  8822 

285  8849 

8 

5781  8l8s 

269.5486 

.1 

6518  1843 

386.1991 

9 

5795.3038 

269.8628 

.2 

6532.5021 

286  513.3 

86 

0 

S808.8048 

270.1770 

.3 

6546  8356 

286.8274 

I 

5822.3215 

270.4911 

.4 

656J . 1848 

287.1416 

3 

583s  8539 

.     270.8053 

.5 

6575.5498 

287  4557 

3 

5849.4020 

27I.II94 

.6 

6589  9304 

287.7699 

4 

5862  9659 

271.4336 

.7 

6604  3268 

288  0840 

S 

5876.5454 

271.7478 

.8 

6618.7388 

288  3982 

6 

5890.1407 

272.0619 

■  9 

6633.1666 

288  7124 

7 

5903.7516 

272.3761 

92.0 

6647. 6101 

289.0265 

8 

5917  3783 

272.6902 

.1 

6662.0692 

289  3407 

9 

5931  0206 

273.0044 

.2 

6676  5441 

289.6548 

87 

0 

5944  6787 

273  3186 

•3 

6691.0347 

289.9690 

I 

5958.352s 

273.6327 

.4 

6705  5410 

290.2832 

3 

5972.0420 

273.9469 

•5 

6720.0630 

290  5973 

3 

5985.7472 

274  2610 

.6 

67^4.6008 

290  9115 

4 

5999  4681 

274.5752 

.7 

6749.1542 

291.2256 

5 

6013.2047 

274.8894 

.8 

6763  7233 

291  5398 

6 

6026.9570 

275.2035 

•  9 

6778.3082 

291.8540 

7 

6040.7250 

275.5177 

93.0 

6792.9087 

292.1681 

8 

6054.5088 

275.8318 

.1 

6807.5250 

292  4823 

9 

6068.3082 

276.1460 

.2 

6822.1569 

292  7964 

88 

0 

6082.1234 

276.4602 

•3 

6836  8046 

293.IT06 

I 

6095  9542 

276.7743 

•  4 

6851.4680 

293.4248 

2 

6109.8008 

277.0885 

5 

6866.1471 

293.7389 

3 

6123,6631 

277.4026 

6 

6S80.8419 

294.0531 

4 

6137. 54" 

277.7168 

■  7 

6895.5524 

294.3672 

S 

6151.4348 

278.0309 

.8 

6910  2786 

294.6814 

6 

6165.3442 

278.3451 

•  9 

6925  020s 

294.9956 

7 

6179.2693 

278.6593 

94.0 

6939.7782 

295  3097 

8 

6193. 2101 

278.9740 

.1 

6954  5SI5 

295.6239 

9 

6207.1666 

279.2876 

.2 

6969.3106 

295.9380 

89 

0 

6221. 1389 

279.6017 

.3 

6984.1453 

296.2522 

1 

6235.1268 

279  9159 

4 

6998.9658 

296.5663 

2 

6249.1304 

280.2301 

5 

7013. 8019 

296.8805 

3 

6263.1498 

280.5442 

.6 

7028.6538 

297.1947 

4 

6277.1849 

280.8584 

.7 

7043.5214 

297.5088 

S 

6291 . 2356 

281.1725 

.8 

7058.4047 

297.8230 

6 

6305.3021 

281.4867 

.9 

7073.3033 

298.1371 

7 

6319.3843 

281.8009 

95. 0 

7088 . 2184 

298.4513 

8 

6333.4822   . 

282. 1  ISO 

.1 

7103.1488 

298.7655 

9 

6347.5958 

282.4292 

.2 

7118.1950 

299  0796 

90 

0 

6361. 7251 

282.7433 

1    ■' 

7133.0568 

299  3938 

Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles 


79 


Areas  and  Circumperences  of  Circles  for  Diameters 
FROM  Ho  TO  loo  Advancing  by  Tenths  —  {Concluded) 


Diameter 

Area 

Circumference  Diair 

later 

Area 

Circumference 

95. 4 

7148.0343 

2997079      97 

8 

7512.2078 

307.2478 

•  5 

7163 

0276 

300.0221 

9 

7527.5780 

307.5619 

.6 

7178 

0366 

300.3363      98 

0 

7542.9640 

307.8761 

■  7 

7193 

0612 

300.6504 

I 

7558.3656 

308.1902 

.8 

7208 

1016 

300.9646 

2 

7573.7830 

308.5044 

•9 

7223 

1577 

301.2787 

3 

7589. 2161 

308.8186 

96.0 

723S 

2295 

301.5929 

4 

7604.6648 

309.1327 

.1 

7253 

3170 

301.9071 

5 

7620.1293 

309.4469 

.2 

7268 

4202 

302.2212 

6 

7635.6095 

309.7610 

.3 

7283 

5391 

302.5354 

7 

7651 . 1054 

310.0752 

.4 

7298 

6737 

302.8405 

8 

7666.6170 

310.3894 

•S 

7313 

8240 

303.1637 

9 

7682.1444 

310.7035 

.G 

7328 

9901 

303.4779      99 

0 

7697.6893 

311. 0177 

.7 

7344 

1718 

303.7920 

I 

7713  2461 

311. 3318 

.8 

73S9 

3693 

304 . 1062 

2 

7728.8206 

311.6460 

•9 

7374 

5824 

304.4203 

3 

7744.4107 

311.9602 

97.0 

7389 

8113 

304.7345 

4 

7760.0166 

312.2743 

.1 

740s 

0559 

305.0486 

5 

7775.6382 

312.5885 

.2 

7420 

3162 

305.3628 

6 

7791.2764 

312.9026 

.3 

7435 

5922 

303.6770 

7 

7806.9284 

313.2168 

■  4 

74SO 

8839 

305.9911 

8 

7822.5971 

313.5309 

.5 

7466 

1913 

306.3053 

9 

7838. 281S 

313.8451 

.6 

74S1 

5144 

306.6194     100 

0 

7853.9816 

314.1593 

.7 

7496 

8532 

306.9336 

To  compute  the  area  or  circumference  of  a  circle  of  a  diameter  greater  than 
100  and  less  than  looi; 

Take  out  the  area  or  circumference  from  table  as  though  the  number 
had  one  decimal,  and  move  the  decimal  point  two  places  to  the  right  for 
the  area,  and  one  place  for  the  circumference. 

Example.  —  Wanted  the  area  and  circumference  of  567.  The  tabular 
area  for  56.7  is  2524.9687,  and  circumference  178.1283.  Therefore  area 
for  567  =  252496.87  and  circumference  =  1781.283. 

To  compute  the  area  or  circumference  of  a  circle  of  a  diameter  greater  than 
1000, 

Di\ide  by  a  factor,  as  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc.,  if  practicable,  that  will  leave  a 
quotient  to  be  found  in  table,  then  multiply  the  tabular  area  of  the 
quotient  by  the  square  of  the  factor,  or  the  tabular  circumference  by  the 
factor. 

£a;am/>/e.  —  Wanted  the  area  and  circumference  of  2109.  Dividing 
by  3,  the  quotient  is  703,  for  which  the  area  is  388150.84  and  the  circum- 
ference 2208.54.  Therefore  area  of  2109  =  388150.84  X  9  =  3493357-56 
and  circumference  =  2208.54  X  3  =  6625.62. 


8o 


Malhcmulical    Tablci 


Table  df  CiRCirtAR  Arcs 

Lenflli  of  circular  arcs  when  the  ihord  and  ihc  heithi  of  the  arc  are  [hen. 

Divide  the  hciKht  by  the  chord.      Find  in  the  cfilumn  of  Heights  the  number 
equal  to  this  quotient. 

Take  out  the  correspondinR  number  from  the  column  of  IcnRtii 
Multiply  this  luit  numlier  by  the  length  of  the  given  chord. 


Heights 

Lengths 

Heights 

Lengths 

Heigh' 

HeighU  Li 

•ngths 

.001 

I.O0OO3 

.049 

1.00638 

•097 

I. 02491 

US         I 

05516 

.002 

1.00002 

.050 

1.00665 

.098 

I.02S42 

146      I 

OSS9I 

.003 

I  00003 

•OS  I 

1.00692 

•099 

I  02593 

147       I 

05667 

.004 

1.00004 

.052 

1.00720 

.100 

1.02646 

148      1 

OS743 

.00s 

1.00007 

.053 

1.00748 

.101 

1 .02698 

149      » 

05819 

.006 

i.oooto 

.054 

1.00776 

.102 

1.02752 

150   1 

05896 

.007 

I. 00013 

.05s 

1.0080s 

.103 

1 .02806 

ISI     1 

OS97.J 

.008 

1.00017 

.056 

1.00834 

.104 

1  02860 

152      I 

06031 

.009 

1.00022 

.057 

1.00864 

.105 

1.02914 

IS3    I 

06130 

.010 

1.00027 

.058 

1.00895 

.106 

1.02970  1 

IS4    I 

06209 

.011 

1.00032 

.059 

1.00926 

.107 

1.03026  ll 

ISS    1 

0628S 

.012 

1 .00038 

.060 

1.00957 

.loS 

I  03082 

156    1 

06368 

.013 

I. 0004s 

.061 

1.00989 

.109 

I  031.39 

IS7    » 

06449 

.014 

1.00053 

.062 

1.01021 

.110 

1.03196 

158    1 

06530 

.ois 

I. 00061 

.063 

1.01054 

.111 

I  03254 

159    I 

0661 1 

.016 

1.00069 

.064 

1.01088 

.112 

I. 03312 

160    1 

06693 

.017 

1.00078 

.065 

1.01123 

.113 

1.03371 

161    1 

06775 

.018 

1.00087 

.066 

1.01158 

.114 

1  03430 

163    1 

06858 

.019 

1.00097 

.067 

I. 01 103 

.115 

1.03490 

163    1 

06941 

.020 

1.00107 

1  r  l.'j-, 

.116 

I. 03551 

164    1 

07025 

.021 

1.00117 

1   I  ■  : 

.117 

1.03611 

l6s    I 

07109 

.022 

1.00128 

.-7- 

1 .iij-J 

.113 

1.03672 

166    I 

07194 

•023 

I. 00140 

.071 

1.01338 

.119 

1.03734 

167    I 

07279 

.024 

I. 00153 

.072 

I .01376 

.120 

1.03797 

168    I 

07365 

.025 

1.00167 

.073 

I.01414 

.121 

1.03860 

169    1 

074SI 

.026 

I .00182 

.074 

I. 01453 

.122 

I  03923 

170    I 

07537 

.027 

I. 00196 

■075 

I. 01493 

.123 

1.03987 

171    1 

07624 

.028 

I. 00210 

.076 

I  01533 

.124 

1.640SI 

172    1 

07711 

.029 

1.00225 

■077 

1  01573 

•125 

I. 04116 

173    I 

07799 

.030 

I .00240 

.078 

I.01614 

.126 

I .04181 

174    I 

07888 

■031 

1 .00256 

.079 

I .01656 

.127 

I .04247 

173    I 

07977 

.032 

I .00272 

.080 

1.01698 

.128 

I. 04313 

176    1 

08066 

■033 

1.00289 

.081 

1.01741 

.129 

1.04380 

177    I 

08156 

■034 

1.00307 

.082 

I. 01784 

.130 

1.04447 

178    .1 

08246 

.035 

1 .00327 

.0S3 

1 .01828 

.131 

I  04SIS 

179    1 

08337 

.036 

i.oo,W5 

.0S4 

I. 01872 

.132 

1.045S4 

180    I 

0847a 

■037 

I .00364 

.085 

I. 01916 

.133 

1 .04652 

181    1 

08519 

.038 

1.00384 

.086 

1.01961 

.134 

1 .04722 

182    I 

08611 

.039 

1.0040s 

.087 

1.02006 

.13s 

I .04792 

183    1 

08704 

.040 

1.00426 

.088 

1 .02052 

.136 

I .04862 

184    I 

08797 

.041 

I  00447 

.089 

1.02098 

.137 

I  049.32 

185    1 

08890 

.042 

I .00469 

.090 

1.02146 

.138 

1.05003 

186    I 

08984 

•043 

1 .00492 

.091 

1 .02192 

■139 

I  0507s 

187    1 

09079 

.044 

1.0051S 

.092 

1.02240 

.140 

1.0S147 

188    1 

09174 

■04S 

I .00539 

.093 

1.0x189 

.141 

1.05220 

189    1 

09269 

.046 

1  00563 

.094 

I  02339 

.I.U 

1.05293 

190    I 

09363 

.047 

1.00587 

.095 

I .02389 

.143 

1.05367 

191     1 

09461 

.048 

1.00612 

.096 

1 .02440 

.144 

I. 05441 

192    I 

09SS7 

Table  of  Circular  Arcs 
Table  of  Circular  Arcs  —  {Continued) 


8i 


Heights 

Lengths 

Heights 

Lengths 

Heights 

Lengths   He 

ights   L 

engths 

.193 

1.09654 

.24S 

1 .  15670 

.303 

1 . 22920 

358    1 

31276 

■  .194 

1.09752 

.249 

I . 15791 

304 

1 . 23063 

359    1 

31437 

.195 

1.09850 

.250 

1.15912 

.305 

1 .  23206 

360    I 

31599 

.196 

1.09949 

.251 

1.16034  \ 

.306 

1 ■ 23349 

361    1 

31761 

.197 

I . 10048 

.252 

1.16156 

•  307 

1.23492 

362    I 

31923 

.198 

1.10147 

.253 

1 . 16279 

.308 

1.23636 

363    1 

32086 

•  199 

I. 10247 

.254 

1 . 16402 

.309 

1.23781 

364    I 

32249 

.200 

I. 10347 

.255 

1 . 16526 

.310 

I . 23926 

365    1 

32413 

.201 

I . 10447 

.256 

1 . 16650 

.311 

1 . 24070 

366    1 

32577 

.202 

I. 10548 

.257 

1.16774 

.312 

1.24216 

357    1 

32741 

.203 

I . 10650 

.258 

I . 16899 

.313 

1 . 24361 

368    1 

32905 

.204 

I. 10752 

.259 

1.17024 

.314 

1.24507 

369    1 

33069 

.205 

1.10855 

.260 

I. 17150 

.315 

1.24654 

370    1 

33234 

.206 

I. 10958 

.261 

I . 17276 

.316 

1  24801 

371    I 

33399 

.207 

1.11062 

.262 

1 . 17403 

.317 

I . 24948 

372    1 

33564 

.20S 

1.1116s 

.263 

1.17530 

.318 

1.25095 

373    1 

33730 

.209 

1.11269 

.264 

1.17657 

.319 

1 . 25243 

374    1 

33896 

.210 

I. 11374 

.265 

1.17784 

.320 

I. 25391 

375    1 

34063 

.211 

1.11479 

.266 

1.17912 

.321 

I  25540 

376    1 

34229 

.212 

I. I 1584 

.267 

1 . 18040 

.322 

I . 25689 

377    1 

34396 

■  213 

1.11690 

.268 

1.18169 

.323 

1.25838 

378    1 

34563 

.214 

1.11796 

.269 

1.18299 

■  324 

1.25988 

379    I 

34731 

.215 

1.11904 

.270 

1.18429 

.325 

I . 26138 

380    1 

34899 

.216 

1.12011 

.271 

I. 18559 

.326 

I . 26288 

381    1 

35068 

.217 

1.12118 

.272 

1 . 18689 

•  327 

1.26437 

382    1 

35237 

.218 

1.12225 

.273 

1 . 18820 

.32S 

I . 26588 

383    1 

35406 

.219 

1- 12334 

.274 

1 . 18951 

.329 

1 . 26740 

384    I 

35575 

.220 

1 . 12444 

.275 

1 . 19082 

.330 

1 . 26892 

385    I 

35744 

.221 

I. 12554 

.276 

1.19214 

.331 

1.27044 

386    I 

35914 

.222 

I . 12664 

.277 

1.19346 

.332 

1.37196 

387    1 

36084 

.223 

I. 12774 

.278 

1.19479 

.333 

1.27349 

388    I 

36254 

.224 

1 . 12885 

.279 

1.19612 

•  334 

1.27502 

389    1 

3642s 

.225 

I. 12997 

.280 

I . 19746 

.335 

1.27656 

390    1 

36596 

.226 

1.13108 

.281 

1 . 19880 

.336 

1.27810 

391    I 

36767 

.227 

I. 13219 

.282 

1.20014 

.337 

1.27964 

392    1 

36939 

.228 

1.13331 

.283 

1.20149 

.338 

1.28118 

393    I 

37111 

.229 

I • 13444 

.284 

1.202S4 

.339 

1 . 28273 

394    I 

37283 

.230 

1.13557 

.285 

I. 20419 

.340 

1.28428 

395    1 

37455 

.231 

1.13671 

.286 

1.20555 

.341 

1.28583 

396    1 

37628 

.232 

1.13785 

.287 

1.20691 

.342 

1.28739 

397    I 

37801 

■  233 

1.13900 

.288 

1.20827 

.343 

1.28895 

398    I 

37974 

.234 

1  14015 

.279 

1.20964 

.344 

1.29052 

399    I 

38148 

.235 

1.14131 

.290 

1.21102 

.345 

1.29209 

400    I 

38322 

.236 

1.14247 

.291 

1 . 21239 

.346 

1.29366 

401    1 

38496 

.237 

1.14363 

.292 

1.21377 

.347 

1.29523 

402    1 

38671 

.238 

I . 14480 

.293 

1.2151S 

.348 

1.29681 

403    1 

38846 

.239 

1.14597 

.294 

1.21654 

.349 

1.29839 

404    1 

39021 

.240 

I . 14714 

.295 

1.21794 

.350 

1.29997 

40s    I 

39196 

.241 

1.14832 

.296 

1.21933 

.351 

1.30156 

406    1 

39372 

.242 

I . 149SI 

.297 

1.22073 

.352 

I. 3031s 

407    I 

39548 

.243 

1.15070 

.298 

1.22213 

.353 

1.30474 

408    I 

39724 

.244 

1.15189 

.299 

1.22354 

.354 

1.30634 

409    1 

39900 

.245 

I. 15308 

.300 

1.22495 

•  355 

1.30794 

410    1 

40077 

.246 

1.15428 

.301 

1.22636 

.356 

1.30954 

411    I 

402S4 

.247 

I. 15549 

.302 

1.22778 

.357 

I.3111S 

412    I 

40432 

Mallicm;ilic;il  Tables 
Table  op  Circular  Arcs — (Concluded) 


HeighU 

Lengthn 
t.  40610 

Heights 

Lengths 

.457 

'hs      Heights     Lengths 

.413 

.435 

1.44589 

479          « 

S2931 

.414 

I. 40788  ' 

'.•>' 

I  44773  ' 

.458 

480          1 

53126 

.41S 

1.40966 

I   449.S7 

459 

1.49079 

481          1 

53322 

.416 

1.41145 

1  45142 

.460 

1.49269 

482          I 

53SI8 

.417 

1. 41324 

,        -M'J 

1.45327 

.461 

1.49460 

483          I 

53714 

.418 

1.41S03 

.440 

I.4SSI2 

.462 

1.49651 

484          I 

53910 

.419 

1.41682 

.441 

1.45697 

.463 

1.49842 

48s          I 

54106 

.430 

1.41861 

.442 

1.45883 

.464 

I  S0033 

486          I 

S4.*)2 

.421 

I. 42041 

.443 

1.46069 

.46s 

1.50224 

487          « 

54499 

.422 

1 .42221 

.444 

I.462SS 

.466 

1.S0416 

488          I 

54696 

.423 

I . 42402 

.445 

I. 46441 

.467 

1.S0608 

489          I 

54893 

.424 

1.42583 

.446 

1.46628  ! 

.468 

1.50800 

490          1 

55091 

.42s 

1.42764 

.447 

I. 46815 

.469 

1.50992 

491          I 

55289 

.426 

1.4294s 

.448 

I . 47002 

1        .470 

1.51185 

492          1 

55487 

.427 

1. 431 27 

.449 

I. 47189 

{        .471 

I  S1378 

493          1 

55685 

.428 

1.43309 

.450 

1-47377 

.472 

ISIS7I 

494          I 

55884 

.429 

I. 43491 

.451 

1.47565 

.473 

I. 51764 

49S          I 

56083 

.430 

1.43673 

.452 

1.47753 

.474 

1.51958 

496          I 

S6282 

.431 

1.438S6 

.453 

1.47912 

•  475 

I. 52152 

497          1 

56481 

.432 

1.44039 

.454 

1.48131 

.476 

1.52346 

498          I 

56681 

.433 

1.44222 

.455 

1.48320 

'        .477 

1.52541 

499          I 

56881 

.'434 

I. 4440s 

.456 

1.48509 

.478 

1.52736 

500         I 

57080 

Lengths  of  Circular  Arcs  to  Radius  1 
To  find  the  length  of  a  circular  arc  by  the  following  table 

Knowing  the  radius  of  the  circle  and  the  measure  of  the  arc  in  deg., 
min.,  etc. 

Rule.  —  Add  together  the  lengths  in  the  table  found  respectively 
opposite  to  the  deg.,  min.,  etc.,  of  the  arc.  Multiply  the  sum  by  the 
radius  of  the  circle. 

Example.  —  In  a  circle  of  1 2.43  feet  radius,  is  an  arc  of  13  deg.,  27  min., 
8  sec.     How  long  is  the  arc? 

Here,  opposite  13  deg.  in  the  table,  we  find      .2268928 

"      27  min.     "         "         "     "        .0078540 
"        8  sec.       "         "         "     "        .0000388 


Sum  =  .  2347856 

And  .2347856  X  12.43,  or  radius  =  2.918385  feet,  the  required  length 
of  arc. 


Lengths  of  Circular  Arcs  to  Radius  i  83 

Lengths  of  Circular  Arcs  to  Radius  i 


Deg. 

Length 

Deg. 

Length 

Deg. 

Length 

Deg. 

Length 

I 

.0174533 

46 

.8028515 

91 

1.5882496 

136 

2.3736478 

2 

.0349066 

47 

.8203047 

92 

1.6057029 

137 

2. 391 101 I 

3 

.0523599 

48 

.8377580 

93 

I. 6231562 

138 

2.4085544 

4 

.0698132 

49 

.8552113 

94 

1.6406095 

139 

2 . 4260077 

5 

0872665 

50 

.872664() 

95 

1.6580628 

140 

2 . 4434610 

6 

.1047198 

51 

.8901179 

96 

1.6755161 

141 

2 . 4609142 

7 

.1221730 

52 

.9075712 

97 

I . 6929694 

142 

2 . 478367s 

8 

.1396263 

53 

.9250245 

98 

1.7104227 

143 

2 . 4958208 

9 

.1570796 

54 

.9424778 

99 

1.7278760 

144 

2.5132741 

10 

.  1745.329 

55 

.9593911 

100 

1.7453293 

145 

2 . 5307274 

II 

. 1919862 

56 

9773844 

lOI 

I . 7627825 

146 

2.5481807 

12 

.2094395 

57 

.9948377 

102 

1.7802358 

147 

2.5656340 

13 

. 2268928 

58 

1.0122910 

103 

I. 797689 I 

148 

2.5830873 

14 

.2443461 

59 

1.0297443 

104 

1.8151424 

149 

2 . 6005406 

15 

.2617994 

60 

I. 0471976 

105 

1.8325957 

150 

2.6179939 

16 

■  2792527 

61 

1.0646508 

106 

1.8500490 

151 

2.6354472 

17 

. 2967060 

62 

1.0821041 

107 

1.8675023 

152 

2 . 652900s 

18 

.3141593 

63 

I.0995S74 

108 

1.8849556 

153 

2.6703538 

19 

.3316126 

64 

1.1170107 

109 

1.9024089 

154 

2 . 6878070 

20 

.3490659 

65 

I. 1344640 

no 

1.9198622 

155 

2 . 7052603 

21 

.3665191 

66 

1.1519173 

III 

I. 9373155 

156 

2.7227136 

22 

.3839724 

67 

I . 1693706 

112 

1.9547688 

157 

2.7401669 

23 

.4014257 

68 

I . 1868239 

113 

I. 9722221 

158 

2.7576202 

24 

.4188790 

69 

I . 2042772 

114 

1.9896753 

159 

2.7750735 

25 

■4363323 

70 

I. 2217305 

115 

2.0071286 

160 

2.7925268 

26 

.4537856 

71 

I . 2391838 

116 

2.0245819 

161 

2.8099801 

27 

.4712389 

72 

1.2566371 

117 

2.0420352 

162 

2.8274334 

28 

.4886922 

73 

I . 2740904 

118 

2.0594885 

163 

2 . 8448867 

29 

.5061455 

74 

1.2915436 

119 

2.0769418 

164 

2 . 8623400 

30 

.5235988 

75 

1.3089969 

120 

2.0943951 

165 

2.8797933 

31 

.5410521 

76 

1.3264502 

121 

2. I I 18484 

166 

2.8972466 

32 

.5585054 

77 

1.3439035 

122 

2.1293017 

167 

2.9146999 

33 

.5759587 

78 

I. 3613568 

123 

2.1467550 

168 

2  932IS3I 

34 

.5934119 

79 

1.3788101 

124 

2 . 1642083 

169 

2.9496064 

35 

.6108652 

80 

1.3962634 

125 

2.1816616 

170 

2.9670597 

36 

.6283185 

81 

1.4137167 

126 

2.1991149 

171 

2.9845130 

37 

.6457718 

82 

1.4311700 

127 

2.2165682 

172 

3.0019663 

38 

.6632251 

83 

1,4486233 

128 

2.2340214 

173 

3.0194196 

39 

.6806784 

84 

I . 4660766 

129 

2.2514747 

174 

3.0368729 

40 

.6981317 

85 

1.4835299 

130 

2.2689280 

175 

3.0543262 

41 

.7155850 

86 

I . S009832 

131 

2.2863813 

176 

3.0717795 

42 

.7330383 

87 

I. 5 184364 

132 

2.3038346 

177 

3.0892328 

43 

.7504916 

88 

1.5358897 

133 

2.3212879 

178 

3.1066861 

44 

.7679449 

89 

1.5533430 

134 

2.3387412 

179 

3.1241394 

45 

.7853982 

90 

1.5707963 

135 

2.3561945 

180 

3.1415927 

Min. 

Length 

Min. 

Length 

Min. 

Length 

Min. 

Length 

I 

.0002909 

6 

.0017453 

II 

.0031998 

16 

.0046542 

2 

.0005818 

7 

.0020362 

12 

.0034907 

17 

.0049451 

3 

.0008727 

8 

.0023271 

13 

.0037815 

18 

.0052360 

4 

.0011636 

9 

.0026180 

14 

.0040724 

19 

.0055269 

S 

■0014544 

10 

.0029089 

15 

.0043633 

20 

.0058x78 

84  Malhem.ilical  Tallies 

Lkngths  of  Cikcular  Arcs  to  Radius  i  —  (Continued) 


Min. 

Length 

Min. 

1 

Length 

Min. 

Length 

Min. 

Length 

21 

.0061087 

31 

.009017s 

0119264  1 

SI 

0148353 

22 

006399.'; 

33 

.009J084 

0122173 

S3 

0151262 

23 

.0066904 

33 

.0095993 

.0125082 

53 

0154171 

34 

0069813 

34 

.0098902 

.0127991 

54 

0157080 

2S 

0072722 

3S 

.0101811 

.0130900 

SS 

.0159989 

36 

0075631 

36 

.01047-^ 

013.3809 

S6 

.0162897 

27 

0078540 

37 

.oioT'i-'  1 

oi.}67l7 

57 

.0165806 

38 

00S1449 

38 

.01  lo.s  c 

0139626 

S8 

.016871S 

29 

.00S4.358 

39 

.01 1314'' 

014253s 

59 

.0171624 

30 

.0087266 

40 

.OIl6.5Si 

0145444 

60 

017453.3 

Sec. 

Length 

Sec. 

Length 

Sec. 

Len^:: '. 

Length 

I 

.0000048 

16 

.0000776 

31 

0001503 

46 

.0002230 

2 

.0000097 

17 

.0000824 

32 

.0001 S51 

47 

.0002279 

3 

.0000145 

18 

.0000873 

33 

.0001600 

48 

.00O2,V7 

4 

.0000194 

19 

.0000921 

34 

.0001648 

49 

.0002376 

S 

.0000242 

20 

.0000970 

33 

.0001697  : 

SO 

.0002424 

6 

.0000291 

21 

.0001018 

36 

.0001745  I 

SI 

.0002473 

7 

.0000339 

22 

.0001067 

37 

.0001794 

52 

.0002521 

8 

.0000388 

23 

.0001115 

38 

.0001842  1 

S3 

.0002570 

9 

.0000430 

34 

.0001164 

39 

.0001891 

54 

.0002618 

10 

.0000485 

35 

.0001212 

40 

.0001939 

55 

.0002666 

II 

.0000533 

36 

.0001261 

41 

.0001988 

56 

.0002715 

12 

.0000582 

27 

.0001309 

42 

.0002036 

57 

.0002763 

13 

.0000630 

38 

.OOOI3S7 

43 

.0002085 

S8 

.0002812 

14 

.0000679 

29 

.0001406 

44 

.0002133 

59 

.0002860 

IS 

.0000727 

30 

.00014.54 

45 

.0002182 

60 

.0002909 

Table  of  Areas  of  Circular  Segments 

If  the  segment  exceeds  a  semicircle,  its  area  =  area  of  circle  —  area  of  a  segment 
whose  rise  =  (diam.  of  circle  —  rise  of  given  segment).  Diam.  of  circle  =  (square 
of  half  chord  ^  rise)  +  rise,  whether  the  segment  exceeds  a  semicircle  or  not. 


Rise 
divided 
Vjy  diam. 
of  circle 

Area  = 

(square 
of  diam.) 
multi- 
plied by 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam. 
of  circle 

Area  = 
(square 
of  diam.) 
multi- 
plied by 

.001329 
.001533 
.001746 
.001969 
.002199 
.002438 
.002685 
.002940 
.003202 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam. 
of  circle 

Area  = 
(square 
of  diam.) 
multi- 
plied by 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam. 
of  circle 

Area  = 

(square 
o/diam.) 

muki- 
plicd  by 

.001 
.002 
.003 
.004 
•  005 
.006 
007 
.008 
.009 

.000042 
.000119 
.000219 
.000337 
.000471 
.000619 
.000779 
.000952 
.001135 

.010 
.on 
.012 
.013 
.014 
.015 
.016 
.017 
.018 

.019 
.020 
.021 
.022 
.023 
.024 
.025 
.026 
.027 

.003472 
.003749 
.004032 
.004322 
.004619 
.004922 
.005231 
.005546 
.005867 

.028 
.029 
.030 
.031 
.032 
.033 
.034 
.035 
.036 

.006194 
.006527 
.006866 
.007209 
.007SS9 
.007913 
.008273 
.008638 
.009008 

Table  of  Areas  of  Circular  Segments 


8S 


Table  of 

Areas 

OF  Circular  Segments  — 

{Continued) 

Rise 

divided 
by  diam 
of  circle 

Area  = 

(square 

of  diam.) 

multi- 
plied by 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam 
of  circle 

Area  = 
(square 
of  diam.) 
multi- 
plied by 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam 
of  circle 

Area  = 
(square 
of  diam.) 
multi- 
plied by 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam 
of  circle 

Area= 
(square 
of  diam.) 
multi- 
plied by 

•  037 

.009383 

.087 

.033308 

•  137 

.064761 

.187 

.101553 

.038 

.009764 

.088 

•033873 

.138 

.065449 

.188 

102334 

.039 

,010148 

.089 

•034441 

•  139 

.066140 

.189 

103116 

.040 

.010538 

.090 

.035012 

.140 

.066833 

.190 

.103900 

.041 

.010932 

.091 

.035586 

.141 

.067528 

.191 

•  104686 

.042 

.011331 

.092 

•  036162' 

.142 

,068225 

.192 

•  105472 

•043 

.011734 

•  093 

•036742 

•  143 

,068924 

.193 

, 106261 

.044 

.012142 

•  094 

•037324 

.144 

,069626 

.194 

•  10705 1 

•  045 

•012555 

•  09s 

•037909 

.145 

•070329 

■195 

•  107843 

.046 

.012971 

.096 

•03S497 

.146 

.071034 

.196 

•  108636 

•  047 

.013393 

•  097 

.039087 

■  147 

•071741 

■197 

• 109431 

.048 

.013818 

.098 

.039681 

.148 

•072450 

.198 

.110227 

.049 

.014248 

•099 

.040277 

.149 

•073162 

■199 

.III02S 

.050 

.014681 

•  loo 

.040875 

•  ISO 

•073875 

.200 

.111824 

.051 

.015119 

.101 

•041477 

.151 

•074590 

.201 

.112625 

.052 

.015561 

.102 

.042081 

.152 

•075307 

.202 

•I 13427 

■OS3 

.016008 

.103 

.042687 

.153 

.076026 

.203 

•II423I 

.054 

.016458 

.104 

.043296 

.154 

•076747 

.204 

•I 15036 

■  055 

.016912 

.105 

.043908 

.155 

•077470 

.205 

.115842 

■  056 

.017369 

.106 

•044523 

.156 

.078194 

.206 

.116651 

•057 

.017831 

.107 

.045140 

.157 

.078921 

.207 

.117460 

058 

.018297 

.108 

•04S759 

.158 

•079650 

.208 

.118271 

059 

.018766 

.109 

.046381 

•159 

.080380 

.209 

.119084 

.060 

.019239 

.110 

.047006 

.160 

.081112 

.210 

.119898 

.061 

.019716 

.III 

•047633 

.161 

,081847 

.211 

.120713 

.062 

.020197 

.112 

.048262 

.162 

,082582 

.212 

■ I2I530 

.063 

.020681 

■  113 

.048894 

.163 

.083320 

.213 

.122348 

.064 

.021168 

.114 

.049529 

.164 

.084060 

.214 

.123167 

.065 

.021660 

•  115 

.050165 

.165 

.084801 

.215 

. 123988 

.066 

.022155 

.116 

•  050805 

.166 

•085545 

.216 

.124811 

.067 

•033653 

.117 

.051446 

.167 

.086290 

,217 

•  125634 

.068 

.023155 

.118 

.052090 

.168 

•087037 

.218 

•  126459 

.069 

.023660 

.119 

.0527.37 

.169 

•087785 

.219 

. 127286 

.070 

.024168 

.120 

•053385 

.170 

•088536 

.220 

.128114 

071 

.024680 

.121 

•054037 

.171 

.089288 

.221 

.128943 

.072 

.025196 

.122 

.054690 

.172 

.090042 

.222 

•  129773 

073 

.025714 

.123 

.055346 

.173 

•090797 

.223 

•  130605 

074 

.026236 

.124 

.056004 

.174 

•091555 

.224 

• I31438 

.075 

.026761 

.125 

.056664 

.175 

.092314 

.225 

•  132273 

.076 

.027290 

.126 

.057327 

.176 

.093074 

.226 

•I33I09 

.077 

.027821 

.127 

.057991 

.177 

•093837 

.227 

.133946 

.078 

.028,356 

.128 

.058658 

.178 

• 094601 

.228 

.134784 

.079 

.028894 

.129 

.059328 

.179 

.095367 

.229 

•  135624 

.080 

.029435 

■  130 

•059999 

.180 

•096135 

.230 

. 13646s 

081 

.029979 

.131 

.060673 

.181 

.096904 

•  231 

.137307 

.082 

.030526 

.132 

.061349 

.182 

.097675 

•  232 

• I3815I 

.083 

■031077 

.133 

.062027 

.183 

.098447 

.233 

•138996 

.084 

.031630 

.134 

.062707 

.184 

.099221 

.234 

•  139842 

.085 

.032186 

.1.35 

.063389 

.185 

•099997 

•  235 

. 140689 

.086 

.032746 

.136 

.064074 

.186 

.100774 

.236 

• I4I538 

86 


Mallunialiial  'I'alilcs 


Table  of 

Areas 

OF  CiRCULAK  SeCUENTS  — 

(Coniinwd) 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam. 

Area  ■• 

(square 

of  diam.) 

multi* 

Rise 

divided 
by  diam. 

Area  — 

(sfiuarc 
of  dium.) 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam. 

Area  — 
(sc)uarc 
of  diam.) 

Rise 
divided 
by  diam. 

Area- 

(square 

of  diam.) 

multi- 
plied by 

of  circle 

plied  by 

.I42.V-- 

of  circle 

plied  by 

of  circle 

plied  by 

of  circle 

.237 

.186339 

.337 

.232634 

.387 

.280669 

.aj8 

.143239 

.jh-s 

.18723s 

.338 

.233580 

.388 

.281643 

.239 

.144091 

.289 

.188141 

.339 

.234526 

.389 

.283618 

.240 

.144945 

.290 

.189048 

.340 

.235473 

.390 

283593 

.a4i 

.145800 

•291 

.189956 

.341 

.236421 

.391 

•284569 

.242 

.146656 

.292 

.190865 

.342 

.237369 

.392 

•285545 

.243 

147513 

.293 

.191774 

.343 

.238319 

.393 

.286521 

.244 

.148371 

.294 

.192685 

.344 

.239268 

.394 

.287499 

.245 

.149231 

1   .295 

.193597 

.345 

.240219 

.395 

.288476 

.246 

.150091 

:    .296 

.194509 

.346 

.241170 

.396 

.289454 

.247 

. 150953 

.297 

. 195423 

.347 

.243132 

.397 

.290432 

.248 

.151816 

.298 

.196337 

.348 

.343074 

.398 

291411 

.249 

.152681 

.299 

. 197252 

.349 

.344037 

.399 

.292390 

.250 

.153546 

.300 

.198168 

.350 

.244980 

.400 

.293370 

.251 

•  154413 

.301 

.199085 

.351 

.245935  ! 

.401 

.294350 

.253 

.155281 

.302 

.200003 

.352 

.246890 

.402 

.295330 

.253 

.156149 

.303 

.200922 

.353 

.247845 

.403 

.296311 

.254 

.157019 

.304 

.201841 

.354 

.248801 

.404 

•297292 

.255 

. 157891 

.305 

.203762 

.355 

.249758 

.405 

.298274 

.256 

. 158763 

.306 

.203683 

.356 

.250715 

.406 

.299256 

.257 

.159636 

.307 

.204605 

.357 

.251673 

.407 

.300238 

.258 

.160511 

.308 

.205528 

.358 

.353632 

.408 

.301331 

.259 

.161386  I 

.309 

.206452 

.359 

.253591 

.409 

.302304 

.260 

.162263 

.310 

.207376 

.360 

.254551 

.410 

.303187 

.261 

.163141  ' 

3" 

.208302 

1   .361 

.255511 

.411 

.304171 

.262 

. 164020 

.312 

.209228 

.362 

.256472 

.412 

.305156 

.263 

.164900 

.313 

.210I5S 

.363 

.257433 

.413 

.306140 

.264 

.165781 

.314 

.211083 

.364 

.258395 

.414 

.307125 

.26s 

.166663 

.31S 

.212011 

.36s 

.259358 

.415 

.308110 

.266 

.167546 

.316 

.212941 

.366 

.260321 

.416 

.309096 

.267 

. 168431 

.317 

.213871 

.367 

.261285 

.417 

.310082 

.268 

. 169316 

.318 

.214802 

.368 

.262249 

.418 

.311068 

.269 

. 170202 

.319 

.215734 

■.369 

.263214 

.419 

.312055 

.270 

.171090 

.320 

.216666 

.370 

.264179 

.420 

.313042 

.271 

.171978 

•  321 

.217600 

.371 

.265145 

.421 

.314029 

.272 

.172868 

.322 

.218534 

.372 

.266111 

.422 

.315017 

.273 

•173758 

.323 

.219469 

.373 

.267078 

.423 

.316005 

.274 

. 174650 

.324 

. 220404 

.374 

.268046 

.424 

.316993 

.275 

.175542 

.325 

.221341 

.375 

.269014 

.425 

.317981 

.276 

.176436 

.326 

.222278 

.376 

.269982 

.426 

.318970 

.277 

.177330 

.327 

.223216 

.377 

.270951 

.427 

.319959 

.278 

.178226 

.328 

.224154 

.378 

.271921 

.428 

.320949 

.279 

.179122 

.329 

.225094 

.379 

.  272891 

.429 

.321938 

.280 

.180020 

.330 

.  226o,i4 

.380 

.273861 

.430 

.322928 

.281 

.180918 

.331 

.226974 

.381 

.274832 

.431 

.323919 

.282 

.181818 

.332 

.227916 

.382 

.275804 

.432 

.324909 

.283 

.182718 

.333 

.228858 

.383 

.276776 

.433 

.325900 

.284 

.183619 

.334 

.229801 

.384 

.277748 

.434 

.326891 

.285 

. 184522 

.335 

.230745 

.385 

.278721 

.435 

.327883 

.286 

.185425 

.336 

.231689 

.386 

.279695 

.436 

.328874 

Table  of  Areas  of  Circular  Segments  87 

Table  of  Areas  of  Circular  Segments  —  (Continued) 


Rise 

Area  = 

Rise 

Area=    j 

.ise 

Area=    j^;^^ 

Area  = 

divided 

(square 

divided 

(square   ^j^ 

^ided 

(square  ^^^-^^^^ 

(square 

by  diam. 
of  circle 

of  diam.) 
multi- 

by diam. 
of  circle 

of  diam.)  . 

multi-   „t 
,.  ,  ,    01 

diam. 
::ircle 

of  diam.)  by  diam. 
,n^"'*^-   of  circle 

of  diam.) 
multi- 

plied by 

plied  by 

plied  by 

plied  by 

.437 

.329866 

.453 

.345768 

469 

.361719 

485 

.377701 

.438 

.330858 

.454 

.346764 

470 

.362717 

486 

.378701 

.439 

.331851 

.455 

.347760 

471 

.363715 

487 

.379701 

.440 

.332843 

.456 

.348756 

472 

.364714 

488 

.380700 

.441 

.333836 

.457 

.349752 

473 

.365712 

489 

.381700 

.442 

.334829 

.458 

.350749 

474 

.366711 

490 

.382700 

•  443 

.335823 

■  459 

.351745 

475 

.367710 

491 

.383700 

.444 

.336816 

.460 

.352742 

476 

.368708 

492 

.384699 

.445 

.337810 

.461 

.353739 

477 

.369707 

493 

.385699 

.446 

.338804 

.462 

.354736 

478 

.370706 

494 

.386699 

.447 

.339799 

.463 

.355733 

479 

■371705 

495 

.387699 

.448 

.340793 

.464 

.356730 

480 

.372704 

496 

.388699 

.449 

.341788 

•  46s 

.357728 

481 

■373704 

497 

.389699 

•  450 

.342783 

.466 

.358725 

482 

■374703 

498 

.390699 

.451 

.343778 

.467 

.359723 

483 

■375702 

499 

.391699 

.452 

.344773 

.468 

.360721 

484 

.376702 

500 

•392699 

88 


Mathematical  Tables 


Chords  of  Arcs  from  One  to  Ninety  Decrees 

Dimensions  given  in  inches. 


Ang. 
Dcg. 

l8-inch 

36-inch 

72-inch 

,. 

iH-inch 

36-inch 

73inch 

radius 

radius 

radius 

r.'idiuR 

radius 

radius 

chord 

rhord 

chord 

(.hord 

chord 

chord 

I 

••■.., 

iW 

46 

14H6 

38  Vi 

^■<M 

a 

H 

1'4 

2V1 

47 

142564 

382*62 

S7»T64 

3 

'Mo 

1% 

3?i 

48 

14*! 64 

29962 

583^/64 

4 

iV* 

2V1 

S 

49 

i4»964 

29*564 

59*  W2 

S 

I".64 

3%4 

6962 

SO 

iS'/62 

3027/i« 

6o»H« 

6 

iH 

3«W4 

7'?62 

SI 

15^6 

31 

63 

7 

2«H« 

4='564 

8S!.64 

52 

152562 

3i9<« 

63W 

8 

2H 

5'/64 

io564 

53 

i6V1« 

32^ 

64  W 

9 

2m* 

5^64 

xx'964 

54 

16'^ 

32'H6 

6s56 

lO 

3%* 

6962 

123  564 

55 

1656 

33H 

66W 

II 

32%4 

62?62 

I3H64 

56 

162962 

33*^64 

673964 

12 

3*%* 

7'"^62 

XS564 

57 

17'^ 

342564 

68*562 

13 

4^4 

8562 

x6'964 

58 

172964 

342962 

69' Ms 

14 

4»Hi 

82563 

173 564 

59 

172562 

352964 

70*962 

IS 

4*564 

92564 

X85J44 

60 

18 

36 

72 

l6 

5 

io)-64 

20V62 

61 

I8'J64 

363564 

73564 

17 

5^64 

XO<W4 

2X962 

62 

183^4 

37564 

74' H4 

I8 

55i 

IX'J64 

22' ^2 

63 

x8>5i« 

3756 

7SW 

19 

5'M. 

1X7,6 

23*964 

64 

X9564 

38562 

765^6 

20 

6Vi 

121/4 

25 

6S 

X9'  '/62 

38iH« 

7756 

21 

6M«> 

I3V6 

26>564 

66 

X93964 

39^62 

7827/64 

22 

6% 

I3*?64 

2731-64 

67 

19^6 

39*^4 

79' 562 

23 

THi 

142564 

28*564 

68 

20I.6 

401^ 

8o«J62 

24 

73)44 

143 '/62 

29'5i« 

69 

202564 

402562 

8i91s 

25 

7«H4 

153-^64 

31' H4 

70 

20<!.64 

4x1964 

82»962 

36 

8J^2 

i6>?64 

322564 

71 

202962 

4xi5i6 

8356 

27 

8>?^2 

X6>?i8 

3356 

72 

2X562 

4221 64 

84*V64 

38 

8<564 

17' 562 

34>5i6 

73 

2x1562 

425564 

852^62 

29 

9V64 

18I/62 

36M8 

74 

2I2J62 

432!'64 

862^2 

30 

9^16 

i8<V64 

37"/64 

75 

215964 

43*564 

872^2 

31 

9H 

19' 564 

383 '/64 

76 

22562 

442^64 

882162 

32 

9*9^4 

192 J62 

39' M» 

77 

221 562 

44*564 

89*V64 

33 

loj^a 

202%4 

i,Q^'M 

78 

2221.62 

455i. 

9o56 

34 

xo'  ^^2 

2X5B4 

42562 

79 

225^64 

45*^4 

91' 962 

35 

I05J64 

2X21^2 

43' 964 

80 

23964 

46962 

929i« 

36 

IIH 

22« 

44H 

81 

2356 

4654 

933564 

37 

Il2?64 

222  J62 

45' M« 

82 

233964 

471564 

94' 562 

38 

1X2^2 

2ZlAi 

46^4 

83 

23S584 

47*564 

95' 562 

39 

12^4 

24'/62 

48M« 

84 

24562 

481V64 

962564 

40 

I25,i« 

2456 

49'/4 

85 

242 164 

48H64 

97962 

41 

X23964 

25%2 

50^/^6 

86 

243564 

49562 

98>564 

42 

X  22  962 

255  ".64 

5X3964 

87 

242562 

499i« 

99H 

43 

X3?i» 

262564 

522562 

88 

25 

50^4 

looWa 

44 

133^4 

263 ',62 

53'5i« 

89 

25' 564 

So«562 

100' 5<  8 

45 

13*562 

27^  H4 

55?64 

90 

252964 

502962 

ioi»564 

Chords 


89 


Fig.  35. 


To  Find  the  Length  of  a  Chord  which  will  Divide  the  Circumference  of 
a  Circle  into  N  Equal  Parts  Multiply  S  by  the  Diameter 


N 

s 

iV 

5 

N 

S 

N 

5 

I 

26 

.12054 

SI 

.061560 

76 

04132s 

2 

27 

.11609 

52 

.060379 
.059240 

77 
78 

040788 
040267 

3 

.86603 

28 

.11197 

53 

4 

.70711 

29 

.10812 

54 

.058145 

79 

0397S7 

S 

.58779 

30 

. I04S3 

55 

.057090 

80 

039260 

6 

.50000 

31 

.10117 

56 

.056071 

81 

038775 

7 

.43388 

32 

.098018 

57 

.055089 

82 

038303 

8 

.38268 

33 

.095056 

58 

■054139 

83 

037841 

9 

.34202 

34 

.092269 

59 

.053222 

84 

037391 

10 

.30902 

35 

.089640 

60 

•052336 

85 

036953 

II 

*  28173 

36 

.087156 

61 

.051478 

86 

036522 

12 

.25882 

37 

.084804 

62 

.050649 

87 

036103 

13 

.23932 

38 

.082580 

63 

.049845 

88 

035692 

14 

.22252 

39 

.080466 

64 

.049068 

89 

035291 

15 

.20791 

40 

.078460 

65 

.048312 

90 

034899 

16 

.19509 

41 

.076549 

66 

.047582 

91 

034516 

17 

.18375 

42 

.074731 

67 

.046872 

92 

034141 

18 

.17365 

43 

.072995 

68 

.046184 

93 

033774 

19 

.16460 

44 

.071339 

69 

.045515 

94 

033415 

20 

.15643 

45 

.069756 

70 

.044865 

95 

033064 

21 

.14904 

46 

.06S243 

71 

.044232 

96 

032719 

22 

.  14232 

47 

.066793 

72 

.043619 

97 

032381 

23 

.13617 

48 

.065401 

73 

.043022 

98 

032051 

24 

.13053 

49 

.064073 

74 

.042441 

99 

031728 

25 

.12533 

50 

.062791 

75 

.041875 

100 

031411 

go 


Mulhcmatiral  Tallies 


Lengths  of  Chords  foe  Spacing  Cikcle  whose  Diameter  is  i 

Por  circles  of  other  diameten  multiply  length  given  in  table  by  diameter  of  circle. 


No.  of 

Length  of 

No.  of 

Length  of 

No.  of 

Length  of 

No.  of 

Length  of 

spaces 

chord 

spaces 

chord 

spaces 

chord 

spaces 

chord 

26 

.I305 

51 

.0616 

76 

.0413 

27 

.1161 

52 

.0604 

77 

.0408 

3 

.8660 

38 

.1120 

S3 

.0592 

78 

.0403 

4 

.7071 

29 

.1081 

54 

.0581 

79 

.0398 

5 

.5878 

30 

.1045 

55 

.0571 

80 

.0393 

6 

.5000 

31 

.1012 

56 

.0561 

8t 

.0388 

7 

.4339 

32 

.0980 

57 

.0551 

83 

.0383 

8 

.3827 

33 

.0951 

58 

.0541 

83 

.0378 

9 

.3420 

34 

.0923 

59 

.0532 

84 

.0374 

lo 

.3090 

35 

.0896 

60 

.0523 

85 

.0370 

II 

.3817 

36 

.0872 

61 

.0515 

86 

.0365 

13 

.3588 

37 

.0848 

62 

.0507 

87 

.0361 

13 

.2393 

38 

.0826 

63 

.0499 

88 

.0357 

14 

.2225 

39 

.0805 

64 

.0491 

89 

■  03S3 

IS 

■  2079 

40 

.0785 

65 

.0483 

90 

.0349 

I6 

.1951 

41 

.0765 

66 

.0476 

91 

.0345 

17 

.1838 

42 

.0747 

67 

.0469 

92 

.0341 

I8 

.1736 

43 

•0730 

68 

.0462 

93 

.0338 

19 

.1646 

44 

.0713 

69 

.0455 

94 

.0334 

30 

.1564 

45 

.0698 

70 

.0449 

95 

■  0331 

31 

.1490 

46 

.0682 

71 

.0442 

96 

.0327 

33 

.1423 

47 

.0668 

72 

.0436 

97. 

0324 

33 

.1362 

48 

.0654 

73 

.0430 

98 

.0331 

24 

.130S 

49 

.0641 

74 

.0424 

99 

.0317 

35 

.1253 

SO 

.0628 

75 

.0419 

100 

.0314 

Computed  by  W.  I.  Mann,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Supplement  to  Machinery,  February,  1903. 


Board  Measure 


91 


Board  Measure 


Length 

in  feet 

Size 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

Square  feet 

IX  8 

8 

914 

10% 

12 

13H 

14% 

16 

17% 

IX 10 

10 

11% 

13% 

15 

16% 

185.6 

20 

21% 

1X12 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

IX14 

14 

1614 

18% 

21 

23^^ 

25% 

28 

30% 

IX16 

16 

18% 

21!-^ 

24 

26% 

29% 

32 

34% 

2X  3 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

2X   4 

8 

9H 

10% 

12 

l3'/6 

14% 

16 

17% 

2X  6 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

2X  8 

16 

18% 

2114 

24 

26% 

29% 

32 

34% 

2X10 

20 

23'/^ 

26% 

30 

33!/^ 

36% 

40 

43% 

2X12 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

2X14 

28 

32% 

371-6 

42 

46?6 

51% 

56 

60% 

2x16 

32 

3714 

422/6 

48 

53^ 

58% 

64 

69% 

3X  4 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

3X  6 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

39 

3X  8 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

3X10 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

3X12 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

3X14 

42 

49 

S6 

63 

70 

77 

84 

91 

3X16 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

4X  4 

16 

18% 

21^ 

24 

26% 

29% 

32 

34% 

4X  6 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

4X  8 

32 

37^ 

42% 

48 

S3H 

58% 

64 

69% 

4X10 

40 

46% 

53^ 

60 

66% 

73% 

80 

86% 

4X12 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

4X14 

56 

65I4 

74% 

84 

93% 

102% 

112 

121% 

4X16 

64 

74% 

85!'6 

96 

106% 

117% 

128 

138% 

6X  6 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

6X  8 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

6X10 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

6x12 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

132 

144 

156 

6X14 

84 

98 

112 

126 

140 

154 

168 

182 

6X16 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

208 

8X  8 

64 

74% 

85^ 

96 

106% 

117% 

128 

138% 

SXio 

80 

9M 

106% 

120 

133% 

146% 

160 

173% 

8X12 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

208 

8X14 

112 

130% 

1495^ 

168 

186% 

205% 

224 

242% 

8X16 

128 

149'/^ 

170% 

192 

213% 

234% 

2S6 

277% 

10X10 

100 

116% 

l33'/6 

150 

166% 

183% 

200 

216% 

10X12 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

220 

240 

260 

10X14 

140 

163H 

186% 

210 

233% 

256% 

280 

303% 

10X16 

160 

186% 

21iM 

240 

266% 

293% 

320 

346% 

12X12 

144 

168 

192 

216 

240 

264 

288 

312 

12x14 

168 

196 

224 

252 

280 

308 

336 

364 

12X16 

192 

224 

256 

288 

320 

352 

384 

416 

X4XI4 

196 

228% 

261 H 

294 

326% 

3S9V6 

392 

424% 

14X16 

224 

261 '/5 

298% 

336 

373% 

410% 

448 

485% 

16X16 

256 

298% 

341'/^ 

384 

426^6 

469% 

512 

554% 

92 


Mathematical  Tables 
Hoard  Measdre  —  (Continued) 


Size 


IX  8 

IXIO 

IXI2 
1X14 
IXl6 
2X  3 
2X  4 
2X  6 
2X  8 

2XIO 
2X12 
2X14 
2Xl6 
3X  4 
3X  6 
3X  8 
3XIO 
3X12 
3X14 
3Xl6 
4X  4 
4X  6 
4X  8 
4X10 
4X12 
4X14 
4Xl6 
6x  6 
6X  8 
6xio 
6X12 
6X14 
6xi6 
8X  8 
8Xlo 
8X12 
8X14 
8Xl6 

lOXlO 
IOX12 

10X14 
10X16 
12x12 
12X14 
12x16 
14x14 
14X16 
16x16 


38 


Square  foct 


i8?6 
28 

32?{. 

37  W 

14 

18?^ 

28 

37^6 

46?i 

S6 

6S!^ 

74^ 

28 

42 

S6 

70 

84 

98 
112 

37)-^ 

S6 

74^4 

93!^ 
112 

i3fm 

84 
112 

140 

168 

196 

224 

149',-^ 

I862.S 

224 

261 V6 

298?6 

233'/^ 

280 

326H 

373!6 

336 

392 

4 18 

457H 

S22'/6 

S97W 


20 

,  1 

25 

26Ji 

30 

32 

35 

37^6 

40 

42^ 

IS 

16 

20 

21 W 

30 

32 

40 

42^4 

SO 

53^4 

60 

64 

70 

72^6 

80 

85W 

30 

32 

45 

48 

60 

64 

75 

80 

90 

96 

105 

112 

120 

128 

40 

42H 

60 

64 

80 

»5M 

100 

io626 

120 

128 

140 

149W 

160 

17054 

90 

96 

120 

128 

ISO 

160 

180 

192 

210 

224 

240 

256 

160 

1707^ 

200 

213^6 

240 

256 

280 

298% 

320 

341 '6 

250 

266?^ 

300 

320 

350 

373'  i 

400 

426?  6 

360 

384 

420 

448 

480 

S12 

490 

S22?6 

s6o 

S97H 

640 

682?S 

22W 

28J.4 

34 

39^ 

45^6 

17 

22^ 

34 

4SH 

56W 

68 

79W 

90^4 

34 

SI 

68 

8S 
102 
119 
136 

45  W 

68 

90^ 
113^ 
136 
I58?6 
i8m 
102 
136 
170 
204 
238 
272 
181H 

226?^ 
272 
317IS 
362^3 

283>4 

340 

396^6 

453  !-6 

408 

476 

544 

SSSW 

634% 

725^4 


24 

asW 

30 

31^ 

36 

38 

42 

44W 

48 

SfM 

18 

19 

24 

2SW 

36 

38 

48 

So% 

60 

63W 

72 

76 

84 

88% 

96 

101 W 

36 

38 

54 

57 

72 

76 

90 

9S 

108 

114 

126 

133 

144 

152 

48 

50W 

72 

76 

96 

101 W 

120 

126% 

144 

152 

16S 

177W 

192 

ao2% 

108 

114 

144 

152 

180 

190 

216 

228 

252 

266 

288 

304 

192 

202?S 

240 

253^ 

288 

304 

336 

354% 

384 

40514 

300 

316% 

360 

380 

410 

443^4 

480 

506% 

432 

4S6 

504 

532 

576 

608 

S88 

620% 

672 

709H 

768 

810% 

Note.  —  By  simply  multiplying  or  dividing  the  above  amounts,  the  number  of 
feet  contained  in  other  dimensions  can  be  obtained. 


Surface  and  Volumes  of  Spheres  93 

Weight  of  Lumber  per  iooo  Feet  Board  Measure 


Character  of  lumber 


Dry 


Partly 
seasoned 


Green 


■  Pine  and  hemlock 

Norway  and  yellow  pine 

Oak  and  walnut 

Ash  and  maple 


Pounds 
2500 
3000 
4000 
3500 


Pounds 
2750 
4000 
Sooo 
4000 


Pounds 
3000 
sooo 


Surface  and  Volumes  of  Spheres 

Spheres.     (Original.)    Trautwine. 
Some  errors  of  i  in  the  last  figure  only. 


Diam.    S 

irface 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

Hi 

00077 

I%2 

3.7583 

.68511 

2^2 

15.466 

S.7190 

H2 

00307 

.00002 

'/i 

3.9761 

.74551 

Vi 

15.904 

5.9641 

%4 

00690 

.00005 

5/fc 

4.2000 

.80939 

%2 

16.349 

6.2161 

He 

01227 

.00013 

3/1  s 

4.4301 

.87681 

Me 

16.800 

6.4751 

H2 

02761 

.00043 

J^2 

4 . 6664 

.94786 

11/^2 

17.258 

6.7412 

H 

04909 

.00102 

1/4 

4.9088 

1.0227 

% 

17.721 

7.0144 

^2 

07670 

.00200 

%2 

5.1573 

1.1013 

1%2 

18.190 

7.2949 

Me 

1 1045 

.00345 

Me 

5.4119 

I . 1839 

Me 

18.666 

7.5829 

^2 

1S033 

.00548 

^^2 

5. 6728 

I . 2704 

l=/^2 

19.147 

7.8783 

H 

19635 

.00818 

% 

5  9396 

1.3611 

Vz 

19-635 

8.1813 

%2 

24851 

.01165 

l?i2 

6.2126 

I. 4561 

^2 

20.129 

8.4919 

5/6 

30680 

.01598 

Jie 

6.4919 

I. 5553 

?16 

20 . 629 

8.8103 

1^2 

37123 

.02127 

1532 

6.7771 

1.6590 

^%2 

21 . 135 

9.1366 

^ 

44179 

.02761 

w 

7.0686 

I. 7671 

n 

21.648 

9.4708 

1%2 

51848 

.03511 

1%2 

7  3663 

1.8799 

2^2 

22 . 166 

9.8131 

7l6 

60132 

.04385 

?l6 

7.6699 

1-9974 

iMe 

22.691 

10.164 

15^2 

69028 

.05393 

1%2 

7.9798 

2.1196 

25^2 

23.222 

10.522 

H 

78540 

.06545 

?i 

8.2957 

2 , 2468 

H 

23.758 

10.889 

1%2 

88664 

.07850 

21/32 

8.6180 

2.3789 

2542 

24.302 

11.265 

9i6 

99403 

.09319 

iHe 

8.9461 

2.S161 

IMe 

24.850 

11.649 

1%2        I 

1075 

. 10960 

2%2 

9.280s 

2.6586 

"A2 

25. 405 

12.041 

n             I 

2272 

.12783 

?4 

9.6211 

2.8062 

% 

25.967 

12.443 

2'/i2        I 

3530 

.  14798 

2=.^2 

9.9678 

2.9592 

2%2 

26.535 

12.853 

"/la      I 

4849 

.17014 

is/is 

10.321 

3.1177 

>M6 

27.109 

13 . 272 

2?^2        I 

6230 

■  19442 

27^2 

10.680 

3.2818 

3^2 

27.688 

13.700 

H             I 

7671 

. 22089 

% 

11.044 

3.4514 

3 

28.274 

14.137 

2^2        I 

9175 

.24967 

2%2 

II. 416 

3.6270 

Ha 

29.46s 

IS- 039 

1^6        2 

0739 

. 28084 

1516 

11.793 

3.8083 

H 

30.680 

15-979 

m2        2 

236s 

.31451 

31/i2 

12.177 

3.9956 

Me 

31.919 

16-957 

%             2 

4053 

.35077 

2 

12.566 

4 . 1888 

H 

33.183 

17.974 

29^2        2 

5802 

.38971 

1/^2 

12.962 

4.3882 

Me 

34.472 

19.031 

>M6        2 

761 1 

.43143 

Me 

13.364 

4.5939 

H 

35.784 

20.129 

3>42        2 

9483 

.47603 

%2 

13.772 

4.8060 

Ma 

37.122 

21.268 

I                  3 

1416 

.52360 

1/^ 

14 . 186 

5.0243 

H 

38.484 

22.449 

^2           3 

3410 

.57424 

%2 

14.607 

5-2493 

Me 

39.872 

23-674 

Me       3 

5466 

.62804 

?i6 

15  033 

5.4809 

H 

41 . 283 

24.942 

'A 


Mathematical    Tables 
Spheres  —  (Continued) 


Diam. 

Surfoce 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surfucc 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

3'M« 

42.719 

26  2S4 

8 

aoi  06 

368  08 

MH 

671  95 

1637  9 

^ 

44   179 

27  6n 

Ml 

207.39 

280  8s 

94 

683  49 

1680  3 

'M« 

45  664 

29  016 

M 

213. 8j 

294.01 

H 

69s  13 

1733  3 

H 

47.173 

30  466 

9» 

330.36 

307.58 

IS 

706  8s 

1767.2 

'?1e 

48  708 

31  96s 

M2 

326.98 

321.56 

M 

718  69 

1811  7 

4 

SO  26s 

33.SIO 

H 

333.71 

335  9S 

^4 

730  63 

i8S7  0 

Mo 

SI  848 

.«  106 

94 

240.53 

3S0.77 

96 

743.6s 

1903  0 

Jh 

S.V4S6 

36.751 

H 

347.4s 

366.03 

Mi 

754  77 

1949  8 

•>16 

55  089 

38.448 

9 

254. 47 

381.70 

H 

767  00 

1997.4 

y* 

S6  745 

40.19s 

H 

261.59 

397.83 

94 

779  32 

ao4S.7 

M« 

58.427 

41  994 

Vt 

368.81 

414.41 

?6 

791  73 

2094  8 

9i 

60  133 

43.847 

9i 

376.12 

431.44 

16 

804.2s 

2144  7 

Mb 

61.863 

45. 752 

W 

283.53 

448.93 

W 

816.8s 

2I9S  3 

H 

63.617 

47.713 

H 

291  04 

466.87 

Vi 

829  57 

3346.8 

9i» 

65.397 

49  729 

% 

298.65 

485.31 

96 

842  40 

3399   I 

56 

67.201 

51.801 

~<i 

306.36 

504.31 

W 

855.29 

3352  I 

'Mb 

69.030 

S3. 929 

10 

U4   16 

523.60 

96 

868.31 

2406  0 

54 

70.883 

S6.116 

'h 

.W2.06 

5.13.48 

94 

881  42 

3460  6 

'91b 

72.759 

58.359 

M 

330  06 

563.86 

H 

894  63 

2516  I 

^i 

74.663 

60.663 

9i 

338.16 

S84.74  ' 

17 

907  93 

2572.4 

'Mb 

76.589 

63  026 

H 

346.36 

606.13 

W 

921  33 

2629  6 

5 

78.540 

65.450 

H 

3S4.66 

628.04 

H 

934  83 

3687.6 

Mb 

80.516 

67.935 

94 

363.05 

650.46 

96 

948.43 

2746  s 

^i 

82.516 

70.482 

li 

371. 54 

673.42 

H 

962  13 

3806  2 

?<fl 

84.S41 

73.092 

II 

380.13 

696.91 

96 

975  91 

2866.8 

H 

86.S9I 

75.767 

H 

388.83 

720,95 

94 

989.80 

2928  2 

5<B 

88.664 

78.505 

M 

397.61 

745.51 

•A 

1003.8 

2990.S 

?i 

90  763 

81.308 

96 

406.49 

770.64 

18 

1017.9 

3053  6 

'/1 6 

92.887 

84.178 

H 

415.48 

796.33 

H 

1032.1 

3117  7 

Hi 

95.033 

87.113 

96 

424.56 

822.58 

y* 

1046.4 

3182.6 

918 

97.20s 

90. n8 

94 

433.73 

849.40 

96 

1060.8 

3248  5 

5i 

99  401 

93.189 

% 

443.01 

876.79 

^i 

1075.3 

3315.3 

'Mb 

loi  62 

96.331 

12 

452.39 

904.78 

96 

1089.8 

3382.9 

H 

103.87 

99  541 

H 

461.87 

933  34 

94 

1104. 5 

34SI.S 

'91b 

106.14 

102.82 

y* 

471.44 

962.52 

% 

1119.3 

3521.0 

j^s 

108.44 

106.18 

96 

481.11 

992.28 

19 

1134. 1 

3591  4 

'5i6 

110.75 

109.60 

Vi 

490.87 

1022.7 

V6 

1 149  I 

3662.8 

6 

113.10 

113.10 

96 

S00.73 

1053  6 

H 

1164.3 

3735  0 

i-i 

117.87 

120.31 

94 

S10.71 

1085.3 

96 

1179  3 

3808.3 

H 

122.72 

127.83 

H 

S20.77 

1117.5 

M 

1194  6 

3882. s 

96 

127.68 

135.66 

13 

530.93 

1150.3 

96 

1210.0 

3957  6 

Mi 

132  73 

143.79 

^6 

541   19 

1183.8 

94 

1225.4 

4033. 5 

H 

137  89 

152.25 

M 

551.55 

1218.0 

J6 

1241.0 

4110.8 

9i 

143  14 

161.03 

96 

562.00 

1252.7 

20 

1256.7 

4188.8 

?6 

148.49 

170.14 

H 

572. 55 

1288.3 

M 

1273.4 

4367.8 

7 

153  94 

179  59 

96 

583.20 

1324.4 

H 

1388.3 

4347.8 

H 

159  49 

189.39 

91 

593  93 

1361.2 

96 

1304.2 

4438.8 

!4 

16S.13 

199  S3 

56 

604.80 

1398.6 

yi 

1320.3 

4510.9 

9i 

170.87 

210.03 

14 

615.75 

1436.8 

96 

1336.4 

4593. 9 

!^ 

176.71 

220.89 

!-6 

626.80 

1475.6 

94 

1352.7 

4677.9 

^ 

182.66 

232.13 

M 

637  95 

1515. I 

?6 

1369  0 

4763.0 

94 

188.69 

243.73 

96 

649  17 

1555. 3 

31 

1385. S 

4849.1 

J6 

194  83 

25572 

yi 

660.52 

1596  3 

H 

1403.0 

4936.3 

Spheres 

Spheres  —  {Continued) 


95 


Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

2lH 

1418.6 

5,024-3 

27;i 

2441. I 

11.341 

mA 

3739-3 

21,501 

?6 

1435.4 

5,113-5 

28 

2463.0 

11.494 

A 

3766. 5 

21.736 

^ 

1452.2 

5,203.7 

H 

2485.1 

11,649 

3/4 

3793.7 

21,972 

56 

1469.2 

5,295.1 

H 

2507.2 

11,80s 

A 

3821 . 1 

22,210 

% 

1486.2 

5,397.4 

% 

2529-5 

11,962 

35 

3848.5 

22,449 

^ 

IS03.3 

5.480.8 

H 

2551-8 

12,121 

A 

3876.1 

22,691 

22 

1520.5 

5,575.3 

% 

2574-3 

12,281 

H 

3903.7 

22,934 

H 

1537.9 

5,670.8 

H 

2596.7 

12,443 

A 

3931 -5 

23.179 

M 

1555-3 

5,767-6 

H 

2619.4 

12,606 

A 

3959-2 

23,425 

H 

1572.8 

5,865.2 

29 

2642.1 

12,770 

H 

3987-2 

23,674 

\^ 

1590-4 

5,964-1 

5-6 

2665.0 

12,936 

¥i 

4015.2 

23,924 

% 

1608.2 

6,064.1 

H 

2687.8 

13.103 

A 

4043-3 

24,176 

H 

1626.0 

6,165.2 

% 

2710.9 

13.272 

36 

4071 -5 

24,429 

% 

1643.9 

6,267.3 

Vi 

2734-0 

13,442 

A 

4099.9 

24,685 

23 

1661.9 

6,370.6 

% 

2757-3 

13,614 

H 

4128.3 

24,942 

H 

1680.0 

6,475 -0 

¥i 

2780.5 

13,787 

A 

4156.9 

25,201 

H 

1698.2 

6,580.6 

li 

2804.0 

13.961 

A 

4185.5 

25,461 

% 

1716.5 

6,687.3 

30 

2827.4 

14.137 

A 

4214.1 

25,724 

^ 

1735  0 

6,795.2 

\i 

2851 . 1 

14.315 

H 

4243.0 

25,988 

H 

1753-5 

6,904.2 

H 

2874-8 

14.494 

A 

4271.8 

26,254 

% 

1772. I 

7,014  3 

% 

2898 . 7 

14.674 

37 

4300.9 

26,522 

■'A 

1790.8 

7,125.6 

\i 

2922.5 

14.856 

A 

4330.0 

26,792 

24 

1809.6 

7,238.2 

% 

2946 . 6 

15.039 

H 

4359-2 

27,063 

^ 

1828.5 

7,351.9 

Yi 

2970.6 

15.224 

A 

4388.5 

27,337 

Vi 

1847 -5 

7,466.7 

H 

2994.9 

15.411 

A 

4417.9 

27,612 

% 

1866-6 

7,583-0 

31 

3019  I 

15.599 

A 

4447. 5 

27,889 

H 

1885.8 

7.700.1 

H 

3043 .6 

15,788 

% 

4477.1 

28,168, 

% 

1905. I 

7,818.6 

H 

3068.0 

15,979 

A 

4506-8 

28,449 

H 

1924-4 

7,938.3 

% 

3092.7 

16,172 

38 

4536. 5 

28,731 

% 

1943-9 

8,059.2 

H 

3117-3 

16.366 

A 

4566.5 

29,016 

2S 

1963-5 

8,181.3 

H 

3142-1 

16,561 

A 

4596.4 

29,302 

H 

1983-2 

8,304.7 

H 

3166.9 

16.758 

A 

4626.5 

29,590 

H 

2002.9 

8,429.2 

li 

3192.0 

16,957 

A 

4656.7 

29,880 

% 

2022.9 

8,554-9 

32 

3217.0 

17.157 

A 

4686.9 

30,173 

yt 

2042.8 

8,682.0 

H 

3242.2 

17.359 

¥* 

4717.3 

30,466 

^ 

2062.9 

8,810.3 

Vi 

3267.4 

17.563 

A 

4747.9 

30,762 

% 

2083 -0 

8,939-9 

9i 

3292.9 

17,768 

39 

4778-4 

31.059 

^ 

2103.4 

9,070.6 

Vz 

3318.3 

17,974 

A 

4809.0 

31.359 

26 

2123. 7 

9,202.8 

H 

3343.9 

18,182 

A 

4839-9 

31,661 

H 

2144.2 

9,336.2 

H 

3369.6 

18,392 

A 

4870-8 

31.964 

H 

2164.7 

9,470-8 

H 

3395.4 

18,604 

A 

4901.7 

32,270 

?6 

2185. 5 

9,606-7 

33 

3421.2 

18,817 

A 

4932.7 

32,577 

V^ 

2206.2 

9,744-0 

'A 

3447.3 

19,032 

H 

4964.0 

32,886 

^ 

2227.1 

9,882.5 

H 

3473-3 

19.248 

A 

4995.3 

33.197 

H 

2248.0 

10,022 

9i 

3499-5 

19,466 

40 

S026.5 

33,510 

n 

2269.1 

10,164 

'A 

3525-7 

19,685 

A 

S058.1 

33,826 

27 

2290.2 

10,306 

H 

3552 -I 

19,907 

H 

5089.6 

34.143 

^ 

2311-5 

10,450 

H 

3578.5 

20,129 

A 

5121.3 

34,462 

H 

2332.8 

10,595 

'A 

3605.1 

20.3S4 

A 

5153-1 

34,783 

% 

2354.3 

10,741 

34 

3631-7 

20.580' 

A 

5184-9 

35,106 

H 

2375.8 

10,889 

A 

3658.5 

20,808 

% 

5216.9 

35,431 

^ 

2397.5 

11,038 

H 

3685.3 

21.037 

A 

5248.9 

35.758 

% 

2419.2 

11,189 

H 

3712.3 

21,268 

41 

5281. I 

36.087 

y6 


Malhcmuticul    Talilcs 
Spheres  —  (jCanlinued) 


Diom. 

Surface 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surface 

SoUdity 

4i^i 

S.«i.<  .« 

36.418 

4754 

7163. I 

%lf3r/ 

..,. 

0.288  s 

84.177 

W 

S34S.6 

36,751 

J6 

7200.7 

57.4 -. 

V,.V}1  2 

84.760 

H 

5378. I 

37.086 

48 

723«  3 

S7.</.^' 

'.',374.1 

85,344 

W 

5410.7 

37.423 

W 

7276.0 

58,360 

;« 

9.417.2 

85,931 

H 

5443.3 

37.763 

M 

7313.9 

58,815 

56 

9.460.2 

86,521 

H 

5476.0 

38.104 

56 

7351.9 

59.274 

55 

9.S03.2 

87,114 

Ji 

SS08.9 

38.448 

\'i 

7389  9 

59.734 

H 

9.546. s 

87,709 

42 

5541.9 

38.792 

56 

7428.0 

60.197 

M 

9.590  0 

88,307 

H 

5574. 9 

39.140 

?4 

7466  3 

60.663 

56 

9.6.U  3 

88.908 

H 

5608.0 

39.490 

J6 

7504.5 

61,131 

Vi 

9.676  8 

89.511 

H 

5641.3 

39.841 

49 

7543.1 

61.601 

56 

9.720.6 

90.117 

W 

5674.5 

40,194 

^6 

7581.6 

62.074 

54 

9,764.4 

90.726 

H 

5708.0 

40.551 

W 

7620.1 

62.549 

56 

9.808.1 

91.338 

H 

5741.5 

40.908 

56 

7658  9 

63,026 

56 

9.852.0 

91.953 

Ji 

5775.2 

41.268 

H 

7697.7 

63,506 

Vi 

9,896.0 

92.570 

43 

5808.8 

41,630 

56 

7736.7 

63,989 

H 

9.940.2 

93.190 

W 

5842.7 

41.994 

54 

7775. 7 

64,474 

■'v 

9.984  4 

93.812 

H 

5876. S 

42.360 

56 

7814.8 

64,961 

1  , 

!  0,029 

94.438 

H 

5910.7 

42.729 

50 

7854.0 

65.450 

■5t» 

10.073 

95.066 

Vi 

5944.7 

43.099 

H 

7893.3 

65.941 

54 

10,118 

95.697 

56 

5978.9 

43.472 

« 

7932.8 

66,436 

56 

10,163 

96.330 

^4 

6013.2 

43.846 

56 

7972.2 

66.934 

57 

10,207 

96.967 

J6 

6047.7 

44.224 

Vi 

8011.8 

67.433 

56 

10,252 

97.606 

44 

6082.1 

44.602 

56 

80S1.6 

67.93s 

H 

10,297 

98.248 

^ 

6116.8 

44.984 

54 

8091.4 

68.439 

56 

10.342 

98.893 

H 

6151.5 

45.367 

56 

8131.3 

68.946 

\h 

10.387 

99.541 

^ 

6186.3 

45.753 

SI 

8171.2 

69.456 

56 

10.432 

100.191 

H 

6221 . 2 

46.141 

^6 

8211.4 

69.967 

54 

10.478 

100,845 

56 

6256.1 

46.530 

M 

8251.6 

70482 

56 

10.523 

101,501 

% 

6291.2 

46.922 

56 

8292.0 

70,999 

58 

10.568 

102,161 

56 

6326. S 

47.317 

\'i 

8332.3 

71,519 

56 

10,614 

102,823 

45 

6361.7 

47.713 

56 

8372.8 

72.040 

54 

10.660 

103.488 

H 

6397.2 

48.112 

54 

8413.4 

72.565 

56 

10,706 

104.ISS 

H 

6432.7 

48.513 

56 

8454.1 

73,092 

54 

10,751 

104.826 

?6 

6468.3 

48.916 

52 

8494.8 

73,622 

56 

10,798 

IOS.499 

>i 

6503.9 

49.321 

M 

8535.8 

74.154 

54 

10.844 

106.175 

56 

6539.7 

49.729 

W 

8576.8 

74.689 

56 

10.890 

106.854 

5^4 

6575.5 

50.139 

56 

8617.8 

75.226 

59 

10.936 

107.536 

J6 

6611.6 

S0.551 

Vi 

8658.9 

75.767 

56 

10.983 

108.231 

46 

6647.6 

S0.965 

56 

8700.4 

76.309 

54 

11.029 

108.909 

H 

6683.7 

5 1. 382 

54 

8741.7 

76.854 

56 

11.076 

109,600 

,    ^« 

6720.0 

51.801 

56 

8783.2 

77.401 

54 

11,122 

110,294 

56 

6756.5 

52,222 

53 

8824.8 

77.952 

56 

11,169 

110,990 

Vi 

6792.9 

52.645 

).6 

8866.4 

78.505 

54 

11,216 

111,690 

56 

6829.5 

53.071 

^^ 

8908.2 

79.060 

56 

11,263 

112.392 

54 

6866.1 

53.499 

56 

8950.1 

79.617 

60 

11,310 

113.098 

% 

6902.9 

53.929 

Vi 

8992.0 

80.178 

56 

11.357 

113.806 

47 

6939  9 

54,362 

56 

9034.1 

80.741 

54 

11.404 

114.518 

V6 

6976.8 

54.797 

^4 

9076.4 

81.308 

56 

11.452 

115.232 

H 

7013  9 

55.234 

'    56 

9118.5 

81.876 

Vi 

11.499 

"5.949 

56 

7050.9 

55,674 

54 

9160.8 

82,448 

56 

11.547 

116,669 

H 

7088.3 

56.115 

^6 

9203.3 

83,021 

54 

11.595 

I17J92 

56 

7125.6 

56.559 

M 

9246.0 

83.598 

56 

11.642 

118,118 

Spheres 
Spheres  —  (Continued) 


97 


Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 
118.847 

Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

Diam. 

Surface 

Solidity 

6i 

11,690 

6756 

14.367 

161,927 

74H 

17.320 

Z14.333 

H 

11.738 

119.579 

H 

14.420 

162,827 

56 

17.379 

215.417 

H 

11,786 

120,31s 

li 

14.474 

163,731 

H 

17.437 

216.50S 

H 

11,834 

121,053 

68 

14.527 

164,637 

56 

17.496 

217.597 

H 

11,882 

121,794 

'/6 

14,580 

165,547 

H 

17.554 

218,693 

H 

11.931 

122,538 

Vi 

14,634 

166,460 

J6 

17.613 

219,792 

H 

11,980 

123,286 

56 

14,688 

167,376 

75 

17,672 

220,894 

■'A 

12,028 

124,036 

5-i 

14,741 

168,29s 

^6 

17.731 

222,001 

62 

12,076 

124,789 

56 

14,795 

169,218 

M 

17.790 

223,111 

\^ 

12,126 

125.545 

54 

14.849 

170,145 

56 

17.849 

224,224 

H 

12,174 

126,30s 

J6 

14.903 

171,074 

\i 

17,908 

225,341 

H 

12,223 

127,067 

69 

14,957 

172,007 

56 

17,968 

226,463 

}i 

12,272 

127,832 

^6 

1S.012 

172,944 

H 

18,027 

227,588 

56 

12,322 

128,601 

H 

15.066 

173,883 

% 

18,087 

228,716 

H 

12,371 

129.373 

56 

15.120 

174.828 

76 

18,146 

229,848 

li 

12,420 

130,147 

H 

15.175 

175.774 

% 

18,206 

230.984 

63 

12,469 

130,92s 

56 

15.230 

176.723 

H 

18,266 

232.124 

H 

12,519 

131,706 

H 

15.284 

177.677 

n 

18,326 

233.267 

Vi 

I2,s68 

132,490 

n 

15.339 

178.635 

H 

18,386 

234.414 

% 

12,618 

133,277 

70 

15.394 

179.59s 

56 

18,446 

235.566 

H 

12,668 

134.067 

H 

15.449 

180,559 

¥i 

18,506 

236.719 

6/i 

12,718 

134.860 

H 

15.504 

181,525 

% 

I8,s66 

237.879 

% 

12,768 

135.657 

56 

15.560 

182,497 

77 

18,626 

239.041 

Ji 

12,818 

136,456 

V2 

15.615 

183,471 

'yi 

18,687 

240,206 

64 

12,868 

137,259 

56 

15.670 

184,449 

H 

18,748 

241,376 

H 

12,918 

138,065 

% 

15.726 

185,430 

56 

18,809 

242,551 

H 

12,969 

138,874 

J6 

15.782 

186,414 

H 

18,869 

243,728  . 

?6 

13,019 

139,686 

71 

15.837 

187,402 

56 

18,930 

244,908 

J^ 

13,070 

140,501 

W 

15.893 

188,394 

H 

18,992 

246,093 

56 

13,121 

141,320 

H 

15.949 

189,389 

'A 

19.053 

247.283 

% 

13,172 

142,142 

56 

16,005 

190,387 

78 

19,114 

248.475 

^ 

13,222 

142,966 

H 

16,061 

191.389 

H 

19.175 

249.672 

6s 

13,273 

143.794 

56 

16. 117 

192,39s 

H 

19.237 

250.873 

H 

13,324 

144.625 

54 

16.174 

193,404 

56 

19.298 

252.077 

Vi 

13,376 

145.460 

li 

16,230 

194,417 

H 

19.360 

253.284 

% 

13.427 

146,297 

72 

16,286 

195.433 

56 

19,422 

254.496 

H 

13.478 

147.138 

^6 

16,343 

196,453 

54 

19.483 

255.713 

56 

i3,S3o 

147.982 

H 

16,400 

197.476 

A 

19.545 

256.932 

54 

13,582 

148,828 

56 

16,456 

198.502 

79 

19.607 

258.155 

% 

13,633 

149.680 

H 

16,513 

199.532 

H 

19.669 

259.383 

66 

13.685 

150.533 

56 

16,570 

200,566 

H 

19.732 

260,613 

H 

13,737 

151.390 

H 

16,628 

201,604 

56 

19.794 

261,848 

H 

13.789 

152.251 

J6 

16,685 

202,645 

H 

19.856 

263,088 

56 

13,841 

153. 114 

73 

16,742 

203,689 

56 

19.919 

264,330 

H 

13.893 

153.980 

1/6 

16.799 

204,737 

54 

19.981 

265,577 

56 

13.946 

154.850 

W 

16,857 

205,789 

J6 

20,044 

266,829 

54 

13.998 

155.724 

56 

16,914 

206,844 

80 

20,106 

268,083 

J6 

14.050 

156.600 

H 

16,972 

207,903 

'/6 

20,170 

269.342 

67 

14.103 

157.480 

56 

17.030 

208,966 

H 

20,232 

270,604 

^6 

14.156 

158.363 

H 

17,088 

210,032 

56 

20,296 

271,871 

H 

14,208 

159.250 

li 

17.146 

211,102 

H 

20,358 

273.141 

56 

14.261 

160,139 

74 

17.204 

212,17s 

56 

20,422 

274.416 

V6 

14.314 

161,032 

'/6 

17,262 

213,252 

H 

20,485 

275.694 

98 


Mulhcmulical  Tahlcs 
Sphekes  —  {Continued) 


Surface 


ao.S49 

30,6l2 

20,676 
20,740 
20,804 
20,867 
20,932 
20,996 
21,060 
21,124 
21,189 

21,253 

21.318 

21,382 
21,448 

21,512 
21,578 
21,642 
21,708 
21,773 
21.839 
21.904 
21.970 
22,036 
22,102 
22,167 
22,234 
22,300 
22.366 
22,432 
22,499 
22,565 
22,632 
22,698 
22,765 
22,832 
22,899 
22,966 
23,034 
23.101 
23.168 
23.235 
23.303 
23.371 
23.439 
23,So6 
23.575 
23.643 
23.711 
23.779 
23.847 
23.916 


Solidity   Diam. 


276.977 
278,263 
279.553 
280,847 
282,145 
283,447 
284,754 
286,064 
287,378 
288,696 
290,019 
291.345 
292,674 
294,010 
295.347 
296,691 
298,036 
299.388 
300,743 
302,100 
303.463 
304.831 
306.201 
307.576 
308.957 
310,340 
311.728 
313,118 
314.S14 
315.915 
317.318 
318.726 
320,140 
321,556 
322,977 
324,402 
325.831 
327.264 
328,702 
330,142 
331.588 
333.039 
334.492 
335.951 
337.414 
338.882 
340.352 
341.829 
343.307 
344.792 
346.281 
347.772 


87H 

w 


89 


90 


92 


93 


Surface 

Solidity 

Diam. 

23.984 

349.269 

93J* 

24.053 

3S0.77I 

94 

24.122 

3S2.277 

H 

24.191 

353.78s 

H 

24.260 

355.301 

H 

24.328 

356.819 

W 

24.398 

358.342 

H 

24.467 

359.869 

W 

24.536 

.361.400 

li 

24,606 

362.935 

9S 

24.676 

364.476 

Mi 

24.745 

366.019 

H 

24.815 

367.568 

H 

24.885 

369.122 

W 

24.955 

370.678 

H 

25.025 

372.240 

H 

25.095 

373.806 

H 

25.165 

375.378 

96 

25,236 

376.954 

W 

25.306 

378.531 

M 

25.376 

380. 1  IS 

H 

25.447 

381.704 

^ 

25.518 

383.297 

96 

25.589 

384.894 

H 

25.660 

386.496 

H 

25.730 

388.102 

97 

25,802 

389.711 

H 

25.873 

391.327 

V* 

25.944 

392.945 

H 

26.016 

394.570 

H 

26.087 

396.197 

H 

26.159 

397.831 

H 

26.230 

399.468 

Ji 

26,302 

401,109 

98 

26,374 

402,756 

W 

26,446 

404.406 

y* 

26,518 

406,060 

H 

26,590 

407,721 

W 

26.663 

409,384 

H 

26.735 

411.054 

y* 

26.808 

412,726 

H 

26.880 

414.405 

99 

26.953 

416.086 

!.6 

27.026 

417.774 

y* 

27.099 

419.464 

?6 

27.172 

421. 161 

w 

27.245 

422.862 

H 

27.318 

424.567 

y* 

27.391 

426.277 

% 

27.464 

427.991 

100 

27.538 

429.710 

27.612 

431.433 

Surface 


27.686 
27.759 
27.833 
27.907 
27.981 
28,055 
28,130 
28.204 
28.278 
28.353 
28.428 
28.S03 
28.S77 
28.652 
28.727 
28.802 
28,878 
28,953 
29.028 
29.104 
29.180 
29.255 
29.331 
29,407 
29.483 
29.559 
29.636 
29.712 
29.788 
29.865 
29,942 
30.018 
30.095 
30,172 
30,249 
30,326 
30,404 
30,481 
30,558 
30,636 
30,713 
30.791 
30.869 
30.947 
31.025 
31.103 
31.181 
31.259 
31.338 
31.416 


Capacity  of  Rectangular  Tanks 


99 


Capacity  of  Rectangular  Tanks  in  U.  S.  Gallons  for 
Each  Foot  in  Depth 


Width  of 
tank 

Length  of  tank 

2  feet 

2  feet, 
6  ins. 

3  feet 

3  feet, 
6  ins. 

4  feet 

4  feet, 
6  ins. 

5  feet 

5  feet, 

6  ins. 

6  feet 

Ft.  Ins. 

2 

2  6 

3 

3  6 
4 

4  6 
5 

29.92 

37.40 
46.75 

44 
56 
67 

88 
10 
32 

52.36 
65.45 
78.54 
91.64 

59 
74 
89 
104 
119 

84 
80 
77 
73 
69 

67.32 
84.16 
100.99 
117.82 
134.65 
1SI.48 

74. 8r 
93.51 
112.21 
130.91 
149 -61 
168.31 
187.01 

82.29 
102.86 
123.43 
144.00 
164.57 
185.14 
205.71 
226.28 

89.77 
112. 21 
134.65 
157.09 
179-53 
201.97 
224.41 
246.86 
269.30 

5      6 

6 

Width  of 

Length  of  tank 

tank 

6  feet,  6  ins. 

7  feet 

7  feet,  6  ins. 

8  feet 

8  feet,  6  ins. 

9  feet 

Ft.  Ins. 
2 

2  6 
3 

3  6 
4 

4  6 
S 

5  6 
6 

6  6 
7 

97.25 
121.56 
145-87 
170,18 
194-49 
218.80 
243.11 
267.43 
291.74 
316.05 

104.73 
130.91 
157-09 
183-27 
209.45 
235.63 
261.82 
288.00 
314.18 
340.36 
366.54 

112. 21 

140.26 
168.31 
196.36 
224.41 
252.47 
280.52 
308.57 
336.62 
364.67 
392.72 
420.78 

119.69 
149.61 
179-53 
209.45 
239.37 
269.30 
299.22 
329.14 
359.06 
388.98 
418.91 
448.83 
478.7s 

127.17 
158.96 
190.75 

222.54 

254-34 
286.13 
317.92 
349.71 
381.50 
413.30 
455.09 
476.88 
508.67 
540.46 

134.6s 
168.31 
202.97 
235.63 
269.30 
302.96 
336.62 
370.28 
403.94 
437.60 
471.27 
504.93 
538.59 
572.2s 
605.92 

7      6 

8 

8      6 

9 

MallKiiialical    Taljlcs 


C/VPACiTY  OF  Rectangular  Tanks  in  U.  S.  Gallons  fob 
Each  Foot  in  Depth  —  {Continued) 


I.^n|{th  of  tank 

Width  of 
Uiiik 

9  feet. 
6  ins. 

10  feet 

149  '" 
187.01 
224.41 
261.82 
299.22 
336.62 
374  03 
411.43 
448.83 
486.23 
523-64 
561.04 
598.44 
635.84 
673.25 
710.65 
748.05 

10  fei't, 
6  ins. 

.1709 
196*36 
235  68 
374  90 
314-18 
3.53-45 
392-72 
432  00 
471-27 
510-54 
549  81 
.589.08 
628.36 
667-63 
706.90 
746.17 
785.45 
824-73 

II  feet 

II  feet, 
6  ins. 

13  feet 

Ft.  Ins. 

a 

3       6 
3 

3  6 
4 

4  6 
S 

5  6 
6 

6  6 
7 

7  6 
8 

8  6 
9 

9  6 

142.13 

177.66 
313.19 
348.73 
284 . 26 
319-79 
3SS  32 
390-85 
426.39 
461.92 
497-45 
523-98 
S68,st 
604.05 
639-58 
675- n 

164.57 

205.71 

346.86 

28S.00 

329.14 

370.28 

411  43 

452.57 

493  71 

534.85    • 

575. 99 

617.14 

658.28 

699.42 

740.56 

781.71 

822.86 

864.00 

905.14 

172  OS 

215  06 
258  07 
301.09 
344  10 
38s  10 
430.13 
473  14 
S16.15 
559  16 
602.18 
645  19 
688.30 
713  21 
774.23 
817.24 
860.26 
903-26 
946.27 
989-29 

179  S3 
224.41 
269-03 
314  18 

.«9  06 
403-94 
448-83 
493-71 
538-59 
583-47 
638.36 
673  24 
718.13 
763  00 
807.89 
852.77 
897.66 
942.56 
987.43 
1032  3 

II      6 

Number  of  Barrels  (31.5  Gallons)  in  Cisterns  and  Tanks 

I  Bbl.  31.S  Gallons  4.2109  Cubic  Feet. 


Diameter  in  feet 

Depth  in 

feet 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

13 

I 

4-663 

6.714 

9.139 

11-937 

15.108 

18.653 

32.659 

26.859 

5 

23.3 

36.6 

45-7 

59-7 

75.5 

93  3 

112. 8 

134  3 

6 

28.0 

40.3 

54.8 

71.6 

90.6 

III. 9 

135  4 

161. 2 

7 

32.6 

47.0 

64.0 

83.6 

105.10 

130.6 

158.0 

188.0 

8 

37.3 

53-7 

73.1 

955 

120.9 

149-2 

180.6 

214  9 

9 

42.0 

60.4 

82.3 

107.4 

136.0 

167-9 

203.1 

341.7 

10 

46.6 

67.1 

91-4 

119-4 

151. 1 

186.5 

225.7 

368.6 

II 

51.3 

73.9 

100. 5 

131. 3 

166.3 

205.3 

248.3 

295.4 

13 

56.0 

80.6 

109.7 

143-2 

181. 3 

333.8 

270.8 

322.3 

13 

60.6 

87-3 

118. 8 

152. 2 

196.4 

242. 5 

293-4 

349  3 

14 

65.3 

94-0 

127.9 

167. 1 

211. S 

261. 1 

316.0 

376.0 

15 

69.0 

100.7 

137. 1 

179- 1 

326.6 

289.8 

338.5 

402.9 

16 

74.6 

107.4 

146.3 

191. 0 

241.7 

298.4 

361.1 

4297 

17 

79.3 

114. 1 

155.4 

202.9 

256.8 

317.1 

383.7 

456.6 

18 

83-9 

120.9 

164.5 

214.9 

271-9 

335.7 

406.2 

483. S 

19 

88.6 

127.6 

173.6 

226.8 

387.1 

354.4 

438.8 

SI0.3 

30 

93.3 

134.3 

182.8 

238.7 

302.3 

373.0 

451. 4 

537.2 

Number  of  Barrels  in  Cisterns  and  Tanks 


Number  of  Barrels  (31.5  Gallons)  ik  Cisterns  and 
Tanks  —  (Continued) 


Diameter  in  feet 

Depth 

in  feet 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

I 

31   522 

36.557 

41.9 

47.7 

53.9 

60.4 

67.3 

74.6 

82.2 

5 

157.6 

182.8 

209.8 

238.7 

269.5 

203.2 

336.7 

373.0 

441.3 

6 

199. 1 

219.3 

251.8 

286.5 

323.4 

362.6 

404.0 

447.6 

493.6 

7 

220.7 

255.9 

293.8 

334.2 

377.3 

423.0 

471.3 

522.2 

575.8 

8 

252   2 

292.5 

335.7 

382.0 

431.2 

483.4 

538.7 

590.8 

658.0 

9 

283.7 

329  0 

377.7 

429.7 

485.1 

543-9 

606.0 

671.5 

740.3 

10 

315.2 

365.6 

419.7 

477-5 

539.0 

604.3 

673.3 

746.1 

822. 5 

II 

346.7 

402.1 

461.6 

525.2 

592.9 

664.7 

740.7 

820.7 

904.8 

12 

378.3 

438.7 

503.6 

573.0 

646.8 

725  2 

808.0 

895.3 

987.0 

13 

409.8 

475.2 

545.6 

620.7 

700.7 

785.6 

875-3 

969-9 

1069.3 

14 

441.3 

51I-8 

587. 5 

668.5 

754.6 

846.0 

942-6 

1044-5 

iiSi.S 

15 

472.8 

548.4 

629.5 

716.2 

808.5 

906.5 

lOIO.O 

1119.1 

1223.8 

16 

504.4 

584.9 

671.5 

764.0 

862.4 

966.9 

1077 -3 

1193. 7 

1316.0 

17 

535  9 

621.  s 

713.4 

811. 7 

916.4 

1027.4 

1144-6 

1268.3 

1398.3 

18 

567.4 

658.0 

755.4 

859.5 

970.3 

1087.8 

1212.0 

1342.9 

1480.6 

19 

598.9 

694.6 

797.4 

907.2 

1024.2 

1148.2 

1279-3 

1417.S 

1562.8 

20 

630.4 

731. 1 

839.3 

955.0 

1078. I 

1208.6 

1346-6 

1492. I 

1645.1 

Diameter 

n  feet 

Depth  in 

feet 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

I 

90.3 

98.6 

107.4 

116. 6 

126. 1 

136.0 

148.2 

157. 9 

167.9 

5 

451.4 

483.3 

537.2 

582.9 

630.4 

679-8 

731. 1 

784.3 

839.3 

6 

541.6 

592. 0 

644.6 

699-4 

756-5 

815.8 

877.4 

941. 1 

1007.2 

7 

631.9 

690.7 

752.0 

816.0 

882.6 

951.8 

1023.6 

1098.0 

II7S.O 

8 

722.2 

789.3 

859.5 

932.6 

1008.7 

1087.7 

1169.8 

1254.9 

1342.9 

9 

812.5 

888.0 

966.9 

1049 -I 

1134-7 

1223-7 

1316.0 

1411.7 

1510.8 

10 

902.7 

986.7 

1074.3 

1165.7 

1260.8 

1359-7 

1462 . 2 

1568.6 

1678.6 

II 

993-0 

1085-3 

1181.8 

1282.3 

1386.9 

1495-6 

i6o8.5 

1725-4 

1846.5 

12 

1083.3 

1184.0 

1289.2 

1398.8 

1513.0 

1631.6 

1764.7 

1882.3 

2014.0 

13 

1173.5 

12S2.7 

1396.6 

1515-4 

1639. I 

1767.6 

1900.9 

2039-2 

2182.2 

14 

1263-8 

1381.3 

1504 -O 

1632.6 

1765-2 

1903-6 

2047  2 

2196.0 

2350. I 

15 

1354 -I 

1480.0 

1611.5 

1748.6 

1891 . 2 

20,39-5 

2193  4 

2352  9 

2517.9 

16 

1444-4 

1578.7 

1718.9 

1865. I 

2017.3 

2175-5 

2339  6 

2509.7 

2685.8 

17 

1534-5 

1677.3 

1826.3 

1981.7 

2143.4 

2311.5 

2485.8 

2666.6 

2853.7 

18 

1624 . 9 

1776.0 

1933  8 

2098.3 

2269. 5 

2447-4 

2632  0 

2823.4 

3021. 5 

19 

1715- 2 

1874.7 

2041.2 

2214.8 

2395-6 

2583-4 

2778  3 

2980.3 

3189.4 

20 

180S-5 

1973.3 

2148.6 

2321  4 

2521.7 

2719-4 

2924  5 

3137-2 

3357.3 

I02 


Malhcmatical  Tables 


Contents  of  Cylinders,  or  Pipes 
Contents  for  one  foot  in  length,  in  cubic  fc-ct,  and  in  U.  S. 
gallons  of  231  cubic  inches,  or  7.4805  gallons  to  a  cubic  fool.     A  cubic 
foot  of  water  weighs  about  62^6  lbs.;  and  a  gallon  about  8M  lbs.    iJiams. 
2,  3,  or  10  times  as  great  give  4,  9,  or  100  times  the  content. 


Fori 

oot  in 

Diam- 
iter  in 
inches 

ctcr  in 
decimals 
of  a  ioot 

Cubic 
feet.   Also 

Gallons 
of  231 

area  in 

square 

feet 

cubic 
inches 

Va 

.0208 

.0003 

.0025 

M« 

.0260 

.0005 

.0040 

H 

.0313 

.0008 

.0057 

lU 

.0365 

.0010 

.0078 

W 

.0417 

.0014 

.0102 

9i« 

.0469 

.0017 

.0129 

H 

.0521 

.002I 

■01S9  • 

iM« 

.0573 

.0026 

.0193 

^4 

.C5625 

.0031 

.0230 

'^is 

.0677 

.0036 

.0269 

li 

.0729 

.0042 

.0312 

»M8 

.0781 

.0048 

.0359 

I 

.o8.?3 

■  0055 

.0408 

H 

.1042 

.0085 

.0638 

H 

.1250 

.0123 

.0918 

H 

.1458 

.0167 

.1249 

3 

.1667 

.0218 

.1632 

M 

.1875 

.0276 

.2066 

^^ 

.2083 

.0341 

.2550 

H 

.2292 

.0412 

.3085 

3 

.2500 

.0491 

.3672 

H 

.2708 

.0576 

.4309 

H 

.2917 

.0668 

.4998 

H 

.3125 

-0767 

.5738 

4 

.333,5 

.0873 

.6528 

H 

.3542 

.098s 

.7369 

H 

.3750 

.1104 

.8263 

H 

.3958 

.1231 

.9206 

s 

.4167 

.1364 

1.020 

y* 

.4375 

.  IS03 

I.  125 

w 

.4583 

.1650 

1.234 

% 

.4792 

.1803 

1.349 

6 

.5000 

.1963 

1.469 

y* 

.5208 

.2131 

I.S94 

Vi 

.S4I7 

.2304 

1.724 

H 

.5625 

.2485 

I  8S9 

7 

.5833 

.2673 

I  999 

y* 

.6042 

.2867 

2.I4S 

For  I  foot 

in 

length 

Diam- 
eter in 
inches 

cter  in 
decimals 
of  a  foot 

Cubic 
feet.   Also 

Gallons 
of  331 

area  in 

square 

feet 

cubic 
inches 

W 

.6250 

.3068 

3  29s 

94 

.6458 

■  3276 

2 

4SO 

8 

.6667 

■3491 

2 

611 

H 

.6875 

.3712 

2 

777 

H 

.7083 

.3941 

2 

948 

?i 

.7292 

.4176 

3 

I2S 

9 

.7SCX3 

.4418 

3 

30s 

M 

.7708 

.4667 

3 

491 

M 

.7917 

.4922 

3 

683 

% 

.8125 

.5185 

3 

879 

10 

.8333 

.5454 

4 

080 

H 

.8542 

.5730 

4 

286 

H 

.8750 

.6013 

4 

498 

% 

.8958 

.6303 

4 

71S 

II 

.9167 

.6600 

4 

937 

« 

9375 

.6903 

S 

164 

W 

.9583 

.7213 

5 

396 

94 

.9792 

.7530 

5 

633 

12 

ifoot 

.7854 

5 

875 

1,2 

1.042 

.8522 

6 

375 

13 

1.083 

.9218 

6 

895 

H 

1. 125 

.9940 

7 

436 

14 

1. 167 

1.069 

7 

997 

Vi 

1.208 

1.147 

8 

578 

IS 

1.250 

1.227 

9 

180 

'A. 

1.292 

1. 310 

9 

801 

16 

I  333 

1.396 

10 

44 

Vi 

1. 375 

1.485 

II 

II 

17 

1. 417 

1.576 

II 

79 

yi 

1.458 

1,670 

13 

49 

18 

1.500 

1.767 

13 

33 

u 

I  542 

1.867 

13 

96 

19 

1.583 

1.969 

14 

73 

'2 

I  625 

2.074 

15 

SI 

20 

1.667 

2.182 

16 

32 

y. 

1.708 

3.293 

17 

15 

21 

I.7SO 

2.405 

17 

99 

v^ 

1.792 

3.S3I 

18 

86 

Contents  of  Cylinders,  or  Pipes  103 

Contents  of  CylinderSj  or  Pipes  —  (Continued) 


For  I 

foot  in 

For  I  foot  in 

length 

length 

Diam- 
eter in 

Diam- 

Diam- 

Diam- 

eter in 
inches 

decimals 
of  a  foot 

Cubic 
feet.   Also 

Gallons 
of  231 

eter  in 
inches 

decimals 
of  a  foot 

Cubic 
feet.   Also 

Gallons 
of  231 

area  in 

cubic 

area  m 

cubic 

square 
feet 

inches 

square 
feet 

inches 

22 

1.833 

2.640 

19.75 

35 

2.917 

6.681 

49  98 

l^ 

1.87s 

2.761 

20.66 

36 

3  000 

7.069 

52.88 

23 

1. 917 

2.885 

21.58 

37 

3.083 

7.467 

55.86 

^ 

1.958 

3.012 

22.53 

38 

3.167 

7.876 

58.92 

24 

2.000 

3.142 

23.50 

39 

3.250 

8.296 

62.06 

25 

2.083 

3.409 

25.50 

40 

3.333 

8.727 

65.28 

26 

2.1^7 

3.687 

27.58 

41 

3.417 

9.168 

68.58 

27 

2.250 

3.976 

29.74 

42 

3.S00 

9.621 

71.97 

28 

2.333 

4.276 

31.99 

43 

3.583 

10.085 

75.44 

29 

2.417 

4.587 

34.31 

44 

3.667 

10.559 

78.99 

30 

2.500 

4.909 

36.72 

45 

3.750 

11.045 

82.62 

31 

2.583 

5.241 

39  21 

46 

3.833 

II. 541 

86.33 

32 

2.667 

5.585 

41.78 

47 

3.917 

12.048 

90.13 

33 

2.750 

5.9.40 

44.43 

48 

4.000 

12.566 

94.00 

34 

2.833 

6.305 

47.16 

Table  Continued,  but  with  the  Diameters  in  Feet 


Diam., 

Cubic 

U.S. 

Diam., 

Cubic 

U.S. 

Diam., 

Cubic 

U.S. 

feet 

feet 

gallons 

feet 

feet 

gallons 

feet 

feet 

gallons 

4 

12.57 

94.0 

8 

50.27 

376.0 

20 

314.2 

2350 

y* 

14.19 

106. 1 

H 

56.75 

424.5 

21 

346.4 

2S9I 

H 

15.90 

119. 0 

9 

63.62 

475. 9 

22 

380.1 

2844 

% 

17.72 

132.5 

Vi 

70.88 

530.2 

23 

415.5 

3108 

5 

19.64 

146.9 

10 

78.54 

587. 5 

24 

452.4 

3384 

H 

21.65 

161. 9 

v^ 

86.59 

647.7 

25 

490.9 

3672 

H 

23.76 

177.7 

II 

95.03 

710.9 

26 

530.9 

3971 

% 

25. 97 

194.3 

Vz 

103.90 

777.0 

27 

572.6 

4283 

6 

28.27 

211. 5 

12 

113. 1 

846.1 

28 

615.8 

4606 

H 

30.68 

229.5 

13 

132.7 

992.8 

29 

660. S 

4941 

H 

33.18 

248.2 

14 

153.9 

1152 

30 

706.9 

5288 

H 

35.79 

267.7 

15 

176.7 

1322 

31 

754.8 

5646 

7 

38.49 

287.9 

16 

201. 1 

1504 

32 

804.3 

60x7 

H 

41.28 

308.8 

17 

227.0 

1698 

33 

855.3 

6398 

H 

44.18 

330.5 

18 

254. S 

1904 

34 

907.9 

6792 

% 

47.17 

352. 9 

19 

283.  S 

2121 

35 

962.1 

7197 

I04 


Miilljcnialical  Tables 


Contents  of  Linings  of  Wells 

For  (lianiclcrs  Iwicc  a.s  j^rcal  as  ihubc  in  ihc  UiIjIc,  for  the  cuhic  yards 
of  digging,  lake  out  those  opjxjsitc  one  half  ol  the  greater  diameter;  and 
multiply  them  by  4.  Thus,  for  the  cubic  yards  in  each  foot  of  depth  of 
a  well  31  feet  in  diameter,  first  take  out  from  the  table  those  opposite  the 
diameter  of  155.4  feet;  namely,  6.989.  Then  6.989  X  4  =  27.956  cubic 
yards  required  for  the  31  feet  diameter.  But  for  the  stone  lining  or 
walling,  bricks  or  plastering,  multiply  the  tabular  quantity  opp<Jsitc 
//(;//  the  greater  diameter  by  2.  Thus,  the  perches  of  stone  walling  for 
each  foot  of  depth  of  a  well  of  31  feet  diameter  will  be  2.073  X  2  = 
4.146.  If  the  wall  is  more  or  less  than  one  foot  thick,  within  usual 
moderate  limits,  it  will  generally  be  near  enough  for  i)ractice  to  assume 
that  the  number  of  perches,  or  of  bricks,  will  increase  or  decrease  in  the 
same  pro[)ortion. 

The  size  of  the  bricks  is  taken  at  8!4  X  4  X  2  inches;  and  to  be  laid 
dry,  or  without  mortar.  In  practice  an  addition  of  about  5  per  cent 
should  be  made  for  waste.  The  brick  lining  is  supposed  to  be  1  brick 
thick,  or  S'l  ins. 

Caution.  —  Be  careful  to  observe  that  the  diameters  to  be  used  for 
the  digging  are  greater  than  those  for  the  walling,  bricks,  or  plastering. 


For  each  foot  of  depth 

For  each  foot  of  depth 

For  this 

For  these  three  col- 

For this 

For  these  three  col- 

column 

umns  use  the  diameter 

column 

umns  use  the  diameter 

use  the 

in  clear  of  the  lining 

use  the 

in  clear  of  the  lining 

Diam- 

diam- 
eter of 

_ 

Diam- 
eter 

diam- 
eter of 

eter 

in 
feet 

the  dig- 

Stone 
lining 

No.  of 

in 
feet 

the  dig- 

Stone 
lining 

No.  of 

ging 

I  foot 

bricks 

Square 

ging 

I  foot 

bricks 

Square 

thick. 
Perches 

• 

yards  of 
plaster- 

thick. 
Perches 

in  a 
lining 

yards  of 
plaster- 

lining 

Cubic 

of  25 

I  brick 

ing 

Cubic 

of  25 

I  brick 

ing 

yards  ol 

cubic 

thick 

yards  of 

cubic 

thick 

digging 

feet 

digging 

feet 

I 

.0291 

.2513 

57 

.3491 

4 

.4654 

.6283 

227 

I  396 

H 

.045S 

.2827 

71 

■  4364 

H 

.S2S4 

.6597 

241 

I  484 

Vi 

•  0654 

.3142 

85 

■  5236 

H 

.5890 

.6912 

255 

I  571 

y* 

.0891 

.3456 

99 

.6109 

H 

.6563 

.7226 

269 

1.658 

2 

.1164 

.3770 

H4 

.6982 

s 

.7272 

.7540 

283 

I  745 

H 

.1473 

.4084 

128 

■  7855 

M 

.8018 

.7854 

297 

I  833 

W 

.1818 

.4398 

142 

.8727 

'.i 

■8799 

.8168 

311         I  920 

y* 

.2200 

.4712 

156 

.9600 

H 

9617 

.8482 

326         2  007 

3 

.2618 

.5027 

170 

1.047 

6 

1.047 

.8796 

340         209s 

H 

.3073 

SMI 

184 

I.I3S 

14 

1. 136 

.9111 

354         2  182 

W 

.3563 

.5655 

198 

1.222 

Vi 

1.329 

9425 

368         2  269 

H 

.4091 

■5969 

212 

I  309 

94 

1.32s          .9739  1 

382         2.356 

A  cubic  yard  =  202  U.  S.  gallons. 


Contents  of  Linings  of  Wells 
Contents  of  Linings  of  Wells 


los 


For  each  foot  of  depth 

For  each  foot  of  depth 

For  this 

For  these  three  col- 

For this 

For  these  three  col- 

column 

umns  use  the  diameter 

column 

umns  use  the  diameter 

use  th^ 

in  clear  of  the  lining 

use  the 

in  clear  of  the  lining 

Diam- 

diam- 
eter of 

Diam- 
eter 

diam- 
eter of 

eter 

in 
feet 

the  dig- 
ging 

Stone 
Hning 

No.  of 

in 
feet 

the  dig- 
ging 

Stone 
lining 

No.  of 

I  ioot 

bricks 

Square 

I  foot 

bricks 

Square 

thick. 

in  a 

yards  of 

thick. 

in  a 

yards  of 

Perches 

lining 

plaster- 

Perches 

lining 

plaster- 

Cubic 

of  25 

I  brick 

ing 

Cubic 

of  25 

I  brick 

ing 

yards  of 

cubic 

thick 

yards  of 

cubic 

thick 

digging 

feet 

digging 

feet 

7 

1-425 

1.005 

396 

2.444 

16H 

7.681 

2.168 

919 

5.673 

H 

1-529 

1.037 

410 

2.531 

'A 

7.919 

2.199 

933 

5.760 

Vi 

1.636 

1.068 

42s 

2.618 

9i 

8. 161 

2.231 

948 

5. 847 

H 

1-747 

1. 100 

439 

2.70s 

17 

8.407 

2.262 

962 

5.934 

8 

1.862 

1.131 

453 

2.793 

'/4 

8.656 

2.293 

976 

6.022 

M 

1.980 

1. 162 

467 

2.880 

Vi 

8.908 

2.325 

990 

6.109 

Vi 

2.102 

1.194 

481 

2.967 

U 

9-165 

2.356 

1004 

6.196 

¥i 

2.227 

I.  225 

495 

3-054 

18 

9.425 

2.388 

1018 

6.283 

9 

2.356 

1. 257 

509 

3 -142 

H 

9.688 

2.419 

1032 

6.371 

M 

2.489 

1.288 

523 

3-229 

\i 

9-956 

2.450 

1046 

6.458 

H 

2.625 

1. 319 

538 

3.316 

% 

10.23 

2.482 

106 1 

6.545 

94 

2.765 

1. 351 

552 

3.404 

19 

10.50 

2.S13 

1075 

6.633 

lo 

2.909 

1.382 

566 

3.491 

H 

10.78 

2.545 

1089 

6.720 

y* 

3  056 

1. 414 

580 

3  578 

M 

11.06 

2.576 

1103 

6.807 

Vi 

3.207 

1.445 

594 

3.665 

H 

11.35 

2.608 

1117 

6.894 

% 

3  362 

1.477 

608 

3.753 

20 

11.64 

2.639 

1131 

6.982 

II 

3.520 

1.508 

622 

3.840 

H 

11.93 

2.670 

1 145 

7.069 

H 

3.682 

1-539 

637 

3.927 

li 

12.22 

2.702 

1160 

7.156 

M 

3.847 

I-571 

651 

4.014 

H 

12.52 

2.733 

1174 

7.243 

H 

4.016 

1.602 

665 

4.102 

21 

12.83 

2.765 

1188 

7.. 331 

12 

4.189 

1.634 

679 

4.189 

Vi 

13.14 

2.796 

1202 

7.418 

Vi 

4  365 

1.665 

693 

4.276 

Vz 

13.45 

2.827 

1216 

7  505 

H 

4-545 

1.696 

707 

4.364 

n 

13.76 

2.859 

1230 

7.593 

% 

4.729 

1.728 

721 

4.451 

22 

14.08 

2.890 

1244 

7.680 

13 

4-916 

1.759 

736 

4.538 

H 

14.40 

2.922 

1259 

7-767 

Vi 

5-I07 

1. 791 

750 

4.625 

1,.', 

14.73 

2.953 

1273 

7-854 

H 

5.301 

1.822 

764 

4.713 

H 

15.06 

2.985 

1287 

7.942 

H 

5.500 

1. 854 

778 

4.800 

23 

15.39 

3.016 

1301 

8.029 

14 

5. 701 

1.885 

792 

4.887 

H 

15.72 

3.047 

1315 

8. 116 

H 

5.907 

1. 916 

806 

4.974 

Vi 

16.06 

3.079 

1329 

8.203 

H 

6. 116 

1.948 

820 

5.062 

H 

16.41 

3- no 

1343 

8.291 

?4 

6.329 

1-979 

834 

5.149 

24 

16.76 

3.142 

1357 

8.378 

15 

6.545 

2. on 

849 

5-236 

Vi 

17. II 

3.173 

1372 

8.46s 

H 

6.765  ,. 

2.042 

863 

5  323 

li 

17.46 

3.204 

1386 

8.552 

Vz 

6.989 

2.073 

877 

5. 411 

% 

17.82 

3  236 

1400 

8.640 

Vi 

7.216 

2.10S 

891 

5. 498 

25 

18.18 

3.267 

1414 

8.727 

i6 

7.447 

2.136 

905 

5.585 

A  cubic  yard  =  202  U.  S.  gallons. 


Io6  M;illicm;ilit:il  T;il»Ics 

If  pcrihes  arc  named  in  a  contract,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent 
fruiul,  to  specify  the  number  of  cubic  feet  contained  in  the  perch;  for 
slonc-quarricrs  have  one  jierch,  stone-masons  another,  etc.  Engineers, 
on  this  account,  contract  by  the  cubic  yard.  The  [K-rch  should  be  done 
away  with  entirely;  perches  of  25  cubic  feet  X  0.926  =  cubic  yards;  and 
cubic  yards  -r-  0.926  =  perches  of  25  cubic  feet. 


CHAPTER  III 


NATURAL   SINES,    TANGENTS,   ETC. 

Sine 

The  sine  of  any  angle  acb  or  the  sine  of  any  circular  arc  ab  is  the 
perpendicular  distance,  as,  from  one  end  of  the  arc  a  to  the  radius 
passing  through  the  other  end  b  of  the  arc.  It 
is  equal  to  one-half  the  chord  of  the  arc  abn, 
which  is  twice  the  arc  ab;  or  the  chord  of  the 
arc  abn  is  equal  to  twice  the  sine  of  half  the  arc, 
or  twice  the  sine  of  ab. 

The  sine  of  the  angle  tcb,  if  icb  equals  90°,  is 
equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle. 

Cosine 

The  cosine  of  an  arc  ab  is  the  distance  cs  from 
the  center  of  the  circle  c  to  the  intersection  of  the 
sine  as  with  the  radius  cb,  and  is  equal  to  ya  or  the  sine  of  the  arc  ta. 
But  the  angle  tea  is  equal  to  the  difference  between  90°  and  the  angle 
acb;  or  the  difference  between  the  arcs  tab  and  ab;  and  is  the  comple- 
ment of  acb.  Hence  the  cosine  of  an  angle  or  arc  is  equal  to  the  sine  of 
its  complement,  and  vice  versa. 

Versed  Sine 

The  versed  sine  of  an  arc  is  the  distance  sb  from  the  foot  s  of  the  sine 
to  the  arc  at  b,  measured  on  the  radius  cb. 

Natiiral  Sines,  Tangents,  etc. 

The  versed  sine  of  an  arc  ab  is  equal  to  the  rise  of  twice  the  arc;  or 
equal  to  the  rise  of  abn. 

Tangent 

The  tangent  bw  of  an  arc  ab  is  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the 
radius  at  one  extremity  of  the  arc  b  to  the  intersection  w  of  the  perpen- 
dicular bw  with  the  prolongation  of  a  radius  drawn  through  the  other 
extremity  of  the  arc  at  a.  ' 

107 


io8 


M:itll<in:iti(  ;il     lal/lcs 


The  Secant 

The  secant  of  an  arc  is  the  distance  cw  from  the  center  of  the  arc  to 
the  intersection  of  the  tangent  at  U'  of  the  prolonged  radius  ca. 

If  the  angle  Icb  equals  90  degrees  and  lea  be  the  complement  of  atb, 
the  sine  ya  of  this  complement,  its  versed  sine  ly,  tangent  lo  and  secant 
CO  become  respectively  the  cosine,  coversed  sine,  cotangent  and  co- 
secant of  the  angle  acb,  and  vice  versa. 

When  the  radius  ab  is  ecjual  to  unity  the  corresiwnding  sines,  cosines, 
tangents,  etc.,  arc  called  natural  sines,  cosines,  etc.;  and  the  table  con- 
taining their  lengths  for  different  angles  is  the  table  of  natural  sines,  etc. 

The  lengths  of  the  sines,  etc.,  for  the  arcs  of  any  other  circle,  whose 
radius  may  be  greater  or  less  than  i,  arc  found  by  multiplying  the  tabu- 
lar values  by  such  radius. 

The  following  table  contains  ordy  natural  sines,  tangents  and  secants; 
the  other  lengths  may  be  found  for  any  angle  not  exceeding  90  degrees 
as  follows: 


Cosine 
Versed  sine 
Coversed  sine 
Cotangent 
Cosecant 

Sine 

Tangent 
Secant 
Cosine 


=  sine  of  the  complement  of  the  given  angle. 

=  I  —  cosine. 

=  I  —  sine. 

=  tangent  of  the  complement. 

=  I  divided  by  natural  sine. 

I  cos  r ;r 

=  ■  = =  V(i  —  cos^). 

cosec      cot 


sm 
cos 


cot 
tan 
sin 


=  _L  =  i^  =  Vr^  +  tangents 


/"; :~::z       sm        .  ,  ^        i 

V  (i  —  sm*)  =  —  =  sme  X  cotangent  = 

mn  see 


Cotangent         =  -r-  =  — 


Versed  sine 
Coversed  sine 
Radius 


cos  _ 
sm       tan 
radius  —  cosine, 
radius  —  sine. 


=  tangent  X  cotangent  =  V  sine^  +  cosine*. 


The  formulae  for  the  solution  of  the  right-angled  and  the  oblique- 
angled  triangle  are  given;   for  further  information  the  reader  is  referred 

to  works  on  Trigonometry. 


Solution  of  Oblique-angled  Triangles 


109 


Solution  of  the  Right-angled  Triangle 

Let  A ,  B  and  C  be  the  angles  of  the  triangle  and  a,  b  and  c  the  sides 
opposite  those  angles  respectively. 


Then 

w^ 

=  sine  A,    a  =  c  sine  A. 

<^'^ 

=  cosine  A,    b  =  c  cosine  A. 

(3)f 

=  tangent  A,    a  =  b  tangent  A. 

(^)^ 

=  cot^,    b=acotA.                                ^ 

,  .  Sin  A 
(S)  Cos^ 

=  tangent^.                                    J;^^ 

.,,   Cos 4 
(^^  Sin  A 

(7)  Sine  A 

(8)  Sine  A 

=  cotangent  A.                ^y^ 

+  cos2  A  =  I                                          ■=> 

=  Vi-cosM.                            ^°"*'- 

(9)  Cos  A    =  Vi  —  sine^^. 


Solution  of  Oblique-angled  Triangles 


Fig.  38. 
Value  of  any  side  c  is: 

_  a  sin  C  _  b  sin  C 
sin  A         sin  5   * 

Value  of  any  angle  A : 


Sin  .4     = 
Cosyl      = 

Tan^    = 


a  sin  C  _  a  sin  B 

b  —  a  cos  C      c  —  a  cos  B 


c2  4.  ^2  _  a2 

2  be 

asinC 


asinB 


b  —  a  cos  C      c  —  a  cos  B 


no 


Mallii-malical  Taljics 


Natural  Sinks,  Tangents  and  Secants 

Advancing  by  lo  min. 


Deg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

Secant 

Oeg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

Secant 

0 

oo 

.0000 

.0000 

I. 0000 

so 

.1536 

.ISS4 

i.oiao 

lO 

0029 

.0029 

I. 0000 

9 

00 

.1564 

.1584 

I. 0135 

JO 

.oos8 

.00S8 

I. 0000 

10 

.1593 

.1614 

I. 0129 

JO 

.0087 

.0087 

i.oocm 

ao 

.1623 

.1644 

1. 0134 

40 

.0116 

.0116 

I .0001 

30 

.1650 

.1673 

I. 0139 

so 

.014s 

•  0«4S 

I. 0001 

40 

.1679 

.1703 

I. 0144 

I 

00 

.OI7S 

.01 75 

I. 0003 

so 

.1708 

.1733 

I. 0149 

10 

.0204 

.0204 

I.0003 

10 

00 

.1736 

.1763 

I.OIS4 

20 

.0233 

.0233 

I  0003 

10 

.1765 

.1793 

I  0160 

30 

.0262 

.0262 

1.0003 

30 

.1794 

.1823 

I  0165 

40 

.0291 

.0291 

1.0004 

30 

.1822 

.1853 

1.0170 

50 

.0320 

.0320 

1.0005 

40 

.1851 

.1883 

I. 0176 

2 

00 

.0349 

•  0349 

1.0006 

50 

.1880 

.1914 

I  0181 

10 

.0378 

.0378 

1.0007 

II 

00 

.1908 

.1944 

I. 0187 

20 

•  0407 

.0407 

1.0008 

10 

.1937 

.1974 

1.0193 

30 

.0436 

.0437 

1. 00 10 

20 

.1965 

.2004 

1.0199 

40 

.0465 

.0466 

I. 0011 

30 

■  1994 

.303S 

1.0305 

so 

.0494 

.0495 

I. 0012 

40 

.3022 

.ao6s 

1.0211 

3 

00 

.0523 

.0524 

1. 0014 

SO 

.2051 

.309s 

I. 0217 

10 

.OS52 

.OSS3 

1. 0015 

12 

00 

.2079 

.2136 

1.0223 

20 

.0581 

.0582 

1. 0017 

10 

.2108 

.2156 

1.0230 

30 

.0610 

.0612 

1. 0019 

20 

.2136 

.2186 

1.0236 

40 

.0640 

.0641 

I. 0021 

30 

.2164 

.2217 

1.0243 

SO 

.0669 

.0670 

1.0022 

40 

.2193 

.2247 

1.0249 

4 

00 

.0698 

.0699 

1.0024 

SO 

.3321 

.2378 

1.0256 

10 

.0727 

.0729 

1.0027 

13 

00 

.3350 

.3309 

1.0263 

20 

.o7S6 

.0758 

1.0029 

10 

.2278 

.23.W 

1.0270 

30 

.078s 

.0787 

1. 0031 

20 

.2306 

.2370 

1.0277 

40 

.0814 

.0816 

1.0033 

30 

.2334 

.2401 

1.0284 

SO 

.0843 

.0846 

1.0036 

40 

.2363 

.2432 

I  0291 

5 

00 

.0872 

.0875 

1.0038 

50 

.2391 

.2462 

1.0299 

10 

.0901 

.0904 

1.0041 

14 

00 

.2419 

.2493 

1.0306 

20 

.0929 

.0934 

1.0043 

10 

.2447 

.2524 

I  0314 

30 

.0958 

.0963 

1.0046 

20 

.2476 

.2555 

I. 0321 

40 

.0987 

.0992 

1.0049 

30 

.2504 

.2586 

1.0329 

SO 

.1016 

.1022 

I. 0052 

40 

.2532 

.2617 

1.0337 

6 

00 

'  .1045 

.losi 

i.ooss 

SO 

.2560 

.2648 

1.034s 

10 

.1074 

.1080 

1.0058 

15 

00 

.3588 

.2679 

1.03S3 

20 

.1103 

.1110 

I. 0061 

10 

.3616 

.2711- 

I. 0361 

30 

.1132 

.1139 

1.0065 

20 

.3644 

.2742 

1.0369 

40 

.1161 

.1169 

1.0068 

30 

.2672 

.2773 

1.0377 

SO 

.1190 

.1198 

1.0072 

40 

.3700 

.2805 

1.0386 

7 

00 

.1219 

.1228 

I. 007s 

SO 

.3728 

.2836 

1.0394 

10 

.1248 

.1257 

1.0079 

16 

00 

.2756 

.2867 

1  0403 

20 

.1276 

.1287 

1.0082 

10 

.2784 

.2899 

1.0412 

30 

.130S 

.1317 

1.0086 

20 

.3812 

.2931 

1.0421 

40 

.1334 

.1346 

1.0090 

30 

.2840 

.2962 

1.0429 

SO 

.  1363 

.1376 

1.0094 

40 

.3868 

.2994 

1.0439 

8 

00 

.1392 

.140S 

1.0098 

SO 

.3896 

.3026 

I .0448 

10 

.1421 

.I43S 

I. 0102 

17 

00 

.2934 

.3057 

I  04S7 

30 

.1449 

.1465 

I. 0107 

10 

.2952 

.3089 

1.0466 

30 

.1478 

.149s 

I.OIII 

30 

.2979 

.3121 

I .0476 

40 

.1507 

.IS24 

I.0II6 

30 

■  3007 

.3153 

1.0485 

Natural  Sines,  Tangents  and  Secants 


Natural  Sines,  Tangents 

AND  Secants  —  {Continued) 

Deg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

Secant 

Deg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

Secant 

40 

■  303s 

.3185 

1.049s 

so 

.4514 

.5059 

I. 1207 

SO 

.3062 

.3217 

1.0505 

27 

00 

.4540 

■  S095 

I . 1223 

l8 

00 

■  3090 

■  3249 

I. 0515 

10 

•  4566 

.5132 

I . 1240 

10 

.3118 

.3281 

I  0525 

20 

■  4592 

■  5169 

I. 1257 

20 

.3145 

•  3314 

1.0535 

30 

.4617 

.5206 

I. 1274 

30 

.3173 

.3346 

I.OS4S 

40 

.4643 

.5243 

1.1291 

40 

.3201 

.3378 

I  0555 

SO 

.4669 

.5280 

I . 1308 

SO 

.3228 

.3411 

1.0566 

28 

00 

.4695 

.5317 

I . 1326 

19 

00 

.3256 

.3443 

1.0576 

10 

.4720 

•  5354 

I • 1343 

10 

.3283 

.3476 

1.0587 

20 

.4746 

5392 

1.1361 

20 

.3311 

.3508 

1.0598 

30 

.4772 

.5430 

I ■ 1379 

30 

.3338 

.3S4I 

1.0608 

40 

.4797 

.5467 

I . 1397 

40 

.3365 

.3S74 

1.0619 

SO 

.4823 

.5505 

1.1415 

SO 

.3393 

.3607 

I. 0631 

29 

00 

.4848 

.5543 

I -1434 

20 

00 

.3420 

.3640 

1.0642 

10 

.4874 

.5581 

I. 1452 

10 

.3448 

.3673 

I  0653 

20 

.4899 

.5619 

1.1471 

20 

.3475 

•  3706 

1.0665 

30 

.4924 

.5658 

I . 1490 

30 

.3502 

.3739 

1.0676 

40 

.4950 

.5696 

I . 1509 

40 

.3S29 

.3772 

1.0688 

50 

.4975 

.5735 

I . 1528 

SO 

.3SS7 

.380s 

1.0700 

30 

00 

.5000 

.5774 

I . 1547 

31 

00 

.3S84 

.3839 

1.0711 

10 

.5025 

.5812 

I . 1566 

10 

.3611 

.3872 

1.0723 

20 

.5050 

.5851 

I . 1586 

20 

.3638 

.3906 

1.0736 

30 

.5075 

.5890 

I. 1606 

30 

.3665 

.3939 

1.0748 

40 

.5100 

.5930 

I. 1626 

40 

.3692 

.3973 

1.0760 

SO 

.5125 

.5969 

I. 1646 

so 

.3719 

.4006 

1.0773 

31 

00 

•  5150 

.6009 

I. 1666 

32 

00 

.3746 

.4040 

1.0785 

10 

.5175 

.6048 

1 . 1687 

10 

.3773 

.4074 

1.0798 

20 

.5200 

.6088 

I. 1707 

20 

.3800 

.4108 

1.0811 

30 

.5225 

.6128 

I. 1728 

30 

.3827 

.4142 

1.0824 

40 

.5250 

.6168 

I. 1749 

40 

.38S4 

.4176 

1.0837 

SO 

.5275 

.6208 

I. 1770 

so 

.3881 

.4210 

1.0850 

32 

00 

.5299 

.6249 

I . 1792 

23 

00 

.3907 

.424s 

r.0864 

10 

.5324 

.6289 

1.1813 

10 

.3934 

.4279 

1.0877 

20 

.5348 

.6330 

I. 1835 

20 

.3961 

.4314 

I. 0891 

30 

.5373 

.6371 

I. 1857 

30 

.3987 

.4348 

1.0904 

40 

5398 

.6412 

I. 1879 

40 

.4014 

.4383 

I. 0918 

50 

.5422 

.6453 

1.1901 

so 

.4041 

.4417 

1.0932 

33 

00 

.5446 

.6494 

I . 1924 

24 

00 

.4067 

.4452 

1.0946 

10 

■  5471 

.6536 

I . 1946 

10 

.4094 

.4487 

I. 0961 

20 

.5495 

.6577 

I. 1969 

20 

.4120 

•  4522 

I  0975 

30 

•  5519 

.6619 

r.1992 

30 

.4147 

.4557 

1.0989 

40 

•  5544 

.6661 

I . 201S 

40 

.4173 

.4592 

I. 1004 

SO 

.5568 

.6703 

I . 2039 

SO 

.4200 

.4628 

1.1019 

34 

00 

.5592 

.6745 

1.2062 

25 

00 

.4226 

.4663 

I . 1034 

10 

.5616 

.6787 

I . 2086 

10 

•  4253 

.4699 

I . 1049 

20 

.5640 

.6830 

1.2110 

20 

.4279 

.4734 

I . 1064 

30 

.5664 

.6873 

I. 2134 

30 

.4305 

.4770 

I . 1079 

40 

.5688 

.6916 

I. 2158 

40 

.4331 

.4806 

I. 1095 

SO 

.5712 

.6959 

I. 2183 

50 

.4358 

.4841 

I.IIIO 

35 

00 

■  5736 

.7002 

I . 2208 

36 

00 

.4384 

.4877 

1.1126 

10 

.5760 

.7046 

I . 2233 

10 

.4410 

.4913 

1.1142 

20 

.5783 

.7089 

1.2258 

20 

.4436 

■  4950 

1.1158 

30 

.5807 

.7133 

1.2283 

30 

.4462 

.4986 

1.1174 

40 

.5831 

.7177 

1.2309 

40 

.4488 

.5022 

1.1190 

SO 

.5854 

.7221 

I. 2335 

iia 


Matlicmatir.il  'I'aliles 


Natural  Sines 

,  Tangents 

AND  Secants 

—  (Continued] 

Deg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Pan- 
sent 

Secant 

Deg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

Secant 

36 

00 

.S878 

7265 

I . 2361 

10 

.7092 

i.oosS 

I  4183 

10 

.S90I 

7310 

1.3387 

30 

.7112 

1.0117 

1.4225 

20 

.S92S 

7355 

1.2413 

30 

.7133 

1.0176 

1.4267 

30 

.5948 

7400 

1.2440 

40 

.7153 

1.0335 

I. 4310 

40 

.5972 

7445 

I . 2467 

SO 

.7173 

1.039s 

1  4352 

so 

•599S 

7490 

1.2494 

46 

00 

.7193 

I.03SS 

1.4396 

37 

00 

.6018 

7536 

I. 2521 

10 

.7214 

I .0416 

1.4439 

10 

.6041 

7581 

I. 2549 

20 

.7234 

1.0477 

1.4483 

20 

.6065 

7627 

I.2S77 

30 

.7254 

1  0S.J8 

1.4527 

30 

.6088 

7673 

1.2605 

40 

.7274 

1.0S99 

I. 4572 

40 

.6111 

7720 

1.26.33 

so 

.7294 

1. 0661 

1.4617 

SO 

.6134 

7766 

I. 2661 

47 

00 

.7314 

1.0724 

1.4663 

38 

00 

.6157 

7813 

1.2690 

10 

.7333 

1.0786 

1.4709 

10 

.6180 

7860 

1.2719 

20 

.7353 

1.0850 

1  4755 

30 

.6202 

7907 

1.2748 

30 

.7373 

1  0913 

1.4802 

30 

.6225 

7954 

1.2778 

40 

.7392 

1  0977 

1.4849 

40 

.6248 

8002 

1.2808 

SO 

.7412 

1.1041 

1  4987 

SO 

.6271 

80S0 

1.2837 

48 

00 

.7431 

I. 1106 

1.4945 

39 

00 

.6293 

8098 

1.2868 

10 

.7451 

1.1171 

I  4993 

10 

.6316 

8146 

1.2898 

20 

.7470 

I. 1237 

1.S042 

20 

.6338 

8195 

1.2929 

30 

.7490 

I. 1303 

I  S092 

30 

.6361 

8243 

1.2960 

40 

.7509 

1.1369 

1  5141 

40 

.6383 

8292 

I. 2991 

SO 

.7528 

1.1436 

1.5192 

SO 

.6406 

8342 

1.3022 

49 

00 

.7547 

1. 1504 

1.5243 

40 

00 

.6428 

8391 

I  3054 

10 

.7566 

I. 1571 

1.5294 

10 

.6450 

8441 

1.3086 

20 

.7585  1   I. 1640 

1  5345 

20 

.6472 

8491 

1.3118 

30 

.7604  1   1.1708 

I  5398 

30 

.6494 

8541 

1.3151 

40 

.7623 

I  17-8 

1.5450 

40 

.6517 

8391 

I. 3184 

50 

.7642 

I . 1847 

I.S504 

SO 

.6539 

8642 

I. 3217 

50 

00 

.7660 

1.1918 

I.SS57 

41 

00 

.6561 

8693 

1.3250 

10 

.7679 

1.1988 

1.5611 

10 

.6583 

8744 

1.3284 

20 

.7698 

1.2059 

1.5666 

20 

.6604 

8796 

I. 3318 

30 

.7716 

1.2I3I 

1.5721 

30 

.6626 

8847 

1.3352 

40 

.7735      1.2203 

1.5777 

40 

.6648 

8899 

1.3386 

50 

.7753 

I . 2276 

1.5833 

SO 

.6670  , 

8932 

I. 3421  1 

51 

00 

.7771 

1.2349 

1.5890 

42 

00 

.6691     ; 

9004 

1.3456 

10 

.7790 

I  2423 

1  5948 

10 

.6713 

9057 

1.3492 

30 

.7808 

1.2497 

1.6005 

20 

.6734 

91 10 

1.3527 

30 

.7826 

1.2572 

I  6064 

30 

.6756 

9163 

1.3563 

40 

.7844 

1.2647. 

I. 6123 

40 

.6777 

9217 

1.3600 

SO 

.7862 

1  2723 

1.6183 

SO 

.6799 

9271 

I  3636 

52 

00 

.7880 

1  2799 

1.6243 

43 

00 

.6820 

9325 

1.3673 

10 

.7898 

I . 2876 

1.6303 

10 

.6841 

9380 

1.3711 

20 

.7916 

1.2954 

1.6365 

20 

.6862 

9435 

1.3748 

30 

.7934 

1  3032 

I  6427 

30 

.6884 

9490 

1.3786 

40 

.7951 

1.1311 

1.6489 

40 

.6905 

9545 

1.3824 

50 

.7969 

1  3190 

I  6553 

so 

.6926 

9601 

1.3863 

S3 

00 

.7986 

1.3270 

I. 6616 

44 

00 

.6947 

9657 

1.3902 

10 

.8004 

1  3351 

I  6681 

10 

.6967 

9713 

I. 3941 

20 

.8021 

1.3432 

1.6746 

20 

.€988 

9770 

1.3980 

30 

.8039 

1  3514 

I  6812 

30 

.7009 

9827 

1.4020 

40 

.8056 

I.3S97 

1.6878 

40 

.7030 

9884 

I. 4061 

50 

.8073 

1.3680 

1.694s 

SO 

.7050 

9942 

1 .  4101 

54 

00 

.8090 

I  3764 

1.7013 

4S 

00 

.7071           I 

0000 

I. 4142 

10 

.8107 

1.3848 

I. 7081 

Natural  Sines,  Tangents  and  Secants 


"3 


Natural  Sines,  Tangents  and  Secants  —  (Conlinued) 


Deg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

Secant 

Deg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

Secant 

20 

.8124 

1.3924 

1.7151 

30 

■  8949 

2.00S7 

2.2412 

30 

.8141 

I . 4019 

I. 7221 

40 

.8962 

2.0204 

2.2543 

40 

.8158 

I. 4106 

I. 7291 

50 

.8975 

2.03S3 

2.2677 

50 

.8175 

1.4193 

1.7362 

64 

00 

.8988 

2.0503 

2.2812 

55 

00 

.8192 

r.4281 

1.7434 

10 

.9001 

2.o6s5 

2.2949 

10 

.8208 

I ■ 4370 

I . 7507 

20 

.9013 

2.0809 

2.3088 

20 

.8225 

I . 4460 

I. 7581 

30 

.9026 

2.096s 

2.3228 

30 

.8241 

I.4S50 

1.765s 

40 

.9038 

2.1123 

2.3371 

40 

.82S8 

I. 4641 

I . 7730 

SO 

.9051 

2.1283 

2.3515 

SO 

.8274 

I . 4733 

I . 7806 

6S 

00 

.9063 

2.1445 

2,3662 

56 

00 

.8290 

1.4826 

1.7883 

10 

.9075 

2. 1609 

2.3811 

10 

.8307 

1.4919 

1.7960 

20 

.9088 

2.177s 

2.3961 

20 

.8323 

I . S013 

1.8039 

30 

.9100 

2.1943 

2.4114 

30 

.8339 

1.S108 

1.8118 

40 

.9112 

2.2113 

2.4269 

40 

.8355 

I.S204 

I. 8198 

50 

.9124 

2 . 2286 

2.4426 

50 

.8371 

I. 5301 

1.8279 

66 

00 

.9135 

2.2460 

2.4586 

57 

00 

.8387 

1.5399 

I. 8361 

10 

.9147 

2.2637 

2.4748 

10 

.8403 

1.5497 

1.8443 

20 

.9159 

2.2817 

2.4912 

20 

.8418 

1-5597 

1.8527 

30 

.9171 

2 . 2998 

2.5078 

30 

.8434 

1.5697 

I. 8612 

40 

.9182 

2.3183 

2.5247 

40 

.8450 

1.5798 

I . 8699 

50 

.9194 

2.3369 

2.5419 

50 

.8465 

1.5900 

1.8783 

67 

00 

.920s 

2. 3559 

2.5593 

58 

00 

.8480 

1.6003 

I. 8871 

10 

.9216 

2.3750 

2.5570 

10 

.8496 

I. 6107 

1.8959 

20 

.9228 

2.3945 

2.5949 

20 

.8511 

I. 6213 

1.9048 

30 

.9239 

2.4141 

2.6131 

30 

.8526 

I. 6319 

1.9139 

40 

.9250 

2.4342 

2.6316 

40 

.8542 

1.6426 

1.9230 

SO 

.9261 

2.4545 

2.6504 

50 

.8557 

1.6534 

1.9323 

68 

00 

.9272 

2.4751 

2.669s 

59 

00 

.8572 

I . 6643 

I. 9416 

10 

.9283 

2.4960 

2,6888 

10 

.8587 

1.6753 

1.9511 

20 

.9293 

2.5172 

2,7085 

20 

.8601 

1.6864 

1.9606 

30 

.9304 

2.5386 

2.728s 

30 

.8616 

1.6977 

1 .  9703 

40 

.9315 

2.560s 

2.7488 

40 

.8631 

1.7090 

I . 9801 

50 

.9325 

2.5826 

2.769s 

50 

.8646 

1.7205 

1.9900 

69 

00 

.9336 

2.6051 

2.7904 

60 

00 

.8660 

I. 7321 

2.0000 

10 

.9346 

2.6279 

2.8117 

10 

.8675 

1.7437 

2.0101 

20 

.9356 

2.6511 

2.8334 

20 

.8689 

1.7556 

2.0204 

30 

.9367 

2.6746 

2.8555 

30 

.8704 

1.7675 

2.0308 

40 

.9377 

2.698s 

2.8779 

40 

.8718 

r.7796 

2.0413 

50 

.9387 

2.7228 

2.9006 

SO 

.8732 

I. 7917 

2.0S19 

70 

00 

.9397 

2.7475 

2.9238 

61 

00 

.8746 

I . 8040 

2.0627 

10 

.9407 

2.7725 

2.9474 

10 

.8760 

1.816s 

2.0736 

20 

.9417 

2.7980 

2.9713 

20 

.8774 

I. 8291 

2.0846 

30 

.9426 

2.8239 

2.9957 

30 

.8788 

I. 8418 

2.0957 

40 

.9436 

2.8502 

3.0206 

40 

.8802 

1.8546 

2 . 1070 

50 

.9446 

2,8770 

3.0458 

SO 

.8816 

1.8676 

2.1185 

71 

00 

.9455 

2.9042 

3.0716 

62 

00 

.8829 

1.8807 

2.1301 

10 

.9465 

2.9319 

3.0977 

10 

.8843 

1.8940 

2.1418 

20 

.9474 

2.9600 

3.1244 

20 

.8857 

1.9074 

2.1537 

30 

.9483 

2.9887 

3.151S 

30 

.8870 

I. 9210 

2.1657 

40 

.9492 

3.0178 

3.1792 

40 

.8884 

1.9347 

2.1786 

50 

.9502 

3.047s 

3.2074 

50 

.8897 

1.9486 

2.1902 

72 

00 

9511 

3.0777 

3.2361 

63 

00 

.8910 

I . 9626 

2 . 2027 

10 

.9520 

3.1084 

3.2653 

10 

.8923 

1.9768 

2.2IS3 

20 

.9528 

3.1397 

3.2951 

20 

.8936 

I. 9912 

2.2282 

30 

.9537 

3.1716 

3.3255 

114  M;illKtii.ili(iil    Tahles 

Natural  Sines,  Tangents  and  Secants  —  {Continued) 


Deg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

3.3041 

Secant 

Dcg. 

Min. 

Sine 

Tan- 
gent 

Secant 

40 

.9540 

3  3S6s 

30 

.9890 

6  6913 

6.76SS 

SO 

•  9SSS 

3.2371 

33881 

40 

.9894 

6.8269 

6.8998 

73 

oo 

.9563 

3  2709 

3.4303 

SO 

■  9899 

6  9683 

70396 

lO 

.957.2 

3  3052 

3  4532 

83 

00 

.9903 

7.IIS4 

7  I8S3 

ao 

.9580 

3.3402 

3.4867 

10 

.9907 

7-2687 

7.3372 

*> 

.9588 

3.37S9 

3  5309 

20 

99" 

7-4287 

7  49S7 

40 

.9596 

3.4124 

3  5559 

30 

.9914 

7  S9S8 

76613 

so 

.9605 

3  4 195 

3  5915 

40 

9918 

7  7704 

7  8344 

74 

00 

.9613 

3.4874 

3.6280 

SO 

.9922 

7  9.530 

8  0156 

10 

.9621 

3.5261 

3.6652 

83 

00 

.9925 

8.1443 

8  30SS 

30 

.9628 

3.5656 

3.7032 

10 

.9929 

8  J150 

8  4047 

30 

.9636 

3  6059 

3.7420 

30 

.9933 

8.5555 

8  6138 

40 

.9644 

3.6470 

3  7817 

30 

•  9936 

8.7769 

8.8337 

SO 

.9652 

3.6891 

3.8222 

40 

.9939 

9.0098 

9  0652 

75 

00 

.9659 

3.7321 

38637 

50 

•9943 

9  2SS3 

9  3093 

10 

9667 

3.7760 

3.9061 

84 

00 

9945 

9  S144 

9  5668 

20 

.9674 

3  8208 

3.9495 

10 

.9948 

9  7882 

9  8391 

30 

.9681 

3.8667 

3.9939 

20 

9951 

10.0780 

10.1275 

40 

.9689 

3.9136 

4  0394 

30 

•  9954 

10  3854 

10  4334 

SO 

.9696 

3.9617 

4.0859 

40 

9957 

10.7119 

10  758s 

76 

00 

.9703 

4.0108 

4.1336 

50 

-9959 

1I.OS94 

II  1045 

10 

.9710 

4.0611 

4 . 1824 

85 

00 

-9963 

"430 

11.474 

20 

.9717 

4.1126 

4.2324 

10 

.9964 

11.826 

11  868 

30 

.9724 

4.1653 

4.2837 

30 

.9967 

12.251 

12.291 

40 

.9730 

4.2193 

4.3362 

30 

.9969 

12  706 

13.745 

SO 

.9737 

4.2747 

4  3901 

40 

.9971 

13  197 

13.23s 

77 

00 

.9744 

4-3315 

4. 4454 

SO 

.9974 

13  737 

13  763 

10 

.9750 

4  3897 

4.S022 

86 

00 

.9976 

14  301 

14  336 

20 

.9757 

4  4494 

4.5604 

10 

-9978 

14  924 

14  9S8 

30 

.9763 

4.5107 

4.6202 

20 

-9980 

IS  605 

15  637 

40 

.9769 

4.5736 

4.6817 

30 

.9981 

16.350 

16.380 

50 

.9775 

4.6382 

4-7448 

40 

.9983 

17.169 

17.198 

78 

00 

.9781 

4.7046 

4-8097 

50 

.9985 

18.07s 

18.103 

10 

.9787 

4.7729 

4-8765 

87 

00 

-9986 

19  081 

19.107 

20 

.9793 

4.8430 

4-9452 

10 

-9988 

20.206 

20  230 

30 

.9799 

4.9152 

S  0159 

20 

-9989 

21.470 

21.494 

40 

.980s 

4.9894 

S.0886 

30 

-9990 

22.904 

22  926 

50 

.9811 

S.0658 

5. 1636 

40 

-9992 

24  543 

24.562 

79 

00 

.9816 

5. 1446 

5.2408 

50 

-9993 

26  432 

26.451 

10 

.9822 

5-2257 

s  320s 

88 

00 

-9994 

38.636 

28.654 

20 

.9827 

5  3093 

5  -  4026 

10 

.9995 

31.243 

31  258 

30 

.9833 

5. 3955 

5.4874 

20 

-9996 

34  368 

34  382 

40 

.9838 

5.484s 

5.5749 

30 

-9997 

38.188 

38.203 

50 

.9843 

5. 5764 

5.6653 

40 

9997 

42  964 

42  976 

8o 

00 

.9848 

5.6713 

5. 7588 

50 

-9998 

49  104 

49  "4 

10 

.9853 

5. 7694 

5.8554 

89 

00 

-9998 

57.290 

57.299 

20 

.9858 

5.8708 

5. 9554 

10 

.9999 

68.750 

68.757 

.30 

.9863 

5. 9758 

5  0589 

20 

-9999 

8S  940 

85  946 

40 

.9868 

6.0844 

6  1661 

30 

I  0000 

114  589 

"4  593 

SO 

.9872 

6.1970 

6.2772 

40 

1. 0000 

171  885 

171.888 

8l 

00 

.9877 

6.3138 

6.3925 

SO 

I .0000 

343  774 

343  775 

10 

.9881 

6.4348 

6.SI2I 

90 

00 

I. 0000 

Infi- 

Infi- 

30 

.9886 

6.S606 

6.6363 

nite 

nite 

Approximate  Measurement  of  Angles 


115 


Approximate  Measurement  of  Angles 
(i)    The  four  fingers  of  the  hand,  held  at  right  angles  to  the  arm 
and  at  arm's  length  from  the  eye,  cover  about  7  degrees;   and  an  angle 
of  7  degrees  corresponds  to  about  12.2  feet  in  100  feet;  or  to  36.6  feet  in 
100  yards;  or  to  645  feet  in  a  mile. 

(2)  By  means  of  a  two-foot  rule,  either  on  a  drawing  or  between 
distant  objects  in  the  field.  If  the  inner  edges  of  a  common  two-foot 
rule  be  opened  to  the  extent  shown  in  the  column  of  inches,  they  will  be 
inclined  to  each  other  at  the  angles  shown  in  the  column  of  angles. 
Since  an  opening  of  J'i  inch  (up  to  19  inches  or  about  105  degrees)  corre- 
sponds to  from  about  5^^  degree  to  i  degree,  no  great  accuracy  is  to  be 
expected,  and  beyond  105  degrees  still  less,  for  the  liability  to  error  then 
increases  very  rapidly  as  the  opening  becomes  greater.  Thus,  the  last 
^  inch  corresponds  to  about  12  degrees. 

Angles  for  openings  intermediate  of  those  given  may  be  calculated  to 
the  nearest  minute  or  two,  by  simple  proportion,  up  to  23  in-^hes  of 
opening,  or  about  147  degrees. 

Table  of  Angles  Corresponding  to  Openings  of  a  2-foot 
Rule.     (Original.)     Trautwine. 


Ins. 

Deg.  Min. 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Min. 

Ins. 

Deg. 

Min. 

Ins. 

Deg.  Min. 

H 

I  12 

3'/^ 

16 

46 

6H 

32 

40 

10 

49  IS 

I  48 

17 

22 

33 

17 

49  54 

H 

2  24 

% 

17 

59 

7 

33 

54 

M 

50  34 

3  00 

18 

35 

34 

33 

51  13 

% 

3  36 

4 

19 

12 

H 

35 

10 

'/i 

SI  53 

4  II 

19 

48 

35 

47 

52  33 

I 

4  47 

H 

20 

24 

H 

36 

25 

% 

53  13 

S  23 

21 

37 

3 

S3  S3 

H 

S  S8 

\<i 

21 

37 

H 

37 

41 

II 

54  34 

6  34 

22 

13 

38 

19 

55  14 

Vi 

7  10 

?4 

22 

50 

8 

38 

57 

H 

55  55 

7  46 

23 

27 

39 

35 

56  35 

H 

8  22 

5 

24 

3 

H 

40 

13 

H 

57  16 

8  s8 

24 

39 

40 

51 

57  57 

2 

9  34 

V^ 

25 

16 

Vi 

41 

29 

?4 

58  38 

10  10 

25 

53 

42 

7 

59  19 

H 

10  46 

Vi 

26 

39 

% 

42 

46 

12 

60  00 

II  22 

27 

7 

43 

24 

60  41 

\<i 

II  58 

H 

27 

44 

9 

44 

3 

M 

61  23 

12  34 

28 

21 

44 

42 

62   5 

5-4 

13  10 

6 

28 

58 

y^ 

45 

21 

K' 

62  47 

13  46 

29 

35 

45 

59 

63  28 

3 

14  22 

}i 

30 

II 

1,4 

46 

38 

% 

64  II 

14  S8 

30 

49 

47 

17 

64  53 

M 

15  34 

H 

31 

26 

54 

47 

56 

13 

6S  35 

16  10 

32 

3 

48 

35 

66  18 

ii6 


Matlicniuticul    Tahlcs 


TaBLLS  of   AngUCS   COKKICSIHJNUING   Tii   (U-\  MV..S   OP   A    2-FOOT 

Rule  —  {CotUini.' 


(3)   With  the  same  table,  using  feet  instead  of  inches.  — 

From  any  i)oinl  measure  12  Jcct  toward*  each  object  and  place  marks. 
Measure  the  distance  in  feci  between  these  marks.  Suppose  the  first 
column  in  the  table  to  be  feci  instead  of  inches.  Then  opposite  the 
distance  in  feel  will  be  the  angle. 

V&  foot  =  1.5  inches. 


1  in.    =  .083  ft. 

2  ins.  =  .167  ft. 

3  ins.  =  .25  ft. 


4  ins.  =  .^2,3  ft- 

5  ins.  =  .416  ft. 

6  ins.  =  .5  ft. 


7  ins.  =  .583  ft. 

8  ins.  =  .667  ft. 

9  ins.  =  .75  ft. 


10  ins.  =  .833  ft. 

11  ins.  =  .917  ft. 

12  ins.  =  1.0  ft. 


(4)  Or,  measure  toward*  each  object  100  or  any  other  number 
of  feet  and  |)lace  marks.  Measure  tlie  distance  in  feet  between  the 
marks.     Then 


half  the  distance  between  the  marks 


Sine  of  half  _  

the  angle       the  distance  measured  toward  one  of  the  objects 

Find  this  sine  in  the  table,  etc.;  take  out  the  corresponding  angle  and 
multiply  it  by  2. 

•  If  it  is  inconvenient  to  measure  toward  the  objects,  measure  directly  from  them. 


Tapers  per  Foot  and  Corresponding  Angles 


117 


Tapers  per  Foot  and  Corresponding  Angles 

Computed  by  E.  M.  Willson 


Taper 

Included 

Angle  with 

Taper 

Included 

Angle  with 

per 
foot 

angle 

center  line 

per 
foot 

angle 

center  line 

Deg. 

Min 

.Sec. 

Deg. 

Min 

.  Sec. 

Deg. 

Min 

.  Sec. 

Deg.  Min 

.  Sec. 

Hi 

0 

4 

28 

0 

2 

14 

2H 

II 

18 

10 

5  39 

5 

Hi 

0 

8 

S8 

0 

4 

29 

2V1 

II 

53 

36 

5  56 

48 

Me 

0 

17 

54 

0 

8 

57 

2H 

12 

29 

2 

6  14 

31 

9^2 

0 

26 

52 

0 

13 

26 

2% 

13 

4 

24 

6  32 

12 

H 

0 

35 

48 

0 

17 

54 

2',<i 

13 

39 

42 

6  49 

SI 

^2 

0 

44 

44 

0 

22 

22 

3 

14 

15 

0 

7   7 

30 

^6 

0 

S3 

44 

0 

26 

52 

3'/i 

14 

SO 

14 

7  25 

7 

H2 

2 

34 

0 

31 

17 

3M 

15 

25 

24 

7  42 

42 

Vi 

II 

36 

0 

35 

48 

35i 

16 

0 

34 

8   0 

17 

%2 

20 

30 

0 

40 

IS 

3K2 

16 

35 

40 

8  17 

SO 

Me 

29 

30 

0 

44 

45 

35i 

17 

10 

40 

8  35 

20 

>'/i2 

38 

22 

0 

49 

II 

3% 

17 

45 

40 

8  52 

50 

?^ 

47 

24 

0 

53 

42 

zH 

18 

20 

34 

9  10 

17 

13/^2 

56 

24 

0 

58 

12 

4 

18 

55 

28 

9  27 

44 

Me 

2 

5 

18 

2 

39 

4^6 

19 

30 

18 

9  45 

9 

15^2 

2 

14 

16 

7 

8 

4H 

20 

S 

2 

10   2 

31 

H 

2 

23 

10 

II 

35 

4?i 

20 

39 

44 

10  19 

52 

1%2 

2 

32 

4 

16 

2 

4'/^ 

21 

14 

2 

10  37 

I 

.   916 

2 

41 

4 

20 

32 

45^ 

21 

48 

54 

10  54 

27 

1%2 

2 

50 

2 

25 

I 

4?4 

22 

23 

22 

II  II 

41 

^6 

2 

59 

42 

29 

51 

m 

22 

57 

48 

II  28 

54 

2)42 

3 

7 

56 

33 

58 

S 

23 

32 

12 

II  46 

6 

iHe 

3 

16 

54 

38 

27 

sH 

24 

6 

28 

12   3 

14 

m2 

3 

25 

SO 

42 

SS 

sM 

24 

40 

42 

12   20 

21 

% 

3 

34 

44 

47 

22 

5?i 

25 

14 

48 

12  37 

24 

m2 

3 

43 

44 

SI 

52 

sH 

25 

48 

48 

12  54 

24 

Wi& 

3 

52 

38 

56 

19 

SH 

26 

22 

52 

13  II 

26 

n^2 

4 

I 

36 

2 

0 

48 

SM 

26 

56 

46 

13  28 

23 

H 

4 

10 

32 

2 

5 

16 

Sji 

27 

30 

34 

13  45 

17 

2%2 

4 

19 

34 

2 

9 

47 

6 

28 

4 

2 

14   2 

I 

1^6 

4 

28 

24 

2 

14 

12 

61/6 

28 

37 

58 

14  18 

59 

3^2 

4 

37 

20 

2 

18 

40 

6W 

29 

II 

34 

14  35 

47 

I 

4 

46 

18 

2 

23 

9 

6?i 

29 

45 

18 

14  52 

39 

iHe 

S 

4 

12 

2 

32 

6 

6H 

30 

18 

26 

15   9 

13 

l^ 

S 

21 

44 

2 

40 

52 

65  g 

30 

51 

48 

IS   2S 

54 

iMe 

S 

39 

54 

2 

49 

57 

6M 

31 

25 

2 

15  42 

31 

iVi 

5 

57 

48 

2 

58 

54 

e;;^ 

31 

58 

10 

IS  59 

5 

lVi6 

6 

IS 

38 

3 

7 

49 

7 

32 

31 

12 

16  IS 

36 

iH 

6 

33 

26 

3 

16 

43 

7'/6 

33 

4 

8 

16  32 

4 

iMe 

6 

51 

20 

3 

25 

40 

7'/4 

33 

36 

40 

16  48 

20 

iH 

7 

9 

10 

3 

34 

35 

7?6 

34 

9 

50 

17   4 

SS 

I9i6 

7 

26 

58 

3 

43 

29 

7I/2 

34 

42 

30 

17  21 

IS 

i5^ 

7 

44 

48 

3 

52 

24 

75i 

35 

IS 

2 

17  37 

31 

I»H6 

8 

2 

38 

4 

I 

19 

7?4 

35 

47 

32 

17  S3 

46 

1% 

8 

20 

26 

4 

10 

13 

7^/i 

36 

19 

54 

18   9 

57 

I'Me 

8 

38 

16 

4 

19 

8 

8 

36 

52 

12 

18  26 

6 

I'/i 

8 

S6 

2 

4 

28 

I 

%H 

37 

24 

22 

18  42 

II 

I' 5^6 

9 

13 

SO 

4 

36 

55 

8M 

37 

56 

26 

18  s8 

13 

2 

9 

31 

36 

4 

45 

48 

8?i 

38 

28 

16 

19  14 

8 

2« 

10 

7 

10 

5 

3 

35 

8J.i 

39 

0 

16 

19  30 

8 

2I4 

10 

42 

42 

5 

21 

21 

8?i 

39 

31 

52 

19  45 

S6 

1 1 8  MatliL-maliciil    I'ablcs 

Tapers  per  Foot  and  Corresponding  Angles — (jContinued) 


Taper 

Includcfl 

Angle  with 

Tupcr 

Included 

Angle  with 

foot 

angle 

center  line 

per 
foot 

angle 

center  line 

Deg.  Min.  Sec. 

Deg.  Min.  Sec. 

Deg.  Min.  Sec. 

Deg.  Min.  Sec. 

8?4 

40      3    42 

20      I    SI 

loM 

46     45     24 

23    22    42 

VA 

40    35     i6 

20    17    38 

10)^6 

47     IS    32 

23    37    46 

9 

41      6    44 

20    33    22 

io5h 

47    45    30 

23    52    45 

9V6 

41     38    28 

20    49    14 

IO?4 

48     15     24 

24      7    42 

9W 

42      9    18 

21      4    39 

ir,:^ 

1«     15     10 

24     22    35 

m 

42    40    26 

21    20    13 

1  1 

II     48 

24    37    24 

9W 

43     11     24 

21     35     42 

I  i    - 

;  .      14     20 

24    52     10 

9H 

43    42    20 

21     SI     10 

II'  1 

50     13     46 

25      6    S3 

9% 

44     13      6 

22      6    33 

11% 

SO    43      4 

25     21    32 

9^/6 

44     43    48 

22     21     54 

Il'-i 

SI     12    14 

25    36      7 

10 

45     14     22 

22     37      II 

n'-- 

SI    41     18 

25    SO    39 

10^ 

45     44     52 

22    52    26 

III 

52     10    16 

26      5      8 

loH 

46     15     46 

23       7 

1  i'h 

52    39      2 

26     19    31 

CHAPTER  IV 


DIFFERENT   STANDARDS   FOR   WIRE   GAUGES 


Different  Standards  for  Wire  Gauges  in  Use  in  the 
United  States 

Dimensions  of  sizes  in  decimal  parts  of  an  inch 


1^ 

H..  S.  &  Co. 
"F.&G." 
steel  music 
wire  gauge 

U.S. 
standard 
for  plate 

American  or 

Brown  & 

Sharpe 

"III 

>J  0  U3 

m 

3 

0  M 

^  a 

2;  & 

000000 

.46875 

.464  . 

000000 

00000 

.4375 

.432  . 

00000 

0000 

.40625 

;46"' 

.454 

.3938 

.400 

0000 

000 

.375 

.40964 

.425 

.3625 

.372 

000 

00 

.0087 

.34375 

.3648 

.38 

.3310 

.348    . 

00 

0 

.0093 

0578 

.3125 

.32486 

.34 

.3065 

.324  . 

0 

I 

.0098 

0710 

.28125 

.2893 

.3 

.2830 

.300 

227 

I 

2 

.0106 

0842 

.265625 

.25763 

.284 

.2625 

.276 

219 

2 

3 

.0114 

0973 

.25 

.22942 

.259 

.2437 

.252 

212 

3 

4 

.0122 

1 105 

.234375 

.20431 

.238 

.2253 

.232 

207 

4 

5 

.0138 

1236 

.21875 

.18194 

.22 

.2070 

.212 

204 

5 

6 

.0157 

1368 

. 20312s 

. 16202 

.203 

.1920 

.192 

201 

6 

7 

.0177 

isoo 

.1875 

.14428 

.18 

.1770 

.176 

199 

7 

8 

.0197 

1631 

.171875 

.12849 

.16s 

.1620 

.160 

197 

8 

9 

.0216 

1763 

.15625 

.11443 

.148 

.1483 

.144 

194 

9 

10 

.0236 

1894 

. 140625 

. IOI89 

.134 

.1350 

.128 

191 

10 

II 

.0260 

2026 

.125 

.090742 

.12 

.1205 

.116 

188 

II 

12 

.0283 

2158 

.I0937S 

.080808 

.109 

.loss 

.104 

i8s 

12 

13 

.0303 

2289 

.09375 

.071961 

.095 

.091S 

.092 

182 

13 

14 

.0323 

2421 

.078125 

.064084 

.083 

.0800 

.080 

180 

14 

15 

.0342 

2S52 

.0703125 

.057068 

.072 

.0720 

.072 

178 

15 

16 

.0362 

2684 

.0625 

.05082 

.06s 

.0625 

.064 

175 

16 

17 

.0382 

2816 

.05625 

.045257 

.058 

.0540 

.056 

172 

17 

18 

.04 

2947 

.05 

.040303 

.049 

.0475 

.048 

168 

18 

19 

.042 

.04375 

.03589 

.042 

.0410 

.040 

164 

19 

20 

.044 

3210 

.0375 

.031961 

.035 

.0348 

.036 

161 

20 

21 

.046 

.034375 

.028462 

.032 

.03175 

.032 

157 

21 

22 

.048 

3474 

.03125 

.025347 

.028 

.0286 

.028 

155 

22 

23 

.051 

.028125 

.022571 

.025 

.0258 

.024 

153 

23 

24 

.oS!> 

3737 

.02s 

.0201 

.022 

.0230 

.022 

ISI 

24 

25 

.OS9 

.021875 

.0179 

.02 

.0204 

.020 

148 

25 

26 

.063 

4000 

.01875 

.01594 

.018 

.0181 

.018 

146 

26 

27 

.067 

.0171875 

.01419s 

.016 

.0173 

.0164 

143 

27 

28 

.071 

4263 

.015625 

.012641 

.014 

.0162 

.0149 

139 

28 

119 


I20 


Materials 


Different  Standards  for  Wirk  Gauges  in  Use  in  thk 
United  States  —  {/Continued) 


29 

30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
3S 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 


.074 
.078 
.082 
.086 


•1^ 


.0140625 

01 25 

0109375 
.01015625 
.009375 

00859375 
.0078125 

0070312s 
.006640625 
.00625 


.011257 

.0I002S 

.008928 

•0079s 

.00708 

.006304 

.005614 

•oos 

•004453 

.003965 

.003531 

003144 


.1"! 


.£fc 
i  c  !£ 

3:5 


0x50 
0141 
0132 
0128 
0118 
0104 
009s 
C090 


.2  3 


.0136 
.0124 
.0116 
.0108 
.0100 
.00921 
.0084I 
.0076 
.0068J 
.0060 
.0052 
.0048 


.134 

.127 
.120 

•  IIS 
.112 
.110 
.108 
.106 
.103 
.101 

099 
097 


•3  6 

n 


BiRMINGH.AM   GaUGE   FOR   ShEET   BrASS,    SiLVER,   GoLD   AXD   ALL 

Metals  except  Steel  and  Iron 


Thick- 

Thick- 

Thick- 

Thick- 

Thick- 

Thick- 

No. 

ness, 

No. 

ness, 

No. 

ness, 

No. 

ness, 

No. 

ness, 

No. 

ness, 

inch 

inch 

inch 

inch 

inch 

inch 

I 

.004 

7 

•ois 

13 

.036 

19 

.064 

25 

.095 

31 

.133 

2 

.005 

8 

.016 

14 

.041 

20 

.067 

26 

.103 

32 

143 

3 

.008 

9 

.019 

^S 

.047 

21 

.072 

27 

.113 

33 

.145 

4 

.010 

10 

.024 

16 

.051 

22 

•074 

28 

.120 

34 

.148 

5 

.012 

II 

.029 

19 

■OS7 

23 

.077 

29 

.124 

35 

.158 

6 

.013 

12 

.034 

18 

.061 

24 

.082  1 

30_ 

.126 

36 

.167 

C; auges  Gener.ally  used  by  Mills  in  the  U.  S.  Rolling  Sheet 
Iron.     (Vary  Slightly  from  Birmingham  Gauge). 


No. 

Pounds  per 
square  foot 

No. 

Pounds  per 
square  foot 

No. 

Pounds  per 
square  foot 

No. 

Pounds  per 
square  foot 

I 

12  50 

8 

6.86 

IS 

2.8r 

22 

I  25 

2 

12.00 

9 

6.24 

16 

2. so 

23 

1. 12 

3 

II  00 

10 

5.62 

17 

2.18 

24 

1. 00 

4 

10.00 

11 

5. 00 

18 

1.86 

25 

.90 

S 

8.75 

12 

4.38 

19 

1.70 

26 

.80 

6 

8  12 

13 

3.75 

20 

1.54 

27 

.72 

7 

7.50 

14 

3.12 

21 

1.40 

28 

.64 

Band  and  Hoop  Iron  Weights  per  Lineal  Foot 
Band  and  Hoop  Iron  Weights  per  Lineal  Foot 


No.  of 

Width  ia  inches 

gauge 

H 

% 

'A 

I 

m 

iH 

m 

iVz 

m 

6 

8 

10 

lbs. 
4231 
3581 
2929 

lbs. 
.5078 
.4296 
.3515 

.2734 

.1953 

.1562 
.1367 
.1171 
.1074 
.0976 
.0877 
.0781 
.0705 

bs. 
5924 
5013 
4101 

bs. 
674 
5729 
4689 

lbs. 
762 

64s 

527 

469 

41 

352 

293 

264 

234 

20s 

176 

161 

146 

bs. 
846 
716 
S86 

521 

4S6 

391 

326 

293 

26 

229 

195 

179 

165 

bs. 
931 
788 
64s 
573 
501 
430 
358 
322 
286 
251 
21S 
197 
179 

I 

lbs. 
016 
8S9 
703 
62s 
547 
469 
391 
352 
313 
273 
234 
215 
19s 

lbs. 
1. 10 

.931 

.762 
.677 

■592 
.508 
.423 
.381 
.339 

.269 
■  254 

12 

13 

2278 

3190 

3645 

14 

15 

1628 

2278 

2604 

i6 
17 
18 
19 

20 
21 

1302 
1 139 
0976 
0895 
0814 
0731 
0651 
0588 

1822 
1595 
1367 
1253 
1 139 
1023 
091 1 
0822 

2083 
1822 
1562 
1432 
1302 
1 169 
104 1 
0939 

23 

No.  of 

Width  in  inches 

gauge 

1% 

1% 

2 

2H 

2I/4 

2% 

2^2 

2% 

2H 

2^ 

4 
6 
8 
9 
10 
II 
12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 
17 
18 

lbs. 

1-367 

1. 185 

1.003 

.914 

.820 

.729 

.638 

.547 

.456 

.410 

.36s 

■  319 

.273 

lbs. 

1.465 

1.270 

1.074 

.977 

.897 

.781 

.684 

.586 

.488 

.439 

.391 

.342 

.293 

lbs. 

1.562 

1. 354 

1. 146 

1.042 

.938 

.833 

.729 

.62s 

.521 

.469 

.417 

.365 

.313 

lbs. 

1.660 
1.439 
1. 217 
1. 107 
.996 

.88s 
•  775 
.664 
.553 
.498 
.443 

lbs. 

1.758 

1.523 

1.289 

1. 172 

1.055 

.938 

.820 

.703 

.586 

.527 

.469 

lbs. 

1.855 
1.608 
1. 361 

1.237 
1. 113 
.990 
.866 
.742 
.618 
.557 
.495 

lbs. 

1.953 

1.693 

1.432 

1.302 

1. 172 

1.042 

.911 

.781 

.651 

.586 

.521 

lbs. 

2.051 

1.777 

1.504 

1.367 

1. 231 

1.094 

.957 

.820 

.684 

lbs. 
2.148 
1.862 
1.576 
1.423 
1.289 
1. 146 
1.003 
.859 
.716 

1 
2 

bs. 
246 
947 
647 
497 
348 
198 
048 
898 
749 

122  Materials 

Band  and  Hoop  Iron  Weights  per  Lineal  Foot  —  {Continued) 


Width  in  inches 


No.  o(  I 
gauge 


lUS. 

IIJS. 

ItJS. 

liJS. 

IDS. 

IDS. 

IDS. 

3.344 

3.S39 

2.734 

2  930 

3.12s 

3.321 

3Si6 

a.l88 

2  370 

2552 

2.734 

2.917 

3.099 

3.281 

3.031 

2.201 

2  370 

2.539 

2.708 

2.878 

3.047 

1. 87s 

2.031 

2.188 

2.344 

2.SOO 

2.6s6 

2.813 

1. 719 

1.862 

2.00S 

2.148 

2.292 

2.435 

2.578 

1.563 

1.693 

1.823 

1.953 

2.083 

2.214 

2.344 

1.406 

1.523 

1. 641 

1.758 

1.87s 

1.992 

2.109 

1.250 

1.354 

1.458 

1.563 

1.667 

1. 771 

1.87s 

1.094 

1.18s 

1.276 

1.367 

1.458 

1.549 

1. 641 

■  938 

1. 016 

1.094 



.781 

.846 

.911 



lbs. 
3.906 
3.646 
3  38s 
3  I2S 
2.864 
2.604 
2.344 
2.083 
1.823 


54 


lbs. 
4  297 
4. oil 
3  724 
3.437 
3. 151 
2.86s 
2.578 
3.292 
2.005 


Mba. 
4.688 
4. 375 
4  063 
3-750 
3438 
3-125 
3.813 
3.500 
3.188 


Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron  per  Lineal  Foot 


123 


Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron  per  Lineal  Foot 

For  thicknesses  from  He  inch  to  2  inches  and  widths  from  i  inch  to 

12J4  inches. 

Iron  weighing  480  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 


Thick- 

I 

i'/4 

i>6 

1% 

2 

2H 

2H 

3% 

12 

ness  in 
inches 

inch 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

Ma 

.208 

.260 

.313 

.36s 

.417 

.469 

.521 

.573 

2.50 

^ 

•  417 

.521 

.625 

.729 

.833 

.938 

1.04 

I. IS 

5-00 

ViS 

.62s 

.781 

.938 

1.09 

I. 25 

1. 41 

1.56 

1.72 

7-So 

H 

.833 

1.04 

1.25 

1.46 

1.67 

1.88 

2.08 

2.29 

10.00 

Me 

1.04 

1.30 

I.S6 

1.82 

2.08 

2.34 

2.60 

2.86 

12.50 

H 

1.25 

1.56 

1.88 

2.19 

2.50 

2.81 

3-13 

3-44 

15  00 

Me 

1.46 

1.82 

2.19 

2.55 

2.92 

3.28 

3-65 

4.01 

17 -SO 

H 

1.67 

2.08 

2.50 

2.92 

3-33 

3-75 

4-17 

4-58 

20.00 

^e 

I  88 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3-75 

4.22 

4-69 

S-16 

22.50 

^ 

2.08 

2.60 

3-31 

3.6s 

4-17 

4.69 

5.21 

S.73 

25.00 

iHe 

2.29 

2.86 

3-44 

4.01 

4.58 

5.i6 

5.73 

6.30 

27.50 

y* 

2. so 

3- 13 

3-75 

4.38 

500 

5.63 

6.25 

6.88 

30.00 

1^6 

2.71 

3-39 

4.06 

4-74 

5.42 

6.09 

6.77 

7-45 

32-50 

J6 

2.92 

3.6s 

438 

5.10 

5.83 

6.56 

7.29 

8.02 

35  00 

1^6 

3- 13 

3.91 

4.69 

S.47 

6.2s 

703 

7.81 

8.59 

37.50 

I 

3  33 

4.17 

s-oo 

S.83 

6.67 

750 

8.33 

9-17 

40.00 

iHe 

3-54 

4-43 

531 

6.20 

7.08 

7-97 

8.8s 

9-74 

42.50 

If6 

3.7s 

4.69 

S.63 

6.56 

750 

8.44 

9-38 

10.31 

45 -00 

1^6 

3.96 

4.95 

5. 94 

6.93 

7.92 

8.91 

9-90 

10.89 

47.50 

iH 

4  17 

S.21 

6.2s 

7.29 

8.33 

9  38 

10.42 

11.46 

50.00 

iHe 

4.37 

5-47 

6.56 

7.66 

8.75 

984 

10.94 

12.03 

52.50 

m 

4.S8 

5. 73 

6.88 

8.02 

9.17 

10.31 

11.46 

12.60 

55 -00 

ij-ie 

4.79 

5.99 

7.19 

8.39 

9S8 

10.78 

11.98 

13-18 

57-50 

iH 

5.00 

6.25 

7  so 

8.75 

10.00 

11.25 

12.50 

13-75 

60.00 

me 

5.21 

6. SI 

7.81 

9-11 

10.42 

11.72 

13  02 

14-32 

62.50 

iH 

S.42 

6.77 

8.13 

948 

10.83 

12.19 

13-54 

14-90 

65.00 

I'Me 

S.63 

703 

8.44 

9.84 

11.25 

12.66 

14.06 

IS -47 

67 -SO 

m 

6.83 

7.29 

8.7S 

10.21 

11.67 

13  13 

14-58 

16.04 

70.00 

Il?l6 

6.04 

7. 55 

9.06 

10. 57 

12.08 

13-59 

IS  10 

16.61 

72.50 

m 

6.25 

7.81 

9.38 

10.94 

12.50 

14.06 

15-63 

17.19 

75-00 

I>M6 

6.46 

8.07 

9.69 

11.30 

12.92 

14-53 

16.  IS 

17.76 

77.50 

2 

6.67 

8.33 

10.00 

11.67 

13  33 

1500 

16.67 

18-33 

80.00 

1 24  Mutcriuls 

Weights  of  I'lat  Rolled  Iron  per  Lineal  Foot  —  (Conliitued) 


Thick- 

3 

3W 

3W 

3W 

4M 

4W 

4M 

13 

ness  in 
inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

ItlLllCS 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

M« 

.62s 

.677 

.729 

.781 

.833 

.885 

.938 

•  990 

3. so 

\i 

I. 25 

1.35 

1.46 

1.56 

1.67 

1-77 

1.88 

I  98 

5  00 

?1« 

1.88 

2.03 

3.19 

3.34 

2. so 

3.66 

3.81 

3  97 

7  SO 

H 

3. so 

2.71 

2.92 

3.13 

3  33 

3  S4 

3.7s 

3.96 

10.00 

^« 

3  13 

3  39 

3.65 

3.91 

4.17 

4.43 

4.69 

4.9s 

13.50 

H 

3-75 

4.06 

4.38 

4.69 

SCO 

s  31 

S.63 

S.94 

15.00 

lU 

4.38 

4.74 

5. 10 

5. 47 

S.83 

6.20 

6  56 

6.93 

17. SO 

Vi 

S.oo 

5.42 

5.83 

6.25 

6.67 

7.08 

7.50 

7.93 

3O.0O 

9<« 

S.63 

6.09 

6.56 

7.03 

7. SO 

7.97 

8.44 

8.91 

33.50 

H 

6.2s 

6.77 

7.29 

7.81 

8.33 

8.85 

9-38 

9.90 

35.00 

•Me 

6.88 

7.45 

8.02 

8.59 

917 

9  74 

10.31 

10.89 

37.50 

% 

7.50 

8.13 

8.75 

9.38 

10.00 

10.63 

11.35 

11.88 

30.00 

»?^n 

8.13 

8.80 

9.48 

10.16 

10.83 

II. SI 

13.19 

12.86 

33.SO 

?6 

8. 75 

9.48 

10.21 

10.94 

11.67 

12.40 

13  13 

13.8s 

35.00 

>51o 

9  38 

10.16 

10.94 

11.72 

12.50 

13-38 

14  06 

14.84 

37.50 

I 

10.00 

10.83 

11.67 

12.50 

13-33 

14-17 

15.00 

15.83 

40.00 

iMe 

10.63 

II. SI 

12.40 

13.28 

14.17 

IS.  OS 

IS.  94 

16.82 

42.50 

iH 

11.25 

12.19 

13.13 

14.06 

15.00 

15-94 

16.88 

17.81 

45  00 

iMb 

11.88 

12.86 

13.8s 

14.84 

15.83 

16.82 

17.81 

18.80 

47.50 

iH 

12.50 

13.54 

14.58 

15.63 

16.67 

17.71 

18.7s 

19.79 

SO. 00 

151 8 

13.13 

14.22 

15.31 

16.41 

17.50 

18.59 

19-69 

20.78 

52.50 

i9i 

13. 75 

14.90 

16.04 

17.19 

18.33 

19.48 

20.63 

31.77 

SS.oo 

i^« 

14.38 

15.57 

16.77 

17.97 

19.17 

20.36 

21.56 

22.76 

57.50 

i!^ 

15.00 

16.25 

17.50 

18.7s 

20.00 

21.25 

22.50 

23  75 

60.00 

19^0 

15.63 

16.93 

18.23 

19.53 

20.83 

22.14 

33.44 

24.74 

63.50 

15^ 

16.25 

17.60 

18.96 

20.31 

21.67 

23.02 

34.38 

35-73 

65.00 

I' Me 

16.88 

18.28 

19.69 

21.09 

22.50 

23.91 

25.31 

36.73 

67.50 

i?4 

17.50 

18.96 

20.42 

21.88 

23-33 

34.79 

26.25 

37.71 

70.00 

I'9<6 

18.13 

19.64 

21.15 

22.66 

24.17 

25.68 

27.19 

38  70 

73.50 

I'/i 

18.75 

20.31 

21.88 

23.44 

25.00 

26.56 

28.13 

39.69 

75.00 

i>5ie 

19-38 

20.99 

22.60 

24.22 

25.83 

27.45 

29.06 

30  68 

77.50 

3 

20.00 

21.67 

23  33 

25.00 

36  67 

28.33 

30.00 

31  67 

80.00 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron  per  Lineal  Foot  125 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron  per  Lineal  Foot  —  {Continued) 


Thick- 

5 

5M 

s!-^ 

5% 

6 

6H 

6H 

6% 

12 

ness  in 
inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

He 

1.04 

1.09 

I -IS 

1.20 

1.25 

1.30 

1.35 

1.41 

2.50 

H 

2.08 

2.19 

2.29 

2.40 

2.50 

2.60 

2.71 

2.81 

5.00 

Me 

3.13 

3.28 

3.44 

3.59 

3.75 

3  91 

4.06 

4.22 

7.50 

y* 

4.17 

4.38 

4.58 

4.79 

500 

5. 21 

5.42 

5.63 

10.00 

9ie 

S.21 

5.47 

5.73 

5.99 

6.25 

6.51 

6.77 

7  03 

12.50 

%, 

6.2s 

6.56 

6.88 

7.19 

7-50 

7.81 

8.13 

8.44 

15  00 

7/ie 

7.29 

7.66 

8.02 

8.39 

8.75 

9.11 

9.48 

9  84 

1750 

yi 

8.33 

8.75 

9.17 

9. 58 

10.00 

10.42 

10.83 

11.25 

20.00 

9<e 

938 

984 

10.31 

10.78 

II.  25 

11.72 

12.19 

12.66 

22.50 

^ 

10.42 

10.94 

11.46 

11.98 

12.50 

13  02 

13.54 

14.06 

25  00 

iMe 

11.46 

12.03 

12.60 

13  iS 

13.75 

14.32 

14.90 

15. 47 

27.50 

H 

12.50 

13.13 

13.75 

14.38 

15  00 

IS.  63 

16.25 

16.88 

30  00 

ijle 

13.54 

14.22 

14.90 

15.57 

16.25 

16.93 

17.60 

18.28 

32.50 

^ 

14.58 

15.31 

16.04 

16.77 

17.50 

18.23 

18.96 

19.69 

35  00 

1^6 

15.63 

16.41 

17.19 

17.97 

18.7s 

19 -53 

20.31 

21.09 

37.50 

I 

16.67 

17.50 

18.33 

19.17 

20.00 

20.83 

21.67 

22.50 

40.00 

iMe 

17.71 

18.59 

19.48 

20.36 

21.25 

22.14 

23.02 

23.91 

42.50 

IH 

18.75 

19.69 

20.63 

21.56 

22.50 

23.44 

24.38 

25.31 

45.00 

iMe 

19  79 

20.78 

21.77 

22.76 

23.75 

24.74 

25.73 

26.72 

47.50 

IW 

20.83 

21.88 

22.92 

23.96 

25.00 

26.04 

27.08 

28.13 

50.00 

iMe 

21.88 

22.97 

24.06 

25.16 

26.25 

27.34 

28.44 

29.53 

52.50 

l?6 

22.92 

24.06 

25.21 

26.35 

27.50 

28.65 

29.79 

30.94 

55.00 

17/16 

23.96 

25.16 

26.35 

27.55 

28.7s 

29.9s 

31.15 

32.34 

57.50 

I^^ 

25.00 

26.25 

27.50 

28.75 

30.00 

31.2s 

32.50 

33-75 

60.00 

I?^6 

26.04 

27.34 

28.6s 

29  95 

31.25 

32.55 

33  85 

35.16 

62.50 

IH 

27.08 

28.44 

29.79 

31.15 

32.50 

33.85 

35.21 

36.56 

65.00 

I'Me 

28.13 

29.53 

30.94 

32.34 

33.75 

35.16 

36.56 

37.97 

67.  SO 

m 

29.17 

30.63 

32.08 

33.54 

35.00 

36.46 

37.92 

39  38 

70.00 

l>?i6 

30  21 

31.72 

33.23 

34.74 

36.25 

37.76 

39-27 

40.78 

72.50 

I^ 

31  25 

32.81 

34.38 

35.94 

37.50 

39.06 

40.63 

42.19 

75.00 

I»5^6 

32.29 

33.91 

35.52 

37.14 

38.75 

40.36 

41.98 

43. 59 

77.  SO 

2 

33  33 

35.00 

36.67 

38.33 

40.00 

41.67 

43.33 

45. 00 

80.00 

1 26  Matcri:il.s 

Weights  of  Flat  Kulleu  Ieon  pek  Lineal  Foot  —  (Continued) 


Thick- 

7 

IM 

74 

IH 

8 

8^ 

8li 

8^4 

13 

ness  in 
inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

Ma 

1.46 

1. 51 

I.S6 

1. 61 

1.67 

1.73 

1.77 

I  83 

3. so 

H 

3.93 

3.03 

3.13 

3.23 

3.33 

3.44 

3. 54 

3.6s 

5. 00 

?1. 

4.38 

4. S3 

4.69 

4.84 

5.00 

5.16 

S.31 

S.47 

7  SO 

H 

S.83 

6.04 

6.2s 

6.46 

6.67 

6.88 

7.08 

7.39 

10.00 

?!« 

7.39 

7SS 

7.81 

8.07 

8.33 

8.59 

8.85 

9.11 

13  SO 

?i 

8.7s 

9.06 

9.38 

9.69 

10.00 

10.31 

10.63 

10  94 

15  00 

M« 

10.21 

10.57 

10.94 

11.30 

11.67 

13. 03 

12.40 

13.76 

17  SO 

W 

11.67 

12.08 

12.50 

12.92 

13.33 

13. 75 

14.17 

14.58 

30  00 

9i« 

13  13 

13. 59 

14.06 

14  53 

15  00 

15.47 

IS.  94 

16.41 

33.50 

56 

14  58 

15  10 

15  63 

16  IS 

16.67 

17.19 

17.71 

18.33 

35.00 

>M. 

16.04 

16.61 

17.19 

17.76 

18.33 

18.91 

19.48 

20.05 

27  50 

^4 

17. SO 

18.13 

18.7s 

19  38 

20.00 

20.63 

21.25 

31.88 

30  00 

>^« 

18.96 

19.64 

20.31 

20  99 

21  67 

22.24 

23.02 

33  70 

32  so 

T6 

20.42 

21.15 

21.88 

22.60 

23  33 

24.06 

24.79 

35. 53 

35  00 

'5i8 

21.88 

22.66 

23.44 

24.22 

25  00 

25.78 

26.56 

37. 34 

37  so 

I 

23.33 

24.17 

25.00 

25.83 

26.67 

27. SO 

28.33 

2917 

40.00 

iHo 

24.79 

25.68 

26.56 

27.45 

28.33 

29.22 

30.10 

30.99 

42.50 

1^6 

26.25 

27.19 

28.13 

29.06 

30.00 

30.94 

31.88 

33.81 

45  00 

i?^fl 

27.71 

28.70 

29.69 

30.68 

31.67 

32.66 

33.65 

34.64 

47  50 

l'/4 

29.17 

30.21 

31.25 

32.29 

33.33 

34.38 

35.42 

36.46 

50.00 

l^ia 

30.62 

31.72 

32.81 

33.91 

3S-00 

36.09 

37.19 

38.38 

52.50 

1?6 

32.08 

33.23 

34.38 

35. 52 

36.67 

37.81 

38.96 

40.10 

55  00 

1^6 

33S4 

34.74 

35.94 

37.14 

38.33 

39  53 

40.73 

41  93 

57.50 

m 

35  00 

36.25 

37.50 

38.75 

40.00 

41.25 

42.50 

43.75 

60.00 

191 B 

36.46 

37.76 

39.06 

40.36 

41.67 

42.97 

44.27 

45.57 

62.50 

iH 

37  92 

39.27 

40.63 

41.98 

43.33 

44.69 

46.04 

47.40 

65.00 

I' He 

39- 38 

40.78 

42.19 

43. 59 

45. 00 

46.41 

47.81 

49.22 

67.50 

i?4 

40.83 

42.29 

43.75 

45.21 

46.67 

48.13 

49.58 

51.04 

70.00 

i>5i« 

42.29 

43.80 

45.31 

46.82 

48.33 

49.84 

51.35 

52.86 

73.50 

iH 

43.75 

45.31 

46.88 

48.44 

50.00 

51.56 

53.13 

54.69 

75.00 

i>M() 

45  21 

46.82 

48.44 

50.05 

51.67 

53.28 

54.90 

56.51 

77.50 

3 

46.67 

48.33 

50.00 

51.67 

53.33 

55  00 

56.67 

58.33 

80.00 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron  per  Lineal  Foot  127 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron  per  Lineal  Foot  —  {Continued) 


Thick- 

9 

9Vi 

9H 

9% 

10 

loH 

loi/4 

loH 

12 

ness  in 
inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

He 

1.88 

1.93 

1.98 

2.03 

2.08 

2.14 

2.19 

2.24 

2,50 

H 

3.75 

3.85 

3.96 

4.06 

4.17 

4.27 

4.38 

4.48 

5.00 

Me 

S.63 

5.78 

5-94 

6.09 

6.2s 

6.41 

6.56 

6.72 

7.50 

H 

7-50 

7.71 

7.92 

8.13 

8.33 

8.54 

8.75 

8.96 

10.00 

<>U. 

938 

9.64 

9.90 

10.16 

10.42 

10.68 

10.94 

11.20 

12.50 

% 

II. 25 

11.56 

11.88 

12.19 

12.50 

12.81 

13.13 

13.44 

15.00 

7/6 

13.13 

13.49 

13.  S5 

14.22 

14.58 

14.95 

15.31 

15.68 

17.50 

H 

15.00 

15.42 

IS.  83 

16.25 

16.67 

17.08 

17.50 

17.92 

20,00 

9ia 

16.88 

17.34 

17.81 

18.28 

18.75 

19.22 

19.69 

20.16 

22.50 

H 

18.75 

19.27 

19.79 

20.31 

20.83 

21.35 

21.88 

22,40 

25.00 

iMe 

20.63 

21.20 

21.77 

22.34 

22.92 

23.49 

24.06 

24.64 

27.50 

H 

22.50 

23.13 

23.75 

24.38 

25.00 

25.62 

26.25 

26.88 

30.00 

1^6 

24.38 

25.05 

25.73 

26.41 

27.08 

27.76 

28.44 

29.11 

32.50 

?i 

26.25 

26.98 

27.71 

28.44 

29.17 

29.90 

30.63 

31.35 

35.00 

>M6 

28.13 

28.91 

29.69 

30.47 

31.25 

32.03 

32.81 

33.59 

37.  so 

I 

30.00 

30.83 

31.67 

32.50 

33.33 

34.17 

35.00 

35.83 

40.00 

iVie 

31.88 

32.76 

33.65 

34.53 

35.42 

36.30 

37.19 

38.07 

42.50 

iH 

33  75 

34.69 

35.63 

36.56 

37.50 

38.44 

39.38 

40.31 

45.00 

iHi 

35.63 

36.61 

37.60 

38.59 

39.58 

40.57 

41.56 

42.5s 

47.50 

i!4 

37.50 

38.54 

39.58 

40.63 

41.67 

42.71 

43.75 

44.79 

SO. 00 

me 

39  38 

40.47 

41.56 

42.66 

43.75 

44.84 

45.94 

47.03 

52.50 

i?i 

41.25 

42,40 

43-54 

44.69 

45.83 

46.98 

48.13 

49.27 

55.00 

iMe 

43.13 

44.32 

45.52 

46.72 

47.92 

49." 

50.31 

51. 51 

57.50 

m 

45.00 

46.25 

47.50 

48.75 

50.00 

51.25 

52.50 

53.75 

60,00 

l?i6 

46.88 

48.18 

49.48 

50.78 

52.08 

S3. 39 

54.69 

5599 

62,50 

i^i 

48.75 

50.10 

51.46 

52.81 

54.17 

55.52 

56.88 

58.23 

65.00 

iiMe 

50.63 

52.03 

53.44 

54.84 

56.25 

57.66 

59.06 

60.47 

67.50 

m 

52.50 

53.96 

55.42 

56.88 

58.33 

59.79 

61.25 

62.71 

70.00 

11^6 

54.38 

55.89 

57.40 

S8.91 

60.42 

61.93 

63.44 

64.95 

72.50 

i^/i 

56.25 

57.81 

59.38 

60.94 

62.50 

64.06 

65.63 

67.19 

75.00 

I'Me 

58.13 

59. 74 

61.35 

62.97 

64.58 

66.20 

67.81 

69.43 

77.50 

2 

60.06 

61.67 

63.33 

65.00 

66.67 

68.33 

70.00 

71.67 

80.00 

1 28  Mali-rials 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron  per  Lineal  Foot  —  {Continued) 


Thick- 

II 

iiW 

im 

ii?4 

13 

I3M 

I3^i 

13)4 

ness  in 
inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

Mb 

2.29 

a. 34 

2.40 

2.45 

3.50 

2.SS 

3  60 

3.66 

\i 

458 

4.69 

4.79 

4.90 

5  00 

S.io 

S  21 

s  31 

■^u 

6.88 

7  03 

7.19 

7  34 

7  so 

7.66 

7.81 

7.97 

W 

9  17 

9  38 

958 

9  79 

10.00 

10.21 

10.43 

10.63 

5iB 

11.46 

11  72 

11.98 

12.24 

12.50 

13.76 

13.03 

13.38 

H 

13-75 

14  06 

14.38 

14  69 

15  00 

IS. 31 

IS.  63 

IS  94 

lU 

16.04 

16.41 

16.77 

17.14 

17  50 

17.86 

18.33 

18  59 

Vi 

18.33 

18.75 

19.17 

19  58 

30. 00 

30.43 

30.83 

31.35 

9<« 

20.63 

21.09 

21.56 

21.94 

23  so 

33.97 

23.44 

23  91 

56 

22.92 

23-44 

23  96 

24.48 

25.00 

35.52 

36.04 

26  56 

'Mb 

25.21 

25.78 

26.35 

26.93 

37  50 

38.07 

28.65 

29  33 

% 

27SO 

28.13 

28.7s 

29.38 

30.00 

30.63 

31.2s 

31  88 

>?k 

29.79 

30.47 

31 -IS 

31.82 

32. so 

33.18 

33  85 

34  53 

''A 

32.08 

32  81 

33-54 

34.27 

3S.OO 

35. 73 

36.46 

37.19 

'Mb 

34.38 

35.16 

35  94 

36.72 

37.50 

38.28 

3906 

39  84 

I 

36.67 

37.50 

38-33 

39.17 

40.00 

40.83 

41.67 

43  so 

iMb 

38.96 

39  84 

40-73 

41.61 

43  50 

43.39 

44.37 

45.16 

I'i 

41-25 

42.19 

43.13 

44.06 

45.00 

45.94 

46.88 

47.81 

I?i8 

43-54 

44.53 

45  52 

46  SI 

47.50 

48.49 

49.48 

so.  47 

iM 

45-83 

46  88 

47  92 

48.96 

so  00 

SI  04 

53.08 

S3. 13 

iMfl 

48.13 

49.22 

50.31 

SI. 41 

53.50 

53. 59 

54.69 

55. 78 

iH 

50  42 

51.56 

52  71 

S3.8S 

55  00 

56.15 

57  39 

58.44 

1^1  B 

52.71 

S3. 91 

55. 10 

56.30 

57  SO 

58.70 

59  90 

61.09 

m 

55  00 

56.2s 

S7.SO 

58.75 

60.00 

61. 35 

62.50 

63.7s 

1?<8 

57.29 

58.59 

59  90 

61.20 

62.50 

63.80 

65.10 

66.41 

iH 

59-98 

60.94 

62.29 

63.65 

65.00 

66.35 

67.71 

69.06 

I' Ma 

61.88 

63.28 

64.69 

66  09 

67.50 

68.91 

70.31 

71.72 

1^4 

64.17 

65.63 

67.08 

68. S4 

70.00 

71.46 

72  92 

74.38 

!'»!« 

66.46 

67.97 

69.48 

70.99 

72.50 

74.01 

75  53 

77.03 

iTi 

68.75 

70.31 

71.88 

73.44 

75  00 

76.56 

78.13 

79.69 

I'^ie 

71.04 

72.66 

74.27 

75.89 

77.  SO 

79.11 

80  73 

82.34 

2 

73.33 

75. 00 

76.67 

78.33 

80  00 

81.67 

83  33 

85.00 

The  weights  for  12-inch  width  are  repeated  on  each  page  to  facilitate  making  the 
additions  necessary  to  obtain  the  weights  of  plates  wider  than  12  inches.  Thus,  to 
find  the  weight  of  is!4"X  ;s",  add  the  weights  to  be  found  in  the  same  line  for  3M  Xji 
and  i2Xji=9.48  +  35-00  =  44.48  pounds. 


Areas  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron 


129 


Areas  of  Flat  Rolled  Iron 

For  thicknesses  from  Ms  inch  to  2  inches  and  widths  from  i  inch  to  125.1  inches. 


Thick- 

I 

.  '^^ 

_    1\*L 

I?4 

2 

2^4 

.  ^'•^ 

2% 

12 

ness  in 
inches 

inch 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

He 

.063 

.078 

.094 

.109 

.125 

.141 

.156 

.172 

.750 

% 

.125 

.156 

.188 

.219 

.250 

.281 

.313 

•  344 

1.50 

Me 

.188 

.234 

.281 

.328 

.375 

.422 

.469 

.516 

2.2s 

\i 

.250 

.313 

■  375 

.438 

.500 

.563 

.625 

.688 

3.00 

Me 

.313 

•  391 

•  469 

.547 

.625 

.703 

.781 

.859 

3.75 

% 

■  375 

•  469 

.563 

.656 

.750 

.844 

.938 

1.03 

4.50 

Me 

.438 

.547 

.656 

.766 

.875 

.984 

1.09 

1.20 

5. 25 

¥t 

.500 

.625 

.750 

.875 

1. 00 

1. 13 

1. 25 

1.38 

6.00 

9i6 

.563 

.703 

.844 

.984 

1.13 

1.27 

1. 41 

1.55 

6.75 

H 

.62s 

.781 

.938 

1.09 

1.25 

1. 41 

1.56 

1.72 

7.50 

iHe 

.688 

.859 

1.03 

1.20 

1.38 

1.55 

1.72 

1.89 

8.25 

% 

.750 

.938 

1. 13 

1. 31 

1.50 

1.69 

1.88 

2.06 

9.00 

1^6 

.813 

1.02 

1.22 

1.42 

1.63 

1.83 

2.03 

2.23 

9-75 

li 

.875 

1.09 

1. 31 

1.53 

1.75 

1.97 

2.19 

2.41 

10.50 

me 

.938 

1. 17 

1. 41 

1.64 

1.88 

2. II 

2.34 

2.58 

11.25 

I 

1. 00 

1.25 

1.50 

1.75 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

2.75 

12.00 

iMe 

1.06 

1.33 

1.59 

1.86 

2.13 

2.39 

2.66 

2.92 

12.75 

m 

1. 13 

1. 41 

1.69 

1.97 

2.25 

2.53 

2.81 

3.09 

13.50 

iMe 

1. 19 

1.48 

1.78 

2.08 

2.38 

2.67 

2.97 

3.27 

14.25 

iH 

1. 25 

1.56 

1.88 

2.19 

2.50 

2.81 

3.13 

3-44 

15.00 

iMe 

1. 31 

1.64 

1.97 

2.30 

2.63 

2.95 

3.28 

3.61 

15.7s 

iji 

1.38 

1.72 

2.06 

2.41 

2.75 

3.09 

3.44 

3.78 

16.50 

iMe 

1.44 

1.80 

2.16 

2.52 

2.88 

323 

3.59 

3.9s 

17.2s 

i^^ 

1.50 

1.88 

2.25 

2.63 

3-0O 

3.38 

3-75 

4.13 

18.00 

i9ie 

1.56 

I  95 

2.34 

2.73 

3.13 

3. 52 

3.91 

4.30 

18.7s 

i5i 

1.63 

2.03 

2.44 

2.84 

3.25 

3.66 

4.06 

4-47 

19  50 

I'He 

1.69 

2. II 

2.53 

2.95 

3.38 

3.80 

4.22 

4.64 

20.25 

1% 

1. 75 

2.19 

2.63 

3.06 

3.50 

3.94 

4.38 

4.81 

21.00 

I'Me 

1. 81 

2.27 

2.72 

3-17 

3.63 

4.08 

4.53 

4.98 

21.75 

l7/i 

1.88 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3.75 

4.22 

4.69 

5.16 

22.50 

I»M6 

1.94 

2.42 

2.91 

3.39 

3.88 

436 

4.84 

5. 33 

23.25 

2 

2.00 

2.  so 

3.00 

3.50 

4.00 

4.50 

5.00 

5.50 

24.00 

UO 


Malrrials 


WEiGirTs  OF  Flat  Rollkd  Stkel  per  Lineal  Foot 
For  thicknesses  from  ^U  inch  to  2  inches  and  widths  from  I  inch  to  u?i  inches. 


Thick- 

inches 

inches 

ness  in 
inches 

I 

inch 

.638 

ht 

.797 

•  957 

H 

.850 

1.06 

1.28 

W« 

1.06 

1.33 

1.59 

H 

1.28 

I  59 

1.92 

M« 

1.49 

1.86 

2.23 

H 

1.70 

2.12 

2.SS 

?i. 

1.92 

2.39 

2.87 

H 

2.12 

2.6s 

3.19 

•Mo 

2.34 

2.92 

3. SI 

?4 

2.55 

3.19 

3.83 

"?i6 

2.76 

3.45 

4.14 

li 

2.98 

3-72 

4.47 

I .'. ; « 

T,     to 

3  99 

478 

I 

4-25 

5.10 

i'i« 

3.61 

4-52 

S.42 

iH 

3.83 

4.78 

5.74 

iho 

4.04 

5.05 

6.06 

iH 

4-25 

5.31 

6.38 

iMo 

4.46 

558 

6.69 

iH 

4.67 

5.84 

7.02 

ilU 

4.89 

6. II 

7.34 

m 

5. 10 

6.38 

7.65 

I?<» 

S.32 

6.64 

7.97 

iH 

5.52 

6.90 

8.29 

i>Me 

5. 74 

7.17 

8.61 

m 

595 

7-44 

8.93 

ll?16 

6.16 

7.70 

9.24 

r^6 

6.38 

7.97 

9-57 

I' Mo 

6.59 

8.24 

9.88 

3 

6.80 

8.S0 

10.20 

I}* 

inches 


1.49 

1.86 
2.23 
2.60 


3  35 
3.72 
4.09 
4-47 

4.84 
5.20 
5. 58 
5. 95 

6.32 
6.70 
7.07 
7-44 

7.81 
8.18 
8.56 
8.93 

9  30 

9.67 
10.04 
10.42 

10.79 
II. IS 
11.53 
11.90 


3 

2M 

inches 

inches 

1.38 

1.44 

1.70 

1. 91 

2.12 

2  39 

2. 55 

2.87 

2.98 

3.35 

3.40 

3.83 

3  83 

4.30 

4.2s 

4.78 

4.67 

5.26 

5.10 

5-75 

5  53 

6.21 

5.95 

6.69 

6.38 

7.18 

6.80 

7.6s 

7.22 

8.13 

7.65 

8.61 

8.0S 

909 

8.50 

9-57 

8.93 

10.04 

9.35 

10.52 

9.78 

11.00 

10.20 

11.48 

10.63 

11.95 

II. OS 

12.43 

11.47 

12.91 

11.90 

13.40 

12.33 

13.86 

12.75 

14.34 

13.18 

14.83 

13  60 

15.30 

2H 

inches 


1.59 

3.13 

3.65 
3.19 
3.72 
4.25 

4.78 

5-31 
5.84 
6.38 

6.90 
7.44 
7.97 
8.50 

9  03 
9  57 
10.10 
10.63 

11.16 
11.69 
12.22 
12.75 

13.28 
13.81 
14.34 
14.88 

15  40 
15.94 
16.47 
17.00 


2H 

inches 


1-75 
2-34 

3.92 
351 
4.09 
4.67 

5.36 
S.84 
6.43 
7.02 

7.60 
8.18 
8.77 
9  35 

9  93 
10.52 
II. II 
11.69 

13.27 
12.8s 
13.44 
14.03 

14.61 
15.19 
15.78 
16.37 

16.95 
17.53 
18.13 
18.70 


13 

inches 


7.65 
10.  ao 

13.75 
15.30 
17.85 
20.40 

22.95 
25.50 
28.0s 
30.60 

33.15 
35.70 
38.25 
40.80 

43  35 
45  90 
48  45 
51  00 

S3  55 
56.10 
58.6s 
61.30 

63.75 
66.30 
68.85 
71.40 

73. 95 
76.50 
.79  OS 
81.60 


Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  131 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  —  {Continued) 


Thick- 

3 

3H 

3H 

3H 

4 

4H 

4H 

Si 

12 

ness  in 
inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

?i6 

1. 91 

2.07 

2.23 

2.39 

2.55 

2.71 

2.87 

3.03 

7.65 

H 

2.55 

2.76 

2.98 

3.19 

3.40 

3.61 

3.83 

4.04 

10.20 

*/i6 

3  19 

3. 45 

3-72 

3-99 

4-25 

4.52 

4.78 

5. 05 

12.75 

9i 

3.83 

4.15 

4-47 

478 

5.10 

5.42 

5.74 

6.06 

IS.  30 

lU 

4.46 

483 

5.20 

5.58 

5.95 

6.32 

6.70 

7.07 

17.8s 

H 

5.10 

5.53 

5.95 

6.38 

6.80 

7.22 

7-65 

8.08 

20.40 

9i6 

S-74 

6.22 

6.70 

7- 17 

7.65 

8.13 

8.61 

9.09 

22. 95 

H 

6.38 

6.91 

7.44 

7-97 

8.50 

903 

9-57 

10.10 

25  50 

iMe 

7.02 

7.60 

8.18 

8.76 

9-35 

9-93 

10.52 

II. II 

28.0s 

H 

7.65 

8.29 

8.93 

9-57 

10.20 

10.84 

11.48 

12.12 

30.60 

1^6 

8.29 

8.98 

9.67 

10.36 

II. OS 

11.74 

12.43 

13.12 

33  IS 

^ 

8.93 

967 

10.41 

II.  16 

11.90 

12.65 

13.39 

14.13 

35.70 

1^6 

9-57 

10.36 

II.  16 

11.95 

12.75 

13.55 

14.34 

15.14 

38.2s 

I 

10.20 

II. OS 

11.90 

12.75 

1360 

14.45 

15.30 

16.15 

40.80 

1M6 

10.84 

11.74 

12.65 

13-55 

14-45 

15-35 

16.26 

17  16 

43.35 

iH 

11.48 

12.43 

13.39 

14.34 

15-30 

16.26 

17.22 

18.17 

45.90 

1^6 

12.12 

13  12 

14.13 

15.14 

16.15 

17.16 

18.17 

19.18 

48.4s 

i34 

12. 75 

13.81 

14.87 

15-94 

17.00 

18.06 

19.13 

20.19 

5100 

i^Ae 

13.39 

14.50 

15.62 

16.74 

17-85 

18.96 

20.08 

21.20 

53-55 

iH 

14  03 

15 -20 

16.36 

17.53 

18.70 

19-87 

21.04 

22.21 

s6.io 

ilU 

14  66 

15.88 

17.10 

18.33 

19  55 

20.77 

21.99 

23.22 

58.65 

iV^ 

15.30 

16.58 

17.85 

19-13 

20.40 

21.68 

22.95 

24.23 

61.20 

l9i6 

15.94 

17.27 

18.60 

19.92 

21.25 

22.58 

23.91 

25.24 

63.75 

i5.6 

16.58 

17.96 

19 -34 

20.72 

22.10 

23.48 

24.87 

26.25 

66.30 

liMe 

17.22 

18.65 

20.08 

21.51 

22.95 

24.38 

25.82 

27.26 

68.85 

i?4 

17.85 

19 -34 

20.83 

22.32 

23.80 

25.29 

26.78 

28.27 

71.40 

li^ie 

18.49 

20.03 

21.57 

23.11 

24.65 

26.19 

27.73 

29.27 

73-95 

I'/i 

19- 13 

20.72 

22.31 

23.91 

25  SO 

27.10 

28.69 

30.28 

76 -SO 

iiS/ie 

19.77 

21.41 

23.06 

24.70 

26.35 

28.00 

29.64 

31.29 

79-05 

2 

20.40 

22.10 

23.80 

25.50 

27.20 

28.90 

30.60 

32.30 

81.60 

r.^2  Materials 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  —  {Coniinurd) 


Thick- 
ness in 

inchi-s 

s 

inches 

SU 
inches 

inches 

inches 

6 
inches 

inches 

6W 
inches 

inches 

13 

inches 

3.19 
435 

3  35 
4.46 

3SI 
4.67 

3.67 
4.89 

3.83 
S.io 

3  99 
5.31 

4.14 

4» 
5  74 

76s 

10.  30 

S.31 
6.38 
7.44 
8.50 

5-58 
6.69 
7.81 
8-93 

5. 84 
7.02 
8.18 
935 

6  II 

7  34 
8.56 
9  77 

6.38 
7.6s 
8.93 
10.20 

6.64 
7-97 
9  29 
10.63 

6.90 
8.29 
9.67 
11. OS 

7.17 
8.61 
10  04 
11.48 

12.75 

is  30 

17  8s 
30  40 

3\t 
f4 

9- 57 
10.63 
11.69 
12.75 

10.04 
II.  16 
12.27 
13-39 

10.52 
11.69 
12.8s 
14.03 

11.00 
12.22 
13.44 
14.67 

11.48 
12.75 
14  03 
15-30 

11-95 
13  28 
14.61 
15.94 

12.43 
13  81 
IS. 20 
16.58 

13.91 
14  34 
15.78 
17.122 

32  95 
25  so 

38  05 
30.60 

I 

13-81 
14.87 
15-94 
17.CXD 

14.50 
15  62 
16.74 
17 -8S 

15-19 
16.36 
17-53 
18.70 

15.88 
17.10 
18.33 
19  55 

16.58 
17-85 
19-13 

20. 40 

17.27 
18.60 
19.92 
21.25 

17  95 
19  34 
20.72 
22.10 

18.6s 
ao.o8 
21.51 
22.9s 

33  IS 
35  70 
38.2s 
40.80 

I'-ifl 
i-Mb 

18.06 
19  13 
20.19 

21.25 

18.96 
20.08 
21.20 
22.32 

19.87 
21.04 
22.21 
23.38 

20.77 
21.99 
23.22 
24.44 

21.68 

22.9s 
24.23 

2S-SO 

22.58 
23.91 
25.23 
26.56 

2348 
24.87 
26.24 
27.62 

24.39 
25.82 
27.25 
28.69 

43. 35 
45  90 
48.4s 
SI  .00 

m 

22.32 
23.38 
24.44 
25-50 

23-43 
24-54 
25-66 
26.78 

24.54 
25.71 
26.88 
28.0s 

25.66 
26.88 
28.10 
29.33 

26.78 
28.  OS 
29-33 
30.60 

27.90 
29.22 
30.55 
31.88 

29.01 
30.39 
31.77 
33.  IS 

30.12 

31.56 
32.99 
34.43 

S3.SS 
s6.io 
S8.6S 

61. 30 

1% 

26.57 
27.63 
28.69 

29-75 

27.89 
29.01 
30.12 
31.24 

29.22 
30.39 
31.55 
32.73 

30.5s 
31.77 
32.99 
34.22 

31.88 
33.15 
34.43 
35.70 

33.20 
34. S3 
35.86 
37.19 

34. S3 
35. 91 
37.30 
38.68 

35.86 
37-29 
38.73 
40.17 

63.7s 
66.30 

68.8s 
71.40 

i'Mb 

3 

30.81 
31-87 
32-94 
3400 

32.35 
33.47 
34. 59 
35.70 

33.89 
35.06 
36.23 
37.40 

35. 43 
36.65 
37.88 
39.10 

36.98 
38.2s 
39.53 
40.80 

38.52 
39-85 
41.17 
42.50 

40.0s 
41.44 
42.82 
44.20 

41.60 
4303 
44.46 
45.90 

73. 95 
76.50 
790s 
81.60 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  133 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Steel  pee  Lineal  Foot  —  {Continued) 


Thick- 
ness in 
inches 

7 
inches 

7H 
inches 

7H 
inches 

7M 
inches 

8 
inches 

8H 
inches 

8H 
inches 

inches 

12 

inches 

3/^6 

4.46 

4.62 

4.78 

4.94 

5.10 

5.26. 

5.42 

5. 58 

7.6s 

H 

5-95 

6.16 

6.36 

6.58 

6.80 

7.01 

7.22 

7.43 

10.20 

Vi6 

7-44 

7.70 

7.97 

8.23 

8.50 

8.76 

9.03 

9-29 

12.75 

% 

8.93 

9  25 

9.57 

9.88 

10.20 

10.52 

10.84 

11.16 

iS-30 

^6 

10.41 

10.78 

ir.i6 

11.53 

11.90 

12.27 

12.64 

13  02 

17.85 

'A 

11.90 

12.32 

12  75 

13.18 

13.60 

14.03 

14.44 

14-87 

20.40 

918 

13-39 

13.86 

14.34 

14.82 

15.30 

IS.  78 

16.27 

16.74 

22.95 

% 

14.87 

IS -40 

15.94 

16.47 

17.00 

17.53 

18.06 

18.59 

25.50 

iMe 

16.36 

16.94 

17.  S3 

18.12 

18.70 

19.28 

19.86 

20.45 

28.0s 

H 

17.8s 

18.49 

19.13 

19.77 

20.40 

21.04 

21.68 

22.32 

30.60 

1^6 

19-34 

20.03 

20.72 

21.41 

22.10 

22.79 

23.48 

24.17 

33.15 

}i 

20.83 

21.57 

22.32 

23.05 

23.80 

24.55 

25.30 

26.04 

35.70 

me 

22.32 

23.11 

23.91 

24.70 

25.50 

26.30 

27.10 

27-89 

38.25 

I 

23-80 

24-65 

25.50 

26.35 

27.20 

28.05 

28.90 

29  75 

40.80 

iHe 

25-29 

26.19 

27.10 

28.00 

28.90 

29.80 

30.70 

31 -61 

43. 35 

1V6 

26.78 

27-73 

28.68 

29.64 

30.60 

31.56 

32.52 

33-47 

45.90 

1^6 

28.26 

29.27 

30.28 

31.29 

32.30 

33.31 

34.32 

35-33 

48.45 

iH 

29.75 

30.81 

31.88 

32.94 

34.00 

35.06 

36.12 

37-20 

51.00 

1^6 

31-23 

32.3s 

33.48 

34. 59 

35.70 

36.81 

37.93 

39 -OS 

53.55 

iH 

32.72 

33-89 

35.06 

36.23 

37.40 

38.57 

39.74 

40.91 

56.10 

iMe 

34-21 

35.44 

36.66 

37.88 

39  10 

40.32 

41.54 

42.77 

58.6s 

iJ^ 

35-70 

36.98 

38.26 

39.53 

40.80 

42.08 

43.35 

44-63 

61.20 

I9i6 

37-19 

38.51 

39.84 

41.17 

42.50 

43.83 

45.16 

46-49 . 

63.75 

i^ 

38.67 

40.0s 

41.44 

42.82 

44.20 

45.58 

46.96 

48-34 

66.30 

1IM6 

40.16 

41-59 

43.03 

44.47 

45.90 

47.33 

48.76 

50.20 

68.8s 

iH 

41-65 

43.14 

44.63 

46.12 

47.60 

49.09 

50.58 

52.07 

71.40 

Il?<6 

43.14 

44.68 

46.22 

47.76 

49.30 

50.84 

52.38 

53-92 

73.95 

1% 

44-63 

46.22 

47.82 

49-40 

51.00 

52.60 

54.20 

55-79 

76.50 

ii^-ia 

46.12 

47.76 

49.41 

SI.  OS 

52.70 

54.35 

56.00 

57-64 

79.0s 

2 

47-60 

49.30 

51  00 

52.70 

54.40 

56.10 

57.80 

59 -50 

81.60 

1.34  Materials 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  —  (Continued) 


Thick- 

ness in 
inches 

9 

9W 

9W 

^i 

10 

loM 

10' 

13 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inches 

inch< 

^U 

S.74 

5    ' 

6.22 

6.38 

6.54 

6.70 

6.86 

7.6s 

y* 

7.6s 

7.>' 

8.29 

8. so 

8.71 

8.92 

914 

10. 20 

9i« 

9S6 

9-83 

10.10 

10.36 

10.62 

10.89 

II. 16 

11.42 

12  75 

H 

11.48 

11.80 

12.12 

12.44 

12. 7S 

13  07 

13  39 

13  71 

15.30 

lu 

13.40 

13.76 

14.14 

14.51 

14.88 

15.25 

IS.  62 

IS  99 

17  8S 

H 

15.30 

IS.  73 

16.16 

16.58 

17.00 

17.42 

17.8s 

18.28 

20.40 

9i« 

17.22 

17-69 

18.18 

18.65 

19.14 

19.61 

30.08 

20.56 

22. 95 

58 

19  13 

19-65 

20.19 

20.72 

21.25 

21.78 

22.32 

22.85 

25  SO 

'H6 

21.04 

21.62 

22.21 

22.79 

23.38 

23  96 

24. 54 

25.13 

28. OS 

H 

22.96 

23-59 

24.23 

24.86 

25.50 

26.14 

26.78 

27.42 

30.60 

>^8 

24.86 

25-55 

26.24 

26.94 

27.62 

28.32 

29.00 

29  69 

33  IS 

% 

26.78 

27-52 

28.26 

29. ox 

29.75 

30.50 

31.24 

31.98 

35.70 

mt 

28.69 

29.49 

30.28 

31.08 

31.88 

32.67 

33.48 

JJ.28 

38.25 

I 

30.60 

31-45 

32.30 

33. IS 

34.00 

34.8s 

35.70 

36-55 

40.80 

iM* 

32.52 

33.41 

34.32 

35.22 

36.12 

37.03 

37.92 

38-83 

43  35 

iV6 

34.43 

35. 38 

36.34 

37.29 

38.25 

39-21 

40.17 

41.12 

45  90 

i^« 

36.34 

37.35 

38.36 

39.37 

40.38 

41.39 

42.40 

43.40 

48.4s 

iH 

38.26 

39  31 

40.37 

41.44 

42.50 

43.56 

44.63 

45.69 

51.00 

1^9 

40.16 

41.28 

42.40 

43  52 

44.64 

45.75 

46.86 

47.97 

S3  55 

iH 

42.08 

43.25 

44.41 

45.58 

46.75 

47.92 

4908 

50.2s 

56.10 

iM« 

44.00 

45-22 

46.44 

47:66 

48.88 

50.10 

SI.  32 

52.54 

58.65 

i^ 

4590 

47.18 

48.45 

49-73 

51.00 

52.28 

5355 

54.83 

61  20 

i9<« 

47.82 

49.14 

so.  48 

51.80 

53.14 

54.46 

55. 78 

57.11 

63.7s 

1^6 

49-73 

51.10 

52.49 

53.87 

55.2s 

56.63 

58.02 

59.40 

66.30 

i>Mb 

SI.  64 

53  07 

54. SI 

55.94 

57-38 

58.81 

60.24 

61. 68 

68.85 

ly* 

53  56 

55.04 

56.53 

58.01 

59.50 

60.99 

62.48 

63.97 

71.40 

I'^6 

55.46 

57.00 

58.54 

60.09 

61.62 

63  17 

64.70 

66.24 

7395 

lu 

57.38 

58.97 

60.56 

62.16 

63.7s 

65.35 

66.94 

68.53 

76.S0 

v^u 

59-29 

60.94 

62.58 

64.23 

65.88 

67.52 

69.18 

70.83 

790s 

2 

61.20 

62.90 

64.60 

66.30 

68.00 

69.70 

71.40 

73.10 

81.60 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  135 

Weights  of  Flat  Rolled  Steel  per  Lineal  Foot  —  (Continued) 


Thick- 

ness in 
inches 

II 

inches 

iiM 
inches 

iiH 
inches 

liJ4 
inches 

12 

inches 

I2'/4 

inches 

12!.^ 
inches 

12% 
inches 

?i6 

7.02 

7.17 

7-32 

7.49 

7-6s 

7.82 

7-98 

8.13 

H 

9-34 

9S7 

9-78 

10.00 

10.20 

10.42 

10.63 

10.84 

Me 

11.68 

11.95 

12.22 

12.49 

12.75 

13.01 

13.28 

13-55 

H 

14  03 

14-35 

14.68 

14.99 

15.30 

IS -62 

15-94 

16.26 

lU 

16.36 

16.74 

17.12 

17-49 

17.85 

18.23 

18.60 

18.97 

M 

18.70 

19-13 

19-55 

19-67 

20.40 

20.82 

21.25 

21.67 

9ifi 

21.02 

21.51 

22.00 

22.48 

22.9s 

23.43 

23.90 

24-39 

56 

23.38 

23.91 

24.44 

24.97 

25.50 

26.03 

26.56 

27.09 

>H6 

25.70 

26.30 

26.88 

27.47 

28.05 

28.64 

29.22 

29.80 

% 

28.0s 

28.68 

29-33 

29.97 

30.60 

31.2s 

31.88 

32.52 

1^6 

30.40 

31.08 

31-76 

32.46 

33  IS 

33-83 

34.53 

35.22 

■"A 

32.72 

33.47 

34.21 

34.95 

35.70 

36.44 

37.19 

37.93 

1^6 

35  06 

35-86 

36.66 

37.46 

38.25 

39  05 

39-84 

40.64 

I 

37.40 

38.2s 

39  10 

39-95 

40.80 

41.6s 

42.50 

43-35 

iHe 

39-74 

40.64 

41.54 

42.45 

43-35 

44.25 

45.16 

46.06 

ij-i 

42.08 

43-04 

44.00 

44.94 

45.90 

46.86 

47.82 

48.77 

iMe 

44.42 

45-42 

46.44 

47-45 

48.45 

49.46 

50.46 

51.48 

iH 

46.76 

47-82 

48.88 

49-94 

5100 

52.06 

53-12 

54.19 

iM« 

4908 

50.20 

SI. 32 

52.44 

53-55 

54.67 

55-78 

56.90 

i?6 

SI.  42 

52.59 

53.76 

54-93 

56.10 

57.27 

58.44 

59.60 

iMe 

53.76 

54.99 

56.21 

57.43 

S8.6s 

59-87 

6i.io 

62.32 

l!.2 

56.10 

57-37 

58.65 

59- 93 

61.20 

62. 48 

63 .75 

65. 03 

i?i6 

58.42 

59-76 

61.10 

62.43 

63.75 

6S.08 

66.40 

67.74 

i=/6 

60.78 

62.16 

63.54 

64.92 

66.30 

67.68 

69.06 

70.44 

iiMe 

63.10 

64 -55 

65-98 

67.42 

68.8s 

70.29 

71.72 

73  IS 

i?i 

65.4s 

66.93 

68.43 

69.92 

71.40 

72.90 

74.38 

75.87 

Il?l6 

67.80 

69-33 

70.86 

72.41 

73.95 

75.48 

77  03 

78.57 

i56 

70.12 

71.72 

73-31 

74.90 

76.50 

78.09 

79-69 

81.28 

ii^ie 

72.46 

74.11 

75.76 

77.41 

79  05 

80.70 

82.34 

83.99 

2 

74.80 

76.50 

78.20 

79- 90 

81.60 

83.30 

85.00 

86.70 

The  weights  for  12-inch  width  are  repeated  on  each  page  to  facilitate  making  the 
additions  necessary  to  obtain  the  weights  of  plates  wider  than  12  inches.  Thus  to 
find  the  weight  of  is!'^"  X^6",  add  the  weights  to  be  found  in  the  same  line  for  3'/^  X^ 
and  i2Xj6=io.4i  -|- 35.70  =  46.11  pounds. 


..i6 


MaU-fials 


WlCIGHTS    AND   AREAS   OK   SqUAKK    AND    RoUNI)    BaRS   OF   WROUGHT 

Iron  and  CiRCUUFERUNct  of  Round  Bars. 

One  cubic  foot  weighing  480  lbs. 


Weight  of 

D  bar 
I  foot  long 


.013 
.052 
.117 
.208 
.326 
.469 
.638 
.833 

LOSS 

1.302 
I.S76 
1.87s 
2.201 

2.SS2 
2.930 

3  333 
3.763 
4.219 
4.701 
5. 208 
5742 
6.302 
6.888 
7.S00 
8.138 
8.802 
9.492 
10.21 
10.9s 
11.72 
12.51 
13. 33 
14.18 
IS  OS 
IS.  95 
16.88 
17.83 
18.80 
19.80 
20.83 
21.89 
22.97 
24.08 
25.21 
26.37 
27. S5 
28.76 


Weight  of 

O  bar 
I  foot  long 


.010 
.041 
.092 
.164 
.256 
.368 
.501 
.654 
.828 
I  023 
I  237 
1  473 
1.728 
2.004 
2.301 
2.618 
2. 955 
3.313 
3.692 
4.091 
4. 510 
4.950 
5.410 
5. 890 
6.392 
6.913 
7455 
8.018 
8.601 
9.204 
9.828 
10.47 
II. 14 
11.82 
12.53 
13  2S 
14.00 
14.77 
IS- 55 
16.36 
17.19 
18.04 
18.91 
19.80 
20.71 
21.64 
22.  S9 


Area  of 

D  bar 

in  square 

inches 


.0039 

.0156 

.0352 

.062s 

.0977 

.1406 

.1914 

.2500 

.3164 

.3906 

.4727 

.5625 

.6602 

.7656 

.8789 

I. 0000 

1.1289 

1.2656 

1.4102 

1.562s 

1.7227 

1.8906 

2.0664 

2.2500 

2.4414 

2.6406 

2.8477 

3  0625 

3  2852 

3  S156 
3.7539 
4.0000 

4  2539 

4  5156 
4.7852 
5.062s 

5  3477 
5. 6406 

s  9414 

6.2500 
6.5664 
6.8906 
7.2227 
7.5625 
7 .  9102 
8.2656 
8.6389 


Area  of 

Circum- 

0 bar 

ference  of 

in  square 

0  bar 

inches 

in  inches 

.0031 

1963 

.0123 

.3927 

.0276 

.5890 

.0491 

.7854 

.0767 

9817 

.1104 

1 . 1781 

.1503 

1.3744 

.1963 

I  5708 

.2485 

I. 7671 

.3068 

I  963s 

.3712 

2.1598 

•  4418 

2.3562 

.S183 

2.SS2S 

.6013 

2.7489 

■  6903 

2.9452 

■  7854 

3.I4I6 

.8866 

3.3379 

•  9940 

3  5343 

I . I07S 

37306 

1.2272 

3  9270 

I. 3530 

4.1233 

1.4849 

4.3197 

1.6230 

4  S160 

I. 7671 

4.7124 

I. 9175 

4.9087 

2.0739 

5.1051 

2.2365 

5.3014 

2.4053 

S.4978 

2.5802 

5  6941 

2.7612 

5.890s 

2.9483 

6.0868 

3.1416 

6.2832 

3  3410 

6  4795 

3  5466 

6  6759 

3  7583 

6.8723 

3  9761 

7.0686 

4.2000 

7  2649 

4  4301 
4.6664 
4.9087 
5.1572 
5.4119 
5.6727 
S.9396 
6.2126 
6.4918 
6.7771 


Weight  oi  Square  and  Round  Bars  137 

Weight  of  Square  and  Round  Bars  —  {Continued) 


Thickness 

Area  of 

Area  of 

Circum- 

or diam- 

Weight of 

□  bar 
I  foot  long 

Weight  of 

0  bar 
I  foot  long 

D  bar 

0   bar 

ference  of 

eter  in 
inches 

in  square 
inches 

in  square 
inches 

0  bar 
in  inches 

3 

30  00 

23  56 

9.0000 

7.0686 

9.4248 

He 

31  26 

24-55 

9-3789 

7-3662 

9.6211 

H 

32  55 

25.57 

9.7656 

7-6699 

9-8175 

•>i8 

33.87 

26.60 

10.160 

7-9798 

10.014 

Vi 

35  21 

27.65 

10.563 

8.2958 

10.210 

Me 

3658 

28.73 

10.973 

8.6179 

10 . 407 

% 

37-97 

29.82 

II. 391 

8.9462 

10.603 

yi6 

39  39 

30.94 

II. 816 

9.2806 

10.799 

Vi 

40.83 

32.07 

12.250 

9.6211 

10.996 

9i6 

42.30 

33  23 

12.691 

9.9678 

II. 192 

% 

43.80 

34.40 

13- 141 

10.321 

11.388 

iHe 

45-33 

35.60 

13  598 

10.680 

11-585 

M 

46.88 

36.82 

14 -063 

11.045 

II. 781 

l?i6 

48.45 

38.05 

14-535 

II. 416 

11.977 

J6 

50.05 

39.31 

15.016 

11-793 

12.174 

1^6 

51.68 

40.59 

15.504 

12.177 

12.370 

4 

53-33 

41.89 

16.000 

12.566 

12.566 

He 

55  01 

43.21 

16.504 

12.962 

12.763 

^ 

56.72 

44.55 

17.016 

13-364 

12.959 

Ma 

58.45 

45.91 

17-535 

13-772 

13- 155 

^ 

60.21 

47.29 

18.063 

14.186 

13-352 

Me 

61.99 

48.69 

18.398 

14.607 

13-548 

?i 

63.80 

50.11 

19  141 

IS -033 

13-744 

^6 

65.64 

51.55 

19.691 

IS -466 

13-941 

^ 

67.50 

53.01 

20.250 

15-904 

14-137 

Me 

69.39 

54.50 

20.816 

16.349 

14  334 

5i 

71  30 

56.00 

21.391 

16.800 

14-530 

»H6 

73-24 

57-52 

21.973 

17-257 

14-726 

?4 

75-21 

59 -07 

22.563 

17.721 

14-923 

»M6 

77-20 

60.63 

23.160 

18.190 

15 -119 

% 

79.22       _ 

62.22 

23-766 

18.665 

15-31S 

1^6 

81.26 

63.82 

24.379 

19.147 

15  512 

s 

83.33 

6545 

25.000 

19  63s 

IS -708 

Me 

85.43 

67.10 

25.629 

20.129 

15-904 

M 

87.55 

68.76 

26.266 

20.629 

16.101 

Me 

89.70 

70.45 

26.910 

21.135 

16.297 

M 

91.88 

72.16 

27.563 

21.648 

16.493 

Me 

94.08 

73-89 

28.223 

22.166 

16.690 

?6 

96.30 

75.64 

28.891 

22.691 

16.886 

^6 

98-55 

77.40 

29.566 

23.221 

17.082 

H 

100.8 

79-19 

30.250 

23-758 

17-279 

Me 

103. 1 

81.00 

30.941 

24.301 

17-475 

^ 

105.5 

82.83 

31.641 

24.850 

17.671 

iMe 

107.8 

84-69 

32.348 

25.406 

17.868 

M 

no. 2 

86.56 

33-063 

25.967 

18.064 

»Me 

112. 6 

88.45 

33 -78s 

26.535 

18 . 261 

^ 

115-I 

90.36 

34-516 

27.109 

18.457 

iMe 

117-S 

92.29 

35  254 

27.688 

18.653 

6 

120.0 

94.25 

36.000 

28.274 

18.850 

Me 

122.5 

96.22 

36.754 

28.866 

19.046 

H 

125. 1 

98.22 

37-516 

29.465 

19.242 

^e 

127.6 

100.2 

38.28s 

30.069 

19-439 

138  MaUri  lis 

Weight  of  Square  and  Round  Bars  —  (.Continuei) 


Thickness 

Area  of 

Area  of 

Circum- 

or diam- 

Wcisht of 

WfiKht  of 

0   »J:ir 
I  foot  tonx 

D  bar 

0  bar 

ference  o( 

eter  in 

D  bar 

in  square 

in  square 

0  bar 

incli' 

l.iu   J 

inches 

inches 

in  inches 

6h 

102.3 

39  063 

30.680 

19.63s 

9i» 

132.8 

104.3 

39  848 

31.296 

19  831 

n 

135. 5 

106.4 

40.641 

31.919 

ao  038 

lit 

IJ8.1 

108. s 

41  441 

32.548 

30. 224 

W 

140.8 

110.6 

42  250 

33.183 

ao.420 

^« 

M3  6 

112,7 

43.066 

33  824 

ao.617 

96 

146.3 

114. 9 

43.891 

34.472 

20.813 

'H<i 

149  I 

117. 1 

44  723 

3S  12s 

21.009 

% 

151.9 

"9  3 

45  563 

35.78s 

21.206 

'Mo 

154.7 

121. 5 

46.410 

36.450 

21.402 

% 

157.6 

123.7 

47.266 

37.122 

21.598 

»5<<i 

160.4 

126.0 

48.129 

37.800 

21.795 

7 

163.3 

128.3 

49000 

38.48s 

21.991 

H« 

166.3 

130.6 

49  879 

3917s 

22.187 

H 

169.2 

132.9 

SO. 766 

39  871 

22.384 

M« 

172.2 

135.2 

51. 660 

40.574 

22.580 

H 

175.2 

137.6 

52.563 

41.282 

22.777 

9<« 

178.2 

140.0 

53.473 

41.997 

22.973 

H 

181.3 

142.4 

54  391 

42.718 

23.169 

•M 

184.4 

144.8 

55.316 

43-445 

23.366 

H 

187.5 

147.3 

56  250 

44.179 

23.562 

9^6 

190.6 

149.7 

57.191 

44.918 

23.758 

96 

193-8 

152.2 

S8  141 

45-664 

23  9SS 

>Ma 

197.0 

154.7 

59.098 

46.415 

24.151 

% 

200.2 

157.2 

60.063 

47.173 

24-347 

>9^8 

203. S 

159.8 

61.035 

47.937 

24  544 

^/6 

206.7 

162.4 

62.016 

48.707 

24.740 

»M« 

210.0 

164.9 

63  004 

49.483 

24.936 

8 

213  3 

167.6 

64.000 

50.265 

25.133 

Mb 

216.7 

170.2 

65.004 

51  oS4 

25.329 

^ 

220.1 

172.8 

66.016 

51.849 

25  52s 

?i. 

223. 5 

175. 5 

67.03s 

•      52.649 

25.722 

V4 

226.9 

178.2 

68.063 

53.456 

25.918 

M» 

230.3 

180.9 

69.098 

54.269 

26.114 

H 

2.«  8 

183.6 

70.141 

55.088 

26.311 

Mb 

237.3 

186.4 

71.191 

55.914 

26.S07 

H 

240.8 

189.2 

72.250 

56.745 

26.704 

?<• 

244.4 

191.9 

73.316 

57.583 

26.900 

96 

248.0 

194.8 

74.391 

58.426 

27.096 

»M8 

251.6 

197.6 

75.473 

59.276 

27.293 

94 

255.2 

200.4 

76.563 

60.132 

27.489 

'9i6 

258.9 

203.3 

77.660 

60.994 

27.685 

7/6 

262,6 

206.2 

78.766 

61.862 

27.882 

»9i« 

266.3 

209.1 

79.879 

62.737 

28.078 

9 

270.0 

212. 1 

81.000 

63.617 

28.274 

M. 

273.8 

215.0 

82.129 

64. 504 

28.471 

H 

277.6 

218.0 

83.266 

65-397 

28.667 

M« 

281.4 

221.0 

84.410 

66.296 

28.863 

M 

285.2 

224.0 

85  563 

67.201 

29.060 

M« 

289  I 

227.0 

86,723 

68.112 

29.256 

96 

293.0 

230.1 

87.891 

69.029 

29.452 

M« 

296.9 

233-2 

89.066 

69  953 

29.649 

Weight  of  Square  and  Round  Bars 


139 


Weight  of  Square  and  Round  Bars  —  {Continued) 


Thickness 
or  diam- 

Weight of 
n  bar 

Weight  of 
0  bar 

Area  of 
n  bar 

Area  of 
0  bar 

Circum- 
ference of 

eter  in 

I  foot  long 

I  foot  long 

in  square 

in  square 

0  bar 

inches 

inches 

inches 

in  inches 

9}^ 

300.8 

236.3 

90.250 

70.882 

• • 

29.845 

9i6 

304.8 

239.4 

91.441 

71.818 

30.041 

5/i 

308.8 

242.5 

92.641 

72.760 

30.238 

>M6 

312.8 

245.7 

93.848 

73.708 

30.434 

% 

316.9 

248.9 

95.063 

74.662 

30.631 

>%6 

321.0 

252.1 

96.285 

75.622 

30.827 

% 

32s.  I 

255.3 

97.516 

76.589 

31  023 

15/15 

329.2 

258. 5 

98.754 

77.561 

31.200 

10 

333.3 

261.8 

100.00 

78.540 

31.416 

He 

337. 5 

265.1 

loi . 25 

79-525 

31.612 

W 

341.7 

268.4 

102.52 

80.516 

31.809 

fi6 

346.0 

271.7 

103.79 

81.513 

32.00s 

H 

3S0.2 

275.1 

105.06 

82.516 

32.201 

Ma 

354.5 

278.4 

106.3s 

83  525 

32.398 

% 

358.8 

281.8 

107.64 

84-541 

32.594 

Me 

363.1 

285.2 

108.94 

85-562 

32.790 

V^ 

367.5 

288.6 

110.25 

86.590 

32.987 

9ia 

371.9 

292.1 

III. 57 

87.624 

33.183 

96 

376.3 

29s.  5 

112.89 

88.664 

33-379 

•He 

380.7 

299.0 

114.22 

89.710 

33  576 

% 

385.2 

302.5 

115.56 

90.763 

33-772 

1^6 

389.7 

306.1 

116. 91 

91.821 

33.968 

J6 

394.2 

309.6 

118.27 

92.886 

34.16s 

1^6 

398.8 

313.2 

119.63 

93  956 

34  361 

II 

403 -3 

316.8 

121.00 

95  033 

34.558 

He 

407.9 

320.4 

122.38 

96.116 

34.754 

V6 

412.6 

324.0 

123.77 

97.205 

34.950 

Me 

417.2 

327.7 

125.16 

98.301 

35.147 

H 

421.9 

331.3 

126.56 

99.402 

35.343 

Me 

426.6 

335.0 

127.97 

100.51 

35.539 

96 

431.3 

338.7 

129.39 

101.62 

35.736 

Me 

436.1 

342.5 

130.82 

102.74 

35.932 

^^ 

440.8 

346.2 

132.25 

103.87 

36.128 

«/i6 

445.6 

350.0 

133.69 

105.00 

36.32s 

96 

4S0.5 

353.8 

135.14 

106.14 

36.521 

>He 

455. 3 

357.6 

136.60 

107.28 

36.717 

M 

460.2 

.361.4 

138.06 

108.43 

36.914 

iMe 

465.1 

365.3 

139-54 

109.59 

37.110 

J6 

470.1 

369.2 

141.02 

no.  75 

37.306 

iMe 

475. 0 

373.1 

142.50 

III. 92 

37  503 

14©  Mati'ri.ils 

Weights  and  Areas  of  Cold  Rolled  Steel  Shafting 


Uiam- 

Area, 

Circum- 

Weight 

Diam- 

Area, 

Circum- 

Weight 

eter, 

square 

ference, 

per  fool. 

eter. 

square 

ference, 

per  foot. 

inches 

inches 

inches 

pounds 

2*18 

inches 

inches 

pounds 

M« 

.0276 

.5890 

.09s 

3-7S«3 

6.8722 

12.80 

M 

.0491 

.7854 

.167 

2M 

3.9761 

7.0686 

13  S3 

9i. 

.0767 

.9817 

.260 

2^8 

4.2000 

7.2749 

14  35 

H 

.1104 

1.1781 

-375 

2H 

4-4301 

7-4613 

IS  07 

lit 

.IS03 

I  3744 

-5" 

2ji« 

4.6664 

7-6576 

IS.89 

H 

.1963 

1.5708 

.667 

2^ 

4-9087 

7.8540 

16.70 

^6 

.2485 

I. 7671 

-84s 

2?l8 

S-1572 

8. 0503 

17. 55 

H 

.3068 

1.963s 

I. OS 

aH 

S-4119 

8.2467 

18.41 

>H« 

.3712 

2.1598 

1.26 

2>H8 

S-6727 

8.4430 

19.31 

y* 

.4418 

2.3562 

I. SO 

2H 

S-9396 

8.6394 

20.21 

i^ie 

.5185 

2.552s 

1.77 

2'M8 

6.2126 

8.8357 

21.15 

% 

.6013 

2.7489 

2.0S 

2li 

6.4918 

9.0321 

22.09 

>?io 

.6903 

2.9452 

2.3s 

2l$'i8 

6.7771 

9.2284 

23.06 

1 

.7854 

3.1416 

2.68 

3 

7.0686 

9.4248 

240s 

iM. 

.8866 

3.3379 

3.02 

M 

7-6699 

9-8I7S 

26.09 

iH 

.9940 

3-5343 

3.38 

3^8 

7-9798 

10.014 

37.16 

1^8 

I . I07S 

3.7306 

3-77 

3'/4 

8.2958 

10.210 

38.23 

iV* 

I . 2272 

3  9270 

4-17 

3H 

8.9462 

10.603 

30.43 

iMb 

I.3S30 

4.1233 

.4-61 

3lU 

9.2806 

10.799 

31.58 

iW 

1.4849 

4.3197 

S-OS 

3W 

9.6211 

10.996 

32.73 

iM« 

1.6230 

4.S160 

552 

3H 

10.321 

11.388 

35.20 

m 

I. 7671 

4.7124 

6.0I 

3' Ms 

10.680 

11.585 

36.40 

iMb 

1.917s 

4.9087 

6.52 

3?4 

II. 04s     ■ 

II. 781 

37.57 

iW 

2.0739 

S.iosi 

7.06 

3'/6 

11.793 

12.174 

39.40 

1>H8 

2.236s 

S.3014 

7.61 

3>^8 

12.177 

12.370 

41.04 

i?4 

2.40S3 

S.4978 

8.18 

4 

12.566 

12.566 

43.75 

I'Me 

2.5802 

5-6941 

8.78 

4H 

14.186 

13-352 

48.26 

1% 

2.7612 

5 -890s 

9-39 

4?i8 

15-466 

13-941 

52.62 

ima 

2.9483 

6.0868 

10.03 

4!^ 

IS -904 

14.137 

54." 

2 

3.1416 

6.2832 

10.69 

4H 

17.728 

14.923 

60.88 

2H8 

3-34IO 

6.4793 

11-35 

4'M8 

19.147 

15.512 

65.50 

2H 

3.5466 

6. 6759 

12.07 

S 

19.635 

15.708 

67.45 

Corrugated  Iron  Roofing 


141 


Sheet  Iron 

Weight  of  a  superficial  foot. 


Number  of 

Weight  per 

Number  of 

Weight  per 

gauge 

foot 

gauge 

foot 

I 

II. 25 

16=  He 

2.5 

2 

10,62s 

17 

2.1875 

3=W 

10.00 

18 

1.875 

4 

9.37s 

19 

1. 7188 

5 

8.7SO 

20 

1.5625 

6 

8. 125 

21 

I . 4063 

7 

7SO 

22=!'^2 

1.2500 

8 

6.875 

23 

1. 120 

9 

6.250 

24 

1. 000 

10 

S.62S 

25 

.900 

11  =  5-8 

S-ooo 

26 

.800 

12 

4-375 

27 

.720 

13 

3.750 

28 

.640 

14 

3- 125 

29 

.560 

IS 

2.8125 

30 

.500 

Galvanized  Sheet  Iron 

Am.  Galv.  Iron  Ass'n.     B.  W.  G. 


No. 

Ounces 
avoir. 

per 

square 

foot 

Square 
feet  per 

2240 
pounds 

No. 

Ounces 
avoir. 

per 

square 

foot 

Square 
feet  per 

2240 
pounds 

No. 

Ounces 
avoir. 

per 

square 

foot 

Square 
feet  per 

2240 
pounds 

29 
28 
27 
26 
25 

12 
13 

14 
IS 
16 

2987 
2757 
2560 
2389 
2240 

24 
23 
22 
21 
20 

17 
19 
21 

24 
28 

2108 
1886 
1706 
1493 
1280 

19 
18 
17 
16 

14 

33 

38 
43 
48 
60 

1084 
943 

833      • 
746 
597 

Corrugated  Iron  Roofing 


B.  W. 
gauge 

Weight  per  square 

(100  square  feet). 

Plain 

Galvanized 

Number 
28 
26 
24 
22 
20 
18 
16 

Pounds 
97 
los 
128 
ISO 
185 
270 
340 

Weighs  from  5  to  is  per  cent 
heavier  than  plain,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  B.  W.  G. 

Allow  one-third  the  net  width  for  lapping  and  for  corrugations. 
2^  to  3!^  pounds  for  rivets  will  be  required  per  square. 


From 


142 


Malcriiils 
Sizes  and  Weight  of  Sheet  Tin 


Mark 


iC 

iiC 

mC 

iX 

iXX 

iXXX... 
iXXXX 

DC 

DX 

DXX  ... 
DXXX  . 
DXXXX 

SDC 

SDX 

SDXX... 
SDXXX. 
iCW 


Number  of 

sheets  in 

box 


22S 
225 

225 
22s 
225 
22s 
225 
100 
100 
100 

IOC 

100 
200 
200 
200 

200 
225 


Dimension 


Length, 
inches 


13W 

iM 
1294 
I3?4 
I3?4 
1394 
13?4 

mi 
mi 
mi 
mi 
mi 

IS 

15 

IS 
IS 
I3?4 


Breadth, 
inches 


94 


10 
10 

I2>^ 
I2W 
12!.^ 
125.4 
I2!-i 


Weight  of 

box. 

pounds 


lOS 

98 
140 
161 
182 
203 
los 
126 
147 
168 
189 
168 
189 
210 
231 
112 


A  bo.x  containing  225  sheets,  1354  by  10,  contains  214.84  square  feet; 
but  allowing  for  seams  it  will  cover  only  150  square  feet  of  roof. 
A  roof  covered  with  metal  should  slope  not  less  than  i  inch  to  the  foot. 


Weights  of  Sheet  Metals  per  Square  Foot 


Thick- 

Wrought 

Cast 

Steel, 

Copper, 

Brass, 

Lead, 

Zinc. 

ness, 
inches 

iron, 
pounds 

iron, 
pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

Me 

2.53 

2.34 

2.5s 

2.89 

2.73 

3.71 

2.34 

H 

5  OS 

4.69 

S.io 

5-78 

5.47 

7-42 

4-69 

^0 

7.58 

7.03 

7.66 

8.67 

8.20 

II -13 

7-03 

H 

10.10 

938 

10.21 

11.56 

10:94 

14-83 

938 

M. 

12.63 

11.72 

12.76 

14-45 

13-67 

18-54 

11.72 

H 

15  l6 

14.06 

15-31 

17-34 

16.41 

22.25 

14.06 

Ht 

17.68 

16.41 

17.87 

20.23 

19- 14 

25-96 

16.41 

H 

20.21 

18.75 

20.42 

23  13 

21.88 

29.67 

18.7s 

H 

25  27 

23  44 

25.  S2 

28.91 

27.34 

37-08 

23.44 

H 

30.31 

28.13 

30.63 

34  69 

32.81 

44  SO 

28.13 

Ji 

35-37 

32. 8l 

35-73 

40.47 

38.28 

SI  92 

32.81 

I 

40.42 

37. SO 

40.83 

46.25 

43-75 

59-33 

37.50 

Weight  of  Copper  and  Brass  Wire  and  Plates 


143 


Weight  of  Copper  and  Brass  Wire  and  Plates 

Brown  and  Sharpe  Gauge. 


Weight  of  wire  per 

Weight  of  plates  per 

No.  of 

Size  of 

1000  lineal  feet 

square  foot 

each  no., 

gauge 

inch 

Copper, 

Brass, 

Copper, 

Brass, 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

0000          I         .46000 

640.5 

605.28 

20.84 

19-69 

000                   .40964 

508.0 

479.91 

18.55 

17 

S3 

00                    . 36480 

402.0 

380.77 

16.52 

IS 

61 

0 

.32476 

319-5 

301.82 

14-72 

13 

90 

I 

.28930 

253-3 

239  45 

13.10 

12 

38 

2 

.25763 

200.9 

189.82 

11.67 

II 

03 

3 

.22942 

159  3 

150  .-52 

10.39 

9 

82 

4 

.20431 

126.4 

119.48 

9-25 

8 

74 

5 

.18194 

100.2 

94.67 

8.24 

7 

79 

6 

. 16202 

79-46 

75.08 

7.34 

6 

93 

7 

.14428 

63.01 

59-55 

6.54 

6 

18 

8 

. 12849 

49  98 

47.22 

5-82 

5 

SO 

9 

.11443 

39-64 

37-44 

5-18 

4 

90 

10 

. 10189 

31  43 

29.69 

4.62 

4 

36 

II 

.090742 

24.92 

23.55 

4-11 

3 

88 

12 

.080808 

19.77 

18.68 

3.66 

3 

46 

13 

.071961 

15-65 

14.81 

3.26 

3 

08 

14 

.064084 

12.44 

11-75 

2.90 

2 

74 

IS 

.057068 

9.86 

9-32 

2.59 

2 

44 

16 

.050820 

7-82 

7.59 

2.30 

2 

18 

17 

.045257 

6.20 

5.86 

2.05 

94 

18 

.040303 

4-92 

4-65 

1.83 

72 

19 

.035890 

3-90 

3.68 

1.63 

54 

20 

.031961 

3  09 

2.92 

1.45 

37 

21 

.028462 

2.45 

2.317 

1.29 

22 

22 

.025347 

1.94 

1.838 

I. IS 

08 

23 

.022571 

1.54 

1.457 

1.02 

966 

24 

.020100 

1.22 

1. 155 

.911 

860 

25 

.017900 

•  699 

.916 

.811 

766 

26 

.01494 

.769 

.727 

.722 

682 

27 

.014195 

.610 

.576 

.643 

608 

28 

.012641 

.484 

.457 

.573 

541 

29 

.011257 

.383 

.362 

.510 

482 

30 

.010025 

.304 

.287 

.454 

429 

31 

.008928 

.241 

.228 

.404 

382 

32 

.007950 

.191 

.181 

.360 

340  . 

33 

.007080 

.152 

.143 

.321 

303 

34 

.006304 

.120 

.114 

.286 

270 

35 

.005614 

.096 

.0915 

.254 

240 

36 

.005000 

.0757 

.0715 

.226 

214 

37 

.004453 

.0600 

.0567 

.202 

191 

38 

.003965 

.0467 

.0450 

.180 

170 

39 

.003531 

.0375 

■  0357 

.160 

ISI 

40 

.003144 

.0299 

.0283 

.142 

.I3S 

Specific  gravity 

8.880 

8.386 

8  698 

8.218 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 

555 

524-16 

543.6 

S13.6 

144  Mutcriak 

Weight  of  Sueet  and  Bar  Brass 


Sheets 

Round 

1 

Sheets 

Square 

Round 

Thick- 

per 

bars 

Thick- 

per 

bars 

bars 

ness. 

square 

I  foot 

ness, 

square 

1  foot 

1  fool 

inches 

foot, 

loHK, 

inches 

foot. 

long, 

Ions, 

pounds 

■  Ol.s 

;K^un(ls 
.01 1 

i'  11 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

M« 

3.7 

4S  95 

4.08 

3  ao 

H 

5-41 

.05.S 

.o.|5     1 

I'h 

48.69 

4. 55 

3  S7 

^9 

8.12 

.125 

.1 

l')i<i 

51. 4 

5.08 

3.97 

W 

10.76 

.225 

.175 

iH 

54.18 

5.6s 

4  41 

M« 

13.48 

350 

.275 

I9i8 

65.8s 

6.23 

486 

H 

16.25 

SI 

•  395 

m 

59  SS 

6.81 

5. 35 

^» 

19 

.69 

.54 

i?i« 

62.25 

7. 45 

5  85 

Vi 

21.65 

.90s 

.71 

I'/i 

65 

8.13 

637 

9^8 

24  3 

1. 15 

9 

i9i8 

67  75 

8.83 

6  93 

w 

27.13 

1.4 

I.I 

i5i 

70.35 

9  55 

7.48 

•Mb 

29.77 

1.72 

1.35       , 

I' Mb 

73 

10.27 

8.05 

Vk 

32.46 

2.05 

1.66       1 

Wk 

75.86 

II 

8.65 

'?^« 

35.18 

2.4 

1.85       i 

I'?l8 

78.55 

11.82 

9.39 

J6 

37.85 

2.75 

2.15 

1T6 

81.25 

12.68 

9  95 

'?<• 

40.5s 

3.  IS 

2.48 

I'5<B 

84 

13. S 

10.58 

I 

4329 

3.6s 

2.8s       1 

2 

86  75 

14.35 

11.25 

Weight  of  Round  Bolt  Copper  per  Foot 


Diameter, 
inches 

Pounds 

Diameter, 
inches 

Pounds 

Diameter, 
inches 

Pounds 

.425 
.756 
1,18 
1.70 
2.31 

I 

iH 

iH 

iH 

iH 

1 
3.02 

3.83 
4.72 
5. 72 
6.81         , 

i-}4 

'           3 
1     

7.99 
9  27 
10.64 
13. 10 

Areas  and  Weights  of  Fillets  of  Steel,  Cast  Iron  and  Brass     145 


Areas  and  Weights  of  Fillets  of  Steel,  Cast  Iron 
AND  Brass 

Calculations  are  based  on  the  following  weights: 

Steel 489 . 6  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Cast  iron 45° 

Cast  brass 504 


Fig.  39. 


Radius 

Area 

Weight  of  steel 

Weight  of  cast  iron 

Weight  of  cast  brass 

R 

Per  foot 

Per  inch 

Per  foot 

Per  inch 

Per  foot 

Per  inch 

M6 

.0008 

.0029 

.00024 

.0026 

.00022 

0029 

.00025 

^6 

.0033 

.oiis 

.00096 

.0106 

.0009 

.0118 

.0010 

ri6 

.0075 

.0255 

.0021 

.0235 

.0019 

.0263 

.0022 

H 

.0134 

.0455 

.0038 

.0418 

.003s 

.0469 

.0040 

Vie 

.0209 

.0712 

.0059 

.0655 

.0054 

.0733 

.0061 

H 

.0302 

.1027 

.0085 

.0945 

.0078 

.1058 

.0088 

lU 

.0411 

.1397 

.0116 

.1285 

.0107 

■  1439 

.0120 

H 

.0536 

.1825 

.0152 

.1679 

.0140 

.1880 

.0157 

%6 

.0679 

.2310 

.0192 

.2I2S 

.0177 

.2380 

0200 

H 

.0834 

.2847 

.0237 

.2169 

.0218 

.2932 

.0244 

iMe 

.1014 

.3447 

.0287 

•  3I7I 

.0264 

.3550 

.0300 

H 

.1207 

.4105 

.0342 

.3777 

■  031S 

.4228 

.0352 

^Hs 

.1416 

.4817 

.0401 

.4432 

.0369 

.4962 

.0414 

'A 

.1643 

.5580 

.0465 

.5134 

.0428 

.5747 

.0479 

1^6 

.1886 

.6405 

.OS34 

.5893 

.0491 

.6597 

.0550 

I 

.2146 

.7300 

.0608 

6716 

.0559 

.7519 

,0626 

iH 

.2716 

.9250 

.0771 

.8sio 

.0709 

.9527 

.0794 

•iM 

.3353 

1. 140 

.0950 

1.049 

.0874 

1. 174 

.0979 

i^ 

.4057 

1.200 

.1000 

1. 104 

.0920 

1.236 

.1030 

i^^ 

.4828 

1.642 

.1368 

•I.SII 

.1259 

1. 691 

.1410 

iH 

.5668 

I  930 

.1608 

1.776 

■  1479 

1.988 

■  I6S7 

iH 

.6572 

2.23s 

.1862 

2.056 

.1713 

2.302 

.1920 

ili 

.7545 

2.565 

.2137 

2  360 

.1970 

2.642 

.2202 

2 

.858S 

2.917 

.2431 

2.684 

.2237 

3.005 

.2504 

2H 

.9692 

3.292 

.2743 

3.029 

.2502 

3-091 

.2826 

2>4 

1.086 

3.695 

.3079 

3.399 

.2832 

3.806 

.3172 

2% 

1. 210 

4. IIS 

.3429 

3.786 

.3155 

4.238 

.3532 

2H 

1. 341 

4.560 

.3800 

4.19s 

.3496 

4.697 

.3014 

2H 

1.478 

5.030 

.4192 

4.628 

.3857 

5. 181 

.4317 

2% 

1.623 

5.S07 

.4589 

5  066 

.4222 

S.672 

.4727 

2H 

1.774 

6.027 

.5022 

5.545 

.4621 

6.208 

.5017 

3 

1. 931 

6.56s 

.S47I 

S.940 

.4950 

6.762 

.5635 

3H 

2.096 

7  123 

.5937 

6.555 

.5462 

7.339 

.6116 

3H 

2.267 

7.700 

.6417 

7.084 

.5903 

7-931 

.6609 

3% 

2.444 

8.300 

.6917 

7.636 

.6363 

8.549 

7124 

ZVi 

2.629 

8.92s 

.7438 

8. 211 

.6926 

9.193 

.7661 

35i 

2.820 

9.575 

.7979 

8.809 

.7341 

9.862 

.8220 

3% 

3.018 

10.27 

.8523 

9.448 

.7873 

10.58 

.8817 

3l<i 

3.222 

10.97 

.9142 

10.09 

.8408 

11.30 

.9417 

4 

3.434 

11.6s 

.9709 

10.72 

.8933 

12.00 

1. 000 

4Vi 

3.652 

12.40 

1.033 

II. 41 

.9508 

12.77 

1.064 

4!'i 

3.876 

13.15 

1.096 

12.10 

1.008 

13.54 

1. 130 

49i 

4.I07 

13-97 

1. 164 

12.8s 

1. 071 

14-39 

1. 199 

4H 

4.346 

14.77 

1. 231 

13.59 

1. 132 

15.21 

1.270 

m 

4. 59° 

IS. 60 

1.300 

14.33 

1. 196 

16.07 

1.340 

m 

4.842 

16.45 

1. 371 

IS.  13 

1. 261 

16.94 

1. 412 

4% 

5. 100 

17  32 

1.444 

15  93 

1.328 

17.84 

1-487 

5 

5.365 

18.2s 

1. 521 

16.79 

1.400 

18.80 

I-S70 

Contributed  by  Ernest  J.  Lees. 


140 


Malcriiils 


Gauges  and  Wkiguts  ov  Iron  Wikk 


The  siw-s  and  weights  from  No.  ao  to  No.  40  arc  those  of  the  Trenton  Iron  Co. 
Trenton.  .\.  J. 


i 


No. 

1),,,M„NT, 

Lineal  (ect 

No. 

Diameter, 

Lineal  feet 

inches 

to  the  pound 

inches 
.013 

to  the  pound 

31 

.031 

392  772 

31 

3333. 6s3 

33 

.038 

481  234 

32 

.013 

3620.607 

23 

.02s 

603.863 

i3 

.011 

3119  092 

24 

.022s 

745. 710 

34 

.010 

3773  584 

3S 

.020 

943.396 

35 

.0095 

4182  S08 

36 

.oi8 

1164.689 

1           36 

.009 

4657.738 

37 

.017 

1305.670 

37 

.0085 

5222  035 

38 

.016 

1476.869 

38 

.008 

5896.147 

29 

.015 

1676.989 

39 

.0075 

6724  391 

30 

.014 

1925.321 

40 

.007 

7698.353 

American  Steel  &  Wire  Company 


Full  sizes  of  plain  wire 


o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 


Fig.  40. 


Gauge 


Diameter 
of  Amer- 
ican Steel 

&  Wire 
Co.  's  gauge 


.2830 
.2625 
.2437 

.2253 

.2070 
.1920 


.1483 
.1350 
.1205 
.1055 
.0915 
.0800 
.0720 
.0625 
.0540 
.0475 
.0410 
.0348 


Weight 

one  mile, 

pounds 


1128.0 
970.4 
836.4 
714.8 
6034 
S19  2 
441.2 
369.6 
309  7 
256.7 
204. 5 
156.7 
117. 9 
90  13 
73  01 
55  01 
41.07 
31-77 
23.67 
17.05 


Feet  to 
pound 


4.681 


6.313 
7.386 


8.750 


14.29 

17  OS 
20.57 
25.82 
33.69 
44  78 
58.58 
72.32 
95  98 
128.6 
166.2 
223  o 
309.6 


Iron  Wire 


147 


Iron  Wire 

Measured  by  Washburn  &  Moen  gauge.    List  prices  per  pound. 


No. 


0000  to  9 
10  and  II 

12 
13  and  14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 


*  Bright 
market  wire 


$0.10 
.11 

.11^2 
.12}.^ 
.14 
.14 

IS 

.16 
■  19 

.20 

.21 
.22 
.23 
.24 
.25 
.26 
.28 
.29 
.30 
.32 
.33 
.35 
.37 
.40 

•  45 

•  55 


Galvanized 

market 

wire 


$0.10 
.11 

.iiH 

.12}.^ 

.14 

.14 

.IS 

.16 
■  19 
.20 
.21 
.22 
.23 
.24 

.25 

.26 
.28 
■29 
.30 
.32 
.33 

.35 
.37 
.40 
•  45 
.55 


Annealed 

stone  wire, 

bright  or 

black 


$0.14 
.15 
.16 

■  19 
.20 
.21 
.22 
.23 
.24 
.25 
.26 
.28 

■  29 
.30 
.32 
.33 
.35 
.37 
.40 
.45 
.55 


Tinned 

market 

wire 


$0.15 
.16 
.17 
.17 

.I7'/2 
.I7'/2 

.18 


Tinned 
stone 
wire 


i8>/^ 

19 

19 

20 

20 


*  Coppered  Market  Wire  and  Coppered  Bessemer  Spring  Wire  take  same  list  prices 
as  Bright  Market  Wire. 


148 


Ma(cri;il.s 


Nails  and  Tacks 

<  oiiuii'jii  Wire  N.u! 
Measured  by  \S'ashburn  &  Mocn  Gauge 


Size 

Length  and  gauge 

Approx. 

, 

Inch 

No. 

pound 

2d 

I 

IS 

876 

3d 

lU 

14 

S68 

4d 

iMi 

I2!i 

316 

Sd 

m 

12h 

271 

6d 

2 

11! -J 

281 

7d 

2W 

n!-v 

161 

8d 

2\i 

loU 

106 

9d 

2H 

loU 

96 

lod 

3 

9 

69 

1 2d 

iV* 

9 

63 

i6d 

SH 

8 

49 

20d 

4 

6 

31 

3od 

4'A 

5 

24 

4od 

5 

4 

18 

sod 

sH 

3 

14 

6o<l 

6 

2 

II 

Length  axd  Number  of  Tacks  to  the  Pound 


Name, 

Length, 

No.  to  the 

Name, 

Length, 

No.  to  the 

ounces 

inches 

pound 

ounces 

inches 

pound 

I 

H 

16,000 

10 

>H» 

1600 

iM 

^. 

10,666 

12 

H 

1333 

2 

M 

8,000 

14 

'^« 

1143 

2\.\ 

M. 

6,400 

16 

% 

1000 

3 

H 

S.333 

18 

>M« 

888 

4 

Mo 

40,000 

20 

I 

800 

6 

^a 

2,666 

22 

iMb 

727 

8 

% 

2,000 

24 

1^ 

666 

United  States  Standard  Threads 
United  States  Standard  Threads 


149 


Nominal 

diameter  of 

screw, 

inches 

No.  of 

threads 

per 

inch 

Diameter  of 

tap  at  root  of 

thread 

Size  of  tap 

drill,  giving  a 

clearance  of 

i-i  the  height  of 

the  original 
thread  triangle 

Area  at 
root  of 
thread, 
square 
inches 

Safe  load 

on  threaded 

bolt  on 

basis  of 

6000  pounds 

stress  per 

sq.  in.  of 

section  at 

Inches 

Nearest 
64ths 

Inches 

Nearest 
64ths 

root  of 
thread, 
pounds 

H 

.250 

20 

.185 

?16    - 

.196 

'3/64- 

.027 

162 

Me 

.312 

18 

.240 

15-64  + 

.252 

1/4     + 

.045 

270 

% 

.375 

16 

.294 

1^64- 

.307 

Via  — 

.068 

408 

•'M 

.437 

14 

.345 

M42  + 

.360 

2%4  + 

.093 

558 

H 

.500 

13 

.400 

1?42- 

.417 

2J64- 

.126 

756 

^Ae 

.562 

12 

.454 

2?64  + 

.472 

1542  + 

.162 

997 

n 

.62s 

II 

.507 

1/i      + 

.527 

^%2- 

.202 

1,210 

iMe 

.687 

II 

.569 

?i5    + 

.589 

l?i2- 

.254 

1,520 

H 

.750 

10 

.620 

%      - 

.642 

*Hi  + 

.302 

1,810 

1^6 

.812 

10 

.683 

iHe- 

.704 

*%4  + 

.366 

2,190 

■'A 

.875 

9 

.731 

*'Ai- 

.755 

3/4      + 

.420 

2,520 

1^6 

.937 

9 

.793 

5^4- 

.817 

13/'16  + 

.494 

2,960 

I 

1. 000 

8 

.838 

21:^2- 

.865 

55/64  + 

.551 

3.300 

iHe 

1.062 

8 

.900 

2932- 

.927 

5?64  + 

.636 

3,810 

iH 

1. 125 

7 

.939 

1^6  + 

.970 

31/^2  + 

.694 

4,160 

.   1^6 

1. 187 

7 

1.002 

I           + 

1.032 

l!'^2    + 

.788 

4,720 

iH 

1.250 

7 

1.064 

1M5    + 

1.095 

l3/fe    + 

.893 

5,350 

iH 

1.375 

6 

1. 158 

I5i2    + 

I.  215 

ij;i2  - 

I.OS7 

6,340 

i\i 

l.Soo 

6 

1.283 

l%2    + 

1.345 

lH/i2  + 

1.295 

7.770 

iH 

1.625 

5'/-2 

1.389 

125/64- 

1.428 

I2%4  + 

1.51S 

9,090 

m 

1.750 

5 

1.490 

13164  + 

1.534 

117/^2  + 

1.746 

10,470 

1% 

1.87s 

5 

1. 615 

13  964  + 

1.659 

l2I/^2  + 

2.051 

12,300 

2 

2.000 

4H 

1. 711 

12  3/^2- 

1.760 

l*%i- 

2.302 

13,800 

214 

2.250 

Ali 

1. 961 

16I/64  + 

2.010 

21-64    - 

3.023 

18,100 

2H 

2.500 

4 

2.175 

211/64  + 

2.230 

215.64- 

3.719 

22,300 

2% 

2.750 

4 

2.425 

22%4  + 

2.480 

231/64- 

4.620 

27,700 

3 

3-000 

3I/6 

2.629 

2H      + 

2.691 

211/16  + 

5.428 

32,500 

354 

3-250 

3M2 

2.879 

2^/8      + 

2.941 

21^6  + 

6.510 

39.000 

3H 

3- 500 

3H 

3.100 

33/^2    + 

3.167 

3i'/64- 

7.548 

45,300 

3% 

3  750 

3 

3.317 

3^6    + 

3.389 

325/64- 

8.641 

SI. 800 

4 

4.000 

3 

3.567 

3^6    + 

3.639 

3*'/64- 

9.963 

59.700 

I50 


Materials 


JB 
CO 

1 

1 

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jod  •sqi 
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»   M   ri  "^  ■*  "^  **>  *   O   «   JO  1^  O   jj  Q  t  "O 

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ooo'oi  ^v 

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a 

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< 

JO  uiOMOg 

S  i>8  8- 2  "S  8  ft  ^  K^'g  g  S"  «  ?  ?  ft  S  ;i5 

««MM««.^r^* 

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?&s:?2'S^ft?5'SS;S's^'&&%'R^s;S.5 

«««•«■«■«    r^  r^  ^  « 

\ri         \n         \fi 

Nioi>.        dio        »o        »o        tn        tn        m 

1 

s 

pKJjqi 
JO  uio;;oa 

liirillBlilfllllilsl 

-;»;„„«»-■«•«« 

^|gis  =  sii^?^SH'Ss^i§i: 

iHM»i-i»i-ir4NnnMr>jrofO-<r«'<r 

QOl/^r^         0O»/^          1/^          lO          lO          »0          Ifl 
10ulCSl--OOS>0«'*<000           >-if»)l/5t~O>i->IO00C1 
Mi-Jl-jMMCIM'citiNcifOfOW'T 

1 

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M    w    M   «'   «    l-i    >.i   «    «   «   ei   M 

United  States  Standard  Bolts  and  Nuts 


151 


^ioiovo"difOt~*Nr*ioN   N 


10  "O  t--  00  c^  I 


w  -^  10  t>-  a»  M 


00  o^oo  o*r*r^"^'*^o%c?*»oo 
Oi-.i-i5-<3-t^ioiO'^"  «.«.. 

t*-Q0<Ococ^Ch»o^O  N 


^  ^  10  "O  t^  00  a» 


o  o 
10  rr 

■^  dl  po 


po  '^  10  r* 


000  M  t^-<tfOfO»00»/^r^Nf*? 
^Cft<S'«t«ooq  QwrO'^io'Ot^ 

0N»O  o'"^'-^"cfit^OvOr^Ch(N 


10  0%  00  10  00  t^  N 

M  i-r  10  "^  "^  Oi  00 

q  (N  »H  00  (N  r^  IN 

»o^  r*  00  a.  o  I-. 


fO  O  t»  TT  I 


-  ^  r*  o^  t-( 


N 


low  o^Mio  O^O^o^f^-^r^iot^ 

OOwO     <N     t^t^lOlOO     tOOOOOlO 

CftChM  (Sob  C^  O>00CTtlOi-i  o  »-< 
^fONMrfoCNodlOt^t^N-^ 
C^M    roiOt-*O^N    ^r^Qf^t^O 

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VO  lO^lOMOO^OO  ^t-tOO  lOT 
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tCi-r^QO-rtM(^fClCo%dlOOO 
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00 

^ 

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0 

0 

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lO 

^_^ 

X 

,« 

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Ht 

ro 

t^ 

0 

ts 

1- 

t- 

01 

^ 

n 

M 

fO 

CO 

PO 

to 

-* 

Tf 

"i- 

T 

•* 

10 

10 

0 

0 

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M 

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„ 

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M 

» 

t^ 

r^ 

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01 

0 

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M 
M 

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IS2 


Materials 


Nuts  and  Washers,  Number  to  the  Pound 
United  States  Standard  Nuts 

Approumatc  Number  in  One  Hundred  Pounds 


Hot  pressed 

Cold  punched 

Size  of 
bolt, 
inches 

Blank                          Tapped 

Plain 

Chamfered, 

trimmed  and 

reamed 

Square 

Hexagon 

Square 

Hexagon 

Square     "«"" 

Square 
blank 

Heia- 
blank 

H 
^ 

Vi 

91 » 

5i 

9i 

1 

iH 
iM 
iH 
iV4 
iH 
1% 
iJ6 

2 

2H 

2H 

2ji 

2V^ 

2% 

3 

7200 

4010 

2540 

I7S0 

1 17s 

910 

6SS 

387 

260 

172 

133 

98 

73 

58 

.      44 

38 

31 

25 

20 

18 

15 

12 

9 
7 

8400 

5300 

3070 

2080 

1430 

1030 

798 

479 

31S 

216 

ISS 

114 

91 

73 

57 

41 

39 

32 

25 

21 

20 

16 

II 

8^4 

7SOO 
4SOO 
2720 
1900 
1250 

980 

700 

408 

264 

176 

139 

lOI 

77 

61 

49 

40 

33 

27 

21 

18' J 

15^4 

12^^ 
9^4 
7.4 

9000 

SSoo 

3200 

2170 

IS12 

1150 

850 

528 

332 

230 

180 

129 

96 

77 

60 

44 

40 

33 

26 

22 

20Vi 

16'/^ 

II.4 
9 

6700 

4100 

2400 

1550 

HOC 

82s 

580 

348 

228 

156 

122 

88 

65 

54 

42 

33 

27 

23 

19 

17 

7S0O 

4700 

2800 

1830 

1300 

990 

700 

438 

290 

198 

140 

103 

77 

63 

SO 

39 

31 

28 

24 

30 

7400 
4000 
2730 
1700 
1 160 

900 

653 

386 

360 

170 

133 
90 
69 

54 

43 

35 

29 

24 

3oV4 

17 

IS 

12 

8880 

4800 

3276 

3040 

1392 

1080 

784 

463 

312 

304 

146 

108 

83 

6s 

53 

43 

35 

29 

36 

23 

30 

16 

Wrought  Steel  Plate  Washers 
Wrought  Steel  Plate  Washers 


153 


Fig.  41. 

In  200-pound  Kegs.    List  prices  per  100  pounds. 


Thickness, 

Size  of 

Outside 

Size  of  hole. 

English 

Approximate 

Per  100 

bolt, 

diameter, 

inches 

standard 

number  in 

pounds 

inches 

inches 

wire  gauge 

100  pounds 

No. 

^6 

9^6 

'/4 

18 

44.075 

$14.00 

H 

Vi 

5i6 

16 

13,845 

12.20 

Me 

li 

H 

16 

11,220 

11.40 

% 

I 

lU 

14 

6,573 

10.50 

Mb 

iH 

Vi 

14 

4,261 

9.70 

H 

i?6 

9i6 

12 

2,683 

9.20 

?i6 

iH 

^6 

12 

2,249 

9.10 

5i 

1% 

'Me 

10 

1,315 

9.00 

H 

2 

i^ie 

10 

1,013 

8.80 

-;i 

2V4 

15/19 

9 

858 

8.80 

I 

2^ 

iH 

9 

617 

8.80 

1^6 

2H 

i54 

9 

S16 

8.80 

IW 

3 

i?6 

9 

403 

9.00 

1% 

3» 

r\'i 

8 

320 

9.00 

m 

3^^ 

i^i 

8 

278 

9.20 

m 

3% 

i?4 

8 

247 

9.20 

1% 

4 

iji 

8 

224 

950 

i?6 

4« 

2 

8 

200 

9. SO 

2 

4V'2 

2\^ 

8 

180 

9  50 

In  ordering,  always  specify  size  of  bolt. 


Fig.  42. 
Showing  Lock  Washer  on  Bolt. 

When  the  nut  is  screwed  upon  the  bolt,  it  first  strikes  the  rib  on  the 
lock  washer,  which,  being  harder  than  the  nut,  progressively  upsets 
and  forces  some  of  the  metal  of  the  nut  into  the  thread  of  the  bolt, 
thereby  preventing  the  nut  from  backing  off  or  loosening. 

Can  be  used  on  any  make  of  bolt  or  nut.  The  same  bolt,  nut  and  lock 
washer  can  be  used  as  often  as  required. 

Prices  upon  receipt  of  specifications. 


IS4 


MutcriaLi 


r 


l-IG.  43. 


The  positive  lock  washer  is  so  constructed  that  the  "body"  of  the 
washer  carries  the  load  of  compression  and  the  tapered  ends  are  thus 
rehevcd  and  the  spring  is  constant.  The  barbs,  being  free  to  move  when 
subjected  to  vibration,  force  themselves  deeply  into  the  nut  and  metal 
backing. 

Are  reversible  and  can  be  used  many  times.  Do  not  injure  the  nut, 
its  thread,  or  the  threads  of  the  bolt. 


Machine  Bolts 


155 


Machine  Bolts 

Approximate  Weight  per  100  of  Machine  Bolts  with  Square 
Heads  and  Square  Nuts 


Length 

K4 

Me 

H 

Vie 

H 

9i« 

^ 

Pound 

Pound 

Pound 

Pound 

Pound 

Pound 

Pound 

H 

2.55 

4.4 

7.71 

10 

% 

2.64 

4.65 

8.04 

10.53 

I 

2.73 

4-9 

8.36 

11.03 

15.5 

19.8 

28.95 

iV* 

2.9 

5-4 

9.01 

II. 9 

16.7 

21.6 

30.89 

iH 

3.08 

5.9 

9.66 

12.8 

17-9 

23.4 

31  83 

2 

3-43 

6.8 

10.94 

14. 5 

20.4 

27 

36.7 

2M2 

4-45 

7.8 

12.74 

17.25 

24.91 

31. S 

41. 55 

3 

5.45 

8.7 

14.37 

18.75 

27.64 

33  I 

45. 4 

3H 

6.46 

9.7 

15.83 

20.90 

29.74 

36.7 

49.28 

4 

7.09 

10.7 

17.3 

23.09 

32.89 

40.3 

53-16 

4H 

7-7 

II. 7 

18.76 

25.27 

34.98 

43 

57  04 

S 

8.3 

12.7 

20.2 

27.50 

36.01 

47.3 

61.9 

sH 

8.9 

13.7 

21.58 

29  59 

38.61 

SO. 9 

65-77 

6 

95 

14-7 

22.95 

31.68 

41.22 

52.9 

68.9 

6}^ 

10.2 

15.7 

24.42 

33-9 

43.82 

56. 5 

72.77 

7 

10.8 

16.7 

25-9 

35.73 

46.42 

60.7 

76.71 

7W 

II  S 

17.7 

27-37 

37.56 

49.02 

64 -3 

80.58 

8 

12. 1 

18.7 

28.84 

39 

SI.  64 

67.9 

84-45 

9 

13.4 

20.8 

31.8 

43.18 

56.84 

75. 1 

92.19 

10 

14.6 

22.9 

34.75 

47.36 

62.04 

82.3 

99  94 

II 

15.8 

24.9 

37-7 

51.6 

67.24 

89.5 

107.69 

12 

17 

26.9 

40.65 

55.76 

72.44 

96.7 

IIS. 44 

13 

18.2 

28.9 

43-6 

59-92 

77.64 

103.9 

123.19 

14 

19  4 

31. 0 

46.55 

64.20 

82.84 

III. I 

130.94 

IS 

20.6 

33 

49.5 

68.36 

88.04 

118. 3 

138.69 

16 

21.8 

35 

52.45 

72.52 

93.24 

125. 5 

146.44 

17 

23 

37 

55.4 

76.68 

98 -44 

132.7 

154.19 

18 

24.2 

39 

58.35 

80.84 

103.64 

139  9 

161.94 

19 

25-4 

41 

61.3 

85 

108.83 

147. 1 

169.69 

20 

26.6 

43 

64.25 

89.16 

114.04 

154. 3 

177.44 

21 

27.8 

45 

67.20 

93  32 

119.20 

161.  s 

185.19 

22 

29 

47 

70.15 

97.48 

124.44 

168.7 

192.94 

23 

30.2 

49 

73- 1 

lOI .  64 

129.6s 

175.9 

200.69 

24 

31.4 

51 

76.0s 

105.80 

134-80 

183. 1 

208.44 

25 

32.6 

53 

79 

109.96 

140.04 

190.3 

216.19 

26 

33.8 

55 

81.9s 

114. 12 

145-24 

197. 5 

224.94 

27 

35 

57 

84.9 

118  28 

150.44 

204.7 

232.19 

28 

36.2 

59 

87.8 

122.44 

155  64 

211. 9 

240.44 

29 

37.4 

61 

90. 75 

126.60 

160.84 

219. 1 

248.24 

30 

38.6 

63 

93.7 

130.76 

166.04 

226.3 

254.94 

156 


Materials 


Approximate  Wkiomt  pi :r  ioo  of  Macuine  Bolts  with  Square 

'!  ,iUAR£  Nuts  —  {Continued) 


Length 

Poun<i 

Pound 

I 

Pound 

Pounds 

i 

Pounds 

Poondf 

9* 

I 



47.63 

iW 

SO.  10 

iH 

52.57 

81.25 

3 

S7.6 

90.63 

137.50 

178.00 

233. 37 

aW 

63  44 

98.63 

149  10 

192.87 

253  75 

3 

69.84 

106.3 

160.75 

207.75 

372.12 

■■458" 

3« 

7S.93 

114.30 

171.55 

222.62 

290.50 

483 

4 

81.77 

122.30 

182.35 

237.50 

308.88 

S08 

4H 

87.61 

130.30 

193.15 

232.38 

327.25 

533 

5 

93 -45 

138.30 

203.90 

267.25 

345  63 

SS8 

SH 

99  46 

146.30 

214.75 

282.13 

364.00 

583 

6 

105. 13 

154.30 

225.65 

397.00 

382.37 

608 

16!^ 

III. 14 

162.30 

236.35 

311.87 

399  22 

633 

7 

117. IS 

170.30 

247. IS 

316  75 

416.07 

6s8 

7W 

123.16 

178.30 

257. 95 

321.62 

432.92 

683 

8 

139.17 

186.30 

268.75 

336.49 

449  77 

708 

9 

141. 19 

202.30 

290.35 

366.23 

483  47 

7S8 

lo 

153.21 

218.30 

311.95 

395.98 

S17.17 

808 

II 

165.23 

234-30 

333. 55 

425.73 

SS0.87 

858 

12 

177.2s 

250.30 

355.15 

455.48 

584.57 

908 

13 

189.27 

266.30 

376.75 

483.33 

618.27 

958 

14 

201.29 

282.30 

398.35 

514.98 

651  97 

1008 

IS 

213-31 

298.30 

419.9s 

544. 73 

685.67 

1058 

l6 

225.33 

314.30 

441. 55 

574.48 

719.37 

1108 

17 

237  35 

330.30 

463.15 

604.23 

753  07 

11S8 

l8 

249  37 

346.30 

484.75 

633.98 

786.77 

I308 

19 

261.39 

362.30 

506.33 

663.73 

610.47 

1258 

20 

273.41 

378.30 

527.95 

693.48 

844  17 

1308 

21 

285 . 43 

394  30 

549  55 

723.23 

877.17 

1358 

22 

297.45 

410.30 

571.15 

752.98 

911-57 

1408 

23 

309.47 

426.30 

592.75 

782.73 

945.27 

1458 

24 

321.49 

442.30 

614.3s 

812.48 

978.97 

IS08 

25 

333. SI 

458.30 

635.93 

842.23 

1012.67 

1558 

26 

345. S3 

464.30 

657.35 

871.98 

1046.37 

1608 

27 

357. 55 

480.30 

679  15 

901.73 

1080.07 

1658 

28 

369.57 

496  30 

700.7s 

931  48 

1113.77 

1708 

29 

381.59 

512.30 

722.35 

961.23 

1147.47 

1758 

30 

393.61 

528.30 

743  95 

990.98 

1181.17 

1808 

These  weiRhts  are  for  bolts  with  bolt  size  nuts,  and  with  heads  of  diameter  equal 
to  ij-i  times  diameter  of  bolt,  and  thickness  equal  to  }i  times  diameter  of  bolt. 


Machine  Bolts 


157 


Machine  Bolts  with  Square  or  Button  Heads,  Square  Nuts 

AND  Finished  Points 

Adopted  Sept.  20, 1899,  to  take  effect  Oct.  i,  1899.    List  prices  per  100. 


Length, 

Diameter,  inches 

inches 

?l6 

Vi 

}is 

% 

yie 

H 

and 

H 

'A 

I 

iH 

iH 

tH 

$1.70  $2 

.00    $2 

.40 

$2.80 

$3.60 

$5.20 

$7.20 

$10.50 

$15.10 

$22.50 

$30.00 

2 

1.78     2 

.12       2 

.56 

3 

00 

3.86 

5. 58 

7.70 

11.20 

16.00 

23.70 

31.50 

214 

1,86     2 

.24        2 

.72 

3 

20 

4.12 

5.96 

8.20 

11.90 

16.90 

24.90 

33.00 

3 

1.94     2 

.36       2 

.88 

3 

40 

4-38 

6.34 

8.70 

12.60 

17.80 

26.10 

34.50 

3H 

2.02     2 

.48      3 

.04 

3 

60 

4.64 

6.72 

9.20 

13.30 

18.70 

27.30 

36.00 

4 

2.10     2 

.60     3 

.20 

3 

80 

4.90 

7.10 

9.70 

14.00 

19.60 

28.50 

37.50 

4H 

2.18     2 

.72      3 

.36 

4 

00 

5. 16 

7.48 

10.20 

14.70 

20.50 

29.70 

39.00 

5 

2.26     2 

.84      3 

.52 

4 

20 

5.42 

7.86 

10.70 

15.40 

21.40 

30.90 

40.50 

5H 

2.34     2 

.96      3 

.68 

4 

40 

5.68 

8.24 

11.20 

16.10 

22.30 

32.10 

42.00 

6 

2.42     3 

.08      3 

.84 

4 

60 

5.94 

8.62 

11.70 

16.80 

23.20 

33.30 

43.50 

6]^ 

2.50     3 

.20      4 

.00 

4 

80 

6.20 

9.00 

12.20 

17.50 

24.10 

34.50 

45.00 

7 

2.58  1  3 

■  32      4 

.16 

5 

00 

6.46 

938 

12.70 

18.20 

25.00 

35.70 

46.50 

7Vi 

2.66     3 

.44      4 

32 

5 

20 

6.72 

9.76 

13.20 

1S.90 

25.90 

36.90 

48.00 

8 

2.74      3 

.56      4 

48 

5 

40 

6.98 

10.14 

13.70 

19.60 

26.80 

38.10 

49.50 

9 

2.90      3 

.80      4 

80 

5 

80 

7.50 

10.90 

14.70 

21.00 

28.60 

40.50 

52.50 

10 

3.06      4 

.04     5 

12 

6 

20 

8.02 

11.66 

15.70 

22.40 

30.40 

42.90 

55.50 

II 

3.22      4 

.28     5 

44 

6 

60 

8.54 

12.42 

16.70 

23.80 

32.20 

45.30 

58.50 

12 

3.38     4 

.52      5 

76 

7. 

00 

9.06 

13.18 

.17.70 

25.20 

34.00 

47.70 

61.50 

13 

...      6 

08 

7. 

40 

9.58 

13.94 

18.70 

26.60 

35.80 

50.10 

64.50 

14 

...      6 

40 

7 

80 

10.10 

14.70 

19.70 

28.00 

37.60 

52.50 

67.50 

IS 

...      6 

72 

8. 

20 

10.62 

15.46 

20.70 

29.40 

39-40 

54.90 

70.50 

16 

...      7 

04 

8 

60 

II.  14 

16.22 

21.70 

30.80 

41.20 

57.30 

73.50 

17 

. 

...      7 

36 

9- 

00 

11.66 

16.98 

22.70 

32.20 

43.00 

59-70 

76.50 

18 

. 

...      7 

68 

9. 

40 

12.18 

17.74 

23.70 

33.60 

44.80 

62.10 

79  50 

19 

...      8 

00 

9. 

80 

12.70 

18.50 

24.70 

35  00 

46.60 

64-50 

82.50 

20 

...      8 

32 

10. 

20 

13.22 

19.26 

25.70 

36.40 

48.40 

66.90 

85.  SO 

21 

13-74 

20.02 

26.70 

37.80 

50.20 

69.30 

88.50 

22 

14.26 

20.78 

27.70 

39.20 

52.00 

71.70 

91  SO 

23 

14.78 

21.54 

28.70 

40.60 

53.80 

74.10 

94.50 

24 

15.30 

22.30 

29.70 

42.00 

55. 60 

76.50 

97.50 

25 

15  82 

23.06 

30.70 

43.40 

57.40 

78.90 

100.50 

26 

31.70 

44.80 

59.20 

81.30 

103  so 

27 

32.70 

46.20 

61.00 

83.70 

106 . 50 

28 

33.70 

47.60 

62.80 

86.10 

109.50 

29 

34.70 

49.00 

64.60 

88.50 

112.50 

30 

35.70 

so.  40 

66.40 

90.90 

115. SO 

Bolts  with  hexagon  heads  or  hexagon  nuts,  10  per  cent  advance. 

If  both  hexagon  heads  and  hexagon  nuts,  20  per  cent  advance. 

Machine  bolts  with  countersunk  head,  joint  bolts  with  oblong  nuts,  bolts  with 
tee  heads,  askew  heads,  and  eccentric  heads,  10  per  cent  advance. 

Bolts  with  cube  heads,  20  per  cent  advance. 

Bolts  requiring  extra  upsets  to  form  the  head,  20  per  cent  advance  for  each  extra 
upset. 

Special  bolts  with  irregular  threads  and  unusual  dimensions  of  heads  or  nuts  will 
be  charged  extra  at  the  discretion  of  the  manufacturer. 

Bolts  with  cotter  pin  hole,  prices  upon  application.  In  ordering  bolts  with  cotte*' 
pin  hole,  state  size  of  hole,  and  distance  from  end  of  bolt  to  center  of  hole. 


158 


Materials 


r  ■■  T 


Bolt  Ends  and  Lag  Screws 
Bolt  Ends  Fittku  with  Squark  Nuts* 

Adopted  Jan.  30,  189s.  to  take  effect  Feb.  14.  1895. 
List  prices  pt:r  pound. 


Fig.  44. 

Flu 

•45- 

Size  of 
iron, 

Length, 

Length 
of  thread. 

Price  per  1 

Size  of 
iron, 

Length, 

Length 
of  thread. 

Price 
per 

inches 

inches 

inches 

pound 

inches 

inches 

inches 

pound 

9<. 

6 

I 

So. 20      1 

1^6 

13 

4''J 

$0.10 

% 

7 

iW 

18 

iM 

14 

S 

{I 

M« 

7 

lyi 

16 

iH 

IS 

5^2 

H 

8 

2'.2 

14 

iVi 

16 

6 

H 

9 

3 

12 

iH 

17 

6W 

?4 

10 

3H 

10 

i?4 

18 

7 

li 

II 

3V^ 

10 

I'A 

19 

7W 

.13 

I 

12 

4 

10 

2 

20 

8 

.12 

•  With  hexagon  nuts,  ro  per  cent  advance. 

Prices  of  bolt  ends  shorter  than  above  standard  lengths  will  be  quoted  upon  appli- 
cation. 


Weights  of  Nuts  and  Bolt  Heads  in  Pounds 


159 


Coach  Screws  with  *  Square  or  Washer  Heads;    Gimlet  Points 

List  prices  per  loo. 


Diameter,  inches 

Length, 
inches 

and 

5^6 

% 

y^e 

H 

?i6 

and 

H 

?i 

I 

1 1/2 

2 

2}.^ 

3 

3H 
4 

4!'2 

5 

sH 

6 

6H 

7 

■71^ 

8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 

$2.25 

2.45 
2.65 
2.85 
3.05 
3-25 
3-45 
3.65 
3.85 
4 -05 

$2.70 
2.96 
3.22 
348 
3.74 
4.00 
4.26 
4.52 
4.78 
5.04 

$3.15 
3.47 
3.79 
4. II 
4.43 

4. 75 
S-o? 
5-39 
5. 71 
6.03 
6.35 
6.67 
6.99 
7-31 
7.95 

$3 

4 
4 
4 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
8 
8 
9 
9 

10 

II 

.75 
.11 
■  47 
83 
19 
55 
91 
27 
63 
99 
35 
71 
07 
43 
15 
87 
59 
31 

$6.00 

6.50 

7.00 

7.50 

8.00 

8.50 

9.00 

9. SO 

10.00 

10.50 

11.00 

II.  SO 

12.00 

13.00 

14.00 

15.00 

16.00 

$9.20 
9.90 
10.60 
11.30 
12.00 
12.70 
13.40 
14.10 
14.80 
IS.  50 
16.20 
16.90 

18.30 
19.70 

21.10 
22.50 

$15.00 
16.00 
17.00 
18.00 
19.00 
20.00 
21.00 
22.00 
23.00 
24.00 
25.00 
27.00 
29.00 
31.00 
33.00 

$22.00 
23.30 

24.60 
25.90 
27.20 
28.50 
29.80 
31.10 
32.40 
33.70 
36.30 
38.90 
41.50 
44.10 

Coach  screws  with  hexagon  and  tee  heads,  10  per  cent  advance. 


Weights  of  Nuts  and  Bolt  Heads  in  Pounds.    Kent 

For  calculating  the  weight  of  long  bolts. 


Diameter  of  bolt,  in  inches 

Weight  of  hexagon  nut  and  head 

Weight  of  square  nut  and  head 

H 

.017 

.021 

.057 
.069 

1/^ 

.128 

.164 

.267 
.320 

H 

.43 

ss 

.73 

.88 

Diameter  of  bolt  in  inches 

I 

1. 10 
1. 31 

i'/4 

2.14 

2.56 

3.78 
4.42 

5.6 
7.0 

2 

8.75 
10.50 

2H 

17 
21 

3 

Weight  of  hexagon  nut  and  head 

Weight  of  square  nut  and  head 

28.8 
36.4 

i6o 


Materials 


*j?^^^8  r-a»,8  i^asc-  8 


3'ft  "2  S.  a'fe%  S  3  C  2  3,  IJIJ 


w  9 


li  w 


a    .u 


w     « 


0 

o 

82 

»R 

^ 

!?8<8  J?iSR8 

52$ 

f 

!?"£ 

«    w 

o> 

M  f?  cT'8  5^  s"  I^ 

!^;? 

0000   cr>b   o   «-•   ci   ^^-rlot*odc^p^J   jj 


;?s'!^2.!55  8a^&^8sia^8 

foftvS  SvN'S  ^IS2  iC^lJooRS 

lOioi/^u^O'O   t^t^oooo   a>o   O   ^   N 

OO    OOOiOi'JOi^OO"^ 


OJ3 

& 

•s-fi 

R  g 

s.s 

5  ti 
3  bj 

H 

O    O    O    w^  w^  i/^ 


o%  pcaq  jspun  (saqon;)  q;3aaq 


•€    -^ 


Cap  Screws 


i6i 


Fig.  46. 


On  all  screws  of  one  inch  and  less  in  diameter,  and  less  than  four  inches 
long,  threads  are  cut  f  of  the  length.  Beyond  four  inches,  threads  are 
cut  half  the  length. 

Regular  cap  screws  are  soft  and  have  ground  heads.  Special  prices 
on  black  heads,  extra  finished  and  case  hardened  screws. 

Cap  screws  with  over-sized  heads  take  the  list  of  regular  cap  screws 
with  the  same-sized  heads. 

Price  of  steel  screws  will  be  25  per  cent  above  the  price  of  iron. 


U)2 


Materials 


Drop-Fokged  Turn-Buckles 

yYithOft  Stubs 

Fig.  47. 

With  right  and  left  U.  S.  Standard  thread. 

List  prices  with  and  without  stubs. 


Diameter  of 
stub,  inches 

Inside  opening 

Length  over  all 

of  buckle. 

(including 

Each 

inches 

stubs),  inches 

y* 

3 

14 

$0.36 

^. 

3 

14 

.38 

H 

S 

jgH 

•  40 

lU 

S 

19H 

.42 

Vi 

6 

21 

•  45 

Vi 

9 

24 

.56 

9^« 

6 

22 

.48 

5i 

6 

23 

•  SO 

5i 

9 

26 

.63 

% 

6 

23 

.63 

H 

9 

26 

■79 

?6 

6 

23 

■  75 

^i 

9 

26 

■94 

I 

6 

23 

.88 

I 

9 

26 

1. 10 

i\i 

6 

24 

1.00 

iH 

9 

27 

I2S 

iH 

6 

25 

I   25 

iM 

9 

28 

I^S6 

iH 

6 

26 

1.38 

iH 

9 

29 

I  73 

iH 

6 

26 

i^So 

lyi 

9 

29 

1.88 

iH 

6 

26 

1.75 

iH 

6 

27 

2.00 

1% 

6 

28 

2.25 

2 

6 

29 

2.6s 

Drop-Forged  Turn-Buckles 
Drop-Forged  Turn-Buckles 


163 


With  One  Eye  anal  One  Hook 
W!ih  Two  Eyes 


(6)^^^^<I^^^S^)^=^6) 


with  Two  Hooks 
Fig.  48. 

With  right  and  left  U.  S.  Standard  thread. 
List  prices  with  either  one  hook  and  one  eye,  two  eyes,  or  two  hooks. 


Diameter 

of 
threaded 

Inside  opening 

of  buckle,  inches 

end, 
inches 

3 

5 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

24 

36 

48 

72 

y* 

I0.40 

Mb 

•  45 

?i 

to.  65 

H 

$0.72 

So. 85 

$0.95 

$1.15 

5i 

.80 

•  95 

1.05 

1.30 

$1.55 

$2.05 

H 

1. 10 

1.25 

1. 00 

1.70 

2.00 

2.6s 

J6 

1.35 

1. 55 

1.70 

2.10 

2.45 

3.20 

I 

1.65 

1.8s 

2.05 

2.50 

2.9s 

3.80 

$4.25 

iH 

2.10 

2.35 

2.55 

3.05 

355 

4-55 

5.0s 

iH 

2.65 

2.95 

3-25 

3.90 

4.50 

5-75 

6.40 

$8.90 

iH 

3. IS 

3-45 

3.80 

4.50 

5.20 

6.60 

7.25 

10.00 

iH 

3.70 

4.05 

4.4s 

5.20 

5.9s 

7-45 

8.20 

11.20 

$14.20 

iH 

4.65 

5.50 

6.40 

7-25 

9.00 

9.90 

13  40 

16.90 

1% 

S.30 

6.40 

7.40 

8.40 

10.40 

11.40 

15-40 

19.40 

i^/i 

6.50 

7.60 

8.75 

985 

12.10 

13.25 

X7.7S 

22.25 

2 

7.7s 

9.10 

10.40 

11-75 

14.40 

15-75 

21.00 

26.30 

t64 


M.ilrrials 


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Q 

Thumb  Screws  165 

Thumb  Screws,  Drop-Forged  Steel,  Threaded,  U.  S.  Standard 


Fig.  so. 

Can  be  furnished  in  styles  A  to  F. 

List  prices  per  loo. 


Diameter, 

inches 

'/^ 

>i6             H 

5/16 

H 

Vts 

H 

9l6 

% 

H 

Threads 

per  inch 

40 

24         20 

18 

16 

14 

13 

12 

II 

10 

f  H 

$3.20 

1- 

5.60  $4.10 

$4.80 

Ss.go 

H 

3. 

40 

J. 80     4 

30 

S.oo 

6.10 

$7.60 

S9.50 

811.70 

?4 

3- 

5o 

too     4 

so 

S.20 

6.40 

8.00 

10.00 

12.40 

OJ 

I 

3. 

So 

t.2o      4 

70 

5.50 

6.80 

8.50 

10.60 

13.10 

$16.00 

$23. 10 

X 

iV4 

4- 

XI 

»-4o      4 

90 

5. 80 

7.20 

9.00 

11.20 

13.80 

16.80 

24.40 

C 

i!-^ 

4- 

20 

t.6o      s 

10 

6.20 

7.60 

9.50 

11.90 

14.60 

17.80 

23.80 

•d 

1% 

1.80     5 

40 

6.60 

8.10 

10.10 

12.60 

15.50 

18.80 

27.20 

g 

2 

>oo     5 

70 

7.00 

8.60 

10.70 

1.^.30 

16.40 

19.90 

28.60 

J3 

•0 

2H 

...      6 

10 

7.40 

9.20 

11.40 

14.10 

17.30 

21.00 

30.10 

2H 

...      6 

so 

7.90 

9.80 

12.10 

14.90 

18.30 

22.10 

31.60 

a 

;3 

2% 

...      6 

90 

8.40 

10.40 

12.80 

15.80 

19.30 

23.30 

33.10 

X 

3 

...      7 

40 

8.90 

11.00 

13  so 

16.70 

20.30 

24.50 

34.70 

ti 

3H 

10.00 

12.30 

IS- 10 

18.50 

22.50 

27.00 

38.10 

c 

4 

11.20 

13.80 

16.90 

20.50 

24.80 

29.70 

41.50 

hJ 

4V4 

15-40 

18.70 

22.70 

27.40 

32.70 

45 .20 

5 

17.00 

20.70 

25.20 

30.. 30 

36.00 

49.60 

S^ 

18.80 

22.90 

27.80 

3330 

3960 

S4-30 

L6 

30.40 

36.60 

43.60 

60.00 

i66 


Materials 


Round  Ukau  Ikon  Rivets 

Approximate  number  in  one  pound. 


Diameter  of 

wire 

Length, 

inches 

W 

o 

^io 

I 

2 

3 

y* 

4 

5 

6 

%e 

7 

8 

9 

H 

154 

188 

221 

2S6 

3.M 

M 

32 

42 

SI 

57 

6s' 

7S 

80 

89 

108 

131 

IS9 

I8S 

21S 

278 

H 

29 

37 

4S 

SO 

S7 

67 

70 

78 

94 

114 

138 

158 

I8S 

238 

H 

26 

33 

41 

4S 

SI 

S9 

63 

70 

84 

lOI 

123 

139 

163 

ao8 

H 

24 

30 

37 

41 

46 

S4 

S7 

63 

75 

91 

109 

123 

I4S 

185 

I 

23 

28 

34 

39 

42 

49 

S2 

57 

68 

82 

98 

III 

131 

166 

iH 

20 

26 

31 

34 

39 

4S 

47 

S3 

63 

75 

90 

101 

119 

151 

m 

19 

24 

29 

32 

36 

42 

44 

49 

58 

69 

83 

93 

109 

138 

iH 

i8 

33 

37 

29 

33 

39 

41 

45 

54 

64 

76 

86 

lOI 

127 

IW 

17 

31 

3S 

38 

31 

37 

38 

42 

51 

59 

71 

80 

94 

119 

iH 

IS 

I8 

33 

24 

27 

33 

34 

40 

44 

55 

63 

70 

83 

104 

3 

13 

17 

30 

22 

2S 

29 

30 

35 

40 

47 

S6 

62 

73 

92 

2H 

12 

15 

i8 

19 

22 

37 

28 

33 

36 

42 

SO 

S6 

66 

83 

2W 

II 

14 

17 

18 

20 

24 

2S 

39 

33 

39 

46 

SO 

60 

75 

2?< 

lO 

13 

IS 

17 

19 

22 

23 

36 

30 

36 

43 

46 

55 

67 

3 

9 

13 

14 

IS 

17 

21 

23 

24 

28 

33 

39 

43 

SI 

64 

3M 

m 

II 

13 

14 

16 

19 

30 

33 

26 

31 

36 

40 

47 

59 

zVi 

8 

loH 

12 

13Vi' 

IS 

18 

19 

21 

24 

29 

34 

38 

44 

55 

3?4 

7H 

9?i 

11% 

12% 

14 

17 

18 

20 

23 

27 

32 

35 

41 

52 

4 

7H 

9H 

II 

12 

13 

16 

17 

18 

21 

25 

30 

33 

38 

49 

4H 

7 

8^ 

I0V2 

iiH 

12% 

IS 

16 

17 

20 

24 

4V^ 

6)^ 

8^4 

10 

10% 

12 

14 

IS 

16 

19 

23 

4% 

6M 

8 

9V4 

10 

IlH 

13% 

14% 

15% 

18 

23 

5 

6 

7H 

9 

9% 

II 

13 

14 

15 

17 

21 

SH 

5^4 

7K4 

SH 

9H 

loV^ 

I2H 

i3Vi 

I4V^ 

16H 

20 

SW 

SH 

7 

8M 

9 

10 

12 

13 

14 

16 

19 

5^4 

sH 

6^ 

7^4 

8H 

9H 

iiV^ 

I2Vi 

13H 

15 

18 

6 

5 

6H 

7V^ 

m 

9H 

II 

12 

13 

14 

17 

3VS  cents  per  pound,  net. 


Dimensions  of  Standard  Wrot  Pipe 


167 


Dimensions  of  Standard  Wrot  Pipe 


(U 

x: 

"O 

CL-rl 

."2 
-1 

0) 

3 

u 

•0.2 

^     (U     Oi 

1 

"0 
J3  XI 

2  c 

"3  fe 

11 

r 

0 
1 

0 

.2 

IS 

^  p. 

H 

■So  ° 

.ill 

Q  ^  t; 

"o 

1  „  0 

E  ■§ 
£  6 

a  S 

1 

< 

J3 

0    "! 

p. 

Qo 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

H 

.269 

•  40s 

H  +  W2 

.068 

27 

•  334 

21/^4 

•  19 

•393 

.27 

H 

.364 

.54 

>/^  +  H2 

.088 

18 

.433 

Me 

•  29 

•  522 

.36 

H 

.493 

.675 

'Me 

.091 

18 

.567 

?i6 

•  3 

•  658 

.49 

H 

.622 

.84 

1  fie +1^2 

.109 

14 

.701 

1Mb 

•  39 

•  81S 

.62 

% 

.824 

105 

iHe 

•  113 

14 

.911 

2%2 

•  4 

1.025 

.82 

I 

1.047 

I.31S 

iMe 

.134 

Il'/4 

1. 144 

15^2 

•  SI 

1.283 

I  OS 

iM 

1.38 

1.66 

iiHe 

.140 

III,^ 

1.488 

I>%2 

.54 

1.627 

1^38 

ij^ 

1. 61 

1.90 

I»5i6 

■  145 

\\Vi 

1.727 

I^H2 

.55 

1.866 

1. 61 

2 

2.067 

2.375 

2% 

.154 

iiVi 

2.2 

2%2 

•  S8 

2.339 

2.07 

2^ 

2.467 

2.87s 

2li 

.204 

8 

2.62 

2H 

.89 

2.82 

2.47 

3 

3.066 

3SO 

zVi 

.217 

8 

3-24 

3M 

•95 

3.441 

3  07 

M 

3.548 

4.00 

4 

.226 

8 

3.738 

32J^2 

I 

3.938 

3^55 

4 

4.026 

4.50 

4Vi 

.237 

8 

4.233 

4M 

I  •OS 

4-434 

4.07 

4H 

4.508 

5. 00 

5 

.246 

8 

4.733 

4?i 

I.I 

4.931 

4. SI 

S 

5.04s 

5.563 

S^-ie 

.259 

8 

5  289 

S%2 

i.i5 

5.489 

S  04 

6 

6.06s 

6.62s 

65^ 

.280 

8 

6  347 

61^2 

1.26 

6.547 

6.06 

7 

7.023 

7.62s 

7H 

.301 

8 

734 

7"/i2 

1.36 

7.54 

7.02 

8 

7.981 

8.62s 

85i 

.322 

8 

8^332 

81^2 

1.46 

8^534 

7.98 

9 

8.937 

9.62s 

956 

•  344 

8 

9.324 

9?i 

156 

9  527 

8.93 

10 

10.018 

10.75 

10% 

.366 

8 

10.445 

loMs 

1.68 

10.645 

10.02 

II 

II 

11.75 

iiM 

.375 

8 

II  439 

iiMe 

1.80 

11.639 

11 

12 

12 

12.75 

12% 

■  375 

8 

12.433 

I22%4 

1.90 

12.633 

12 

13 

13.25 

14 

14 

375 

8 

13  675 

13*  %4 

1.98 

13.875 

13.25 

14 

14.2s 

15 

15 

.375 

8 

14^668 

142^^2 

2. IS 

14.869 

14.2s 

IS 

15.2s 

16 

16 

•  375 

8 

15  662 

152^2 

2.21 

15.863 

15   25 

16 

16.25 

17 

17 

.375 

8 

16.656 

162^2 

2.30 

16.856 

16.25 

17 

17.25 

18 

18 

.375 

8 

17  65 

1721/^2 

2.40 

17.85 

17-25 

18 

18.25 

19 

19 

•  375 

8 

18.644 

18*  •^4 

2.50 

18.844 

18.25 

19 

19.25 

20 

20 

.375 

8 

19  637 

19?6 

2.59 

19  837 

19 .25 

20 

20.25 

21 

21 

•  375 

8 

20.631 

20H 

2.72 

20.831 

20.25 

Taper  of  conical  tube  ends  ^4  inch  in  diameter  in  12  inches. 

Contributed  by  Louis  H.  Frick.  No.  74,  Extra  Data  Sheet,  Machinery,  October, 
1907. 

Seamless  drawn  brass  and  copper  tubes  are  made  by  American 
Tube  Works,  Boston,  Mass.;  Ansonia  Brass  and  Copper  Co.,  Ansonia, 
Conn.,  office  19  and  21  Cliff  St.,  New  York;  Benedict  &  Burnham  Mfg. 
Co.,  Waterbury,  Conn.,  oflSce  13  Murray  St.,  New  York;  Randolph  & 
Clowes,  Waterbury,  Conn.,  and  Bridgeport  Brass  Co.,  Bridgeport, 
Conn.  The  following  sizes  are  kept  in  stock,  in  12  feet  lengths,  by 
Merchant  &  Co.,  517  Arch  St.,  Philadelphia.  The  five  columns  signify 
as  follows: 

A  =  outside  diameter  of  tube  in  inches. 


i6S 


Mali-rials 


B  =  thickness  of  side  by  Stubs'  (or  Birmingham)  gauge.  When 
seamless  tubes  are  ordered  to  gauge  number,  it  is  un<ierst<xxi  thai  this 
gauge  is  intended  unless  otherwise  s|)eiiried. 

C  =  thickness  of  sides  of  tube  in  decimals  of  an  inch. 

D  =  weight,  in  pounds  per  lineal  fo<jt,  of  brass  tube  for  columns  A, 
B  and  ('.      n'or  loiipir.  .nld  one  tiinetcenth). 

Tubes  will  be  furnished  hard,  unless  ordered  annealed  or  soft. 


.1 

yj 

C 

U 

.1 

B 

C 

1 

1. 

2\<l 

B 

r 

.109 

/> 

w 

i8 

.049 

.11 

m 

13 

09s 

1.68 

13 

J. 03 

^u 

i8 

.049 

IS 

iH 

II 

120 

2.10 

2',i 

10 

.134 

3.68 

96 

17 

.058 

.23 

i9< 

IS 

072 

1.40 

2H 

14 

083 

2  44 

''M 

17 

.058 

■25 

l94 

14 

083 

1. 61 

2H 

13 

.109 

3.18 

W 

17 

.058 

•  29 

I?4 

13 

09s 

1.82 

2H 

10 

■  134 

3.87 

Mo 

17 

.058 

•34 

iVa 

II 

120 

2.27 

294 

14 

.083 

2  57 

H 

i6 

.06s 

■  42 

m 

IS 

072 

I  so 

29« 

12 

.109 

3  37 

?4 

i6 

.06s 

•  SI 

m 

14 

083 

I  72 

294 

10 

•  134 

4  07 

76 

i6 

.06s 

.61 

m 

13 

09s 

1.96 

2>A 

12 

.109 

3. SO 

I 

i6 

.06s 

•  70 

1-6 

II 

120 

2  41 

2% 

10 

■  134 

4.26 

i>4 

i6 

.065 

•  70 

^ 

M 

3 

10 

.134 

4.46 

iW 

l6 

.06s 

.88 

1  i 

.?M 

10 

■  134 

4  8s 

iW 

14 

.083 

1. 12 

-' 

10 

I 

3'/4 

10 

•  134 

S.24 

I'/i 

II 

.120 

1.S7 

21,6 

14 

0S3 

1-97 

1  394 

10 

■  134 

S.63 

i}6 

15 

.072 

1.08 

2H 

13 

09s 

2.23 

4 

10 

.134 

6.00 

m 

14 

.083 

I  25 

2H 

10 

134 

3  10 

4^ 

10 

■  134 

6.39 

iH 

II 

.120 

1.76 

2\\ 

14 

083 

2.08 

'  4^^ 

TO 

.134 

G.78 

iVi 

IS 

.072 

1. 19 

2\\ 

13 

09s 

2.38 

1  494 

10 

■  134 

717 

i4 

14 

.083 

1.36 

2M 

10 

134 

3  29 

5 

10 

•  134 

756 

i5^ 

13 

.09s 

l.SS 

2?i 

14 

083 

2.20 

sH 

10 

-134 

7.94 

iH 

II 

.120 

1,92 

2?6 

13 

09s 

2. SI 

Slri 

10 

■  134 

8.33 

i-H 

IS 

.072 

1.29 

2ji 

10 

134 

3-49 

S94 

10 

.134 

8.72 

1^8 

14 

.083 

1.48 

2).^ 

14 

083 

2.33 

6 

10 

■  134 

9.11 

Merchant  &  Co.  supply  sizes  up  to  7  inchis  ouij-idc  <>r  inside  diameter, 
and  up  to  16  inches  inside  diameter,  of  other  gauges  as  well  as  those  given 
in  the  table;  also  tubes  of  special  shapes,  such  as  square,  triangular, 
octagonal,  etc.;  and  bronze  tubes. 

They  also  have  in  stock,  in  lengths  of  12  feet,  the  following  sizes  of 
seamless  brass  and  copper  tubing,  made  of  same  outside  diameter  as 
standard  sizes  of  iron  piping,  so  as  to  be  used  with  the  same  fittings  as 
the  iron  pipe. 

A  =  nominal  inside  diameter  of  iron  pipe,  in  inches.  For  actual 
inside  diameters. 

B  =  outside  diameter  of  iron  pipe  and  of  seamless  tube,  in  inches. 

C  =  inside  diameter  of  seamless  tube,  in  inches. 

D  =  weight  per  foot  of  bra^s  pipe.  cols.  B  and  C.  For  copper,  add 
one-nineteenth. 


Tin  and  Zinc 


169 


A 

B 

C 

D 

A 

jB 

C 

£> 

A 

B 

C 

D 

H 

1%2 

M 

.28 

% 

iHe 

27/^2 

1. 15 

2 

2^ 

2M6 

4. IS 

V* 

1^^2 

>)^2 

.43 

I 

1^6 

\%2 

I  50 

2V2. 

2ji 

2^8 

4. SO 

H 

ni2 

15^2 

.58 

iM 

iH 

lH/^2 

2.25 

3 

3H 

3Ma 

8.00 

Vi 

1^6 

?i 

.80 

1K2 

I7,^ 

I'%2 

2.55 

4 

4!^ 

45^ 

12.24 

TIN   AND   ZINC 


The  pure  metal  is  called  block  tin,  —  When  perfectly  pure  (which 
it  rarely  is,  being  purposely  adulterated,  frequently  to  a  large  proportion, 
with  the  cheaper  metals  lead  or  zinc),  its  specific  gravity  is  7.29;  and  its 
weight  per  cubic  foot  is  455  pounds.  It  is  sufficiently  malleable  to  be 
beaten  into  tin  foil,  only  Hooo  of  in  inch  thick.  Its  tensile  strength  is 
but  about  4600  pounds  per  square  inch;  or  about  7000  pounds  when  made 
into  wire.  It  melts  at  the  moderate  temperature  of  442°  F.  Pure  block 
tin  is  not  used  for  common  building  purposes;  but  thin  plates  of  sheet 
iron  covered  with  it  on  both  sides  constitute  the  tinned  plates,  or,  as  they 
are  called,  the  tin,  used  for  covering  roofs,  rain  pipes  and  many  domestic 
utensils.     For  roofs  it  is  laid  on  boards. 

The  sheets  of  tin  are  united  as  shown  in  this  Fig.  First,  several 
sheets  are  joined  together  in  the  shop,  end  for  end,  as  at  tt,  by  being  first 
bent  over,  then  hammered 
flat,    and    then    soldered.  ^t 

These  are  then  formed  into 
a  roll  to  be  carried  to  the 
roof,  a  roll  being  long 
enough  to  reach  from  the 
peak  to  the  eaves.     Dif- 


FiG.  51. 


ferent  rolls  being  spread  up  and  down  the  roof  are  then  united  along 
their  sides  by  simply  being  bent  as  at  a  and  s,  by  a  tool  for  that  purpose. 
The  roofers  call  the  bending  at  .y  a  double  groove,  or  double  lock;  and  the 
more  simple  ones  at  t,  a  single  groove,  or  lock. 

To  hold  the  tin  securelj^  to  the  sheeting  boards,  pieces  of  the  tin  3  or  4 
inches  long,  by  2  inches  wide,  called  cleats,  are  nailed  to  the  boards  at 
about  every  18  inches  along  the  joints  of  the  rolls  that  are  to  be  united, 
and  are  bent  over  with  the  double  groove  5.  This  will  be  understood 
from  y,  where  the  middle  piece  is  the  cleat,  before  being  bent  over.  The 
nails  should  be  4-penny  slating  nails,  which  have  broader  heads  than 
common  ones.  As  they  are  not  exposed  to  the  weather,  they  may  be  of 
plain  iron. 


lyo  MaU-riaLs 

Miidi  use  is  made  of  what  is  called  leaded  tin,  or  terncs,  for  roofing. 
It  i.i  simply  sheet  iron  coated  with  lead,  instead  of  the  more  costly  metal 
I  in.     It  is  not  Jis  durable  as  the  tinned  sheets,  but  is  somewhat  cheaper. 

The  best  plates,  Iwth  for  tinning  and  for  terncs,  are  made  of  charcoal 
iron,  which,  being  tough,  bears  bending  better.  Coke  is  used  for 
I  hcaper  plates,  but  inferior  as  regards  bending.  In  giving  orders,  it  is 
inii>ortant  to  specify  whether  charcoal  plates  or  coke  ones  are  required; 
also  whether  liniicd  plates,  or  tcriics. 

Tinned  and  leaded  sheets  of  IJesscmcr  and  other  cheap  steel  are  now 
much  used.  They  are  sold  at  ai>out  the  price  of  charcoal  tin  and  teme 
plates. 

There  are  also  in  use  for  roofing,  certain  compound  metals  which  resist 
tarnish  better  than  either  lead,  tin,  or  zinc  but  which  are  so  fusible  as  to 
be  liable  to  be  melted  by  large  burning  cinders  falling  on  the  roof  from  a 
neighboring  conflagration. 

A  roof  covered  with  tin  or  other  metal  should,  if  possible,  slope  not 
much  less  than  five  degrees,  or  about  an  inch  to  a  foot;  and  at  the  eaves 
there  should  be  a  sudden  fall  into  the  rain-gutter,  to  prevent  rain  from 
backing  up  so  as  to  overtop  the  double-groove  joint  s,  and  thus  cause 
leaks.  When  coal  is  used  for  fuel,  tin  roofs  should  receive  two  coats  of 
paint  when  first  put  up,  and  a  coat  at  every  2  or  3  years  after.  Where 
wood  only  is  used,  this  is  not  necessary;  and  a  tin  roof,  with  a  good  pitch, 
will  last  20  or  30  years. 

Two  good  workmen  can  put  on,  and  paint  outside,  from  250  to  300 
square  feet  of  tin  roof,  per  day  of  8  hours. 

Tinned  iron  plates  are  sold  by  the  box.  These  boxes,  unlike  glass,  have 
not  equal  areas  of  contents.  They  may  be  designated  or  ordered  either 
by  their  names  or  sizes.  Many  makers,  however,  have  their  private 
brands  in  addition;  and  some  of  these  have  a  much  higher  reputation 
than  others. 


Sizes  and  Weights  of  Lead  Pipes 
Sizes  and  Weights  of  Lead  Pipes 


171 


Inner 
diameter. 

Thickness, 

Weight  per 

Inner 
diameter. 

Thickness, 

Weight  per 

inches 

inches 

foot,  ounces 

inches 

inches 

foot,  pounds 

H 

.08 

.10 
Pounds 

m 

.14 

3.5 

% 

.12 

1.00 

m 

.17 

4.2s 

% 

.16 

1. 25 

iH 

.19 

5. 00 

% 

•19 

1-5 

iV^ 

.23 

6.5 

Vi 

.09 

.75 

iw 

.27 

8.0 

Vi 

.11 

I.O 

l3/4 

.13 

4.0 

Vi 

.13 

1.25 

l3/4 

.17 

5.0 

Vi. 

.16 

1.75 

l3/4 

.21 

6.5 

Vi 

•  19 

2.0 

1% 

.27 

8.5 

Vi 

.25 

3.0 

2 

■  IS 

4.75 

H 

.09 

1.0 

2 

.18 

6.0 

H 

•  13 

IS 

2 

.22 

7.0 

5i 

.16 

2.0 

2 

.27 

9.0 

H 

.20 

2.5 

2I/2 

?i6 

8.0 

H 

.22 

2.75 

21.^2 

W 

II. 0 

W 

.25 

35 

2^2 

M6 

14.0 

¥* 

.10 

1.25 

2\^. 

3/^ 

17.0 

% 

.12 

1-75 

3 

^/-ie 

9.0 

H 

.16 

2.25 

3 

H 

12.0 

H 

.20 

3.0 

3 

Me 

16.0 

% 

.23 

3.5 

3 

% 

20.0 

H 

■  30 

4.75 

3'/2 

Me 

95 

I 

.11 

2.0 

3^2 

H 

iS.o 

I 

.14 

2.5 

3\'i 

Me 

18.S 

I 

■  17 

3.25 

Z\<i 

% 

22.0 

I 

.21 

4.0 

4 

Me 

12. 5 

I 

.24 

4.7s 

4 

H 

16.0 

iM 

.10 

2.0 

4 

Me 

21.0 

iM 

.12 

2.5 

4 

3/i 

2S.O 

iH 

.14 

3.0 

4H 

Me 

14.0 

iH 

.16 

3.7s 

4H 

H 

18.0 

iH 

•19 

4-75 

5 

H 

20.0 

iH 

.25 

6.00 

S 

% 

31.0 

173 


Materials 


(<-A>j 


8 

e 

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& 

- 

«         «                             « 

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to 

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r>>cor0v><0<0a00>0000 

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250 

500 

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Chains  and  Cables 


173 


Chains  and  Cables 

(United  States  Navy  Standard.) 


Load  in 

pounds 

A 

B 

c 

D 

Pounds  per 

foot 

Ultimate 

Working 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Vi 

}i 

I?l6 

25^2 

.875 

3.360 

670 

M« 

iMe 

iH 

^%2 

1. 000 

5,040 

1,000 

H 

iM 

1% 

^H2 

1.70 

7,280 

1,460 

Ji6 

1% 

2Ha 

l%2 

2.00 

10,080 

2,020 

H 

llM6 

2% 

Il^2 

2.50 

13,440 

2,690 

9i8 

i^/i 

2H 

115^2 

3.20 

16,800 

3,360 

H 

2H6 

3 

l2%2 

4.12s 

20,720 

4,140 

iMa 

2!4 

3M 

l2Ji2 

5.00 

25,200 

5,040 

H 

2)^ 

3V^ 

l3H2 

S.87S 

30,240 

6,050 

1^8 

2IM6 

3% 

2%2 

6.70 

35,280 

7,060 

li 

2ji 

4 

2%2 

8.00 

40,880 

8.180 

1^6 

3M6 

4?i 

215^2 

9.00 

47,040 

9.410 

I 

3'/4 

4H 

2l%2 

10.70 

53.760 

io,7SO 

iHe 

3?i6 

4^/i 

22J^2 

11.20 

60,480 

12,100 

iH 

3% 

Si-i 

223^2 

12.50 

68.320 

13,660 

1^6 

3H 

S8/i6 

3?^2 

13.70 

76.160 

15,230 

iH 

aH 

sH 

3%! 

16.00 

84.000 

17,000 

iMe 

4% 

6H 

3i%2 

16.50 

91 ,840 

18,400 

ili 

49-16 

6H 

3% 

18.40 

101,360 

20,300 

iji« 

4% 

61  Me 

3^2 

19.70 

109,760 

21.900 

iH 

5 

7 

33^2 

21.70 

120,960 

24,200 

174  Materials 

Chain  End  Link  and  Narkow  Siiackle 

O \(U.S  r^avy 
^Jf    Standard) 


Standord  Heiagonal  Nut 
anol  Head. 


Fig.  54. 


A 

/I. 

B 

C 

D 

£ 
Ins. 

F 

Ins. 

C 

Ins. 

H 

Ins. 

Ins. 

K 

L 

I^ 

M 

Ins. 

N 
Ins. 

0 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

91 8 

96 

i'/6 

3^ 

24 

94 

94 

iHs 

9l8 

iV4 

i96 

Mil 

29i 

T^ 

2H8 

294 

iHs 

9l8 

m 

i96 

9l8 

296 

27^ 

74 

'H8 

>^8 

aM 

496 

4H 

3 

3H 
3H 

1^8 

V4 

1J6 

Mn 

3 

3H 

2H 

1^18 

y* 

i^ 

Mb 

3^i 

3Mi 

2' Mb 

iH 

191 8 

Vi 

7V4 

7'^ 

Mb 

34 

4 

7/6 

I 

2J6 

sM 

3% 

iH 

191 8 

91 8 

2H 

2!^ 

Mb 

3M 

i4 

^V* 

s94 

4V6 

iV* 

1>H8 

9l8 

2^ 

296 

M 

44 

496 

96 

34 

'M« 

lH8 

3918 

6 

496 

iH 

i'Mb 

91 8 

2V^ 

296 

V4 

44 

s 

96 

394 

I 

iH 

,3^4 

6H 

496 

iH 

2M8 

96 

3 

294 

M 

4H 

596 

96 

3J4 

iM«i 

1^8 

374 

674 

47/6 

iV4 

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96 

3 

294 

y* 

S 

S96 

96 

4 

iH 

iM 

4Vi 

7J^ 

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i94 

2516 

7/1* 

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3M 

9l8 

54 

6 

94 

44 

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4% 

7H 

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i94 

2918 

7/1  • 

3W 

3H 

9l8 

594 

64 

94 

aH 

iW 

m 

4918 

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l7/6 

27/8 

7/l8 

394 

34 

9l8 

6 

696 

94 

494 

1^8 

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4% 

8% 

.s74 

l7/6 

2^6 

w 

394 

3V^ 

91 8 

6K4 

694 

94 

4'/* 

1% 

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5 

8% 

6H 

2 

2«H8 

H 

4 

34 

91b 

64 

74 

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sH 

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l9i8 

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9 

6H 

2 

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4 

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796 

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<M 

6H 

2H 

3M8 

91 8 

4V^ 

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96 

7 

794 

7/6 

s4 

19^8 

i'Hb 

nH 

9% 

7H 

2H 

3H8 

91 8 

4W 

4 

96 

7H 

8 

li 

s9« 

iH 

i?4 

5' ^8 

loH 

796 

2^ 

Mt 

96 

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44 

96 

74 

84 

64 

I'Me 

i'Mb 

6 

io9i 

794 

2^ 

37/18 

96 

5 

44 

96 

794 

894 

64 

1^4 

I'/i 

6K4 

ii96 

8 

294 

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sVi 

S 

7/1* 

8 

94 

696 

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6^8 

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294 

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$ 

7.1 8 

84 

996 

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294 

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5 

7/1* 

84 

996 

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694 

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12 

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294 

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674 

No.  33,  Supplement  to  Machinery,  June,  1904. 


Table  for  Eye  Bolts 


175 


Table  for  Eye  Bolts 

(Contributed  by  H.  A.  H.) 


/ 

..-^ 

::^ 

J3 

T3 
01 

g 

(i 

"£ 

B  0 

■3 

•W    N 

•a  '5 

^      v^  -^.  lU 

0  ^ 

3    r» 

£ 

M^ 

1  r-^ ' 

^S|    0 

J3 

0  S 

§i 

1  ^SJ  1 

^i t 

-^ 

•^  S- 

i^p 

"o 

u 

4) 

4J      0 

J3    II 

o>§ 
5-a 

Fig.  ss. 

J3 

B 

3 

lU 

a; 

2; 

A 

B 

c 

D 

E 

F 

G 

W 

C/3 

.375 

2 

.75 

.625 

.1875 

.375 

.25 

16 

677 

750 

.5 

2.125 

I 

.75 

.25 

.5 

.3125 

13 

1.257 

1. 172 

.62s 

2.25 

1. 25 

I 

.3125 

.625 

.4375 

II 

2,018 

2,296 

■  75 

2.375 

I  4375 

1. 125 

.3125 

.6875 

.5 

10 

3.020 

3.000 

.875 

2.5 

1.6875 

1.375 

.375 

.75 

.62s 

9 

4.194 

4.687 

I 

2.75 

1.875 

1.5 

.4875 

.875 

.75 

8 

5.509 

6,7So 

1. 125 

2.875 

2. 125 

1.625 

.5 

I 

.8125 

7 

6,931 

7.921 

1.25 

3 

2.375 

1.75 

■  5 

I.I2S 

.875 

7 

8,899 

9.188 

1. 375 

3.125 

2.62s 

1.87s 

.5625 

I. 1875 

I 

6 

10,541 

12,000 

i-S 

3-25 

2.75 

2 

.625 

1.25 

1.062s 

6 

12,938 

13.546 

1.625 

3.375 

3 

2.125 

.6825 

1-375 

1. 125 

5.5 

15,149 

IS.187 

1-75 

35 

3.23 

2.25 

.75 

1.5 

1.25 

5 

17.441 

I8.7SO 

I  875 

3.625 

35 

2.375 

.8125 

1.62s 

I. 3125 

5 

20.490 

20,671 

2 

3-75 

3.75 

2.5 

■  875 

1.75 

1.375 

4-5 

23,001 

22,686 

176 


Materials 


SrROf-Ki  T  WiiKi  i.s  loK  Okuinary  Link  Chains 


ff-4 


Section  E-F. 
Pitch  Chain  Sheave. 


a"  =,33.  (HOtte  Pag.S02-I) 


di-y..       i^y--:, 


Fig.  56. 


Sprocket  Wheels  for  Ordinary  Link  Chains 


177 


^^ 

c;S;S;;S;SjS:5:5xxx:5ss  :::::: 

1— 1                                                                                     

K 

Si^;S;§;i;:^;S3J2^:S:i^:S:S:S:SS;f:l.f;f 

r* 

CJ 

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s 

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NW'<4-I>0fO00"<1-^O^<NlOC300>-it-*C0       •       • 

^ 

ioint^CT.i-irot^Hifouor-a»MroMii^a^^     • 

IH 

Ss 

00000    •-<    N    rOiOt^oo    0    M    (Nro-^O^IHrot;!-. 

ro 

5= 

O^O^rOoO    IH    ION     0    l/lOO    NO     0     "^CTiO    ^O^t-t 

OOOOOiO    •-<    N    "^^O    t^OOOvO    M    NtOOMlOOO 
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2 

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00 

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II 
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l-(i-iMi-(NNNPlfOCOn'»-!)--*-»lO<0<Or-t~ 

II -s 

•      »               »               0               ID               <0             .»               «> 

Materials 


K 

jg  »t^ «  f*'  pf  ■■#♦■•■  w-  -rf\  w-  w^,  ws  .rfv  .x  •rf^ 

M 

S  J- ^  ;r ;? J' .?  :2t  ;f :;,  31 31 :?,  i".  3J  *  5  f J  :g 

U 

V 

B 

s 

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2  S  S"*^  35i4  :::::::::  : 

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J 

% 

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ff 

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B  Pf\  ■Ws.  10V  ev^'  K\  P^  OTv  w^  M     n^  M     Ks  M             *^  ^^  (4^  i^v  ^ 

Transmission  or  vStanding  Cables 
Pliable  Hoisting  Rope 

With  6  strands  of  19  wires  each. 


179 


Trade 
num- 
ber 

Diam- 
eter 

Cir- 
cum- 
ference 

in 
inches 

Weight 
per  foot 
in  lbs. 
with 
hemp 
center 

Breaking 

strain  in 

tons  of  2000 

pounds 

Proper 
working 
load  in 
tons  of  2000 
pounds 

Circumfer- 
ence of 
Manila 
rope  of 
equal 
strength 

Minimum 

size  of 

drum  or 

sheave  in 

feet 

Iron 

Steel 

Iron 

Steel 

Iron 

Steel 

Iron 

Steel 

I 
2 
3 
4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
loH 
10!.^ 
loH 
loa 
10J6 

2H 

2 

m 

i^ 
m 
m 

1 

H 

H 

9ia 

H 

Me 

H 

6?^ 

6.0 

S-S 

S.o 

4-75 

4.38 

4.0 

3.S 

3.13 

2. 75 

2.25 

2.0 

1.63 

1.5 

1.38 

1-25 

8.00 

6.3 

5.25 

4.10 

3.65 

3.00 

2.5 

2.0 

1. 58 

1.20 

0.88 

0.60 

0.44 

0.35 

0.29 

0,26 

74.0 
65.0 
54.0 
44 -o 
39.0 
33.0 
27.0 
20.0 
16.0 
11.5 
8.64 
5.13 
4.27 
3.48 
3.00 
2.50 

155. 0 

125.0 

106.0 

86.0 

77.0 

63.0 

52.0 

42.0 

33.0 

25. 0 

18.0 

12,0 

9.0 

7.0 

5.5 

4-5 

15.0 
13.0 
no 
9.0 
8.0 
6.5 
55 
4.0 
3.0 
2.5 
1.75 
1.25 
0.7s 
0.5 
0.38 
0.25 

31.0 
25.0 
21.0 
17.0 
15.0 
12.0 
10. 0 
8.0 
6.0 
5.0 
35 
2.5 
1.5 
1.0 
0.7S 
0.5 

14.0 
13.0 
12.0 
II. 0 
10. 0 
9-5 
8.5 
7-5 
6.5 
5. 5 
4.75 
3.7s 
3.5 
3.0 
2.7 
2.5 

15.0 
14.0 
13.0 
12.0 
II. 0 
9.5 
8.S 
7.0 
5.7s 
5.0 
4.5 
3-75 
3.5 

13.0 
12.0 
10.0 
8.5 
7.5 
7.0 
6.5 
6.0 
5  25 
4.5 
4.0 
35 
2.75 
2.25 
2.0 
IS 

8.S 

8.0 

7  25 

6.25 

5.75 

55 

5.0 

45 

4.0 

3.5 

3.0 

2.2s 

1. 75 

IS 

I  25 

1.0 

Transmission  or  Standing  Cables 

With  6  strands  of  7  wires  each. 


II 

1.5 

4.63 

3.37 

36.0 

62.0 

9-0 

13.0 

10. 0 

13.0 

13.0 

8.5 

12 

1.38 

4.25 

2.77 

30.0 

52.0 

7.5 

10. 0 

9.0 

12.0 

12.0 

8.0 

13 

1. 25 

3.75 

2.28 

25.0 

44.0 

6.25 

9.0 

8.5 

II. 0 

10. 75 

7.2s 

14 

T.I3 

3.37 

1.82 

20.0 

36.0 

5.0 

7-5 

7.5 

10. 0 

95 

6.25 

IS 

I.O 

3.0 

1.5 

16.0 

30.0 

4.0 

6.0 

6.5 

9.0 

8.5 

5-75 

16 

0.88 

2.62 

1. 12 

12.3 

22.0 

3.0 

4-5 

5. 75 

8.0 

7.S 

SO 

17 

0.75 

2.38 

0.88 

8.8 

17.0 

2.25 

3.5 

4.75 

7.0 

6.75 

4.S 

18 

0.69 

2.13 

0.70 

7.6 

14.0 

2.0 

3.0 

4-S 

6.0 

6.0 

4.0 

19 

0.63 

1.88 

0-57 

5.8 

II. 0 

1.5 

2.25 

4.0 

5.5 

5. 25 

35 

20 

0.55 

1.63 

0.41 

41 

8.0 

I.O 

1.75 

3.25 

4.7s 

4.5 

3.0 

ai 

o.S 

1.38 

0.31 

2.83 

6.0 

0.75 

1.5 

2.75 

4.0 

4.0 

2.5 

23 

0.44 

1. 25 

0.23 

2.13 

4.5 

0.50 

1. 25 

2.5 

35 

3.2s 

3.35 

23 

0.38 

1. 13 

0.9 

1. 65 

4.0 

I.O 

2.25 

3-25 

2.75 

3.0 

24 

0.31 

1.0 

0  16 

1.38 

3.0 

0.75 

2.0 

2.75 

2.5 

1.75 

25 

0.28 

0.88 

0.13 

1.03 

2.0 

0.5 

1. 75 

3.35 

2.25 

1.5 

I  So 


Materials 


locofion  /&/■  Mor/murn  Aiomtnf. 


«   <■      If 


■Dc- 

9  i'i 


••vf. 


+ft^ 


■i" 


■i- 


\     CS  eknofts  ctnltr  of  span, 
[    CH  dtnofts  ctnftrof^arifi/of  looKtt. 
I    Iff,  dtnofti  fifariet  f  Joa€i  txfjactnf  to  CO. 
ft  lY-  tofal  load  and  f1  -  momtnf. 
For  rf  a  /vatifnt/rn  p/art  cs  m/drrat/ 
bffirft"  IT/,  and  CO  and  /r'nd  M  untttr 
HTf,.     ror  reactions,  Pfl^  and  ftr' 
tV'  Rj.     For  maximum  moment  ff'/fj 
l>h-(»'il,*  '^U),  or  s!n<e  Oc-Ot,,  ft- 


Jivo  yVheels  Eqt/a//c/  Loadecf. 


Oiaqram  of  i  ^ 
mofntnfs  for\  j; 
three  pos/fion^ 
Ot/oaa. 


Diagram  of 
shear  tot/) 
tr/ree/9  on  span} 


Oogram  of 
maximum 
momen  ts 
of  antj point  I 
of  ttte  beam,  i 

Diaaram  of   ','"  thete  tm>  diagrams  dotted 
maximum     \~~asff  sfo-r  confiruatioa,^ 
Shear  otant/ 
point  of  beam.\ 

For  B- or  exceeds  O.SBSSL,  /^'  ^■ 

and  /fr'  Z  ^Orfj)- 


.notation:   >lll  yo/ues  ini/xtus  ondpovnas. 
IV-  fata/  food.    >^  -  /oadon  one  xrf>»t/. 
I  •  /engfffi  of  Sflon.    B  •  tr/ni/  ^se. 
K       Rj  •  left  reaction.  />r  '  rignf  reactior). 
If-  irrfica/jfiear  -reaction  rteartsf  fo 
file  pair}  f  under  cortsiderafior}. 
Df'disfance  to  front  xrfreet  i         ^^ 
Or  •  distance  fo  rear  rrfiet/  '  .      "^ 
coming  on  from  tfit  /eft    ftff  -nioment 
under  front  whei/,  one  rrtreel  on  ffit  span, 
lifl' moment  under  frcnf  irfieef  xriffi  boffi 
tvneels  on  the  sparj.    ft^/  "  moment  undkr  rwar 
trheel,  one  t*fieel  on  the  span,   firt  -  momen f 
under  rear  nfieef,  boffi  fhee/s  on  the  span. 
JC  "  ralue  of  Or  for  Mrt  "  maximum. 
M-  maximum  momerrf,    Z- section  modu/t)S. 
Si,  •  stress  due  fo  bertdirxf. 

Mf,-^'a-Of).  >iri-'^[a-Dr).  fff!- fri^§ia-^¥). 

MiTX'^(i.-Dr-§)       For  ralues  of  S /ess  fhan 
O.SeS8L.  x-^.^a„dM.Vj^(,-A)^. 
Z.gors,.^.  ^ 

For  both  rrhee/s  on  the  span,  ^  -  £■  U'£tr-j) 


Jrm  Hfhee/s  E(^uallt/  Loac^d,  Ob/r^ue  ffeacf/'orr. 


i  ! 


flotation:  Same  asabore  trith  addition  of;  a  'ong/t  of  ff>e  rrocfion 
nith  team,   /i- cross  sec  fionat  area  of  beam.  7' thrust  or 


!  ""j^  mfh  Deam.    />•  cross  secr/onaf  area  or oeam.   r-rnrvsr 

,    Y~A — ^l^^-^V'^yf    P""  "''*  '"  obUque  reaction.  S-  direct  s/ress  At  fo  T 

^ M; -_;■'/- ■^'^■^l  (tension  or  compression). 


n 


=tt^ 


l-f,(Dr  * |;,  or   7'  =  (Or  *  f ;  cot  a 
S-Jl-fi^(Orf§),  or  S-z^(Orr§)cota. 
fiff,  ffr,,  3C,  M  and  So  -  soma  as  abort. 
SfS^.wi^;^  ^  ^(^-PliiSI),  or 

,     ,      W  ,(Drf''iB)cot  ex   .    Dr(L-Dr-''iB/. 
StS^'lf -j^ -e       2L '' 

SfSi,-amaximi/mHher7/:^-£^r^-Jl-^cofat^-£. 

~For  light  xreighf  T- beams  j •  about  j  depth  efbeorn. 


Figs.  57,  58,  59. 


Modulus  of  Elasticity  i8i 

Modulus  of  Elasticity 

The  modulus  of  elasticity  of  any  body  is  the  ratio,  within  the  elastic 
limit,  of  the  stress  per  unit  of  area  to  the  stretch  per  unit  of  length. 

.  Let  S  =  stress  per  square  inch,  and 

L  =  elongation  per  unit  of  length. 
S'  =  total  stress. 
L'  =  total  elongation. 
O  =  original  length. 

A  =  area  of  cross  section  in  square  inches. 
E  =  modulus  of  elasticity. 

Then      E  =  j,  which  is  found  to  be  practically  constant,  and  is  a 

measure  of  the  resistance  which  a  body  can  oppose  to  change  of  shape. 

S' 

-J  =  5  =  stress  per  square  inch,  (i) 

jr  =  L  =  elongation  per  unit  of  length 
A  S      S'O       ^  ,  , 

Hence  the  modulus  of  elasticity  is  equal  to  the  total  stress,  multipHed 
by  the  original  length,  divided  by  the  area  in  square  inches,  multiplied 
by  the  total  elongation. 

From  equation  (2), 


and  since 


5'  =  ^,  (3) 


^  =  S     and    ^  =  L,  then  5  =  EL;  (4) 

A  0 


or  the  stress  per  vmit  of  area  is  equal  to  the  modulus  multiplied  by  the 
elongation  per  unit  of  length.  * 

From  (3), 

^       EA       E  ^^^ 

5 
and  ^  ^  E'  ^^^ 

or  the  elongation  per  unit  of  length  equals  the  stress  per  unit  of  area 
divided  by  the  modidus. 


1 82 


Materials 


Table  of  Moduli  of  Elasticity  and  of  Elastic  Limits  for 
Different  Materials 

The  values  here  given  are  approximate  averages  compiled  from  many  sources. 
Authorities  differ  considerably  in  their  data  on  this  subject. 


Material 


Modulus  or 
coefficiency 
of  elasticity 


Stretch  or  compression 

in  a  length  of  lo  feet, 

under  a  load  of 


1000  lbs.  per 
sq.  in. 


I  ton  per 
sq.  in. 


Ash 

Beech 

Birch 

Brass,  cast 

Brass  wire 

Chestnut 

Copper,  cast 

Copper  wire 

Elm 

Glass 

Iron,  cast 

Iron,  cast,  average 

Iron,  wrought,  in  either  bars 
sheets  or  plates 

Iron  bars,  sheets,  average 

Iron  wire,  hard 

Iron  wire  ropes 

Larch 

Lead,  sheet 

Lead  wire 

Mahogany 

Oak 

Oak,  average 

Pine,  white  or  yellow 

Slate 

Spruce 

Steel  bars 

Steel  bars,  average 

Sycamore 

Teak 

Tin,  cast 


Lbs.  per 
sq.  in. 
1,600,000 
1,300,000 

1,400,000 
9,200,000 
14,200,000 
1,000,000 
18,000.000 
18,000,000 
1,000,000 
8,000,000 
12,000,000 

to 
23,000,000 
17,500,000 
18,000,000 

to 
40,000,000 
29,000,000 
26,000,000 
15,000,000 

1,100,000 

720,000 

1,000,000 

1,400,000 

1,000,000 

to 

2,000,000 

1,500,000 
1,600,000 

14,500,000 
1,600,000 

29,000,000 
to 

42,000,000 

35,500,000 
1,000,000 
2,000,000 
4,600,000 


Ins. 

.07s 

.092 

.086 
.013 

.009 

.120 

.007 
.007 

.120 

.015 

.010 

to 

.005- 
.007 
.006 

to 
.003 
.004 
.005 
.008 
.109 

.167 

.120 

.085 

.120 

to 
.060 
.080 
.075 
.008 
■07s 

.004 
to 
.003 
.003 

.120 

.060 
.026 


Ins. 

.168 

.207 
.192 
.029 
.019 
.269 
.015 
.015 
.269 
.034 
.022 
to 

.012 
■  015 

.015 
to 
.007 
.009 

.010 

.018 
.244 


.192 
.269 
to 

.154 
.179 
.168 
.018 
.168 

.009 
to 
.006 
.007 
.269 
.134 


Table  of  Deflections 


183 


Table  of  Deflections 

The  formulae  are  based  on  the  assumplion  that  the  increase  of  deflec- 
tion is  proportional  to  the  increase  of  load. 
The  values  of  the  letters  in  the  table  are  as  follows: 

d  =  deflection  of  beam  in  inches. 
W  =  weight  of  extraneous  load  in  pounds. 
w  =  weight  of  clear  span  of  beam  in  pounds. 
I  =  clear  span  of  beam  in  inches. 
E  =  modulus  of  elasticity  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 
/  =  moment  of  inertia  of  cross  section  of  beam  in  inches. 


Moduli  of  Elasticity  of  Various  Materials 


Materials 


Brass,  cast . . . 

Brass  wire 

Copper 

Lead 

Tin,  cast 

Iron ,  cast .... 
Iron,  wrought 

Steel 

Marble , 

Slate 

Glass 

Ash 

Beech 

Oak 

Pine,  longleaf. 
Walnut 


Moduli 


9,170,000 
14,230,000 
15,000,000  to  18,000,000 

1,000,000 

4,600.000 

12,000.000  to  27,000,000  (?) 
22,000,000  to  29,000,000 
26,000,000  to  32,000,000 
25,000,000 
14,500,000 

8,000,000 

1,600,000 

1,300,000 
974.000  to    2,283,000 

1,119,000  to    3,117,000,  1,926,000 
306,000 


1 84 


Materials 


►•  o  c    it     a 


y  =•   yk   y  «=•   y K 


+ 

^ 
u] 

+ 
si 

ft 

+ 

-I'S 


^ 


2*         ^ 


H^ 


llui    115    I|13    112 


112    115 
-1^     ? 


i'S 


m  £ 


e-? 


lis    ||5    lis    lis 
""^   -'«    -1^   "^1^ 


£  i 


k--^-^ 


K^^  >!         '^■^k 


>|-TS4<  j(.-«j|« 


^•^It 


Modulus  of  Rupture 


185 


From  the  table,  it  is  found  that  for  beams  of  similar  cross  section  and 
of  same  material,  and  within  the  elastic  limit,  the  load  and  deflections 
(neglecting  the  weight  of  the  beam  itself)  are  as  follows: 

Deflections  Under  Given  Extraneous  Loads 


With  same  span . 


With  same  span  and  breadth . .  . 

With  same  span  and  depth 

With  same  breadth  and  depth. . 


Inversely  as  the  breadths  and  as  the  cubes  of 

the  depths 
Inversely  as  the  cubes  of  the  depths 
Inversely  as  the  breadths 
Directly  as  the  cube  of  the  span 


Extraneous  Loads  for  a  Given  Deflection 


With  the  same  span . 


With  the  same  span  and  breadth  . 

With  the  same  span  and  depth 

With  the  same  breadth  and  depth. 


Directly  as  the  breadths  and  as  the  cubes  of 

the  depths 
Directly  as  the  cubes  of  the  depths 
Directly  as  the  breadth 
Inversely  as  the  cubes  of  the  spans 


Modulus  of  Rupture 

The  modulus  of  rupture  is  the  total  resistance,  in  pounds  per  square 
inch,  of  the  fibres  of  a  beam  farthest  from  the  neutral  axis;  and  is  18 
times  the  center  breaking  load  in  pounds,  of  a  beam  of  the  given  material, 
I  inch  square  by  i  foot  span.  The  values  of  the  modulus  of  rupture, 
which  is  usually  denoted  by  "C,"  may  be  obtained  from  the  following 
table  of  transverse  strengths,  by  multiplying  the  values  therein  by  18. 

One-third  part  of  any  of  these  constants  (except  those  for 
wrought  iron  and  steel)  may  be  taken  in  ordinary  practice  as  about  the 
average  constant  for  the  greatest  center  load  within  the  elastic  limit.  The 
loads  here  given  for  wrought  iron  and  steel  are  already  the  greatest 
within  elastic  limits. 

Transverse  strengths,  in  pounds 


&SS 


6^ 


^3 


WOODS 

Ash: 

English 

Amer.  White  (Traut.)... 

Swamp 

Black 

Arbor  VtUe,  Amer 

Balsam,  Canada 

Beech,  Amer 

Birch: 

Amer.  Black 

Amer.  Yellow 

Cedar: 

Bermuda 

Guadaloupe 

Amer.    White   or    Arbor 

Vitae 

Chestnut 

Elm: 

Amer.  White 

Rock,  Canada 

Hemlock 


650 
650 
400 
600 
250 
350 
850 

S50 
850 

400 
600 

250 
4SO 

650 
800 
Soo 


Hickory: 

Amer 

Amer.  Bitter  nut 

Iron  Wood,  Canada 

Locust 

Lignum  Vita 

Larch 

Mahogany 

Mangrove: 

White 

Black 

Maple: 

Black 

Soft 

Oak: 

English 

Amer.  White  (by  Traut. ) .  .  . 

Amer.  Red,  Black,  Basket. 

Live 

Pine: 

Amer.  White  (by  Traut.). .  . 

Amer.  Yellow*  (by  Traut.). 


800 
800 
600 
700 
650 
400 
7SO 

650 
SSO 

750 
7SO 

SSO 
600 
850 
600 

450 
soo 


i86 


Malrri.ils 


Transverse  slrengths,  in  ptjunds  —  {Continued) 


Pine: 

Amer.  Pitch*  (by  Traut.) 

Clcornia* 

I'oplar 

I'oon 

.Spruce: 

(By  Traut.) 

Black 

Sycamore 

Tamarack 

leak 

Walnul 

Willow 

Metals 

Brass 

Iron,  cast: 

1500  to  2700.  average 

Common  pig 

Castings  from  pig 

Employed  in  our  tables 

For  castings  2'/^  or  3  ins.  thick. . 
Iron,  wrought,  1900  to  2600,  average 

Wrought  iron  does  not  break; 
but  at  about  the  average  of  2250 
pounds  its  elastic  limit  is  reached. 
Steel,  hammered  or  rolled;    elas- 
ticity destroyed  by  3000  to  7000. 

Under  heavy  loads  hard  steel 
snaps  like  cast  iron,  and  soft  steel 
bends  like  wrought  iron. 

Stones,  etc. 
Blue  stone  flagging,  Hudson  River. 
Brick: 

Common,  10  to  30,  average 

Good  Amer.  pressed,  30  to  so, 

average 

Caen  Stone 

Cement,  Hydraulic: 

English     Portland,     artificial, 
7  days  in  water 

1  year  in  water 

Portland,   Kingston,   N.  Y.,  7 
days  in  water 


SSO 
8so 
5SO 
700 

4SO 
SSO 
Soo 

400 
750 
S.SO 

350 

8so 

2100 

2000 

2300 

2025 

1800? 

2250 


Cement  Hydraulic: 

Saylor's   Portland,  7   days   in 
water 

Common     U.  S.     ccmcnti,     7 
days  in  water 

The  following  hydraulic  ce- 
ments were  made  into  prisms,  in 
vertical  mould.s,  under  a  pressure 
of  32  pounds  per  .square  inch,  and 
were  kept  in  sea  water  for  I  year. 
Portland  Cement,  English,   pure, 

I  year  old 

Roman  Cement,  Scotch,  pure 

American  Cements,  pure,  average 

about 

Granite: 

so  to  ISO,  average 

Quincy 

Glass,     Millville,     New     Jersey, 

thick  flooring  (by  Traut.) 

Mortar: 

Of  lime  alone,  60  days  old 

I  measure  of  slacked  lime  in 
powder,  i  sand 

I  measure  of  slacked   lime   in 

powder,  2  sand 

\farble: 

Italian,  White 

Manchester,  Vt.,  White 

East  Dorset,  Vt..  White 

Lee.  Mass.,  W'hite 

Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  Gray. . . . 

Montgomery  Co.,  Pa.,  Clouded. 

Rutland,  Vt.,  Gray 

Glenn's  Falls,  N.  Y.,  Black. . . . 

Baltimore,  Md.,  White  coarse  . . 

Oolites,  20  to  so 

Sandstones: 

20  to  70,  average 

Red  of  Connecticut  and  New 

Jersey 

Slate,  laid  on  its  bed,  200  to  450, 
average 


100 

100 


116 
95 

III 
86 

103 

14a 
70 

I5S 

103 
35 

45 

45 


•  Trautwine. 


Moment  of  Inertia  187 

Moment  of  Inertia 

The  moment  of  inertia  of  the  weight  of  a  body,  with  respect  to  any 
axis,  is  the  algebraic  sum  of  the  products  obtained  by  multiplying  the 
weight  of  each  elementary  particle  by  the  square  of  its  distance  from 
the  axis. 

If  the  moment  of  inertia  with  respect  to  any  axis  be  denoted  by  /;  the 
weight  of  any  elementary  particle  by  w;  and  its  distance  from  the  axis 
by  r;   the  sum  of  all  the  particles  by  S,  then  /  =  X{wr^). 

The  moment  of  inertia  of  a  rod  or  bar  of  uniform  thickness,  with 
respect  to  an  axis  perpendicular  to  the  length  of  the  rod,  is 


W 


(?-) 


in  which  W  equals  the  weight  of  rod,  2  /  equals  length  and  d  equals  the 
distance  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  section  from  the  axis. 

For  thin  circular  plates  with  the  axis  in  its  own  plane,  when  r  equals 
the  radius  of  the  plate, 

For  circular  plate,  axis  perpendicular  to  the  plate, 
/  =  wl-+d^ 


Circular  ring,  axis  perpendicular  to  its  own  plane, 

'r^  +  r" 


=  w{^- 


+  d^ 


r  and  r'  being  the  exterior  and  interior  radii  of  the  ring. 
Cylinder,  axis  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder, 

r  =  radius  of  base  and  2  /  =  length  of  the  cylinder. 

By  making  d  equal  to  o  in  any  of  the  above  formulae,  the  moment  of 
inertia  for  a  parallel  axis  passing  through  the  center  of  gravity  is  found. 

The  term  moment  of  inertia  is  also  used  in  respect  to  areas,  as  the 
cross  section  of  beams  under  strain. 

In  this  case,  /  =  2(ar)^,  in  which  a  is  the  elementary  area  and  r  its 
distance  from  the  center. 


i88 


Materials 


"iiS 

>> 

>. 

c 

£1 

is 

■0(   00 

«.I3 

c|5 

1 

c 

•n 

-1 

fO     -I  00 

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H^ 

+ 

o,|a 

fe|? 

a|5 

cly 

Q 

0. 

a.|S' 

•      1    1^ 
—  1   ^ 

c 
.2 

-19 

1 

1        1 

>, 

s     § 

§ 

Si  _   3 

E  o  s. 

51 

o  5|o 

2|o 

21^ 

51o 

51  o 

2 

o  5|o 

21  u 

2|o 

"o 

1      2 

a 

1 

n 

^ 

a. 

E  1 

^ 

5; 

;; 

-1  oe 

s; 

s 

:     S 

1 

g 

E  tt 

E  ° 

a< 

t-"r  « 

m|    ^ 

ill  00 

+ 

0. 

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m\    n 

a 

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tm  00 

^^ 

a.  3 

^fc 

,    1 

1  s:IS 

«l   X 

+ 

£|1 

-IS 

00 

§ 

y 

1 

"8 

1 

S 

01    O 

Q, 

XI 

Q- 

a 

•^1   ^ 

•D 

^    - 

a: 

1 

bs 

a 
IS 

"1 

"     §     ~* 

as 

1 

•>TI    f^ 

§ 

n. 

fe 

fl 

^ 

+ 

a. 

a 

^ 

& 

m 

0, 

M 

S9 

"i  '■ 

J2 
E 

d    ■ 

1 

o 

«    : 

v 

1 

c 

3 

"e 

jc    ; 
o  ■ : 

t 

^ 

u 

■^ 

j3 

x:    : 

a 

1 

A 

•o 

4J 

<n 

a 

c 

_c 

a    : 

B 

S 
m 

•a 
1 

T3 
V 

3 

XI 

•c 

i 

o 

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1 

1 

1        1 

•o   : 

4) 

1; 

^ 

to 

1 

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w 

4 

a 

1 
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m 

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C 

0 

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i 

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V   u 

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« 

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S  "O 

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) 

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^ 

■% 

CJ 

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S 

a 

a 

1            3 

«1 

3 

o 

Q 

w 

V 

•o 

i 

u 

"O    K 

«J 

E 

a 

E 

P 

S 

E 

E 

H    ° 

E 

eg 

CO 

(g 

1 

J 

£ 

1 

c? 

CO 

1 

.9 

~ 

S 

1 

Formula;  for  Transverse  Strength  of  Beams  189 

Formulae  for  Transverse  Strength  of  Beams 

P  =  load  at  middle. 

W  =  total  load  distributed  uniformly. 

I  =  length,  b  =  breadth,  d  =  depth  in  inches. 
E  =  modulus  of  elasticity. 
R  =  stress  per  square  inch  of  extreme  fibre. 

/  =  moment  of  inertia. 

C  =  distance  between  neutral  axis  and  extreme  fibre. 

For  breaking  load  of  circular  section  replace  bd-  by  0.59  d^. 

For  good  wrought  iron  the  value  of  R  is  about  80,000;  for  steel  about 
120,000.  For  cast  iron  the  value  of  R  varies  greatly.  Thurston  found 
45,740  for  No.  2  and  67,980  for  No.  i. 


IQO 


Miilcrials 


General  Formulie  for  TranBverae  Strength,  Etc. 

The  following  table  gives  the  values  (jf  H',  etc.,  without  introducing 
the  modulus  of  elasticity  or  the  moment  of  inertia. 


Formulae  for  Round  anu  Rectangular  Solid  Beams 


t^2 
1^^ 


c.s; 


•^I§ 


F 


•b^ 


J^R. 


ON 


-^Is 


li 
■I 


J; 


558 


11^ 


^1^ 


Til 


•ft 


T<3-' 


-FH-.- 


*<i 


+^- 


^ 


^■> 


CHAPTER   V 

ACCELERATION   OF  FALLING   BODIES 

The  change  in  velocity  of  a  falling  body  which  occurs  in  a  unit  of  time 
is  its  acceleration. 

That  due  to  gravity  is  32.16  feet  per  second,  in  one  second  and  is 
denoted  by  g. 

Let  t  =  number  of  seconds  during  which  a  body  falls. 

V  =  velocity  acquired  in  feet  per  second  at  the  expiration  of 

/  seconds. 
u  =  space  fallen  through  in  each  second. 
h  =  total  space  fallen  through  in  t  seconds. 

2k 


Then 


32.16,  t  =  V2  gh  =  8.02V/J  = 


«  =  -  =  2-  =  16.08,  P  =  =  ;: , 

2  2  2  g         64.32 

t  =-= =y-^  =  ^r  =  0.24938  Vh. 

g      32.16        T     8  V 

The  table  below  gives  the  values  of  ft,  v  and  »,  for  values  of  /  up  to  ten 
seconds. 


Space  fallen 

Velocity 

Space  fallen 

Time  in 

through  in 

acquired  in 

through  in 

seconds. 

feet  in 

feet  per 

feet  in 

I 

time  t. 

second  at  end 

each  second, 

h 

of  time  /, 

V 

u 

I 

16 

32 

16 

2 

64 

64 

48 

3 

I4S 

96 

80 

4 

257 

129 

113 

5 

402 

161 

145 

6 

S8o 

193 

177 

7 

789 

22s 

209 

8 

1030 

257 

241 

9 

1303 

290 

273 

10 

1609 

322 

306 

191 


102 


Mechanics 


The  Rraphicil  method  of  ascertaining  the  values  of  /,  r,  14  an<I  A  is 
easily  rememhcrtd  and  is  often  of  service. 

In  the  lrianj;Ie,  Fig.  61,  let  the  vertical  divisions  on 
the  left  of  the  per|)en(li(:ular  repreM;nt  the  numl>er  of 
seconds  through  which  the  body  falls  =  /. 

Lei  the  base  of  each  small  triangle  equal  the  velocity 
at  the  end  of  the  first  second  =  32.16.  Then  the 
number  of  bases  on  each  of  the  horizontal  lines  at 
I,  2,  3,  etc.,  multiplied  by  32.16  will  equal  the  ac- 
quired velocity  for  the  corresponding  time  =  v. 

Let  the  area  of  each  small  triangle  =  16.08.  Then 
the  number  of  such  areas  between  o  and  any  hori- 
zontal line  multiplied  by  16.08  will  equal  the  height  in  feet  fallen  through 
in  the  number  of  seconds  corresponding  to  that  line  =  //. 

And  the  number  of  small  triangles  between  each  pair  of  horizontal 
lines,  multiplied  by  16.08  will  equal  the  number  of  feet  fallen  through  io 
each  second  =  11. 

t  =  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6. 
V  =  32.16  X  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6. 
h  =  16.08  X  I,  4,  9,  16,  25,  36. 
«  =  16.08  X  I,  3,  5,  7,  9,  II. 


Fig.  61. 


Thus: 


Fig.  62. 


Parallelogram  of  Forces 

If  two  forces  are  applied  to  the  same  point,  their  resultant  will  be 
represented  in  intensity  and  direction  by  the  diagonal  of  a  [jarallelo- 
gram  of  which  the  adjacent  sides  represent  the 
intensities  and  directions  of  the  given  forces. 

Let  AB  and  AC  represent,  in  intensity  and 
direction,  any  two  forces  applied  to  the  point 
A;  then  AD  will  correspondingly  represent 
their  resultant. 

Conversely,  if  AD  be  the  known  force  acting  at  i4,  it  may  be  resolved 
into  two  components,  in  any  direction  in  the  same  plane;  which  com- 
ponents will  be  the  adjacent  sides  of  a  parallelogram  having  AD  for  its 
diagonal. 

Parallelopipedon  of  Forces 

If  three  forces,  not  in  the  same  jjlane,  act  on  the  same  p>oint,  they  may 
be  represented  by  the  edges  of  a  parallelopipedon  and  the  diagonal 
through  the  point  of  application  is  their  resultant. 


Height  Corresponding  to  a  Given  Acquired  Velocity      193 
Height  Corresponding  to  a  Given  Acquired  Velocity 


Velocity, 

Height, 

Velocity, 

Height, 

Velocity, 

Height, 

V 

h 

V 

h 

V 

h 

Feet  per 
second 

Feet 

Feet  per 
second 

Feet 

Feet  per 
second 

Feet 

■25 

.0010 

34 

17.9 

76 

89.8 

•  SO 

.0039 

35 

19.0 

77 

92.2 

.75 

.0087 

36 

20.1 

78 

94.6 

1. 00 

.016 

37 

21.3 

79 

97.0 

1.25 

.024 

38 

22.4 

80 

99.5 

I. so 

-03S 

39 

23.6 

81 

102.0 

I-7S 

.048 

40 

24.9 

82 

104.5 

2.0 

.062 

41 

26.1 

83 

107. 1 

2.5 

.097 

42 

27.4 

84 

109.7 

30 

.140 

43 

28.7 

85 

112.3 

35 

.190 

44 

30.1 

86 

1150 

4.0 

.248 

45 

31.4 

87 

H77 

4.S 

.314 

46 

32.9 

88 

120.4 

S-O 

.388 

47 

34.3 

89 

123.2 

6.0 

■  559 

48 

35.8 

90 

125  9 

7.0 

.761 

49 

37.3 

91 

128.7 

8.0 

•994 

so 

38.9 

92 

131 .6 

9.0 

1.26 

51 

40.4 

93 

134.5 

10. 0 

1^55 

52 

42.0 

94 

137.4 

II. 0 

1.88 

53 

43.7 

95 

140.3 

12.0 

2.24 

54 

45.3 

96 

143  3 

130 

2.62 

55 

47  ■© 

97 

146.0 

14.0 

3.04 

56 

48.8 

98 

149.0 

iS-o 

3.49 

57 

50.5 

99 

152.0 

16.0 

3.98 

58 

52.3 

100 

155  0 

17.0 

4.49 

59 

54.1 

105 

171. 0 

18.0 

5.03 

60 

56.0 

no 

188.0 

19.0 

5.61 

61 

579 

"5 

205.0 

20.0 

6.22 

62 

59  8 

120 

224.0 

21.0 

6.85 

63 

61.7 

130 

263.0 

22.0 

7.52 

64 

63.7 

140 

3040 

23.0 

8.21 

65 

65.7 

ISO 

350.0 

24.0 

8.94 

66 

67.7 

175 

476.0 

25. 0 

9.71 

67 

69.8 

200 

622.0 

26.0 

10. 5 

68 

71-9 

300 

1.399  0 

27.0 

11.3 

69 

74.0 

400 

2,488.0 

28.0 

12.2 

70 

76.2 

500 

3.887.0 

29.0 

13. 1 

71 

78.4 

600 

5.597 -o 

30.0 

14.0 

72 

80.6 

700 

7,618.0 

31  0 

14.9 

73 

82.9 

800 

9.952. 0 

32.0 

159 

74 

85^i 

900 

12.593. 0 

330 

16.9 

75 

87.5 

1000 

IS. 547.0 

194  Mechanics 


The  Lever 


f^ 


The  lever  is  a  solid  bar  of  any  form,  siipixjrled  at  a  fixwi  point,  alx)Ut 
which  it  may  turn  freely. 

I ^ -]        The  fixed  point  is  the  fulcrum.    There  arc 

|f|     r  pi    three  orders  of  levers.     In  those  of  the  first 

order  the  j)oints  of  applicaticm  of  the  |X)\ver 

and  resistance  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the 

fulcrum. 

In  the  second  order  the  resistance  is  ap- 
plied between  the  fulcrum  and  the  power. 

In  the  third  order  the  power  is  applied 
l)ctwcen  the  fulcrum  and  the  resistance. 

«  In  any  order  ^'''- ^4- 

j-^ "^ _—_ ,      ^^^  weight  IF  multiplied   by  the  distance 

'^ >L     WF    from    the    fulcrum    must    equal    the 

^Ll    power  P   multiplied   by   PF,   to  establish 
Fig.  65.  .1.,    • 

■^  equilibrium. 

Whatever  may  be  the  shape  of  the  lever,  the  power  or  resistance  acts 
at  the  end  of  a  line  drawn  through  the  fulcrum  and  perpendicular  to  the 
line  of  direction  of  the  power  or  resistance.  This  perpendicular  is  called 
the  lever  arm  of  its  corresponding  force,  and  the  product  of  the  lever  arm 
and  its  force  is  called  the  moment  of  that  force.  When  the  moments  are 
equal  the  forces  are  in  equilibrium. 

If  one  moment  exceeds  the  other,  rotation  will  occur  about  the  ful- 
crum in  the  direction  of  the  force  having  the  greater  moment. 

The  Wheel  and  Axle 

This  is  simply  such  an  application  of  the  lever  of  the  first  order,  that 
the  power  and  resistance  may  act  through  greater  distances;  the  radius 
of  the  wheel  is  the  lever  arm  of  the  power  and  that  of  the  drum  the  lever 
arm  of  the  resistance. 

When  the  resistance  is  a  weight,  it  will  be  raised  if  the  moment  of  the 
power  is  the  greater  and  vice  versa. 

The  Inclined  Plane 

If  a  force  P  acts  in  the  direction  of 
AB,  to  overcome  the  resistance  R,  then 
P  :R::a  -.b. 

•  •      "  =  -r-     and    K  =  —  .^.^  ,, 

b  a  Fig-  60. 


Center  of  Gravity  195 

The  Wedge 

The  wedge  is  simply  a  double  inclined  plane,  placed  !„ 

back  to  back.  k--  a  --m 

If  the  force  applied  to  a  wedge  be  represented  by  P  ■     \     1     / 
and  the  resistance  to  be  overcome  by  R,  the  base  of  the  \    1    / 

wedge  by  a  and  its  length  by  6;  then  b       \  ;  / 

P  :  R  :  :  a  :  b  P  =  -7-     and    R  =  —  •.         V/ 


Center  of  Gravity 

The  center  of  gravity  of  a  body  is  that  point  through  which  the  effort 
of  its  weight  always  passes.  If  a  body  be  suspended  from  any  point, 
the  direction  of  the  line  of  suspension  will  pass  tlirough  its  center  of 
gravity. 

Therefore,  the  center  of  gravity  of  any  body  may  be  determined  by 
finding  the  intersection  of  the  hnes  of  suspension  passing  through  points 
not  on  the  same  vertical  hne. 

The  center  of  gravity  of  two  bodies  is  on  a  line  joining  their  respective 
centers  of  gravity  and  the  distances  from  the  center  of  gravity  of  either 
body  to  that  of  both  of  them  (combined)  are  inversely  proportional  to 
the  weights  of  the  bodies  respectively. 

To  find  the  center  of  gravity  of  any  irregular  plane  surface,  divide  it 
into  triangles  of  any  convenient  areas.  Find  the  center  of  gravity  and 
the  area  of  each  triangle.  Then  assuming  any  coordinate  axes  X  and 
Y,  multiply  the  area  of  each  triangle  by  the  abscissa  of  its  center  of  gravity 
and  divide  the  product  by  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  all  the  triangles.  The 
quotient  is  the  abscissa  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  entire  figure.  Find 
its  ordinate  in  the  same  way;  then  the  point  determined  by  this  abscissa 
and  ordinate  is  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  figure. 

This  method  is  precisely  that  shown  by  Fig.  61,  Machinery  Supplement 
No.  5. 

In  addition  to  the  formulae  taken  from  Machinery  Supplement  No.  5, 
others  are  given  as  follows: 


Semiellipse 

The  center  of  gravity  of  a  semiellipse  is  on  the  semiaxis  perpendicular 
to  the  base  and  at  a  distance  from  the  base  equal  to  the  product  of  that 
semiaxis  and  the  decimal  0.4244. 


iq6  Mrclianics 

The  Center  of  Gravity  of  Solids  of  Uniform  Density 
Throughout 

Sphere  and  spheroid  at  center  of  the  l)ody. 

Hemisi)hcrc  on  the  radius  perpendicular  to  the  base  and  at  W  its 
ienplh  from  the  base. 

Spherical  Sector. —  On  the  radius  passing  through  the  center  of  the 
circle  cut  from  llic  sjihere  by  the  sector  and  at  a  distance  from  the  center 
of  the  sphere,  eciual  to  three-f(jurths  of  the  diiTerence  between  the  radius, 
and  one-half  the  rise  of  the  sector.  Or  G.  representing  the  distance  from 
center  of  sphere  to  center  of  gravity,  R  =  radius  of  sphere  and  //  the 

rise  of  the  sector;   then  G  =  ^ilR )• 

Spherical  Segment 

,,  (.2  K  -  II)- 

^-^'  zR-n 

Spherical  Zone 

Take  the  difference  between  ihc  two  segments  whose  difference  is 
the  zone.     Find  the  center  of  gravity  of  each  segment;  then,  by  inverse 

proportion,  find  that  of  their  difference. 

Frustrum  of  a  Cone 
Let  G  =  distance  from  base  to  center  of  gravity  measured  on 

the  axis. 
A  =  area  of  large  end. 
a  =  area  of  small  end. 

H  =  height  of  frustrum  measured  on  the  axis. 
Aa  +  3a\ 
Aa  +  a    J 


Then  c^nfA  +  ^^^+sa 


4  V    ^  +  VAa  +  , 

The  center  of  grav-ity  of  a  paraboloid  is  on  the  axis  and  at  a  distance 
from  the  vertex  ecjual  to  two-thirds  that  from  vertex  to  base. 

A  body  suspended  from  center  of  gravit)^  has  no  tendency  to  rotate. 

Center  of  gravity  of  regular  figures  is  at  geometrical  center;  of  a  triangle 
two-thirds  distance  from  any  angle  to  middle  of  opposite  side;  of  semicircle 

2  CT 

on  middle  radius,  4244  r  from  center;   of  sector  — j-  from  center;  of  seg- 

3* 
c3 

ment,  from  center  (where  c  =  chord   and  a  =  area);    of  cone  or 

12  a 

pyramid,  V*  distance  from  center  of  base  to  apex  a,  a^,  at  =  areas  of 
respective  triangles. 

Center  of  gra\ity  of  two  bodies,  x  =  — r— r^ 

W  +  W 


Radius  of  Gyration 


197 


General  formulae  x  = 


y  = 


aiXi  +  OiOCi  +  03^:3 
^1  +  02  +  fls 

Oiyi  +  (Jiji  +  flays 
fli  +  (h  +  fls 


.—  /-.. 


0- 


\L1 


<X,-f 

-s^r::::^, 

\ 

v-^n 

:)\ 

OX,- 

\  ,^^  ■ 

-<' 

:i^ 

^  i^- 

^ 

(7 

Y 

Fig.  68. 


Fig.  69. 


Volume  of  a  solid  generated  by  the  revolution  of  a  surface  about  an  axis 
in  the  same  plane  with  it  =  area  of  the  surface  X  circumference  de- 
scribed by  its  center  of  gravity. 

Moment  of  Inertia 

Moment  of  inertia  of  rotating  body  =  products  of  weights  of  particles 
X  squares  of  distances  from  the  axis  =  /  =  Wiri^  +  Wir:^  +  w^^,  etc. 
K'l,  W2,  etc.  =  weights  of  particles;  n,  h,  etc.  =  distances  from  axis  in 
same  units  as  the  volumes  of  the  particles  of  which  weights  are  taken. 

Radius  of  Gyration 

Center  of  gyration  of  rotating  body  is  point  at  which  weight  may  be 

assumed  concentrated.     Radius  of  gyration  =  k  =  distance  from  center 

f 
For  circvdar  disc,  k  =  — ;=.      For 
V2 


of  rotation  to   center  of   gyration 


circular  ring,   k 
1899.) 


IB}  +  r^ 


(No.  s  Supplement  to  Machinery,  Sept., 


Specific  Gravity  of  Gases 
Air  =  I. 

Hydrogen 0.069 

Marsh  gas o  ■  SS9 

Steam o.  623 

Carbonic  oxide o. 968 

Nitrogen 0.971 

Olefiant  gas o. 978 

Oxygen i .  106 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen i .  191 

Nitrous  oxide i  •  527 

Carbonic  acid i  •  529 

Sulphuric  acid 2 .  247 

Chlorine 2 .  470 


iqS 


Mechanics 


Specific  C.RvWITy  of  Various  Substances 

Wat.T    -  I. 


Substancui 


Average 

s[)ecific 
Kravity 


Air  at  60'  F.  under  pressure  of  one  atmosphere  weighs 

Hi  ft  part  as  much  as  water  at  60*  F 

Alcohol 

Ash,  American,  white,  dry 

Aluminum 

Antimony 

Asphaltum 

Basalt 


Bismuth 

Brass: 

Copper  and  zinc,  cast 

Copper  and  zinc,  rolled. . . 

Bronze,  copper  8,  tin  I 

Brick,  pressed 

Brick,  common,  hard 

Brick,  soft 

Box  wood 

Carbonic  acid 

Charcoal,  of  pines  and  oaks. 
Chalk 


Clay,  dry.  in  lump,  loose 

Coke: 

Loose 

A  heaped  bushel  35  to  42  pounds.     A  ton  occupies 
from  40  to  43  cubic  feet. 

Cherry,  dry 

Coal: 

Anthracite 

Anthracite,  broken,  loose 

Bituminous , 

Bituminous,  broken,  loose 

•     A  heaped  bushel  weighs  from  70  to  78  pounds. 
A  ton  occupies  from  43  to  48  cubic  feet. 
Cement: 

Rosendale.  ground,  loose 

Rosendale,  struck  bushel , 

English  Portland  

French  Portland 

Copper,  cast 

Copper,  rolled 

Diamond 

Earth: 

Dry  loam,  loose » 

Dry  loam,  shaken 

Dry  loam ,  moderately  rammed 

Loam,  moist,  loose 

Loam,  moist,  shaken 

Soft  mud 

Elm,  dry 

Ebony 


o  00123 
0.834 
0.61 
2.6 
6  70 
14 
29 
9  74 

8.1 
8.4 
8.5 


o  96 
0.00187 


0.672 
IS 
I  35 


8.7 
8.9 
3-53 


0.56 


Specific  Gravity  of  Various  Substances  199 

SPEcrFic  Gravity  of  Various  Substances  —  {Continued) 


Substances 


Fat 

Flint 

Feldspar 

Glass 

Glass,  common  window 

Granite 

Gneiss,  common 

Gypsum,  plaster  Paris 

Greenstone,  trap 

Gravel 

Gold,  pure 

Gutta  percha 

Hornblende,  black 

Hydrogen  is  14!-^  times  lighter  than  air  and  16  times 

lighter  than  oxygen 

Hemlock,  dry 

Hickory,  dry '. 

Iron,  cast 

Iron,  pure 

Iron,  wrought,  rolled 

Iron,  sheets   

Ivory 

Ice 

India  rubber 

Lignum  Vitae,  dry 

Lard 


Lead 

Limestones  and  marbles 

Lime,  quick 

Lime,  quick,  ground  loose,  per  struck  bushel. 
Mahogany: 

Dry,  San  Domingo 

Dry,  Honduras 

Maple,  dry 

Marbles,  see  Limestone 
Masonry: 

Granite  or  limestone 

Granite  or  limestone  rubble 

Brick,  ordinary  quality 

Mercury  at  32°  F 

Mercury  at  212°  F 

Mica 


Mortar,  hardened . . . 
Mud: 

Dry 

Moist 

Wet.  fluid 

Naphtha 

Nitrogen 

Oak  live,  dry 

Oak  white 

Oak,  red  and  black. 


Average 
specific 
gravity 


•  93 
2.6 
2.6s 
2.98 
2.52 
2.72 
2.69 
2.27 
3.0 


19  258 


■  4 
.85 
7.218 
7-77 
7.69 
7-73 
1.82 
.92 
■93 
1-33 
•  95 
11.38 
2.7 
IS 


13- 62 
13.38 
2.93 
1.63 


.001194 

•9S 

.77 


Average 
weight  per 
cubic  foot 
in  pounds 


S8.o 
162.0 
166.0 
186.0 
157 -o 
170.0 
168.0 
141. 6 
187.0 
90  to  106 
1204.0 

61. 1 
203.0 

.00527 

25.0 

53 -o 
450.0 
485.0 
480.0 
485.0 
114 .0 

57.4 

58.0 

83.0 

59-3 
709.6 
168.0 

95.0 

S3.0 

53.0 
35.0 
49  o 


165.0 
154.0 
125.0 
849.0 
836.0 
183.0 
103.0 

80  to  no 
no  to  130 
104  to  120 

52.9 

.0744 
59  3 
48.0 
32  to  45 


200 


Mechanics 


SpEcmc  Gravity  of  Various  Substances — (Continual) 


Substances 


Average 
specific 
gravity 


Avcraiic 
wdKht  per 
cubic  foot 
in  pounds 


Oil: 

Whale 

Olive 

Linseed 

Palm 

Petroleum 

Turpentine 

Rape  seed 

Sunflower 

Oolites 

Ores: 

Copper,  vitreous 

Copper,  pyrites 

Copper,  Cornish 

Iron,  chromate 

Iron,  pyrites 

Iron,  magnetic 

Iron,  red  hematite : 

Iron,  brown  hematite 

Iron,  specular 

Iron,  spathic 

Iron,  ironstone 

Lead,  carbonate 

Lead,  galena 

Tin,  Cornish 

Zinc,  calamine 

Oxygen 

Peat,  dry 

Pine,  white,  dry 

Pine,  yellow,  northern 

Pine,  yellow .  southern 

Pitch 

Plaster  Paris 

Powder,  blasting 

Porphyry 

Platinum 

Quartz,  pure 

Ruby  and  sapphire 

Rosin 

Salt: 

Coarse,  Syracuse  struck  bushel,  s6  pounds. . . . 

Coarse,  Turk's  Island  struck  bushel,  76  to  80. 

Coarse,  Liverpool  struck  bushel,  so  to  ss 

Sand,  dry  and  loose,  average  98 

Sand,  wet 

Sand  stones 

Serpentines 

Snow: 

Freshly  fallen 

Wet  and  compacted 

Sycamore,  dry 

Shales,  red  or  black 

Slate 


.92 

.92 

■  94 

.969 

.860 

.87 

.914 

.926 


129 

344 

4S2 

OS7 

789 

9 

00 

029 

218 

81 

863 

20 

22 

45 

525 

00136 


.40 

■  55 
.72 

■  15 
.176 
.0 

73 

■  5 

■  65 
9 


57  3 

57  3 


.0846 
20  to  30 

25. o 
34  3 
45 -o 
717 


62.3 

170.0 

1342  o 

165.0 


68.6 

45.0 

62.0 

42.0 

goto  106 
118  to  129 
151  o 
162.0 

5  to  12 
15  to  50 

37.0 
162.0 
175  o 


Specific  Gravity  of  Various  Substances  201 

Specific  Gravity  of  Various  Substances  —  {Continued) 


Substances 


Average 
specific 
gravity 


Silver 

Soapstone  (steatite) 

Steel 

Sulphur 

Spruce,  dry 

Spelter,  zinc 

Tallow 

Tar 

Trap 

Topaz 

Tin 

Water: 

Distilled  at  32°  F.,  barometer  30"  

Distilled  at  62°  F.,  barometer  30"  

Distilled  at  212°  F.,  barometer  30"  

At  60°  F.  a  cubic  inch  of  water  weighs  .03607  pounds 
or  .57712  ounces,  avoirdupois 

Sea 

Dead  Sea 

Wax,  bees 

Wines 

Walnut,  black,  dry 

Zinc 

Zircon 

Asbestos 

Acid: 

Acetic 

Carbolic 

Hydrochloric 

Nitric 

Sulphuric 

Barytes 

Brick: 

Common 

Fire 

Clay,  fire 

Carbon,  graphite 

Manganese 

Magnesium 

Nickel 

Potassium 

Phosphorus 

Silicon 

Stone  (building) 

Titanium 

Tungsten : . . 

Uranium 

Vanadium 


10.5 
2.73 
7.8s 
2.0 

.4 
7.0 

•  94 
l.o 
3.0 
3.5s 
7-35 


1.028 

1.240 

•97 

.998 

.61 

7.0 

4.45 


Average 
weight  per 
cubic  foot 
in  pounds 


655.0 
170.0 
490.0 
125.0 

25.0 
437.5 

58.6 

62.4 
187.0 

459 -o 

62.417 
62.355 
597 


64.08 


60.5 
62.3 
38.0 
437. 5 


•  993 

I  063 
i^o65 
1.270 
1.554 
1.970 
4.86 

1.90 
2.2 
2.16 
2.S85 
8.01 
2.04 
8.80 
.865 
1.863 
2.493 
2.9 
5.3 

19.26 

18.4 
5.5 


499  •o 
548.7 


202 


Mechanics 
Mil.  OF  Physical  Constants 


Name 


Aluminum. . . 
Antimony  — 

Arsenic 

Bismuth 

Calcium 

Carbon 

Chlorine 

Chromium. . . 

Copper 

Gold 

Hydrogen  — 

Iodine 

Iron 

Lead 

Magnesium... 
Manganese .  . . 

Mercury 

Molybdenum. 

Nickel 

Nitrogen 

Oxygen 

Phosphorus.  . 

Platinum 

Potassium 

Silicon 

Silver 

Sodium 

Sulphur 

Tellurium 

Titanium.  .  . . 

Tin 

Tungsten .... 

Uranium 

Vanadium.  .  . 
Zinc 


Sym- 
bol 


Al 

Sb 

As 

Bi 

Ca 

C 

CI 

Cr 

Cu 

Au 

H 

I 

Fe 

Pb 

Mg 

Mn 

Hg 

Mo 

Ni 

N 

O 

P 

Pt 

K 

Si 

Ag 

Na 

S 

Te 

Ti 

Sn 

W 

U 

V 

Zn 


Atomic 
weight 


27.3 

123. 0 

74  9 

207  S 
39  9 
11.97 
35.36 
52.4 
63.3 

196.2 
i.o 

126.53 
55. 9 

206.4 
23-94 
54-8 

199.8 
95.8 
S8.6 
14.01 
15.96 
30.94 

196.7 
39  04 
28.0 

107.66 
23  o 
31.98 

128.0 
48.0 

117  8 

184.0 

180.0 
51.2 
64.9 


Specific 
heat, 
water 


214 

0508 

0814 

0308 

170 

214 


0952 

0324 

2963 

0541 

"4* 

0314 

25 

122 

0317 

0722 

109 

244 

21S 

190 

0324 

166 

2029 

0570 

293 

202 

0474 


0562 
0334 


Specific 

gravity, 

water 


6.7 
5. 95 
9  74 

1  578 

2  35 
2.43 
6.8 
8.90 

19  258 

4.94 
7.80 

11.38 
1.70 
8.0 

13.62 
8.64 
8.90 


1.83 

21.53 

.865 

2.49 

10.50 

.972 

2.00 

6.65 

5.3 

7.35 

17.50 

18.40 

5  54 

7.00 


Specific 
gravity, 

air 

-  I 


Melting 
point 


.069 


.971 
.106 


(5.50) 


1182*  P. 

1973"- 1 1 34*  P. 

774*  P. 

497'-484"  P. 


>Pt. 
1994'  P. 
20IS°  P. 

225*  P. 

I9oo'-279o''  P. 

6i7°-588''  P. 

1139°  P- 

2240°  P. 

39°  P- 

26io»  P. 


lis"  F. 

3150°  P. 

144  5°- I 36°  P. 

2574°  P. 

1732°  P. 

207  7°-i9o°  P. 

226"  P. 

700°  P. 

4000°  P. 

442°-4I7*  F. 

>Mn 

4300°  P. 
773"-754''  P. 


Latent 
heat  of 
fusion 


28s 
40.0 

33.  as 


43  o 
16.0 


88  69 
II. o 


509 
68.0 


9.06 
24.00 
16.0 
128.0 
23.0 
32.0 
16.86 
19.0 

25  6s 


48.36 


Cast  iron  specific  heat  at      212°  F.  is  .109. 
"  "  "         572°  F.  is  .140. 

"  "  "       2150°  F.  is  .190. 


Table  of  Physical  Constants 
Table  of  Physical  Constants 


203 


Substances 


Air 

Ox^'gen 

Nitrogen 

Hydrogen 

Carbon  monoxide 

Carbon  dioxide 

Marsh  gas 

defiant  gas  (ethylene) .  . . 

Aqueous  vapor 

Ammonia 

Nitrous  monoxide 

Nitrous  dioxide   

Sulph.  hydrogen 

Sulph.  dioxide 

Chlorine 

Bromine  vapor 

Carbon  bisulphide  vapor . 

Hydrochloric  acid 

Sulphuric  acid 

Alcohol 

Glycerine 

Turpentine,  oil 


Air  =  I 


Specific 
gravity 


1 .  1056 

.4713 

.0692 

.9670 

1.5210 

.5527 

.9672 

.6220 

.5894 

1. 5241 

1.0384 

I . 1746 

2.2112 

2.4S02 

5. 4772 
2.6258 
I . 2596 


Specific  heat  at 
constant  pressure 


For 

equal 

weight, 

water 

=  1 


.2377 
.2175 
.2438 
3.4090 
.2450 
.2169 
•  5929 
.4040 
.4805 
.5084 
.2262 
.2317 
.2432 
.1544 
.1210 
.0555 
.1569 
.1882 
■  335 
.700 
.450 
.426 


For 

equal 

volumes 


.2377 
•  2405 
.2368 
.2359 
.2370 
.3307 
.3277 
.4106 
.2989 
.2996 
.0447 
.2406 
.2857 
.3414 
.2965 
.3040 
.4122 
.2333 


Specific 
heat  at 
constant 
volume 

Pounds 

per 

cubic 

foot 

.1689 
.1550 
.1730 
2.4060 
.1730 
.1710 
.4670 
.3320 

.080728 
.089210 
.078420 
.005610 
.078100 
.123430 
.044880 
.079490 

Cubic 
feet 
per 

pound 


12.387 
11.209 
12.752 
178.230 
12.804 
8.102 
22.301 
12.580 


204  Mechanics 

Weight  oi   Air  Ki-.QtTRi.D  for  Combustion  of  Coal 


Substances 

Pounds  of 
air 

B.t.u.  from 
combustion 
of  one  pound 

12.30 
JS.oo 
18.00 
15.60 

14.500 
61.524 
24.021 
21.524 
18,260 

defiant  gas 

Boiling  Points  at  Sea  Level 

Water 100 

Alcohol 78. 

Ether 34- 

Carbon  bisulphide 46. 

Nitric  acid  (strong) 120. 

Sulphuric  acid 326. 

Oil  turpentine 157. 

Mercury 350. 

Aldehyde 20. 


Combining  Equivalents 

Oxygen 8.0  "C. 

Hydrogen i  .0 

Nitrogen 140 

Carbon 6.0 

Sulphur 8.0 

Phosphorus 10.33 

Chlorine 35 . 5 

Iodine 25.4 

Potassium 39-1 

Iron 28.0 

Copper 31.7 

Lead 103. S 

Silver 108.0 

Bromine 80  o 

Sodium 23.0 

Fluorine 190 

Lithium 70 

Rubidium 85.4 


Lineal  Expansion  for  Solids 


205 


Lineal  Expansion  for  Solids  at  Ordinary  Temperature 
FOR   1°  F. 


Solids 


Aluminum,  cast 

Antimony,  cryst 

Brass,  cast 

Brass,  plate 

Brick 

Bronze  (copper,  17;  tin,  2H;   zinc,  i).  . 

Bismuth 

Cement,  Portland  (mixed),  pure 

Concrete:  cement,  mortar  and  pebbles 

Copper 

Ebonite 

Glass,  English  flint 

Glass,  hard 

Glass,  thermometer 

Granite  (gray,  dry) 

Granite  (red,  dry) 

Gold,  pure 

Iron  (wrought) 

Iron  (cast) 

Lead 

Marbles,  various  J  . 

Masonry,  brick     w 

Mercury  (cubic  expansion) 

Nickel 

Pewter 

Plaster,  white 

Platinum  

Porcelain 

Silver,  pure 

Slate 

Steel,  cast 

Steel,  tempered 

Stone,  sand,  dry 

Tin 

Wedgewood  (ware) 

Wood,  pine 

Zinc 

Zinc  8  \ 
Tin  I 


From  1°  F. 


Length 
00001234 
00000627 
00000957 

0OOOIOS2 

00000306 


00000975 
00000594 
0000079s 
00000887 
00004278 
00000451 
00000397 
00000499 
00000438 
00000498 
00000786 
00000648 
00000556 
00001571 
00000308 
00000786 
00000256 
00000494 
00009984 
00000695 
00001129 
00000922 
00000479 
00000200 
00001079 
00000577 
00000636 
00000689 
00000652 
00001163 
00000489 
00000276 
00001407 

00001496 


Coefficient 

of  expansion 

from  32°  to 

212°  F. 


.002221 
.001129 
.001722 
.001894 
.000550 
.001774 
.001755 
.001070 
.001430 
.001596 
.007700 
.000812 
.000714 
.000897 
.000789 
.000897 
001415 
.001166 
.001001 
. 002828 
.000554 
.00141S 
.000460 
.000890 
.017971 
.001251 
.002033 
.001660 
.000863 
.000360 
.001943 
.001038 
.001144 
.001240 
.001174 
.002094 
.000881 
.000496 
.002532 

.002692 


Cubical  expansion  or  expansion  of  volume  equals  lineal  expansion  multiplied  by  3. 
The  coefficient  of  expansion  from  32°  to  212°  F.  divided  by  100  gives   the  lineal 
expansion  for  corresponding  solid  for  1°  C. 
The  expansion  of  metals  above  212°  F.  is  irregular  and  more  rapid. 


2o6  Mechunics 

Furnace  Temperatures 

M.  Lc  C'hatclicr  finds  ihc  mcllinj;  heal  of  while  cast  iron  2075"  F., 
and  ihal  of  gray  cast  iron  al  2226°  V.  Mil<i  sled  melts  at  2687"  F.,  semi- 
mild  at  i^si"  !•'.  and  hard  steel  at  2570°  F. 

Tiie  furnace  for  hard  |x)rcclain  al  the  end  of  the  Ijakin^  has  a  heal  of 
^498°  F.  The  heat  of  a  normal  incandescent  lamp  is  3272°  F.,  but  it 
may  1)0  pushed  beyond  3812°  F. 

The  following  arc  some  of  the  temi)cratures  delermlned  by  Professor 
Roberts-Austin. 

TcH-ton  Opcn-hcarth  Furnace  {Woolwich  Arsenal) 
Temperature  of  steel,  0.3  per  cent  carbon,  pouring  into  ladle.  .  .  2993°  F. 
Temperature  of  steel,  0.3  per  cent  carbon,  pouring  into  large 

mold 2876°  F. 

Reheating  furnace,  Woolwich  Arsenal,  temperature  of  interior. .  1 706°  F. 
Cupola  furnace,  temperature  of  No.  2  cast  iron  pouring  into 

ladle 2912°  F. 

Determinations  by  M.  Lc  Chalelier.     Bessemer  Process. 
Six-ton  Converter 

Bath  of  slag 2876°  F. 

Metal  in  ladle 2984°  F. 

Metal  in  ingot  mold 2876°  F. 

Ingot  in  reheating  furnace 2192°  F. 

Ingot  under  the  hammer 1976°  F. 

Open-hearth  Furnate  {Siemans)  Semi-mild  Steel 

Fuel  gas  near  gas  generator 1328°  F. 

Fuel  gas  entering  into  bottom  of  regenerator  chamber.  .  .    752°  F. 

Fuel  gas  issuing  from  regenerator  chamber 2192°  F. 

Air  issuing  from  regenerator  chamber 1832°  F. 

Chimney  Gases 
Furnace  in  perfect  condition 590°  F. 

Opcn-ltearth  Furnace 

End  of  the  melting  of  pig  charge 2588°  F. 

Completion  of  conversion 2732°  F. 

Fownes  Elementary  Chemistry  gives  relative  conductivity  of  metals 

as  follows:        silver 1000 

Copper 736 

Gold 532 

Brass 236 

Tin 14s 

Iron 119 

Steel 116 

Lead 85 

Platinum ' 84 

German  silver 63 

Bismuth 18 


Measurement  of  Heat 


207 


MEASUREMENT   OF  HEAT 
Unit  of  Heat 

The  British  thermal  unit  (B.t.u.)  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  pure  water  one  degree  Fahrenheit 
at  39.1°  F. 

The  French  thermal  unit,  or  calorie,  is  the  quantity  of  heat  recjuired  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  one  kilogram  of  pure  water  one  degree  Centi- 
grade at  4°  C,  which  is  equivalent  to  39.1°  F.  The  French  calorie  is 
equal  to  3.96S  British  thermal  units;   one  B.t.u.  is  equal  to  .252  calories. 


Mechanical  Equivalent  of  Heat 

This  is  the  number  of  foot  pounds  equivalent  to  one  B.t.u.  Joule's 
experiments  gave  the  figure  772,  which  is  known  as  Joule's  equivalent. 
Recent  experiments  give  higher  figures  and  the  average  is  now  taken 
to  be  778. 

Heat  of  Combustion  in  Oxygen  of  Various  Substances 


Substance 


Hydrogen  to  liquid  water  at  0°  C 

Hydrogen  to  steam  at  100°  C 

Carbon  (wood  charcoal)  to  carbonic  acid  (CO2);  ordinary 
temperatures 

Carbon  graphite  to  CO2 

Carbon  to  carbonic  oxide,  CO 

Carbonic  oxide  to  CO2  per  unit  of  CO 

CO  to  CO2  per  unit  of  C  =  2H  X  2403 

Marsh  gas,  CHi  to  water  and  CO2 

defiant  gas,  C2H4  and  water  and  CO2 


Heat  units 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

(  34,462 

62,032 

]  33,8oS 

60,854 

(  34.342 

61,816 

28,732 

51,717 

(    8,080 

14.544 

{    7,900 

14,220 

1    8,137 

14,647 

7,901 

14.222 

2,473 

4,451 

(    2,403 

4.325 

<    2,431 

4.376 

(    2,38s 

4.293 

S.607 

10,093 

(  13,120 

23,616 

<  13,108 

23.594 

(  13,063 

23.S13 

(  11,858 

21.344 

<  11,942 

21,496 

1  11,957 

21.523 

If  one  pound  of  carbon  is  burned  to  CO2,  generating  14,544  B.t.u.,  and  the  CO2 
thus  formed  is  immediately  reduced  to  CO  in  the  presence  of  glowing  carbon,  by  the 
reaction  CO2  +  C  =  2  CO,  the  result  is  the  same  as  if  the  two  pounds  of  C  had  been 
burned  directly  to  2  CO,  generating  2  X  445i  =  8902  heat  units;  consequently 
14,544  —  8902  =  5642  heat  units  have  disappeared  or  become  latent  and  the  reduction 
of  CO2  to  CO  is  thus  a  cooling  operation. 

Kent,  456. 


208 


Heat 


RADIATION    OF   HEAT 

Relative  Rauiating  anu  kKFLtcriNc;  Power  of  Ditkerent 
Substances 


Substances 


LAinpblack 

Water 

Writing  paper 

Ivory,  jet,  marble 

Ordinary  glass 

Ice 

Cast  iron,  bright  polished 

Mercury,  about 

Wrought  iron,  polished.  . . 

Zinc,  polished 

Steel,  polished 

Platinum,  polished 

Tin 

Brass,  cast,  dead  polish... 
Brass,  bright  polished . . . . 

Copper,  varnished 

Copper,  hammered 

Silver,  polished,  bright. . . 


Kaaiating 
or  abaorb- 

Reflect  inc 

power 

mg  power 

100 

0 

lOO 

0 

98 

2 

93  to  98 

7  to  3 

90 

10 

8S 

IS 

25 

7S 

23 

77 

23 

77 

19 

81 

17 

83 

24 

76 

IS 

8S 

II 

89 

7 

93 

14 

86 

7 

93 

3 

97 

Experiments  of  Dr.  A.  M.  Mayer  give  the  following:  The  relative 
radiations  from  a  cube  of  cast  iron,  having  faces  rough,  as  from  the 
foimdry,  planed,  drawfiled  and  polished;  and  from  the  same  surfaces 
oiled,  are  as  below  (Professor  Thurston). 


Surface 


Rough . . . 
Planed . . . 
Drawfiled 
Polished . . 


Oiled 


Dry 


100 

100 

60 

32 

49 

20 

45 

18 

Relative  Nonconducting  Power  of  Materials 
RELATrvE  Heat-Conducting  Power  of  Metals 


209 


Metals 

Conduc- 
tivity 

Metals 

Conduc- 
tivity 

Silver 

1000 
981 
84s 
811 
677 
66s 
641 
608 
628 

Wrought  iron 

436 

Gold 

Tin 

Steel 

397 
380 

Platinum 

359 
287 

Aluminum 

Lead 

Zinc 

Antimony,  cast,  horizontal. . . 

Antimony,  cast,  vertical 

Bismuth 

192 
61 

Zinc,  cast,  vertical 

Relative  Nonconducting  Power  of  Materials 

(Professor  Ordway) 


Substance  i  inch  thick.    Heat  applied 
310°  F. 


Pounds  of 

Solid 

water  heated 

matter  in 

Air 

10°  F.  per 

I  square 

included, 

hour  through 

foot  I  inch 

parts  in 

I  square 

thick,  parts 

1000 

foot 

in  1000 

8.1 

56 

944 

9.6 

50 

9SO 

10.4 

20 

980 

10.3 

185 

81S 

9-8 

56 

944 

10.6 

244 

756 

13.9 

119 

881 

35.7 

506 

494 

12.4 

23 

977 

42.6 

285 

71S 

13.7 

60 

940 

lS-4 

ISO 

8so 

I4S 

60 

940 

20.6 

253 

747 

30.9 

368 

632 

49  0 

81 

919 

48.0 

0 

1000 

62.1 

527 

471 

13.0 
14.0 
21.0 
21.7 
18.0 
18.7 
16.7 
22.0 
21.0 
27.0 

Loose  wool 

Live  geese  feathers 

Carded  cotton  wool 

Hair  felt 

Loose  lampblack 

Compressed  lampblack 

White-pine  charcoal 

Anthracite  coal  dust 

Loose  calcined  magnesia 

Compressed  calcined  magnesia .... 

Light  carbonate  of  magnesia 

Compressed  carbonate  of  magnesia 

Loose  fossil  meal 

Ground  chalk 

Dry  plaster  of  Paris 

Fine  asbestos 

Air,  alone 

Sand 

Best  slag  wool 

Paper 

Blotting  paper,  wound  tight 

Asbestos  paper,  wound  tight 

Straw  rope,  wound  spirally 

Loose  rice  chaff 

Paste  of  fossil  meal  with  hair 

Paste  of  fossil  meal  with  asbestos . . 

Loose  bituminous  coal  ashes 

Loose  anthracite  coal  ashes 


axo  Heat 

Professor  Ordway  states  that  later  cxpcnments  made  with  still  air 
gave  results  which  differ  little  from  cotton  wool,  hair  felt  or  compressed 
lampblack.     Asbestos  is  one  of  the  poorest  conductors. 

IIkat-Conducting  Powkr  of  Covering  Materials 

(J.J.  Coleman) 

Mineral  wool loo     Charcoal 140 

Hair  fell 117     Sawdust 163 

Cotton  wool 122     Gas  works  breeze 230 

Sheep's  wool 136     Wood  and  air  sjiacc 280 

Infusorial  earth 136 

Boiling  Points  at  Atmospheric  Pressure 

Ether,  sul|)huric 100°  F.  Average  sea  water 213.2°  F. 

Carbon  bisulphide 118°  F.  Saturated  brine 226°  F. 

Ammonia 140°  F.  Nitric  acid 248°  F. 

Chloroform 140°  F.  Oil  of  turpentine 315"  F. 

Bromine 145°  F.  Phosphorus 554°  F. 

Wood-spirit 150°  F.  Sulphur 570°  F. 

Alcohol 173°  F.  Sulphuric  acid 590°  F. 

Benzine 176°  F.  Linseed  oil 597°  F. 

Water 212°  F.  Mercury 676°  F. 

The  boiliag  points  of  liquids  increase  as  the  pressure  increases. 


Table  of  Equivalent  Temperatures 

Table  of  EqinvALENX  Temperatures,  Centigrade  to 
Fahrenheit 


Rule  to  change  the  values:    Fahr.  =  "  C.  +  32° 
Cent.  =  (F.  -  32°) 


Degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

—  10 

+14.0 

22 

71.6 

54 

129.2 

86 

186.8 

190 

374 

-  9 

+15. 8 

23 

73.4 

55 

131. 0 

87 

188.6 

195 

383 

-  8 

+17.6 

24 

75.2 

56 

132.8 

88 

190.4 

200 

392 

-  7 

+19-4 

25 

77.0 

57 

134.6 

89 

192.2 

205 

401 

-  6 

+21.2 

26 

78.8 

58 

136.4 

90 

194 

210 

410 

-  5 

+23  0 

27 

80.6 

59 

138.2 

91 

195.8 

21S 

419 

-  4 

+24.8 

28 

82.4 

60 

140.0 

92 

197.6 

220 

428 

-  3 

+26.6 

29 

84.2 

61 

141. 8 

93 

199.4 

22s 

437 

—  2 

+28.4 

30 

86.0 

62 

143.6 

94 

201.2 

230 

446 

—  I 

+30.2 

31 

87.8 

63 

145.4 

95 

203.0 

235 

455 

0 

+32.0 

32 
33 

89.6 
91.4 

64 
65 

147.2 
149.0 

96 
97 

204.8 
206  6 

240 
245 

464 

+  I 

33.8 

473 

2 

35.6 

34 

93.2 

66 

150.8 

98 

208.4 

250 

482 

3 

37.4 

35 

95.0 

67 

152. 6 

99 

210.2 

255 

491 

4 

39-2 
41.0 

36 
37 

96.8 
98.6 

68 
69 

154.4 
156.2 

100 

212 

260 
265 

Soo 

5 

105 

221 

S09 

6 

42.8 

38 

100.4 

70 

158.0 

no 

230 

270 

518 

7 

44-6 

39 

102.2 

71 

159.8 

"5 

239 

275 

527 

8 

46.4 

40 

104.0 

72 

161. 6 

120 

248 

280 

536 

9 

48.2 

41 

105.8 

73 

163.4 

I2S 

257 

285 

545 

10 

50.0 

42 

107.6 

74 

165.2 

130 

266 

290 

554 

II 

SI. 8 

43 

109.4 

75 

167.0 

I3S 

275 

295 

563 

12 

S3. 6 

44 

III. 2 

76 

168.8 

140 

284 

300 

572 

13 

SS.4 

45 

113. 0 

77 

170.6 

145 

293 

30S 

S8l 

14 

S7.2 

46 

114. 8 

78 

172.4 

150 

302 

310 

590 

IS 

59-0 

47 

116. 6 

79 

174.2 

155 

3" 

31S 

599 

16 

60.8 

48 

118. 4 

80 

176.0 

160 

320 

320 

608 

17 

62.6 

49 

120.2 

81 

177.8 

16S 

329 

32s 

617 

18 

64.4 

SO 

122.0 

82 

179.6 

170 

338 

330 

626 

19 

66.2 

SI 

123.8 

83 

181. 4 

175 

347 

335 

63s 

20 

68.0 

52 

125.6 

84 

183.2 

180 

3S6 

340 

644 

21 

69.8 

S3 

127.4 

85 

185.0 

185 

36s 

345 

6S3 

Data  Sheet  No.  S3,  The  Foundry,  November,  1909. 


Heat 


Tahi-k  of  Kquivalent  Tkuperatures,  Centigrade  to 
Kaurenueit  —  {CotUinucd) 


Degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

3SO 

662 

,  -J 

1238 

830 

1526 

990 

1814 

3SS 

671 

51S 

'.'.iy 

'>7S 

1247 

83s 

1 535 

995 

1823 

360 

680 

S20 

968 

680 

1256 

840 

1544 

IQOO 

1833 

36s 

689 

52s 

977 

68s 

126s 

845 

1553 

1005 

1841 

370 

698 

530 

986 

690 

1274 

8so 

1562 

lOIO 

1850 

37S 

707 

535 

995 

695 

1283 

855 

1571 

lois 

i8S9 

380 

716 

540 

1004 

700 

1292 

860 

IS80 

1020 

1868 

38s 

725 

545 

1013 

70s 

1 301 

86s 

1589 

1025 

1877 

390 

734 

5SO 

1022 

710 

1310 

870 

1598 

1030 

1886 

395 

743 

555 

1031 

7IS 

1319 

875 

1607 

1035 

189s 

400 

752 

560 

1040 

720 

1328 

880 

1616 

1040 

1904 

40s 

761 

565 

1049 

725 

1337 

88s 

1625 

I04S 

1913 

410 

770 

570 

1058 

730 

1346 

890 

1634 

1050 

1933 

41S 

779 

S7S 

1067 

735 

1355 

89s 

1643 

loss 

1931 

420 

788 

580 

1076 

740 

1364 

900 

l6s2 

1060 

1940 

425 

797 

58s 

1085 

745 

1373 

905 

1661 

106s 

1949 

430 

806 

S90 

1094 

750 

1382 

910 

1670 

1070 

1958 

435 

81S 

595 

1 103 

755 

1391 

915 

1679 

I07S 

1967 

440 

824 

600 

1112 

760 

1400 

920 

1688 

1080 

1976 

445 

833 

605 

1121 

765 

1409 

925 

1697 

1085 

198s 

450 

842 

610 

1130 

770 

1418 

930 

1706 

1090 

1994 

455 

851 

615 

1139 

775 

1427 

935 

1715 

1095 

2003 

460 

860 

620 

1148 

780 

1436 

940 

1724 

1 100 

30I2 

465 

869 

62s 

"57 

78s 

1445 

945 

1733 

lios 

2021 

470 

878 

630 

1166 

790 

1454 

9SO 

1742 

IIIO 

2030 

475 

887 

635 

1175 

795 

1463 

955 

I7SI 

1115 

2039 

480 

896 

640 

1 184 

800 

1472 

960 

1760 

1 120 

2048 

485 

905 

645 

1 193 

80s 

1481 

96s 

1769 

1125 

20S7 

490 

914 

650 

1202 

810 

1490 

970 

1778 

1 130 

2066 

495 

923 

655 

J2II 

815 

1499 

975 

1787 

1I3S 

2075 

Soo 

932 

660 

1220 

820 

1508 

980 

1796 

1 140 

20S4 

S05 

941 

66s 

1229 

82s 

1517 

98s 

180S 

"45 
1 1 50 

2093 

2102 

Data  Sheet  No.  54.  The  Foundry,  November,  1909. 


Strength  of  Materials 
Comparison  of  Thermometer  Scales 


213 


Centi- 
grade 

Reaumur 

Fahren- 
.heit 

Centi- 
grade 

Reaumur 

Fahren- 
heit 

Centi- 
grade 

Reaumur 

Fahren- 
heit 

-30 

—24.0 

—22.0 

14 

II. 2 

57.2 

58 

46.4 

136.4 

-28 

-22.4 

-18.4 

16 

12.8 

60.8 

60 

48.0 

140.0 

-26 

—20.8 

-14.8 

18 

14.4 

64.4 

62 

49.6 

143.6 

-24 

—19.2 

—  II. 2 

20 

16.0 

68.0 

64 

51.2 

147-2 

—22 

-17.6 

-  7.6 

22 

17.6 

71.6 

66 

52.8 

150.8 

—20 

—  16.0 

-  4.0 

24 

19.2 

75.2 

68 

54-4 

154-4 

-18 

-14.4 

-  0.4 

26 

20.8 

78.8 

70 

56.0 

158-0 

-16 

-12.8 

3-2 

28 

22.4 

82.4 

72 

57.6 

161. 6 

-14 

—  II. 2 

6.8 

30 

24.0 

86.0 

74 

59  2 

l6s-2 

—  12 

-  9-6 

10.4 

32 

25.6 

89.6 

76 

60.8 

168.8 

-10 

-  8.0 

14.0 

34 

27.2 

93-2 

78 

62.4 

172.4 

-  8 

-  6.4 

17.6 

36 

28.8 

96.8 

80 

64.0 

176.0 

-  6 

-  4.8 

21.2 

38 

30.4 

100.4 

82 

65.6 

179.6 

-  4 

-  3.2 

24.8 

40 

32.0 

104.0 

84 

67.2 

183.2 

—  2 

-  1.6 

28.4 

42 

33.6 

107.6 

86 

68.8 

186.8 

0 

0.0 

32.0 

44 

35.2 

III. 2 

88 

70.4 

190.4 

2 

1.6 

35.6 

46 

36.8 

II4.8 

90 

72.0 

194.0 

4 

3.2 

39-2 

48 

38.4 

118. 4 

92 

73.6 

197.6 

6 

4.8 

42.8 

50 

40.0 

122.0 

94 

75-2 

201.2 

8 

6.4 

46.4 

52 

41.6 

125.6 

96 

76.8 

204.8 

10 

8.0 

50.0 

54 

43.2 

129.2 

98 

78.4 

208.4 

12 

9.6 

53.6 

S6 

44.8 

132.8 

100 

80.0 

212.0 

No.  21,  Supplement  to  Machinery,  June,  1903. 

Strength  of  Materials 

(From  notes  on  Machine  Design,  by  permission  of  the  author,  Prof.  Chas.  H. 
Benjamin,  Cleveland,  O.) 


Kind  of  metal 


Ultimate  strength 

Elastic 
limit, 
tension 

Modu- 
lus of 
rupture, 
trans- 

Ten- 

Com- 

Shear- 

sile 

pression 

ing 

verse 

55, 000 

38,000 

45,ooo 

28,000 

40,000 

50,000 

40,000 

25,000 

45.000 

35.000 

22,500 

30,000 

60,000 

100,000 

50,000 

32,000 

90,000 

90,000 

80,000 

50,000 

120,000 

60,000 
Un- 

18,000 

75.000 

25,000 

certain 

36,000 

36,000 

42,000 

16,000 

38,000 

125,000 

18,000 

18,000 

12,000 

24,000 

75,000 

24,000 

30,000 

36,000 

100,000 

85,000 

132,000 

58,000 

43,000 

20,000 

28,000 

13,000 

14,000 

Modu- 
lus of 

elastic- 
ity, 

tension 


Wrought  iron,  small  bars 

Wrought  iron,  plates 

Wrought  iron,  large  forgings. . 

Steel,  O.  H.  plate 

Steel,  Bessemer 

Steel,  machinery 

Steel,  crucible  or  tool 

Cast  iron 

Malleable  castings 

Steel  castings 

Brass  castings 

Copper  castings 

Bronze,  gun  metal 

Bronze,  10  Al,  90  Cu 

Bronze,  phosphor 

Aluminum  castings 


20,000,000 

25,000,000 
25,000,000 
28,000,000 

29,000,000 
40,000,000 

18,000,000 

30,000,000 
9.000,000 
15,000,000 
10,000,000 

14,000,000 
11,000,000 


214 


StrcnKlh  of  Malrriuls 


Mauri.il 


Steel  wire. . . 
Iron  wire... . 
Copper  wire . 


Brass  wire 

Bronze  wire ... 
German  silver. 
Woods: 
Ash 


Beech .... 

Elm 

Hemlock. 


Hickory 

Maple 

Oak  (white) . . . . 

Oak  aive) 

Pine  (white) . . . 
Pine  (yellow)... 

Spruce 

Walnut  (black). 


Tension    |   Comprcs- 
per  srjuarc       sion  per 
inch         square  inch 


Brick  (pressed). 

Granite 

Limestone 


318.823 
S9.246 
97.908 

^-.'Kl^ 
46.494 
81,114 
98.578 
78.049 

81. 735 
92,224 

11,000 
17.207 
ii.Soo 
18,000 
13.500 
8,700 
12.800 
18,000 
10,500 
10,250 
19.500 


11.000 
IS.900 
14.500 

I2,S0O 


6S0O 


7700 

S300 

8000 
6800 

7000 

6850 

S40O 

8500 

5700 

8000 

Tons  per 

square  foot 

40 

300 

30O 

1200 

250 

1000 


Shear  per 

square 

inch 


6280 
S223 


2750 
604s 

728s' 
4425 

8480 
24SO 
S73S 
S25S 
Also 


Properties  of  Air  21$ 

Strength  of  Lime  and  Cement  Mortar 

Tensile  Strength,  Pounds  per  Square  Inch 

Age 7  days. 

Lime  mortar 8 

2o  per  cent  Rosendale 8.5 

^  20  per  cent  Roseland 8.5 

30  per  cent  Rosendale 11 

30  per  cent  Portland 16 

40  per  cent  Rosendale 12 

40  per  cent  Portland 39 

60  per  cent  Rosendale 13 

60  per  cent  Portland 58 

80  per  cent  Rosendale 18.5 

80  per  cent  Portland 91 

100  per  cent  Rosendale 23 

100  per  cent  Portland 120 

Coefficient  of  Friction 

If  two  bodies  have  plane  surfaces  in  contact  and  the  plane  of  contact 
be  inclined  so  that  one  body  just  begins  to  slide  upon  the  other,  the  angle 
made  by  this  plane  with  a  horizontal  plane  is  called  the  angle  of  repose. 

The  coefficient  of  friction  is  the  ratio  of  the  ultimate  friction  to  the 
pressure  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  contact,  and  is  equal  to  the 
tangent  of  the  angle  of  repose. 

Thus,  if  R  denotes  the  friction  between  the  surfaces,  Q  the  perpendicu- 
lar pressure  and  F  the  coefficient  of  friction.    Then 

F  =  ^     and     i?  =  FQ. 

Centrifugal  Force 

In  a  revolving  body  the  force  expended  to  deflect  it  from  a  rectilinear 
to  a  curved  path  is  called  centrifugal  force  and  is  equal  to  the  weight  of 
the  body  multiplied  by  the  square  of  its  velocity  in  feet  per  second, 
divided  by  32.6  times  the  radius;  or,  if  F  equals  centrifugal  force,  W 
equals  weight  of  body,  V  equals  velocity  in  feet  per  second  and  R  equals 

the  radius,  then  F  =  ^r^.     If  N  equals  the  number  of  revolutions 

32.10  K 

per  minute,  the  formula  is  reduced  to  F  =  .000341  WN^R. 

Properties  of  Air 

Air  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the  gases,  oxygen  and  nitrogen;  21 
parts  oxygen  and  79  parts  nitrogen  by  volume,  or  23  parts  oxygen  and 
77  parts  nitrogen  by  weight.  The  weight  of  pure  air  at  32°  F.  and  29.9 
barometer,  or  14.6963  pounds  per  square  inch;    or  21 16.3  pounds  per 


2l6 


Air 


square  foot  is  .0807^8  pouiuis.     The  volume  of  one  pound  is  12.387  cubic 
feet. 

Air  e-xjiands  1/41JI.2  of  its  volume  for  every  increase  of  1°  I".,  and  its 
volume  varies  inversely  as  the  pressure. 
Volume,  Density  and  Pressure  of  Air  at  \'mi  r     Temperatures 

(D.  K.Clark.) 


Volume  at  atmospheric 

Pressure  at  constant 

pressure 

Density,  lbs. 

vol 

umc 

per  cubic  foot 
at  atmospherii 

Fahr. 

Cubic  feet 

Comparative 

pressure 

1    iJUllilM    ji'-I 

*    ■Jln)MIiillVe 

in  I  pound 

volume 

square  inch 

pressure 

0 

11.583 

.086331 

13.96 

.881 

32 

12.387 

'.M.5 

.080728 

13  86 

943 

40 

12.S86 

.958 

.079439 

14  08 

938 

SO 

12.840 

.977 

.077884 

14  36 

■  977 

62 

13.141 

1. 000 

.076097 

14.70 

1. 000 

70 

13.342 

l.ois 

.074950 

14.92 

i.ois 

80 

13. 593 

1.0.34 

.073565 

IS.  21 

1.034 

90 

13  845 

1.054 

.072230 

IS  49 

I  054 

100 

14.096 

I  073 

.070942 

IS.  77 

1.073 

no 

14  344 

1.092 

.069721 

16.05 

1.093 

120 

14.592 

I. Ill 

.068500 

16.33 

I.  Ill 

130 

14.846 

1. 130 

.067361 

16  61 

1. 130 

140 

IS  100 

I  149 

.066221 

16.89 

1. 149 

ISO 

15. 351 

1. 168 

.065155 

17.19 

1. 168 

160 

IS  603 

1. 187 

.064088 

17. SO 

1. 187 

170 

15.854 

1.206 

.063089 

17.76 

i.ao6 

180 

16.106 

1.226 

.062090 

18.02 

t.236 

2CX3 

16.606 

1.264 

.060210 

18.58 

1.264 

210 

16.860 

1.283 

.O.S93I3 

1S.86 

1.283 

212 

16.910 

1.287 

.059135 

18.92 

1.287 

Pressure  of  the  Atmosphere  per  Square  Inch  and  per 
Square  Foot  at  Various  Readings  of  the  Barometer 


Rule.  —  Barometer  in  inches    X  .4908  =  pressure  per  square  inch; 
square  inch  X  144  =  pressure  per  square  foot. 


pressure  per 


Barometer, 
inches 

Pressure  per 
square  inch, 

Pressure  per 
square  foot. 

Barometer, 
inches 

Pressure  per 
square  inch, 

Pressure  per 
square  foot. 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

28.00 

13.74 

1978 

29.75 

14.60 

2102 

28.25 

13.86 

1995 

30.00 

14  72 

2119 

28.50 

13.98 

2013 

30.25 

14  84 

2136 

28.75 

14. II 

2031 

30.50 

14.96 

2154 

29.00 

14.23 

2049 

30.75 

IS. 09 

2172 

29.25 

14. 35 

2066 

31  00 

15.21 

2190 

29.50 

14-47 

2083 

Properties  of  Air 


217 


Babometric  Readings  Corresponding  with  Different 
Altitudes    ( Kent.) 


Altitude, 
feet 

Reading  of 

barometer, 

inches 

Altitude, 
feet 

Reading  of 

barometer, 

inches 

0 

68.9 
416.7 
767.7 
1 122  I 
1486.2 
1850.4 
2224.5 
2599-7 
2962.1 
3369-5 

30-00 
29.92 
29.52 
29-13 
28.74 
28.35 
27-95 
27-55 
27.16 
26.77 
26.38 

3763.2 
4163-3 
4568.3 
4983.1 
5403.2 
5830.2 
6243.0 
6702.9 
7152.4 
7605.1 
8071.0 

25.98 
25.59 
25.19 
24.80 
24.41 
24.01 
23.62 
23.22 
22.83 
22.44 
22  04 

Horse  Power  Required  to  Compress  One  Cubic  Foot  of 
Free  Air  per  Minute  to  a  Given  Pressure    (Richards.) 

Air  not  cooled  during  compression;    also  the  horse  power  required,  supposing  the 
air  to  be  maintained  at  constant  temperature  during  the  compression. 


Gauge 

Air  not 

Air  at 

pressure 

cooled 

constant 
temperature 

100 

.22183 

■14578 

90 

.20896 

.13954 

80 

.19521 

•13251 

70 

.17989 

.12606 

60 

.164 

.11558 

50 

.14607 

.10565 

40 

.12433 

.093667 

30 

. 10346 

.079219 

20 

076808 

.061188 

10 

.044108 

.036944 

5 

.024007 

.020848 

3l8 


Air 


Horse  Power  Required  to  Deliver  One  Cubic  Foot  of 
Air  per  Minute  at  a  Given  Pressure    (Richard*.) 

Air  not  cooled  during  compression;   also  the  horse  power  required,  supposing  the 
air  to  be  maintained  at  constant  temperature  during  the  compression. 


GauRc 

prcssiiri' 

Air  not                Air  at 
coolcl              constant 
temperature 

loo 

t  7.517                I 

i.}8oi 

9° 

1.4883 

99387 

80 

1.25779 

8S28 

70 

1  03683 

72651 

60 

.83J44 

S8729 

so 

.64291 

46s 

40 

.46271 

34859 

30 

.31456 

24086 

20 

.181279 

14441 

10 

.074106 

06069 

-^ 

.032172 

027938 

In  computing  the  above  tables  an  allowance  of  10  per  cent  has  been 
made  for  friction  of  the  compressor. 


Pressure  of  Water 


219 


Pressure  of  Water 

Pressure  in  Pounds  per  Square  Inch  for  Different 
Heads  of  Water     (Kent.) 

At   62°  F.  I  foot  head  0.433  pound  per  square  inch,  0.433  X  144  =  62.352  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 


Head. 

feet 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

9 

0 

0.433 

0.866 

1,299 

1-732 

2.165 

2.598 

3.031 

3  464 

3.897 

10 

4330 

4.763 

5.196 

5. 629 

6.062 

6.495 

6.928 

7.361 

7-794 

8  227 

20 

8,660 

9  093 

9.526 

9  959 

10.392 

10.825 

11.258 

I I. 691 

12.124 

12.557 

30 

12.990 

13.423 

13.856 

14.298 

14.722 

15  155 

15.588 

16.021 

16.454 

16.887 

40 

17320 

17 . 753 

18.186 

18.619 

19  052 

19  485 

19.918 

20.351 

20.784 

21.217 

50 

21.650 

22.083 

22.516 

22.949 

23.382 

23.819 

24 . 248 

24 .  681 

25.114 

25.547 

60 

25.980 

26.413 

26 . 846 

27  279 

27.712 

28.145 

28.578 

29  on 

29.444 

29.877 

70 

30.310 

30.743 

31.176 

31.609 

32.042 

32.47s 

32.908 

33.341 

33.774 

34.207 

80 

34  640 

35  073 

35  506 

35  939 

36.372 

36.805 

37.238 

37.671 

38 .  104 

38.537 

90 

38.970 

39  403 

39  836 

40.269 

40.702 

41.13s 

41  568 

42.001 

42.436 

42  867 

Head  in  Feet  of  Water,  Corresponding  to  Pressures  in 
Pounds  per  Square  Inch     (Kent.) 

I  pound  per  square  inch  2.30947  feet  head,  i  atmosphere  14.71  pounds  per  square 
inch  33.94  foot  head. 


Pres- 

sure 

0 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

0 

2.309 

4-619 

6.928 

9-238 

11.547 

13.857 

16.166 

18.476 

20.78s 

10 

23-0947 

25.404 

27-714 

30.023 

32-333 

34.642 

36.952 

39.261 

4I-S70 

43.880 

20 

46- 1894 

48-499 

50,808 

53.118 

55.427 

57.737 

60.046 

62.356 

64-665 

66.975 

30 

69.2841 

71-594 

73  903 

76.213 

78.522 

80.831 

83-141 

85 . 450 

87.760 

90.069 

40 

92.3788 

94.688 

96.998 

99  307 

101.62 

103.93 

106 . 24 

108.55 

110.85 

113  16 

50 

IIS. 4735 

117-78 

120.09 

122.40 

124.71 

126.02 

129.33 

131-64 

133-95 

136.26 

60 

138.5682 

140.88 

143.19 

145.50 

147.81 

150.12 

152.42 

154-73 

157  04 

159  35 

70 

161.6629 

163.97 

166.28 

168.59 

170.90 

173.21 

175.52 

177-83 

180.14 

182.45 

80 

184.7576 

187.07 

189.38 

191.69 

194.00 

196.31 

198.61 

200.92 

203.23 

205.54 

90 

207.8523 

210.16 

212.47 

214.78 

217.09 

219.40 

221.71 

224.02 

226.33 

228.64 

Electrical  and  Mechanical  Units 


Equivalent  Values  of  Electrical  and  Mechanical  Untis 


Uniu 

Equivalent  value  in  other  uoita 

I  kilowatt  hour  - 

i.ooo  watt  hours. 

1 .  34  horsc-powcr  hours. 
2,654,200  (I.  lbs. 
3,600,000  joules. 
3.412  heal  units. 
367,000  kilogram  metres. 

.23s  lb.  carbon,  oxidized  with  perfect  efficiency. 
3.53  lbs.  water  cvap.  from  and  at  21a"  F. 
22.75  lbs.  of  water  raised  from  62*  P.,  to  3I2*  F. 

I  horse-power  hour  = 

.746  K.W.  hours. 
1.980,000  ft.  lbs. 
2,545  heat  units. 
273,000  kilogram  metres. 

.175  lb.  carbon  oxidized  with  perfect  efficiency. 
2.64  lbs.  water  evap.  from  and  at  212°  F. 
17  lbs.  of  water  raised  from  62°  F.  to  212*  F. 

I  kilowatt  = 

1,000  watts. 

1.34  horse  power. 
2,654,200  ft.  lbs.  per  hour. 
44.240  ft.  lbs.  per  minute. 

737-3  ft.  lbs.  per  second. 
3,412  heat  units  per  hour. 
56.9  heat  units  per  minute. 
.948  heat  unit  per  second. 
.2275  lb.  carbon  oxidized  per  hour. 
3.53  lbs.  water  evap.  per  hour  from  and  at  212"  F. 

I  horse  power  = 

746  watts. 
.746  K.W. 
33,000  ft.  lbs.  per  minute. 
550  ft.  lbs.  per  second. 
2,545  heat  units  per  hour. 
42.4  heat  units  per  minute. 
.707  heat  unit  per  second. 
.175  lb.  carbon  oxidized  per  hour. 
2.64  lbs.  water  evap.  per  hour  from  and  at  212"  F. 

I  joule  = 

I  watt  second. 
.000000278  K.W.  hour. 
.102  k.R.m. 
.0009477  heat  units. 
.7373  ft.  lbs. 

1  foot  pound  = 

1.356  joules. 
.I383k.g.m. 
.000000377  K.W.  hour. 
.001285  heat  unit. 
.0000005  H.P.  hour. 

Equivalent  Values  of  Electrical  and  Mechanical  Units     221 


Equivalent  Values  of  Electrical  and  Mechanical 
Units  —  {Continued) 


Units 


I  watt  per  square  inch  = 


Equivalent  Value  in  Other  Units 


I  joule  per  second. 

.00134  H.P. 
3.412  heat  units  per  hour. 

■  7373  ft.  lb.  per  second. 

.003s  lb.  of  water  evap.  per  hour. 
44.24  ft.  lbs.  per  minute. 


8.19  heat  units  per  sq.  ft.  per  minute. 
6,371  ft.  lbs.  per  sq.  ft.  per  minute. 
.193  H.P.  per  sq.  ft. 


I  heat  unit  = 


I. OSS  watt  seconds. 
778  ft.  lbs. 
107.6  kilogram  metres. 

.000293  K.W.  hour. 

,000393  H.P.  hour. 

.0000688  lb.  of  carbon  oxidized. 

.001036  lb.  water  evap.  from  and  at  212° 


I  heat  unit  per 

square  foot  per 

minute  = 


.  122  watts  per  square  inch. 
.0176  K.W.  per  sq.  ft. 
.0236  H.P.  per  sq.  ft. 


I  kilogram  metre  = 


.233  ft.  lbs. 
.0000036s  H.P.  hour. 
.00000272  K.W.  hour. 
.0093  heat  unit. 


I  pound  carbon 

oxidized  with  perfect 

efficiency  = 


14,544  heat  units. 

I .  II  lbs.  of  anthracite  coal  oxidized. 
2.5  lbs.  dry  wood,  oxidized. 
21  cubic  ft.  illuminating  gas. 
4.26  K.W.  hours. 
5.71  H.P.  hours. 
11,315,000  ft.  lbs. 

15  lbs.  water  evap.  from  and  at  212°  F. 


I  pound  water 
evaporated  from 
and  at  212°  F.  = 


.283  K.W.  hour. 
.379  H.P.  hour. 
965.7  heat  units. 
103,900  k.g.m. 
1,019,000  joules. 
751,300  ft.  lbs. 

.0664  lb.  of  carbon  oxidized. 


CHAPTER    \1 
ALLOYS 

An  alloy  is  a  combination  \)y  fusion  of  two  or  more  metals.  The  com- 
l)ination  may  be  a  chemical  one;  generally,  however,  there  is  an  excess 
of  one  or  more  of  the  constituents. 

Metals  do  not  unite  indiCferently,  but  have  certain  affinities;  thus 
zinc  ;ind  lead  do  not  unite,  but  either  will  mi.x  with  silver  in  any  pro- 
portion. 

Alloys  arc  generally  harder,  less  ductile  and  have  greater  tenacity  than 
the  mean  of  their  components.  The  melting  point  of  an  alloy  is  as  a  rule 
below  that  of  any  of  its  components,  and  it  is  more  easily  o.xidized. 

The  specific  gravity  of  an  alloy  may  be  greater,  equal  to,  or  less  than 
the  mean  of  its  components. 

In  alloys  of  copper  and  tin  the  maximum  tensile  and  compressive 
strength  is  afforded  by  a  mixture  containing  82.7  per  cent  copper  and 
17.3  per  cent  tin.  The  minimum  strength  is  shown  by  a  composition 
of  62.5  per  cent  copper  and  37.5  per  cent  tin. 


Alloys  of  Copper  axd  Tin 


Mean  composition  by  analysis 

Tensile 
strength  in 
pounds  per 
square  inch 

Elastic 

limit  in 

pounds  per 

square  inch 

Crushing 
strength  in 

Copper 

Tin 

pounds  per 
...  .n  inch 

12.760 

24.580 

28.540 

29.430 

32.980 

22,010 

5.585 

2,201 

1. 455 

3.010 

6.775 

6.390 

6.450 

4.780 

•^.soi; 

11.000 
10.000 
19.000 
20.000 

97.89 
92.11 
87.  IS 
80.95 
76.63 
69.84 
65.34 
56.70 
44.52 
23.35 
11.49 
8.57 
3  72 

1.90 
7.80 
12.75 
18.84 
23  24 
29.88 
34.47 
43.17 
55.28 
76.29 
88.47 
91  39 
96  31 

34.000 
42.000 
53.000 

78.000 

22.010 
S.S85 
2.201 
1.455 
3.010 
6.775 
3.500 
3.500 
2.750 

144.000 
147.000 
84.700 

35.800 

10,100 
9.800 
9.800 
6,400 

Composition  of  Alloys  in  Common  Use  in  Brass  Foundries     223 


Alloys  of  Copper  and  Zinc 


Mean  composition  by  analysis 


Copper 

Zinc 

97.83 

1.88 

82.93 

16.98 

76.6s 

23.08 

71.20 

28.54 

66.27 

33.50 

60.94 

38.65 

55.  IS 

44.44 

49.66 

SO.  14 

47.56 

52.28 

43-36 

56.22 

32.94 

66.23 

20.81 

77.63 

12.12 

86.67 

4.35 

94-59 

0 

100.00 

Tensile 

strength  in 
pounds  per 
square  inch 


27,240 
32,600 
30,520 
30,510 
37.800 
41,065 
44,280 
30,990 
24,150 
9,170 
1.774 
9,000 
12.413 
18,06s 
5.400 


Elastic  limit 
per  cent  of 
breaking  load 
in  pounds  per 
square  inch 


26.1 
84.6 
29.5 
25.  r 
40.1 
44.00 
54  5 
100.  o 
100.  o 
100. o 
100. o 
100. o 
100. o 
75  o 


Crushing 
strength  in 
pounds  per 
square  inch 


75.000 
78,000 
117,400 
121,000 


Composition  of  Alloys  in  Common  Use  in  Brass  Foundries 

(American  Machinist.) 


Alloys 


Admiralty  metal 

Bell  metal 

Brass  (yellow)! . . 

Bush  metal 

Gun  metal 

Steam  metal. .  . . 

Hard  gun  metal. 
Muntz  metal.  . . . 


Phosphor  bronze 


_  j  metal. 

B"2'"g    solder. 


Copper, 

Zinc, 

Tin, 

Lead, 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1       87 

S 

8 

16 

4 

16 

8 

5 

64 

8 

4 

4 

32 

I 

3 

20 

I 

1.5 

I 

16 

2.5 

60 

40 

92 

8.0 

90 

10. 0 

16 

3 

50 

50 

For  parts  of  engines  on  naval 
vessels. 

Bells  for  ships  and  factories. 

For  plumbers,  ship  and  house 
work. 

Bearing  bushes  for  shafting. 

For  pumps  and  hydraulic  work. 

Casting  subjected  to  steam  pres- 
sure. 

For  heavy  bearings. 

For  bolts  and  nuts,  forged.  Valve 
spindles,  etc. 

Phos.  tin  for  valves,  pumps  and 
general  work. 

Phos.  tin  for  cog  and  worm  wheels, 
bushes  and  bearings. 

Flanges  for  copper  pipe. 

Solder  for  above  flanges. 


2  24 


Alloys 
Alu)ys  of  Coppeh,  Tin  and  Zinc 


:  ii{inal  mixture 

Tensile 

strength  per 

Cu 

Sn          ' 

Zn 

iquare  inch 

yo 

5 

S 

23.660 

fis 

5 

10 

28.840 

85 

10 

5 

35.680 

Ho 

5 

15 

37.560 

80 

10 

10 

32. 8 JO 

75 

5 

20 

34.960 

75 

7-5 

17  5 

39.300 

75 

10.0 

15.0 

Mfioo 

75 

15.0 

10.0 

28/XX3 

75 

20.0 

50 

27.660 

70 

SO 

25  0 

32.940 

70 

7.5 

22.5 

32.400 

70 

10. 0 

20  0 

26.300 

70 

ISO 

15.0 

27.800 

70 

20.0 

10. 0 

12,900 

67.5 

2.5 

30.0 

45.850 

67.5 

50 

27. 5 

34.460 

67.5 

7.5 

25.0 

30.000 

65.0 

2.5 

32.5 

38.300 

65.0 

50 

30.0 

36.000 

65.0 

10. 0 

25.0 

22.500 

65.0 

15.0 

20.0 

7.231 

65.0 

20.0 

IS.o 

2.665 

60.0 

2.5 

375 

57.400 

60.0 

S-O 

35.0 

41.160 

60.0 

10. 0 

300 

21.780 

60.0 

iS.o 

25.0 

18.020 

58.22 

2.3 

39  48 

66,500 

55.0 

0.5 

44. 5 

68.500 

55  0 

5.0 

40.0 

27.000 

55  0 

10. 0 

35.0 

25,460 

50.0 

50 

45.0 

23,000 

Above  tables  from  report  of  U.  S.  Test  Board.  Vol.  II,  1881. 


Copper-Nickel  Alloys 

(German  Silver.) 


Constituents 


German  silver. 
Nickel  silver. . 


Copper, 
lbs. 


SI. 6 
50.2 
75.0 


Nickel, 
lbs. 


25.8 
14.8 


Tin. 
lbs. 


22.6 

31 

25.0 


Zinc, 
lbs. 


31.9 


Delta  Metal 
Useful  Alloys  of  Copper,  Tin  and  Zinc 


225 


Alloys 


U.  S.  Navy  Dept.,  journal  boxes,  and  guide 

gibs 

Tobin  bronze 

Naval  brass 

Composition,  U.S.  Navy 

Gun  metal 

Tough  brass  for  engines 

Bronze  for  rod  boxes 

Bronze  subject  to  shock 

Bronze  for  pump  castings 

Red  brass 

Bronze,  steam  whistles 

Bearing  metal 

Gold  bronze 


Copper, 

Tin, 

Zinc, 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

6 

I 

.25 

82.8 

13.8 

3-4 

58.22 

2.3 

29.48 

62.0 

I.O 

37  0 

88.0 

lO.O 

2.0 

92.S 

S.o 

2.5 

91.0 

7.0 

2.0 

85.0 

SO 

10,0 

83.0 

2.0 

ISO 

76. 5 

II. 8 

II. 7 

82.0 

16.0 

2.0 

83.0 

iS.o 

IS 

88.0 

10. 0 

2.0 

87.0 

4.4 

4.3 

81.0 

17.0 

89.0 

8.0 

30 

86.0 

14.0 

74.0 

9.5 

9S 

98. S 

2.1 

S.6 

Other  Metals 


.S  lead. 


4.3  lead. 

2.0  antimony. 


7.0  lead. 
2.8  lead. 


Tobin  Bronze 


Constituents 

Pig  metal, 
per  cent 

Copper 

Zinc     

59.00 

38.40 

2.16 

.11 

.31 

Tin 

Tensile  strength  (cast)  66,000  pounds. 


Delta  Metal 


Constituents 

Per  cent 

Constituents 

Per  cent 

.1  to    5 
So.oto6s 
49.9  to  30 

.1  to    5 

Tin       

Zinc  

Zinc 

1.8  to  45 

Copper 

This  metal  is  said  to  be  very  strong  and  tough. 


236 


Alloys 


Aluuinum 

Bronze 

Aluminum, 
per  cent 

Copper, 
per  cent 

Tensile  strcnifth, 

pounds  per  square 

inch 

11 

lo 
75 
5.0 

89 
90 
92  S 
9S  o 

89,600  lo  100,800 
73,930  to   89,600 
s6floo  to    67,200 
33.600  lo    40.3» 

Analysis  ok  Bearing-Metal  Alloys 


Metal 


Camelia  metal 

Anti-friction  metal 

White  metal 

Salgee  anti-friction 

Graphite  bearing  metal 

Antimonial  lead 

Cornish  bronze 

Delta  metal 

Magnolia  metal 

American  anti-friction  metal 

Tobin  bronze 

Graney  bronze 

Damascus  bronze 

Manganese  bronze 

Ajax  metal 

Anti-friction  metal 

Harrington  bronze 

Hard  lead 

Phosphor  bronze 

Extra  box  metal 


Copper 


70.  ao 
1.60 


77.83 
92  39 
Trace 

59  00 
7S.80 
76.41 
90.52 
81.24 

5573 

97.72 
76.80 


Tin 


4 

25 

98 

13 

9 

91 

14 

38 

9 

60 

2 

37 

2 

16 

9 

20 

10 

60 

9 

58 

10 

98 

97 

10 

92 

8 

00 

Lead       Zinc 


14-75 

87  92 

I. IS 

67-73 

80.69 

12.40 

S-io 

83  55 

78.44 

.31 

15  06 

12.52 

7.27 
88.32 

94.40 
9.61 
IS  00 


85. 57 


Tr.ce 

.98 

38.44 


42.67 


Anti- 
mony 


16.72 
id.83 


16.45 
18.60 


11.93 
6.03 


IlTMl 


.07 

Trace 
.65 


68 

Phos. 

■94 

.20 


Results  of  Tests  for  Wear 


Metal 


Standard 

Copper-tin 

Copper-tin,  second  experiment, 

same  metal 

Copper-tin,  third  experiment, 

same  metal 

Arsenic  bronze { 


Copper      Tin         Lead       Phos.     Arsenic 


79.70 
87.50 


89.20 
79.20 


Composition 


10.00 
12.  so 


10.00 
10.00 


Rate 

of 
Wear 


100 
148 


147 
143 
IIS 


Belting 


227 


Concerning  the  preceding  table  Dr.  Dudley  remarks:  "We  began  to 
find  evidences  that  wear  of  bearing  metal  alloys  varied  in  accordance 
with  the  following  law.  That  alloy  which  has  the  greatest  power  of  dis- 
tortion without  rupture  will  best  resist  wear." 

Alloys  Contalning  Antimony 

Various  analyses  of  Babbitt  metal. 


Metal 


Babbitt  metal 

Babbitt  metal  for  light  duty 

Babbitt,  hard -j 

Britannia i 

White  metal 

Parson's  metal 

Richard's  metal 

Penton's  metal 

French  Navy 

German  Navy 


Tin 


so 
89.3 
96.0 
88.9 
4S-S 
8S.7 
81.0 
22.0 
85.0 
86.0 
70.0 
16.0 
7-S 
85.0 


Copper 


1.8 
4.0 
3.7 
15 
i.o 
2.0 
10. o 
SO 
2.0 
4-5 
so 
7.0 
7-5 


Anti- 
mony 


S 

8.9 

8.0 

7-4 

13.0 

10. 1 

16.0 

62.0 

lo.o 

1.0 

15.0 


Zinc 


2.9 
1.0 
6.0 


79.0 
87. S 


Lead 


2.0 

10. 5 


Belting 

Trautwine  gives  the  ultimate  strength  of  good  leather  belting  at 
3000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Jones  and  Laughlin  give  the  breaking  strength  per  inch  of  width, 
Me  thick,  of  good  leather  belting  as  follows: 

In  the  solid  leather 675  pounds. 

At  the  rivet  holes  of  splices 362  pounds. 

At  the  lacing  holes 210  pounds. 

Safe  working  load  45  pounds  per  inch  of  width  for  single  belts,  equiva- 
lent to  speed  for  each  inch  of  width  of  720  feet  per  minute  per  horse  power. 
The  efficiency  of  the  double  belt  compared  to  that  of  a  single  belt  is  as 
10  is  to  7. 
Making        D  =  diameter  of  pulley  in  inches. 

R  =  number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 
W  =  width  of  belt  in  inches. 
H  =  horse  power  that  can  be  transmitted  by  the  belt; 

then  for  single  belts, 

„      D  X  RXW. 
u  = » 

2750 


228 

an<J  for  double  belts, 


//  = 


Belling 


DXKXW 
1925 


For  WiuTu  of  Belt  in  Inches 


Single  belt 


H  X  2750 
DXR 


Double  belt 


W  = 


II  X  1925 
DxR 


Revolutions  per  minute 


H  X27SO 
DXW 


R  = 


H  X  192s 
DxW 


Diameter  of  pulley 


H  X  2750 

irxR 


H  X  1925 
WxR 


These  formulae  are  for  open  bcUs  and  pulleys  of  same  diameter.  If 
the  arc  of  contact  on  the  smaller  pullej'  is  less  than  90  degrees,  use  the 
following  constants  for  those  given  in  above  formulae. 


Degrees 
contact 

Single  belt 

Double  belt 

90 

II2}4 

120 
135 
ISO 

157)^ 

6080 
4730 
4400 
3850 
i4io 
3220 

4250 
3310 
3080 
2700 
2390 
2250 

Belt  Velocity  or  Circumferential  Speed  of  Pulleys         229 
Belt  Velocity  or  Circumperential  Speed  or  Pulleys 


fc 

Revolutions  per  minute 

.2-0 
3 

Oh 

SO 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

no 

120 

130 

140 

150 

160 

170 

Velocity  in  feet  per  minvite 

6 

78.  S 

94.2 

no 

126 

141 

157 

173 

1 88 

204 

220 

235 

251 

267 

7 

91.7 

no 

128 

146 

165 

183 

201 

220 

238 

256 

275 

293 

312 

8 

105 

126 

146 

167 

188 

2IO 

230 

231 

272 

293 

314 

335 

356 

9 

118 

141 

i6s 

188 

212 

236 

259 

282 

306 

330 

353 

377 

400 

10 

131 

157 

183 

209 

235 

262 

288 

314 

340 

366 

392 

419 

445 

12 

IS7 

188 

220 

2S2 

282 

314 

346 

377 

408 

440 

471 

502 

534 

14 

183 

220 

256 

293 

330 

366 

403 

440 

476 

513 

550 

586 

623 

16 

209 

251 

293 

335 

377 

419 

460 

502 

544 

586 

628 

670 

71a 

18 

230 

282 

330 

377 

424 

471 

S18 

S65 

612 

6S9 

707 

754 

801 

20 

262 

314 

366 

419 

471 

524 

576 

628 

681 

733 

785 

838 

890 

22 

288 

345 

403 

460 

518 

576 

634 

691 

749 

806 

864 

921 

979 

24 

314 

377 

440 

S02 

565 

628 

691 

754 

817 

880 

942 

loos 

1068 

26 

340 

408 

476 

545 

622 

681 

749 

817 

885 

953 

I021 

1089 

IIS7 

28 

380 

440 

S13 

586 

659 

733 

806 

880 

953 

1026 

HOC 

1173 

1246 

30 

393 

471 

S50 

628 

706 

78s 

864 

942 

1022 

1 100 

1 178 

1256 

I33S 

32 

419 

S02 

586 

670 

754 

838 

921 

loos 

1089 

1173 

1257 

1340 

1424 

34 

445 

534 

623 

712 

801 

890 

979 

1068 

IIS7 

1246 

1335 

1424 

1513 

36 

471 

56s 

659 

754 

848 

942 

1037 

1131 

I22S 

1319 

I4I4 

IS08 

1602 

40 

523 

628 

733 

837 

942 

1047 

1152 

1256 

I36I 

1466 

I57I 

1675 

1780 

48 

628 

754 

879 

1005 

1131 

1257 

1382 

IS08 

1633 

I7S9 

188s 

2010 

2136 

54 

707 

848 

989 

1131 

1272 

1414 

TS5S 

1696 

1838 

1979 

2120 

2262 

2403 

60 

785 

942 

1099 

1256 

1414 

1571 

1728 

1885 

2042 

2199 

2356 

2513 

2670 

66 

864 

1036 

1209 

1382 

1550 

1728 

1900 

2073 

2246 

2419 

2592 

2764 

2937 

72 

942 

1131 

1319 

IS08 

1696 

188s 

2073 

2262 

2450 

2639 

2827 

3016 

3204 

78 

102 1 

I22S 

1429 

1633 

1838 

2042 

2245 

2450 

26S5 

2859 

3063 

3267 

3472 

84 

1099 

1319 

1539 

1754 

1978 

2199 

2419 

2639 

2859 

3079 

3298 

3518 

3738 

Contributed  by  W.  J.  Phillips,  No.  117,  extra  data  sheet,  Machinery,  October,  1909. 


23° 


Belting 


Belt  Velocity  or  Circumferential  Speed  of  Pulleys 
—  (Continued) 


Revolutions  per  minute 

180 

190 

200 

210 

220 

230 

260 

270 

380 

290 

300 

■3 

Velocity  in  feet  per  minute 

6 

282 

298 

311 

330 

346 

361 

377 

392 

408 

424   440 

4SS 

471 

7 

330 

348 

367 

38s 

403 

421 

440 

458 

477 

495 

S13 

531 

SSO 

8 

377 

398 

419 

440 

461 

481 

S03 

523 

545 

565 

586 

607 

628 

9 

424 

447 

471 

495 

518 

542 

S6S 

588 

613 

630 

660 

683 

707 

10 

471 

497 

524 

549 

576 

6ca 

628 

654 

681 

707 

733 

759 

785 

12 

560 

597 

628 

6S9 

691 

722 

754 

78s 

817 

848 

880 

911 

942 

14 

6S9 

696 

733 

769 

806 

843 

880 

916 

953 

989 

1026 

1063 

1 100 

16 

754 

796 

838 

879 

921 

963 

1005 

1046 

1089 

1 131 

1173 

1214 

1257 

18 

848 

895 

942 

989 

1037 

1084 

1 131 

1178 

1225 

1272 

1319 

1366 

1414 

20 

942 

995 

1047 

1099 

1152 

1204 

1256 

1309 

I36I 

1414 

1466 

1518 

1571 

22 

1037 

1094 

1 152 

1209 

1267 

1325 

1382 

1440 

1497 

1 555 

1612 

1670 

1738 

24 

1 131 

1194 

1257 

1319 

1382 

1445 

1508 

1671 

1633 

1696 

1759 

1822 

1885 

26 

1 22s 

1293 

1361 

1429 

1497 

1565 

1633 

1 701 

1770 

1838 

1906 

1974 

2043 

28 

1319 

1393 

1466 

1539 

1613 

1686 

1759 

1832 

1906 

1979 

2052 

2126 

2199 

30 

1413 

1492 

IS7I 

1649 

1728 

1806 

1885 

1963 

2042 

2120 

2199 

2277 

2356 

32 

1508 

1592 

1675 

I7S9 

1843 

1927 

2010 

2094 

2178 

2252 

2345 

2429 

2513 

34 

1602 

1691 

1780 

1869 

1958 

2047 

2136 

2225 

2314 

2403 

2492 

2S8I 

2670 

36 

1696 

1 791 

1885 

1978 

2073 

2168 

2262 

2326 

2450 

2545 

2639 

2733 

2827 

40 

1885 

1989 

2094 

2199 

2304 

2513 

2618 

2723 

2827 

2932 

3037 

3141 

3246 

48 

2262 

2387 

2513 

2639 

276s 

2890 

3016 

3142 

3267 

3393 

3518 

3644 

3769 

54 

2545 

2686 

2827 

2969 

31 10 

3251 

3393 

3534 

3676 

3817 

3959 

4100 

4240 

60 

2827 

2984 

3141 

3298 

3456 

3613 

3770 

3927 

4084 

4251 

4398 

4555 

4712 

66 

3110 

3283 

3455 

3628 

3801 

3974 

4147 

4319 

4492 

4665 

4838 

5010 

5183 

72 

3392 

3581 

3770 

3958 

4147 

4335 

4524 

4713 

4900 

5059 

5278 

5466 

5654 

78 

3676 

3880 

4084 

4288 

4492 

4696 

4900 

5059 

5309 

5513 

5717 

S92I 

6125 

84 

3958 

4178 

4398 

4618 

4838 

5058 

5277 

5497 

5717 

5937 

6157 

6377 

6597 

Contributed  by  W.  J.  Phillips,  No.  117,  extra  data  sheet,  Machinery,  October,  1909. 


Rules  for  Calculating  Speeds  and  Diameters  of  Pulleys     231 

Rules  for  Calculating  Speeds  and  Diameters  of  Pulleys 

Proposed  speed  of  grinding  spindle  being  given,  to  find  proper  speed 
of  countershaft. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  grinding 
spindle  by  the  diameter  of  its  pulley  and  divide  the  product  by  the 
diameter  of  the  driving  pulley  on  the  countershaft. 

Speed  of  countershaft  given,  to  find  diameter  of  pulley  to  drive  grind- 
ing spindle. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  grinding 
spindle  by  the  diameter  of  its  pulley  and  divide  the  product  by  the  number 
of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  countershaft. 

Proposed  speed  of  countershaft  given,  to  find  the  diameter  of  pulley 
for  the  lineshaft. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  counter- 
shaft by  the  diameter  of  the  tight  and  loose  pulleys  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  lineshaft. 

Table  of  Grinding  Wheel  Speeds 


Revolutions 

Revolutions 

Revolutions 

Diameter 

per  minute 

per  minute 

per  minute 

of  wheel , 

for  surface 

for  surface 

for  surface 

inches 

speed  of 

speed  of 

speed  of 

4000  feet 

5000  feet 

6000  feet 

I 

15.279 

19,099 

22,918 

2 

7,639 

9.549 

I I, 459 

3 

5,093 

6.366 

7,639 

4 

3,820 

4,775 

5,730 

S 

3.056 

3.820 

4,584 

6 

2.546 

3.183 

3,820 

7 

2,183 

2.728 

3,274 

8 

1. 910 

2,387 

2.865 

10 

1.528 

1,910 

2,292 

12 

1.273 

1,592 

1,910 

14 

1.091 

1,364 

1,637 

16 

955 

1,194 

1.432 

18 

849 

1,061 

1.273 

20 

764 

955 

1. 146 

22 

694 

868 

1,042 

24 

637 

796 

955 

30 

509 

637 

764 

36 

424 

531 

637 

The  revolutions  per  minute  at  which  wheels  are  run  is  dependent  on 
conditions  and  style  of  machine  and  the  work  to  be  ground. 
Data  Sheet,  No.  52,  The  Foundry,  October,  1909. 


232 


Flanycd  Fillings 


Rules  for  Obtaining  Surface  Speeds,  etc. 

To  6nd  surface  speed  in  feet  per  minute,  of  a  wheel. 

/?«/<•.  — Multiply  the  circumference  in  feel  by  its  revolutions  per 
minute. 

Surface  speal  anrl  fliamctcr  of  wheel  bcini;  K'i^'en,  to  find  number  of 
revolutions  of  wheel  spindle. 

Ride.  —  Multiply  surface  speed  in  feet  per  minute  by  12,  and  divide 
the  product  by  3.14  times  the  diameter  of  wheel  in  inches. 


Formulae  for  Dimensions  of  Cast  Iron,  Fljuiged  Fittings 

To  unlhstand  Hydraulic  Pressures  of  50,  wo  and  2ou  Pounds  per 
Square  Inch 

A. 

,<.... J — ^>|  ^  K— -J  -•:>1 


Fig.  70. 

Diameter  of  opening A 

^,  .  ,            ,    .                     r,     A  (pressure  in  lbs.  per  sq.  inch)   , 
Thickness  of  pipe B=  -^^ — ^ ■  +  .1325  '"• 

3(X30 

-  B  C 

Thickness  of  flange C=  - —  Radius  of  fillet Z)  =  -approximately. 

Center  to  face  of  flange, 

tee  and  cross E=  — f-  2  C,  or  next  half-inch. 

2 

Center  to  face  of  flange; 


-f  2  C,   or    next 


bends,  up  to  90° F  and  G  =  tang.  ( ' '  j  (  ~  ) 

half  inch. 
Center  to  face  of  flange, 

45°  Y H  =  tang.  67^"  X  (H  +  2C,  or  next  half-inch. 

Face    to    face    of    flange, 

45°  Y /  =  tang.   22^°  X  (^l  +  2  C  + //,   or   next 

half  inch. 

Diameter  of  flange /=  standard.     Number  and  size  of  bolts.. . . 

A'  =  standard. 


Formulae  for  Dimensions  of  Cast  Iron,  Flanged  Fittings     233 


Diameter  of  bolt  circle .  .  .  L  =  standard. 
Radius  on  center  line  of 


{Fo.a-i^) 


bends,  up  to  90° M  and  A''  =  —f r —     Use  first  quar- 

tang.-^-j 

ter  inch  below. 

Note.  —  J  and  L  are  alike  for  50  and  100  lbs.,  as  both  are  computed  for  100  lbs.     Con- 
tributed.   No.  43,  Data  Sheet,  Machinery,  April,  1905. 


CHAPTKR    \'II 

USEFUL    INFORMATION 

Shrinkage  of  Castings  vlh  Foot 
(By  F.  G.  Walker.) 


Metals 


Pure  aluminum 

NickeJ  aluminum  casting  alloy 

■'  Special  Casting  Alloy,"  made  by  the  Pittsburg  Reduo 

tion  Co 

Iron,  small  cylinders 

Iron,  pipes 

Iron,  girders,  beams,  etc 

Iron,  large  cylinders,  contraction  of  diameter  at  top 

Iron,  Large  cylinders,  contraction  of  diameter  at  bottom. 

Iron,  large  cylinders,  contraction  in  length 

Cast  iron 

Steel 

Malleable  iron , 

Tin 

Britannia , 

Thin  brass  castings 

Thifk  brass  castings 

Zinc 

Lead 

Copper 

Bismuth 


Fractions 

Decimals 

of  an  inch 

of  an  inch 

>W4 

.3031 

9io 

.1875 

'W« 

.1718 

H« 

.0625 

H 

.I3S0 

H* 

.1000 

Vu 

.312s 

H* 

.7813 

Wa 

.0940 

H 

.1350 

M 

.3500 

H 

.1350 

Ma 

.0833 

W2 

.03135 

>M4 

.1670 

?fc 

.1500 

M. 

.3135 

Ho 

.3x25 

M« 

.1875 

Hi 

.1563 

Data  Sheet,  No.  34,  The  Foundry,  January,  1909. 


234 


Rapid  Conversion  of  Gross  Tons 


235 


This  Table  Has  Been  Arranged  for  the  Rapid  Conversion 
or  Gross  Tons  and  Fractions  Thereof  into  Pounds 

Equivalent  of  gross  tons  (2240  pounds)  in  pounds. 


Tons 

Pounds 

Tons 

Pounds 

Tons 

Pounds 

Tons 

Pounds 

15 

33.600 

24 

53.760 

33 

73.920 

42 

94,080 

I5>/4 

34,i6o 

24^4 

54,32° 

33'/4 

74,480 

42H 

94.640 

I5'-2 

34.720 

24W 

54 ,880 

33i4 

75,040 

42)-^ 

9S,2oo 

15^-4 

35,280 

24^4 

55,440 

33% 

75,600 

42H 

95,760 

16 

35,840 

25 

56,000 

34 

76,160 

43 

96,320 

l6'/4 

36,400 

25)4 

56,560 

341/4 

76,720 

43)4 

96,880 

leyz 

36,960 

25H 

57.120 

34I/4 

77,280 

43)'^ 

97,440 

16M 

37.S20 

25?4 

57.680 

34% 

77.840 

43?4 

98,000 

17 

38,080 

26 

58,240 

35 

78,400 

44 

98,560 

nV* 

38,640 

261.4 

58,800 

35H 

78,960 

44  H 

99,120 

nH 

39,200 

26K2 

59,360 

35H 

79,520 

44  V^ 

99.680 

i7?4 

39,760 

26?4 

59,920 

35?4 

80,080 

44% 

100,240 

18 

40,320 

27 

60,480 

36 

80,640 

45 

100.800 

isyi 

40,880 

27!'4 

61,040 

361/4 

81,200 

451/4 

Toi,36o 

181/4 

41,440 

27K2 

61,600 

361/^ 

81,760 

45^4 

101,920 

i8?4 

42,000 

27?4 

62,160 

36% 

82,320 

45% 

102,480 

19 

42,560 

28 

62,720 

37 

82,880 

46 

103,040 

195 -i 

43,120 

281.4 

63,280 

37)4 

83,440 

46)4 

103,600 

19'^ 

43,680 

28M2 

63,840 

37H 

84,000 

46V4 

104,160 

19U 

44,240 

28?4 

64,400 

37?4 

84,560 

46% 

104,720 

20 

44,800 

29 

64,960 

38 

85,120 

47 

105,280 

20^ 

45,360 

295-4 

65,520 

381/4 

85,680 

47)'4 

105,840 

20l/^ 

45,920 

29'/4 

66,080 

381/4 

86,240 

47)4 

106,400 

20^4 

46,480 

29M 

66,640 

38?4 

86,800 

47?4 

106,960 

21 

47,040 

30 

67,200 

39 

87,360 

48 

107,520 

21 W 

47,600 

30  M 

67,760 

39V4 

87,920 

48)-4 

108  .oSo 

211.4 

48,160 

301/4 

68,320 

39V4 

88,480 

48)-4 

108,640 

2I?4 

48,720 

30?4 

68,880 

39?4 

89,040 

48% 

109,200 

22 

49,280 

31 

69,440 

40 

89,600 

49 

109,760 

22I.4 

49,840 

31 « 

70,000 

40 1/4 

90,160 

491/4 

110,320 

22M2 

50,400 

31 H 

70,560 

40)4 

90,720 

49'/^ 

110,880 

22?4 

50,960 

31  ?4 

71,120 

4o?4 

91,280 

49% 

111,440 

23 

51,520 

32 

71,680 

41 

91,840 

SO 

112,000 

23I4 

52,080 

32  H 

72.240 

41)4 

92,400 

SoVi 

112,560 

2M 

52,640 

32).4 

72,800 

4I>/2 

92,960 

5oi/^ 

113.120 

23% 

53,200 

32% 

73.360 

41% 

93,520 

50% 

113.680 

Data  Sheet  No.  2,  The  Foundry,  September,  1907. 


236 


Useful  In  forma  I  ion 


Window  Glass 
Table  of  NuMutK  of  Panes  in  a  Box 


Size- 

Panes 

Size 

Panes 

Size 

Panes 

Size 

Panes 

Size 

Panes 

in 

tea 

in 

to  a 

in 

to  n. 

in 

ton 

in 

toa 

inches 

box 

inches 

box 

inches 

9 

inches 

box 

8XIO 

90 

14X20 

26 

20X42 

34X48 

5 

8X12 

7S 

14x24 

22 

20x48 

8 

34x60 

4 

9x13 

67 

14x36 

14 

22XJO 

11 

-•H  •    (Ij 

7 

36x40 

5 

9x14 

S7 

16x18 

25 

22x36 

9 

28X42 

6 

36x44 

S 

10X12 

60 

16x20 

23 

22X42 

8 

28X56 

S 

36x48 

4 

10X16 

AS 

16x24 

19 

22X48 

7 

30X34 

7 

36x54 

4 

12x14 

43 

16x36 

13 

24X30 

10 

30X42 

6 

36x60 

3 

12x18 

34 

18X20 

20 

24X36 

9 

30X48 

5 

40x54 

3 

12X20 

30 

18X24 

17 

24X42 

7 

30X60 

4 

40x72 

3 

12X24 

25 

18x36 

11 

24X48 

6 

32X42 

6 

44x50 

3 

14X16 

32 

20x24 

IS 

26x36 

8 

32X48 

S 

44X56 

3 

14X18 

29 

20X30 

12 

26x42 

7 

32X60 

4 

Box  Strapping 


i 


Fig.  71. 
Improved  Trojan  Box  Strapping 

A  soft  steel  continuous  band,  without  rivets,  which  allows  the  nail  to 
be  driven  anywhere.  The  surface  is  studded  or  embossed,  as  illustrated, 
which  not  only  protects  the  head  of  the  nail,  but  stiffens  and  strengthens 
the  strap.     Edges  are  perfectly  smooth.     Put  up  in  reels  of  300  feet. 


Width W         H 

Per  reel $x.oo     1.25 


150 


I  m. 
2.00 


Fire  Brick  axid  Fire  Clay 

An  ordinary  fire  i)ritk  measures  9  by  4'i  by  2^^  inches,  contains 
101.25  cubic  inches  and  weighs  7  pounds.  Specific  gravity,  1.93.  From 
650  to  700  pounds  of  fire  clay  are  required  to  lay  1000  bricks.  The 
clay  should  be  used  as  a  thin  paste  and  the  joints  made  as  thin  as 
possible. 


Fire  Clays  237 

Analysis  of  Fire  Clays 

New  Jersey  Clays:  Per  cent 

Silica 56 .  80 

Alumina 30 .  08 

Peroxide  of  iron i .  12 

Titanic  acid i  •  iS 

Potash o .  80 

Water  and  organic  matter 10. 50 

100.4s 

Pennsylvania  Clays: 

Silica 44-395 

Alumina 33-558 

Lime trace 

Peroxide  of  iron i .  080 

Magnesia o.  io8 

Alkalies o.  247 

Titanic  acid i .  530 

Water  and  organic  matter 14-575 

95-493 

Stourbridge  Clays: 

Silica 40 .  00 

Alumina 37- 00 

Magnesia 2 .  00 

Potash 9 .  00 

Water 12. 00 

100.00 

Stourbridge  Clays: 

Silica 70 .  00 

Alumina 26.60 

Oxide  of  iron 2 .  00 

Lime i .  00 

Magnesia trace 

100.00 

Fire  brick  should  have  a  light  buff  color  and  when  broken  present  an 
imiform  shade  throughout  the  fracture.  Bricks  weighing  over  7  to  7.5 
pounds  each  contain  too  large  a  percentage  of  iron. 

Useful  Information 

Velocity  of  light  is  185,844  miles  per  second. 

Velocity  of  sound  at  60°  F.  is  11 20  feet  per  second. 

The  semiaxis  of  the  earth  at  the  poles  is  3949.555  miles. 

The  terrestrial  radius  at  45°  latitude  is  equal  to  3936.245  miles. 

Radius  of  a  sphere  equal  to  that  of  the  earth  is  3958.412  miles. 

Quadrant  of  the  equator  is  equal  to  6224.413  miles. 


238 


Useful  Information 


Quudrani  of  llic  meridian  6214.413  miles. 

One  (icK'rcc  of  the  Icrrcslriai  meridian  is  69.049  miles. 

One  degree  of  longitude  on  the  e(|uator  equals  69.164  miles. 

.\  degree  of  longitude  upon  i)arailel  45  c(|uals  48.988  miles. 

A  nautical  mile  e(|uals  1.153  statute  miles  and  is  equal  to  one  minute 
of  longitude  uiK)n  the  ec|uator. 

Length  of  a  pendulum  Ijeating  seconds  in  vacuum  at  sea  level  al  New 
York  is  39.1012  inches. 

Length  of  a  pendulum  beating  seconds  in  vacuum  at  the  equator  is 
39.01817  inches. 

Mean  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  is  95,364,768  miles. 

Time  occupied  in  transmission  of  light  from  the  sun  to  the  earth  is 
8  minutes,  13.2  seconds. 


Force  Required  to  Pull  Nails  from  Various  Woods 


Kind  of  wood 


White  pine . 


Yellow  pine. 


White  oak. 

Chestnut.. 
Laurel .... 


Size  of 
nail 


8d 

9d 

2od 

sod 

6od 

8d 

10  d 

sod 

6od 

8d 

20  d 

6od 

sod 

6od 

9d 

20  d 

Holding-power  per  square  inch 
of  surface  in  wood,  pounds 


Wire  nail        Cut  nail 


167 


318 


940 


6si 


450 
455 
477 
347 
363 
340 

69s 
755 
596 
604 

1340 
1292 
1018 

664 


1179 
1221 


Mean 


662 


1216 


683 


Trautwine  gives  the  holding  power  of  6  d  nail  driven  one  inch  into  oak  as  507  pounds; 
beech,  667  pounds;  elm,  327  pounds;  pine  (whito),  187  pounds;  ?6  inch  square  spikf 
driven  4'/^  inches  into  yellow  pine,  2000  pounds;  oak,  4000  pounds;  locust,  6000 
pounds;  I'i  inch  square  spike  in  yellow  pine.  3000  pounds;  9)6  square  spike  six  inches 
in  yellow  pine,  4873  pounds.  In  all  cases  the  nails  or  spikes  were  driven  across  the 
grain.     When  driven  with  the  grain  the  resistance  is  about  one  half. 


Weights  per  Cubic  Inch  of  Metals 


239 


Weights  per  Cubic  Inch  of  Metals 

Lbs. 

Cast  iron o.  263 

Wrought  iron o. 281 

Cast  steel o.  283 

Copper 0.3225 

Brass o-3037 

Zinc 0.26 

Lead 0.4103 

Mercury o .  4908 


Temperatures  Corresponding  to  Various  Colors 

(Taylor  &  White.) 


Color 


Dark  blood  red,  black  red 

Dark  red,  blood  red,  low  red 

Dark  cherry  red 

Medium  cherry  red 

Cherry,  full  red 

Light  cherry  red,  bright  cherry  red 

Scaling  heat,*  light  red 

Salmon,  orange,  free  scaling  heat . . 

Light  salmon,  light  orange 

Yellow 

Light  yellow 

White 


Temperature, 
degrees  F. 


990 
1050 
1 175 
1250 
1375 

ISSO 
1650 
172s 
182s 
1975 
2200 


*  Heat  at  which  scale  forms  and  adheres,  i.e.,  does  not  fall  away  from  the  piece 
when  allowed  to  cool  in  air. 


240 


Useful  Information 


Iron  Ores 

Iron  is  usually  found  as  an  ore  in  one  of  the  following  classifications, 
oxides,  carbonates  and  sulphides. 

The  following  table  gives  the  subdivisions  of  these  classes  and  an  idea 
of  the  general  composition  and  character  of  the  different  varieties. 


Oxides 

Carbonates 

Sulphides 

Component 
parts 

Anhy- 
drous: 
Red 
hematite 

Hy- 

d rated: 

Brown 

hematite 

Magnetic 

30-70 
I5-5S 

0-  I 
0-  2 

O-IO 

0-  5 

0-2S 

0-  5 
0-  2 

0-  2 
0-  5 

Includes: 
f rank- 
Unite  or 
spiegel- 
eisenand 
load 
stone. 

o-so 
20-60 

1-25 

O-IO 

0-  5 

0-2S 

0-  5 
35-40 
Usually 
absent 

0-  5 

Clay 
iron 
stone 

O-IO 

.V-4S 

0-  2 
I -10 

I-IO 
I-IO 

2-25 
20-3S 
0-  3 

0-  2 
0-  4 

Black- 
band 

Pyrites 

S0-90 
Usually 
absent 

0-  2 

0-  2 

I-IO 

0-  5 
1-30 
0-  5 
0-  3 

0-  I 
S-20 

Includes: 
bog  iron 
ore,  lake 
ore  and 
limonite 

44  28 

Ferric  oxide 

Ferrous  oxides 

Manganese  oxide . . . 

60-95 
0-  5 

0-  2 
0-  I 
0-  5 
0-3 

I-2S 

0-  2 
0-  3 

0-  I 
0-  S 

1. 18 

3.34 

Carbon  dioxide 

Phosphoric     anhy- 
dride. 

4907 

Water 

2.75 

.38 

Zinc 

.22 

Includes: 
specular 
micace- 
ous and 
kidney 
ores. 

CHAPTER   VIII 
IRON 

Physical  Properties 

Atomic  weight 55.9 

Specific  gravity 7 .  80 

Specific  heat o.ii 

Melting  point 2600°  F. 

Coefficient  of  Hnear  expansion o. 0000065  per  0°  F. 

Thermal  conductivity 11. 9     Silver  100 

Electric  "         8.34  Mercury  i 

Latent  heat  of  fusion   88        B.t.u. 

Pure  iron  is  termed  ferrite. 

In  the  presence  of  manganese,  chromium,  etc.,  hard  carbides  (double 
carbides)  are  formed,  known  as  cementite. 

A  mixture  of  ferrite  and  cementite  is  called  pearlite. 

PearUte  often  consists  of  alternate  layers  of  ferrite  and  cementite  and 
in  this  condition,  from  its  peculiar  iridescence,  is  termed  pearlite. 

As  carbon  increases,  ferrite  is  replaced  by  pearlite. 

Pearlite  is  not  found  in  hardened  steels. 

In  steels  saturated  with  carbon,  a  point  fixed  by  Professor  Arnold  as 
.89  per  cent  carbon,  the  whole  structure  is  represented  by  pearlite. 

Steels  containing  less  than  .89  per  cent  carbon  are  known  as  unsatu- 
rated; those  having  over  .89  per  cent  carbon  as  supersaturated.  These 
degrees  refer  distinctly  to  iron-carbon  steels;  for  the  double  carbides  the 
point  of  saturation  is  slightly  lowered. 

Cementite  is  a  hard  and  brittle  compound,  but  when  interspersed  with 
ferrite  in  the  form  of  pearlite,  its  brittleness  is  somewhat  neutralized  by 
the  adjacent  ferrite. 

A  steel  containing  well  laminated  pearlite  possesses  high  ductility 
but  less  tenacity  than  when  found  unsegregated. 

Pig  Iron 

Pig  iron  contains  from  92  to  96  per  cent  metallic  iron;  the  remainder 
is  mostly  composed  of  silicon,  sulphur,  phosphorus  and  manganese  in 
greatly  varying  amounts.  Cobalt,  copper,  chromium,  aluminum,  nickel, 
sodium,  titanium  and  tungsten  appear  in  some  brands  in  minute  quan- 
tities. 

241 


242  Iron 

Specific  gravity  of  cast  irf)n  is  variously  given  at  7.08,  7.15  and  7.40. 

Atomic  weight  of  iron,  55.84. 

Specific  heat  from  32°  to    212°  F.,  0.129  Bystrom. 

"         "         "     "     at    572°  !•'.,  0.1407      " 

"         "         "     "     at  2150°  r.,  0.190  Oberhoffer. 
Latent  heat  of  fusion,  88  B.l.u.* 
Total  heat  in  melted  iron,  450  B.t.u. 
Critical  temperature,  1382°  F.,  StupakofT. 
Coeflicienl  of  linear  expansion  for  32°  F.,  0.000006. 

"  "     "  "  at  1400°  F.,  0.0000 1 00. 

Weight  per  cubic  foot,  450  pounds. 
Weight  per  cubic  inch,  0.2604  pounds. 
3.84  cubic  inches,  i  pound. 

Grading  Pig  Iron 

The  usual  practice  of  furnaces  has  l>een  to  grade  by  fracture. 

The  grades  are  designated,  Nos.  i,  2,  3,  4  or  gray  forge;  mottled  and 
white. 

No.  I.  —  Soft;  open  grain;  dark  in  color.  Used  for  thin,  light 
castings.  Does  not  possess  much  strength;  has  great  softening 
properties;  is  mixed  advantageously  with  harder  grades;  carries  large 
percentage  of  scrap. 

No.  2.  —  Harder,  closer,  stronger  and  color  somewhat  lighter  than  No.  i . 

No.  3.  —  Harder,  closer,  stronger  and  lighter  in  color  than  No.  2; 
and  inclines  to  gray. 

No.  4  (Gray  forge).  —  Hard,  strong,  fine  grained  and  light  gray  color. 

Mottled.  — Hard,  verj'  strong  and  close  grained.  Color  presents  mot- 
tled or  imperfectly  mingled  gray  and  white  colors. 

U7///e.  —  Hard  and  brittle,  breaks  easily  under  sledge  but  has  high 
tensile  strength;   color  white. 

No.  I  iron  running  in  the  spout  of  the  cupola  displays  few  sparks. 
In  the  ladle  its  surface  is  lively  and  broken,  sometimes  flowery. 

Nos.  2  and  3  present  similar  appearances  but  less  marked. 

Hard  irons  running  from  the  cupola  throw  out  innumerable  sparks; 
in  the  ladle  the  surface  is  dull  and  unbroken;  if  disturbed  the  reaction 
is  sluggish. 

One  cannot  safely  be  guided  by  the  appearance  of  the  fracture  of  the 

pig;   as  when  melted  it  may  produce  a  casting  of  an  entirely  different 

character  than  that  indicated. 

•  Harker  and  Oberhoffer  have  found  that  the  specific  heat  of  iron  increases  in 
about  the  same  ratio  up  to  within  the  region  of  the  critical  point  (1382°  F.).  After 
this  it  remains  practically  constant. 


Grading  Pig  Iron 


243 


This  method  of  grading  is  entirely  unreliable  as  to  chemical  constit- 
uents (and  physical  characteristics) ;  the  degree  of  coarseness  of  fracture, 
which  affects  the  grade  more  than  any  other  property,  may  be  due 
entirely  to  the  rate  of  cooling. 

Two  pigs  from  the  same  cast  may  produce  two  grades;  pigs  from 
different  beds  of  the  same  cast  may  vary  as  much  as  i  per  cent  in  silicon 
and  .05  in  sulphur. 

The  character  of  pig  iron  is  often  greatly  affected  by  the  accidents  of 
the  furnace. 

Irons  produced  from  the  same  furnace  at  different  times,  from  identical 
mixtures,  may  differ  greatly  in  their  constituents,  by  reason  of  different 
thermal  conditions  existing  in  the  furnace  at  the  time  the  ores  were 
melted. 

Grading  by  fracture  is  so  unreliable  that  most  foundrymen  specify  the 
characteristics  required. 

The  following  specifications  are  from  Mr.  W.  G.  Scott  of  the 
J.  I.  Case  Threshing  Machine  Co.,  Racine,  Wis. 


No. 

Si, 

not  less 

than 

s, 

not  over 

P, 
not  over 

Mn, 
not  less 

Total 
carbon 

2.50 
1.95 
1.35 

.03 
.04 
.05 

.60 
.70 
.80 

•  50 
.70 
90 

Below  these  figures  for  silicon,  or  .005  above  for  sulphur  means  re- 
jection. 


Special  pig  irons 

Silver  gray 

Ferro-silicon 

Manganese 
pig 

3.00  to  5  SO 

.04 

.90 

.30 

2.50 

7.00  to  12.50 
.04 

Over  2.50 

.04 

.70 

.goto  2.50 

In  calling  for  charcoal  irons,  silicon  is  asked  for  from  .30  to  2.75; 
sulphur  not  over  .025;  phosphorus  not  over  .250;  manganese  not  over 
.70;  carbon  with  range  of  from  2.50  to  4.50. 

Phosphoric  pig  irons,  for  small  thin  castings,  silicon  not  under  1.50; 
phosphorus  not  under  i.oo;  sulphur  not  over  .055;  manganese  from  .30 
to  .90;   carbon  not  under  3.00. 


244 


Iron 


Duscd  on  a  sliding  scale  for  silicon  and  sulphur  and  a  minimum  (or  carbon.    ( Mar- 
shall.) 

No.  I  Foundry  Pig  Iron 


Carbon  content 


Total  carbon  over 3.20 

Graphitic  carbon  over 2.7s  < 

An  increase  of  .lo  silicon  for  every  .003  sulphur. 


.Silicon  with  sulphur 


1.70 

.010 

1.80 

.013 

1.90 

.016 

2.00 

.019 

2.10 

.02a 

2.20 

.oas 

2.30 

.038 

2.40 

.031 

2. SO 

.034 

2.60 

.037 

2.70 

.040 

2.80 

043 

2.90 

.046 

3.00 

.050 

No.  2  Foundry  Pig  Iron 


Silicon  with  sulphur 

1.20 

.005 

to 

to 

2.20 

.055 

Carbon  content 


Total  carbon  over 3  00 

Graphitic  carbon  over 2 .  so  ■ 

An  increase  of  .10  silicon  for  every  .005  sulphur. 


Silicon  with  sulphur 


1.20 

.cos 

1 30 

.010 

1.40 

.015 

ISO 

.oao 

1.60 

.02s 

1.70 

.030 

1.80 

.03s 

1.90 

.040 

2.00 

.045 

2.10 

.oso 

3.20 

•OSS 

Foundry  Pig  Iron 
No.  3  Foundry  Pig  Iron 


245 


Silicon  with  sulphur 

.70 

.005 

to 

to 

1.70 

.055 

Carbon  content 


Total  carbon  over 2 .  75 

Graphitic  carbon  over 2.00  -^ 

An  increase  of .  10  silicon  for  every  .005  sulphur. 


Silicon  with  sulphur 


.70 

.005 

80 

.010 

90 

•CIS 

00 

.020 

10 

.02s 

20 

.030 

30 

.035 

40 

.040 

so 

•  045 

60 

.050 

70 

■05s 

No.  4  Foundry  Pig  Iron  —  (Gray  Forge) 


Silicon  with  sulphur 

.50 

.025 

to 

to 

1.50 

•  07S 

Carbon  content 


Silicon  with  sulphur 


Total  carbon  over 2.00 

Graphitic  carbon  over i .  25  •' 

An  increase  of  .10  silicon  for  every  .005  sulphur. 


246 


Iron 


The  wide  variation  in  silicon  and  sulphur  which  may  occur  in  irons 

graded  by  fracture  is  shown  in  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Foundry- 

mcn's  /Vssocialion,  Cleveland  Convention;   wherein  appears  a  statement 

as  to  the  ran^e  of  those  elements,  in  the  same  grades  of  iron,  made  by 

.  the  same  furnace. 

No.  I  X      varies  in  silicon  from  1.13  to  3.40  per  tent. 
"  "      "  sulphur  "   0.013  to  0.053  per  cent. 

No.  ;!  X  "      "  silicon     "     0.67  to  3.30  per  cent. 

"  "      "  sulphur  "     o.oi  to  0.049  P*^""  cent. 

No.  3  Plain     "      "  silicon     "      1.05  to  3.21  per  cent. 
"        "      "  sul|)hur  "     o.oi  to  0.069  per  cent 

After  long  consideration,  a  committee  of  the  .\merican  Foundrymen's 
Association,  appointed  to  suggest  a  uniform  system  of  grading,  submitted 
the  following  report,  which  was  adopted  at  the  Cincinnati  Convention, 
May,  1909. 

AMERICAN   FOUNDRYMEN'S   ASSOCIATION 

Standard  Specifications  for  Foundry  Pig  Iron 

Adopted  by  tlie  American  Foutidry men's  Association  in  Convention, 
Cincinnati,  May  20,  igog. 

It  is  recommended  that  foundry  pig  iron  be  bought  by  analysis,  and 
that  when  so  bought  these  standard  specifications  be  used. 


Percentages  and  Variations 

In  order  that  there  may  be  uniformity  in  quotations,  the  following 
percentages  and  variations  shall  be  used.  (These  specifications  do  nc^t 
advise  that  all  five  elements  be  specified  in  all  contracts  for  pig  iron,  but 
do  recommend  that  when  these  elements  are  specified  that  the  following 
percentages  be  used.) 


Silicon 

Sulphur 

Total  carbon 

(.25  allowed  either  way) 

(maximum) 

(minimum) 

1 .00     (La)     Code. 

0.04 

(Sa)    Code. 

3.00    (Ca)    Code. 

I. so     (Lc) 

0.0s 

(Se) 

3.20    (Ce) 

2.00     (Li) 

0.06 

(Si) 

3-40     (Ci) 

J. SO    (Lo) 

0.07 

(So) 

3.60    (Co) 

3.00     (Lu) 

0.08 

(Su) 

3.80    (Cu) 

0.09 

(Sy) 

O.IO 

(Sh) 

Standard  Specifications  for  Foundry  Pig  Iron 


247 


Manganese 

Phosphorus 

(.20  either  way) 

(.ISO  either  way) 

.20     (Ma)     Code. 

.20     (Pa)     Code. 

.40     (Me) 

.40     (Pe) 

.60     (Mi) 

.60     (Pi) 

.80     (Mo) 

.80     (Po) 

1.00     (Mu) 

1. 00     (Pu) 

1. 25     (My) 

1. 25    (Py) 

I.  SO     (Mh) 

I.  so     (Ph) 

Percentages  of  any  element  specified  half  way  between  the  above  shall 
be  designated  by  addition  of  letter  "X"  to  next  lower  symbol. 

In  case  of  phosphorus  and  manganese,  the  percentages  may  be  used 
as  maximum  or  minimum  figures,  but  unless  so  specified  they  will  be 
considered  to  include  the  variation  above  given. 

Sampling  and  Analysis 

Each  car  load,  or  its  equivalent,  shall  be  considered  as  a  unit  in 
sampling. 

One  pig  of  machine-cast,  or  one-half  pig  of  sand-cast  iron  shall  be  taken 
to  every  four  tons  in  the  car,  and  shall  be  so  chosen  from  different  parts 
of  the  car,  as  to  represent  as  nearly  as  possible  the  average  quality  of  the 
iron. 

An  equal  weight  of  the  drilUngs  from  each  pig  shall  be  thoroughly  mixed 
to  make  up  the  sample  for  analysis. 

In  case  of  dispute,  the  sample  and  analysis  shall  be  made  by  an  inde- 
pendent chemist,  mutually  agreed  upon,  if  practicable,  at  the  time  the 
contract  is  made. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  standard  methods  of  the  American 
Foundrymen's  Association  be  used  for  analysis.  Gravimetric  methods 
shall  be  used  for  sulphur  analysis,  unless  otherwise  specified  in  the 
contract. 

The  cost  of  the  resampling  and  reanalysis  shall  be  borne  by  the  party 


Base  or  Quoting  Price 

The  accompanying  table  may  be  filled  out  and  may  become  a  part  of 
the  contract:  "B,"  or  base,  represents  the  price  agreed  upon  for  a  pig 
iron  running  2.00  in  silicon  (with  allowed  variation  0.25  either  way),  and 
under  0.05  sulphur.  "C"  is  a  constant  differential  to  be  determined 
upon  at  the  time  the  contract  is  made. 


248 


Iron 


Silicon  percentages  allow  .2S  variation  cither  way.    Sulphur  percentages  are  maxi- 

inuiii. 


B+6C 

<  00 

13  +  5  < 

B+4C 

B  +  jC 

Sulphur—  .04 

B  +  2C 

Sulphur  —  .OS 

B+sC 

B  +  4  ( ■ 

B  +  3C 

B  +  2C 

B  +  C 

Sulphur  —  .06 

B4-4C 

B  +  V- 

M  i    .  (■ 

n-i-r 

B 

Sulphur  —  .07 

B+3C 

B  +  -- 

B-C 

Sulphur  —  .08 

B  +  2C 

B  +  ( 

B-2C 

Sulphur  —  .09 

B  +  C 

B 

15  -  r 

n  -  J  c 

B-3C 

Sulphur  —  .10 

B 

B-C 

B-2r 

D-3C 

B-4C 

Silicon 

2.00 

I -75 

I. so 

1    -'S 

I  00 

Sulphur  —  .04 

B  +  C 

B 

B-C 

B-2C 

B-aC 

Sulphur  —  .05 

Base 

B-C 

B-2C 

B-3C 

B-4C 

Sulphur  —  .06 

B-C 

B-2C 

B-3C 

B-4C 

B-sC 

Sulphur  —  .07 

B-2C 

B-3C 

B-4C 

B-sC 

B-6C 

Sulphur  —  .08 

B-3C 

B-4C 

B-sC 

B-6C 

B-7C 

Sulphur  —  .09 

B-4C 

B-sC 

B-6C 

B-7C 

B-8C 

Sulphur  —  .10 

B-sC 

B-6C 

B-7C 

B-8C 

B-9C 

(This  table  is  for  settling  any  differences  which  may  arise  in  filling  a 
contract,  as  explained  under  Penalties  and  Allowances,  and  may  be  used 
to  regulate  the  price  of  a  grade  of  pig  iron  which  the  purchaser  desires, 
and  the  seller  agrees  to  substitute  for  the  one  originally  specified.) 

Penalties 

In  case  the  iron,  when  delivered,  does  not  conform  to  the  specifications, 
the  buyer  shall  have  the  option  of  either  refusing  the  iron,  or  accepting 
it  on  the  basis  as  shown  in  the  table,  which  must  be  filled  out  at  the  time 
the  contract  is  made. 

Allowances 

In  case  the  furnace  cannot  for  any  good  reason  deliver  the  iron  as 
specified,  the  purchaser  may  at  his  option  accept  any  other  analysis 
which  the  furnace  can  deliver.  The  price  to  be  determined  by  the  Base 
Table  herewith,  which  must  be  filled  in  at  the  time  the  contract  is  made. 


Machine- Cast  Pig  Iron 

Pig  iron  is  usually  cast  in  sand  beds.     The  casting  machine  has  of  late 

years  been  adopted  by  some  furnaces  and  the  statement  is  made  that 

machine-cast  pig,  aside  from  the  freedom  from  sand,  possesses  other 

important  advantages.     That  it  is  more  uniform  in  character;  affords 


Machine-Cast  Pig  Iron 


249 


greater  certainty  as  to  its  chemical  composition;  is  cleaner  and  melts 
more  readily. 

Machine-cast  pig  presents  a  closer  grain  and  is  harder  than  iron  cast 
in  sand,  by  reason  of  the  greater  percentage  of  combined  carbon. 

Upon  remelting,  this  difference  disappears  and  the  castings  show  the 
same  analysis. 

Mr.  A.  L.  Colby,  chemist  of  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  gives  the  follow- 
ing statement  regarding  an  experiment,  made  to  determine  the  influence 
of  the  mould  upon  pig  iron. 

"One  half  of  a  cast  was  poured  into  sand  moulds  and  the  other  half 
into  iron.  Equal  quantities  of  drillings  from  six  pigs,  selected  from 
different  parts  of  that  portion  of  the  cast  which  had  been  cast  in  sand 
were  taken;  and  similar  drillings  were  obtained  from  that  portion  of  the 
cast  which  had  been  taken  to  the  casting  machine;  and  each  was  care- 
fully analyzed,  with  the  following  results: 


Cast  No.  7602 


Silicon 

Manganese 

Phosphorus 

Sulphur 

Total  carbon 

Combined  carbon 

Graphitic  carbon 

Tensile  strength  per  square  inch 


Sand-cast, 

Machine- 
cast, 

per  cent 

per  cent 

3.00 

2.99 

■  95 

95 

•  770 

773 

.041 

041 

3.460 

3 

380 

.250 

920 

3  210 

2 

460 

15,000 

41 

.000 

"The  high  tensile  strength  of  the  machine-cast  iron  is  due  almost 
entirely  to  the  higher  percentage  of  its  combined  carbon.  Some  of  the 
sand-cast  portion  of  this  cast,  and  some  of  the  machine-cast  portion  were 
melted  separately  in  the  same  cupola,  keeping  all  smelting  conditions 
as  nearly  uniform  as  possible;  and  castings  from  each  melt  were  made, 
which  were  proved  by  analysis,  tensile  strength,  ability  to  machine  and 
appearance  of  fracture  to  be  as  nearly  alike  as  different  things,  made 
from  the  same  iron,  ever  are." 

Regarding  this  experiment,  Mr.  W.  J.  Keep  in  a  communication  to 
"The  Foundry,"  remarks: 

"The  experiment  shows  that  a  pig  iron  cast  in  iron  moulds  with  a  very 
close  grain  and  high  combined  carbon  and  the  same  iron  cast  in  a  sand 
pig  mould  with  open  grain  and  low  combined  carbon,  will  each,  when 
remelted  in  a  cupola,  make  castings  exactly  alike." 


250 


Iron 


The  following  report  on  the  test  ingots.  c;ist  with  the  cxixrimcntal 
castings,  supports  this  statement. 


Constituents 

Sand-cost  pig  iron  ingot 

3)^  inches  square  and 

I W  feet  long 

Machine-cast  pig  iron 

ingot  3]ri  inches  square 

and  I  ^  (cct  long 

Cast 

horizontally, 

per  cent 

Cast 

vertically. 

per  cent 

Cast 

horizontally, 

percent 

Cast 

vertically. 

per  cent 

Silicon 

-•  <.'3 
.84 
.766 
.071 

3.40 
.470 

2.9.50 

18,000 
G2    Fi 

2.91          ] 
.85                           K; 

»9S 

34 

Phosphorus 

.769 

.064 

3.390 

.368 

3022 

16,300 

G2    El 

077 

3.364 

.336 

3  028 

17.000 

Gi    Fi 

764 

071 

3357 

Combined  carbon 

Graphitic  carbon 

.357 
3  100 
17,000 

Gi    Fi 

The  coarse  open  fracture  presented  by  some  pig  irons,  and  which  under 
the  old  system  might  cause  them  to  be  graded  as  No.  i,  may  be  due  to 
an  excessive  amount  of  manganese  and  the  iron  will  be  hard  upon  re- 
melting.  On  the  other  hand,  an  iron  may  have  a  close  grain,  by  reason 
of  the  graphitic  carbon  occurring  in  a  finely  divided  condition  and  be 
graded  low;  when,  since  it  is  soft,  it  should  have  a  much  higher  grading. 

Charcoal  Iron 

Charcoal  iron  is  graded  according  to  fracture.  The  grades  are  desig- 
nated by  numbers  and  also  as  soft  foimdrj';  low  carbon,  2.5  per  cent 
total  carbon;  medium  carbon,  3.5  per  cent  total  carbon;  and  high  car- 
bon, 4.5  per  cent  carbon.     Purchases  are  usually  made  on  specifications. 

Comparatively  little  charcoal  iron  is  now  used,  since  its  valuable 
properties  as  regards  chill  and  strength  may  be  imparted  to  coke  irons 
by  use  of  the  ferrometalloids  and  scrap  steel. 

Grading  Scrap  Iron 

Machincr}'  scrap  should  be  free  from  burnt  iron,  wrought  iron,  steel, 
plow  points,  brake  shoes,  sash  weights,  sleigh  shoes,  chilled  iron,  stove 
l)late  and  fine  scrap;  should  be  broken,  into  pieces  weighing  not  over 
4CX)  pounds. 

.Approximately,  scrap  iron  varying  in  thickness  from  V*  inch  to  i  inch, 
may  be  compared  with  pig  iron  carrjn'ng  from  1.5  per  cent  to  2  per  cent 
silicon  and  .oS  per  cent  sulphur. 


Grading  Scrap  Iron  251 

From  I  inch  to  3  inches  thick,  as  compared  with  pig  iron  carrying  from 
I  per  cent  to  1.75  per  cent  silicon  and  .08  per  cent  sulphur.  Above  3 
inches  thick,  with  an  open  gray  fracture,  as  ranging  in  sihcon  from  .75 
to  2  per  cent. 

In  white  scrap,  silicon  is  usually  very  low  and  sulphur  very  high. 

Burnt  iron  is  worthless  except  for  sash  weights  and  similar  castings. 

The  successful  grading  of  scrap  iron  can  only  be  accomplished  by 
experience. 


niAP'IKR    IX 

INFLUENCE   OF   THE    CHEMICAL    CONSTITUENTS 
OF   CAST    IRON 

Carbon 

CoMBiNiiD  carbon  increases  strength,  shrinkage,  chill  and  hTdness, 
and  closes  the  gram. 

Graphitic  carbon  reduces  strength,  shrinkage,  chill,  hardness,  and  tends 
to  produce  an  open  grain. 

Silicon  softens  iron  by  promoting  the  formation  of  graphitic  carbon. 
It  decreases  shrinkage  and  strength;  increases  fluidity  and  opens  the 
grain. 

Sulphur  hardens  iron,  increases  shrinkage  and  chill;  causes  it  to  set 
quickly  in  the  ladle  ("lose  its  life");  produces  blow  holes,  shrinkage 
cracks  and  dirty  iron. 

Phosphorus  weakens  iron,  imparts  fluidity,  decreases  shrinkage  and 
lowers  the  melting  point. 

Manganese  in  large  percentages  hardens  cast  iron.  It  increases 
shrinkage  and  chill,  reduces  deflection  and  tends  to  convert  graphitic 
into  combined  carbon.  In  small  amounts  by  reason  of  its  power  to 
remove  sulphur  and  occluded  gases,  its  tendency  is  to  produce  sound, 
dense  castings,  without  increased  hardness  or  shrinkage. 

To  raise  the  strength  of  castings,  increase  manganese  and  reduce 
silicon  and  phosphorus. 

To  soften  iron,  increase  silicon  and  phosphorus. 

To  reduce  shrinkage,  increase  silicon  and  phosphorus  and  reduce 
sulphur. 

To  prevent  blow  holes,  reduce  sulphur  and  increase  manganese. 

To  prevent  kish  (e.\cessivc  amount  of  free  carbon),  increase  scrap  or 
increase  manganese. 

[W.  G.  Scott.] 

Properties  of  the  Usual  Constituents  of  Cast  Iron 
Carbon 

Specific  gravity  (diamond) 3 .  55 

(graphite) 2.35 

Atomic  weight 12. 

252 


Properties  of  the  Usual  Constituents  of  Cast  Iron         253 

Specific  heat  at      212°  F 0.198 

"         "     "     1800°  F 0-459 

"         "     "     3000°  F 0-525 

Carbon  exists  in  cast  iron  as  combined  and  graphitic. 
Professor  Turner  recognizes  two  different  varieties  under  each  of  the 
general  subdivisions,  as  follows: 

I  Coarse-grained  carbon  or  graphite. 
Fine-grained  carbon,  called  amorphous   carbon, 
or  temper  graphite. 

„      ,  .      ,    f  Combined  carbon. 

Combmed       ;,,,..,,        ,  ,  .  ,  „  .        , 

,  J      Missmg     carbon,  which  usually  occurs  m  rela- 

carbon       |  .7  ,,  ... 

[  tively  small  quantities  in  cast  iron. 

The  amount  of  carbon  which  may  be  absorbed  by  pure  iron  at  high 
temperatures  is  stated  differently  by  different  authorities. 

Turner  places  the  limit  of  saturation  at  4.25  per  cent,  and  cites  Saniter's 
experiments  as  follows: 

"At  cementation,  heat  about  1650°  F.,  2  per  cent;  by  fusion,  about 
2550°  F.,  4.00  per  cent." 

Field  states  that  pure  iron  at  maximum  temperatures  absorbs  6h 
per  cent  carbon. 

Keep  gives  the  saturation  of  charcoal  iron  when  cold  as  4  per  cent  and 
that  of  anthracite  or  coke  irons  as  3.50  per  cent  to  3.75  per  cent. 

The  saturation  point  varies  according  to  the  temperature. 

As  iron  cools  below  the  temperature  of  saturation,  carbon  separates 
out  in  the  form  of  graphitic  carbon.  At  just  what  temperature  this 
separation  ceases  is  not  definitely  known;  it  is  variously  stated  at 
1300°  F.,  1650°  F.,  and  as  high  as  1800°  F. 

Since  the  specific  heat  of  carbon  is  much  greater  than  that  of  iron,  it 
delays  the  rate  of  cooling  as  the  temperature  falls. 

In  a  mixture  containing  96  per  cent  of  iron  and  4  per  cent  of  carbon, 
the  heat  evolved  by  the  carbon,  during  the  process  of  cooling,  retards 
the  rate  of  cooling  one-seventh. 

According  to  Field,  an  iron  containing  6]/^  per  cent  carbon  will  dis- 
solve no  silicon;  and  one  containing  23  per  cent  of  silicon  dissolves  no 
carbon. 

Iron  having  3  per  cent  silicon  contains  approximately  0.3  per  cent 
combined  carbon. 

With  2  per  cent  silicon  the  combined  carbon  is  0.6  per  cent  and  with 
I  per  cent  silicon  0.9  per  cent. 

As  the  carbon  separates  out  in  cooling,  it  changes  from  combined  to 
graphitic,  producing  a  softer,  weaker  iron  and  one  having  less  shrinkage. 


254       Inlliuiuc  of  the  Chemical  Const  it  ucn  Is  of  Cast  Iron 

Tla-  liital  rarhon  in  cast  iron  varies  from  :?  |>er  leiil  to  4>i  per  cent, 
a\era^;iiig  alioul  j.4  i>er  leiil. 

With  silicon  as  high  as  S  to  10  |>cr  cent,  the  total  carbon  falls  to  2 
per  cent. 

Under  the  same  conditions,  the  higher  the  total  carlxjn,  the  s<jfter  the 
iron.  A  \ery  soft  iron  may  contain  as  little  as  i  j)er  tent  combined 
carbon  with  3.4  to  3.5  per  cent  graphitic. 

An  increase  of  .25  per  cent  total  carbon  produces  a  marked  increase 
in  the  softness,  and  a  corres]X)nding  decrease  in  strength  and  shrinkage. 

Combined  carbon  increases  as  the  grades  grow  harder. 

Ordinarj'  soft  iron  contains  from  .3  to  .5  per  cent  combined  carlx)n. 

Strong  irons  carry-  from  .45  to  .9  per  cent. 

The  harder  grades  run  from  .6  to  i  per  cent. 

The  proportion  of  combined  to  graphitic  carbon  is  determined: 

First.  —  By  the  total  carbon  present,  as  the  greater  the  total  carbon, 
the  greater  will  be  the  proportion  of  graphitic  to  combined  carbon. 

Second.  —  By  the  rate  of  cooling.  Rapid  cooling  increases  the  com- 
bined and  slow  cooling  increases  graphitic  carbon. 

Third.  —  By  the  temperature  of  the  iron  when  it  begins  to  cool. 

The  higher  the  temperature  at  which  the  iron  is  poured,  the  longer  will 
be  the  time  elapsed  in  cooling  and  the  longer  the  period  for  conversion 
of  combined  to  graphitic  carbon. 

Fourth.  —  By  the  amount  and  kind  of  other  elements  present. 

Silicon  decreases  combined  and  increases  graphitic  carbon.  With 
increased  silicon  all  the  combined  carbon  maj'  be  changed  to  graphitic. 

An  increase  of  i  per  cent  silicon  in  cast  iron,  other  conditions  remain- 
ing the  same,  will  convert  from  .35  to  .47  per  cent  of  combined  into 
graphitic  carbon;  and  under  the  same  circumstances  an  increase  of 
.47  per  cent  combined  carbon  will  cause  a  corresponding  decrease  in 
silicon. 

Sulphur  increases  combined  carbon  as  also  does  manganese. 

Phosphorus  prolongs  the  cooling  and  thereby  alTords  more  time  for 
the  separation  of  grajAitic  carbon. 

Loss  or  Gain  of  Carbon  in  Remelting 

An  iron  may  gain  or  lose  carbon  in  passing  ihrou;,'!!  the  cupola. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  loss  of  carbon  in  remelting  where  the  carbon  and 
silicon  are  high,  with  hea\y  blast  and  low  percentage  of  fuel. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  the  carbon  and  silicon  are  low,  with  low  blast 
and  high  percentage  of  fuel,  the  tendency  is  to  gain  in  carbon. 

Hard  irons  melt  more  readily  than  soft;  the  higher  the  combined 
carbon,  the  lower  the  melting  point. 


Loss  or  Gain  of  Carbon  in  Remelting 


255 


Hard  irons  hold  their  shape  in  meUing.  The  melted  iron  runs  from 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  pig  freely,  leaving  smooth  sm-faces;  while 
gray  irons  become  soft  and  drop  away  in  lumps  presenting  ragged 
surfaces. 

Hard  irojis  must  be  melted  hotter  than  gray  for  pouring  as  they  set 
much  more  rapidly. 

In  running  from  the  spout  of  the  cupola  and  in  the  ladle,  hard  irons 
throw  off  great  quantities  of  sparks,  and  the  surface  of  the  iron  in  the 
ladle  is  dull  and  inactive  when  broken;  on  the  other  hand,  the  soft  irons 
seldom  emit  sparks  and  present  a  lively  surface  in  the  ladle,  breaking 
with  innumerable  checks,  the  soft  Scotch  irons  showing  peculiar  flowery 
surfaces. 

The  diagram  given  below  taken  from  the  report  of  Prof.  J.  J.  Porter, 
"shows  the  range  of  combined  carbon,  which  should  result  for  each 


-] — I — I — \ — I — \ — \ — \ — r 

•*    Dothed  Lrnes  are  Percent^  expected  on  Basis 
•  of  Theory. 

Full L  ines  give  Percent;  of  Combined  Carbori 
^obtained  in  Actual  Castings  of  Thicknesses 
given  (Approximated) 
Irons  plotted  are  a//  under  I  Percent  Pand 
-  Mn  and  0.10  S,  and aiv  Cupola  Melted. 
o  =  Total  Carbon,      x  =  Comb.  Carbon. 


T^c 


^1^ 


oa-T>:  2?/^/ 


^°^:~ '•j'-^ 


ICZ 


percentage  of  silicon  (the  cooling  being  normal,  i.e.,  the  castings  being 
neither  chilled  nor  annealed). "  The  calculations  are  made  on  the  theory 
that  I  per  cent  of  silicon  precipitates  from  solution  .45  per  cent  carbon 
as  graphitic  carbon. 


25^       Influence  of  the  Chemical  Constituents  of  Cast  Iron 

Tor  specified  purposes  Vroi.  Turner  gives  the  following  percentages  of 
combined  carbon. 


Character  o(  iron 

•   .juiwuieU 

carbon 

• 

Extra  soft  siliceous  gray  iron 

.08 

Soft  cast  iron 

Cast  iron  of  maximum  tensile  strenijth 

.47 

Cast  iron  of  maximum  transverse  strength 

■  47 

Cast  iron  of  maximum  crushing  strength 

Over  1 .00 

Silicon 

Full  lines  show  approximately  the  relation  existing  Ijetween  the 
thickness  of  section,  per  cent  of  silicon  and  per  cent  of  combined  carbon, 
and  are  plotted  from  the  actual  data  there  given. 

Atomic  weight 28 . 4 

Specific  gravity 2 .  49 

Specific  heat .20  B.t.u. 

Pig  iron  takes  up  its  silicon  in  the  furnace,  and  the  amount  so  absorbed 
depends  largely  upon  the  working  temperatures. 

Pure  iron  dissolves  about  23  per  cent  of  silicon.  By  means  of  the 
electric  furnace  iron  is  made  to  absorb  as  much  as  80  per  cent.  Those 
irons  containing  over  20  per  cent  are  called  ferrosilicons;  where  the 
silicon  content  runs  from  5  to  10  per  cent  they  are  called  high  silicon 
irons. 

Iron  always  loses  silicon  in  passing  through  the  cupola,  and  the  amount 
lost  depends  upon  three  conditions. 

First.  —  The  amoimt  of  oxygen  coming  in  contact  with  the  metal  in 
melting;  oxidation  increases  with  the  blast. 

Second.  —  Upon  the  composition  of  the  iron  as  it  is  charged  into  the 
cupola,  the  loss  being  greater  in  irons  having  a  high  percentage  of  siUcon 
than  in  those  where  the  silicon  content  is  low.  An  iron  with  4  per  cent 
silicon  may  lose  as  much  as  2  per  cent  in  melting,  while  with  one  verj-  low 
in  silicon,  the  loss  may  be  inappreciable. 

The  afiinity  of  iron  for  silicon  decreases  as  the  latter  increases,  hence 
the  amount  oxidized  increases  with  increased  silicon. 

Third.  —  The  loss  of  silicon  varies  also  with  the  percentage  of  carbon 
present,  being  greater  in  high  than  in  low  carbon  irons. 

Silicon  lowers  the  solvent  power  of  cast  iron  for  carbon,  thereby 
reducing  the  amount  of  combined  carbon  and  increasing  the  graphitic. 

This  influence  is  the  more  powerful  with  the  lower  percentages  of 
silicon;    the  decrease  in  combined  carbon  being  particidarly  rapid  as 


Silicon  257 

the  silicon  rises  from  o  to  .75  per  cent;  then  as  the  silicon  continues  to 
rise,  the  decrease  in  combined  carbon  grows  less  and  less. 

Silicon  and  carbon  each  reduce  the  solubiHty  of  iron  for  the  other. 

The  influence  of  silicon  is  sometimes  rendered  less  apparent  by  that 
of  other  variable  elements. 

Silicon  is  not  of  itself  a  softener  of  cast  iron,  nor  does  it,  per  se,  lessen 
shrinkage;  but  it  produces  a  softening  effect  and  reduces  shrinkage  by 
changing  combined  into  graphitic  carbon;  the  amount  used  should  be 
just  sufficient  to  force  from  solution  the  amount  of  carbon  desired  in  the 
free  state  for  any  particular  mixture  and  to  furnish  the  requisite  fluidity. 

For  every  rise  of  i  per  cent  silicon  in  cast  iron  there  will  be  a  corre- 
sponding drop  of  .45  per  cent  in  combined  carbon  and  vice  versa. 

Where  iron  is  melted,  very  hot  sihcon  unites  to  some  extent  with 
sulphur,  forming  a  very  volatile  sub-sulphide  of  silicon,  thereby  re- 
ducing the  amount  of  sulphur  absorbed  by  the  iron. 

By  reason  of  its  specific  heat,  silicon  retards  the  cooling  of  iron  to  a 
certain  extent.  It  can  be  made  to  overcome  many  difficulties  in  castings, 
and  to  control  the  quality  and  cost  of  mixtures,  where  scrap  iron  is 
largely  used. 

An  increase  of  .2  per  cent  in  silicon  decreases  shrinkage  about  .01  inch 
per  foot. 

Very  high  percentages  of  silicon  decrease  the  fusibility  of  iron. 

When  the  percentage  of  silicon  in  the  casting  is  above  2  per  cent,  it  has 
a  weakening  influence. 

Ferrosilicon  is  mixed  with  iron  in  the  ladle  for  softening  and  reducing 
shrinkage. 

Carbide  of  silicon  is  sometimes  charged  with  the  iron  in  the  cupola. 

Regarding  the  use  of  silicon.  Prof.  Turner  says:  "That  at  one  time 
its  presence  in  cast  iron,  in  all  proportions,  was  regarded  as  injurious; 
that  there  was  no  accurate  knowledge  of  its  influence  prior  to  1885,  when 
my  first  paper  on  'The  Influence  of  Silicon  on  the  Properties  of  Cast 
Iron'  was  published  in  the  'Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.'" 

Summary  of  Prof.  Turner's  experiments  in  the  use  of  silicon. 


Characteristics 


Per  cent  silicon 


Cast  iron  yielding  maximum  hardness 

Cast  iron  yielding  maximum  crushing  strength 

Cast  iron  yielding  maximum  density  in  mass 

Cast   iron   yielding  maximum   crushing   tensile   and   transverse 

strength 

Cast  iron  yielding  maximum  tensile  strength 

Cast  iron  yielding  maximum  softness  and  general  working  qualities 


-'5^       Inllucncc  ul  tin  (iRniicai  i.'uiistitucnts  of  Cast  Iron 

The  siil)j<  lined  (hart  and  table  giving  the  cfTect  of  silicon  on  ihe  proi)cr- 
lies  of  cast  iron  taken  from  I'rof.  Turner,  show  that  the  influence  of 
silicon  is  of  a  uniform  cliaracter  as  respects  crushing,  transverse  and 
tensile  strength. 


2     3     4      5      6     7 
Silicon,  percent. 

Fig.  73. 


2         4         6 
Silicon,  percent. 

Fig.  74. 

Chart  No.  II,  showing  the  hardness  of  the  same  series  of  test  bars, 
was  determined  by  the  "Sclerometer." 

The  hardness  decreased  continuously  with  the  additions  of  silicon  until 
2.5  per  cent  was  reached,  when  further  additions  caused  an  increase  of 
hardness. 

Tlic  addition  of  silicon  to  iron  free  from  carbon  increases  the  tensile 
strength  and  hardness.  The  influence  resembles  that  of  combined  car- 
bon on  iron  or  steel,  but  is  less  energetic. 


Silicon 


259 


Effects  of  Silicon  on  the  Properties  of  Cast  Iron 


■4J 

Cylin- 
ders 

-s 

a! 

Modulus 

of 
elasticity 

u 

a 
.s  § 

3 
(-. 

0 

1"" 
1 

0 

Chemical  a 

nalysis 

c 
0 

s 

■a 
2 
0 

c 

■d 
a 

g 
0 

0 

c 
0 

in 

S 

v., 

0 

0. 

s 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

0 

7.560 

72 

22,720 

25,790,000 

168,700 

2702 

1.98 

.38 

1.60 

.19 

■  32 

.14 

.05 

.5 

7.510 

52 

27.580 

28,670,000 

204,800 

3280 

2.00 

10 

I 

90 

45 

.33 

.21 

.03 

I.O 

7.641 

42 

28,490 

31,180,000 

207,300 

3370 

2.09 

24 

I 

85 

96 

.33 

.26 

.04 

1-4 

7. 555 

3i.i^o 

23,500,00c 

183,900 

3498 

2.21 

50 

I 

71 

I 

37 

.30 

.05 

2.0 

7.518 

22 

3S,i8o 

23,560,000 

137,300 

3446 

2.18 

62 

S6 

I 

96 

.28 

.60 

.03 

2.5 

7.422 

22 

32,760 

25,450,000 

172,900 

3534 

1.87 

19 

68 

2 

51 

.26 

.75 

.05 

3.0 

7.258 

22 

27,390 

21,150,000 

128,700 

2850 

2.23 

43 

80 

2 

96 

.34 

.70 

.04 

4.0 

7.183 

27 

25,280 

15,640,000 

105,900 

2543 

2.01 

81 

20 

3 

92 

.33 

.84 

■  03 

S.o 

7.167 

32 

22,750 

18,720,000 

103,400 

2342 

2.03 

6b 

37 

4 

74 

.30 

•  95 

.05 

7.5 

7.128 

42 

11,950 

14,750,000 

111,000 

150S 

1.86 

48 

38 

7 

33 

,29 

1.36 

.03 

10. 0 

6.978 

57 

10,630 

13,930,000 

76,380 

1252 

1. 81 

12 

69 

9 

80 

.21 

1.9s 

.04 

*  Bars  one  foot  long,  one  inch  square,  loaded  in  the  center. 

Silicon  added  to  hard  iron  affects  the  size  of  the  graphite,  since  the 
freshly  precipitated  graphite  resulting  from  such  addition  is  smaller  than 
that  found  in  ordinary  soft  foundry  irons.  Consequently,  the  metal  is 
closer  and  stronger. 

Prof.  Turner  favors  increasing  silicon  in  a  mi.xture  of  cast  iron  by  the 
use  of  high  silicon  pig  iron,  rather  than  by  that  of  ferrosilicon,  as  the 
latter  differs  both  in  fusibility  and  density  from  the  iron,  rendering  the 
product  of  the  mixture  uncertain  and  irregular.  "The  ideal  method  is 
for  the  founder  to  have  a  fairly  large  stock,  including  several  kinds  of 
iron,  each  separate  kind  being  a  little  too  hard  or  a  little  too  soft  for  the 
general  run  of  work,  but  still  not  very  different  from  what  is  required. 
By  mixing  these  irons  in  suitable  proportions,  it  is  then  easy  to  obtain 
any  composition  which  may  be  desired,  it  being  assumed,  of  course,  that 
the  composition  of  each  variety  is  already  kno\vn." 

During  the  period  from  1886  to  1888,  Mr.  Keep  made  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  influence  of  silicon  on  cast  iron.  The  results  of  his  researches 
as  summarized  in  "Cast  Iron"  are: 

Silicon  added  to  white  iron  changes  it  to  gray;  added  to  gray  iron,  low 
in  silicon,  makes  the  mixture  darker. 

It  is  the  influence  of  silicon,  not  the  percentage,  which  produces  desir- 
able qualities;  and  that  influence  is  indirect,  acting  through  the  carbon 
which  the  iron  contains. 


j6o       Inllucncc  of  ihc  Chcmiral  Conslituenls  of  Cast  Iron 

The  saturation  |Kjint  of  iron  for  curljon  is  lowered  hy  the  addition  of 
silicn,  as  the  carbon  is  expelled  in  the  graphitic  form  and  caught  between 
the  grains  of  the  iron  prcxlucing  a  grayer  color. 

If  the  total  carbon  is  high,  or  the  combined  carbon  low,  the  amount 
(if  silicon  required  to  produce  a  particular  effect  will  be  torresjxjndingiy 
low.  Similar  cITecLs  are  produced  by  a  small  amount  of  silicon  acting 
through  a  prolonged  perio<l,  by  rcas<jn  of  slow  c<x)ling  of  large  castings, 
and  by  a  large  amount  acting  through  a  short  period,  as  in  the  rapid 
cooling  of  small  castings.  Hy  regulating  the  amount  of  silictjn  in  the 
mixture  the  state  uf  carbon  as  well  as  the  depth  of  chill  can  be  controlled. 
The  dilTusion  of  silicon  is  very  irregular.  Mr.  Keep  found  in  a  number 
of  experiments  that  the  average  variation  in  diffusion  was  from  .09  to 
.24  per  cent.  This  average  increases  and  the  diffusion  is  less  and  less 
complete  as  the  silicon  increases,  so  that  any  literal  determinatives  of 
silicon  are  rendered  more  or  less  approximative  (as  showing  the  per- 
centage of  silicon  in  a  car  load  of  iron)  by  the  unequal  diffusion. 

As  regards  hardness,  the  addition  of  2  to  ^M  per  cent  of  silicon  will 
convert  all  the  comliined  into  graphitic  carbon,  which  it  is  possible  to 
change  by  the  use  of  that  clement. 

Silicon  in  itself  hardens  cast  iron,  but  the  softening  effect  caused  by 
it  in  producing  the  change  from  combined  to  graphitic  carbon,  is  such  as 
to  result  in  decreased  hardness,  until  the  amount  of  silicon  added  has 
reached  from  2  to  3  per  cent.  Further  additions  are  not  advantageous. 
The  beneficial  influence  resulting  from  the  use  of  silicon  in  cast  iron  is  not 
confined  to  decreased  hardness.  It  imparts  fluidity  and  also  tends  to 
produce  clear,  smooth  surfaces  on  the  castings,  by  reason  of  the  liberated 
graphite,  in  part,  interposing  itself  between  the  sand  and  the  hot  iron. 

Sulphur 

Atomic  weight 32 . 

Specific  gravit)' 2 .  03 

Specific  heat o.  2026 

Melting  point 226°  F. 

Latent  heat  of  fusion 16.86  B.t.u. 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 125  pounds 

The  sulphur  in  pig  iron  is  taken  up  in  the  furnace,  from  the  fuel  and 
flux.  Its  presence  is  most  injurious  and  causes  the  foundr>'man  more 
difficulty  than  any  other  element.  It  makes  iron  hard  and  brittle, 
increases  shrinkage  and  chill,  causes  iron  to  congeal  quickly  and  by 
preventing  the  ready  escape  of  gases,  makes  blow  holes  and  pin  holes. 

It  increases  the  combined  carbon  and  reduces  silicon. 


Sulphur 


261 


When  pig  iron  is  remelted,  the  percentage  of  sulphur  is  always  in- 
creased, as  it  takes  up  from  20  to  40  per  cent  of  the  sulphur  in  the  fuel. 
Mr.  J.  B.  Neu  found  in  some  experiments  that  as  much  as  66  per  cent 
of  the  sulphur  in  the  fuel  was  absorbed  by  the  iron  in  melting. 

The  sulphur  content  of  the  iron  at  each  of  three  remeltings  is  given  by 
Mr.  Percy  Longmuir  as  follows: 


First 
melt 

Second 
melt 

Third 
melt 

Percent  sulphur 

.04 

.10 

.20 

The  proportion  between  the  total  amount  of  sulphur  present  in  the 
fuel,  to  that  absorbed  by  the  iron,  is  dependent  on  three  conditions. 

First.  —  The  quaUty  and  quantity  of  flux  used. 

Second.  —  The  temperature  of  the  melted  iron. 

Third.  —  The  composition  of  the  fuel  and  iron. 

In  a  hot  working  cupola,  the  proper  quantity  of  flux  will  remove  much 
of  the  sulphur.  That  present  in  the  fuel  as  a  sulphuretted  hydrocarbon 
has  no  appreciable  effect  upon  the  percentage  retained  in  the  melted  iron. 

As  sulphur  combines  with  iron  at  low  temperatures,  a  hot  cupola  tends 
to  increase  the  amount  carried  away  by  the  slag.  Where  the  fuel  contains 
I  per  cent  or  over  of  sulphur,  it  may  add  from  .04  per  cent  to  .06  per  cent 
to  the  iron  and  a  casting  made  from  iron  having  only  2  per  cent  of  sulphur 
may,  when  the  iron  is  melted  with  high  sulphur  coke,  show  from  .06 
to  .08  per  cent. 

A  slow  melting  cupola  with  low  temperature  favors  the  absorption  of 
sulphur. 

An  increase  of  sulphur,  the  other  elements  and  the  rate  of  coohng 
remaining  constant,  hardens  iron  by  increasing  the  combined  carbon  and 
also  causes  greater  shrinkage,  contraction  and  chill. 

Less  change  in  the  percentage  of  sulphur  present  is  required  to  harden 
or  soften  cast  iron  than  in  that  of  any  other  element. 

Sulphur  shortens  the  time  that  iron  will  remain  fluid  in  the  ladle, 
"destroj's  the  life  of  the  iron,"  and  if  present  to  a  large  extent,  makes 
the  production  of  sound  castings  verj^  difficult.  The  molten  iron  is 
sluggish  and  sets  quickly,  thereby  enclosing  escaping  gases,  dross,  kish, 
etc.,  which  cause  blow  holes  and  dirty  castings. 

Where  sulphur  is  present  to  any  considerable  extent,  the  iron  must  be 
poured  very  hot. 

Iron  will  absorb  as  much  as  .3  per  cent  sulphur  with  increasing  fusi- 
bility and  decreasing  fluidity. 


262       Intlui'iKv  of  tlu-  Clu-mu.il  Constituents  of  Cast  Iron 

An  increase  ni  .01  per  tcril  of  sul|)liur  lan  neutralize  the  eflecl  of  from 
.08  to  .10  per  cent  silicon.  In  coke  irons,  usually,  as  the  silicon  decreases 
ihc  suljihur  increases.  To  maintain  a  uniform  degree  of  hardness  in 
castings  the  increase  of  silicon  corresi)onding  to  successive  increases  of 
.01  per  cent  sulphur  should  be  about  as  follows: 

Sulphur,  per  cent 01        .02        .03        .04        .05        .06 

Silicon,  per  cent 2.00     2.10     2.20     2.30     2.40     2.50 

Sulphur  may  be  largely  expelled  from  cast  iron  l)y  the  use  of  man- 
ganese, passing  olT  in  the  slag  as  suljjhide  of  manganese;  the  greater  the 
amount  of  manganese  present,  the  less  sulphur  will  the  iron  absorb  and, 
il  is  possible,  where  the  manganese  is  very  high,  for  the  iron  to  lose 
sulphur  in  melting. 

From  I  to  2  per  cent  manganese,  in  addition  to  that  carried  by  the  pig 
iron,  is  sometimes  used  in  the  ladle,  to  elTect  the  removal  of  sulphur; 
care  must  be  e.xercised  in  this  respect,  however,  as  manganese  in  excess 
of  that  taken  up  by  the  sulphur  tends  to  harden  the  iron. 

When  the  fuel  does  not  contain  more  than  .08  per  cent  sulphur  and 
the  iron  has  about  .5  per  cent  manganese,  the  sulphur  in  ordinan.-  gray 
irons  will  increase  about  .025  per  cent  in  melting. 

The  injurious  effects  of  sulphur  are  largely  counteracted  by  the  use  of 
phosphorus.  Other  elements  remaining  constant,  an  increase  of  .1 
per  cent  phosphorus  produces  about  the  same  results  in  counteracting 
the  effects  of  sulphur  as  does  an  increase  of  .25  per  cent  silicon. 

By  the  use  of  phosphorus  instead  of  silicon  for  this  purpose,  the 
fluidity  of  the  iron  is  greatly  increased;  gases,  dross,  etc.,  can  come  to 
the  surface  and  greater  freedom  from  blow  holes,  shrink  holes,  etc., 
results. 

Irons  with  high  combined  carbon  are  usually  high  in  sulphur.  Long- 
muir  gives  the  following  as  the  result  of  e.xaminations  of  the  sulphur 
content  for  different  amounts  of  combined  carbon. 


Grade 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Mottled 

White 

Combined  carbon 

•  SO 

.02 

2. so 

.60 

.02 

2.30 

.80 

.04 

1.80 

1. 10 

.08 

1  50 

1.30 

.10 

1.20 

1.80 
•  IS 
.70 

3.00 
.20 

.30 

The  sulphur  content  of  pig  iron  usually  runs  from  .01  to  .08  and  some- 
times higher. 

Prof.  J.  J.  Porter  concludes  his  remarks  on  the  effects  of  sulphur  upon 
the  physical  properties  of  cast  iron  as  follows:  "Through  the  formation 


Phosphorus  263 

in  the  iron  sulphide  of  eutectic  films,  it  causes  brittleness  and  weak- 
ness, especially  to  shock.  Through  its  action  on  the  carbon  it  increases 
hardness  and  may  either  increase  or  decrease  strength  according  as  the 
combined  carbon  is  already  too  low  or  too  high.  It  has  a  great  tendency 
to  cause  blow  holes,  especially  near  the  upper  surface  of  thick  castings. 
So  marked  is  this  effect  in  pig  iron  that  high  sulphur  pig  may  nearly 
always  be  spotted  by  the  presence  of  blow  holes  in  the  top  surfaces. 

"Sulphur  probably  has  a  more  detrimental  effect  on  low  silicon,  or 
chill  iron,  than  on  the  ordinary  foundry  grades.  All  of  these  effects  of 
sulphur  are  considerably  lessened  by  the  presence  of  sufficient  manganese 
to  insure  its  being  in  the  form  of  MnS,  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  segre- 
gation of  MnS  may  cause  bad  places  in  the  casting,  apparently  due  to 
dirty  iron." 

The  statements  given  above  are  those  generally  entertained  as  regards 
the  deleterious  influence  of  sulphur.  They  are  not,  however,  entirely 
confirmed  by  the  investigations  of  Prof.  Turner  and  Mr.  Keep.  The 
former  remarks  that:  "We  are  still  in  need  of  exact  information  as  to  the 
influence  of  sulphur  in  cast  iron."  After  a  long  series  of  experiments  to 
determine  the  injurious  effect  of  sulphur  on  cast  iron,  Mr.  Keep  con- 
cludes that  the  presence  of  .05  per  cent  of  that  element  will  not  exert  any 
appreciable  deleterious  influence,  and  that  what  little  ill  effect  results 
is  corrected  by  a  slight  increase  of  siHcon.  Such  small  percentage  of 
sulphur  does  not  seem  to  influence  the  depth  of  chill,  nor  does  there 
appear  to  exist  any  relation  between  the  sulphur  content  and  the  strength 
of  an  ordinary  casting. 

"While  there  is  no  indication  that  sulphur  is  in  any  way  beneficial,  on 
the  other  hand,  evidence  is  lacking  to  show  that  its  influence  is  ever  any- 
thing but  injurious;  and  the  suggestion  arises  from  the  records,  that  the 
prevaiUng  opinions  regarding  the  deleterious  effects  of  sulphur  are  partly 
superstitious,  due,  largely,  to  laboratory  experiments  made  under  con- 
ditions never  met  with  in  the  foundry." 

Phosphorus 

Atomic  weight 3100 

Specific  gravity i .  83 

Specific  heat o.  189 

Melting  point 112°  F. 

Latent  heat  of  fusion 9 .  06  B.t.u. 

Weight  per  cubic  inch .  066 

The  phosphorus  content  in  pig  iron  comes  mostly  from  the  ore,  but 
also  in  part  from  the  fuel  and  flux. 


264      Infliuncc  of  ihe  Chemical  Constituents  of  Cast  Iron 

Phosphorus  weakens  cast  iron,  lowers  its  melting  point,  imparts 
fluidity,  tends  to  soften  and  decreases  shrinkage. 

It  has  no  direct  elTect  on  carbon,  but  since  it  prolongs  the  cooling 
of  meilcd  iron  it  gives  more  lime  for  graphitic  carbon  to  separate 
out. 

Its  influence  in  imparting  fluidity  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
element,  hence  its  presence  within  moderate  limits  (i  to  1.25  per  cent)  is 
especially  desirable  for  light,  thin  castings. 

After  it  is  once  taken  up  by  the  iron  very  little  of  it  escapes,  but  its 
percentage  is  frequently  increased  if  it  exists  to  any  extent  in  the  fuel 
or  flux  used  in  melting. 

Phosphorus  largely  counteracts  the  influence  of  sulphur  to  increase 
combined  carbon,  shrinkage,  contraction  and  chill.  \n  increase  of 
.1  per  cent  phosphorus  in  the  iron  will  produce  about  the  same  physical 
results  in  counteracting  the  effects  of  sulphur,  as  an  increase  of  .2$  per 
cent  silicon,  all  other  elements  remaining  constant. 

Where  over  .7  per  cent  phosphorus  is  present  in  the  iron  it  tends  to 
make  the  latter  cold  short  and  unless  there  is  necessity  for  extreme 
fluidity  the  phosphorus  content  should  not  exceed  i  per  cent. 

By  reason  of  its  tendency  to  increase  fusibility,  it  should  be  kept  as  low 
as  possible  in  castings  required  to  stand  high  temperatures. 

In  machinery  castings  containing  1.5  per  cent  phosphorus,  the  tools 
are  quickly  heated  and  worn. 

Where  great  strength  is  required  of  castings,  the  phosphorus  content 
should  not  exceed  .02  per  cent. 

Where  blow-holes  are  formed  in  castings,  by  reason  of  occluded  gases, 
phosphide  of  iron  is  frequently  extruded  into  them  in  the  shape  of 
globular  masses  or  shot. 

Ferrophosphorus  may  contain  from  20  to  25  per  cent  phosphorus  and 
is  sometimes  used  in  the  ladle  where  prolonged  fluidity  is  desired. 

Prof.  Turner  states  that  the  presence  of  0.5  phosphorus  in  cast  iron 
produces  excellent  results  and  that  where  fluidity  and  soundness  are 
more  important  than  strength,  from  i  to  1.5  per  cent  may  be  permitted; 
it  should  not  be  allowed  in  excess  of  the  higher  limit.  According  to 
Prof.  Porter,  the  addition  of  i  per  cent  phosphorus  to  iron  containing 
3.5  per  cent  carbon  and  2  per  cent  silicon  approximately: 

Lowers  the  temperature  at  which  freezing  begins  from  2200°  to  2150°  F., 
or  50°  F. 

Lowers  the  temperature  at  which  freezing  ends  from  2165°  to  1740°  F., 
or  425°  F. 

Increases  the  temperature  range  of  soUdification  from  50°  to  375°  F. 


Manganese  265 

Manganese 

Atomic  weight 55  ■  00 

Specific  gravity 8.1 

Specific  heat .12 

Melting  point 2250°  F. 

Latent  heat  of  fusion 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 506 .  25  pounds 

Manganese  is  a  white  metal,  having  a  brilliant  crystalline  fracture. 
It  has  a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen  and  sulphur,  but  none  for  iron;  alloys 
with  iron  in  all  proportions. 

The  manganese  in  pig  iron  comes  from  the  ores.  Foundry  irons 
contain  from  .2  to  2  per  cent  manganese. 

Manganese  pig  from  2  to  10  per  cent;  spiegeleisen  from  15  to  40  per 
cent;   ferromanganese  from  50  to  90  per  cent. 

There  is  always  a  loss  of  manganese  in  remelting.  It  escapes  by 
volatilization;  by  oxidation,  and  if  sulphur  is  present,  by  uniting  with 
it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  The  amount  of  loss  depends  on  the  amount 
of  blast  and  percentage  of  sulphur  present  in  the  fuel. 

With  I  per  cent  manganese  present  in  the  iron  the  loss  of  Mn  in  re- 
melting  varies  from  .2  to  .3  per  cent. 

A  peculiarity  of  manganese  is  that  it  may  impart  to  pig  iron,  or  castings, 
a  very  open  grain,  rendering  them  apparently  soft,  even  though  they  are 
quite  hard. 

It  greatly  afifects  the  capacity  of  iron  to  retain  carbon;  where  only 
.75  per  cent  Mn  is  present  in  the  iron  the  carbon  content  may  be  as  high 
as  4  per  cent. 

It  decreases  the  magnetism  of  cast  iron  and  when  present  to  the  extent 
of  25  per  cent  the  magnetism  disappears. 

As  the  percentage  of  manganese  in  iron  increases,  that  of  sulphur 
decreases. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  higher  the  manganese,  the  greater  the  combined 
carbon. 

Manganese  hardens  cast  iron,  promotes  shrinkage,  contraction  and 
chill;  but  by  reason  of  its  affinity  for  sulphur  and  its  removal  of  this 
element,  it  may  produce  effects  precisely  the  opposite  of  those  above 
stated.  However,  if  the  amount  of  manganese  is  greater  than  that 
required  for  the  removal  of  the  sulphur  present,  the  excess  causes  the 
iron  to  take  up  more  carbon  in  combination,  and  hardness  results. 

Increasing  manganese  above  .75  per  cent,  the  other  elements  remaining 
constant,  causes  greater  contraction  and  chill  on  account  of  its  hardening 
influence.     These  effects  may  be  very  pronounced  in  light  castings. 


266       Inllucnrc  of  the  Chemical  Constituents  of  Cast  Iron 

On  account  of  its  strong  alTinity  for  oxygen  it  tends  greatly  to  the 
removal  of  oxides  and  occluded  gases,  thereby  preventing  blow-holes. 

Manganese  pig  iron  is  an  ordinary  iron,  carrying  somewhat  more 
manganese  than  the  ordinary  foundry  irons. 

It  is  used  to  raise  the  coml)ined  carbon,  to  add  strength  U)  the  mixture, 
to  fjrcvcnl  blow-holes,  to  give  life  to  the  iron  and  for  the  removal  of  kish. 

I'errumanganese  comes  to  the  foundry  in  a  fine  powder.  It  is  used  in 
the  ladle  in  the  proportion  of  about  i  pound  to  Goo  pounds  of  iron  and 
acts  as  a  puritier,  driving  out  sulphur,  softening  the  iron  where  hardness 
is  due  to  sulphur  and  reducing  the  chance  of  blow-holes. 

WTien  used  in  this  way  the  iron  must  be  very  hot,  as  with  dull  iron  it 
does  little  good.  It  should  be  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  iron 
Ijy  stirring.  It  must  be  used  with  caution,  as  irons  with  low  silicon  and 
carbon  and  high  manganese  are  hard  and  shrinky. 

The  use  of  manganese  pig  iron  in  the  cupola  gives  better  results,  and  is 
less  expensive  than  that  of  ferromanganese  in  the  ladles. 

It  is  claimed  for  manganese  that  it  makes  hard  iron  soft  and  soft  iron 
hard. 

With  respect  to  the  influence  of  Mn  upon  chill,  Mr.  Keep's  views  are 
at  variance  with  those  above  given.  He  states  that  manganese  does  not 
increase  chill,  but  under  certain  conditions  may  aid  in  removing  it. 

Aluminum  • 

Atomic  weight 27.1 

Specific  gravity 2 .  65 

Specific  heat 0.212 

Melting  point 1 182°  F. 

Latent  heat  of  fusion 28 . 5  B.t.u. 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 165 . 6  pounds 

Aluminum  is  a  white  metal,  resembling  silver;  very  soft  and  malleable; 
has  a  great  affinity  for  oxj'gen;   alloys  with  iron  to  an  unlimited  extent. 
It  does  not  occur  in  pig  iron,     ^^'hen  added  to  iron  in  the  ladle  it 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  by  stirring. 

Its  influence  on  cast  iron  resembles  that  of  silicon,  in  producing  a 
softening  effect  by  the  conversion  of  combined  into  graphitic  carbon. 

A  white  iron  to  which  from  .5  to  .75  per  cent  of  aluminum  has  been 
added  becomes  gray. 

Aluminum  decreases  shrinkage  and  chill,  and  increases  fluidity.  By 
reason  of  its  aflinity  for  oxygen  it  tends  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
blow-holes. 

It  closes  the  grain  of  irons  high  in  graphitic  carbon,  but  may  render 
them  sluggish  and  dirty.     When  used  in  amounts  exceeding  1.5  to  2 


Titanium  267 

per  cent  it  has  a  weakening  influence.  Hard  irons  containing  from  1.25 
to  1.4  per  cent  combined  carbon  are  made  stronger  by  the  addition  of 
aluminum.  The  amount  of  aluminum  wliich  may  be  used  varies  from 
.25  to  1.25  per  cent;  its  action  is  somewhat  uncertain  and  its  alloys  with 
iron  are  erratic  at  times,  producing  results  the  reverse  of  those  anticipated. 

Nickel 

Atomic  weight 58.7 

Specific  gravity 8.8 

Specific  heat .11 

Melting  point 2610°  F. 

Latent  heat  of  fusion 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 550  pounds 

Nickel  is  a  white  metal  having  a  silvery  color;  it  is  highly  ductile  and 
does  not  oxidize  readily.  Alloys  with  iron  in  all  proportions.  When 
used  in  quantities  varying  from  .5  to  5  per  cent,  its  tendency  is  to 
harden,  render  more  dense  and  increase  the  tensile  strength  of  cast  iron. 
In  large  amounts  it  is  said  to  have  a  softening  influence. 

Mr.  A.  McWilliams  found  that  an  alloy  of  white  Sweeds  iron  with  50 
per  cent  nickel  gave  a  soft  fine  gray  metal,  even  when  cast  in  sections 
from  I  to  3  inches  thick,  in  chills. 

Cast  iron  containing  from  25  to  30  per  cent  nickel  resists  corrosion. 

Nickel  is  little  used  in  cast  iron,  except  where  great  strength  is  re- 
quired.    It  imparts  most  valuable  properties  to  steel. 

Titanium 

Atomic  weight 48 .  00 

Specific  gravity 5.3 

Specific  heat 

Melting  point 4000°  F. 

Latent  heat  of  fusion 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 330  pounds 

Titanium  is  found  in  many  brands  of  foundry  and  Bessemer  irons, 
running  in  percentages  from  a  trace  to  i  per  cent.  It  increases  the 
strength  of  cast  iron  to  a  marked  degree.  An  addition  of  from  .01  to 
.06  per  cent  titanium  has  shown  in  test  bars  an  increase  of  40  per  cent 
in  transverse  strength. 

It  has  a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 

Ferroalloys  are  made  to  contain  from  10  to  30  per  cent  titanium. 

When  ferrotitanium  is  added  to  iron  in  the  ladle,  it  unites  with  the 
oxygen  and  nitrogen,  the  resulting  oxides  and  nitrides  passing  oflE  in  the 


268      Inllucncc  of  llu-  Clumical  Conslituenls  of  Cant  Iron 


slag;  none  of  llie  titanium  remains  in  the  iron,  except  when  used  in  large 
quantities;   its  elTect  then  is  to  harden  the  iron. 

I'omicrly  titanic  irons  were  carefully  avoided  and  it  docs  not  appear 
that  fcrrotilanium  has  as  yet  been  used  to  any  great  extent  by  foundrj'- 
mcn. 

Investigations  by  Dr.  Richard  Moidenke  and  Mr.  G.  A.  Rossi  indicate, 
however,  that  the  use  of  ferrotitanium  promises  a  marked  improvement 
as  regards  strength  and  the  removal  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  from  cast 
iron.  Mr.  Rossi  found  as  the  result  of  his  experiments  that  the  addition 
of  4  per  cent  of  a  lo  per  cent  ferrotitanium  to  cast  iron  increased  the 
transverse  and  tensile  strength  from  25  to  30  per  cent. 

Dr.  Moidenke  gives  the  following  summary  of  results  obtained  by  him. 


Mixtures 


Original  iron 

plus  .05  T 

"     .loT 

"     .OS  T.  and  carb. 

"     .10 ' 

"     .15 

Average 


Gray 


White 


Tests 
9 
4 
3 
6 
6 
4 


3100 
3030 
3070 
2990 
3190 


3070 


1  «-sts 

Lbs. 

8 

ao3o 

II 

2400 

9 

2430 

10 

2400 

10 

2520 

2430 

Increase  of  strength  of  treated  iron  over  original  52  per  cent  — 18  per  cent. 

From  the  above  summary  it  appears  that  the  greatest  increase  in 
strength  was  found  in  gray  iron. 

With  vanadium  and  cast  iron  the  Doctor  found  results  directly  con- 
trary to  the  above.  He  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  improve- 
ment in  strength  is  almost  as  marked  with  .05  per  cent  to  .1  per  cent 
titanium  as  with  .15  per  cent,  showing  that  any  excess  of  titanium  over 
that  required  to  produce  oxidation  is  wasted;  hence  .05  per  cent  will 
be  sufticient  for  foundry  practice. 

He  found  that  titanium  reduces  chill  but  the  chill  produced  is  very 
much  harder  than  that  made  in  the  usual  way. 

Titanium  is  of  value  as  preventing  blow-holes  and  producing  sound 
castings. 

Vanadium 

Atomic  weight 51.2 

Specific  gra\'ity 5.5 

Specific  heat 

Melting  point 4300°  F- 

Latent  heat  of  fusion 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 344  pounds 


Vanadium 


269 


As  a  merchantable  product  this  is  obtained  as  ferrovanadium,  con- 
taining from  10  to  15  per  cent  vanadium. 

The  investigations  of  Dr.  Richard  Moldenke  furnish  about  all  that  is 
so  far  known  as  to  the  action  of  this  element  on  cast  iron.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  a  summary  of  his  experiments. 


B 

gT3 
>T3 

1-^ 

Analyses  01  test  bars 

0  gj 

i2  J3 

_o 

3 

(U 

S 
3 

a  -d 

T3    "! 

^n-^ 

c 

g 
1 

0 

>-d 
0.  "J 

a 

11 

0 

% 

•d 

en 
(a 

Q 

3 
hJ 

tfi 

^ 

eu 

% 

^ 

2 

.2     ta  s;  5 


Burnt  gray  iron 

5 
3 

0 
.05 

2.13 
2.03 

.094 
.095 

.638        35 
370 

2 

7 

1310 
2220 

.090 
.100 

70 

Burnt  iron,  white 

3 
12 

0 
OS 

•  SO 

.41 

.146 

.423 

.43 
.65 

II 
16 

1440 
1910 

.050 
OSS 

33 

Machinery  iron,  gray.     Melted  pig  iron. 

No  scrap 

0 

2 

72 

065 

668 

S4 

24 

1980 

■  105 

•OS 

2070 

•  los 

.10 

.T. . 

2200 

.115 

IS 

2740 

.130 

0 

OS 
.05 
.10 
.10 
.15 

SO 
50 
50 

' 

S4 
66 
59 
59 
S6 

33 
25 
36 

25 

27 

61 
66 
70 
75 
78 

1970 
1980 
2130 
2372 
2S30 
2360 

.100 
.100 
.100 
.090 
.120 
.100 

Remelted  car  wheels,  white.     No  pig  iron 


■  53 

122 

399 

38          • 

82 

0 

.60 

138 

374 

44 

85 

1470 

•  050 

.05 

2190 

•  050 

.10 

2050 

.050 

.15 

2264 

.060 

0 

2790 

.070 

.05 

.00 

.45 

096 

423 

40 

36 

113 

3020 

.060 

OS 

•  OS 

.50 

.66 

no 

591    I 

ISO 

25 

117 

2970 

.090 

.10 

•  45 

119 

414 

500 

31 

123 

2800 

•  055 

.10 

.05 

.S3 

084 

431 

74 

27 

128 

3030 

.090 

15 

.42 

112 

417 

40 

45 

133 

2950 

.070 

■  IS 

.SO 

•  50 

082 

374 

54 

22 

137 

3920 

•  095 

SO 
40 
54 
90 
105 
100 
91 
106 
100 
166 


270      Inllucnce  of  ihc  Chirnical  Conslilucnls  of  Cast  Iron 

I  lie  vimadium  alloy  used  conlaincd: 
Nanadium  14. G7  pur  cent;  (.arbuii  4.36  per  cent;  silicon  0.18  fwr  cent. 

The  analyses  of  the  lest  bars  show  much  more  vanadium  than  was 
used.  This  is  attriliutcd  to  errors  arising  from  the  difliculties  exijcrienced 
in  making  the  experiments  on  too  small  a  scale. 

Dr.  Moldenke  ci includes:  "The  results  shown  in  the  tabic  sjieak  for 
themselves,  and  the  averages  tallied  ofT  for  each  table  show  a  remarkable 
progression  of  values.  To  increase  the  breaking  strength  of  a  test  bar 
from  2000  up  to  2500  for  gray  iron  and  1500  up  to  3900  for  white  iron, 
is  sufficient  to  warrant  further  investigation  on  the  part  of  every  foundry- 
man,  who  has  special  problems  in  strength  to  master." 

Thermit 

Thermit  is  a  mi.xturc  of  oxide  of  iron  and  aluminum,  which  when 
ignited  burns  at  an  intense  heat  (resulting  temperature  is  said  to  be 
5400°  F.)  in  consequence  of  the  great  affinity  of  aluminum  for  o.xygen. 
This  compound  is  made  by  the  Goldschmidt  Thermit  Co. 

Its  use  in  the  foundry  is  to  raise  the  temperature  of  dull  iron;  to  keep 
the  iron  in  risers  fluid,  and  for  the  mending  of  broken  castings.  A 
titanium  thermit  is  also  made  by  same  company. 

This  is  used  for  the  introduction  of  titanium,  to  remove  nitrogen  and 
oxygen,  as  well  as  for  its  heating  eCfect.  The  claim  is  made,  that  cast 
iron  can  be  advantageously  used  in  place  of  steel  castings,  if  titanium 
thermit  is  employed  in  connection  with  it.  Nickel  thermit  is  used  for 
the  introduction  of  nickel. 

Oxygen 

Atomic  weight 1 5  96 

Speciflc  gravity  (compared  to  atmos- 
pheric air  3  2  T.  and  one  atmosphere)  i   1 056 
Weight  per  cubic  foot 624.8  grains 

No  element,  perhaps,  causes  the  foundryman  more  trouble  than 
o.xygen.  Iron  oxidizes  very  rapidly  at  high  temperatures,  in  presence  of 
air.  The  oxides  are  readily  dissolved  in  molten  iron  and  the  gases 
liberated  from  them  in  the  castings  are  the  frequent  cause  of  cavities  and 
blow-holes. 

Ferrous  oxides,  produced  in  the  process  of  smelting,  are  found  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  in  all  pig  irons.  Those  irons  in  which  mill  cinder 
heis  been  largely  used,  often  contain  high  percentages  of  dissolved 
oxides. 


Nitrogen  271 

Frequently  the  ends  of  broken  pigs  present  blow-holes  in  body  of  the 
pig,  or  worm-holes  toward  the  upper  surface.  These  are  certain  indi- 
cations of  the  presence  of  oxygen  or  sulphur  and  such  iron  should  be  used 
carefully. 

In  remelting  in  the  cupola,  as  the  molten  iron  passes  through  the 
tuyere  zone,  more  or  less  oxidation  occurs,  especially  if  the  bed  is  high 
and  the  blast  strong. 

Rusty  scrap  (fine  scrap  particularly)  furnishes  ferrous  oxides  in  large 
amounts. 

The  removal  of  ferrous  oxides  may  be  largely  effected  in  the  cupola  by 
an  abundance  of  hot  slag. 

Ferromanganese  and  aluminum  are  used  in  the  ladle  for  same  pur- 
pose. 

The  most  effective  deoxidizers  are  the  metals  in  the  order  named 
below : 

Titanium  Aluminum 

Vanadium  Sodium 

Magnesium  Manganese 

Calcium  Silicon 


Nitrogen 

Atomic  weight 14.01 

Specific  gravity  (air  i) -9713 

Specific  heat .  244 

Weight  per  cubic  foot 548.8  grains 

Nitrogen  is  absorbed  from  the  blast  as  a  nitride,  by  iron  in  melting; 
and  as  the  metal  cools,  the  gas  is  liberated. 

Very  little  is  known  as  to  the  influence  of  nitrogen  upon  cast  iron;  its 
effect  upon  steel  is  very  injurious;  as  little  as  .03  per  cent  causing  a  great 
loss  in  tensile  strength  and  nearly  eliminating  ductility.  Gray  pig  irons 
show  only  a  trace  of  nitrogen  from  .007  to  .009  per  cent;  in  white  iron 
it  sometimes  runs  as  high  as  .035  per  cent. 

So  far  as  tests  have  been  made  it  does  not  appear  that,  in  gray  iron, 
any  relation  exists  between  the  quality  of  the  iron  and  the  nitrogen 
content. 

It  has  a  remarkably  strong  affinity  for  titanium,  combining  with  it  to 
form  a  nitride,  which  is  insoluble  in  molten  iron  and  passes  off  in  the  slag. 
Ground  ferrotitanium  previously  heated  is  used  in  the  ladle  for  removal 
of  nitrogen. 

Arsenic  and  copper  are  sometimes  found  in  pig  iron,  but  in  amounts  so 
small  that  the  effects  produced  by  them  are  inappreciable. 


272      Inllui-ncc  of  the  Chemical  Constituents  of  C;ist  Iron 

In  concludinK  the  subject  of  metalloids,  the  statement  made  by  Prof. 
I'orter  ;is  to  the  ;ii)|)ri)ximale  intlucncc  of  the  more  important  ones  on 
combined  carljon  must  not  be  omitted. 

I  [)cr  cent  silicon  decreases  combined  carbon 45  per  cent. 

I  per  rent  sulphur  increases       "  "     ....     4 .  50  |)cr  cent. 

I  per  cent  mimnancse  "  "  "     40  per  cent. 

I  per  cent  phosphorus  "  "  "     17  per  cent. 


CHAPTER   X 
MIXING  IRON 

The  mixing  of  iron  for  the  cupola  is  done  either  by  fracture  or  by 
chemical  analysis. 

Mixing  by  Fracture 

The  fracture  of  the  freshly  broken  pig  is  taken  as  the  index  of  its  com- 
position. A  dark  gray  color,  with  coarse  open  crystalline  grain  indicates 
a  soft  iron,  and,  as  a  rule,  one  capable  of  carrying  a  large  percentage  of 
scrap.  As  the  color  becomes  lighter  and  the  grain  closer,  hardness 
increases  and  less  scrap  can  be  used.  Very  hard  irons  are  mottled  or 
white  and  are  used  for  special  work. 

A  broken  pig  may  present  a  dark  fracture  with  open  grain,  but  with  a 
fine  white  streak  showing  at  the  outer  edges  of  the  fracture.  Such  an 
iron  will  make  hard  castings,  owing  to  the  presence  of  too  much  man- 
ganese. 

Blow  holes  and  worm  holes  indicate  sulphur  or  ferrous  oxides.  Iron 
showing  these  with  frequency  should  be  used  carefully. 

Segregations,  much  lighter  in  appearance  than  the  rest  of  the  fracture, 
frequently  appear.  These  indicate  higher  percentages  of  carbon,  sulphur 
or  manganese  at  those  particular  spots  and  the  iron  should  be  used 
with  care. 

Mixing  by  fracture  is  uncertain  and  is  liable  to  produce  irregular  and 
unsatisfactory  results. 

The  foundryman  must  always  proceed  cautiously  and  can  only  arrive 
at  the  results  desired  by  careful  trial.  The  following  mixtures  are  taken 
from  West's  "  Foundry  Practice." 

Locomotive  Cylinders 
2600  pounds  car  wheel  scrap. 
600  pounds  soft  pig. 

Marine  and  Stationary  Cylifiders 
50  per  cent  No.  i  charcoal. 
50  per  cent  good  machinery  scrap. 
33  per  cent  car  wheel  scrap. 
33  per  cent  good  machinery  scrap. 
33  per  cent  No.  i  soft  pig. 
273 


274  Mixing,'  Iron 

Rolling  Mill  Rolls 
50  pcT  cent  car  wheel  scrap. 
25  per  cent  No.  i  charcoal. 
25  per  cent  No.  2  charcoal. 

Smtill  Chilled  Rolls 
1300  pounds  old  car  wheels. 
100  pounds  No.  I  charcoal. 
300  jjounds  steel  rail  butts. 

Killles  to  Stand  Red  Heat 
1300  pounds  No.  I  charcoal  pig. 
800  pounds  car  wheel  scrap. 
700  pounds  good  machinery  scrap. 

Chilled  Castings  to  Stand  friction  {no  strain) 
200  pounds  white  iron. 
200  pounds  plow  points. 
1 00  pounds  No.  2  charcoal. 
100  pounds  car  wheel  scrap. 

Ordinary  Castings 

33  per  cent  No.  i  soft  pig. 
67  per  cent  scrap. 

Tliin  Pulleys 

66  per  cent  No.  i  soft  pig. 

34  per  cent  scrap. 

Sash  Weight 

67  per  cent  scrap  tin. 
^:i  per  cent  stove  scrap. 

The  advent  of  the  chemist  into  the  foundry  offers  means  to  avoid 
many  of  the  uncertainties  coming  from  the  selection  of  irons  by  fracture, 
and  the  more  advanced  foundrymcn  are  now  mixing  their  irons  by 
analysis. 

Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 

This  method  of  mixing  iron  is  by  no  means  entirely  removed  from 
uncertainties.  The  chemist  is  not  yet  able  to  insure  the  production,  from 
irons  of  known  chemical  composition,  of  castings  of  defmite  physical 
characteristics.     Analysis  should  be  supplemented  by  physical  tests. 

-Again,  while  the  foundryman  may  have  correct  analysis  of  his  pig  iron, 
if  scrap  is  used  to  any  extent,  especially  foreign  scrap,  he  must  approxi- 
mate the  elements  contained  therein. 


Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 


275 


The  statements  made  on  page  307  offer  some  little  assistance,  but,  in 
general,  reliance  must  be  placed  on  experience  in  this  respect.  Where 
the  scrap  comes  entirely  from  previous  casts,  one  can  readily  arrive  at 
its  constituents  and  much  uncertainty  is  removed. 

The  qualities  necessary  for  different  grades  of  castings  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

1.  Hollow  Ware,  Stove  Plate,  Sanitary  Ware.  —  Require  fluidity, 
softness;  must  be  high  in  silicon  and  phosphorus;  low  in  combined 
carbon. 

2.  Light  Machinery  Castings.  —  Require  fluidity,  softness,  strength 
and  absence  of  shrinkage.  Must  be  high  in  total  carbon  and  manganese; 
low  in  sulphur  and  contain  less  silicon  and  phosphorus  than  grade  No.  i. 

3.  Heavy  Machinery  Castings.  —  Require  softness,  strength  and  low 
shrinkage.  Should  be  lower  in  silicon,  phosphorus  and  graphitic  carbon 
than  No.  2.     Higher  in  combined  carbon  and  manganese;  low  in  sulphur. 

4.  Castings  requiring  great  strength  should  be  low  in  silicon,  graphitic 
carbon,  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  Combined  carbon  should  be  about 
.50  per  cent;   manganese  .8  per  cent  to  i.o  per  cent. 

5.  Car  Wheels  and  Chilled  Castings.  —  Require  low  silicon,  phosphorus, 
graphitic  carbon  and  sulphur.     High  combined  carbon  and  manganese. 

6.  Chilled  Rolls.  —  Require  low  silicon,  graphitic  carbon  and  phos- 
phorus.    High  combined  carbon. 

The  following  table  is  abstracted  from  "Proceedings  of  the  American 
Foundrymen's  Association,"  Vol.  X,  Part  II,  which  contains  the  results 
of  a  long  series  of  tests  made  by  their  committee  to  standardize  test  bars. 
The  mixtures  are  not  given  as  being  recommended  by  the  committee  for 
the  several  purposes,  but  simply  to  indicate  the  practice  of  some  of  the 
larger  American  foundries. 

Table  II 


Character  of  work 

Silicon 

Sulph. 

Phos. 

Mang. 

Graph, 
carb. 

Total 
carb 

Remarks 

Ingot  moulds 

Dynamo  frames 

Light  machinery 

Chilled  rolls 

1.67 

1.95 

2.04 

.85 

.72 

■97 

3.19 

1.96 

2.49 

4.19 

2.32 

0.91 

.032 
.042 
.044 
.070 
.070 
.060 
.084 
.081 
.084 
.080 
.044 
.218 

.095 
.405 

•  578 
.482 

•  454 
.301 

1. 160 
.522 
.839 

1.236 
.675 
.441 

!o6 
.00 
3.43 
3.08 
2.99 
2.99 
.03 
2.62 

2.36 
3.04 
4.17 
3.41 
3.32 
3.39 
2.88 
3-12 

Ton  heat 
60 

60 

40 

15 
17 
40 
38 
48 
47 
67 
43 

30 

30 

Car  wheel  iron 

15 
20 

Heavy  machinery . . . 

Cylinder  iron 

Novelty  iron 

30 
10 
5 
10 

Sash  weights  . 

IS 

276 


Mixing  Iron 
Table  III 


Automobile  cylinders 

Silicon 

Sulph. 

PhoB. 

Mn. 

Graph, 
carb. 

Total 
carb. 

as  per  cent  chan     , 

a. 46 

.063 

-m 

.061 

Transverse  strength.  2901 

At  a  laler  period  Pnjf.  J.  J.  Porter,  at  the  request  of  the  .American 
Foundrymen's  Association,  undert<x)k  the  investigation  of  the  comiX)Si- 
tions  used  for  various  classes  of  castings,  with  a  view  to  formulating 
standard  mixtures.  His  report  embraces  cverj'  variety  of  work  and 
contains  tabulated  analyses  of  several  hundreds  of  mixtures  in  use. 
The  averages  of  the  mi.xtures  in  each  class  of  work,  together  with  those 
suggested  by  Prof.  Porter,  are  subjoined. 

Acid-resisting  Castings 


Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Average 

Suggested .... 

Per  cent 

2.03 
1.00-2.00 

Per  cent 

033 
under  .05 

Per  cent 

.42s 
under  .40 

Per  cent 

1. 13 
I. 00-1.50 

Per  cent 

Percent 
3.3a 

3.00-3.50 

Agricultural  Machinery,  Ordinary 

Average 

Suggested .... 

2.33 
2.00-2.50 

.072 
.06-08 

.766 
.60-. 80 

.62 
.60-80 

•  355 

3. 45 

Agricultural  Machinery,  Very  Thin 

Average 

Suggested .... 

2.70 

2.2S-2.7S 

.06s 
.06-.08 

•  75 
.70-. 90 

.65 
.50-. 70 

.20 

3  SO 

Air  Cylinders 

Average 

Suggested 

1.28 

I.0O-I.7S 

.084 
under  .09 

.401 
.30-.S0 

.69 
.70-. 90 

.633 

3.45 
3.00-3.30 

Ammonia  Cylinders 

Average 

Suggested 

i.SS 
I.0O-I.7S 

under  .095 

under  .70 
.30-. 50 

.70 

3  00-3 . 30 

Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 
Annealing  Boxes  for  Malleable  Casting  Work 


277 


Mixture           Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus  Manganese 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Suggested .... 

Per  cent 
.650 

Per  cent 
■  OS 

Per  cent 
.10-. 20 

Per  cent 
.20 

Per  cent     Per  cent 
2.7s            2. 75 

Annealing  Boxes,  Pots  and  Pans 


Average . . . 
Suggested . 

Average. . . 
Suggested . 

Average . . , 
Suggested 

Average . . 
Suggested , 

Average . . 
Suggested 

Average.. 
Suggested 

Average . . 
Suggested 


1.52 
I. 40-1. 60 


.043 
under  .06 


.38 
under  .20 


.69 
.60-1.00 


.58 


3.29 
low 


A  utomobile  Castings 


1.93 
I  7S-2.25 


.059 
under  .08 


.52 

.40-. 50 


.60-. 


Automobile  Cylinders 


2.15 

1.75-2.00 


.091 
under  .08 


.643 
.40-.  50 


.46 
.60-. 80 


.45 
.55-. 65 


3.14 
3.00-3.25 


Automobile  Flywheels 


2.73 
2.25-2.50 


.058 
under  .07 


.475 
•  40-50 


.62s 
.50-. 70 


Balls  for  Ball  Mills 


1. 00 
I. 00-1.25 


under  .08 


.30 
under  .20 


■  50 
.60-1.0 


low 
low 


Bed-plates 


I.  Sis 
I.2S-I.75 


.07 

under  .10 


.535 
.30-. 50 


.60 
.60-. 80 


Bi)iders  (see  Agricultural  Machinery) 
Boiler  Castings 


2.38 
2.00-2.50 


.065 
under  .06 


.41 
under  .20 


.79 
.60-1.00 


378  Mixing  Iron 

Car  Castings,  Gray  Iron  (sec  Brake  Shoes  and  Car  Wheck) 


Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur      Phosphorus  Mangarusc 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Average 

Suggested  . . . 

Per  cent 
2.03 

I    SO-2   25 

Per  cent 

069 
under  .08 

Per  cent 

.65 

.40-60 

Percent 

.62 

.60-80 

Per  cent 

52 

Percent 
350 

Car  Wheels,  Chilled 

Average 

Suggested 

,642                .094 
.60-. 70          .08-. 10 

.38 
.30-40 

.44 
.50-. 60 

.80 
.60-80 

36s 
3.SO-3  70 

Car  Wheels,  Unchillcd  (see  Wheels) 

Chemical  Castings  (see  Acid-resisting  Castings) 

Chilled  Castings 


Average 

Suggested 

1.04 
•7S-I.25 

■  los 

.40 
.20-. 40 

.76 
.80-1.20 

1.96 

3  19 

Chills 

Average 

2.07 
I.7S-2.25 

.073 
under  .07 

.31 
.20-40 

.48 
.60-1.00 

■  23 

2.64 

Collars  and  Couplings  for  Shafting 

Average 

Suggested 

1.60 
I  75-2.00 

.04 
under  .08 

■  5.1 
.40-. 50 

•  55 
.60.-80 

.30 

3.57 

Cotton  Machinery  (see  also  Machinery  Castings) 

Average 

Suggested 

2.25 
2. 00-2. 25 

under  .09 
under  .08 

.70                   .60                   .45 
.60-. 80           .60-. 80         

3.4s 

- 

Crusher  Jaws 

Average 

Suggested  — 

1. 10 
.80-1.00 

.127 
.08-. 100 

.45 
.20-. 40 

.92 
.80-1.20 

3.00 

3. 125 

Cutting  Tools,  Chilled  Cast  Iron 

Average 

Suggested 

1.35 
I. 00-1.25 

.117 
under  .08 

.60 
.20-. 40 

.54 
.60-.80 

.65 

3  00 

Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 

Cylhiders 

See  Air  Cylinders      Ammonia  Cylinders 
Automobile    "  Gas  Engine     " 

Hydraulic      "  Locomotive     " 

Steam  Cylinders 

Cylinder  Bushings,  Locomotive  (see  Locomotive  Castings) 
Dies  for  Drop  Hammers 


279 


Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Average 

Suggested .... 

Per  cent 

1.40 
I. 25-1. so 

Per  cent 

■075 
under  .07 

Per  cent 

.25 
under  .20 

Per  cent 
.55 

.60-. 80 

Per  cent 
1. 00 

Per  cent 

3-20 

low 

Diamofid  Polishing  Wheels 

Average 

2.70 

.063 

.30 

.44 

1.60 

2.97 

Dynamo  and  Motor  Frames,  Bases  and  Spiders,  Large 

Average 

Suggested 

2.02s 
2.00-2.50 

.o6ss 
under  .08 

•  54 
.50-80 

■  49 
.30-. 40 

.56 
.20-. 30 

3.73 

low 

Dynamo  and  Motor  Frames,  Bases  and  Spiders,  Small 

Average 

Suggested .... 

2.66 
2.50-3.00 

.073 
under  .08 

.73 
.50-. 80 

.45 
.30-. 40 

.30 
.20-. 30 

3.4s 

low 

Electrical  Castings 

Average 

Suggested .... 

2.30 
2.00-3.00 

.068 
under  .08 

.62 

■SO-. 80 

.48 
.30-. 40 

.48 
.20-. 30 

3.6r 
low 

Eccentric  Straps  (see  Locomotive  Castings  and  Machinery  Castings) 
Engine  Castings 

See  Bed  Plates  Engine  Frames 

Flywheels  Locomotive  Castings 

Machinery  Castings     Steam  Cylinders 

Engine  Frames  (see  also  Machinery  Castings) 


Average. . . 
Suggested . 


I  72 

I.2S-2.00 


.09 
under  .09 


.60 
.60-1.00 


28o 


Mixing  Iron 


Fans  and  Blowers  (sec  Machinery  Castings) 
Farm  Implements 


Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur      Phosphorus 

,,                     Combined 
Manganese      ^^^^^ 

1 

ToUl 
carboo 

Average 

Per  cent      Per  cent 

2. OS              .078 
2  00-2  so      .06-08 

Percent 

78 

.S»-.8o 

Percent 
.455 
.60-80 

Percent 
48 

Percent 
3  as 

Fire  Pots 

2.S0 
2  00-2  so 

under  .07 
under  .06 

under  .20               .90 
under  .30          60-1.00 

low 

Flywheels  i 

see  also  Automobile  Flywheels  and  Machinery  Castings) 

1.8s 

I.SO-2.2S 

•09 
under  .08 

S2S 

.40-60 

•  SS 
■  SO-. 70 

Suggested 

Friction  Clutches 

2.2s         under  .15 
1.75-2.00       .08-. 10 

under  .70 
under  .30 

under  .70 
.50-70 

low 

Furnace  Castings 

2.125 
2.00-2.50 

.0S2 
under  .06 

.40 
under  .20 

.51 
.60-1.00 

low 

Gas  Engine  Cylinders 

Average 

1. 18 
I. 00-1.75 

.082 
under  .08 

.46 

.20-. 40 

.63 
.70-. 90 

.93 

3  23 

Gears,  Medium 

Average 

Suggested .... 

1.92 
1.50-2.00 

•  075 
under  .09 

.47                .576 
.40-, 60           .70-. 90 

.55 

3.79 

Gears,  Small 

2.72 
2.00-2.50 

.08 
under  .08 

91 
.50-70 

.80 
.60-80 

Suggested 



Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 
Gears,  Heavy 

281 

Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Average 

Suggested .... 

Per  cent 

1.38 
1.00-1..S0 

Per  cent 

.081 
.08-. 10 

Per  cent 
•39 

,30- •SO 

Per  cent 

■59 

.80-1.0 

Per  cent 
.92 

Per  cent 
3.33 

Grate  Bars 

Average 

2.38 
2.00-2.50 

.08 
under  1.06 

Suggested  — 

under  .20 

.60-1.0 

under  .30 

low 

Chilled  Castings  for  Grinding  Machinery 

Average 

Suggested .... 

•  50 

•  50-.  75 

.200 
.15-20 

■  45 
.20-. 40 

I  50 
1.5-2.0 

3.00 

3.00 

Gun  Carriages 

Average 

Suggested .... 

•97 
I. 00-1.25 

.05 
under  .06 

.37 
.20-. 30 

•  46 
.80-1.0 

.865 

2.73 

low 

Gun  Iron 

Average 

Suggested 

1.09 
I.0O-I.2S 

-OS3 
under  .06 

.32 

.20-. 30 

.62 

.99 
.80-1.0 

3.o6 

Hangers  for  Shafting 

Average 

Suggested 

1.60 

1.50-2.00 

.04 
under  .08 

.55 
.40-. 50 

•  55 
.60-. 80 

.30 

3. 57 

Hardware,  Light 

Average 

Suggested .... 

2.30 

2.25-2.75 

.06 
under  .08 

.74 
.50-. 80 

.76 
.SO-.  70 

.32 

3.39 

Heat-resisting  Iron 

Average 

Suggested 

1-95 
1.25-2.50 

.056 
under  .06 

•  52 
under  .20 

.68 
.60-1.00 

.46 
under  .30 

3.46 
low 

282 


Mixing  Iron 
Hollow  Ware 


Mixture 

Silicon        Sulphur    iPhospboriu 

Manganese 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 

Average 

Per  cent       Per  cent 

a  SI              I  JO 
3.2S-3.7S    under  .08 

Per  cent        Per  cent 

.6a                 .41 

so- .  70                .  «>-  .  "70 

Percent 
.24 

Percent 
3.18 

Avcr.iKi- 
Suggested . 


Housings  for  Rolling  Mills 


I.13S 
I.OO-I    25 


.08s 

under  .08 


.6s 
.20-30 


.7S 
.80-1.0 


low 
low 


Hydraulic  Cylinders,  Heavy 

Average 

Suggested  — 

I  19 
.80-1.20 

.084 
under  .10 

39 
.20-. 40 

.82 
.80-1.0 

99 

3  13 

low 

Hydraulic  Cylinders,  Medium 

1.67 

.071 

375                    55 
.30-. SO            .70-90 

I  20-1.60 

under  .09 

low 

Ingot  Moulds  and  Stools 

1.43    !      046     1      .095           .345 

1.2S-1.5O;   under  .06      under  .20  ,       .60-1.0 

i                                              1 

Locomotive  Castings,  Heavy 

Average 

Suggested 

1  55 
I. 25-1. SO 

.oSi                  .50 
under  .08          .30-. so 

56 
.70-. 90 

.60 

3  so 

Locomotive  Castings,  Ligiti 

Average 

Suggested 

1.72s               07S 
1.50-2.00    under  .08 

.53 
.40-60 

ss 

.60-.80 

.50 

3SO 

Locomotive  Cylinders 

Average 

1.457 
i.oo-iso 

.084                .58                 .60 

.08-10                .TO-    TO                80-1   0 

.60 

3  SO 

Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 


283 


Locks  and  Hinges  (see  Hardware,  Light) 
Machinery  Castings,  Heavy 


Mixture 


Average . . . 
Suggested . 


Silicon 


Per  cent 

1. 335 
I. 00-1.50 


Sulphur 


Per  cent 

.084 
under  .10 


Phosphorus 


Per  cent 

■  43 

.30-50 


Manganese 


Per  cent 

.58 

.80-1.0 


Combined 
carbon 


Per  cent 
.33 


Total 
carbon 


Per  cent 
3.21 

low 


Machinery  Castings,  Medium 

Average 

Suggested 

1.932 
1.50-2.00 

.078 
under  .09 

.61 
.40-. 60 

.53 
.60-. 80 

.47 

3-33 

Machinery  Castings,  Light 

Average 

Suggested .... 

2.57 
2.00-2.50 

.069 
under  .08 

.74 
.SO-. 70 

.52 

.50-. 70 

•  27 

3.49 

Machine  Tool  Castings  (see  Machinery  Castings) 
Motor  Frames,  Bases  and  Spiders  (see  Dynamo) 
Molding  Machines  (see  Machinery  Castings) 
Mowers  (see  Agricultural  Castings) 

Niter   Pots    (see   Acid-resisting    Castings   and   Heat-resisting 
Castings) 

Ornamental  Work 


Average 

Suggested . . . 


2.9s 
2.25-2.75 


.09s 
under  .08 


.54 
.50-. 70 


Permanent  Moulds 


Average 

Suggested. . . 


2.085 
2.00-2.25 


.078 
under  .07 


I  075 
.20-.  40 


.35 
.60-1.0 


.485 


Permanent  Mould  Castings 

2.5 

1.50-3.00 

3.50 

under  .06 

under  .40 

Piano  Plates 


Average  . . 
Suggested. 


2.00 
2.00-2.25 


low 
under  .07 


.40 
.40-. 60 


.60 
.60-.80 


284 

Mixing  Iron 
Pillow  Blocks 

Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphoru-s 

.,                 1  Combined 
Manganese      ^^^j^„ 

Tot*l 
carbon 

Average 

SuRKcsted 

Per  cent 

1.60 
I  SO-I.7S 

Per  cent 

.04 
under  .08 

Per  cent 

.55 

.4»-.SO 

Per  cent 

SS 

.60-.80 

Per  cent 
.30 



Percent 
3. so 

Pipe 

3.00 
1.50-2.00 

under  .10 

.60 
.50-80 

.60 
.60-80 

Suggested. . . . 

Pipe  Fittings 

Average 

2.36 
I.7S-2.SO 

.084 
under  .08 

51 
.50-80 

.74 
.60-80 

.70 

368 

Pipe  Fittings  for  Superlieated  Steam  Lines 

Average 

1. 57 
1.50-1.75 

.078 
under  .08 

•  49 
.20-. 40 

.56 
.70-90 

.17 

2.90 
low 

Piston  Rings 

Average 

1.61 
1.50-2.00 

.073 
under  .08 

•  72 
.30-. 50 

.45 
.40-. 60 

.53 

low 

Plow  Points,  Chilled 

Average 

I.  IS 
.75-1.25 

.086 
under  .08 

..30 
.20-. 30 

.68 
.80-1.0 

2.10 

3.30 

Printing  Presses  (see  Machinery  Casting) 
Propeller  Wheels 

Average 

Suggested.... 

1. 28 
I. 00-1.75 

low 
under  .10 

■26                 .455 
.20-. 40            .60-1.0 

.60 

low 

Pulleys,  Heavy 

Average 

2.07 
1.75-2.25 

.05 
under  .09 

.575 
.50-70 

575 
.60-. 80 

.30 

3.66 

Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 
Pulleys,  Light 


28s 


Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Average 

Suggested 

Per  cent 

2.55 
2.25-2.75 

Per  cent 

.069 
under  .08 

Per  cent 

.695 

.60-. 80 

Per  cent 

.62 

•SO-. 70 

Per  cent 
•  35 

Per  cent 
3.48 

Pumps,  Hand 

Average 

2.52 
2.00-2.25 

under  .08 
under  .08 

.80 
.60-. 80 

.40 
.50.-70 

Suggested 

Radiators 

Average 

Suggested. . .  . 

2.30 
2.00-2.25 

low 
under  .08 

.62 
.60-. 80 

•  42s 
.50-. 70 

.425 
.50-   60 

3.45 

Railroad  Castings 

Average 

Suggested  — 

2.03 
1.50-2.25 

.065 
under  .08 

.69 
.40-.  60 

.64 
.60-. 80 

.525 

3.50 

Retorts  (see  Heat-resisting  Castings) 
Rolls,  Chilled 

Average 

.73 
.60-. 80 

.055 
.06-. 08 

•  534 
.20-. 40 

.74 
I. 0-1.2 

1.75 

3.12 
3.00-3.23 

Rolls,  Unchilled  {Sand  Cast) 

Average 

.75 

.03 

.25 

.66 

1.20 

4.10 

Scales 

1.83 
2.00-2.30 

I. OS 
.60-1.0 

1.43 

under  .08 

Slag  Car  Castings 

Average 

Suggested .... 

1.88 
1.75-2.0 

.058 
under  .07 

.67 
under  .30 

•  79 
.70-. 90 

.56 

3.6!J 

286 


Mixing  Iron 


Smoke  Stacks,  Locomotive  (sec  Locomotive  Castings) 
Soil  Pipe  and  Fittings 


Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Per  cent 

1.00 
.50-. 80 

Manganese 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Average 

Suggested  — 

Per  cent 

3.0O 

I. 75-2 -25 

Per  cent 

.060 
under  .09 

Percent 

.60 

.60-80 

Per  cent 

Percent 

Steam  Cylinders,  Heavy 


Average 

Suggested 

1.20 

I.0O-I.2S 

.091 
under  .  10 

.36 
.20-.  40 

.50 
.80-1.0 

.81 

3.3s 
low 

Steam  Cylinders,  Medium 

Average 

Suggested  — 

1.658 
I. 25-1. 75 

.082 
under  .09 

.30-. so 

61                 .62              3.43 

■^■^        1   

Steam  Chests   (see  Locomotive  Castings 
Stove  Plate 

and  Machiner>'  Castings) 

Average 

Suggested 

2.77 
2.25-2.75 

.076 
under    oS 

.82 
.60-. 90 

•  59 
.60-80 

.28 

3.33 

Valves,  Large 

Average 

Suggested 

1.34 

.095 

.43 
.20-40 

.64 
.80-1.0 

Valves,  Sfnall 

Average 

Suggested 

1.96 
1.75-2.25 

.067 
under  .08 

.585 
.30-.  50 

.70s 
.60-.80 

1. 16 

4.18 

low 

Valve  Bushings  (see  Loconioti\-e  Casting 
Water  Heaters 

5  and  Machineo'  Castings) 

Average 

Suggested 

2. IS 
2.00-2.25 

.050 
under  .08 

.40 
.30-50 

.50 
.60-80 

Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 


287 


Weaving  Machinery  (see  Machinery  Castings) 
Wheels,  Large 


Mixture 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

Combined 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Average 

Suggested 

Per  cent 

2.10 
1.50-2.00 

Per  cent 

.04 
under  .09 

Per  cent 

.40 
.30-. 40 

Per  cent 

.70 
.60-.80 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Wheels,  Small 

I. 8s               .0665 
1.75-2.00    under  .08 

.50 
.40-. 50 

•  45 
.50-. 70 

Suggested 

Wheel  Centers  (see  Locomotive  Castings) 
White  Iron  Castings 


Average. 


2.90 


Wood  Working  Machinery  (see  Machinery  Castings) 
Brake  Shoes 


Average 

Suggested. . . 


1.94 
I . 40-1 . 90 


.125 
.08-. 10 


.67s 


.556 
.50-. 70 


3.16 

low 


Knowing  the  desired  analysis  for  any  class  of  casting  to  be  made,  the 
simplest  way  to  arrive  at  the  amounts  of  the  different  irons  to  be  used 
is  by  percentage.  For  example,  let  the  requirements  be  for  an  iron  to 
produce  machinery  castings  of  which  the  analysis  shall  be : 


Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

2.00 

.084 

.350 

.625 

As  previously  stated,  the  loss  in  silicon  in  remelting  will  be  from  10 
to  20  per  cent,  the  same  for  manganese,  and  a  gain  of  .03  in  sulphur, 
phosphorus  remaining  constant.     The  mixture  then  must  contain: 


Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

2.22 

.054 

•  350 

.687 

s88  Mixing  Iron 

The  irons  then  availaliie  arc: 


No.  2  Southern 
No.  3  Northern 

Silver  gray 

Scrap 


Silicon 


4.20 
1.90 


Sulphur 


02s 
.080 


Phosphorus 


280 
3SO 
.830 
.284 


Manganete 


735 
940 

820 

S40 


After  two  or  three  trials  it  is  found  that  the  desired  mi.xture  may  be 
obtamed  from 


Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

ao  per  cent  No.  2  Southern,  giving 
20  per  cent  No.  2  Northern,  giving 
10  per  cent  silver  gray,  giving  .  . . 

•  45° 
.420 
420 
.950 
2.240 

.008 
004 
.0025 
.0400 

■  054S 

.056 
.070 
.082 
142 
.350 

147 

188 
082 

.687 

Example  2.  —  Required  an  iron  for  pulleys  and  light  castings  of 
following  analysis:  Silicon,  2.40;  sulphur,  .09;  phosphorus,  .700; 
manganese,  .52,  and  to  carr>'  50  per  cent  scrap. 

Avaflable  irons: 


No.  2  Southern 
No.  2  Northern 

Silver  gray 

Scrap 


Silicon 


2.72 
2.40 
s-oo 
2.20 


Sulphur 


.070 
.020 
.024 
.080 


Phosphorus 

Manganese 

.750 

.48 

.600 

56 

.960 

S3 

.660 

62 

Correcting  for  losses  of  silicon  and  manganese  and  gain  of  sulphur  the 
mixtiffe  must  contain  silicon,  2.66,  sulphur,  .06,  phosphorus,  .70,  man- 
ganese, .577. 

For  reasons  of  economy  no  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  silver  gray 
iron  should  be  used.     This  with  the  50  per  cent  scrap  supplies: 


10  per  cent  silver  gray 

50  per  cent  scrap 

To  be  supplied  by  remaining  pig 
iron 


Silicon 


■  SO 
1. 10 

iTfo 
1.066 


Sulphiu" 


.0024 

.040 

.0424 

.0176 


Phosphorus 


.096 
■  330 
.426 


Manganese 


.053 
■  310 
.363 


Mixing  Iron  by  Analysis 


289 


By  txial  it  is  found  that  the  remaining  amounts  of  the  different  elements 
may  be  obtained  by  using: 


Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

25  per  cent  No.  2  Southern 

IS  per  cent  No.  2  Northern 

Giving 

.68 
1.04 

.0175 
.0030 

.0205 

.1875 
.0900 

.2775 

.13 

.084 

.204 

The  slight  discrepancies  of  .02  silicon,  .0029  sulphur,  .0035  phosphorus 
and  .01  manganese  may  be  neglected. 

Where  the  scrap  is  very  nearly  of  uniform  quality,  the  analysis  of  the 
castings  from  any  given  heat  furnishes  data  from  which  a  very  close 
approximation  can  be  made  of  the  scrap  used  in  the  previous  heat. 

Assuming  such  character  of  scrap,  and  knowing  the  mixture  used  in 
any  heat  as  well  as  the  analysis  of  the  castings,  compute  the  analysis  of 
scrap  used  in  previous  heat. 

Let  the  castings  show  the  analysis  of  example  2,  viz.:  Si,  2.40,  S,  .09, 
P,  .70,  Mn,  .52.  Then  the]  mixture  must  have  been  as  before.  Si,  2.66, 
S,  .06,  P,  .70,  Mn,  .577. 

The  irons  having  the  assumed  analysis  of  example  2,  then: 


25  per  cent  No.  2  Southern  gives. 
IS  per  cent  No.  2  Northern  gives. 
10  per  cent  silver  gray  gives 


Which  subtracted  from  the  mix- 
ture leaves 


Silicon  Sulphur      Phosphorus   Manganese 


.36 

■  50 

1-54 

1. 12 


.0175 
.0030 
.0024 
.0229 

.0371 


.1875 
.0900 
.0960 

.3735 
.3265 


.084 
053 
.257 


As  50  per  cent  scrap  was  used,  the  analysis  of  scrap  from  previous  heat 
is  Si,  2.24,  S,  .0742,  P,  .653,  Mn,  .64,  giving  a  very  close  approxima- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  XT 

USE  OF  STEEL  SCRAP  IN  MIXTURES  OF  CAST  IRON 


Steix  scrap,  when  added  to  mixtures  of  cast  iron  in  quantities  varying 
from  lo  to  40  per  cent,  closes  the  grain,  increases  the  toughness  and  adds 
greatly  to  the  tensile  strength  of  the  castings  made  from  such  mixture. 

The  steel  should  be  low  in  carbon,  such  as  boiler  i)lalc  scrap,  machine 
steel,  rail  ends,  etc. 

Turnings  from  machine  steel  are  frequently  used  in  the  ladle.  In  this 
case  the  steel  should  be  heated  quite  hot,  placed  in  the  ladle  and  the  iron 
tapped  out  on  it.  The  mixture  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  until  the 
steel  is  melted.     In  aU  cases  the  iron  must  be  very  hot. 

Mixing  steel  in  the  ladle  does  not  give  as  satisfactory  results  as  mixing 
in  the  cupola. 

.\s  the  steel  is  low  in  carbon  the  iron  used  should  be  high  in  total  carbon, 
otherwise  the  castings  will  be  hard  with  over  10  per  cent  steel  scrap. 

The  following  table  by  Mr.  11.  E.  Diller  presents  the  results  of  a  scries 
of  tests,  with  mixtures  made  by  varying  in  percentages  of  steel  scrap  from 
I2V4  to  37!^  per  cent: 


No. 

Sili- 
con 

Sul-    I 
phur 

'hos- 
hor-    \ 
us     ga 

lan- 
nese 

Comb, 
carbon 

Graph- 
itic 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

Tensile 
strength 

Trans- 
verse 
strength 

Per 
cent 
steel 

I 

I  43 

.047 

564 

82 

.670 

3.14 

3.81 

23,060 

25SO 

0 

2 

I. SO 

.065 

532 

33 

.640 

3  44 

3 

08 

30.500 

2840 

2S 

3 

1.76 

.062 

488 

53 

510 

3.12 

3 

63 

22.180 

2440 

0 

4 

1.76 

•  139 

515 

57 

.430 

2.94 

3 

37 

37.090 

2770  • 

I2'i 

S 

1.77 

.069 

339 

49 

.560 

2.87 

3 

43 

32.500 

3120 

124 

6 

1.83 

.100 

610 

55 

510 

2.44 

2 

9S 

36.860 

3280 

25 

7 

1.75 

.089 

598 

35 

.740 

2  12 

2 

86 

30,160 

3130 

31^i 

8 

1.96 

.104 

446 

44 

.630 

3.18 

3 

81 

21 ,950 

2230 

0 

9 

2.12 

.037 

410 

26 

.380 

326 

3 

64 

21,890 

3470 

124 

10 

2.16 

.060 

31S 

20 

1.060 

2.30 

3 

36 

26,310 

2670 

124 

II 

I  97 

.093 

470 

48 

.S70 

283 

3 

40 

32,.S3o 

3050 

37I4 

12 

2. 35 

.061 

51S 

56 

.540 

3  40 

3 

94 

21.990 

2200 

0 

13 

2.53 

.104 

490 

54 

.600 

2S6 

3 

16 

33..390 

2850 

2S 

14 

2.36 

.064 

327 

24 

1.080 

2. IS 

3 

23 

31.560 

3200 

35 

These  tests  were  made  with  pig  iron,  ferrosilicon  and  steel  scrap.     No 
cast  iron  scrap  was  used.     Mr.  Diller  concludes:  "The  tests  given  seem 

290 


Recovering  and  Melting  Shot  Iron 


2gi 


to  indicate  that  25  per  cent  of  steel  will  add  50  per  cent  to  the  strength  of 
the  iron,  and  i2>^  per  cent  of  steel,  approximately  25  per  cent." 

The  tests  containing  37'/^  per  cent  steel  were  hardly  as  much  im- 
proved in  strength  as  those  with  25  per  cent  of  steel;  from  which  we  may 
infer  that  the  limit  of  the  amount  of  steel  it  is  beneficial  to  melt  with 
iron  in  a  cupola  is  between  25  and  371^  per  cent. 

Results  of  experiments  made  by  Mr.  C.  B.  McGahey  are  embodied 
below. 

Mr.  McGahey  used  test  bars  i  in.  by  i  in.  by  24  in.  (distance  between 
supports  not  stated). 


No. 

Sili- 
con 

Sul- 
phur 

Phos- 
phor- 
us 

Man- 
ganese 

Per 

cent 
steel 

Depth 

of 
chill 

Trans- 
verse 
strength 

Remarks 

I 
2 
3 

4 

.82 
.88 
.58 
■  79 

.097 
.081 
.097 
.o8i 

.23 

.24 

.25 

.239 

•  54 
.67 

•  44 

•  64 

7 

20 
23 
21.50 

In. 

•  38 
.40 

•  48 

1800 
2200 
2250 

Entirely   gray   when 
cast       in       sand. 
Depth  of  chill  ?4  in. 
Steel  scrap   (struc- 
tural shapes). 

"I  find  that  to  get  the  strongest  bars  I  have  to  keep  pretty  close  to 
these  analyses  and  have  made  my  strongest  bar  at  2350  pounds  with 
.55  inch  deflection.  The  iron  had  a  fine  grain,  was  low  in  graphite,  but 
machined  nicely. 

When  ferromanganese  was  used,  about  i  per  cent  was  found  to  be 
best.  The  above  resulting  compositions  (the  silicons  of  the  mixtures 
being  calculated  to  bring  them  about  right)  are  intended  for  castings 
ranging  from  i  inch  to  2H  inches  in  section. 

Should  heavier  work  be  required  it  is  better  to  run  the  silicon  in  the 
pig  up  to  2.75  and  manganese  up  to  2.00  and  use  $3^^  per  cent  of  steel 
scrap." 

An  addition  of  10  per  cent  steel  scrap  to  mixtures  for  engine  cylinders 
gives  excellent  results  affording  a  close-grained  tough  iron.  Steel  scrap 
increases  shrinkage  and  causes  the  iron  to  set  quickly;  hence  the  irons 
used  should  be  high  in  total  carbon  and  must  be  melted  and  poured  very 
hot. 

Steel  scrap  promotes  chill  and  is  largely  used  with  coke  irons  in  making 
car  wheels,  obviating  the  use  of  the  expensive  charcoal  mixtures. 

The  charges  containing  steel  should  be  melted  during  the  first  part 
of  the  heat,  and  in  each  charge  the  steel  should  precede  the  iron. 

Recovering  and  Melting  Shot  Iron 

The  shot  from  gangways  and  cupola  bottom  is  usually  recovered  by 
riddling  the  gangway  sand;  picking  over  the  dump  and  by  grinding  the 


2Q2  Use  of  Steel  Scrap  in  Mixtures  of  Cast  Iron 

hollnm  in  the  i  indcr  mill.  Tliis  is  also  done  by  magnetic  or  hydraulic 
sci)aratt>rs.  The  amount  recovered  by  machines  is  much  greater  than 
that  obtainecl  by  hand. 

After  charging  of  the  cujxila  is  completed,  the  shot  should  Ijc  thrown 
on  toil  of  the  last  charge,  using  with  it  some  of  the  coke  picked  from  the 
(lumj).     Kach  heat  should  take  care  of  the  shot  from  the  previous  one. 

The  melted  iron  coming  from  the  shot  can  be  poured  into  grate  bars, 
sash  weights,  or  other  coarse  castings;  or  it  may  fjc  run  into  pigs  and 
used  as  scrap. 

Mr.  \V.  J.  Keep  describes  his  method  of  recovery  as  f(;llows:  "After 
the  blast  has  been  shut  ofT  and  all  of  the  melted  iron  has  been  drained 
from  the  cupola,  make  a  dam  on  the  floor  in  front  of  the  cupola  spout 
about  4  inches  high,  enclosing  a  semicircular  space,  having  a  radius  of 
about  4  fe«t.  Let  the  melter  lay  a  tapping  bar  across  the  spout  and  have 
three  or  four  laborers  with  a  piece  of  old  iVi  inch  shafting  about  8  feet 
l<jng  ram  in  the  breast.  If  the  bottom  and  spout  have  been  made  right 
there  will  be  no  melted  iron  in  the  cupola,  but  ram  back  and  forth  to 
allow  all  to  drain  out. 

All  the  liquid  slag  in  the  cupola  will  run  into  the  enclosed  space 
underneath  the  spout  and  if  there  is  any  iron  in  this,  it  will  run  through 
the  slag  and  lie  on  the  floor  in  the  form  of  a  slab  which  can  be  picked  up 
the  next  morning. 

When  the  cupola  has  been  emptied  of  all  slag  and  iron  drop  the 
bottom.  I  like  to  draw  the  refuse  out  from  underneath  the  cupola, 
turning  it  over  and  cooling  it  down  with  water.  The  pieces  of  the  sand 
bottom  are  thrown  to  one  side  and  all  the  iron  that  can  be  seen  is  picked 
up.  All  the  iron  taken  from  the  cupola  dump,  the  pig  bed,  or  from  the 
gangways,  which  is  not  bad  casting,  is  weighed  up  and  charged  as  remelt 
or  home  scrap. 

All  remaining  small  pieces  of  coke,  iron  or  slag  are  shoveled  up  from 
the  bottom  and  from  all  [jarts  of  the  foundry  and  placed  in  boxes  on  the 
cupola  platform.  This  includes  skulls  from  the  ladles  which  comtain 
more  or  less  iron. 

WTien  the  last  charge  of  iron  has  been  placed  in  the  cupola  and  the 
heat  is  near  enough  to  the  end  to  show  that  there  will  be  no  shortage  of 
iron,  throw  into  the  cupola  any  shot  iron  that  may  be  left  over,  and  all 
the  refuse  previously  mentioned.  The  iron  and  slag  will  be  melted  at 
once  and  the  small  bits  of  coke  will  hold  the  blast  down  and  insure  hot 
iron. 

All  the  finest  shot  iron  is  saved  in  this  way,  as  well  as  all  coke  in  the 
form  of  small  pieces  and  nothing  is  lost." 

The  disposition  on  the  part  of  many  foundrj'men  is  to  neglect  the 


Melting  Borings  and  Turnings  293 

saving  of  shot  iron,  preferring  to  sell  to  junk  dealers  what  can  be  readily 
recovered.  Such  will  not  be  the  case,  however,  in  a  well-managed  foundry, 
as  by  close  attention  to  its  recovery  the  loss  in  melt  can  be  reduced 
from  I  to  2  per  cent. 

At  one  of  the  large  western  foundries,  through  mismanagement,  shot 
had  been  allowed  to  accumulate  until  a  portion  of  the  yard  was  covered 
to  a  depth  of  from  12  inches  to  20  inches.  This  was  dug  up,  milled  and 
melted;  1500  pounds,  at  each  heat,  were  thrown  on  top  of  the  last  charge, 
without  additional  fuel;  the  melted  iron  was  run  into  pigs. 

Over  84  tons  of  No.  4  pig  were  recovered;  25  per  cent  of  the  scrap  used 
in  charging  was  replaced  by  this  iron  and  the  usual  mi.xture  was  in  no 
other  respect  changed. 

Burnt  Iron 

This  class  of  iron  is  of  no  use  e.xcept  for  making  sash  weights.  When 
used  for  ordinary  purposes,  the  loss  caused  is  greater  than  the  gain.  It 
makes  iron  hard,  causes  a  great  amount  of  slag  and  chokes  up  the  cupola. 
It  should  be  carefully  selected  and  thrown  out  of  the  scrap. 

Melting  Borings  and  Turnings 

Cast  iron  borings  and  turnings  which  are  usually  disposed  of  to  junk 
dealers  at  a  low  price  may  be  advantageously  melted  by  packing  them 
in  wood  or  iron  boxes,  about  100  pounds  to  the  box. 

The  boxes  should  be  charged  a  few  at  a  time,  by  throwing  them  into 
the  center  of  the  charge  and  covering  them  with  scrap.  These  will 
descend  to  near  the  melting  zone  before  they  are  burned  or  melted. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Prince  has  patented  a  process  for  melting  borings,  etc., 
which  consists  of  packing  them  in  sheet  iron  pipes,  with  or  without 
bottoms.  The  pipes  are  of  any  convenient  length,  from  30  to  48  inches; 
the  first  one  is  placed  on  the  coke  bed  and  the  others  on  top  of  it,  with 
the  charges  surrounding  them. 

This  differs  little  from  the  method  of  using  boxes,  where  the  latter  are 
piled  on  each  other.  In  either  case  the  containers  prevent  the  fine 
material  from  being  blown  out  of  the  stack. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  render  borings,  etc.,  suitable  for 
melting,  by  briquetting.  So  far,  these  efforts  seem  to  have  been  only 
partially  successful. 

A  process  has  recently  been  developed  in  Germany,  by  which  the 
borings  are  made  into  briquettes  under  hydraulic  pressure.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  product  successfully  meets  the  purpose  and  preliminary  tests 
made  in  America  seem  to  warrant  the  statement. 


CHAI'I'KR    XII 

TEST   BARS 

This  subject  has  been  Irealcd  cxhausti\ely  by  a  Committee  of  the 
American  Foundry  men's  /Vssociation.  Their  rejxjrl  was  adopted  by 
the  Association  in  June,  1901. 

Extensive  extracts  from  the  report  are  given  below. 

The  work  covered  the  testing  of  1229  bars  by  1601  tests;  the  folhjwing 
table  shows  the  character  of  the  heats  from  which  the  bars  were  taken. 


Series 


A* 
B 
C 
D 

E 

Ft 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 


Class  of  iron 


Melted  in 


Pig  iron  used 


Ingot  mould Cupola 

Dynamo  frame Cupola 

Light  machinery.  . .  Air  furnace 

Chilled  roll Air  furnace 

Sand  roll Cupola 


Sash  Weight 

Car  wheel 

Stove  plate 

Heavy  machinery. 

Cylinder 

Novelty 

Gun  metal 


Cupola 
Cupola 
Cupola 
Cupola 
Cupola 
Cupola 
O.  H.  furnace 


Coke 
Coke  and  charcoal 
Coke  and  charcoal 
Cold-blast  charcoal 
Warm-blast  char- 
coal 
Coke  and  charcoal 
Coke  and  charcoal 

Coke 

Coke 

Coke 

Coke 
Coke  and  charcoal 


Size 

of 

heat 


tons 

60  1.67 

60  1.9s 

40  3.04 

30  .8s 


30 


.7a 
91 
97, 

3  19,1 
I  96 
a. 49 

4  19 
a. 33 


o9Si  .032 
40s  043 
578  044 
48a|  .070 

454  070 
441'. 318 
301  .060 
160  0S4 
523  081 
839  084 
2361.080 
676  .044 


*  All  pig  iron. 

t   Nearly  all  burnt  scrap,  originally  from  charcoal  and  coke  iron. 

"Throughout  the  whole  line  of  operations  only  regularly  constituted 
mixtures  were  used,  the  balance  of  the  heats  from  which  these  test  bars 
were  cast  going  directly  into  commercial  castings  of  the  classes  designated. 
The  results  are,  therefore,  entirely  comparable  with  daily  practice. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  green  sand  and  dry  sand  bars  were  made 
side  by  side. 

It  was  felt  that  comparison  records  were  wanted  just  as  much  as 
specifications  for  the  separate  lines  of  product.  For  this  reason,  we 
recommend  one  standard  size  of  test  bar  for  comparative  purposes  only, 
each  class  of  iron  being  given  its  special  treatment  for  the  information 
wanted  in  daily  practice  in  addition. 

294 


Test  Bars 


295 


"Our  studies  on  the  shape  of  the  test  bar  have  resulted  in  the  selection 
of  the  round  form  of  cross  section  and  this  mainly  on  the  score  of  great- 
est uniformity  in  physical  structure.  .  .  .  There  is  still  a  further 
point  of  interest,  in  the  preparation  of  test  bars  and  that  is,  the  making 
of  coupons  from  which  the  quality  of  the  castings  to  which  they  are 
attached  is  to  be  judged.  This  method  is  used  extensively  in  govern- 
ment work  and  in  the  making  of  cyl- 
inder castings. 

The  idea  of  obtaining  material 
from  the  same  pour  in  the  same 
mould  as  part  of  the  casting  itself  is 
good  enough  in  theory.  Unfortu- 
nately, however,  this  direct  connec- 
tion introduces  elements  of  segrega- 
tion and  temperature  changes  in  the 
cast  iron  which  make  this  test  less 
valuable  than  is  generally  supposed. 
At  best  the  iron  which  has  passed 
through  the  different  parts  of  a 
mold  before  entering  the  space  for 
the  coupon  will  not  be  representa- 
tive of  the  whole  body,  but  rather 
one  portion  of  it  only.  We  therefore 
recommend  the  method  shown  later 
on  in  Fig.  75.  The  metal  can  be 
poured  from  crane  or  hand  ladle, 
clean  and  speedily,  and  possesses  the 
temperature  of  the  average  iron  in 
the  casting  more  nearly  than  the 
coupon  method  now  practiced. 

Your  committee  while  giving  spe- 
cifications for  the  tensile  test  of  cast 
iron  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  trans- 
verse test  is  the  more  desirable  and  certainly  within  reach  of  even  the 
smallest  foundry. 

In  selecting  the  test  bars  for  the  purpose  of  specification,  we  have 
followed  the  cardinal  principle  of  selecting  the  largest  cross  section  for 
the  iron  consistent  with  a  sound  physical  structure  and  within  the  range 
and  structural  limits  of  an  ordinary  testing  machine. 

The  following  are  the  sizes  of  bars  selected  for  tests  as  a  result  of 
our  investigations. 

For  all  tensile  tests,  a  bar  turned  to  .8  inches  in  diameter,  corre- 


@ 


Fig.  75. 


296  Tt'Sl  Bars 

sponding  to  a  cross  section  of  14  sfjuarc  inch.  Results,  therefore,  multi- 
l)lictl  by  two,  give  the  tensile  strength  per  sfjuarc  inch. 

I'or  transverse  test,  of  all  classes  of  iron  for  general  comparison;  a 
bar  I H- inches  in  diameter,  on  supports,  12  inches  ajjart;  pressure  applied 
in  the  middle  and  deflection  noted. 

Similarly  for  ingot  mould,  light  machinery,  stove  plate  and  novelty 
iron,  a  I'i-inch  diameter  l)ar;  that  is  to  say,  for  irons  running  from  2  per 
cent  in  silicon  ui^ward,  or  from  1.75  per  cent  silicon  upward  where  but 
little  scrap  is  in  the  mixture. 

For  dynamo  frames,  sash  weights,  cylinders,  heavy  machinery  and 
gun  metal  irons;  similarly,  a  2-inch  diameter  bar  is  recommended,  that 
is,  for  irons  running  from  1.5  per  cent  to  2  per  cent  in  silicon  or  where 
the  silicon  is  lower  and  the  proportion  of  scrap  is  rather  large. 

I'or  roll  irons,  whether  chilled  or  sand,  and  car  wheel  metals,  a  2^4- 
inch  diameter  bar  is  recommcnrled ;  that  is,  for  all  irons  below  i  per  cent 
silicon  and  which  may,  therefore,  be  classed  as  the  chilling  irons. 

The  method  of  moulding  the  test  bar  we  would  recommend  is  given 
herewith. 

At  least  three  bars  of  a  kind  should  be  made  for  a  given  test. 

The  sand  should  not  be  any  damper  than  to  mould  well  and  stand  the 
wash  of  the  iron  without  cutting,  blowing  or  scabbing.  It  should  be 
rammed  evenly  to  avoid  swells  and  poured  by  dropping  the  metal  from 
the  top  through  gates,  or  from  ladle  direct  into  the  open  mould. 

iVfter  the  bars  are  cast  they  should  remain  in  their  moulds  undis- 
turbed until  cool." 

Proposed  Standard  Specifications  for  Gray  Iron  Castings 

1.  Unless  furnace  iron,  dry  sand,  loam  moulding,  or  subsequent 
annealing  is  specified,  all  gray  iron  castings  are  understood  to  be  of 
cupola  metal;  mixtures,  moulds  and  methods  of  preparation  to  be  fixed 
bj-  the  founder  to  secure  the  results  required  by  purchaser. 

2.  All  castings  shall  be  clean,  free  from  flaws,  cracks  and  excessive 
shrinkage.  They  shall  conform  in  other  respects  to  whatever  points 
may  be  specially  agreed  upon. 

3.  When  the  castings  themselves  are  to  be  tested  to  destruction,  the 
number  selected  from  a  given  lot  and  the  tests  they  shall  be  subjected  to 
are  made  a  matter  of  special  agreement  between  founder  and  purchaser. 

4.  Castings  under  these  specifications,  the  iron  in  which  is  to  be 
tested  for  its  quality,  shall  be  represented  by  at  least  three  test  bars  cast 
from  the  same  heat. 

5.  These  test  bars  shall  be  subjected  to  a  transverse  breaking  test, 
the  load  applied  at  the  middle  with  supports  12  inches  apart.     The 


Patterns  for  Test  Bars  of  Cast  Iron 


297 


breaking  load  and  deflection  shall  be  agreed  upon  specially  on  placing 
the  contract,  and  two  of  these  bars  shall  meet  the  requirements. 

6.  A  tensile  strength  that  may  be  added,  in  which  case  at  least  three 
bars  for  this  purpose  shall  be  cast  with  the  others,  in  the  same  moulds 
respectively.  The  ultimate  strength  shall  also  be  agreed  upon  specially 
before  placing  the  contract  and  two  of  the  bars  shall  meet  the  require- 
ments. 

7.  The  dimensions  of  the  test  bars  shall  be  as  given  herewith.  There 
is  only  one  size  for  the  tensile  bar  and  three  for  the  transverse.  For  the 
light  and  medium  weight  castings  the  i^  inch  D  bar  is  to  be  used; 
for  heavy  castings,  the  2  inch  D  bar;  and  for  chilling  irons  the  2],^  inch 
n  test  bar. 

8.  When  the  chemical  composition  of  the  castings  is  a  matter  of 
specification,  in  addition  to  the  physical  tests,  borings  shall  be  taken 
from  all  the  test  bars  made;  they  shall  be  well  mixed  and  any  required 
determination  (combined  and  graphitic  carbon  alone  excepted),  made 
therefrom. 

9.  Reasonable  facilities  shall  be  given  the  inspectors  to  satisfy  them- 
selves that  castings  are  being  made  in  accordance  with  specifications, 
and  if  possible  tests  shall  be  made  at  the  place  of  production  prior  to 
shipment." 

Patterns  for  Test  Bars  of  Cast  Iron 


SSC31 


f-ltp:: 


For  Transverse  Test 


U-2"-n 


w  t- 


/3 


©'IC:::^'^ 


H-  2|^^^.-  /of- 


For  "y?>  Tensile      Test 


Fig.  76. 


h2i"H 


l--± 


z> 


K- //4  - -'< 

Steel  Socket  for  Tensile  Test  of  Cast  Iron.  —  Two  required 


Tp^--yf' r  --- '^'-"-w-  j-w 

k J3" >l 

Standard  Test  Bar  for  Cast-iron  Tensile  Test.  —  Cross  section  equals 
3^  sq.  in. ;  test  piece  should  fit  loosely  in  socket 

Fig.  77. 


2y8  I'tsl  Uars 

Modulus  of  Ruplurc  in  I'ouuds  Per  Square  huh 

Tlie  rtport  of  the  committee  is  accompanie<J  by  a  table  giving  the 
mcxluli  of  rupture  jier  wjuare  inch  for  bars  under  the  various  con- 
ditions (jf  the  tests  and  from  '«  s<|uare  inch  to  i6  square  inches.  It  was 
found  that,  with  few  exceptions,  the  values  decrease  as  the  areas 
increase. 

In  the  table  on  pages  299  and  300,  which  is  extracted  from  their 
reiwrt,  the  moduli  are  given  for  bars  ha\ing  areas  of  i  square  inch, 
2.25,  4.  and  9  square  inches. 

"The  results  show  that  rough  bars  arc  stronger  than  machined  and 
that  there  is  practically  no  diflerence  between  bars  made  in  green  or  dry 
sand. 

An  examination  of  the  table  shows  that  the  transverse  strength  is 
greater  in  the  rough  than  machined  bars,  except  in  two  instances,  \iz.: 
D  bar,  series  J,  in  drj'  sand  the  rough  bar  broke  with  178  pounds  less 
load  than  the  machined  bar.  O  bar,  series  L,  in  dry  sand,  the  rough 
bar  broke  with  115  pounds  less  load  than  did  the  machined  bar.  The 
average  loss  in  transverse  strength  of  the  green  sand  bar  by  machining 
was  12  per  cent;   that  of  the  dry  sand  bar  10  per  cent. 

The  following  articles  are  introduced  as  showing  how  little  reliance 
can  be  placed  on  the  results  from  test  bars.  It  is  shown  that  bars 
identical  in  chemical  composition,  but  made  from  diflerent  brands,  differ 
widely  in  physical  properties;  indicating  the  importance  of  using  in 
mixtures,  irons  from  different  localities,  as  well  as  from  different  furnaces. 
The  micrographs  show  clearly  the  variation  in  structure  corresponding 
to  the  widely  varv'ing  results,  but  it  remains  for  the  metallurgist  to  point 
out  the  causes  for  these  differences." 

Erratic  Results  —  Test  Bars 

Mr.  F.  A.  Nagle  submitted  to  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers  the  following  report  of  his  investigation  of  test  bars  for  castings 
used  in  the  Baltimore  Sewage  pumps. 

"In  machinery  castings  as  well  as  in  cast  i)ij)es,  separate  bars  are  cast 
and  subjected  to  tensile  or  transverse  stress  to  the  breaking  point,  these 
results  being  used  as  evidence  of  compliance  with  the  contract  speci- 
fications. The  writer  has  examined  a  large  number  of  such  test  bars  for 
castings  used  in  the  Baltimore  Sewage  pumps  and  here  reports  the  results 
of  this  examination  and  study. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  conclusion  is  that  the  test  bar  is  not  to 
be  regarded  with  loo  much  confidence  as  indicative  of  the  exact  strength 
of  the  casting.     All  transverse  bars  were  nominally  2  indies  by  i  inch  by 


Modulus  of  Rupture  in  Pounds  Per  Square  Inch  299 


Rough 

Machined 

Area  in 
square 

Square 

Round 

Square 

Round 

inches 

Green 
sand 

Dry 

sand 

Green 
sand 

Dry 

sand 

Green 

sand 

Dry 

sand 

Green 

sand 

Dry 

sand 

-     Ingol  Mould  Iron. 

Series  A.     Silicon  1.67 

1. 00 

37  140 

27,530 

44,210 

33.660 

43,200 

38,610 

26,100 

27,840 

2.2s 

32,880 

31.320 

34.570 

33.870 

29.340 

30,790 

39.810 

38,120 

4.00 

29.540 

25,550 

34.900 

31,610 

31.150 

26,500 

34.320 

32,290 

9.00 

26,200 

21,180 

27,280 

26,540 

26,980 

21,690 

26,030 

28,660 

Dynamo  Frame  Iron.    Series  B.    Silicon  1.95 


1.00 

39.220 

38,380 

44.300 

49,160 

37.440 

30.240 

40,020 

39.150 

2.2s 

39.540 

34.900 

41.270 

44.840 

36,670 

36.180 

44.790 

37.800 

4.00 

33.960 

34.460 

41,680 

39.230 

34.7SO 

33.250 

38.750 

37.270 

9.00 

29,680 

30,050 

35.600 

35.620 

32,740 

30,880 

35.400 

32.810 

Light  Machinery  Iron.     Series  C.     Silicon  2.04 


37.000 
32,880 
36,170 
30,980 


39.190 
38,780 
34.S50 
29.230 


48,050 
38,890 
42,560 
38,080 


50,380 
43,950 
40,150 
37,780 


40,230 
36,990 
33,290 


38.880 
35.420 
32,710 


55.680 
47.340 
42,920 
36,520 


47.850 
51,350 
37.550 
36,290 


Chilled  Roll  (Furnace).     Series  D.    Silicon  0.85 


44,120 
47,760 
46,710 
52,700 


44,010 
67,680 
43.260 
54.910 


49.440 

49.850 

69,130 

59,010 

65,940 

75.000 

65,850 

51.660 

Sand  Roll  Iron  (Furnace).    Series  E.    Silicon  0.72 


51.560 
41.740 
34.700 
33.040 


44.180 
46,290 
33.720 
35,760 


51,620 
41 ,420 
55. no 
53,540 

48.740 
41,960 
61,770 
55,440 

Sash  Weight  Iron.    Series  F.     Silicon  0.91 


52,920 
59,170 
61,870 
42,710 


42,540 
51,130 
Si,8io 
39,160 


58,430 
39,840 
50,130 
42.370 

50,050 

53.010 
47,090 

4S.730 

300 


Test  Burs 


Rough 

Machined 

Area  in 

SqUATC 

Square 

Round 

Sfjuaro 

Round 

inches 

Green 

sand 

Dry 
sand 

Green 
sand 

Dry 
sand 

Green 
sand 

Dry 

sand 

Green 
sand 

Dry 
sand 

Car  Wlieel  Iron.    Series  G.    Silicon  0.97 


1. 00 

47.110 

44.810 

52.600 

61.720 

43.200 

46.080 

64J80 

52.200 

2.2s 

32.120 

28,200 

45.880 

39.740 

44.640 

40.680 

43.aoo 

46,170 

4.00 

35.460 

32.190 

45.970 

39.330 

27.520 

32.760 

41.590 

37JSO 

9.00 

32.0SO 

32.140 

37.610 

3S.ISO 

28.730 

28,960 

33.930 

28,040 

Stove  Plate  Iron.    Series  H.    Silicon  ^.ig 


1.00 

27.980 

29.360 

42.570 

36.920 

48.960 

43.200 

78JOO 

68,600 

2.25 

24.960 

30.710 

42,160 

41.420 

22,500 

24,480 

33.250 

3I.5SO 

4.00 

27.980 

28,930 

40.540 

36.940 

23.400 

28.810 

32.290 

21,910 

9.00 

25,620 

25,020 

33.350 

33.550 

23.710 

24.100 

2S.S40 

23,000 

Heavy  Machinery  Iron 

Series  I.    Silicon  1. 

96 

1.00 

36,000 

44.060 

S3.2IO 

54,180 

43.200 

46.080 

52,200 

S5.680 

2.25 

35.290 

35.040 

43.860 

47.100 

33.120 

39.060 

44.900 

43.200 

4.00 

36.120 

33.580 

42.290 

41,330 

30,400 

32.970 

41,670 

42,420 

9.00 

23.850 

20,880 

33.040 

34.970 

37.040 

30,410 

36/930 

38/»» 

Cylinder  Iron.    Series  J.    Silicon  2. ^g 


1. 00 
2.25 
4.00 
9.00 

43.350 
30.880 
32.600 
27,830 

34.270 
31.950 
30.420 
25.630 

51.690 
33,400 
43.180 
40,900 

55. 500 
41.900 
41.320 
40,170 

39.790 
39.960 
26.400 
26,400 

39.790 
38.520 
26,610 
24,890 

52,200 
51,040 
38,110 
34,470 

46,980 
53.160 
38,240 
34,310 

Novelty  Iron.    Sei 

'ies  K.    Silicon  4.19 

1. 00 

2.25 
4.00 
9.00 

25.430 
25.640 
27.120 
22,220 

36.490 
26.200 
26,860 
24.130 

39.040 
37.760 
3.^,550 
30,890 

42,530 
37.670 
34.560 
32.520 

Gil 

n  Iron  (Furnace). 

Series  L.    Silicon  2.32 

1.00 
2.2s 
4.00 
9.00 

52.230 
49.290 
50.400 
41,980 

44.030 
46,760 
49.990 
43.050 

71,570 
67,060 
66,980 
S9.0I0 

67.350 
66.140 
66.730 
59.460 

53.270 
47.520 
46.670 
41.990 

50,400 
39.600 
39.680 
47.830 

80,040 
59.040 
61,470 
56.140 

71.340 
71.160 
53.310 
59.480 

Erratic  Results  —  Test  Bars 


301 


24  inch  centers.  They  were  cast  from  two  patterns  in  one  mould  and 
made  in  the  same  kind  of  sand  as  the  main  casting.  The  flask  was 
inchned  about  30  degrees.  There  was  but  one  gate  for  the  two  bars  with 
suitable  risers.  The  iron  for  the  bars  was  poured  from  a  small  ladle  of 
iron  taken  as  nearly  as  possible  from  the  middle  of  the  pour  of  the  main 
casting. 
The  breaking  loads  were,  corrected  for  varying  dimensions  of  the  bars 


by  the  formula  W  = 


Wbd^ 


,  where  b  and  d  are  the  actual  dimensions, 


W  the  actual  breaking  load  and  W  the  corrected  load  of  weight.  These 
results  are  used  throughout  this  paper.  The  deflections  were  not 
corrected. 

The  tensile  bars,  1%  inches  by  6  inches,  were  cast  upright  in  the  same 
mould  as  the  main  castings,  within  3  or  4  inches  thereof,  and  connected 
by  an  upper  and  lower  gate.  The  tensile  bars  were  turned  to  i  i-i  inches 
in  diameter  and  threaded,  and  the  middle  portion  reduced  to  1.129  inches 
in  diameter  which  is  equal  to  i  square  inch  area.  Table  I  gives  the 
results  of  the  chemical  analysis  of  the  several  bars  tested. 

Table  I 


13 
0 

1 

■d 

<u 

m 

is 

S-- 

a 

1 

.y 

II 

1 

1, 

3 
P. 

a 
8 

■4J      ^ 

S3  o- 

>     M 

a 
.0 

t 

u 

0 

0  " 

1 

3 

w 

m 

1^ 

Nov.  21, 

1907.... 

3580 

2.830 

.75 

•  79 

.48s 

.081 

1. 59 

24.900 

2440 

49 

Nov.  26, 

1907.... 

3.396 

2.736 

.66 

.38 

■  459 

.124 

1.91 

22.000 

2075 

.40 

From  Aug.  5,  1907  to  April  4,  1908  there  were  made  67  single  tensile 
bars,  and  the  same  number  of  pairs  of  transverse  bars;  and  the  average 
of  the  latter  was  used  in  this  record.  From  April  4  to  Dec.  19, 1908,  there 
were  made  91  pairs  of  tensile  bars  and  an  equal  number  of  transverse 
bars  and  each  piece  of  the  pair  is  recorded  instead  of  the  average. 

Of  these  249  tensile  bars  and  their  corresponding  transverse  bars,  32 
sets  —  26  flat  and  6  round — ^were  rejected  for  defects  due  to  blow-holes 
and  four  tensile  bars  were  too  hard  to  bear  threading,  but  the  companion 
pieces  were  used  in  this  record. 

Of  the  217  specimens  here  recorded,  42  were  designated  as  abnormal; 
that  is,  the  ratio  between  the  tensile  and  the  transverse  bars  was  either 
considerably  greater  or  smaller  than  the  average. 


302 


Tesl  Hars 


By  referring  to  Table  II  it  will  be  seen  that  of  the  175  specimens  of 
cast  iron  runninj^  from  20,000  l<j  jo.ooo  pounds  Icnsilc  strength,  the 
ratio  of  tensile  to  breaking  loads  is  practically  10  to  i  and  the  deflection 
0.45." 


Table  11 

Number  of 
specimens 

Transverse 

Tensile 

Deflection 

Ratio  of  tensile  to 
transverse 

Inch 

29 

206s 

31,630 

.43 

I0.47 

36 

2289 

22.940 

•  45 

10.03 

SI 

2523 

24.880 

47 

9.86 

43 

2756 

26.500 

49 

9  61 

16 

2894 

28.460 

49 

983 

J_ 

175 

Average  2383 

23.732 

45 

9  96 

Comparison  of  Test  Bars 

Table  III  gives  25  abnormal  cases  where  this  average  ratio  is  as  high  as 

12.56  to  I  with  a  deflection  of  0.43  inch,  also  17  abnormal  cases  where 

this  average  ratio  is  as  low  as  7.91  to  i,  with  a  deflection  of  0.44  inch; 

and  yet  the  average  of  both  normal  and  abnormal  bars  was  again  very 

nearly  10  to  i. 

Table  III 

Above  ratio  10  to  i 


Number  of 

Transverse 

Tensile 

Deflection 

Ratio  of  tensile  to 

specimens 

transverse 

In. 

10 

2088 

27,143 

■  41 

12.9s 

10 

2294 

28.530 

.43 

12.44 

4 

2436 

29.600 

•49 

12.15 

I 

2890 

34.000 

■  45 

11.76 

25 

Average  2258 

28.36s 

.43 

13. 56 

Below  10  I 

0  I 

I 

2105 

17.600 

.50 

8.36 

4 

2359 

18.825 

.41 

7.98 

7 

2487 

18.814 

.43 

7.57 

3 

2656 

21.330 

.45 

8.00 

3 

2969 

24.S00 

.47 

8. 35 

17 

2S2I 

I9.9S4 

■  44 

7.91 

Breaking  loads,  presumably  alike,  varied  in  pairs  of  transverse  bars 
and  also  in  pairs  of  tensile  bars  as  follows: 


Comparison  of  Test  Bars 


303 


Out  of  65  pairs  of  flat  or  transverse  bars,  14  or  22  per  cent,  average 
variation  18  per  cent;  17  or  26  per  cent,  average  variation  5.4  per  cent; 
34  or  52  per  cent,  average  variation  less  than  2  per  cent. 

Out  of  65  pairs  of  round  or  tensile  bars  22  or  34  per  cent,  average 
variation  15  per  cent;  20  or  31  per  cent,  average  variation  5.5  per  cent; 
23  or  35  per  cent,  average  variation  less  than  2  per  cent. 

61  other  pairs  of  flat  bars  which  had  only  one  companion  tensile  bar 
varied  in  about  the  same  ratios. 

Two  special  flat  bars  and  two  special  round  bars,  cast  in  one  mould,  one 
gate  a.id  at  one  pour  varied  as  follows: 

Two  flat  bars  12  per  cent;   two  round  bars  7  per  cent. 

In  order  to  get  some  more  definite  information  on  these  variations,  if 
possible,  I  had  a  pair  of  transverse  and  a  pair  of  tensile  bars  made  and 
cast  in  the  same  mould  and  while  the  average  was  again  nearly  10  to  i  as 
shown  in  Table  III,  the  same  type  of  bars  again  varied  12  and  7  per  cent 
respectively. 

Table  IV 

Comparison  of  Cast-iron  Test  Bars.    Special.     Two  Sets  Cast  in 

Same  Mould  at  Same  Time 


Number  of 
specimens 

Transverse 

Tensile 

Deflection 

Ratio  of  tensile  to 
transverse 

I 

I 

2 

217 

2350 
2100 

Average  2225 
All  averages  2380 

23,000 
21,470 

22,235 
23.970 

Inch 
•  SO 
.45 
.47 
.45 

9-79 
10.21 

10.04 
10.07 

I 
I 

I 

I 

I  have  no  satisfactory  explanation  for  the  great  variation  of  these  test 
bars  and  we  can  only  accept  the  fact  that  mathematical  uniformity  in 
strength  of  cast-iron  bars  is  not  found  in  the  present  state  of  the  art. 

To  any  one  questioning  the  results,  I  can  only  say  from  my  own 
knowledge  of  the  circumstances,  that  the  personal  equation  did  not  enter 
into  them. 

Careful  observation  of  broken  bars  did  not  show  that  the  so-called 
"skin  of  the  metal "  was  of  any  appreciable  thickness  and  the  metal  was 
remarkably  homogeneous  throughout. 

The  tensile  bars  being  turned,  the  skin,  if  there  was  anj^,  of  course 
disappeared. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  the  skin  adds  practically  nothing  to  the  strength 
in  either  transverse  or  tensile  bars;  other  causes,  though  obscxire,  produc- 
ing far  greater  deviations." 


304 


Test  Bars 


Casting  Defects 


Although  many  castings  were  cundcnincd  for  physical  defects  not  a 
single  case  of  cold-shut  was  observed. 

In  one  instance  of  defect,  he  says:  "To  remove  all  doubt  that  the  test 
bars  were  truly  representative  of  the  iron  in  the  main  casting,  two  tensile 
bars  were  cut  out  of  a  large  flange  which  had  been  at  the  bottom  of  the 
mould.  These,  from  the  most  favored  |)art  of  the  casting,  as  will  be  seen, 
stood  but  about  17.350  pounds;  90  per  cent  of  that  revealed  by  the  test 
bars.  In  this  case  there  was  a  rcmarkaijlc  agreement  between  this  pair 
of  test  bars. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  apply  these  results  to  the  formula  for  the 

strength  of  cast-iron  beams  subjected  to  similar  stress. 

^  PI 
The  formula  commonly  used  is  /?  =  —^ ,  where  R  is  called  the  modulus 

2  b(P 

of  rupture,  or  stress  per  square  inch  of  extreme  fibre, 

P  =  load  at  center, 
/  =  length  between  supports  in  inches, 
b  and  d  =  breadth  and  depth  respectively  in  inches. 

Make  the  proper  substitutions  and  we  have  R  =  42,840  pounds. 
This  is  not  the  correct  figure,  however,  for  the  extreme  fibre  stress.  We 
know  this  cannot  exceed  the  tensile  strength  which  we  have  found  to  be 
23,732  pounds. 

I  think  it  is  better  to  use  D.  K.  Clarke's  formula  given  on  page  507  of 

his  "  Engine  Tables."     S  =  j-jr  ,  where  5=  extreme  fibre  stress  or 

1-155  od^ 
tensile  strength.  If  we  use  the  tensile  strength  found  in  these  tests  as 
23,732  pounds,  the  breaking  load  W  would  become  22S4  pounds;  the 
actual  breaking  load  being  2383  pounds.  As  this  is  within  4.3  per  cent 
of  the  average  found  in  these  tests,  this  formula,  using  the  tensile  strength 
for  the  extreme  fibre  stress,  seems  to  me  to  be  more  intelligible  and  dis- 
penses with  the  "coefiicient  of  rupture." 


Circular  Test  Bars 

Since  the  foregoing  was  written  I  have  had  the  opportunity  to  ob- 
serve two  circular  test  bars,  nominally  iV*  inch  diameter  by  15  inches 
long,  with  12-inch  centers.  These  bars  were  cast  from  two  separate 
patterns  in  one  vertical  dry  sand  mould,  and  poured  from  a  small 
hand  ladle,  first  one  and  then  the  other,  with  the  result  shown  in 
Table  V. 


Circular  Test  Bars  305 

Table  V.  —  Circular  Test  Bars  in  Vertical  Dry  Sand  Moulds 


Bar  mark 

Transverse 

Tensile 

Deflection 

Value  IF  by 
formula 

Original 
diameter 

H 

3344 

3344 

3026 

2 

23,070 

23,754 

24,670 

3 

•  IS 
.15 
.12 

4 

2948 

3036 

3153 

5 

I  30^; 

H 

I  305 

X 

I  300 

/ 

6 

The  tensile  bars  were  taken  from  the  bottom  ends  of  the  broken  test 
bars,  but  I  do  not  know  whether  H  or  X  was  poured  first. 

The  first  tensile  bar  H  had  a  small  air-hole,  which  being  allowed  for, 
added  7  per  cent  to  its  tensile  strength,  and  this  is  also  given  in  the  table. 
A  second  bar  was  then  turned  up  from  the  immediate  joining  piece  with 
the  result  recorded  in  the  table  first.  The  turned  bars  were  0.937  inch 
diameter. 

Column  six  gives  the  original  diameter.  Column  two  was  found  by 
reducing  the  actual  breaking  loads  in  the  ratio  of  the  cubes  of  the  diam- 
eters, and  column  three  was  reduced  to  the  square  inch  area.  Why  the 
transverse  breaking  loads  should  vary  10  per  cent  and  the  tensile  bars 
4  to  7  per  cent  the  opposite  way,  a  total  variation  of  14  to  17  per  cent,  I 
leave  to  the  reflection  of  the  reader.     If  we  apply  Clarke's  formula  for 


the  breaking  weight  for  circular  bars,  W  = 


0.7854  X  d^  X  S 
I 


,  we  find  the 


values  given  in  column  five. 

While  the  blow-holes  seem  to  be  more  frequent  in  flat  transverse  bars 
than  in  round  attached  tensile  bars,  the  latter  seem  liable  to  a  greater 
abnormal  hardness,  for  which  I  have  no  explanation. 

Some  indication  of  the  toughness  of  cast  iron  may  be  seen  in  its  deflec- 
tion, which  is  not  revealed  in  a  direct  pull.  I  would,  therefore,  be 
satisfied  with  two  or  three  transverse  test  bars  2  in.  by  i  in.  by  24  in. 
centers,  and  a  deflection  record  poured  as  near  as  may  be  from  the  middle 
of  the  pour  of  the  main  casting  as  giving  a  fair  indication  of  the  iron 
in  the  main  casting,  but  mathematical  exactness  cannot  be  looked  for  as 
yet. 

If  we  wish  to  know  approximately  the  corresponding  tensile  strength 
of  the  iron,  we  can  multiply  the  breaking  load  of  the  2  in.  by  i  in.  by  24 
in.  flat  bar  by  10. 

If  the  test  bar  is  iH  inch  diameter  by  12-inch  centers  its  breaking 
load  should  be  multiplied  by  8  to  obtain  the  approximate  tensile 
strength. 


3o6 


Test  Uars 


The  general  rule  seems  lu  be,  that  where  lx)lh  flat  bars  agree  in  break- 
ing loads,  the  tensile  strength  is  lo  to  i  uf  the  breaking  load,  but  where 
they  differ  the  lo  lo  i  ratio  docs  not  hold.  A  belter  practice,  therefore, 
might  be  lo  cast  three  round  transverse  bars  and  accept  the  two  that 
agree,  if  each  is  round,  as  a  fair  siimple  of  the  iron,  disjx'nsing  with  the 
tensile  bars.  This  concession  lo  ihc  manufacturer,  I  believe,  v/ould 
entail  not  only  no  loss  lo  the  city's  interests,  but  a  positive  gain. 

EFFECT  OF   STRUCTURE  OF  CAST  IRON  UPON  ITS 
PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES 

Microscopic  Evidence  of  the  Reason  why  Ikons  of 

Similar  Chemical  Composition  have  Different 

Relative  Strengths 

BY 

F.  J.  Cook  and  G.  Hailstone 

"  During  daily  foundry  practice,  with  work  made  from  mixtures  of  iron 
that  have  the  same  chemical  composition  and  where  tests  are  frequently 
taken,  it  is  often  found  that  widely  different  physical  results  are  obtained. 
Instances  of  this  have  been  brought  to  the  notice  of  this  association 
.  .  .  but  in  neither  case  was  an  explanation  of  the  phenomena  given. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  give  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  these 
differences,  but  on  the  whole  the  conclusions  arrived  at  have  not  been 
generally  accepted. 

In  the  past  the  instances  cited  have  generally  been  isolated  ones,  but 
a  remarkable  series  of  tests  over  a  lengthy  period  has  recently  been  met 
with  by  one  of  the  authors. 


t\s 


-i-                    JL 

xh  .2^2^i^M"-'  111-  ain     •,    ^^=.- 

Z^'ii^     T^'^^^-TUi-'in  ,       ^v    i^^  ■ 

V      1l          ^            1          V. 

15' 

-kJ           -,1                ^           ^-X-4,                                           \-J 

,  ^  t^u^-iA^^4"i^^Ki^t^^    ^^^  ^^t.t 

^ \t   V^2    li^S^' EJ_    17,  ^3tSi^^    i 

3<  '/T  m  VfSpt  -J;  7c.  rti  jr  ■■                                     * 

Fig.  78. 

Fig.  78  is  a  diagram  of  tensile  test  results  of  two  series  of  casts,  each 
representing  60  consecutive  days  working  with  irons  nii.\ed  to  give  the 


Effect  of  Structure  of  Cast  Iron  upon  Its  Physical  Properties    307 


same  chemical  composition,  but  each  series  made  up  with  different 
brands  of  pig  iron. 

That  the  chemical  analysis  was  identical  in  each  case  was  proved  by 
analyses  taken  from  time  to  time  which,  in  each  instance,  for  all  practical 
purposes  came  out  alike. 

The  diagram  shows  that  the  highest  tensile  result  in  the  A  series  was 
lower  than  the  lowest  result  in  the  B  series.  A  summary  of  the  whole 
of  the  tests  is  shown  in  Table  I. 

Table  I.  —  Results  of  Mechanical  Tests 


Tensile 

test,  tons 

per  square 

inch 

Trans- 
verse test, 

cwts. 
I  in.   sq. 
bar,  12  in. 

center 

Trans- 
verse test, 

lbs.  on 
li  in.  sq. 
bar,  12  in. 

centers, 

Keep's 
test 

Shrinkage 

in  inches 

H  in.  sq. 

bar. 

Keep's 

test 

Hardness 

Blast 
pressure 
in  ounces 

Series        

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

B 

A 

P 

Highest 

12.9 
8.7 
10.7 
60 

18.3 
13. 1 
15.8 
60 

28. 5 
19.0 
23.1 
33 

32.25 
25.0 
29.1 
30 

550 

390 

466 

58 

570 
375 
450 
59 

.182 
.144 
.140 
58 

.180 
.140 
.155 
58 

68 
48 
57>^ 
60 

78 
561/4 
64  M 
56 

15 
10 

12% 
44 

16 
II 

Average 

No  test  taken . . 

13W 
39 

Each  tensile  test  bar  was  i  inch  square  and  transverse  and  hardness 
bars  were  cast  relatively  of  the  same  size,  and  on  the  casting  they  were 
to  represent;  while  the  54-inch  transverse  bars,  which  were  also  used 
for  the  shrinkage  test,  were  cast  separately  by  Keep's  method. 

The  transverse  bars  were  cast  iH  inch  square,  machined  down  to 
I  inch  square  and  tested  on  12-inch  centers. 

Referring  to  Table  I,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  results  of  the  transverse 
tests  on  the  i  inch  square  bars  also  show  a  marked  difference,  as  do  the 
tensile  tests.  It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  the  average  result  of  the 
transverse  test  on  the  ^4-inch  square  bars  is  slightly  in  favor  of  the  series 
which  gave  the  weakest  tensile,  and  with  the  i-inch  square  bar  opposite 
results.     This  point  will  be  referred  to  later. 

As  the  method  of  manipulation  and  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
two  series  were  the  same,  it  was  thought  that  a  microscopical  analysis 
would  reveal  a  cause  for  the  vast  difference.  For  the  first  investigation 
a  low  bar  of  the  A  series,  and  the  highest  bar  of  the  B  series  were  ex- 
amined. The  chemical  analysis  of  the  two  bars  was  first  taken  as 
shown  in  Table  II. 


30«  Tcsl  liars 

Table  II,  —  Comi'arative  Cukuical  Analysis  of  the  Two  Series 


Schc. 

., 

B 

9.1  tons  per 
Tensile  test                  ]     square  inch, 
I)er  cent 

18.3  tons  per 

square  inch, 

per  cent 

3.250 
2.397 

3092 

3  2K0 

•8S3                         90J 
1.328                      I  314 

.095             1                    lOI 

.923 
■290 

94  "4 

.909 
.335 

94  149 

Chemical  Analyses 

These  analyses  will  be  seen  to  he  practically  identical,  even  to  the 
amount  of  the  combined  and  graphitic  carbon. 

To  insure  the  results  being  absolutely  comparative,  a  number  of 
micrographs  were  each  taken  from  the  same  position  at  the  center  of 
the  bars.  Fig.  79  shows  the  polished,  but  unetched  section  of  the  low 
bar  from  the  .1  series.  Fig.  80  the  high  bar  from  the  B  series.  These 
show  the  size  of  the  graphite  in  each  case,  the  one  having  it  in  the  form 
of  long  flakes,  the  other  in  very  small  flakes. 


Fig.  79. 


Fig.  80. 


Figs.  Si  and  82  show  the  same  surfaces  etched  with  iodine  and  magni- 
fied 1 20  diameters.  In  the  one  case  the  large  flakes  of  graphite  are  plainly 
seen  in  a  matrix  of  cementite,  phosphorus  eutectic,  peariitc  and  ferrite; 
while  in  the  other,  the  graphitic  carbon  is  scarcely  visible  and  a  closer 
structure  is  observed.  Otherwise,  there  is  nothing  very  remarkable  to 
account  for  such  widely  different  physical  results. 


Chemical  Analyses 


309 


The  same  surfaces  were  then  treated  on  the  lines  laid  down  by  Mr. 

Stead  at  the  1909  convention,  to  bring  into  prominence  the  phosphorus 

eutectic.     Fig.  83  shows  the  9.1  ton  bar,  and  Fig.  84  the  18.3  ton  bar. 

In  both  cases  not  only  is  the  phosphorus  shown  but  the  cementite  as 

.  well. 

In  Fig.  83  the  phosphorus  and  cementite  are  evenly  distributed,  and 
have  not  taken  up  any  definite  form  of  structure,  the  graphite  being  also 
shown  intermixed  with  them,  but  in  Fig.  84  a  very  remarkable  arrange- 
ment of  a  net-like  formation  of  phosphorus  and  cementite  is  shown.    As 


Fig.  81. — A  Series;  tensile  strength 
18,200  pounds  per  sq.  inch;  mag- 
nification 120  diameters. 


Fig.  83. — A  Series;  tensile  strength 
18,200  pounds  per  sq.  inch;  mag- 
nification 30  diameters. 


Fig.  82.  —  B  Series;  tensile  strength 
36,600  pounds  per  sq.  inch;  mag- 
nification 120  diameters. 


Fig.  84. — B  Series;  tensile  strength 
36,600  pounds  per  sq.  inch;  mag- 
nification 30  diameters. 


it  had  been  noticed  with  bars  previously  examined  that  those  giving 
high  test  had  also  been  associated  with  this  particular  net-like  structure, 
we  were  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  probably  strength  was  associated 
with  this  structure  independently  of  what  the  chemical  composition 
might  be;  we,  therefore,  examined  a  series  of  bars  made  by  one  of  the 
authors  a  few  years  ago  to  show  the  effect  on  strength  of  different  rates 
of  cooling.  For  this  experiment  four  bars  had  been  made  in  one  box, 
cast  from  the  same  ladle  of  metal,  which  was  ordinary  No.  3  foundry 
pig  iron. 

Taken  from  "  castings,"  Aug.  1909. 


3IO 


Tc-si  Hars 


The  rale  of  cooling  was  re^ulalt-d  \)y  means  of  cast  iron  chills  of 
(lidercnt  thicknesses  placed  in  the  moulds  for  three  of  the  bars,  the  other 
having  no  iron  chill.  The  bar  without  the  chill  gave  a  tensile  test  result 
of  8.1  tons  per  stjuarc  inch,  while  the  bar  at  the  other  end  of  the  series 
broke  at  15.2  tons  per  s(|uare  inch.  These  two  bars  were  selected,  the 
chemical  analyses  of  which  are  given  in  Tabic  III. 

Table  III.  —  Analysis  of  MEOiini  Bar 


Tensile-  strength 

13.9  per  cent 

3  J7a 

2.740 
532 
1.307 
III 
.948 
.330 

94  032 

Graphitic  carbon 

Silicon 

Phosphorus 

Iron  by  difference 

Chilled  and  Unchilled  Bars 

These  results  are  identical,  and  as  there  is  practically  no  combined 
(arbon  present,  there  must  be  an  absence  of  cementite.  The  bars  are 
also  totally  diCfcrent  in  chemical  composition  from  those  previously 
examined. 

Figs.  85  and  86  show  unetched  sections  from  the  two  bars,  with  the 
difference  in  the  formation  of  the  graphite  as  previously  pointed  out  in 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  86. 


connection  with  the  other  bars;  that  is,  elongated  flakes  of  graphite  in 
the  unchilled  bar,  and  finely  divided  graphite  in  that  of  the  chilled 
one. 

Figs.  87  and  88  show  the  formation  of  the  phosphorus  eutectic  in  the 
case  of  the  weak  bar  to  be  broken  up  and  ha^^ng  no  distinct  pattern, 
while  in  the  case  of  the  strong  bar  there  is  dearly  shown  that  net-Uke 


Chilled  aixl  Unchilled  Bars 


311 


formation  which  was  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  strong  bar  from 
the  B  series,  but  with  this  difference,  tliat  the  structure  was  rather 
smaller. 

As  there  is  no  cementite  present  in  this  specimen,  it  is  proof  that  the 
particular  formation  is  not  dependent  upon  cementite. 


Fig.  87. 

There  was  next  examined  another  bar  from  B  series.  This  had  a 
tensile  strength  about  half  way  between  the  two  bars  previously  selected, 
and  had  given  a  tensile  test  result  of  13.9  tons  per  square  inch.  The 
analysis  of  this  bar  is  shown  in  Table  III.  This  showed  that  while  the 
total  carbon  and  other  elements  were  practically  the  same  as  the  two 
bars  previously  taken,  the  graphitic  carbon  was  higher  by  0.35  per  cent, 
and  the  combined  carbon  lower  by  0.35  per  cent.  This  was  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  this  bar  had  been  cast  on  a  much  larger  casting  than 
the  previous  two. 

The  size  of  the  graphite  in  this  bar  is  illustrated  by  an  unetched 
section  in  Fig.  89  which  shows  that  although  it  is  smaller  than  that  shown 
in  Fig.  79  of  the  9.1  ton  bar,  it  is  larger  and  more  elongated  than  that 
contained  in  the  18.3  bar,  Fig.  80. 


Fig.  89. 


Fig.  go. 


The  phosphorus  eutectic  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  90  is  the  same  net-like 
formation  as  associated  with  the  previous  strong  bars,  though  rather  less 
dearly  defined  and  appears  to  be  getting  into  the  transition  stage  between 
the  two. 


312  Test  Bars 

The  foregoing  results,  we  think,  have  been  sufficient  to  show  that  in 
each  case,  physical  properties  ha\e  been  associated  with  this  net-Uke 
formation  of  the  phosphorus,  also  that  the  graphite,  when  in  the  elongated 
form,  appears  to  split  up  phosphorus  eutectic  and  prevent  this  formation, 
as  clearly  shown  in  F'ig.  83.  The  question  of  the  tendency  of  the  graphite 
to  take  either  an  elongated  or  finely  divided  form,  we  think,  is  more  a 
question  of  the  way  in  which  the  pig  iron  has  been  made  than  of  its 
subsequent  treatment  in  the  foundry.  The  statement  of  Mr.  Pilkington 
in  this  respect  is  very  interesting:  "Furnace  men  have  always  been 
conversant  with  the  fact  that  the  temperature  at  which  pig  iron  leaves 
the  tapping  hole  of  the  furnace  has  a  powerful  effect  on  its  physical 
characteristics.  The  temperature  of  a  large  modern  blast  furnace  is 
very  much  higher  and  the  metal,  therefore,  takes  very  much  longer  to 
cool  than  that  which  leaves  the  tapping  hole  of  the  smaller  furnaces. 

Pig  iron  from  the  extreme  types  could  be  made  practically  in  a 
different  manner  altogether,  and  would  show  very  different  grades,  grains 
and  degrees  of  hardness. 

On  referring  again  to  the  sunmiary  of  tests  taken  with  the  A  and  B 
series  it  will  be  seen  that  the  results  of  the  ,' 2-inch  transverse  bars  of  the 
A  series,  which  gave  weak  tensile  results,  are  slightly  higher  than  those 
of  the  B  series,  and  from  this,  together  with  the  evidence  of  the  chilled 
and  unchilled  bars  made  from  low  grade  iron,  we  are  of  the  opinion  that 
no  matter  what  their  chemical  compositions  may  be,  there  is  a  rate  of 
cooling  which  will  give  high  physical  properties;  the  structure  of  the 
iron  then  being  associated  with  the  net-like  formation  of  the  phosphorus 
eutectic  and  the  cementite  when  present. 

Tests  reported  to  the  International  Association  for  Testing  Materials 
show: 

Circular  bars  showed  greater  bending  and  tensile  strength  than  those 
of  rectangular  section. 

Test  pieces  taken  from  castings  showed  lower  strength  figures  than  bars 
separately  cast. 

Extracts  from  Prof.  Porter's  Report 
Prof.  Porter's  report  contains  so  much  information  of  value  to  the 
foundryman,  that  extensive  extracts  are  made  from  those  parts  relating 
to  the  properties  and  mixtures  of  cast  iron,  notwithstanding  they  may 
comprise  much  which  has  already  been  considered. 

In  treating  of  the  different  forms   of  iron   as   occurring   at  differ- 
ent temperatures,   they   are  designated  as  the  "alpha,"  "beta"   and 
"gamma." 
The  "alpha"  form  in  the  ordinary  iron  as  known  in  unhardened  steel 


Chilled  and  Unchilled  Bars 


313 


at  ordinary  temperatures,  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  slowly  cooled 
gray  pig  iron,  and  is  formed  below  1140°  F. 

The  "beta"  form  is  that  between  1440°  F.  and  1680°  F.;  it  is  harder 
than  the  "gamma."  Prof.  Howe  suggests  its  identity  with  martensite, 
the  chief  constituent  of  hardened  tool  steels.  It  is  non-magnetic  and 
diflfers  from  "alpha"  iron  in  specific  heat  and  density. 

The  "gamma"  form  is  the  stable  one  above  1680°  F.,  is  very  hard, 
non-magnetic,  and  differs  in  specific  heat  and  density  from  both  the 
"alpha"  and  "beta." 

It  is  held  that  the  "gamma"  and  "beta"  forms  may  be  preserved  at 
ordinary  temperatures  by  verj^  rapid  cooling,  especially  in  the  presence 
of  carbon  which  is  supposed  to  retard  the  change  from  one  form  into 
another. 

Table  I.  —  Forms  of  Combination  of  Iron  anb  Carbon 


Name 

Synonyms 

Physical  characteristics 

Graphite 

Very  soft  dark  flakes  of  variable 
size.     No  strength. 

Kish 

Graphite  in  very  large  flakes. 
Graphite   in   form  of   very  fine 
powder. 

Temper  carbon .  . . 

Free  carbon 

Ferrite 

Iron 

Soft,  very  ductile,  low  strength. 
Very  hard  and  brittle,  high  static 

Cementite 

Combined  carbon.   Iron  car- 

bide. FeC. 

strength,  no  ductility. 

Austenite 

Solution  carbon  in  "gamma" 

Slightly  softer  than  martensite. 

iron. 

Also  weaker  and  more  brittle. 

Martensite 

Solution  carbon  in  "beta" 

Hard,  but    less  brittle  than  ce- 

iron.    Transition  product 

mentite.     Chief  constituent  of 

austenite  to  pearlite. 

hardened  tool  steels. 

Troostite 

Transition  product  marten- 

Softer    than     martensite,     less 

site  to  sorbite. 

brittle  and  more  ductile. 

Sorbite 

Transition  product.     Troost- 
ite to  pearlite. 

Softer  than  troostite   and   more 
ductile.     Strongest  form. 

Pearlite 

An  intimate  mechanical  mix- 

Very strong.      Harder  than  fer- 

ture of  cementite  and  fer- 

rite. 

rite. 

Prof.  Porter  classifies  the  more  important  physical  properties  of  cast 
iron  as  follows: 

Static  strength,  including:  Tensile  strength;  compressive  strength; 
transverse  strength;   torsional  strength;  shearing  strength. 

Dynamic  strength,  embracing:  Resistance  to  repeated  stress;  resist- 
ance to  alternating  stresses;   resistance  to  shock. 

Elastic  properties,  embracing:  Elastic  Hmit;  resilience  or  elasticity; 
rigidity;  toughness;  malleability. 


314  Test  Bars 

Hardness,  embracing:  Hardness  *>{  mass;  ability  to  chill;  hardness 
of  chill. 

Grain  slruclurc,  including:  I-ractiirc  or  grain  size;  f>orosity;  specific 
gravity. 

5Artnitagc,  embracing:  Shrinkage  of  the  liquid  mass;  shrinkage  of  the 
solid  mass;   stretch. 

Fluid  properties,  embracing:   Fusibility;   fluidity. 

Resistance  to  Ileal,  embracing:  Resistance  to  continued  heat;  resist- 
ance to  alternate  healing  and  cooling;  resistance  to  very  low  temjjcratures. 

FJectrical  properties,  including:  Electrical  conductivity;  magnetJc 
permeability;   hysteresis. 

Miscellaneous  properties,  including:  Resistance  to  various  corrosive 
agencies;   resistance  to  wear;   coetTicient  of  friction. 

Properties  of  the  mass:  Soundness,  or  freedom  from  blow-holes  and 
shrinkage  cavities;  cleanness,  or  freedom  from  inclusions  of  dross,  etc.; 
freedom  from  pin-holes  and  porous  places;  homogeneity,  or  lack  of 
segregation;  crystallization;  freedom  from  shrinkage  strains;  tendency 
to  peel  off  sand  and  scale. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
CHEMICAL  ANALYSES 

Strength 

As  regards  chemical  composition  there  are  nine  factors  which  influence 
strength  of  cast  iron:  (i)  Per  cent  graphite;  (2)  size  of  individual  graphite 
flakes;  (3)  per  cent  combined  carbon;  (4)  size  of  primary  crystals  of 
solid  solution  Fe-C-Si;  (5)  amount  of  dissolved  oxide;  (6)  per  cent 
phosphorus;  (7)  per  cent  sulphur;  (8)  per  cent  silicon;  (9)  per  cent 
manganese. 

1.  "Per  cent  graphite.  —  The  weakening  effect  of  graphite  is  due  to 
its  own  extreme  softness  and  weakness,  and  to  the  fact  that  it  occurs 
in  small  flakes  or  plates  and  hence  affords  a  multitude  of  cleavage  planes 
through  the  metal.  The  size  of  the  graphite  particles  is  evidently 
important  as  well  as  the  amount  but  this  factor  will  be  discussed  under 
another  head. 

Theoretically,  the  simplest  method  of  decreasing  graphite  is  to  lower 
the  silicon,  each  decrease  on  i  per  cent  in  silicon  lessening  the  graphite 
by  0.45  per  cent,  provided  the  total  carbon  remains  the  same.  Practi- 
cally, however,  the  fact  that  all  the  carbon  not  graphite  becomes  combined 
is  an  important  objection,  for  when  we  lower  the  silicon  too  much  the 
resulting  increase  in  combined  carbon  increases  the  hardness  and,  beyond 
a  certain  point,  decreases  the  strength.  The  minimum  permissible 
silicon  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  hardness  allowable. 

The  same  objection  applies  to  decreasing  the  graphite  by  increas- 
ing the  sulphur  and  manganese,  and  in  the  case  of  sulphur  there  is 
also  the  objection  that  its  direct  effects  are  injurious.  The  rate  of 
cooling  is,  of  course,  beyond  the  control  of  the  foundryman  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  while  even  if  it  were  not,  the  graphite  could  not 
be  reduced  by  rapid  cooling  without  a  corresponding  increase  in  com- 
bined carbon. 

Coming  finally  to  the  total  carbon,  we  find  here  a  means  of  reducing 
graphite  without  in  any  way  affecting  carbon,  and  hence,  hardness. 
The  only  limitation  to  this  is  that  as  total  carbon  and  graphite  are 
reduced,  shrinkage  is  increased  and  the  metal  becomes  more  liable  to 
oxidation,  blow-holes  and  other  defects. 

31S 


3i6  Chemical  Analyses 

There  are  three  ways  of  reducing  total  carbon  in  castings;  first,  by 
ihc  use  of  low  carbon  pig  iron;  second,  by  melting  in  the  air  furnace; 
tliird,  by  the  use  of  steel  scrap  in  the  cupola  mixture. 

In  air  furnace  melting  it  is  easy  to  reduce  total  carbon  to  almost  any 
U^UTC  within  reason.  2.75  per  cent  is  commonly  obtained  in  melting  for 
malleable  castings.  Of  course  the  silicon  is  also  burnt  out  during  this 
l)rocess,  but  were  it  desired,  this  could  be  readily  replaced  by  suitable 
additions  of  ferrosilicon.  From  the  standpoint  of  quality  the  air 
furnace  is  certainly  the  ideal  method  of  melting,  and  hence,  we  find  that 
many  lines  of  castings  which  must  be  of  particularly  high  quality  are 
invariably  made  from  air  furnace  metal. 

The  addition  of  steel  scrap  to  the  cupola  has  now  become  common 
practice,  the  product  obtained  being  known  as  semi-steel  and  differing 
chemically  from  ordinary  cast  iron  only  in  being  somewhat  lower  in 
total  carbon  and  graphite.  Physically  the  metal  so  made  is  characterized 
by  greater  strength  and  total  shrinkage,  hardness  remaining  about  the 
same.   ..." 

The  chief  points  to  be  watched  in  melting  steel  scrap  in  the  cupola 
mixture  are  as  follows: 

"  Trouble  with  hlow-hohs.  —  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  semi-steel  being 
lower  in  carbon  oxidizes  more  readily  than  cast  iron.  The  trouble  may 
usually  be  overcome  by  correct  cupola  practice  and  the  use  of  ferro- 
manganese  or  other  deoxidizers  in  the  ladle.  Owing  to  the  higher 
melting  point  of  semi-steel  mixtures,  ferromanganese  is  much  more 
efficient  as  a  deo.xidizer  here  than  in  the  case  of  cast  iron.    .    .    . 

Tligh  shrinkage.  —  This  is  due  to  the  decrease  in  graphite  and  is 
hence  inevitable.  On  work  where  this  is  an  important  factor  a  proper 
balance  must  be  struck  between  shrinkage  and  strength.   .    .    . 

Imperfect  mixture  of  steel  and  iron  resulting  in  irregular  quality  of 
casting,  hard  spots,  etc.  —  This  results  from  the  higher  melting  point  of 
steel  and  consequent  difficulty  of  getting  perfect  solution  in  the  cast 
iron.  It  ma)'  be  largely  overcome  by  careful  attention  to  the  charging 
of  the  cupola,  placing  the  steel  scrap  on  the  coke  and  the  iron  on  top  of 
the  steel  (so  that  the  steel  will  reach  the  melting  zone  first  and  the  molten 
pig  wall  run  down  over  the  heated  steel  instead  of  away  from  it  as  would 
happen  if  the  order  were  re\'ersed).  \  large  recei^^ng  ladle  should,  of 
course,  be  used  also.  Another  point  to  be  obser\'ed  is  in  regard  to  the 
size  of  the  steel  scrap.  Too  large  scrap  is  difticult  to  melt,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  very  small  scrap  is  also  objectionable  as  being  an  abundant 
source  of  hard  sjiots  in  the  castings.  .Apparently  very  small  pieces  of 
steel  are  liable  to  be  washed  down  through  the  coke  bed  and  out  of  the 
cupola  spout  without  being  completely  melted. 


Strength  317 

Regarding  the  amount  of  steel  scrap  to  use,  it  has  been  found  by  trial 
that  the  best  results  are  obtainable  with  about  25  per  cent.  Increase  to 
33 '4  per  cent  caused  a  slight  falling  off  in  strength.  Probably  these 
figures  would  not  hold  for  every  condition  of  practice,  but,  in  general, 
20  to  30  per  cent  steel  is  a  sufficient  amount  to  give  the  maximum 
results. 

2.  Size  of  graphite  flakes.  —  The  size  of  the  graphite  flakes  is  prob- 
ably the  most  important  factor  of  all  those  which  influence  strength,  and 
is  the  one  which  most  frequently  upsets  our  calculations  as  to  the  rela- 
tion between  chemical  composition  and  strength.  .  .  .  Recently,  how- 
ever, Messrs.  F.  J.  Cook  and  G.  Hailstone  have  brought  out  in  a  striking 
manner  the  great  difference  in  irons  in  this  respect.  They  give  data 
showing  that  of  two  mixtures  practically  identical  in  composition  the 
one  was  invariably  much  lower  in  strength  (usually  about  one-half) 
than  the  other,  this  being  the  case  for  a  great  many  heats  extending  over 
a  long  period  of  time." 

Analyses  and  tests  are  given  as  typical  of  the  series. 

"Messrs.  Cook  and  Hailstone  have  investigated  and  compared  the 
micro-structure  of  the  strong  and  weak  bars  and  record  two  interesting 
facts:  First,  that  the  graphite  flakes  are  invariably  much  larger  in  the 
weak  bars;  second,  that  when  the  polished  specimens  are  treated  so  as 
to  bring  out  the  phosphide  eutectic  this  eutectic  is  seen  to  be  arranged 
in  the  customary  heterogeneous  manner  in  the  weak  bars  but  in  a  dis- 
tinct meshwork  structure  in  the  strong  iron. 

These  authors  draw  the  conclusion  that  it  is  this  meshwork  structure 
which  gives  great  strength  to  cast  iron,  but  with  this  conclusion  the 
writer  cannot  entirel}^  agree.  It  seems  more  probable  that  the  increase 
in  strength  is  caused  by  the  fine  state  of  division  of  the  graphite  and  that 
the  same  influences  which  have  caused  this  have  also  caused  the  meshwork 
structure. 

We  may  get  some  idea  of  the  quantitative  relationship  between 
strength  and  size  of  graphite  by  considering  the  relative  strength  of 
malleable  cast  iron  and  a  very  open  gray  cast  iron  representing  the 
smallest  and  largest  graphite  respectively.  Malleable  cast  iron  has  a 
tensile  strength  of  40,000  poimds  and  upwards  per  square  inch;  open 
gray  iron  about  20,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Apparentl}',  then,  the 
increase  in  the  size  of  the  graphite  has  caused  a  loss  of  at  least  20,000 
pounds  in  tensile  strength. 

It  is  one  thing  to  find  that  to  get  strong  iron  we  must  have  the 
graphite  in  finely  divided  state  and  another  and  much  more  diflicult 
matter  to  formulate  rules  whereby  we  may  secure  this  desired 
condition.  .    .    . 


3i8  Chemical  Analyses 

The  factors  which  inlluciuc  the  size  of  the  graphite  flakes  in  cast 
iron  are  as  follows: 

A.  Factors  which  certainly  exert  an  influence. 

a.  Rate  of  cooling. 

b.  Pouring  tempgrature. 

B.  Factors  which  may  possibly  exert  an  influence. 

c.  Time  which  iron  has  remained  in  the  molten  state. 

d.  Presence  of  dissolved  oxide. 

e.  Presence  of  steel  scrap  in  the  mixture. 
/.  Mixture  of  difl'ercnt  brands. 

g.   Nature  of  ore  from  which  iron  is  made  and  treatment  in  the 

blast  furnace. 
h.   Per  cent  metalloids. 

a.  The  influence  of  rate  of  cooling  is  undoubted,  and  an  example 
showing  its  effect  on  strength  and  structure  is  given  by  Cook  and  Hail- 
stone. We  have  to  distinguish  here,  however,  between  the  rates  of 
cooling  through  different  ranges  of  temperature.  Evidently  the  graphite 
which  is  separated  within  the  semi-Uquid  iron  will  have  a  much  better 
chance  to  grow  large  cr>'stals  owing  to  the  greater  mobihty  of  the  medium 
in  which  it  is  formed,  while  that  graphite  formed  within  the  solid  metal 
will  necessarily  be  in  small  particles.  Hence,  we  see  that  it  is  the  rate 
of  cooling  through  the  soHdification  range  2200°  to  2000°  F.,  which  is 
of  prime  importance,  and  if  we  can  check  the  formation  of  graphite 
through  this  range  and  then  allow  it  to  form  in  the  solid  metal  at  lower 
temperatures  we  will  have  all  the  conditions  for  both  the  soft  and  strong 
iron.  This  is  the  principle  of  Custer's  process  of  casting  in  permanent 
moulds  and  the  making  of  malleable  castings  is  based  on  the  same  theory." 

b.  The  pouring  temperature  also  undoubtedly  exerts  an  influence 
on  the  size  of  the  graphite  flakes,  and  hence,  on  the  strength.   ..." 

Longmuir  finds  that  iron  poured  at  a  medium  temperature  is  stronger 
than  when  poured  either  very  hot  or  very  cold.  Longmuir's  e.xperi- 
ments,  b}'  the  way,  are  the  only  ones  in  which  a  pyrometer  was  used  and 
the  temperatures  of  pouring  measured  in  degrees.  .  .  .  For  this 
reason  we  may  place  the  greatest  faith  in  Longmuir's  results. 

It  is  probable  that  the  pouring  temperature  affects  the  size  of  the 
graphite  flakes  indircctlj'  through  changing  the  rate  of  cooling  through 
the  solidification  range.  On  this  assumption  the  best  results  should  be 
obtained  from  metal  poured  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  will  suflSce  to 
give  sound  castings. 

c.  Time  uhicli  iron  has  remained  in  the  vwUoi  stale.  This  might 
tunceivably  have  an  effect  in  the  case  of  cast  iron  high  in  total  carbon, 


Strength  319 

since  graphite  separating  in  the  liquid  metal  would  remain  in  the  metal 
if  poured  at  once,  and  this  graphite  is  in  the  form  of  large  flakes  known 
as  kish. 

d.  Presence  of  dissolved .  oxide.  —  There  is  no  direct  proof  that  this 
affects  the  size  of  the  graphite  flakes.  However,  it  is  well  known  that 
addition  of  deoxidizing  agents  almost  invariably  improves  the  strength 
and  it  is  barely  possible  that  a  portion  of  this  may  be  due  to  change  in 
the  size  of  the  graphite. 

e.  Presence  of  steel  scrap  in  the  mixture.  —  Although  no  exact  data 
are  at  hand  it  is  the  common  impression  that  the  addition  of  steel  scrap 
'closes  the  grain,'  which  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  it  reduces  the  size 
of  the  graphite.   .    .    . 

/.  Mixture  of  irons.  —  It  is  firmly  believed  by  many  foundrymen 
of  the  old  school  that  a  mixture  of  brands  gives  better  results  than  a 
single  brand  of  the  same  chemical  composition  as  the  average  of  the 
mixture.   .    .    . 

g.  Cook  and  Hailstone  believe  that  the  difference  in  strength  of  the 
two  mixtiures  quoted  by  them  is  due  to  some  inherent  quality  of  the  pig 
iron  derived  from  the  ores  used  or  their  manner  of  treatment  in  the  blast 
furnace.  This  inherent  quality  may  have  some  connection  with  the 
presence  of  oxygen  or  nitrogen  in  the  metal.   ..." 

h.  Per  cent  metalloids.  —  This,  we  know,  has  a  certain  effect.  For 
example,  high  silicon  is  likely  to,  cause  larger  graphite  as  well  as  more 
of  it.  Phosphorus  should,  theoretically,  cause  larger  graphite  since  it 
prolongs  the  solidification  period  in  which  large  flakes  are  free  to  separate. 
.  .  .  Sulphiur  and  manganese  .  .  .  close  the  grain,  and  probably 
diminish  the  size  of  the  graphite,  as  well  as  its  amount. 

3.  Per  cent  combined  carbon.  —  According  to  Professor  Howe  the 
properties  of  cast  iron  are  the  properties  of  the  metallic  matrix  modified 
by  the  presence  of  the  graphite,  but  since  this  metallic  matrix  may  be 
considered  as  a  steel  of  carbon  content  equal  to  the  combined  carbon  of 
the  cast  iron,  we  can  predict  accurately  the  effects  of  combined  carbon 
by  the  use  of  the  data  on  steel. 

In  the  case  of  steel  it  is  found  that  the  strength  increases  regularly 
with  the  carbon  up  to  about  0.9  per  cent,  then  remains  nearly  stationary 
up  to  about  1.2  per  cent,  above  which  it  falls  off  slowly. 

In  the  case  of  cast  iron  the  strength  is  dependent  upon  so  many 
factors  besides  combined  carbon  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  determine 
by  direct  experiment  the  percentage  of  combined  carbon  giving  the 
maximum  strength.  All  indications,  however,  are  that  the  highest 
strength  is  obtained  with  somewhere  between  o.  7  per  cent  and  i  per  cent 
combined  carbon  which  is  in  sufficiently  close  accord  with  the  corre- 


320  Chemical  Analyses 

sjxjnding  value  for  stccl.  \Vc  may,  therefore,  stale  tentatively  that  the 
maximum  strength  is  obtained  with  0.9  per  cent  carbon,  all  other  factors 
remaining  constant. 

Tliis  applies  only  to  tensile  strength  (and  approximately  to  transverse). 
I  or  lompressivc  strength  a  somewhat  higher  value,  probably  alxjut  1.5 
l>cr  cent  combined  carljon,  would  be  found  to  give  Ijellcr  results. 

4.  Size  of  primary  crystals  0/  solid  solution  Fe-C-Si.  —  There  is 
absolutely  no  data  as  to  the  cflcct  of  this  factor  on  the  strength  of  cast 
iron  and  it  is  only  from  analog)-  with  steel  that  we  give  it  a  place  in  the 
list  of   actors  influencing  strength.   ..." 

5.  Ejfect  oj  dissolved  oxide.  —  ...  It  is  j)robabIy  a  much  more 
important  factor  than  is  generally  supposed,  but  there  is  absolutely  no 
data  on  which  to  base  a  quantitative  estimate  of  its  effect." 

To  reduce  o.xide  in  cast  iron  to  the  minimum,  the  following  points 
may  be  obscr\ed : 

First,  get  the  best  brands  of  pig  iron.  It  i.s  probable  that  pig  made 
with  charcoal  fuel  contains  less  o.vygen  than  that  made  with  coke  fuel. 
Cold  blast  pig  is  better  than  hot  blast.  Pig  iron  made  from  easily 
reducible  browTi  or  carbonate  ores  is  lower  in  oxygen  than  the  pig  made 
from  red  hematite  or  magnetic  ores,  whih  iron  made  from  mill  cinder 
should  never  be  used  in  foundries  'uliere  strength  is  a  prime  consideration. 
Moreover,  a  pig  iron  high  in  manganese  is  apt  to  be  comparatively  free 
from  oxide  because  of  the  deoxidizing  power  of  manganese  at  the  high 
temperature  of  the  blast  furnace.  It  is  noteworthy  as  confirming  these 
obserx'ations  that  most  brands  of  iron  which  have  achieved  a  reputation 
for  strength  are  high  in  manganese  and  many  of  them  are  charcoal  irons. 
The  Muirkirk  and  Salisbury  brands  wloich  have  been  knowTi  for  years 
as  among  the  strongest  irons  made  in  this  country  answer  to  every 
one  of  these  conditions.  They  are  made  from  readily  reducible  ores 
using  cold  blast  and  charcoal  fuel  and  contain  from  i  to  2  per  cent 
manganese." 

Second,  avoid  oxidizing  conditions  in  the  cupola,  particularly  high- 
blast  pressures  and  wrong  methods  of  charging.  Dr.  Moldenke's 
system  of  using  small  charges  is  to  be  higldy  recommended  in  this 
connection." 

Third,  deoxidizing  agents  may  be  used,  added  either  to  the  cupola 
or  to  the  metal  in  the  ladle.  Of  the  commercially  available  deoxidizers, 
ferrotitanium,  ferrosilicon  and  ferromanganese  are,  perhaps,  the  most 
successful,  all  things  considered.  Titanium  thermite  is  also  extremely 
valuable  in  this  connection.   ..." 

6.  Per  cent  phosphorus.  —  Phosphorus  lessens  both  the  djTiamic  and 
static  strength,  but  the  former  more  than  the  latter.     It  weakens  be- 


Strength  321 

cause  it  forms  with  iron  a  hard  and  brittle  compound  which  has  but 
little  resistance  to  shock.  The  weakness  produced  is  in  nearly  direct 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  this  compound  present.  The  efifects  of 
•phosphorus  on  strength  do  not  become  marked  until  upward  of  i  per 
cent  is  present,  but  for  great  strength  and  particularly  strength  to  shock 
it  should  be  much  lower.  Ordinary  strong  irons  may  have  up  to  0.75 
per  cent,  while  iron  which  is  to  withstand  shock  should  not  exceed  0.50 
per  cent  and  is  better  even  lower.   ..." 

7.  Per  cent  sulphur.  —  The  action  of  sulphur  in  decreasing  the  strength 
of  iron  is  explained  in  Chap.  IX,  page  261,  and  it  is  also  explained 
there  why  it  is  so  much  less  harmful  in  the  presence  of  manganese. 
Many  tests  have  been  made  showing  that  sulphur  has  no  marked  effect 
on  strength  and  many  foundrymen  will  use  sulphur  to  harden  iron  and 
close  the  grain.  It  is  true  that  an  indirect  strengthening  effect  can  be 
obtained  through  the  use  of  sulphur  in  some  cases,  i.e.,  if  too  soft  an 
iron  is  being  used  the  strength  will  be  increased  by  the  addition  of  any 
element  which  will  lessen  the  graphite,  but  the  hardening  is  usually  better 
obtained  through  decrease  in  silicon  than  through  increase  in  sulphur. 
While  increased  sulphur  may  not  always  show  in  decreased  strength  of 
test  bars,  yet  it  is  a  frequent  source  of  blow-holes,  dirty  iron  and  various 
defects  caused  by  high  shrinkage,  hence,  it  often  causes  an  indirect 
weakness  in  the  iron. 

8-9.  Per  cent  silicon  and  manganese.  —  These  elements  act  chiefly  in 
an  indirect  manner  and  because  of  their  effects  on  the  condition  of  the 
carbon;  their  direct  influence  in  the  strength  of  the  metallic  matrix  is 
unimportant.  From  analogy  with  steel  it  is  probable  that  sihcon  in 
amounts  of  over  i  per  cent  causes  weakness  and  brittleness  in  the  metal. 
Similarly,  manganese  has  probably  a  weakening  effect  due  to  its  direct 
action  when  present  in  amounts  of  more  than  1.5  per  cent. 

The  preceding  discussion  is  summarized  in  the  following  practical 
rules  for  making  strong  castings: 

Use  strong  brands  of  iron.   .    .    .   Charcoal  irons  if  cost  will  permit; 

irons  made  from  easily  reducible  ores;   irons  high  in  manganese. 
Avoid  oxidation  in  melting.     Look   carefully  after  the  details  of 

cupola  practice;   avoid  oxidized  scrap;   use  deoxidizing  agents  in 

ladle  if  practicable.    .    .    . 
Keep  the  silicon  down  as  low  as  possible  and  still  have  the  necessary 

softness.     About  1.50  per  cent  will  be  right  for  the  ordinary  run 

of   medium  castings;    higher  for  small   castings    and  lower  for 

heavy  ones.     With  low  total  carbon  high  sihcon  has  less  effect. 
Keep  the  phosphorus  low,  especially  when  sulphur  is  high.     0.50 

per  cent  or  under  is  best. 


322  Chemical  Analyses 

Keep  ihc   sulphur   low,  especially  if  phosphorus  is  high.     Unrler 

o.io  per  tenl  is  all  right  for  most  castings." 
Keep  manganese  high,     i  per  cent  for  large  castings,  0.7  per  cent 

for  medium,  0.5  per  cent  for  small  castings. 
Use  from  10  to  ^5  jkt  lent  steel  ^crap  in  the  mixture. 
Mk.  Ki:t;p  recommends  using  10  per  cent  cast  iron  Iwrings  charged 

in  wooden  Ixjxes.     He  states  that  this  is  very  effective  in  closing 

the  grain  and  strengthening  the  castings. 

For  iron  which  is  required  to  have  the  greatest  possible  resistance 
to  shock,  the  points  to  be  especially  observed  are  as  follows: 

Keep  the  phosphorus  as  low  as  practicable,  still  having  the  necessary 
fluidity.     It  should  best  be  below  0.30  per  cent. 

Keep  the  sulphur  as  low  as  possible. 

If  practicable  add  vanadium  or  titanium  to  the  ladle  either  in  the 
form  of  ferroalloy  or  as  thermite.   .    .    . 

Elastic  Properties 

Of  the  elastic  properties  of  metals,  only  toughness  and  its  opposite, 
brittlcness,  and  elasticity  and  its  opposite,  rigidity,  are  ordinarily  con- 
sidered in  cast  iron. 

Toughness  is  defined  as  resistance  to  breaking  after  the  elastic  limit 
is  passed. 

Elasticity  is  the  amount  of  yield  under  any  stress  up  to  the  elastic  hmit. 

It  is  unusual  for  these  properties  to  be  determined  separately  in  cast 
iron,  but  their  sum  is  given  by  the  deflection  which  is  determined  in 
transverse  testing.  It  is  probably  true  that  they  nearly  always  vary 
together,  and,  hence,  that  deflection  is  a  fairly  good  measure  of  either 
one  as  well  as  both. 

Toughness  is  practically  always  a  desirable  quality  in  cast  iron,  but 
the  same  is  not  true  of  elasticity  since  in  many  machines  great  rigidity 
is  a  i)rime  requisite. 

The  factors  influencing  toughness  and  elasticity  are  about  the  same 
as  those  influencing  strength,  i.e.,  the  chemical  composition,  presence  of 
oxide  and  size  of  graphite.  ...  In  general,  to  get  a  tough  elastic 
iron  we  should  keep  sulphur,  phosphorus  and  combined  carbon  low; 
manganese,  no  higher  than  is  necessar>'  to  take  care  of  the  sulphur; 
graphite  and  silicon,  the  less  the  better,  providing  that  the  combined 
carljon  is  not  increased;  and  finally,  use  metal  of  good  quality,  melted 
carefully  so  as  to  be  free  from  oxide. 

In  ordinar>'  gray  iron  castings  it  is  not  practicable  to  attempt  to 
control  the  graphite,  since  the  combined  carbon  needs  first  attention  and 


Elastic  Properties 


323 


the  graphite  will  necessarily  be  the  difference  between  total  carbon  and 
combined  carbon.  The  silicon  also  must  be  adjusted  with  a  view  to 
regulating  the  combined  carbon.  Practical  rules  for  getting  the  maxi- 
mum toughness  and  elasticity  will  then  be  about  as  follows: 

SiHcon,  1.5  to  2.0  per  cent  for  castings  of  average  thickness,  more  or 
less  for  very  light  and  very  heavy  castings  respectively. 

Sulphur  as  low  as  practicable,  best  under  0.08  per  cent. 

Phosphorus  as  low  as  practicable  considering  the  necessity  for 
fluidity.     Best  under  0.50  per  cent. 

Manganese  from  three  to  five  times  the  sulphur. 

Use  good  irons  and  good  cupola  practice  to  insure  freedom  from 
dissolved  oxide.   .    .    . 

"In  case  steel  scrap  can  be  used,  i.e.,  semi-steel  made,  the  toughness 
may  be  considerably  increased  through  decrease  in  the  amount  of  graphite 
and  in  the  size  of  the  grain.  The  other  elements  may  remain  about  as 
before  except  that  it  may  be  necessary  to  run  the  manganese  a  httle 
higher  to  counteract  the  greater  tendency  of  the  semi-steel  to  become 
oxidized. 

As  previously  noted,  rigidity  is  desirable  in  some  cases.  This  is  the 
converse  of  elasticity  and  may  be  obtained  by  the  direct  opposite  of  the 
rules  given  for  obtaining  elasticity.  However,  to  get  rigidity  with  the 
least  sacrifice  of  strength  and  toughness  it  is  desirable  to  use  manganese 
and  combined  carbon  rather  than  to  increase  phosphorus  and  sulphur. 
That  is,  we  would  lower  silicon  as  much  as  necessity  for  softness  will 
allow  and  raise  manganese  to  about  i  per  cent  (or  less  in  very  light  work). 
It  should  be  noted  that  manganese  is  particularly  efficient  in  increasing 
rigidity  since  it  accomplishes  this  end  with  comparatively  little  sacrifice 
of  strength  and  toughness. 

A  few  examples  of  very  tough  and  elastic  iron  are  as  follows: 


No. 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phos- 
phorus 

Manga- 
nese 

Com- 
bined 
carbon 

Graphite 
carbon 

Total 
carbon 

I 

2.50-2.75 

.80 

2.45 

1. 18 

2.36 

.050 

.092 
.084 
.064 

30 

■  43 

■  30 

.24 

'"'87" 
I  08 

2.34 
2.15 

3.21 

3 

4 
S 

063 

27 

33 

3.23 

No.  I  represents  iron  which  in  thin  sections  can  be  punched  and  bent. 
No.  2  is  an  analysis  of  a  gray  cast  iron  which  is  exceedingly  malleable. 
Nos.  3,  4  and  5  are  gray  irons  showing  deflections  for  the  transverse  test 
bars  rather  higher  than  usual. 


324  Chemical  Analyses 

Hardness 

.  .  .  It  is  generally  stated  that  hardness  in  cast  iron  is  due  chiefly 
to  the  presence  of  combined  carlxm  and  is  only  indirectly  or  to  a  less 
extent  caused  by  other  elements.  The  writer  believes  that  this  is  not 
altogether  true  and  that  there  is  another  factor  causing  hardness  which 
has  not  heretofore  been  generally  considered  in  the  case  of  cast  iron." 

It  is  well  known  that  when  steel  is  hardened  by  quenching  from  a 
temperature  above  its  critical  point  its  carbon  is  not  in  the  combined 
state  l)ut  rather  in  a  form  known  as  hardening  or  solution  carbon,  while 
the  iron  is  retained  in  the  'gamma'  allotropic  form.  It  is  the  bcUef  of 
the  present  wTiter  that  the  same  is  true  of  cast  iron  and  that  many  cases 
of  hardness  are  to  be  explained  in  this  way.  For  example,  Keep  de- 
scribes a  sample  of  cast  iron  which  was  too  hard  to  drill  and  yet  containetl 
only  0.60  per  cent  combined  carbon,  and  many  analyses  are  on  record 
of  irons  which  have  been  quenched  from  comparatively  low  temperatures 
and  are  almost  glass  hard  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  combined  carbons 
are  under  i  per  cent.  I  think  it  probable  that  the  hardness  of  high 
manganese  irons  is  due  chiefly  to  this  same  cause  since  manganese  is 
known  to  favor  the  retention  of  'gamma'  iron. 

Granting  for  the  present  the  truth  of  this  theory,  the  presence  of  the 
'gamma'  or  hard  form  of  iron  is  controlled  by  the  rate  of  cooUng  and  the 
percentages  of  metalloids  present;  so  that  for  all  practical  purposes  we 
can  say  that  there  are  six  factors  which  influence  hardness,  i.e..  the  rate 
and  manner  of  cooling,  the  combined  carbon,  silicon,  sulphur,  man- 
ganese and  phosphorus.  The  first  two  of  these  are  of  the  greatest 
importance  and  we  will  then  take  up  in  reverse  order,  leaWng  the  most 
important  till  the  last. 

Phosphorus  has  a  slight  hardening  eCfect  in  large  quantities  but  in 
amounts  less  than  i  per  cent  its  eCfects  are  nearly  unperceptible,  and  it 
does  not  become  important  until  the  amount  exceeds  commercial  Umits, 
or,  say,  1.5  per  cent.  We  may,  therefore,  usually  neglect  the  efJects  of 
phosphorus  in  considering  hardness. 

Manganese,  although  usuallj-  regarded  as  a  hardening  agent  may 
sometimes  soften  iron.  This  anomalous  result  is  cxplaincil  l)y  the  action 
of  manganese  on  sulphur.  If  the  iron  is  high  in  sulphiu-  and  low  in 
manganese  the  first  additions  of  manganese  will  unite  with  the  sulphur 
forming  the  comparatively  inert  manganese  sulphide  and  thus  softening 
the  iron.  If,  however,  the  manganese  be  increased  beyond  the  amount 
necessary  to  care  for  the  sulphur,  increased  hardness  will  result. 

...  A  pig  iron  containing  3  per  cent  manganese  may  ha\e  a 
beautiful  open  gray  fracture  and  yet  be  so  hard  as  to  be  drilled  only 


Hardness  325 

vnth  great  difficulty.  In  addition,  the  presence  of  manganese  sometimes 
produces  a  peculiar  kind  of  gritty  hardness,  the  iron  acting  as  if  contain- 
ing small  hard  grains.  With  regard  to  the  amount  of  manganese  re- 
. quired  to  produce  hardness  it  will  be  evident  that  this  depends  largely 
on  the  per  cent  of  sulphur  present  and  also  on  the  rate  of  cooling.  In 
general,  heavy  castings  will  stand  up  to  i  per  cent  of  manganese  without 
noticeable  increase  of  hardness,  medium  castings  about  0.75  per  cent 
and  Hght  castings  0.50  per  cent. 

Sulphur  is  an  exceedingly  energetic  hardening  agent  acting,  however, 
chiefly  through  the  carbon.     That  is,  sulphur  has  a  strong  tendency  to 

keep  the  carbon  in  combined  form  and  in  that  way  to  harden 

Each  o.oi  per  cent  sulphur  will  increase  the  combined  carbon  by  about 
0.045  P^r  cent,  other  things  being  equal.  It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  this  applies  only  to  sulphur  in  the  form  of  iron  sulphide,  and 
that  in  the  form  of  manganese  sulphide,  i.e.,  in  the  presence  of  about 
three  times  its  weight  of  manganese,  it  acts  much  less  energetically. 

Sulphur  also  has  a  direct  action  in  hardening,  iron  sulphide  and 
manganese  sulphide  being  quite  hard  substances.  Usually  this  action 
is  imperceptible,  but  occasionally  one  meets  with  hard  spots  which  are 
due  to  the  segregation  of  these  sulphides. 

Silicon  is  generally  known  as  a  softening  agent  and,  within  reasonable 
Umits,  has  this  effect  due  to  its  action  in  decreasing  the  combined  carbon. 
The  direct  effect  of  silicon,  however,  is  to  harden  since  it  forms  with  iron 
a  compound  which  is  harder  than  the  iron  itself. 

When  silicon  is  added  to  cast  iron  its  first  effect,  as  before  stated,  is 
to  decrease  the  combined  carbon.  This,  it  does,  at  the  rate  of  about 
0.45  per  cent  for  each  per  cent  of  silicon  added.  Actually  the  rate  of 
decrease  is  more  rapid  than  this,  and,  in  consequence,  by  the  time  we 
have  from  2  to  3  per  cent  silicon  present  (depending  on  the  rate  of  cooling) 
we  have  practically  all  the  combined  carbon  precipitated  out  as  graphite 
and,  hence,  there  is  no  further  possibility  of  softening  in  this  way.  Now, 
any  increase  in  silicon  only  increases  the  amount  of  the  hard  iron-silicon 
alloy,  there  is  no  more  combined  carbon  to  be  decreased,  and,  hence,  the 
hardness  will  now  be  increased  again.  In  other  words,  it  is  possible  to 
have  too  much  of  a  good  thing,  the  good  thing  in  this  case  being  silicon. 

The  actual  percentage  of  silicon  which  is  necessary  to  secure  any 
given  degree  of  softness  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  casting,  the 
nature  of  the  mold  and  the  amount  of  sulphur  and  manganese  present. 
It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  give  definite  silicon  standards  unless  each 
of  these  factors  is  known.   .    .    . 

Combined  carbon  (or  solution  carbon)  is  the  chief  hardening  agent 
of  cast  iron,  and,  under  ordinary  conditions,  the  hardness  of  the  metal 


326  Chemical  Analyses 

will  be  cl<3scly  profMjrlional  to  the  i)erccntai,'c  present.  Of  such  relative 
unimportance  are  the  efTects  of  the  other  elements  that  it  has  been  found 
practicable  to  use  the  amount  of  combined  carlx)n  as  a  measure  of  the 
hardness  of  castings  and  as  a  means  of  predicting  their  liehavior  in  the 
machine  shop.   .    .    . 

"To  machine  easily,  cast  iron  should  not  contain  over  0.75  \ycT  cent 
combined  carbon,  i.oo  per  cent  combined  carbon  gives  a  pretty  hard 
casting  and  1.50  jjcr  cent  is  about  the  upper  limit  for  iron  to  be  machined. 

The  rate  and  manner  of  cooling  of  the  casting  are  usually  supposed 
to  influence  its  hardness  only  as  it  affects  the  percentage  of  combined 
carbon.  That  it  does  affect  the  amount  of  combined  carbon  is  a  well- 
established  fact.  .  .  .  However,  we  sometimes  get  hardness  in  the 
absence  of  any  considerable  amount  of  combined  carbon.  Hence,  there 
must  be  some  other  factor  at  work,  wiiich,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  is  a 
solution  of  carbon  in  'gamma'  iron,  the  hard  constituent  of  tool  steel. 

According  to  this  theory,  combined  carbon  disappears  in  the  tem- 
perature range  2200°  F.  to  1500°  F.,  while  'gamma'  or  hard  iron  is  not 
transformed  into  the  'alpha'  or  soft  variety  until  the  casting  has  cooled 
to  about  1300°  F.  Evidently,  then,  ordinary  rapid  cooling  of  castings 
from  the  melted  state  results  in  both  high  combined  carbon  and  high 
'gamma'  iron,  and  hence  we  have  hardness  due  to  both  of  these  causes. 
The  more  rapid  the  cooling,  the  higher  the  combined  carbon  and  the 
higher  also  the  'gamma'  iron,  therefore,  since  both  var>'  together,  the 
percentage  of  combined  carbon  is  a  satisfactor\'  measure  of  the  hardness 
produced  by  both  factors. 

"If,  now,  the  conditions  of  cooling  are  changed,  this  need  no  longer 
be  the  case.  For  example,  suppose  we  cool  the  casting  slowly  from  the 
molten  state  down  to  1600°  and  then  quench  it  in  water.  In  this  case 
we  would  get  nearly  all  combined  carbon  changed  to  graphite  during  the 
slow  cooling  through  the  upper  range,  while  the  rapid  cooling  through 
1300°  preserves  the  'gamma'  iron  solution  and  hence  gives  hardness  due 
to  this  cause. 

Some  of  the  peculiar  things  noted  in  connection  with  Custer's  process 
of  casting  in  permanent  moulds  are  to  be  explained  on  this  basis.  Also, 
the  much  greater  softness  of  castings  which  have  been  allowed  to  cool 
in  sand  and  thereby  anneal  themselves  over  those  shaken  out  soon  after 
being  poured. 

"Chilled  iron  is  simply  while  iron,  that  is,  iron  in  which  graphite  is 
absent  and  the  carbon  all  in  the  combined  or  solution  state.  The  same 
iron  may  be  both  gray  and  white,  depending  on  rate  of  cooling  and  hence 
the  exterior  of  the  casting,  if  rapidly  cooled,  may  be  white  while  the 
interior  which  cools  more  slowly  remains  gray.     Usually  there  is  an 


Hardness 


327 


intermediate  zone  having  a  mottled  structure  formed  through  the  inter- 
lacing and  the  gradual  merging  of  the  gray  and  white.  A  chilling  iron, 
then,  is  one  which  when  rapidly  cooled  contains  all  of  its  carbon  in  the 
•combined  state.  The  factors  which  influence  the  depth  and  quaUty 
of  chill  are  the  temperature  at  which  the  iron  is  poured,  and  the  amounts 
of  siUcon,  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  manganese  and  total  carbon,  besides 
some  of  the  elements  which  are  not  normally  present  in  cast  iron,  but 
which  are  occasionally  added. 

The  higher  the  temperature  at  which  iron  is  poured  the  deeper  the 
chill,  other  things  being  equal,  and  it  is  usually  considered  advisable  to 
pour  chilled  castings  from  hot  iron.  The  quantitative  effects  of  pouring 
temperature  have  been  studied  by  Adamson,  and  while  there  are  some 
conflicting  results,  it  is  in  general  indicated  that  in  the  case  of  the  strongly 
chifling  irons  an  increase  of  50°  in  the  pouring  temperature  causes  an 
increase  of  from  J-i  to  H  inch  in  the  depth  of  the  chill. 

The  most  important  element  in  its  effects  on  chill  is  silicon,  which  has 
the  strongest  action  in  precipitating  graphite.  For  chilling  iron,  silicon 
should  be  low,  but  how  low  depends  on  the  thickness  of  the  casting,  the 
temperature  of  pouring  and  the  depth  of  chill  desired  as  well  as  on  the 
percentage  of  other  elements  in  the  iron.  Table  I  gives  a  very  approx- 
imate relationship  between  the  percentage  of  silicon  and  depth  of  chill, 
other  elements  being  about  normal. 

Table  I.  —  Approximate  Relation  Between  Per  Cent 
Silicon  and  Depth  of  Chill 


Silicon, 
per  cent 

Depth  of 
chill, 
inch 

Silicon, 
per  cent 

Depth  of 
chill, 
inch 

% 
H 
I 

1.50 
1.25 
1. 00 

Ma 

Ma 

■  75 
.50 

.40 

Sulphur  tends  to  increase  the  combined  carbon,  and,  hence,  the  chill. 
So  marked  is  its  influence  in  this  respect  that  it  is  sometimes  added 
to  cast  iron  to  increase  the  depth  of  the  chill.  This,  however,  is  not 
usually  good  practice  since  the  chill  imparted  by  sulphur  is  lacking  in 
toughness  and  strength  as  well  as  in  resistance  to  heat  strains.  Scott 
cites  the  case  of  stamp  shoes  for  mining  machinery  where  sulphur  was 
used  to  increase  the  chill.  The  shoes  were  very  hard  at  first,  but  soon 
went  to  pieces  under  the  repeated  blows.  Johnson,  also,  has  noted  the 
great  difference  between  high  and  low  sulphur  chilled  iron  as  regards 


328  Chemical  Analyses 

ubilily  lu  withstand  the  strains  of  sud<lcn  cmilinj?  without  cracking.  On 
the  other  iiand,  West  states  that  the  chill  produced  by  sulphur  is  very 
persistent  to  frictional  wear,  and,  hence,  it  may  be  inferred  that  sulphur 
adds  t(>  the  life  of  castings  which  are  subject  to  abrasion.  It  has  been 
stated  that  the  presence  of  a  small  amount  of  sulphur  is  essential  in  order 
to  get  the  best  results  in  chilled  rolls.  This,  however,  is  doubtful  and 
it  is  believed  that  it  is  only  rarely  that  sulphur  is  desirable  in  chilled 
castings.  The  presence  of  a  moderate  amount  of  manganese  in  cast 
iron  greatly  lessens  the  bad  effects  of  sulphur  in  chilled  as  well  aii  in  gray 
iron  castings. 

"Phosphorus  in  the  amounts  ordinarily  present  in  commercial  cast 
iron  has  but  slight  influence  on  the  depth  of  the  chill  but  does  have  a 
more  or  less  injurious  effect  on  its  strength.  It  is  generally  stated  that 
high  phosphorus  has  the  effect  of  causing  a  sharp  line  of  demarkation 
between  the  gray  and  chilled  portions  of  the  casting.  .  .  .  It  is  beheved 
that  it  is  best  to  limit  the  phosphorus  in  chilled  iron  to  about  0.4  per  cent. 

Manganese,  since  it  tends  to  increase  the  combined  carbon,  also  tends 
to  increase  the  chill.  However,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  first 
effect  of  manganese  is  to  neutralize  sulphur,  and,  therefore,  in  small 
amounts  it  may  indirectly  decrease  the  chill.  Manganese  very  greatly 
increases  the  hardness  of  the  chill,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  its  strength.  It 
also  increases  the  resistance  of  the  chill  to  heat  strain  and  hence  di- 
minishes the  danger  of  surface  cracks  in  such  castings  as  chilled  rolls  and 
car  wheels.  Still  another  effect  is  the  promotion  of  a  more  gradual 
merging  of  the  gray  and  chilled  portions  of  the  castings.  Manganese 
is  usually  considered  a  desirable  constituent  of  chilled  iron  and  the 
amounts  used  var>^  all  the  way  from  0.40  up  to  3.0  per  cent.   .    .    . 

Of  late  years,  semi-steel  mi.xtures  have  been  used  to  some  extent  for 
chilled  castings,  the  total  carbon  being  considerably  lower  than  in  the 
ordinary  mixture.  The  effect  of  low  total  carbon  is  to  give  a  deep  and 
comparatively  soft  chill  as  compared  with  the  shallow,  hard  chill  obtained 
with  high  total  carbon. 

"It  has  been  proposed  to  use  nickel  as  a  means  of  controlUng  chill, 
this  clement  having  an  effect  somewhat  similar  to  silicon.  Hence,  by 
starting  with  a  strong  chilling  iron  and  adding  nickel,  the  depth  of  the 
chill  would  be  lessened  in  some  ratio  to  the  amount  of  nickel  added. 
Since  the  same  results  may  be  oljlained  by  the  use  of  less  expensive 
silicon  it  is  difficult  to  see  any  advantage  in  adding  nickel. 

The  quality  of  chilled  iron  may  be  very  greatly  improved  by  the 
addition  of  small  amounts  of  titanium  or  vanadium.  The  beneficial 
effects  of  these  elements  are  probably  due  chiefly  to  their  deo.vidizing 
power.  .  .  . 


Shrinkage  329 

Grain  Structxire 

"The  fracture  or  grain  size  and  the  porosity  are  closely  related  and 
are  both  dependent  primarily  on  the  size  of  the  graphite  particles,  and, 
to  a  less  extent,  on  the  percentage  of  graphite..  .    .    . 

Silicon  should  be  kept  just  as  low  as  possible  and  still  have  the  cast- 
ings soft  enough  to  machine.  The  exact  percentage  will  depend  on 
the  thickness  of  the  casting,  the  character  of  the  mould  and  whether 
the  casting  is  allowed  to  anneal  itself  or  is  quickly  shaken  out  after 
pouring.  It  may  range  from  0.75  per  cent  for  very  heavy  work  up  to 
2.0  per  cent  for  small  valves,  etc.  It  is  believed  that  the  majority  of 
founders  use  more  silicon  than  is  best  in  work  of  this  character." 

Combined  carbon  has  a  powerful  action  in  closing  the  grain  and  giving 
a  dense  iron  and  should  be  just  as  high  as  possible  and  still  have  the 
iron  machinable.   .    .    . 

Manganese  had  best  be  kept  moderately  high  since  it  appears  to  have 
some  beneficial  effect  in  closing  the  grain. 

Sulphur  is  a  powerful  agent  in  closing  the  grain  and  is  frequently 
made  purposely  high  for  this  end.  It  is,  however,  a  dangerous  agent 
since  it  may  cause  trouble  in  other  directions,  and  as  a  general  proposi- 
tion it  is  better  to  keep  the  sulphur  low  and  get  necessary  density  by  a 
proper  regulation  of  silicon  and  manganese. 

Finally,  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best,  means  of  closing  the  grain 
of  cast  iron  and  securing  the  maximmn  density  is  by  means  of  steel  scrap 
in  the  mixture.  This  is  now  common  practice  with  makers  of  hydraulic 
castings,  and  is  very  effective.   .    .    . 

Shrinkage 

In  considering  the  shrinkage  of  cast  iron  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  the  contraction  of  the  fluid  mass  previous  to  and  during  the  act 
of  sohdifjang  and  the  contraction  of  the  solid  mass.  The  first  is  that 
form  of  shrinkage  which  necessitates  feeding  in  heavy  castings,  and  which 
so  often  results  in  shrink  holes  or  spongy  places  in  hea\'y  sections  of 
castings  which  are  not  fed.  West  calls  this  contraction  of  the  fluid  mass 
'  shrinkage. ' 

"The  contraction  of  the  solid  mass  represents  more  nearly  what  is 
generally  called  shrinkage,  this  term  as  ordinarily  used  meaning  the 
difference  in  size  between  the  casting  and  its  pattern.  This  contraction 
of  the  solid  mass  West  calls  'contraction.' 

"...  It  seems  necessary  to  make  some  distinction  between  the 
total  amount  of  fluid  contraction  and  the  tendency  to  form  shrink  holes 
in  the  heavy  sections  of  small  castings.    At  least  there  seems  to  be  no 


33°  ("Inmical  Analyst's 

very  (Icfinilc  relation  liclwccn  clicmiial  lomiMKiilion  and  this  latter 
projKJrty  and  it  is  often  the  case  that  an  iron  low  in  graphite  and,  there- 
fore, having  a  high  fluid  contraction,  will  give  sounder  castings  than 
another  iron  high  in  graphite  and  which  would,  therefore,  require  less 
fecfling  in  a  large  casting:    ..." 

"Cook  has  found  that  two  irons  (A  practically  identii^l  chemical 
composition  may  give  very  dilTcrent  results  as  regards  sjjundncss  when 
poured  into  small  castings  of  heavy  section  and  the  writer  can  confirm 
this  fact  from  his  own  experience.  A  convenient  test  has  been  developed 
by  Cook  to  show  the  tendency  of  any  particular  brand  of  iron  to  trouble 
of  this  sort.  This  test  consists  in  making  a  casting  in  the  shape  of  a  K, 
the  branches  having  a  cross  section  of  one  inch  square.  On  breaking 
off  the  oblique  branches  any  tendency  to  sponginess  or  shrink  holes  will 
at  once  be  evident  in  the  fracture." 

"As  before  stated  there  has  thus  far  been  discovered  no  important 
relationship  between  this  property  and  chemical  composition.  It  rather 
appears  to  be  something  inherent  in  the  brand  of  iron.  .  .  .  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that,  in  some  instances  at  least,  the  addition  of  a  small 
amoimt  of  steel  scrap  to  the  mixture  will  act  as  a  partial  corrective." 

"The  contraction  of  the  solid  mass  does  not  take  place  uniformly  as 
the  casting  cools  but  in  stages  which  are  separated  by  periods  of  less 
contraction  or  even  of  actual  expansion.  The  total  shrinkage  which 
perhaps  includes  also  a  portion  of  the  shrinkage  in  the  fluid  mass  is 
conveniently  obtained  by  Keep's  test  or  by  casting  a  test  bar  between 
iron  yokes  and  determining  the  space  between  the  end  of  the  bar  and  the 
yoke  after  cooling." 

"This,  however,  tells  nothing  as  to  the  manner  of  shrinkage  or  the 
temperature  at  which  it  takes  place.  To  get  this  latter  information  we 
must  determine  the  shrinkage  curve,  or  in  other  words,  the  length  of  the 
test  bar  at  each  instant  of  time  during  cooling,  starting  from  the  instant 
when  the  bar  has  solidified  just  enough  to  have  some  slight  strength. 
West,  Keep  and  Turner  have  described  forms  of  apparatus  for  making 
these  curves.  Fig.  91  shows  some  t>T)ical  shrinkage  curs-cs  and  illus- 
trates the  relationship  between  chemical  composition  and  the  form  of 
these  curves." 

"It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  three  periods  of  expansion  separated 
by  intervals  during  which  the  shrinkage  takes  place.  The  first  of  these 
periods  of  expansion  is  due  to  the  separation  of  graphite  and  hence  is 
greatest  in  the  softest  irons.  Note  that  in  the  case  .1 ,  which  is  a  white 
iron  and  contains  no  graphite,  this  expansion  is  entirely  lacking.  This 
expansion  takes  place  within  the  temperature  range  2200°  to  1800°  F., 
or  immediately  after  the  iron  has  solidified." 


Shrinkage 


331 


"The  second  expansion  is  due  to  the  solidification  of  the  phosphide 
eutectic  with  a  consequent  secondary  precipitation  of  graphite  at  that 
time.  Evidently,  this  expansion  is  only  to  be  expected  in  high  phos- 
phorus irons  and  it  will  be  noted  that  it  is  lacking  in  C,  which  is  low  in 
phosphorus,  and  is  well  marked  in  D,  which  is  high  in  phosphorus.  This 
expansion  takes  place  within  the  temperature  range  1800°  to  1500°  F." 

"The  third  expansion  is,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  due  to  the  change  of 
the  iron  from  the  'alpha'  to  the  'gamma'  form,  since  it  takes  place 


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Time-  Seconds. 

Fig.  gi. 


200 


within  the  temperature  range  1400°  to  1200°  F.,  or  about  where  this 
change  would  be  expected  to  take  place.  Note  that  this  expansion  is 
greatest  in  high  silicon  irons  C  and  D,  silicon  having  the  effect  of  acceler- 
ating the  'gamma'  to  'alpha'  change.  The  point  at  which  this  third 
expansion  occurs  probably  marks  the  lower  limit  below  which  iron  cannot 
be  hardened  by  quenching." 

"The  study  of  these  curves  is  very  interesting  to  the  experimenter 
and  it  is  believed  that  when  we  understand  them  better  they  may 
become  of  practical  value  to  the  foundryman.     At  present,  however, 


333  Chimiral  Analyses 

ihc  (Ictcrminalion  of  total  shrinkage  gives  infcjrnialion  which  is  of  more 
immidiatc  value." 

"The  effect  of  composition  on  total  shrinkage  is  given  in  concise-  form 
!)>•  the  following  tabular  statement: 

I'cr  cent 

Silicon Decreases  by  about  .  oi    inch  per  fo<ii  for  each  .  20 

Sulphur Increases  by  about  .01    inch  per  foot  for  each  .03 

l'hus])horus.  .  .  Decreases  by  about  .015  inch  per  foot  for  each  .  10 

Manganese. .  ,  .  Increases  by  about  .  01    inch  per  foot  for  each  .  20 
Total  carbon     Decreases. 

"To  get  the  minimum  shrinkage  an  iron  should  be  high  in  silicon, 
from  2  to  3  per  cent  depending  on  the  thickness,  high  in  phosphorus,  say. 
0.75  to  1.25  per  cent,  as  low  as  possible  in  sulphur,  as  high  as  possible  in 
total  carbon  and  with  only  enough  manganese  to  care  for  the  sulphur, 
or,  say,  0.3  to  0.4  per  cent.  This  will  insure  high  graphite  and  hence  low 
shrinkage  in  the  casting.  The  iron  will,  however,  be  rather  weak  and 
it  is  something  of  a  problem  to  get  in  one  and  the  same  iron  considerable 
strength  and  at  the  same  time  very  low  shrinkage." 

"  By  the  term  '  stretch '  West  describes  the  power  of  cast  iron  to  stretch 
when  placed  imder  strain  during  the  cooling  process.  This  property  is 
undoubtedly  of  much  importance  in  cast  iron  since  there  are  many 
castings  which  are  called  upon  to  exhibit  it.  An  extreme  case  which 
is  commonly  cited  is  that  of  pulleys,  the  arms  of  which  are  placed  in 
tension  due  to  the  quicker  cooling  of  the  rim  and  which  must,  therefore, 
either  stretch  or  crack.  There  is  no  data  regarding  the  effect  of  various 
metalloids  of  cast  iron  on  its  power  of  stretching  but  in  general  a  soft  iron 
will  stretch  more  than  a  hard  one.  Almost  the  only  data  on  this  subject 
is  given  by  West.  He  finds  that  the  period  of  greatest  stretching  of 
cast  iron  is  within  the  temperature  range  i6cx>°  to  1200°  F. 

Fusibility 

Fusibility,  or  the  melting  point  of  cast  iron,  must  not  be  confounded 
with  its  fluidity,  or  ease  of  flow  when  molten.  Fluidity  is  much  the  more 
important  of  these  two  properties,  but  fusibility  is  of  some  interest, 
particularly  as  it  gives  us  a  means  of  deciding  intelligently  in  what  order 
to  charge  metals  in  the  cupola. 

The  investigations  of  Dr.  Moldenke  have  shown  that  the  fusibility  of 
cast  iron  depends  primarily  on  its  combined  carbon  content,  and,  to  a 
less  extent,  on  the  amount  of  phosphorus  present.  .  .  .  We  find  that 
cast  iron  has  a  melting  range  wiPiTng  from  2000°  F.  for  a  white  iron  up 
to  2300°  F.  for  gray  iron  containing  practically  no  combined  carbon,  this 


Fusibility 


333 


difference  being  due  probably  to  the  presence  of  silicon,  sulphur,  phos- 
phorus and  manganese. 

Since  the  graphite  in  gray  iron  is  only  in  mechanical  mixture  with  the 
iron  we  should,  perhaps,  expect  it  to  have  no  effect  on  the  melting  point. 
Moreover,  it  combines  with  the  iron  at  temperatures  below  the  melting 
point  thus  increasing  the  combined  carbon  and  lowering  the  melting 
point.  For  this  reason  gray  iron  melts  at  a  lower  temperature  than  steel 
having  the  same  percentage  of  combined  carbon. 


2300 


2250 


2200 


2150 


E 

£  2100 


2050 


2000 


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2  3  4 

Percent  Combined  Carbon. 

Fig.  92. 


As  previously  noted,  phosphorus  also  has  the  effect  of  lowering  the 
melting  point  of  cast  iron  but  it  is  not  nearly  as  powerful  in  its  action  as 
combined  carbon.  Iron  containing  6.7  per  cent  phosphorus  would  melt 
at  only  1740°  F.,  but  with  less  phosphorus  than  this  the  melting  point 
rises  rapidly  so  that  the  i  or  2  per  cent  present  in  commercial  high  phos- 
phorus irons  makes  very  little  difference  in  the  melting  point. 

Fig.  92  gives  in  graphic  form  the  data  of  Dr.  Moldenke  from  which 
is  drawn  a  line  representing  the  approximate  melting  point  of  cast  iron 
of  any  per  cent  combined  carbon. 


334 


Chemical  Analyses 


"Tiiblc  I  gives  the  melling  jwints  with  analyses  of  some  typical 
irons  and  ferroalloys  selected  from  the  above  data.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  metalloids  other  than  carbon  and  phosphorus,  i.e.,  the  silicon, 
sulphur  and  manganese,  seem  to  have  very  little  etlect  on  the  melting 
point." 

Table  I.  —  Melting  Points  of  Cast  Irons 


Melting 

Com- 

point, 

Graphite, 

degrees  F. 

per  cent 

per  cent 

2030 

3.98 

aioo 

352 

.S4 

2140 

2.27 

1.80 

2170 

1-93 

l.f<> 

2200 

1.69 

2.40 

2210 

1.48 

2.30 

2230 

1. 12 

2.66 

2210 

.84 

307 

2250 

.80 

3.16 

2280 

.13 

3  43 

2350 

1.32 

2210 

6.48 

(carbon) 

2255 

S.02 

(carbon) 

2190 

3.38 

■  37 

2040 

1.82 

•  47 

2400 

6.80 

(carbon) 

2280 

Silicon, 
per  cent 


.14 
•47 

•  4S 

•  52 
1. 81 
1. 41 
1. 13 
2.58 
1.29 
2.40    . 

.21 

.14 

i.6s 

12.30 

12.01 

(chromium 

62.70) 

(tungsten 

39^02) 


Man- 

Phos- 

ganese, 

phorus. 

per  cent 

percent 

.10 

.22 

.20 

.20 

1. 10 

1.46 

.16 

.76 

•  49 

1.60 

1.39 

•  17 

.24 

.089 

.47 

2.12 

•  so 

.22 

■90 

.oS 

.49 

(?) 

4459 

(?) 

81.40 

(?) 

16.98 

(?) 

1.38 

(?) 

Sulphur, 
per  cent 


037  pig  iron 
.036  "  " 
.032  "  •• 
.036  "  " 
.060  "  '• 
.033  "  ■* 
.027  "  ■' 
.osi  '•  " 
.020  "  " 
.032 

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 

(?) 


steel 

ferromang. 

ferromang. 

silicospiegel. 

ferrosilicon 

ferrochrome 


(?)  ferrotungsten 


Fluidity 

"Fluidity  may  be  defined  as  ease  of  flow.  It  is  sjTionymoiis  with 
mobility  and  opposed  to  viscosity.  It  is  a  property  of  far-reaching 
importance  to  the  foundr>'man  and  especially  to  the  manufacturer  of 
small  and  intricate  castings.  Unfortunately,  our  means  of  measuring 
fluidity  arc  not  very  satisfactory',  and  this  makes  it  dillicult  to  determine 
quantitatively  the  eflect  of  composition  upon  this  property.  .Xbout 
the  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  pour  fluidity  strips  or  long  strips  of 
perhaps  one  square  inch  section  (at  one  end)  and  tapering  to  nothing  at 
the  other.  The  distance  which  the  iron  runs  in  a  mold  of  this  form  is  a 
rough  measure  of  its  fluidity." 

"The  factors  which  govern  fluidity  are  percentage  of  silicon,  percent- 
age of  phosphorus,  freedom  from  dissolved  oxide  and  temperature  above 
the  melting  point." 

"Silicon  perhaps  aids  fluidity  by  causing  a  separation  of  graphite  at 
the  moment  of  solidification,  thus,  according  to  Field,  liberating  latent 


Resistance  to  Heat  335 

heat  and  prolonging  the  Hfe  of  the  metal.  On  this  basis,  high  total 
carbon  would  also  aid  fluidity  by  increasing  the  amount  of  graphite 
separated." 

"Phosphorus  is  probably  the  most  important  element  as  regards 
fluidity,  high  phosphorus  causing  a  marked  increase  in  this  property. 
The  best  results  are  obtained  with  about  1.5  per  cent  phosphorus, 
although  for  other  reasons  it  is  seldom  desirable  to  use  as  much  as  that." 

"Freedom  from  oxide  is  a  very  important  point  as  its  presence  makes 
the  metal  sluggish  and  causes  it  to  set  quickly.  It  is  a  frequent  and  often 
unsuspected  source  of  trouble.  Dissolved  oxide  may  be  eliminated  by 
any  of  the  methods  described." 

"The  temperature  above  the  freezing  point  is  probably  the  most 
important  factor  of  all  in  connection  with  fluidity,  and  it  should  here  be 
noted  that  a  distinction  is  made  between  freezing  point  and  melting 
point.  The  two  may  coincide  in  the  case  of  white  iron,  but  will  not 
usually,  especially  with  gray  iron.  This  is  because,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  gray  irons  have  a  melting  temperature  corresponding  to  their  per- 
centage of  combined  carbon  rather  than  total  carbon.  After  they  are 
in  the  molten  state,  however,  all  the  carbon  is  in  solution  (combined  as 
far  as  melting  points  are  concerned),  hence,  the  freezing  point  will  corre- 
spond more  nearly  to  the  melting  point  of  a  white  iron  having  the  per- 
centage of  combined  carbon  equal  to  the  total  carbon  of  the  original  gray 
iron.  This  wiU  be  in  general  from  100°  to  300°  lower  than  its  melting 
point.  For  this  reason  when  gray  irons  are  melted  they  are  always 
considerably  superheated  above  their  sohdifying  points,  and  the  greater 
this  superheat,  the  more  fluid  the  iron.  Evidently,  the  superheat  due 
to  this  cause  will  be  the  greater  the  lower  the  combined  carbon  in  the 
iron  going  into  the  cupola." 

Practical  rules  for  getting  fluid  iron  are  as  follows: 

"Keep  the  phosphorus  high,  —  up  to  i.oo  to  1.25  if  possible." 

"If  the  work  will  permit,  use  a  soft  iron  of  2  per  cent  or  over  in  silicon, 
and  low  in  combined  carbon." 

"Avoid  oxidizing  conditions  in  melting  and,  if  necessary,  use  deoxidiz- 
ing agents." 

"Use  plenty  of  coke  and  good  cupola  practice." 

Resistance  to  Heat 

"Ability  to  withstand  high  temperatures  is  of  paramount  importance 
in  several  classes  of  castings  such  as  grate  bars,  ingot  moulds,  annealing 
boxes,  etc.,  and  the  factors  which  affect  this  ability  are,  the  percentage 
of  phosphorus,  sulphur  and  combined  carbon,  and  the  density  or  close- 
ness of  grain." 


336  Chemical  Analyses 

"Phosphorus  forms  with  iron  an  alloy  which  melts  at  only  1740°  F.,or 
about  400°  lower  than  cast  iron  free  from  phosphorus,  and  each  per  cent 
of  phosphorus  present  gives  rise  to  15  per  cent  of  this  easily  fusible  con- 
stituent. Now,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  [iresence  of  a  molten  con- 
stituent in  a  piece  of  iron  must  greatly  weaken  it,  and  hence  it  is  that  the 
presence  of  much  phosi)horus  decreases  the  resistance  of  cast  iron  to 
heat." 

"Sulphur  acts  in  a  similar  manner  to  phosphorus  since  it  also  form.s 
with  iron  a  constituent  of  low  melting  point  (1780°  F.).  It  is,  therefore, 
detrimental  to  castings  which  have  to  stand  high  temperatures." 

"As  prexnously  noted,  combined  carbon  is  the  element  which  more  than 
any  other  determines  the  melting  point  of  cast  iron,  this  melting  point 
becoming  lower  with  increase  in  this  element.  It  would  seem  then,  that 
combined  carbon  must  be  very  detrimental  in  this  class  of  castings. 
However,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  condition  of  the  carbon  in 
the  solid  iron  changes  readily  at  high  temperatures,  and,  hence,  after  the 
casting  has  been  in  use  for  a  while  its  combined  carbon  content  will  not 
in  general  be  the  same  as  when  cast.  This  fact  makes  the  question  of 
combined  carbon  of  much  less  practical  importance  than  either  phos- 
phorus or  sulphur." 

"Density  or  close  grain  is  commonly  stated  to  render  cast  iron  con- 
siderably more  resistant  to  the  effects  of  heat.   ..." 

"One  feature  of  the  effect  of  heat  on  cast  iron  which  deserves  especial 
mention  is  the  permanent  expansion  which  it  undergoes  on  repeated 
heatings.  This  peculiar  behavior  was  first  discovered  by  Outerbridge 
and  has  since  been  also  investigated  by  Rugan  and  Carpenter." 

"The  extent  to  which  this  growth  may  take  place  is  certainly  sur- 
prising, the  increase  being  in  some  cases  as  high  as  46  per  cent  by  volume 
and  i?4  inches  in  the  length  of  a  15-inch  bar.  The  strength  of  the  metal 
is  decreased  proportionately  to  the  expansion  or  to  about  one-half  of  the 
original  strength.  Both  the  e.xpansion  and  the  decrease  in  strength  are 
explained  by  microscopic  examination,  which  shows  minute  cracks 
throughout  the  interior  of  the  metal.   ..." 

"Two  conditions  are  necessary  for  this  growth.  First,  repeated 
heatings,  and  second,  a  proper  composition  of  the  metal." 

"With  regard  to  the  heating,  a  minimum  temperature  of  1200"  F.  is 
necessary.  At  1400°  to  i6oo°  the  rate  of  growth  is  more  rapid  and  an 
increase  in  temperature  beyond  1700°  produces  no  additional  effect. 
Both  heating  and  cooling  are  necessary  to  procure  the  growth,  and  the 
time  of  heating  makes  very  little  difference.  No  greater  growth  was 
produced  by  17  hours  continuous  healing  than  by  4  hours.  The  num- 
ber of  heatings  required  to  produce  the  maximum  amount  of  growth 


Resistance  to  Heat  337 

varies  with  different  irons,  but  usually  lies  somewhere  between  50  and 
100." 

"Regarding  the  effects  of  composition,  it  appears  that  the  growth  is 
favored  bj-  the  presence  of  graphite  and  silicon,  and  also  by  a  large  grain 
or  open  structure.  \Yhite  iron  containing  no  graphite  expands  slightly 
when  subjected  to  this  treatment  but  not  sufficiently  to  overcome  its 
original  shrinkage.  In  this  case  the  expansion  is  due  to  the  conversion 
of  the  combined  carbon  into  the  temper  form,  or  in  other  words,  to  the 
malleableizing  of  the  casting.  Soft  irons  low  in  combined  carbon  and 
high  in  silicon  show  the  greatest  increase  in  volume.  The  effects  of 
sulphur,  manganese  and  phosphorus  have  not  been  investigated.  Steel 
and  wrought  iron  are  not  subject  to  this  growth,  but  on  the  contrary 
undergo  a  slight  permanent  contraction  when  repeatedly  heated." 

"It  is  evident  that  this  property  of  cast  iron  is  of  great  importance  in 
many  of  the  applications  of  the  metal  and  limits  its  use  for  many  pur- 
poses. It  is,  no  doubt,  the  reason  why  a  close-grained  iron  gives  better 
results  when  exposed  to  high  temperatures  and  affords  an  explanation 
for  the  warping  of  grate  bars,  annealing  boxes  and  similar  castings.  It 
also  shows  why  chills  and  permanent  molds  must  not  be  allowed  to  be 
heated  to  redness,  such  a  degree  of  heat  resulting  in  permanent  expansion 
and  the  loss  of  their  original  dimensions." 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  some  of  the  published  statements 
regarding  the  proper  composition  for  castings  exposed  to  high  tempera- 
tvires: 

"Cast  iron  to  withstand  high  temperatiures  should  be  low  in  phos- 
phorus and  combined  carbon." 

"In  car  wheels  manganese  increases  the  resistance  to  heat  strain." 

"For  refractory  castings  choose  a  fine  grained  cast  iron,  best  contain- 
ing about  2  per  cent  manganese  to  retard  the  separation  of  amorphous 
carbon." 

"Castings  to  resist  heat  should  contain  about  1.80  per  cent  silicon, 
0.03  per  cent  sulphur,  0.70  per  cent  phosphorus,  0.60  per  cent  manganese 
and  2.90  per  cent  total  carbon.  Low  sulphur  is  of  chief  importance,  low 
silicon,  carbon  and  manganese  are  also  advisable." 

"Close-grained  cast  iron  having  the  greatest  density  will  invariably 
be  found  best  to  withstand  chemical  influences  and  high  temperatures." 

"A  chill  which  had  given  excellent  service  had  the  following  composi- 
tion: silicon,  2.07  per  cent;  sulphur,  0.073  P^r  cent;  phosphorus,  0.03 
per  cent;  manganese,  0.48  per  cent;  combined  carbon,  0.23  per  cent; 
graphite  carbon,  2.41  per  cent;  total  carbon,  2.64  per  cent. 

"Two  permanent  mo vilds  which  had  given  excellent  service  analyzed 
as  follows: 


338 


Chemical  Analyses 


Silicon, 
per  cent 

Sulphur, 
per  cent 

.oS6 
.070 

Phosphorus, 
per  cent 

Mancancae, 
per  cent 

Combined 
carbon, 
per  cent 

Graphite, 
per  cent 

carbon, 
percent 

a. IS 
a.oa 

I  26 
.89 

•  41 
29 

.13 
.84 

3.17 
2.76 

3. 30 
3.60 

"Ingot  moulds  and  stools  are  best  made  from  medium  soft  iron  low  in 

phosphorus,  or  what  is  termed  a  regular  Hessemcr  iron.    ..." 

Electrical  Properties 
"Of  the  three  electrical  properties,  conductivity,  permeability  and 
hysteresis,  the  second  only  is  of  importance  in  connection  with  cast  iron. 


B 

12.000 

10,000 

.,^- 

^ 

e,ooo 

*, 

\%^- 

'^ 

^ 

■^ 

-- 

^' 

>^ 

K- 

^'' 

^ 

6,000 

• 

,y 

'7 

y 

4,000 

/ 
Ij 

/ 

if 

/ 

2,000 

1  / 

if  / 

1/ 

EO  40  60 

Fig.  93. 

Little  is  known  regarding  the  relation  between  chemical  composition 
and  conductivity  of  cast  iron.  In  the  case  of  steel  it  has  been  found  that 
manganese  is  the  element  most  injurious  to  this  property  with  carbon 
a  close  second.  Hence,  by  analogy,  we  may  infer  that  to  make  iron 
castings  of  high  conductiNTty  we  should  keep  both  the  manganese  and 
combined  carbon  as  low  as  possible. 


Electrical  Properties 


339 


Permeability  may  be  defined  as  magnetic  conductivity  and  is  of 
importance  in  many  castings  used  in  the  construction  of  electrical 
machinery.  Permeability  data  are  generally  given  in  the  form  of  a 
curve  expressing  the  relation  between  the  magnetizing  force  H  and  the 
resulting  field  strength  or  number  of  lines  of  magnetic  force  per  unit 
area  B.     This  is  known  as  the  permeability  curve.     The  permeabihty 

is  the  ratio  —  and  it  will  be  noted  that  it  is  different  for  each  value  of  the 

D 

magnetizing  force,  H,  but  approaches  a  constant  or  saturation  value  for 
high  values  of  H.    See  Fig.  93. 


160 

024 

r>'2 

M 

i 

7 

\ 

T 

le 

/' 

13. 

140 

^^ 

--^ 

f^ 

^J^' 

k- 

/ 

/ 

10-^ 

L^ 

19 

^7 

■^ 

M 

n 

120 

4 

\ 

N 

3.  Sil.    Phos.  Mang. 
1.79      .75       .19 

-^ 

Z      I.8J        .75          .75 
3      1.76        .75        1.73 
♦      1.81         .75         1.05 

100 

>' 

&     1.76        .75        ^.46 
1      I.7i        .75          .35 

5    ?7n       7?        .-^f, 

N 

\ 

3     2.K       .75          .35 

0  IM       .75         .36 

1  3.67        .76          .36 

80 

\ 

5    1.49  .03  .75          .46 
4    1.49  .16  .75          .49 

\ 

6  im.ajs      Ai 

7  5.08  1.35  .75          .43 

8  2.M3.I8.75          .43 

60 

e' 

9     I.6Z        .91           .47 
0    1,69       l.n            .49 
U     1.63      1.75           .49 

It    1.79      2.57          .5!     

Vi    1.84     2.55          .52 
24    1.76     2.61           .54 

1.0 


2.0  3.0 

Fig.  94. 


4.0 


6.0 


The  effects  of  the  various  elements  on  permeability  are  not  yet  entirely 
clear  although  there  are  some  published  data  along  this  line.  The  writer 
has  recently  done  considerable  work  on  the  relation  between  permeabihty 
and  chemical  composition  of  cast  iron,  and  the  results,  as  yet  vmpublished, 
are  surmnarized  in  Fig.  94.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  effects  of  silicon, 
phosphorus  and  aluminum  are  not  well  marked  and  are  probably  not  of 


340  Chemical  Analyses 

any  very  great  importance.  On  the  other  hand,  manganese  has  a  very 
(Iclrinicntal  ciTicl  on  lliis  prupirly. 

Sihcon  has  the  oppobitu  ellccl  from  manganese  in  that  it  accelerates 
this  change  in  the  form  of  the  iron,  and  we  would,  therefore,  expect 
it  to  have  a  more  or  less  beneficial  influence.  Silicon  steel  has 
achieved  a  wide  rc|jutation  as  a  high  permeability  material  for  use  in 
the  construction  of  tran  former  cores,  etc.  .\ccording  to  tlic  author's 
results  high  silicon  is  particularly  effective  in  increasing  B  for  low  values 
of//. 

An  important  clement  nf)t  considered  in  the  diagram.  Fig.  94,  is 
carbon.  l"or  high  permeability  the  lower  the  carbon  the  better,  and 
excellent  results  are  now  being  obtained  through  the  use  of  semi-steel  for 
electrical  castings.  In  this  connection,  however,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  manganese  is  undesirable  and  hence  must  be  used  cautiously  as  a 
deoxidizer  in  this  class  of  work. 

Some  practical  rules  for  obtaining  high  permeability  iron  are  given 
herewith. 

Keep  the  silicon  high,  best  in  the  neighborhood  of  3  per  cent. 

Keep  the  manganese  low,  preferably  below  0.5  per  cent. 

If  practicable  keep  the  carbon  low  by  the  use  of  steel  scrap  or  air 
furnace  iron. 

Allow  the  castings  to  anneal  themselves,  i.e.,  cool  completely  in  the 
sand  before  shaking  out. 

Hysteresis,  like  conductivity,  is  seldom  or  never  of  importance  in  cast 
iron.  The  property  may  be  defined  as  the  loss  of  energy  due  to  molecular 
friction  when  magnetic  polarity  is  reversed.  The  effect  of  composition 
upon  hysteresis  is  in  general  about  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  permeability. 

Resistance  to  Corrosion 

Although  there  are  a  great  many  corrosive  agencies  it  is  not  practicable, 
because  of  lack  of  information,  to  treat  of  each  separately,  and  so  far  as 
we  know  the  effects  of  composition  would  be  relatively  the  same  for  the 
various  corroding  agents. 

The  following  is  a  summarj'  of  most  of  the  published  information 
along  this  line: 

Pig  iron  which  best  resists  acids  contains  silicon,  i.o  per  cent;  phos- 
phorus, 0.5  per  cent;   sulphur,  0.05  per  cent;  carbon,  3.0  per  cent. 

Excellent  results  wnth  respect  to  resistance  to  corrosion  by  acids  were 
obtained  through  the  use  of  a  mixture  of  three  brands  of  pig  iron  A,  B 
and  C  in  the  proportion,  two  parts  of  .1,  one  part  B  and  one  part  C. 
The  analysis  of  the  pig  irons  is  thus  given : 


Resistance  to  Corrosion 


341 


Fracture 


Silicon, 
per  cent 


Manganese, 
per  cent 


Phosphorus, 
per  cent 


Total 
carbon, 
per  cent 


A  Dark  gray . , 
B  Light  Gray 
C  Mottled.... 


3. so 

I  so 

.70 


3.80 
3.50 
3.50 


The  composition  of  acid-resistant  castings  should  be  about  as  follows: 


Silicon, 
per  cent 

Sulphur, 
per  cent 

Phosphorus, 
per  cent 

Manganese, 
per  cent 

Total  carbon, 
per  cent 

.8  to  2.0 

.02  to  .03 

.40  to  .60 

I  0  to  2.0 

30  to  3.5 

and  in  addition,  the  metal  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from  oxide. 

Cast  iron  to  withstand  the  corrosive  action  of  molten  chemicals 
should  be  close  grained  and  dense.  The  iron  having  the  greatest  den- 
sity will  invariably  be  found  to  best  withstand  chemical  influences  and 
high  temperatures.  The  addition  of  deoxidizing  agents  is  of  great 
benefit. 

Gray  iron  is  attacked  by  acids  about  three  times  as  fast  as  white  iron. 
In  cases  where  it  is  not  practicable  to  use  white  iron  castings  it  is  some- 
times possible  to  cast  against  chills  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  white 
iron  surface  to  resist  corrosion  and  still  leave  the  body  of  the  casting 
gray. 

In  a  series  of  tests  on  the  acid-resisting  properties  of  some  well-known 
Enghsh  brands  of  iron,  the  No.  i  iron,  presumably  high  in  silicon,  and 
the  "hematite,"  low  in  phosphorus  and  probably  high  in  silicon,  gave  the 
best  results. 

Ferrosilicons  with  high  percentages  of  silicon,  20  per  cent  and  over,  are 
remarkably  resistant  to  the  effects  of  acids  and  are  being  made  into 
vessels  for  use  in  the  chemical  industries. 

Sulphur  has  been  found  to  be  a  source  of  corrosion  in  steel  in  some 
instances,  causing  pitting  at  points  where  manganese  sulphide  has 
segregated. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  presence  of  small  amounts  of  copper  in 
steel  and  puddled  iron  diminish  their  tendency  to  rust. 

Some  practical  rules  for  obtaining  castings  resistant  to  corrosion  are 
as  follows: 

Use  white  iron  if  practicable. 


342  Chemicul  Analyses 

If  not  practicable  to  use  white  iron  oistinK,  chill  those  surfaces  which 
are  to  be  in  contact  with  the  c  (/rrosive  substances. 

If  gray  iron  must  be  used  get  dense,  close-grained  castings  through 
the  use  of  steel  scrap  or  otherwise. 

Avoid  oxidized  metal,  use  good  cupola  prai  lice  and  good  pig  irons. 

If  possible  use  deoxidizing  agents. 

Keep  the  sulphur  just  as  low  as  jwssiblc. 

Resistance  to  Wear 

We  must  first  make  some  distinction  between  two  cases  of  wear 
typified  by  a  grinding  roll  and  a  brake  shoe.  The  first  case  may  be 
dismissed  by  the  simple  statement  that  the  greater  the  hardness  the 
better  the  wear,  providing  at  the  same  time  that  the  iron  is  sufliciently 
strong. 

In  the  second  case,  however,  it  is  necessary  that  the  casting  should  not 
be  so  hard  as  to  unduly  wear  the  material  with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 
For  example,  the  brake  shoe  must  be  softer  than  the  tread  of  the  car 
wheel.  There  is  no  theory  to  guide  us  in  the  matter  and  the  rules  given 
are  the  results  of  experiment  chiefly  with  brake  shoes. 

Too  much  silicon  gives  an  open,  soft  iron  which  does  not  wear  well. 
The  best  results  are  obtained  with  silicon  about  ils  per  cent  in  castings 
of  medium  thickness. 

Sulphur  is  claimed  by  many  to  be  advantageous  in  castings  for  fric- 
tional  wear  because  it  closes  the  grain  and  hardens  somewhat.  Diller 
records  a  pecuUar  occurrence  of  a  hard  spot  which  could  not  be  machined, 
a  smooth  surface  being  formed  which  wore  the  drill  although  it  could  be 
dented  with  a  center  punch,  .\nalysis  showed  0.20  per  cent  sulphur  and 
0.50  per  cent  combined  carbon. 

Phosphorus  is  best  kept  moderately  low.  Most  specifications  call  for 
0.75  per  cent  or  under.  It  is  injurious  probably  because  it  weakens  the 
iron  at  the  high  temperature  sometimes  produced  by  friction.  - 

Manganese  is  best  kept  moderately  high  to  take  care  of  the  sulphur. 
Most  brake  shoe  specifications  call  for  under  0.70  per  cent. 

The  addition  of  steel  scrap  to  the  mixture  has  been  found  to  give 
excellent  results  for  this  class  of  work,  probably  owing  to  the  reduction 
in  the  total  carbon  and  to  its  action  in  closing  the  grain. 

CoeflEicient  of  Friction 

There  are  no  data  as  to  the  relation  between  the  composition  of  cast 
iron  and  its  coeflicient  of  friction.  Since  graphite  is  an  excellent  lubri- 
cant it  is  probable  that  the  percentage  of  graphite  is  the  controlling 
factor  here,  the  friction  decreasing  with  increase  in  this  element.     From 


Casting  Properties  343 

theoretical  considerations  we  should  expect  the  best  results  to  be  obtained 
\vith  a  very  soft  iron  low  in  sulphur,  manganese  and  combined  carbon 
and  high  in  graphite. 

Casting  Properties 

The  properties  which  remain  to  be  considered  pertain  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  casting  as  a  whole  and  are  chiefly  influenced  by  the  design, 
moulding  and  pouring  of  the  casting,  and  to  a  very  much  less  extent,  by 
the  composition  of  the  metal. 

Unsoundness  due  to  the  presence  of  blow-holes  and  shrinkage  cavities, 
while  usually  resulting  from  bad  practice  in  moulding  may  also  be  caused 
by  poor  quality  of  metal.  Blowholes  may  be  caused  by  oxidized  metal 
or  by  excessive  sulphur.  .  .  .  When  caused  by  sulphur  the  remedy  is 
to  decrease  this  element.  Raising  the  manganese  is  often  effective  in 
preventing  blowholes  since  it  acts  both  as  a  deoxidizer  and  desulphiurizer. 
Scott  states  that  manganese  below  0.25  per  cent  often  results  in  blow- 
holes. High  phosphorus  sometimes  acts  as  a  corrective  of  blowholes  due 
to  its  prolonging  the  fluidity,  thus  giving  the  iron  more  chance  to  release 
the  dissolved  gases. 

Dirty  castings  are  also  caused  chiefly  by  poor  moulding,  pouring  or 
cupola  practice.  Occasionally,  however,  it  may  result  from  wrong 
composition  of  the  metal,  and  the  points  chiefly  to  be  watched  are  to  keep 
the  sulphur  low;  to  avoid  kish  or  segregated  graphite  and  to  avoid 
oxidized  metal. 

Sulphur  tends  to  cause  dirty  castings  because  it  makes  the  iron  congeal 
more  quickly,  and  hence  any  dirt  present  has  less  chance  to  separate. 
In  addition,  the  sulphides  of  iron  and  manganese  themselves  form  dirt 
spots  when  segregated.  Kish  is  usually  caused  by  too  much  silicon,  or 
sometimes  by  too  much  total  carbon.  Oxidized  metal  is  a  prolific  source 
of  dirty  castings,  but  the  oxidization  is  usually  due  to  bad  cupola  practice, 
or  to  the  use  of  oxidized  scrap.  IModerately  high  manganese  and  phos- 
phorus are  conducive  to  clean  castings,  the  first  because  it  takes  care  of 
sulphur  and  oxidation,  and  the  second  because  it  increases  the  fluidity  of 
the  metal  and  thus  gives  the  dirt  a  better  chance  to  float  out. 

Porosity  is  usually  caused  by  the  presence  of  kish  (see  preceding 
paragraph).  Pinholes,  another  form  of  porosity,  are  usually  due  to 
excessive  sulphur  in  the  form  of  iron  sulphide.  This  compound  retains 
gases  in  solution  until  the  metal  is  partially  frozen  and  then  releases 
them  in  the  form  of  tiny  bubbles  which  give  rise  to  this  defect.  Decrease 
in  sulphur  or  increase  in  manganese  or  both  is  the  remedy. 

Segregation  proper  is  caused  by  the  difference  in  melting  point  and 
specific  gravity  of  the  several  constituents  of  cast  iron.    The  constit- 


344  Chemical  Analyses 

ucnls  of  lowest  melting  point  arc  the  phosphorus  ami  sulphur  compounds, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  in  these  cases  that  we  find  the  greatest  tendency 
towards  segregation.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  hard  s[xjts  in  heavy 
castings  high  in  phos|)h<)rus  which  are  caused  Ijy  the  phosphide  lx:ing 
squeezed  out  into  blow-hulcs  formed  during  solidification.  Frequently 
the  phosphide  does  not  completely  fill  the  cavity,  or  fills  it  as  a  loose 
globule.  The  sulphides,  owing  to  their  low  specific  gravity,  usually 
segregate  in  the  top  of  the  casting  and  it  is  not  infrequent  to  find  sev- 
eral times  the  normal  amount  of  sulphur  in  the  upper  part  of  heavy 
castings.  Manganese  sulphide  segregates  more  readily  than  iron  sul- 
phide. 

Besides  segregation  proper  we  sometimes  find  cases  of  non-homo- 
gencily  due  to  other  causes.  Occasionally  spots  of  white  iron  are  found 
in  the  interior  of  castings.  It  has  always  been  diflicult  to  account  for 
these  but  the  clew  is  given  by  the  fact  that  they  are  invariably  found  in 
castings  poured  from  the  first  metal  tapped. 

Undoubtedly  they  are  caused  by  the  iron  boiling  on  the  sand  bed  and 
are  connected  in  some  way  with  the  partial  Bessemerizing  of  the  metal. 
Again,  hard  spots  in  castings  are  sometimes  due  to  small  pieces  of  metal 
(for  example,  small  steel  scrap  and  shot  iron)  being  incompletely  melted 
in  their  passage  through  the  cupola.  Ferromanganese  and  other  ferro- 
alloys may  give  rise  to  this  same  trouble  through  incomplete  solution 
when  stirred  into  the  ladle. 

Shrinkage  strains  are  caused  primarily  by  ^vTongly  designed  castings, 
but  the  trouble  may  be  aggravated  by  the  composition  of  the  metal. 
High  sulphur  is  a  particularly  prolific  source  of  internal  stresses,  and, 
in  general,  the  greater  the  total  shrinkage,  the  greater  the  strains  due  to 
this  cause. 

As  all  foundr>'men  know,  the  fineness  of  finish  and  smoothness  of  skin 
of  a  casting  depend  chiefly  on  the  sands  and  facings  used  and  the  skill 
of  the  moulder.  High  phosphorus  in  the  iron,  however,  is  a  consider- 
able aid  in  getting  the  fine  skin  desired  in  ornamental  work,  .\nother 
element  affecting  the  skin  is  manganese  which  has  the  rather  peculiar 
action  of  causing  the  sand  to  peel  from  the  castings  with  extreme  readi- 
ness. With  I  per  cent  manganese  this  tendency  is  CNident  and  with 
2  per  cent  it  is  verj'  marked. 

Bars,  plates  and  hollow  castings  were  treated,  which  were  permitted 
to  cool  in  the  moulds.  The  plates  cooled  more  slowly  than  the  bar 
samples  and  the  material  proved  somcv.'hat  softer,  givnng  smaller  values 
for  the  bending,  tensile  and  compressive  strength,  but  was  better  as 
regards  flexiu-e  and  strength  to  resist  impact. 

Tests  reported  to  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  showed: 


Notes  on  the  Micro-structure  of  Cast  Iron  345 

The  best  tensile  and  transverse  tests  are  obtained  from  bars  which 
have  been  machined. 

Transverse  test  bars  cast  on  edge  and  tested  with  the  "fin"  in  com- 
pression give  the  best  results. 

The  transverse  test  is  not  so  reliable  or  helpful  as  that  of  the  moment 
of  resistance. 

Cast  iron  gives  the  best  results  when  poured  as  hot  as  possible. 

As  in  some  measure  explanatory  of  the  conflicting  results  obtained  in 
testing  bars  of  precisely  the  same  chemical  combination,  and  as  showing 
the  importance  of  microscopical  examinations  of  the  structure  of  cast 
iron  in  pointing  out  the  causes  of  difference  in  its  physical  properties,  the 
paper  of  Mr.  Percy  Longmuir  published  in  the  Journal  of  the  American 
Foundrymen's  Association,  June,  1903  is  given  in  full. 

Notes  on  the  Micro-structure  of  Cast  Iron 

By  Percy  Longmtjir,  Sheffield,  England 

Journal  of  the  American  Foundrymen's  Association,  Vol.  XII,  June,  IQ03. 

Instances  are  occasionally  found  where  metal  of  the  right  chemical 
composition  goes  wrong  in  practice.  It  is  in  cases  of  this  kind  that  the 
real  value  of  microscopical  examination  is  most  evident,  for  very  often 
such  an  examination  will  locate  the  trouble  and  at  the  same  time  suggest 
a  remedy.  Naturally  an  examination  of  diseased  samples  can  only  be 
undertaken  after  a  thorough  study  of  healthy  ones,  hence  a  foundation 
for  the  study  of  abnormal  samples  must  necessarily  be  based  on  the, 
knowledge  gained  from  a  wide  series  of  normal  ones,  that  is,  samples  of 
knowTi  chemical  composition  and  known  physical  conditions. 

The  structure  of  cast  iron  is  very  complex  —  far  more  so  than  that  of 
steel  —  a  fact  readily  shown  by  the  high  content  of  elements  present 
other  than  iron.  By  polishing  and  etching  a  sample  of  cast  iron,  several 
of  the  compounds  of  the  elements  with  iron  are,  under  suitable  magni- 
fication, rendered  visible.  The  structural  features,  such  as  the  arrange- 
ment and  distribution  of  the  various  compounds  and  their  relationship 
to  each  other,  can  then  be  readily  noted  and  the  effect  of  this  combination 
on  the  mass  then  becomes  an  estimable  quantity. 

If  the  metal  under  examination  contain  no  impurities  it  is  evident  that 
its  mass  will  be  built  up  of  pure  crystals.  A  section  cut  from  such  a  pvure 
metal  will,  after  polishing  and  etching,  show  only  the  crystal  junctions. 
Crystal  junctions  of  this  type  are  shown  in  Fig.  95 ,  which  represents  the 
structure  of  almost  pure  iron.  Even  here,  although  the  metal  is  so  pure, 
the  very  minute  trace  of  carbon  present  can  be  readily  detected  in  the 
dark  knots  of  which  about  a  dozen  are  to  be  seen.     As  foreign  elements 


346 


Chemical  Analyses 


arc  added  to  pure  iron  the  structure  becomes  more  complex  and  a  point 
is  reached  when  all  the  pure  crystals  are  rejilaced  by  more  complex  ones. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  all  Kt^ay  irons  contain  appreciable  amounts 
of  two  varieties  of  carbon,  silicon,  manKancse,  sulphur  and  phosphonis. 


Fig.  gs.  —  Magnified  360  diameters. 
Carbon  0.03  Sulphur  o.oi 

Silicon  0.02  Phosphorus        o.oi 

Manganese     0.07  Iron  99.86 

Of  these  elements  graphite  is  present  m  its  elementary  form,  that  is,  as 
free  carbon.  The  remaining  constituents  are  present  in  compound  form 
associated  either  with  iron  or  with  other  elements.  Thus  sulphur  may 
occur  as  sulphide  of  manganese  or  as  iron  sulphide.     Carbon  occurring 


Fig.  g6.  —  Magnified  60  diameters. 

Combined  Carbon  0.54  Manganese  0.63 

Graphite  3. 11  Sulphur  0.04 

Silicon  1.77  Phosphorus  1.34 

in  the  combined  form  is  present  as  a  definite  carbide  of  iron;  or  under 
certain  conditions  as  a  double  carbide  of  iron  and  manganese.  Phos- 
phorus is  associated  with  iron  as  a  definite  phosphide.  These  compounds 
are  all  distinguisliable  under  suitable  magnification,  but  the  association 
of  silicon  and  iron  is,  so  far  as  present  knowledge  goes,  unrecognizable. 


Notes  on  the  Micro-structure  of  Cast  Iron 


347 


Microscopically  these  constituents  have  received  other  names  —  for 
instance  pmre  iron  is  known  as  "ferrite,"  hence  a  structure  similar  to 
that  of  Fig.  96  consists  almost  entirely  of  ferrite.  Combined  carbon 
.receives  the  term  "cementite"  and  a  mixture  of  cementite  and  ferrite 


Fig.  97.  —  Magnified  460  diameters.      Fig.  98.  —  Magnified  360  diameters. 

is  known  as  "pearlite."  Pearlite  often  consists  of  alternate  striae  of 
cementite  and  ferrite  and  in  such  a  form  gives  a  magnificent  play  of 
colors  resembling  those  of  mother-of-pearl ,  consequently  this  constituent 
was  named  by  its  discoverer,  Dr.  Sorby,  the  "pearly  constituent,"  a  term 
now  contracted  to  "pearlite." 


Fig.  99.  —  Magnified  50  diameters. 

Combined  Carbon  3.25  Sulphur  0.41 

Silicon  0.78  Phosphorus    0.06 

Manganese  o .  09 

The  classical  researches  of  Professor  Arnold  have  conclusively  shown 
that  iron  containing  0.89  per  cent  carbon  consists  entirely  of  pearlite. 
As  the  content  of  carbon  increases  above  0.89  per  cent,  structurally  free 
cementite  appears  increasing  in  quantity  with  each  increment  of  carbon. 
It  therefore  follows  that  a  white  cast  iron  will  consist  essentially  of 


34^  Chemical  Analyst's 

rcmunlitc  and  pcarlilc.  in  llie  miijorily  of  gray  irons  used  in  the  found- 
ries the  a)ml)incd  carbon  is  well  below  0.89  per  cent  —  cementite  is, 
therefore,  only  present  as  a  constituent  of  pcarlitc. 

Suli^hide  kIoIjuIcs  when  in  the  form  of  manganese  sulphide  show  a  light 
gray  color,  while  iron  sulphide  shows  a  hght  brown  tint. 

In  high  sulphur  irons  the  sulphide  lends  to  envelop  the  crystals;  a 
section  cut  fmm  sucii  an  iron  would  show  a  network  of  sulphide  following 
the  crystal  junctions  and  destroying  their  continuity.  These  sulphides 
have  been  thoroughl>'  in\x'stigatcd  by  Professor  Arnold  whose  researches 
have  thrown  much  light  on  the  behaviour  of  both  iron  and  manganese 
sulphide. 

The  relations  ol  iron  and  phosphorus  have  been  very  thoroughly 
studied  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Stead.     In  September,  1900,  Mr.  Stead  presented 


Fig.  ICX5.  —  Magnified  50  diameters. 

Combined  Carbon  0.82  Manganese     0.09 

Graphite  2.07  Sulphur  0.37 

Silicon  0.75  Phosphorus    0.07 

before  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  a  most  exhaustive  research  on  this 
subject.  With  ordinarj'  pig  irons  the  phosphide  of  iron  appears  to  be 
rejected  to  a  eutectic  of  uncertain  composition.  Eutectic  may  for  our 
purpose  be  defined  as  that  portion  last  to  soUdify.  This  phosphide 
eutectic  may  be  readily  distinguished  in  all  gray  irons  by  an  ordinary 
etching  medium,  but  in  while  irons  containing  structurally  free  cementite, 
Mr.  Stead's  "heat  tinting"  process  becomes  necessary  to  distinguish  the 
eutectic  from  the  cementite. 

Fig.  96  reproduces  a  photo-microscope  of  an  unetched  section  of  gray 
iron  at  a  magnification  of  60  diameters. 

This  magnification  gives,  as  it  were,  a  general  view  only  —  to  get  at  the 
ultimate  structure  higher  powers  must  be  used.  Fig.  97  represents  the 
structure  of  an  ordinary  gray  iron  magnified  460  diameters.     The  larger 


Notes  on  the  Micro-structure  of  Cast  Iron 


349 


portion  of  this  field  consists  of  pearlite  embedded  in  which  are  irregular 
areas  of  the  phosphide  eutectic  and  several  notable  black  plates  of 
graphite.  The,  phosphide  eutectic  is  recognizable  by  its  irregular  shape 
and  broken  up  structure;  an  area  in  the  center  of  the  photograph  enclos- 
ing an  area  of  pearlite  is  worthy  of  notice. 

Fig.  98  reproduces  an  area  of  phosphide  eutectic  from  the  same  section 
as  Fig.  96. 

A  tj^ical  .white  cast  iron  consisting  essentially  of  pearlite  and  cementite 
is  shown  in  Fig.  99.  This  is  a  type  of  iron  used  as  a  base  for  the  production 
of  malleable  cast  iron. 

The  influences  of  annealing  are  shown  in  Fig.  100,  which  represents  the 
same  iron  as  Fig.  99,  after  going  through  the  ordinary  malleable  iron 


Fig. 


Magnified  60  diameters. 


annealing  in  ore.  This  section  consists  essentially  of  pearlite  and 
graphite  —  the  analyses  appended  to  each  figure  showing  the  change  in 
carbon  condition.  For  the  loan  of  the  negatives  illustrating  Figs.  99 
and  100,  the  writer  is  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  T.  Baker,  B.  Sc. 
Quite  apart  from  the  clear  light  thrown  on  what  has  been  aptly  termed 
the  internal  architecture  of  a  metal,  microscopical  examination  reveals 
many  other  features  of  profitable  interest,  one  notable  feature  being  the 
examination  of  minute  flaws.  Space  will  not  permit  of  many  illustra- 
tions under  this  head,  but  Fig.  loi,  reproduced  from  a  photo-micrograph 
of  a  pin-hole  in  the  same  section  as  Fig.  96,  will  show  the  range  of  possi- 
bility in  this  direction.  Obviously,  a  study  of  flaws  of  this  character 
offers  much  to  the  founder  producing  castings  which  have  to  meet  a 
hydraulic  or  high  steam  pressure  test. 


(11  AI'IKk    XIV 


Standard  Specifications  for  Cast  Iron  Car  Wheels 
Chemical  Properties 
Tin:  wheels  furnished  under  this  specification  must  liC  mudc  from  the 
best  materials  and  in  accordance  with  the  best  foundry  methods.  The 
following  pattern  analysis  is  given  for  information,  as  representing 
the  chemical  properties  of  a  good  cast  iron  wheel.  Successful  wheels, 
var\-ing  in  some  of  the  constituents  quite  considerably  from  the  figures 
given,  may  be  made: 


Analysis 

Per  cent 

Analysis 

Per  cent 

3. SO 

2.90 

.60 

.70 

Manganese 

Phosphorus 

Sulphur 

Graphitic  carbon 

oS 

1.  Wheels  will  be  inspected  and  tested  at  the  place  of  manufacture. 

2.  All  wheels  must  conform  in  general  design  and  in  measurements 
to  drawings  which  will  be  furnished,  and  any  departure  from  the  stand- 
ard drawing  must  be  by  special  permission  in  writing.  Manufacturers 
wishing  to  deviate  from  the  standard  dimensions  must  submit  duplicate 
drawings  showing  the  proposed  changes,  which  must  be  approved. 

Drop  Tests 

3.  The  following  table  gives  data  as  to  weight  and  tests  of  various 
kinds  of  wheels  for  different  kinds  of  cars  and  service: 


Wheel 

33-inch  diameter  freight  and  pas- 
senger cars 

36-inch  diameter 

Kind  of  service...  j 

60.000  lbs. 

capacity 

and  less 

I 

600 

70,000  lbs. 
capacity 

2 
650 

100,000  lbs. 
capacity 

3 
700 

Passenger 
cars 

A 

700  lbs. 

Locomotive 
tenders 

s 

f  Desired . . . 
Weight  ] 

[  Variation . 

7Solbs. 

Two  per  cent  either  way 

Height  of  drop.  feet. 
Number  of  blows  .. 

9                   12                   12 
10                   10                   12 

12 
12 

la 
14 

35° 


Material  and  Chill  351 

Marking 

4.  Each  wheel  must  have  plainly  cast  on  the  outside  plate  the  name 
of  the  maker  and  place  of  manufacture.  Each  wheel  must  also  have 
cast  on  the  inside  double  plate  the  date  of  casting  and  a  serial  foimdry 
nimiber.  The  manufacturer  must  also  provide  for  the  guarantee  mark, 
if  so  required  by  the  contract.  No  wheel  bearing  a  duplicate  number,  or 
a  number  which  has  once  been  passed  upon,  will  be  considered.  Num- 
bers of  wheels  once  rejected  will  remain  uniilled.  No  wheel  bearing  an 
indistinct  number  or  date,  or  any  evidence  of  an  altered  or  defaced 
number  will  be  considered. 

Measures 

5.  All  wheels  offered  for  inspection  must  have  been  measured  with  a 
standard  tape  measure  and  must  have  the  shrinkage  number  stenciled 
in  plain  figures  on  the  inside  of  the  wheel.  The  standard  tape  measure 
must  correspond  in  form  and  construction  to  the  "Wheel  Circumference 
Measure"  established  by  the  Master  Car  Builders'  Association  in  1900. 
The  nomenclature  of  that  measure  need  not,  however,  be  followed,  it 
being  sufficient  if  the  graduating  marks  indicating  tape  sizes  are  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  apart.  Any  convenient  method  of  showing  the  shrink- 
age or  stencil  number  may  be  employed.  Experience  shows  that 
standard  tape  measures  elongate  a  little  with  use,  and  it  is  essential  to 
have  them  frequently  compared  and  rectified.  When  ready  for  inspec- 
tion, the  wheels  must  be  arranged  in  rows  according  to  shrinkage  numbers, 
all  wheels  of  the  same  date  being  grouped  together.  Wheels  bearing 
dates  more  than  thirty  days  prior  to  the  date  of  inspection  will  not  be 
accepted  for  test,  except  by  permission.  For  any  single  inspection  and 
test,  only  wheels  having  three  consecutive  shrinkage  or  stencil  numbers 
will  be  considered.  The  manufacturer  will,  of  course,  decide  what  three 
shrinkage  or  stencil  numbers  he  will  submit  in  any  given  lot  of  103  wheels 
offered,  and  the  same  three  shrinkage  or  stencil  numbers  need  not  be 
offered  each  time. 

Finish 

6.  The  body  of  the  wheels  must  be  smooth  and  free  from  slag  and 
blowholes,  and  the  hubs  must  be  solid.  Wheels  will  not  be  rejected 
because  of  drawing  around  the  center  core.  The  tread  and  throat  of  the 
wheels  must  be  smooth,  free  from  deep  and  irregular  wrinkles,  slag,  sand 
wash,  chill  cracks  or  swollen  rims,  and  be  free  from  any  evidence  of  hollow 
rims,  and  the  throat  and  tread  must  be  practically  free  from  sweat. 

Material  and  Chill 

7.  Wheels  tested  must  show  soft,  clean,  gray  iron,  free  from  defects, 
such  as  holes  containing  slag  or  dirt  more  than  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in 


352         Slundard  Specifications  for  Cast  Iron  Car  \\  beds 

di;imclcr,  or  clusters  of  such  holes,  honeycombing  of  iron  in  the  hub, 
while  iron  in  the  |)lales  or  hub,  or  clear  white  iron  around  the  anchors  of 
chaplcls  at  a  greater  distance  than  one-half  of  an  inch  in  any  direction. 
The  dc|)th  of  the  clear  white  iron  must  not  exceed  seven-eighths  of  an 
indi  at  the  throat  an<l  one  inch  at  the  middle  of  the  tread,  nor  must  it  be 
less  than  three-eighths  of  an  inch  at  the  throat  or  any  part  of  the  tread. 
The  blending  of  the  white  iron  with  the  gray  iron  behind  must  be  without 
any  distinct  line  of  demarcation,  and  the  iron  mu.st  not  have  a  mottled 
appMiarancc  in  any  part  of  the  wheel  at  a  greater  distance  than  one  and 
five-cighlhs  inches  from  tlic  tread  or  throat.  The  depth  of  chill  will  Ijc 
determined  by  inspection  of  the  three  test  wheels  described  below,  all 
test  wheels  being  broken  for  this  purpose,  if  necessary.  If  one  only  of 
the  three  test  wheels  fails  in  limits  of  chill,  all  the  lot  under  test  of  the 
same  shrinkage  or  stencil  number  will  be  rejected  and  the  test  will  be 
regarded  as  finished  so  far  as  this  lot  of  103  wheeb  is  concerned.  The 
manufacturer  may,  however,  offer  the  wheels  of  the  other  two  shrinkage 
or  stencil  numbers,  provided  they  are  acceptable  in  other  respects  as 
constituents  of  another  103  wheels  for  a  subsequent  test.  If  two  of  the 
three  test  wheels  fail  in  limits  of  chill,  the  wheels  in  the  lot  of  103  of  the 
same  shrinkage  or  stencil  number  as  these  two  wheels  will  be  rejected, 
and,  as  before,  the  test  will  be  regarded  as  finished  as  far  as  this  lot  of 
103  wheels  is  concerned.  The  manufacturer  may,  however,  offer  the 
wheels  of  the  third  shrinkage  or  stencil  number,  provided  they  are 
acceptable  in  other  respects,  as  constituents  of  another  103  wheels  for 
a  subsequent  test.  If  all  three  test  wheels  fail  in  limits  of  chill,  of  course 
the  whole  hundred  will  be  rejected. 

Inspection  and  Shipping 

8.  The  manufacturer  must  notify  when  he  is  ready  to  ship  not  less 
than  100  wheels;  must  await  the  arrival  of  the  inspector;  must  have  a 
car,  or  cars,  ready  to  be  loaded  with  wheels,  and  must  furnish  facilities 
and  labor  to  enable  the  Inspector  to  inspect,  test,  load  and  ship  the 
wheels  promptly.  \\'heels  offered  for  inspection  must  not  be  covered 
with  any  substance  which  will  hide  defects. 

9.  One  hundred  or  more  wheels  being  ready  for  test,  the  inspector  will 
make  a  list  of  the  wheel  numbers,  at  the  same  time  examining  each  wheel 
for  defects.  .\ny  wheels  which  fail  to  conform  to  specifications  by 
reason  of  defects  must  be  laid  aside,  and  such  wheels  will  not  be  accepted 
for  shipment.  As  individual  wheels  are  rejected,  others  of  the  proper 
shrinkage  or  stencil  number  may  be  offered  to  keep  the  number 
good. 


Thermal  Test  353 

Retaping 

10.  The  inspector  will  retape  not  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  wheels 
offered  for  test,  and  if  he  finds  any  showing  wrong  tape-marking,  he  will 
tape  the  whole  lot  and  require  them  to  be  restenciled,  at  the  same  time 
having  the  old  stencil  marks  obliterated.  He  will  weigh  and  make  check 
measurements  of  at  least  10  per  cent  of  the  wheels  offered  for  test,  and 
if  any  of  these  wheels  fail  to  conform  to  the  specification,  he  will  weigh 
and  measure  the  whole  lot,  refusing  to  accept  for  shipment  any  wheels 
which  fail  in  these  respects. 

Drop  Tests 

11.  Experience  indicates  that  wheels  with  higher  shrinkage  or  lower 
stencil  numbers  are  more  apt  to  fail  on  thermal  test;  more  apt  to  fail 
on  drop  test  and  more  apt  to  exceed  the  maximum  allowable  chill  than 
those  with  higher  stencil  or  lower  shrinkage  numbers;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  wheels  with  higher  stencil  or  lower  shrinkage  numbers  are 
more  apt  to  be  deficient  in  chill.  For  each  103  wheels  apparently 
acceptable,  the  inspector  will  select  three  wheels  for  test  —  one  from 
each  of  the  three  shrinkage  or  stencil  numbers  offered.  One  of  these 
wheels  chosen  for  this  purpose  by  the  inspector  must  be  tested  by  drop 
test  as  follows:  The  wheel  must  be  placed  flange  downward  in  an  anvil 
block  weighing  not  less  than  1700  pounds,  set  on  rubble  masonry  two 
feet  deep  and  having  three  supports  not  more  than  five  inches  wide  for 
the  flange  of  the  wheel  to  rest  on.  It  must  be  struck  centrally  upon  the 
hub  by  a  weight  of  200  pounds,  falUng  from  a  height  as  shown  in  the 
table  on  page  350.  The  end  of  the  faUing  weight  must  be  flat,  so  as  to 
strike  fairly  on  the  hub,  and  when  by  wear  the  bottom  of  the  weight 
assumes  a  round  or  conical  form,  it  must  be  replaced.  The  machine  for 
making  this  test  is  shown  on  drawings  which  wiU  be  furnished.  Should 
the  wheel  stand,  without  breaking  in  two  or  more  pieces,  the  number  of 
blows  shown  in  the  above  table,  the  one  hundred  wheels  represented  by 
it  will  be  considered  satisfactory  as  to  this  test.  Should  it  fail,  the  whole 
hundred  will  be  rejected. 

Thermal  Test 

12.  The  other  two  test  wheels  must  be  tested  as  follows:  The  wheels 
must  be  laid  flange  down  in  the  sand,  and  a  channel  way  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  width  at  the  center  of  the  tread  and  four  inches  deep  must  be 
molded  with  green  sand  around  the  wheel.  The  clean  tread  of  the  wheel 
must  form  one  side  of  this  channel  way,  and  the  clean  flange  must  form 
as  much  of  the  bottom  as  its  width  will  cover.     The  channel  way  must 


354         Standard  Specifications  for  Cast  Iron  Car  Wheels 

ihcii  l>c  fillud  l<)  the  toj)  from  <»nc  ladle  with  molten  cast  iron,  which  must 
he  jKiuretl  direi  tly  into  the  channel  way  without  previous  cooling  or 
stirring,  and  this  iron  must  be  so  hot,  when  |)ourcd,  that  the  ring  which 
is  formed  when  the  metal  is  cold  shall  be  solid  or  free  from  wrinkles  or 
layers.  Iron  at  this  temperature  will  usually  cut  a  hole  at  the  jjoint  of 
impact  with  the  flange.  In  order  to  avoid  spitting  during  the  pouring, 
the  tread  and  inside  of  the  flange  during  the  thermal  test  should  be 
covered  with  a  coat  of  shellac;  wheels  which  are  wet  or  which  have  been 
exposed  to  snow  or  frost  maybe  warmed  sufficiently  to  dry  them  or 
remove  the  frost  before  testing,  but  under  no  circumstances  must  the 
thermal  test  be  applied  to  a  wheel  that  in  any  part  feels  warm  tn  th<-' 
liand.  The  time  when  pouring  ceases  must  be  noted,  and  two  minutes 
later  an  examination  of  the  wheel  under  test  must  be  made.  If  the  wheel 
is  found  broken  in  pieces,  or  if  any  crack  in  the  plates  extends  through 
or  into  the  tread,  the  test  wheel  will  be  regarded  as  having  failed.  If 
both  wheels  stand,  the  whole  hundred  will  be  accepted  as  to  this  test. 
If  both  fail,  the  whole  hundred  will  be  rejected.  If  one  only  of  the  ther- 
mal lest  wheels  fails,  all  of  the  lot  under  test  of  the  same  shrinkage  or 
stencil  number  will  be  rejected,  and  the  test  will  be  regarded  as  finished, 
so  far  as  this  lot  of  wheels  is  concerned.  The  manufacturer  may,  however, 
offer  the  wheels  of  the  other  two  shrinkage  or  stencil  numbers,  provided 
I  hey  are  acceptable  in  other  respects,  as  constituents  of  another  103 
wheels  for  a  subsequent  test. 

Storing  and  Shipping 

13.  All  wheels  which  pass  inspection  and  test  will  be  regarded  as 
accepted,  and  may  be  either  shipped  or  stored  for  future  shipment,  as 
arranged.  It  is  desired  that  shipments  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  in 
lots  of  100  wheels.  In  all  cases  the  inspector  must  witness  the  shipment, 
and  he  must  give,  in  his  report,  the.  numbers  of  all  wheels  inspected  and 
I  he  disposition  made  of  them. 

Rejections 

14.  Individual  wheels  will  be  considered  to  have  failed  and  will  not 
!)c  accepted  or  further  considered,  which. 

First.     Do  not  conform  to  standard  design  and  measurement. 

Second.     Are  under  or  over  weight. 

Third.     Have  the  physical  defects  described  in  Section  6. 

15.  Each  103  wheels  submitted  for  test  will  be  considered  to  have 
failed  and  will  not  be  accepted  or  considered  further,  if, 

First.  The  test  wheels  do  not  conform  to  Section  7,  especially  as  to 
limits  of  white  iron  in  the  throat  and  tread  and  around  chaplets. 


Standard  Specifications  for  Locomotive  Cylinders  355 

Second.  One  of  the  test  wheels  does  not  stand  the  drop  test  as  de 
scribed  in  Section  11. 

Third.  Both  of  the  two  test  wheels  do  not  stand  the  thermal  test  as 
described  in  Section  12. 

Standard  Specifications  for  Locomotive  Cylinders 

Process  of  Manufacture 
Locomotive  cylinders  shall  be  made  from  a  good  quahty  of  close-grained 
gray  iron  cast  in  a  dry  sand  mould. 

Chemical  Properties 
Drillings  taken  from  test  pieces  cast  as  hereafter  mentioned  shall 
conform  to  the  following  limits  in  chemical  composition: 

Silicon from  1.25  to  i .  75  per  cent 

Phosphorus not  over         o .  90  per  cent 

Sulphur not  over         o.  10  per  cent 

Physical  Properties 

The  minimum  physical  qualities  for  cylinder  iron  shall  be  as  follows: 

The  "Arbitration  Test  Bar,"  i!4  inches  in  diameter,  with  supports 

12  inches  apart,  shall  have  a  transverse  strength  not  less  than  3000 

pounds,  centrally  applied,  and  a  deflection  not  less  than  o.io  of  an  inch. 

Test  Pieces  and  Method  of  Testing 

The  standard  test-bar  shall  be  iV*  inches  in  diameter,  about  14  inches 
long,  cast  on  end  in  dry  sand.  The  drillings  for  analysis  shall  be  taken 
from  this  test  piece,  but  in  case  of  rejection  the  manufacturer  shall  have 
the  option  of  analyzing  drilhngs  from  the  bore  of  the  cylinder,  upon 
which  analysis  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  cylinder  shall  be  based. 

One  test  piece  for  each  cylinder  shall  be  required. 

Character  of  Castings 

Castings  shall  be  smooth,  well  cleaned,  free  from  blow-holes,  shrinkage 
cracks  or  other  defects,  and  must  finish  to  blue-print  size. 

Each  cylinder  shall  have  cast  on  each  side  of  saddle,  the  manufacturer's 
mark,  serial  number,  date  made  and  mark  showing  order  number. 

Inspector 

The  inspector  representing  the  purchaser  shall  have  all  reasonable 

facihties  afforded  to  him  bj^  the  manufacturer  to  satisfy  himself  that  the 

finished  material  is  furnished  in  accordance  with  these  specifications. 

All  tests  and  inspections  shall  be  made  at  the  place  of  the  manufacturer. 


3s6  Stanthird  SiK'cificaliuns  for  Cast  Iron  \'\\>c 

Standard  Specifications  for  Cast-Iron  Pipe  and 
Special  Castings 

Drs(rif>li(in  of  Pipes 

The  pipes  shall  be  made  with  hub  and  spigot  joints,  and  shall  accurately 
conform  to  the  dimensions  given  in  tablas  Xos.  I  and  II.  They  shall  be 
straight  and  shall  be  true  circles  in  section,  with  their  inner  and  outer 
surfaces  concentric,  and  shall  be  of  the  specified  dimensions  in  outside 
diameter.  They  shall  be  at  least  12  feet  in  length,  exclusive  of  socket. 
For  pipes  of  each  size  from  4-inch  to  24-inch,  inclusive,  there  shall  be  two 
standards  of  outside  diameter,  and  for  pipes  from  30-inch  to  60-inch, 
inclusive,  there  shall  be  four  standards  of  outside  diameter,  as  shown  by 
table  No.  II. 

All  pipes  having  the  same  outside  diameter  shall  have  the  same  inside 
diameter  at  both  ends.  The  inside  diameter  of  the  lighter  pipes  of  each 
standard  outside  diameter  shall  be  gradually  increased  for  a  distance  of 
about  6  inches  from  each  end  of  the  pipe  so  as  to  obtain  the  required 
standard  thickness  and  weight  for  each  size  and  class  of  pipe. 

Pipes  whose  standard  thickness  and  weight  are  intermediate  between 
the  classes  in  table  No.  II  shall  be  made  of  the  same  outside  diameter  as 
the  next  heavier  class.  Pipes  whose  standard  thickness  and  weight  are 
less  than  shown  by  table  No.  II  shall  be  made  of  the  same  outside  diam- 
eter as  the  class  A  pipes,  and  pipes  whose  thickness  and  weight  are  more 
than  shown  by  table  No.  II  shall  be  made  of  the  same  outside  diameter 
as  the  class  D  pipes. 

For  4-inch  to  12-inch  pipes,  inclusive,  one  class  of  special  castings 
shall  be  furnished,  made  from  class  D  pattern.  Those  having  spigot 
ends  shall  have  outside  diameters  of  spigot  ends  midwaj-  between  the 
two  standards  of  outside  diameters  as  shown  by  table  No.  II,  and  shall  be 
tapered  back  for  a  distance  of  6  inches.  For  14-inch  to  24-inch  pipes, 
inclusive,  two  classes  of  special  castings  shall  be  furnished,  class  B  spe- 
cial castings  with  classes  A  and  B  pipes,  and  class  D  special  castings 
with  classes  C  and  D  pipes,  the  former  to  be  stamped  "AB"  and  the 
latter  to  be  stamped  "CD."  For  30-inch  to  60-inch  pipes,  inclusive, 
four  classes  of  special  castings  shall  be  furnished,  one  for  each  class  of 
pipe,  and  shall  be  stamped  with  the  letter  of  the  class  to  which  they 
belong. 

Allowable  Variation  in  Diameter  of  Pipes  and  Sockets 
Especial  care  shall  be  taken  to  have  the  sockets  of  the  required  size. 
The  sockets  and  spigots  will  be  tested  by  circular  gauges,  and  no  pipe  will 
be  received  which  is  defective  in  joint  room  from  any  cause.    The  diam- 
eters of  the  sockets  and  the  outside  diameters  of  the  bead  ends  of  the 


Special  Castings  357 

pipes  shall  not  vary  from  the  standard  dimensions  by  more  than  0.06 
of  an  inch  for  pipes  16  inches  or  less  in  diameter;  0.08  of  an  inch  for 
18-inch,  20-inch  and  24-inch  pipes;  o.io  of  an  inch  for  30-inch,  36-inch 
and  42-inch  pipes;  0.12  of  an  inch  for  48-inch,  and  0.15  of  an  inch  for 
54-inch  and  60-inch  pipes. 

Allowable  Variation  in  Thickness 

For  pipes  whose  standard  thickness  is  less  than  i  inch,  the  thickness  of 
metal  in  the  body  of  the  pipe  shall  not  be  more  than  0.08  of  an  inch  less 
than  the  standard  thickness,  and  for  pipes  whose  standard  thickness  is 
I  inch  or  more,  the  variation  shall  not  exceed  o.io  of  an  inch,  except  that 
for  spaces  not  exceeding  8  inches  in  length  in  any  direction,  variations 
from  the  standard  thickness  of  0.02  of  an  inch  in  excess  of  the  allowance 
above  given  shall  be  permitted. 

For  special  castings  of  standard  patterns  a  variation  of  50  per  cent 
greater  than  allowed  for  straight  pipe  shall  be  permitted. 

Defective  Spigots  may  be  Cut 

Defective  spigot  ends  on  pipes  12  inches  or  more  in  diameter  may  be 
cut  off  in  a  lathe  and  a  half-round  wrought-iron  band  shrunk  into  a 
groove  cut  in  the  end  of  the  pipe.  Not  more  than  1 2  per  cent  of  the  total 
number  of  accepted  pipes  of  each  size  shall  be  cut  and  banded,  and  no 
pipe  shall  be  banded  which  is  less  than  1 1  feet  in  length,  exclusive  of  the 
socket. 

In  case  the  length  of  a  pipe  differs  from  12  feet,  the  standard  weight 
of  the  pipe  given  in  table  No.  II  shall  be  modified  in  accordance  therewith. 

Special  Castings 

All  special  castings  shall  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  cuts  and  the 
dimensions  given  in  the  table  forming  a  part  of  these  specifications. 

The  diameters  of  the  sockets  and  the  external  diameters  of  the  bead 
ends  of  the  special  castings  shall  not  vary  from  the  standard  dimensions 
by  more  than  0.12  of  an  inch  for  castings  16  inches  or  less  in  diameter; 
0.15  of  an  inch  for  18-inch,  20-inch  and  24-inch  castings;  0.20  of  an  inch 
for  30-inch,  36-inch  and  42-inch  castings;  and  0.24  of  an  inch  for  48- 
inch,  S4-inch  and  60-inch  castings.  These  variations  apply  only  to 
special  castings  made  from  standard  patterns. 

The  flanges  on  all  manhole  castings  and  manhole  covers  shall  be  faced 
true  and  smooth,  and  drilled  to  receive  bolts  of  the  sizes  given  in  the 
tables.  The  manufacturer  shall  furnish  and  deliver  all  bolts  for  bolting 
on  the  manhole  covers,  the  bolts  to  be  of  the  sizes  shown  on  plans  and 
made  of  the  best  quality  of  mild  steel,  with  hexagonal  heads  and  nuts 
and  sound,  well-fitting  threads. 


35^ 


Suindurd  SjKJcifications  for  Cast  Iron  I'iix; 


Table  No.  I.  —  Gkneral  Dimensions  ok  I'ipes 


Classes 


A-B 
C-D 
A-B 
C-D 

c-b 

A-B 

C-D 

A-B 

C-D 

A-B 

C-D 

A-B 

C- 

A-B 

C-D 

A-B 

C-D 

A-B 

C-D 

A 

B 

C 

D 

A 

B 

C 

D 

A 

B 

C 

D 

A 

B 

C 

D 

A 

B 

C 

D 

A 

B 

C 

D 


Actual 
outside 
diam., 
inches 


4.80 
S  00 
6.90 
7.10 
9  05 
9.30 
II. 10 
11.40 
13.20 
13.  so 
15  30 
15.65 
17.40 
17.80 
19-50 
19.92 
21.60 
22.06 
25.80 
26.32 
31.74 
32.00 
32.40 
32.74 
37.96 
38.30 
38.70 
39-16 
44.20 
44.50 
45. 10 
45.58 
50.50 
50.80 
51  .10 
SI. 08 
56.66 
57.10 
57.80 
58.40 
62.80 
63.40 
64.20 
64.82 


Diameter  of 
sockets 


Pipe, 
inches 


5. 60 
5.80 
7.70 
7.90 
9.8s 
10.10 
11.90 
12.20 
14.00 
14.30 
16.10 
16.4s 
18.40 
18.80 
20.50 
20.92 
22.60 
23.06 
26.80 
27.32 
32.74 
33.00 
33-4J 
33-74 
38.96 
39.30 
39.70 
40.16 
45.20 
45.50 
46.10 
46.58 
51.50 
51.80 
52.. JO 
52.98 
57.66 
58.10 
58.80 
59  40 
63.80 
64.40 
65.20 
65  82 


Special 

castings, 

inches 


5.70 
5.70 
7.80 
7.80 
10.00 
10.00 
12.10 
12.10 
14.20 
14.20 
16.10 
16.4s 
18.40 
18.80 
20.50 
20.92 
22.60 
23.06 
26.80 
27.32 
32.74 
33.00 
33.40 
33.74 
38.96 
39  30 
39.70 
40.16 
45  20 
45.50 
46.10 
46.58 
51.50 
51  80 
52.40 
52.98 
57.66 
S8.10 
58.80 
59  40 
63.80 
64.40 
65  20 
65  82 


Depth  of 
sockets 


Pipe, 
inches 


3. so 
3  50 
3.50 

3  SO 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4. CO 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 

4  00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 

4  SO 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 
5.00 
5.00 
5.00 
5. 00 

5  00 
5.00 
5.00 
5  00 
5. SO 
5  50 
5  .so 
5  50 

S  50 

5  50 
S  SO 

S  50 


Special 

castings 

inches 


4.00 
4.00 
4  00 
4  00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4  00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4  00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 

4  so 
4.50 
4.50 
4.50 

5  00 
5.00 
5.00 
5  00 
5. 00 
5.00 
5.00 
5  00 
S.so 
SSo 
5  50 
5. SO 
5. 50 
5. 50 
5.50 
5.50 


A 

B 

15 

1  30 

1.5 

1.30 

IS 

1.40 

IS 

1.40 

IS 

I-So 

IS 

I. SO 

I-S 

I  SO 

1.5 

1.60 

I-S 

1.60 

I.S 

1.70 

IS 

1.70 

IS 

1.80 

1.7s 

1.80 

I-7S 

1-90 

1. 75 

I  90 

I.7S 

3.10 

I.7S 

2.00 

1. 75 

2.30 

2  00 

3  10 

3.00 

3. SO 

2.00 

2-SO 

2.00 

2.30 

3.00 

2.60 

2.00 

3  00 

2.00 

3. SO 

2.00 

3. 80 

2.00 

3.10 

2.00 

3  40 

2  00 

3.80 

2.00 

3.00 

3.00 

3.40 

2.00 

380 

2.00 

3.00 

2.00 

3  30 

2.00 

3.80 

2.00 

4.20 

2.25 

3  20 

2.25 

3.60 

2  23 

4  00 

2  25 

4  40 

2.25 

3  40 

2  25 

3  70 

2.25 

4  20 

2-25 

4-70 

Standard  Specifications  for  Cast  Iron  Pipe 


359 


Table  No.  II.  —  Standard  Thicknesses  and  Weights  of 
Cast  Iron  Pipe 


Class  A 

Class  B 

'Nominal 

100  ft.  head.    43  lbs. 

pressure 

200  ft.  head.    86  lbs.  pressure 

inside 
diameter, 
.  inches 

Thickness, 
inches 

Weight  per 

Thickness, 
inches 

Weight  per 

Foot 

Length 

Foot 

Length 

4 

.42 

20.0 

240 

.45 

21.7 

260 

6 

.44 

30.8 

370 

.48 

33.3 

400 

8 

.46 

42.9 

515 

51 

47-5 

570 

lO 

.50 

57.1 

685 

.57 

63-8 

765 

12 

.54 

72.5 

870 

.62 

82.1 

98s 

14 

.57 

89.6 

1.075 

.66 

102.  s 

1.230 

i6 

.60 

108.3 

1,300 

.70 

125.0 

1.500 

i8 

.64 

129.2 

1.550 

-75 

150.0 

1,800 

20 

.67 

150.0 

1,800 

.80 

175.0 

2,100 

24 

.76 

204.2 

2,450 

89 

233.3 

2,800 

30 

.88 

291.7 

3.500 

1.03 

333.3 

4,000 

36 

■99 

391-7 

4.700 

I -15 

454.2 

5.450 

42 

1. 10 

512.5 

6,150 

1.28 

591  7 

7,100 

48 

1.26 

666.7 

8,000 

1.42 

750.0 

9,000 

54 

1 .  35 

800.0 

9,600 

1. 55 

933.3 

11,200 

60 

1-39 

916.7 

11,000 

1.67 

1,104.2 

13.250 

Class  C 

Class  D 

Nominal 
inside 

300  ft.  head.     130  lbs 

pressure 

400  ft.  he 

ad.     173  lbs.  pressure 

diameter, 
inches 

Thickness, 
inches 

Weig 

it  per 

Thickness, 
inches 

Weight  per 

Foot 

Length 

Foot 

Length 

4 

.48 

23.3 

280 

.52 

25. 0 

300 

6 

51 

35.8 

430 

.55 

38.3 

460 

8 

56 

52.1 

625 

.60 

55.8 

670 

10 

62 

70.8 

850 

.68 

76.7 

920 

12 

68 

91-7 

1,100 

.75 

100.0 

1,200 

14 

74 

116.7 

1,400 

.82 

129.2 

I.5SO 

16 

80 

143.8 

1.72s 

.89 

158.3 

1,900 

18 

87 

175.0 

2,100 

.96 

191 -7 

2,300 

20 

92 

20S.3 

2,500 

1.03 

229.2 

2.7SO 

24 

04 

279.2 

3„3So 

1. 16 

306.7 

3.680 

30 

20 

400.0 

4,800 

1.37 

4SO.O 

5.400 

36 

36 

545.8 

6,550 

1. 58 

625.0 

7.S0O 

42 

54 

716.7 

8,600 

1.78 

825.0 

9.9CO 

48 

71 

908  3 

10,900 

1.96 

1050.0 

12,600 

54 

90 

1,141.7 

13.700 

2.23 

1341.7 

16,100 

60 

2 

00 

1.341-7 

16,100 

2.38 

1583.3 

19,000 

The  above  weights  are  for  12-feet  laying  lengths  and  standard  sockets;    propor- 
tionate allowance  to  be  made  for  any  variation  therefrom. 


360  Stundurd  Specificutions  for  Cast  Iron  I'ipc 

Marking 
Evcrj'  pipe  and  special  casting  shall  have  distinctly  cast  upon  it  the 
initials  of  the  maker's  name.  When  cast  especially  to  order,  each  pipe 
and  special  casting  larger  than  4-inch  may  als<j  have  cast  U|X)n  it  figures 
showing  the  year  in  which  it  was  cast  and  a  numljcr  signifying  the  order 
in  point  of  time  in  which  it  was  cast,  the  figures  denoting  the  year  being 
above  and  the  number  below,  thus: 

1901  1901  1901 

I  2  3 

etc.,  also  any  initials,  not  exceeding  four,  which  may  be  required  by  the 
purchaser.  The  letters  and  figures  shall  be  cast  on  the  outside  and  shall 
be  not  less  than  2  inches  in  length  and  J6  of  an  inch  in  relief  for  pipes 
8  inches  in  diameter  and  larger.  For  smaller  sizes  of  pipes  the  letters 
may  be  i  inch  in  length.  The  weight  and  the  class  letter  shall  be  con- 
spicuously painted  in  white  on  the  inside  of  each  pipe  and  special  casting 
after  the  coating  has  become  hard. 

Allowable  Percentage  of  Variation  in  Weight 
No  pipe  shall  be  accepted  the  weight  of  which  shall  be  less  than  the 
standard  weight  by  more  than  5  per  cent  for  pipes  16  inches  or  less  in 
diameter,  and  4  per  cent  for  pipes  more  than  16  inches  in  diameter,  and 
no  excess  above  the  standard  weight  of  more  than  the  given  percentages 
for  the  several  sizes  shall  be  paid  for.  The  total  weight  to  be  paid  for 
shall  not  exceed,  for  each  size  and  class  of  pipe  received,  the  sum  of  the 
standard  weights  of  the  same  number  of  pieces  of  the  given  size  and  class 
by  more  than  2  per  cent. 

No  special  casting  shall  be  accepted  the  weight  of  which  shall  be  less 
than  the  standard  weight  by  more  than  10  per  cent  for  pipes  12  inches 
or  less  in  diameter,  and  8  per  cent  for  larger  sizes,  except  that  curves, 
Y  pieces  and  breeches  pipe  may  be  12  per  cent  below  the  standard  weight, 
and  no  excess  above  the  standard  weight  of  more  than  the  above  per- 
centages for  the  several  sizes  will  be  paid  for.  These  variations  apply 
only  to  castings  made  from  the  standard  patterns. 

Quality  of  Iron 
All  pipes  and  special  castings  shall  be  made  of  cast  iron  of  good  quality 
and  of  such  character  as  shall  make  the  metal  of  the  castings  strong, 
tough  and  of  even  grain,  and  soft  enough  to  satisfactorily  admit  of 
drilling  and  cutting.  The  metal  shall  be  made  without  any  admixture 
of  cinder  iron  or  other  inferior  metal,  and  shall  be  remelted  in  a  cupola 
or  air  furnace. 


Coating  361 

Tests  of  Material 
Specimen  bars  of  the  metal  used,  each  being  26  inches  long  by  2  inches 
wide  and  i  inch  tliick,  shall  be  made  without  charge  as  often  as  the 
engineer  may  direct,  and,  in  default  of  definite  instructions,  the  con- 
tractor shall  make  and  test  at  least  one  bar  from  each  heat  or  run  of 
metal.  The  bars,  when  placed  flatwise  upon  supports  24  inches  apart 
and  loaded  in  the  center,  shall  for  pipes  12  inches  or  less  in  diameter 
support  a  load  of  1900  pounds  and  show  a  deflection  of  not  less  than  0.30 
of  an  inch  before  breaking,  and  for  pipes  of  sizes  larger  than  12  inches 
shall  support  a  load  of  2000  pounds  and  show  a  deflection  of  not  less  than 
0.32  of  an  inch.  The  contractor  shall  have  the  right  to  make  and  break 
three  bars  from  each  heat  or  run  of  metal,  and  the  test  shall  be  based  upon 
the  average  results  of  the  three  bars.  Should  the  dimensions  of  the  bars 
differ  from  those  above  given,  a  proper  allowance  therefor  shall  be  made 
in  the  results  of  the  tests. 

Casting  of  Pipes 

The  straight  pipes  shall  be  cast  in  dry  sand  moulds  in  a  vertical  position. 
Pipes  16  inches  or  less  in  diameter  shall  be  cast  with  the  hub  end  up  or 
down,  as  specified  in  the  proposal.  Pipes  18  inches  or  more  in  diameter 
shall  be  cast  with  the  hub  end  down. 

The  pipes  shall  not  be  stripped  or  taken  from  the  pit  while  showing 
color  of  heat,  but  shall  be  left  in  the  flasks  for  a  sufliicient  length  of  time 
to  prevent  unequal  contraction  by  subsequent  exposure. 

Quality  of  Castings 
The  pipes  and  special  castings  shall  be  smooth,  free  from  scales,  lumps, 
blisters,  sand  holes  and  defects  of  every  nature  which  unfit  them  for  the 
use  for  which  they  are  intended.     No  plugging  or  fiUing  will  be  allowed. 

Cleaning  and  Inspection 
All  pipes  and  special  castings  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  sub- 
jected to  a  careful  hammer  inspection.     No  casting  shall  be  coated  unless 
entirely  clean  and  free  from  rust,  and  approved  in  these  respects  by  the 
engineer  immediately  before  being  dipped. 

Coating 

Every  pipe  and  special  casting  shall  be  coated  inside  and  out  with  coal- 
tar  pitch  varnish.  The  varnish  shall  be  made  from  coal  tar.  To  this 
material  sufficient  oil  may  be  added  to  make  a  smooth  coating,  tough  and 
tenacious  when  cold,  and  not  brittle  nor  with  any  tendency  to  scale  off. 

Each  casting  shall  be  heated  to  a  temperature  of  300°  F.,  immediately 
before  it  is  dipped,  and  shall  possess  not  less  than  this  temperature  at  the 


362 


Slamlard  SiKcilications  for  C'a.st  Iron  I'ijx: 


lime  it  is  put  in  the  vat.  The  ovens  in  which  the  pipes  arc  heated  shall 
lie  so  arranged  tliat  ail  portions  of  the  pipe  shall  be  heated  to  an  even 
temperature.     Kacli  casting  shall  remain  in  the  bath  at  least  five  minutes. 

The  varni.sh  shall  be  heated  to  a  temperature  of  300°  I*,  (or  less  if  the 
engineer  shall  so  order),  and  shall  be  maintained  at  this  temperature 
during  the  time  the  casting  is  immersed. 

Fresh  pitch  and  oil  shall  be  added  when  necessary  to  keep  the  mixture 
at  the  proper  consistency,  and  the  vat  shall  be  emptied  of  its  contents 
and  refilled  with  fresh  pitch  when  deemed  necessarj-  by  the  engineer. 
After  being  coated  the  pipes  shall  be  carefully  drained  of  the  surplus 
varnish.  Any  pipe  or  special  casting  that  is  to  be  recoated  shall  first  be 
thoroughly  scraped  and  cleaned. 

Hydrostatic  Test 

WTien  Ihe  coating  has  become  hard,  the  straight  pipes  shall  be  sub- 
jected to  a  proof  by  hydrostatic  pressure,  and,  if  required  by  the  engineer, 
they  shall  also  be  subjected  to  a  hammer  test  under  this  pressure. 

The  pressures  to  which  the  different  sizes  and  classes  of  pipes  shall  be 
subjected  are  as  follows: 


Classes 


Class  A  pipe. 
Class  B  pipe. 
Class  C  pipe. 
Class  D  pipe 


20-inch  diam- 
eter and  larger, 
pounds  per 
square  inch 


150 
200 
250 
300 


Less  than 
20-inch  diam- 
eter, pounds 
per  square  inch 


300 
300 
300 

•WO 


Weighing 
The  pipes  and  special  castings  shall  be  weighed  for  payment  under  the 
supervision  of  the  engineer  after  the  application  of  the  coal-tar  pitch 
varnish.  If  desired  by  the  engineer,  the  pipes  and  special  castings  shall 
be  w^eighed  after  their  deliver)'  and  the  weights  so  ascertained  shall  be 
used  in  the  final  settlement,  provided  such  weighing  is  done  by  a  legalized 
weighmaster.  Bids  shall  be  submitted  and  a  final  settlement  made  upon 
the  basis  of  a  ton  of  2000  pounds. 

Contractor  to  Furnish  Men  and  Materials 
The  contractor  shall  provide  all  tools,  testing  machines,  materials  and 
men  necessary  for  the  required  testing,  inspection  and  weighing  at  the 
foundry,  of  the  pipes  and  special  castings;  and,  should  the  purchaser  have 


Engineer  or  Inspector  363 

no  inspector  at  the  works,  the  contractor  shall,  if  required  by  the  engineer, 
furnish  a  sworn  statement  that  all  of  the  tests  have  been  made  as  specified, 
this  statement  to  contain  the  results  of  the  tests  upon  the  test  bars. 

Power  of  Engineer  to  Inspect 

The  engineer  shall  be  at  hberty  at  all  times  to  inspect  the  material  at 
the  foimdry,  and  the  moulding,  casting  and  coating  of  the  pipes  and  special 
castings.  The  forms,  sizes,  uniformity  and  conditions  of  all  pipes  and 
other  castings  herein  referred  to  shall  be  subject  to  his  inspection  and 
approval,  and  he  may  reject,  without  proving,  any  pipes  or  other  casting 
which  is  not  in  conformity  with  the  specifications  or  drawings. 

Inspector  to  Report 

The  inspector  at  the  foimdry  shall  report  daily  to  the  foimdry  office  all 
pipes  and  special  castings  rejected,  with  the  causes  for  rejection. 

Castings  to  be  Delivered  Sound  and  Perfect 

All  the  pipes  and  other  castings  must  be  delivered  in  all  respects  sound 
and  conformable  to  these  specifications.  The  inspection  shall  not  relieve 
the  contractor  of  any  of  his  obligations  in  this  respect,  and  any  defective 
pipe  or  other  castings  which  may  have  passed  the  engineer  at  the  works 
or  elsewhere  shall  be  at  all  times  liable  to  rejection  when  discovered  until 
the  final  completion  and  adjustment  of  the  contract,  provided,  however, 
that  the  contractor  shall  not  be  held  liable  for  pipes  or  special  castings 
found  to  be  cracked  after  they  have  been  accepted  at  the  agreed  point  of 
deUvery.  Care  shall  be  taken  in  handling  the  pipes  not  to  injure  the 
coating,  and  no  pipes  or  other  material  of  any  kind  shall  be  placed  in  the 
pipes  during  transportation  or  at  any  time  after  they  receive  the  coating. 

Definition  of  the  Word  "Engineer" 

Wherever  the  word  "engineer"  is  used  herein  it  shall  be  understood 
to  refer  to  the  engineer  or  inspector  acting  for  the  purchaser  and  to  his 
properly  authorized  agents,  limited  by  the  particular  duties  intrusted 
to  them. 


.^64  Suinuard  S|>ccificalions  /or  Cast  Iron  I'i|>c 

Volume  and  Wiiioux  ok  Piled,  Bell  and  Simcot  Cast  Iron  Pipe 


Size  of 
pipe, 
inches 

Head 
in 
feet 

Thiclc- 
ness  of 
metal, 
inches 

Weight 
of  one 
pipe  in 
pounds 

No.  of 

pipes  in 
one  ton 
of  2240 
pounds 

Cubic 
feet  in 
one  ton 
of  2240 
pounds 

pipes  in 

40  cubic 

feet 

o(  pipe 

in  40 

cubic  feci 

.  ublc 

feet  In 

one 

pipe 

3 

loo 

.38 

167 

1341 

21.414 

; 104. 121 

1.604 

3 

200 

.42 

I8S 

12. II 

19  79<i 

-.  ■,■ , 

4J23.3» 

I  63s 

3 

300 

45 

200 

11.20 

18.961 

23.626 

4724.224 

I  693 

3 

400 

•  45 

200 

11.20 

18.961 

23.626 

4724.224 

I  693 

4 

100 

.40 

230 

9  74 

23.646 

16.479 

3787.720 

2.438 

4 

200 

.42 

243 

9.26 

22.953 

16.135 

3920.  o.M 

2.479 

4 

300 

•  45 

260 

8.61 

22.873 

15  754 

4004.480 

2.539 

4 

400 

.47 

265 

8.45 

21.823 

15.491 

4104.372 

2.582 

S 

100 

.42 

295 

7.59 

26 .537 

11.433 

3376.136 

3. 495 

5 

200 

.45 

31S 

7. II 

25  356 

11.222 

3534. 332 

3.565 

5 

300 

•  48 

338 

6.63 

24.13s 

10.983 

3712.000 

3-643 

S 

400 

•  SI 

355 

6.31 

23.503 

10.738 

3811.172 

3  725 

6 

100 

.43 

364 

6.15 

28.825 

8.359 

3008.000 

4684 

6 

200 

•  47 

393 

5.70 

27.285 

8.356 

3283.240 

4  787 

6 

300 

•  SI 

426 

5.2s 

25.764 

8.177 

3477.224 

4.900 

6 

400 

•  54 

445 

5. 03 

25.114 

8.017 

3567.092 

4  990 

8 

100 

•  47 

SI3 

4.36 

33.42s 

S.224 

2680.164 

7^656 

8 

200 

•  51 

567 

3.95 

30.833 

5118 

2906.196 

7804 

8 

300 

•  56 

624 

359 

28.666 

5.009 

3129.392 

7985 

8 

400 

•  61 

665 

3  37 

27.456 

4.906 

3262.730 

8.153 

10 

100 

.50 

68s 

327 

37  400 

3.454 

2366.256 

11.579 

lo 

200 

•  S6 

765 

2^93 

34^676 

3.388 

2587.484 

11.826 

lo 

300 

.62 

852 

2.63 

31800 

3.317 

3826.248 

12.058 

lo 

400 

.68 

920 

2.43 

30.266 

3.216 

2959-172 

"•435 

12 

100 

•  S3 

870 

2.S7 

41.230 

2.497 

2172.492 

16.018 

13 

200 

.60 

985 

2.27 

37.218 

2.444 

2407.236 

16.367 

12 

300 

.68 

11 10 

2.02 

33.858 

2384 

3646.288 

16.778 

12 

400 

•  75 

1210 

1.98 

34  839 

2.159 

2612.892 

17  549 

14 

100 

•  S6 

1074 

2.08 

44.310 

1.882 

2021.388 

31.252 

14 

200 

•  65 

1229 

1.82 

39  798 

1.831 

2250.592 

21.843 

14 

300 

•  73 

1399 

1.60 

35.699 

1794 

2509.568 

33.398 

14 

400 

•  82 

IS40 

145 

33.242 

1757 

2969.184 

22.847 

i6 

100 

.60 

1293 

1.73 

47.32s 

1.464 

1893.864 

27.308 

i6 

200 

.69 

1496 

I  50 

41.829 

1.434 

2145  788 

27.886 

i6 

300 

•79 

1723 

1.30 

37.095 

1. 401 

241s . 256 

28.535 

I6 

400 

.89 

1900 

1.18 

36.020 

1.316 

2490.308 

30.578 

I8 

100 

.63 

i.';32 

1.46 

48.274 

1. 211 

1855  876 

33019 

I8 

200 

74 

17»8 

1.28 

44  456 

1.157 

2068.864 

34  569 

I8 

300 

.85 

206s 

l.o8 

38.572 

1.124 

2321 . 284 

35  S83 

i8 

400 

•  96 

2300 

.974 

35441 

1. 100 

2532.076 

36.338 

Volume  and  Weight  of  Piled,  Bell  and  Spigot  Cast  Iron  Pipe     365 


Volume  and  Weight  of  Piled,  Bell  and  Spigot  Cast 
Iron  Pipe  {Continued) 


Size  of 
pipe, 
inches 

Head 
in 

feet 

Thick- 
ness of 
metal, 
inches 

Weight 
of  one 
pipe  in 
pounds 

No.  of 
pipes  in 
one  ton 
of  2240 
pounds 

Cubic 
feet  in 

one  ton 
of  2240 

pounds 

No.  of 

pipes  in 

40  cubic 

feet 

Pounds 

of  pipe 

in  40 

cubic  feet 

Cubic 

feet  in 

one 

pipe 

20 

100 

.66 

1.788 

1,28 

53.874 

.945 

1778.040 

41.893 

20 

200 

.78 

2,104 

1.06 

45.596 

.938 

1963,836 

42.854 

20 

300 

.91 

2,444 

.916 

39900 

.918 

2240.272 

43. 559 

20 

400 

.03 

2,740 

.814 

36.508 

.891 

2443  188 

44.850 

24 

100 

.75 

2,407 

.931 

55.122 

.679 

1626.132 

59-207 

24 

200 

.87 

2,803 

.799 

49  463 

.646 

1811.112 

61.906 

24 

300 

1.02 

3,299 

.679 

43.122 

.630 

2080.876 

63-415 

24 

400 

1. 16 

3,680 

.600 

38.783 

.619 

■2277.256 

64.639 

30 

100 

.87 

3.482 

.649 

59-733 

.434 

IS13.268 

92.039 

30 

200 

1. 01 

4,027 

.556 

52.760 

.421 

1697.492 

94.892 

30 

300 

1. 19 

4.783 

.468 

45.550 

.411 

1965.660 

97.337 

30 

400 

1.37 

5.420 

.413 

41.047 

.402 

2181.364 

99  387 

36 

100 

.98 

4,699 

.476 

63.567 

.299 

1407.388 

133-544 

36 

200 

1. 14 

5,460 

.410 

55.586 

.295 

1610.884 

135.577 

36 

300 

1.36 

6.543 

.342 

47.019 

.291 

1903.636 

137.484 

36 

400 

1.58 

7.490 

.300 

42.566 

.282 

2111.516 

141.888 

40 

100 

1.09 

5.807 

.386 

63.591 

.242 

1409.936 

164.74s 

40 

200 

1-23 

6.52s 

.343 

56.997 

.240 

1570.636 

166.174 

40 

300 

1.48 

7.858 

.285 

48.909 

.233 

1831.588 

171. 610 

40 

400 

1.72 

9.050 

.247 

43.413 

.227 

2059.372 

175.763 

42 

100 

1. 10 

6.147 

.364 

66.117 

.225 

1353.628 

181.640 

42 

200 

1.28 

7.100 

.315 

58.179 

.216 

1537.664 

184.69s 

42 

300 

1-54 

8,563 

.258 

48.802 

.211 

1810.768 

189.157 

42 

400 

1.79 

9.890 

.248 

48.002 

.206 

2043.812 

193.559 

48 

100 

1 .25 

7,982 

.281 

65.246 

.171 

1370.164 

233.023 

48 

200 

1. 41 

8,946 

.250 

59.800 

.167 

1496.000 

239.200 

48 

300 

1. 71 

10,857 

.206 

50.862 

.166 

1758.940 

246.903 

48 

400 

1.99 

12,550 

.179 

44.767 

.163 

2007 . 856 

250.097 

60 

100 

1.40 

II,OCO 

.203 

74.817 

.108 

1193.836 

368.559 

60 

200 

1.68 

13.260 

.169 

63.188 

.107 

1418.568 

373-897 

60 

300 

2.0s 

16,040 

•139 

52.903 

.105 

1685.760 

380.599 

60 

400 

2.41 

18,970 

.118 

46.253 

.102 

1938.820 

391.978 

Fig.  103.  —  Pile  of  100  Pipe. 


360 


SuiuJard  S|K-ciliculions  for  Casl  In  in   i'i|K' 


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Pattern  Size  and  Weight  of  Cast  Iron  Pipe 


367 


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SUindard  Specifications  for  Cubl  Iron  I'ijx; 


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Pattern  Size  and  Weight  of  Cast  Iron  Pipe 


369 


Pattern  Size  and  Weight  of  Cast  Iron  Pipe,  %  to  ii?^2 
Inches  Thick 


40-inch 

Pipe 
42-inch 

Pipe 
48-inch 

Pipe 
60-inch 

Pipe 


Thickness,  inches 


Pattern 

Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 


size,  inches. 

pounds  

size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches, 
pounds 


42 
3910 


25^3 


42M6 
4075 


4240 

44!-i 
4440 


2^62 


42^6 

4405 

44?  16 
4615 


42>4 
4737 
44H 
4790 


2?i2 


42M6 
4903 

44^6 
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i^ie 


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4903 

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5969 


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Pipe 
42-inch 

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48-inch 

Pipe 
60-inch 

Pipe 


Thickness,  inches 


Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 


size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches, 
pounds 


31.^2 


42^6 

S070 

44i^1 6 

5316 

501/2 
6068 


42^2 

5237 

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5492 

So9i6 
6267 


1 1/62 


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44?i6 

5668 

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6467 


5572 

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5844 

6667 

62j;8 
8282 


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5740 

44' '/'h 
6021 

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6867 

621^1  e 

8532 


ij-i 


42^4 
5908 

44^4 

6198 

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7067 

63 


I?^2 


42i?'i6 
6077 

44' ^i 6 
6375 

5o?i 
7268 
63H6 
9032 


40-inch 

Pipe 
42-inch 

Pipe 
48-inch 

Pipe 
60-inch 

Pipe 


Thickness,  inches 


Pattern  size,  inches 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches 
Weight,  pounds 


I?i6 

I?^2 

tH 

I%2 

1^6 

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42lfi6 

43 

43M6 

43'/^ 

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6246 

6415 

6585 

6755 

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45  He 

45^6 

4S?i6 

6552 

6730 

6908 

7086 

7264 

7443 

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5I?'18 

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7469 

7670 

7871 

8073 

8275 

8477 

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63M6 

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9282 

9S32 

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10,032 

10,283 

10,534 

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43M 
7267 

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762 

SiMe 

8679 

63;-^ 

10,785 


40-inch 

Pipe 
42-Lnch 

Pipe 
48-inch 

Pipe 
60-inch 

Pipe 


Thickness,  inches 


Pattern  size,  inches . 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches. 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches. 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches. 
Weight,  pounds 


I>?^2 


43?i6 

7438 

45916 

7801 

^1% 

8882 

63?i6 

11,086 


43?i 
7610 
45?^ 
7980 
51M6 
9083 
639i 
11.337 


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43^6 
7782 

45^/16 
8160 

9288 
63IH6 
I I, 588 


ii/i 


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7954 

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8340 

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9491 

63?i 

n.839 


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439'i6 
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8520 

51?^ 
969s 

63'?'!  6 
12,091 


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8300 

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9899 

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12,343 


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43IH6 

8473 

451  He 

8881 

5i?4 

10,103 

6315,^6 

12,545 


370 


SUndard  SiMJcilicalions  for  Cast  Iron  ri|)C 


Pattern"  Size  and  Weight  of  Cast  Iron  Pipe,  ih  tj  2Wi 
Inches  Thick 


40-inch 

Pipe 
4J-inch 

Pipe 
48-inch 

Pipe 
60-inch 

Pipe 


Thickness,  inches 


Pattern  size,  inches i.vli 

Weight,  pounds I  8647 

Pattern  size,  inches. . 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches.. 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches. . 
Weight,  pounds 


1     iH 

inia 

I'M. 
AM 

43' 5i. 

iJ4 

l.vli 

43'?. 0 

44 

8647 

8831 

899s 

9170 

934S 

4S>i 

4S'?i» 

4SJi 

4S'^i« 

46 

9062 

9243 

9424 

9606 

9788 

Si'^io 

Si^i 

Si'Mo 

52 

S2H0 

10.307 

IO,SI2 

10,717 

10,922 

II. 127 

64 

64M6 

64^6 

64?  i  8 

64M 

12,847 

13.099 

I3JS7 

13.603 

13.856 

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44H* 

9S» 

46H« 

9970 

52W 

"033 

64Ma 


40-inch 

Pipe 
42-inch 

Pipe 
48-inch 

Pipe 
60-inch 

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Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 


size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches. . 

pounds 

size,  inches.. 

pounds 

size,  inches., 
pounds 


I'^-iu 

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i»%t 

i«M« 

44 '/6 

44'?io 

9688 

9862 

10,048 

46!-6 

46?!  6 

46M 

46518 

46H 

10,152 

10,335 

10,518 

10,700 

10.885 

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52!  4 

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52H 

S2'/(» 

1 1. 539 

11,745 

I I. 951 

12,158 

12.365 

6498 

64^16 

64  Mo 

64?  i  8 

64''8 

14.362 

14.615 

14.868 

15.121 

15.374 

I»^J 


52^ 

12.573 
64' H« 
15.638 


40-inch 

Pipe 
42-inch 

Pipe 
48-inch 

Pipe 
60-inch 

Pipe 


Thickness,  inches 


Pattern  size,  inches. 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches. 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches. 

Weight,  pounds 

Pattern  size,  inches. 
Weight,  pounds 


5291 8 
12,779 
64?4 
15.882 


52H 
12.987 

64'?<6 

16.136 


2M8 


S3'H« 

13.19s 

6aH 

16,390 


2942 


5294 
13443 
641518 
16.644 


2H 


52' 91 8 
13.611 
65 
16.898 


40-inch 

Pipe 
42-inch 

Pipe 
,»o<-inch 

Pipe 
60-inch 

Pipe 


Thickness,  inches 


Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 
Pattern 
Weight, 


size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches. 

pounds 

size,  inches, 
pounds 


29^2 


65H8 
17.152 


29^8 


65Vi 
17.407 


6s9i« 
17.662 


2M 


6sM 
17.917 


39^2 


659I8 
18.172 


CHAPTER  XV 
MECHANICAL  ANALYSIS 

While  chemical  analysis  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  determination 
of  the  constituents  of  iron  and  the  fuels,  and  is  of  greatest  importance  to 
the  foundryman  as  a  guide  in  their  purchase,  chemists  cannot,  however, 
as  yet  predict  with  certainty  the  physical  properties  which  will  result 
from  the  mixture  of  irons  possessing  identical  composition. 

Test  bars  have  shown,  that  of  two  irons,  precisely  the  same  in  their 
chemical  constituents,  one  may  exceed  the  other  in  tensile  strength  by 
as  much  as  50  per  cent.  No  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  discrepancy 
has  been  made.  Various  suggestions,  attributing  the  cause  to  the  ores, 
changes  of  temperatvure  in  the  furnace,  to  difference  in  cooling,  etc.,  are 
offered,  but  the  problem  is  still  unsolved. 

Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  these  differences,  the  foundryman  needs 
some  means  of  quickly  detecting  and  correcting  them.  He  should 
have  prompt  information  as  to  shrinkage,  softness  and  strength  of  his 
castings. 

During  1885,  Mr.  Keep  made  the  important  discovery  that  the  shrink- 
age of  test  bars  varied  inversely  as  the  silicon  content,  and  that  by 
measurement  of  shrinkage  the  silicon  is  practically  determined. 

His  investigations  resulted  in  pointing  out  the  intimate  relations  which 
exist  between  shrinkage  and  the  other  properties  of  cast  iron,  both 
chemical  and  physical.  Mr.  Keep's  conclusions  as  to  the  importance  of 
mechanical  analysis  are  summarized  as  follows: 

The  physical  properties  of  the  casting  are  not  wholly  dependent  upon 
its  chemical  composition. 

Mechanical  analysis  measures  the  physical  properties  of  the  iron, 
which  are,  shrinkage,  strength,  deflection,  set  and  depth  of  chill.  The 
measure  of  these  properties  shows  the  combined  influen^ce  of  each  element 
in  the  chemical  composition,  and  in  addition  thereto,  it  shows  the  in- 
fluence of  fuel  and  every  varying  condition  attending  melting. 

These  influences,  particularly  that  of  sulphur,  are  counteracted  by  the 
use  of  silicon. 

The  measurement  of  shrinkage  tells  whether  more  or  less  silicon  is 
needed  to  bring  the  quality  of  the  casting  to  an  accepted  standard  of 
excellence. 

371 


372  Mechanical  Analysis 

Instead  of  calculating  the  chemical  c<)mpf>silion  and  predictinR  the 
pliysi(al  properties,  mechanical  analysis  ascertains  the  physical  jiropcr- 
ties  first,  and  determines  from  the  shrinkage  whether  more  or  less  silicon 
is  reciuired  to  protluce  castings  of  a  given  standard.  Measurement  of 
shrinkage  is  made  quickly  at  a  nominal  cost  and  alone  gives  all  necessary 
information. 

It  tells  the  founder  exactly  what  physical  properties  his  castings  have 
and  exactly  what  to  do  to  bring  each  of  those  properties  to  standard. 
By  this  method  a  founder  can  determine  whether  a  low-priced  iron  is 
suitable  for  his  use. 

Having  fixed  upon  a  standard,  he  can  ascertain  during  the  heat 
whether  the  mixture  is  of  the  desired  quality,  and  if  necessar>'  can  increase 
or  decrease  the  silicon,  according  as  the  shrinkage  should  be  reduced  or 
increased. 

Mechanical  analysis  answers  all  the  requirements  of  the  ordinary 
founder.  Its  simplicity  renders  the  emplojTnent  of  an  expert  unneces- 
sary. 

Pig  iron  and  coke,  having  been  purchased  upon  guaranteed  analysis, 
an  occasional  analysis  of  the  castings  is  only  required. 

In  a  report  to  The  American  Society  oi  Mechanical  Engineers,  Mr. 
Keep  presents  a  Shrinkage  Chart  and  Strength  Table,  which  are  given 
below  with  his  directions  for  using  them. 

Shrinkage  Chart 
W.  J.  Ki:i:i' 

While  the  tensile  tests  show  an  increase  of  strength  with  an  increase 
of  phosphorus,  yet  the  transverse  tests  seem  to  show  that  phosphorus 
reduces  strength.     This  is  also  general  shop  experience. 

Sulphur.  —  There  is  not  in  these  tests  enough  uniformity  between 
the  percentage  of  sulphur  and  the  strength  to  show  any  decided  influence, 
but  the  indication  is  that  sulphur  dccrciises  strength.  In  .some  cases 
sulphur  might  add  to  strength  by  causing  the  grain  to  be  closer. 

Manganese.  —  The  percentage  is  too  nearly  the  same  in  these  series 
to  show  any  influence  on  strength. 

By  comparing  strengths  and  chemical  composition  of  the  irons  nearest 
alike,  with  all  chemical  elements  nearly  alike,  and  no  scrap,  but  with 
quite  different  strengths,  it  is  very  evident  that  strength  is  dependent 
upon  something  outside  of  the  ordinary-  chemical  composition. 

Slow  cooUng  decreases  strength  by  making  the  grain  of  a  casting 
coarse  and  more  open.  The  larger  the  casting  the  weaker  it  become*" 
per  square  inch  of  section.  The  weakness  is  not  caused  by  a  decrease 
in  combined  carbon  because  a  complete  analysis  of  each  size  of  test  bar 


Shrinkage  Chart 


373 


(Transactions,  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  Vol.  XVI, 
p.  hoc)  shows  the  same  combined  carbon  in  all  sizes  of  many  series, 
but  in  all  cases  the  strength  per  unit  of  section  decreased  as  the  size 
increased. 

Strength  of  any  size  of  test  bar  cannot  be  calculated  by  any  mathe- 
matical formula  from  the  measured  strength  of  another  size,  because  the 
grain  changes  by  slow  cooling. 

1.00    l.'ZS    1.50    1.75   2.00  E.25  ?.50  2.75   3.00   3.25    3.50 


425 


400 
375 
350 
325 
300 
275 
250 
225 
200 
175 


5400 
3200 
3000 
2800 
2600 
2400 
2200 

'■ 

^ 

^ 

%^ 

^ 

^ 

y 

y 

y 

/ 

^ 

■ 

2'k 

/" 

2000 

1 

^i',  .. 

1800 

- — 

2 

■ ■ 

...     2 

4" 

■ 

-^ 

1600 

3 

'~!.^___ 

~       ' 

1400 

1 ^ 

4 

r^. 

Hi;^ 

. 

[i;;;;^ 

:^ 

— ■ 

IX 

0   I.? 

5     I.E 

0    1.7 

5     2 

00  2.' 

5   Ih 

0   2.- 

5  3. 

DO   3. 

E5  3.5 

Percent  Silicon. 
Fig.  104. 


Tensile  Strength  Chart.  —  Fig.  105  shows  this  chart.     The  dotted  line 

estimated. 

"Table  for  Obtaining  the  Strength  of  any  Size  of  Test  Bar  from  the 
Measured  Strength  of  the  Standard  Test  Bar.  —  Table  on  p.  375  is  cal- 
culated for  a  standard  i-inch  square  test  bar.  Measure  the  shrinkage 
per  foot  of  the  standard  test  bar,  then  on  the  shrinkage  chart,  Fig.  105, 
find  this  shrinkage  on  the  left-hand  margin  and  follow  horizontally 
imtil  you  intersect  the  line  of  the  measured  test  bar.  Follow  the 
vertical  line  at  the  intersection  to  the  top  of  the  chart,  and  you  find 
the  percentage  of  silicon  that  is  expected  to  produce  the  shrinkage. 
Find  this  same  percentage  at  the  top  of  Table  i ,  and  follow  down  to  the 
size  of  test  bar  that  you  wish  the  strengths  of.     If  you  wish  the  actual 


374 


Mechanical  Analysis 


strength  use  the  lower  figures  as  mullij)lier  of  the  measured  strength  of 
the  standard  i-inch  bar.  If  you  wish  the  strength  of  a  section  i  inch 
square  by  12  inches  long  of  the  rc<juire<l  test  bar  use  the  upper  number 
to  multiply  by." 

"If  you  have  the  strength  of  any  size  of  test  bar  other  than  a  i-inch 
bar  and  know  the  silicon  percentage,  divide  such  strength  by  the  lower 


.190 
.180 
.170 
.160 
.150 
.140 
.130 
.120 
.110 
.100 
.090 
.080 
.070 
.060 
.050 
.040 
..030 


N 

\ 

V 

\ 

\ 

X 

i. 

>- 

X 

N 

V 

\ 

s 

^ 

N, 

N, 

'x 

X 

-^ 

5 
^  1 

'n 

^ 

"N 

K 

— - 

^ 

\ 

s 

X 

s 

^ 

% 

X 

N, 

s 

\ 

\ 

N, 

"*\ 

h 

s. 

X 

•v 

\ 

N 

X 

< 

^ 
N, 

<. 

-<5 

^s 

X 

\ 

[^ 

k^ 

N 

< 

\ 

N, 

s 

^ 

S 

sl 

\ 

N, 

N 

X 

<: 

N, 

\ 

X 

\: 

\ 

\ 

X 

X 

^ 

I.     m    1.50    t75    2.00  Z.ZS    ?.50   a75  3100    5.25   350 
Percent. 

Fig.  105. 


number  for  the  bar,  or  if  you  have  the  strength  of  a  section  of  the  re- 
quired test  bar  i  inch  square  by  12  inches  long,  divide  by  the  upper 
number,  and  the  result  in  either  case  is  the  strength  of  the  standard 
I-inch  bar." 

"  To  find  the  Strength  of  any  Casting.  —  Divide  the  cubic  contents  of 
the  casting  by  the  square  inches  of  cooling  surface,  and  the  quotient  is 
the  cooling  ratio.  If  the  casting  has  a  large  flat  surface  the  edges  may 
be  neglected;  for  example,  a  casting  i  inch  thick  and  24  inches  square. 


Keep's  Strength  Table 


375 


O  O 
in  o 


00  o> 


Tj-  00 


lo  o 

00  00 
t-  O 


Si  N 


.S.  S~^  J:8  ?38 


■=*  ■^    M  00 


;s 


376 


Mechanical  Analysis 


A  strip  one  inch  wide  and  24  inches  lonj;  would  have  24  cubic  inches 
contents  and  48  sfjuarc  inches  of  cooling  surface.  24  -^  48  =  0.5  ratio. 
Find  this  ratio  at  the  top  of  the  chart,  Fig.  105,  and  follow  down  to  the 


•*!'' 


Iron  fol  low-board  with  yokes  and  brass 
pastums  for  test  bars  ^i  in.  square  X 
12  in.  long. 

Fig.  106. 


Iron  Flask. 


Taper  steel  scale  which  measures 

shrinkage. 

Fig.  107. 


diagonal  and  we  find  that  a  2-inch  square  test  bar  represents  the  strength 
of  the  casting." 

"With  the  shrinkage  of  a  standard  i-inch  test  bar,  cast  at  the  same 
time  as  the  casting,  find  on  the  shrinkage  chart  the  percentage  of  silicon 

in  the  casting.  Then  in  the  Table 
find  the  upper  multipUer  for  a  2-inch 
test  bar.  This  multiplied  by  the 
measured  strength  of  the  standard 
test  bar  gives  the  strength  of  a  sec- 
tion of  the  casting  i  inch  square 
and  12  inches  long." 

Mechanical  analysis  covers  tests 
for  shrinkage,  strength  and  hard- 
ness. 

Figs.  1 06  and  107  show  a  de\nce 
designed  by  Mr.  Keep  for  determin- 
ing shrinkage. 

Determinations  for  strength  are 
generally  made  by  taking  the  trans- 
verse strength  and  deflection. 

The  Riehle  Machine  as  shown  in 
Fig.  108  is  in  common  use  for  this 
purpose. 

This  illustration  represents  faith- 
fully the  general  appearance  of  this 
machine.     The  specimen  is  shown  in  position.     The  weighing-beams 
and  levers  are  all  carefully  sealed  to  the  standard  of  the  United  States, 
Government,  and  guaranteed  to  be  accurate  and  reliable. 


Fig.  108. 


Constituents  of  Cast  Iron  377 

Operation 

The  weighing-beam  must  be  balanced  before  the  specimen  is  arranged 
for  testing.  The  wheel  shown  must  be  moved  from  left  to  right,  and, 
as  the  beam  rises,  the  poise  must  be  moved  out  to  restore  the  equipoise. 
If  more  strain  is  required  to  break  the  specimen  than  can  be  weighed  by 
the  poise,  move  the  poise  back  to  zero  and  place  the  loose  weight  on  the 
weight  dish  shown  at  the  extreme  left  (small  end)  of  weighing-beam,  and 
move  the  poise  out  as  before,  until  the  test  is  completed.  The  calcula- 
tions are  made  so  that  the  beam  registers  the  center  load. 

Dimensions 

Extreme  length 3  ft.  2  in. 

Extreme  height 3  ft.  i  in. 

Extreme  width i  ft.  4  in. 

Weight 200  lbs. 

Shipping  weight 230  lbs. 

Adaptation 
Transverse  specimens 1 2  in.  long 

Hardness 

This  property  may  be  measured  by  embedding  steel  balls  in  the  casting 
to  be  tested,  by  Turner's  Scleroscope  (see  cut,  page  114,  Turner's  Lec- 
tures on  "  Founding  ");  or  by  Keep's  Machine  (see  cut,  page  187,  "  Cast 
Iron  ").  The  latter  method  is  the  more  simple  and  gives  accurate  results. 
A  small  high  speed  drill  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  it  must  be  so 
arranged  that  the  load  on  the  spindle  will  be  constant. 

Standard  Methods  for  Determining  the  Constituents 
of  Cast  Iron 

As  reported  by  the  Committee  of  the  American  Foundrymen's  Association,  Phila- 
delphia Convention,  May  21-24,  ^907. 

Determination  of  Silicon 

Weigh  one  gram  of  sample,  add  30  c.c.  nitric  acid  (1.13  sp.  gr.); 
then  5  c.c.  sulphuric  acid  (cone).  Evaporate  on  hot  plate  xintil  all 
fumes  are  driven  off.  Take  up  in  water  and  boil  until  all  ferrous  sul- 
phate is  dissolved.  Filter  on  an  ashless  filter,  with  or  without  suction 
pump,  using  a  cone.  Wash  once  with  hot  water,  once  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  three  or  four  times  with  hot  water.    Ignite,  weigh  and  evapo- 


378  Chemical  Analysis 

rale  with  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  and  4  or  s  c.c.  of  hydrofluoric  acid. 
Ignite  slowly  and  weigh.  Mullii)ly  the  difference  in  weight  by  0.4702, 
which  equals  the  per  cent  of  silicon. 

Determination  of  Sulphur 

Dissolve  slowly  a  three-gram  sample  of  drillings  in  concentrated  nitric 
acid  in  a  platinum  dish  covered  with  an  inverted  watch  glass.  After 
the  iron  is  completely  dissolved,  add  two  grams  of  potassium  nitrate, 
evapx)rate  to  dryness  and  ignite  over  an  alcohol  lamp  at  red  heat.  Add 
50  c.c.  of  a  one  per  cent  solution  of  sodium  carbonate,  boil  for  a  few 
minutes,  filter,  using  a  little  paper  pulp  in  the  filter  if  desired,  and  wash 
with  a  hot  one  per  cent  sodium  carbonate  solution.  Acidify  the  filtrate 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  evaporate  to  drj-ness,  take  up  with  50  c.c.  of 
water  and  2  c.c.  of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  filter,  wash  and  after 
diluting  the  filtrate  to  about  100  c.c.  cool  and  precipitate  with  barium 
chloride.  Filter,  wash  well  with  hot  water,  ignite  and  weigh  as  barium 
sulphate,  which  contains  13.733  per  cent  of  sulphur. 

Determination  of  Pliosplioriis 

Dissolve  2  grams  sample  in  50  c.c.  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.,  1.13),  add  10  c.c. 
hydrochloric  acid  and  evaporate  to  dryness.  In  case  the  sample  contains 
a  fairly  high  percentage  of  phosphorus  it  is  better  to  use  half  the  above 
quantities.  Bake  until  free  from  acid,  redissolving  in  25  to  30  c.c.  of 
concentrated  hydrochloric  acid;  dilute  to  about  60  c.c,  filter  and  wash. 
Evaporate  to  about  25  c.c,  add  20  c.c.  concentrated  nitric  acid,  evapo- 
rate until  a  film  begins  to  form,  add  30  c.c.  of  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.,  1.20) 
and  again  evaporate  until  a  film  begins  to  form.  Dilute  to  about  150  c.c. 
with  hot  water  and  allow  it  to  cool.  WTien  the  solution  is  between  70 
degrees  and  80  degrees  C.  add  50  c.c.  of  molybdate  solution,  .\gitate 
the  solution  a  few  minutes,  then  filter  on  a  tarred  Gooch  crucible  having 
a  paper  disc  at  the  bottom.  Wash  three  times  with  a  3  per  cent  nitric 
acid  solution  and  twice  with  alcohol.  Dr>'  at  100  degrees  to  105  degrees 
C.  to  constant  weight.  The  weight  multiplied  b}-  0.0163  equals  thef>er 
cent  of  phosphorus  in  a  i-gram  sample. 

To  make  the  molj'bdate  solution  add  loo  grams  molybdic  acid  to 
250  c.c.  water,  and  to  this  add  150  c.c.  ammonia,  then  stir  until  all  is 
dissolved  and  add  65  c.c.  nitric  acid  (1.42  sp.  gr.).  Make  another  solu- 
tion by  adding  400  c.c.  concentrated  nitric  acid  to  1100  c.c.  water,  and 
when  the  solutions  are  cool,  pour  the  first  slowly  into  the  second 
wnth  constant  stirring  and  add  a  couple  of  drops  of  ammonium 
phosphate. 


Determination  of  Total  Carbon  379 

Determination  of  Manganese 

Dissolve  one  and  one- tenth  grams  of  drillings  in  25  c.c.  nitric  acid 
(1.13  sp.  gr.),  filter  into  an  Erlenmeyer  flask  and  wash  with  30  c.c.  of  the 
same  acid.  Then  cool  and  add  about  one-half  gram  of  bismuthate  until 
a  permanent  pink  color  forms.  Heat  until  the  color  has  disappeared, 
with  or  without  the  precipitation  of  manganese  dioxide,  and  then  add 
either  sulphtu-ous  acid  or  a  solution  of  ferrous  sulphate  until  the  solution 
is  clear.  Heat  until  all  nitrous  oxide  fumes  have  been  driven  off,  cool 
to  about  fifteen  degrees  C;  add  an  excess  of  sodium  bismuthate  —  about 
one  gram  —  and  agitate  for  two  or  three  minutes.  Add  50  c.c.  water 
containing  30  c.c.  nitric  acid  to  the  Htre,  filter  on  an  asbestos  filter  into 
an  Erlenmeyer  flask,  and  wash  with  fifty  to  one  hundred  c.c.  of  the  nitric 
acid  solution.  Run  in  an  excess  of  ferrous  sulphate  and  titrate  back  with 
potassium  permanganate  solution  of  equal  strength.  Each  c.c.  of  N-io 
ferrous  sulphate  used  is  equal  to  o.io  per  cent  of  manganese. 

Determination  of  Total  Carbon 

This  determination  requires  considerable  apparatus;  so  in  view  of 
putting  as  many  obstacles  out  of  the  way  of  its  general  adoption  in  cases 
of  dispute,  your  committee  has  left  optional  several  points  which  were 
felt  to  bring  no  chance  of  error  into  the  method. 

The  train  shall  consist  of  a  pre-heating  furnace,  containing  copper 
oxide  (Option  No.  i)  followed  by  caustic  potash  (1.20  sp.  gr.),  then 
calcium  chloride,  following  which  shall  be  the  combustion  furnace  in 
which  either  a  porcelain  or  platinum  tube  may  be  used  (Option  No.  2). 
The  tube  shall  contain  four  or  five  inches  of  copper  oxide  between  plugs 
of  platinum  gauze,  the  plug  to  the  rear  of  the  tube  to  be  at  about  the 
point  where  the  tube  extends  from  the  furnace.  A  roll  of  silver  foil  about 
two  inches  long  shall  be  placed  in  the  tube  after  the  last  plug  of  platinum 
gauze.  The  train  after  the  combustion  tube  shall  be  anhydrous  cupric 
sulphate,  anhydrous  cuprous  chloride,  calcium  chloride,  and  the  absorp- 
tion bulb  of  potassium  hydrate  (sp.  gr.,  1.27)  with  prolong  filled  with 
calcium  chloride.  A  calcium  chloride  tube  attached  to  the  aspirator 
bottle  shall  be  connected  to  the  prolong. 

In  this  method  a  single  potash  bulb  shall  be  used.  A  second  bulb  is 
sometimes  used  for  a  counterpoise  being  more  liable  to  introduce  error 
than  correct  error  in  weight  of  the  bulb  in  use,  due  to  change  of  tempera- 
ture or  moisture  in  the  atmosphere. 

The  operation  shall  be  as  follows:  To  i  gram  of  well-mixed  drillings 
add  100  c.c.  of  potassium  copper  chloride  solution  and  7.5  c.c.  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  (cone).     As  soon  as  dissolved,  as  shown  by  the  disappearance 


3So  Chemical  Analysis 

of  all  copper,  filter  on  previously  washefl  and  ignited  asbestos.  Wash 
thorouglily  the  beaker  in  which  the  solution  was  made  with  20  c.c.  of 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  [i  to  1  ],  [xjur  this  on  the  filter  and  wash  the  carbon 
out  of  the  beaker  by  means  of  a  wash  bottle  containinjj  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  [i  to  i]  and  then  wash  with  warm  water  out  of  the 
filter.  Dry  the  carbon  at  a  temperature  between  95  and  100  de- 
grees C. 

Before  using  the  apparatus  a  blank  shall  be  run  and  if  the  bulb  does 
not  gain  in  weight  more  than  0.5  milligram,  put  the  drictl  filter  into  the 
ignition  tube  and  heat  the  pre-heating  furnace  and  the  part  of  the  com- 
bustion furnace  containing  the  copper  oxide,  .\fter  this  is  heated  start 
the  aspiration  of  oxygen  or  air  at  the  rate  of  three  bubbles  per  second,  to 
show  in  the  potash  bulb.  Continue  slowly  heating  the  combustion  tube 
by  turning  on  two  burners  at  a  time,  and  continue  the  combustion  for 
30  minutes  if  air  is  used;  20  minutes  if  oxygen  is  used.  (The  Shimer 
crucible  is  to  be  heated  with  a  blast  lamp  for  the  same  length  of 
time.) 

When  the  ignition  is  finished  turn  off  the  gas  supply  gradually  so  as 
to  allow  the  combustion  tube  to  cool  off  slowly  and  then  shut  off  the 
oxygen  supply  and  aspirate  with  air  for  10  minutes.  Detach  the  potash 
bulb  and  prolong,  close  the  ends  with  rubber  caps  and  allow  it  to  stand 
for  5  minutes,  then  weigh.  The  increase  in  weight  multiplied  by  0.27273 
equals  the  percentage  of  carbon. 

The  potassium  copper  chloride  shall  be  made  by  dissolving  one  pound 
of  the  salt  in  one  litre  of  water  and  filtering  through  an  asbestos 
filter. 

Option  No.  I.  —  \Miile  a  pre-heater  is  greatly  to  be  desired,  as  only 
a  small  percentage  of  laboratories  at  present  use  them,  it  was  decided 
not  to  make  the  use  of  one  essential  to  this  method;  subtraction  of  the 
weight  of  the  blank  to  a  great  extent  eliminating  any  error  which  might 
arise  from  not  using  a~  pre-heater. 

Option  No.  2.  —  The  Shimer  and  similar  crucibles  are  largely  used  as 
combustion  furnaces  and  for  this  reason  it  was  decided  to  make  optional 
the  use  of  either  the  tube  furnace  or  one  of  the  standard  crucibles.  In 
case  the  crucible  is  used  it  shall  be  followed  by  a  copper  tube  fi«  inch 
inside  diameter  and  ten  inches  long,  with  its  ends  cooled  by  water  jackets. 
In  the  center  of  the  tube  shall  be  placed  a  disk  of  platinum  gauze,  and 
for  three  or  four  inches  in  the  side  towards  the  crucible  shall  be  silver  foil 
and  for  the  same  distance  on  the  other  side  shall  be  copper  oxide.  The 
ends  shall  be  plugged  with  glass  wool,  and  the  tube  heated  wnth  a  fish 
tail  burner  before  the  aspiration  of  the  air  is  started. 


Graphite  381 

Graphite 
Dissolve  one-gram  sample  in  35  c.c.  nitric  acid  [1.13  sp.  gr.],  filter  on 
asbestos,  wash  with  hot  water,  then  with  potassium  hydrate  [i.i  sp.  gr.] 
and  finally  with  hot  water.     The  graphite  is  then  ignited  as  specified  in 
the  determination  of  total  carbon. 


CIIAPTKR    XVI 
MALLEABLE    CAST    IRON 

Thk  process  of  rendering  iron  castings  malleable  was  discovered  by 
Reaumur  in  1722  and  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  pursued  at  the 
present  day. 

McWilliams  and  Longmuir  divide  malleable  castings  into  two  classes. 

1.   Black  Heart 

Black  heart  has  a  silvery  outside  and  black  inside,  with  a  silky 
lustre.  This  is  made  of  a  hard  white  iron,  containing  from  3  to  4  per 
cent  carbon,  as  hard  carbide  of  iron. 

By  the  process  of  annealing,  to  be  described  later,  the  carbide  of  iron 
is  decomposed  into  free  carbon  (annealing  carbon)  and  iron;  leaving  a 
soft  malleable  iron,  which  contains  nearly  all  of  the  initial  carbon  but 
in  the  free  state  finely  divided  and  intermixed  with  the  iron. 

Black  heart  is  mostly  made  in  America.  The  process  is  conducted 
much  more  rapidly  than  that  of  the  ordinary  (or  Reaumur  process),  but 
requires  more  skill  and  scientific  information.  The  iron  used  must  be 
low  in  silicon  and  sulphur  but  need  not  necessarily  be  a  while  iron. 

The  analysis  should  appro.ximate  to,  silicon,  i  per  cent  to  0.5  per  cent; 
sulphur,  .05  per  cent  as  a  maximum;  phosphorus,  .1  per  cent  maximum; 
manganese,  .5  per  cent  maximum  and  carbon  3  per  cent. 

The  principle  involved  is  that  of  taking  white  iron  castings  of  suitable 
composition,  heating  them  to  high  temperature  and  converting  them  to 
the  malleable  condition  by  precipitating  the  carbon  in  a  fine  state  of 
division,  as  annealing  carbon.  High  temperature  shortens  the  process, 
i)ut  it  has  been  found  more  desirable  to  use  a  lower  temperature  and 
longer  anneal,  as  the  desired  change  is  more  readily  secured. 

The  method  of  molding  is  the  same  as  for  gray  iron,  with  same  allow- 
ance for  shrinkage.  The  amount  of  feeder  required  varies  from  12.5 
to  25  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  casting.  Skill  is  required  to  make  solid 
castings  with  minimum  amount  of  metal. 

.Vfter  cleaning  in  the  usual  manner  the  castings  are  packed  in  cast  iron 
boxes  of  varynng  sizxs  to  suit  their  character,  with  iron  scale  or  sand, 
bone  dust  or  fire  clav;   the  boxes  are  covered  with  lids  and  luted,  then 

3S2 


Black  Heart 


383 


stacked  in  the  annealing  oven  (to  be  described  later).  The  temperature 
of  the  oven  is  gradually  raised  to  about  1 100°  C,  maintained  at  that  point 
for  two  days  and  then  allowed  to  drop  slowly  until  sufficiently  cool  to 
permit  removal  of  the  boxes. 

The  composition  of  the  castings  after  annealing  is  only  altered  in  the 
carbon,  the  total  amount  being  somewhat  less  but  practically  all  present 
in  the  free  state.  The  composition  of  castings  made  by  one  of  the 
largest  English  makers  is  as  follows: 

Si  0.5;  S  0.04;  P.  0.07;  Mn  0.4;  graphitic  carbon  2.5;  combined 
carbon  0.05.  A  test  piece  u-inch  square  bent  180° — -cold;  tensile 
strength  40,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  elongation  6  per  cent  in  2  inches, 
reduction  of  area  9  per  cent. 

Black  heart  is  more  reliable  for  light  than  for  heavy  work.  To  avoid 
the  introduction  of  sulphur,  the  pig  iron  is  usually  melted  in  an  air 
furnace. 

Messrs.  Charpy  &  Grenet's  experiments  on  irons  of  the  following 
compositions  are  given  herewith. 


No. 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

Carbon 

I 

.70 

.01 

trace 

.03 

3.60 

2 

.27 

.02 

.02 

trace 

3.40 

3 

.80 

.02 

.03 

trace 

3.2s 

4 

I. 25 

.01 

.01 

.12 

3- 20 

5 

2.10 

.02 

.01 

.12 

3.30 

These  irons  were  poured  into  cold  water  and  contained  no  appreciable 
amount  of  graphite,  excepting  the  last  which  had  20  per  cent.  Samples 
of  these  were  subjected  to  various  reheatings  and  to  ascertain  as  nearly 
as  practicable  the  condition  at  any  one  temperature,  the  samples  were 
quenched  at  that  temperature  and  then  analyzed. 

1.  Heated  at  1100°  C.  or  any  low  temperature  for  long  periods  gave 
no  graphitic  carbon;  but  at  1150°  C.  the  separation.of  graphitic  carbon 
was  produced. 

2.  Heated  for  four  hours  each  at  700°,  800°,  900°  and  1000°  C.  showed 
no  free  carbon;   but  it  appeared  in  heating  to  1100°  C. 

3.  Showed  traces  at  800°  C. 

4.  5.   Showed  traces  at  650°  C. 

In  the  case  of  No.  5,  after  heating  at  650°  C.  for  6  hours,  the  content 
of  graphitic  carbon  had  increased  from  o.io  to  2.83  per  cent. 

The  separation  of  graphite,  once  commenced,  continues  at  tempera- 
tures inferior  to  those  at  which  the  action  begins. 

Thus:  A  sample  of  No.  i,  heated  at  1170°  C.  and  quenched,  contained 


384 


Malleable  Cast  Iron 


only  0.50  graphitic  carlKin  and  2.t">  combined  corlxin,  while  another 
sample  of  the  same  cast  iron,  heate<l  at  the  s^ime  time  to  1 1 70"  C,  cooled 
slowly  to  700°  C.  and  then  (iiicnditd  contained  1.87  graphitic  airl>on 
and  0.43  comljincd  larhoii. 

Again  a  fragment  of  No.  3,  heated  to  1 170°  C.  and  quenched,  contained 
1.42  graphitic  carbon  and  1.69  combined  carbon,  while  another  fragment 
heated  to  1170°  C.  cooled  slowly  to  700°  C.  and  then  quenched  ct)nlaine<l 
2.56  graphitic  carbon  and  0.38  combined  carbon. 

At  a  constant  temperature  the  separation  of  the  graphite  is  ctTectefl 
progressively,  at  a  rate  that  is  the  more  gradual,  the  lower  the  tempera- 
ture or  the  less  the  silicon  content. 

The  authors  show  that  these  cast  irons,  with  regard  lo  the  critical 
points,  have  the  usual  carbon  change  point,  about  700°  C,  but  that  there 
is  another  well-marked  arrest  in  heating  at  1140",  1165°,  1137°  and 
1165°  C,  for  numbers  i,  2,  3,  4  and  5,  respectively;  and  similarly  in 
cooling  at  1120°,  1130°,  1137°  and  1145°  C. 

In  an  experiment  made  by  W.  H.  Hatfield,  with  six  bars,  all  containing: 

Si  i.o;  S  0.04;  P  0.04;  Mn  0.22;  graphitic  carbon  2.83;  combined 
carbon  0.08,  all  white  irons  as  cast;  variously  heat-treated  so  as  to  give 
the  same  composition  to  analysis,  but  to  have  the  free  carbon  in  all 
states  of  division  from  fine  in  No.  i  to  coarse  in  No.  6. 

Bars  I  inch  square  by  18  inches  long  were  tested  transversely  on  knife 
edges  12  inches  apart  and  gave 


No. 

Inches 
deflection 

Xo. 

Inches 
deflection 

2^ 

4 

5 

6 

before  fracture;  the  gradually  decreasing  deflections  given  being  due 
entirely  to  the  increasing  coarseness  of  the  free  carbon. 

Another  set  of  four  test  bars,  containing  0.45,  0.90,  1.10-1.8S  per  cent 
silicon  but  otherwise  similar  in  composition  to  the  above;  heat-treated 
so  that  all  should  have  the  same  type  of  free  or  annealing  carlx)n,  gave 
95°i  98°,  94°  and  89°,  respectively,  when  subjected  to  the  ordinary 
bending  test. 

The  microstructurc  of  these  bars  consisted  of  ferrite  or  silicon  ferrite 
speckled  with  annealing  carbon,  which  if  kept  of  suitable  structure  affects 
the  malleability  Uttle  more  than  does  the  slag  in  the  case  of  wrought 
iron. 


Ordinary  or  Reaumur  Malleable  Cast  Iron 


38s 


Pearlite,  when  present,  after  heat-treating  white  irons,  greatly  in- 
creases the  tenacity,  one  sample  having  a  tenacity  of  32.6  tons  per  square 
inch,  with  an  elongation  of  6  per  cent  on  2  inches,  and  a  bending  angle 
of  90°,  when  treated  so  as  to  leave  0.35  per  cent  of  carbon  in  the  com- 
bined form  and  present  as  pearlite  in  the  structure. 

Another  sample  of  the  same  general  composition,  but  treated  to  leave 
only  0.06  per  cent  as  combined  carbon  had  a  tenacity  of  21.2  tons  per 
square  inch,  elongation  11  per  cent  on  two  inches  and  a  bending  angle 
of  180°  unbroken. 


2.  Ordinary  or  Reaumur  Malleable  Cast  Iron 

In  this  class  of  castings  the  carbon  is  completely  eliminated,  leaving 
a  soft  material  similar  in  analysis  to  wrought  iron. 

It  is  stated  that  irons  containing  as  much  as  0.5  sulphur  may  be  used 
in  this  class  of  castings.  The  irons  employed  are  mottled  or  white, 
analyzing  as  follows:  Si  0.5  to  0.9;  S  0.25  to  0.35;  P  0.05  to  0.08;  Mn 
0.1  to  0.2,  total  carbon  ^li  per  cent 

It  may  be  melted  in  the  crucible,  in  the  cupola,  or  in  the  air  fiumace. 
The  cupola  is  more  in  general  use  in  England  than  the  air  fiirnace. 

The  table  below  shows  approximately  the  influence  of  remelting  by 
the  several  processes. 


Original  pig 
iron 

Crucible 

Cupola 

Reverb. 

Siemens 

c 3.5 

Si 8s 

S 25 

Mn 20 

P OS 

3.4 
.82 
.30 
.10 
OS 

3.4 
■  75 
.31 
.10 
.054 

3.2 
.65 
.27 
.10 

.052 

3.2 
.70 
,26 
.10 
OS 

Whichever  furnace  is  used  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  metal  fluid 
enough  to  fill  the  most  intricate  parts  of  the  molds  to  be  poured  in  any 
one  batch.  Molding  operations  are  the  same  as  for  green  sand,  except 
that  provision  must  be  made  for  the  narrow  range  of  fluidity  and  the 
high  contraction  of  wliite  iron. 

Allowance  for  shrinkage  is  H  inch  to  the  foot.  The  castings  after 
proper  cleaning  are  packed  in  cast-iron  boxes  of  suitable  sizes,  with  red 
hematite  ore  broken  up  finely.  New  ore  is  not  used  alone  but  one 
part  new  is  mixed  thoroughly  \vith  four  parts  that  have  been  used 
before;  the  castings  are  carefully  packed  in  this  mixture  so  that  no 
two  are  in  contact. 

The  oxygen  from  the  ore  oxidizes  the  carbon  in  the  castings,  gradually 


386 


MallcaMe  (':lsI  Iron 


cliiniiuling  it.  Tlie  ore,  [)rc\ious  tx)  use.  is  red  oxide  of  iron  (FcjOi), 
bill  after  the  annealing  process  is  found  to  be  black  oxide  corresponding 
to  the  formula  FesOi. 

After  stacking  the  boxes  in  the  annealing  oven,  the  temperature  is 
gradually  raised  during  48  to  72  hours;  maintained  at  the  annealing 
temperature  from  12  to  24  hours,  then  allowed  from  48  to  72  hours  to 
cool. 

The  length  of  time  during  which  the  high  temperature  is  maintained 
varies  with  the  thickness  of  the  castings.  For  thick  work  the  high 
temperature  may  have  to  be  continued  for  a  period  increasing  with  the 
thickness  of  the  castings  up  to  96  hours. 


Typical  Teuper.\ture  Curve  for  .Vnneallng  Oven 

lOOOr 


Some  makers  anneal  at  as  low  a  temperature  as  850°  C.  (see  P.  Long, 
"  Metallurgy',  Iron  and  Steel,"  page  130).  Within  reasonable  limits, 
chemical  composition  of  the  castings  in  this  process  has  little  bearing 
on  the  result  provided  they  are  white  iron  as  cast. 

The  sihcon  may  run  from  0.3  to  0.9;  sulphur  0.05  to  0.5;  phosphorus 
should  be  under  o.i;   manganese  causes  trouble  if  over  0.5. 

Castings  made  by  this  process  give  a  tensile  strength  of  18  to  22  tons; 
an  elongation  of  2 '2  to  6  per  cent  on  2  fnches  and  a  reduction  of  area  of 
5  to  8  per  cent,  with  a  cold  bend  on  '  j-inch  square,  of  45°  to  90°. 

Mr.  P.  Longmuir  obtained  the  following  results  from  a  commercial 
casting:  Tensile  strength,  27  tons;  elongation,  5.7  per  cent  on  2  inches; 
reduction  of  area  10  per  cent;  it  analyzed  Si  0.65;  S  0.3;  P  0.04; 
Mn  0.15. 

In  the  process  of  annealing  the  carbon  only  is  affected,  being  con- 
siderably reduced  in  amount;  what  remains  is  partly  free  and  partly 
combined.  An  annealed  sample  containing  0.6  per  cent  free  carbon  and 
0.4  combined  ii  considered  good. 

Mr.  Percy  Longmuir  places  the  average  silicon  for  good  malleable 
castings  at  0.6,  sulphur  0.3,  phosphorus  0.05,  and  combined  carbon  3 
to  3.5  per  cent. 


Ordinary  or  Reaunuir  Malleable  Cast  Iron 
Analyses  Before  and  After  Annealing 


387 


Constituents 


Total  carbon 

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus. . 
Manganese.  . 


After  pro- 

Iron as 

longed  an- 

cast 

nealing  in 

iron  ore 

3.43 

.10 

•  45 

■  4S 

.06 

.06 

■  31 

.32 

.53 

•  53 

Interesting  experiments  were  made  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Hatfield  of  Sheffield, 
and  results  published  in  "The  Foundry,"  Oct.,  1909,  by  Mr.  G.  B. 
Waterhouse. 

"Three  converted  bars  of  identical  composition  analyzing: 


Constituents 

Per  cent 

Constituents 

Per  cent 

Total  carbon 

1.64 

1.64 

.03 

Manganese 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

trace 

One  was  packed  in  charcoal,  another  in  pure  quartz  sand,  the  third 
in  a  red  hematite  ore  mixture,  consisting  of  two  parts  old  and  one  part 
new.  The  pots  were  placed  close  together  in  the  annealing  oven  and 
slowly  raised  to  about  800°  C.  This  required  about  three  days.  They 
were  held  at  this  temperature  for  24  hours,  then  raised  to  900°  C,  held 
there  for  two  days,  then  cooled  slowly.  Upon  removal  and  breaking 
the  following  results  appeared. 

No.  I,  from  charcoal,  broke  short  and  gave  a  coarsely  crystalline 
structure  showing  under  the  microscope  absolutely  no  free  carbon. 

Its  carbon  was  1.63  per  cent,  the  other  elements  remaining  unchanged. 

No.  2,  from  sand,  was  fairly  tough  but  broke  without  bending. 
Fracture  crystalline  and  steely.  Its  carbon  was  0.74  per  cent  and  again 
no  free  carbon  was  found. 

No.  3,  from  the  ore  mixture,  bent  considerably  before  breaking 
and  was  fairly  ductile.  Its  carbon  was  0.15  per  cent  and  again  no 
free  carbon  could  be  found,  the  structure  being  of  ferrite  crystals. 
The  experim.ents  appearing  to  prove  conclusively  the  possibihty  cf 
carbon  being  removed  without  previous  formation  of  free  or  temper 
carbon. 


388 


Malleable  Cast  Iron 


For  ihc  second  scries  of  exjxirimenls,  an  ordinary  white  iron  was 
taken  containing: 


Constituents 

Per  cent 

Constituents 

Percent 

35 
none 
.so 

Manganese 

Sulphur 

■  3S 
.OS 

Phosphorus 

The  packing  was  the  ore  mixture  previously  referred  lo. 

Sami)les  were  heat-treated  and  sections  were  given  a  careful  micro- 
scopical examination,  with  the  following  results: 

Decarburization  began  54  hours  after  commencement  of  heating  and 
at  770°  C,  showing  a  thin  skin  of  ferrite;  the  cemaining  portion  of  the 
casting  retained  the  typical  structure  of  white  iron.  40  hours  later, 
during  which  time  the  temperature  gradually  raised  to  980°  C,  the  de- 
carburized  skin  increased  in  thickness  to  ?i6  inch. 

Fourteen  hours  later,  at  a  temperature  of  970°  C,  the  interior  had 
broken  down  and  free  or  temper  carbon  was  apparent.  During  the 
next  interval  of  60  hours,  at  950°  C.  ver>'  little  change  occurred.  The 
center  showed  pearlite,  with  a  little  cementite  and  containing  temper 
carbon,  merging  gradually  into  the  skin  of  ferrite. 

During  the  following  72  hours,  the  temperature  was  dropped  to 
140°  C,  resulting  in  the  production  of  a  really  good  sample  of  English 
malleable  cast  iron  of  the  following  analysis: 


Constituents 

Per  cent 

Constituents 

Percent 

.65 
1. 10 

Sulphur 35 

The  author's  conclusion  is,  that  carbon  is  eliminated  while  still  in 
combination  with  the  iron. 

It  (the  elimination)  begins  to  take  place  at  the  comparatively  low 
temperature  of  750°  C,  and  increases  in  activity  with  the  temperature 
until  such  a  temperature  is  reached  that  free  or  temper  carbon  is  pre- 
cipitated. 

Previous  to  this  change  the  interior  consists  of  white  iron,  with  the 
original  quantity  of  combined  carbon. 

As  the  operation  proceeds  the  temper  carbon  is  gradually  takiu  back 
into  combination  to  replace  that  removed  by  the  oxidizing  influences. 


American  Practice  389 

American  Practice 

The  rmxtures  of  iron  vary  as  the  castings  are  thick  or  thin.  The  iron 
is  melted  either  in  the  cupola,  the  air  furnace  or  the  open  hearth  furnace. 
The  latter  produces  the  best  castings,  but  can  only  be  used  advanta- 
geously where  the  output  is  large  enough  to  permit  of  running  the  fur- 
nace continuously. 

The  air  furnace  is  most  frequently  used. 

The  castings  may  or  may  not  be  packed  in  an  oxidizing  material. 
Sand  or  fire  clay  are  frequently  used. 

Dr.  Moldenke,  who  is  recognized  as  an  authority  on  malleable  cast 
iron,  states:  "That  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  the  hard  castings 
free  from  graphite."     He  advises  the  following: 

Contents:  Per  Cent 

Carbon 3  -3.5 

Silicon,  heavy  work,  not  over 0.45 

SiUcon,  ordinary  work,  not  over 0.65 

Silicon,  agricultural  work,  not  over 0.80-1 .  25 

Sulphiu:,  not  over o .  05 

Phosphorus,  not  over 0.225 

Manganese,  not  over o .  40 

"In  anneaUng,  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  should  be  run  up  to 
'  heat'  in  the  shortest  safe  time  possible;  the  limit  is  the  danger  of  injury 
to  furnace.  Then  the  dampers  should  be  closed  and  the  temperature 
evenly  maintained  for  48  hours.  The  furnace  should  then  be  gradually 
cooled  to  a  black  heat  before  dumping.  36  hours  are  usually  required 
to  bring  the  oven  up  to  heat. 

The  entire  process  occupies  about  seven  days.  The  annealing  tem- 
perature is  1350°  F.  and  this  must  obtain  at  the  coldest  part  of  the  fiu:- 
nace,  usually  the  lower  part  of  the  middle  of  the  front  row  of  pots. 

A  difference  of  200°  F.  in  temperature  is  often  found  at  different 
parts  of  the  furnace. 

Cupola  iron  requires  an  annealing  temperatvure  200°  F.  higher  than 
that  from  an  air  furnace. 

The  fuel  ratio  of  an  air  furnace  runs  from  i  to  2  to  i  to  4. 

Loss  in  silicon  about  35  points. 

Temperatures  should  be  carefully  watched  and  measured  with  a 
Le  Chatelier  pyrometer." 

The  Doctor  has  much  to  say  about  the  danger  of  injury  to  the  melted 
iron  in  the  bath,  from  oxidation.  His  practice  was  to  have  three  tapping 
spouts  at  different  levels,  so  that  for  an  18-ton  furnace,  three  taps  of 
6  tons  each  may  be  made  at  intervals,  tapping  at  the  upper  hole  first 
and  then  in  order  from  upper  to  bottom  hole. 


3<)o  Malleable  Cast  Iron 

Mr.  II.  i:.  Dillcr,  in  the  Journal  of  The  American  Foundrymen's 
Association,  Vol.  XI,  Dec,  iyo2,  says: 

The  hard  casting  should  have  its  carbon  practically  all  in  the  com- 
bined state,  while  the  annealing  process  should  convert  this  to  the  so- 
called  temper,  or  annealing  carbon. 

In  the  manufacture  of  malleable  castings  the  special  make  of  iron 
called  '.Malleable  Bessemer'  or  'Malleable  Coke  Iron'  is  the  principal 
material  used.  The  charcoal  irons,  while  unequalled  for  value,  arc  con- 
fined to  the  regions  where  they  can  compete  with  the  cheaper  coke 
irons. 

The  composition  required  is  as  follows: 

Per  cent 

Silicon o .  75  to  I .  so 

Sulphur,  below 0.04,  if  possible 

Phosphorus,  under. . .  .0.  20 

With  the  pig  iron,  hard  sprues  funannealcd  scrap),  steel  and  also  malle- 
able scrap  are  charged.  The  latter  two  materials  are  very  good  to  add 
to  the  mixture,  as  they  raise  the  strength  of  the  casting  very  consider- 
ably. 

Too  much  must  not  be  added,  as  it  would  reduce  the  carbon  to  a 
point  where  fluidity  and  life  in  the  melted  metal  is  sacrificed. 

The  most  serious  objection  to  cupola  iron  is  its  poor  behavior  under 
bending  test,  the  deflection  being  very  slight.  Test  bars  from  this 
(lass  of  iron  seldom  run  above  40,000  pounds  per  square  inch  in  tensile 
strength,  while  with  furnace  iron,  there  is  no  dilViculty  in  getting  a  few 
th:)usand  pounds  more. 

The  metal  may  be  tapped  from  the  furnaces  into  hand  ladles;  or  it 
may  be  caught  in  crane  ladles,  carried  to  the  distributing  point  and  there 
emptied  into  the  hand  ladles. 

When  tapped  into  hand  ladles,  time  is  a  serious  item,  for  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  of  the  heat  will  be  two  diCferent  things.-  The  latter 
iron  will  be  inferior  as  it  was  subjected  to  the  oxidizing  efTect  of 
the  flame  much  longer  than  the  first  part.  This  difiiculty  is  some- 
what remedied  by  pouring  the  light  work  first,  the  heavier  pieces 
coming  later,  when  the  silicon  has  been  lowered  too  much  for  good  light 
castings. 

The  gating  should  be  done  to  avoid  the  shrinkage  effects  as  much 
as  may  be.  The  little  tricks  that  can  be  applied  make  a  surprising 
difference  in  the  molding  loss.  Some  malleable  works  seldom  lose 
more  than  10  per  cent,  while  in  others  20  per  cent  and  over  is  the 
rule. 

After  the  castings  have  been  tumbled  they  go  to  the  annealing  room, 


American  Practice 


391 


where  they  are  packed  in  mill  cinder  or  iron  ore,  in  cast-iron  boxes. 
These  are  carefully  luted  up  and  heated  in  suitably  constructed  ovens, 
foir  five  or  six  days. 

•  It  usually  takes  from  36  hours  to  48  hours  to  get  the  oven  up  to  heat, 
the  temperature  ranging  from  1600°  to  1800°  F.  in  the  oven,  the  boxes 
having  a  somewhat  lower  temperature  at  the  coldest  point. 

When  the  fires  are  extinguished,  the  dampers  are  closed  tight,  all 
air  excluded,  and  the  oven  allowed  to  cool  very  gradually;  often  only 
400"  F.  the  first  day. 

After  the  castings  come  from  the  annealing  oven,  they  are  again 
tumbled  to  remove  the  burnt  scale;  then  chipped  and  ground  for  ship- 
ment. 

A  well-annealed  casting  should  not  have  much  over  o.o5  to  0.12 
per  cent  combined  carbon  remaining  in  it.  There  is  a  material  difference 
between  the  strength  of  an  over-annealed  casting  and  a  normal  one. 


Fig.  iio. - 


36'/0"  X  ff'4" ^  d'O" 
-Typical  American  Air  Furnace. 


Two  bars  were  taken  from  each  of  five  heats.  One  from  each  set 
was  given  the  usual  anneal  and  the  others  reannealed.  The  average 
tensile  strength  of  those  annealed  as  usual,  was  50,520  pounds 'per 
square  inch,  and  the  average  elongation  6M  per  cent  in  six  inches. 

The  reannealed  set  had  an  average  tensile  strength  of  43,510  pounds 
per  square  inch;  the  average  elongation  was  6h  per  cent  in  six  inches. 
Over  annealing  had  therefore  cost  the  metal  some  7000  pounds  of  its 
strength. 

'Malleable'  can  be  made  up  to  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  though 
this  is  not  advisable  as  the  shock  resisting  qualities  are  sacrificed. 

Prof.  Ledebur  determined  by  experiment  that  the  higher  the  silicon 
the  lower  the  annealing  temperature  required,  and  the  higher  the  tem- 
perature and  silicon  the  quicker  the  change.     He  used  five  samples: 

1  with  0.07  silicon.     Could  not  be  annealed. 

2  with  0.27  silicon.     Required  temperature  almost  at  melting  point. 

3  with  0.80  silicon.     Began  to  anneal  at  1675°  F- 

4  with  1.25  siHcon.     Began  to  anneal  at  1200°  F. 

5  with  2.10  silicon.     Began  to  anneal  at  1200°  F. 


393 


Malleable  Cast  Iron 


Specificalions  for  Malleable  Castings  of  J.  I.  Case  Co. 

Tensile  strength  per  s(|.  in.,  35.CXX)  to  50,000. 

Hi(jngation,  1.5  in  4  in. 

Transverse  test  for  O  bar  .8  inch  diameter  on  supports  12  inches 
ai)art,  must  show  1750  pounds  to  2,400  pounds  Ijreaking  strength  and 
dcQection  of  not  less  than  0.31  inch. 

Drop  Test.  —  A  bar  .8  inch  diameter  on  supports  12  inches  apart  must 
not  break  under  less  than  1650  inch  pounds,  the  drop  being  22  pounds 
and  the  first  drop  through  3  inches,  second  4  inches  and  so  on  until 
rupture  occurs. 

Torlional  lest  should  closely  approximate  the  tensile  strength. 

Bending  Test.  —  Pieces  from  :>ia  to  9i8  inch  thick  and  from  i  to 
3  inches  wide,  should  bend  over  on  themselves,  around  a  circle  equal 


Fig.  III.  —  .^nnealing-Ovcn  equipped  for  Gas. 

in  diameter  to  twice  the  thickness  of  the  piece  and  bend  back  again 
without  break. 

The  anneal  is  specified  at  not  less  than  72  hours  for  light  and  120  hours 
for  heavy  work. 


Comparison  of  Tests  made  in  iSSj  wilh  those  made  in  igo8 
jS8j  By  Prof.  Ricketts 

?4-inch  D  bar,  tensile  strength,  30,970  to  44,290  per  square  inch. 
Elongation,  1.8  inches  in  5  inches. 

Bars  I  by  .33,  tensile  strength,  32,750  to  36,990  per  square  inch. 
Round  bars,  'A  inch  diameter,  tensile  strength,  36,200  to  44,680  per 

square  inch. 
Round  bars,  ?<  inch  diameter,  tensile  strength,  26,430  to  34,600  pet 

square  inch. 
Compression,  108,900  to  160,950  pounds  per  square  inch. 


American  Practice  393 

igoS 

Bars  ,l2-inch  D,  tensile  strength,  52,000  to  59,000  per  square  inch. 
Larger  sections,  tensile  strength,  42,000  to  47,000  per  square  inch. 
Dr.  Moldenke  states  that  the  tensile  strength  should  run  from  40,000 

to  44,000. 
The  Iron  Trade  ReNaew  gives  the  production  of  malleable  castings  in 

1903  for  the  United  States  and  Canada  as  750,000  tons. 
Combined  output  of  the  rest  of  the  world  50,000  tons. 


rilAP'IKK    X\II 
STEEL   CASTINGS   IN   THE   FOUNDRY 


There  is  a  great  demand  on  ihe  part  of  foundr>Tncn  for  an  appliance 
to  successfully  melt  steel  in  small  quantities;  permitting  small  steel 
castings,  or  castings  for  which  the  demand  is  immediate,  to  be  made  in 
the  gray  iron  foundrj'.  Many  eCforts  have  been  made  to  realize  this 
desire,  but  so  far  have  met  with  indiflerent  success.  There  are  several 
appliances  offered  to  manufacturers,  some  emploj'ing  the  Bessemer 
converter,  others  the  electric  furnace  in  connection  with  the  cupola. 

Men  cspeciall}-  skilled  are  required  to  manipulate  steel  furnaces.  The 
processes  of  mixing  and  melting  the  metal  and  annealing  castings  differ 
so  radically  from  those  of  the  gray  iron  foundry,  that  in  the  present 
undeveloped  state  of  steel  founding  on  a  small  scale,  steps  on  the  part 
of  the  foundryman  in  that  direction  should  be  taken  with  extreme 
caution. 

Mr.  Percy  Longmuir  defines  ordinarj'^  steel  "as  iron  containing  from 
O.I  to  2  per  cent  of  carbon  in  the  combined  form,  which  has  been  sub- 
mitted to  complete  fusion  and  poured  into  an  ingot,  or  mould,  for  the 
production  of  a  malleable  or  forgeable  metal." 

"  Mild  steel  contains  about  0.2  per  cent  carbon;  the  element  increasing 
as  the  harder  varieties  are  approached,  being  highest  of  all  in  the  tool 
steels." 

"The  mechanical  eflect  of  this  carbon  is  shown  in  the  following  table." 


Material 


Mild  steel. . 
Tool  steel . . , 


Carbon 


Silicon 


Sulphur 


Phos- 
phorus 


.02 
.02 


Tenacity 

in  tons 

per  square 

inch 


20.00 
60.00 


Extension 
per  cent 
on  two 
inches 


50.0 
SO 


Contrac- 
tion 
percent 
of  area 


70.0 
10. o 


"Within  Hmits,  an  increase  of  carbon  is  accompanied  by  an  increase  in 
tenacity  and  a  decrease  in  ductility,  each  increment  of  carbon  showing 
distinctly  these  increases." 

"The  following  classification  embraces  the  most  familiar  tempers  of 
Bessemer,  Siemens  and  crucible  steel." 

394 


Steel  Castings  in  the  Foundry 


395 


Class  of  steel 


Bessemer  steel ■{ 


Siemens  or  open  hearth. 


Crucible  steel . 


Content 

of  carbon 

Purpose 

.20 

Ship  and  boiler  plates,  sheets,  etc. 

.25 

Axle  steel. 

.03 

Tire  steel. 

.03 

Rail  steel. 

•  SO 

Spring  steel. 

.20 

Boiler  plate. 

.65 

Spring  steel. 

I  30 

Tool  steel. 

.90 

Chisel  steel. 

1. 10 

Large  files,  drills  and  similar  tool  steels. 

1.20 

Turning  tool  steels. 

1.40 

Saw  file  steels. 

I. SO 

Razor  steels. 

A  steel  containing  o.io  per  cent  carbon  is  unaffected  in  hardness  by 
quenching,  while  one  containing  i  per  cent  carbon  becomes  so  hard  under 
same  conditions  that  it  will  scratch  glass. 

Manganese  is  present  in  all  commercial  steels,  varying  from  traces  up 
to  I  per  cent.  It  promotes  soundness  and  neutralizes  the  effect  of 
sulphur. 

SiHcon  tends  to  the  production  of  sound  metal;  while  it  is  present  in 
insignificant  quantity  in  forging  steel,  in  casting  steels  it  may  exist  to  the 
extent  of  0.3  per  cent. 

Phosphorus  produces  an  exceedingly  brittle,  cold  short  metal.  Pure 
steels  contain  0.02  to  0.03  per  cent. 

Usual  specifications  limit  the  phosphorus  content  to  0.06;  at  o.i  the 
danger  limit  is  reached. 

Steels  containing  appreciable  amounts  of  sulphur  are  red  short.  In 
high  quality  of  steels  the  sulphur  content  runs  about  o.oi  per  cent. 
Ordinary  specifications  place  the  limit  at  0.04  per  cent. 

The  variations  in  the  carbon  content  to  suit  various  requirements  are 
showTi  in  the  following  table: 


Purpose  for  which  the  steel,  in  the  form  of  a  hardened  or 

steel 

tempered  tool,  is  suitable 

.50 

Springs. 

60 

Stamping  dies. 

65 

Clock  springs. 

75 

Hammers,  shear  blades,  axes,  mint  dies. 

80 

Boiler  punches,  screw  dies,  cold  sets. 

90 

Edge  tools,  slate  saws. 

95 

Circular  saws,  pins. 

00 

Cold  chisels,  cross-cut  saws. 

10 

Drills,  large  files,  hand  saws,  mill  picks. 

20 

Granite  and  marble  saws,  mill  chisels. 

30 

Harder  files,  cutters,  spindles,  turning  tools. 

40 

Saw  files. 

50 

Turning  tools  for  chilled  rolls,  razors  and  surgical  instruments. 

.V)6 


Steel  Castings  in  ihc-  Foundry 


Tlic  follnwiii)^   tabic  is  taken    from   I'ruf.  J.  (J.  Arnold'b  "Influence 
of  C"arl)iin  nii  Iron." 

MiiCHANicAL  Properties  "  Normal  Steels  " 


Carbon 

Elastic  limit, 

tons  per 
square  inch 

Maximum 

stress,  tons 

per  square 

inch 

Elongation 

Reduction 
of  area 

08 

12.19 

21.39 

46  6 

7.«.8 

.21 

17.08 

25  39 

42.1 

67.8 

.38 

17. 95 

29.94 

34. 5 

S6.3 

■  59 

19.82 

42.82 

19.9 

22.7 

•89 

24.80 

52.40 

13  0 

15  4 

1.20 

35-72 

61.64 

8.0 

7-8 

1.47 

32.27 

55-71 

2.8 

3  3 

"Normal  steels"  represent  the  rolled  bars  heated  to  1000"  C.  and 
cooled  in  air. 

"Comparing  this  table  with  the  foregoing  statements,  it  appears  that 
as  pearlite  replaces  ferrite,  the  maximum  stress  increases,  continuing 
lo  do  so  until  a  structure  consisting  of  pearlite  and  very  thin  meshes  of 
cementite  is  reached.  Further  increase  in  carbon  resulting  in  greater 
dispersal  of  free  cementite  is  associated  with  a  decrease  in  maximum 
stress." 


Bessemer  Process 

The  Bessemer  process  consists  in  l)lowing  a  large  volume  of  compressed 
air  through  a  bath  of  molten  pig  iron;  the  oxygen  of  the  air  combining 
with  carbon,  silicon  and  manganese  to  form  oxides.  That  combined 
with  carbon  passes  off  as  gas  while  with  silicon  and  manganese  slags  are 
formed. 

On  removal  of  carbon,  silicon  and  manganese,  assuming  that  sulphur 
and  phosphorus  are  low,  a  product  resembling  wrought  iron  is  obtained. 
Meantime  during  the  process  of  o.xidation,  there  is  a  rise  in  temperature 
sufficient  to  maintain  mild  steel  in  a  fluid  condition.  The  oxidation  of 
silicon  has  the  greatest  effect  in  producing  the  rise  in  temperature.  The 
irons  must  be  low  in  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  as  these  elements  are  not 
removed.  An  average  content  of  2.5  per  cent  silicon  in  the  pig  iron  gives 
the  best  results.  Higher  than  this,  the  heats  are  liable  to  require  scrap- 
ping; while  with  a  lower  content  of  silicon  there  is  danger  of  "cold 
blows."  The  melted  metal  is  taken  directly  from  the  cupola,  led  by 
runners  to  the  converter. 


The  Baby  Converter 


397 


The  Baby  Converter  (Robert) 

This  consists  of  a  steel  shell  mounted  on  trunnions,  so  that  it  may  be 
properly  rotated.  It  is  flattened  on  the  back  and  lined  with  siUca  brick 
or  ganister.    On  the  flattened  side  the  tuyeres  are  introduced  horizontally. 

The  surface  of  the  metal  lies  approximately  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tuyeres  so  that  the  blast  may  impinge  upon  it.  The  blast  is  from  3  to 
4  poimds  per  square  inch  and  means  are  provided  for  regulating  it.  The 
tuyeres  being  inchned  radially,  a  rotary  motion  is  imparted  to  the  molten 
metal  by  the  blast. 

In  some  cases  the  surface  of  the  metal  may  be  above  the  tuyere  level, 
but  seldom  exceeds  that  by  more  than  three  or  four  inches.  The  high 
tuyere  level  permits  some  of  the  air  to  escape  and  burn  on  the  surface 
of  the  bath ;  carbon  monoxide  is  formed  in  the  bath  by  the  oxidation  of 
the  carbon. 

The  combustion  of  carbon  monoxide  gives  rise  to  considerable  heat, 
which  is  absorbed  by  the  bath.  To  this  reaction  is  due  the  higher  tem- 
perature of  the  side  blow  converter. 

The  Tropenas  converter  has  a  double  row  of  tuyeres  which  are  hori- 
zontal when  the  converter  is  vertical.  They  are  not  radially  inclined 
as  in  the  Robert.  The  surface  of  the  metal  is  at  the  bottom  edge  of  the 
lower  row  of  tuyeres;    the  blast  is  always  on  the  surface  of  the  metal. 

When  blowng  the  converter  is  slightly  inchned,  causing  the  direction 
of  the  tuyeres  to  slope  towards  the  surface  of  the  metal.  During  the 
early  stage  of  the  blow  the  lower  tuyeres  only  are  used;  but  on  the 
appearance  of  the  carbon  flame  the  upper  row  is  opened.  The  carbon 
monoxide,  partly  consumed  by  air  from  the  lower  tuyeres,  is  supplied 
with  sufficient  oxygen  for  complete  combustion  by  that  from  the  upper 
row,  generating  additional  heat. 

Recarbonization  is  effected  in  the  converter  or  in  the  ladles  according 
to  the  character  of  the  composition  required. 

The  chemical  changes  taking  place  in  a  two  ton  Tropenas  converter 
are  given  as  follows : 


Constituents 

Cupola 
metal 

Afters 
minutes 
blowing 

After  12 
minutes 
blowing 

After  14 
minutes 
blowing 

After  18 
minutes 
blowing 

End  of 
blow 

Fin- 
ished 
metal 

Graphite 

Combined  car- 
bon   

Silicon 

Sulphur 

Phosphorus 

Manganese 

3.180 

.350 
2.310 
.037 
.054 
610 

2.920 

•  340 
1.620 
.037 
.053 
.600 

2.900 
.466 
■  03S 
054 
.101 

2.300 
.382 
.036 
.054 
.040 

.860 
.084 
.038 
.051 
.040 

.100 
.074 
.038 
.050 
.042 

.240 
.326 
037 
.058 
1.080 

398  Steel  (astinps  in  the  Foundry 

Theoretically  the  feeder  on  a  steel  casting  should  sink  due  to  shrinkage. 
If,  however,  instead  of  sinking,  a  rise  is  shown,  this  is  clear  evidence  of 
internal  unsoundncas  or  sponginess.  To  prevent  this  result  one  of  the 
first  essentials  lies  in  having  the  steel  thoroughly  dead  melted  or  "  killed" 
before  casting.  A  properly  "killed"  steel  pours  quietly  and  settles 
down  gently  in  the  mould.  "  Wild  metal "  acts  in  the  opposite  way  and 
in  some  cases  is  rejjrescnted  by  an  over-o.xidized  metal. 

A  distinction  must  l>c  drawn  between  a  "pipe"  and  a  blow  hole. 

The  former  is  due  entirely  to  contraction  or  shrinkage  in  passing  from 
the  liquid  to  the  solid  state  and  must  be  obviated  by  feeding. 

"Blow-holes"  are  entirely  diiTerent  from  "pi{>es"  and  are  formed  by 
the  liberation  of  gases  absorbed  during  the  melting  process. 

In  considering  the  character  of  these  gases,  ox>gcn  naturally  arises 
first,  owing  to  the  strong  atTmity  between  iron  and  o.xygen.  There  is 
every  reason  to  suppose,  however,  that  the  oxygen  absorbed  when  the 
iron  is  molten,  remains  stable  at  low  temperatures  as  an  o.vide,  and  in 
the  absence  of  a  deoxidizing  agent  this  ferrous  o.xide  is  intermingled  with 
the  iron.  O.xygenated  steel  is  "dr>'"  under  the  hammer  and  this  con- 
dition is  not  necessarily  due  to  blow-holes,  but  to  "red-short"  metal. 
Further,  if  free  oxj-gen  were  present  in  ciuantitj'  in  the  gas  contained  in 
a  blow-hole,  its  skin  would  show  an  oxide  film. 

The  majority  of  blow-holes  have  bright  surfaces;  comparatively  few 
show  colored  tints,  ranging  from  a  straw  to  a  blue,  due  to  oxidation. 
These  colored  blow-holes  owe  their  o.xidized  film,  not  to  free  oxygen 
liberated  by  the  iron,  but  to  air  mechanically  trapped  during  casting. 
Analyses  of  the  gases  seldom  show  more  than  traces  of  oxygen.  Mr.  E, 
Munker  reports  sixty-seven  analyses  of  gases  evolved  by  molten  pig 
iron;  the  highest  content  of  oxygen  in  the  series  is  found  at  0.8  per  cent. 
Average  analyses  of  gases  in  blow-holes  give  results  of  the  following 
order:  Percent 

Hydrogen 75    ' 

Nitrogen 23 

Carbon  monoxide 2 

The  actual  amount  of  these  gases  absorbed  depends  to  some  extent 
on  the  temperature  and  composition  of  the  bath.  While  fluid  the  gases 
are  retained;  but  with  a  fall  in  temperature  after  casting  they  are  evolved. 
Those  set  free  by  a  fall  in  temperature  bubble  through  the  pasty  mass,  the 
trapped  bubbles  representing  blow-holes  in  the  casting.  As  the  tem- 
perature continues  to  fall  less  movement  is  offered  and  the  gases  cannot 
force  passages  through  the  stiffening  metal.  Hence  more  bubbles  are 
trapped.  Finally  a  stage  is  reached  at  which  the  mass  becomes  rigid 
and  the  further  formation  of  blow-holes  becomes  impossible. 


The  Baby  Converter 


399 


The  author's  conclusions  from  the  investigations  of  Wahlberg  are: 

"i.  If  no  internal  movement  is  possible  in  the  soHdifying  steel,  the 
gas  cannot  disengage  itself  and  so  leads  to  the  formation  of  blow-holes." 
.  "2.  The  presence  of  silicon  and  manganese  lead  to  the  retention  of 
the  gases  until  sohdification  is  complete,  hence  preventing  the  formation 
of  blow-holes." 

Methods  of  prevention  include: 

"i.   Liquid  compression. 

"2.  Additions  to  the  steel  of  silicon,  manganese  or  aluminum.  Each 
of  these  elements  acts  powerfully  on  the  oxygen  or  the  oxides  of  iron, 
combining  \vith  the  o.xygen  to  form  slag." 

"  Aluminum  will  remove  carbonic  oxide.  There  is,  however,  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  it  will  remove  either  hydrogen  or  nitrogen." 

"There  are  grounds  for  the  belief  that  silicon,  manganese  and  alum- 
inum increase  the  solvent  power  of  the  steel  for  hydrogen  and  nitrogen 
and  that  these  gases  remain  dissolved." 

Brinell  found  that  to  produce  an  ingot  of  perfect  density  in  the  absence 
of  sihcon,  1.66  per  cent  of  manganese  is  necessary.  In  the  absence  of 
manganese  0.32  per  cent  silicon  is  required;  and  with  no  manganese  or 
sihcon  0.0184  per  cent  of  aluminum  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  perfectly 
sound  ingot.  Or  e.xpressed  in  another  way  he  states  that  aluminum  is 
90  times  as  effectiv'e  as  manganese  and  17.3  times  as  much  so  as  sihcon, 
in  removal  of  gases. 

Metalhc  borides  are  suggested  by  Weber  for  removal  of  oxygen;  these 
in  conjunction  with  ferrotitanium  tend  to  removal  of  nitrogen. 

The  casting  temperature  exercises  a  great  influence  upon  the  properties 
of  the  metal.  These  are  found  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  temperature 
above  and  below  the  casting  heat,  as  shown  by  the  foUowing  table: 


Analyses 

Maximum 

stress, 

tons  per 

square 

inch 

Elonga- 
tion, 
per  cent 

in 
2  inches 

Reduc- 
tion of 

No. 

Carbon 

Si 

Mn 

S 

P 

per  cent 

80  A.... 

81  A.... 

82  A.... 

83  A.... 

•  29 
.29 
.29 
.29 

.07 
.07 
.07 
.07 

.16 
.16 
.16 
.16 

.07 
.07 
.07 
.07 

.06 
.06 
.06 
.06 

24.2 
27,2 
27.0 
25.5 

9-5 
24.0 
12.5 

8.0 

18.0 
32.3 
17. 5 
12.0 

These  steels  were  poured  from  one  large  ladle  at  intervals  of  a  few 
minutes.  They  are  exactly  of  the  same  analysis;  the  bars  were  annealed 
together,  each  bar  receiving  exactly  the  same  treatment,  and  apart  from 
variation  of  casting  temperatures,  the  conditions  were  the  same  for  all. 
These  results  have  been  repeated  many  times.  WTien  the  steel  is  poured 
at  an  excessive  temperature,  similar  ones  are  always  obtained. 


400 


Steel  Castings  in  the  Foundry 


Annealing 

The  following  is  extracted  from  McWilliams  and  Longmuir's  "Gen- 
eral Foundry  Practice." 

Steel  castings  are  usually  annealed  in  the  rcverbcratory  gas  furnace. 
The  annealing  recommended  by  Prof.  Arnold  for  general  work  is  to  heat 
the  castings  up  to  about  950°  C.  keeping  them  at  that  temperature  for 
about  70  hours,  then  luting  the  furnace  and  allowing  them  to  cool  slowly 
for  100  hours. 

The  Clinch-Jones  annealing  furnace  is  highly  spoken  of,  the  controlling 
idea  being  that  while  the  castings  arc  heated  in  a  mufHe,  by  keen  flames 
outside  the  walls  of  the  muffle,  virgin  gas  from  the  producer  is  allowed 
to  come  into  the  muffle  and  combine  with  all  the  oxygen  that  may  enter, 
thus  preventing  it  from  getting  to  the  castings  to  scale  them  by  oxidizing 
at  their  surfaces.     A  cut  of  this  oven  is  shown  on  page  266  (McW.  &  L.). 

The  micrographs  (McW.  &  L.)  show  the  structural  changes  produced 
by  aimealing.  It  should  be  remarked  that  the  unannealed  bar.  Fig.  112, 
(McW.  &  L.)  ?4-inch  diameter  when  bent  over  a  -^s-inch  radius  broke  at 
43°.     After  annealing,  same  bar  bent  double  without  fracture. 


after  annealing 
Fig.  112. 


Fig.  113. 


Fig.  113  (McW.  &  L.)  shows  the  structure  of  a  portion  of  a  large 
open  hearth  casting,  having  originaUy  the  same  structure  as  the  unan- 
nealed part  of  Fig.  112  after  insuflicient  annealing.  When  thoroughly 
annealed  the  structure  was  as  shown  in  Fig.  114. 

A  test  bar  i  inch  square  as  shown  in  Fig.  113  broke  at  40°;  while  one 


ft 


Tropenas  Process 


401 


as  per  Fig.  114  bent  at  101°  without  fracture,  showing  tensile  strength  of 
T,^  tons  per  square  inch;  elongation  30  per  cent;  reduction  of  area  41 
per  cent.  The  composition  of  the  casting  was  C.C.  0.24,  Si  0.15, 
Mn  0.8,  P  0.04,  S  0.05. 


Fig. 


114. 


Other  micrographs  of  most  interesting  character  are  shown  on  pages 
293  to  297  and  338  to  354  (McW.  &  L.). 

The  process  of  annealing  must  be  varied  to  suit  different  compositions 
and  purposes  for  which  the  steel  is  provided. 

Tropenas  Process 

This  process  was  patented  by  Alex.  Tropenas  of  Paris  in  1891;  the 
first  converter,  800  pounds  capacity,  was  erected  at  the  woriis  of  Edgar 
Allen  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Shefi&eld,  Eng.,  and  introduced  into  the  United  States 


It  produces  hotter  steel  than  any  other  process.  The  steel  may  be 
carried  for  considerable  distances  in  hand  ladles  or  shanks  and  poured 
into  small  castings. 

The  Tropenas  process  consists  in  melting  a  calculated  mixture  in  the 
cupola,  transferring  the  metal  to  a  special  type  of  converter  and  its 
conversion  to  steel  therein.  The  reactions  are  identical  with  those  of 
the  Bessemer  and  open  hearth  furnaces;  the  difference  lies  in  the  manner 
of  producing  these  reactions.  The  converter  is  designed  to  conserve 
and  increase  the  heat  as  much  as  possible  and  by  preventing  evolution 
in  the  bath,  to  keep  out  any  gases  not  necessary  for  or  caused  by  the 


403 


Stcfl  Castings  in  the  Foundry 


(Iccarburization,  mechanical  disturbance,  gyration  or  ebullition  of  the 
luith  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  converter  is  in  general  similar  to  the  Hcsscmcr  converter,  the 
particular  difference  lacing  in  the  location  and  construction  of  the 
tuyeres. 

Figs.  215  and  216,  pages  307  and  308  McW.  &  L.  give  fair  illustra- 
tions of  the  device.  The  operation  consists  in  melting  the  iron  in  the 
cupola  precisely  as  for  gray  iron  castings,  except  that  enough  for  the 
charge  must  be  gathered  at  the  first  lapping.  The  melted  iron  is  then 
transferred  to  the  con\crter  and  skimmed  clear  of  slag.  The  converter 
is  so  adjusted  that  the  \v\v\  of  the  metal  reaches  exactly  to  the  lower  edge 


Fig.  1 15.  Fig.  116. 

of  the  bottom  tuj'cres,  so  thai  the  blast  will  strike  exactly  upon  the 
surface  of  the  metal.  The  longitudinal  axis  of  the  converter  should 
make  an  angle  of  from  5°  to  8°  with  the  vertical.  This  is  a  matter  of 
importance  and  extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  obtain  the  correct  position 
before  applying  the  blast.  The  upper  tuyeres  are  closed  and  the  blast 
turned  on  with  about  3  pounds  pressure. 

If  the  composition  of  the  iron  is  correct  and  it  has  been  melted  hot, 
sparks  and  smoke  will  be  emitted  from  the  con\'erter  for  about  four 
minutes,  then  flame  appears  which  gradually'  increases  in  volume  and 
brilliancy.  After  about  ten  minutes,  what  is  known  as  "the  boil" 
appears.  In  a  few  minutes  this  dies  down  considerably,  and  the  blow 
remains  quiescent  for  a  time.  Then  the  flame  increases  again,  attains 
the  maximum  briihancy  and  finally  dies  down  for  the  last  time. 


Chemistry  of  the  Process  403 

This  is  the  end  of  the  blow,  the  carbon,  sihcon  and  manganese  having 
been  reduced  to  the  lowest  limits. 

The  converter  is  now  turned  down,  the  blast  shut  off  and  a  weighed 
amount  of  ferrosilicon,  ferromanganese  or  silicon  speigel  added  to 
recarbonize  the  steel  to  the  desired  point.  The  steel  is  now  ready  for 
casting.  On  account  of  its  great  fluidity  and  thin  slag  it  may  be  poured 
over  the  lip  of  an  ordinary  ladle,  instead  of  from  one  with  a  bottom  pour. 

Claims  made  for  this  process. 

1.  The  form  of  the  bottom  of  the  converter  gives  a  greater  depth  in 
proportion  to  the  surface  area  and  cubic  contents  than  any  other  pneu- 
matic process,  preventing  the  disturbance  of  the  bath  when  blowing. 

2.  The  sjonmetrical  position  of  the  tuyeres  with  respect  to  the  center 
tuyere  prevents  any  gyrating  or  churning  of  the  bath.  This  is  directly 
opposed  to  all  other  processes. 

3.  The  special  position  of  the  bottom  tuyeres  during  blowing,  so  that 
they  are  never  below  the  surface  of  the  bath,  reduces  the  power  necessary 
for  blowing;  as  only  enough  air  is  introduced  to  make  the  combustion 
and  not  to  support  or  agitate  the  bath. 

4.  The  oxidation  of  the  metalloids  takes  place  at  the  surface  only,  the 
reaction  being  transmitted  from  molecule  to  molecule  without  any 
mechanical  disturbance. 

5.  The  addition  of  a  second  row  of  tuyeres  completely  burns  the  CO 
and  H  produced  by  the  partial  combustion  of  carbon  and  the  decomposi- 
tion of  moisture  introduced  with  the  blast  and  this  increases  the  tem- 
perature of  the  bath  by  radiation. 

6.  Very  pure  steel  is  obtained,  as  the  slag  and  the  iron  are  not  mixed 
together. 

7.  There  is  a  minimum  of  waste  on  account  of  the  bath  being  kept 
comparatively  quiet. 

8.  Less  final  addition  is  required  on  account  of  the  purity  of  the  steel 
and  its  freedom  from  oxides. 

Chemistry  of  the  Process 

No  fuel  is  needed  in  the  converter.  The  increase  in  temperature  after 
the  melted  metal  is  introduced  is  occasioned  by  the  combustion  of  the 
metalloids  during  their  removal. 

These  elements  are  carbon,  silicon  and  manganese.  The  oxidation 
of  the  silicon  furnishes  by  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  useful  heat.  Prof. 
Ledebur  has  calculated  that  the  rise  in  temperature  of  the  bath  due  to 
the  combustion  of  i  per  cent  of  each  of  the  constituents  is  as  follows: 
Silicon  300°  C;  phosphorus  183°  C;  manganese  69°  C;  iron  44°  C; 
carbon  6°  C. 


404  SfccI  Castings  in  ihc  I'oundry 

It  is  ncccssar)'  that  liie  composition  of  the  bath  before  blowing  should 
be  that  which  has  been  found  to  give  the  best  rc-sulLs. 

Sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  as  unaffected  here  as  in  any  other  add- 
lined  furnace  and  the  content  of  those  elements  in  the  finished  steel  will 
depend  on  how  much  the  stock  melted  contained. 

The  cupola  mixture  generally  consists  of  low  phosphorus  pig  iron  and 
steel  scrap,  composed  of  runners,  risers  and  waste  from  previous  heats. 
As  much  as  50  per  cent  scrap  may  be  carried  successfully.  The  mixture 
must  be  made  in  such  [iroportions  that  the  analysis  after  melting  will  be: 

Per  cent 

Silicon 1 .  90-2 .  25 

Manganese o.  60-1 .  00 

Carbon,  about 3  00 

The  result  of  low  silicon  is  to  make  the  blows  colder;  that  of  high 
silicon  to  make  the  blows  unduly  long  and  to  increase  the  wear  on  the 
lining. 

Manganese  should  be  kept  within  the  limits  specified.  Low  man- 
ganese tends  to  make  the  slag  thick.  High  manganese  makes  the  blow 
sloppy  and  corrodes  the  lining. 

During  the  first  period  of  the  blow,  the  silicon  chiefly  is  oxidized  and 
the  carbon  changed  from  graphitic  to  combined.  The  manganese  is  the 
most  active  clement  in  the  middle  of  the  blow,  being  most  rapidly 
eliminated  at  the  boil.  The  last  period  brings  the  carbon  flame,  and  the 
indications  are  so  plain  that  it  is  feasible  to  stop  the  blow  before  all  the 
carbon  is  burned  out,  thereby  reducing  the  amount  of  carburiser  needed. 
In  addition  to  these  elements  a  certain  amount  of  iron  is  unavoidably 
oxidized  and  the  total  loss  of  all  elements  included  is  about  12  per  cent. 

Converter  Linings 

The  converter  is  generally  lined  with  an  acid  or  silica  lining. '  Success- 
ful experiments  have  been  made  with  a  basic  lining  (dolomite),  but  it  has 
not  been  developed  commercially.  Special  shaped  blocks  to  fit  the 
converter  or  the  regular  standard  shapes  may  be  used. 

The  material  must  be  of  the  highest  grade  silica  stock,  burnt  at  the 
highest  possible  kiln  temperature.  It  usually  contains  from  95  to  97 
per  cent  SiO.>,  and  is  practically  free  from  lime  and  magnesia. 

Another  method  in  frequent  use  is  to  run  ground  ganister  around  a 
collapsible  form.  This  probably  is  the  cheapest  method.  Before  making 
the  first  blow,  the  converter  is  made  white  hot  by  a  coke  or  oil  fire. 

Mr.  J.  S.  Whitehouse  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  a  paper  read  before  the 
American  Foundrymen's  Association,  states  that  the  claims  which  were 


Converter  Linings  405 

made  for  the  side  blow  converter,  when  first  introduced  into  America 
were,  to  say  the  least,  absurd.  Many  failures  were  made  by  employ- 
ing inexperienced  workmen,  who  had  only  limited  instructions  from 
experts  sent  out  with  the  apparatus  and  the  results  were  frequently 
disastrous. 

A  year's  experience,  at  least,  under  proper  instruction  is  required  before 
a  man  can  become  a  competent  blower.  He  must  be  able  to  tell  the 
temperature  of  the  metal  soon  after  the  flame  starts  and  to  judge  the 
silicon  by  the  first  period.  He  must  tell  when  the  blow  is  iinished  from 
the  slag  as  well  as  by  the  flame.  He  must  know  how  to  keep  the  lining 
in  the  best  shape  to  get  all  the  heat  possible  from  the  process,  and  the 
hundred  little  kinks  of  the  trade,  which,  as  a  rule,  the  expert  will  never 
impart,  but  are  obtained  only  from  experience. 

A  man  with  the  above  qualifications  will  blow  with  a  loss  of  less  than 
17  per  cent  —  about  15  per  cent. 

With  proper  blowing  the  main  loss  comes  from  the  silicon  in  the  charge, 
usually  2  per  cent,  which  is  oxidized  together  with  iron  and  manganese 
to  form  the  slag. 

Mr.  Whitehouse  learned  to  blow  with  2  per  cent  sihcon,  but  for  the 
past  few  years  has  been  blowing  iron,  analyzing  from  0.90  to  1.25  per 
cent  silicon  from  the  cupola,  and  often  has  been  obliged  to  use  scrap 
while  blowing. 

There  is  an  advantage  in  the  increased  amount  of  scrap  which  can  be 
carried,  as  it  cuts  down  the  cupola'  loss  by  increasing  the  amount  of 
carbon  in  the  charge.  For  example :  He  charges  50  per  cent  pig  carrying 
about  3.75  per  cent  carbon  and  50  per  cent  scrap  having  0.25  per  cent 
carbon.  Tests  from  such  iron  from  the  cupola  give  3.25  to  3.50  per  cent 
carbon,  showing  a  gain  of  1.25  to  1.50  per  cent  carbon,  taken  from  the 
coke,  instead  of  purchased  in  the  pig  iron.  50  per  cent  scrap  can  be 
melted  in  the  cupola,  using  only  i2i/i  per  cent  coke,  but  the  blower  must 
have  a  complete  knowledge  of  cupola  practice.  Most  blowers  use  too 
much  volume  and  too  high  pressure  of  blast  to  get  the  best  results.  With 
low  silicon  the  volume  and  pressure  of  blast  must  be  low.  No  two  blows 
will  act  ahke  and  require  different  treatment,  which  can  be  determined 
by  the  flame,  but  which  he  is  unable  to  describe. 

It  is  as  necessary  for  the  blower  to  regulate  the  air  valve  to  get  proper 
combustion  as  it  is  for  the  melter  to  adjust  air  and  gas  valves.  With 
ordinary  care  the  steel  produced  in  a  converter  is  very  uniform  in  carbon 
and  silicon;  ihore  so,  he  thinks,  than  in  the  open  hearth.  The  greatest 
variation  seems  to  be  in  manganese.  The  temperature  of  the  metal 
and  the  condition  of  the  slag  cause  more  variation  in  the  converter  than 
in  the  acid  open  hearth.     It  is  possible  to  run  several  weeks  without 


4o6 


Steel  Castings  in  ilic  I'liundry 


taking  an  analysis  and  find  at  the  end  of  the  run  very  little  variation  in 
tlif  dements. 

While  tliis  is  jjossible  with  the  open  hearth,  it  is  not  |)ratticed  on 
account  of  the  risk.  It  is,  however,  frequently  done  in  converter  practice. 
The  method  of  making  the  molds  is  identical  with  that  followed  in  the 
open-hearth  practice. 


Fig.  117.  —  .*\rrangement  of  the  Cupola  and  Converter.     The  Metal  is 
Handled  by  a  Four-ton  Pneunaatic  Jib  Crane. 

An  ordinary  converter  shop,  with  one  two-ton  converter  is  capable  of 
producing  between  100  and  150  tons  of  good  castings  per  month,  blowing 
three  times  a  week.  He  concludes  with  saying  that  the  management 
must  be  good  and  the  salaries  paid  the  officers  as  reasonable  as  possible, 
otherwise  the  shop  is  fore-doomed  to  failure,  regardless  of  the  quaUty  of 
the  product. 

At  the  Cincinnati  Meeting  of  the  American  Foundrv-men's  Associa- 
tion, Mr.  Whitehouse,  in  reply  to  various  inquiries,  made  the  following 
statements: 


Converter  Linings 


407 


When  the  flames  show  that  the  blow  is  getting  very  hot,  scrap  is 
thrown  in  at  the  top  of  the  converter  until  it  cools  down.     The  scrap  is 
as  small  as  can  be  conveniently  handled  and  is  not  preheated. 
.  The  blast  pressure  averages  from  2.25  to  2.50  pounds. 


Fig.  118.  —  Pouring  the  Iron  into  the  Converter  before  the  Blow. 

Sometimes,  after  the  silicon  is  reduced  and  during  the  blow,  steel  scrap 
is  thrown  into  the  converter. 

The  carbon  can  be  varied  by  the  final  additions. 

It  is  usual  and  customary  to  blow  the  heat  down  till  the  flame  drops; 
the  carbon  is  then  about  o.io  per  cent.  The  carbon  is  then  raised  by  the 
addition  of  melted  pig  iron  or  pulverized  coke.  The  carbon  can  be 
raised  as  much  as  desired.    If  more  than  0.40  or  0.50  per  cent  carbon  is 


4o8 


Steel  Castings  in  the  Foundry 


required,  the  blow  is  stoppcfl  before  completion.  It  is  nistoraary  to 
blow  down  to  .o<_t  ur  o.io  per  cent  carbon,  then  to  recarbonize  with  ferro- 
mangancse,  melted  pig  iron  and  s|)iegcleisen.  I  usually  use  coke.  If 
ferromanganesc  is  melted  in  a  small  cuix)la,  as  has  been  done  in  the  East, 
the  loss  is  very  heavy.  The  most  economical  practice  is  to  throw  the 
ferromanganesc  into  the  converter  at  the  end  of  the  blow.  The  usual 
custom  is  to  add  ferromanganesc  and  then  pig  iron. 

"My  practice  is  never  to  reline  entirely.  .\t  the  end  of  the  heat  day, 
the  converter  is  cooled  off,  patched  up,  dried  out  and  is  then  ready  for 

the  next  day.      Where  the  converter  is 
ed  until   it  is  cut  out,  the  lining  re- 
moved and  then  renewed,  there  is  a  great 
loss  of  iron." 

The  practice  is  to  blow  just  at  the  sur- 
face, with  the  blast  impinging  slightly  on 
he  metal.  During  the  blow  the  tuyeres 
arc  submerged,  and  if  the  pressure  is  sud- 
ilcnly  stopped  for  any  cause  the  iron  will 
run  into  the  wind  box.  The  converter  is 
so  placed  that  the  blast  will  strike  the 
surface  of  the  metal  at  an  angle  of  175° 
to  171°.  He  does  not  use  a  second  row 
of  tuyeres.  Upon  starting  to  use  the 
converter,  there  was  an  upper  row  of 
tuyeres,  but  they  were  subsequently  dis- 
carded. The  lower  tuyeres  furnish  all 
the  blast  required. 

Formerly  he  used  bull  ladles  in  pour- 
ing small  castings  and  experienced  no 
trouble.  At  the  present  time,  the  entire 
heat,  sometimes  consisting  of  castings 
weighing  less  than  thirty  pounds,  is  poured  with  a  thousand-pound 
ladle. 

The  following  extract  is  from  the  Foundry,  Jan.,  1910,  describing  the 
equipment  of  the  recently  erected  steel  foundry  of  the  Vancouver  En- 
gineering Works,  Ltd.,  Vancouver,  B.C. 

The  cupola  is  the  Standard  Whiting  t\pe,  having  a  rated  capacity  of 
six  to  seven  tons  per  hour. 

Iron  is  tapped  from  the  cupola  into  a  six-thousand-pound  ladle,  carried 
by  a  pneumatic  crane.     Two  taps  are  made  to  obtain  a  full  charge  for 
the  converter. 
The  composition  of  the  iron  is  as  follows:   Si.  1.80  to  2.00;    S.  0.04; 


1 

ill 

ffi 

J 

Fig.  119.  —  View  of  One  End  cif 
the  Foundry,  Showing  the  Con- 
verter Discharging  Steel  into  a 
Ladle. 


Standard  Specifications  for  Steel  Castings 


409 


Phos.  0.04;  Mn.  0.60  to  1.50.     The  cupola  charge  is  so  proportioned  as  to 
give  about  one  per  cent  manganese.     Steel  scrap  is  available  as  desired. 

The  converter,  of  two-tons  capacity, 
is  of  the  standard  Whiting  type  (Tro- 
penas)  and  is  lined  with  ganister,  sand 
and  fireclay.  This  lining,  if  cared  for, 
will  give  from  180  to  200  blows.  The 
air  pressure  of  blast  to  converter  ranges 
from  three  to  five  pounds  per  square 
inch,  regulated  by  valve  on  operator's 
platform. 

The  blowing  operation  requires  from 
15  [to  20  minutes,  varying  with  the 
percentage  of  metalloids  in  the  iron. 
The  temperature  of  the  bath  depends 
upon  the  rapidity  of  the  blow. 

Reduction  in  the  weight  of  metal  is  about  18  per  cent. 

The  steel  comes  from  the  converter  at  1700°  C,  insiuring  sufficient 
fluidity  to  give  sharp,  sound  castings  of  light  section. 


Fig.  120.  —  The  Converter  in 
Operation. 


Standard  Specifications  for  Steel  Castings  Adopted 
BY  American  Association  for  Testing  Materials 

Process  of  Manufacture 

1.  Steel  for  castings  may  be  made  by  the  open  hearth,  crucible  or 
Bessemer  process.     Castings  to  be  annealed  or  unannealed  as  specified. 

Chemical  Properties 

2.  Ordinary  castings,  those  in  which  no  physical  requirements  are 
specified,  shall  contain  not  over  0.40  per  cent  carbon,  nor  over  0.08  per 
cent  of  phosphorus. 

3.  Castings  which  are  subject  to  physical  test  shall  contain  not  over 
0.05  per  cent  of  phosphorus,  nor  over  0.05  per  cent  of  sulphur. 

Physical  Properties 

4.  Tested  castings  shall  be  of  three  classes,  hard,  medium  and  soft. 
The  minimum  physical  qualities  required  in  each  class  shall  be  as  follows: 


Properties 

Hard 
castings 

Medium 
castings 

Soft 
castings 

Tensile  strength,  pounds  per  inch 

8S.000 

38,250 

15 

20 

70,000 

31,500 

18 

25 

60,000 
27,000 

Elongation  per  cent  in  2  inches 

22 
30 

4IO  Steel  CastiiiRS  in  the  Foundry 

5.  A  test  to  destruction  may  Ix;  substituted  for  tensile  test  in  the  case 
of  small  or  unimportant  castings,  Ijy  selecting  three  castings  from  a  lot. 
This  test  shall  show  the  material  to  be  ductile,  free  from  injurious  defects, 
and  suitable  for  the  purjioscs  intended. 

A  lot  shall  consist  of  all  castings  from  the  same  melt,  or  blow  annealed 
in  the  same  furnace  charge. 

6.  Large  castings  are  to  be  suspended  and  hammered  all  over.  No 
cracks,  flaws,  defects,  nor  weakness  shall  appear  after  such  treatment. 

7.  A  si)ccimcn  one  inch  by  one-half  inch  (i  "  X  y/')  shall  bend  cold 
around  a  diameter  of  one  inch  (1")  without  fracture  on  outside  of  Ijent 
portion,  through  an  angle  of  120°  for  the  "soft,"  and  90°  for  "medium" 
castings. 

Test  Pieces  and  Methods  of  Testing 

8.  The  standard  turned  test  specimen,  one-half  inch  (W)  diameter 
and  two  inch  (2")  gauged  length,  shall  be  used  to  determine  the  phj-sical 
properties  specified  in  paragraph  No.  4.  It  is  shown  in  the  following 
sketch.  ^ 

9.  The  number  of  standard         hgl*' —    2  ■■-->^8'^ 


-XT 


i  I 


■ 


Fig 


?4" ;^4'>*-  V--i 


J 


test    specimens    shall    depend 
upon    the    character    and   im-     "^^ 

portance   of  the  castings.     A     ±. 

test  piece  shall  be  cut  cold  from         j^"  -^  "^41 

a  coupon  to  be  molded  and  cast 

on  some  portion  of  one  or  more 

castings  from  each  blow  or  melt,  or  from  the  sink  heads  (in  case  heads 

of  sufl'icient  size  are  used).     The  coupon,  or  sink  head,  must  receive 

the  same  treatment  as  the  casting,  or  castings,  before  the  specimen  is 

cut  out  and  before  the  coupon,  or  sink  head,   is   removed   from  the 

casting. 

10.  One  specimen  for  bending  test,  one  inch  by  one-half  inch  (i"  X 
>/i")  shall  be  cut  cold  from  the  coupon,  or  sink  head,  of  the  casting,  or 
castings,  as  specified  in  paragraph  No.  9.  The  bending  test  may  be 
made  by  pressure  or  by  blows. 

11.  The  yield  point  specified  in  paragraph  No.  4  shall  be  determined 
by  careful  observation  of  the  drop  of  the  beam,  or  halt  in  the  gauge  of 
the  testing  machine. 

12.  Turnings  from  the  tensile  specimen,  drillings  from  the  bending 
specimen  or  drillings  from  the  small  test  ingot,  if  preferred  by  the  in- 
spector, shall  be  used  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  steel  is  within 
the  limits,  in  phosphonxs  and  sulphur,  specified  in  paragraphs  Nos.  2 
and  3. 


Open-Hearth  Methods  for  Steel  Castings  411 

Finish 

13.  Castings  shall  be  true  to  pattern,  free  from  blemishes,  flaws  or 
shrinkage  cracks.  Bearing  surfaces  shall  be  solid,  and  no  porosity  shall 
be  allowed  in  positions  where  the  resistance  and  value  of  the  casting 
for  the  purpose  intended  will  be  seriously  affected  thereby. 

Inspection 

14.  The  inspector,  representing  the  purchaser,  shall  have  all  reasonable 
faciUties  afforded  him  by  the  manufacturer  to  satisfy  himself  that  the 
finished  material  is  furnished  in  accordance  with  these  specifications. 

All  tests  and  inspections  shall  be  made  at  the  place  of  manufacture, 
prior  to  shipment. 

The  following  paper,  by  Mr.  W.  M.  Carr,  on  the  manufacture  of  steel 
castings  in  small  quantities  by  the  open-hearth  process  is  given  herewith 
in  full. 

Open-Hearth  Methods  for  Steel  Castings 

With  Remarks  on  the  Small  Open-Hearth  Furnace 
By  W.  M.  Care,  New  York  City 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  open-hearth  process  for  the  manufacture  of  steel 
is  gradually  gaining  ground,  as  can  be  proved  by  statistics.  The  reason 
for  its  supplanting  other  methods  is  mainly  one  of  quahty.  Further,  the 
basic  open-hearth  process  permits  a  mixture  of  pig  iron  and  miscellaneous 
steel  scrap  of  a  lower  grade  and  cheaper  price  than  raw  material  necessary 
to  other  processes. 

With  the  foregoing  facts  in  mind  the  author  presents  this  article  for 
the  consideration  of  prospective  investors  in  the  manufacture  of  steel 
castings  in  small,  moderate  and  large  tonnages;  to  be  more  explicit, 
small  tonnages  are  capacities  of  melting  units  in  one-half,  one  and  two 
tons  per  heat.  ISIoderate  tonnages  are  capacities  of  furnaces  of  two  to 
five  tons  per  heat,  and  large  tonnages  are  capacities  from  ten  to  twenty- 
five  tons  per  heat.  There  are  thus  offered  possible  outputs  to  meet 
almost  any  requirements. 

In  presenting  the  claims,  it  is  with  the  recognition  of  the  following 
advantages : 

1.  The  small  capacity  furnaces  cost  less  to  install  than  any  other 
steel  making  devices  excepting  only  crucible  melting  furnaces. 

2.  The  economy  in  operation  of  open-hearth  furnaces  in  any  capacity 
over  that  of  any  other  steel-making  process. 

3.  The  certainty  of  results,  the  greater  degree  of  control  in  operation 
and  the  reduction  of  the  personal  equation  to  the  lowest  possible  expres- 


412 


Slccl  Castings  in  the  Foundry 


It  is  generally  known  to  the  foundrymcn  that  the  largest  production 
of  steel  castings  comes  through  oj^-n-hearth  fumacxs  of  capacities  uf 
five  to  twenty-five  tons  per  heat.  Such  practice  is  established  and 
retjuires  constant  demand  to  be  profital^le,  and  investment  of  consider- 
al;lc  capital  varying  with  the  size  of  the  plant.  It  has  Ijcen  thought  that 
capacities  of  less  than  five  tons  per  heat  arc  not  j>ossible  by  open-luarlh 
methods,  and  engineers  generally  have  dissuaded  those  who  wish  to 


engage  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  castings  either  for  their  own  con- 
sumption or  the  trade  from  using  open-hearth  methods,  since  up  till 
quite  recently  the  tendency  has  been  rather  to  increase  the  capacity  of 
the  open  hearth,  supposedly  for  economical  reasons  rather  than  to  build 
small  units  with  less  capacities. 

The  author,  however,  has  had  the  opportunity  to  demonstrate  the 
possibilities  of  the  miniature  open  hearth  and  has  found  from  actual 
practice  that  it  is  economical,  and  comparing  operation  costs  with  stand- 


Open-Hearth  Methods  for  Steel  Castings  413 

ard  capacity  furnaces,  bears  equally  well  in  economy.  This  fact  is 
somewhat  of  an  innovation,  but  nevertheless  true,  and  it  can  be  said 
that  the  operating  cost  of  the  miniature  open  hearth  is  less  than  that 
of  any  tyj^e  of  steel-producing  unit  or  process,  making  steel  in  equal 
quantity. 

To  assist  those  who  may  not  be  familiar  with  an  open-hearth  furnace 
and  its  operation,  a  study  of  the  diagram  herewith,  (Fig.  122)  given  may 
be  instructive.  The  upper  part  of  the  furnace  is  represented  in  sectional 
elevation.  The  structure  is  built  of  refractory  bricks  and  bound  se- 
curely with  structural  steel  beams  and  plates  at  certain  points  not 
shown  in  the  diagram.  The  lower  part  of  the  furnace,  usually  below 
the  charging  floor  level  or  carried  below  the  shop  level,  consists  of  the 
chambers,  connecting  flues  leading  to  a  reversing  valve  and  thence  to  a 
regenerator  stack.  Referring  again  to  the  main  body  of  the  furnace  it 
will  be  noticed  that  the  hearth,  which  is  practically  a  shallow  dish  Uned 
with  "silica"  sand  is  fused  into  one  solid  mass  at  a  high  temperature  at 
the  time  of  what  is  known  as  "making  bottom."  This  is  the  laboratory 
where  the  raw  material  is  melted  and  refined  to  steel  of  any  desired 
composition.  In  outline  the  practice  is  as  follows  and  refers  to  the  opera- 
tion of  a  miniature  open  hearth  fired  with  fuel-oil  being  recommended 
in  preference  to  producer  gas  in  capacities  of  less  than  five  tons  per 
heat. 

After  the  furnace  has  been  brought  up  to  a  working  temperature — • 
white  heat  —  a  mi.xture  of  acid  pig  iron  and  low  phosphorus  steel  scrap 
usually  in  the  projjortions,  one-third  pig  and  two-thirds  scrap,  is  charged 
into  the  furnace,  adding  the  pig  iron  first,  and  when  that  becomes 
molten,  following  with  the  scrap.  The  whole  mass  subsequently  becomes 
liquid  by  means  of  the  oil  flame  passing  above  it.  At  this  stage  the 
temperature  of  the  furnace  has  been  lessened  through  the  addition  of 
the  cold  stock,  but  it  will  still  be  at  a  temperature  above  that  required 
to  melt  pig-iron.  But  in  order  to  elevate  the  temperature  above  that 
required  to  melt  steel  and  have  it  in  condition  to  pour,  the  advantage 
of  the  principle  of  regeneration  is  available.  This  consists  in  returning 
to  the  furnace  waste  heat  which  in  other  types  of  furnaces  escapes  to  the 
stack.  Without  a  system  of  regeneration  it  is  not  possible  to  reach  a 
proper  steel  casting  temperature;  that  is  to  say,  a  reverberatory  furnace 
without  regeneration  gives  a  temperature,  (where  the  combustion  of  the 
fuel  is  supported  by  cold  air) ,  less  than  that  required  to  properly  liquefy 
steel,  but  with  the  principle  of  regeneration  applied  to  such  a  furnace, 
high  temperatures  are  readily  reached. 

To  understand  this  principle  we  will  follow  the  course  of  the  flame  of 
the  burning  oil  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  the  diagram.     Beginning 


414  Steel  CaslinRs  in  ihv  Foundn' 

111  the  rinht  liand  end  oil  is  delivered  to  the  burner  which  is  shown 
surrounded  witii  a  water  tooled  casing  It)  protect  the  burner  fittings. 
The  oil  is  delivered  cither  by  gravity  or  pump  pressure,  but  Ixiforc 
reaching  the  end  of  the  burner  it  is  atomized  or  vaporized  by  air  under 
pressure.  This  air  is  designated  as  primary  air  and  ix;rfomi.s  liltle  or 
no  j)arl  in  supporting  combustion  of  the  oil  vapor,  and  the  quantity  of 
air  delivered  in  excess  above  the  amount  necessary  to  promote  combus- 
tion of  the  oil  is  known  as  secondary  air.  The  secondary  air  enters  the 
reversing  valve  shown  at  the  stack  connection,  passes  through  the  right 
luind  regenerator,  enters  the  uptakes  below  the  water  c<M)le<l  burner 
casing,  performs  its  function  and  passes  along  the  roof  of  the  furnace,  in 
part,  and  the  remainder,  mixed  with  the  products  of  combustion  with 
the  strata  of  flame  playing  above  the  bath,  enters  the  downtakc  at  the 
left  hand  end  of  the  furnace  and  in  its  passage  to  the  stack  gives  up 
the  major  portion  of  its  heat  to  a  large  quantity  of  brick  work  piled 
within  the  chamber.  WTien  the  waste  gases  have  passed  through  the 
reversing  valve  and  entered  the  stack  they  have  just  about  enough  heat 
to  induce  the  necessarj'  draft.  Now,  after  an  inter\'al  of  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes  the  right  hand  burner  may  be  shut  ofT,  but  not  withdrawn 
from  the  furnace;  the  reversing  valve  is  thrown  and  the  oil  and  primary 
air  turned  on  at  the  left  hand  end  of  the  furnace.  The  secondan.'  air 
will  then  be  diverted  by  the  reversing  valve  to  flow  through  the  left  hand 
regenerator  or  checker  chamber,  and  passing  through  innumerable  pas- 
sages in  that  set  of  checkers  absorbs  a  large  quantity  of  heat  radiating 
from  the  glowing  bricks  which  became  heated  in  the  first  instance  by  the 
outgoing  gases  during  a  previous  cycle  of  operation.  This  radiated  heat 
regenerating  the  secondary  air  will  be  added  to  the  temperature  gener- 
ated by  the  burning  fuel  and  the  products  of  combustion  will  accordingly 
have  an  increased  quantity  of  heat  to  impart  to  the  checker  work  at 
the  outgoing  or  right  hand  end.  In  other  words,  whatever  temperature 
may  be  carried  in  by  the  secondary  air  will  be  equivalent  to  art  incr&ise 
in  eCTiciency  of  the  burning  fuel.  Successive  reversals  of  the  fuel,  pri- 
mary and  secondary  air  produce  constantly  increasing  increments  in 
flame  temperatures  below  the  melting  points  of  the  refractor)'  brick 
works. 

We  have  seen  what  can  be  accomplished  by  storing  up  and  restoring 
to  the  furnace  waste  heat  from  the  products  of  coml)ustion.  producing 
the  effect  of  a  higher  possible  temperature  than  in  any  tx^pe  of  melting 
furnace.  In  addition  to  this  effect  another  one  is  quite  active  and  that 
is  reflection  of  heat  from  the  walls  and  roof  of  the  furnace  upon  the  surface 
of  the  bath  of  metal.  This  latter  effect,  known  as  radio-actixnty,  is  more 
proDOUQced  in  a  narrow  melting  chamber  than  in  a  wider  one  and  conse- 


Open-Hearth  Methods  for  Steel  Castings  415 

quently  the  result  will  be  two  factors,  one  a  decreasing  fuel  consumption 
and  the  other  the  possibility  of  superheating  steel  in  a  miniature  open- 
hearth.  This  fact  has  not  been  recognized  heretofore  because  most  open- 
hearth  furnaces  are  fired  with  producer  gas,  and  since  that  fuel  requires 
peculiar  furnace  construction  to  get  the  best  results  in  burning  it,  it  has 
not  been  found  possible  to  make  use  of  such  fuel  in  a  comparatively  short 
furnace  hearth  and  therefore  all  furnaces  designed  to  use  that  fuel  must 
have  a  comparatively  long  hearth  tending  mainly  in  the  direction  of 
increased  capacities  rather  than  decreased.  On  the  other  hand,  the  length 
of  the  hearth  is  not  restricted  where  oil  can  be  substituted  for  producer 
gas  and  therefore  it  has  been  found  possible  to  operate  an  open-hearth 
furnace  as  small  as  350  pounds  capacity  per  heat.  Thus  a  new  field  is 
opened  to  make  steel  by  the  open-hearth  process. 

Referring  again  to  the  operating  method,  we  saw  where  the  bath  of 
metal  was  molten  and  at  a  moderate  temperature.  This  temperature 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  metal  was  highly  carburized,  since  the 
presence  of  carbon  lowers  the  melting  point  of  iron.  We  saw  how  it  was 
possible  to  gradually  increase  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  by  the 
regeneration  of  the  secondary  air,  and  with  that  constant  elevation  of 
temperature,  dormant  chemical  actions  will  be  set  up.  The  first  effect 
will  be  an  oxidization  of  the  silicon  occurring  mostly  on  the  surface  of 
the  metal  by  the  oxidizing  action  of  the  flame.  The  product  would  be 
silica,  which  combines  with  whatever  oxide  of  iron  might  be  present  in 
the  bath  of  metal.  The  combination  would  form  a  slag  of  comparatively 
fight  weight  that  would  rise  to  the  surface  and  cover  the  bath.  The  slag 
is  shown  in  the  diagram  by  the  heavy  black  line.  This  layer  of  slag 
prevents  the  metal  below  from  direct  contact  with  the  flame.  After  the 
removal  of  the  silicon  the  next  action  will  be  the  removal  of  the  carbon. 
This  action  is  a  gas-forming  one  and  will  cause  a  bubbhng  or  boil  through- 
out the  bath.  The  action  can  be  augmented  from  time  to  time  by  the 
addition  of  iron  oxide  in  the  form  of  iron  ore.  As  the  decarburization 
progresses  test  plugs  are  taken  from  time  to  time,  the  operator  judging 
the  amount  of  carbon  in  the  bath  by  their  fracture  and  malleability. 
When  the  carbon  has  decreased  to  a  predetermined  point,  the  boil  may 
be  stopped  or  killed  by  deoxidizing  agents  such  as  ferrosilicon  and  ferro- 
manganese  in  properly  weighed  amounts.  The  metal  can  then  be  trans- 
ferred to  molds.  This  method  as  outUned  refers  to  the  acid  process. 
In  it  the  elements  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  not  removed.  The  basic 
process  consists  of  a  hearth  fining  made  of  magnesite.  Such  a  lining 
permits  an  addition  of  limestone  to  form  a  slag  which  will  absorb  the  two 
elements  and  make  a  purer  steel,  chemically  speaking,  than  the  acid 
process,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  the  use  of  cheaper  and  irregular 


4i6  Steel  Castings  in  the  Foundry 

raw  materials  against  the  acid  i)roccss  with  strictly  limited  chemical 
comjxjsition  concerning  liic  t\v<i  elements  mentioned. 

With  open-hearlii  furnaces  desi^ne<l  to  use  i)roducer  gas  and  which 
rarely  k<)  i)el(nv  five  tons  caijacity  it  is  not  possible  to  adapt  them  to 
intermittent  operation.  Kven  in  the  smaller  producer-gas  fired  furnaces 
the  roof  span  is  considerable,  resulting  in  heavy  stresses  on  the  side  walls. 
These  stresses  will  vary  as  the  furnace  is  heated  and  cooled,  and  if  such 
alternations  are  frccjuent  there  is  danger  of  collapse  of  the  furnace.  It 
becomes  necessary  then  to  maintain  them  continuously  at  a  steady  tem- 
perature. Urdcss  there  should  be  demand  for  regular  tonnage  the  fuel 
consumption  during  idle  periods  would  lie  a  constant  expense. 

In  miniature  open-hearth  furnaces,  owing  to  the  comparatively  narrow 
hearth  chamber,  the  roof  span  is  of  course  lessened  and  therefore  what- 
ever expansion  or  contraction  therein  following  heatings  and  coolings, 
will  result  in  comparatively  slight  stresses,  and  these  results  decrease  in 
effect  with  the  lessened  capacity  furnaces,  and  they  therefore  lend 
themselves  to  intermittent  operation  with  greater  ease  and  lessened 
liability  of  repairs.  The  miniature  open  hearth  is  most  satisfactory  in 
the  rolling  tjpe  with  the  body  cylindrical,  so  that  the  stresses  even 
though  slight  will  be  evenly  distributed,  whereas  in  a  rectangular  form 
the  roof  will  always  rest  and  thrust  upon  the  inside  walls.  In  fact  the 
miniature  open  hearth  is  not  recommended  to  be  built  in  the  stationary 
type. 

In  conclusion  the  miniature  open  hearth  is  not  costly  to  install,  is 
comparatively  simple  to  operate,  gives  results  equal  to  standard  open- 
hearth  practice,  makes  hotter  steel  than  the  regular  op)en  hearth  and 
can  show  costs  equally  as  low  per  pound  of  molten  metal  in  the  ladle. 


Comparative  Cost  of  Steel  made  by  Different  Processes     417 

Comparative  Cost  of  Steel  made  by  Different 
Processes 

From  paper  presented  to  the  American  Foundrymen's  Association 
by  Mr.  Bradley  Sloiighlon. 

Table  I.  —  Aero  Open  Hearth 


Raw  materials 


Pig  iron 

Heads,  gates,  etc 

Foreign  scrap 

Defective  castings*  (account  bad  metal) 
Ferro-alloys 

Total  metal 

Operating  costs 

Cost  of  steel  in  ladle 


Per  2000  pounds  of  steel  in  ladle 


Price 

of  raw 

materials 

per  2000 

pounds 


$14.00 
14.00 
14 -SO 
50.00 
40.60 


Weight 
used, 
pounds 


300 

660 

1080 

20 

29 

20S9 


Per  cent 
used 


Cost 


S2 

10 

4 

62 

7 

83 

SO 

59 

S15 

64 

5 

5ot 

?2I 

14 

Cost 


S15.64 


5t 


$24.49 


Cost  of  Steel  in  Castings 


Cost  of  steel  in  ladle  4-  65  per  centt  = 
Less  credit  for  heads,  etc.,  as_scrap  = . 
Net  cost  of  steel  in  castings 


$37.68 
4.62 
$27.90      S33.06 


*  The  price  given  for  defective  castings  is  over  and  above  their  value  as  scrap 
See  the  text  following  for  further  discussion  of  this  charge. 

t  The  charge  of  $5.50  for  operating  costs  is  the  figure  for  a  25-ton  furnace  and  large 
tonnage;  that  of  $8.85  is  for  a  small  furnace  and  small  production. 

X  Of  the  steel  in  the  ladle,  65  per  cent  goes  into  castings,  33  per  cent  goes  into  heads, 
gates,  etc.  and  2  per  cent  is  lost  in  spattering,  etc. 


4i8 


Slecl  Castings  in  the  Foundry 
TAULii  II.  —  Basic  Open  Hlaktu 


Raw  materials 


Pig  iron 

Heads,  gates,  etc. . . . 

Foreign  scrap 

Uufective  castings'. . 
Ferroalloys 

Total  metal 

Operating  costs.. 
Cost  of  steel  in  ladle . 


Per  3000  pounds  of  steel  in  ladle 


Price 

of  raw       Weight 
materials  I    tiscd, 
per  3000     pounds 
pounds 


Percent 
used 


$12-75 
14.00 
II. IS 
50.00 
40.60 


660 

350 

40 

33 
2133 

33 

2 

iW 
106 

Cost 


*6.63 
4.63 
1.9s 
1. 00 

^ 

»I4.87 
6.  lot 
•ao.97 


Cost 


Cost  of  Steel  in  Castings 


Cost    of    steel    in   laddie  -i-  65    per 

cent  t  = 

Less  credit  for  heads,  etc.  as  scrap  =  . . 

Net  cost  of  steel  in  castings 


fo3.36 
4.62 

$27.64 


$37  S7 
4.62 

$32.95 


•  See  footnote  under  Hearth,  Table  I. 
t  See  footnote  under  Table  I. 

X  Of  the  steel  in  the  ladle,  63  per  cent  goes  into  castings,  33  per  cent  goes  into  heads, 
gates,  etc.,  2  per  cent  is  lost  in  spattering  in  pouring. 


Acid  Open  Hearth  and  Basic  Open  Hearth 


419 


Acid  Open  Hearth  and  Basic  Open  Hearth 
[When  Together  in  One  Plant] 


Raw  materials 


Acid  open  hearth  per 

2000  pounds  of  steel 

in  ladle 


O   0)  Qt3 

I.  fcl  fe  O 


a-o 


CJ'O 


Basic  open  hearth  per 
2000  pounds  of  steel 
in  ladle 


Pig  iron 

Heads,  gates,     etc., 

both  furnaces 

Foreign  scrap 

Defective  castings. . . 
Ferroalloys 

Total  metal 

Operating  costs. 
Cost  of  steel  in  ladle. 


from 


$14.00 

14.00 
14.50 
50.00 
40.60 


1320 
420 


2089 


Cost  of  Steel  in  Castings 


Cost  of  steel  in  ladle  -r  65  per  cent . 

Less  credit  for  heads,  etc.,  as  scrap. 

Net  cost  of  steel  in  castings — 


$2.10 


$12.75 


II. 15 
50.00 
40.60 


$32.28 

4.62 

$27.66 


loio 
40 
33 


52 

15H 
2 

iV4 


$6.63 
's'63 

1. 00 

.67 


71 


$13.93 

6.10 
$20.03 


Cost  of  Steel  in  Castings 


$30.81 

4.62 

$26.19 


•J  JO 


SucI  C'lislings  in  ihc  Foundry 
Taulk  IV.  —  Converter 


Raw  materials 


Pig  iron  

Pig  iron 

Heads,  gates,  etc 

Defective  castings  (account  bad  metal) 
Ferroalloys 

Total  metal 

Operating  costs  

Cost  of  steel  in  ladle 


Per  aooo  pounds  of  steel  in  Imdle 


Cost  of  Steel  in  Castings 

$35.18 

4.62 

$30.36 

$38.26 

Less  credit  for  heads,  etc.,  as  scrap  . . 

4.62 

Net  cost  of  steel  in  castings 

$33.64 

•  See  footnote  under  Table  I. 

t  The  percentage  of  defective  castings  in  converter  practice  will  actually  be  less 
than  this,  so  that  the  cost  is  a  little  higher  than  justice  to  average  converter  practice 
demands.  In  the  absence  of  average  figures,  we  have  charged  it  the  same  as  add 
open  hearth,  with  this  correction. 

t  Operating  cost,  S3.50.  is  for  one  2-ton  converter  making  150  tons  per  week.  The 
$5-50  per  ton  is  a  2-toii  converter  with  small  production. 


Converter,  with  Large  Waste 
Table  V.  —  Converter,  with  Large  Waste 


421 


Raw  nnaterials 


Pig  iron 

Pig  iron 

Heads,  gates,  etc 

Defective  castings  account  bad  metal. 
Ferroalloys 

Total  metal 

Operating  costs 

Cost  of  steel  in  ladle 


Per  2000  pounds  of  steel  in  ladle 


Price 

of  raw 

materials 

per  2000 

pounds 


S14.00 
17.40 
14.00 
80.00 
40.60 


Weight 
used, 
pounds 

Per  cent 
used 

Cost 

300 

15 

$2.10 

1360 

68 

11.83 

660 

33 

4.62 

20 

I 

.80 

38 

2 

.77 

2378 

119 

$20.12 

3. so 

S23.62 

Cost 


$20.12 

5.50 

$25.62 


Cost  of  Steel  in  Castings 


Cost  of  steel  in  ladle  -f-  65  per  cent . 

Less  credit  for  heads,  etc.,  as  scrap. 

Net  cost  of  steel  in  castings 


S36.34 
4.62 

$31.72 


422  Sti'd  Castings  in  the  Foundry 

Table  VI.  —  Aciu  Ui'kn  IIeaktu  [Making  Small  CastincsI 


Raw  materials 


Per  aooo  pounds  o(  iteel  in  ladle 


Pig  iron 

Heads,  gates,  etc 

Foreign  scrap 

Defective  castings  account  bad  metal. 
Ferroalloys 

Total  metal 

Operating  costs 

Cost  of  steel  in  ladle 


Price 
of  raw 
materials 
per  aooo 
pounds 


$14.00 
14.00 
14. so 
SO. 00 
40.60 


$32.92     $26.27 


Cost  of  steel  in  castings 


Cost  of  steel  in  ladle  -i-  6s  per  cent*. 

Less  credit  for  heads,  etc.,  as  scrap. . 

Net  cost  of  steel  in  castings 


•  Of  the  steel  in  the  ladle,  65  per  cent  goes  into  castings,  33  per  cent  goes  into  heads, 
gates,  etc.,  2  per  cent  is  lost  in  spattering  during  pouring.  In  making  small  castings, 
the  loss  in  pouring  from  a  bottom-poured  ladle  would  be  much  larger  than  this,  and 
the  cost  of  steel  in  castings  would  be  increased  Si  to  $3  per  ton,  but  data  is  lacking 
for  exact  estimates. 


Crucible  Castings 


423 


Table  VII.  — 

Basic  Open  Hearth  [Making  Small  Castings] 

Per 

2000  pounds  of  steel  in 
ladle 

Per  2000  pounds  of 
steel  in  ladle 

Raw  materials 

Price  of 

raw  materials 

per  2000 

pounds 

■d 

.£f  a 

4J 

(u-d 

0 
u 

4J 
0 

u 

0 

$12.75 
14.00 
II. IS 
so. 00 
40.60 

1040 
660 
190 
200 
33 

S2 

33 

10 

$6.63 

4.62 

1.06 

S-oo 
.67 

$17.98 

9-55 

1040 
660 
350 
300 
33 

52 
33 

17^^ 
15 

1 1/2 

$6.63 
4.62 
1.95 

7. so 
.67 

Heads,  gates,  etc. .  .  . 

Foreign  scrap 

Defective  castings. . . 

Total  metal 

Operating  costs.. 

2123 

106 

$17.98 
6.10 

2124 

106 

$19.93 
6.10 

$19.93 
9.55 

Cost  of  steel  in  ladle. . 

S24.08 

$27.53 

$26.03 

$29.48 

Cost  of  Steel  in  Castings 


Cost  of  steel  in  ladle  -^  65  per  cent . 

Less  credit  for  heads,  etc.,  as  scrap 

Net  cost  of  steel  in  castings 


$37.05 
4.62 


$32.43 


$42.35 
4.62 


$37.73 


$40.05  $45.85 
4.62     4.62 


$35.43  $40.73 


Table  VIII.  —  Crucible  Castings 


Per  2000  pounds  steel  in  ladle 

Raw  materials 

Price  of 

raw  materials 

per  2000 

pounds 

-d 

ll 

0 

$17.34 

4.62 

.63 

.24 

$22.83 

35.00 

$57.83 

•d" 

!| 

1^ 

$25.50 
14.50 
14.00 

125.00 

40.60 

1360 

660 
10 
12 

68 
33 

1330 

660 

10 

12 

"myi 
33 

looi^ 

Foreign  steel  scrap. . . . 

Heads,  gates,  etc 

Defective  castings. . . . 

$9.64 

4.62 

.63 

.24 

Total  metal 

Operating  costs . . . 
Cost  of  steel  in  ladle. . 

2042 

102 

2012 

$15.13 

35. 00 

$50.13 

Cost  of  Steel  in  Castings 


Cost  of  steel  in  ladle  -r-  66  per  cent*. 

Less  credit  for  heads,  etc.,  as  scrap. . 

Net  cost  of  steel  in  castings 


$87.62 

4.62 

$83.00 

$75.95 
4.63 

$71.33 


'  Of  the  steel  in  the  ladle,  66  per  cent  goes  into  castings,  33  per  cent  goes  into  heads, 
gates,  etc.  and  i  per  cent  is  lost  in  pouring. 


424 


Steel  Castings  in  the  Foundry 
Table  DC.  —  Electric  Furnace 


Raw  materials 


Steel  scrap 

Heads,  gates,  etc.. 
Defective  castings. 

Ferroalloys 

Total  metal... 


Per  aooo  pounds  of  tteel  in  Li  :.< 


Price 

of  raw 

materials 

per  20OO 

pounds 


l9So 

14.00 

125.00 

40.60 


Weight 
used. 

pound . 


Per  ci-nt 


1330 
660 


66W 
33 

H 

looW 


Cost 


Cost  of  netting  steel 


In  ladle 


Electric  power  at  I  cent  per  kilowatt  hour 
"    "  2  cents    "      "  " 

3  "    "   " 

"  "  4 

5 


$28.81 
37  96 
47.11 
56.26 
65.41 


$39  03 
52.89 
66.76 
80.62 
94-49 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
FOUNDRY  FUELS    (Cupola) 

The  fuels  available  for  melting  iron  in  the  cupola  are  anthracite  coal 
and  coke. 

Anthracite  Coal 

Lehigh  lump  is  the  best  coal  for  the  purpose.  It  produces  a  hot  iron 
and  melts  it  rapidly.  On  account  of  the  cost  as  compared  with  coke,  it 
is  now  little  used  in  districts  removed  from  the  anthracite  region. 

A  mixture  of  anthracite  and  coke,  particularly  for  the  bed,  gives  most 
excellent  results,  especially  for  prolonged  heats. 

Coke 

When  bitumin  dus  coal  is  exposed  to  a  red  heat  for  a  prolonged  period 
with  total  or  partial  exclusion  of  air,  the  volatile  matter  is  driven  off  and 
the  residuum  is  coke,  containing  more  or  less  impurities.  The  coal  used 
is  of  the  coking  variety  and  to  produce  good  foundry  coke  should  be  low 
in  sulphur  and  ash.  Seventy-two  hom:  Bee  Hive  Coke  is  most  generally 
used  by  foundrymen.  This  has  a  hard,  cellular,  columnar  structure, 
with  a  gray,  silvery  surface.  The  smooth,  glistening  appearance  foimd 
in  much  of  it  is  due  to  quenching  in  the  furnace.  (Weight  about  25 
pounds  to  cubic  foot.)  There  will  be  found  in  each  carload  of  coke 
"black-tops"  and  "black-butts";  the  appearance  of  the  former  is  due 
to  deposits  of  carbon  from  the  imperfect  combustion  of  the  gases  at  the 
top  of  the  furnace.  They  in  no  way  affect  the  value  of  the  fuel.  Black 
butts,  however,  come  from  incomplete  burning  and  contain  unconverted 
coal.     These  should  be  accepted  only  in  limited  quantities. 

The  following  are  analyses  from  different  sections: 


Localities 


Connellsville 
Pocahontas  . . 
Chattanooga. 
New  River. . 
Birmingham . 


Fixed 

Volatile 

Ash 

carbon 

matter 

89.58 

.46 

.03 

9. II 

92.58 

.49 

.20 

6.05 

80. SI 

1. 10 

.45 

16.34 

92.38 

7.21 

87.29 

10. 54 

Sulphur 


.81 
.68 

1. 59 
.56 

1.19 


425 


426  Foundry  l-ucls 

Specific  Rravily  iivcruKcs  1.272.  Coke  will  absorb  from  10  to  30  per 
cent  of  lis  wcIkIu  in  moisture,  dcpcndinj;  on  exfKWure.  After  exposure 
to  a  hard  storm  the  increase  in  weight  may  easily  be  15  per  cent. 

Less  pressure  of  air,  more  volume  anfl  larger  tuyere  area  are  required 
when  melting  with  coke  than  with  anthracite  coal. 

The  following  specifications  for  coke  from  the  J.  I.  Case  Co.  are  given 
by  Mr.  Scott. 

Good  clean  72-hour  coke,  massive  and  free  from  granulation,  dust  and 
cinder.  Per  cent 

Moisture  not  over i .  50 

Volatile  matter  not  over 3- 5° 

Fi.xcd  carbon  not  under 86.00 

Sulphur  not  over 0.75 

Ash  not  over 1 1  ■  50 

Coke  which  has  over  0.85  sulphur,  0.05  phosphorus,  less  than  85 
fixed  carbon  or  less  than  5.00  ash  will  be  rejected. 

Good  foundry  coke  should  be  high  in  carbon,  low  in  sulphur,  have 
good  columnar  structure,  and  there  should  not  be  a  large  percentage  of 
small  pieces  in  a  carload.    The  product  should  be  uniform. 

By-Product  Coke 

Certain  chemical  works,  in  the  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  for 
ammonia,  manufacture  coke  as  a  by-product.  This,  when  especially 
prepared  for  foundrj'  purposes,  gives  excellent  results.  It  is  darker, 
harder  and  more  irregular  in  form  than  beehive  coke.  It  is  high  in 
carbon  and  low  in  sulphur,  makes  a  very  hot  fire  and  will  melt  more 
iron  than  an  equal  weight  of  beehive.  The  short  description  of  the 
process  of  making  this  coke  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Keep  is  given  herewith. 

"The  retort  oven  is  a  closed  chamber  from  15  to  24  inches  in  ^\^dth, 
5  to  8  feet  in  height  and  from  25  to  45  feet  long.  From  25  to  50  of  these 
ovens  are  placed  in  a  batterj'. 

"The  coal  is  charged  through  three  or  more  openings  in  the  top  and 
levelled  off  to  within  a  foot  of  the  roof,  after  which  the  oven  is  carefully 
closed  and  sealed,  in  order  to  exclude  the  air.  The  oven  is  heated  by  a 
portion  of  the  gas  driven  off  in  the  process  of  coking.  This  is  not  burned 
in  the  oven  itself,  but  in  flues  constructed  in  their  walls.  The  heat  is 
conducted  through  the  walls  of  these  combustion  flues  to  the  charges  of 
coal  and  distillation  thereof  is  started  immediately. 

"The  gas  which  is  driven  off  is  conducted  through  an  apparatus  in 
which  the  tar  and  ammonia  are  recovered;  after  which  a  portion  of  the 
gas  is  returned  to  be  burned  in  the  oven  flues,  and  the  babnce  disposed 
of  as  local  conditions  determine. 


Effect  of  Atmospheric  Moisture  upon  Coke  427 

"Distillation  proceeds  from  the  side  walls  toward  the  middle  of  the 
oven  and  the  gas  is  probably  driven  toward  the  center  of  the  oven,  where 
it  rises,  forming  a  cleavage  plane  the  whole  length  of  the  oven.  When 
the  process  is  completed,  which  takes  place  in  from  20  to  36  hours, 
depending  upon  the  width  of  the  oven  and  the  temperature  maintained, 
the  whole  charge  is  pushed  out  by  a  steam  or  electric  ram  and  is  immedi- 
ately quenched.  The  oven  is  at  once  closed  and,  without  any  loss  of 
heat  from  the  oven  itself,  is  again  charged  with  coal. 

"On  account  of  the  cleavage  plane  through  the  center  of  the  charge, 
no  piece  of  coke  can  be  longer  than  half  the  width  of  the  oven." 

"Owing  to  the  complete  exclusion  of  air,  there  is  no  combustion  in  the 
oven;  and  as  the  temperature  of  the  oven,  when  the  coal  is  charged,  is 
very  high,  there  is  a  considerable  decomposition  of  volatile  matter  with 
consequent  deposition  of  carbon  upon  the  coking  charge.  As  a  result 
the  yield  of  coke  is  a  little  higher  than  the  theoretical  yield,  as  cal- 
culated from  the  analysis  of  the  coal.  Quenching  the  coke  outside  the 
ovens  mars  its  appearance  somewhat,  destroying  its  bright,  silvery 
lustre,  but  probably  results  in  carrying  ofif  an  appreciable  quantity  of 
sulphur." 

"Coke  made  from  the  same  coal  will  have  a  slightly  higher  percentage 
of  fixed  carbon  and  a  slightly  lower  percentage  of  ash  than  if  made  in  a 
retort  oven." 

"The  quality  of  retort  oven  coke  depends  upon  the  skill  of  the  operator, 
upon  the  method  of  preparing  the  coal  and  more  than  all,  upon  the 
quality  of  the  coal  used. 

He  further  says  that  after  having  satisfied  himself  that  it  was  good 
coke,  "in  spite  of  its  very  bad  appearance,"  by  the  use  of  several  car- 
loads, "from  that  time  to  this  we  have  never  had  a  pound  of  other 
coke.  All  through  1902  the  coke  was  so  uniform  and  satisfactory  that 
we  melted  9  pounds  of  iron  with  i  pound  of  coke." 

Effect  of  Atmospheric  Moisture  upon  Coke 

Under  normal  conditions,  at  a  temperature  of  70°  F.,  1000  cubic  feet 
of  air,  equal  in  weight  to  about  75  pounds,  contains  i  pound  of  moisture. 
Each  pound  of  moisture  requires  the  use  of  o.io  additional  pounds  of 
coke.  Therefore,  every  additional  i.o  per  cent  to  the  moisture  of  the 
atmosphere  requires  0.03  additional  pounds  of  coke  to  melt  one  ton  of 
iron. 

From  20  to  40  per  cent  of  the  sulphur  in  the  coke  is  taken  up  by  the 
iron  in  melting.  This  may  be  largely  reduced  by  the  liberal  use  of 
limestone. 


428  Foundry   Iiiels 

Specifications  for  Foundry  Cokk  Suggested  by 
Dr.  Richaru  Moldenke 

Coke  bought  under  these  specifications  should  l>c  massive,  in  large 
pieces  and  as  free  as  possible  from  black  ends  and  cinders. 

Samplitig 

Each  carload  or  its  equivalent  shall  be  considered  as  a  unit,  and 
sampled  by  taking  from  the  exposed  surface  at  least  one  piece  for  each 
ton,  so  as  to  fairly  represent  the  shipment.  These  samples,  properly 
broken  down  and  ground  to  the  fineness  of  coarse  sawdust,  well  mixed 
and  dried  before  analysis,  shall  be  used  as  a  basis  for  the  payment  of  the 
shipment.  In  case  of  disagreement  between  buyer  and  seller  an  indepen- 
dent chemist,  mutually  agreed  upon,  shall  be  employed  to  sample  and 
analyze  the  coke,  the  cost  to  be  Ijorne  by  the  parly  at  fault. 

Base  Analysis 

The  following  analysis,  representing  an  average  grade  of  foundry  coke 
capable  of  being  made  in  any  of  the  districts  supplying  foundries,  shall 
be  considered  the  base,  premiums  and  penalties  to  be  calculated  thereon 
as  determined  by  the  analysis  on  an  agreed  base  price: 

Volatile  matter r . 00     Ash 12. 00 

Fi.xed  carbon 85 .  50     Sulphur i .  10 

Penalties  and  Bonuses 

Moisture.  —  Payment  shall  be  made  on  shipments  on  the  basis  of 
"dry  coke."  The  weight  received  shall,  therefore,  be  corrected  by 
deducting  the  water  contained.  (Note.  —  Coke  producers  should  add 
sufficient  coke  to  their  tonnage  shipments  to  make  up  for  the  water 
included,  as  shown  by  their  own  determinations.) 

Volatile  Matter.  —  For  every  0.50  or  fraction  thereof,  above  the  i.oo 
allowed,  deduct  .  .  cents  from  the  price.  Over  2.50  rejects  the  shipment 
at  the  option  of  the  purchaser. 

Fixed  Carbon.  —  For  every  i.oo  or  fraction  thereof,  above  85.50  add, 
and  for  every  i.oo  or  fraction  thereof  below  85.50,  deduct  .  .  cents. 
Below  78.50  rejects  the  shipment  at  the  option  of  the  purchaser. 

Ash.  —  For  every  0.50  or  fraction  thereof  below  12.00,  add,  and  for 
every  0.50  or  fraction  thereof  above  12.00  deduct  .  .  cents  from  the  price. 
Above  15.00  rejects  the  shipment  at  the  option  of  the  purchaser. 

Sulphur.  —  For  every  o.io  or  fraction  thereof  below  i.io  add,  and  for 
ever>'  o.io  or  fraction  thereof  above,  deduct  .  .  cents  from  the  price. 
Above  1.30  rejects  the  shipment  at  the  option  of  the  purchaser. 


Fluxes  429 

Shatter  Test 

On  arrival  of  the  shipment  the  coke  shall  be  subjected  to  a  shatter 
.test,  as  described  below.  The  percentage  of  fine  coke  thus  determined, 
above  5  per  cent  of  the  coke,  shall  be  deducted  from  the  amount  of  coke 
to  be  paid  for  (after  allowing  for  the  water) ,  and  paid  at  fine  coke  prices 
previously  agreed  upon.  Above  25  per  cent  fine  coke  rejects  the  ship- 
ment at  the  option  of  the  purchaser.  Fine  coke  shall  be  coke  that  passes 
through  a  wire  screen  with  square  holes  2  inches  in  the  clear. 

The  apparatus  for  making  the  shatter  test  should  be  a  box  capable 
of  holding  at  least  100  pounds  coke,  supported  with  the  bottom  6  feet 
above  a  cast-iron  plate.  The  doors  on  the  bottom  of  the  box  shall  be 
so  hinged  and  latched  that  they  will  swing  freely  away  when  opened  and 
will  not  impede  the  fall  of  the  coke.  Boards  shall  be  put  around  the 
cast  iron  plate  so  that  no  coke  may  be  lost. 

A  sample  of  approximately  50  pounds  is  taken  at  random  from  the 
car,  using  a  iH  inch  tine  fork,  and  placed  in  the  box  without  attempt  to 
arrange  it  therein.  The  entire  material  shall  be  dropped  four  times  upon 
the  cast  iron  plate,  the  small  material  and  the  dust  being  returned  with 
the  large  coke  each  time. 

After  the  fourth  drop  the  material  is  screened  as  above  given,  the 
screen  to  be  in  horizontal  position,  shaken  once  only,  and  no  attempt 
made  to  put  the  small  pieces  through  specially.  The  coke  remaining 
shall  be  weighed  and  the  percentage  of  the  fine  coke  determined. 

If  the  sum  of  the  weights  indicates  a  loss  of  over  i  per  cent  the  test  shall 
be  rejected  and  a  new  one  made. 

Rejection  by  reason  of  failure  to  pass  the  shatter  test  shall  not  take 
place  until  at  least  two  check  tests  have  been  made. 

Fluxes 

The  object  of  a  flux  is  to  render  fusible  the  ash  from  the  fuel,  sand 
and  rust  from  the  iron,  and  dirt  of  any  sort,  found  in  the  cupola,  into 
slag  and  to  put  it  in  condition  for  easy  removal.  ■ 

Slag  always  forms  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  where  iron  is  melted, 
but  unless  a  flux  is  present,  it  will  not  be  sufficient  in  volume  to  give 
clean  iron.  Limestone  and  fluor  spar  are  the  most  common  fluxes  in 
use.  There  are  many  compounds  furnished  for  the  purpose,  but  a 
limestone  containing  90  per  cent  or  more  carbonate  of  lime,  or  oyster 
shells,  furnish  as  good  fluxing  material  as  can  be  procured. 

The  following  is  copied  from  a  paper  by  Mr.  N.  W.  Shed,  presented 
to  the  Cleveland  meeting  of  the  American  Foundrymen's  Association 
at  June,  1906. 


430  Foundry  Fuels 

"The  value  of  fluxes  in  llie  cujxila  is  not  generally  appreciated  by 
foundrymen.  Hundreds  of  cupolas  are  not  slagged  at  all  and  the 
cinder  dumps  show  an  immense  amount  of  iron  actually  wasted.  Not 
only  is  iron  lost  by  the  large  amount  combined  with  the  cinders,  but  the 
more  or  less  variable  cinder  encloses  small  masses  and  shots  of  iron 
which  cannot  be  se{)aralcd.  It  is  a  fact  that  the  cinder  dumps  of  many 
foundries  contain  more  iron  than  many  workable  deposits  of  iron  ore, 
and  if  these  accumulations  could  be  obtained  by  the  German  blast  fur- 
naces they  would  be  quickly  utilized. 

Another  value  of  flu.xcs  is  their  cleansing  action  on  the  cujxila. 
A  well  slagged  cupola  has  no  hanging  masses  of  iron  and  cinder  which 
require  laborious  chipping  out.  The  time  and  labor  saved  in  conse- 
quence is  an  item  that  is  well  worth  considering.  In  the  running  of 
heavy  tonnage  from  a  single  cupola,  fluxes  are  indispensable.  It  would 
be  well  nigh  impossible  to  run  large  heats  in  the  same  cupolas  without 
using  a  good  flux. 

The  value  of  fluxes  being  generally  admitted,  the  question  arises, 
what  flux  is  best  to  use  and  how  much? 

There  are  two  available  fluxes  for  the  cupola.  These  are  limestone 
and  fluor  spar. 

Fluor  spar  is  much  advertised  as  a  flux  and  the  promoters  claim  that 
it  gives  marvellous  properties  to  the  iron.  The  glowing  advertisements 
have  evidently  deceived  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  for  the  reports 
of  the  Survey  speak  of  its  great  use  and  value  in  foundr>'  practice." 

The  practical  test  of  fluor  spar,  made  by  the  writer  showed  it  to  be 
an  inferior  flux.  It  did  not  remove  sulphur  and  the  properties  of  the 
iron  were  not  improved  in  the  least  by  its  use.  There  is  no  doubt  of 
the  value  of  fluor  spar  in  certain  branches  of  metallurgy,  but  the  writer 
has  failed  to  find  a  single  supporter  of  its  value  in  the  foundry. 

Limestone  is  far  cheaper  than  fluor  spar  and  far  better  as  a  flux. 
It  makes  little  difference  what  form  the  limestone  has  so  long  as  it  is 
pure.  It  ma)'  be  marble,  soft  limestone,  hard  limestone,  oyster  shells, 
or  mussel  shells,  but  it  must  be  good.  A  limestone  containing  over 
3  per  cent  silica  is  poor  stuff,  and  one  containing  any  considerable 
amount  of  clay  should  be  rejected.  There  should  be  at  least  51  per  cent 
of  lime  present.  The  sulphur  should  be  below  i  to  2  per  cent.  The 
phosphorus  is  unimportant.  .\  magncsian  limestone  would  do  as  well 
as  an  ordinarj'  limestone  for  the  cupola. 

The  amount  of  limestone  to  be  used  is  variable,  depending: 

First:  on  the  amount  of  silica  in  the  coke  ash. 

Second:  on  the  amount  of  silica  or  sand  adhering  to  the  pig  or  scrap. 

Third:  on  the  amount  of  silica  to  be  carried  by  the  slag. 


Fluxes  431 

The  amount  of  limestone  required  to  flux  the  coke  ash  can  be 
figured  according  to  the  ordinary  method  of  calculating  blast  furnace 
charges. 

The  amount  of  sand  on  the  pig  and  scrap  is  so  variable  that  it  is 
difficult  to  know  just  the  additional  amount  of  limestone  to  add. 

The  most  practical  and  easily  fusible  slag  has  been  found  to  be  a 
monosilicate,  which  means  having  equal  amounts  of  silica  and  alkaline 
bases.  Having  these  variables  in  mind,  we  find  it  a  good  rule  to  figure 
the  limestone  on  the  weight  of  the  coke,  using  25  per  cent  limestone. 

For  example,  if  the  charge  of  coke  on  the  bed  is  4000  pounds,  we 
use  looc  pounds  of  limestone.  If  the  next  charge  of  coke  is  1000  pounds, 
we  would  use  250  pounds  of  limestone.  This  amount  of  limestone  will 
flux  any  ordinary  coke  ash  with  the  average  amount  of  sand  on  pig 
and  scrap.  If  we  know  the  amoimt  of  sand  on  the  pig  to  be  excessive 
we  figure  30  per  cent  limestone  on  the  weight  of  the  coke. 

With  a  low  coke  ash,  machine  pig  and  clean  scrap,  the  limestone 
may  be  reduced  to  20  per  cent  and  make  a  good  cinder.  Many  foundr>'- 
men  are  afraid  to  use  limestone,  fearing  some  injury  to  the  iron.  This 
is  a  superstition  for  lime  has  no  effect  on  the  iron. 

There  is  usually  a  slight  reduction  in  the  amount  of  sulphur,  but 
owing  to  the  great  amount  of  iron  present,  the  iron  absorbs  a  large 
amount  of  sulphur  from  the  coke. 

If  more  than  30  per  cent  is  required  to  make  a  good  cinder  and  clear 
the  cupola  it  is  evident  that  either  the  coke  is  very  high  in  ash,  or  else 
the  limestone  is  high  in  silica.  In  the  latter  case  a  large  amount  of 
lime  is  used  in  fluxing  its  own  silica. 

On  account  of  the  frequent  variations  in  the  stock,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  have  coke,  limestone  and  cinder  analyzed  occasionally. 

The  cinder  usually  tells  about  the  condition  of  the  furnace.  A  light 
brown  indicates  a  small  amount  of  iron  and  the  iron  unoxidized.  A 
black  cinder  indicates  a  large  amount  of  iron  and  some  oxidation.  A 
shiny  metallic  lustre  shows  an  excess  of  oxide  of  iron  due  to  over-blow- 
ing or  lack  of  coke.  Practically  all  the  lime  cinders  from  a  cupola  are 
glossy  in  appearance,  while  the  cinders  with  no  lime  are  usually  dull 
and  earthy.  Occasionally  a  cinder  is  found  full  of  bubbles,  the  color 
is  usually  black  and  shots  of  iron  are  found  through  the  frothy  slag. 
This  is  called  foaming  cinder,  and  is  made  when  the  last  few  charges 
are  at  the  bottom  of  the  cupola.  This  cinder  often  rises  to  the  charging 
door  and  flows  out  over  the  floor.  The  iron  cast  at  this  time  is  hard 
and  is  low  in  manganese,  silica  and  carbon. 

With  foaming  slag  a  dense  smoke  of  reddish  brown  color  pours  out 
of  the  stack. 


432 


Foundry  lucls 


Analysis  of  the  foaming  slag  shows  the  iron  to  be  in  an  oxidized 
condition  and  in  large  amount.  Sometimes  the  iron  will  run  30  per 
cent  in  frothy  cinder,  sometimes  t)nly  12  per  rent.  The  oxidizetl  cinder 
and  the  red  smoke  show  that  iron  is  being  rapidly  burned  in  the  cupola, 
and  the  action  going  on  is  very  much  like  the  action  in  a  Bessemer  con- 
verter when  it  is  tilted  back  a  little  and  IjJown  to  gain  heat  by  burning 
the  iron.  The  cinder  is  oxidized  and  the  red  smoke  is  produced  in  the 
same  way.  In  both  cases  the  iron  is  burnt  to  oxide,  which  is  cjuickly 
taken  up  by  the  slag.  The  oxide  in  the  slag  acts  upon  the  carlxjn  in 
the  iron  forming  a  large  amount  of  carbonic  oxide,  which  rises  through 
the  cinder  blowing  it  to  a  frothy  condition. 

There  are  two  ways  of  avoiding  this  troublesome  condition.  If 
possible,  reduce  the  blast.  If  the  blast  cannot  be  reduced,  add  more 
coke.  The  presence  of  a  good  body  of  coke  will  stop  the  burning  of  the 
iron,  and  frothing  does  not  take  place.  In  some  cases  the  loss  of  sili- 
con is  very  serious,  and  to  insure  good  castings  it  is  necessary  to  add 
crushed  silicon  metal  and  ferro-manganese  to  the  stream  of  iron  as  it 
runs  from  the  spout. 

Analysis  of  cupola  slags  where  no  flux  is  used  show  from  14  to  28  per 
cent  ferrous  oxide.  These  slags  contain  2  to  4  per  cent  of  shot  iron 
mingled  with  the  cinder.  This  proves  that  some  of  the  iron  must  be 
lost  in  order  to  flux  the  coke  ash  and  sand.  If  we  use  limestone  as  a 
flux  the  amount  of  iron  in  the  cinder  is  rarely  over  3  per  cent,  showing 
that  the  lime  fluxes  the  ash  and  sand  leaxing  the  iron  for  the  ladle. 
And  the  question  is  simplj'  whether  we  will  use  iron  as  a  flux  at  ?i8.oo 
per  ton  or  limestone  at  $1.50  per  ton. 

Another  point  in  favor  of  the  limestone  is  the  clean  cupola  men- 
tioned in  the  first  part  of  this  paper. 

Following  will  be  found  an  analysis  of  cupola  cinder  using  lime." 


Comparison  of  Analyses  of  Slags,  Made  With  and  Without 
Lime 


Constituents 

Using 
lime 

34.60 

4.10 

11.02 

4S.20 

1.40 

.20 

99  52 

Without 
lime 

CaO 

6.60 
21.76 
ti  80 
58.44     1 

FeO 

AKOf 

SiO, 

MnO ;. 

1.30     ' 

S 

.10 
100  00 

Total 

Slags  433 

The   following  analyses  are  extracted  from  "  The  Foundry,"   Dec. 
1909. 

.    Analysis  of  Slag  from  a  Cupola  Melting  Car  Wheel  Iron,  in  the  South 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Silica 48 .  77         Oxide  of  iron 13.18 

Aluminum 10.90        Metallic  iron 9.23 

Lime 13-79         Manganese 4 .  84 

Magnesia 6.05         Sulphur 0.81 

Analysis  of  Slag  from  a  Cupola  Melting  Gray  Iron,  No  Fluor  spar 
Being  Used 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Silica 42 .  84        Magnesia 13  •  28 

Alumina Manganese 2 .  34 

Oxide  of  iron 21 .32         Manganese  oxide. ...  3.01 

Lime 21.16 

Analysis  of  Slagfrofn  a  Cupola  Melting  Gray  Iron,  Fluor  spar 
Being  Used 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Silica 39  5°        Magnesia 1 1 .  05 

Alumina Manganese 2 .  24 

Oxide  of  iron 22 .82         Manganese  oxide. ...  2 .89 

Lime 24.50 

Analysis  of  Slagfrofn  a  Cupola  Melting  Malleable  Iron 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Silica 41  •  72        Magnesia 15 .06 

Oxide  of  iron Manganese 3  •  20 

Alumina 22.24        Metallic  iron 5.82 

Lime 17-84        Manganese  oxide ... .  4.12 

Analysis  of  Slag  from  a  Cupola  Melting  Car  Wheel  Iron,  in  the  North 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Silica 44.00        Magnesia 7.27 

Oxide  of  iron 13- 16        Metallic  iron 9.21 

Alumina 9 .  76        Manganese 5 .  70 

Lime 1 5  -  99        Sulphur 0.78 

Cupola  Slag  from  a  Western  Foundry 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Silica 37- 16        Oxide  of  iron 13-73 

Alumina 9.16        Metallic  iron 9.61 

Lime 8.98        Manganese  oxide. ...  2 .  77 

Magnesia 8.44        Sulphur 0.36 


434 


Foundry  I-'ucls 


Sufl'icient  flux  must  be  usc'l  to  obUiin  a  fluid  slag  to  carry  off  the 
silica  from  the  iron  and  ashes  and  to  reduce  the  oxidation  as  much  as 
possible. 

With  low  blast  pressure  the  slag  must  be  thin,  to  run  off  readily. 

When  slag  wool  is  frcelj'  produced,  the  indication  is  that  the  slagging 
is  satisfactory. 

A  good  slag  contains  approximately  40  per  cent  of  silica  and  from  28 
to  30  per  cent  lime.  If  the  slag  is  thin,  the  metallic  iron  will  fall  through 
it  readily  and  an  increase  of  lime  tends  to  decrease  the  oxide  of  iron. 

Rusty  scrap  produces  a  dark-colored  slag  caused  by  the  oxide  of 
iron. 

A  large  body  of  slag  is  favorable  to  desulphurization,  as  the  amount 
of  sulphur  which  can  be  taken  up  by  the  slag  is  limited.  At  high  tem{H;r- 
aturcs  sulphur  tends  to  combine  with  the  slag  and  under  these  conditions 
it  has  not  its  greatest  affinity  for  iron. 

Fire  Brick  and  Fire  Clay 
A  good  brick  has  a  light  yellow  color,  a  coarse  and  open  structure, 
uniform  throughout.     It  should  be  burned  to  the  limit  of  contractility. 
The  clay  from  which  it  is  made  should  contain  as  little  iron,  lime,  potash 
and  soda  as  possible. 

Analyses  of  Fire  Cl.ws  Used  for  M.^vking  Fire  Brick 

Clay  loses  its  plasticity  at  a  temperature  above  100°  C,  and  it  cannot  again 
be  restored. 


Localities 


a 

0 

.e 

V  a 

0 

E 

£ 

7.72 

.47 

I. so 

.13 

.20 

.40 

.10 

2.0s 

•  SS 

.40 

.37 

417 

.24 

.24 

.95 

4.43 

.36 

•  29 

.99 

Stourbridge.  Eng 

Mt.  Savage,  Md 

Mineral  Point.  Ohio. . . . 
Port  Washington,  Ohio. 

Springfield,  Ohio 

Springfield,  Pa 

Springfield,  Pa 


17  34 
12.74 
11.70 
534 
5.45 


45-25 
50.45 
49.20 
59  95 
70.70 
55.62 
56.12 


28.77 
35.90 
27.80 
33  85 
21.70 
38.5s 
37.48 


Pure  silicate  of  alumina  mclls  at  1830°  C. 

Fire  bricks  should  stand  continuous  exposure  to  high  temperatures 
of  the  furnace  without  decomposition  or  softening;  should  stand  up 
under  considerable  pressure  without  distortion  or  fracture;  should  be 
unaffected  by  sudden  and  considerable  variations  of  temperature;  should 
not  be  affected  by  contact  with  heated  fuel. 


Fire  Sand 


435 


Fire  brick  should  be  regular  in  shape  and  uniform  in  character.  The 
size  of  the  ordinary  straight  fire  brick  is  9  by  4I/2  by  21/2  inches,  and  the 
weight  is  7  pounds. 

Cupola  brick  are  usually  4  inches  thick  and  6  inches  wide  radially. 

Slabs  and  blocks  are  made  in  sizes  up  to  12  by  48  by  6  inches. 

Silica  Brick 
Silica  brick  are  used  for  resisting  very  high  temperatures.     They  are 
composed    mostly    of    silica    in    combination    with    alkaline    matter. 
They  are  somewhat  fragile  and  need  careful  handling. 

Analysis  of  Silica  Brick 


Silica 

Alumina 

Ferric 
oxide 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Potash 

97.5 
90.0 

14 
30 

•  55 
.80 

.15 
.20 

.10 
.10 

.6 

Canister 
Canister  is  made  from  an  argillaceous  sandstone,  is  a  close-grained 
dark-colored  rock  containing  no  mica.  There  is  present  sufficient  clay 
to  cause  the  particles  to  become  adherent  under  ramming,  after  the  rock 
has  been  ground.  The  rock  is  ground  to  a  coarse  powder  and  some- 
times if  the  binding  properties  are  insufficient  a  little  milk  of  lime  is 
added  during  the  grinding  process.  The  composition  of  ganister  will 
fall  in  the  limits  as  given  below. 


Constituents 

Per  cent 

From 

To 

87.00 
4.00 

95.00 

5. 00 

I  50 

.75 

1. 00 

.25 

Alkalies 

Fire  Sand 

An  exceedingly  refractory  sand  containing  sometimes  as  much  as 
97  per  cent  silica.  It  is  used  in  the  setting  of  silica  brick  and  in  making 
the  hearths  of  furnaces. 

Pure  silica  melts  at  1830°  C. 


436  Foundry  I  ucls 

MagttcsiU 

Magncsite  contains  a  small  percentage  of  lime  and  ferrous  silioites 
with  seqicntinc.  The  ferrous  silicates  are  separated  out;  thereupon 
calcining,  magnesia  is  obtained.  The  calcined  material  is  then  mixed 
with  from  15  to  30  per  cent  of  the  raw  material,  and  from  10  to  15  per 
cent  water,  then  moulded  into  bricks,  dried  and  burned  in  the  ordinary 
manner. 

Bauxite 

This  is  a  hydrated  aluminous  ferric  o.xidc,  containing  usually  about 
60  per  cent  of  alumina,  i  to  3  per  cent  of  silica,  20  per  cent  ferrous  oxide 
and  from  15  to  20  per  cent  water.  It  is  very  refractory  and,  notwith- 
standing the  large  amount  of  ferrous  oxide  contained,  is  practically 
infusible. 

Calcined  bauxite  is  mixed  with  from  6  to  8  per  cent  of  clay,  or  other 
binding  material  and  plumbago,  then  molded  into  bricks. 

WTien  heated  the  plumbago  reduces  the  iron  of  the  bauxite,  producing 
a  most  refractory  substance. 

Such  bricks  are  far  more  durable  than  the  best  fire  bricks.  They  resist 
the  action  of  the  basic  slags,  as  well  as  that  of  intense  heat. 

They  become  extremely  hard  after  exposure  to  continued  heat. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
THE   CUPOLA 

The  cupola  is  used  in  ordinary  foundry  practice  in  preference  to  the 
air  furnace,  not  only  on  account  of  its  simplicity,  but  because  it  melts 
more  rapidly  and  economically.  There  are  many  forms  manufactured. 
All  of  them  are  good,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  any  furnishes  better  results 
than  have  been  obtained  from  the  ordinary  old-fashioned  cupola  so 
commonly  in  use,  such  as  is  shown  in  the  sketch  below. 

For  the  advantages  of  the  various  styles  offered  for  sale,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  manufacturers'  catalogues. 

The  cupola  is  essentially  a  vertical  hollow  cylinder,  lined  with  refrac- 
tory material,  having  the  top  open  and  the  bottom  closed,  with  pro- 
vision for  admission  of  the  charges  of  fuel  and  iron  part  way  up  on  the 
side,  also  for  admission  of  air  below  the  charges  and  for  drawing  off 
the  melted  metal  at  the  bottom. 

The  cupola  is  divided  into  five  zones. 

First:  The  Crucible,  extending  from  sand  bottom  to  the  tuyeres. 

Second:  The  Tuyere  Zone,  extending  from  the  crucible  to  melting 
zone. 

Third:  The  Melting  Zone,  reaching  from  the  tuyere  zone  to  a  point 
about  20  inches  above  the  tuyeres. 

Fourth:  The  Charging  Zone,  extending  from  melting  zone  to  charging 
door. 

Fifth:   Stack,  from  charging  door  to  top  of  furnace. 

The  Lining 

The  lining  is  usually  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  arch  brick  placed 
on  end  with  the  flat  sides  in  radial  planes.  Several  standard  rectangular 
brick  are  placed  in  each  ring  or  course  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  the 
rings  when  necessary.  Angle  iron  rings  are  riveted  to  the  shell  at 
intervals  of  about  six  feet,  to  support  the  upper  sections,  when  a  lower 
one  is  removed  for  repairs. 

The  outer  lining  is  kept  about  34  inch  away  from  the  shell  to  pro- 
vide for  expansion,  and  the  interval  is  filled  in  loosely  with  sand  and 
broken  brick. 

437 


4i8 


The  Cupola 


The  distance  from  the  sand  bottom  to  the  charging  door  should  be 
about  3!v  to  4  times  the  inside  diameter  of  the  lining.     For  cupolas 


""TT^TT^^^^T^^^^^^^^^^^^^^!^ 


Fig.  123. 


under  48  inches,  one  door  is  sutTicient;  for  larger  sizes  two  are  more 
convenient.  The  doors  may  be  hung  on  hinges  or  shde  on  a  circular 
track  above  the  openings.     It  is  not  necessary  that  they  should  be  lined. 


Tuyeres 


439 


At  the  level  of  the  charging  door  the  lining  should  be  covered  with  a 
cast-iron  ring  to  protect  it  during  the  charging. 

The  bricks  are  laid  with  very  close  joints  in  mortar  composed  of 
fire  clay  and  sand.  The  interior  lining  is  daubed  with  a  mixture  of  one- 
half  fire  clay  and  three-fourths  sharp  sand  for  a  thickness  of  three- 
fourths  inch.  Any  joints  are  well  filled.  A  handful  of  salt  to  a  pail  of 
daubing  will  cause  the  interior  of  the  shell  to  be  glazed  over  and  will 
reduce  the  amount  of  chipping  required.  Washing  the  daubing  with 
strong  brine  and  iire  clay  serves  the  same  purpose. 

Tuyeres 

The  tuyeres  may  be  circular  or  rectangular  in  section  with  the  bottoms 
inclining  slightly  toward  the  interior  of  the  shell  so  that  the  drippings 
may  not  run  into  the  wind  box.  Castings  for  tuyeres  should  not  be 
over  ^8  inch  thick. 

The  area  of  the  tuyeres  is  made  from  lo  to  25  per  cent  that  of  the 
inside  lining  at  the  tuyeres;  20  per  cent  gives  good  results.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  the  tuyeres  cannot  be  made  too  large.  A  continuous  tuyere 
having  an  opening  about  2  inches  in  height  and  extending  all  around  the 
lining  is  frequently  used. 

An  excellent  plan  is  to  have  an  air  chamber 
all  around  the  outer  lining  and  inside  of  the 
shell  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tuyeres;  at  the 
level  of  the  bottom  of  the  tuyeres  place  a 
cast-iron  ring,  in  sections,  on  top  of  the 
double  lining.  On  this,  at  intervals  of  from 
7  to  10  inches,  so  as  to  divide  the  circum- 
ference of  the  interior  of  the  lining  into  equal 
parts,  place  hollow  iron  blocks  2  inches  wide, 
3  inches  high  and  7  inches  long.  On  top  of  the 
blocks  place  another  segmental  ring,  which 
should  be  kept  3  or  more  inches  away  from  the  interior  of  the  shell. 
Upon  this  ring  the  upper  courses  of  the  lining  are  built.  This  forms 
a  nearly  continuous  tuyere,  broken  only  by  the  iron  blocks. 

This  construction  involves  a  contraction  of  the  lining  at  the  tuyeres 
of  about  8  inches.  The  bottom  of  the  tuyeres  should  be  from  10  to 
20  inches  above  the  sand  bottom,  depending  upon  the  quantity  of 
melted  iron  to  be  collected  before  tapping.  \\^here  the  iron  is  allowed 
to  run  continuously  from  the  spout,  as  in  stove  and  other  foundries 
doing  light  work,  the  tuyeres  may  be  even  lower  than  10  inches. 

Frequently  an  additional  row  of  tuyeres,  having  about  one-eighth  of  the 
main  row  in  area,  is  placed  just  below  the  melting  zone.     These  upper 


Fig.  124. 


440  riu-  Cu[M)la 

tuyeres  should  be  arranRcd  so  ih.il  the  admission  of  air  through  them 
ma,\'  be  regulated.  The  object  is  to  supply  the  necessary  air  to  convert 
\vhatc\er  carbonic  oxide  is  formed  in  the  tuyere  zone  into  carlwnic  acid 
at  the  melting  zone.  The  heat  de\eloped  at  these  upper  tuyeres  is  such 
that  the  lining  near  them  is  often  badly  cut,  therefore,  care  must  be 
exercised  as  to  the  admission  of  air  at  this  point. 

A  row  of  adjustaljle  tuyeres  about  lo  inches  above  the  melting  zone 
is  most  effective  in  producing  the  combustion  within  the  charges  of 
carbonic  o.xide,  forced  above  that  zone,  effecting  thereby  not  only  a 
saving  of  fuel,  but  the  suppression  of  flame  at  the  charging  doors.  The 
admission  of  air  above  the  melting  zone  must  be  carefully  regulated  so 
that  only  enough  will  enter  to  burn  the  carbonic  oxide. 

The  "Castings"  for  September,  iyo8,  illustrates  a  cupola  designed 
by  Mr.  J.  C.  Knoeppel,  which  presents  an  admirable  arrangement  of 
tuyeres  and  provides  for  the  object  above  outlined. 

Two  or  more  of  the  lower  tuyeres,  should  have  slight  depressions 
in  the  bottoms,  to  permit  the  slag  or  iron,  should  either  reach  that 
level,  to  run  out  upon  sheet  lead  plates  placed  in  the  wind  box  in 
the  line  of  these  depressions.  By  the  melting  of  these  plates,  and 
the  discharge  through  the  resulting  holes,  warning  is  given  to  the 
cupola  tender,  and  the  accumulation  of  slag  or  iron  in  the  wind  box 
avoided. 

Unless  the  blast  is  much  higher  than  good  management  permits,  it 
will  not  penetrate  the  fuel  in  the  cupola  for  more  than  30  inches  radially. 
Therefore,  where  the  inside  diameter  of  the  cupola  is  over  6c  inches, 
it  should  be  contracted  at  the  tuyeres  to  60  inches  or  less  diameter; 
or  in  place  of  this  a  center  blast  may  be  used.  Large  cupolas  are  fre- 
quently made  oval  in  section  with  the  same  object  in  view. 

In  the  wind  box  directly  opposite  each  tuyere  there  should  be  a  small 
door  5  inches  in  diameter,  fastened  with  a  thumb  screw,  for  access  to 
the  tuyeres,  to  remove  any  stoppages  in  front  of  them;  each  door  should 
be  provided  with  a  peek  hole  1'..  inches  in  diameter  covered  with  mica. 

The  Breast 

The  breast  is  made  by  taking  a  mixture  of  one-half  fire  clay  and  one- 
half  molding  sand,  thoroughly  mixed  and  just  moist  enough  to  be 
kneaded.  A  quantity  of  this  is  placed  around  a  bar  lU  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  made  into  cylindrical  shape,  4  or  5  inches  in  diameter  and  about 
6  inches  long.  This  is  placed  in  the  opening  for  the  breast,  and  the  bar, 
while  held  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position,  forced  down  until  its  bottom 
is  on  a  line  with  the  sand  bottom,  and  ^i  inch  above  the  upper  side  of 


Sand  Bottom  441 

lining  to  trough.  The  inner  end  of  the  clay  cylinder  should  be  flush 
with  the  inside  of  the  cupola  lining. 

Ram  hard  around  this  cylinder  with  molding  sand  and  fill  opening 
for  breast  completely.  Care  must  be  taken  that  this  clay  cylinder  is 
well  secured  in  place.  Remove  the  forming  bar  and  enlarge  the  hole 
toward  inside  of  cupola,  leaving  only  about  3  inches  in  length  of  the 
original  diameter  from  the  front. 

The  slag  hole  is  made  up  in  same  way,  but  should  be  only  one  and  a 
half  inches  long.  A  core  about  2H  inches  in  diameter  may  be  inserted 
for  the  slag  hole,  and  this  dug  out,  when  tapping  for  slag,  until  opening 
is  sufficiently  large,  say  about  i  inch  diameter. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  breast  gives  way  during  the  heat. 
In  such  an  event,  the  blast  is  shut  off  and  the  cupola  drained  of  iron  and 
slag.  The  defective  part  of  the  breast  is  removed,  and  replaced  with 
stopping  clay,  which  is  hammered  with  the  side  of  a  bar,  well  against 
the  surrounding  portion  of  the  breast.  The  remaining  hole  is  then  filled 
with  clay,  carefully  packed  so  as  not  to  be  driven  to  the  interior  of  the 
cupola.  Through  this  clay  a  tap  hole  is  made  by  gently  inserting  the 
tapping  bar  and  enlarging  the  hole  after  the  ball  of  clay  has  been  pene- 
trated. In  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  the  clay  will  have  been 
baked  hard.  The  blast  can  then  be  turned  on  and  melting  resumed. 
This  operation  must  be  conducted  with  great  care,  as  the  operator  is 
in  danger  of  being  severely  burned. 

Swab  the  lining  from  the  bottom  to  2  feet  above  the  tuyeres  with 
clay  wash  and  salt,  and  black  wash  the  tapping  hole  formed  as  above 
described. 

Sand  Bottom 

The  sand  bottom  is  made  from  gangway  sand  passed  through  a  No.  4 
riddle.  This  bottom  should  be  about  8  inches  thick.  It  must  be  well 
rammed,  especially  next  to  the  lining,  where  it  should  join  with  a  liberal 
fillet.  It  must  not  be  too  wet.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  ram  the 
bottom  so  hard  that  the  iron  will  not  lie  on  it  quietly.  The  bottom 
should  slope  in  all  directions  towards  the  tapping  hole,  the  slope  being 
one  inch  in  four  feet,  and  it  should  reach  the  tapping  hole  exactly  on  a 
level  with  its  lower  surface. 

Black  wash  the  bottom,  build  a  light  wood  fire  and  dry  out  the  lining 
thoroughly.  The  bottom  doors  should  have  a  dozen  or  more  %-inch 
holes  drilled  through  them  to  allow  any  moisture  in  the  bottom  to 
escape.  The  doors  are  held  in  place  by  an  iron  post  under  the  center, 
which  can  readily  be  knocked  out  to  drop  the  bottom.  The  breast 
should  be  made  up  before  the  bottom. 


443  Till'  ("uiKila 

Zones  of  Cupola 

The  crucible  zone  extends  from  the  s;in(l  lx»Uom  to  the  tuyeres. 
The  object  of  this  zone  is  to  hold  the  melted  iron  and  slag.  If  the  tap 
hole  is  kept  open  continuously,  this  zone  may  not  be  over  4  to  6  inches 
in  depth  from  sand  bottom  to  bottom  of  tuyeres.  If  it  is  to  hold  a 
large  quantity  of  melted  iron,  the  tuyeres  must  be  correspondingly 
high.  Metal  can  be  melted  at  a  higher  temperature  with  low  tuyeres, 
(collecting  it  in  a  ladlcj,  than  by  holding  it  in  the  cupola. 

Tuyere  Zone 

This  is  where  the  blast  enters  in  contact  with  the  fuel.  Here  com- 
bustion begins.  This  zone  is  confined  to  the  area  of  the  tuyeres.  The 
combined  area  of  the  tuyeres  should  be  about  one-fifth  that  of  a  section  of 
the  cupola  at  this  point,  and  should  also  largely  exceed  that  of  the  outlet 
of  the  blower.  It  is  important  to  keep  the  tuyeres  as  low  as  the  condi- 
tions of  the  foundry,  as  to  amount  of  melted  iron  to  be  collected  at  one 
tap,  will  permit.  With  low  tuyeres  the  iron  is  hotter,  there  is  less  oxida- 
tion and  the  fuel  required  on  the  bed  is  less. 

Melting  Zone 

The  melting  zone  is  the  space  immediately  above  the  tuyeres.  It 
extends  upward  from  20  to  30  inches,  depending  upon  the  pressure  and 
volume  of  the  blast,  increasing  in  height  with  increased  pressure.  No 
iron  is  melted  above  or  below  it.  The  melting  occurs  through  the  upper 
4  to  6  inches  of  that  zone. 

Charging  Zone 

This  zone  is  that  part  containing  the  charges  of  iron  and  coke,  and 
extends  from  the  melting  zone  to  charging  door. 

The  stack  is  the  continuation  of  the  cupola  from  charging  door  through 
the  roof.  Contracting  the  stack  above  the  charging  door  has  no  influ- 
ence upon  the  elTicicncy  of  the  cupola. 

The  spouts  should  be  lined  with  fire  brick.  Above  the  fire  brick 
bottom  at  center  of  trough,  there  should  be  iM  inches  of  moulding 
sand.  From  the  center  the  sand  should  slope  rapidly  each  way  to 
sides.  The  sand  lining  of  trough  at  center  should  be  ?4  inch  below 
the  tap  hole.  After  lining,  trough  should  be  black  washed  and  dried. 
Stopping  material  is  made  of  one-half  fire  clay  and  one-half  moulding 
sand. 

It  is  the  common  practice  to  leave  the  top  hole  open  until  iron  begins 


Chemical  Reactions  in  Cupola  443 

to  run  freely,  in  order  to  prevent  freezing  at  the  hole.  This  causes 
the  oxidizing  of  considerable  metal,  and  is  unnecessary.  The  following 
method  may  be  pursued.  Just  before  the  blast  goes  on,  close  up  the 
inner  end  of  the  tap  hole  with  a  ball  of  greasy  waste,  then  ram  the 
remainder  of  the  hole  full  of  moulding  sand.  This  is  easily  removed 
with  the  tapping  bar,  and  does  away  with  all  the  annoyance  of  escaping 
blast  and  sparks. 

Chemical  Reactions  in  the  Ordinary  Cupola  with 
Single  Row  of  Tuyeres 

When  the  air  blast  comes  in  contact  with  the  burning  coke,  its  oxygen 
unites  with  the  carbon  of  the  coke  to  form  carbonic  acid  (CO2),  as  the 
result  of  complete  combustion.  As  the  temperature  above  the  tuyeres 
increases  to  that  necessary  for  melting  iron,  part  of  the  CO2  seizes  upon 
the  incandescent  coke,  takes  up  another  equivalent  of  carbon  and  is 
converted  into  carbonic  oxide  (CO).  If  the  supply  of  air  is  in  excess 
of  that  required,  the  CO,  being  combustible  gas,  takes  up  another 
equivalent  of  oxygen  and  is  burned  to  CO2. 

Again  some  of  the  CO2,  parting  with  an  equivalent  of  oxygen  to  the 
iron  for  such  oxidation  as  occurs,  or  by  the  acquisition  of  another  equiva- 
lent of  carbon  from  the  coke;  or  by  both,  is  reconverted  into  CO.  These 
reactions  take  place  at  or  near  the  melting  zone. 

After  passing  that  zone,  no  more  air  is  supplied,  and  the  products  of 
combustion,  consisting  of  CO  and  CO2  pass  up  the  stack  without  further 
change  until  reaching  the  charging  door.  Here  air  is  admitted,  the 
CO  is  supplied  with  oxygen  and  is  burned  to  CO2. 

If  the  air  supplied  at  the  tuyeres  is  insufficient  for  complete  combus- 
tion, the  evolution  of  CO  is  increased  and  the  efi5ciency  of  the  furnace 
reduced.  On  the  other  hand,  an  excessive  supply  of  air  is  objectionable, 
as  a  reducing  flame  (that  from  CO)  is  desirable  to  prevent  oxidation 
of  the  metal. 

For  the  complete  combustion  of  one  pound  of  carbon,  there  is  required 
12  pounds,  or  about  150  cubic  feet  of  air,  developing  14,500  B.t.u.;  but 
the  combustion  of  one  pound  of  carbon  to  CO  requires  only  one-half  the 
air,  and  the  resulting  heat  is  4500  B.t.u.;  hence  for  whatever  portion  of 
the  fuel  is  burned  to  CO,  there  is  a  loss  of  over  two-thirds  its  heat- 
producing  value. 

For  the  purpose  of  saving  this  waste  heat,  an  upper  row  of  tuyeres, 
just  below  the  melting  zone,  is  employed;  and  to  utilize  the  heat  which 
escapes  above  the  melting  zone,  tuyeres  have  bee;n  introduced  with 
good  results,  at  from  5  to  10  inches  above  that  zone.     By  the  use  of 


444 


'Jhc  CujKilu 


ihu  latter  tuyeres  the  heat  developed  is  al>sorbed  by  the  charRCs  in  the 
stack,  and  the  flames  at  charging  dcK)r  are  suppressed.  Where  such 
tuyeres  arc  used,  they  must  be  provided  with  means  for  easily  regulating 
the  admission  of  air. 

The  following  table  taken  from  West's  Moulders'  Te.xt  Hook  gives 
the  quantity  of  air  required  for  the  combustion  of  one  pound  each  of 
coke  and  coal. 


Combustibles, 
I  pound  weight 

I'.iii.i.L  of  oxy- 
gen consumed 
per  pound  of 
combustible, 
pounds 

Quantity  of  air  con- 
sumed per  pound 
of  combustible 

Total  heat  of 
combustion 
of  I  pound  of 

Pounds 

Cubic  feet 
at  62"  F. 

combustible, 
units  of  heat 

Coke,  desiccated 

2.51 

2.46 

10.9 
10.7 

143 
141 

13.5SO 
14.133 

By  reason  of  the  contact  of  the  molten  iron  with  the  fuel,  changes  in 
atmospheric  conditions,  the  amount  of  air  used,  and  other  conditions, 
the  same  mixture  may  produce  different  kinds  of  castings  at  different 
times;    and  there  may  also  be  variations  in  the  same  heat. 


Chemical  Reactions  in  the  Cupola 

The  complete  combustion  of  one  pound  of  carbon  to  COj  requires: 
2.66  pounds  of  oxygen 
or  12.05  pounds  of  air 

and  develops  14,500  B.t.u. 

The  burning  of  one  pound  of  carbon  to  CO  requires: 
1.33  pounds  of  oxygen 
or  6.00  pounds  of  air 

and  develops  4500  B.t.u. 

Therefore  one  pound  of  coke,  having  86  per  cent  fixed  carbon  requires 
for  complete  combustion 

2.66  X  0.86  =     2.29  pounds  o.xygen 
or  12.00  X  0.86  =  10.32  pounds  air 

and  develops     14,500  X  0.86  =  12,470  B.t.u. 

The  10.32  pounds  of  air  less  2.29  pounds  oxygen  leave  8.03   nitro- 
gen. 


Wind  Box  445 

Taking  the  specific  heat  of  oxygen  at  0.218,  carbon  at  0.217,  nitrogen 
at  0.244.  The  temperature  resulting  from  the  complete  combustion  of 
one  pound  of  coke  to  CO2  is 

^^'^70  -47i8°F. 


0.217  X  0.86  +  0.218  X  2.28  +  0.244  X  8.03 
That  resulting  from  the  combustion  of  one  pound  of  coke  to  CO  is 

3870 ^  O  p 

0.217  X  0.86  +  0.218  X  1. 15  +  0.244  X  4.015 

Hence  for  every  pound  of  coke  burned  to  CO,  instead  of  CO2,  there  is 
a  loss  of  8600  B.t.u.,  and  a  reduction  of  the  resulting  temperature  of 
1983°  F.  Taking  the  specific  heat  of  cast  iron  at  the  average  of  temper- 
atures between  2120°  and  2650°  F.  as  0.169,  ^■nd  the  latent  heat  of  fusion 
as  88  B.t.u.,  and  assuming  the  temperature  of  the  escaping  gases  at 
1330°,  then  the  heat  wasted  is  (i33o°-7o°)  X  (0.217  X  0.86  +  0.218 
X  2.28  +  0.244  X  8.03)  equals  3330  B.t.u.;  and  the  heat  available  for 
melting  iron  is  12,470  —  3330  =  9140  B.t.u.  for  each  pound  of  coke 
having  86  per  cent  fixed  carbon. 

For  I  pound  of  iron  melted  at  2650°  F.  (or  2580°  F.  above  atmosphere) 
the  number  of  heat  units  required  is  2580  X  0.17  =  439  to  which  must 
be  added  the  latent  heat  of  fusion  giving  439  +  88  =  527  B.t.u. 

Therefore, =  17.34  pounds  of  iron,  which  should  be  melted  by 

one  pound  of  coke,  if  all  the  carbon  was  converted  into  CO2  and  the  gases 
escaped  at  1330°  F.;  also  neglecting  the  heat  lost  in  the  slag  and  by 
radiation. 

Wind  Box 

The  area  of  cross  section  of  the  wind  box  should  be  three  or  four  times 
that  of  the  combined  area  of  the  tuyeres,  in  order  that  there  may  be 
sufficient  air  reservoir  to  permit  a  steady  pressure.  There  should  be 
two  or  more  doors  in  the  box  for  ready  access  in  cleaning  out  when 
necessary;  and  also  for  admission  of  air  when  the  wood  fire  is  started. 
As  before  stated,  there  should  be  small  doors  opposite  each  tuyere. 

The  blast  pipe  ought,  if  the  situation  will  permit,  to  enter  the  box  on 
a  tangent,  and  box  should  be  continuous.  If  it  is  necessary  to  divide 
it  into  two  boxes,  on  account  of  the  tapping  or  slag  holes,  there  must, 
then,  of  comse,  be  a  blast  pipe  for  each  box  and  they  should  enter  the 
boxes  vertically. 

The  bottom  of  the  box  should  be  provided  with  at  least  two  small 
openings  opposite  the  alarm  tuyeres,  which  are  covered  with  sheet  lead. 
These  should  be  so  placed  that  slag  or  iron  running  through  them  will 
be  at  once  seen  by  the  tapper. 


146 


The  Cupola 


The  manufacturing  of  cuixjlas  for  the  trade  has  become  an  important 
industry,  and  although  the  designs  of  the  various  makers  diflcr  largely 
in  details,  the  essential  features  in  all  are  the  same. 

Perhaps  the  names  best  known  to  the  foundry  industry  are:  CoUiau, 
Calumet,  Newtcn,  Whiting. 

All  of  these  give  good  results.  Tor  special  information  reference 
should  be  made  to  the  manufacturers'  catalogues. 

The  melting  capacities  based  on  30,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  ton  of 
iron  are  given  in  the  following  table. 

BuiLUKRs'  Rating 


Diameter 

inside  of 

lining, 

inches 

1 

Colliau 

Calumet 

Newten 

24 
30 
36 
42 
48 
54 
60 
66 
72 
78 
84 

Melting  capacity, 
tons  per  hour 

I-  i!i 

3-  4 

4-  6 
6-  8 
8-10 

10-11 
12-14 
IS-16 
17-20 
25-27 

I 

2-  3 
4-  S 
&-7 
8-9 
lo-il 
12-14 
13-17 
18-20 
21-24 
24-27 

iM-  aH 

3  -  S 

4  -6 

8  -9 

9  -II 

11  -12 

12  -14 
14    -18 

18      -30 
20      -24 

A  wind  gauge  should  be  attached  to  the  wind  lx)x  at  a  convenient  place.  The 
charging  platform  should  not  be  more  than  24  inches  below  the  bottom  of  charging 
door  for  sizes  up  to  the  48  inch;  for  the  larger  sizes  not  over  6  to  8  inches. 

The  Blast 

The  air  for  the  blast  is  supplied  Ijy  centrifugal  blowers  of  the  Sturte- 
vant  type,  or  by  Positive  Pressure  Blowers  of  the  Root  t^pe.  Both  are 
cfi'icicnt,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  either  has  any  special  advantage 
not  possessed  by  the  other. 

T'or  successful  melting  a  large  volume  of  air  at  low  pressure  is  required. 
I'rom  8  to  10  ounces  pressure  will  usually  be  found  sulTicient;  in  no  case 
should  it  be  allowed  to  exceed  14  ounces. 

As  a  rule  30,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  ton  of  iron  are  allowed.  This  is 
somewhat  too  small,  especially  if  the  air  contains  much  moisture; 
35,000  cubic  feet  per  ton  is  better  practice. 

\\'ith  blast  at  low  pressure  and  with  high  temperature  in  the  furnace, 
iron  may  gain  in  carbon  during  the  process  of  melting.  The  reverse 
may  occur,  however,  under  contrary  conditions.  O.xidation  increases 
with  the  intensity  of  the  blast. 


The  Blast 


447 


The  castings  produced  by  low  blast  pressure  are  softer  and  stronger, 
the  loss  by  oxidation  is  less,  there  is  less  slag,  less  expenditure  of  power 
and  less  injiu-y  to  the  lining  of  the  cupola. 

Coke  requires  less  pressure  and  more  volume  of  air,  as  well  as  greater 
tuyere  area  than  coal. 

Low  pressure,  large  volume,  large  tuyere  area  and  good  fluxing  tend  to 
prevent  choking  at  the  tuyeres.  However,  too  much  air  must  be  avoided 
as  it  reduces  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  and  may  produce  dull  iron. 

The  main  blast  pipe  should  be  as  short,  and  the  tuyeres  as  few  as 
possible.  Its  diameter  should  be  greater  than  the  outlet  of  the  blower. 
For  each  turn  allow  three  feet  in  length  of  pipe.  The  minimum  radius 
of  the  turn  should  not  be  less  than  the  diameter  of  the  pipe.  It  should 
be  provided  with  a  wind  gate,  and,  where  a  pressure  blower  is  used,  an 
escape  valve,  both  under  control  of  the  melter.  The  wind  gate  should 
be  kept  closed  until  after  the  blower  is  started  to  prevent  gas  from 
collecting  in  the  blast  pipe.  For  the  same  reason,  the  blower  should,  if 
possible,  be  located  lower  than  the  wind  box. 

At  the  commencement,  the  blast  should  be  low,  and  gradually  in- 
creased to  the  maximum  as  the  heat  progresses,  then  dropped  toward 
its  close. 

The  friction  of  air  in  pipes  varies  inversely  as  their  diameters,  directly 
as  the  squares  of  the  velocities,  and  as  the  lengths.  The  table  below 
shows  the  loss  in  pressure  and  the  loss  in  horse  power  by  friction  of  air 
in  pipes  loo  feet  long;  corresponding  losses  for  other  lengths  can  readily 
be  calculated  therefrom. 


Loss  IN  Pressure  in  Ounces  and  Horse  Power  in  Friction 
OF  Air  in  Pipes  ioo  Feet  Long 


Diam- 
eter of 
cupola 
inside  of 
lining, 
inches 

Tons  of 

iron 
melted 
per  hour 

Cubic 
feet  of 
air  per 
minute 

Velocity 
of  air 
in  feet 

per 
minute 

Diam- 
eter of 
blast 
pipe, 
inches 

Diam- 
eter of 
outlet  of 
blower 

Loss  of 

pressure 

in  ounces 

per  square 

inch 

fiorse 
power 
lost  In 
friction 

24 

IS 

87s 

1600 

10 

8 

.313 

.099 

30 

3.0 

1.750 

2200 

12 

9 

448 

.311 

36 

4-5 

2,600 

2400 

14 

II 

457 

.320 

42 

6.0 

3.300 

2S0O 

16 

12 

434 

.40s 

48 

8.0 

4,700 

2600 

18 

14 

417 

.523 

54 

10. 0 

5, 800 

2700 

20 

IS 

406 

.653 

60 

12. S 

7.300 

2300 

22 

18 

246 

.48s 

66 

IS.O 

8,750 

2400 

24 

20 

246 

■  S94 

72 

18.0 

10,500 

2500 

26 

22 

231 

.582 

78 

22.0 

12,800 

2500 

28 

23 

202 

.507 

84 

25.0 

14,560 

2600 

30 

24 

190 

.498 

Computed  from  catalogue  of  B.  F.  Sturtevant  &  Co.,  and  from  Foundry  Data 
Sheet  No.  5- 


.,48 


The  ('u[x)la 


The  following  tables  give  the  rapacities  of  centrifugal  and  pressure 
Mowers.  .Vs  these  are  based  on  36,000  cubic  feet  oi  air  [)cr  ton  of  iron, 
the  selection  of  sizes  somewhat  larger  than  those  given  in  the  tables  is 
desirable,  as  the  allowance  of  air  is  too  small. 


The  Sturtevant  Steel  Pressure  Bixiwer  Appued  to  Cupolas 


Diam- 

Melting 

No.  of 

Cubic 

No.  of 
blower 

eter  of 

inside  of 

cupola 

lining 

capacity 
per  hour 

in 
pounds 

1.200 

square 

inches  of 

blast 

feet  of 
air  per 
minute 

Pressure 
m  ounces 
of  blast 

Horse 

power 

required 

I 

32 

4.0 

324 

4135 

5 

OS 

3 

36 

1.900 

5.7 

S07 

3756 

6 

10 

3 

30 

2.880 

8.0 

768 

3250 

7 

18 

4 

35 

4,130 

10.7 

1 102 

3100 

8 

30 

S 

40 

6.178 

14-3 

1646 

2900 

19 

5  5 

6 

46 

8.900 

18.7 

3375 

2820 

12 

9  7 

7 

53 

12,500 

24.3 

3353 

2600 

14 

16.0 

8 

60 

16.560 

32  0 

4416 

3370 

14 

22  0 

9 

72 

23.800 

43.0 

6364 

2100 

16 

35  0 

10 

84 

33.300 

60.0 

8880 

I8I5 

16 

48.0 

The  Sturtev/Vnt  Steel  Pressure  Blo\\t:r  Applied  To  Cupolas 

(Power  saved  by  reducing  the  speed  and  pressure  of  blast.) 


Speed 

Pressure, 

Horse 

Speed 

Pressure. 

Horse 

ounces 

power 

ounces 

power 

3445 

5 

.8 

3100 

4 

.6 

3000 

6 

15 

2750 

5 

I.I 

2900 

7 

2-5 

3700 

6 

20 

3560 

8 

4.0 

2390 

7 

3  3 

3550 

10 

7.4 

3360 

8 

5.3 

3380 

13 

12.7 

21S0 

10 

9  4 

2100 

12 

16.7 

1900 

10 

13.7 

i960 

14 

28.4 

1800 

12 

22  s 

1700 

14 

39  6 

1566 

12 

31.7 

Kent,   page  519. 


Pressure  and  Rotary  Blowers 


449 


Buffalo  Steel  Pressure  Blowers  Speeds  and  Capacities  as 
.Applied  to  Cupolas 


Square 
inches 
in  blast 

No.  of 
blower 

Diam- 
eter 
inside  of 
cupola, 
inches 

Pressure 

in 
ounces 

Speed, 

No.  of 

revs. 

per  min. 

Melting 
capacity, 

pounds 
per  hour 

Cubic 

feet  of 

air 

required 

per  min. 

Horse 

power 

required 

4 
6 
8 
II 
14 
i8 

26 

46 
68 

4 
S 
6 
7 
8 
9 
lo 
II 

12 

20 
25 

30 
35 
40 
45 
55 
73 
88 

8 
8 
8 
8 
8 
10 
10 
12 
12 

4793 
391 1 
3456 
3092 
2702 
2617 
2139 
1639 
1639 

1,545 
2,321 
3,093 
4,218 
5,42s 
7.818 
11,295 
21,978 
32,395 

412 
619 
825 
1125 
1444 
2085 
3012 
5861 
8626 

l.o 

1.2 

2.05 

3.1 

3.9 

7-1 

10.2 

23.9 

36.2 

Speed, 

Melting 

Cubic  feet 

Pressure  in 

no.  of  revs. 

capacity  in 

of  air  re- 

Horse power 

ounces 

per  min. 

pounds  per 
hour 

quired  per 
minute 

required 

9 

5095 

1,647 

438 

1.3 

10 

4509 

2,600 

694 

2.2 

10 

3974 

3,671 

926 

3.1 

10 

3476 

4,777 

1274 

4.25 

10 

3034 

6,082 

1622 

5.52 

12 

2916 

8,598 

2293 

9  36 

12 

2353 

12,378 

3301 

12.0 

14 

1777 

23,838 

6357 

30.3 

14 

1777 

35,190 

6384 

43.7 

Kent,  page  950. 

The  Root  Positive  Rotary  Blowers 


Size 

number 

Cubic  feet 
per  revo- 
lution 

Revolutions 

per  minute  for 

cupola  melting 

iron 

Size  of  cupola, 

inches  inside 

lining 

Will  melt  iron 
per  hour,  tons 

Horse 

power 

required 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

5 
8 
13 
23 
42 
65 

275-325 
200-300 
185-275 
170-250 
150-200 
137-175 

24-30 
30-36 
36-42 
42-50 
50-60 
72  or  %5 

2!'^-3 

3-4^3 
42/^-7 
8-12 

I2H-l6% 
I7?^-22% 

8 

II  ^^2 

nH 

27 

40 

Kent,  page  526 


45° 


The  Cupf)^ 


Diameter  of  Blast  Pipes  for  Pressure  Blowers  for  Cupolaa 
li.  ]•'.  Sturlevant  &  Co. 
The  following  tabic  has  been  constructed  on  this  basis,  namely,  allow- 
ing a  loss  of  pressure  of  one-half  ounce  in  the  process  of  transmission 
tiirough  any  length  of  pipe  of  any  si/c  as  a  standard;  the  increased  fric- 
tion due  to  lengthening  the  pipe  has  been  compensated  for  by  an 
enlargement  of  the  pipe,  sufficient  to  keep  the  Ijss  still  at  ',i  ounce. 

TaE  Blast 


i;;-...w  ;....  . 

feet 

Cubic 
feet  of 

Lengths  of  blast  pipe  in 

feet 

Cubic 

feet  of 

air 

Lengths  of  blast  pipe  in 

air 

trans- 

SO 

100 

150 

200 

300 

trans- 

SO 

100 

ISO 

30O 

JOO 

mitted 

mitted 
per 

per 

minute 

Diameter  in  inches 

minute 

Diameter  in  inches 

360 

sH 

6H 

m 

7W 

7^i 

1.872 

loH 

i2!-i 

I3U 

nl^ 

IS 

S15 

6% 

7^i 

7?4 

8^ 

m 

2.679 

I2'4 

14 

is!  6 

16 

i7!4 

63s 

6% 

7?4 

8W 

9 

9H 

3.302 

I3U 

is'/i 

i6'/i 

i7'/i 

18-^6 

740 

7'/4 

8Mi 

9 

9'A 

io'/4 

3.848 

li% 

16!^ 

17^^ 

i8Ji 

20^ 

Blower  No.  2 

Blower  No.  7 

504 

6« 

7H 

7% 

8!4 

8;-i 

2.592 

12 

I3?4 

IS 

iS^/i 

17H 

721 

7M 

8K4 

9 

9!-^ 

10!  1 

3.708 

13^/i 

i5'/6 

I7» 

i8H 

I9?4 

889 

7l^ 

9 

9M 

loH 

II 

4.572 

I5I6 

I7-H 

i8Ti 

I9'^6 

21H 

1036 

SH 

9^6 

io?6 

II 

11% 

S.238 

16 

18,4 

20 

21 H 

23 

Blower  No.  3 

Blower  No.  8 

720 

1% 

8M 

9 

9V^ 

loM 

3.312 

I3M 

15H 

16!  i 

I7^i 

1876 

1030 

m 

9H 

10^ 

II 

II?4 

4.738 

IS'/4 

17H 

19I* 

20^^ 

21-^ 

1270 

PV^ 

10% 

II  !i 

11% 

12^4 

S.842 

i656 

igJ^i 

20^4 

22 

23?6 

1480 

9H 

II 

12 

12H 

13W 

6.808 

17H 

20M 

22^6 

22H 

25H 

Blower  No.  4 

Blower  No.  9 

1008 

8V4 

m 

loVi 

10^6 

ii5i 

4.320 

14?4 

17 

i8->6 

1954 

21 W 

1442 

914 

loH 

iili. 

I2'/2 

13^6 

6.180 

17 

19H 

21 U 

22 1 4 

24% 

1778 

\oH 

liji 

1274 

13^6 

i45i 

7.620 

18?^ 

21  Vi 

23  V« 

24H 

26Vi 

2072 

II 

12^6 

izV* 

I4W 

ISV4 

8.880 

I9!'2 

22>6 

24W 

26 

38W 

1 
Blower  No.  s                         ! 

Blower  No.  10 

1440 

qV^ 

I07^ 

11T6 

12^6 

i3?i 

5.760 

I612 

19 

205fe 

21^6 

23M 

2060 

II 

1256 

I.^?4 

I4'/6 

15^4 

8.240 

l8Ti 

2I?4 

23^4 

2S16 

27H 

2S40 

ii?i 

I3H 

I4Ti 

i.S^i 

16^8 

10.160 

205i 

23?4 

25"i 

27?i 

29H 

2960 

I2?i 

I4V4 

IS?i 

i656 

18 

11,840 

22^ 

2SH 

27  V4 

29S^ 

3m 

Kent,  page  520. 


Dimensions,  Etc.,  of  Cupolas 


451 


The  quantities  of  air  in  the  left-hand  column  of  each  division  indicate 
the  capacity  of  the  given  blower  when  working  under  pressures  of  4, 
8,  12  and  16  ounces.  Thus  a  No.  6  blower  will  force  2678  cubic  feet  of 
air  at  8  ounces  pressure  through  50  feet  of  i2;i-inch  pipe  with  a  loss  of 
H  ounce  pressure.  If  it  is  desired  to  force  the  air  300  feet  without  an 
increased  loss  by  friction,  the  pipe  must  be  enlarged  to  17H  inches 
diameter. 

The  table  below  gives  the  important  dimensions,  distribution  of 
charges  and  melting  capacities  of  cupolas  from  24  inches  to  84  inches 
diameter  inside  of  lining.  The  table  is  based  upon  the  consumption 
of  35,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  ton  of  iron  and  represents  the  best  aver- 
age practice. 

Higher  fuel  ratios  are  frequently  realized  and  the  foundrymen  must 
vary  the  fuel  and  air  supply  as  the  conditions  indicate.  It  is  unwise, 
however,  to  strive  for  high  fuel  ratio  at  the  risk  of  a  dull  heat.  The 
loss  on  castings  from  one  melt  may  far  outweigh  the  saving  on  coke, 
as  between  the  ratios  of  10  to  i  and  9  to  i,  for  many  heats.  Coke  is 
one  of  the  cheapest  articles  about  the  foundry;  while  hot,  clean  iron  is 
an  item  of  the  highest  importance. 

In  general  the  cupola  should  furnish  20  pounds  of  melted  iron  per 
minute  per  square  foot  of  area  of  the  melting  zone. 


Dimensions,  Etc.,  of  Cupolas 


Height 

Diameter 

of  cupola 

inside  of 

lining, 

inches 

Height 
from  bot- 
tom-plate 
to  charg- 
ing door, 
feet 

from 

sand  bot- 
tom to 

underside 
of  tu- 
yeres, 
inches 

Area  of 
tuyeres, 
sq.  in. 

Pounds 
of  coke 
on  bed, 
]pounds 

First 
charge 
of  iron, 
pounds 

Suc- 
ceeding 
charges 
of  coke, 
pounds 

Suc- 
ceeding 
charges 
of  iron, 
pounds 

Pres- 
sure of 

blast, 
ounces 

24 

9.0 

8-10 

90 

225 

320 

40 

320 

5-  7 

30 

10. 0 

8-10 

142 

370 

s6o 

62 

560 

6-  8 

36 

10.6 

8-12 

204 

460 

850 

85 

850 

6-  8 

42 

10.5 

10-12 

277 

530 

1200 

no 

1200 

6-  8 

48 

12.0 

10-12 

362 

820 

1500 

140 

iSoo 

8-10 

54 

13.0 

10-15 

458 

1 100 

1900 

180 

1900 

8-10 

60 

is-o 

10-18 

565 

1400 

2500 

225 

2500 

10-12 

66 

16  0 

10-18 

684 

1900 

3000 

275 

3000 

10-12 

72 

18.0 

10-20 

814 

2400 

4000 

320 

4000 

12-14 

78 

19.0 

10-20 

955 

3000 

5000 

400 

5000 

12-14 

84 

19.0 

10-22 

1 108 

3600 

6000 

500 

6000 

14-16 

45-2  The  Cupola 

Dimensions,  Etc..  of  Citolas.  —  {ConlinunD 


Size  of 

Num- 

Volume 

UiametiT 
of  blast 

Siicof 
Root 

.Num- 
ber of 

I^Iorse 

Sturte- 
vant 

ber  of 
revolu- 

Hone 
power 

Melting 
capac- 

of air  per 

pipe  not 

blower 

revolu- 

power 

blower 

tions 

re- 

ity per 

minute, 
cu.  ft. 

over  100 

feet  long, 

inches 

required, 
no. 

tions  per 

minute, 

revs. 

required 
H.P. 

re- 
quired, 
no. 

per 

minute. 

revs. 

quired, 
H.P. 

hour, 
pounds 

875 

10 

I 

300 

2 

3 

3S0O 

2 

3.000 

1. 750 

12 

2 

300 

5 

> 

2900 

SS 

6.000 

2.600 

14 

4 

175 

8 

('i 

2800 

10 

9.000 

3.S00 

16 

4 

230 

12 

7 

2600 

IS 

I3.000 

4.700 

18 

S 

200 

20 

8 

2300 

33 

16.000 

S,8oo 

20 

SVi 

190 

25 

8 

2500 

2S 

30.000 

7.300 

22 

6 

180 

33 

9 

2200 

35 

25.000 

8.700 

24 

6],i 

170 

4S 

10 

1800 

45 

30.000 

lo.soo 

26 

7 

ISO 

55 

10 

2000 

SS 

36.000 

12.800 

28 

7Kj 

ISO 

70 

2-8 

2500 

60 

44.000 

14.S00 

30 

7H 

170 

80 

2-9 

2200 

70 

S0.000 

Charging  and  Melting 

In  preparing  the  cupwla  for  raclLing,  a  bed  of  shavings  is  spread  evenly 
over  the  bottom;  on  this  a  layer  of  kindling  wood;  then  enough  cord 
wood  cut  in  short  lengths  to  come  well  abo\e  the  tuyeres.  The  doors 
in  the  wind  box  or,  two  or  more  of  those  covering  the  tuyeres,  should  be 
left  open  to  admit  air  to  the  fire.  The  wood  should  be  covered  with  coke 
for  a  depth  of  from  12  to  15  inches.  Where  wood  is  scarce  or  expensive, 
the  coke  may  be  lighted  directly  with  a  kerosene  oil  blow  torch.  To  use 
the  torch  place  two  strips  of  boards  3"  X  i"  on  edge  from  the  tap 
hole  to  center  of  cupola.  Then  place  other  strips  of  same  size  crosswise 
of  the  bottom  forming  a  shallow  trough  about  6  inches  wide  in  the  shape 
of  a  T.  Large  pieces  of  coke  are  placed  over  the  trough  to  form  a 
cover,  and  on  top  of  this  coke  is  spread  uniformly  for  a  depth  of  about 
15  inches.     The  torch  is  then  applied  at  the  tap  hole. 

After  the  fire  is  lighted  and  the  top  of  the  coke  bed  becomes  red, 
enough  coke  is  added  to  bring  the  top  of  the  bed  20  inches  abo\-c  the 
tuyeres  when  the  wood  has  burned  out. 

The  necessary  amount  of  coke  for  bottom  is  determined  by  gauging 
from  the  charging  door.  The  proper  depth  of  bed  is  a  matter  of  great 
importance.  Too  much  is  as  bad  as  too  little.  With  too  much  coke, 
the  melting  will  be  slow  and  dull;  with  too  little  the  iron  after  commence- 
ment of  heat  becomes  dull,  the  cupola  is  bunged  up  and  the  bottom 
may  have  to  be  dropped. 


The  Charging  Floor  453 

There  should  be  sufficient  coke  to  locate  the  top  of  the  melting  zone 
about  20  inches  above  the  tuyeres,  and  the  subsequent  charges  of  coke 
should  be  just  enough  to  maintain  this  position. 

With  proper  depth  of  bed,  the  molten  iron  will  appear  at  the  spout  in 
from  8  to  10  minutes  after  the  commencement  of  the  blast.  The  first 
and  subsequent  charges  of  iron  should  be  of  the  same  weight,  and  these 
should  be  small. 

The  amount  of  coke  between  each  charge  of  the  iron  and  the  preceding 
one  should  be  10  per  cent  of  the  iron.  In  many  foundries  the  coke 
between  the  charges  is  made  less  than  this,  but  10  per  cent  is  good 
practice.  It  is  not  the  best  policy  to  run  the  risk  of  making  a  poor  heat 
by  cutting  down  the  coke.  The  charges  should  be  continued  as  indi- 
cated until  the  cupola  is  filled  to  the  charging  door. 

In  charging  care  must  be  taken  to  distribute  both  iron  and  coke  uni- 
formly. 

The  pig  iron  (broken)  should  be  charged  first,  beginning  at  the  lining 
and  proceeding  toward  the  center,  pigs  should  be  placed  sidewise  to  the 
lining.  Next  comes  the  scrap;  if  there  are  large  pieces,  they  should  be 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  cupola  with  the  pig  surrounding  them. 

The  iron  must  be  kept  well  around  the  lining  and  care  exercised  to 
avoid  cavities.  If  the  scrap  is  fine,  it  must  not  be  charged  so  closely  as 
to  impede  the  blast.  After  the  iron  comes  the  coke,  which  must  be 
evenly  distributed  throughout.  After  the  second  or  third  charge,  hme- 
stone,  broken  into  pieces  about  iH  cube,  is  added.  From  25  to  40 
pounds  of  limestone  per  ton  of  iron  is  used  according  to  the  character 
of  pig  and  scrap  as  to  sand  and  rust,  and  to  that  of  coke  as  to  ash. 

The  top  of  the  bed  should  not  be  permitted  to  drop  more  than  6  or 
8  inches  during  the  heat.  This  determines  the  weight  of  iron  for  each 
charge  as  well  as  that  of  the  coke,  the  latter  having  a  depth  of  6  or  8 
inches.  The  weights  of  all  the  materials  going  into  the  cupola  should  be 
kept  separately.  The  melter  should  be  furnished  each  day  with  a  charging 
schedule  giving  the  composition  and  the  weight  of  each  charge. 

The  fire  should  be  started  about  two  hours  before  the  blast  is  put  on, 
to  allow  the  charges  in  the  stack  to  become  well  heated.  The  openings 
in  the  wind  box  are  closed  immediately  after  starting  the  blast. 

The  egg-shaped  section  at  the  melting  zone,  which  the  cupola  gradually 
assumes  by  use,  should  be  maintained. 

The  Charging  Floor 

The  charging  floor  should  be  large  enough,  if  circumstances  permit,  to 
accommodate  all  the  materials  for  the  heat.  Each  charge  of  pig  iron 
and  scrap,  after  weighing,  should  be  piled  by  itself  and  in  the  order  in 


454 


The  Cu[K;I;i 


wliicli  it  is  to  be  used.     The  proj)cr  amount  of  coke  for  each  charge  is 
placed  in  oins  or  baskets.     In  larger  works  where  the  material  is  brought 

to  the  platform  on  charging  cars,  the 
cars  are  arranged  so  as  to  reach  the 
cupola  in  pro[)cr  order. 

The  cuts  show  two  different  meth- 
ods of  charging  at  large  foundries. 
.At  one  the  charging  is  done  by  hand 
and  at  the  other  by  machine. 

While  the  material  is  handled  more 
ra|)idly  and  at  less  expense  by  the 
latter  method,  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
saving  effected  compensates  for  irregular  melting  and  lack  of  uniformity 
in  product,  which  is  likely  to  result  from  unequal  distribution  of  the 
charges. 


i IG.  125.  —  Charging  Floor. 


Fig.  126.  —  Cupola  Charging  Machine 
in  Normal  Position. 


Fig.  127.  —  Cuixila  Charging  Machine 
in  Charging  Position. 


Melting  Losses 

Melting  losses  in  a  well-managed  cupola  should  not  exceed  4  per  cent 
for  the  annual  average.  Instances  are  known  where  the  losses  for  long 
periods  were  not  over  2  per  cent.  The  following  records  are  taken  from 
the  report  of  the  secretary'  of  the  American  Foundry  men's  .Association, 
and  cover  the  results  from  41  cupolas.  The  percentage  of  castings 
made  and  the  returns  are  calculated  from  the  quantities  given  and  added 
to  each  table. 


Light  Jobbing 
Table  I.  —  General  Jobbing 


455 


Numbers 

Usual  tonnage 

Time  melting 

Blast  pressure 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used,  lbs 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used 

Scrap  used 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  lost 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns. . . . 
Per  cent  in  good  castings. . . 


10 

I  hr.  15  m, 
80Z. 
Fan 
Coke 
None 
Coke 
Mach. 
10,400 
9, 600 
16,49s 
1. 352 
10.7 
66 
82.4 


3 

I  hr. 

Fan 
Coke 

Coke 
Med.  mach 
3200 
3200 
SS04 
620 
4-3 
97 


I  hr.  15  m. 

Fan 
Coke 
None 
Coke 
Mach. 
2657 
2886 
3916 
872 
13.6 
IS. 7 
70.6 


3 

2  hrs. 
80Z. 

Blower 
Coke 
None 
Coke 
Stove 

268s 

388S 

4057 

1873 
9-7 
28.5 
61.7 


80Z. 
Fan 


Mach. 
20,000 
20,000 
3S.20O 
2,200 
6.5 
6.5 


Average  melting  loss 7.6  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  returns 8.8  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings 83 .0  per  cent 


Table  II.  —  Light  Jobblng 


Numbers  . 


Usual  tonnage 

Time  of  melting 

Blast  pressure,  oz 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used,  lbs 

Scrap  used,  lbs 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns . . 
Per  cent  in  good  castings . 


72 

3  hrs.  30  m. 

13 

Blower 

Coke 

None 

Coke 


102,000 
42,000 
108,300 
27,500 
57 
19.1 
75.2 


I  hr.  30  m. 
6.5 
Fan 
Coke 
None 
Coke  &  coal 
Stove 
4.S00 
7,Soo 
10,300 
1,200 
4.2 
10 
85.8 


16  . 
2  hrs.  30  m. 

Fan 

Coke 

None 

Coke 

Lt.  mach. 

19,200 

12,800 

21,000 

9,100 

6 

28.4 
65.6 


2.S 

ihr. 


Fan 
Coke 
None 
Coke 
Med.  mach. 
3200 
1800 
4000 
800 
4 
16 
80 


Average  melting  loss 25 .  s  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  returns 20.8  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings 73-6  per  cent 


45^ 


The  ("iii)<)hi 
Taui-i;   III.    -  I.r'.MT  Macuineky 


Numbers. 


Usual  tonnage 

Time  of  melting 

Blast  pressure,  02 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used .  lbs 

Scrap  iron  used,  lbs 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns 

Per  cent  melt  in  good  castings. 


I  hr.  10  m. 


Fan 
Coke 


Coke  &  coal 
None 
16,000 
4,000 
13.220 
4.500 
6.5? 
22.6 
66.1 


2  hrs. 


Fan 
Coke  &  ch.  coal 

Coke 
Med.  mach. 
6,000 
6,000 
10,000 
900 
9.2 
7.5 
83  3 


Numbers. 


3  S 

I  hr.  30  m. 
7 
Blower 
Coke 
None 
Coke 
Lt.  mach. 
3900 
27SO 
3738 
2762 

2  3 

41  S 

56.20 


Usual  tonnage I  S 

Time  of  melting I  hr.  30  m. 

Blast  pressure,  oz 1  5 

Fan  or  blower Fan 

Pig  iron Coke 

Per  cent  southern So 

Fuel  used Coke  &  coal 

Scrap  bought |  Med.  mach. 

4500 

4280 

7640 

800 

3  9 

91 

87 


Pig  iron  used,  lbs 

Scrap  iron  used,  lbs 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns 

Per  cent  melt  in  good  castings. 


15 

2  hr. 

7 

Blower 

Coke 

35 

Coke 
Lt.  mach. 
14,000 
16,000 
20,500 
6,000 
II. 6 
20 
68.3 


40 
6  hrs.  40  m. 

Fan 
Coke 

50 
Coke 
Stove 
56*00 
24,000 
60,000 
16,000 
5 

2,000 
75 


There  is  an  error  in  this  record.    The  loss  should  be  11.3  if  the  statement  as  to 
castings  and  scrap  are  correct. 

Average  melting  loss 7-33  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  returns 19-55  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings 73o    per  cent 


Stove  Plate 
Table  IV.  —  Heavy  Machinery 


457 


Numbers. 


Usual  tonnage 

Time  of  melt 

Blast  pressure,  oz 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used,  lbs 

Scrap  used,  lbs 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns 

Per  cent  melt  in  good  castings 


i6 


13 
2  hrs. 

6 

Blower 

Coke 

SO 
Coke 
Mach. 
14,720 
11,130 
18,845 
4,870 
8.4 
18.8 
72.9 


15 
2  hrs. 

10 

Blower 

Coke 

70 

Coke 

H'vy  mach. 

20,000 

10,000 

21,300 

7,200 

5 

24 
71 


21 
4  hrs. 

9 
Blower 
Coke  &  coal 
17 
Coke 
Mach. 
25,740 
16,270 
37.760 
7,560 
4 
18 
78 


IS 
2  hrs. 

14 
Blower 
Coke 

20 
Coke 

15.S00 
ll.Soo 
19,000 
6,000 

7-4 
22.2 
70.4 


Average  melting  loss 5.8  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  returns 20.6  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings 73.6  per  cent 


Table  V.  —  Stove  Plate 


Numbers. 


Usual  tonnage 

Time  of  melt 

Blast  pressure,  oz 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used,  lbs 

Scrap  used,  lbs 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns 

Per  cent  melt  in  good  castings. 


20 
2  hrs.  IS  min. 
14 
Blower 
Coke 
100 
Coke  and  coal 
Stove 
20,000 
20,000 
24,000 
14,200 
4.5 
35. 5 
60 


15 
I  hr.  30  min. 
II 

Coke 
SO 

Coke 

Stove 

18,000 

12,000 

20,192 
9,000 
2.7 
30 
67.3 


10 


13 

Blower 
Coke 
25 
Coke  and  coal 


11,863 
7,906 

11.750 
7,624 


38.5 
59-4 


Average  melting  loss 3.3  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  returns 34.3  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings 62.3  per  cent 


458 


The  Cupola 
Taiii.k  VI.  —  Sanitary  Ware 


N'umbcrs. 


36 


L  su;il  tonnage 

Time  of  heat 

Blast  pressure,  oz 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used ,  lbs 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used,  lbs 

Scr.ip  used,  lbs 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns 

Per  cent  in  melt  good  castings 


2  hrs. 

S 
Fan 
Coke 

None 
Coal  and  coke 
Medium 
11,800 
12,200 
17,228 
6,048 
3 
25  4 
71.7 


W 

3  hr.  15  m. 

14 

Blower 

Coke 

Coke 


411, wx> 

12,234 

65 

19.4 

74 


38 
3  h.  15  m 

14 
Blower 
Coke 

60 
Coke 
None 
56.000 
20.000 
51.61.: 
18,38'. 

24.1 
67.9 


16 

2  h.  30  m. 

SO 

Fan 

Coke 

Coal  and  coke 

Med.  macb. 

9.87s 

22.625 

-  •  .>r6 

]  6 
24  7 
71.6 


Numbers 

-•- 

JH 

29 

30 

25 

3  h.  45  m. 

14 

Blower 

Coke 

3  h.  45  m. 

40 
3  h.  45  m. 
5 
Fan 
Coke 
None 
Coal  and  coke 
Medium 
35.560 
47.210 
59.400 
21,960 
1.7 
26.5 
71-7 

23 

3h. 

Blower 
Coke 

Blower 

Pig  iron 

Coke 

Coke 

None 

31.470 

17.960 

35.956 

11.270 

4.1 

22.9 

73 

Coke 

Coke 

None 

33.000 
19.850 
37.250 
11.300 
8.1 

21.3 

70 

29,000 

17.SOO 

33.38s 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns 

Percent  melt  in  good  castings 

ii.Soo 
3  5 
24  7 
71.8 

Average  melting  loss 

Average  of  melt  in  returns . 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings. 


4.84  per  cent 
23.60  per  cent 
71 .  50  per  cent 


Railroad  Castings 
Table  VII.  —  Agricultural 


459 


Numbers 

Usual  tonnage 

Time  of  heat 

Blast  pressure,  oz 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used,  lbs 

Scrap  used,  lbs 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss . . . 
Per  cent  melt  in  returns 
Per  cent  melt  in  good 
castings 


80  45 

4  h.  20  m.|3  h.  IS  m. 
15 


Blower 
Coke 

50 

Coke 

Ag.  No.  I 

80,000 

80,000 

108,800 

42,700 

5-3 

26.7 

67. S 


Blower 
Coke 

Coke 

Ag.  No.  I 

45 ,000 

45,000 

61,200 

24,300 

5.2 

27 

67.7 


41 

3  h.  30  m. 

13 

Blower 

Coke 

so 

Coke 

Med.  Mach. 

45,700 

35,800 

62,960 

15,600 

3.6 

19.2 

77.2 


9 
2  hrs. 

12 

Blower 

Coke 

so 

Coke  &  coal 

Stove 

7,071 

10,674 

11,845 

5,200 

4 

29.3 

67 


95 

I  h.  20  m. 

9 

Blower 

Coke 

None 

Coke  &  coal 

Stove 

7.500 

11,600 

7,450 

10,650 

53 

55.7 

39 


Average  loss  in  melt 4. 77  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  returns 26. 73  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings 68 . 4    per  cent 


Table  VIII.  —  Railroad  Castings 


Numbers. 


38 


Usual  tonnage 

Time  of  heat 

Blast  pressure,  oz 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used 

Scrap  used 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  of  melt  in  returns .... 
Per  cent  melt  in  good  castings . 


47 
5  hrs.  20  m. 

16 
Blower 
Coke 
None 
Coke 
None 
66,500 
28,500 
60,400 
28,900 
6.1 

30.3 

63. 5 


32 

6.5 

3  hrs.  45  m. 

2  hrs. 

4 

9 

Fan 

Ch. ,  coal  and  coke 

Coke 

60 

None 

Coke  and  coal 

Coke 

None 

25,000 

6,765 

39,000 

6,23s 

54 ,000 

10,000 

7,500 

2,38s 

3.9 

4.7 

II. 7 

18.3 

84.3 

76.9 

Note.  —  No.  37  is  an  average  of  27  heats.     No.  38  is  an  average  of  25  heats. 

Average  melting  loss S .  64  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  returns 22 .  43  per  cent 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings 72 .  22  per  cent 


4^>o  Tllc  ClifM)!;! 

Tahi.i;  IX.  —  Floor  Platks.  Grate  Bars,  i.tc. 


Numbers... 


Usual  tonnage 

Time  of  heat 

Blast  pressure,  oz 

Fan  or  blower 

Pig  iron 

Per  cent  southern 

Fuel  used 

Scrap  bought 

Pig  iron  used,  lbs 

Scrap  used ,  lbs 

Castings  made 

Scrap  made 

Per  cent  melting  loss 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns 

Per  cent  melt  in  good  castings. 


30 

3  hrs.  40  m. 
16 
Blower 
Coke 
None 
Coke 
Med.  mach. 
20,000 
40,000 
47.400 
8,200 
7  3 
13.7 
79 


3 

ihr. 


Pan 
Coke 


Coke  and  coal 

Light  mach. 

None 

6,000 

5. 100 

S2S 

6.2 

8.8 

8S 


Average  melting  loss 

Average  of  melt  in  returns 

Average  of  melt  in  good  castings. 


7 .  23  per  cent 
8.88  per  cent 
8s  per  cent 


Table  X.  — 

Car  Wheels 

41 

200 
7  hrs. 

10 
Blower 

Wheel 

2.1 

Blast  pressure,  oz 

Fan  or  blower 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns 

Per  cent  melt  in  good  castings. 

From  the  above  tables,  the  following  table  showing  the  average  results 
for  each  class  of  work  is  compiled. 

Table  XI 


Percentage 

o.a 

>> 

ill 

E 

>> 

>>  b 
>  a 

1 
0. 
a 
> 
0 

Co 

h 

3 

■1 
< 

"0 

is" 

8 
5 

Number  of  records. 
Per  cent  melt  in 

4 
83.9 

8.2 

77 

4 
73.6 

20.8 
S-S 

6 

73  01 
19  SS 

,33 

4 

73.6 

20  6 
5.8 

3 

62.3 

34  3 
3-3 

8 

71. S 

23.6 
4.84 

s 

68.S 

26.7 
4.77 

3 

72-3 

22.43 

S.24 

2 
79-S 

13.2 

7.2 

1 

Per  cent  melt  in 

0 

Per  cent  melt  lost . 

Note.     No.  12  was  omitted  in  obtaining  these  averages.    Evidently  there   was 
something  wrong  about  this  heat  as  shown  by  the  excessive  returns. 


Melting  Ratio  461 

The  figures  in  the  preceding  table  are  to  be  taken  as  approximations. 
The  loss  may  be  reduced  in  practice  by  careful  management. 

When  the  weight  of  the  coke  on  the  bed,  and  the  weights  of  the  iron 
'  and  coke  in  each  charge  are  known,  to  determine  the  necessary  amount 
of  iron  which  must  be  melted  to  produce  a  desired  melting  ratio: 

Let  X  =  the  total  iron; 
Y  =  the  total  coke; 
A  =  weight  of  coke  on  bed; 
B  =  weight  of  coke  in  each  charge; 
C  =  weight  of  iron  in  each  charge; 
D  =  the  desired  melting  ratio. 

(i)  Then  j?  =  ^,  ^  ^  D  *°^^^  ^°^^  ^^^ 

(3)  and  -p;  =  the  number  of  charges. 
The  total  coke  is  found  in  equation  (4) 

(4)  F  =  (|-i)5+4. 

From  equations  (2)  and  (4)  X  =  -—^ :f—--^  .        (5) 

Having  found  the  total  amount  of  iron,  the  total  coke  and  number  of 
charges  are  found  from  (2)  and  (3). 

By  applying  these  formulas  to  a  54-inch  cupola  as  given  in  table  on 
pp.  451-2  the  required  weight  of  iron  to  be  melted  to  produce  a  melting 
ratio  of  9  to  I  may  be  found. 

Melting  Ratio 

Weight  of  coke  on  bed  ^  =  1100  poimds 

Weight  of  coke  to  each  charge  B  =    180  pounds 

Weight  of  iron  to  each  charge  C  =  1900  pounds 

Required  melting  ratio  D  =  9  to  i  pounds 

From  equation  (5) 

1900X9(1100-180) 

1900  —  9  X  180  0,0, 

Y  ==  — '- =  6243  pounds. 

9 

And  the  number  of  charges 

56,185 

^-^ — ^  =  29.57. 
1900  ^^' 

Coke  may  be  charged  from  dumps,  as  it  lan  be  uniformly  spread. 


462  The  Cuf)ola 

The  cupola  should  be  kept  full  to  the  charging  door  until  all  the  iron 
is  in.  J.atcT  the  sweepings  from  the  charging  platform  may  be  thrown 
on.  The  platform  should,  if  possible,  be  large  enough  to  accommo<Jale 
the  materials  for  the  entire  melt.  Kach  charge  of  pig  and  scrap  should 
be  weighed  and  piled  by  itself;  the  coke  kept  in  convenient  charging 
buckets,  and  the  broken  limestone  in  a  bin  from  which  it  may  be  charged 
by  measure,  above  the  coke. 

Appliances  about  Cupola 

The  conditions  will  indicate  the  necessity  for  elevator  and  charging 
cars.  In  every  foundry  yard  there  should  be  a  cinder  mill  and  scrap 
breaker.  In  many  foundries  the  cinders  arc  frequently  ground  in  the 
tumbling  barrel.  It  is  purely  a  matter  of  convenience;  but  locating 
the  cinder  mill  in  the  yard  promotes  cleanliness,  especially  when  broken 
fire  brick  are  ground. 

The  cinder  mill  is  made  up  of  cast-iron  staves  from  8  to  10  inches  wide 
and  of  convenient  length,  placed  about  polygonal  heads;  the  latter 
mounted  on  trunnions,  and  the  whole  rotated  slowly  by  any  suitable 
means.  The  staves  are  so  placed  that  there  is  not  over  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  opening  at  the  joints,  in  order  that  the  shot  iron  may  not  escape. 
^Magnetic  and  hydraulic  separators  are  frequently  used  to  recover  the 
shot,  and  they  cflect  large  savings. 

The  scrap  breaker  is  located  conveniently  to  the  cars,  or  placed 
where  heavy  scrap  is  received.  It  consists  of  a  derrick  and  ball  with 
hoisting  apparatus.  The  height  of  the  derrick  should  be  from  30  to 
40  feet  and  the  ball  should  weigh  2500  to  3000  pounds,  both  depending 
1  on  the  probable  dimensions  of  the 

largest  scrap. 

The  sketch  below  shows  a  simple 
and  effective  device  for  tripping  the 
ball. 

Ladles 

Hand  ladies,  and  shank  ladles 
holding  200  pounds  or  less,  are  best 
made  of  sheet  steel,  as  they  are 
much  lighter  and  are  easily  repaired. 
These,  as  well  as  larger  sizes,  to  be 
handled  by  cranes,  are  furnished  by 
the  foundr>-  supply  houses. 
It  is  usually  best  to  tap  into  a  fore  ladle.  This  is  kept  under  the 
spout,  and  has  sufficient  capacity  to  hold  one  entire  charge.     From  it 


2) 


c 


The  Bod  Stick  463 

the  smaller  ladles  are  filled.  By  making  large  tappings,  the  various 
grades  of  iron  in  the  cupola  become  thoroughly  mixed  in  the  fore  ladle. 
The  iron  in  the  ladle  is  kept  hot  by  covering  the  surface  with  charcoal 
or  slacked  lime. 

In  English  practice  the  Fore  Hearth  is  largely  used  instead  of  the  fore 
ladle,  but  its  use  has  not  met  with  favor  in  the  United  States.  An  illus- 
tration of  this  arrangement  is  shown  on  page  248  of  McWilliams  and 
Longmuir's  General  Foundry  Practice. 

Lining  of  Ladles 

The  ladles  are  lined  with  a  mixture  of  one-half  fire  clay  and  one-half 
sharp  sand.  With  small  ladles  the  lining  is  from  •%  inch  to  114  inches 
thick  on  the  bottom  and  gradually  tapers  to  yi  to  %  inch  thick  at  the 
top. 

Large  ladles  have  first  a  lining  of  fire  brick,  then  the  clay  daubing. 

After  the  linings  are  completed  they  must  be  thoroughly  baked  either 
by  placing  the  ladles  in  an  oven  or  by  building  wood  fires  in  them.  It 
is  customary  to  reline  the  small  ladles  after  each  heat.  The  larger  ones, 
if  completely  drained  of  iron,  may,  by  chipping  out  and  patching,  be 
made  to  last  over  many  heats.  The  skulls  from  ladles  are  rattled  with 
the  cinders.  Shanks  for  ladles  holding  100  pounds  and  upwards  are 
commonly  made  with  single  and  double  ends.  The  better  practice  is 
to  make  both  ends  double,  the  helper's  end  having  a  swivel  joint.  With 
this  type  of  shank  the  helper  can  use  both  hands  in  carrying  and  two 
men  can  handle  a  200-pound  ladle  easily.  The  iron  bottoms  of  the 
larger  ladles  should  have  10  or  i2-?i-inch  holes  through  them  to  permit 
the  escape  of  moisture. 

Tapping  Bar 

The  tapping  bar  is  usually  made  of  i-inch  gas  pipe,  having  a  long 
tapered  point  (24  inches  in  length)  welded  to  it  at  one  end.  Frequently 
the  tapper  stands  along  one  side  of  the  spout,  and  opens  the  tap  hole 
with  a  single-handed  bar.  He  carefully  picks  away  the  center  of  the 
bod,  imtil  a  hole  is  made  through  it,  then  enlarges  the  hole  to  %  inch,  or 
an  inch,  according  to  the  stream  desired. 

The  Bod  Stick 

The  bod  stick  is  an  iron  bar  about  i  inch  in  diameter,  having  at  one 
end  a  flat  disc  2  k'  inches  in  diameter.  To  this  disc  is  attached  the 
clay  bod,  used  in  stopping  up  the  tap  hole.  In  stopping  the  stream 
of  iron,  the  bod,  placed  above  the  stream  at  the  tap  hole,  is  forced  down- 


464  riic  Cupola 

Table  Showing  Capacities  of  LAni.rs  wirn  Rottom  Diaueteks 


Depth 

Diami-tir  of  1 

30 

22 

-'I 

Vj 

'-■ 

34 

36 

Ins. 
2 
4 
6 

8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
46 

157 
318 
483 
652 
825 
1002 
1 183 
1368 
1557 
1749 
1946 
2149 

191 

334 

58S 

788 

997 

1210 

1427 

1648 

1873 

2102 

2337 

2576 

2821 

227 

459 

696 

938 

I185 

1436 

1693 

1954 

2221 

2492 

2769 

3050 

3337 

3630 

267 
538 
815 
1096 
1383 
1676 
1973 
2276 
2585 
2900 
3221 
3548 
3880 
4218 
4560 

309 
624 
945 
1272 
1604 
1942 
2286 
2606 
2992 
3353 
3720 
4093 
4472 
4807 
5248 
5645 



356 
717 
1084 
1457 
1836 
2221 
2612 
3009 
3412 
3821 
4237 
4660 
5089 
5525 
5968 
6417 
6871 
7329 

403 
812 
1228 
1651 
2080 
2516 
3142 
3408 
3863 
432s 

4793 
5268 
5750 
6238 
6734 
7237 
7747 
8261 
8781 

1.860 
2,342 
2,830 
3.326 
3.829 
4J39 
4.8SS 
S.378 
5.9" 
6.451 
6.998 
7.552 
8.114 
9.6S2 
9.258 
9.840 
10.428 

510 
1.026 
I.S50 
2.085 
2.62s 
3.172 
3.726 
4.288 
4.856 
5.432 
6.016 
6.608 
7.208 
7.816 
8.432 
9.054 
9.694 
10.332 
10.978 
11,630 
12.288 

48 

For  steel  add  5% 

SO 
52 
54 
56 
S8 
60 
62 
64 
66 
68 





wards  into  the  hole  squeezing  off  the  stream.     Many  severe  burns  have 
been  caused  by  stopping  directly  against  the  stream. 

The  spout  is  sometimes  made  with  a  side  opening  to  carr>-  off  slag 
running  on  the  stream  of  iron.  This  opening  is  made  about  the  middle 
of  the  spout,  and  the  trough  in  that  vicinit)'  is  somewhat  increased  in 
width.  About  2  inches  below  the  side  opening  a  fire  brick  is  placed 
across  the  trough,  leaving  room  below  it  for  the  iron  to  pass,  but 
being  low  enough  to  skim  off  the  slag,  which  runs  out  of  the  side  at 
the  opening.  A  swinging  spout  is  occasionally  used.  This  is  himg 
on   a  pivot  below   the   spout   proper,   and   in   a   transverse   direction- 


Capacities  of  Ladles 


46s 


Varying  from  20  to  54  Inches,  Slope  of  Sides  i^^  to  i  Foot 


Diameter  of  ladle  at  bottom,  inches 

Depth 

38 

40 

42 

44 

46 

48 

50 

52 

54 

Ins. 
2 

568 

630 

694 

762 

832 

906 

984 

1,064 

1,146 

4 

1,144 

1,268 

1,396 

1,600 

1,672 

1,820 

1,978 

2.138 

2,302 

6 

1,728 

1,914 

2,106 

2.310 

2,522 

2.774 

2,982 

3.222 

3.469 

8 

2,330 

2,568 

2,824 

3.096 

3.380 

3,678 

3,996 

4.316 

4.829 

10 

2,930 

3,330 

3,552 

3.892 

4,248 

4,622 

5,019 

5.420 

6.063 

12 

3.538 

3,900 

4,288 

4.696 

5,124 

S.576 

6,052 

6.334 

7.308 

14 

4.154 

4,578 

5,032 

S.510 

6,012 

6,540 

7,09s 

7.6S9 

8.564 

16 

4.776 

5,264 

5,784 

6.332 

6,910 

7,514 

8,149 

8,784 

9.831 

18 

5,406 

5,958 

6,546 

7.154 

7,816 

8,498 

9.213 

9,930 

10,711 

20 

6,044 

6,660 

7.316 

7,994 

8,730 

9,492 

10,287 

11,086 

11.936 

22 

6,690 

7,370 

8,094 

8.844 

9.654 

10,496 

II. 371 

12,253 

13.212 

24 

7,344 

8,088 

8,880 

9,702 

10.588 

11,510 

12,465 

13,422 

14,479 

26 

8,006 

8,816 

9,676 

10,570 

11,532 

12.533 

13,569 

14,623 

15,757 

28 

8,676 

9,552 

10,480 

11,446 

12,486 

13.566 

14,683 

15,826 

17,046 

30 

9,354 

10,296 

11,294 

12,334 

13,450 

I4.6c9 

15,808 

17,038 

18,346 

32 

10.040 

11,048 

12,116 

13,232 

14.424 

15.663 

16.943 

18,261 

19,657 

34 

10.734 

11,810 

13.943 

14,140 

15.408 

16,727 

18,089 

19,495 

20,979 

36 

11,436 

13,580 

13.788 

15,059 

16,402 

17,801 

19.249 

20,740 

22,312 

38 

12,146 

13,358 

14,618 

15,988 

17.406 

18,885 

20,412 

21,996 

23,657 

40 

12.864 

14,144 

15.496 

16,927 

18,420 

19.998 

21.591 

23,263 

25,014 

42 

13.590 

14,940 

16,364 

17,876 

19.443 

21,083 

22,782 

24,541 

27,070 

44 

14,322 

15,712 

17,240 

18,835 

20,476 

22,197 

23.985 

25,830 

27,761 

46 



16,550 

18,122 
19,014 

19,802 
20,776 
22,198 

21.519 
22,573 
23,637 

23,322 
24,557 
25,703 

25.197 
26,420 
27.654 

27.130 
28,441 
29,763 

29,152 

48 

For  steel 

add  5% 

30,555 

SO 

31.920 

52 



24,711 

26,859 

28,899 

31,096 

33.397 

S4 

28,032 

30.155 

32,441 

34.336 

S6 

29,223 

31.422 

33,798 

36,287 

S8 

30,256 

32.690 

35, 166 

37,750 

60 

33.979 

36,545 

39,225 

62 

35.279 

37,941 
39.343 
42,312 

40,712 

64 
66 

The  foundry 

42,211 
43,729 

68 

1    1 

46,011 

While  the  stream  is  running  it  can  be  tipped  so  as  to  let  the  iron 
run  into  a  ladle  at  either  side.  In  rapid  melting  this  obviates  stop- 
ping up  when  ladles  are  changed. 


Applying  Metalloids  in  Ladle 

Where  metalloids  are  added  to  the  iron,  if  the  amount  to  be  used  is 
sprinkled  into  the  stream  as  it  flows  through  the  spout,  a  more  intimate 
mixture  is  obtained  than  results  from  placing  the  material  in  the  ladle 
and  drawing  the  iron  on  to  it. 


466 


The  C'u|)olu 


Cranes 

The  e<iuipmcnt  of  cranes  as  to  size,  style  and  motive  power  is  indi- 
oitcd  entirely  by  the  character  and  volume  of  production.  Ample  and 
convenient  lioistin^  facilities  are  absolutely  essential.  A  mistake  is 
seldom  made  in  pro\iding  cranes  of  too  great  cajjacity. 

Most  of  the  modern  foundries  are  fitted  with  electric  traveling  cranes, 
which  not  only  have  access  to  the  cupola,  but  sweep  over  the  moulding 
floors.  In  addition  to  the  electric  crane,  post  and  wall  cranes  are 
supplied  for  special  requirements.  There  should  be  a  small  jib  crane 
attached  to  the  cupola  for  handling  the  fore  ladle. 

The  manufacture  of  cranes  has  become  a  specialty,  and  the  reader  is 
referred  to  manufacturers'  catalogues  for  special  information. 


Spill  Bed 

In  many  foundries  the  excess  iron,  and  iron  on  the  bench  floor,  is 
frequently  dumped  into  holes  in  the  sand  heaps  or  floors.  This  is  a 
slovenly  practice  and  greatly  injures  the  sand. 

.\  very  convenient  and  simple  spill  bed  is  sho\^^l  in  Fig.  129.  This 
is  so  made  that  the  iron  is  collected  in  pieces  weighing  from  60  pounds  to 
80  pounds,  of  convenient  size  to  be  handled  in  charging. 

A  small  bed  of  same  character  serves  an  excellent  purpose  when  placed 
near  the  snap  floors. 


Dumping  Spill  Bed 


Mb^.JJ^#^.#A^Jj 


'"'"VWW/>/->^W/?/////W//^/WW//.>/W^-^^/J''/^//^///^^y>///^///. 


I 


1 

Fig.  129. 


Gagger  Mould 
Gagger  Mould 


467 


Fig.  130. 

By  a  little  care  all  the  excess  iron  may  be  put  through  beds  as  above 
and  sent  to  the  cupola  in  good  shape  for  melting. 

The  usual  practice  is  to  allow  the  bottom  to  remain  where  it  drops 
until  the  next  morning,  simply  wetting  it  thoroughly. 

Below  is  shown  a  sketch  of  a  large  rake.  If  the  bottom  is  dropped 
on  this  and  the  mass  pulled  out  from  under  the  cupola  (by  means  of  a 


Fig.  131. 


chain  passing  through  a  snatch  block  to  the  crane)  and  then  wetted 
down,  it  will  be  found  in  much  better  shape  for  picking  over  in  the 
morning. 

The  pieces  of  unconsumed  coke  should  be  picked  out  and  used  in 
core  ovens,  or  as  part  of  the  last  charge  of  coke,  in  the  cupola.  Little 
savings  of  this  kind,  although  small  of  themselves,  amount  to  an  impor- 
tant item  in  the  course  of  the  year,  particularly  if  the  operations  are 
extensive. 


CHArTKR    XX 
MOULDING   SAND 

MouLDiNr.  sand  contains  from  75  to  85  i)er  cent  silica,  with  varying 
proportions  of  alumina,  magnesia,  lime  and  iron. 
The  essential  properties  arc: 

Cohesion,  Refractoriness, 

Permeability,  Durability, 

Porosity,  Texture. 

Cohesion  or  Bonding  Power 

Moulding  sand  must  possess  suflkient  cohesion,  not  only  to  remain 
in  position  after  ramming,  but  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  molten 
metal,  and  its  abraiding  action  while  being  poured. 

Pure  sand  has  no  cohesive  strength,  but  clay  (double  silicate  of 
alumina)  has,  and  as  moist  sands  cohere  more  strongly  than  dr>', 
the  bonding  power  must  depend  on  the  amount  of  clayey  matter  and 
water  contained.  The  moisture  must  not  be  in  excess,  otherwise  the 
sand  will  pack  too  densely. 

Permeability  and  Porosity 

Permeability  is  the  yirojurty  which  sand  possesses  of  allowing  liquids 
or  gases  to  filter  through  it,  and  depends  on  the  size  of  the  pores. 
By  porosity  is  meant  the  volume  of  pore  space. 
These  properties  are  not  the  same.     A  sand  may  contain  a  few  large 
openings  through  which  the  liquids  or  gases  may  readily  escape  and  yet 
have  a  small  pore  space.     On  the  other  hand,  the  total  pore  sjjace  may 
be  large,  but  by  reason  of  the  small  size  of  the  pores,  permeability  by 
either  liquids  or  gases  might  be  dilTicult. 
The  permeability  of  sand  may  be  influenced: 
By  the  tightness  of  packing; 
By  the  size  of  the  grains; 
By  the  fluxing  elements  in  the  sand. 
By  tamping  or  packing,  the  space  occupied  by  a  given  weight  of 
sand  may  be  reduced,  as  the  grains  are  forced  into  their  closest  arrange- 
ment producing   the  minimum  pore  space.     Fine-grained  sands  have 
larger  pore  space  than  coarse-grained. 

468 


Texture  469 

If  silt  or  clay  are  present,  and  segregated,  the  sand  will  pack  more 
closely  than  if  the  grains  are  cemented  together  in  the  form  of  com- 
poimd  grains.  In  the  latter  case  the  permeability  and  porosity  would 
be  larger  than  if  the  grains  were  separate. 

The  decreased  permeability  under  increased  tamping  explains  why 
some  good  sands  behave  badly.  Permeability  of  sand  is  also  influenced 
by  the  amount  of  water  present.  The  relation  between  permeability 
and  fluxing  impurities  is  shown  in  the  process  of  casting.  If  the  clayey 
particles  filling  the  interstices  of  the  sand  fuse  when  heated  by  the  metal, 
their  coalescence  in  melting  will  close  up  the  pores  to  some  extent.  For 
this  reason,  in  part,  a  high  percentage  of  fluxing  impurities  is  undesirable. 

The  proper  permeability  of  a  moulding  sand  is  a  matter  of  vital 
importance.  A  pathway  must  be  opened  for  the  escape  of  the  gases 
to  avoid  blowing.     The  finer  the  sand  the  lower  its  permeability. 

Refractoriness 

A  moulding  sand  must  be  sufficiently  refractory  to  prevent  complete 
fusion  in  contact  with  molten  metal.  Highly  siliceous  sands  are,  there- 
fore, the  more  desirable.  At  the  same  time  a  high  percentage  of  silica  is 
gained  at  the  expense  of  alumina  and  a  consequent  loss  of  bonding  power. 
Generally  silica  should  not  exceed  85  per  cent.  Silica  is  refractory,  does 
not  shrink  when  heated,  but  has  no  cohesive  nor  bonding  power. 

Alumina,  a  most  important  component,  is  present  in  moulding  sands 
in  amounts  varying  from  4  to  12  per  cent.  It  is  refractory,  has  great 
bonding  power,  but  shrinks  greatly  when  heated.  Too  high  a  percentage 
of  alumina  makes  the  sand  impermeable. 

Durability 

Sands  begin  to  lose  some  of  their  desirable  qualities  after  one  or 
more  heats  and  become  dead  or  rotten.  The  injury  to  the  sand  arises 
from  its  dehydration,  or  loss  of  combined  water  by  the  heat  of  the  molten 
metal,  whereby  its  bonding  power  is  destroyed.  The  water  of  com- 
bination cannot  be  restored. 

The  amoimt  of  sand  burned  is  a  layer  of  varying  thickness  next  to 
the  casting. 

Texture 

By  texture  is  meant  the  percentage  of  grains  of  different  sizes.  This 
is  determined  by  passing  the  sand  through  a  series  of  sieves  of  decreas- 
ing mesh  and  noting  the  percentage  remaining  on  each  sieve.  Mr.  W. 
G.  Scott  pursues  the  following  method: 

"Ten  grams  of  sand  are  placed  on  the  100- mesh  sieve,  together  with 
ten  Me  steel  balls,  and  shaken  with  a  circular  motion  for  one  minute. 


Modeling  Sand 


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Texture 


471 


The  sand  passing  through  is  weighed  and  credited  to  the  loo-mesh  sieve. 
That  which  remains,  together  with  the  balls,  is  emptied  on  the  80-mesh 
sieve  and  the  operation  repeated.  In  like  manner  sieves  of  varying 
size  up  to  20  mesh  are  used.  The  preceding  table  shows  the  texture  or 
sand  from  different  localities." 

Lime  is  a  fluxing  element.  If  present  as  a  carbonate,  it  loses  its 
carbonic  acid  under  heat,  and  in  excessive  amount  the  gas  causes  the 
mould  to  flake  or  crumble.  Caustic  lime  fluxes  and  forms  slag  on  sur- 
face of  castings. 

Magnesia  is  also  a  flux,  and  to  a  modified  extent  has  the  effect  of  lime. 

Iron,  as  a  carbonate  or  an  oxide,  if  present  in  the  mould  near  the 
casting,  is  converted  into  ferrous  oxide,  which  is  a  flux. 

Combined  water  is  present  in  all  sands  containing  clay,  carbonate  of 
lime  or  gypsum.  It  is  driven  off  at  a  low  red  heat  and  increases  the 
porosity  of  the  sand. 

Moulding  sands  are  not  always  used  alone.  One  or  more  grades  are 
frequently  mixed  together.  Blending  is  extensively  practiced  at  the 
pit  as  well  as  at  the  foundry.  In  addition  to  blending  to  increase  cer- 
tain physical  properties,  foreign  substances,  such  as  ground  coal,  graph- 
ite, molasses,  flour,  beer,  linseed  oil  or  cinders  are  used,  either  to  increase 
the  bonding  power  or  permeability  of  the  material.  A  sand  deficient 
in  its  natural  condition  may  be  greatly  improved  by  "doctoring." 
The  sand  from  any  one  deposit  does  not  always  run  uniformly,  and  with- 
out previous  careful  examination  of  the  shipments,  unfavorable  results 
may  appear  in  the  foundry. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  "The  Iron  Age,"  gives  the  analysis 
of  eight  different  samples. 


Constituents 


Silica 

Alumina 

Ferric  oxide .... 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Potash 

Soda 

Water 

Organic  matter. 


92.08 
5.41 
2.49 


91.90 
5.68 
17 
41 


92 


90 


81.  so 

9.88 

3.14 

1.04 

.65 


85 


Sands  which  contain  the  largest  percentage  of  silica,  suflScient  alumina 
to  impart  cohesiveness  and  plasticity,  with  from  i  to  3  per  cent  of 
magnesia  are  the  best  for  facing.  Such  sand  should  be  entirely  free 
from  lime. 


472 


Moulding  Sand 


Spcdfications  of  \V.  G.  Scotl,  Racine,  Wis. 

"Moulding  sand  for  iron  work  generally  conUiins  from  75  to  85  per 

cent  of  silica;   5  to  13  per  cent  of  alumina;   less  than  2.5  per  cent  lime 

and  magnesia;    not  over  0.75  per  cent  soda  and  potash  and  generally 

less  than  5  per  cent  oxide  of  iron;   not  more  than  4  per  cent  of  water." 

Sand  for  Brass 

Sand  for  brass  may  contain  a  much  higher  percentage  of  iron  and 
lime  without  detriment. 

.\11  moulding  sands  contain  more  or  less  organic  matter.  Carbonate 
of  lime  must  not  exceed  1.5  per  cent  for  iron  sands,  nor  2U  per  cent  for 
brass.  Iron  oxide  must  not  exceed  5.5  per  cent  for  iron  nor  7  per  cent 
for  brass  sand;  organic  matter  not  to  exceed  i  per  cent.  Any  sand 
showing  an  excess  of  13  per  cent  alumina  will  be  rejected. 

Analysis 


Constituents 


Silica 

Alumina 

Iron  oxide 

Lime 

Lime  carbonate . . 

Magnesia 

Soda 

Potash 

Manganese 

Combined  water. 
Organic  matter. . . 
Specific  gravity.. 
Fineness 


For  light 
iron  work 


82.21 
9.48 
4-25 


2.64 
.28 
2.652 
85.18 


For 
medium 
iron  work 


85. 85 
8.27 
2.32 

•  SO 
.29 
.81 
.10 
.03 

Trace 
1.68 

•  IS 
2.6S4 

66.01 


For  hea\*y 
iron  work 


88.40 

6.30 

2.00 

.78 

.50 


.25 
1.73 

.04 

2.63 

46.86 


For  light 
brass 


78.86 

7.89 

S.4S 

.50 

1.46 

1.18 

.13 

09 

Trace 

3.80 

.64 

2.64 

94.88 


.\ny  of  these  sands  would  answer  very  well  so  far  as  their  chemical 
composition  is  concerned,  for  any  class  of  work;  but  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  they  should  possess  the  proper  degree  of  fineness. 

The  finer  sands  are  less  siliceous  and  as  a  rule  carrj'  higher  percentages 
of  alumina  and  fluxes  than  coarser  grades,  as  shown  by  the  following 
table. 


Size 

60 

80 

TOO 

100 

Silica 

95.92 

1.29 

.56 

.10 

2.13 

97.87 

94. 35 

1.47 

.56 

.04 

3J? 

96.42 

94.66 

1.47 

.40 

■  34 

3.13 

96.87 

91.06 

4  57 

.80 

.72 

2.8s 

Total 

97  IS 

Testing  Moulding  Sand  473 

The  greater  the  average  fineness,  the  lower  the  permeability. 

Prof.  Ries,  from  whose  paper  the  above  notes  are  e.xtracted,  concludes 
that  the  chemical  analysis  of  moulding  sands  are  not  of  as  much  impor- 
tance as  their  physical  properties. 

To  test  the  "temper"  and  strength  of  sand,  the  moulder  squeezes 
a  handful  into  a  ball.  If  it  takes  the  impression  of  his  hand  readily 
and  leaves  the  hand  clean,  it  is  considered  sufi&ciently  damp.  Its 
strength  or  binding  power  is  tested  by  lifting  the  lump  from  one  end, 
or  by  carefully  breaking  it  apart;  or  he  may  squeeze  a  ball  of  sand  about 
a  little  stick  or  nail  and  see  if  it  can  be  lifted  by  the  stick.  He  then 
blows  through  it  to  test  its  porosity.  Such  crude  tests  are  in  constant 
use  and,  conducted  by  experienced  moulders,  serve  the  purpose. 

A.  E.  Outerbridge  instituted  a  series  of  experiments  to  determine 
these  characteristics  more  definitely.  The  following  is  extracted  from  a 
paper  read  before  A.S.M.E.,  at  their  New  York  meeting  in  1907. 

"A  number  of  test  bars  of  green  sand  6"  X  i"  X  i"  were  made 
under  uniform  conditions  of  pressure,  dampness  and  quality  of  material 
used  in  forming  the  ordinary  mould.  These  little  test  bars  were  placed 
upon  a  smooth  metal  plate  with  sharp  square  edges.  The  bars  were 
then  pushed  over  the  edge  of  the  plate  until  they  broke,  when  the  amount 
of  the  overhang  was  measured.  It  was  soon  found  that  there  was  a 
great  difference  in  the  length  of  the  overhang,  which  was  regarded  as 
a  quantitative  measure  of  the  toughness  of  the  sand.  These  differences 
were  not  even  noticeable  in  the  crude  ball  test. 

Samples  taken  from  different  parts  of  a  small  sand  heap  that  had  been 
uniformly  dampened,  or  tempered,  varied  greatly  in  this  respect,  owing 
no  doubt  to  the  irregular  distribution  of  the  alumina  or  clay  binder; 
and  the  correctness  of  this  inference  was  subsequently  confirmed  by 
simple  analytical  tests.  After  a  sufiicient  number  of  these  test  bars 
had  been  made  and  broken  to  prove  the  reliability  of  the  method,  further 
tests  were  devised  to  ascertain  whether  the  usual  methods  of  riddling 
and  mixing  the  sand  for  the  moulder's  use  affected  its  quality  either  by 
increasing  or  decreasing  its  toughness,  as  shown  by  the  amount  of  over- 
hang of  similar  test  bars  of  green  sand.  It  was  proved  that  the  more 
thoroughly  the  sand  was  worked,  the  greater  the  overhang,  due,  as  al- 
ready stated  to  the  more  uniform  distribution  of  the  binder. 

"The  ideal  moulding  sand  is  a  material  in  which  the  individual  grains 
of  silex,  constituting  approximately  90  per  cent  of  the  mass,  are  com- 
pletely covered  with  an  overcoat  of  alumina  or  clay  and  the  more 
uniform  the  grains  are  in  size  and  shape,  the  better  is  the  sand  with 
respect  to  porosity  in  relation  to  the  average  size  of  the  grain. 

"  It  was  found  on  passing  a  sample  of  sand  a  number  of  times  through 


474 


Moulding  Sand 


a  haiidriddle,  and  making  test  bars  from  the  sample  after  each  riddling, 
that  the  overhang  was  increased  measurably.  Thus,  a  sample  of  sand, 
which,  after  tempering  and  mixing  by  hand  with  a  shovel,  showed  an 
overhang  of  less  than  two  inches  of  the  test  bar,  increased  to  nearly 
three  inches  after  a  dozen  riddlings.  It  would  not  be  practicable  to 
treat  large  masses  of  sand  in  this  manner,  nevertheless,  the  informa- 
tion thus  obtained  was  (4uite  valuable  and  led  to  imjwrtant  practical 
results. 

"Another  novel  observation  was  concurrently  made,  viz.,  that  the 
increased  toughness  and  porosity  noticed  in  these  tests  might  be  partly 
due  to  "aeration"  or  to  the  separation  of  the  grains  of  sand  when 
falling  from  the  sieve  to  the  floor.  In  order  to  discover  the  truth  or 
falsity  of  this  view,  a  quantity  of  sand  was  shaken  in  a  box  with  a  closed 
lid  for  several  minutes  and  test  bars  were  made  before  and  after  shaking. 
The  correctness  of  the  theory  was  quickly  shown,  for  the  shaking  with- 
out sieving  proved  to  be  more  effective  than  the  sieving  without  shaking. 
Tests  for  porosity  were  also  made,  but  these  were  not  ver>-  satisfactory 
owing  possibly  to  lack  of  suitable  means  of  controlling  and  measuring 
the  compressed  air." 

Using  one  of  Wm.  Seller's  &  Co.  's  centrifugal  sand  mixers,  the  develop- 
ment of  which  was  largely  due  to  Mr.  Outerbridge's  experiments,  a  series 
of  tests  were  made  with  facing  sand  prepared  as  follows : 


Strong  Sand 

Parts 

Strong  Lumberton  sand  (new) 14 

Gravel  (new) 7 

Flour  sand  (old) 6 

Coal  dust 2 


fe-^'^M?^^^-'^/f:";^'T ''"'¥'■    ''■P?! 


--H-i-r: 


■rt-->M-;i-v-',t..;-' 


|-v.h-.--p':i 


Fig. 


CrL'cn  Sand  Test  Bars  made  from  One  Sample  of  Sand. 


"Fig.  132  is  from  a  photograph  showing  eleven  bars  6"  X  i"  X  i", 
made  from  strong  sand  under  uniform  conditions  of  quantity,  temper 
(dampness)  and  pressure. 


Testing  Moulding  Sand 


475' 


"The  bar  labeled  o  was  pressed  from  a  sample  of  the  sand  after 
having  been  dampened  and  turned  over  several  times,  with  a  shovel, 
and  only  partly  mixed.  The  object  of  such  preHminary  mixing  is 
simply  to  prevent  the  coal  dust  from  flying  out  of  the  centrifugal  ma- 
chine on  subsequent  treatment. 

"The  other  bars  were  made  from  the  same  pile  of  strong  sand,  after 
passing  through  the  centrifugal  machine  from  one  to  ten  times.  These 
bars  were  laid  side  by  side  upon  the  smooth  metal  plate,  resting  upon  a 
table,  and  were  slowly  pushed  over  the  edge  of  the  plate  until  they 
broke. " 

The  following  table  gives  the  measurements  of  the  overhang  of  each 
bar  as  nearly  as  the  somewhat  irregular  shape  of  the  break  permitted. 

Inches 
No.  o  length  of  overhang 2H 


No.  I 

No.  2 

No.  3 

No.  4 

No.  5 

No.  6 

No.  7 

No.  8 

No.  9 

No.  10 

3 

SV* 
3^ 
3^ 
3H 
3V^ 
3'^ 

3% 
3H 


"It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  treatment  increased  the  overhang 
H  inch,  the  subsequent  treatments  increased  the  overhang  in  some 
cases  H  inch,  and  in  some  cases  not  measurably.  The  first  treatment 
was,  therefore,  the  most  effective,  and  for  practicable  purposes  one 
treatment  is  often  sufficient  to  insure  good  mixing  of  the  materials  and 
thorough  disintegration  of  any  lumps. 

"The  strain  tending  to  break  the  sand  beam  is  increased  by  the 
additional  weight  of  the  increasing  length  of  the  overhanging  portion, 
and  also  Uy  the  increased  moment  of  its  center  gravity.  It  is  readily 
seen,  therefore,  that  an  increase  in  length  of  the  overhang  of  %  inch 
on  the  first  treatment  in  the  centrifugal  machine  means  an  increased 
tenacity  of  75  per  cent.  In  like  manner  an  increase  in  overhang  of 
50  per  cent  means  an  increase  in  strength  of  sand  of  225  per  cent. 

The  illustration,  Fig.  133,  shows  the  fractured  surfaces  of  the  same 
bars. 

"  Bar  No.  o  shows  the  heterogeneous  components  of  the  partly  mixed 
sand,  while  the  other  fractures  show  increasing  uniformity  due  to  more 
thorough  mixing,  and  disintegration  of  lumps  up  to  No.  3,  after  which 
no  further  increase  in  uniformity  is  observable  to  the  eye. 


476 


Moulding  Sand 


..    ijj.  —  Lnd    V  lew  uf    the 
Test  Bars  in  Fig.  132. 


The  illustrations  convey  a  very  fair  impression  of  the  actual  appearance 
of  the  bars.  The  appearance  of  the  fractured  surfaces  coincides  with 
the  tests  for  ovcrhanp,  and  shows  that  a  single  treatment  in  this  machine 

is  in  many  cases  sutVicicnt,  and  two 
treatments  are  all  that  are  usually 
needed  with  any  sand  mixtures. 

In  mixing  core  sand  containing  flour, 
the  efTectivcness  of  this  method  is  still 
more  strikingly  evident,  owing  to  the 
almost  total  disappearance  of  the  white 
flour,  due  to  its  thorough  commingling 
with  the  sand  and  coal  in  one  treat- 
ment. 

The  centrifugal  machine  is  especially 
efficient  in  mixing  sharp  sand  with  lin- 
seed oil  for  cores.  When  so  used  it  is 
run  at  a  lower  speed  than  when  used  for 
tempering  and  mixing  moulding  sand. 
Two  treatments  are  sufficient  to  insure 
thorough  mixing  of  sharp  sand  and  oil  for  cores. 

There  are  many  other  devices  for  tempering  and  mixing  sand  mechan- 
ically, such  as,  shakers,  revolving  reels,  etc.,  which  are  effective. 

The  amount  of  cohesive  matter,  or  binder,  in  moulding  sand  should  be 
limited  to  that  which  will  permit  good  ramming,  without  destroying  its 
porosity,  so  that  the  gases  will  escape  readil}-,  without  allowing  the  iron 
to  penetrate. 

The  sand  in  a  mould  next  to  the  casting  is  burned  and  loses  much  or 
all  of  its  cohesion.  This  is  due  to  driving  off  the  water  of  combination 
in  the  alumina  which  cannot  be  restored.  The  thickness  of  the  layer 
of  burned  sand  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  casting  and  temperature  of 
same. 

It  is  impossible  to  separate  all  of  this  burned  sand  after  the  removal 
of  the  castings.  Much  of  it  gets  mixed  in  the  sand  heaps,  which  must 
be  strengthened  from  time  to  time  with  new  sand. 

Aside  from  the  loss  of  combined  water  and  increase  in  iron  content, 
chemical  analysis  shows  little  difference  in  the  composition  of  new  and 
burned  sand.  This  is  shown  in  the  table  on  page  457,  made  by  analyz- 
ing the  same  sand  before  and  after  using. 

Tn  general,  moulding  sand  must  possess  the  following  requirements. 
It  must  be  sufTiciently  porous  to  allow  the  free  passage  of  air  and 
the  gases  generated  in  casting. 
It  must  resist  high  temperature  without  fusing. 


Moulding  Sand  Requirements 


477 


It  must  permit  of  easy  removal  from  the  cold  castings. 

When  rammed  into  shape  it  must  be  firm  and  sufficiently  compact 
to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  liquid  metal. 

It  must  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the  abraiding  action  of  the  stream 
of  metal  entering  the  mould. 


Constituents 

New 

Burned 

Silica 

83.49 

7.25 

4-71 

.36 

.35 

1.30 

.41 

■  30 

1.66 

82.32 

7.80 

3.98 

.54 

.41 

1.64 

.81 

.22 

■  19 

2.38 

100.28 

60.80 

Alumina 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Potash 

Soda 

Water 

Total 

99.86 
64.50 

For  Dry  Saiid  Moulding 

Any  sand  which,  when  rammed,  will  permit  of  drying  into  a  compact, 
coherent  but  porous  mass,  will  answer  the  purpose  of  a  dry  sand  mix- 
ture.    Many  green  sands  dry  into  friable  masses. 

Such  sands  must  be  mixed  with  some  substance  to  give  them  strength. 
For  such  purpose,  flour,  stale  beer,  molasses-water,  or  clay-wash  may 
be  usid.  When  flour  is  used,  it  is  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  to 
twenty  or  thirty,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  sand. 

With  some  sands  the  flour  may  be  dispensed  with  and  the  sand 
strengthened  sufficiently  with  molasses-water  or  clay  wash.  In  dry 
sand  moulds,  only  one  or  two  inches  of  the  sand  next  the  pattesn  are  of 
the  prepared  mixture.  The  remainder  of  the  flask  is  filled  with  ordinary 
heap  sand.  This  should  be  as  open  as  possible  to  permit  the  ready 
escape  of  the  gases.  The  facing  should  likewise  be  as  open  as  can  be 
safely  worked.  The  amount  of  moisture  should  be  about  the  same  as  is 
used  in  green  sand.    Dry  sand  facings  must  be  thoroughly  well  mixed. 

Mr.  West  gives  the  following  mixtures  for  dry  sand  facings. 

For  Large  Spur  Gears  Parts 

Lake  sand 12 

Strong  loam,  sand 12 

Moulding  sand 4 

Coke,  amount i-io 

Flour iM 

Wet  with  water. 


47^  Moulding  Sand 

Ur  Pari 

Moulding  sand i 

Jersey  sand i 

Fire  s;ind i 

Sen  coal 1-16 

Wet  with  thin  clay  wash. 

I'or  Close  Facing  p^^ 

Moulding  sand 6 

Lake  or  bank  sand i  "-i 

Flour i-so 

Wet  with  clay  wash. 

This  mixture  may  be  used  for  blacking,  using  ilour  1-40. 

For  Cylinders  p^^ 

Fair  loam 4 

Lake  sand i 

Sea  coal  or  coal  dust 1-14 

Wet  with  clay  wash. 

General  Work  _  _^ 

Part 

Moulding  sand i 

Bank  sand i 

Flour 1-30 

Sea  coal 1-20 

Wet  with  clay  wash. 

Or  Parts 

Strong  loam  sand 6 

Lake  sand 6 

Old  drj'  sand :; 

Flour 1-40 

Sea  coal 1-14 

Wet  with  water. 

For  Rolls  n    . 

Parts 

Dry  sand 2 

Lake  sand i 

Sea  coal 1-12 

Flour 1-18 

Wet  with  clay  wash. 

For  Renewing  Old  Dry  Sand  for  Body  of  MoMs  ^ 

Old  sand 16 

Lake  sand 8 

New  loam 4 

Wet  with  water. 


Core  Sand 


479 


Dry  Sand  Moulds 

Old  dry  sand  becomes  very  close.     It  should  be  passed  through  a 


No.  8  riddle  to  remove  the  dust  and  very  fine  particles, 
material  mixed  with  new  sand  works  well. 


The  coarse 


Skin  Drying 

Instead  of  making  dry  sand  moulds  which  are  baked  in  the  oven,  moulds 
are  more  frequently  "skin  dried."  Skin  dried  moulds  are  essentially 
the  same  as  "dry  sand"  except  that  the  drying  does  not  extend  to  as 
great  depths  and  the  facing  is  not  as  strong. 

For  skin  dried  moulds  mix  with  ordinary  heap  sand  about  i  to  30  flour. 
After  the  mould  is  finished  sprinkle  with  molasses  water.  The  mould  is 
dried  either  with  the  kerosene  blow  torch,  or  fire  of  wood,  coke  or  char- 
coal, built  in  iron  baskets  which  are  placed  in  the  mould.  Often  the 
mould  is  covered  with  sheet  iron  and  fires  are  built  on  top  of  the  iron. 
In  drying  copes,  they  are  suspended  and  fires  built  under  them. 

Before  drying,  the  moulds  are  brushed  with  black  wash,  made  of  plum- 
bago and  water,  to  which  a  little  molasses  water  or  clay  wash  is  added. 
Sometimes  moulds  are  black  washed  after  drying. 


Core  Sand 

Core  sand  should  be  high  in  silica  and  low  in  alumina.  A  sand  con- 
taining much  alumina  does  not  permit  the  ready  escape  of  gases  after 
baking. 

Analyses  of  Core  Sands 

(W.  G.  Scott) 


Constituents 

Good 

quality 

core  sand 

Fair 
quality- 
core  sand 

Silica 

94.30 

1. 95 

.33 

1.63 

69.31 
4.76 
1. 58 
3.50 
8.19 
7.77 
.12 
2.95 
1.82 

Lime  carbonate 

.54 

.05 

1.05 

.15 

Alkalies 

Combined  water 

Organic  matter 

"Since  the  greater  portion  of  a  core  is  to  be  entirely  surrounded  by 
metal,  the  sand  of  which  it  is  composed  encounters  conditions  much 


4S0  Moulding  Sand 

more  st-verc  than  lliosc  mul  wiili  l)y  facing  siinds.  Three  conditions 
must  be  noted. 

First.  —  The  core  is  subjected  to  much  handling. 

Second.  —  The  gases  generated  in  casting  must  find  egress  through 
the  core  and  not  through  the  metal. 

Third.  —  The  core  has  fmally  to  be  removed  from  the  casting. 

"All  cores,  before  entering  the  mould,  are  dried,  and  in  this  condition 
must  be  hard  enough  to  permit  handling,  and  porous  enough  to  admit 
the  free  escape  of  gases.  Yet  the  sand  must  not  be  burned  or  converted 
into  a  compact  mass  by  the  heat;  if  so,  it  will  be  e.xtrcmely  dilDcult  t<3 
remove  from  the  casting. 

"A  sand  high  in  silica  should  yield  the  best  results.  To  such  a  sand 
the  necessary  bond  must  be  added.  An  ideal  core  sand  is  one  in  which 
the  silica  is  given  bond  by  the  addition  of  an  organic  substance,  which 
produces  a  firm  core,  capable  of  withstanding  high  temperatures  and 
resisting  the  penetrating  action  of  fluid  metal.  Such  a  core  is  friable 
in  tlie  cold  casting,  and  is,  therefore,  easily  removed. 

"If  bond  is  given  to  silica  by  clayey  matter  alone,  then  the  metal 
bakes  the  cores  hard,  and  renders  their  removal  dilUcult. 

"A  hard  surface  imparted  to  the  sand  by  ramming  is  fatal,  as  fluid 
metal  will  not  lie  on  it,  but  a  hard  surface  resulting  from  the  binder 
does  not  necessarily  represent  an  impervious  one,  and  fluid  metal  will 
usually  lie  quietly  on  it.  Heat  tends  to  loosen  a  sand  made  hard  in 
this  way,  instead  of  fusing  it. 

Core  Mixtures 

"There  should  be  just  enough  bonding  material  in  a  core  mixture  to 
coat  each  individual  grain  of  sand,  without  filling  the  interstices  between 
the  grains,  and  the  value  of  the  core  depends  greatly  upon  the  tliorough- 
ness  with  which  the  mixture  is  incorporated.  Too  much  attention 
cannot  be  given  to  this  feature.  As  a  rule  mechanical  mi.xers  give  the 
best  results.     The  binders  in  common  use  are 

Flour.  Linseed  oil. 

Glue,  Rosin, 

Molasses,  Rosin  oil. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  many  commercial  binders  of  more  or 
less  value,  all  of  them  designed  to  offer  a  binder  cheaper  than  those 
above  mentioned. 

Cores  made  with  flour,  glue  or  molasses  soften  quickly  when  exposed 
to  dampness.  Therefore  they  must  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  or  used  soon 
after  they  are  made.    The  moulds  in  which  they  are  placed  should  be 


Dry  Binders  481 

poured  shortly  after  the  cores  are  set.  If  allowed  to  stand  for  a  period 
of  24  hours,  the  cores  should  be  taken  out  and  dried. 

Cores  made  with  glue  are  very  friable  when  hot  and  must  be  handled 
with  great  care.  Less  gas  is  given  off  by  them  than  by  those  made 
with  any  other  binder.  Glue  cores  leave  a  smoother  hole  and  do  not 
require  to  be  blackened  as  do  flour  cores. 

Flour  is  mixed  with  sand  in  proportions  varying  from  i  to  18,  to  i  to 
30,  depending  upon  the  strain  which  the  core  is  to  resist.  The  weaker 
the  mixture,  the  more  readily  the  gas  escapes. 

Glue  is  first  soaked  in  warm  water  and  then  boiled  until  entirely  dis- 
solved. Glue  water  should  consist  of  2  pounds  of  glue  to  3  gallons  of 
water.     This  mixture  is  sufficient  to  treat  100  pounds  sand. 

Rosin  must  be  first  pulverized;  it  is  then  mixed  with  sand  in  propor- 
tions of  I  to  20,  or  I  to  30,  as  required. 

Rosin  oil  is  used  i  to  18,  or  i  to  24  as  the  requirements  of  the  case 
indicate. 

Molasses,  mixed  i  to  20  water  is  used  more  for  spraying  cores  to  give 
a  hard  surface,  than  for  entire  mixtures. 

Linseed  oil  with  sharp  sand,  mixed  about  i  to  30  furnishes  the  best  core 
of  all  binders.  It  is  strong,  porous  and  is  easily  removed  from  the 
casting.  For  light,  delicate  cores,  such  as  gas  engine  and  automobile 
work  it  is  unequaled. 

Large  percentages  of  old  cores,  gangway  sand  and  moulding  sand  may 
be  used  in  the  core  mixtures. 

Core  sand  should  be  quite  damp  for  use,  but  not  so  wet  as  to  adhere 
to  the  core  box.     Wet  sands  require  much  less  binder  than  dry. 

A  saving  may  be  made  in  the  use  of  flour  by  boiling  it  thoroughly 
and  then  using  the  paste  (very  thin)  to  wet  the  sand.  As  already 
mentioned,  the  more  thoroughly  the  binder  is  incorporated  with  the 
sand,  the  better  will  be  the  cores. 

Mr.  A.  M.  Loudon  made  an  extensive  series  of  experiments  to  deter- 
mine the  comparative  values  of  various  core  binders,  and  published  the 
results  in  a  most  interesting  paper  presented  to  the  American  Foundry- 
men's  Association  at  the  Cleveland  meeting  1906.  From  it  the  follow- 
ing extensive  extracts  are  made. 

Dry  Binders 

Test  No.  I.  —  Flour  sand  core  mixture.  p 

New  moulding  sand 2 

New  fire  sand i 

Flour I  to  12  and  i  to  18 

Wet  down  with  thick  clay  wash. 


4S2  Moulding  Sand 

Cures  from  this  mixture  are  usually  very  strong.  If  not  thoroughly 
dried  or  if  slightly  burned  or  scorched,  cause  great  trouble  by  blowing 
or  scabbing.  Cores  were  removed  from  castings  with  difficulty.  Be- 
came damp  in  mould  quickly,  especially  small  cores. 

Test  No.  2.  —  Syracuse  dry  core  compound  mixture. 

Old  flour  sand V4 

New  moulding ^ 

Sharp  or  beach V^ 

One  part  binder  to  35  parts  sand  thoroughly  tempered  with  water. 
Cores  made  from  this  mi.xturc  dried  quickly,  were  clean  and  sharp  and 
left  good  surface  on  castings.     Resisted  dampness  well. 

Mr.  Loudon  states  that  the  dampness  test  for  each  mixture  was  to 
dij)  a  core  partly  in  water,  allowing  it  to  stand  after  removal  from  the 
water  for  two  or  three  days  to  air  dry  only.  Iron  was  then  cast  in  an 
open  mould  around  the  end  which  had  been  immersed. 

Test  No.  2.  —  Included  the  water  test  as  did  all  the  other  tests  for 
dry  and  oil  binders,  the  conditions  being  the  same  for  all. 

The  binder  used  in  Test  No.  2  stood  the  water  test  in  a  manner  en- 
tirely satisfactory.  The  hot  iron  came  in  contact  with  the  core  without 
any  disturbance. 

This  binder  in  Mr.  Loudon's  judgment  is  best  suited  to  large  plain 
work,  or  small  round  and  square  cores. 

Test  No.  3.  —  Dextrin  or  British  gum  mixture. 

Per  cent 

Old  flour  sand 5° 

New  moulding  sand 25 

Beach  or  sharp  sand 25 

I  part  binder  to  150  parts  sand,  tempered  with  water. 

This  mixture  was  valuable  for  large  cores,  strong,  with  sharp  edges 
and  easily  dried. 

If  the  cores  are  burned  in  the  oven,  wash  with  some  of  the  binder 

dissolved  in  water,  and  dry  in  oven  for  ten  minutes.     They  are  thus 

completely  restored.     For  small  intricate  cores  the  following  mbcture 

was  used. 

Per  cent 

Old  sand 33 

New  moulding  sand 33 

Sharp  sand 33 

1  part  dextrin  to  100  parts  sand. 

\  core  from  this  mixture  was  treated  by  the  water  test,  and  allowed 
lo  stand  for  two  days.  It  resisted  the  action  of  melted  iron  better  than 
cores  from  many  nuxtures,  when  fresh  from  the  oven. 


Dry  Binders  483 

Test  No.  4.  —  Wago  core-compound  mixture. 

Per  cent 

Old  sand 33 

New  moulding  sand 33 

Sharp  sand 33 

I  part  Wago  to  30  parts  sand. 

Made  a  good  core;    did  not  gum  the  box,  and  gave  off  very  little 
smoke. 
A  second  mixture  made  from  Wago: 

Per  cent 

New  moulding  sand 50 

Sharp  sand 50 

I  part  Wago  to  35  parts  sand. 

Unusually  strong,  true  and  sharp,  but  not  as  easily  removed  from 
casting  as  the  first  mixture  with  Wago. 

One  of  these  cores  was  dipped  in  water  and  left  for  two  days  to  air 
dry.     The  melted  iron  was  perfectly  quiet  when  poured  around  it. 

Test  No.  5.  —  Cleveland  core-compound  mixture. 

Per  cent 

Old  sand 33 

Sharp  sand 33 

New  moulding  sand 33 

I  part  binder  to  30  parts  sand  tempered  with  warer. 

Strong  core,  easily  removed  from  casting,  very  satisfactory  for  general 
use. 

A  mixture  i  part  binder  to  40  sand  was  tried,  but  cores  were  too  soft. 
Cores  from  the  i  to  30  mixture  when  submitted  to  the  water  test  gave 
excellent  results. 

Test  No.  6.  —  Peerless  core-compound  mixture. 

Per  cent 

Old  sand 33 

Sharp  sand 33 

New  moulding 33 

I  part  binder  to  30  parts  sand. 

The  mixture  as  above  given  was  unsatisfactory,  therefore,  the  follow- 
ing mixture  was  tried. 

I  part  binder  to  20  parts  sand. 

This  was  satisfactory,  being  strong  and  true  to  box,  but  harder  to 
remove  from  castings  than  most  of  those  previously  tested.  It  gave 
good  results  when  submitted  to  the  water  test.  The  iron  showed  no 
signs  of  blowing. 


4S4  Moulding  Sand 

Tests  Nos.  7,  8,  9  were  made  from  sam|)lcs  of  flour  submitted.  Sand 
mixed  in  same  proportions  as  before. 

Thus,  tiic  first  sample  of  Hour  was  mixed  with  15  sand, 
the  second  sample  of  flour  was  mixed  with  18  sand, 
the  third  sample  of  flour  was  mixed  with  20  sand. 

These  were  made  as  comparative  tests  of  the  diflcrent  samples  of 
flour. 

1.  Made  tlie  strongest  core,  but  was  the  most  difficult  to  remove  from 
the  casting. 

2.  Good  for  general  work. 

3.  Was  too  soft. 

A  mixture  of  i  to  18  from  3  to  9  was  good,  better  than  Nos.  2  to  8  in 
same  proportion.  Each  of  the  above  mixtures  was  subjected  to  water 
test  and  failed.  When  withdrawn  from  the  water  and  held  in  hori- 
zontal position,  thej'  broke  at  the  line  of  submersion.  Nos.  2  and  3  were 
not  as  good  in  this  respect  as  No.  i. 

The  cores  from  the  peerless  compound  and  most  of  the  others  resisted 
the  water  so  that  it  could  be  wiped  off  with  a  rag  without  injuring  the 
cores. 

Test  No.  10.  —  Paxton  dry  compound  mixture. 

Percent 

Sharp  sand 33 

New  moulding  sand 33 

Old  sand 33 

I  part  compound  to  30  parts  sand,  made  a  very  soft  core. 

When  mixed  i  to  20  it  made  a  very  strong  core. 

One  of  these  when  subjected  to  the  water  test  went  to  pieces,  while 
the  last  mixture  made  a  strong  open  core.  It  is  readily  affected  by 
moisture. 

Liquid  Core  Binders 

Test  No.  II.  —  Holland  linseed  mixture. 

Parts 

Sharp  sand 30 

Oil I 

Made  a  strong  core  for  small  and  medium  shapes,  but  required  vent- 
ing. A  core  from  this  mixture  immersed  in  water  for  half  an  hour  was 
returned  to  the  oven  and  dried.  It  was  then  as  good  as  any  which  had 
not  been  immersed. 

Test  No.  12.  —  Syracuse  core  oil  mixture. 

Parts 

Sharpsand 35 

Oil I 


Moulding  Sand  Mixtures  485 

Tempered  with  water  and  well  mixed.  These  cores  were  excellent; 
without  vents  were  not  satisfactory. 

A  core  from  this  mixture  was  immersed  for  15  hours,  taken  out  and 
dried  in  the  oven  for  15  minutes.  Molten  iron  when  cast  about  it 
showed  no  disturbance. 

Tests  Nos.  13,  14,  15.  —  Sterling  oil  samples  from  each  of  above  were 
mixed  at  same  time. 

Mixture  Parts 

Sand 3S 

Oil I 

Nos.  I  and  2  of  these  samples  showed  too  much  oil.     No.  3  was  about 

right. 

Another  mixture  was  then  made. 

Parts 

Sand 45 

Oil I 

Nos.  I  and  2  dried  out  quickly  and  made  good  strong  cores,  but  when 
subjected  to  the  water  test  the  moisture  acted  quickly  upon  them, 
more  so  than  on  the  other  sand  and  oil  mixtures.  The  cores  were 
strong  and  were  easily  cleaned  from  the  castings,  but  moulds  which  were 
left  over  night,  and  poured  the  next  day  blew  very  badly. 

Test  No.  16.  —  Gluten  or  Esso  mixture.  Percent 

New  sand 33 

Sharp  sand 3^ 

Old  sand 33 

Gluten I  part  to  30  parts  sand 

Cores  were  so  hard  that  the  iron  would  not  lay  to  them. 

One  part  gluten  to  50  parts  sand,  —  cores  were  good,  sharp  and 
strong.  Iron  somewhat  disturbed.  The  gluten  was  mixed  with  water 
and  the  sand  tempered  with  water. 

One  part  gluten  to  70  parts  sand. 

These  cores  were  soft  and  did  not  stand  the  fire  as  well  as  the  others. 
When  subjected  to  water  as  before 

I  to  30  stood  very  well, 

I  to  50  became  soft, 

I  to  70  melted  like  sugar, 

showing  that  for  a  free  core,  one  not   inclined  to  blow,  i  to  70  took 

moisture  very  quickly. 

Test  No.  17.  —  Glue  melted  in  hot  water  mixture.  p^j.  ^^^^^ 

New  moulding  sand 25 

Sharp  sand 4. 25 

Old  sand 50 

I  pound  of  glue  to  100  pounds  of  sand  for  small  cores. 
I  pound  of  glue  to  150  pounds  of  sand  for  large  cores. 


486  Moulding  Sand 

Lump  or  granulated  glue,  llic  ( hcajK-r  llie  IjcUcr. 

The  glue  water  was  made  by  dissolving  two  pounds  of  glue  in  three 
gallons  of  water. 

Cores  from  the  first  of  the  glue  mixture  when  submitted  to  the  water 
test  absorbed  water  but  hold  their  shajjc.  After  redrj'ing  were  as  g(xxl 
as  when  first  made.  Should  such  cores  be  burned  in  the  oven,  washing 
them  with  a  mixture  of  plumbago  and  glue  water  restores  them. 

Mr.  Loudon  highly  recommends  the  first  of  the  above  glue  mixtures, 
using  it  for  cores  without  vents  for  small  port  cores. 

Cores  made  from  it  can  safely  be  used  for  all  purposes,  taking  care  to 
iiave  them  thoroughly  dried. 

Cores  for  large  beds  have  remained  in  the  mould  three  and  four  days 
without  causing  trouble. 

Test  No.  18.  —  Glucose  melted  with  hot  water  mi.xture.         „ 

Per  cent 

Sharp  sand 33 

New  moulding  sand ^^ 

Old  sand ^^ 

I  pound  of  glucose  to  100  pounds  of  sand. 

Cores  of  every  description  were  first  class,  easily  dried,  easily  cleaned 
from  casting,  emitting  no  smoke.  They  acted  like  green  sand  cores, 
dried  and  gave  good  results  in  every  respect. 

Parting  Sand 

The  particles  of  burned  sand,  having  been  deprived  of  combined  mois- 
ture will  not  cohere.  Such  sand,  taken  from  the  cleaning  room,  is  used 
to  separate  the  parts  of  the  moulds  and  is  also  dusted  on  patterns  to 
prevent  the  moulding  sand  from  adhering  to  them. 

A  most  excellent  parting  sand  for  intricate  work  is  made  by  saturat- 
ing very  fine  burned  sand  with  kerosene  or  crude  oil,  and  setting  fire  to 
the  mixture. 

Lycopodium  is  also  used  for  parting  in  particular  work,  but  the  high 
price  subjects  it  to  adulteration. 

Facings 

When  molten  iron  comes  in  contact  with  a  sand  mould  it  tends  to 
penetrate  the  pores  of  the  sand  and  to  fuse  the  particles  in  immediate 
contact,  leaving  a  rough  surface  or  scale,  varying  in  thickness  from  H* 
to  H  of  an  inch,  depending  on  the  weight  of  the  casting. 

Facing  sands  containing  large  p#rcentages  of  carbonaceous  material 
are  used  to  prevent  this  difficult}'  and  to  lea\'e  smooth  surfaces  on  the 
castings.    The  carbon  of  the  facing  is  decomposed  by  the  heat,  and  the 


Facings  487 

gases  generated  prevent  the  hot  iron  from  attacking  the  sand.  Facing 
sand  which  is  composed  of  ground  coal  (sea  coal),  and  sand  in  the  pro- 
portions of  from  I  coal  to  8  sand,  and  i  coal  to  20  sand,  depending  upon 
the  character  of  the  work,  is  placed  next  to  the  pattern  in  a  layer  from 
H  to  i^^  inches  in  thickness.  Back  of  this  and  completely  filling  the 
flask  is  the  heap,  or  floor  sand.  By  the  continued  use  of  facing  the 
floor  sand  becomes  black  with  it. 
The  term  facing  includes 

Sea  coal,  Coal  dust, 

Plumbago,  Charcoal. 

Talc  (or  soapstone) , 

It  must  adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  mould  and  cause  the  casting  to 
peel  when  shaken  out. 

Sea  coal  is  a  ground  bituminous  gas  coal,  free  from  sulphur  and  slate. 
It  is  mixed  mechanically  with  new  moulding  sand  in  the  proportion 
of  I  to  10,  usually,  and  used  generally  on  all  work.  For  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  smoother  and  brighter  surfaces  than  result  from  the  use  of 
sea  coal  alone  as  a  facing,  the  moulds  are  finished  with  plumbago  or  some 
mixture  of  which  plumbago  is  the  base.  Plumbago  is  the  best  of  all 
materials  for  this  purpose. 

Soapstone  is  used  largely  in  connection  with  plumbago  as  an  adulter- 
ant, as  also  are  coke  dust  and  the  dust  of  anthracite  coal. 

The  facing  is  applied  to  the  mould  either  by  hand,  with  a  camel's  hair 
brush,  or  it  is  mixed  with  molasses  water  and  applied  by  a  spray  or  with 
a  brush.     The  latter  method  is  usually  used  on  dry  sand  moulds. 

Mr.  W.  G.  Scott  gives  the  analysis  of  Yougheogheny  gas  coal,  from 
which  the  best  "sea  coal"  facing  is  made  as  follows: 

Per  cent 

Moisture i . 00        Sulphur 0.33 

Volatile  matter 35  •  00        Ash 5  ■  60 

Fixed  carbon 58  07         Specific  gravity i .  28 

Cannel  coal  is  also  used  as  facing  and  analyzes  as  follows: 

Moisture 3 . 30        Sulphur o.  20 

Volatile  matter 48 .  50        Ash 6 .  00 

Fixed  carbon 42.00        Specific  gravity 1.229 

"Sulphur  and  ash  are  the  two  constituents  of  sea  coal  to  be  guarded 
against.  If  sulphur  exceeds  0.75  the  coal  is  inferior,  and  if  sulphur  is 
in  excess  of  1.5,  the  coal  is  unsuitable  for  facing. 

"Facing  containing  over  11  per  cent  ash  ought  not  to  be  used. 

"Slack  and  culm  are  often  ground  and  used  as  adulterants,  but  are 
readily  detected  by  the  amount  of  ash  present. 


488  Moulding  St.uifl 

Graphite  Facing 

"Pure  gr;ii)hile  contains  al)oui  <)')  per  <ent  carbon,  but  this  degree 
of  purity  is  not  found  in  the  natural  product.  A  high  grade  natural 
graphite  contains  75  per  cent  carbon;  inferior  grades  contain  from  15 
to  65  per  cent. 

"As  the  regulation  method  of  determining  carbon  in  facings  is  to 
burn  oil  a  weighed  amount  of  sample  and  call  the  loss  carbon,  an  un- 
scrupulous dealer  may  add  coke  or  anthracite  dust  sufBcient  to  raise 
the  carl)on  content  to  any  desired  point. 

"Adulterations  of  this  sort  may  be  determined  in  several  ways. 

"If  several  small  beakers  arc  filled  with  water  and  pure  graphite, 
coke  dust,  anthracite  dust,  soft  coal  dust  or  charcoal  are  carefully 
sprinkled  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  each  in  a  separate  glass,  none  of 
the  powder  will  settle  except  the  coke  dust  and  some  charcoals.  This 
test  eliminates  coke  dust  and  non-greasy  charcoals.  By  shaking  in  a 
test  tube  M  gram  of  the  sample  with  15  c.c.  of  acetone  and  allowing 
the  mixture  to  stand  10  or  15  minutes,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  pure 
graphite  settles  clear,  leaving  the  liquid  colorless.  Coke  imparts  a 
gray  to  the  solution  and  remains  in  suspension  a  long  time;  anthracite 
coal  imparts  a  faint  brown  color  and  settles  more  rapidly;  soft  coal 
dust  imparts  a  deep  brown  color. 

"The  above  tests  are  qualitative  onl}'.  Equal  parts  of  glacial  acetic 
acid  and  sulphuric  ether  answer  as  well  as  acetone  for  this  test." 

The  following  analyses  from  Scott  of  graphite,  coke  dust,  coal  and 
charcoal  give  a  general  idea  as  to  the  character  of  the  different  forms 
of  carbon. 

Chemically  Pure  Graphite 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Moisture o .  02  Sulphur o .  00 

Volatile  matter 0.09  .\sh o-.  10 

Fixed  carbon 99-79 

Commercially  Pure  Graphite 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Moisture o.  15  Sulphur trace 

Volatile  matter o .  79  .^sh 4 .  46 

Fixed  carbon 94.60  Specific  gravity 2.293 

Stove-plate  Graphite  Facing 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Moisture o.  75  Sulphur o.  20 

Volatile  matter 5.29  .\sh 37-66 

Fixed  carbon 56. 10  Specific  gravity -  -363 


Facings 


489 


The  Composition  of  Ash  in  Above  Sample  is 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Silica 25 .  60  Lime i .  07 

Alumina 5.25  Magnesia o .  80 

Iron  oxide 4-94 

Cheap  "Green  Sand"  Facing 


Per  cent 

Moisture o .  45 

Volatile  matter 5 .  75 

Fixed  carbon 41-49 

Sulphur 0.62 

Ash 51-69 

Specific  gravity 2 .  489 


Per  cent 
Of  which  the  ash  analyzed. 

Silica 32- 13 

Alumina 2.77 

Iron  oxide 6 .  78 

Lime i .  64 

Magnesia 8.32 


This  sample  was  said  to  contain  25  per  cent  soapstone. 
The  following  analyses  are  given  for  comparison. 


Coke  Dust 


Per  cent 

Moisture o.  19 

Volatile  matter i .  40 

Fixed  carbon 86 .  89 


Per  cent 

Sulphur 0.98 

Ash 10.54 

Specific  gravity 1.886 


Anthracite  Coal  Dust 


Constituents 


Selected 

lump, 
per  cent 


Screenings, 
per  cent 


Moisture 

Volatile  matter. 
Fixed  carbon . . . 

Sulphur 

Ash 

Specific  gravity 


-OS 

4.40 

92.00 

.57 
2.98 
1.565 


3.50 
3.99 
5.70 
.86 
r.9S 
C-590 


Analysis  of  Soft  Coal 


Constituents 

Selected 

lump, 

per  cent 

Screenings, 
per  cent 

1.39 

33.82 

58.68 

.96 

S.iS 

1. 321 

4.44 
32.79 
37.61 

3.10 
22.06 

1.486 

Sulphur 

Ash 

400 


Mouldiii)^  S;in(l 
Analysis  ok  Wood  Charcoal 


c  . 

Common 

variety, 
per  cent 

Medicinal, 
per  cent 

38j 
26.57 
66.63 
None 
a. 97 
1.363 

3.66 
33. IS 
58.52 
None 
4.67 
I  412 

Ash 

Analysis  of  Soapstone  and  Talc 


Constituents 

Vermont 

soapstone, 

per  cent 

French 

talc, 
per  cent 

SI.  20 
8.4S 

5.22 

1.17 
26.79 
717 

61.8s 

■  25 

2.61 

Trace 

34. 52 

.77 

Iron  o.xide 

Magnesia 

Water 

Mr.  Scott  gives  the  following  as  a  test  for  the  presence  of  anthracite 
coal  in  graphite. 

"Treat  0.5  gram  of  sample  with  50  c.c.  of  strong  nitric  acid,  boiling 
about  10  minutes.  Then  add  0.5  grams  of  pulverized  f)Otassium  chlo- 
rate and  boil  until  most  of  the  chlorine  is  oCF.  Dilute  with  30  c.c.  of 
cold  water  and  filter,  reserving  the  filtrate  for  examination. 

The  filtrate  from  pure  graphite  treated  in  this  manner  should  be 
clear  and  colorless  unless  iron  is  present,  in  which  case  it  may  be  some- 
what yellow  in  color. 

The  filtrate  from  any  kind  of  coal  and  charcoal  will  have  a  distinct 
amber  brown  color,  the  soft  coals  giving  a  deeper  color  than  the  hard 
coals  or  charcoal. 

To  confirm  the  test  add  30  c.c.  of  stannous  chloride  solution  and 
note  the  change  in  color.  The  graphite  filtrate  will  be  reduced  to  a 
colorless  liquid  if  iron  is  present,  or  remain  unchanged  if  free  from 
iron;  whereas  the  filtrate  from  the  coal  having  an  amber  color  will  be 
much  deeper  in  color  and  in  some  cases  nearly  black.  The  only  caution 
to  be  observed  in  this  test  is  sulTicient  boiling  to  remove  all  of  the  hydro- 
carbon coloring  matter  in  the  coal. 

The  determination  of  magnesia  is  the  onl)-  method  to  be  relied  upon 
for  detecting  the  addition  of  soapstone  to  graphite.     Mi.xed  with  graph- 


Facings  491 

ite  or  anthracite  dust,  it  answers  very  well  for  certain  classes  of  work. 

Facing  made  entirely  of  anthracite  or  mixed  with  a  low  grade  of 
natural  graphite  is  termed  Mineral  Facing  and  is  represented  by  one 
or  more  letters  X  to  designate  the  fineness.  Such  facings  may  be  added 
to  wet  blacking;  or  mixed  with  graphite,  may  be  used  on  heavy  work. 

All  facings  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place  as  they  readily  absorb  mois- 
ture. A  high  grade  of  plumbago  makes  the  most  suitable  facing  for 
producing  bright  clean  castings.  A  good  plumbago  must  not  only 
have  the  proper  chemical  analysis,  be  of  such  refractory  nature  as  to 
withstand  the  hot  iron  from  cutting  into  the  mould,  but  must  also  be  of 
such  a  nature  as  will  not  retard  the  flow  of  the  molten  metal." 


CHAPTER   XXT 

THE   CORE   ROOM   AND   APPURTENANCES 

Tin:  important  relation  which  the  core  room  bears  to  the  foundry 
product  demands  the  most  careful  consideration  as  to  location,  con- 
struction and  equipment.  Unfortunately  for  the  core  maker,  such  con- 
siderations have  been  neglected  in  many  foundries.  Whatever  could, 
htus  been  made  to  serve  so  long  as  the  imperative  demands  were 
satisfied.  Good  castings  cannot  be  made  without  good  cores.  Their 
production  requires  the  same  attention  and  forethought  as  the  making 
of  good  moulds. 

Constant  intercommunication  between  the  moulding  floors  and  core 
room,  the  handling  of  sand,  fuel  and  ashes,  etc.,  point  to  a  location 
affording  the  greatest  accessibility  to  the  moulding  floors  and  to  the 
storage  for  sand  and  fuel. 

The  core  room  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  The  space 
allotted  should  be  ample,  not  only  for  the  convenience  of  the  workmen 
but  for  storage  of  supplies,  movable  equipment,  core  plates,  etc.,  so  that 
the  place  may  be  kept  neat  and  orderly.  The  arrangement  of  the 
work  benches,  machinery,  cranes,  racks,  etc.,  must  be  governed  by 
circumstances. 

The  oven  is  the  important  feature  in  the  core  room.  WTiere  the  cores 
arc  not  very  large  and  the  demand  for  them  not  ver\'  great,  some  form 
of  fxjrtable  oven  may  answer  the  purpose.  Many  varieties  are  made, 
adapted  to  small  and  medium  work.  The  convenience  offered  by  them 
in  placing  and  removing  cores  before  and  after  baking,  the  small  floor 
space  occupied  and  the  small  fuel  consumption  commend  them  for 
light  work.  Most  large  foundries  have  one  or  more  of  these  ovens. 
\\Tiere  great  quantities  of  small  cores  are  required,  some  form  of  con- 
tinuous oven  is  frequently  used.  An  oven  with  a  revolving  reel  is  very 
desirable  for  medium-sized  work. 

The  sketch  below  is  taken  from  West's  ".\merican  Foundry  Practice," 
page  133- 

"The  oven  is  round,  with  an  upright  cast-iron  shaft,  having  five 
flanges  on  which  to  bolt  plates  or  arms  A'A',  the  shape  of  which  is 
shown  at  B.  This  oven  is  built  with  an  8-inch  brick  wall  to  form  the 
outside  and  a  cast-iron  plate  for  the  top,  on  which  plate  is  a  box  D,  to 

492 


The  Core  Room  and  Appurtenances 


493 


which  a  cap  can  be  bolted  to  hold  the  top  of  the  shaft,  the  bottom  of 
which  rests  in  a  cast  iron  seat. 

"The  fireplace  should  be  outside  of  the  circle,  as  shown,  so  that  the 
cores  will  not  get  the  direct  heat  from  the  fire.  In  building  the  walls, 
hinges  HH,  should  be  built  in  for  hanging  the  oven  door. 


Fig.  134. 

"This  door  should  be  made  in  two  pieces,  so  as  to  open  to  the  right 
and  left,  and  should  be  the  full  height  of  oven,  to  provide  for  putting 
cores  on  the  top  shelves. 

"The  chimney  should  have  a  top  flue,  as  well  as  a  bottom  one,  as 
shown  at  PP  and  dampers  in  both,  so  as  to  throw  the  heat  down  or 
up,  as  required. 

"When  starting  a  fire,  both  dampers  should  be  open,  and  when  the 
cores  to  be  dried  are  on  the  top  shelf,  the  bottom  damper  may  be  closed, 
and  vice  versa. 

"This  style  of  oven  is  very  handy  for  drying  cores  that  can  be  lifted 
by  hand,  and  will  hold  and  dry  more  cores  with  less  fuel  than  any  oven 
I  know  of.  Should  you  want  to  dry  a  single  core  quick,  put  it  on  the 
top  shelf  and  turn  it  round  to  the  fire. 

"This  oven  can  be  filled  with  cores  and  they  can  be  taken  out  again 
without  going  farther  than  the  door,  which  alone  is  of  great  value  to 
the  core  maker. 

"The  size  of  this  oven  was  about  8  feet  in  diameter  and  7  feet  high." 
The  oven  was  heated  with  a  cast-iron  fire  basket. 

On  page  135  of  same  book  is  shown  a  sketch  for  a  small  oven  of  which 
Mr.  West  speaks  very  highly.  The  advisability  of  building  such  an 
oven  is  somewhat  doubtful,  however,  in  view  of  the  great  variety  of 
portable  ovens  on  the  market  which  can  be  purchased  at  a  reasonable 
price. 


4*)4 


I'liL-  Core  RiKtin  .imi  Appurlcnances 


For  larKC  cores  the  dimensions  of  llie  oven  arc  governed  entirely  by 
llie  re(|uiremcnts  of  the  foundry. 

Unless  tlic  drying  of  large  moulds  is  comtcmj)lated,  it  is  not  advisable 
lo  make  an  oven  more  than  12  feet  wide  by  20  feet  long.  Where  greater 
capacity  is  required,  it  is  better  to  duplicate  it,  on  account  of  the  greater 
loss  of  fuel  in  large  ovens,  which  are  not  stored  to  their  full  limits. 


S^  Firina 


^^^mmmmmm^mm^^^ 


Fig.  135.  —  Core  Oven 

Among  the  sketches  of  large  ovens  shown  bj-  Mr.  West,  that  on  page 
227,  "Moulders'  Te.xt  Book,"  presents  a  most  excellent  design.  An  en- 
larged sketch  is  given  above.  The  dimensions  may  of  course  be  varied 
to  suit  the  requiremenls. 

Mr.  West  in  descriliing  ovens  of  this  design  says:  "They  surpass 
any  1  know  of  for  properly  drying  moulds  or  cores.     Although  we  use 


The  Core  Room  and  Appurtenances  495 

slack  or  soft  coal  for  the  fires,  a  mould  or  core  will  when  dry,  be  almost 
as  clean  as  when  first  put  into  the  oven.  Another  important  feature 
is  that  the  ovens  will  dry  rapidly  and  still  not  burn  a  mould  or  core. " 

Three  ovens  are  fired  from  one  pit,  the  draft  flues  being  at  the 
extreme  ends  of  the  oven  and  the  channel  for  heat  to  travel  being  di- 
verted from  side  to  side.  There  is  but  a  small  chance  for  heat  to  escape 
entering  through  the  joints  and  thickness  of  the  boiler  plate  up  into  the 
oven,  before  it  can  enter  the  flue  at  F,  H  and  K.  The  arrow-like  lines 
represent  the  heat  passing  from  the  fires  to  the  flue.  The  partitions  X 
divert  the  direction  of  the  heat  and  also  support  the  covering  plates 
and  carriage  tracks. 

The  covering  plates,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  and  7  are  boiler  iron  !4  inch  thick, 
cut  into  sections  the  width  of  the  flue  partitions. 

The  plates  on  the  outside  of  the  track  are  free  at  any  time  to  be 
lifted  in  order  to  clean  out  the  soot.  Where  the  fire  enters  the  first 
flue  or  partition," the  boiler  plates  are  left  out,  and  in  their  place  a  cast- 
iron  plate  '/2  inch  thick,  having  prickers  2  inches  long  (on  underside) 
and  daubed  up  with  fire  clay  is  used. 

This  is  to  prevent  the  direct  flame  from  buckling  and  burning  out  the 
plates. 

There  are  no  holes  whatever  in  any  of  the  plates,  the  heat  passing 
through  them  and  their  joints,  which  of  course  are  not  air  tight,  heat 
up  the  oven. 

Were  there  holes  in  the  plates,  they  would  seriously  injure  the  draught 
of  the  under  flues,  and  also  let  much  of  the  smoke  into  the  ovens,  thereby 
destroying  essential  points  to  be  overcome  in  using  slack  for  firing. 

To  be  able  to  fire  with  sl?rtk  or  soft  coal,  and  still  keep  moulds  and 
cores  free  from  soot  is  something  that  will  be  appreciated  by  all  moulders 
and  core  makers  that  work  around  ovens.  Not  only  does  soot  make 
everything  look  dirty,  but  it  is  more  or  less  productive  of  rough  castings. 

"Another  arrangement  which  I  doubt  being  found  in  any  other 
foundry  oven  is  that  for  preventing  smoke.  Upon  each  side  of  the  fire- 
places, about  on  a  level  with  the  fire,  are  ?6-inch  openings,  seen  at  E 
in  elevation.  In  the  rear  of  these  openings  the  brick  is  left  open  about 
4"  X  6",  running  the  entire  length  of  the  fireplace.  This  opening  gives 
a  reservoir  in  which  the  air  becomes  heated  before  being  drawn  into 
the  fireplace.  This  is,  I  believe,  claimed  to  be  beneficial  in  assisting 
'smoke  burning'  or  combustion." 

The  grate  surface  for  the  fire  contains  an  area  equal  to  about  32"  X  38". 

"The  fireplaces  are  all  faced  with  one  thickness  of  fire  bricks,  and  the 
tops  of  fireplaces  are  arched  over  with  fire  bricks.  Under  the  large 
oven  are  two  fireplaces.     The  one  nearest  core  oven  is  used  for  heating 


496  The  Core  Room  and  A|jpurlenanccs 

llic  same,  and  is  so  constructed  with  damper  arrangement,  that  should 
an  extra  heat  be  required  in  the  large  oven,  both  of  the  fires  can  be  turned 
on  to  it. 

"As  shown  at  D  in  elevation  of  oven,  each  one  has  a  small  manhole 
door,  whereby  liie  flue  leading  to  the  chimney  K  can  be  readily  cleaned. 

"The  lops  of  the  ovens  are  covered  with  a  series  of  arches. 

"  Upon  tlic  toi)s  of  these  ovens  we  store  anfl  keep  shop  tools,  etc.  The 
way  the  tops  arc  formed,  tons  of  weight  can  be  laid  ui>on  them  and  do 
no  harm;  and  the  comljined  area  of  the  tops  makes  a  splendid  store- 
room for  systematically  keeping  foundry  tools." 

"  .'Vltogether  the  ovens  are  a  success,  and  a  credit  to  their  designer, 
the  late  Mr.  Halloway. " 

Note.  —  Only  one  of  the  ovens  is  shown  in  the  sketch.  The  other  two 
are  in  all  respects  the  same  as  the  one  shown. 

Another  excellent  design  for  a  large  oven  is  shown  on  page  129,  West's 
"American  Foundry-  Practice."  A  description  of  one  good  oven  is  all 
that  can  be  permitted  here. 

The  essential  requirements  for  an  oven  are  good  draught  and  means 
for  regulating  it.  Where  the  fire  is  made  directly  in  the  oven,  as  is 
frequently  the  case,  there  should  be  openings  into  the  chimney  at  the 
top  and  bottom,  with  dampers  for  changing  the  direction  and  regulating 
the  draught.  There  should  also  be  a  damper  on  top  of  the  chimney 
so  as  to  retain  the  heal  when  the  fire  is  not  urged.  Aside  from  coal  and 
coke,  crude  oil  and  natural  gas  are  used  for  heating. 

The  temperature  of  the  ovens  should  range  from  450°  to  900°  F.  and 
must  be  varied  somewhat  according  to  the  core  sand  mi.xtures. 

Flour  sand  requires  a  higher  temperature  than  rosin  or  oil.  The 
workmen  soon  learn  the  part  of  the  oven  in  which  the  drying  is  most 
rapid  and  place  the  cores  where  they  will  dry  quickly  or  slowly  as  re- 
quired. 

A  pyrometer  is  a  most  valuable  attachment  and  will  often  prevent 
the  destruction  of  cores  by  overheating. 

The  doors  to  these  ovens  are  usually  made  in  one  piece  of  sheet  iron 
and  arc  provided  with  counter  weights,  so  as  to  permit  of  being  raised 
or  lowered  easily.  In  some  cases  they  are  made  of  overlapping,  plain  or 
corrugated  strips,  which  are  wound  upon  rollers. 

Core  Oven  Carriages 

These  are  mounted  on  wheels  having  anti-friction  bearings.  The 
top  of  the  carriage  extends  over  on  each  side  as  far  us  convenient.  The 
carriages  have  usually  three  or  more  decks  as  required.     The  whole 


Wire  Cutter  497 

is  made  up  of  bars  and  angles  properly  trussed,  and  left  as  open  as 
possible,  for  the  passage  of  hot  air  to  the  cores. 

The  track  should  be  evenly  laid,  so  that  there  may  be  no  jarring  as 
the  car  passes  over  it. 

Mixing  Machines 

Machines  for  this  purpose  are  of  greatest  value  to  the  core  room. 
The  worth  of  a  binder  and  that  of  a  core  depends  largely  upon  the 
thorough  incorporation  of  the  components  of  the  core.  Each  individual 
grain  of  sand  should  receive  a  coating  of  the  binding  material,  but  the 
latter  should  not  be  present  in  such  quantity  as  to  fill  up  the  pores  of 
the  sand.  To  accomplish  this  result  requires  long-continued  manipu- 
lation. The  best  results  are  obtained  by  a  mechanical  mixer,  driven  by 
power  or  by  hand,  as  the  conditions  permit.  A  machine  of  this  sort  is 
indispensable  in  a  well-appointed  core  room.  There  are  many  different 
kinds  on  the  market.  The  centrifugal  machine  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
desirable. 

Sand  Conveyors 

Many  of  the  large  foundries  are  provided  with  sand  elevators  and 
conveyors,  whereby  the  sand  after  mixing  is  carried  to  the  bench  of 
each  core  maker  and  delivered  through  spouts.  The  necessity  for 
appliances  of  this  sort  will  be  indicated  by  the  extent  and  character  of 
the  work,  simply  bearing  in  mind  that  the  core  maker  should  have  the 
sand  delivered  to  him. 

Rod  Straighteners 

Core  wires  and  rods  by  use  become  crystallized,  and  bent  in  all  manner 
of  shapes;  so  that  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  about  core  rooms,  large 
heaps  of  material  of  this  kind,  which  are  picked  over  by  the  core  maker 
in  search  of  what  he  requires.  In  this  condition  it  is  practically  worth- 
less; therefore  the  expense  for  wire  and  rods  is  not  inconsiderable.  By 
annealing  they  may  be  softened,  and  if  then  passed  through  a  straight- 
ener  are  rendered  serviceable.  Both  hand  and  power  machines  for 
this  purpose  are  made. 

Wire  Cutter 

A.  machine  for  this  purpose  is  very  useful  where  there  are  many  small 
cores  of  a  kind  to  be  made.  Otherwise  the  common  hand  cutter  serves 
the  purpose. 


408 


Tin-  Core  Room  Jind  Appurtenances 


Sand  Driers 

A  SJind  drit-r  is  frequently  very  <lisir.il)le.  A  simple  one  can  l>e  made 
by  taking  a  sheet-iron  cylinder  from  15  to  20  inches  in  diameter, 
and  say  5  feet  long.  Surround  this  by  an  inverted  sheet-iron  frustum 
of  a  cone,  having  a  diameter  at  the  base  sudi  that  the  space  Ijetween 
it  and  the  cylinder  may  contain  any  desired  amount  of  sand.  Near  the 
intersection  of  the  cone  and  cylinder  there  should  be  two  or  more  small 
sliding  doors.  Mount  the  cylinder  on  a  grate  for  coke;  provide  a 
cover  for  the  top  for  checking  the  fire.  This  costs  little  and  will  dry 
sand  very  rapidly.     The  cut  below  shows  a  drier  in  freciuenl  use. 


The  Champion  Sand  Dryer 

Capacity,  20  tons  dail)-. 

Reciuires  less  fuel  and  has  greater  capacity  than  any  of  the  dr>'ers 
now  in  use,  and  being  made  of  cast  iron  throughout,  will  outlast  any 
_^_,  made  partially  of  sheet  iron. 

The  parts,  being  made  interchangeable,  can  be 
replaced  at  any  time. 

Set  the  dryer  upon  a  solid  foundation,  and  first 
placing  casting  No.  i.  in  position,  follow  up  with 
the  other  casting  as  numbered. 


No. 


.Vsh  pan  and  base. 
Flat  rings,  with  slides. 
Wide  ring  of  outside  casing. 
Fire  box. 

Rings  with  which  to  form  casing. 
Center  pipe. 
Outside  pipes. 

Plates  to  secure  top  of  pipes. 
Cover  for  pipes  and  seat  for  stove  pipe. 
Flaring  ring. 
'■     II.     Slide. 
"    12.     Door. 
Nos.  13  and  14.     Grates. 

Fire  lightly,  being  careful  not  to  get  the  dryer  too  hot.  Never  leave 
the  dryer  full  of  sand  with  a  lire  in  it;  and  do  not  attempt  to  use  it  for 
heating  purposes,  as  it  radiates  no  heat  outside  the  casing. 


Core  Plates  and  Driers 

\  great  variety  of  core  plates,  varying  in  sizes,  is  required.     These 
plates  are  usually  rectangular  and  for  sizes  less  than  12  X  20  are  it  inch 


Cranes  and  Hoists  499 

thick.  Larger  plates  are  thicker.  Each  must  be  smooth  and  true  on 
one  side;  on  the  opposite  side  are  cast  stiffening  strips.  Larger  plates 
are  of  sizes  and  shapes  required.  For  work  of  extreme  accuracy,  the 
plates  should  be  planed  on  one  side.  The  exposure  of  these  plates  to 
frequent  heating  and  cooling  finally  warps  them  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  become  unserviceable.  There  should  be  racks  for  the  storage  of 
these  plates  so  that  any  size  desired  may  be  quickly  found. 

Irregular  shaped  cores  which  cannot  be  turned  out  on  flat  plates,  or 
which  must  be  supported  in  drying,  require  iron  shapes  made  to  conform 
to  one  of  the  surfaces  of  the  core.  The  shapes  are  in  reality  portions 
of  the  core  boxes.  The  cores  are  baked  on  them,  thereby  retaining  the 
original  form  when  dried. 

The  expense  for  driers  is  often  great,  therefore  they  should  be  handled 
carefully,  and  put  away  with  the  core  boxes  to  which  they  belong. 

Core  Machines 

Wliere  great  numbers  of  small  cores  of  uniform  cross  section,  round, 
square,  oval,  polygonal  or  rectangular  are  used,  a  core  machine  is 
of  the  greatest  value.  One  of  these  machines  will  make  200  or  300 
linear  feet  of  small  core  in  an  hour.  The  cores  are  pushed  out  of  a 
former  as  sausage  from  a  sausage  machine,  on  to  metal  drying  trays. 
The  cores  are  cut  up  into  lengths  as  required  and  pointed  to  fit  the 
prints. 

There  are  several  different  machines  of  this  kind  made,  but  the 
differences  are  not  important. 

Machines 

Moulding  machines  are  used  in  making  cores  for  plain  work,  where  the 
demand  for  the  product  warrants. 

Machines  for  making  straw  rope.  These  are  little  used  except  in 
pipe  foundries.  It  occasionally  happens  in  a  jobbing  foundry  that  a 
rope  body  for  a  core  is  required.  In  such  a  case  the  rope  is  made  by 
hand.     Straw  rope  is  furnished  by  supply  houses  at  low  cost. 

Cranes  and  Hoists 

The  requirements  and  location  of  these  implements  are  regulated  by 
the  character  of,  and  demand  for,  the  work.  Where  the  work  is  large 
there  should  be  a  traveling  crane  covering  the  track  and  the  "big  floor. " 
Circumstances  will  dictate  in  such  cases. 


500  The  Core  Room  and  Appurtenances 

Oilier  ai)i)lianccs  arc  screw  clamps,  spike  claws,  glue  heaters,  clay 
tubs,  horses,  etc.  In  view  of  the  great  number  of  implemenlii 
nccdetl  about  a  core  room,  the  necessity  for  adequate  room,  that  the 
place  may  be  kept  neatly,  orderly,  and  as  cleanly  as  possible,  will  be 
apparent;  and  as  the  production  of  good  castings  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  cores,  as  well  as  upon  that  of  the  moulds,  the  neglect 
to  provide  proper  facilities  for  the  core  maker  is  inexcusable. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  MOULDING  ROOM 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given,  in  selecting  a  location  for  a 
foundry,  to  the  character  of  the  ground;  good  drainage  is  a  primary 
requisite.  Gravelly  subsoil  is  altogether  desirable.  If  the  natural 
features  of  the  situation  do  not  permit  proper  drainage,  the  surface 
should  be  raised  b}'  proper  filling  so  that  the  floor  may  be  at  least  one 
foot  above  the  ground  exterior  to  the  foundry.  Much  damage  often 
results  from  the  flooding  of  the  floor  during  severe  storms. 

Pits  of  greater  or  less  depth  have  frequently  to  be  made  in  the  floor 
for  heavy  castings,  and  if  the  ground  is  not  well  drained  great  expense 
may  be  involved  in  keeping  the  pits  dry. 

In  preparing  the  moulding  floor  the  surface  soil  should  be  removed 
and  replaced  with  coarse  sandj'^  loam.  After  this  is  leveled  it  should 
be  covered  with  from  2  to  3  inches  of  moulding  sand,  rammed  and 
leveled. 

Provide  gangways  of  liberal  width,  one  leading  from  the  cupola  and 
others  perpendicular  to  it.  The  number  and  location  of  the  gangways 
and  the  subdivisions  of  the  floor  are  dependent  on  the  character  of  the 
business. 

The  main  gangways,  particularly  the  one  leading  out  of  the  foundry, 
should  be  supplied  with  railroad  tracks  of  standard  gauge,  connected 
to  the  switching  sj'stem. 

Where  it  will  best  serve  the  purpose,  ample  space  should  be  set  aside 
for  the  Foundry  Oflice  and  Pattern  Loft.  In  the  selection  of  this 
space  regard  should  be  had  for  access  to  the  pattern  storage.  If  at 
one  end  of  the  shop,  it  may  be  overhead. 

The  proper  lighting  of  a  foundry  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance. The  windows  should  be  large  and  close  together,  and  all  light 
possible  admitted  through  the  roof.  The  monitor  roof  is  generally 
adopted,  but  the  saw  tooth  or  weaving  shed  roof  serves  well.  What- 
ever style  is  adopted,  it  should  carry  provisior  for  good  ventilation. 
No  investment  can  make  larger  returns  than  that  expended  in  procuring 
a  well  lighted  foundry  floor. 

Lavatories  and  closets  are  located  where  most  convenient. 

SOI 


502 


'I'lic  Moulding  Room 


Cranes 

Unless  the  shop  is  small,  or  all  the  work  light,  a  traveling  crane  is 
indispensable.  The  capacity  and  span  of  the  ciane  is  governe<l  by  the 
conditions.  Electric  cranes  are  most  commonly  used  and  arc  probably 
tlic  best  for  the  i)uq)osc.  The  necessity  for  wall  and  post  cranes  will 
1)0  indicated  by  the  requirements  of  the  business.  Liberality  in  supply- 
ing cranes  of  lifting  jwwer  in  excess  of  the  proljable  needs  is  never  mis- 
placed. Occasions  arise  in  every  foundry  which  tax  the  cranes  to  their 
utmost  capacity.  Wire  cables,  instead  of  chains,  for  cranes  are  alto- 
gether preferable.  Warning  is  always  given  of  weakness  in  a  cable, 
whereas  a  link  in  a  chain  may  break  at  any  moment. 

.\bundant  head  room  is  a  matter  of  great  imjjortance.  Too  fre- 
cjuently  the  inability  to  raise  a  heavy  weight  a  few  inches  higher  than 
the  head  room  permits,  occasions  the  greatest  annoyance. 

Hooks  and  Slings 

For  the  strength  and  dimensions  of  hooks,  see  Table,  page  172. 

For  chains,  see  Table,  page 

173- 

Chains  and  hooks  should  be 
frequently  annealed.  They 
arc  liable  to  give  way  at  any 
time  and  seldom  give  warning 
of  weakness.  There  is  an 
endless  variety  of  cliains  and 
hooks  dexised  by  the  ingen- 
uity of  the  moulder  to  meet 
exigencies  which  continually 
arise.  Fig.  137  furnishes  ex- 
amples of  those  in  ordinary 
use. 

Hooks  and  Chains 

Figs.  I,  2,  3,  4  and  5  show 
heavy  hooks  for  the  crane. 
No.  1  is  the  t\pe  of  heavy 
^     -=;-,book  for  crane  block. 

- — >}  No.  2  is  an  unattached 
hook  which  is  often  found 
very  convenient. 

Nos.  3,  3,  3  show  different  forms  of  change  hooks.  They  are  used  in 
shifting  a  load  from  one  crane  to  another. 


Fig.  137. 


Lifting  Beams 


503 


Nos.  4  and  5  "S.  &  C. "  hooks,  made  very  heavy,  are  in  frequent 
demand  in  connection  with  heavy  lifting. 

No.  6  is  the  form  of  hook  usually  attached  to  slings  for  lifting  iron 
flasks.  They  are  made  with  flat  or  chisel  points  from  ili  to  3  inches 
wide. 

No.  7  is  the  ordinary  chain  hook. 

No.  8  is  a  claw  hook  for  shortening  hitches  and  adjusting  chain 
lengths. 

No.  9  represents  beam  slings  for  hoisting  copes,  rolling  flasks,  etc. 
The  hooks  should  be  flat  and  thin, 
so  as  to  engage  easily  in  the  long 
links  A,  A.  There  should  be  two 
or  more  of  these  long  links  in  each 
chain,  spaced  at  equal  distances. 
Several  pairs  of  these  slings  about 
every  foundry  where  the  lifting  is 
by  cranes  are  most  convenient. 

No.  10  shows  a  most  serviceable 
sUng.  It  is  usually  fitted  with  grab 
hooks  like  No.  6. 

No.  1 1  is  a  rigid  beam  sling  used 
on  flasks  with  trunnions.  There 
should  be  two  or  more  pairs  of 
this  type  of  sling.  Another  form 
of  trunnion  sling  is  made  of  a  large 
strap  ring  to  which  is  attached  a 
short  chain  with  hook  or  ring  for 
engaging  the  crane  chains. 

No.  12  is  the  ordinary  turn- 
buckle,  an  invaluable  implement; 
of  which  there  should  be  several  pairs  of  varying  strength. 


Fig.  138. 


Lifting  Beams 

No.  13  shows  a  light  forged  beam,  or  spreader.  This  is  most  con- 
venient especially  for  light  work. 

The  usual  lifting  beam  is  made  of  cast  iron  with  notches  for  slings. 
While  such  a  beam  is  very  serviceable,  it  is  too  heavy  to  handle  for 
moderate  weights  and  unsafe  for  heavy  loads. 

No.  14  shows  a  beam  made  of  oak  reinforced  with  iron  straps. 
Such  a  beam  is  light  and  may  be  used  for  moderately  heavy 
loads. 


S04 


The  Moulding  Room 


Fig.  139. 


No.  15  for  licavy  loads. 
The  fjeam  should  be  made 
of  steel  I  beams,  or  chan- 
neb,  and  to  carrj'  any  load 
to  the  full  capacity  of  the 
crane. 

Where  very  large  and 
heavy  cojjcs  are  to  be  lifted, 
the  beam  is  frequently  made 
in  the  form  of  a  cross,  so 
that  attachment  can  be  made 
in  four  or  more  places,  dis- 
tributing the  strain  on  the 
cope  as  desired. 

The  following  table  gives 
the  dimensions  of  I  beams 
and  loads  they  may  safely 
carry.  The  tabic  is  calcu- 
lated for  an  extreme  fibre 
stress  of  12,000  pounds  per 
square  inch. 


Safe  Loads  for  Lifting  Beams 


Safe  load  for 

Depth  of 

Weight 

Area  of 

Width  of 

extreme  fibre 

between 
slings 

I 

beam, 

per 
foot. 

section, 
square 

Thickness 
of  web 

flange. 

stress  of 
12,000  pounds 

inches 

pounds 

inches 

per  square 

inch,  pounds 

8 

6 

16 

4.7 

.26 

363 

4.772 

10 

6 

16 

4.7 

.26 

3.63 

3.818 

8 

8 

22 

6.S 

.27 

4.S 

8.983 

10 

8 

22 

6.S 

.27 

4S 

7.18s 

10 

10 

33 

9-7 

.37 

5.0 

I2.goo 

12 

10 

33 

9-7 

.37 

SO 

I0.7S0 

10 

12 

40 

II. 7 

.39 

S.SO 

I8.7S3 

13 

12 

40 

II. 7 

.39 

S-SO 

IS.627 

14 

IS 

80 

23.S 

.77 

6.41 

29.937 

16 

IS 

80 

23. S 

.77 

6.41 

26,aoo 

16 

20 

80 

23. S 

.60 

7.00 

36.22s 

18 

20 

80 

23. S 

.60 

7.00 

32.200 

18 

24 

80 

23. S 

•SO 

6.9s 

38.136 

20 

24 

80 

23. S 

.SO 

6.9S 

34.323 

Binder  Bars 


S05 


No.  16  shows  a  cross  with  detachable  arms.  This  is  frequently  used 
for  large  copes  or  rings,  where  the  points  of  attachment  must  be  dis- 
tributed equally.  It  does  not  answer  for  very  great  weights.  Crosses 
with  shorter  arms  cast  in  one  piece  are  often  of  great  service. 

The  foundry  supplies  itself  with  such  appliances  as  occasion  requires. 


n 


Fig.  140. 

Binder  Bars 

Binder  bars  are  usually  made  of  cast  iron,  except  for  very  heavy  work, 
when  steel  beams  are  used.  The  binders  are  ordinarily  made  in  open 
sand  with  the  ends  slotted  for  bolts.  For  heavy  work  holes  are  made 
in  the  ends  instead  of  slots. 

..  ■-  upper  Rib  for  Heavy  Sars 


Fig.  141. 


The  binders  are  held  by  bolts  to  similar  bars  under  the  bottom  board 
of  flask,  or  are  fastened  to  anchors  in  the  floor.  For  safe  loads  on  steel 
I  beams  employed  as  binders,  multiply  the  loads  given  in  the  table 
on  page  504. 

Binder  bars  for  supporting  sides  of  flasks  are  of  same  character  as 
those  for  holding  down  copes,  except  that  they  are  shorter  and  not  as 
heavy. 


5o6 


The  Moulding  Room 


Clamps 

There  arc  many  types  of  clamps  on  the  market.  Adjustable,  steel 
and  malleable  iron,  but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  anything  has  lx^cn 
found  to  take  the  place  of  the  common,  old  fashioned,  cast-iron  cUimp 
and  wooden  wedge. 

A  large  assortment  of  the  sizes  in  ordinar>'  u.sc  should  l>e  kept  on 
hand.  Where  vcr>'  long  ones  are  required  D  wrought  iron  bars  arc 
bent  to  shape.  It  is  the  better  practice,  howe\er,  to  use  binders  in 
place  of  exceedingly  long  clamps. 


^ 


i7    ^ 


Fig.  142.  Fig.  145. 

Iron  flasks  are  frequently  held  together  by  short  clamps  on  tie  flanges. 


Flasks 

The  wood  flask  has  been  used  for  ages  and  has  served  its  purpose 
most  admirably.  Wood,  however,  is  becoming  so  ex-pensive  that  the 
iron  or  steel  flask  is  rapidly  superseding  it. 

Cast-iron  flasks  arc  so  durable  and  so  easily  made,  that  an  assortment 
covering  the  ordinary  range  of  work  is  almost  indispensable. 

The  ordinary  wooden  flask  is  nothing  more  than  a  plain  box.  For 
light  work  it  is  made  of  2-inch  plank,  of  width  and  other  dimensions  to 

suit  the  requirements. 

Fig.  144  shows  the  ordinar}-  wood 
flask  for  light  work;  the  ends  are 
gained  into  the  sides  ]n  inch  and 
spiked.  The  upper  part  is  called 
the  cope  and  the  bottom  the  nowel 
or  drag.  The  depth  of  these  parts 
depends  entirely  on  the  pattern. 

It  is  essential   that  the  joint  at 
"A"    should    be    a    plane  surface. 
or  as  the   workmen  say,   "out   of 
wind. " 
Fig.  144.  £.j(,],    f\^^    jg   provided    with    a 

bottom  board   B.     This  is  made  of  boards  one  inch  thick,  nailed  to 
battens. 

The  limit  for  copes  made  with  no  support  for  the  sand  except  that  of 


Nowel  oFDrscj^^^  I  [ 


fmmmW}w/////////W^77m7m 


<k 


2> 


Flasks 


507 


the  wood  sides  is  about  20  X  20  depending  largely  upon  the  character 
of  the  moulding  sand. 

For  larger  flask-bars,  boards  iV4  inch  thick  are  placed  crosswise 
of  the  cope  and  about  6  or  8  inches  apart.  The  cope  is  also  strengthened 
by  rods  at  the  end  .r  running  from  side  to  side.  The  rods  should  have 
large  washers  under  the  nuts.  There  should  be  one  or  more  rods  at 
each. end  depending  upon  the  depth  of  the  cope.  The  lower  edges  of 
the  bars  are  chamfered  to  sharp  edges,  and  the  edges  are  kept  from 
?4  to  I  inch  away  from  the  pattern,  the  bars  having  been  cut  to  con- 
form to  the  general  shape  of  the  pattern.  Where  the  distance  between 
the  edges  of  the  bars  and  the  surface  of  the  pattern  is  more  than  ?4  inch, 
nails  are  driven  slantwise  into  the  bars  so  that  their  heads  may  come 
within  three-quarters  inch  of  pattern. 

The  cope  is  coated  with  thick  clay  wash  before  placing  it  in  position 
to  receive  the  sand.  The  ordinary  medium-sized  wood  cope  is  gener- 
ally made  as  shown  in  sketch  below. 


(t 


^ui 


-M^ 


< 


■^^ 


-•^^ 


°) 


Fig.  145. 


H^l 
^ 


The  short  bars  A,  A  are  used  where  the  copes  are  over  24  inches 
wide. 

The  following  table  showing  the  thickness  of  plank  desirable  for 
flasks  of  different  dimensions  is  copied  from  the  Transactions  of  the 
American  Foundrymen's  Association.  The  table  is  based  on  a  depth 
of  6  inches  for  copes  and  drags.  For  each  additional  depth  of  6  inches, 
the  thickness  should  be  increased  25  per  cent. 


5o8 


'I'hc  Moulding  Rckjiti 


Square  flasks. 

Sides, 

Bars. 

inches 

inches 

inches 

34  and  under 

jH 

I 

24-36 

2 

1^4 

36-48 

24 

ll-i 

48-60 

3 

l''i 

Rectangular  flasks 

18x48 

3 

I 

18x60 

2 

I 

18x72 

2]^ 

I 

18x84 

2]ri 

I 

24X48 

2 

iH 

24x60 

2 

iM 

24x72 

2!^ 

1K4 

24x84 

2M 

iW 

36x48 

2\<i 

l'/4 

36x60 

2\h 

m 

36x72 

2\<i 

m 

36X84 

2H 

iW 

48x48 

3 

i!.^ 

48x60 

3 

1 4 

48X72 

3 

li-i 

48X84 

3 

iW 

Bars  should  nol  be  o\er  8  inches  apart,  center  to  center. 

Square  flasks,  from  24  to  36  inches  square  should  have  one  row  of 
short  cross  bars  running  through  center  of  flask,  connecting  the  long 
bars  that  extend  from  side  to  side. 

Sizes  from  36  to  48  inches  square  should  have  at  least  one  cast-iron 
bar,  preferably  two,  and  should  also  have  one  row  of  short  cross  bars. 

Sizes  from  48  to  60  inches  square  should  have  two  iron  bars  and  two 
rows  of  short  cross  bars. 

With  rectangular  flasks,  the  statement  that  connecting  bars  are  not 
needed  until  the  flasks  are  36  inches  wide  does  not  accord  with  the 
usual  practice.  Ordinarily  connecting  bars  are  used  in  flasks  over 
18  inches  wide. 

Rectangular  flasks  over  60  inches  wide  should  have  one  cast  bar 
crosswise  in  the  center.  Flasks  over  48  inches  wide  should  have  two 
rows  of  cross  bars  and  two  cast  bars  at  equal  distances  from  the  end  of 
the  flask. 

.\11  copes  should  have  a  'i-inch  bolt  ruiminu  from  side  to  side  at  each 
end.  and  where  the  cope  is  longer  tlian  three  feet  it  should  have  a  bolt 
in  the  center.     Where  copes  are  over  6  feet  long,  the  bolts  should  be 


Flasks 


50Q 


spaced  every  two  feet  apart.    All  bolts  should  have  large  washers  at 
each  end. 

Drags  should  also  have  bolts  at  each  end,  but  as  conditions  often 
prevent  their  use  in  the  center, 
long-nosed  clamps  placed  cross- 
wise every  iS  to  24  inches  and  se- 
curely wedged  are  recommended. 

The  form  of  flask  shown  above 
is  that  most  commonly  used 
when  they  are  made  of  wood. 
It  is  a  short-lived  affair,  being 
quickly  knocked  and  racked  out 
of  shape,  and  soon  goes  to  the 
cupola  for  kindling  wood.  Such 
flasks  may  be  greatly  strength- 
ened and  their  durability  in- 
creased by  bolting  cast-iron  angles 
in  the  corners  or  even  reinforcing  c[ 
the  corners  with  blocks  of  wood, 
well  spiked  to  sides  and  ends. 
^^'^ithout  greatly  increasing  the 
cost  a  far  better  flask  is  made 
by  making  the  ends  of  cast  iron. 
Such  flasks  are  in  common  use 
for   making    cylinders   or   other 


Fig.  146. 


castings,  requiring  large  circular  cores  as  per  following  sketch. 

Flasks  of  similar  construction 
are  often  used  for  cylinders  as 
large  as  20  inches  diameter  of 
bore.  The  sides  of  the  flask 
must  be  made  of  plank  from  3 
to  4  inches  thick  depending  on 
the  size.  For  rectangular  flasks 
made  of  wood  and  iron,  the  con- 
struction shown  below,  offered 
by  Mr.  P.  R.  Ramp,  is  excellent. 

The  suggestion  to  core  the 
trunnion,  as  at  4,  is  also  valu- 
able,  as  it  greatly  reduces  the 


^m^ 


Fig.  147. 
chance  of  unsoundness  at  that  point. 

Flasks  that  are  heavy  enough  to  require  trunnions  should  have  iron 
ends.  The  trunnions  may  be  cast  on  the  ends  or  on  trunnion  plates, 
which  are  bolted  to  the  ends. 


5»o 


The  MouldiriK  K6om 


Iron  Flsisks 

Although  the  first  cost  is  somewhat  greater,  iron  flasks  soon  pay  for 
themselves  by  durability.  They  arc  stronger,  more  rigid  and  reduce 
the  liabiUty  to  swells  and  run-outs. 

The  copes  and  drags  of  small  iron  flasks  arc  usually  marJc  each  in 
one  piece.  At  the  joints  for  flasks  with  straight  sides,  flanges  e.\lend 
all  the  way  around  the  inside. 

The  handles  may  be  of  wrought  iron  cast  in  place,  or,  of  cast  iron,  for 
sizes  requiring  two  men  to  lift  the  cope. 

Some  are  made  with  sides  turned 

>U  iL  up  edgewise  like  troughs,  so  that  the 

°~^{|  [7"°     greatest  length  and  breadth  will  be 

at  the  middle  of  the  section. 

These  arc  more  expensive  to  mould 
and  present  no  advantages  over 
the  flask  with  flat  sides  as  shown 
in  fjg.  148. 


Fig.  148. 


Fig.  149. 


An  assortment  of  small  flasks  of  this  description,  ranging  from  12  X  14 
to  16  X  i8  is  of  great  value  to  any  foundr>-. 

Iron  flasks  of  medium  and  large  sizes  are  best  made  in  sections  and 
bolted  together. 

Flasks  of  this  stjde  are  made  and  fitted  up  very  quickly.  .\  few 
[)attcrns  answer  for  a  large  assortment.  With  proper  stop-ofi's,  the  ends 
and  sides  can  be  lengthened  or  shortened  as  desired. 

Where  the  copes  are  too  large  to  be  lifted  off  by  hand,  bosses  are 
cast  on  the  end.  These  arc  drilled  to  receive  a  yoke  and  the  cope  may 
then  be  lifted  by  crane  and  turned. 

If  the  flask  is  heavier  than  can  be  safely  lifted  with  such  a  yoke, 
trunnions  may  be  made  on  the  ends  and  heavier  lifting  gear  emplojxd. 

The  requirements  for  hea\"y  flasks  are  so  varied  that  it  is  impossible 
to  specify  any  general  type. 

By  making  them  in  standard  sections  as  much  as  possible,  having 


Iron  Flasks 


511 


the  parts  interchangeable,  a  rectangular  flask  of  almost  any  required 
dimensions  may  be  constructed.  By  so  doing  the  number  of  flasks  is 
greatly  reduced. 


Section  A-B 


15 

a 

0       0         goolpogj       0      0 

0                        0      1      0                       0 
0       0^1^  j3  0      00     0  0   ,£1,0      0 

a 

1 m 

a 

0         o'T'o    0           0'         0         0  'H'o         0 

00          00        000 
0000        ooooo 

9y 

Fig.  150. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  number  and  store  the  parts  systematically  so 
that  they  may  be  readily  accessible. 

It  is  seldom  that  a  large  flask  will  need  to  be  less  than  6  feet  by  8  feet, 
and  12  inches  deep.  Starting  with  the  end  pieces  6  feet  X  i  foot,  and 
having  four  distance  pieces,  each  i,  2,  3  and  4  feet  long,  ends  can  be 
assembled  6,  8,  10,  12,  14,  16  and  18  feet  long;  by  duplicating  the  parts, 
the  depth  of  cope  or  drag  can  be  made  any  number  of  even  feet. 

Where  the  depth  of  cope  or  drag  is  over  one  foot,  it  is  desirable  to 
break  joints  in  lapping  the  sections. 

It  is  better  to  have  the  trunnion  plates  loose,  so  that  they  may  be 
bolted  to  any  of  the  4  or  6  feet  lengths. 


o  C 


Fig.  151. 

The  top  and  bottom  edges  must  be  planed  and  the  holes  in  ends  and 
sides  drilled  to  templets. 

Flanges  top  and  bottom  must  be  from  $H  to  4  inches  wide,  and  the 
4  and  6  feet  sections  drilled  at  the  center  of  flanges  for  pins.    The 


si; 


'I'hc  MouMiiiK  Room 


pl:ine<I  surface  need  only  be  ?«  inch  wide;   lli:'  ll.inKes  should  drop  away 
from  edges  from  H  to  ^\n  inch. 

The  ucIj  of  sections  should  be  ':>>  iiicii  thicii  and  the 
flanges  i '  <  inches. 

Tlic  lifting  is  in  most  cases  done  by  attaching  to 
the  flanges,  but  wiierc  the  weight  is  loo  great  to  be 
-;ifely  borne  by  these  flanges,  heavy  wrought-iron 
loops  are  bolted  to  the  sections,  for  points  of  attach- 
ment. 

On  page  gS,  "American  Foundr>-  Practice,"  Mr. 
West  shows  an  admirable  form  of  extension  flask  for 
moderate  sizes. 

"The  handles  W,  W,  are  of  wrought  iron  cast  into 
the  flask.  They  are  placed  on  a  slant  so  as  to  be  in  line  with  the  chains 
when  lifting.  Guides  A",  A'  should  be  cast  on  for  driving  stakes  along 
the  side.  The  plate  Y  forms  the  end  of  flask.  Should  it  be  desired  to 
make  the  flask  longer,  distance  pieces  may  be  bolted  in  between  the 
flask  proper  and  the  plate  Y. 

TI 


a !     i 

Fig.  152. 


^ 


r 


N»  I 


:>0_ 


.J 


afJ 


1 


TT 


X" 


I. 


^r 


Lim 


ToTy 

■oi) 


"Tjo 


Fig.  153. 

"To  accomplish  the  same  purpose,  the  whole  flask  may  be  cast  in  one 
piece,  and  the  bottom  edge  of  Y  cut  out  ^i  of  an  inch  so  there  may 
be  no  bearing  on  the  joints.  When  a  longer  flask  is  wanted  a  section 
may  be  bolted  to  it.  Tliis  is  not  as  desirable  as  the  form  shown  in 
sketch. " 

Flasks  of  this  style  are  commonly  used  as  copes  to  cover  bedded  work. 


Iron  Flasks 


513 


Where  the  conditions  do  not  warrant  the  extension  flask  as  above 
described  special  flasks  are  more  or  less  in  demand. 


30  0  0 

Jo  0  0 

000 

0  0 
000 

000 

0  0 
000 

000 

0  0 
000 

000 

0  0 

000 

0  0  or 

0  0  0  [_ 

Jo  0  0 

-.00 
->o  0  0 

000 

0  0 
000 

000 

0  0 
000 

000 

0  0 
000 

000] 
0  0 

0  0  0  1 

0  0  o[; 
0  0  ,- 

0  0  oL 

Jo  0  0 
-,00 
Jo  0  0 

000 

0  0 
000 

000 

0  0 
000 

000 

0  0 

000 

000 

0  0 
000 

0  0  or 

°  °  r 
0  0  oL 

Fig.  154. 

The  above  sketch  represents  an  ordinary  heavy  flask  (cope)  say 
6'  X  12'  X  3'. 

In  making  large  door  frames,  where  the  interior  of  the  flask  is  not 
used,  or  for  similar  work,  it  is  customary  to  have  the  flask  follow  the 
outline  of  the  pattern  and  leave  the  interior  vacant  as  shown  in  sketch 
below.  , ,  


"^ 


T1 


^3  t=^ 

Fig.  155. 

Flasks  are  made  in  all  sorts  of  irregular  shapes  both  in  plan  and  eleva- 
tion, as  necessitated  by  the  patterns.  The  bottom  plates  of  heavy 
flasks  are  made  of  cast  iron.  These  are  fastened  to  the  bottom  flange 
of  the  drag  by  short  heavy  clamps.    Thus. 

Circular  flasks  are  in  common  use.  They 
serve  as  copes  to  wheels  cast  in  the  floor 
and  for  other  purposes.  For  large  wheels 
which  are  swept  up,  instead  of  sweeping  out 
the  face  in  a  pit,  large  rings  are  used  for  the 
cheek.     The  arms  and  hub  are  made  with  ^^^-  ^5^' 

cores  and  interior  of  wheel  swept  up  and  not  disturbed  subsequently. 


514 


The  Moulding  Room 


The  check  is  rammed  up  against  segments,  and  when  hfled  gives  free 

access  to  all  parts  for  finishing. 


Fig.  157 

For  wheels  16  to  18  feet  in  diameter  the  cheeks  are  commonly  made 
in  si.\  segments,  which  are  bolted  together. 


Fig.  158 

Flasks  made  of  sheet  steel  pressed  to  shape  are  light  and  convenient. 

They  are,  however,  mudi 
more  expensive.  They  are 
not  as  durable  as  cast-iron 
flasks,  and  when  worn  out 
are  of  no  value;  whereas 
with  the  cast  flasks,  noth- 
ing is  lost  but  the  labor. 
The  cuts  following  from  a 
manufacturer's  catalogue 
show  standard  tj-pes  of 
light  and  heavy  flasks. 


^l. 

^fil 

Fig.  159. 


Sterling  Steel  Flasks 


515 


Sterling  Steel  Flasks 

The  scarcity  and  increased  cost  of  good  flask  lumber  is  making  it 
necessary  for  foundrymen  to  consider  other  flasks  than  wooden  ones. 

The  line  of  steel  flasks  shown  herewith  combine  strength,  durability, 
lightness  and  efficiency.  They  will  give  splendid  service.  They  have 
in  many  instances  entirely  supplanted  wooden  flasks,  to  the  advantage 
of  the  user  in  every  instance. 


Style  "A"  Square  Ribbed  Tight  Flask 

Sheet  Steel  with  Malleable  Trimmings 

Slock  Sizes 

Height  cope  and  drag,  2H,  3,  ^M,  4,  4H 
and  5  inches. 

Length  cope  and  drag,  12,  14,  16  and  18 
inches. 

Width   cope   and    drag,  12,   14  and   16 
inches. 

Weight  less  than  one-half  as  much  as  cast 
flasks  and  practically  indestructible. 

A  complete  small  square-ribbed  steel  flask  for  general  work  in  all 
foundries,  made  in  above  standard  sizes,  from  which  innumerable 
combinations  can  be  made. 

Can  be  made  in  special  sizes  when  it  is  required  and  a  suflacient  num- 
ber ordered  to  warrant  the  extra  work  in  manufacturing. 


Fig.  160. 


Style  "B"  Round  Ribbed  Tight  Flask 
Sheet  Steel  with  Malleable  Trimmings 

Slock  Sizes 

Height  cope  or  drag,  2H,  3,  3H,  4,  /^H, 
and  5  inches. 

Diameter,  12,  14,  16,  and  18  inches. 

From  the  above  dimensions  many  com- 
binations can  be  made. 

The   illustration   gives   a   clear   idea   of 
round-ribbed    steel    flask   for   general   cir- 
cular  work,   when   the   snap  flask  is  not 
desirable. 

Weighs  less  than  half  as  much  as  a  cast  flask,  and  is  unbreakable. 


5i6 


The  Moulding  Room 


Stvlk  "C"  Square  Convkx  Tight  Flask 
Sheet  Steel  with  M;illcai>li-  Trimmings 
Slock  Sizes 

Height  cojK-  ot  drag,  2'i,  3,  3)4,  4,  44 
and  5  inches. 

Length  cope  or  drag,  12,  14,  16  and 
18  inches. 

Width  cojx-  or  drag,  12,  14  and   16 
inches. 

Tig.  162.  Made  in  the  above  stock  sizes,  which 

admit  of  countless  combinations  of  sizes. 

This  flask  is  particularly  adapted  to  brass,  bronze,  or  any  special 
metal  foundry  work.  It  is  a  new  departure,  having  conve.x  sides  and  ends 
for  holding  the  sand.  It  does  nice  work,  and  while  not  half  as  heavy 
as  the  cast  flask,  is  much  more  durable. 


Style  "F"  Channel  Iron  Floor  Flask 


Fig.  163. 
Slock  Sizes 


Size, 
inches 

Depth, 
inches 

Cope, 
inches 

Drag, 
inches 

Price 

20X24 
20x28 
24x30 
24X36 
30X36 
30X42 

10 
10 
12 
12 
14 
14 

5 
S 
6 
6 
7 
7 

S 
5 
6 
6 
7 
7 

Snap  Flasks 


517 


This  is  a  decided  departure  in  flask  manufacture.  It  is  constructed 
of  structural  channel  steel  with  flanges  to  the  outside,  having  a  smooth 
wall  on  the  inside.  The  interior  is  provided  with  staples  arranged  at 
intervals  to  permit  of  inserting  corrugated  swivel  gaggers  for  sand 
supports. 

This  type  of  flask  does  away  \vith  the  flask  maker  entirely,  as  each 
moulder  arranges  his  gaggers  or  sand  supports  to  suit  the  necessity. 

An  equipment  of  these  flasks  is  an  excellent  investment. 

1.  They  cut  out  the  use  of  expensive  material  (lumber). 

2.  They  practically  do  away  with  the  flask  maker. 

3.  They  eliminate  expense  of  handling  flasks. 

4.  They  will  remain  in  foundry  and  save  storage. 

5.  And  the  most  important  feature  to  be  considered  is  the  increased 
output,  better  castings,  less  scrap,  all  of  which  will  appeal  directly  to 
the  proprietor. 

These  floor  flasks  are  furnished  with  a  complete  equipment  of  corru- 
gated swivel  gaggers  for  sand  supports  which  the  moulder  arranges 
easily  to  suit  requirements. 

Snap  Flasks 

Snap  flasks  are  used  by  bench  molders  for  light  work.  They  must 
be  easily  and  quickly  handled,  although  snaps  are  sometimes  made  so 
large  as  to  require  two  men.  The  flask  is  removed  from  the  mould,  hence 
one  flask  serves  for  an  entire  floor. 


They  are  usually  made  of  cherry  or  mahogany;  the  hinges  should 
lock  and  unlock  quickly  and  be  rigid  when  locked.  The  corners  are 
strengthened  with  iron  comer  bands,  and  the  cope  is  faced  on  top  with 


5i8 


The  Moulding  Room 


iri)n.  For  special  work  ihe  joint  may  be  made  to  conform  with  the 
parting.  Rectangular  snap  llasks  3  feet  long  by  14  to  16  inches  wide 
are  not  uncommon.     For  some  classes  of  work  round  snaps  are  required. 

In  the  hands  of  a  rapid,  skillful  moulder  the  snap  flask  is  an  indispen- 
sable implement  for  a  foundry  ha\ing  large  quantities  of  small  work. 

I'ieces  weighing  as  much  as  100  pounds  may  be  made  in  the  snap 
nask. 

The  cuts  herewith  illustrate  the  construction  of  the  different  kinds 
of  snaps  referred  to. 

Snap  flasks  of  standard  dimensions  from  1 2  X  1 2  to  1 2  X  20  can  be 
purchased  of  most  of  the  foundry  supply  houses. 

Where  many  moulds  are  to  be  made  from  one  pattern,  a  match  board, 
on  which  the  patterns  arc  placed,  and  upon  which  the  parting  is  made, 
is  practically  a  necessity.  If  these  matches  are  not  to  be  preser\'ed, 
and  are  on!)'  to  be  used  for  a  moderate  number  of  moulds,  they  are  made 
of  moulding  sand  and  fine  sharp  sand,  half  and  half,  stiffened  with  molasses 
water,  or  linseed  oil,  and  dried;  but  if  a  permanent  match  board  is  desired, 
a  mixture  composed  of  one-half  new  moulding  sand,  one-half  parting 
sand,  '10  litharge,  mixed  with  linseed  oil  and  thoroughly  dried  will  serve 
admirably.  The  match  should  be  varnished  with  shellac  and  kept  with 
the  pattern.     Such  a  match  board  is  shown  in  Fig.  165.. 


Fig.  165. 


Fig.  166. 


The  moulds  made  in  snap  flasks  must  be  covered  with  weights  before 
they  are  poured.  The  w-eight  should  be  about  I'i  inches  thick  and 
should  cover  the  cope  entirely. 

Where  the  contents  of  the  flask  arc  quite  heavy,  or  where  the  patterns 
approach  the  sides  of  the  flask  closely,  the  moulds  require  to  be  sup- 
ported by  boxes,  as  well  as  to  be  weighted.  For  this  purpose  wood 
boxes  of  i-inch  lumber  are  made  so  that  the  interior  shall  have  the 
same  dimensions  as  the  interior  of  the  whole  flask  (cope  and  drag); 
this  is  shoved  down  over  the  mould  and  supports  it  against  lateral 
pressure.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  boxes  are  not  so  small  as  to 
shave  the  mould  nor  so  large  as  not  to  support  it;  they  should  just  fit  all 
around. 

These  boxes  are  sometimes  made  of  cast  iron.  Very  serviceable  ones 
made  of  sheet  iron  can  be  purchased  at  moderate  prices. 


Pins,  Plates  and  Hinges 


S19 


Galvanized  Iron  Slip  Boxes 
Straight  Taper 


Fig.  167. 

The  above  are  undoubtedly  the  best  slip  boxes  on  the  market.  They 
are  more  durable  than  wood  or  cast-iron  boxes,  are  lighter  and  will  not 
break  by  falling.  They  are  made  either  straight  or  tapered,  of  No.  22 
iron  with  a  No.  9  wire  in  top  and  bottom  and  creased. 

In  ordering,  state  whether  straight  or  tapered  and  give  the  exact 
size  of  inside  of  flasks. 

These  boxes  are  for  light  handling  and  will  not  stand  careless  run-outs, 
as  the  hot  iron  will  warp  them.  They  are  very  rigid,  however,  and  with 
the  ordinary  one-inch  margin  outside  of  pattern  there  will  be  no  run- 
outs. 

When  ordering  taper  jackets,  give  taper  or  degree  per  foot  on  side,  or 
make  sketch  giving  size  of  top  and  bottom,  also  depth  of  drag. 


Pins,  Plates  and  Hinges 

In  order  that  the  cope  of  a  flask,  when  hfted  from  the  drag  after 
ramming,  may  be  returned  exactly  to  its  original  position,  so  that  the 
two  parts  of  the  mould  may  match  perfectly,  guides  must  be  provided 
which  will  insure  correct  closing. 

These  are  frequently  made  of 
wood,  and  if  kept  in  good  shape, 
serve  the  purpose  admirably. 
Wooden  guides  are  especially 
advantageous  for  long  lifts. 

Fig.  1 68  shows  a  wood  guide, 
of  which  there  should  be  at 
least  three  on  the  flask.  The 
moulder  must  exercise  care  when 
preparing  to  ram  up  a  flask,  to 
see  that  the  guides  and  pins  are  securely  nailed,  that  there  is  no  lateral 
play  and  that  the  cope  may  be  lifted  and  returned  to  its  place  with- 
out sticking  at  the  pins. 

Guides  of  this  kind,  while  chiefly  in  use  on  wood,  are  sometimes 
employed  on  large  iron  flasks.     In  the  latter  case  wooden  blocks  are 


J 


ioU 


Fig.  168. 


520 


The  Moulding  Room 


securely  fastened  in  the  potkcts  between  flanges,  and  the  guides  nailed 
tt>  the  blocks. 

The  usual  guide  for  the  ordinary  wood  llask  is  a  common  cast-iron 
|)late  and  pin. 

These  are  continually  getting  loose  and 
furnish  no  end  of  trouble  to  the  moulder 


Fig.  170. 

as  well  as  causing  many  castings  to  be  scrapped.     It  is  the  most  worth- 
less appliance  of  its  kind. 
A  very  good  iron  guide  may  be  made  as  per  sketch.    (I'ig.  170.) 

7: 


m 


m 


®r, 


^ 


u 


HEAVY    HIMGE 
Fig.  171. 

! I  Such  a  guide  may  be  fastened 

/\]    to   the    flask   with    very   little 
i]||  more  work,  and  the  flanges  give 

1  good    support.      An    e.xccllent 

pin    and    guide    is    made    tri- 
angular in  shape. 

Cast-iron  flasks  either  have 
lugs  to  receive  the  pins  and 
holes,  or  where  the  flanges  are 
wide,    pin    holes    are    put    in 

' ■■—  .       .  J         ^jjp^ 

Fig.  172.  — Light  Hinges.  p-^^^   f^^  iro^    flasks   should 

be  accurately  turned,  the  sizes  should  be  standard,  and  those  of  each 


--    VB. 


Pins,  Plates  and  Hinges 


521 


size   interchangeable.    An  assortment  of  such  pins  should  always  be 
kept  on  hand. 


Fig.  173 .  —  Ball  and  Socket  Hinge, 


Fig.  174.  —  Heavy  Hinge. 


Standard  Iron  Flask  Pin  No.  2 
For  Iron  Flasks 


Fig.  175. 

This  is  a  nicely  turned  pin,  with  thread  chased  and  hexagon  nut. 
designed  especially  for  cast-iron  flasks. 


522 


Tlie  Moulding  Room 
Sweeps 


Fig.  176.     ' 

The  above  sketch  shows  the  ordinary  sweep  used  for  making  large 
pulleys,  fly  wheels,  etc.  A  large  chiss  of  work,  circular  in  horizontal 
section,  can  be  made  with  the  sweep,  thereby  saving  largely  in  the 
expense  for  patterns. 

To  obtain  accurate  work  by  the  use  of  tlie  sweep,  the  stepping  .4 
must  be  firmly  placed,  so  that  the  axis  of  tlic  spindle  B  shall  be  vertical. 
The  upper  support  D  must  be  held  rigidly,  either  by  braces  to  wall  of 
foundry  or  otherwise  as  most  convenient.  The  box  D  may  be  made 
with  a  flange  surrounding  it  from  which  three  or  four  rods  lead  away 
to  any  suitable  anchorages.  These  rods  are  provided  with  tumbuckles 
so  that  the  spindle  may  be  held  rigidly  in  a  vertical  position. 

£  is  an  adjustable  collar  fasloncxi  in  position  by  a  set  screw. 

C  is  an  iron  arm  carrying  the  wood  strikes.  The  bearings  by  which 
this  arm  is  supported  should  be  farther  apart  tlian  the  width  of  the 
arm,  so  as  to  avoid  any  sagging  of  tlie  latter. 

If  these  bearings  are  split  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  spindle  and 
drawn  up  witli  clamp  screws,  lost  motion  can  be  taken  up  at  any  time. 
Any  play  in  the  supports  for  the  arm,  or  neglect  to  maintain  the  spindle 
in  a  vertical  position,  will  result  in  a  distorted  casting.     Sweeps  are 


Aiu-hors,  dascors  and  Soldiers 


533 


often  wnstructed  with  olabvirate  mediauical  attachinoiits  for  making 
gears,  spiral  wheels,  spinil  cones,  ele. 

Sometimes  the  steppinirs  are  placed  permanenll}'  on  concrete  piers, 
where  there  are  many  wheels,  etc..  to  be  made. 

The  strikes  arc  cut  in  aii\'  desireil  shape  and  are  used  for  inside  or 
outside  sweeping.     Swept  moulds  arc  usuall\-  skin  dried. 


Anchors,  Gaggers  and  Soldiers 

These  devices  arc  used  for  sui>- 
IHKting  the  sand  where  tlic  ordinar\- 
bars  ;ire  insutVicicnt  or  inapplicable. 
Fig.  177  sJiows  an  anchor  used 
for  making  pulleys.  It  txinsists 
of  six  cast-iron  segmental  plates 
about  in  inch  thick,  which  aa^ 
so  placed  between  the  arms  of 
the  pulley  as  to  leave  a  space  for 
s;md,  -^4  inch  wide,  all  iux)und  tliem. 
The  upper  sides  of  the  plates  are 
on  the  parting  line  of  the  arms. 

The  pUues  are  held  together  by 
wrought  iron  loops,  passing  over 
the  arms,  and  cast  in  place.  All 
the  plates  are  poured  at  once,  and 
in  open  s;uul.  "■'•  '"7- 

Instead  of  wrought-imn  loops,  these  cX)nneclions  may  be  made  bj' 
c;\st-iron  loops,  furnishing  a  much  stilTer  anchor. 
On  the  under  side  of  each  plate  are  east  one  or 
more  long  conical  pn.ij\vt  ions,  which  serve  as 
guides  by  which  to  replace  the  anchor.  Each 
[liate  is  provided  with  an  eye  bolt  long  enough  to 
reach  to  the  joint  of  flask. 

The  interior  parting  is  maile  on  center  line  of 
«  |-j  arms,  s;ind  is  rammetl  on  toji  of  the  anchor  ami 

,.         1 ■ I — ,     another  parting  made  flush  with   the  rim   upon 

LT    11      U  which  the  cope  is  rammed. 

.Vfter  the  cope  is  removed,  the  saml  iwering 
the  arms  is  lifted  out  by  hooking  to  the  eye  biilts 
in  anchor. 

Fig.    17S  shows   an   anchor   for    lifting   out    a 


ir= 


Fig.  17S. 
deep  pocket. 


524  The  Moulding  Room 

W'luTc  the  aiuliur  cannot  rest  on  ll>c  bottom,  IjuI  must  permit  iron 
to  run  under  it,  il  is  boiled  to  ihc  cope  and  lifted  out  with  it. 

The  necessities  of  the  situation  indicate  the  size  and  shape  ot  anchors. 
!■  requentiy,  the  ixjcket  is  such  that  the  anchor  must  be  broken  to  remove 
it  from  the  casting.  It  is  well  to  keejj  down  the  weight  of  the  anchors 
as  much  as  possible,  relieving  the  cope  to  that  extent. 

\'er>-  many  cores,  as  well  as  moulds,  require  to  be  supported  in  this 
manner. 

Gaggers 

Tn  the  use  of  gaggers  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  they  are  heavier 
than  the  sand;  it  is  simply  due  to  the  cohesion  of  the  sand,  holding 
Uiem  up  to  the  sides  of  the  flask  or  bars,  that  they  are  of  assistance  in 
supporting'  the  cope.  The  gagger  is  of  use  just  in  proportion  to  the 
length  that  is  surrounded  with  packed  sand.  All  that  part  which  pro- 
jects above  the  cope  is  a  detriment.  They  are  first  immersed  in  thick 
clay  wash,  and  placed  flat  up  against  the  bars  or  sides  of  flask,  having 
about  /»  inch  sand  under  them.  They  are  made  in  the  gagger  mould, 
already  described,  which  is  kept  near  the  cupola.  Costing  practically 
nothing,  thcj'  may  be  used  freely.  A  good  supply  should  always  be 
kept  on  hand. 

Many  shops  use  gaggers  made  of  '^2  inch  square  bar  iron  bent  to 
shape.  They  are  not  as  serviceable,  however,  as  they  do  not  ofTer  as 
good  a  surface  to  which  the  sand  can  adhere,  and  are  more  expensive. 

Soldiers 

Soldiers  are  simi)Iy  jiicccs  of  wood  about  one  inch  square,  cut  from 
boards,  with  clay  washed  and  placed  around  the  mould  instead  of  gag- 
gers, where  the  latter  cannot  be  used;  or  to  assist  the  gaggers  in  deep 
lifts.     The  sand  adheres  to  soldiers  better  than  to  gaggers. 

The  free  use  of  either  gaggers  or  soldiers  is  to  be  encouraged,  as  it 
is  better  to  place  too  many  of  them  in  a  mould  than  to  have  a  drop.  At 
the  same  time  care  must  be  exercised  to  have  the  ends  well  protected 
by  sand,  so  that  the  hot  iron  will  not  come  in  contact  witli  them,  as 
there  will  surely  be  a  "blow"  in  that  event. 

Sprues,  Risers  and  Gates 

The  following  tables,  giving  the  equivalent  areas  of  round  gates,  also 
of  square  and  rectangular  gates  as  compared  with  round  ones,  are  taken 
from  West's  "Moulder's  Text  Book,"  pp.  245  and  246. 


Table  of  Equivalent  Areas  of  Gates 


525 


Table  of  Equivalent  Areas  of  Round  Gates 
One  iJ'i  inch  is  equal  in  area  to  two    il 


lU 

2H 

2^          " 

2H 

3 

3K.        ".        " 

3^       "         " 

3^4       " 

4 

4V4        "         " 

4H        "         " 

4%        «          - 

5 

fe,  three 

J^, 

or  four 

j4-inch  gate 

iM 

I 

"      % 

I J 16 

I?'16 

"     1 

iJi 

lVi6 

"     i^ 

i?4 

1^6 

"     iH 

115/16 

1^4 

"     i^ 

2 '4 

1% 

"     iH 

2^16 

1^/6 

"     iH 

2^ 

2 

"     iM 

2IH6 

2?16 

"     iJi 

2' Me 

2^/16 

"     2 

3 

2^15 

"     2% 

3?i6 

2?^ 

"     2K 

3?8 

2  54 

"     2?^ 

3?i6 

25i 

"     2H 

Note.  "  The  fractional  parts  of  an  inch  as  seen  by  the  table  are  not  carried  out  any 
further  than  He,  for  the  reason  that  the  subject  does  not  call  for  any  closer  figiu-es. 
Therefore,  the  figures  given  will  be  understood  as  being  '  nearly  '  equal  in  area. 
As  given,  the  sizes  can  be  readily  discerned,  and  are  also  applicable  to  measurements 
by  the  shop  pocket  rules  commonly  used." 


Table  of  Equivalent  Areas  in  Square  and  Rectangular 
Gates  to  That  of  Round  Gates 

(See  note  above) 


Round 

Square 
gates 

Rectangular 

Rectangular 

Rectangular 

Rectangular 

gates, 

gates 

gates 

gates 

gates 

inches 

I  inch  thick 

iH  inch  thick 

2  inches  thick 

2],i  ins.  thick 

I 
iH 

m 

1^6 

I?i6 

I?4 

2 

2?'i6 

iH 

m 

IX  2% 
IX  3!'^ 
IX  4 
IX  s 

2 

I'/iX  2M6 
I'/iX  2iMc 
i5^X  3Ms 

2'/4 

2H 

2% 

2^18 

IX  6 

I'/iX  4 

2x3 

3 

2IH6 

IX  7H6 

i!^x  4?4 

2X39i8 

3'/4 

2ji 

IX   &V16 

Ij-^X  S'/^ 

2X4?i6 

21-6X3946 

3H 

3'/i 

IX  9^ 

IJ^X  6^8 

2X456 

2iiX3'/i 

3% 

3M6 

iXilMe 

iJ-iX  1% 

2X5!^  i2 

2i^X4M« 

4 

3?  16 

IXI29'{6 

iHX  89^ 

2X61/4 

21-^X5 

4H 

3?4 

IXI4?^6 

iV^x  9'/^ 

2X7'/^ 

2^X556 

4H 

4 

iXiS'Me 

ii/iXio5i 

2X8 

2!.iix69i 

4% 

4^8 

IXI7?4 

iJ^Xll'Ms 

2X8^8 

2KiX7!4 

S 

4^8 

IX19H 

1HX13H6 

2x91946 

2i.iX7ji 

"The  term  'equivalent'  used  does  not  imply  that  two  or  more  small  gates  having 
a  combined  area  equal  to  one  large  gate,  all  having  like  'head  pressure,'  will  deliver 
the  same  amount  of  metal  per  second." 


526 


The  Moulding  Room 


"The  flow  of  metal  is  retarded  by  friction  in  proportion  to  the  surface 
area  with  whicli  it  comes  in  contact.  Now  although  four  2^i-inch  round 
gates  are  of  ecjuai  area  to  one  5-inch  round  gate,  we  find  the  frictional 
resistance  to  tiie  flow  of  a  Hke  'head  pressure'  through  four  2!i-inclf 
round  gates  to  be  douljle  that  generated  in  one  5-inch  round  gate, 
simply  because  the  comiiined  circumferences  of  four  2J'i-inch  round  gates 
are  31.416  inches,  whereas  the  circumference  of  one  5-inch  round  gate  is 
15.708  inches.  As  gates  are  generally  combined  under  varying  compli- 
cated conditions,  the  tables  as  given  can  be  better  practically  used  than 
where  they  arc  lumbered  with  the  question  of  frictional  resistance." 
Risers  are  generally  double  the  diameter  of  the  pKJuring  sprue.     The 

function  of  the  riser  is  twofold.  It 
serves  to  catch  and  carry  away  any 
dirt  entering  the  mould  from  the  pour- 
ing sprue  and  also  to  furnish  a  supply 
of  liquid  metal  to  provide  for  shrink- 
age. Risers  are  placed  either  in  con- 
nection with  the  gate,  or  on  some  part 
of  the  mould  whence  the  deficiency 
from  shrinkage  can  be  most  readily 
supplied.  When  located  on  the  gate 
the  latter  is  usually  so  cut  as  to  impart 
a  whirling  motion  to  the  metal  ascend- 
ing the  riser.  The  metal  enters  the 
riser  near  the  bottom  and  flows  to  the  mould  through  a  channel  opened 
above  the  entrance. 

In  the  sketch  A  represents  the  pouring  sprue,  B  is  the  riser,  C  the 
gate  from  sprue  to  riser  which  is  cut  tangential  to  B.  D  is  the  gate 
from  riser  to  casting.  The  gates  should  be  somewhat  smaller  in  area 
than  the  pouring  sprue  so  that  the  pouring  basin  E  may  always  be  kept 

fuU. 

Top  Pouring  Gates 

The  advantage  of  this  form  of  gate 
for  large  castings  is  that  the  dirt  is 
kept  at  the  top  of  the  pouring  basin, 
allowing  the  clean  iron  to  flow  into 
the  mould  from  beneath. 

The  first  dash  of  iron  may  carry 
some  dirt,  but  the  greater  portion 
of  it  will  flow  with  the  stream  over 
the  gates;  the  runner  being  quickly 
filled,  no  dirt  can  enter  subsequently  if  kept  full 
Text  Books,"  page  129. 


179. 


Fig.  180. 
See  West's  "Moulder's 


Horn  Gates 


527 


Whirl  Gates 

The  object  of  the  whirl  gate  is  to  impart  a  rotary  motion  to  the  iron 
in  the  basin  and  riser  B,  B. 

By  centrifugal  force  the  metal  is  kept  in  contact  with  the  exterior 
of  the  riser,  and  the  dirt  is  carried  up  in  the  middle  of  it. 
.  c-^  C . 


Fig.  181. 

The  riser  B  should  be  larger  than  the  pouring  sprue  A ,  and  A  should 
be  larger  than  C,  in  order  that  the  pouring  basin  may  be  kept  full. 

It  is  best  to  have  patterns  made  for  whirl  gates;  they  can  be  used  in 
either  cope  or  drag. 

The  "Cross"  Skim  Gate 

This  as  shown  in  Fig.  182  is  an  excellent  device  and  is  largely 
used. 

A  is  the  gate  leading  from  pouring  sprue  to 
basin  B,  C  is  a  core  in  which  is  the  gate  D, 
leading  to  casting.  The  iron  enters  B,  tangen- 
tially,  a  whirling  motion  is  imparted  to  it  carry- 
ing the  dirt  to  the  riser, 
while  the  clean  iron  flows 
out  through  D. 

Another  form  of  same  gate  is  made  as  shown 
in  fig.  183. 

It  differs  from  the  first  form  simply  in  having 
a  flat  core  E  placed  across   the  gate  D,  instead 


Fig.  182. 


Fig.  183. 
of  forming  a  part  of  it 


Horn  Gates 


These  are  principally  used  for  bottom 
pouring,  leading  from  the  parting  of 
flask  to  the  casting  below. 

They  are  made  smaller  at  the  point 
joining  the  casting  to  permit  of  easy 
removal  and  to  choke  the  stream  of  metal. 


Fig.  184. 


The  Moulding  Room 

Pouring  liasins  have  'rcqucntly  skimming 
corc^  f)laccd  between  the  basin  and  the  down 
sprue  to  iiold  the  dirt  in  basin.     A  pattern  is 

usually  made  for  them. 

Strainers  and  Spindles 

Fig.  185.  Thin   perforated   plates   from    'm  to  h^    inch 

thick,  and  wide  enough  to  cover  the  entrance  to  pouring  gate  arc  fre- 
quently placed  in  the  runner 
basin  over  the  gate.  When  the 
iron  strikes  the  strainer  it  is  held 
back  until  the  latter  is  melted 
allowing  the  basin  to  fill  partly, 
raising  the  dirt  to  the  surface 
and  furnishing  clean  iron  to  the 
gate 
purpose. 

Weights 

For  medium  castings,  weighting  the  copes  will  be  found  more  con- 
venient than  the  use  of  binding  bars.  There  should  be  about  every 
foundry  a  large  assortment  of  weights  depending  on  the  class  of  work. 
Weights  to  be  handled  by  the  crane  will  be  found  more  convenient,  if 
made  square  in  cross  section  and  of  whatever  length  desired.  Holes 
are  cast  in  the  ends  into  which  bars  are  inserted  for  lifting.  Weights 
made  in  this  way  are  more  readily  piled  than  if  pro\ided  with  eye  bolts. 

Chaplets 

Chaplets  are  properly  anchors,  and  should  come  under  that  heading. 
They  are  used  mostly  for  securing  cores  in  place  in  moulds.  E.xcept  for 
special  requirements  the  foundryman  can  procure  chaplets  from  the 
supply  houses  far  cheaper  than  he  can  make  them.  Cuts  and  sizes  of 
the  various  chaplets  in  use  are  given  below. 

The  Peerless  Perforated  Chaplet 


Fig.  186.       Spindle  gate 
Spindle  gates  consisting  of  many  small  gates   serve   the  same 


Fig.  187. 


Liquid  Pressure  on  Moulds  529 

Manufacturers  of  all  classes  of  castings  requiring  small  cores  will 
readil}'  observe  the  advantage  in  using  a  chaplet,  such  as  is  illustrated 
above. 

Made  from  perforated  tin-plated  sheet  metal,  insuring  perfect  ven- 
tilation of  the  chaplet,  eliminating  all  possibilities  of  blow  holes,  air 
pockets,  chills,  etc.,  forming  a  perfect  union  with  the  molten  metal, 
thereby  insuring  an  absolute  pressure  tight  joint;  something  not  ob- 
tained with  any.  other  chaplet  on  thin  work.  Through  its  use,  not  only 
are  time  and  labor  of  the  workman  saved  in  adjusting  the  cores  to  the 
matrix  of  the  mould,  particularly  on  water  backs  or  fronts,  radiators,  gas 
burners,  pipe  fittings,  gas  and  gasoline  engine  work,  and  similar  castings, 
but  it  also  greatly  lessens  the  liability  of  flaws,  defects  and  consequent 
losses  in  castings,  such  as  commonly  result  from  the  ordinary  chaplets 
or  anchors  now  in  use. 

Liquid  Pressure  on  Moulds 

The  pressure  of  the  Hquid  metal  at  any  point  of  the  mould  is  deter- 
mined by  multiplying  the  distance  in  inches  from  that  point  to  the  top 
of  the  metal  in  pouring  basin  by  .26  pounds.  The  product  is  the  pressure 
in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

To  overcome  this  pressure  laterally,  reliance  is  placed  on  the  rigidity 
of  the  flask,  supported,  if  necessary,  in  deep  castings  by  binding  bars. 

The  binding  bars  are  of  same  character  as  those  already  described  for 
holding  down  copes.  They  are  tied  across  top  and  bottom  of  flask  by 
rods,  or  otherwise. 

The  static  pressure  on  the  cope  is  ascertained  by  multiplying  the  area 
of  the  casting  in  square  inches,  at  the  joint  of  the  flask  by  the  height 
in  inches  from  the  joint  of  the  flask  to  level  of  iron  in  pouring  basin 
and  by  .26  pounds. 

In  addition  to  this  there  is  the  pressure  due  to  resistance  in  overcoming 
the  velocity  of  the  rising  iron,  which  pressure  is  measured  by  one-half 
the  product  of  the  weight  of  the  rising  iron  by  the  square  of  the  velocity. 
While  this  pressure  may  be  accurately  calculated  with  suflacient  data, 
it  is  usually  difiicult  to  get  them,  and  the  results  are,  therefore,  only 
approximate. 

However,  when  the  mould  is  nearly  full,  the  pouring  is  slackened  as 
much  as  possible  without  letting  the  dirt  into  the  sprue,  thereby  reduc- 
ing the  head  and  velocity,  and  greatly  lessening  the  shock  as  the  iron 
reaches  the  cope. 

The  formulae  given  for  determining  holding  down  weights  for  copes 
are  empirical.  The  moulder  will  not  be  led  astray  by  calculating  the 
lifting  area  of  the  mould  in  square  inches,  multiplying  this  by  the  head 


530 


The  Moulding  Room 


measured  to  pouring  basin,  in  inches,  and  this  product  by  .26  pounds. 
.\(ld  .;o  per  cent  to  the  result,  this  will  make  ample  provision  for  the 
lift  due  to  the  blow  of  the  rising  iron. 


The  Peerless  Perforated  Chaplet 

The  following  list  will  give  an  idea  of  the  approximate  number  of  the 
various  sized  chaplets  required  to  make  a  pound. 


Length 

Brciidth 

Thickness 

No.  to  the 

% 

poun^i 

y* 

W 

;.<, 

W 

H 

1400 

h 

^4 

H 

1200 

'4 

H 

9i8 

1 100 

y* 

?4 

^U 

600 

I 

I 

y* 

300 

94 

V* 

V* 

2SO 

I 

I 

% 

130 

I 

I 

H 

100 

iH 

l'/4 

H 

80 

I 

I 

Vz 

90 

iH 

I"  4 

H 

80 

I 

I 

■)4 

45 

2V* 

I 

I 

35 

I 

I 

1 

40 

I'/l 

lU 

I 

30 

Over  two  thousand  difTerent  shapes,  sizes  and  styles  of  these  chaplets 
are  made.     Many  hundred  standard  sizes  and  shapes  are  kept  in  stock. 

The  prices  depend  upon  the  sizes  and  number  required  to  make  a 
pound. 

The  Peerless  Perfor.vted  Chaplet.  —  {Continued) 

(Net  prices  per  pound.) 


No.  to  the 

Price  per 

No.  to  the 

Price  per 

pound 

pound 

pound 

pound 

20-  .(0 

1 
So  35 

200-  250 

So. 8s 

40-  50 

.35 

250-  .}oo 

90 

So-  60 

.40 

300-  3SO 

95 

60-  70 

.45 

350-  400 

00 

70-  80 

■  SO 

400-  soo 

05 

3o-  90 

.55 

500-  600 

10 

90-100 

.60 

600-  700 

15 

100-125 

.65 

700-  800 

20 

125-150 

.70        I 

800-  900 

25 

ISO-I75 

.75 

900-1000 

30 

I7S-200 

.80 

lOOO-IIOO 

35 

Chaplets 


531 


Double  Head  Chaplet  Stems 

Plain  or  Tinned 

•     Made  of  ?i-inch  round  iron,  5^  to  ili  inches  long  (measur- 
ing from  face  to  shoulder). 

Price  per  hundred,  from  H  to  i5s  inches  ...     $4.00 
Price  per  hundred,  from  iH  to  2^6  inches.  .  .       5.00 


Fig.  iSS. 


Fig.  189. 


Double  Head  Chaplets  with  Forged  Heads 

Plain  or  Tinned 

Made  of  ?s-inch  round  iron,  from  H  to  2H  inches  long, 
with  head  above  Ji-inch  diameter. 

Price  per  hundred,  from  H  to  1%  inches.  .     $5  .00 
Price  per  hundred,  from  il'^  to  2^^  inches.      6.00 


With  Square  or  Round  Plates  Fitted 

Plain  or  Tinned 


Fig.  190. 

Square  plates  always  furnished  unless  otherwise  ordered. 
Stems  made  of  Me  inch  round  iron  from  ?^  to  i!'^  inches  long. 

Price  per  hundred,  ?6  to  %  inch  with  plates  any  size $4 .  00 

Price  per  hundred,  ¥i  to  i  inch  with  plates  any  size 4.50 

Price  per  hundred,  iH  to  iH  inch  with  plates  any  size. .  .     5 .00 


Stems  made  from  H-inch  round  iron  from  H  to  2H  inches  long. 

Price  per  hundred,  H  to  i  inch  with  plate  any  size $6 

Price  per  hundred,  i  to  i)'^  inches  with  plate  any  size.  .  . 
Price  per  hundred,  iJ^  to  2  inches  with  plate  any  size..  . . 
Price  per  hundred,  2  to  2  J^^  inches  with  plate  any  size. . . . 


532 


I'lic  Moulding  Room 


Price  List  ok  Doui'le  Head  Ciiaplet  Stems 

(Plain  or  tinned  with  sriuare  plates  fitted,  heavy  «tfm  and  plate.) 


Diameter 

Diameter 

of  stem 

Length 

I'er  loo 

of  stem 

Length 

Pm-  100 

W 

?H 

$8.oo 

« 

H 

Sio.oo 

H 

I 

8. CO  ■ 

^4 

I 

10.00 

Vi 

iW 

9.00 

( 

iH 

11.00 

Vi 

\\<l 

10.00 

'1 

iW 

12.00 

» 

IW 

11.00 

?4 

i94 

13.00 

W 

3 

12.00 

94 

2 

14.00 

W 

2W 

13 -oo 

94 

^V^ 

15.00 

\'i 

2'/4 

14.00 

?4 

aVi 

16.00 

Vi 

2?4 

15-00 

?4 

294 

17.00 

H 

3 

16.00 

% 

3 

18.00 

H 

3M 

17.00 

94 

3W 

19.00 

yi 

3^4 

18.00 

94 

34 

ao.oo 

w 

3y4 

19.00 

94 

33. 

31 .00 

H 

4 

20.00 

94 

4 

32.00 

w 

4H 

21.00 

V< 

4M 

33.00 

H 

4^^ 

22.00 

94 

44 

24.00 

\i 

4« 

23.00 

94 

4^4 

35.00 

Vi 

S 

24.00 

94 

S 

36.00 

96 

-A 

9.00 

Ti 

J6 

11.00 

% 

I 

9.00 

1% 

I 

11.00 

96 

iH 

10.00        1 

^/6 

iH 

13. 00 

H 

1^2 

11.00        1 

T6 

1 4 

13.00 

H 

154 

12.00 

^/6 

i94 

14  00 

% 

2 

13.00 

'/ft 

3 

15.00 

96 

2!4 

14.00 

?6 

2I.4 

16.00 

96 

2^ 

IS  00 

'/6 

24 

17.00 

96 

2^ 

16.00 

'/6 

294 

18.00 

96 

3 

17.00 

"•6 

3 

19.00 

96 

3H 

18.00 

'/6 

3^4 

30. 00 

96 

3V6 

19.00 

'/6 

34 

31 .00 

96 

3^4 

20.00 

?6 

3?4 

23.00 

96 

4 

21.00 

'/6 

4 

33.00 

96 

4W 

22.00 

?6 

4M 

34.00 

96 

4H 

23.00 

li. 

44 

-       35.00 

96 

4?4 

24.00 

?6 

494 

36.00 

96 

S 

25.00 

J6 

5 

37.00 

Wrought-Iron  Chaplet  Stems 


533 


Wrought-Iron  Chaplet  Stems  with  Square  or 
Round  Plates  Fitted 

Plain  or  Tinned 


Fig.  191. 

Square  plates  always  furnished  unless  otherwise  specified. 
Prke  per  Hundred 


Diameter  of  plates . 
Thickness  of  plates 
Diameter  of  stem. . 


iVi  ins. 

Me  in. 

Vi  in. 


lYi  ins. 
lii  in. 
Vie  in. 


Vi  ms. 
H  ins. 
H  in. 


2  ins. 
Hi  in. 
H  in. 


2]^  ins. 
yte  in. 
58  in. 


31ns. 
H  in. 
?4  in. 


Length,  inches 

3 

3H 

4     

454 

5     

SH 

6    

6H 

7     

754 

8     

9     

10     

11     

12     

Net  prices  for  curv- 
ing plates  to  suit 
diameter  of   core 


$3- 10 
3. IS 

3-20 

3-25 
330 
3.35 
340 
3.45 
350 
3  55 
360 
3-70 
3.80 
3.90 
4.00 

.35 


$5. 10 
5.15 

5.20 

5.25 
530 
5.35 
S.40 
5.4s 
5. SO 
5SS 
5.60 
S.70 
S.80 
5. 90 
6.00 

.SO 


$6.70 
6.80 
6.90 
7.00 
7.10 
7.20 
7.30 
7.40 
7-50 
7.60 
7.70 
7.90 
8.10 
8.30 
8.50 

.60 


S11.30 
11.45 
11.60 
11.75 
11.90 
12.05 
12.20 
12.35 
12.50 
12.65 
12.80 
13.10 
13.40 
13.70 
14.00 

■  75 


S20.00 
20.25 
20.50 
20.75 
21.00 

21.25 
21.50 

21.75 
22.00 
22.25 
22.50 
23.00 
23.  SO 
24.00 
24.50 

•  90 


$31.25 
31.62 
32.00 
32.37 
32.7s 
33.12 
33. SO 
33.87 
34  25 
34.62 
35.00 
35. 75 
36.50 
37.25 
38.00 

1. 25 


534 


The  MouldiriK  Room 

Wrought  Iron  Chaplet  Sterna 
Plain  nr  liiiiu-d 


Length, 

measuririK  from 

face  to  stem, 

inches 


3 

3W 
4 

5 

6 

6W 

7 

8 
9 

10 


Fig.  lyz. 
Price  per  Hundred 


$2.40 

2.4S 
2.50 
2.SS 

2.60 
2.6s 
2.70 
2.75 
2.80 
2.8s 
2.90 
2.9s 
3  00 
3  03 
3.10 


DvamclKi 


J3.6S 

Vi 

i 

$4.50 

%  8.2s 

S13-00 

3.70 

4.60 

8  ..40 

13  25 

3. 75 

4.70 

8.55 

13. SO 

3.80 

4.80 

8.70 

13. 75 

3.8s 

4.90 

8.85 

14.00 

3.90 

5.00 

9.00 

14.2s 

3. 95 

S.io 

9  15 

14. SO 

4.00 

S  20 

930 

14. 75 

4.0s 

S.30 

«.4S 

1500 

4.10 

5  40 

9.60 

15.25 

4.20 

5. so 

9  85 

15.50 

4.2s 

5-70 

10.20 

16.00 

4.30 

s  90 

10. 55 

16.50 

4. 35 

6.10 

10.90 

17.00 

4.40 

6.30 

11.25 

17  SO 

$19  20 
19.60 
20.00 

20  35 
ao.8s 
21.  ao 
21.60 

21  95 

22  30 
22.6s 
23.00 
23.75 

24  so 

25  2S 

26.00 


Gray  Iron  Chaplets 


Fig.  193. 

Length,  inches. .  .  M  H  ^4  H  H  H            i 

Per  hundred. ..  .  So. 72  $0.78  $0.84  $0.90  Si. 00  $1.10     $1.20 

Length,  inches. .  .  i!4  iH  1%  iM  i?i  2 

Per  hundred ...  .  Si.  40  Si.rio  Si .  70  Si.  So  Sj   20  $3.cx3 

Double  Head  Water  Back  Chaplets 

Made  of  ^n-inch  round  iron,  from   '1  to  j'.'  inches  long, 
with  heads  about  ""^  inch  in  diameter. 

Price  per  hundred,  from  \*  to  i-^v  inches.  . . .     $5  00 
Price  per  hundred,  from  iH  to  2yi  inches.  . .       6.00 


Fig.  194. 


Radiator  Chaplets 


535 


Wrought-Iron  Chaplets  with  Forged  Heads 

Plain  or  Tinned 


Fig.  195. 
Price  per  Himdred 


Diameter  of  head. . 


and  i?46 


iH 


iM 


Diameter  of  stem. 


M,  Ms 
and  \i 


Length,  inches 

3     

3^ 

4     

4)^ 

5     

SH 

6     

6'/^ 

7     

vVi 

8     

9     

10     

11     

12     

Net  price  for  point 

ing 


?2.4o 
2.45 
2.50 
2.55 
2.60 
2.6s 
2.70 
2.75 
2.80 
2.8s 
2.90 
2.95 
3  00 
30s 
3.10 

.40 


$3-65 
3-70 
3-75 
3.80 
3.8s 
3-90 
3-95 
4.00 
4.05 
4.10 
4.20 

•  4.2s 
430 
4-35 
4.40 

.60 


$4.50 
4.60 
4.70 
4.80 
4.90 
500 
5. 10 

S.20 

5.30 
5.40 
5. 50 
S.70 
S.90 
6.10 
6.30 

.75 


$  8.25 
8.40 
8.55 
8.70 
8.85 
9.00 
9.15 
9.30 
9-45 
9.60 
9.8s 
10.20 
10.55 
10.90 
II.  25 


$13.00 
13.2s 
13.50 
13.75 
14.00 
14.25 
14  50 
14.75 
15.00 
15.25 
15.50 
16.00 
16.50 
17.00 
17-50 

I. 25 


$19.20 
19.60 
20.00 

20.35 
20.85 

21.20 
21.60 

21.95 
22.30 

22.6s 

23.00 
23.7s 
24.50 
25.25 

26.00 

1.50 


Single  Head  Water  Back  Chaplets 

Head  \^  inch,  stem  ?i6  inch,  length  to  order.     For' price 
list  see  Wrought-iron  Chaplets  with  Forged  Heads. 


Fig.  196. 


E 


or 

Fig.  197. 


Radiator  Chaplets 

Head  ?4  x  V*,  stem  and  length  to  order. 

Special  chaplets  and  plates  made  to  order. 


536 


The  Moulding  Room 


Round  and  Square  Head  Chaplets 

*\  ]        StcrTLs  made  of   'K-incli  round  iron,  from  ^s  to  i"i  inches 

"  ,  I        Plates  '-J  inch  round  and  ?<  inch  square.  ^U,H,  H,  H,  H,  Jt 
Fig.  198.    ^"^  '  '"'^'^  '""K- 

Price  per  hundred,  all  sizes $3  00 


Tinned  Clout  Nails 


i;^ 


Fig.  199. 


An  indispensable  article  in  the  foundry.  Do  not  rust  like  the  ordinary 
black  cut  nail.  Shipped  in  100-pound  kegs.  All  lengths  from  H  inch  to 
2  inches,  inclusive. 

List  Prices 


Inches               Per  jx 

}und 

3-8                        $0 

70 

3)^-8 

60 

1-2 

SO 

4\i-9 

45 

5-8 

43 

5^2-8 

41 

3-4 

40 

6\i-9 

39 

7-8 

38 

I  and  longer 

36 

Pressed  Tin  Shell  Chaplets 

For  certain  classes  of  work  these  chaplets  are  inval- 
uable.   They  form  perfect  union  with  the  cast  metal. 

Sizes  ^i  inch  to  H  inch  inclusive  are  made  in  both 
two  and  three  prongs,  'Mb  inch  to  i  inch  inclusive 
are  three  prong  only. 


Fig.  200 


Sprue  Cutters 
Price  List 


537 


Size, 

inches 

Two  prong, 
per  thousand 

Three  prong, 
per  thousand 

Ms 

% 

iMa 

I 

$300 
3.00 
3.20 
350 
3-50 
4.00 
4.00 
4SO 

$3.50 
3.50 
3-70 
4.00 
4.00 
4.50 
4-So 
5.00 
S.oo 
S.oo 
S.oo 
5.2s 
5.25 
5.25 

Steel  Sprue  Cutters 


These  sprue  cutters  are  all  6  inches  in  length. 
They  are  made  of  steel  and  in  four  sizes,  viz.: 

No.  I.  —  Yi  inch  at  bottom,    %  inch  at  top. 

No.  2.  —  5s  inch  at  bottom,  i     inch  at  top. 

No.  3.  —  y*  inch  at  bottom,  1%  inches  at  top. 

No.  4.  —  Ji  inch  at  bottom,  i54  inches  at  top. 

Price 50  cents  each 


Brass  Sprue  Cutter 
"i  Made  in  one  size  only. 

K-inch  diameter,  10  inches  long ...  $4 .  80  per  dozen 


Fig.  202. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

MOULDING    MACHINES 

The  moiildinR  machine  has  become  of  such  importance  that  no  foundry 
can  aCford  to  be  without  it.  The  reduction  of  cost  in  the  production 
of  the  classes  of  work  for  which  it  is  adapted  and  the  superiority  of  the 
product  as  compared  with  hand  work  render  the  machine  absolutely 
indispensable  to  the  successful  conduct  of  a  foundry  engaged  in  com- 
petitive work. 

While  the  moulding  machine  is  in  some  respects  invaluable,  it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  its  value  can  be  realized  without  the  exercise  of  a 
high  order  of  intelligence. 

To  produce  accurate  work  by  machine  requires  the  utmost  care  and 
accuracy  in  fitting  up  patterns  and  flasks.  Appliances  which  may  be 
used  successfully  in  hand  moulding  would  entail  disastrous  results  in 
machine  moulding.  Again,  no  particular  machine  is  adapted  to  all 
kinds  of  work.  It  has  a  certain  range  for  a  certain  character  of  pro- 
duction.    Without  those  limits  its  use  is  not  warranted. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  machines,  operated  in  various  ways;  by 
compressed  air,  hydraulic  pressure,  mechanical  pressure,  gravity  and 
impact. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  discuss  the  merits  of  the  different 
machines.  The  various  tj-pes  have  been  in  service  long  enough  to 
indicate  the  particular  class  of  work  to  which  each  is  best  adapted. 
One  type  of  machine  is  best  suited  for  light,  small  work;  another  to 
stove-plate;  another  to  car  castings,  etc. 

In  choice  of  machines  the  foundryman  should  profit  by  the  experi- 
ence of  those  who  have  preceded  him  in  this  field,  and  must  be  especially 
cautious  in  not  attempting  to  extend  the  range  of  any  one  tj-pe  beyond 
that  for  which  it  is  i)articulariy  fitted. 

There  are  machines  which  simjily  perform  the  operation  of  ramming; 
others  which  only  draw  the  pattern,  the  ramming  having  been  done 
by  hand;  while  others  perform  both  operations.  In  many  instances 
the  character  of  the  work  determines  the  function  of  the  machine. 

It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  hand  ramming  for  deep  pockets,  etc.,  can 
be  dispensed  with  by  use  of  the  machine.  In  fact,  except  in  cases  where 
the  plainest  character  of  work  is  produced,  it  is  a  mistake  to  believe 

53S 


Moulding  Machines  539 

that  the  moulding  machine  does  not  require  the  services  of  an  experienced 
moulder. 

Mr.  S.  H.  Stupakoff,  in  his  compreliensive  paper  on  the  moulding 
machine,  referring  to  the  object  of  the  machine  as  one  to  save  labor,  to 
increase  the  output,  to  decrease  cost  of  production,  to  produce  uniform 
and  better  castings,  etc.,  says: 

"It  is  obvious  that  it  would  require  a  complicated  mechanism  to  per- 
form successively  and  successfully  all  the  necessary  operations  to  make 
a  complete  mould,  even  if  it  were  only  the  mould  of  a  simple  pattern. 
In  consequence  the  general  equipment  of  a  foundry  which  accom- 
plishes this  object  must  be  necessarily  quite  an  elaborate  and  expensive 
matter.  The  majorit}^  of  designs  of  moulding  machines  run  in  this 
direction,  whereas  in  most  cases  it  would  have  been  better  if  the  energy 
expended  had  been  directed  to  their  simplification. 

"Such  tendencies  lead  to  complications  which  are  altogether  imsuited 
for  foundry  practice;  they  meet  with  little  favor  and  machines  built 
upon  these  principles  are  of  short  life. " 

"Only  the  simpler  moulding  machines  have  a  chance  of  meeting  with 
more  or  less  success,  even  if  they  perform  but  a  few  operations,  provid- 
ing they  perform  these  well. " 

"The  first  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  moulding  machine  was  a  device 
for  withdrawing  patterns  from  the  sand.  The  next  was  to  employ 
stripping  plates,  then  an  attempt  to  ram  the  mould  by  machiner>^" 

In  these  three  operations  lie  the  basic  principles  of  all  moulding  ma- 
chines: all  subsequent  improvements  and  additions  have  been  matters 
of  detail;  but  to  these  improvements  and  to  superior  workmanship  is  due 
the  real  success  of  the  modern  moulding  machine. 

In  the  chart  (p.  549),  given  by  Mr.  Stupakofif,  moulding  machines 
are  divided  into  two  classes  —  hand  and  power  machines.  The  chart 
gives  the  variations  of  each  class. 

The  selection  and  arrangement  of  machines,  etc.,  is  a  matter  governed 
entirely  by  the  specific  circumstances.  Only  hand  machines  are  portable. 
They  effect  a  great  saving  in  the  cost  of  carrying  sand,  but  their  use 
is  limited  by  their  size  and  weight.  Mr.  Stupakofif  discusses  the  advan- 
tages and  use  of  pattern  plates  as  follows: 

"At  first  sight  it  may  appear  that  the  construction  and  manipulation 
of  pattern  plates  has  but  little  connection  with  moulding  machines,  but 
I  hope  that  I  will  succeed  in  showing  in  the  course  of  this  work,  that 
they  are  not  only  intimately  cormected  with  each  other,  but  that  they 
are  in  fact  the  principal  parts  of  all  moulding  machines.  The  lack  of 
intimate  knowledge  of  how  to  make  use  of  them  to  the  best  advantage, 
the  want  of  proper  means  to  efifect  this  purpose  and  the  wretchedly 


vio  MouldinK  Machines 

little  effort  which  is  made  to  calrh  the  right  spirit  of  their  nature,  is 
gtru-nilly  the  reason  why  a  moulding  machine  jjccomes  an  elephant  on 
the  hands  of  the  moulder  and  an  eyesore  to  its  owner." 

The  recommendations  given  by  Mr.  Stupakoff  for  the  adoption  of 
plate  moulding  by  hand  apply  equally  well  to  machine  moulding. 

1.  Plated  patterns  give  the  best  ser\ice  when  used  continuously. 

2.  Castings  which  are  to  be  produced  in  quantities  are  perferably 
moulded  with  plated  patterns. 

3.  Standard  patterns  are  preferably  plated  for  economic  production 
in  the  foundrj'. 

4.  Plated  patterns  should  be  made  of  metal  to  give  good  scr\-ice." 

5.  When  plated  patterns  are  used  good  flasks  only  will  insure  good 
castings. 

6.  .Vccurate  workmanship  is  one  of  the  main  requisites  in  plated 
patterns. 

7.  The  use  of  wood  patterns  on  plates  is  not  excluded. 

8.  AH  patterns  when  placed  on  plates  should  be  provided  with 
plenty  of  draft. 

9.  Plated  metal  patterns  are  preferably  made  hollow. 
10.   Rapping  is  destructive  of  plates  and  patterns." 

The  chapter  on  jigs  is  regarded  of  such  importance  that  it  is  given 
here  in  full. 

The  Moulding  Machine 
By  S.  H.  Stupakoff,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Journal  of  llie  American  Foundrymcn's  Association,   Vol.  XI,  June,  igo2.  Part  1. 

Jigs 

The  deduction  arrived  at  in  the  foregoing  chapter  might  make  it 
appear  that  plated  patterns  are  not  likely  to  find  extensive  use  in 
jobbing  foundries,  whereas  this  is  really  not  altogether  the  case.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  plate  moulding  as  now  practiced,  or  rather  as  ordi- 
narily applied,  is  practically  excluded  from  jobbing  shops.  But,  if  a 
plate  is  used  in  connection  with  a  suitable  jig,  specially'  prepared  for  the 
purjjose,  objections  are  not  only  overcome,  but  the  application  and  use 
of  plates  offer  excellent  advantages,  even  in  such  cases  where  only  a 
small  number  of  castings  of  the  same  pattern  are  required  at  one  time. 
At  best,  the  economic  use  of  plated  patterns  is  limited  by  the  shape  anrl 
size  of  the  castings.  The  fundamental  principle  involved  in  their 
construction  and  application  must  be  fully  understood  by  the  user, 
if  satisfactory  results  are  expected. 


Jigs 


541 


Irrespective  of  its  relation  to  the  moulding  machine,  it  would  seem  that 
this  subject  —  on  its  own  merits  —  is  of  such  importance,  that  it  should 
be  investigated  by  all  fouiadrymen.  It  should  specially  interest  the  ma- 
jority of  our  members.  I  have  therefore  somewhat  enlarged  the  scope 
of  this  treatise  on  the  moulding  machine  by  including  a  detailed  study 
of  the  construction  and  modus  operandi  of  this  particular  contrivance. 

To  begin  with,  it  should  be  understood  that  all  plates  are  provided 
with  guide-pin  holes,  which  are  accurately  fitted  to  corresponding  guide 
pins  forming  part  of  the  flasks.  Unless  special  flasks  are  used  in  con- 
nection with  such  plates  the  customary  flask  pins  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  these  guide  pins,  as  they  will  never  answer  the  purpose. 
In  order  that  misconceptions  in  this  respect  may  be  avoided,  this  term 
will  be  adhered  to  in  what  follows,  and  strict  distinction  will  be  made 
between  flask  pins  and  guide  pins  wher- 
aver  they  may  be  mentioned  in  the 
course  of  this  work. 

The  guide-pin  holes,  G  and  G' ,  Fig. 
205,  are  preferably  arranged  on  opposite 
ends  of  the  plate,  in  even  multiples  of  an 
inch,  and  equidistant  from  its  center  and 
on  a  line  dividing  the  plate  into  two 
equal  rectangles.  There  are  exceptional 
cases,  in  which  three  or  four  guide  pins 
must  be  used.    The  most  serious  objec-  ^*^  ^°^' 

tion  against  this  arrangement  is  the  greater  difiaculty  experienced  in 
locating  the  patterns  correctly. 

Accuracy  in  preparing  the  plates  becomes  of  the  utmost  importance, 
as  the  magnitude  of  all  errors  occurring  in  the  original  laying  out  is 
doubled  by  each  subsequent  operation.  The  guide-pin  holes  should  be 
drilled  and  reamed  out  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  plate,  and  it  is 
advisable  to  provide  them  with  hardened  and  ground  steel  bushings. 
All  guide  pins  should  be  of  uniform  diameter  irrespective  of 
the  size  of  the  plate.  A  pair  of  test  pins  should  be  kept  on 
hand,  which  snugly  fit  the  guide-pin  holes;  one-half  of  one  of 
their  ends  should  have  been  cut  down  to  about  Vi  inch  in 
length,  leaving  as  remainder  exactly  one-half  of  the  cylindrical 
portion  (Fig.  204).  If  these  test  pins  are  inserted  into  their 
respective  holes  and  a  straight  edge  is  placed  against  their 
„  flattened  faces,  it  will  serve  for  locating  the  base  or  the  cen- 

A*  IP     2  O A 

ter  line  of  the  plate,  for  marking  off  and  laying  out  the  dowel 
pin  holes,  arranging  the  patterns  and  checking  off  all  work  relating 
to  it. 


542 


Moulding  Machines 


The  exact  location  of  the  center  of  the  plate,  and  likewise  the  center  of 
the  llask,  is  found  by  dividing  the  base  line  from  center  to  center  guide- 
pin  hole  into  two  equal  parts.  Let  us  drill  a  hole  C  in  this  place  (Fig. 
205),  and  let  this  hole  serve  as  the  starling  jjoint  for  future  oiHirations. 
Now  we  will  assume  that  we  have  procured  a  tri-squarc  with  a  row  of 
holes  drilled  in  each  of  its  legs;    these  holes  are  spaced  equally  —  say 


Fig.  205. 

I  inch  apart  —  care  being  taken  that  each  row  stand.s  exactly  in  a 
straight  line,  and  that  both  rows  include  an  exact  angle  of  90  degrees. 
We  place  this  square  in  such  a  manner  on  our  plate  that  the  hole  in  its 
apex  corresponds  with  the  center  hole  C  of  our  plate,  and  insert  a  good 
fitting  dowel  pin  through  both.  Thus  we  arc  able  to  shift  the  square 
over  the  whole  surface  of  the  plate  by  turning  it  around  the  center  pin. 
Next  we  bring  one  leg  of  the  square  over  the  base  line  of  the  plate  and 
insert  a  second  dowel  pin  (which  may  be  shouldered  if  necessar>-)  through 
G  into  the  corresponding  hole  of  our  .square.  Secured  in  this  manner 
the  square  sliould  be  absolutely  rigid  and  .should  not  shake  to  right  or 
left  on  the  surface  of  the  plate.  We  now  drill  one  hole  each  into  the 
plate  through  the  guides  //  and  /  of  the  square,  then  we  remove  the  pin 
from  G,  turn  the  scjuarc  around  the  center  pin  over  90  degrees,  so  that 
one  of  its  legs  points  upward  and  the  other  one  to  the  left,  insert  a  dowel 
through  the  hole  in  the  leg  pointing  upward  into  the  top  hole  /'  of  the 
plate,  and  drill  the  hole  IP;  finally  we  turn  it  again  over  90  degrees, 
secure  it  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  and  drill  the  hole  P.     Fig.  205 


Jigs  543 

illustrates  the  square  in  the  first  position  as  located  on  the  plate;  the 
holes  H'^  and  /-,  which  are  drilled  subsequently,  are  shown  in  faint  lines. 
In  the  future,  we  shall  call  these  holes  "pilot  holes,"  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  others  in  the  same  plate.  These  four  pilot  holes 
include  an  exact  rectangle  or  square,  and  each  opposite  pair  is  located 
at  uniform  distances  from  the  center  of  plate  and  flask.  It  will  be  under- 
stood that  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  employ  the  square  for  drilling 
the  pilot  holes.  For  instance,  after  one  plate  has  been  prepared  in  this 
manner,  this  plate  can  serve  as  a  jig  for  drilling  any  number  of  additional 
plates  in  the  same  manner  by  a  single  setting.  Such  an  original  or 
master  plate  is  especially  serviceable,  if  all  holes  are  provided  with  good 
steel  bushings.  The  pilot  holes  in  connection  with  the  center  hole  will 
serve  us  hereafter  as  guides  for  locating  pattern  dowels. 

Our  object  in  view  is  to  use  this  plate  as  a  base  for  any  and  all  suit- 
able patterns,  and  as  an  illustration  we  will  arrange  it  for  the  reception 
of  patterns  of  a  globe  valve  and  a  bib  cock.  We  will  assume  that  the 
patterns  are  all  in  good  shape  and  properly  parted.  However,  they 
shall  originally  not  have  been  intended  for  use  with  either  moulding  ma- 
chine or  drawplate.  Our  plate  and  flasks  are  of  a  suitable  size,  but  the 
job  is  in  a  hurry  —  as  all  jobs  are  —  and  we  must  get  out  quite  a  num- 
ber of  these  castings  to-day.  What  are  we  going  to  do  about  it?  Take 
my  advice  and  make  it  in  the  old  fashioned  way,  unless  you  are  pro- 
vided with  a  suitable  jig  plate  and  an  inexpensive,  but  a  good  small 
drill  press,  which  was  never  used  by  your  blacksmiths  or  yard  laborers, 
but  was  expressly  reserved  for  this  purpose  only,  was  always  under  the 
care  of  a  mechanic  who  understood  how  to  handle  it,  and  who  took  pride 
in  keeping  it  in  good  shape. 

This  jig  plate  (Fig.  205)  should  be  provided  with  a  number  of  holes, 
two  rows  of  which,  at  least,  are  drilled  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as 
those  in  the  above-mentioned  square;  the  balance  is  laid  out  prefer- 
ably, but  not  necessarily  so,  in  straight  and  parallel  hues,  all  equidistant 
from  each  other.  Its  dimensions  should  be  sufficient  to  cover  one 
corner,  or  one-fourth  of  your  pattern  plate. 

If  these  things  are  part  of  your  equipment  you  will  have  easy  sailing, 
and  you  will  be  better  fitted  to  tackle  the  job  than  your  competitor. 

Place  this  jig  in  such  a  manner  in  one  corner  of  your  draw  plate  that 
the  hole  0  (Fig.  205)  corresponds  with  the  hole  C  in  its  center;  hold  both 
together  with  dowel  pins  inserted  into  the  pilot  holes,  and  drill  the  holes 
through  the  jig  into  your  plate,  which  are  required  for  securing  the 
patterns  in  the  predetermined  places.  To  avoid  mistakes  be  sure  that 
the  hole  in  that  particular  corner  of  the  jig,  which  corresponds  to  the 
one  described  as  located  in  the  apex  of  the  square  is  distinctly  marked 


544 


Moulding  Machines 


on  both  sides  of  the  jig  plate  —  in  our  figure  marked  O  —  and  note 
carefully  which  h<jlas  in  the  jig  were  used  for  drilling  the  dowel  holes 
into  the  pattern  plate.  Thereafter  turn  the  jig  upside  down  on  the 
pattern  i)late,  insert  the  dowel  pins  again  through  the  same  holes  O  and 
01  into  C  and  /',  and  the  third  one  through  Oil  into  //-,  and  then,  as 
before,  drill  through  the  same  guide  holes  of  the  jig  the  corresjKjnding 

dowel  holes  into  the  second  quarter 
of  the  pattern  plate.  Repeat  the 
same  process  at  the  lower  half  of  the 
plate,  being  always  careful  that  C  and 
0  remain  together  and  your  plate  is 
ready  to  receive  the  patterns. 

That  there  may  be  no  doubt  as  to 
the  method  of  operation,  I  suggest 
that  you  will  refer  to  the  two  plates 
which  are  attached  hereto,  one  of 
which  (Fig.  206)  is  made  on  transpar- 
ent—  so-called  "onion  skin"  paper. 
The  cut  on  the  latter  represents  the  jig.  In  faint  lines  thereon  is  shown 
the  outline  of  the  position  of  patterns,  which  corresponds  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  same  on  the  pattern  plate  (Fig.  207).    Horizontal  and  \ertical 


■   .  1  1  1  1  1.  1  1  1 

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XX 

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■'  ^ 

::^r-::- 

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Fig.  206. 


Fig.  207. 

lines,  which  are  provided  with  identification  marks,  cross  all  the  holes 
in  the  jig  plate.  The  holes  which  are  to  be  used  in  this  special  case  as 
guides  for  drilling  the  neccssar>'  dowel  pin  or  screw  holes  in  the  pattern 
plate  are  indicated  by  circles  drawn  in  heavy.  Thus,  the  holes  //  X 
and  8*  are  used  for  securing  the  globe  valve  body  pattern,  //  -|-  and 


Jigs  545 

///  II  for  the  body  of  the  bib  cock,  and  so  forth.  By  placing  the  onion 
skin  in  such  a  manner  over  the  drawing  of  the  pattern  plate,  that  its 
hole  0  corresponds  with  the  center  hole  C  of  the  latter,  and  01  and  OH 
respectively  with  /'  and  //',  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  outlines  repre- 
senting the  patterns  cover  each  other  in  both  cuts.  The  jig  placed  in 
this  position  over  the  pattern  plate,  and  secured  to  it  by  the  pilot  pins 
at  0,  01  and  OH  is  used  in  this  manner  for  drilling  all  dark  lined  holes 
in  the  right-hand  upper  corner  of  the  draw  plate.  This  being  done,  the 
pilot  pins  are  withdrawn  and  the  jig  plate  is  reversed  and  turned  into 
the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  pattern  plate,  just  as  if  it  were  hinged 
at  the  line  01;  the  pilot  pins  are  replaced  into  the  same  holes  of  the  jig 
as  before  and  in  this  position  they  will  secure  it  to  the  pattern  plate  by 
entering  its  pilot  holes  C,  I'  and  H'^.  It  will  be  observed  that  in  this 
position  also,  and  equally  well,  the  outlines  of  the  patterns  in  both  cuts 
fall  exactly  together.  The  jig  is  used  in  this  position  as  before,  the  same 
guide  holes  which  were  used  in  the  first  position  in  the  upper  right  hand 
corner  serve  again  as  guides  for  drilling  the  second  quarter  of  the  pattern 
plate.  Identically  the  same  process  is  then  repeated  at  the  lower  left 
hand  and  lower  right-hand  corners  of  the  plate,  by  first  turning  the  jig 
plate  aroimd  the  imaginary  hinge  center  OH,  and  then  around  01. 

In  order  to  prepare  the  patterns  to  suit  the  above  conditions,  we  pro- 
ceed exactly  in  the  same  manner,  by  securing  one-half  of  each  separately, 
and  always  the  one  which  has  the  dowel  holes,  at  the  previously  deter- 
mined place  on  the  jig  plate  and  drilling  clear  through  them  the  holes 
which  coincide  with  those  drilled  previously  into  the  pattern  plate. 
The  second  halves  of  these  patterns  are  then  placed  in  position  against 
the  first  (drilled)  halves;  they  are  prevented  from  moving  sideways  by 
their  original  dowel  pins,  and  they  may  be  held  together  by  suitable 
clamps.  These  clamps  are  preferably  made  of  a  universal  type  which 
adapts  them  for  use  with  all  kinds  of  patterns,  their  lower  portion  being 
constructed  in  the  shape  of  a  frame  which  rests  on  the  table  of  the  drill 
press  without  rocking  and  which  is  adapted  for  fastening  the  patterns 
in  such  a  manner  that  their  parting  faces  stand  parallel  to  the  drill 
table.  The  half  of  the  pattern  which  has  been  drilled  first  with  the  aid 
of  the  jig  occupies  the  upper  position  in  this  clamp  or  drill  frame,  and 
the  holes  in  this  one  will  now  serve  as  guides  for  the  drill  to  drill  the 
holes  in  the  second  half  which  stands  directly  underneath.  Finally, 
have  the  original  dowel  pins  of  the  patterns  removed  and  fasten  all 
parts  separately  in  place  on  the  pattern  plate  by  either  dowels  or  screws, 
or  both,  whichever  may  be  preferable  and  most  convenient  in  your 
particular  case. 

If  I  may  call  your  attention  again  to  the  drawings,  you  will  observe 


546  Moulding  Machines 

that  \vc  have  prepared  the  pattern  plate  in  tliis  manner  with  four  com- 
plete sets  of  patterns;  yet  we  have  used  only  two.  The  castings  result- 
ing from  the  use  of  these  plates  should  be  jx-Tfcct  as  to  match.  The 
amount  of  labor  required  to  withdraw  the  patterns  from  the  sand  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum;  additional  time  is  saved  by  the  use  of  a  station- 
ary gate  or  runner  on  the  plate,  and  double  the  quantity  of  castings  can 
be  produced  in  this  manner  with  the  same  number  of  patterns  and  in 
the  same  number  of  flasks.  .Ml  this  can  be  accomplished  by  making 
an  effort  of  no  lonj^cr  duration  than  it  took  to  describe. 

If  you  have  followed  the  above  description  carefully,  you  may  have 
noticed  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  an  individual  plate  prepared  for 
each  set  of  patterns.  Yet  I  thought  it  better  to  describe  this  method 
of  preparing  pattern  plates  and  patterns  for  plate  moulding  in  detail, 
than  to  leave  room  for  any  doubt  or  error.  You  can  easily  see  that  much 
of  the  time  which  it  apparently  took  to  get  the  plate  and  patterns  ready 
for  the  moulder,  can  be  saved  by  providing  the  entire  surface  of  the  plate 
with  dowel  holes  before  putting  it  into  use.  This  should  be  done  with 
the  aid  of  the  jig  and  in  identicall)'  the  siime  manner  as  has  been  suflfi- 
ciently  explained  in  the  foregoing.  Thus,  only  new  patterns  have  to 
be  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  all  others,  which  once  have  been  fitted, 
are  easily  replaced  and  secured  to  their  correct  positions  on  the  plate, 
providing  their  dowel  holes  were  promptly  provided  with  specific  num- 
bers, letters  or  identification  marks.  The  additional  holes  in  the  plate 
will  not  impair  its  working  qualities,  but  they  could  be  easily  closed 
up  with  bees-wax  if  ol)jectionable.  Finally,  it  is  well  to  note  that 
each  plate  can  be  used  in  connection  with  all  patterns  within  its  range, 
and  that  it  can  be  kept  in  continuous  service,  while  the  patterns  may  be 
changed  at  will,  and  as  often  as  desirable. 

While  the  above  description  may  appear  somewhat  too  e.xtended,  I 
assure  you  that  a  serious  mistake  would  have  been  made  had  the  sub- 
ject been  slighted  merely  for  the  sake  of  brevity.  At  the  same  time  I  will 
siiy  in  justification  of  my  apparent  digression,  that  my  original  sul)ject 
has  not  been  sidetracked.  .\t  first  sight,  it  may  appear,  that  the  con- 
struction and  the  manipulation  of  pattern  plates  has  but  little  connection 
with  moulding  machines,  but  I  hope  that  I  will  succeed  in  showing  in 
the  course  of  this  work,  that  they  arc  not  only  intimately  connected  with 
each  other,  but  that  they  arc  in  fact  the  principal  parts  of  all  moulding 
machines.  The  lack  of  intimate  knowledge  of  how  to  make  use  of  them 
to  the  best  advantage,  the  want  of  proper  means  to  effect  this  purpose 
and  the  wretchedly  little  effort  which  is  made  to  catch  the  right  spirit  of 
their  nature  is  generally  the  reason  why  a  moulding  machine  becomes  an 
elephant  on  the  hands  of  a  moulder  and  an  eyesore  to  its  owner. 


Flasks  547 

Flasks 

Good  flasks  are  especially  important  in  machine  or  plate  moulding. 
To  insure  good  results  from  moulding  machines  the  flasks  must  be  prac- 
ticaUy  perfect.  They  must  be  constructed  to  insure  firm  holding  of 
the  moulding  sand;  must  be  stiff,  light  and  durable. 

"The  pins  must  be  accurately  fitted.  The  flasks,  if  made  in  sets, 
must  be  absolutely  interchangeable.  The  pins  should  be  square  with 
the  flask  surface,  must  not  bind  and  still  must  not  fit  too  loosely. 

Copes  and  drags  when  assembled,  must  not  rock  or  shake  sideways. 

Wooden  flasks,  such  as  are  used  in  most  foundries,  are  not  likely  to 
give  good  results  in  moulding  machine  practice.  However,  if  carefully 
and  substantially  made,  there  is  no  reason  why  their  application  in 
machine  moulding  should  be  absolutely  condemned.  ' 

Iron  flasks  are  always  preferable,  especially  since  they  do  not  shrink, 
warp  or  get  out  of  joint." 

Pressed  steel  flasks  are  still  more  desirable. 

If  wooden  flasks  are  used  they  should  be  faced  with  an  iron  ring, 
this  ring  serving  not  only  to  maintain  alignment,  but  also  as  a  base  for 
securing  flask  pins.  Taper  steel  pins  secured  to  lugs  by  nuts  give  best 
satisfaction.  The  holes  in  lugs  on  drags  may  be  reamed  tapering  and 
the  lower  ends  of  pins  turned  to  fit,  and  tapped  lightly  into  place.  After 
the  flask  is  closed  and  clamped  these  pins  may  be 
removed,  thus  making  a  few  pins  serve  for  any 
number  of  flasks.  When  not  in  use  they  should 
be  removed  from  the  flasks  and  properly  taken 
care  of.     The  pins  are  sometimes  cut  away  so  as  ig.  20  . 

to  give  them  a  triangular  cross  section,  so  that  sand  adhering  to  them 
may  not  interfere  with  readily  inserting  them  in  the  holes. 

By  continued  use  the  pins  and  sockets  are  so  worn  as  to  be  unservice- 
able. The  pins,  of  course,  are  replaced  by  new  ones,  but  the  sockets 
must  be  bushed  by  sleel  thimbles.  The  old  holes  are  drilled  out  to 
standard  size,  so  that  the  thimbles  may  be  interchangeable.  It  is 
advisable  to  have  the  pin  holes  bushed  when  the  flasks  are  made,  so  as 
to  avoid  subsequent  annoyance. 

"The  makers  of  moulding  machines  are  undoubtedly  very  well  aware 
of  all  the  requirements  which  are  covered  by  the  observance  of  these 
little  details.  They  will  appreciate  their  importance  and  must  admit 
that  they  are  essential  to  make  their  machines  a  success.  Yet  to  my 
knowledge  these  facts  have  never  been  mentioned.  Is  this  information 
kept  from  the  foundryman  purposely,  that  he  may  not  be  scared  from 
the  purchase  of  machines?  If  he  should  be  told  all  this  he  might  in  the 
first  place  think  of  the  expense,  and  next  that  his  moulders  cannot  get 


54^  Moulding  Machines 

used  to  refinement  of  this  kiml,  which  hy  the  way  is  not  a  very  creditable 
opinion.  lUil  if  lie  i)uys  one  or  more  of  the  machines  olTercd,  he  cannot 
help  hndinj;  all  this  out  lieforc  lon^;,  to  his  own  chagrin.  He  may  throw 
the  machines  away,  or  persist  in  the  use  of  them  and  pay  dearly  for  his 
experience.  .\11  this  vexation  could  have  been  prevented  in  the  first 
place  and  at  a  reasonable  cost,  had  he  been  furnished  in  connection  with 
the  machine,  with  jigs,  sample  flasks,  pins,  etc.,  and  above  all  with  the 
necessary  information  to  which  he  was  entitled."  Many  failures  to 
introduce  and  maintain  labor-saving  devices  can  be  traced  to  the  lack 
of  intelligent  instructions  sent  with  them. 

Mr.  StupakofI  further  discusses  in  detail  the  dilTercnt  kinds  of  ma- 
chines remarking:  "It  is  a  grievous  mistake  to  think  that  a  moulding 
machine  of  any  description  will  replace  a  skilled  moulder.  There  is  no 
less  ingenuity  required  to  produce  good  castings  on  a  machine  than  to 
make  them  by  hand. 

"A  moulder  is  aided  by  his  experience  and  bj'  his  good  judgment.  A 
machine  hand  (customarily  selected  from  unskilled  labor)  has  nothing 
to  offer  but  his  muscle  and  good  will.  These  qualities  .  .  .  are  but 
poor  substitutes  for  the  dexterity  of  an  e.vpert.  Therefore,  under 
ordinary  circumstances  the  chances  are  but  slight  to  obtain  good  cast- 
ings and  good  results  by  mechanical  means  which  are  imperfectly  under- 
stood and  subject  to  reckless  abuse  by  hands  which  are  unquestionably 
green  in  the  business. 

Owners  of  moulding  machines  should  not  e.xpect  mar\-el3  from  an 
inert  piece  of  mechanism,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  they  will  seldom  fail  in 
their  calculations  if  they  are  satisfied  with  a  reasonable  increased  pro- 
duction, provided  they  are  willing  to  pay  the  best  possible  attention  to 
their  manipulation." 

Messrs.  McWilliams  and  Longmuir  in  discussing  the  advantages  of 
moulding  machines  conclude  their  remarks  as  follows: 

"With  ordinary  small  work,  such  as  is  usually  included  in  boxes  up 
to  14  inches  by  i5  inches,  the  greatest  time  consumers  are  (i)  ramming, 
(2)  jointing  ,  and  (3)  setting  cores.  Jointing  is  largely  obviated  with 
a  good  odd-side,  and  altogether  so  with  a  plate.  Ramming  by  the  aid 
of  a  press  reduces  the  time  occupied  to  that  required  for  the  pulling 
forward  of  a  lever. 

Obviously,  then,  the  greatest  time  consumers,  wnth  one  exception, 
Tna.y  be  very  considerably  reduced  by  the  simple  and  inexpensive  aid 
offered  by  plate  moulding  and  the  hand  press. " 

The  exception  referred  to  is  that  of  setting  cores,  which  holds  good 
with  all  forms  of  mechanical  moulding.  Pattern  drawing  does  not  take 
up  so  much  time  as  is  usually  supposed.     With  machines,  jointing  and 


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55©  Moulding  Machines 

IKiUcrn  drawing  arc  eliminated  and  in  certain  cases,  the  initial  outlay 
is  comparatively  small. 

On  standard,  but  changing  work,  our  Ijcst  results  in  machine  prac- 
tice have  Ijccn  obtained  from  the  hand  j)ress  sup|)lemcnted.  in  case  of 
deep  patterns,  such  as  flanged  \alve  Ixxlics,  etc.,  by  the  hand  rammed 
pattern  ckawing  machine.  Accessories  in  cither  case  are  not  costly; 
the  output  is  high  and  the  quality  good.  Our  best  results  on  standard 
work,  in  which  one  plate  could  be  run  for  at  least  300  moulds,  have  been 
obtained  from  a  pneumatic  vibrator  machine. 

If  the  same  plate  could  be  run  over  a  period  of  four  or  five  days 
without  changing,  then  production  costs  fall  very  con.sidcrably.  .  .  . 

Whatever  may  be  said  to  the  contrary,  stripping  plate  machines 
involve  costly  accessories,  but  this  outlay  is  warranted  if  the  patterns 
are  of  a  sufliciently  standard  character.  These  machines  are  esi)ecially 
good  on  intricate  patterns,  such  as  small  spur  wheels  or  others  having 
little  or  no  taper  on  the  sides.  While  hand  machines  of  any  type 
represent  a  low  first  cost,  the  cost  of  subsequent  accessories  must  not  be 
forgotten. 

Power  machines  represent  a  higher  initial  and  maintenance  cost, 
but  if  they  can  be  maintained  in  constant  operation,  they  give  a  low 
production  cost.  Finally,  the  chief  drawback  to  the  further  develop>- 
ment  of  machine  moulding  of  any  t>-pe  occurs  in  core  making  and  core 
setting. 

An  improvement  in  the  mechanical  production  of  irregular  cores  will 
result  in  a  very  considerable  advance  in  machine  practice." 

The  following  remark  is  quoted  from  page  131,  same  book: 

"As  a  rule  we  have  found  that  while  the  initial  cost  of  the  machine 
is  not  considered,  the  after  cost  of  the  accessories  is  cut  down  to  the 
narrowest  possible  margin.  This  is  short  sighted  for  if  mechanical  aids 
are  adopted,  there  must  be  no  half  measures,  or  failure  will  inevitably 
follow.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  that  the  cost  of  a  machine 
represents  only  the  beginning  of  expenditure." 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

CONTINUOUS  MELTING 

There  are  some  large  shops  where  the  processes  of  melting  and  mould- 
ing are  carried  on  continuously.  In  some  instances  the  moulds  are  made 
in  one  department,  taken  on  trucks  to  the  neighborhood  of  cupola, 
where  they  are  filled;  then  to  the  dumping  floor  where  the  flasks  are 
knocked  out,  and  sent  along  on  same  truck  to  moulding  floor.  The 
manner  of  conducting  this  operation  at  the  Westinghouse  Foundry  is 
described  by  Mr.  Sheath,  and  is  given  in  substance  further  on.  In 
other  shops,  where  work  of  the  character  of  iron  bedsteads  is  produced, 
the  operation  is  also  continuous,  but  the  pouring  is  done  in  the  ordinary 
way. 

The  management  of  the  cupola  is  practically  the  same  as  in  the  ordi- 
nary foundry,  except  that  the  melter  must  have  means  for  controlling 
the  blast,  so  that  he  may  increase  or  decrease  the  supply  of  air  as  the 
demand  for  melted  iron  may  be  greater  or  less.  The  cupola  is  run  con- 
tinuously from  7  A.M.  to  6  p.m.  with  an  interval  of  one  hour  at  noon. 

In  respect  to  the  cupola  Mr.  Sheath's  advice  is:  "See  that  the  coke 
bed  is  burning  evenly  all  around,  then  charge  just  as  you  would  for  an 
ordinary  run,  allowing  an  extra  amount  of  coke  for  the  dinner  hour. 
After  running  about  an  hour  open  the  slag  hole  and  keep  it  open,  except 
during  the  dinner  hour.  Use  about  40  to  50  pounds  of  limestone  to  the 
ton  of  molten  metal  —  better  use  too  much  than  too  httle.  Have  the 
cupola  shell  large  enough,  as  it  is  easy  to  put  in  an  extra  hning  for  smaller 
heats." 

"The  Westinghouse  Company  have  in  their  foundry  at  Wilmerding, 
Pa.,  three  cupolas,  one  60  inches,  two  70  inches,  inside  lining.  When 
running  full,  i.e.,  night  and  day,  we  melt  280  tons,  running  each  cupola 
about  ten  hours.  We  have  operated  one  cupola  from  Friday  night  at 
6  o'clock,  until  Saturday  noon  the  following  day,  closing  down  at 
1 1  P.M.  for  one-half  hour  for  lunch,  and  again  at  6.30  in  the  morning  for 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  for  breakfast.  This  is  rather  hard  on  the 
lining  so  we  do  not  make  a  practice  of  it.  We  have  tried  a  great  many 
experiments  with  cupolas,  but  as  yet  have  been  imable  to  find  any  that 
will  give  better  results  than  the  double  row  of  tuyeres.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary^ to  keep  the  upper  ones  open  all  the  time.     Our  blast  pressure  is 

551 


552  Continuous  Melting 

about  II  ounces  in  the  cupola  l)ustle.  When  running  full  we  melt  ten 
to  eleven  pounds  of  iron  to  one  pound  of  coke.  .  .  . 

All  charges  are  the  same  from  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  heat. 

As  the  iron  must  come  very  soft  and  uniform  we  do  not  charge  more 
than  4000  pounds  at  one  time. 

In  the  discussion  of  his  paper  at  the  Cincinnati  meeting  of  the  Amer- 
ican Foundrymcn's  Association,  May,  1910,  Mr.  Sheath  gave  much 
interesting  information,  which  is  summarized  briefly. 

Blast  pressure,  1 1  ounces. 

Little  metal  is  held  in  cupola,  consequently  tuyeres  are  ver>'  low. 

We  are  ready  to  tap  almost  after  the  whistle  blows  in  the  morning. 

The  melting  is  fast  or  slow  as  the  moulds  appear  for  jwuring. 

More  coke  is  used  for  a  small  heat  and  slow  melting,  than  with  a 
large  heat  and  rapid  melting." 

The  sand  is  conveyed  to  the  moulding  machines  by  overhead  redpro- 
cating  conveyors.  Mr.  Sheath's  description  of  the  pouring  table  is 
as  follows: 

"I  might  describe  how  we  handle  what  we  call  our  No.  2  table  for 
No.  2  work.  On  that  table  there  are  castings,  a  great  many  of  them 
measuring  only  a  few  inches.  Notwithstanding  the  small  size  of  the 
castings,  we  were  running  52  tons  ofif  that  table  alone  on  a  lo-hours  run, 
showing  what  a  great  amount  of  metal  can  be  used  up  under  the  con- 
tinuous process  in  pouring  small  castings.  We  move  the  table  at  the 
rate  of  20  feet  per  minute.  .\  drag  is  put  on.  There  are  cores  in  it. 
As  it  passes  up  the  core  setters  set  the  cores.  Then  the  cope  is  put 
on.  It  then  goes  around  to  the  casters  in  front  of  the  cupola,  which  is 
connected  with  an  endless  control  system.  The  casters  ha\e  a  ladle 
which  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  hand.  They  step  on  the  table  and 
travel  with  it,  pouring  anywhere  from  two  moulds  to  a  half  dozen  or  a 
dozen,  and  by  the  time  they  are  poured  ofif,  they  are  off  at  that  end,  and 
they  can  ride  back  to  the  cupola." 

They  do  that  all  day  long.  The  table  is  not  supposed  to  stop, 
but  just  goes  right  straight  ahead.  It  moves  at  the  rate  of  about  21  feet 
a  minute,  which  allows  them  to  core  up,  cast,  cover  down  and  all.  The 
core-setters  walk  with  the  platform  and  become  very  e.xpert. 

In  some  moulds  we  put  in  eight  cores  and  two  or  three  anchors 
at  the  same  time,  and  it  would  take  more  than  one  man  to  do  the 
coring. 

Sometimes  one  man  will  core  it,  sometimes  it  takes  two.  The 
casters  move  right  along  with  the  table,  take  their  ladle,  and  travel  with 
it,  the  same  as  if  they  were  on  the  floor. 

One  man  handles  a  ladle  that  holds  from  60  to  70  pounds. 


Continuous  Melting  553 

The  sand  does  not  ball  up,  because  we  do  not  carry  it  very  far 
with  the  conveyor.  In  the  iron  foundry  from  the  time  we  make  the 
mould  and  pour,  until  the  mould  is  shalien  out,  that  same  sand  is  back 
again  in  twenty  minutes.  The  sand  is  not  touched  by  the  men  in  any 
way.  It  simply  goes  down  through  the  conveyor.  The  sand  drops 
through  the  grating  and  is  wet  there  and  then  taken  overhead  to  the 
machine. 

The  lowest  we  have  ever  run  was  40  to  50  tons.  We  have  run  as 
low  as  5  tons  an  hour.     This  takes  a  little  more  lining  up. 

The  economy  comes  in  the  room  occupied  by  the  moulds  and  the 
handling  of  the  sand.  The  sand  that  we  pour  into,  is  back  to  the  ma- 
chine again  in  twenty  minutes.  We  get  the  sand,  the  flasks  and  every- 
thing back  empty  every  twenty  minutes.  There  is  a  very  little  jarring 
about  the  platform.  We  have  rebuilt  one  after  running  it  nineteen 
years. 

There  is  very  little  shake  to  it  if  it  is  working  right.  We  use  both 
the  hydraulic  and  pneumatic  moulding  machines.  .  .  . 

The  cutting  of  the  cupola  lining  as  compared  with  ordinary  practice 
varies  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  time  in  blast.  We  do  not  have 
any  trouble  from  slag.  At  12  o'clock  all  the  metal  is  tapped  out.  We 
tap  for  slag  twenty  minutes  before  twelve  and  run  it  all  out.  The 
blast  is  shut  off  and  metal  run  out  before  twelve.  All  the  openings  are 
stopped  up.     Very  little  iron  comes  down  after  the  blast  is  stopped. 

The  cupola  is  drained  before  starting  to  work  again  and  the  blast 
put  on  at  full  pressure  so  as  to  heat  up  quickly.  Perhaps  300  pounds 
metal  is  pigged  before  operations  are  resumed. 

The  smallest  output  any  one  day  was  50  tons.  I  do  not  consider 
that  the  continuous  process  would  pay  if  the  production  was  as  low  as 
20  or  30  tons  per  day.  If  there  were  no  moulding  machines  the  process 
would  be  economical  upon  a  basis  of  two  tons  per  hour." 

When  asked  as  to  injury  from  jarring,  Mr.  Sheath  replied: 

"We  make  some  moulds  that  have  thirteen  pockets  hanging  down  in 
our  smooth  moulds;  but  there  are  much  larger  moulds  which  we  have  not 
put  on  the  table  at  all,  because  our  green  sand  cores  are  just  held  by  a 
few  fingers,  and  we  would  not  risk  putting  them  on.  But  we  make 
lots  of  moulds  that  have  quite  deep  pockets  hanging  down,  and  there  is 
very  little  jarring  to  it.  The  table  has  a  slow  movement  which  elimi- 
nates jarring. 

The  displacing  of  the  sand  in  the  mould  gives  very  little  trouble. 

The  continuous  system  is  adapted  only  for  heats  where  the  metal 
is  of  same  character  throughout.  If  two  grades  of  metal  are  used  they 
should  be  melted  in  separate  cupolas. 


554  Continuous  Moiling 

The  moulds  may  l)c  m.idc  by  machine  or  on  the  floor,  and  the  table 
used  for  pouring  anything  j)laccd  on  it. 

Our  conveyor  makes  a  complete  revolution  in  twenty  minutes.  We 
find  in  our  line  of  work  that  the  moulds  and  oistings  will  be  cold  enough 
by  the  time  they  travel  to  the  shaking  out  end. 

The  flasks  are  all  iron  and  when  shaken  out  arc  immediately  put 
back  on  the  tabic  and  carried  to  the  moulding  machine.  They  are 
carried  entirely  by  the  conveyor. 

Our  castings  are  not  hcaxy.  The  sand  is  hot  when  it  is  shaken  out, 
but  when  it  is  wet  and  elevated  and  shaken  back  and  forward  in  the 
reciprocating  conveyor,  by  the  time  it  gels  to  the  machine  and  iron 
patterns  it  is  all  right.  We  have  to  keep  the  patterns  warm  to  prevent 
the  sand  from  slicking  to  them. 

Cores  placed  in  hot  sand  will  draw  dampness.  This  feature  was 
provided  for.  Our  heaviest  work  is  with  flasks  containing  two  castings 
which  together  weigh  45  pounds.  Other  flasks  contain  from  thirty- 
two  to  forty  castings,  weighing  a  few  ounces  each. 

I  am  familiar  with  a  foundry  where  the  cupola  is  36  inches  inside  the 
lining.  It  is  run  from  7  a.m.  to  5.30  p.m.,  continuously.  The  product 
is  60  tons  per  day.  The  sand  is  conveyed  from  the  shaking  out  stand  to 
the  machines.     Casting  is  continuous. 

I  am  unable  to  say  how  small  an  output  could  be  economically'  pro- 
duced by  this  system.  My  experience  is  on  a  production  from  50  to 
280  tons.  With  us  the  casters  do  nothing  but  cast,  the  machine  men 
do  nothing  but  mould  and  the  shakers-out  do  nothing  but  shake  out. 

We  have  had  no  trouble  with  freezing  at  the  tap  hole  during  the 
noon  shut  down. " 

As  regards  melting  losses,  Mr.  Sheath  was  uncertain  whether  there 
were  records  or  not.  His  opinion  was  that  it  runs  from  three  to  four 
per  cent.  The  gates  and  sprues  are  returned  to  the  cupola  without 
cleaning. 

"The  pouring  is  done  by  a  man  moving  with  the  table.  The  table 
is  large  enough  for  a  man  to  stay  on  it  with  the  mould.  There  is  an 
overhead  traveler,  which  travels  with  him  as  he  is  pouring.  As  soon 
as  he  has  poured  off  and  is  at  the  end  of  his  trolley  line,  he  steps  off  the 
table  and  comes  right  back  to  the  cupola.  The  coring  is  done  by  men 
standing  and  dropping  in  the  cores  as  the  moulds  pass,  or  maybe  taking 
a  couple  of  steps,  depending  on  the  number  of  cores.  The  table  does 
not  stop  from  7.15  a.m.  until  12  M.  unless  for  some  special  cause." 

Mr.  G.  K.  Hooper,  in  the  discussion  on  Mr.  Sheath's  paper,  remarked 
in  response  to  the  inquirj*  as  to  the  minimum  production  for  which  the 
continuous  process  can  be  economically  employed: 


Multiple  Moulds  555 

"That  it  was  not  so  much  a  question  of  tonnage  as  of  the  number 
of  moulds  to  be  poured."  The  handling  of  a  smaller  tonnage  than  that 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Sheath,  if  distributed  over  a  large  number  of  moulds 
would  unquestionably  be  productive  of  great  economy  if  performed 
mechanically  and  continuously.  The  mould  is  the  unit  which  must  be 
employed  in  determining  whether  the  continuous  system  can  be  applied 
to  any  particular  production." 

Mr.  Hooper  also  states  that  20  minutes  are  not  necessary  for  the 
manipulation  and  cooling  of  the  sand.  He  had  experience  with  a 
plant  where  the  sand  was  returned  in  six  minutes. 

His  further  experience  is  that  the  foundry  losses  are  less  than  are  met 
with  in  the  same  class  of  work  made  on  the  floor. 

Belts  are  more  desirable  than  conveyors  for  moving  sand.  Rubber 
belts  are  better  suited  for  the  purpose^than  canvas.  Flat  belts  are 
better  than  those  which  are  troughed,  and  wide  belts  moving  slowly 
are  better  than  narrow  ones  at  high  speed. 

A  drag  or  scraper  conveyor  is  the  best  for  distributing  sand  to  the 
hoppers  over  the  moulding  machines.  It  is  preferably  made  of  wooden 
troughs  and  flights. 

Nettings,  riddles,  sieves,  bolts  and  nuts  are  best  made  of  phosphor 
bronze. 

It  is  possible  to  handle  all  the  sand  required  by  productions  up  to 
100  tons  of  castings  per  day,  or  more,  with  two  men;  even  though  as 
much  as  100  tons  of  sand  per  hour  may  be  passing  through  the  system. 

He  has  subjected  moiflds  to  very  rough  treatment  to  determine  the 
liability  of  injury  from  jarring  and  confirms  Mr.  Sheath's  statement 
that  no  trouble  arises  from  this  cause. 

Mr.  Hooper  commends  a  system  wherein  the  moulds  are  carried  by  an 
overhead  trolley  and  allowed  to  swing  freely  except  at  the  point  where 
the  pouring  was  done.  Less  power  is  required,  less  wear  entailed,  and 
the  expense  is  less. 

The  continuous  system  is  in  no  sense  experimental.  Its  worth  is  demon- 
strated by  use  through  many  years  in  many  large  shops.  .  .  .  By  means  of 
mechanical  handling  systems  in  the  foundry,  the  eSiciency  of  the  workman 
is  increased  from  10  to  50  per  cent.  The  average  wage  can  often  be  re- 
duced somewhat;  the  foundry  loss  is  decreased;  the  floor  space  reduced; 
in  fact  by  such  appliances  only  can  the  full  capacity  of  moulding  machin- 
ery be  realized. 

Multiple  Moulds 

When  several  moulds  are  stacked  one  on  top  of  another  and  poured 
from  a  common  sprue  connecting  to  each  mould,  the  process  is  styled 
multiple  moulding. 


5S6 


Continuous  Melting 


The  top  and  bottom  sections  arc  like  the  coikj  and  drag  of  the  ordinary 
mould;  each  intcrmcdiule  section  forms  the  drag  for  that  immediately 
above  and  the  cope  for  the  one  directly  below. 

A  numljcr  of  these  sections,  perhaps  ei^hl  or  even  nine,  are  piled  on 
top  of  each  other  and  the  ixjuring  gate  extends  from  the  top  coi^c  to  the 


jS 


Fig.  209.  —  Ralhbone  Multiple  Moulding  Machine, 

bottom  drag.  The  special  advantages  of  the  sj^stem  result  from  the 
reduction  of  floor  space,  the  amount  of  sand  used;  the  nimiber  of  flasks 
required,  and  the  labor  of  pouring  off. 

Mr.  E.  H.  INIumford,  in  a  paper  presented  to  the  American  Foundry- 
men's  Association,  stated:  "That  the  reduction  in  the  amoimt  of  sand 
used  and  in  the  number  of  flasks  is  37  per  cent;  and  in  floor  space 
88  per  cent  below  that  required  for  ordinary  floor  moulding. " 


Multiple  Moulds 


557 


The  pouring  may  be  done  with  a  crane  ladle;  therefore,  one  of  the 
great  difficulties  encountered  in  pouring  off  machine  floors  is  eliminated. 
The  great  weight  of  sand,  together  with  good  clamping  overcomes  the 
tendency  of  straining. 


Fig.  2IO. 


Fig.  211. 


Fig.  212. 


Fig.  213. 


Fig.  214. 


Fig.  215. 


As  originally  practiced  this  method  of  moulding  covered  the  piling  of 
ordinary  moulds,  one  above  the  other,  and  pouring  from  a  common  gate. 
The  advantages  were  confined  to  reduced  floor  space  and  reduction  of 
pouring  difficulties.  Subsequently  each  intermediate  section  was 
made  to  serve  as  a  cope  and  drag;  but  the  process  was  confined  to  pat- 


558 


Coiilinuous  Melting 


Icnis  having  |)lanc  bases,  lljc  drag  having  simply  a  flat  surface.  Thb 
limilaliun  arose  from  the  diflkully  entountcretl  in  obtaining  good 
moulds  by  pressing  the  patterns  into  the  sand  to  form  the  drag.  Later 
it  was  found  that  by  bringing  the  drag  up  suddenly  against  the  prcsscr 
head,  the  sand  was  made  by  its  inertia  to  take  the  imi)ression  of  the 
pattern  equally  as  well  as  when  pressed  from  above.  The  scope  of  the 
process  was  immediately  enlarged  and  although  the  method  is  not  as  yet 
c.\tensi\cly  emjjloyed  there  seems  to  be  a  reasonable  jirobability  that 
it  may  be  extended  to  cover  the  range  of  moderately  small  work  now 
made  by  mechanical  processes. 

The  cut  above  (Fig.  209)  shows  a  machine  of  this  character  designed 
for  making  chilled  plow  points. 

The  moulds  in  jwsition  for  clamping,  and  samples  of  castings  made 
are  shown  in  cuts  above  (Tig.  210-215). 


Permanent  Moulds 

Moulds  of  more  or  less  pcrniancnc^-  made  in  loam,  and  moulds  for  chilled 
work,  such  as  car  wheels,  etc.,  have  long  been  in  use,  but  moulds  of  a 
permanent  character  have  only  recently  been  used  for  extended  lines 
of  castings  which  are  not  chilled. 

The  management  of  the  cupola,  melting  and  pouring  are  ver>'  much 
the  same  as  pursued  in  the  continuous  process  already  described. 

The  moulds  are  either  mounted  on  frames  near  the  cupola  or  are  placed 
on  revolving  tables. 

The  iron  from  which  the  moulds  are  made  must  be  soft  enough  for 
machining;  it  must  be  strong  and  of  suitable  composition  to  stand 
repeated  heating  without  warping;  it  must  also  have  a  close  structure 
to  withstand  the  abraiding  action  of  hot  metal.  The  moulds  are  very 
heavy  so  that  the  mass  of  iron  may  carry  away  the  heat  rapidly  from 
the  casting  and  at  the  same  time  not  permit  its  temperature  to  rise 
above  300°  or  400°  F.  Keeping  the  temperature  within  these  limits 
reduces  the  frequenc>'  with  which  the  mould  may  be  used.  The  moulds 
are  machined  at  the  joints  and  preferably  hinged;  the  outside  of  the 
lower  half  of  mould  is  also  machined  on  the  bottom. 

Mr.  Richard  H.  Probcrt  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  a  paper  read  at  the 
Cincinnati  meeting  of  the  .A.mcrican  F"oundr\Tnen's  Association  gave 
the  following  analysis  for  moulds  which  had  gi\cn  good  results: 


Si 

s 

Phos. 

Mn 

C.  C. 

G.  C. 

2.02 

.07 

.89 

•  29 

.84 

2.76 

Permanent  Moulds  559 

He  also  states  that  he  had  used  moulds  made  from  high  carbon  steels 
for  castings  having  sharp  thin  projections.  In  constant  use  these  moulds 
become  roughened,  but  are  not  burnt  or  eaten  away,  as  with  cast-iron 
moulds. 

He  likewise  suggests  that  pressure  applied  to  the  moulds  immediately 
after  pouring  would  result  in  castings  presenting  sharp  clean  lines  of 
great  density  and  strength. 

Mr.  Edgar  A.  Custer  of  Tacony,  Pa.,  presented  at  the  same  meeting 
a  most  interesting  paper  on  the  same  subject  and  also  submitted  many 
sample  castings,  made  by  this  process.  Without  giving  definite  informa- 
tion as  to  sizes  of  moulds  with  respect  to  patterns,  he  impressed  the 
necessity  for  great  mass  in  them.  For  instance,  a  mould  for  a  2-inch  soil 
pipe  T,  weighs  500  pounds;  one  for  a  3-inch  trap  1700  pounds.  In  a 
mould  for  4-inch  soil  pipe  weighing  65  pounds,  there  were  6500  pounds 
iron.  Castings  were  made  in  this  mould  every  seven  minutes  without 
raising  its  temperatiu^e  over  300°  F. 

He  found  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  coat  the  moulds,  but  that  their 
temperature  must  be  sufficiently  high  to  prevent  the  condensation  of 
moisture  before  casting.  If  the  castings  are  removed  from  the  moulds 
immediately  upon  setting,  there  is  little  trouble  about  sticking  after 
60  to  ICO  castings  have  been  made.  The  moulds  improve  by  continued 
use,  but  how  long  they  will  last  is  imknown.  He  has  now  in  use  a  mould 
in  which  6000  castings  have  been  made  and  it  shows  no  signs  of  deterio- 
ration. The  life  of  a  mould  depends  not  so  much  on  the  number  of  cast- 
ings made  in  it  as  upon  the  number  of  times  it  has  been  allowed  to 
become  entirely  cold  and  then  reheated.  Continuous  pouring,  when 
correctly  timed  so  as  to  preserve  a  generally  even  temperature,  has  but 
very  slight  tendency  to  crack  the  mould.  If  the  castings  are  removed 
from  the  mould  as  soon  as  they  have  set  sufiiciently  to  handle,  there  is 
with  proper  mixture  no  appearance  of  chill  when  cold.  This  was  shown 
by  a  number  of  samples  which  had  been  machined.  The  iron  was  soft, 
and  was  readily  filed  on  the  parts  not  machined. 

Cores  are  made  of  cast  iron,  and  if  straight,  or  curved  in  circular 
shape,  can  easily  be  removed  from  the  castings,  if  taken  out  quickly 
while  the  casting  is  at  a  bright  red.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  the 
time  to  remove  the  castings  is  at  any  period  after  setting  and  prior  to 
the  third  expansion,  and  that  the  core  should  be  removed  during  the 
third  expansion.  See  Keep's  "Cast  Iron,"  Chapter  VIII.  The  iron 
must  be  melted  very  hot.  ]\Ir.  Custer's  view  is  that  the  percentage 
of  silicon  may  range  between  1.75  and  3  per  cent.  The  mixture  in  use 
by  him  is  as  follows: 


56o 


("onlinuous  Melting 


Si        '     Pho8. 

.  1 

s 

Mn 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

2    2i                   I     IJ 

.01 

^ 

30a 

I  54 

Mr.  Custer  summarizes  as  follows: 

"Any  casting  that  can  be  poured  in  a  sand  mould  can  be  poured  in  an 
iron  mould.  If  the  iron  is  hot  enough  to  run  in  green  sand  mould  it  will 
surely  run  in  an  iron  mould. 

Iron  that  is  suitable  for  radiator  fittings,  or  brake  shoes,  or  any 
other  class  of  duplicate  work  that  is  made  in  sand,  will  be  suitable  for 
the  use  of  permanent  moulds.  The  same  e.xperience  that  shows  the 
foundryman  what  is  best  for  sand  moulding  can  be  applied  in  |)ermanent 
mould  work. 

It  is  true  that  a  somewhat  wider  range  of  iron  can  be  used  in  per- 
manent moulds  for  the  same  class  of  work  than  is  the  case  in  sand  mould- 
ing, but  any  change  from  the  general  practice  in  selecting  irons  for  any 
particular  class  of  work  must  be  made  with  a  great  deal  of  care.  It  is  of 
course  a  subject  that  demands  close  and  incessant  study,  and  every 
manufacturer  who  wishes  to  use  permanent  moulds  must  give  the  same 
care  and  thought  to  this  method  that  he  has  given  to  those  previously 
employed. " 

Interesting  information  was  brought  out  in  the  discussion  of  Mr. 
Custer's  paper  which  is  summarized  below. 

Temperature  of  moulds  is  not  allowed  to  exceed  300°  F.;  the  pouring 
is  proportioned  at  intervals  so  as  not  to  exceed  that  temperature. 

It  takes  25  seconds  to  make  a  4-inch  soil  pipe  T.  No  sand  used  in 
the  core.  The  core  for  this  mould  was  shown,  which  had  been  in  con- 
stant use  for  thirteen  months. 

The  mould  for  a  2-inch  T  weighed  500  pounds,  the  T  itself  weighs 
8!  J  pounds. 

The  core  with  which  the  T  was  made  was  shown.  It  had  been  in  use 
seven  months  during  which  i>eriod  3500  castings  were  made. 

A  casting  can  be  made  from  it  e\cr)-  forty-five  seconds  throughout 
the  day. 

No  precaution  is  taken  against  shrinkage.  Chilling  quicklj-  to  point 
of  set  makes  castings  homogeneous,  reducing  shrinkage  strains  to  a  min- 
imum. A  trap  weighing  42  pounds  made  on  a  sand  core  was  shown. 
One  is  made  every  seven  minutes.  The  mould  weighs  1900  pounds. 
The  casting  is  taken  out  within  four  seconds  after  pouring. 

No  special  care  is  taken  to  keeji  the  moulds  from  dampness.  They 
are  simply  \snped  out  carefully  before  using.     The  core,  upon  which  a 


Centrifugal  Castings  561 

four-inch  pipe,  5  feet  3  inches  long  was  made,  was  shown.  The  pipe 
was  H  inch  thick  and  weighed  65  pounds.  The  core  had  Me  inch  taper 
in  the  whole  length. 

The  pouring  table  revolves  once  in  yii  minutes.  There  are  on  it 
35  pipe  moulds,  and  a  casting  is  produced  every  fifteen  seconds. 

In  a  ten-hour  run  at  this  rate  of  production,  the  temperature  of  the 
moulds  never  exceeds  250°  F.  The  operations  are  automatic.  With  a 
2-inch  pipe,  the  casting  can  be  taken  from  the  mould  within  three  seconds; 
it  must  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  mould  over  six  seconds.  With  a 
six-inch  pipe,  the  time  of  removal  is  from  five  to  sixteen  seconds. 

One  man  operates  the  table,  pouring  and  removing  the  pipe,  cleaning 
out  the  moulds,  and  setting  the  cores.  The  iron  is  white  hot  as  it  comes 
from  the  cupola.  No  attention  is  paid  to  coating  the  moulds;  they  are 
wiped  out  from  time  to  time  with  a  greasy  rag  if  any  dirt  is  present. 
The  heaviest  castings  made  are  6-inch  pipes  weighing  no  pounds  each. 

Gates  are  made  larger  than  in  green  sand  practice. 

JMr.  Custer  did  not  consider  the  phosphorus  content  of  importance. 
He  prefers  iron  0.5  to  i.o  per  cent  phosphorus  on  account  of  fluidity. 

Chilling  occurs  so  quickly  that  there  is  no  segregation.  The  tensile 
strength  of  castings  made  in  iron  moulds  is  about  30  per  cent  greater  than 
that  of  same  character  made  in  sand. 

Brake  shoes  are  left  in  the  mould  seven  seconds.  It  takes  about  a 
minute  to  make  a  brake  shoe.     The  castings  do  not  warp. 

Six-inch  pipes  can  be  laid  on  the  pile  within  20  seconds  after  casting. 

The  silicon  content  should  not  be  lower  than  1.75  per  cent,  sulphur 
should  be  below  0.05  per  cent,  total  carbon  high  as  possible  not  below 
2.65. 

Has  used  70  per  cent  scrap  with  pig  carrying  3  per  cent  silicon. 

Centrifugal  Castings 

In  1809,  Anthony  Eckhardt  of  Soho,  England,  was  granted  a  patent 
for  making  castings  in  rotating  moulds,  procuring  in  this  manner  either 
hoUow  or  solid  castings.  Nothing  favorable  seems  to  have  resulted 
from  the  scheme. 

In  1848,  Mr.  Lovegrove  attempted  to  make  pipes  in  this  manner. 
Subsequently  a  Mr.  Shanks  patented  the  same  method  in  England. 
Sir  Henry  Bessemer  endeavored  to  remove  the  gases  from  steel  castings 
by  a  similar  process. 

About  the  same  time  a  Mr.  Needham  endeavored  to  apply  the  method 
to  making  car  wheels.  So  far  as  can  be  learned  nothing  of  practical 
value  resulted  from  these  efforts.  It  is  said  that  car  wheels  are  now 
made  in  Germany  in  this  way  using  a  high  carbon  steel  for  the  rim  and 


562  Continuous  Melting 

soft  material  for  the  rciiler.  The  moulfJ  is  made  to  revolve  about  120 
times  |)er  minute  while  jwuring.  The  (irinciple  is  use<l  by  dentists  success- 
fully, and  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  it  could  not  be  applied 
to  some  classes  of  iron  castings  where  difTiculty  is  encountered  in  running 
delicate  parts,  or  to  obtain  inc  reased  density  at  the  iM;ri[)hery. 

Castings  vinder  Pressure 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  submit  the  li(|uid  iron  to  pneumatic 
or  hydraulic  pressure  in  order  to  eliminate  fxsrosity  or  shrinkage  cavi- 
ties. So  far  these  have  been  entirely  experimental;  the  successful 
application  of  the  idea  would  remove  all  doubt  as  to  shrinkage  in  rims 
of  fly  wheels  or  in  similar  castings,  where  undiscoverable  defects  may 
exist. 

Direct  Casting 

Making  castings  directly  from  the  furnace  has  been  practiced  more 
or  less  since  the  discovery  of  reducing  iron  from  the  ores.  But  by 
reason  of  the  presence  of  impurities  and  gases,  which  are  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  eliminated  in  the  process  of  refining  in  the  cupola,  the  pro- 
duction of  castings  by  the  direct  process  has  never  been  followed  to 
any  extent.  In  fact,  except  for  quantities  of  large  coarse  castings,  or 
an  occasional  piece  required  at  the  furnace,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
process  has  been  entirely  disregarded.  The  presence  of  kish  in  large 
quantity  has  been  the  greatest  obstacle  to  contend  with.  The  use  of  a 
receiver  with  reheating  provision,  in  connection  with  manganese  would 
seem  to  indicate  a  solution  of  this  difTiculty,  especially  for  pipes  and 
other  coarse  castings,  where  the  physical  characteristics  are  not  matters 
of  vital  importance. 

In  view  of  the  advancement  in  modern  metallurgy,  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  commercial  competition  will  turn  manufacturers  of  prod- 
ucts for  which  such  iron  is  suitable  to  further  efforts  in  this  direction. 

Carpenter  Shop  and  Tool  Room 

In  every  foundry  the  services  of  a  carpenter  and  machinist  are  more 
or  less  in  demand.  In  the  larger  works  it  is  found  most  convenient  to 
devote  separate  space  to  each. 

The  carpenter  shop  should  be  given  suflBcient  room  for  construction 
and  repair  of  wood  flasks,  bottom  boards,  etc.,  and  with  its  equipment 
of  benches,  trestle,  etc.,  should  be  provided  with  a  cut-off  saw. 

The  tool  room  should  have  a  drill  press  and  small  lathe.  Unless  there 
is  a  laboratory  connected  with  the  works,  the  testing  machines  are  con- 
veniently located  in  the  tool  room. 


Tumblers 


563 


The  Cleaning  Roona 

The  cleaning  room  should  be  adjacent  to  the  moulding  room,  but 
separated  from  it  by  a  wall  or  partition  to  exclude  the  dust  and  dirt 
from  the  foundry. 

Where  the  work  is  heavy  there  should  be  proper  facilities  in  the  way 
of  tracks  and  cranes.  The  necessary  equipment  comprises  tumbling 
barrels,  brushes,  chipping  (either  hand  or  pneumatic)  and  grinding 
apparatus. 

The  sand  blast  is  also  of  the  greatest  value. 


Tumblers 

The  shape,  size  and  number  of  tumblers  depend  entirely  upon  the 
character  and  volume  of  the  work.  Tumblers  are  made  to  revolve 
about  inclined  or  horizontal  axes.  Those  having  inclined  axes  are  used 
for  very  light  castings,  brass,  forgings,  etc.  They  are  seldom  found  in 
the  ordinary  foundry.  The  barrel  may  be  tilted  for  loading  or  dis- 
charging. The  following  cut  shows  the  general  character  of  this  type. 
They  vary  in  size  as  re- 
quired. 

Fig.  216  shows  the  No. 
2  machine  mounted  with 
28-inch  cast-iron  barrel  in 
partially  lowered  position 
preparatory  to  dumping. 

This  machine  is  designed 
along  the  same  lines  as  the 
No.  I  tumbler  excepting  that 
it  is  much  heavier  and  the 
crank  shaft  is  back  geared  2 
to  I,  making  the  raising  and 
lowering  of  the  barrel  when 
heavily  loaded  quick  and 
easy.  It  is  driven  by  tight  and  loose  pulleys  16  inches  in  diameter  by 
3%-inch  face,  and  will  take  barrels  from  22  to  36  inches  diameter,  of 
wood,  cast  iron,  steel,  wrought  brass  and  cast  brass.  The  tumbling 
process  may  be  wet  or  dry  as  desired,  and  the  design  of  the  machine 
is  such  that  the  barrel  may  be  located  at  any  required  angle  while  in 
motion,  to  suit  quantity  of  work  being  operated  upon,  and  lowered  to 
empty  by  means  of  the  crank,  ratchet  and  pawl.  It  has  a  belt  shifter 
not  shown  in  cut. 


Fig.  216. 


564  Continuous  Melting 

Floor  space,  with  barrel,  42  by  60  inches. 

\Vcij;ht,  without  barrel,  fxxj  pounds. 

Speed  of  light  and  loose  pulleys,  147  to  168  rev.  per  min. 

Speed  of  barrel,  35  to  40  rev.  per  min. 

The  ordinary  horizontal  tumbler  is  from  30  to  36  inches  in  diameter 
and  from  4  to  6  feet  lonj;.  It  may  revolve  on  trunnions  or  on  friction 
rollers. 

The  barrel  is  made  up  of  cast-iron  slaves  .securely  bolte<l  to  the  heads, 
and  with  closely  fitting  joints.  The  peripheral  speed  should  be  about 
90  feet  per  minute.  They  are  used  singly,  in  pairs,  or  in  batteries. 
The  castings,  large  and  small,  are  packed  as  closely  as  possible  in  the 
barrels,  together  with  a  quantity  of  shot,  sprues  or  stars.  .cVny  un- 
occupied space  is  filled  by  pieces  of  wood.  If  any  of  the  castings  are 
delicate  they  are  tumbled  by  themselves,  so  as  to  avoid  breakage.  It  is 
not  uncommon  to  tumble  castings  weighing  600  to  800  pounds;  they 
must  be  packed  very  closely,  however.  The  length  of  time  that  castings 
must  be  rattled  to  clean  them  depends  entirely  upon  the  intricacy  of 
the  shapes.  While  ten  minutes  may  answer  for  some,  others  may 
require  30  minutes  or  even  an  hour. 

The  injury  to  castings  from  grinding  away  sharp  comers  or  angular 
projections  arises  from  the  improper  packing  or  too  long  continued 
tumbling.  Since  the  dust  comes  from  the  tumblers  in  great  volume, 
as  an  act  of  humanitj',  they  should  either  be  enclosed,  or  provided  with 
exhaust  fans.  The  dust  may  be  carried  to  a  water  seal,  or  discharged 
outside  the  shop. 

The  cuts  following  show  several  varieties  of  tumblers  manufactured. 
Usually  each  shop  makes  its  owti  tumblers,  so  that  the  patterns  may  be 
at  hand  for  repairs. 


Fig.  217. 


Reliable  Steel  Square  Tumbling  Mills 


56s 


"  The  Falls  "  Friction-driven 
Tumbling  Mill 

This  mill  was  designed  by  an 
expert  foundryman.  It  is  of  the 
very  best  workmanship  through- 
out, and  is  guaranteed  to  give 
splendid  satisfaction. 

Made  in  six  sizes  as  follows: 


Fig.  21 


No 

Diameter, 

Length , 

inches 

inches 

I 

26 

48 

2 

32 

54 

3 

38 

60 

4 

42 

54 

S 

48 

72 

6 

54 

78 

Reliable  Steel  Square  Tumbling  Mills 

Particularly  Suited  for  Light  Castings 


Fig.  219. 

This  is  a  strong  mill  with  double  heads.  Each  side  is  strengthened 
by  a  T  bar  run  and  riveted  the  full  length  and  doubly  bolted  to  each 
head.  Edges  are  enclosed  by  an  angle  securely  riveted  and  countersunk 
from  end  to  end.     Door  opening  is  strongly  reinforced. 


566  ('(lilt imioiis  Melting 

Friction-driven  Exhaust  Tumbling  Milla 


These  mills  are  especially  adapted  to  be  run  in  gangs  from  one  shaft 
and  one  driving  pulley.  They  can  be  stopped  or  started  independently 
or  may  be  remo\ed  with  contents  from  the  driving  frame  by  crane  and 
conveyed  to  any  part  of  the  foundry.  Mills  may  be  equipped  at  small 
extra  cost  with  reversing  device,  permitting  rotation  in  either  direction, 
mills  still  remaining  portable  and  interchangeable. 

They  combine  strength  with  simplicity. 

Mr.  Outerbridge  discovered  that  the  strength  of  castings  was  increased 
by  tumbling.  Following  up  this  discover)'  Mr.  Keep  determined  that 
the  increase  of  strength  by  tumbling  ceased  after  two  hours  treatment, 
that  the  increase  in  strength  was  due  to  smoothing  and  pressing  the 
surface,  closing  any  incipient  cracks  and  openings. 

Chipping 

Much  of  the  chipping  must  1)C  done  In-  hand.  The  pneumatic  hammer 
has,  however,  superseded  the  hand  chisel  to  a  great  e.\tent.  There  are 
few  foundries  not  equipped  with  this  de\ice. 

Grinding 
To  finish  castings  properly,  the  fins  and  gate  spots  should  be  ground. 
In  addition  to  the  ordinar>'  emer>'  wheel,  the  portable  wheel  driven  by  a 
flexible  shaft  is  employed  advantageously. 

The  Sand  Blast 

This  appliance  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  More  surface  can  be 
cleaned  with  it  in  a  given  time  than  by  any  other  means  except  the 
rattler.  The  use  of  the  other  appliances  above  mentioned  is  not  dis- 
placed by  it,  however,  as  there  are  many  recesses  about  castings  wliich 
are  protected  from  the  blast,  and  which  must  be  cleaned  by  hand. 

The  importance  of  properly  cleaning  castings  should  not  be  over- 
looked. No  matter  how  well  made  or  how  good  in  respect  of  material, 
if  ihcy  are  sent  from  the  cleaner  in  a  slovenly  condition,  their  commercial 
value  is  greatly  impaired. 


Pickling  567 

Pickling 

Formerly  pickling  castings  was  largely  employed,  but  of  recent  years, 
by  reason  of  the  improved  facings  used,  the  practice  is  not  so  much 
followed.  Nevertheless  there  are  places  about  castings  from  which  the 
sand  is  not  properly  removed  by  the  ordinary  processes,  and  again 
some  machine  shops  prefer  pickled  castings,  as  the  cutting  edges  of 
their  tools  are  not  injured  so  quickly,  by  reason  of  the  entire  removal 
of  the  sand.  This  process  is  also  followed  where  the  castings  are  to  be 
galvanized  or  tinned,  as  it  leaves  clean  metallic  surfaces. 

For  pickling,  either  sulphuric  or  hydrofluoric  acid  is  used,  the  former 
more  commonly.  The  acid  solution  must  be  weak ;  one  part  of  ordinary 
vitriol  to  four  or  six  parts  of  water  attacks  the  iron  rapidly,  whereas  the 
undiluted  acid  has  no  effect. 

In  diluting  the  acid,  care  must  be  taken  to  pour  the  acid  into  the 
water,  and  not  the  water  into  the  acid.  Dilute  sulphuric  acid  dissolves 
the  iron  in  contact,  thereby  loosening  the  sand.  The  action  is  more 
rapid  with  warm  than  with  hot  solution. 

This  solution,  when  applied  to  castings,  will  loosen  the  sand  scale  in 
from  one  to  twelve  hours,  depending  upon  the  thickness  of  the  scale. 
The  acid  solution  is  kept  in  a  lead-Uned  wood  vat.  The  vat  should 
be  about  two  feet  deep,  the  other  dimensions  varying  with  the  amount 
of  castings  to  be  treated.  At  the  bottom  of  the  vat  is  a  wooden  grating 
fastened  together  by  wood  dowels.  The  grating  is  held  down  by  lead 
weights.  It  must  be  high  enough  above  the  bottom  of  the  vat  for  the 
sand  to  drop  through.  Upon  this  grating  the  castings  rest  as  they  are 
immersed. 

After  remaining  in  the  bath  the  requisite  length  of  time,  they  are 
removed  and  thoroughly  washed  with  hot  water.  The  acid  must  be 
completely  removed  or  they  will  rust.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  dip  them  in 
a  strong  solution  of  lye  or  soda  before  washing. 

Another  practice  is  to  place  a  lead-hned  platform  so  that  one  edge 
may  overhang  one  end  of  the  vat;  the  platform  incUning  a  couple  of 
inches  toward  the  vat,  and  having  the  remaining  edges  raised  two  inches, 
so  that  all  the  drainage  may  be  into  the  vat.  Upon  this  platform  is 
placed  a  wood  grating,  and  the  castings  on  the  grating.  The  pickle  is 
then  dipped  from  vat  with  an  iron  bucket  and  poured  over  the  castings. 

They  are  washed  thoroughly  with  the  pickle,  so  that  there  may  be 
no  sand  surface  which  has  not  been  saturated.  It  may  be  necessary 
to  repeat  the  operation  more  than  once.  When  the  sand  scale  begins 
to  loosen,  the  castings  are  removed  and  washed  as  before.  The  washing 
may  be  done  with  a  hose  while  the  castings  are  on  the  bed,  but  in  such 


568  Continuous  Melting 

case  [wovision  must  be  made  to  ( arr)'  off  the  water  in  a  trough  so  that 
it  may  not  enter  the  vat. 

The  strength  of  the  solution  must  l>e  ke|)t  up  Ijy  addition  of  fresh 
acid  from  lime  to  time. 

Hydrofluoric  Acid 

Where  this  acid  is  used  for  pickHng,  the  solution  should  \ie  one  part 
of  48  per  cent  acid  to  30  parts  of  water.  Hydrofluoric  acid  dissolves 
the  sand  instead  of  acting  on  the  iron.  The  treatment  of  the  castings 
is  the  same  as  with  the  \itriol,  l)ut  the  sand  must  be  removed  from  below 
the  grating,  otherwise  the  acid  will  be  rapidly  neutralized. 

The  workmen  should  be  cautioned  in  handling  cither  of  these  acids 
as  they  cause  severe  bums,  if  they  come  in  contact  with  the  flesh. 
Where  acid  is  spilled  on  the  flesh  or  clothing,  wash  the  parts  freely  with 
water  and  then  with  dilute  ammonia.  Raw  linseed  oil  applied  to  bums 
produces  a  soothing  effect. 

Hydrofluoric  acid  leaves  the  surface  of  the  castings  bright  and  clean, 
and  is,  therefore,  best  for  electroplating. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

Method  of  Ascertaining  the  Weight  of  Castings  from  the 
Weight  of  Patterns 


Pattern  weighing 
one  pound 


Weight  when  cast  in 


Cast 

iron, 

pounds 


Yellow 
brass, 
pounds 


Gun 

metal, 
pounds 


Zinc, 
pounds 


Alumi- 
num, 
pounds 


Copper, 
pounds 


Bay  wood . . . 

Beech 

Cedar 

Cherry 

Linden 

Mahogany. . 

Maple 

Oak 

Pear 

Pine,  white. 
Pine,  yellow 
Whitewood . . 


16.1 
10.7 
12.0 
8.5 
9.2 
9-4 
10.9 
14.7 
13. 1 
16.4 


9-9 
9-5 
18.0 
12.0 
13. 5 
9-5 
10.3 
10.5 
12.2 
16. 5 
14.7 
18.4 


10.3 
10.0 
18.9 
12.6 
14. 1 
10.0 
10.8 
II. o 

12.8 
17-3 
IS. 4 
193 


8.5 
8.2 
IS. 6 
10.4 
II. 6 
8.2 
8.9 
91 
10.6 
14  3 
12.7 
IS. 9 


10.5 

10. 1 

19.2 
12.8 
14.3 
10  I 
II. o 

11. 2 
13.0 
17. S 

15.6 
19s 


Allowance  should  be  made  for  any  metal  in  the  pattern. 

Specific  Gravity  and  Average  Weight  per  Cubic  Foot  of 
Pattern  Lumber 


Wood 


Beech 

Cedar 

Cherry 

Linden 

Mahogany . . , 

Maple 

Oak,  white. . 
Oak,  red .  .  . . 
Pine,  white. 
Pine,  yellow 
Walnut. 


Average 

weight  per 

cubic  foot, 

pounds 

46 
39 
41 
37 
SI 
42 
48 
46 
28 
38 
38 


569 


570 


Dftcrminalion  of  Wci^lit  of  Ca.sting.s 


Weight  of  Casti.sgs  Determined  from  Weight  of  Patterns 

(By  F.  G.  Walker.) 


''■■" '■'•  ••■• 1  in 

A  p.ittem  Wfighirn; 
one  pound  made  of 

iron, 
pounds 

Zinc, 
pounds 

Copper, 
pounds 

Yellow 
brass, 
pounds 

Gun 
metal, 
pounds 

1 
Alumi-     ,      . 
num,       ^ 
pounds ,  J"^*^ 

1 

Mahogany,  Nassau. . .  . 
Mahogany,  Honduras. 
Mahogany,  Spanish — 

10.7 
12.9 

8.5 
12. S 
16.7 
14. 1 

9.0 

10.4 
12.7 

8.2 
12. 1 
16.1 
136 

8.6 

12.8 
15  3 
10. 1 
14.9 
19.8 
16.7 
10.4 

12.2 
14.6 
9  7 
14.2 
19.0 
16.0 
10.4 

12  S 
ISO 
9  9 
14.6 

19  S 

16.S 
10.9 

so 

32.0 

Pine,  yellow 

Oak 

Weight  of  a  Superficial  Foot  of  Cast  Iron 


Thick- 
ness, 
inches 

Weight, 
pounds 

Thick- 
ness, 

Weight, 

pounds 

Thick- 
ness, 

inch.,.s 

I'i 

Weight, 
pounds 

46.87 
51.56 
56.25 
60.93 

Thick- 
ness, 
inches 

Weight, 
pounds 

y* 

9  37 
14.06 
18.75 
23.43 

I 

28.12 
32.81 
37.50 
42.18 

i       i"s 
2 

65.62 
70.31 
75  00 

Formulas  for  Finding  the  Weight  of  Iron  Castings 

To  find  the  weight  of  sfiuare 
or  rectangular  castings,  multi- 
ply the  length  by  the  breadth, 

""  ~  "L " — ^   by  the  thickness,  by  0.26: 

Fig.  221.  W  =  LBTX  0.26. 


To  find  the  weight  of 
solid  cylinders,  the  weight 
equals  the  outside  diameter 
squared,  multiplied  by  the 
length,  multiplied  by  0.204: 


If 


D-L  X  0.204. 


Determination  of  Weight  of  Castings 


571 


W  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 

L  =  length  of  casting  in  inches; 

T  =  thickness  of  casting  in  inches; 

B  =  breadth  of  casting  in  inches; 

D  =  outside  or  large  diameter  in  inches. 

To  find  the  weight  of  hol- 
low cylinders,  multiply  the 
small  or  inside  diameter  plus 
the  thickness,  by  the  length, 
by  the  thickness,  by  0.817: 

W=[d  +  T)TLXo.Si7.  Fig. 


K- L- 

FiG.  224. 

W  =  DdL  X  0.204. 
W  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 
L  =  length  of  casting  in  inches; 
T  =  thickness  of  casting  in  inches; 
D  =  large  diameter  in  inches; 
d  =  small  diameter  in  inches. 

To  find  the  weight  of  a  hollow  hemisphere, 
multiply  the  thickness  by  the  small  radius 
plus  the  thickness  divided  by  2,  squared,  by 
1.652: 


To  find  the  weight 
of  a  solid  ellipse,  mul- 
tiply the  large  diam- 
eter by  the  small  di- 
ameter, by  the  length, 
by  0.204: 


To  find  the  weight  of  a  solid  sphere,  mul- 
tiply the  diameter  cubed  by  0.1365 : 

W  =  D3  X  0.1365. 


Fig.  226. 

W  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 
R  =  outside  or  large  radius  in  inches; 
r  =  insidv  or  small  radius  in  inches; 
T  =  thickness  in  inches; 
D  =  outside  or  large  diameter  in  inches. 


S7^ 


Determination  of  WciRhl  of  Caslings 


Formulas  for  Finding  the  Weight  of  a  Hollow  Iron  Sphere 
and  a  Body  of  Rammed  Sand 

To  find  the  weight  of  a  hollow  sphere  mul- 

I \].   tiply  ihc  outside  diameter  cubed,  minus  the 

inside  diameter  culled,  by  10.365: 


D---> 


W  =  {D*-d')  0.1365. 


Fig.  227. 

W  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 

D  =  outside  or  large  diameter  in  inches; 

d  =  inside  or  small  diameter  in  indies. 


Fig.  228. 


To  find  the  weight  of  a  body  of  rammed 
sand,  multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth,  by 
the  height  in  feet,  by  87: 

W  =  LBH  X  87. 

W  =  weight  of  body  of  sand  in  p)Ounds; 

L  =  length  of  body  of  sand  in  feet; 

B  =  breadth  of  body  of  sand  in  feet; 
H  =  height  of  bodj'  of  sand  in  feet. 


Formulas  for  Finding  the  Weight  of  Iron  Castings 

To  find  the  weight 
of  a  triangular  casting, 
multiply  the  length  by 
the  breadth,  by  the 
thickness,  by  0.13: 

TT'  =  LBT  X  0.13. 


Fig. 


■-L- 

229. 


To  find  the  weight  of  a  flywheel,  11  feel  in 
diameter,  having  elliptical  arms.  The  first 
operation  is  to  find  the  weight  of  the  hub; 
second,  the  rim;  and  third,  the  arms.  The 
sum  of  these  gives  the  weight  of  the  wheel. 

To  find  the  weight  of  the  hub: 

W  =  id  +  T)TLX  0.817. 

To  find  the  weight  of  the  rim,  the  same 
formula  as  above  is  used. 

To  find  the  weight  of  one  arm: 


/fO -J 

Fig.  230. 


W 


DdL  X  0.24. 


Determination  of  Weight  of  Castings 


573 


Multiply  by  six  to  find  the  weight  of  the  six  arms. 

W  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 
D  =  outside  or  large  diameter  in  inches; 
d  =  inside  or  small  diameter  in  inches; 
L  =  length  in  inches; 
T  =  thickness  in  inches; 
B  =  breadtli  in  inches. 

To  find  the  weight  of  a  spherical  segment  of  one  base,  multiply  the 
square  of  the  height  by  the  difference  between  the  radius  of  the  sphere 
and  one-third  of  the  height,  by  0.818;  or,  to  the 
radius  of  the  base  squared,  multiplied  by  the 
height  by  0.409,  add  the  height  cubed  multiplied 
by  0.136: 


W  =  H^-(r--\  X  0.818, 

TT'  =  r"H  X  0.409  +  ^^  X  0.136. 
TI'  =  weight  of  casting  in  poimds; 
R  =  radius  of  sphere  in  inches; 
H  =  height  of  segment  in  inches; 
f  =  radius  of  base  in  inches. 


Fig.  231. 


To  find  the  weight  of  a  spherical  segment  of  two  bases,  from  the 
radius  of  the  sphere  multipUed  by  the  difference  between  the  squares  of 
the  distances  from  the  bases  to  the  poles  by 
0.818,  subtract  the  difference  between  the  cubes 
of  the  distances  from  the  bases  to  the  pole, 
multiphed  by  0.273,  or* 

To  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  radii  of  the 
bases,  multiplied  by  the  height  by  0.409,  add 
the  height  cubed,  multipUed  bj'  0.136: 


Fig.  232. 


TT'  =  R  (.42  -  52)  X  0.818  -  (.43  -  B^)  X  0.^273, 


W  =  H{r'^  +  s^)  X  0.409  +  ^  X  0.136. 
W  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 
R  =  radius  of  sphere  in  inches; 

T  =  radius  of  large  base  of  segment  in  inches; 

5  =  radius  of  small  base  of  segment  in  inches; 
A  =  distance  from  large  base  to  pole  in  inches; 
B  =  distance  from  small  ba.se  to  pole  in  inches; 
E  =  height  of  segment  in  inches. 


574 


Determination  of  Weight  of  Castings 


1 
the 


o  find  the  wcisht  of  a  ring  made  by  ( uiting  a  cylindrical  hole  through 
center  of  a  sphere,  muluply  ihc  chord  cul>ed  by  0.136: 

W  =  C  X  0.136. 

The  chord  is  equal  to  the  srjuare  root  of  the 
result  obtained  by  subtracting  the  square  of 
the  diameter  of  the  hole  from  the  square  of 
the  diameter  of  the  sphere: 

C  =  VlP-^. 


Fig.  233. 


W  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 
D  =  diameter  of  sphere  in  inches; 
d  =  diameter  of  hole  in  inches. 


To  find  the  weight   of  a  ring  of  circular  cross  section,   multiply 

the  radius  of  the  cross  section  ^?qua^ed  by   the   radius   of   the   circle 

passing  through  the  center  of  the  cross  section, 

by  5.140:  y^^ 

W  =  r-R  X  5.140. 

TF  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 
r  =  radius  of  cross  section  in  inches; 
R  =  radius  of  circle  passing  through  cen- 
ter of  cross  section  in  inches. 

To  find  the  weight  of  a  frustrum  of  a  hexagonal  pyramid,  multiply 
the  siun  of  the  side  of  the  large  base  squared,  the  side  of  the  small  base 

squared  and  the  product 
of  the  two  sides,  by  the 
length,  by  0.226,  or  mul- 
tiply the  sum  of  the  dis- 
tance across  the  flats  of 
the  large  base  squared, 
the   distance   across    the 


->l 

Fig.  235. 

flats  of  the  small  base  squared  and  the  product  of  these  two  distances, 

by  the  length,  by  0.075. 

!26, 


;F  =  (5^  +  j2  +  Ss)  LXo. 

To  find  the  weight  of 
a  straight  fillet,  multiply 
the  radius  squared  by  the 
length,  by  0.0559. 

w  =  r:^lx  0.0559. 


]V=^{r-+f  +  Ff)Lx  0.075. 


71" 


Fig.  236. 


Weight  Required  on  Copes 


575 


W  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 
L  =  length  of  casting  in  inches; 
S  =  side  of  large  base  in  inches; 
5  =  side  of  small  base  in  inches; 
F  =  distance  across  the  flats  of  large  base  in  inches; 
/  =  distance  across  the  flats  of  small  base  in  inches; 
R  =  radius  of  fillet  in  inches. 


Formulas  for  Finding  the  Weight  Required  on  a  Cope  to 
Resist  the  Pressure  of  Molten  Metal ;  and  the  Pres- 
sure Exerted  on  the  Mould 


To  find  the  weight  required  on  a  cope  to  resist  the  pressiu'e  of  molten 

iron,  multiply  the  cope  area  of  the  casting  in     p — "j 

square  inches  by  the  height  of  the  riser  top  1 

above  the  casting  in  inches,  by  0.21 :  v.^-=r^=r 


-mi^ 


W  =  AH  X  0.21. 


Fig.  237. 


W  =  weight  to  be  placed  on  a  flask  in  pounds; 

A  =  cope  area  of  casting  in  square  inches; 

H  =  height  of  riser  top  above  casting  in  inches. 

To  find  the  pressure  exerted  on  a  mold  by  molten  iron  multiply  the 
height  in  inches  from  the  point  of  pressure  to 
the  top  of  the  riser  by  0.26: 

P  =  H  X  0.26. 
■:.-;^^;::;-::>:".:-.^:S.:V.:0  p  _  pressure    in    pounds   per    square 

Fig.  238.  inch; 

H  =  height  from  point  of  pressure  to  the  top  of  the  riser  in 
inches. 


To  find  the  weight  of  an  inside  circular  fillet, 
multiply  the  difference  between  the  diameter  of 
the  cyUnder  made  by  the  side  of  the  fillet  and 
the  product  of  the  radius  and  0.446,  by  the 
radius  squared,  by  0.176,  or,  from  the  diameter 
of  the  cyUnder  made  by  the  side  of  the  fillet, 
multipHed  by  the  radius  squared,  by  0.176,  sub- 
tract the  radius  cubed  multiplied  by  0.0784. 

W  =  (D-  0.446  R)  /?2  X  0.176, 
or  W  =  DR' X  0.176  -  R^  X  o.oyS4. 


Fig.  239. 


576 


I  )il(rrniii;iti()n  of  Weight  of  Castings 


To  find  the  weight  of  an  outside  circular  fillet,  multiply  the  sum  of 
ihe  diameter  of  the  cylinder  made  by  the  side  of  the  fillet  and  the  product 
of  the  radius  and  0.446,  by  the  radius  s<|uarc<l, 
by  0.176,  or  to  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
made  by  the  side  of  the  fillet  multiplied  by  the 
radius  squared,  by  0.176,  add  the  radius  cubed 
multiplied  by  0.0784: 

W  =  {D  +  0.446  i?;  /P  X  o.  1 76, 


W 


DR?  X  0.176  +  K'  X  0.0784. 


^ 


R 


.?^i 


k-       D--->l 
Fig.  240. 


II'  =  weight  of  casting  in  pounds; 
R  =  radius  of  fillet  in  inches; 
D  =  diameter  of  cylinder  made  or  generated  by 
the  side  of  fillet  in  inches. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

WATER  SUPPLY,   LIGHTING,   HEATING  AND 
VENTILATION 

Water  Supply 

Provision  for  water  supply  to  the  foundry  is  a  matter  of  the  first 
importance.  If  water  cannot  be  obtained  from  the  pubUc  mains,  facil- 
ities for  pumping  and  distributing  must  be  provided.  The  system 
must  be  so  arranged,  either  by  elevated  tanks  or  otherwise,  as  to  fiu'nish 
water  under  a  pressure  of  from  25  to  30  pounds.  While  the  supply 
must  be  abundant,  the  natural  tendency  to  its  wasteful  use  must  be 
suppressed. 


Fig.  241. — Water  Box  and  Hose  Connection. 

Conveniently  located  near  the  cupola  for  ciuenching  the  dump,  should 
be  a  hydrant  with  hose  attached,  ready  for  immediate  use.  Pipes  should 
be  so  run  about  the  foundry  that  taps  may  be  conveniently  distributed 
for  wetting  down  the  floors  and  sprinkling  the  sand  heaps;  each  floor 
must  have  easy  access  to  the  sprinkling  hose.  Ample  provision  should 
be  made  for  drinking;  basins  near  the  drinking  fountains,  in  which  to 
bathe  their  arms  and  faces,  add  greatly  to  the  comfort  of  the  workmen. 

The  illustrations  herewith,  taken  from  the  Iron  Age,  show  provisions 

577 


57S         Water  Supply,  Light in^,  Heating  and  \'entilation 

made  fi)r  this  purpose  and    for  lavatories,  clc,  in  a  large   Cleveland 
foundry 

Running  water  should  be  supplied  at  the  closets.  In  many  foundries 
of  recent  construction,  wash  basins,  shower  baths  and  lockers  arc  pro- 
vided, enabling  the  men  to  wash  and  change  their  clothes  before  leaving 
the  works.  The  free  use  of  water  implies,  of  course,  a  system  of  sewer- 
age. Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  puddles  or  wet  six)ts  about  the  floors. 
The  matter  of  water  supply  for  fire  protection  is  entirely  indefjendenl 
of  that  for  foundry  purposes,  and  should  be  provided  for  separately. 


Fig.  242.  — Porcelain  Washbowls  and  Sled  Lockers  in  Lavatory. 


Lighting 

Next  to  water  supply  in  importance  is  the  matter  of  lighting.  Many 
foundries  are  deficient  in  this  respect  and  sufTer  either  in  the  character 
or  quantity  of  product  from  improper  lighting.  Daylight  is  invaluable, 
and  should  he  utilized  to  the  fullest  extent.  In  the  construction  of 
foundry  buildings,  the  windows  should  be  tall  and  as  close  together  as 
the  character  of  the  structure  will  permit;  they  should  not  e.xtend 
lower  than  four  feet  from  the  floor.  A  modern  construction  showing 
the  sides  of  the  building  made  almost  entirely  of  glass  is  showni  in  the 
engraving  below. 

Windows  in  the  moniter  should  be  swi\-eled  and  arranged  to  op>en  easily 
for  ventilation.  Skylights  are  to  be  avoided  if  possible,  as  they  cause 
no  end  of  annoyance.  The  weaxnng-shed  roof  gives  excellent  results, 
and  is  frequently  used  in  foundr>'  construction.  The  glazing  should  be 
of  a  character  to  prevent  the  direct  admission  of  sunlight.  Ground 
glass,  wire  glas.'^  or  glass  wnth  horizontal  ribs  afford  a  mellow  light, 
relieving  the  eyes  from  the  glare  of  direct  sunUght. 


Heating  and  Ventilating 


579 


Artificial  light  for  the  early  morning  and  late  evening  hours,  during 
the  season  of  short  days,  is  best  afforded  by  some  adaptation  of  the 
electric  lamp.  Tungsten  lamps  in  groups  of  four,  distributed  at  inter- 
vals of  about  40  feet  are  largely  used.  Such  lamps  are  provided  with 
reflectors  to  direct  the  rays  downwards  and  diffuse  them.  The  lamps 
must  be  placed  so  as  to  clear  the  crane  ways,  and  should  be  elevated 
about  20  feet  from  the  floor.  The  Cooper-Hewett  mercury  lamps, 
placed  about  50  feet  apart  and  covered  with  reflectors,  are  very  satis- 
factory. The  flaming  arc  lamps,  similarly  placed,  furnish  the  greatest 
illumination  for  a  given  expenditure  of  current. 


Fig.  243. 

A  recent  type  of  kerosene  burner,  the  Kauffman,  having  a  mantel 
somewhat  similar  to  the  Wellsbach,  is  said  to  furnish  a  given  candle 
power  at  less  cost  than  any  lamp  known. 

With  anj'  system  of  hghting,  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  lamps 
clean  and  in  good  order,  otherwise  their  efficiency  is  soon  greatly  im- 
paired. Where  electric  lights  are  used,  the  generators  should  be  inde- 
pendent of  those  which  furnish  current  to  the  motors.  Power  for  fans, 
elevators,  cranes,  sand  mixers,  etc.,  is  most  conveniently  supplied  by 
electricity.  Each  machine  should  have  an  independent  motor.  Elec- 
tric trucks,  operated  by  storage  batteries,  and  magnetic  hoists,  for 
service  in  the  foundry  and  yard  are  almost  indispensable.  In  fact 
the  introduction  of  electricity  has  so  simplified  foundry  operations 
that  its  use  is  imperative. 

Heating  and  Ventilating 

Heating  and  ventilating  the  foundry  are  subjects  which  formerly 
received  little  attention.  A  few  stoves  or  open  fires  in  iron  rings,  placed 
where  they  would  be  least  in  the  way,  constituted  the  usual  equipment; 
foundries  fitted  with  steam  heating  or  hot-air  systems  were  exceptional. 


580         Water  Supply,  Lighting,  Heating  and  Ventilation 

Gradually  foundrymen  have  learned  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  a 
n)mfi)rl;il)le  working;  lcmi)cralure  and  good  ventilation,  xs  shown  by 
increased  output.  A  cold  shop  and  chilled  or  jiarlly  frozen  sand  heaps 
may  easily  reduce  the  value  of  a  morning's  work  from  20  to  25  per  cent. 
.\s  foundry  oix;rations  re(juire  active  physical  exertion,  the  temperature 
of  the  shop  should  not  e.xceed  50°  to  55"  F.  At  7  o'clock  in  the  morning 
the  building  should  be  warm  tluoughout.  For  this  purix)se  direct  and 
vacuum  steam  heating  systems  are  used  with  gcKxl  results.  Both  are 
open  to  objections.  The  warm  air  is  not  evenly  distributed;  much  of 
it  is  sent  to  the  u()[)cr  part  of  the  building,  where  it  docs  no  good.  With 
either  system  several  hours  are  required  in  extremely  cold  weather  to 
produce  a  comfortable  temperature  in  the  morning.  Cold  air  enters 
through  the  windows  and  doors,  causing  drafts  and  an  uneven  distribu- 
tion of  heat. 

More  satisfactory  results  are  furnished  by  the  fan  and  hot-blast  system. 
This  consists  of  a  sheet-iron  chamber,  in  which  are  placed  the  requisite 
number  of  coils  heated  cither  Ijy  direct  or  exhaust  steam,  if  the  latter 
is  available,  an  exhaust  fan  and  the  distributing  pipes.  The  fan  draws 
the  air  over  the  coils  and  from  the  chamber  and  forces  it  about  the  build- 
ing through  large  ducts,  from  which  branch  pipes  are  taken  at  proper 
intervals;  through  these  branches  the  warm  air  is  discharged  at  the 
desired  spots  within  the  shop.  This  system  is  largely  used  and  possesses 
advantages  over  those  having  direct  radiation. 

The  amount  of  heat  absorbed  by  air  flowing  over  pipes  increases 
rapidly  with  the  velocity  of  the  air.  When  the  velocity'  of  the  air  current 
flowing  over  the  pipes  in  the  heating  chamber  is  about  1500  feet  per 
minute  (the  usual  velocity)  the  area  of  the  heating  surface  required  to 
accomplish  a  given  heating  effect  is  only  about  one-fifth  that  for  direct 
radiation.  With  the  fan  and  hot-blast  system  the  building  is  filled 
with  air  under  slight  pressure,  termed  a  plenum,  which  prevents  cold  air 
from  entering;  warm  air  flows  out  through  all  leaks.  The  warm  air 
is  discharged  from  the  pipes  near  the  floor,  and  uniformly  distributed 
through  the  low,er  part  of  the  building.  By  reason  of  such  distribution 
and  the  great  volume  of  air  discharged,  the  shop  may  be  quickly  warmed 
in  the  morning.  If  the  fan  is  driven  by  an  independent  engine,  the 
exhaust  steam  is  sent  directly  to  the  coils,  thereby  making  tlic  expendi- 
ture for  power  nominal.  Where  live  steam  is  not  available  for  an  engine 
the  fan  may  be  driven  by  a  motor.  With  the  motor-driven  fan,  the 
watchman  can  start  the  apparatus  during  exceedingly  cold  nights,  anfl 
thereby  prevent  the  sand  heaps  from  freezing.  The  ducts  are  usually 
circular  in  section,  made  of  galvanized  iron  and  supported  by  the  chords 
of  the  building  so  as  to  clear  the  crane  way. 


Heating  and  Ventilating 


S8r 


The  sketch  below  shows  the  usual  arrangement  for  fans  and  ducts. 
In  shops  of  moderate  size,  where  but  one  fan  is  required,  the  ducts,  of 
course,  must  run  all  around  the  building. 


Fig.  244.  —  Typical  Arrangement   of  Heating    and  Ventilating   System   for 
Foundry  with  Unobstructed  Craneway. 

From  the  ducts,  discharge  pipes  are  dropped  at  intervals  of  from  30  to 
40  feet.  These  usually  terminate  about  8  feet  above  the  floor  line,  and 
leave  the  ducts  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  inclined  in  the  direction  of  the 


5S2         Water  Supply,  Lighting,  Healing  and  N'cntilaiion 

air  currents.  Where  the  discharges  are  dropped  as  alx)ve  slated,  ihe 
open  ends  should  incline  about  20°  from  ihc  vertical;  they  should 
alternately  face  the  walls  and  the  center  bay.  Six  square  inches  of  <Us- 
charge  ojjening  are  ordinarily  allowed  for  every  icco  cubic  feet  of  space, 
and  ihe  aggregate  area  of  the  openings  should  be  25  per  cent  greater 
than  the  area  of  the  ducts.  From  these  data  the  size  of  the  ducts  may 
be  calculated  for  any  building  of  known  dimensions. 

Underground  ducts  with  vertical  discharge  jjijjes  are  desirable,  as 
thc3'  offer  no  obstruction  to  foundry  operations,  but  they  are  quite 
expensive;   the  overhead  ducts  seem  best  to  meet  all  requirements. 

Where  steam  or  hot  air  is  used  for  heating,  the  matter  of  ventilation 
requires  no  provision,  except  for  that  period  of  the  day  occupied  in 
melting,  as  the  leakages  are  suflicierrt  to  supply  an  abundance  of  fresh 
air.  During  the  heat,  vapor  and  gases  rise  in  great  volumes;  to  permit 
them  to  escape  or  to  permit  fresh  air  to  enter,  the  swiveled  windows  in 
the  monitor  are  opened. 

WTjere  steam  heat  is  employed,  discomfort  is  occasionally  experienced 
during  cold  or  stormy  weather,  as  the  gases  fall  as  soon  as  they  begin 
to  cool,  and  the  vapor  is  condensed  by  the  incoming  air.  With  the  hot- 
blast  system  this  difficulty  does  not  occur,  since  the  plenum  is  sufficient 
to  drive  out  the  gases  and  vapor  through  the  open  windows.  Mr.  W. 
H.  Carrier  of  the  Buffalo  Forge  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  has  discussed 
the  subject  of  Foundry  Heating  and  Ventilating  so  fully  in  a  paper  pre- 
sented at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Foundr>Tnen's  Association,  that 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  opportunity  presented  through  the  courtesy 
of  the  Buffalo  Forge  Company  to  make  extensive  extracts  therefrom: 
"The  proper  distribution  of  heat  in  the  foundry  is  comparatively  difficult. 
In  general  the  problem  is  that  of  a  large  open  space,  affording  little 
opportunity  for  efficient  placing  of  direct  radiation.  On  account  ol 
the  monitor  type  of  building  usually  employed,  there  is  relatively  a 
great  height.  The  hot  air  rises  up  into  the  lantern  and  passes  out  through 
the  ventilators,  if  fans  are  not  provided  to  deUver  it  near  the  floor.  The 
heated  column  of  air  in  the  building  serves  to  draw  cold  air  from  with- 
out at  every  opening.  This  inward  leakage  of  cold  air,  not  only  de- 
mands a  great  amount  of  heat,  but  makes  a  thorough  distribution  of 
heat  at  the  floor  line  most  essential  for  comfort  and  economy  of  opera- 
tion. A  sUght  plenum,  or  outward  leakage,  of  air  at  the  doors  and 
openings,  caused  by  the  delivery  and  proper  distribution  of  sufficient 
heated  air  into  the  building  is  the  only  solution  of  the  difficulty.  Ample 
ventilation  is  at  times  most  necessary.  The  lantern  type  of  build- 
ing is  best  adapted  to  quickly  ventilate,  since  the  ventilators  simply 
have  to  be  opened  to  permit  the  hotter  and  Ughter  gases  and  vapors 


Heating  and  Ventilating  583 

to  pass  out.  External  air  must  enter  the  building  to  replace  that 
escaping  through  the  ventilators.  Cold  air  entering  the  doors  and 
openings  tends  to  cool  and  condense  the  rising  vapors.  It  is  there- 
fore essential  that  a  system  be  installed  which  will  deliver  warmed 
fresh  air  during  the  pouring  periods,  when  ventilation  is  of  first  im- 
portance. 

Rapid  heating  of  the  building  in  the  morning  means  that  the  best 
efficiency  from  the  men  will  be  obtained  over  the  entire  working  period. 
A  system  which  is  elastic,  and  which  may  be  rapidly  varied  to  suit  the 
requirements  is  to  be  favored.  Coke  or  gas  fired  salamanders  are  appar- 
ently the  most  economical  means  of  heating,  as  all  the  heat  goes  directly 
into  the  building.  The  atmosphere  in  a  tightly  closed  building  heated 
by  this  method  becomes  intolerable,  and  if  sufficient  ventilation  is 
provided  to  make  conditions  healthful,  the  amount  of  heat  required  is 
greater  than  with  other  systems.  The  grade  of  fuel  used  is  also  con- 
siderably more  expensive  than  that  used  in  other  systems  of  heating, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  care  of  a  large  number  of  separate  fires  scattered 
about  the  building. 

In  heating  with  direct  radiation,  steam  is  usually  employed,  although 
hot-water  systems  with  forced  circulation  have  been  successfully  oper- 
ated. Unless  there  is  a  large  amount  of  hot  water  available,  it  is  not 
an  economical  system  to  employ,  on"  account  of  the  greatly  increased 
amount  of  radiating  surface  required  at  the  lower  temperature.  In 
steam  heating,  the  high  pressure,  the  low  pressure  or  the  vacuum  system 
of  distribution  may  be  used;  the  selection  of  the  particular  sj-stem 
depends  on  load  conditions.  Where  high-pressure  steam  is  available, 
and  there  is  no  exhaust  steam,  it  should  of  course,  be  used.  If,  however, 
there  is  no  high  pressure  or  exhaust  steam  available  from  the  power 
plant,  then  an  independent  low-pressure  boiler  should  be  installed,  fur- 
nishing steam  at  from  5  pounds  to  10  pounds  pressure.  For  low-pressure 
work  cast-iron  boilers  may  be  used;  no  boiler  feed  pumps  are  required. 
The  boiler  should  be  placed  at  a  level  low  enough  for  the  condensation 
to  drain  back  by  gravity.  If  this  is  impracticable,  then  a  centrifugal 
pump  may  be  employed  to  return  the  condensed  water  to  the  boiler. 
A  vacuum  system  should  always  be  used  when  exhaust  steam  from  the 
power  plant  is  available.  In  a  vacuum  system  of  distribution,  the 
back  pressure  should  not  exceed  i  pound,  as  otherwise  the  losses  will 
outweigh  the  gain.  The  fan  sj'stem  is  undoubtedly  the  best  for  foundry 
heating  and  ventilating,  and  it  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  severe 
requirements  of  foundries,  and  other  buildings  of  this  construction, 
where  there  are  large  open  spaces  to  be  heated.  The  principal  advantages 
of  the  fan  system  over  direct  radiation  are: 


584         Water  Supply,  Lighting,  Heating  and  \'enlilation 

1.  The  thorough  distribution  of  heat  secured  by  discharging  the  air 
under  pressure  through  suitable  outlets,  wnth  suflicicnt  velocity  to 
ciirry  the  heat  to  the  jxjints  where  it  is  most  needed  without  causing 
jicrceptiblc  draughts. 

2.  No  hc;it  is  wasted  as  in  direct  radiation,  where  a  large  part  is  sent 
directly  through  the  walls,  with  slight  effect  upon  the  temiK-rature  of 
the  building.  The  fan  system  affords  means  of  supplying  heat  directly 
to  the  interior  of  the  building. 

3.  No  heat  is  wasted  by  heating  unoccupied  spaces,  as  along  the  roof 
and  in  the  monitor.  Tests  of  the  fan  system  installed  in  foundries  have, 
in  certain  instances,  sho\vn  lower  temperatures  in  the  monitors  than  at 
5  feet  above  the  floor  line. 

4.  Fan  systems  heat  up  very  much  more  rapidly  in  the  morning, 
when  it  is  desirable  to  bring  up  the  temperature  in  as  short  time  as 
IKJssible. 

5.  It  gives  a  rapid  warm  air  change,  which  effectually  removes 
smoke,  steam  and  dust  during  pouring  time;  an  effect  possible  only 
with  a  fan  system.  During  such  periods,  when  ventilation  is  required, 
the  fresh  and  return  air  dampers  should  be  adjusted  to  take  all  the  air 
from  out  of  doors.  During  the  remainder  of  the  day,  however,  the 
greater  part  of  the  air  should  be  returned  from  the  building  to  the 
apparatus,  so  that  the  heat  required  for  ventilation  may  be  the  least 
possible.  Precaution  should  always  be  taken  to  see  that  this  feature 
is  provided  for. 

6.  Fan  systems  cost  less  to  install  properh-,  since  the  apparatus  is 
centrally  located,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  pipe  the  steam  to  all  parts 
of  the  building  as  in  direct  radiation. 

7.  The  cost  of  maintenance  is  less,  since  the  radiating  surface  of  a 
direct  system  along  the  walls  is  frequentlj'  damaged,  while  in  the  cen- 
trally-located fan  apparatus,  it  is  thoroughly  protected. 

As  in  direct  radiation,  steam  or  hot  water  can  be  used  in  the  fan 
system  heater  coils;  but  as  the  cool  air  is  drawn  over  these  coiLs  by 
the  fan,  a  great  deal  more  heat  is  obtained  from  the  same  amount  of 
heating  surface.  This  permits  the  square  feet  of  radiation  to  be  re- 
duced about  two-thirds.  The  fan  is  often  driven  by  a  direct -connected 
steam  engine,  the  e.xhaust  from  which  is  used  in  the  heater  coils.  This 
is  an  exceedingly  economical  method,  as  practically  all  of  the  heat  of 
the  steam  is  utilized. 

A  new  t>pe  of  fan  heating  system,  which  is  ginng  the  highest  degree 
of  satisfaction,  has  been  developed  by  the  Buffalo  Forge  Company;  this 
is  the  direct  air  furnace  system.  Instead  of  burning  fuel  under  boilers, 
generatmg  steam,  transferring  steam  from  boilers  to  heater  coils  through 


Heating  and  Ventilating  585 

a  long  riin  of  pipe,  and  finally  giving  up  heat  to  air  from  the  heater 
coils,  this  system  transfers  the  heat  of  the  burning  fuel  directly  to  the 
air  for  distribution.  An  efficiency  of  85  to  90  per  cent  has  actually 
been  attained,  as  against  the  usual  efficiency  of  50  to  60  per  cent  derived 
from  steam  service.  The  Buffalo  Forge  Company  has  made  many 
installations  using  gas  for  fuel,  and  recently  erected  one  in  which  pow- 
dered coal  was  used.  Fuel  oil  can  also  be  employed.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  furnace  is  similar  to  that  for  a  water  tube  boiler.  The  hot 
gasses  pass  through  the  tubes,  a  fan  draws  the  circulating  air  around 
the  tubes,  by  which  it  is  heated,  and  then  distributes  it  through  the 
building.  Fig.  244  shows  one  of  these  furnaces  recently  installed  in  an 
important  factory  in  the  West.  The  main  hot  air  ducts  from  the  fan 
are  usually  made  of  galvanized  iron,  and  are  carried  in  the  roof  trusses. 
When  these  ducts  are  placed  at  a  height  not  exceeding  20  .feet,  the  air 
may  be  delivered  directly  into  the  building  through  short  outlets.  The 
design  of  these  outlets  is  of  particular  importance  to  the  success  of  the 
sj'stem.  The  velocity  must  be  properly  proportioned  to  the  height, 
to  the  size  of  the  outlet  and  to  the  horizontal  distance  which  the  air 
is  to  be  blown.  The  greater  the  distance  and  height  above  the  floor, 
and  the  smaller  the  outlets,  the  higher  the  velocity  must  be  to  obtain 
the  proper  distribution.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  velocity  is  exces- 
sive for  these  conditions,  objectionable  draughts  will  be  produced. 

In  some  cases  the  main  pipe  has  to  be  placed  too  far  above  the  floor 
to  permit  good  distribution  of  heat  at  the  floor  line  with  short  outlets. 
In  such  cases  it  is  usual  to  provide  drop  pipes  from  the  main  at  the 
columns  or  along  the  side  walls.  Where  the  drop  pipes  are  placed  at 
the  columns,  each  pipe  is  usually  provided  with  two  branches;  one 
blowing  toward  the  base  of  the  windows  at  the  side  walls,  the  other 
blowing  toward  the  center  of  the  building.  Where  the  drop  pipes  are 
extended  downward  at  the  side  walls,  it  is  usual  to  provide  three  outlets 
to  each  pipe,  two  blowing  sidewise  along  the  walls,  and  the  third  out- 
ward toward  the  center  of  the  building. 

In  wide  buildings  it  is  customary  to  run  two  lines  of  pipes  along  the 
columns  on  each  side;  while  in  narrower  buildings  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  an  entirely  satisfactory  distribution  of  heat  with  one  line  of 
main  pipe,  having  outlets  so  proportioned  as  to  blow  across  the  building 
to  the  further  side.  A  very  neat,  though  more  expensive  system  of 
distribution  is  with  underground  main  ducts,  with  galvanized  iron 
vertical  risers,  arranged  along  the  columns  or  side  walls;  or  in  some 
instances,  as  in  particularly  wide  buildings,  at  both  places.  The  system 
of  outlets  in  this  case  will  be  practically  the  same  as  where  drop  pipes 
are  used.     Fans  may  be  either  motor  or  engine  driven.     When  an 


s86         Water  Supply,  Lighting,  Heating  and  Ventilation 

ul)undancc  of  exhaust  steam  is  available  for  use  in  the  heater  coils,  the 
molor-<lriven  fan  will  be  fount!  the  more  economical  and  satisfactory.  It 
is  preferred  liy  many  on  account  of  the  simi)iicity  of  ojieration  and  the 
slight  care  and  attention  required.  Witii  small  fans  it  is  gowl  practice 
to  clirect-conncct  the  motor  to  the  fan;  but  with  the  larger  apjiaratus 
the  speed  of  operation  is  so  low  as  to  make  it  advisable  to  Ijelt-drive  the 
fan,  by  reason  of  the  high  cost  of  slow  speed  motors.  Engine-<lriven 
fans  are  advisable  when  moderately  high  jjressurc  steam  is  available. 
The  steam  can  be  used  to  drive  the  fan  and  the  exhaust  is  available  for 
the  heater  coils.  This  method  is  exceedingly  economical,  since  prac- 
tically all  of  the  heat  is  utilized. 

The  power  used  to  drive  the  fan  is  almost  negligible,  as  the  engine  is 
really  little  more  than  a  pressure  reducing  valve.  The  speed  of  operation 
with  engine  drive  is  also  much  more  fle.vible,  allowing  a  wider  range  of 
speed,  as  may  be  necessitated  by  var}ing  weather  conditions.  Direct 
radiation  and  the  fan  system  of  heating  cost  practically  the  same  to 
install,  the  fan  system  as  a  rule  being  somewhat  cheaper.  Of  course, 
with  the  fan  system,  the  power  necessary  to  drive  the  fan  is  additional, 
and  it  might  seem  that  the  operating  expense  would  be  somewhat  more 
than  with  direct  radiation;  but  the  more  equable  distribution  of  heat  by 
the  fan  system  cuts  down  the  losses  and  reduces  the  radiating  surface 
materially.  The  operating  expenses  of  the  two  systems,  however,  vary 
little  in  the  long  run." 


- 


CHAPTER   XXVII 
FOUNDRY  ACCOUNTS 

Any  system  of  foundry  accounting  must  be  subject  to  variation  in 
details  to  meet  the  requirements  of  different  classes  of  work. 

A  system  suitable  for  a  foundry  producing  pipe,  car  wheels  or  other 
standard  work  must  be  modified  in  some  of  its  details  to  adapt  it  to 
the  requirements  of  a  jobbing  foundry.  The  value  of  an  accounting 
system,  aside  from  determining  the  cost  of  production,  lies  in  reducing 
the  expenses  and  in  pointing  out  by  comparative  analysis  the  direction 
in  which  reductions  can  be  made. 

Cost  keeping  is  too  often  neglected.  Many  foundrymen  establishing 
prices,  etc.,  by  those  of  competitors,  have  absolutely  no  knowledge  of 
actual  costs.  There  are  few  branches  of  business  in  which  the  indirect 
expenses,  those  apart  from  the  cost  of  material  and  labor,  exceed  those 
of  the  foundry.  Only  by  constant  comparison,  by  tracing  increase  or 
decrease  from  one  period  to  another,  and  continually  following  lines 
indicating  improved  results,  can  the  expenses  be  made  to  approach  the 
minimum. 

An  effective  cost  system  must  not  only  furnish  accurate  results,  but 
must  furnish  them  promptly,  so  as  to  permit  ready  and  periodical  com- 
parison. 

Prompt  information  as  to  any  means  of  increasing  production  or  of 
decreasing  losses  or  costs  greatly  enhances  its  value.  The  system  must 
not  be  so  elaborate  as  to  render  it  impractical,  but  simplicity  must  not 
be  accompanied  with  neglect.  One  that  is  not  accurately  or  system- 
atically followed  is  worse  than  useless.  Any  effective  system  requires  a 
large  amoimt  of  clerical  work,  but  the  results  are  profitable  in  the  high- 
est degree. 

The  one  given  below  has  been  in  satisfactory  use  by  a  large  manu- 
facturing establishment,  making  castings  for  its  own  consumption. 

An  order  emanates  from  the  management,  going  to  the  drawing  room. 
There  it  is  given  a  shop  order  number.  A  form  bearing  this  number  is 
fiUed  out,  showing  the  patterns  required,  the  drawing  number,  pattern 
number  and  number  of  castings  wanted  from  each  pattern,  date  of 
deUvery  from  the  foundry  and  any  changes  to  be  made.  This  form, 
No.  I,  passes  to  the  Requisition  Clerk,  who  makes  a  requisition  in  quad- 

587 


588 


Foundry  Accounts 


ru|)le,  form  Xo.  2,  on  the  foundry.  This  form  is  about  six  by  nine  inches; 
and  as  many  sets  of  blanks,  all  Ixiaring  the  same  shop  order  number,  are 
used  as  arc  rccjuircd.  These  fonns  are  in  shape  for  inde.xing  willi 
guide  cards,  'i'hree  of  each  set  of  these  forms  after  completion  are 
sent  to  the  founcky,  and  the  fourth  is  hied  in  the  office. 

Of  the  three  sets  sent  to  the  foundry,  one  is  marked  "  Foundry  Rcquisi- 
lion,"  one  "Pattern  Shop"  and  the  third  "Core  Room." 

The  foundry  clerk  fills  in  date  of  receipt,  date  for  deliver)'  of  patterns 
;ind  cores  and  the  casting  date;  then,  having  marked  on  them  the 
deliveries  required,  he  transmits  to  the  Pattern  Shop  and  Core  Room 
their  respective  requisitions.  The  Pattern  Shop  and  Core  Room  fore- 
men each  stamp  them  with  dale  of  receipt. 


Form  2. 


FOUNDRY  REQUISITION 

Williams  &  Jo.nes 


Shop  Order,  5486.  Date,  3/9/10.  Castings  wanted,  4/4/10. 

For  25  9X12  C.  Crank.  S.  Valve  Throttling  Engines. 


Name  of  part 

Drawing 
number 

Pattern 
number 

No.  of 
pieces 
wanted 

Alterations 

7984 

8092 
8093 
8140 
8098 

8099 
7642 
7990 
7991 

46.854 

46,855 
46.856 
46,857 
46,859 

46.860 
46.861 
46.862 
46.86.5 

25 

25 
25 
25 
25 

25 
100 

flange  at   exhaust   out- 
let }%  inch. 

St'f'ng  box  gland 

Steam  chest  cover 

Steam  chest  glands 

Cylinder  lagging 

Piston 

Add  Me  inch  to  each  end 
of  cover. 

Reduce  diameter  H  inch. 

Requisition  received  in  foundrj',  3/10/10. 
Requisition  received  in  pattern  shop. 
Requisition  received  in  core  room. 


Order  to  be  completed,  3/31/ 10. 
Floor  date,  3/22/10. 
Patterns  wanted,  3/21/10. 
Cores  wanted,  four  sets,  3/22/10. 
Four  sets  each  day  thereafter. 


Record  of  Caslings  Made 

Date 

Good 

Bad 

Date 

Good 

Bad 

Date 

Good 

Bad 

Date 

Good 

Bad 

3/22 

3 

I 

3/29 

2 

3/23 

4 

3/24 

4 

3/25 

4 

3/26 

4 

3/28 

4 

Pattern  Card 


589 


In  filling  out  the  floor  or  casting  date,  the  date  of  delivery,  etc.,  the 
foundry  clerk  knows  that  only  four  cylinders  can  be  made  at  each  heat. 
He  therefore  fixes  the  date  for  completion  at  3/31/ 10;  this  allows  four 
days  to  provide  for  any  contingencies.  The  Foundry  Requisition  is 
then  filed  under  its  floor  date. 

At  the  end  of  each  week  the  index  cards  up  to  that  date  are  with- 
drawn from  the  front  and  passed  to  rear  of  card  box.  There  are  enough 
cards  in  the  box  to  cover  six  months  or  a  year  as  desired. 

Any  unfilled  orders  at  the  end  of  the  week  are  advanced  to  the  first 
date  of  the  coming  week,  so  that  the  current  orders  are  all  at  the  front 
of  the  box.  Each  day  the  foreman  and  clerk  spend  time  to  select 
orders  and  make  out  a  program  for  the  next  heat. 

As  the  orders  are  completed,  each  requisition  with  its  supplementary 
orders  is  filed  away  for  reference. 

The  Foundry  Pattern  Loft  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  for  uncom- 
pleted orders  (Live  End),  and  the  other  for  completed  orders  (Dead 
End). 

The  patterns  are  deUvered  by  Pattern  shop  at  the  Live  End. 

A  man  from  Pattern  Storage  has  a  book  in  which  he  takes  receipts 
for  patterns  delivered.  He  also  receipts  for  patterns  which  he  removes 
from  Dead  End. 

Precisely  the  same  system  is  pursued  with  core  boxes.  The  Pattern 
Shop  delivers  and  removes  the  boxes,  taking  and  giving  receipts. 

Attached  to  each  pattern  is  a  tag,  on  which  all  the  data  above  the 
heavy  line  is  made  out  in  Pattern  Shop:  all  below  is  filled  out  in  Foundry. 

PATTERN  CARD 


o 


Moulder's  Tag. 

Foundry  Tag. 

Date  issued,  3/21/10. 

Date  issued,  3/21/10 

Shop  order,  5486. 

Shop  order,  5486. 

Name  of  piece,  9x12  cylinder. 

Name  of  piece,  9X12  cylinder. 

Pattern  No.  46,854. 

Pattern  No.  46,854. 

No.  wanted  25.     Date  3/31. 

No.  wanted  25,  date,  3/31. 

Name  of  moulder,  John  Hayes. 

Name  of  moulder,  John  Hayes. 

Date  in  sand,  3/22/10. 

Date  in  sand,  3/22/10. 

Tally  ////  ////  ////  ////  //// 

Moulder's  time. 

Moulder  must  return  this  tag 

John  Hayes  —  ¥  ¥  ¥  ¥  ¥ 

with  pattern. 

John  Hayes  —  ¥  ¥  ¥ 

Wm.  Moran  —  ¥  ¥  ¥  ¥  ¥ 

Wm.  Moran  -  %'■  ¥  ¥ 

The  tag  is  perforated  across  the  middle.    When  the  pattern  is  issued 
to  the  moulder,  the  clerk  tears  off  and  retains  the  foundry  tag  on  which 


5QO 


Foundry  Accounts 


llic  lime  is  entered  and   then   Tiled   away.     The   moulder's  tag   is  de- 
stroyed when  |)allern  is  removed  to  storage. 

The  foreman  ol  core  room  enters  time  of  core  makers  on  core  room 
requisition.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  clerk  has  not  only  entered  on 
the  Foutidry  tag  the  time  of  John  Hayes,  but  also  that  of  Wm.  Moran, 
iiel|jcr. 

There  must  be  a  case  in  which  arc  kc|jl  cards  showing  records  of  pig 
iron,  scrap,  coke,  sand,  sea  coal,  fire  clay  and  any  other  material  re- 
ceived in  car  lots. 

PIG   IRON    CARD 


Pig  Iron 

From  Jones.  Smith  &  Company 

Car.  N.  P.  R.R.,  438.827.               Brand  Xo.  2.  S. 
Wt.,  G.  T..  24.23. 

Analysis                   , 

Received.  2/10/10. 
Price,  J16.S0  Did. 

1 

Silicon                         Sulphur 

2.38               1                .032 

Phosphorus 
.43 

Manganese 
.54 

Net  weight.  54.282. 
Expended.  54.660. 
Overrun,  378. 

CO    O    O    f^    *^  O*  C30 


&:?: 


10   t*  0>  N    ^^       V 
M    «    1-1    Ci    N    «       > 

«    «    «    M    M    «     O 


On  back  of  this  card  the  withdrawals  and  corresponding  dates  are 
entered  and  balance  cast  up  on  face. 

The  cards  for  sand,  fire  clay,  etc.,  are  the  same  as  for  coke,  without 
the  analysis.  It  is  advisable,  howe\er,  to  have  these  supplies  analyzed 
ocaibionally. 


Pig  Iron 
COKE   CARD 


591 


Coke 

Form  5. 

Car  No.  7482,  N.  Y.  C. 

Received,  2/7/10. 

Ovens,  Hamilton  by-product. 

Weight,  32,600. 

S4.8S  Deld. 

A nalysis 

Per  cent 

85 

8 

Ash 

II 

I 

As  a  matter  of  convenience  to  the  foreman  in  making  up  the  mixture, 
it  is  desirable  to  enter  the  pig  iron  in  a  special  book,  as  per  diagram 
below  as  well  as  to  keep  the  cards. 


PIG   IRON 


Form  6. 

Sample  Page  of  Pig  Iron  Book. 

Date 

re- 
ceived 

Car 
No. 

Brand 

Net 
weight 

Ex- 
pended 

Analysis 

12/9/09 
12/9/09 
12/15/09 
1/7/10 
2/10/10 

132,568 
35,689 
46,351 
25,135 

439.827 

No.  2S 
No.  2S 
No.  2  N 
No.  3  N 
No.  2  S 

78,594 
76.432 
69,496 
58,439 
54.282 

12/20 

12/27 

1/14/10 

2/8/10 

3/2/10 

I*  Si  3.2s    S  .03      P  .89    Mn  .82 
2*  Si  3.09    S  .032    P  .85    Mn  .75 

1  Si  2.84    S  .038    P  .76    Mn  .68 

2  Si  2.80    S  .040    P  .74     Mn  .66 

1  Si  2.19    S  .027     P  .29    Mn  .75 

2  Si  2.10    S  .026     P  .27     Mn  .74 

1  Si  1.67    S  .024    P   .26     Mn  .69 

2  Si  1. 65    S  .023    P   .24     Mn  .67 

1  Si  2.38    S  .032     P  .43    Mn  .54 

2  Si  2.25    S  .036    P  .48    Mn  .52 

I 
2 

I 
2 

*  No.  I  is  the  furnace  analysis;   No.  2,  that  of  the  foundry  chemist. 

The  Heat  Book  is  given  on  page  592.  In  this  book  the  foreman  enters 
for  the  coming  heat  the  irons  which  are  to  be  used  and  the  mixture. 
The  remainder  of  the  account  may  be  filled  out  later  by  the  clerk  after 
returns  are  made.    This  book  is  of  the  greatest  importance  as  it  enables 


592 


Foundry  Accounts 


the  foreman  to  repeal  at  once  any  mixture  lused  at  any  time,  or  for  any 
particular  purjiosc. 

The  sheet  shown  is  for  the  Iicat  of  2/22/  from  which  4  cylinders  arc 
to  be  poured  and  a  special  charge  (the  first)  containing  10  per  cent  steel 
scrap  is  made.  The  cylinders  weigh  al>out  500  pounds  each,  and  as 
there  arc  crank  disc  and  other  castings  requiring  strong  iron,  the  entire 
first  charge  will  contain  steel. 

The  charges  arc  4000  pounds  each,  and  the  mi.vturc  is  uniform  through- 
out the  heat,  except  for  first  and  last  charges.  Turning  to  the  Pig  Iron 
Book,  the  foreman  selects  such  iron  as  will  furnish  the  desired  mi.xture 
for  cylinders,  also  those  for  the  remaining  charges  and  enters  them  on 
the  heat  book.  A  memorandum  is  given  the  boss  of  the  yard  gang, 
showing  the  car  numbers  and  the  amount  of  iron  from  each  car  for  each 
charge. 

The  number  of  charges  for  the  ordinarj-  mixture  is  left  blank  until 
later  in  the  day,  when  the  total  amount  to  be  melted  is  ascertained. 

The  weighman  has  a  pad  of  forms  upon  which  he  prepares  a  slip  for 
each  charge  giving  the  car  number,  weight  of  iron  from  each  car,  weight 
of  coke  and  lime. 

Each  charge  of  iron  is  piled  by  itself  on  cupola  platform  in  regular 
order.  The  coke  with  limestone  is  sent  up  in  cars  as  the  charging  of 
cupola  proceeds. 


SAMPLE  SHEET  FROM  HEAT  BOOK 
WiLLi.wis  &  Jones  Fouxdry 


Form  7. 

Heat  of  3/m/io. 

Pig  iron 

C-ar 
No. 

Weight 

per 
charge, 
pounds 

No.  of 
charges 

Analysis 

Remarks 

Silvery 

No.  2  Sou   . 
No.  2  Sou.  . 
No.  2  Nor. . 
No.  2  Nor.. 

Scrap 

Steel  scrap  . 

No.  2  Sou.  . 
No.  2  Nor. . 
No.  2  Nor.. 
Scrap 

Clean-up... 

8,296 
439.827 
46,351 
328,503 

27.935 
328,503 

45,541 

200 
400 
400 
800  • 

1800 
400 

800 -) 

6col 

200  1 

2400 ) 

1050 

I 

20 

I 

Si  4.20    S  .03      P  .72    Mn  .68 
Si  2.25    S  .036    P  .48    Mn  .52 
Si  2.10    S  .026    P  .27    Mn  .74 
Si  2.29    S  .023    P  .24    Mn  .67 

Si  2.10    S  .084    P  .63    Mn  .63 

Si  3.75    S  .017    P  .86    Mn  .36 
Si  2.29    S  .023    P  .24    Mn  .67 
Si  1.92    S  .024    P    28    Mn  .63 
Si  2.10    S  .084    P  .68    Mn  .63 

First 
charge 

!  » 

1  charges 

Last 
charge 

Sample  Sheet  From  Heat  Book 


593 


Amount  Charged 


Pig  iron. 

33,8oo 

Scrap. 

49.800 

Steel  scrap. 

400 

Clean-up. 

1,050 

Total. 

85,050 

Coke. 

10,950. 

Returned  320. 

10,630 

Flux. 

1,600 

Production 


Good  castings. 

Bad  castings. 

Gates  and  sprues. 

Over  iron. 

Shot. 

Clean-up. 

Total  accounted  for. 

Lost  in  melt. 

Per  cent  melt  in  good  castings. 

Per  cent  castings  good. 

Per  cent  castings  bad. 

Per  cent  melt  in  returns. 

Per  cent  loss  in  melt. 

Iron  melted  per  pound  coke. 


66.466 
2,708 
6,106 
5,143 
650 
1,670 
82,743 
2,307 
78.2 
96.1 
3.9 
(19.0 
'  2.7 
8  lbs.  to  I 


Mixtures 


1st  charge  special. 
Regular  charges. 


5%  car  8296. 
20%  car  328,503. 
20%  car  27,935. 
60%  scrap. 


10%  car  439.827. 

10%  steel. 

15%  car  328,503. 


10%  car  46,351. 
45%  scrap. 
5%  car  45,541. 


Analysis 


Computed. 

1st  charge. 

Si 

1.66 

S 

.075 

p 

.42 

Mn 

.46 

Have 

analyses 

Computed. 

Regular. 

Si 

2.21 

s 

.088 

p 

.63 

Mn 

47 

made 

as      re- 

Actual. 

1st  charge. 

Si 

1.64 

s 

.080 

p 

.43 

Mn 

45 

quired 

Actual. 

Regular. 

Si 

2.23 

s 

.092 

p 

.6s 

Mn 

.44 

594 


Foundry  Accounts 


Prtxluctivc 

Non- 
productive 

Total* 

Av.    , 

per 
hour 

32.60 

Hours 

1133-6 
113. 6 

Cost 

Hours 

Cost 

Hours 

c:ost 
$383.38 

Foundry 

GDre  room 

Cleaning  room 

$274.90 
34.08 

180 
36 
234 

$28.80 

S.76 

39  84 

$74.20 

1697-2 

Total 

1247-2 

$308.98 

4SO 

Helper*  arc 
included  in 
foundry  as 
productive. 


Blast  on.  1:50  p.m. 
First  tap,  2:13  P.M. 
Test  bar  special. 
Test  bar  regiUar. 


Pressure,  9  ounces. 
Bottom  dropped,  4:45  P..M. 
Transverse,  2800. 
Transverse,  2200. 


First  iron,  2  p.m. 


The  meller  and  boss  of  the  yard  gang  are  each  furnished  with  a  copy 
of  charging  schedule.  '.Vfter  the  charges  are  all  up,  the  wcighman  turns 
in  to  foundry  ollice,  slips  for  the  bottom  coke,  and  one  for  each  charge 
gixnng  complete  weights  of  everything  entering  the  cupola. 


Form  9. 


Charging  Schedule 


Date,  3/22/10. 


Charges 


1st  charge . 


20  charges . 


Last  charge. 


Materials 


Bottom  coke 

Steel  scrap 

Car  8296 

Car  439.827 

Car  46,351 

Car  328,503 

Scrap  (selected) 

Coke 

Car  27.935 

Car  328,503 

Car  45.541 

Scrap 

Returned  coke 

Clean-up 

Use  80  pounds  limestone  from  third  to 
nineteenth  charge  inclusive. 


WeighU 


3850 
400 
300 
400 
400 
800 

1800 

400 
800 
6co 
200 
2400 

100 
loso 


Weigh  Slips  595 


Weigh  Ticket 
Form  10. 
Charge  No.  i.  Date,  3/22/10. 


Coke  bottom 2850 

Steel  scrap 400 

Car  8296 200 

Car  439.827 400 

Car  46,351 400 

Car  328,503 800 

Scrap 1800 


Limestone. 


Weigh  Ticket 
Form  10. 
Charge  No.  2.  Date,  3/23/10. 


Coke 400 

Car  27,935 800 

Car  328.503 600 

Car  45,541 200 

Scrap 2400 


Limestone. 


On  the  day  following  the  heat,  after  recovering  the  iron  from  the 
gangways,  cinders,  etc.,  the  yard  foreman  turns  the  weight  into  the 
ofSce. 


Returns  from  Foundry 

Form  II. 

3/23/10.  Heat  of  3/22/10. 


Bad  castings 650 

Over  iron S143 

Shot 650 

Clean-up 1670 

Returned  coke 320 


The  bad  castings  on  above  slip  are  those  thrown  out  in  the  foundry, 
to  which  are  subsequently  added  those  rejected  in  the  cleaning  room. 


590  Foundry  Accounts 

I'rom  the  moulder's  tags,  turned  in  on  the  zand,  and  from  information 
oblaini'd  from  the  floor  concerning  work  on  lag-,  which  luivc  uot  lux-n 
turned  in,  the  clerk  |>rci)ares  in  part,  du|,>licate  cleaning  rcxim  reix)rts. 
He  enters  the  shop  order  nimilR-rs,  pattern  numl)ers,  names  of  parLs 
and  numljer  of  |)arts  made.  Tliis  re|>ort  then  goes  to  forcm;in  of  clean- 
in>^  room,  who  com|>letes  it,  sending  one  copy  to  the  foundry  oflicc  and 
tlie  other  to  the  work's  olTice. 

The  form  is  given  on  page  597.  As  many  sheets  as  are  necessary  are 
used  for  each  heat. 

The  Time  Book,  Weigh  Tickets,  Foundry  Returns  and  Cleaning  Room 
Report  furnish  all  the  data,  except  analysis  and  test,  for  completion 
of  entrj'  in  heat  book  for  3  22  10.  Information  as  to  the  last  two  items 
is  obtained  from  time  to  time  iis  required.  The  heat  report  is  made  out 
in  duplicate;  original  sent  to  Works  Ofl'ice  and  du[)licate  filed  in  Foundrj'. 
This  is  followed  by  a  weekly  summary.  At  the  end  of  each  month  an 
inventory  is  taken  of  all  supplies;  and  their  cost,  jjer  hunflred  pounds 
good  castings,  is  determined  for  the  month  passed.  This  cost  is  used  in 
making  out  foundry  reports  for  the  succeeding  month. 

All  supplies  except  the  bulky  materials,  such  as  sand,  fire  clay,  etc. 
are  kept  in  store  room  and  are  issued  upon  requisition  from  foremen 
or  clerk,  upon  blanks  as  per  sketch. 


Requisition  on  Dale,  3/21/10. 

Store  Keeper,  Issue  to 

Jno.   SULLrV'AN, 
5  Pounds  Silver  Lead. 

W.M.  Wilson.  Foreman. 


These  requisitions,  together  with  tallies  of  sand,  fire  clay,  etc.,  are 
turned  into  office  by  store  keeper  at  end  of  month. 

Careful  scrutiny  and  comparison  of  these  monthly  statements  and 
expenditures  result  in  marked  savings.  They  promote  among  the 
departments  a  strife  for  the  lowest  record.  The  reduction  in  the  amount 
of  core  supplies,  nails,  rods  and  sand  is  especially  noticeable. 

As  regards  iron  flasks  and  other  castings  made  for  the  foundrj-,  if 
they  are  for  permanent  equipment,  ihcy  are  so  charged.  If  on  the 
other  hand  they  are  for  temporary  service,  they  are  charged  to  foundr>- 
at  cost  of  labor,  plus  the  difference  between  the  cost  of  good  castings 
and  scrap. 

Monthly  comparisons,  or  more  frequent  if  desired,  are  made  with 
statements  from  the  works  office.  Comparisons  arc  likewise  made  at 
the  end  of  the  fiscal  year. 


Cleaning  Room  Report 


597 


5  "O 

H  B 


fOC^    TtfON    tM*©     M 


0»OoO     O     OO-^OO"^ 


"S  s 


rON-^roo»TfN(0 


f^W     '^fO'N    '^(N'O 


S  ^c 


M  -^  t^  -^  O  r^  i/i 
N  a>  w  M  w  o  o 
M   ►"!   o)    f^   w    w    w 


§"3 

w 

6^ 

fi 

^e^ 

^ 

lO  li^  l/l  in 


1  S  I  §  S  gg   :  -g 

■  x:    bo   cj    00   cij    f^    j^ 

i  W  c/5  c/i  02  U  E  S 


m  to  t^  a^  O  tH 


5  -O  "O  to  ^o 


■^    '«3-    -^    -^    ■^ 


tOtOvOtOtOtOtOtOvO 
OOOOOOCOQOOOOOOOOO 

ioioio»o»oioioioio 


598 


Foundry  .\ccouiiis 


Form  14. 


FOUNDRY 

AlU.IAMS    6i 

Heat  ol 


Grade 

No.  I 

No.  2 

Car  No. 
Sou. 

439.827 
46.351 
27.93S 

No.  3 

No.  4 

Weight... 
Cost 

Car  No. 

Silvery 
8296 

Weight 
200 

200 
$1.49 

Weight 

No.  2  N. 

400 

400 

16,000 

16.800 
I123.73 

Car  No. 

328.S03 
45.541 

Weight 

12,800 
4.000 

16,800 
$127.51 

Car  No. 

Weight 

^ 

"?;c_.  a 

& 

«^   a 

e 

B& 

Cost 
Iron  i 
good 
castin 

"S-S 

CO  "S 

"3 

Returns 

includ 

bad 

castin 

S'3 

1^ 

< 

m 

oca 

V 

8.5  "S 
04  0 

Weight... 

85,050 

66.466 

2708 

13.569 

2307 

82.743 

78.2 

96.1 

Cost 

$634.66 

J520.73 

Costs 


«>& 

^  <»  ^ 

m  « 

a 

2 

"3 

BO 

si 

J2  8 

1 

BtJ 
►S3 

•a 

•0  c 

lie 

ill 

0  C-.S 

C-3  2 

founc 
St  per 
pound 
castin 

S 

S" 

1 

§1 

a  0T3 
380 

"8s 

5  8  81 

M 

ilO 

H         <« 

Hours 

1133.6 

H3-6 

450 

1697.2 

2.55 

Cost 

$274.98 

$34.08 

$74-40 

$383.38 

$0.5765 

$00396 

$0,783 

$1,399 

Foundry  Reports 


599 


REPORTS 

Jones  Co. 

3/22/IO. 


a  a 

t.'O 

wa  0 

*^  0. 
0  ^ 

IS 

DM 

0 

0 

3 

Iron  pe 

100  poun 

coke 

Cost  pe 
100  poun 
melted  ir 

a 

400 

49,800 

1050 

85.050 

10,630 

1600 

8-1 

$300 

$348.60 

$4.20 

$608.53 

$25.53 

$0.60 

$0,746 

gg 


U.    4J    O  ^j 


Total  cost  of  melt . . 
Cr. 

Returns  16,275  pounds  ( 
.70 


Cost  of  iron  in  good 
casting 


$634.66 
113.93 

520.73 

S«.S 

0  O-tS 

I0.783 

I 


6oo 


Foundry  Arcounts 


WEEKLY  FOUNDRY  REPORT 
Williams  &  iosvs  Pounuky 


Form  IS. 


HeaU  o(  3/23-a5  and  a6/io. 


Date 

of 

Consumplion 

Product 

heat 

February 

S.8oo 

0. 

2 

0 

•3 

0 

H 

0) 
M 
0 

u 

1 250 

Is 

4 

IP 
14 

ii 

"a 

(2 

23 

36,500 

32,98o|  s.ooo 

80,360 

11,250 

57.8592703 

16.172 

3626 

80.360 

25 

27.720 

3,6oo 

23.880    s.ooo 

60,200 

9.540 

900 

43..M4  1340 

1J.244  2272 

60.200 

28 

27.S20 

7.800 

26.800    .... 

62,200 

9.930 

9SO 

45.406  1900 

12.4062488  62.200 

Totals. . 

91.740 

17,280 

83,740  10,000 

202,760 

30,730 

3100 

146,6095943 

41,822  8386202,760 

Summary 


Total  iron  melted 

Total  coke  used 

Total  flu.x  used 

Total  cost  melt 

Credit 

Returns  (including  bad  castings)  70^  per  100  pounds 

Total  loss 

Total  good  castings 

Total  bad  castings 


Total  productive  labor 

Total  non-productive  labor 

Total  labor 

Total  cost  of  supplies 

Total  foundry  cost  of  good  castings. 


Per  cent  of  melt  in  good  castings 

Per  cent  of  melt  in  bad  castings 

Per  cent  of  melt  in  bad  return  (including  bad  cast- 
ings)  

Per  cent  of  melt  in  loss 

Per  cent  of  castings  good 

Per  cent  of  castings  bad 


Average  cost  of  labor  per  hour 

Cost  of  iron  per  loo  pounds 

Cost  of  iron  melted  per  100  pounds 

Cost  of  iron  in  good  castings  ix.-r  100  pounds 

Cost  of  labor,  good  castings  per  100  pounds 

Cost  of  supplies,  good  castings  per  100  pounds ' 

Total  foundry  cost,  good  castings  per  100  pounds.. . 

Iron  melted  per  pound  of  coke 6.6  lbs. 


Pounds 

20,7260 

30,720 

3,100 


47,76s 

8,386 

146,609 

5,943 

Hours 
2,482 
1,490 
3,97a 


$1476.09 

74  so 

1. 17 

1551.76 

334.60 


615.72 
246.29 


Per  cent 
72.3 
2.93 

23. S 
4.1 

96.1 

3.9 

Cents 

21.7 
0.728 
o  76s 


1217.16 


826.01 

58.05 

2137.32 


0.830 
0.S88 
0.0396 
I.4S76 


Monthly  Expenditure  of  Supplies 


6oi 


Form  i6. 


MONTHLY  EXPENDITURE  OF   SUPPLIES 

Williams  &  Jones  Foundry 

February,  1910. 


Materials 


Quantity 


o  9 

o  a 


Si 
3  p 


Anchors 

Belting 

Belt  lacing 

Bellows 

Beeswax.  .■ 

Bolts 

Brick,  red 

Brick,  fire 

Brick,  block 

Brooms 

Barrows,  wheel 

Barrows,  pig  iron 

Brushes,  soft 

Brushes,  hard 

Brushes,  core 

Brushes,  casting 

Brushes,  camel's  hair. . 

Brushes,  paint 

Brushes,  white  wash. . 

Brushes,  wheel 

Blocks,  chain 

Candles 

Cable  wire 

Carbons 

Castings 

Cans,  blow 

Chisels,  cold 

Chaplets 

Charcoal 

Chain 

Chain  links 

Chalk 

Chalk,  line 

Clay 

Clay,  fire 

Clamps 

Clamps,  spike 

Clamps,  screw 

Core,  compound  dry. . 
Core,  compound  liquid 

Core  vent,  metallic 

Coke  forks 

Coke  baskets 


6oa  Founflry  Arrounts 

Monthly  Expenditure  of  Supplies    Continued) 


Materials 


Coke  scoops 

Crow  bars 

Crucibles 

Cloth  wire 

Cups,  tin 

Cutter's  emery 

Facing  mineral . . . 

Flour 

Fuel 

Gauges,  wind .... 

Gauges,  air 

Globes,  electric. .. 
Globes,  lantern... 

Glue 

Glutrin 

Grease 

Hammers 

Handles,  hammer 
Handles,  sledge... 

Hose,  air 

Hose,  water 

Hose,  couplings .  . 

Hose,  nozzles 

Iron  bar 

Iron,  sheet 

Irons,  draw 

Irons,  flasks 

Jackscrew  

Jack-bolts 

Levels,  spirit 

Lead,  bar 

Lead,  sheet 

Lead,  pipe 

Lead,  red 

Lead,  white 

Lead,  silver 

Lime 

Lumber 

Litharge 

Lycopodium 

Mallets 

Mauls 


Quantity 


u 

u 


I 


Monthly  Expenditure  of  Supplies  603 

Monthly  Expenditure  of  Supplies  (Continued) 


Materials 


Quantity 


Manganese,  ferro 

Mercury 

Molasses 

Nails 

Nuts 

Oil,  core 

Oil,  coal 

Oil.  belt 

Oil,  lard 

Oil,  linseed 

Oil,  hard 

OU,  black 

Oil,  machine.  ... 

Oil,  rosin 

Oil,  cans 

Pails,  iron 

Pails,  wood 

Pencils,  lead 

Pipe,  iron 

Pipe,  fittings 

Picks,  cupola 

Pliers 

Pliers,  cutting 

Pots,  sprinkling .  . 

Paper,  sand 

Paper,  toilet 

Paper,  emery 

Paper,  wrapping . . 

Rammers 

Rammers,  bench. 

Riddles 

Riddles,  brass . . . . 
Rivets,  copper.. . . 

Rivets,  iron 

Rosin 

Rope 

Saws,  hand 

Saws,  hack 

Screws 

Screws,  drivers. . . 

Stationary 

Scrapers 

Silicon,  ferro 

Straps,  lifting. . . . 
Stars,  tumbler. . . 
Sand,  moulding  . 


26 
°  9 
02 


S  .0 


0O4 


Foiimlrv  Aiiounts 


MontlUy  Expenditure  of  Supplies    Continued) 


Materials 


Sand,  lake 

Sand,  bank 

Sand,  fire 

Shovels,  moulders' . 
Shovels,  laborers'  . . 
Sprayers,  blacking. 

Sponges 

Smooth-on. . .' 

Swabs 

Sledges 

Stone,  emery 

Salt 

Sulphur 

Sea  coal 

Talc 

Tacks 

Torches,  blow 

Twine 

Straw 

Vitriol 

Wire,  iron 

Wire,  copper 

Wire,  wax  vent 

Wire,  cable 

Washers 

Wheels,  emery 

Wheels,  sheave 

Wheels,  barrow 

Wrenches,  open 

Wrenches,  monkey. 
Wrenches,  pipe 


QuAntity 


2    !   KE 
&        o  o 


■■vB 


Total $284.56 

Good  castings  for  month 718.37; 

Cost  of  supplies  for  100  good  castings  for  February,  1910 So. 0396 

Use  this  price  for  the  month  of  March,  1910. 


Monthly  Comparisons  of  Foundry  Accounts 


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Transmission  of  Orders 


6ii 


Chart  Showing  Direction  of  Transmission  of  Shop  and 
Foundry  Orders,  Together  With  That  of  Return 
Reports 


1   jSupcrlntendeni- 


Drawing  Room  ( 


Cleanino)      Yard       Cupola 
Room 


Mouldina 
Floor  "^ 


Core 
Room 


Fig.  245. 


The  chart  above  shows  the  direction  of  transmission  of  orders  from 
the  superintendent  to  the  foundry  office,  and  thence,  with  supplementary 
orders,  to  the  delivery  of  the  completed  product  at  the  cleaning  room; 
as  also  that  of  return  reports  to  foundry  office,  works  office,  and  superin- 
tendent. Full  lines  indicate  the  course  of  orders  outward;  dotted  lines 
that  of  the  return  reports. 


From  Superintendent (i)  to 

From  Drawing  Room ....    (2)  to 
From  Foundry (4)   to 


From  Foundry  Office . 


(4)  to 


Works  Office (3) 

I  Drawing  Room (2) 

Foundry (4) 

Works  Office (3) 

Pattern  Shop (5) 

Pattern  Shop (5) 

Core  Room (6) 

Floor (7) 

Cupola (8) 

Yard (9) 

Cleaning  Room.  .  .  .  (10) 


6i2  Foundry  Accounts 

From  Pattern  Shop (5)   lo     \  ;"r"''^>  ^^""'^'^ J^) 

'  -"  I  Core  Room   (6) 

From  Core  Room (6)    lo        Moulding  Floor.  ..  .    (7) 

From  Cupola (8)   to        Moulding  Floor.  ...    (7) 

From  Moulding  Floor.  ...    (7)   to        Cleaning  Room.  .  .  .(10) 

RETUitN  Reports 

From  Moulding  Floor.  ...    (7)1 

From  Core  Room (6 )     .        r-       j      /-vn-  /  » 

From  Cupola (sj  f  ^°      ^^^""^'■y  O^"^'^-  ^^^ 

From  Cleaning  Room.  .  .  .(io)j 

,,    „  T^        1      r^tr                I  \   ^       /Superintendent (i) 

I-roml-oundryOmce (4)   to     {  ^irks  Onice (3) 

From  Works  OflSce (3)   to        Su|)erintendent (i) 

The  system  of  accounting  as  above  described  has  been  followed  for 
some  years  by  one  of  the  western  foundries,  with  excellent  results.  It 
involves  considerable  clerical  work,  but  one  clerk  can  handle  it. 

Some  modifications  are  required  to  adapt  it  to  a  jobbing  foundry. 
These  arc  indicated  at  once  and  are  readily  made. 

As  showing  different  methods  of  foundry  accounting,  each  having  its 
advantages  and  disadvantages,  papers  presented  on  the  subject  to  the 
.American  Foundrymen's  .Association  by  Mr.  B.  A.  Franklin  and  Mr.  J. 
P.  Golden  are  given.  .  .  One  can  be  developed  from  the  lot  which  will 
meet  any  requirement. 


AMERICAN  FOUNDRYMEN'S  ASSOCIATION 
Foundry  Costs 
By  B.  a.  Franklin,  Boston,  Mass. 
"...  Form  I  illustrates  the  first  method  of  foundry  cost  showing: 
The  operations  are  divided  into  the  elements  of 


Melting. 


Moulding 


Section  A 

I.   Metal.  2.    Fuel. 

3.    Melting  E.xpense. 

Section  B 

4.   Moulding  Labor. 
5.   Moulding  Expense  —  Floor  and  Bench  separately 

Section  C 

6.  Cleaning  Labor.  10.  Pickling. 

7.  Cleaning  Expense.  11.  Picklinp  Expense. 

8.  Tumbling  Labor.  12.  Sand  Blasting  Labor. 

9.  Tumbling  Expense.  13.  Sand  Blasting  Expense. 


Foundry  Costs  613 

Section  D 
14.   Core  Labor.  15.    Core  Expense. 

Section  E 
16.    General  Expense. 

"In  discussing  this  system  no  attempt  is  made  to  discuss  the  method 
of  getting  the  information  because  such  methods  are  simple  and  easily 
worked  out." 

"The  Basic  Costs  are  illustrated  in  Form  i,  which  shows  the  weekly 
operation  of  the  foundry  as  a  whole,  and  Form  2  represents  the  cost  of 
an  actual  casting.  Form  3  represents  the  monthly  foundry  showing 
of  profit  and  loss,  offering  means  of  proof  of  the  foundry  cost  and  show- 
ing the  net  result. " 

".  .  .As  nearly  as  possible  foundry  shop  economy  demands,  and 
foundry  work  permits  a  daily  clean-up,  though,  of  course,  some  oper- 
ations happen  one  day  after  the  beginning. " 

"A  foundry  cost  might  then  be  a  daily  record  sheet.  Weekly  records, 
however,  are  sufficient  generally,  and  the  one  presented  is  on  this 
basis. " 

Form  i 

"Section  A.     Deals  with  metal." 

"Here  is  shown,  separately  for  each  different  mixture,  of  which  one 
foundry  might  generally  employ  two  or  three,  the  weights  and  value 
of  iron  charged.  These  weights  may  readily  be  proved  by  checking 
as  each  car  or  lot  of  scrap  is  used  up.  In  the  case  of  scrap  made  in  the 
foundry  or  'own  scrap'  no  value  is  put  on  this  since  it  is  put  into  the 
heat  in  an  iron  foundry,  on  the  basis  that  scrap  made  on  each  heat  will 
be  approximately  the  same  per  cent,  and  what  is  made  one  day  is  gathered 
up  and  used  the  next  day.  The  exception  to  this  is  in  the  case  of  'bad 
castings,'  charged  at  scrap  value,  and,  as  seen  later,  accounted  for  in 
casting  cost." 

"In  a  Steel  Foundry  it  would  be  necessary  to  change  all  scrap  at 
scrap  value  and  credit  same  to  particular  castings. " 

"The  'metal-used'  value  is  shown  and  the  pounds  melted,  but  the 
'metal  cost'  is  obtained  by  dividing,  not  by  poimds  melted,  but  by 
pounds  of  'castings  made'^ — i.e.,  good  and  bad  castings.  The  bad 
castings  are  to  be  charged  to  the  particular  order  as  will  be  seen  later. 
We  thus  arrive  at  a  weekly  metal  cost  for  each  mixture. " 

"Likewise  for  purposes  of  general  guidance,  there  is  shown  weekly 
the  'per  cent,  of  good  castings  to  melt,'  the  'per  cent  of  bad  castings 


6i4  Foundry  Accounts 

to  castings  made,'  and  the  per  cent  of  metal  disappearance  or  'per  cent 
of  loss.'  " 

"Now  for  management  guidance  toward  general  shop  economy, 
these  figures  present  standards  and  bases  for  striving  for  lower  costs  — 
viz.,  to  make  the  percentage  of  good  castings  to  the  melt  as  high  as 
possible,  to  make  the  |)ercenlagc  of  bad  castings  to  castings  made  as 
low  as  i>ossible,  and  the  record  will  cjuickly  show  that  the  cost  fluctuates 
with  these  conditions. " 

"And  it  will  be  found  that  melting  and  handling  of  metal  and  fuel 
can  be  done  on  piece  work  to  bring  best  economy  in  metal-cost." 

"A  definite  and  valuable  i)oint  to  note  is  that  in  addition  to  the 
weekly  figure  of  cost  per  pound,  there  is  carried  along  the  average  or 
'period  cost  per  j)ound. '     This  is  the  figure  to  be  used  in  cost  work. 

"...  The  weekly  figures  are  constantly  compared  with  the  i)eriod 
figures  showing  whether  the  weekly  result  is  belter  or  worse  than  the 
average,  and  an  observation  of  the  detail  shows  why.  ..." 

"In  each  section  it  will  be  noted  that  the  costs  are  brought  down  to  a 
few  \-ital  imits  or  percentages,  and  when  these  vary,  they  are  significant 
of  a  gain  or  loss  in  economy  of  production,  the  reason  for  which  can  be 
readily  observed  by  casting  the  eye  up  the  details  and  observing  the 
comparison  of  them." 

"...  Section  B.  Moulding.  —  Here  are  two  elements  to  be  con- 
sidered —  productive  labor  and  expense.  The  expense  is  shown  in 
relation  to  productive  labor.  It  may  be  sho\\Ti  in  relation  to  hours  if 
desired,  but  in  each  class  of  moulding  labor  there  is  generally  no  great 
fluctuation  of  rate  per  hour.  ..." 

"The  productive  labor  and  expense  should  be  kept  separately  as  to 
class  of  moulding,  as  floor,  bench,  machine,  etc.,  since  the  expense  varies 
considerably  with  the  class. " 

" .  .  .A  little  thought  and  experiment  would  seem  to  show  that  on 
the  whole  the  expenses  approximately  vary  according  to  time  spent  in 
productive  labor  rather  than  by  the  pound." 

"In  the  matter  of  productive  labor  it  is  to  be  understood  that 
money  paid  for  moulding  each  job,  whether  day  work  or  piece  work, 
is  to  be  known  and  used  in  figuring  definite  casting,  as  shown  in 
Form  2." 

"It  is  in  this  productive  labor  cost  that  the  first  element  of  variation 
in  casting  costs  is  to  be  found,  the  expense  percentage  being  the  same  or 
taken  as  the  same,  except  in  the  matter  of  certain  direct  charges  or 
expenses  to  be  discussed  later. " 


Foundry  Costs  615 

"Section  C.  Cleaning  Castings.  —  In  the  matter  of  cleaning  castings 
there  must  be  some  division.  Tumbling,  pickling,  and  sand  blasting 
are  taken  separately  as  shown  below.  This  leaves  for  consideration 
here  the  cleaning  of  castings  by  other  than  these  three  methods  and 
applies  mainly  to  large  castings.  ..." 

".  .  .  In  Timibling  the  labor  can  best  be  put  on  piece  work  and  will 
generally  be  done  by  the  pound,  and  expenses  will  be  shown  by  the 
pound.  ..." 

"In  Sand  Blasting  and  Pickling  the  expenses  are  shown  in  relation  to 
productive  labor,  and  the  work  can  be  put  on  piece  work.  ..." 

"Section  D.  Core  Room. — Here  the  labor  can  in  the  main  be  put 
on  f)iece  work  and  the  expenses  shown  in  detail.  ..." 

"Section  E.  .  .  .  General  Expenses.  —  This  is  shown  in  relation  to 
productive  labor,  the  items  of  productive  labor  being  those  of  Moulding, 
Core  Making  and  Cleaning  operations. 

"...  Thus  we  arrive  at  certain  weekly  and  period  basic  figures  of 
cost  in  the  main  elements  in  the  foundry  of 

Metal.  Core  Making. 

Moulding.  General  Expenses. 

Cleaning. 

"The  items  of  metal  and  expense  are  easily  provable  with  the  books 
monthly,  and  the  labor  with  the  pay  roll  weekly,  so  that  we  get  a  proved 
weekly  picture  of  the  foundry  situation  as  compared  with  average  or 
period,  and  we  get  it  in  such  detail  as  will  show  the  reasons  of  all  varia- 
tions of  operation.  ..." 

"Consideration  of  Casting  Cost.  The  first  element  to  consider  is 
that  of  direct  charges.  In  many  jobs,  but  by  no  means  all  of  them, 
are  certain  charges  which  it  seems  desirable  should  be  charged  directly 
to  the  particular  order.  They  need  in  most  foundry  work  be  very  small 
in  number.  These  charges  must  essentially  be  gathered  and  held  until 
the  job  is  shipped  and  cost  ready  to  work  out. " 

Form  2 

"Form  2  illustrates  this  final  casting  cost." 

"In  all  castings  finished  in  a  given  period,  the  varying  elements  of 
unit  cost  would  be  purely  the  productive  labor  items  of  moulding  and 
cleaning  and  direct  charges,  the  metal,  fuel,  melting,  moulding,  cleaning 
and  general  expense  charges  being  taken  from  the  period  figures  on  the 
weekly  cost  sheet." 

"Therefore,  in  working  out  the  cost  of  a  finished  casting,  it  is  essential 
to  know  of  it  as  a  particular  job;  the  weight  —  and  the  shipping  slip 


(h6  Foundry  Arcniinls 

Rives  that ;  the  moiikiinR  and  core  making  lalwr  and  the  cleaning  labor, 
where  average  rates  |)er  ]M)und  are  not  ased. " 

"...  Direct  charges  are  added  and  also  loss  on  bad  castings.  A 
record  of  bad  ca.stings  is  necessary  and  sim|)le." 

"On  bad  castings  the  loss  would  dei)cnd  on  how  far  the  work  had 
[)rogrcsscd  when  discovered  as  bad,  and  what  work  on  them  had  been 
paid  for.     The  metal,  of  course,  would  be  credited  at  scrap  value." 

"  By  this  method  then  it  will  be  obser\'ed  that  with  very  small  clerical 
labor,  the  practical  foundryman  or  manager  gets  a  weekly,  or  daily, 
if  he  so  designs,  view  of  his  foundry  costs  and  their  fluctuations  which 
form  a  definite  and  correct  basis  for  accurate  estimate,  and  he  can  very 
quickly  get  a  particular  job  or  casting  cost  by  having  the  money  sjxjnt 
on  moulding  and  cleaning,  etc.,  gathered." 

"The  Cost  System  settled,  the  bookkeeping  should  l)c  made  to  parallel 
the  cost  system,  in  which  case  the  monthly  showing  would  be  made  to 
show  as  per  Form  3." 

"Thus  is  obtained  a  complete  monthly  analj'sis.  In  most  foundries 
one  clerk  and  almost  invariably  two,  can  operate  the  system  as  far  as 
costs  are  concerned." 


Cost  of  Metal 


617 


Metal  —  Section  A.    No.  i.    Form  i 


Mixture  No.  i 

Pig  Grade  i '. 

Pig  Grade  2 

Pig  Grade  3 

Pig  Grade  4 

Pig  Grade  5 

Bought  scrap 

Own  scrap  chillers 

Own  scrap  floor  scrap 

Own  scrap  bad  castings 

Own  scrap  gates 

Weekly  totals  metal  used. . . 

Period  totals  metal  used 

Weekly  total  pounds  castings 

made 

Period  total  pounds  castings 

made 

Good  castings  made 

Period  castings  made 

Per  cent  good  castings  to  melt 
Period  per  cent  castings  made 

Bad  castings 

Per    cent    bad    castings    to 

castings  made 

Shop  scrap 

Per  cent  shop  scrap. 

Total  pounds  (weekly) 

Total  pounds  (period) . 

Pounds  lost 

Period  pounds  lost 

Per  cent  lost. 

Perio'^  per  cent  lost 

Weekly  metal  cost  per  100 

pounds 

Period    metal    cost   per   100 

pounds 


Oct.  9 


Pounds 


34.240 

32,270 

S,68o 

36.310 

31.500 

15,900 

1.275 

7.300 

10.000 

36,100 

210,575 


149,280 

140,125 

66.  s 

9.155 

6.1 
51.800 

210,080 

9.495 

4-5 


Amount 


252.22 
234-10 
38.67 
259 -35 
249 . 61 
106.47 


Oct.  16 


Pounds 


33,950 

33.290 

14,270 

32,070 

32,720 

17,000 

1.420 

9.000 

9.000 

34.800 

217,520 

428,095 

150,441 

299,721 
139.867 
279.992 
64.3 

10,574 

7 
54.400 

204,841 

12,679 
22,174 
S.8 


Amount 


253.87 
249.68 
97.  IS 
232.65 
259.28 
113.84 


63.00 
o 
1269.47 
2479.89 


Oct.  23 


Pounds 


25,620 

25,440 

6,010 

30.150 

25,080 

11,900 

1,13 

7.700 

10,000 

26,500 

169,535 

597.630 

n6,45i 

416,172 
109,069 
389,061 

643 

65.1 
7,382 

6.3 

43,700 

160,151 

9.384 
31.558 
5-5 
5.3 

.85 

.83 


Amount 


191  58 
187-39 

40.92 
218,72 
198.74 

79-68 


987.03 
3466.92 


6i8 


Foundry  Accounts 


Mi.TAi,  —  Si  (  rioN  A  —  No.  2.     Form  i 


Fuel  and  melting  expense 

Labor  (cupola  men) 

Labor  (handling  coke  and 
coal) 

Labor  (miscellaneous) 

Labor  (handling  iron) 

Coke 

Coal 

Wood. 

Fire  brick. 

Fire  clay 

Oyster  shells 

Mica  sand 

Chg.  from  other  depts. 

Analysis  of  iron 

Rclining  cupola  and  repairs.. 

Tumbling  cupola  bottom. . . . 

Crane  labor 

Elevator  labor 

Blower  labor 

Handling  oyster  shells. 

Bituminous  facing. 

Interest  on  investment 

Heat,  light  and  power 

Taxes,  insurance  and  depre- 
ciation   

Weekly  expense 

Period  expense 

Weekly  pounds  castings  made 

Period  pounds  castings  made. 

Weekly  cost  per  loo  pounds. . 

Period  cost  per  loo  pounds. . . 

Weekly  pounds  melted  to 
pounds  fuel 

Period  pounds  melted  to 
pounds  fuel 


'•■9 

Oct.  16 

Oc, 

Pounds 

Amount 

Pounds 

Amount 

Pounds 

AS-Os 

44  70 

1.80 

573 

S3  50 

1.82 

18.51 
SS. 97 

3-20 

1.64 
2.63 

■  90 
2.00 
2.63 

30.00 
2.00 
2.90 

10  95 

8.66 

.53 

30.00 

10. 7S 

8.52 

.80 

10.20 
6.  IS 

10.20 
6.IS 

149,280 

12.42 
199.78 

.134 
8.7 

150,441 
299,721 

12.42 
203. SS 
403.33 

.135 
.135 

8.4 

8.5 

1 16.451 
416.172 

9  M 
44  08 

82s 
I  S3 
2.63 

9  30 

6.93 

-44 


10.20 
6.IS 

12.42 
174. 8S 
578.18 


IS 
.139 


8.3 
8.S 


Moulding  Expense 


619 


Moulding  —  Section  B.    Form  i 


Oct.  9 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  23 

Pounds 

Amount 

Pounds 

Amount 

Pounds 

Amount 

Bench  Moulding 

884.80 

10.00 

6-58 
2.42 
7-50 
2.60 

23.16 

46.37 

6.30 

.47 

2.30 

30.58 

41-94 
192.22 

21.8 

858.80 
1743.60 

10.00 

6.88 

2.80 

10.48 
23-54 

SO.  83 
6.88 

.40 

1.65 
30.58 

41.94 
185.98 
387.20 

21.7 
21. 1 

Period  productive  labor 

Moulding  Expense  on 
Productive  Labor 

Non-productive  labor 

Flasks,    snap    boards    and 

2459 -00 

5-00 
I- 15 

Miscellaneous  supplies 

1.09 

Shovels  and  screens 

Rammers. 

Charges  from  other  depts — 

Making  bottom  boards  for 

moulding  machines 

1.60 
8.19 

Sand 

37-77 

6.10 

Handling  weights  and  bands. 

.62 

Parting  sand. 

Interest  on  investment 

Heat,  light  and  power. 
Taxes,  insurance  and  depre- 

30.58 
41.94 

134  04 

512.24 

Per  cent  moulding  expense  to 

18.7 

Period    per   cent    moidding 
expense  to  prod,  labor 

20.8 

630 


Foundry  Accounts 


C"l  i; ANINC,    ANU   TUMUUNU  —  SECTION    C.      FORM   I 


Productive  labor 

Number  of  pounds  cleaned 

and  tumbled 

Period  pounds  cleaned  and 

tumbled 

Cost  per  100  pounds  (if  day 

work) 

Period  cost  per  loo  pounds 

(if  day  work) 

Cleaning  and  Tumbling 
Expense 

Supplies. 

Overseeing 

Non-productive  labor 

Charges  from  other  depts. . . . 

Tumblers 

Stars  for  tumbling 

Interest  on  investment 

Heat,  light  and  power 

Taxes,  insurance  and  depre- 
ciation   

Weekly  gross  expense 

Stars  used  in  Xo.  3. 

Weekly  expense 

Period  expense 

Weekly  expense  cost  per  100  lbs 

Period  expense  cost  per  100 
pounds 

Weekly  total  cleaning  and 
tumbling  cost 

Period  total  cleaning  and 
tumbling  cost 


Oct.  9 


Pounds 


154,462 


Amount 


74.62 


.056 


544 
55. 44 


8.40 
71.73 


71.73 
.053 


.109 


Oct.  16 


Pounds 


139.089 
273.S5I 


Amount 


70.92 


.053 
.054 


.40 

•  40 
.6s 

4.00 

S.44 
55.44 

8.40 
74.73 

74.73 
146.46 

•  053 

.053 
.106 


Oct.  as 


Pounds 


105.203 
.T78.7S4 


Amount 


ST. 14 


.054 
0S3 


I  93 

•  75 

2.03 
10.00 

S-44 
55-44 

8.40 
73.98 

73.98 
220.44 

.07 

.058 
.124 
III 


Pickling  Expense 


621 


Pickling  —  Section  C  —  No.  2.    Form  i 


Oct.  9 

Oct.  16 

Oct.  23 

Pounds 

Amount 

Pounds 

Amount 

Pounds 

Amount 

Weekly  prod,  labor 

Period  prod,  labor 

Weekly  pounds  pickled 

Period  pounds  pickled 

Weekly  cost  per  loo  pounds 

62,818 

20.70 

.033 

1.75 
2.06 
23.92 

3.40 
3.08 

2.53 
36.74 

177.  S 

65,600 
128,418 

19.82 
40.52 

.030 
.032 

.75 

15.28 

1.88 
3.40 
3.08 

2.53 
26.92 
63.66 

135.8     , 

155. 8 

36,220 
164,638 

13-10 
53.62 

.036 
.034 

1. 10 

Period  cost  per  lOO  pounds 

Pickling  Expense 

Non-productive  labor 

Oil  of  vitriol 

Acid  spigots. 

Charges  from  other  depts. .  .  . 

Interest  on  investment 

Heat,  light  and  power 

Taxes,  insurance  and  depre- 
ciation   

Total  weekly  expense 

Total  period  expense 

Per   cent   dept.    expense   to 

1.48 
3.40 
3.08 

2.53 
22.10 
85.76 

168.7 

Period  per  cent  dept.  expense 

160 

622 


l''(jiiii<lrs  Accounts 


Sand  BLASTiNCi  —  Skction  C  —  No.  3.     Form  1 

I  Uci.  y  i  Oct.  16 


founds 


Weekly  prod,  labor 

IVriod  prod,  labor 

Weekly  pounds  san<l  blasted. 
Period  pounds  sand  blasted  . 
Weekly  cost  per  100  pounds 

(if  day  work) 

Period  cost  per  icxj  pounds 

(if  day  work) 

Sand  Blashng  Expense 

Non-productive  labor 

Supplies 

Sand 

Charges  from  other  depts  — 

Interest  on  investment 

Heat,  light  and  power 

Taxes,  insurance  and  depre- 
ciation   

Total  weekly  expense 

Total  period  expense 

Per  cent  dept.  expense  to 
prod,  labor 

Period  per  cent  dept.  expense 
to  prod,  labor 

Prod,  labor 


Amount 


Pounds 


•  75 

l.IO 


6.80 
IS.  40 


1.38 
25.43 


581.9 


11.800 
22,000 


Amount 


6.06 
10.43 


.051 
.048 

.61 

1. 10 

6.80 
IS. 40 

1.38 
25-29 

50.72 

417.4 

486.3 
486.3 


Oct.  23 


Pounds 


8,100 
30.100 


Amount 


4  61 
IS  04 


.057 
05 

.41 

1. 10 

6.80 
IS  40 

I  38 
25.09 
75.81 

544  2 

504.2 
504.2 


Core-Making  Expense 


623 


Core  Department  —  Section  D.    Form  i 


Productive  labor 

Period  productive  labor. . . . 

Core  Making  Expense 

Foreman 

Tending  ovens 

Inspecting  cores 

Storing  cores 

General  labor 

Sand 

Coke 

Coal 

Rosin. 

Miscellaneous  supplies 

Flour. 

Interest  on  investment 

Heat,  light  and  power 

Taxes,  insurance  and  depre- 
ciation   

Weekly  core  making  e.xpense 

Period  core  making  e.xpense. 

Weekly  per  cent  expense  to 
prod,  labor 

Period  per  cent  expense  to 
prod,  labor 

Labor 


Oct.  9 


Pounds 


Amount 


24 

00 

12 

65 

19 

14 

12 

10 

17 

II 

21 

80 

2 

92 

6 

44 

5.54 

13 

67 

I 

43 

21 

61 

158 

41 

67.8 


Oct.  16 


Pounds 


Amount 


220 

6S 

454 

20 

24 

00 

12 

63 

18 

08 

II 

78 

15 

16 

18 

32 

2 

45 

5.58 

3 

00 

13 

67 

I 

43 

21 

61 

147 

71 

306 

12 

66 

9 

67 

4 

67 

4 

Oct.  23 


Pounds 


Amount 


165.65 
619.85 


24.00 
7.87 

13.89 
9.62 

13-37 

25.89 
l.S6 
1-73 

1.55 

13.67 
1.43 

21.61 
136.19 
442  31 

82.2 

71-3 
71.3 


624 


Foundry  Accounts 


General  Exi' 


Executive 

Foreman  

9396— 2— D. 

Non-productive  labor 

Clerical 

Supplies 

Charged  from  other  Dcpts. 

Scrap 

Gas 

Inspecting 

Injured  employee 

Tending  pattern  safe 

Brooms 

Interest  on  investment 

Heat,  light  and  power 

Taxes,  insurance  and  depre- 
ciation   

Weekly  general  expense 

Period  general  expense 

Weekly  prod,  labor 

Period  prod,  labor 

Per  cent  expense  to  prod, 
labor 

Period  per  cent  expense  to 
prod,  labor 


Oct.  9 


Pounds  Amount 


27-00 

48.00 
12.74 

49  00 
.87 
I.S  55 
45. 38 
1. 00 
63.20 

11.47 

1 1., 56 
22  59 

310.45 
618.81 

984  49 


62.9 


Oct.  16 


Pounds  Amount 


27.00 
48.00 

25.08 

49  00 
1  43 

26.00 
357 
1.00 

64.59 

9.60 

11.56 
22.59 

310.45 
599  87 

1218  68 
955  60 

1940.09 

62.8 
62.8 


Oct.  33 


Pounds  Amount 


27  00 
48.00 

16.67 
4900 

1,85 
27  75 
13  98 

1. 00 
42  65 

5  00 

7.20 

75 

11.56 

22.59 

310.4s 
585.4s 

1804.13 
790.25 

2730.  i4 

73  9 
65.8 


Individual  Job  of  Casting  Cost.    Form  2 

Date,  Oct.  12 
ISO  Blocks  —  J.  &  S.  Co.  —  850  pounds 


Amount 


Unit  cost 

Va 

.83  per  100 

7.0s 

. 139  per  100 

1.18 

3.00 

20.8% 

.62 

.50 

71.3% 

.36 

.053  per  100 

pounds 

■  AS 

.058  per  100 

pounds 

■49 

.034 

29 

t6o^c. 

.46 

65.8% 

2.13 

.42    . 

16.95 

.0199 

Metal 

MeltinR  expense 

Moulding 

Moulding  expense 

Cores 

Cores,  expense 

Cleaning  and  tumbling. 


850 


Cleaning  and  tumbling  expense. 

Sand  blasting. 

Sand  blasting  expense. 

Pickling 

Pickling  expense 

(ieneral  expense 

Spoiled  work 

Total 

Cost  per  pound 


3  spoiled 


Note.  —  In  this  case  no  selling  expense  is  added,  as  it  might  be  in  many  cases. 


A  Successful  Foundry  Cost  System  625 

Monthly  Showing.    Form  3 
Quick  Assets. 
Cash. 
Accounts  Receivable. 

Permanent  Assets. 
Real  Estate. 
Building. 
Machinery. 

Raw  Material  on  Hand. 

Pig  Iron.     (Credit  amount  used  each  week  as  per  costs  and  charge 

to  Mfg.  Acct.) 
Scrap. 

Manufacturing  Acct.     (See  analysis  below.) 

Expenses  undivided  (meaning  expense  supplies  not  used). 
Quick  Liabilities. 

Accounts  Payable. 
Permanent  Liabilities. 

Capital. 

Depreciation. 

Surplus. 

Details  of  Mfg.  Acct. 

Dr. 
Inventory  at  start  of  castings  in  process. 

Metal ) 

Labor ^  each  month. 

Expense ) 

Cr. 
Sales. 

Inventory  of  castings  in  process   ist  of  each 
month. 

Balance  Profit  or  Loss  monthly. 

A  SUCCESSFUL  FOUNDRY  COST  SYSTEM 

By  J.  P.  Golden,  Columbus,  Ga. 
"...  The  system  consists  of,  first:  a  Daily  Cupola  Report,  the 
printed  form  ha\-ing  column  for  charge,  number  of  pounds  coke  and 
brand,  pounds  pig  iron  and  brand,  and  per  cent  silicon  and  sulphur, 
scrap,  foreign  and  returns,  and  total  charge  also  Unes  for  weekly  totals 
for  use  in  weekly  report.  Ratio  of  coke  to  iron.  Time  blast  started. 
Time  bottom  dropped.  Average  blast  pressure.  Per  cent  sulphur  in 
heat.  Per  cent  silicon  in  heat.  Remarks.  With  each  sheet  signed  by 
foreman. 


626  I'oundry  Accounts 

"Second:  The  Daily  Foundry  Rc(X)rt,  which  is  made  up  by  the 
RumhlinK  Room  foreman.  This  rc|>ort  consists  of  a  sheet,  with  columns 
for  name  of  moulder,  hour  or  piece  rate,  number  of  moulds,  numl)er  of 
castings,  time  of  helper,  pattern  description  with  columns  for  weights 
of  the  various  classes  of  work,  as  pulleys,  sheaves,  hangers,  hanger 
boxes,  pillow  blocks,  couplings,  cane  mills,  factories,  miscellaneous, 
etc.  Also  column  for  number  of  pieces  lost,  total  weight  of  each  kind 
of  piece  lost,  and  a  cause  column  for  same,  showing  if  it  did  not  run,  if 
it  was  crushed,  blowed,  or  whatever  cause  of  defect.  There  is  a  line 
at  bottom  of  sheet  for  weekly  totals  to  be  used  in  weekly  report.  The 
daily  foundry  report  furnishes  a  ready  means  of  comparison  of  each 
moulder's  record,  with  his  own,  or  with  other  moulders  as  to  quantitj*  of 
good  castings,  castings  lost,  weight  and  cost  of  same.  This  reix)rt  also 
shows  the  amount  of  good  and  bad  castings  for  each  day,  in  each  class, 
with  the  weekly  total  for  each. 

"Third:  There  is  a  book  for  defective  and  other  castings  returned 
from  shop  and  customers,  in  which  is  the  following  rule: 

'All  castings  returned  by  machine  shop  and  cxistomers,  before 
being  made  over,  must  be  entered  in  this  book,  gi\nng  cause  for 
making  over.  Castings  returned  to  foundry'  from  shop  or  cus- 
tomers, through  no  fault  of  foimdry,  must  not  be  deducted  from 
net  foundry  castings,  and  should  be  considered  as  foreign  scrap. 
If  fault  of  foundry,  they  are  charged  back  to  foundry  and  are  con- 
sidered as  foundry  return  scrap.' 

This  book  has  columns  for  showing  date  returned,  by  whom,  descrif>- 
tion,  cause  and  weight.  Without  this  book,  there  could  be  returned 
defective  castings,  which  were  the  foundry's  fault  and  made  over  with- 
out the  superintendent's  knowledge.  With  the  "to  be  made  over" 
casting  book,  all  castings  returned  are  specified  therein.  If  the  fault 
of  the  machine  shop,  it  is  so  stated.  If  returned  from  customers,  this 
is  noted  with  date,  description,  cause  and  weight.  No  casting  is  made 
over  without  being  recorded  in  this  book.  This  book,  being  always  open 
to  superintendent  and  foreman,  saves  inquiries  and  explanations.  .  .  . 

"Fourth:  The  Weekly  Foundr>'  Report  Sheet.  This  sheet  is  made 
up  from  the  daily  foundr>'  report,  and  cupola  sheets  and  the  book  (to 
be  made  over  castings).  On  this  sheet,  provision  is  made  for  record 
of  bad  castings  returned  from  foundry,  shop  or  customer,  by  classes, 
as  well  as  the  good  castings  made.  The  total  of  good  castings  minus 
defective  castings  gives  net  good  castings  for  week.  The  average  per 
cent  of  all  castings  lost  is  given,  with  the  per  cent  loss  in  each  class,  with 
the  total  pounds  pig  and  foreign  scrap  charged  in  cupola,  and  the  net 


A  Successful  Foundry  Cost  System  627 

good  castings  deducted  therefrom,  we  find  the  per  cent  lost  in  remelt, 
cupola  droppings,  gangways,  etc.  The  weekly  foundry  report  also  has 
a  record  of  total  melt  taken  from  daily  cupola  sheet,  which  with  net 
good  castings  deducted  gives  per  cent,  bad  castings,  gates,  etc.,  of  total 
melt,  including  foreign  scrap,  returns  and  pig.  In  a  division  headed 
cupola  charge  is  given  the  number  of  pounds  pig  iron,  foreign  scrap  and 
coke,  with  current  price  of  each  and  total  cost  per  week.  To  these 
amoimts  are  added  the  total  wages,  giving  a  total  of  material  and  wages 
for  week,  which  divided  by  the  net  good  castings  gives  the  cost  per 
100  pounds,  net  castings,  including  pig  iron,  scrap,  coke,  wages. 

"The  weekly  report  also  has  separate  divisions  for  non-producers, 
rumbling  department,  moulding  department,  core  shop,  day  and  night 
cleaning  gangs,  in  which  the  wages  of  each  class  of  men  in  each  division 
are  given  separately,  by  total,  and  the  wage  cost  per  hundred  pounds. 
.  .  .  The  weekly  report  also  embodies  the  grand  total  wages  cost  per 
100  poimds,  and  this  is  the  most  important  item,  for  both  foreman  and 
superintendent,  for  this  item  is  one  which  the  foreman  can  control  to 
the  greatest  extent,  and  which  speaks  the  loudest  in  favor  of  the  system. " 

"...  In  connection  with  the  weekly  report  is  a  detailed  report  of 
the  pounds  of  good  castings,  to  whom  sold  or  charged,  and  price  for  each 
lot,  and  from  this  sheet  is  prepared,  on  the  back  of  the  weekly  report, 
a  statement  giving  the  estimated  profit  or  loss  for  week." 

"And  lastly,  there  is  a  ready  reference  sheet  (headed  Comparison  of 
Per  cents,  Wages  Cost  per  100  Pounds  in  Different  Departments  of 
Foundry  from  Weekly  Foundry  Report)  giving  the  comparison  by 
weeks  and  the  average  comparison  at  the  end  of  each  year  of  the  fol- 
lo\ving  items  after  date.  Net  good  castings  for  week,  castings  killed, 
in  machine  shop  with  columns  for  the  per  cent  loss  of  each  of  the  several 
classes  of  castings,  each  class  in  a  separate  column,  gives  a  ready  means 
of  comparison  in  that  class  for  all  of  its  weeks. 

"There  are  also  columns  for  the  cost  per  week  per  100  pounds,  net 
castings  including  pig  iron,  scrap,  coke  and  wages,  the  wage  cost  per 
100  pounds,  in  the  non-producers,  rumbling  and  moulding  departments, 
also  the  core  shop,  day  and  night  cleaning  gangs  with  a  colimin  for 
grand  total  wage  cost  per  100  pounds. 

"Both  the  superintendent  and  foreman  have  access  to  the  several 
reports  giving  each  the  means  of  knowdng  the  actual  conditions  in  all 
departments  of  the  foundry  at  all  times. 

"This  system  gives  the  foreman  the  means  of  remedying  a  small  or 
defective  output  by  the  knowledge  of  the  cause  producing  it,  and  to 
place  each  moulder  upon  the  class  of  work  to  which  he  is  best  fitted  to 
increase  the  general  output." 


6a8 


I'ouiidrv  Aciouiils 


O 

Hi 

Q 


2 

Q 
O 
O 


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sncouB] 

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saxoq 

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spinoui 
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a}t3J  oDaid 
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Name 

Castings  To  Be  Made  Over 


629 


"...  The  system  furnishes  a  basis  for  closer  estimates  than  formerly 
upon  work  a  little  out  of  the  usual  run,  bj''  knowing  exactly  what  prices 
can  be  accepted  for  the  regular  work.  The  foundry  foreman  in  this 
case  is  allowed  nominal  control  of  the  foundry,  hiring  and  discharging 
his  men,  fixing  their  wages,  and  increases  in  pay  for  his  men  are  by  his 
recommendations  subject  to  approval  of  superintendent.  ..." 


SAMPLE  SHEET  FROM   "CASTINGS   RETURNED   FROM 
SHOP  AND   CUSTOMERS,   TO  BE  MADE   OVER." 

Note:  All  castings  returned  by  machine  shop  and  customers,  before 
being  made  over,  must  be  entered  in  this  book,  stating  cause  for  being 
made  over. 

Castings  returned  to  foundry  from  shop  or  customers,  through  no 
fault  of  foundry,  must  not  be  deducted  from  net  foundry  castings,  but 
should  be  considered  as  foreign  scrap;  but  if  fault  of  foundry,  they 
should  be  charged  back  to  foundry,  and  considered  as  foundry  return 
scrap. 

All  castings  returned  by  shop  or  customers,  in  excess  of  number 
ordered,  will  be  charged  to  foundry  the  same  as  defective  castings,  and 
placed  in  foundry  return  scrap,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  superin- 
tendent. 

Sample  of  Entry 


Date 

returned 

By  whom 
returned 

Description 

Cause 

Whose  fault 

Weight, 
pounds 

April  26,  1909 

Our  Mach.  shop 

I  S.  B.  pulley 
aexS-aJie 
in.  bore 

Bored  too 
large 

Mach.  shop 

240 

April  29,  1909 

Our  Mach.  shop 

I  split  pulley 

24X6  — 2?i6 

in.  bore 

Broke  lug 
in  split- 
ting 

Mach.  shop 

120 

May  3,  1909 

Customer 

12  gear  castings 
P.  2 

Cored  too 
large 

Foundry 

14 

May  5,  1909 

Foundry 

I  D.  B.  pulley 
36X8-21^6 
in.  bore 

Blow  hole 
in  face 

Foundry 

260 

630 


Foundry  Accounts 


WEEKLY   FOUNDRY 
GoLDENS'  Foundry  and  Machine  Co.,  Columbus,  Ga. 

For  Week  Ending  Friday,  19 


Bad  castings  returned  from  foundry. 

Total  pounds  good  castings  made. 

Defective  castings  returned  from  shop  and  customers 

Net  good  castings  for  week.        Total  amount  (        ) 


Total  pounds  pig  and  foreign  scrap  charged  in  cupola. 
Net  good  castings  for  week. 


Per  cent  lost  in  renielt,  cupola  droppings,  gangways,  etc. 


Per  cent  bad  castings,  gates,  etc.,  of  total  melt. 
Including  foreign  scrap,  returns  and  pig. 


Average  per  cent  of  ca*t- 

ings  lost. 


Remainder. 


Total  melt. 

Net  good  castings. 


Proportionate  Wage 

Cost  Per  Hundred 

No.                     Non-producers                           Wages 

Foundry  foreman.                                        $ 

Foundry  assistant. 

Pulley  man. 

Crane  man. 

Wages   cost    per  1 

f  hundred     pounds  |  S 

Clerk. 

net  c£istings.           ) 

Cupola  tender. 

Cupola  helpers. 

Carpenters. 

Watchman. 

Total  $               J 

No.                    Rumbling  Department              Wages 

Foreman.                                                    $              1 

Wages   cost    per 

Assistant. 

hundred     pounds 

Men.                                                                          J 

net     castings, 

$ 

Total  $ 

chipped,    cleaned, 
and  ready  to  ship. 

Grand  Total  Kage  Cost 


Note.  —  Castings  returned  to  foundry  from  our  shop  and  customers,  through  no 
fault  of  loundo'.  must  not  be  deducted  from  net  foundry  castings,  and  should  be 


Weekly  Foundry  Report 


631 


REPORT 


■3 

C 
ca 

t-l 

1^ 

p.  ai 

0   BO 

c3;S 

c31 

3 

S 

1 

h 

3-1 

CUPOL 

A  Charge 

Pounds  pig  iron  @           per  hundred          $       i 

Cost  per  hundred  ■» 

Pounds  foreign  scrap  @           per  hundred           1 

pounds  net  castings  1  . 

Pounds  coke  @             per  hundred                        | 

including   pig   iron,  | 

Total  wages     $       > 

scrap,  coke,  wages.    J 

Total 

$ 

Material  cost  per  hundred  pounds  net  castings  made  as  per  sheet.    $ 

Total  cost  per  hundred  pounds  net  castings  made 

as  per  sheet.         $ 

Poiinds  in  Different  Departments 


No.                   Moulding  Department            Wages 

Moulders  (white). 
Helpers  (white). 
Helpers  (black). 

$ 

Total  $ 

Wages   cost   per 
hundred     pounds 
net  castings. 

' 

No.                    Core  Shop 

Wages 

Foreman. 
Core  makers. 
Help. 

S 

Total  $ 

Wages   cost   per 
hundred     pounds 
net  castings. 

• 

No.                 Night  Cleaning  Gang              Wages 

Headman. 
Men. 

$ 
Total  $ 

Wages   cost   per 
hundred     pounds 
net  castings. 

$ 

No.                  Day  Cleaning 

Gang 

Wages 

Headman. 
Men. 

* 

$ 
Total  $ 

Wages    cost   per' 
hundred  pounds     , 
net  castings. 

S 

per  Hundred  Pounds    $ 


put  in  foreign  scrap  pile.    Weekly  foundry  report,  made  up  from  daily  foundry  re- 
port and  cupola  sheet. 
Pounds  castings  "  killed  "  in  machine  shop. 


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19     . 

Goldens" 

Foundry  & 

Machine  Co. 

Week 

ending 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

PIG  IRON  DIRECTORY 

The  Classification  and  Directory  of  Pig  Iron  Brands  given  herewith 
are  taken  from  Professor  Porter's  Report. 

"Pig  Iron  is  classified  as: 
First.  —  Cold,  Warm  or  Hot  Blast. 
Second.  —  Coke,  Anthracite  or  Charcoal. 
Third.  —  Sand  or  Machine. 
Fourth.  —  Basic,  Bessemer,  Malleable,  Foundry  or  Forge. 

"It  is  only  necessary  to  define  the  fourth  classification  as  the  others 
are  self-explanatory. " 

"  Basic  iron  means  primarily  one  with  low  silicon.  The  standard  for 
this  grade  having  silicon  under  i  per  cent  and  sulphur  under  0.05  per 
cent." 

"Bessemer  iron  means  primarily  phosphorus  under  i  per  cent.  Stand- 
ard Bessemer  contains  from  i  to  1.25  per  cent  silicon  with  sulphur 
under  0.05,  but  the  grade  is  essentially  based  on  low  phosphorus.  Irons 
with  extra  low  phosphorus  and  variable  silicon  are  sometimes  designated 
as  low  phosphorus  irons." 

"  Foundry  and  Forge  Irons  embrace  practically  everything  in  the  way 
of  ordinary  iron,  these  grades  being  subdivided  on  the  basis  of  silicon 
and  sulphur  content." 

"The  following  subclassification  of  Foundry  and  Forge  iron  has  been 
agreed  upon  by  the  blast  furnace  interests  of  the  districts  indicated: 

Classification  and  Grades  of  Foundry  Iron 


Southern  Points 

No.  I  foundry 

No.  2  foundry 

No.  3  foundry 

No.  4  foundry 

Gray  forge 

No.  I  soft 

No.  2  soft 


633 


Silicon,  per  cent     Sulphur,  per  cent 


2.75-3.25 

.05 

and  under 

2. 25-2. 75 

•  05 

•*        ** 

1-75-2.25 

.06 

"        " 

1.25-2.00 

.07 

'*        '* 

I. 25-1. 75 

.08 

II        1* 

3. 00  and  over 

.05 

II        .1 

2.50-3.25 

.05 

II        1. 

634  I'ig  Iron  Directory 

Classification  and  Grades  of  Foundry  Iron  (Continued) 


Eastern  Points 

No.iX 

No.  2X 

No.  2  plain 

No.  3  foundry 

No.  2  mill 

Gray  forge 

Mottled  and  White  by  Fracture,  Cen 
TRAL  West  and  Lake  Points 

No.  I  foundry 

No.  2  foundry 

No.  3  foundry 

Gray  forge 

Buffalo  Grading 

Scotch 

No.  I  foundry 

No.  2  foundry 

No.  2  plain 

No.  3  foundry 

Gray  forge 


Silicon,  per  cent 


2.7s  and  up 
2  25-2-75 
I. 75-2. 25 
I  2S-I.7S 
1 .  25  and  under 
1.50      ■• 


2-25-2.75 
I -75-2.25 
1.7s  and  under 


3-00  and  over 
2.50-3.00 

2.0O-2-S0 

1.50-2.00 
1.50  (under) 


Sulphtu",  per  cent 


.0^0 and  under 
-045      " 
.050     " 
06s     ••        •• 
06s     '•        •• 
065  and  up 


-05  and  under 
OS     " 
.05      " 
.  OS  and  over 


-05  and  under 

.05      " 

-OS      " 

.05      " 

.05      " 

.05  and  (over) 


Note. — If  sulphur  is  in  excess  of  maximum,  it  is  graded  as  lower 
grade,  regardless  of  silicon. 

"Charcoal  is  not  as  a  rule  graded  according  to  the  above  table  but  is 
sold  by  fracture,  by  analysis,  by  chill  tests,  or  by  some  special  s\-stem 
of  grading  according  to  the  custom  of  the  maker  and  demand  of  the 
purchaser. " 

"  It  will  be  noted  that  so  far  as  Foundry  iron  is  concerned  the  grading 
system  is  based  exclusively  on  silicon  and  sulphur.  One  reason  for 
this  is  that  the  phosphorus  and  manganese  are  fixed  by  the  composition 
of  the  ores  used,  whereas  the  silicon  and  sulphur  can  be  varied  at  will 
by  slight  changes  in  the  method  of  operating  the  furnace.  Since  in 
many,  perhaps,  the  majority  of,  cases  a  blast  furnace  will  be  limited 
to  a  very  few  ores  as  a  source  of  supply,  it  follows  that  it  will  be  limited 
also  in  the  range  of  phosphorus  and  manganese  in  the  iron  it  produces. 
For  this  reason,  a  given  l^rand  of  iron  will  usuall}'  run  fairly  constant 
as  regards  phosphorus  and  manganese,  although  its  silicon  and  sulphur 
can  be  varied  at  the  wish  of  the  management.  However,  this  condition, 
while  common,  is  not  universal,  for  some  concerns  possess  a  variet>'  of 
ores  and  can  by  mi.xing  them  produce  iron  of  any  composition  desired. 


Coke  and  Anthracite  Irons  635 

"In  using  this  directory  please  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  not  infallible. 
Much  of  the  data  has  been  difficult  to  get,  a  few  concerns  refusing  abso- 
lutely to  furnish  information.  Again,  in  some  cases  time  brings  changes 
in  ownership  and  character  of  ore  supply,  etc.,  and  of  course,  these 
things  will  affect  the  character  of  the  product.  In  spite  of  these  defic- 
iencies, however,  it  is  believed  that  the  following  tables  represent  the 
most  accurate  information  along  these  lines  available  at  the  present 
time  and  that  they  will  be  found  of  considerable  value." 

"Finally,  it  must  be  emphasized  that  the  use  of  the  data  is  not  to  tell 
the  foundryman  the  exact  analysis  of  any  carload  of  any  brand,  but 
rather  to  help  him  locate  those  brands  which  have,  or  can  be  made  to 
have  a  composition  suitable  for  his  work. " 

"In  these' tables  the  percentage  of  sulphur  is  not  usually  given.  It 
should  be  understood  that  all  furnaces  strive  for,  and  usually  obtain, 
low  sulphur  in  their  iron.  Practically  all  foundry  grades  are  sold  on  the 
understanding  that  the  sulphur  is  under  0.05  per  cent  and  hence  no 
useful  purpose  is  served  in  giving  the  sulphur  range  except  in  a  very 
few  cases  where  it  normally  runs  unusually  low." 


Coke  and  Anthracite  Irons 

Adrian.  —  Adrian  fee.,  DuBois,  Pa.     (Adrian  fee.  Co.) 

Hot  blast  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  1.0-4.0%  Mang.  0.4-1.2%  Phos.  0.4-0.9% 

Alice.  —  Alice  fee.,  Birmingham,  Ala.     (Tenn.  Coal,  Iron  &  Ry.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  or  chill  cast  iron,  from  Ala.  red  and  brown  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  1.0-4.0%         Mang.  0.1-0.4%  *    Phos.  0.71-0% 

Basic  Under  1%  0.1-0.4  Under  1% 

Alice.  —  Alice  fee.,  Sharpsville,  Pa.     (The  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Usually  make  Bessemer  only  for  use  in  their  own  steel  works. 

Alleghany.  —  Alleghany  fee.,  Iron  Gate,  Va.     (Oriskany  Ore  &  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  ores. 
Sil.  1.0-4.0%  Mang.  0.7-1.5%  Phos.  0.2-0.6% 

Allegheny.  —  McKeefrey  fee.,  Leetonia,  O.     (McKeefrey  &  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  0.7-2.0%  Mang.  0.4-0.8%  Phos.  0.4-0.7% 

*  Sometimes  higher. 


6j6  rig  Iron  Directory 

InJover.  — Andovcr  fee,  Phillipsburg,  N.  J.     (Andover  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  frum  local  magnetic  ore. 

Lake  Superior  ore,  iron  nodules  and  roll  scale. 
Sil.  1.5-4.0%  Mang.  0.6-1.5%  Phos.  0.6-0.9% 

.4 .  R.  .\fills.  —  (2  stacks),  Allcntown,  Pa.     (.\llcntown  Rollins  Mills  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke  iron,  from  local  hematites  and  N.  J. 
and  N.  Y.  magnetites. 
Ashland.  —  Ashland  fees.     (2  stacks),  .Ashland,  Ky.     (..Vshland  Iron  & 
Min.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  raw  coal  and  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  local  brown  and 

Lake  Superior  ores. 
High  Sil.  Fdry.     Sil.  5.0-12.0%     Mang.  0.5-0.8%     Phos.  0.5-0.9% 
Bess.  Ferro  Sil.  9.0-14.0%  0.5-0.8%  under  1.0% 

Aurora.  —  Aurora  fee.,  Columbia,  Pa.     (Susquehanna  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  forge  and  foundry-  iron,  from  native 

and  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Not  in  operation,  March,  1910. 
5a//c//c.  —  Battelle  fee.,  Battelle,  Ala.     (Lookout  Mt.  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry'  iron,  from  local  red  hematite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 
Bay    View.  —  Bay\iew   fees.    (2   stacks),   Milwaukee,   Wise.      (Illinois 
Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  east  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Mall.  Bes.  Sil.  1.0-3.0%    Phos.  under  0.20%       Mang.  0.50-1.0% 
Fdry.  1.0-3.0%  over    0.50%  0.50-1.0 

Beijonl.  —  Belfont  fee..  Ironton,  O.     (Belfont  Iron  Works  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  fdry  iron,  sand  east,  from  Lake  Superior  and  native 

ores. 
Sil.  1.50-2.50%  Phos.  0.40-0.70%         Mang.  0.50-0.90% 

Bellefonte.  —  Bellefonte  fee.,  Bellcfonte,  Pa.     (.BcUefonte  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundr\'  iron,  from  native  and  Lake 

Superior  ores. 
Sil.  1.75-4.0%  Phos.  0.5-0.7%  Mang.  0.5-0.7% 

Belmont.  —  Belmont  fee..  Wheeling',  W.  Va.     (\Vhceling  Iron  &  Steel 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  east,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Make  only  iron  for  their  own  steel  plant. 

Btssenicr.  —  Bessemer  fees.     (5  stacks),  Bessemer,  Ala.     (Term.  C.  I. 
&  Ry.  Co.") 
Same  as  De  Bardeleben,  which  see. 


Coke  and  Anthracite  Irons  637 

Bessie.  —  Bessie  fee.,  New  Straitsville,  O.     (Bessie  Ferro  Silicon  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke  and  raw  coal,  sand  cast,  ferro  silicon,  from  Lake 

Superior  low  phos.  ore. 
Sil.  8.0-14.0%  Phos.  under  0.10%       Mang.  under  1.0% 

Big  Stone  Gap.  —  Union  fee.  No.  i.  Big  Stone  Gap,  Va.     (Union  Iron 
and  Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  fdry  iron,  from  local  fossil  brown  ores. 
Sil.  usually  high  Phos.  0.40-0.80%         Mang.  0.40-1.0% 

Bird.  —  Bird  fee.,  Culbertson,  O.     (The  Bird  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  fdry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and  native 

ores. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Boyd.  —  Ashland  fees.  (2  stacks),  Ashland,  Ky.      (Ashland  1.  &  Miu. 

Co.,  Inc.) 
Hot  blast,  raw  coal  and  coke,  sand  cast,  fdry  iron,  from  Bath  Co. 

&  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  1.50-3.0%  Phos.  0.40-0.90%         Mang.  0.50-0.80% 

Brier  Hill.  —  Grace  fee.,  No.  2,  Youngstown,  O.     (The  Brier  Hill  I.  & 
C.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke  basic  and  Bessemer  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Bristol.  —  Bristol  fee.,  Bristol,  Tenn.     (Va.  Iron,  Coal  &  Coke  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  from  local  brown  ores. 

Fdry.  Sil.  2.0-2.75%  Phos.  abt.  0.50% 

Basic  (chill  cast)  low  abt.  0.60% 

Mang.  abt.  0.75% 
1.0-1.50% 

Brooke.  —  Brooke  fees.  (2  stacks),  Birdsboro,  Pa.     (E.  &  G.  Brooke  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  from  Lake  Superior,  Newfoundland 
and  magnetic  ores. 

Buckeye.  —  Columbus  fees.  (2  stacks),  Columbus,  O.     (The  Columbus 
I.  &  S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  chill  mold  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Fdry  Sil.  1.0-3.0%    Phos.  0.40-0.60%    Mang.  0.60-0.80%* 

Mai.  Bes.  0.50-2.50        under  0.20  0.60-1.0. f 

Basic  under    i.o  under  0.20  0.80-1.0 

Stand.  Bes.         1.0-2.0  under  o.io 

•  Sometimes  higher.  t  Higher  or  lower  if  desired. 


6^}S  I'ig  Iron  Directory 

Burttii  Vkla.  —  Bucna  Vista  ftc,  Hiuna  Vista,  \'a.     (Oriskany  Ore  & 
Iron  Co.) 
Hot  hlast,  coke,  (hill,  and  sand  rait  iron,  from  Oriikany  hrown 

hematite. 

Fdry.             Sil.  i.o-4.o',c/    I'hos.  0.2-1.0%  Mang.  0.6-1.5% 

Basic             under      1.0                0.2-0.5  0.6-1.5% 

Spec,  car  wheel  1.0-1.50                0.2-0.5  0.6-1.5 

/Jh/j/o.  —  Buffalo  Union  fee.  (3  sUcks),  Buffalo,  N.  V.     (The  Buffalo 
U.  F.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  1.50-3.25%    Phos.  0.40-0.70%    Mang.  0.50-1.0% 

Mai.  0.75-2.0  0.10-0.20  0.40-1.0 

Burden.  —  Burden  fee.,  Troy,  N.  Y.     (The  Burden  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  mixed  anthracite  coal  and  coke,  occasionally  coke  alone. 
Magnetic  concentrates  from  northern  New  York. 
Out  of  operation  March,  19 10. 

Carbon.  —  Carbon  fee.,  Perryville,  Pa.     (Carbon  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  coal  and  coke  foundry  iron,  magnetic  from 

N.  J.  &  Lake  Champlain,  Lake  Superior,  and  foreign  ores. 
Sil.  1.50-3.00%  Phos.  0.40-0.90%         Mang.  0.40-0.90% 

Carondelel.  —  Missouri  fee..  So.  St.  Louis,  Mo.     (St.  Louis  Blast  Fee. 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  Missouri  red  and  brown  hematite. 
Analysis  refused. 
Chaleaiigay.  —  Standish  fee.,  Standish,  N.  Y.     (Northern  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  local  magnetic  ores. 
Sil.  1.0-3.0%  Phos.  0.02-0.035%       Mang.  0.15-0.50*^0 

Chattanooga.  —  Chattanooga  fee.,  Chattanooga,  Tenn.     (The  Southern 
I.  &  S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  .Mabama  red  and 

Georgia  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  1.50-3.50%  Phos.  1.0-1.5%  Mang.  0.6-1.0%* 

Cherry  Valley.  —  Cherrj'  Vallej'  fee.,  Leetonia,  O.     (United  I.  &  S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry'  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  as  desired  Phos.  o.20-o.6o'^'o         Mang.  0.60-0.80% 

Chkkies.  —  Chickies  fees.   (2   stacks),   Chickies,   Pa.     (Standard   Iron 
Min.  &  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  sand  cast,  foundr>'  iron,  from  mag- 
netites. 

*  Sometimes  higher. 


Coke  and  Anlhracile  Irons  639 

Citico.  —  Citico  fee.,  Chattanooga,  Tenn.     (Citico  Furnace  Co.) 

Plot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  soft  foundry,  from  red  and  brown  hema- 
tites from  Tennessee  and  Georgia. 
SiL  2.0-3.0%  Phos.  abt.  1.25%  Mang.  abt.  0.60% 

Claire.  —  Claire  fee.,  Sharpsville,  Pa.     (Claire  Furnace  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  Bessemer  iron  only,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Cleveland.  —  Cleveland  fees.  (2  stacks),  Cleveland,  O.  (Cleveland    Fur- 
nace Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Analysis  refused. 

Clifton.  —  Clifton  fees.  (2  stacks),  Ironton,  Alabama.     (Alabama  Con- 
sol.  C.  &  I.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  1.0-6.0%  Phos.  c.35-0.70%         Mang.  1.0-2.0% 

Clima.K.  —  Hubbard  fees.  (2  stacks),   Hubbard,  O.     (The  Andrews  & 
Hitchcock  I.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  strong  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior 

ores. 
Sil.  1.35-1-75%  Phos.  0.30-0.40%  Mang.  0.50-0.80% 

Clinton.  —  Chnton  fees.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.     (Clinton  I.  &  S.  Co.) 

Hot   blast,    coke,    sand    cast,   foundry  iron,    from    Lake    Superior 

ores. 
Sil.  up  to  3.0%  Phos.  0.20-0.75%  Mang.  0.50-1.0% 

Colonial.  —  Colonial   fees.   (2  alt.  stacks),  Riddlesburg,  Fa.     (Colonial 

Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and 

native  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  4.0%  Phos.  0.40-0.60%         Mang.  0.50-0.80% 

Covington.  —  Covington  fee.,  Covington,  Va.     (Low  Moor  Iron  Co.  of 
Va.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  native  brown  hematite. 
Fdry.  Sil.  1.5-3.0%      Phos.  0.90-1.2%      Mang.  0.70-1.0% 

High  Sil.  silvery  4.0-8.0  0.90-1.2  0.70-1.0 

Cranberry.  —  Cranberry   fee.,   Johnson   City,   Tenn.     (The    Cranberry 

Fee.  Co ) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  low  phos.  iron,  from  local  magnetic 

ore. 
Sil.  1.0-3.5%  Phos.  under  0.035%  Mang.  0.4-0.6% 


640  Pig  Iron  Directory 

Crane.  —  Crane  fees.  (3  slacks),  Catasauqua,  Pa.     (Emi)irc  S.  &  I.  Co.) 
Hot  l)liisl,  anthraritc  and  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  N.  J.  m;iKneti< , 

I'a.  hematite,  Lake  .Su|Krior  and  foreiKn  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  0.75-3.50%    Phos.  o.6o-o.yo%   Mang.  0.50-2.0% 

Basic  under  i.o  under  i.o  0.50-0.80 

Low  phos.         1.0-3.0  under  0.03  0.50-3.0 

Crozer.  —  Crozer  fees.   (2  sUcks),   Roanoke,   Va.     (Va.    Iron,    Coal    & 

Coke  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Va.  limonite,  mountain  and 

specular  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  2.10-2.75%    Phos.  0.60-0.80%    Mang.  0.60-0.90% 

Basic  abt  0.70  abt.     0.70  abt.  1.25 

Cumberland.  —  Cumberland  fee.,  Cumberland  Fee.  P.  O.,  Tenn.  (War- 
ner Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  foundry,  from  local  brown  and  red  hema- 
tites. 

Sil.  2.0-4.5%  Phos.  abt.  2.0%  Mang.  abt.  0.30% 

Dayton.  —  Dayton  fees.  (2  stacks),  Dayton,  Tenn.     (The  Dayton  C.  & 
I.  Co.  Ltd.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry-  iron,  from   Tenn.  fossil    and 
Georgia  hematite. 
De  Bardeleben.  —  Bessemer   fees.  (.5   stacks),  Bessemer,  Tenn.     (Tenn. 
C.  L  &  Ry.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  and  chill  cast  iron,  from  local  red  and  brown 

hem. 
Fdry.  &  Mill  Sil.  up  to  3.25%  Phos.  0.70-1.0%    Mang.  0.10-0.40 
Basic  up  to  1.0        up  to  1.0  0.10-0.40 

Detroit.  —  Detroit  fee.,  Detroit,  Mich.     (Detroit  Furnace  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundr>-  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Dora.  —  Dora  fee.,  Pulaski  City,  Va.     (Va.  Iron,  Coal  &  Coke  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  foundrj'  iron,  from  native  limonite  and 
mountain  ores. 

Sil.  1.50-3.00%        Phos.  0.40-0.80%         Mang.  0.50-0.90% 
Dover.  —  Dover  fee..  Canal  Dover,  O.     (The  Pa.  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Dunbar.  —  Dunbar  fees.  (2  stacks),  Dunbar,  Pa.    (Dunbar  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  or  machine  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior 

specular  and  soft  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  1.5-3.0%     Phos.  0.30-0.60%      Mang.  0.30-0.60% 

Malleable         1.0-2.0        under  0.20  0.30  0.80 


Coke  and  Anthracite  Irons  641 

Durham.  —  Durham  fee.,  Riegelsville,  Pa.     (Durham  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior, 
local  hematite  and  New  Jersey  magnetite. 

Eliza.  —  Pittsburgh  fees.  (5  stacks),  Pittsburgh,  Pa.     (Jones  &  Laughlin 
St.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  Bessemer  and  basic,  machine  cast  iron,  from  Lake 
Superior  ores. 

Ella.  —  Ella  fee.,  West  Middlesex,  Pa.     (Pickands,  Mather  &  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  and  malleable  iron,  from  Lake  Superior 

ores. 
On  account  of  the  large  assortment  of  ores  available,  this  furnace 

can  make  practically  any  desired  composition. 

EmbreeviUe.  —  Embreeville  fee.,  Embreeville,  Tenn.     (Embree  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 

Empire.  —  Reading,  Pa.     (Empire  Steel  &  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior, 

Porman  and  magnetic  ores. 
Sil.  2.0-3.0%  Phos.  1.25-2.50%         Mang.  0.50-1.0% 

Emporium.  —  Emporium  fee..  Emporium,  Pa.     (Emporium  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  as  desired  Phos.  abt.  0.80%  Mang.  abt.  0.60% 

Ensley.  —  Ensley  fees.  (6  stacks),  Ensley,  Alabama.      (Tenn.  C.  I.  & 

Ry.  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  machine  cast  iron,  from  red  and  brown  hematite. 
Basic  Sil.  up  to  1.0%      Phos.  0.70-1.0%     Mang.  0.10-0.40%* 

Fdry.  &  Mill   up  to  2.50  0.70-1.0  0.10-0.40* 

Essex.  —  Northern  fee.,  Port  Henry,  N.  Y.     (Northern  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  magnetic  ores. 
Sil.  1.0-2.50%  Phos.  0.40-0.90%         Mang.  0.10-0.40% 

Etowah.  —  Etowah  fees.  (2  stacks),  Gadsden,  Ala.     (Ala.  Consol.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  red  and  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  i.o-.o6%  Phos.  0.70-1.20%         Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Eureka.  —  Same  as  Oxmoor,  which  see. 

Everett.  —  Earlston  fee.,  Earleston,  Pa.     (Jos.  E.  Thropp.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and  local  brown 

ores. 
Sil.  1.50-3.50%  Phos.  0.40-0.70%         Mang.  0.50-0.90% 

*  Sometimes  higher. 


642  I'ig  Iron  Directory 

/'iiiniic.  —  Fannie  fee,   West    Middlcsi-x,   Pa.      (United   Iron   &   Steel 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Sui>crior  ores. 
Sil.  as  desired  Phos.  0.20-0.60%         Mang.  0.60-0.80% 

I'cdcral.  —  Federal  fees.  (2  stacks),  S.  Chicago,  III.     (.Federal  Furnace 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  mal.  and  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  as  desired.  Mang.  as  desired. 

i'loreiue.  —  Philadelphia  fee.,  Florence,  Ala.     (Sloss-Shefl'ield  S.  &  I. 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  .\la.  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  0.80-1.25%  Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Fort  Pill.  —  Cherry  Valley  fee.,  Leetonia,  O.     (United  I.  &  S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  spec,  car  wheel  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  0.20-0.80%         Mang.  0.60-0.80% 

Franklin.  —  Franklin  fee.,  Franklin  Sprinc;s,  N.  Y.  (I'ranklin  Iron 
Mfg.  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  fossil,  red  hematite  from  Clin- 
ton, N.  Y. 

Not  in  operation  March,  19 10. 

511.2.25-3.0%  Phos.  1.25-1.50%         Mang.  0.25-0.40% 

Gem.  —  Same  as  Shenandoah,  which  see. 

Genesee.  —  Genesee  fee.,  Charlotte,  N.  Y.     (Genesee  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Girard.  —  Mattie  fee.,  Girard,  O.     (Girard  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 

Sil.  1.50-3.0%  Phos.  0.40-0.70%  Mang.  0.50-0.80% 

Globe.  —  Globe  fee.,  Jackson,  O.     (Globe  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  raw  coal  and  coke,  sand  cast,  high  silicon  silvery  iron, 

from  native  ores. 
Sil.  4.0%-! 2.0%  Phos.  0.40-0.80%         Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Grafton.  —  McKeefrey  fee.,  Leetonia,  O.     (McKeefrey  &  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  2.0-2.50%  Phos.  0.40-0.70%         Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Graham.  —  Graham  fee.,' Graham,  Va.     (Va.  Iron,  Coal  &  Coke  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  and  basic  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and 
native  brown  hematite. 


Coke  and  Anthracite  Irons  643 

fl^a»w7/ow.  —  Hamilton  fee.,  Hanging  Rock,  O.     (The  Hanging  Rock 

Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  native  block  and  limestone 

and  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  as  desired.        Phos.  0.3-0.4%       Mang.  0.5-0.7% 

Mall.  as  desired.  under  0.20 

Hector.  —  Clinton  fee.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.     (Clinton  Iron  &  St.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  3.50%  Phos.  0.50-0.75%         Mang.  up  to  1.0% 

Helen.  —Helen  fee.,  Clarksville,  Tenn.     (Red  River  Furnace  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  soft,  fluid  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown 

hematite. 
Sil.  2.0-3.0%  Phos.  abt.  1.25%  Mang.  0.40-0.60% 

Henry  Clay.  —  Henry   Clay  fees.  (2   stacks),  Reading,    Pa.      (Empire 
Steel  &  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  coal  and  coke,  foundry  and  forge  iron,  from 

local  hematite  and  magnetite. 
Fdry.  Sil.  1.50-4.50%  Phos.  2.50-3.50% 

Hillman.  —  Grand  River  fees.  (2  stacks),  Grand  Rivers,  Ky.     (Hillman 
Land  &  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  and  forge  sand  cast  iron,  from  local  brown 

hematite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 
Hubbard. — Hubbard  fees.  (2  stacks),  Hubbard,  O.     (The  Andrews  & 
Hitchcock  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  malleable  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 
Sil.  1.0-2.0%  Phos.  under  0.20%       Mang.  under  0.80% 

Hubbard    Scotch. — Hubbard    fees.    (2    stacks),    Hubbard,    O.      (The 
Andrews  &  Hitchcock  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  soft  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  3.00%  Phos.  0.50-0.65%         Mang.  about  0.60% 

Hudson.  —  Secausus  fee.,  Secausus,  N.  J.     (Hudson  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  coal  and  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  N.  Y.  mag- 
netite, N.  J.  limonite  and  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  3-4%  Phos.  0.60-0.95%         Mang.  up  to  0.50% 

Imperial.  —  Shelby  fee.,  No.  i,  Shelby,  Ala.     (Shelby  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  iron  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 
Inland.  —  Inland  fee.,  Indiana  Harbor,  Ind.     (Inland  Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  basic  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 


644  I'i^'  Iron  Directory 

Ironalon.  —  Clifton  fees.  (2  slacks),  Ironaloii,  Ala.     (Alabama  Consol. 
C.  &.  I.  Co.; 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  sand  cast,  from  local  brown  ore. 

Sil.  1.0-6.0%  Phos.  0.70-0.90%  Mang.  0.70-1.0% 

Iroquois.  —  Iroquois  fees.  (2  stacks),  S.  Chicago,  III.      (Irofjuois  Iron 
Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Su[)crior  ores. 

Sil.  1.35-2.50%  Phos.  0.3-0.4%*  Mang.  0.40.-0.70% 

Ivanhoc.  —  Ivanhoc  fee.,  Ivanhoe,  Va.     (Carter  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,   sand  cast,   foundry  iron,   from   local  and   Lake 
Superior  ores. 

Sil.  %  as  desired.         Phos.  abt.  0.40%  Mang.  abt.  0.70% 

Jenifer.  —  Jenifer  fee.,  Jenifer,  Ala.     (Jenifer  Iron  &  Coal  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron  from  local  brown  hematite. 

Not  in  operation  March,  19 10. 
Jisco.  —  Jisco  fee.,  Jackson,  O.     Qackson  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke  and  raw  coal,  high  silicon  iron,  from  native  and  Lake 
Superior  ores. 

Sil.  4.0-14.0%  Phos.  up  to  0.9%  Mang.  up  to  09% 

Josephine.  —  Josephine    fee.,    Josephine,    Pa.     (Josephine    Furnace    & 
Coke  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Fdry.  Sil.  up  to  4.0%      Phos.  0.50-0.80%      Alang.  under  0.90% 

Bessemer  1.25-2.0  0.085-0.10  under  0.90 

Juniata.  —  Marshall  fee.,  Newport,  Pa.     (Juniata  Fee.  &  Fdry.  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  coal  and  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from 
local  hematite  and  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Sil.  up  to  2.0%  Phos.  under  1.0%         Mang.  under  1.0% 

Lackawanna.  —  (12  stacks).     (Lackawanna  Steel  Co.) 

Lackawanna  fees.  (7  stacks),  Lackawanna,  N.  Y. 

Bird  Coleman  fees.  (2  stacks),  Cornwall,  Pa. 

Colebrook  fees.  (2  stacks),  Lebanon,  Pa. 

N.  Cornwall  fee.,  Cornwall,  Pa. 

Hot  blast,  coke,  Bes.  and  basic  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and  Corn- 
wall ores. 

Lady  Ensley.  —  Lady  Ensley  fee.,  Sheflield,  Ala.     (Sloss-Sheflield  S.  & 
I.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  1.0-1.50%  Mang.  0.50-0.80% 

•  Sometimes  higher. 


Coke  axid  Anthracite  Irons  645 

La  Follette.  —  La  Follette  fee.,  La  Follette,  Tenn.     (La  Follette  C,  I. 

&  Ry.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  local  fossil,  red  and 

brown  hematite. 
Sil.  up  to  4.0%  Phos.  1.0-1.25%  Mang.  0.50-0.75% 

L.  C.  R.  —  Lebanon,  0.     (Lebanon  Reduction  Co.) 
Coke  and  charcoal,  low  phos.  pig. 
Operated  for  experimental  purposes  only. 

Lebanon  Valley.  —  Lebanon  fee.,  Lebanon,  Pa.  (Lebanon  Valley  Fee. 
Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  coal  and  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  prin- 
cipally Cornwall  ore. 

Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  0.3-0.4%  Mang.  0.3-0.4% 

Leesport.  —  Leesport  fee.,  Leesport,  Pa.     (Leesport  Furnace  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  coal  and  coke,  sand  east,  foundry  iron,  from 

local  hematite  and  magnetite. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  0.2-0.3%  Mang.  abt.  1.00% 

Lehigh.  —  Lehigh  fee.,  Allentown,  Pa.     (Lehigh  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  and  mill  iron, 

from  Lake  Superior,  local  hematite  and  New  Jersey  magnetite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Lone  Star.  —  Sam  Lanham  fee..  Rusk,  Texas.     (State  of  Texas.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  19 10. 

Longdale.  —  Longdale  fee.,  Longdale,  Va.     (The  Longdale  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  chill  east  iron,  from  local  browTi  hematite. 
"Basic"         Sil.  under  1.0%  Phos.  [0.90-1.0%  Mang.  1.0-1.5% 
"  Off  Basic  Sil. "   1.0-1.75  0.90-1.0  1.0-1.50 

"Off  Basic  Sul."  *  0.25-0.75  0.90-1.0  1.0-1.50 

Lowmoor. — Lowmoor  fees.  (2  alt.  stacks),  Lowmoor,  Va.     (Lowmoor 
I.  Co.  of  Va.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Fdry.  Sil.  1.50-3.0%     Phos.  0.80-1.0%    Mang.  0.90-1.2% 

High  Sil.  silvery  4.0-8.0  0.80-1.0  0.90-1.2 

Macungie.  — Macungie  fee.,  Maeungie,  Pa.     (Empire  Steel  &  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  sand  east,  foundry  iron,  from  local 

hematites.  Lake  Superior  and  foreign  ores. 
Sil.  0.75-3.50%  Phos.  0.60-0.90%         Mang.  0.50-2.0% 

*  Sulphur  over  .05  per  cent. 


646  Pig  Iron  Directory 

Mallealilc.  —  Iroquois  fees.  (2  stacks),  S.  Chicago,  III.    (Iro(juois  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  I^kc  Suijcrior  ores. 
Sil.  1.25-2.50%  Phos.  under  0.2%         Mang.  0.40-0.70% 

Mannic.  —  Aliens  Creek  fees.  (2  stacks),  Mannic,  Tenn.     (Bon  Air  C. 
&  I.  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  local  bnjwn  hematite. 

Sil.  uj)  to  8.0%  Phos.  abt.  2.0%  Mang.  0.40-0.65% 

Marshall.  —  Marshall  fee.,  New-port,  Pa.     (Juniata  I'ce.  &  I-dry  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron,  from  local 
hematite  and  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Sil.  up  to  3.0%  Phos.  under  1.0%         Mang.  under  1.0% 

Marlins  Ferry.  —  Martin's  Ferry  fee.,  Martin's  Ferry,  \V.  Va.     (Wheel- 
ing Iron  &  Steel  Co.j 

Hot  blast,  coke,  Bessemer  only,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Max  Meadows.  —  Max  Meadows  fee.,  Ma.x  Meadows,  Va.     (Va.  Iron, 
Coal  &  Coke  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Va.  limonitc  and  mountain  ores. 

Fdry.  Sil.  1.75-2.75%      Phos.  0.40-0.70%    Mang.  1.0-2.0% 

Basic  under  1.0  under  i.o  Mang.  abt.  1.50 

Miami.  —  Hamilton,  O.     (Hamilton  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Fdry.  Sil.  1.0-3.50%        Phos.  0.40-0.70%    Mang.  0.50-0.80% 

Mall.  0.75-2.0  under  0.20  0.60-1.0 

Basic  under    i.o  under  0.20  as  desired 

Missouri.  — Missouri  fee.,  S.  St.  Louis,  Mo.     (St.  Louis  Blast  Furnace 
Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  basic  iron,  from  Mo.  red  and  brown  hematites. 

Analysis  refused. 
Musconetcong.  —  Musconetcong  fee..  Stanhope,  N.  J.     (Musconetcong 
Iron  Works.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,   foundrj"  iron,   from  New  Jersey 
magnetic,  Lake  Superior,  Cuban  and  other  foreign  ores. 

Sil.  2.50-3.50%  Phos.  0.60-0.70%         Mang.  0.60-0.70% 

Napier.  — Napier  fee.,  Napier,  Tenn.     (Napier  Iron  Works.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 

Sil.  2.0-2.75%  Phos.  0.75-1.50%         Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Nellie.  —  Ironton,  O.     (The  Ironton  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Fdry.         Sil.  1.25-3.0%       Phos.  0.40-0.60%-    Mang.  0.50-0.80% 

Mall.  Bes.        1.0-2.0  under  0.20  0.50-0.90 


Coke  and  Anthracite  Irons  647 

Nellie.  —  Alice  &  Blanche  fees.  (alt.  stacks),  Ironton,  O.     (The  Mar- 
ting  I.  &  S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and  Kentucky 

ores. 
Fdry.         Sil.  1.0-3.0%         Phos.  0.40-0.60%    Mang.  0.50-1.0% 
Mall.  0.50-3.0  under  0.20  0.50-1.0 

Niagara.  —  Niagara  fee.,  N.  Tonawanda,  N.  Y.     (Tonawanda  Iron  & 
Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  hematite. 
Analysis  refused. 
Nittany.  — -  Same  as  Bellefonle,  which  see. 
Norton.  —  Ashland,  Ky.     (Norton  Iron  Works.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  mall,  and  Bess,  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Norway.  —  Colonial  fees.  (2  alt.  stacks),  Riddlesburg,  Pa.      (Colonial 
Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foimdry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and  native  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  4.0%  Phos.  0.60-0.90%         Mang.  0.70-1.0% 

Oxford.  —  Oxford  fee.,  Oxford,  N.  J.     (Empire  Steel  &  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  basic  iron,  from  local  magnetic  and 

special  ores. 
Sil.  under  1.0%  Phos.  under  1.0%         Mang.  0.75-1.25% 

Oxtnoor. — Oxmoor  fees.  (2  stacks),  Oxmoor,  Ala.     (Term.  Coal,  I.  & 
Ry.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  and  forge,  sand  cast,  from  red  and  brown 

hematite. 
Sil.  up  to  3.50%  Phos.  0.70-1.0%  Mang.  0.10-0.40%* 

Perry.  —  Carbon  fee.,  Perryville,  Pa.     (Carbon  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  Bess,  iron,  from  Lake  Superior, 
foreign,  Lake  Champlain  and  New  Jersey  ores. 

Paxton.  —  Paxton  fees.  (2  stacks),  Harrisburg,  Pa.     (Central  I.  &  S. 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  various  ores. 
Peerless.  —  Iroquois  fees.  (2  stacks),  S.  Chicago,  111.      (Iroquois  Iron 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  3.0-3.5%  Phos.  0.30-0.40%  Mang.  0.40-0.70% 

Pencost.  —  Bessie  fee.,  New  Straitsville,  O.     (Bessie  Ferro-Silicon  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  ferro-silicon,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  5.0-12.0%  Phos.  0.30-0.70%         Mang.  under  1.0% 

*  Sometimes  higher. 


648  I'i^  Iron  directory 

I'lqiiest.  —  Pequcst  fee,  Hultzville,  N.  J.     (I'f(|ucst  Co.) 

IIol  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  foundr>'  injii,  from  N.  J.  magnclic 

and  manganiferous  ores. 
Out  of  blast  March,  1910. 

Perry.  —  Perry  fee.,  Krie,  Pa.     (Perry  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Sujwrior  ores. 
Fdr>-.  Sil.  1.75-30%        Phos.  0.40-0.70%    Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Fdry.  1.00-2.00  1. 15-0.30  0.40-0.80 

Special  2.00-3.50  1.00-1.50  0.40-0.80 

Pioneer.  —  Pioneer  fees.  (3  stacks), Thomas,  Ala.   (Republic  Iron  &St.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  red  and  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  up  to  3-5°%*         I'bos.  0.75-0.95%         Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Poughkeepsie.  —  Poughkeepsie    fees.  (2    stacks),  Poughkeepsie,  N.   Y. 

(Poughkeepsie  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  from  Lake  Superior,  local  brown 

hematite  and  Port  Henry  magnetite  ores. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Poughkeepsie.  —  Poughkeepsie    fees.   (2   stacks),   Poughkeepsie,   N.   Y. 
(Poughkeepsie  Iron  Co.) 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910.     (See  Poughkeepsie.) 

Princess.  —  Princess  fee.,  Glen  Wilton,  Va.     (Princess  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  limonite. 
Sil.  up  to  3.0  or  4.0%     Phos.  0.60-0.80^^      Mang.  up  to  1.0% 

Pulaski.  —  Pulaski  fee.,  Pulaski,  City,  Va.     (Pulaski  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  ores. 
Sil.  2.0-3.50%  Phos.  0.50-0.80%         Mang.  0.40-0.70% 

Punxy.  —  Punxy  fee.,  Punxsutawney,  Pa.     (Punxsutawney  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  hematite. 
Sil.  1.0-4.0%  Phos.  0.40-0.60%  Mang.  0.45-1.60% 

Radford.  —  Radford  Crane  fee..  Radford,  \'a.  (\'a.  Iron,  Coal  &  Coke  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundr>'  iron,  from  \'a.  limonite  and  mounUiin  ores. 
Sil.  1.5-2.75%  Phos.  abt.  1.00%.  Mang.  abt.  1.25% 

Rebecca.  —  Rebecca  fees.  (2  stacks),  Kittanning,  Pa.      (Kittanning   L 
&  S.  Mfg.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  chill  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  up  to  3.0%      Phos.  0.40-0.80%    Mang.  under  1.0% 

Basic  under  i.o  under  0.50  under  i.o 

Mall.  1. 0-1.50  under  0.20  under  1.0 

•  Sometimes  up  to  8.00  per  cent. 


Coke  and  Athracite  Irons  649 

Red  River.  —  Helen  fee.,  Clarksville,  Tenn.     (Red  River  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  from  local  brown  hematite. 

Fdry.         Sil.  2.0-  3.0%       Phos.  abt.  0.80%     Mang.  abt.  0.65% 
Scotch  3.5-  5.5  abt.  0.80  abt.  0.60 

High  Silicon     8.0-12.0  abt.  0.80  abt.  0.40 

Rising  Fawn.  —  Rising   Fawn   fee.,   Rising   Fawn,   Ga.     (Southern   I. 
&  S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  iron  from  red  and  brown  hematites. 
Not  in  operation  March,  19 10. 

Roanoke.  —  West  End  fee.,  Roanoke,  Va.     (West  End  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Va.  brown  hematite. 

Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  0.75-1.0%  Mang.  0.50-1.0% 

Robesonia.  —  Robesonia    fee.,    Robesonia,    Pa.     (Robesonia    Iron    Co. 
Ltd.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Cornwall  ore. 
Sil.  2.0-3.50%  Phos.  under  0.04%       Mang.  abt.  0.10% 

Rockdale.  —  Rockdale  fee.,  Rockdale,  Tenn.     (Rockdale  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  iron  from  Tenn.  brown  hematite. 
Fdry.         Sil.  2.0  -2.75%      Phos.  abt.    1.40%      Mang.  abt.  0.25% 
Ferro  Phos.      0.07-0.75  17.0-22.0  0.15-0.25 

Rockhill.  —  Rockhill  fees.,  (2  alt.  stacks),  Rockhill  P.  O.,  Pa.     (Rockhill 
Fee.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  iron  from  fossil  and  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Not  in  operatipn  March,  1910. 

Rockwood.  —  Rock  wood  fees.    (2   stacks).   Rock  wood,   Tenn.      (Roane 
Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  red  fossil  ore. 
Sil.  1.75-2.75%  Phos.  abt.  1.40%  Mang.  abt.  0.50% 

Sampson  Strong.  —  Upson  fee.,  Cleveland,  O.     (Upson  Net  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 
Sil.  1.5-1.8%  Phos.  0.40-0.60%         Mang.  0.60-1.0% 

Sarah.  —  Sarah  fee.,  Ironton,  O.     (The  Kelley  Nail  &  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  Bessemer  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 

Saxton.  —  Saxton  fees.  (2  stacks),  Saxton,  Pa.     (Jos.  E.  Thropp.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and  local  brown 

ores. 
Sil.  1.5-3.5%  Phos.  0.40-0.90%         Mang.  0.50-0.90% 

Scottdale.  —  Scottdale  fee.,  Scottdale,  Pa.     (.Scottdale  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 


650  Pig  Iron  Directory 

Senega.  —  McKcefrcy  fee.,  Lcclonia,  O.     (McKeefrcy  &  Co.) 
Hoi  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Suijcrior  oroj. 
Sil.  1.0-2.0%  Phos.  under  0.20%       Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Sluirpsvilte.  — Sharpsvillc  fee.,  Sharpsvillc,  Pa.     (Shari>sville,  Fee.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  mostly  Bess,  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and  New 
York  magn.  ores. 

ShtJUld.—Shefheld  fees.  (3  sUeks),  Sheffield,  .Via.      (Sheffield  C.  & 

L  Co.) 
Hot  blast  eoke,  foundry  iron,  from  .MabanHi  and  Tennessee  brown 

hematites. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  abt.  1.0/ (,  Mang.  abt.  0.50% 

Sheffield.  —  Hattie  Ensley  fee.,  Sheffield,  .\la.     (Sloss-Sheffield  S.  &  L 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  eoke,  foundry  iron,  from  loeal  brow-n  hematite. 
Sil.  as  desired.  I^hos.  abt.  1.20%  Mang.  abt.  0.50% 

Shetiaiidoah.  —  Gem  fee.,  Shenandoah,  Va.     (Oriskany  Ore  &  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  eoke,  foundry  iron,  from  loeal  brown  hem.  and  Lake 

Superior  ores. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  0.40-0.80%         Mang.  0.60-1.0% 

Shenango.  —  Shenango   fees.    (5   stacks),  Sharpsville,   Pa.      (Shenango 
Fee.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  eoke,  basic,  chill  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  under  1.0%  Phos.  under  0.05%       Mang.  0.70-1.30% 

Sheridan.  —  Sheridan  fee.,  Sheridan,  Pa.     (Berkshire  Iron  Works.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  foundry  iron,  sand  cast,  from  Corn- 
wall local  hematite. 
Sil.  1.0-4.0%  Phos.  0.40-0.90%         Mang.  up  to  0.75% 

Silver  Creek.  —  Rome  fee.,  Rome,  Ga.     (Silver  Creek  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  eoke,  sand  east,  foundry  iron,  from  red  and  bro\vh  hema- 
tite, loeal. 
Sil.  up  to  5.0%  Phos.  under  1.0%         Mang.  up  to  2.0% 

Silver  Spring.  —  Paxton   fees.    (2   stacks),   Harrisburg,   Pa.      (Central 
L&S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  \arious  ores. 

5/055.  —  Sloss  fees.  (4  stacks),  Birmingham,  .Via.      (Sloss-Shellield  S. 

&  L  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  red  fossil,  hard  and  soft  and 

brown  hematites. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  abt.  0.75%  Mang.  abt.  0.40% 


Coke  and  Anthracite  Irons  651 

Soko.  —  Soho  fee.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.     (Jones  &  Laughlin  Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  basic  and  Bes.  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

South  Pittsburgh.  —  So.  Pittsburgh  fees.  (3  stacks).  So.  Pittsburgh,  Tenn. 
(Tenn.  Coal,  Iron  &  R.R.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  mill  and  foundry,  sand  cast  iron,  from  local  hard 

red  hematite,  and  brown  hematite  from  Georgia. 
Sil.  up  to  3.50%*         Phos.  1.00-1.50%         Mang.  0.50-1.50% 

Spring    Valley.  —  Spring   Valley   fee.,    Spring   Valley,    Wise.     (Spring 
Valley  Iron  &  Ore  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke  or  sometimes  charcoal,  sand  east  iron,  from  brown 

hematite  ore. 
Mall.  Sil.  0.80-1.50%      Phos.  under  0.20%   Mang.  1.0-1.5% 

Fdry.  1.5-3.00  under  0.20  1.0-1.50 

Standard.  —  Standard  fee.,  Goodrich,  Tenn.     (Standard  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  i.75-4-5o%  Phos.  abt.  0.95%  Mang.  abt.  0.40% 

Star.  —  Star  fee.,  Jackson,  O.     (Star  Furnace  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  raw  coal  and  coke,  sand  cast,  Jackson  Co.  softener,  from 

native  limonite  and  block  ores. 
Sil.  5.00-12.00%  Phos.  0.43-0.80%         Mang.  abt.  0.70% 

Star  &"  Crescent.  —  Rusk  fee.,  Cherokee  Co.,  Pa.     (Frank  A.  Daniels.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite  and  black 

ores. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Sterling  Scotch. — Iroquois  fees.  (2  stacks).  So.  Chicago,  111.     (Iroquois 
I.  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Sil.  2.50-3.0%  Phos.  0.30-0.40%         Mang.  0.40-0.70% 

Stewart.  —  Stewart  fee.,  Sharon,  Pa.     (Stewart  Iron  Co.,  Ltd.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Bess.  Sil.  1.0-2.50%       Phos.  0.09-0.10%    Mang.  0.60-0.80% 

Low  Phos.        1.0-2.50  under  0.04  0.20-0.40 

StrutJiers.  —  Aurora  fee.,  Struthers,  O.     (The  Struthers  Fee.  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Ba'sic  Sil.  under  1.00%     Phos.  under  0.25%   Mang.  0.60-1.2% 

Mall.  1.00-1.50  under 0.20  abt.  i.o 

Susquehanna.  —  (2  stacks) ,  Buffalo,  N.Y.    (Buffalo  &  Susquehanna  I.  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Analysis  refused. 

*  Sometimes  higher. 


6s2  Pig  Iron  Directory 

Swede.  —  Swede  fees.  {2  slacks),  Swe<lcland,  Pa.  (Richard  Hcckscher 
&  Sons  Co.) 
Hot  Ijlast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Sii|Krior  and  hi^h  grade 
foreign  ores. 

Fdry.  Sil.  up  to  3.25%    I'hos.  up  to  0.80%  Mang.  up  to  0.80% 

Basic  up  to  1.00  up  to  i.o  up  to  1.25 

Bess.  1.0-2.0  up  to  0.10  uj)  to  2.0 

Low  Phos.  1.0-2.50  up  to  0.035  up  to  4.50 

Sj)cc.  High  Mang.  1.0-1.50  up  to  0.80  over  1.50 

Sydney.  —  Mayville  fees.  (2  stacks],  Mayville,  Wise.      (Northwestern 
Iron  Co.) 
Hot   blast,    coke,    foundry   iron,    from    Lake    Superior    and    local 

ores. 
Sil.  1.40-2.50%  Phos.  0.60-0.80%         Mang.  0.50-1.0% 

ra//<wfega.  —  Talladega  fee.,  Talladega,  Ala.     (Northern  .\la.  C,  L.  &: 
R.R.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  native  brown  ore. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Temple.  —  Temple  fee.,  Reading,  Pa.     (Temple  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior, 

local  hematite,  N.  J.  magnetic  and  foreign  ores. 
Sil.  1.75-3.50%  Phos.  0.60-0.80%  Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

The  .Mary.  —  Mary  fee.,  Lowellviiie,  O.     (The  Ohio  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  Bessemer  only,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Thomas.  —  Thomas  fee.,  Milwaukee,  Wise.     (Thomas  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Mai.  Bess.  Sil.  1.00-2.00%    Phos.  0.10-0.20%     Mang.  0.40-1.75% 
Fdry.         as  desired.  0.15-0.60  0.50-1.25 

Thomas.  —  (9  stacks.)     (The  Thomas  Iron  Co.) 

Hokendauqua  fees.  (4  stacks),  Hokendauqua,  Pa. 
Keystone  fee.  (i  stack).  Island  Park,  Pa. 
Lock  Ridge  fees.  (2  stacks),  Alburtis,  Pa. 
Saucon  fees.  (2  stacks),  Hellertown.  Pa. 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  sand  and  chill  cast  iron,  from  local 
brown  hematite,  N.  J.  magnetic  and  foreign  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  as  desired.        Phos.  0.60-0.90%      Mang.  abt.  0.50% 

Basic  under  i.o%  under  i.o  variable 


Coke  and  Anthracite  Irons  653 

Toledo.  — Toledo  fees.  (2  stacks),  Toledo,  O.     (Toledo  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Mai.  Sil.  1.00-2.00%    Phos.  under  o. 20%      Mang.  0.60-1.25% 

Basic  under  I. o  under  0.20  0.60-1.25 

Fdry.        1.25-2.25  0.50-0.60  0.60-1.25 

Scotch       2.25-3.00  0.50-0.60  0.60-1.25 

Tonawanda  Scotch.  —  Niagara  fees.  (2  stacks),  N.  Tonawanda,  N.  Y. 
(Tonawanda  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  hematite. 
Analysis  refused. 

Top  Mill.  —  Top  fee..  Wheeling,  W.  Va.     (Wheeling  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  Bess,  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Topton.  —  Topton  fee.,  Topton,  Pa.     (Empire  Steel  &  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior, 

native  hematite  and  magnetite  ores. 
Sil.  0.75-3.50%  Phos.  0.60-0.90%         Mang.  0.50-2.00% 

Trussville.  —  Trussville  fee.,  Trussville,  Ala.     (Southern  I.  &  S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast,  foundry  iron  from  Alabama  red  and 

Georgia  brown  hematites. 
Sil.  up  to  3.50%  Phos.  0.90-1.20%         Mang.  0.50-1.50% 

Tuscaloosa.  —  Central  fee..  Holt,  Ala.     (Central  Iron  &  Coal  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  east,  foundry  iron  from  red  and  brown  hema- 
tites. 
Sil.  1.25-2.75%  Phos.  0.80-1.0%  Mang.  0.50-0.90% 

Tuscarawas.  —  Dover  fee.,  Canal  Dover,  O.     (The  Penn.  I  &  C.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Union.  —  Buffalo   Union    fees.    (3   stacks),    Buffalo,    N.    Y.      (Buffalo 
Union  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  scotch  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  1.75-2.50%  Phos.  1.20-1.50%  Mang.  0.50-1.0% 

Upson  Scotch.  —  Upson  fee.,  Cleveland,  O.     (Upson  Nut  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  2.0-3.0%  Phos.  0.40-0.60%         Mang.  0.60-0.90% 

Vanderbilt. — Vanderbilt  fees.   (2  stacks),  Birmingham,  Ala.      (Birm- 
ingham C.  &  I.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  hematites. 
Sil.  up  to  4.00%  Phos.  under  1.00%       Mang.  0.40-1.00% 


654  l''>i  If""  l^ircclory 

Vesta.  —  Vesta  fee,  Watts,  I'a.     (Susquehanna  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  anthracite  and  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  hematites 

and  magnetites. 
Not  in  operation  March,  lyio. 

Victoria.  —  Victoria  fee.,  CJoshen,  Va.     (The  Goshen  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  and  forge  iron,  from  brown  hematite  from 

Rich  Patch  mines. 
Sil.  as  desired.  Phos.  0.40-0.80%  Mang.  1.0-1.50% 

Viking.  —  Same  as  Carbon,  which  sec. 

Warner.  —  Cumberland  fee.,  I)i(kson  Co.,  Tenn.  (Warner  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  red  and  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  j.0-2.75%  Phos.  abt.  1.60%  Mang.  abt.  0.40% 

Wardiick.  —  Warwick  fees.  (3  stacks),  Pottstown,  Pa.     (Warwick  I.  & 
S.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  machine  cast  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior, 

N.  Y.,  New  Jersey,  and  foreign  ores. 
Sil.  i.a-3.0%  Phos.  0.40-0.80%  Mang.  0.40-0.80% 

Walls.  —  Watts  fees.  (2  stacks),  Middlesborough,  Ky.      (Va.  Coal  & 
Coke  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  native  ores. 
Sil.  1.50-2.75%  Phos.  abt.  0.45%  Mang.  abt.  0.20% 

W elision.  — W'eWston  fees.   (2  stacks),  Wellston,  O.      (Wellston  S.  & 
I.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  sand  cast  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Str.  fdry.  Sil.  1.50-1.75%   Phos.  0.18-0.20%       Mang.  0.60-0.90% 
Mall.  0.60-2.00       under  0.20  0.40-1.00 

T^/wr/oH.  —  Wharton  fees.  (3  stacks),  Wharton,  N.  J.     (Joseph  Whar- 
ton.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  occasionally  some  anthracite,  from  N.  J.  mag.,  N.  Y. 
and  Lake  Superior  hematites. 

Wickwirc.  —  Wickwire  fee.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.     (Wickwire  Steel  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  basic  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 

Williamson.  —  Williamson   fee.,   Birmingham,   .\la.     (Williamson    Iron 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  iron  from  red  fossil,  and  brown  hematite. 
Woodstock.  —  Woodstock  fees.  (2  stacks),  Anniston,  Ala.     (Woodstock 
I.  Wks.,  Inc.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  1.50-5.00%,  Phos.  abt.  1.15%  Mang.  0.80-1.25% 


Charcoal  Irons  655 

Woodward.  —  Woodward  fee.,  Woodward,  Ala.     (Woodward  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  local  red  fossil  ores. 
Sil.  1.0-3.0%  Phos.  abt.  0.80%  Mang.  abt.  0.30% 

Zenith.  —  Zenith  fee.,  W.  Duluth,  Minn.     (Zenith  Furnace  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  coke,  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Bess.  Sil.  1.00-2.00%    Phos.  0.08-0.10%    Mang.  under  1.0% 

Mall.  1.00-2.00  under  0.2  0.80-1.20 

Fdry.  1.50-5.00  under  0.20  over  0.60 

Zug.  —  Detroit,  Mich.     (Detroit  Iron  &  Steel  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  coke,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 


Charcoal  Irons 

Aetna.  —  Aetna,  Ala.     (J.  J.  Gray.) 

Hot  or  cold  blast,  charcoal,  car  wheel  iron,  from  local  brown  hema- 
tite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Alamo.  —  Quinn  fee.,  Gadsden,  Ala.     (Quinn  Furnace  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  local  red  and  brown  hema- 
tite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  19 10. 

Anchor.  —  Oak  Hill,  O.     (Jefferson  Iron  Co.) 

Warm  blast,  charcoal,  strong  foundry  iron,  from  native  limestone 

and  block  ores. 
Sil.  abt.  2.26%  Phos.  abt.  0.87%  Mang.  abt.  0.51% 

Antrim.  —  Antrim  fee.,  Mancelona,  Mich.     (Superior  Charcoal  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  2.62%  Phos.  0.15-0.22%  Mang.  0.30-0.70% 

Berkshire.  —  Cheshire  fee.,  Cheshire,  Mass.     (Berkshire  Iron  Works.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  local  red  and  brown  hema- 
tite. 

Berlin.  —  Glen  Iron  fee.,  Glen  Iron,  Pa.     (John  T.  Church.) 
Cold  blast,  charcoal,  iron  from  local  fossil,  and  hematite. 
Sil.  1.0-1.5%  Phos.  0.50-0.65%  Mang.  0.40-0.60% 

Bloom.  —  Bloom  Switch,  0.     (The  Clare  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  local  hematite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 


656  rig  Iron  Directory 

Blue  Ridge.  —  Tallapoosji  fee,  T.illai>fK)sa,  Tcnn.     (Southern  Car  Wheel 
Iron  Co.) 
Cold  and  warm  blast,  charcoal,  iron  from  brown  hematite. 

Phos.  0.18-1.50%  Mang.  up  to  2.0% 

Biickhorn.  —  Olive   fee.,    Lawrence   Co.,   O.     (McGugin    Iron    &   Coal 
Co.) 
Hot  or  cold  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  native  limestone  ore. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Cadillac.  —  Cadillac  fee.,  Cadillac,  Mich.     (Milchcll-Diggins  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  2.50%  Phos.  0.16-0.20%  Mang.  up  to  1.0% 

Center.  —  Superior  P.  O.,  O.     (The  Superior  Portland  Cement  Co.) 
Charcoal  iron,  from  native  limestone. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Champion.  —  Manistique,  Mich.     (Superior  Charcoal  Iron  Co.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  2.62%  Phos.  0.15-0.22%  Mang.  0.30-0.70% 

Clierokcc.  —  Cherokee  fee.,  Cedartown,  Ga.     (Alabama  &  Georgia  Iron 

Co.) 
Hot  blast,  charcoal,  sand  cast,  strong  foundry  iron,   from  brown 

hematite. 
Sil.  up  to  2.50%  Phos.  0.35-0.70%         Mang.  0.30-1.60% 

CItocolay.  —  Chocolay   fee.,   Chocolay,   Mich.     (Lake   Superior   Iron   & 
Chemical  Co.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Fdry.  Sil.  up  to  2.0%  and  over  Phos.  0.17-0.22% 

Car  Wheel  0.05-2.0  and  over  0.17-0.22 

Mall.  0.17-0.22 

Mang.  up  to  0.65%  and  over 

0.30-0.65      and  over 
0.30-0.65      and  over 

Copacke.  —  Copacke  Iron  Works,  N.  Y.     (Copacke  Iron  Works.) 
Cold  and  warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  N.  Y.  ores. 
Not  in  operation  March,  19 10. 

Dover.  —  Bear  Spring  fee.,  Stewart  Co.,  Tcnn.  (Dover  Iron  Co.) 
Cold  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  0.40-2.0%  Phos.  abt.  0.40%  Mang.  abt.  0.25% 


Charcoal  Irons  657 

Elk  Rapids.  —  Elk  Rapids,  Mich.     (Superior  Charcoal  Iron  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  charcoal,  pig  for  car  wheels  and  mall.,  from  Lake  Superior 

ores. 
Sil.  up  to  2.62%  Phos.  0.15-0.22%         Mang.  0.36-0.70% 

Excelsior.  —  Carp  fee.,  Marquette,  Mich.     (Superior  Charcoal  Iron  Co.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  2.62%  Phos.  0.15-0.22%         Mang.  0.20-0.70% 

Gertrude.  —  Maysville  fees.   (2  stacks),  Maysville,  Wise.      (Northwest 
Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  and  local 

ores. 
Sil.  2.50%  and  over     Phos.  0.60-0.80%         Mang.  0.50-1.00% 

Glen  Iron.  —  Glen  Iron  fee..  Glen  Iron,  Pa.     (John  T.  Church.) 
Cold  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  fossil  and  hematite. 
Sil.  up  to  1.00%  Phos.  0.70-1.25%         Mang.  0.60-1.50% 

Hecla.  —  Heela  fee.,  Milesburg,  Pa.     (The  McCoy-Linn  Iron  Co.) 
Cold  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  Nittany  Valley  hematite. 
Sil.  0.65-1.25%  Phos.  abt.  0.30%  Mang.  0.15-0.25% 

Hecla.  —  Hecla  fee.,  Ironton,  O.     (Hecla  Iron  &  Mining  Co.) 
Cold  or  warm  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  local  ore. 

Hematite.  —  Center  fee.,  Center,  Ky.  (White,  Dixon  &  Co.) 
Cold  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  local  hematite. 
Sil.  0.50-1.40%  Phos.  0.25-0.39%         Mang.  0.20-0.25% 

Hinkle.  —  Ashland  fee.,  Ashland,  Wise.     (Lake  Superior  Iron  &  Chem- 
ical Co.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  3.00%        Phos.  0.10-0.18%        Mang.  to  0.70%  and  over 

Jefferson.  —  Jefferson  fee.,  Jefferson,  Tex.     (Jefferson  Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

Liberty  1812.  —  Liberty  fee.,  Shenandoah    Va.     (Shenandoah  I.  &  C. 
Co.,  Va.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  brown  hematite. 

Marquette.  —  Pioneer  fee.,  Marquette,  Mich.      (Superior  Charcoal  Iron 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  charcoal,  foundry  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ore. 
Sil.  up  to  2.62%  Phos.  0.15-0.22%         Mang.  0.30-0.70% 


65S  TMk  Iron  Directory 

M'uhigan.  —  Newberry  fee.,  Newberry,  Mi(h.     (Superior  Char(<jal  Iron 
Co.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  u|)  to  2.62%  Phos.  0.15-0.22%         Mang.  0.30-0.70 

Muirkirk.  —  Muirkirk  fee.,  Muirkirk,  Md.     (Charles  E.  Coffin.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  carbonate  ores. 
Sil.  0.70-2.50%  Phos.  0.25-0.30%  Mang.  0.80-2.50% 

Olive.  —  Olive  fee.,  Lawrence  Co.,  O.     (The  McGugin  I.  &  C.  Co.) 
Hot  or  cold  blast,  charcoal  iron  from  native  limestone  ores. 

Pine  Lake.  —  Boyne  City  fee.,  Boync  City,  Mich.     (Superior  Charcoal 
Iron  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  2.62%  Phos.  0.15-0.22%         Mang.  0.30-0.70% 

Pioneer.  —  Pioneer  fee.,  Gladstone,  Mich.     (Superior  Charcoal  Iron  Co.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  2.62%  Phos.  0.15-0.22%         Mang.  0.30-0.70% 

Reed  Island.  —  Reed  Island  fee.,  Reed  Island,  Va.    (Va.  Iron.  C.  &  C.  Co.) 
Cold  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  limonite. 

Richmond.  —  Richmond  fee.,   Berkshire  Co.,  Mass.     (Richmond  Iron 
Works.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  up  to  2.00%  Phos.  0.28-0.35%         Mang.  up  to  0.44% 

Rock  Run.  —  Rock  Run  fee.,  Rock  Run,  Ala.     (The  Bass  Foundry  & 

Machine  Co.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron  for  chill  rolls,  car  wheels,  strong  castings, 

from  local  brown  hematite. 
Sil.  0.30-2.25%  Phos.  0.30-0.50%         Mang.  0.40-1.00% 

Rome.  —  Rome  fee.,  Rome,  Ga.     (Silver  Creek  Furnace  Co.) 

Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  red  and  brown  hemati£es. 
Sil.  1.75-2.25%  Phos.  0.35-0.60%         ^lang.  0.50-0.80% 

Round  Mountain.  —  Round  Mt.  fee..  Round  Mt.,  .\la.     (Round  Moun- 
tain Iron  &  Wood  .\lc.  Co.) 
Cold  l)last,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  red  hematite. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 
Salisbury.  —  Canaan  fees..  East  Canaan,  Conn.  (2  slacks).     (Bamum 
Richardson  Co.) 
Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Salisbury  brown  hematite,  sand 

cast. 
Sil.  1.32-1.92%  Phos.  abt.  0.30%  Mang.  0.50-1.0% 


Charcoal  Irons  659 

Salisbury  Chatham.  —  Chatham  fee.,  Chatham,  N.  Y.     (Union  Iron  & 
St.  Co.) 
Charcoal  iron. 

Shelby.  —  Shelby  fee.,  Shelby,  Ala.     (^Shelby  Iron  Co.) 

Warm  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 

Sil.  0.15-2.25%  Phos.  0.30-0.50%         Mang.  0.50-0.80% 

Sligo.  —  SHgo  fee.,  Sligo,  Mo.     (Sligo  Furnace  Co.) 

Hot  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  blue  specular  and  red  ore. 

Spring  Lake.  —  Fruitport   fee.,   Fruitport,   Mich.     (Spring  Lake   Iron 
Co.) 
Hot  blast,  sand  cast,  charcoal  iron,  from  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Sil.  up  to  2.50%  Phos.  0.16-0.20%         Mang.  up  to  1.0% 

Spring  Valley.  —  See  under  Coke  Irons. 

Tassie  Be//.  —  Tassie  Bell  fee..  Rusk,  Tex.     (New  Birm.  Devel.  Co.) 
Hot  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  brown  hematites. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 

White  Rock.  —  Smyth  Co.,  Va.     (Lobdell  Car  Wheel  Co.) 

Warm  and  cold  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  brown  hematite. 
All  used  by  the  Company. 

Wyebrooke.  —  Isabella  fee.,  Wyebrooke,  Pa.     (W.  M.  Potts.) 

Cold  blast,  charcoal  iron,  from  local  magnetic  and  hematites  and 

foreign  and  Lake  Superior  ores. 
Not  in  operation  March,  1910. 


AUTHORITIES 


BOLAND,    S. 

Buchanan,  J.  S. 
Buchanan,  Robert. 
Byron,  T.  H. 

"Castings." 
Carpenter,  H.  A. 
Carr,  W.  N. 
Christopher,  J.  E. 
Chrystie,  J. 
Cheney,  F.  R. 
Colby,  A.  L. 
Cook  &  Hailstone. 
Cook,  E.  S. 
Crobaugh,  F.  L. 
Custer,  E.  A. 
Cunningham,  R.  P. 

De  Clercy,  Jut.es. 
Dickinson,  W.  E. 
Diller,  H.  E. 

Fay,  A.  E. 
Field,  H.  E. 

FiRMSTONE,   F. 

Franklin,  B.  A. 
"The  Foundry." 

CiLMORE,   E.   B. 

Colden,  E.  B. 

Hall,  J.  L. 
Hatfield,  W. 
Hawkins,  D.  S. 
HiONEs,  A.  H. 
Holmes,  J.  A. 


Hooper,  G.  K. 
Howe,  Prof.  H.  M. 
Hynuman,  N.  p. 

"Iron  Age." 

"Iron  Trade  Review." 

Jewett,  L.  C. 
Johnson,  F. 
Johnson,  J.  E.,  Jr. 

Kane,  \V.  H. 
Keep,  W.  J. 
Kent,  Wm. 
Kirk,  E. 
Knoppell,  C.  E. 

Lane,  H.  M. 
Ledebur,  Prof.  A. 
Long,  A.  T. 
Longmuir,  p. 
Loudon,  A.  M. 

Marshall,  S.  P. 
May,  W.  J. 

McWiLLIAMS   &   LONGITUIK. 

McGahey,  C.  R. 
"Mechanics." 
MOLDENKE,  Dr.  R. 
MUMFORD,    E.   H. 

Murphy,  Jos.  A. 
Nagle,  a.  F. 
Outerbridge,  a.  E. 


660 


Authorities 


66i 


Palmer,  R.  H. 
Pierce,  E.  H. 
Porter,  Prof.  J.  J. 
Probert,  R.  H. 
Putnam,  E.  H. 

Rankine,  Prof.  W.  J.  M. 
Ries,  Prof.  H. 
Raup,  p.  R. 
Recketts,  Prof.  P.  C. 
Robertson,  J.  S. 
Rogers,  S.  M. 
Rott,  Prof.  Carl 
Rossi,  A.  G. 

Sadlier,  J.  G. 
Saunders,  W.  M. 
Sameur,  Prof.  A. 
Scott,  W.  G. 
Shed,  N.  W. 


SiSSONS,  C.  W. 
Stahlund,  Eissen. 
Stickle,  F.  W. 
Stupakoff,  S.  H. 
Stead,  J.  E. 
Sleeth,  S.  D. 
Stoughton,  Prof.  B. 

Trautwine,  J.  C. 
Turner,  Prof.  T. 
Taylor,  E.  M. 

West,  Thos.  D. 
Whitehouse,  J.  S. 
Whitney,  A.  W. 
Williams,  A.  D. 
Wangler,  J. 
WuEST,  Prof.  F. 
Wylie,  C. 


INDEX 


Abbreviations  and  signs,  v. 

Acceleration  of  falling  bodies,  191-93. 

Accounts,  See  Foundry  accounts. 

Acid  open  hearth,  417,  419,  422. 

Acid-resisting-castings,  mixture  for, 
276. 

Addition  in  algebra,  8. 

Agricultural  castings,  average  of  five 
meltings,  459. 

Agricultural  machinery,  mixtures  for, 
276. 

Air,  weight  of,  for  combustion,  204; 
properties  of ,  215-18;  required  for 
combustion  of  one  pound  each 
of  coke  and  coal,  444;  loss  in 
pressure  and  horse  power  from 
friction  in  pipes,  447. 

.^ir,  compressed,  horse  power  required 
for,  217-18. 

Air  cylinders,  mixture  for,  276 

Air  furnace,  American,  391. 

Algebra,  7-15. 

Alligation,  5. 

Alloys,  222-27. 

Aluminum,  properties  of,  266;  in- 
fluence of,  in  cast  iron,  266-67. 

Aluminum  bronze,  226. 

American  Foundrymen's  Association, 
See  Foundrymen's  Association. 

American  Steel  &  Wire  Co.,  gauge  of 
sizes,  146. 

Ammonia  cylinders,  mixture  for,  276. 

Analysis,  mixing  iron  by,  274-89. 

Anchors,  gaggers  and  soldiers,  523-24. 

Angle,  problems  of  the,  17-18. 

Angles,  approximate  measurement  of, 
1 15-16. 

Annealing  boxes,  mixtures  for,  277. 

Annealing-oven  equipped  for  gas,  392. 

Annealing  steel  castings  with  micro- 
graphs, 400-1. 

Anthracite  coal,  425. 

Antimony,  alloys  containing,  227. 


Apothecaries'  or  wine  measure,  38. 
Apothecaries'  weight,  table  of,  36. 
Appliances  about  cupola,  462-67. 
Arithmetic,  1-7. 
Arnold,  Prof.  J.  O.,  on  carbon  in  steels, 

241,  347;    mechanical  properties 

of  normal  steels,  396. 
Atmosphere,   pressure  of,  at  various 

readings  of  barometer,  216. 
Authorities,  660-61. 
Automobile  castings,  mixtures  for,  277. 
Avoirdupois  weight,  table  of,  36. 

B.t.u.  =  British  thermal  unit,  207. 

Babbitt  metal,  227. 

Baby  (Robert)  converter,  the,  397. 

Balls  for  ball  mills,  mixture  for,  277. 

Band  and  hoop  iron  weights,  121- 
22. 

Barometric  readings,  pressure  of  at- 
mosphere at  various,  216;  corre- 
sponding with  different  altitudes, 
217. 

Bars  of  wrought  iron,  weight  and 
areas  of  square  and  round,  136- 
39. 

Basic  open  hearth,  418,  419,  423. 

Bauxite,  fire  bricks  of,  436. 

Beams,  transverse  strength  of,  for- 
mulas for,  188-90. 

Bearing-metal  alloys,  226. 

Bed-plates,  mixture  for,  277. 

Belt  velocity,  tables  of,  229-30. 

Belting,  formulas  for,  227-28. 

Benjamin,  Charles  H.,  strength  of 
materials,  213—14. 

Bessemer  process,  the,  396. 

Binder  bars,  505. 

Binders,  See  Agricultural  machinery. 

Birmingham  gauge  for  sheet  metals 
except  steel  and  iron,  120. 

Black  heart  malleable  cast  iron,  382- 
85. 


663 


664 


Index 


Ulasi,  I  ho,  in  (ho  nipola,  .i.j'>-.|7;   loss 

of  air  pressure  from   frirtion   in 

piix's.  .J47. 
Blast     pijR's    for    pressure    blowers, 

tables  of,  450. 
Blow-holes,    trouble    with,    316;     in 

steel,  398. 
Blowers,  pressure,  for  cupolas,  tables 

of,  4  •»  8^-4  9- 
Board  and  timber  measure,  44. 
Board  measure,  table  of,  91—92. 
Bod  stick,  the,  463-64. 
Boiler  castings,  nii.xture  for,  277. 
Boiling  points  at  sea  level,  204;  at  at- 
mospheric pressure,  210. 
Bolt  ends  and  lag  screws,  158. 
Bolt  heads  and  nuts,  weights  of,  159. 
Bolts  and  nuts,  U.  S.  standard,  150-51. 
Bolts,  machine,  weight  of,   per  100, 

155-56;   list  prices,  157. 
Borings  and   turnings,   melting,    293; 

per  cent  of,  322. 
Box  strapping,  236. 
Brake  shoes,  mixture  for,  287. 
Brass,  fillets  of,  areas  and  weights  of, 

145- 
Brass  foundries,  alloys  in  use  in,  223. 
Brass,  moulding  sand  for,  472. 
Brass,  sheet  and  bar,  weight  of,  144. 
Brass  tubes,  seamless  drawn,  167-69. 
Brass  wire  and  plates,  weight  of,  143. 
Breaking    loads,    formula    for,    301; 

ratio  of  tensile  strength  to,  10  to  i, 

302. 
Breast  of  cupola,  440-41. 
Buffalo  steel  pressure  Blowers,  449. 

Cables,  See  Chains  and  cables. 

Cables,  transmission  or  standing, 
179- 

Calorie,  French  thermal  unit,  207. 

Cap  screws,  161. 

Car  castings,  mixtures  for,  278. 

Car  wheel  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of 
rupture  of,  300. 

Car  wheels,  qualities  of  iron  for,  275; 
mixtures  for,  278;  specifications 
for,  350-55. 

Carbon  and  iron,  forms  of  combi- 
nation of,  313. 

Carbon,  combined.  See  Cementite. 

Carbon  content  in  steel,  395. 


Carbon,  properties  of,  252-53;  in- 
fluence of,  as  constituent  of  cast 
iron,  253-54;  loss  or  gain  of,  in 
remelting,  254-56. 

Carbon,  total,  jx-'r  cent,  308,  310;  in 
micrographs,  311;  ways  of  re- 
ducing, 315-16;  for  elasticity, 
323;  reduced  for  hardness,  328; 
high  to  decrease  shrinkage,  332; 
high  aids  fluidity,  335;  for  re- 
sistance to  heat,  337-38;  for 
high  permeability.  340;  for  re- 
sistance to  corrosion,  341;  de- 
termination of,  379-So. 

Carpenter  shop  and  tool  room,   562. 

Carr,  W.  M.,  open-hearth  methods 
for  steel  castings,  411-16. 

Carrier,  W.  H.,  on  foundry  heating 
and  ventilating,  582—86. 

Cast  iron,  constituents  of,  standard 
methods  for  determining,  377-80: 
Silicon,  377-78;  sulphur,  378; 
phosphorus,  37S;  manganese, 
379;  total  carbon,  379-80;  graph- 
ite, 381. 

Cast  iron,  effect  of  structure  of,  upon 
its  physioil  properties,  306-14; 
microscopic  evidence,  308-12; 
Prof.  Porter  on,  312—14. 

Cast  iron,  fillets  of,  areas  and  weights 
of,  145- 

Cast  iron,  influence  of  chemical  con- 
stituents of,  252-72:  Carbon,  252— 
56;  silicon,  256-60;  sulphur, 
260-63;  phosphorus,  263-64; 
manganese,  265-66;  aluminum, 
266-67,  nickel,  267;  titanium, 
267-68;  vanadium,  268-70;  ther- 
mit, 270;  oxygen,  270-71;  ni- 
trogen. 271-72. 

Cast  iron,  mechanical  analysis  of, 
see  Mechanical  analysis. 

Cast  iron,  weight  of  a  superficial  foot 
of,  570. 

Casting,  direct,  562. 

Casting  properties  of  iron,  343-45. 

Castings,  mixtures  for  various  classes 
of.  273-74;  (alphabetical)  276-87; 
amounts  of  different  irons  to  be 
used  found  l)y  percentage,  2S7-89. 

Castings,  qualities  of  iron  necessary 
for  different  grades  of,  275. 


Index 


665 


Castings,  shrinkage  of,  per  foot,  234. 

Castings  under  pressure,  562. 

Castings,  weight  of,  determined  from 
weight  of  patterns,  569-70;  for- 
mulas for  finding,  570-76. 

Cement   mortar,    tensile  strength  of, 

215- 

Cementite  (combined  carbon),  241; 
in  micrographs,  308^11;  physical 
characteristics  of,  313;  per  cent 
combined  carbon,  315,  319-20, 
323;  causes  hardness,  324-29; 
for  fusibility,  332-34;  low  for 
fluidity,  335 ;  for  resistance  to 
heat  low,  337-38;  low  for  per- 
meability, 340;  in  micrographs, 
346-49. 

Center  of  gravity,  195-97. 

Centigrade  to  Fahrenheit,  equiva- 
lent temperatures,  211-12. 

Centismal  years,  43. 

Centrifugal  castings,  561-62. 

Centrifugal  force,  215. 

Chain  end  link  and  narrow  shackle, 
174. 

Chain  hooks,  proportions  for,  172. 

Chains  and  cables,  U.  S.  Navy  stand- 
ard, 173. 

Chaplets,  528-36;  peerless  perforated, 
530;  double  head,  531-32; 
wrought-iron,    533-35- 

Charcoal  iron,  250. 

Charcoal  pig  irons,  directory  of,  655-59. 

Charging  cupolas,  452-54. 

Charging  floor,  the,  453-54- 

Charpy  &  Grenet's  experiments  on 
irons,  383. 

Chemical  analyses  of  cast  iron,  3 1 5-49 : 
Strength,  315-22;  elastic  prop- 
erties, 322-29;  shrinkage,  329— 
32;  fusibility,  332-34;  fluidity, 
334-35;  resistance  to  heat,  335- 
38;  electrical  properties,  338-40; 
resistance  to  corrosion,  340-42; 
resistance  to  wear,  342;  coeffi- 
cient of  friction,  342-43;  casting 
properties,  343-45;  micro-struc- 
ture, 345-49- 

Chemical  analyses  of  test  bars,  308— 
12;  micrographs,  308-11;  forms 
of  combination  of  iron  and  car- 
bon, 313. 


Chemical  constituents  of  cast  iron, 
influence  of  the  (W.  G.  Scott), 
252. 

Chemical  reactions  in  the  cupola,  443- 

Chilled  castings,  mixtures  for,  274, 
275,   278. 

Chilled  iron  defined,  326-28. 

Chilled  roll  (furnace)  iron  test  bars, 
moduli  of  rupture  of,  299. 

Chills,  mixture  for,  278. 

Chipping  and  grinding,  566. 

Chords  for  spacing  circle,  89-90. 

Chords  of  arcs  from  one  to  ninety  de- 
grees, 88. 

Circle,  length  of  chord  for  spacing, 
89-90. 

Circle,  problems  of  the,  15,  18-20; 
ratio  of  circumference  to  di- 
ameter, 28;   area  of,  28. 

Circles,  areas  and  circumferences  of, 
for  diameters  from  3^^  to  100,  by 
tenths,  70-79;  rules  to  compute 
larger,  79. 

Circles,  areas  and  circumferences  of, 
for  diameters  in  units  and  eighths, 
64-69. 

Circular  arcs,  table  of,  80-82. 

Circular  arcs,  table  of  lengths  of,  to 
radius  i,  82-84. 

Circular  measure,  43. 

Circular  segments,  table  of  areas  of, 
84-87. 

Cisterns  and  tanks,  number  of  bar- 
rels in,  loo-i. 

Clamps,  506. 

Clarke,  D.  K.,  formula  for  extreme 
fibre  stress,  304;  volume,  den- 
sity and  pressure  of  air  at  vari- 
ous temperatures,  216. 

Cleaning  room,  the,  563-68;  tumblers, 
563-66;  chipping,  grinding,  the 
sand  blast,  566;  pickUng,  567; 
hydrofluoric  acid,  568. 

Clout  nails,  tinned,  536. 

Coach  screws,  gimlet  points,  159. 

Coke  and  anthracite  pig  iron.s,  direc- 
tory of,  635-55. 

Coke,  425-29:  Analyses  of  various 
kinds  of,  425-26;  by-product 
coke,  426-27;  effect  of  atmos- 
pheric     moisture      upon,     427; 


666 


Index 


specifications  for,  by  R.  Mol- 
dcnkc,  428'-29;  number  of  pouiid:< 
of  iron  melted  by  one  pound  of, 
444-45- 

Colby,  A  L.,  influence  of  the  mould 
upon  piR  iron,  2.J9. 

Coleman,  J.  J.,  heat  conducting  power 
of  covering  materials,  210. 

Collars  and  couplings,  mixture  for,  27S. 

Combining  equivalents,  204. 

Conductivity  of  metals,  206,  209. 

Cone,  the,  32-?3- 

Contraction  or  shrinkage,  329-32. 

Converter   linings,    404-5;     practice, 

405-9- 

Converter  steel,  cost  of,  420,  421. 

Converters,  the  Baby  (Robert)  and 
Tropenas,  397. 

Cook,  E.  S ,  on  different  results  from 
two  irons  of  same  chemical  com- 
position, 330-32. 

Cook,  F.  J.,  and  G.  Hailstone,  micro- 
scopic evidence  why  similar  irons 
have  difTerent  relative  strengths, 
306-12,  317-19- 

Cooling,  influence  of  rate  of,  318. 

Cope,  formula  to  find  weight  re- 
quired on  a,  to  resist  pressure  of 
molten  metal,  575. 

Copper  and  tin,  alloys  of,  222. 

Copper  and  zinc,  alloys  of,  223. 

Copper-nickel  alloys,  224. 

Copper,  round  bolt,  weight  of,  per 
foot,   144. 

Copper,  tin  and  zinc,  useful  alloys  of, 
22s- 

Copper  tubes,  seamless  drawn,  167-69. 

Copper  wire  and  plates,  weight  of,  143. 

Core  machines,  499. 

Core  mi.xtures,  480-86. 

Core  ovens,  492-95. 

Core  plates  and  driers,  498-99. 

Core  room  and  appurtenances,  492- 
500:  The  oven,  492—96;  core 
oven  carriages,  496;  mixing  ma- 
chines, sand  conveyors,  rod 
straighteners,  wire  cutter,  497; 
sand  driers,  498;  core  plates  and 
driers,  498-99;  core  machines, 
mould-machines,  cranes  and 
hoists,  499-500. 

Core  sand  with  analysis,  479-80. 


Corrosion,  resistance  to,  340-42. 

Corrugated  iron  roofing,  weight  of, 
141. 

Cosine,  107. 

Cotters,  steel  spring,  164. 

Cotton  machinery,  mixture  for,  278. 

Covering  materials,  heat-conducting 
power  of,  210. 

Cranes  and  hoists  for  core  room,  499- 
500. 

Cranes  for  cupola  service,  466. 

Cranes  for  moulding  nwm,  502. 

Crucible  castings,  423. 

Crusher  jaws,  mixture  for,  278. 

Cube  of  a  whole  number  ending  with 
ciphers,  to  find,  56. 

Cube  root,  4-5. 

Cube  root  of  large  number  not  in 
table,  to  find,  62-63. 

Cube  roots  of  numbers  from  1000  to 
10,000,  57-61. 

Cubes  and  cube  roots  of  numbers 
from  .01  to  1000,  tables  of,  46-56. 

Cupola,  construction  of  the,  437-52: 
Five  zones,  437,  442-43;  the 
lining,  437-39;  tuyeres,  439-40; 
the  breast,  440-4 1 ;  sand  bottom, 
441;  chemical  reactions  in  ordi- 
nary, 443-45;  wind  box,  445; 
builders'  rating,  446;  blowers  for 
the  blast,  446-49;  diameter  of 
blast  pipes,  450-51;  dimensions, 
etc.,  of,  451-52. 

Cupola  appliances,  462-67:  Ladles, 
462-65;  tapping  bar,  463;  bod 
stick,  464-65;  cranes,  466;  spill 
bed,  466;  gagger  mould,  467; 
rake.  467. 

Cupwia  charging  and  melting,  452—61: 
The  charging  floor,  453-54; 
tables  of  meltings  and  losses,  455- 
61;   melting  ratio,  461. 

Cupola  makers,  best  known,  446. 

Custer,  Edgar  A.,  on  permanent 
moulds.  559-61. 

Cutting  tools,  mixture  for,  278. 

Cylinder,  the,  32. 

Cylinder  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of 
rupture  of.  300. 

Cylinders  or  pipes,  contents  of,  102—3. 

Cylinders,  locomotive,  mixtures  for, 
273,  282;   specifications  for,  355. 


Index 


667 


Cylinders,  marine  and  stationary, 
mixtures  for,  273;  see  also  Cylin- 
ders, 279. 

Cylinders,  solid  and  hollow  iron,  for- 
mulas for  finding  weight  of,  570- 
71- 

Decimal  equivalents  of  parts  of  one 

inch,  6. 
Deflections,  table  of,  183-85. 
Delta  metal,  225. 
Diamond    polishing   wheels,    mixture 

for,  279. 
Dies  for  drop  hammers,  mixture  for, 

279. 
Diller,  H.  E.,  tests  of  use  of  steel  scrap 

in  mixtures  of  cast  iron,  290-91; 

on  malleable  cast  iron,  390-91. 
Division  in  algebra,  10. 
Dry    measure,    British   Imperial,    see 

Liquid  and  dry  measures,  British 

Imperial,  39—40. 
Dry    measure,    table    of    U.    S.,    39; 

weights  of,  39. 
Dynamo  and  motor  frames,  mixtures 

for,  279. 
Dynamo  frame  iron  test  bars,  moduli 

of  rupture  of,  299. 

Earth,  measurements  of,  and  on  the, 

238-39- 
Eccentric  straps,  279. 
Elastic  properties,  322-23. 
Elasticity,  modulus  of,  181;    table  of 

moduli,  182-83. 
Electric  furnace   steel,  cost  of,  424. 
Electrical  and  mechanical  units,  equiv- 
alent values  of,  220-21. 
Electrical  castings,  mixture  for,  279. 
Electrical  properties,  338-40. 
Elimination,  12-13. 
Ellipse,    construction    of    an,    21-22; 

circumference    and    area   of   an, 

29. 
Ellipse,    solid    iron,    formula   to   find 

weight  of  a,  571. 
Engine  castings,  mixtures  for,  279. 
Equations,  quadratic,  14-15. 
Equations,    simple,    11-14;     solution 

of,  12. 
Expansion,  lineal,  for  solids,  205. 
Eye  bolts,  table  for,  175. 


Facings,  486-87;  graphite  facing  and 
analyses,  488-91. 

Factors,  useful,  44—45. 

Fahrenheit  to  Centigrade,  equivalent 
temperatures,  211-12. 

Falling  bodies,  acceleration  of,  for- 
mulas and  table,  191—92. 

Fans  and  blowers,  280. 

Farm  implements,  mixture  for,  280. 

Fe-C-Si,  influence  of,  on  cast  iron, 
315,  320. 

Ferrite,  pure  iron,  241,  347. 

Field,  H.  E.,  on  carbon  and  silicon  in 
pig  iron,  253. 

Fillet,  cast  iron  straight,  formula  to 
find  weight  of  a,  574;  of  a  cir- 
cular, 575-76. 

Fillets  of  steel,  cast  iron  and  brass, 
areas  and  weights  of,  by  E.  J. 
Lees,  145. 

Fire  brick,  236. 

Fire  brick  and  fire  clay,  434-36; 
analyses,  434-35;  ganister,  435; 
fine  sand,  435;  magnesite,  436; 
bauxite,  436. 

Fire  clays,  analysis  of,  237. 

Fire  pots,  mixture  for,  280. 

Flanged  fittings,  cast  iron,  232. 

Flasks,  506-18:  Wooden  cope  and 
drag,  506-9;  iron,  510-14;  ster- 
ling steel,  515-17;  snap,  517-18; 
slip  boxes,  519;  in  machine 
moulding,  547-So. 

Flat  rolled  iron,  see  Iron,  flat  rolled. 

Flat  rolled  steel,  see  Steel,  flat  rolled. 

Floor  plates,  grate  bars,  etc.,  average 
of  two  meltings,  460. 

Fluidity,  factors  governing,  334-35- 

Fluxes,  429-34:  Limestone  and  fluor 
spar,  430-31;    analyses  of  slags, 

432-33- 

Flywheel,  cast  iron,  formulas  to  find 
weight  of  a,  572-73. 

Foot,  inches  to  decimals  of  a,  6. 

Foot  pound,  the  unit  of  work,  45. 

Forces,  parallelogram  and  parallelopi- 
pedon  of,  192. 

Foundry  accounts,  587-632:  Foundry 
requisition,  588-89;  pattern  card, 
589-90;  pig  iron  card,  and  book, 
590,  591;  coke  card,  591;  heat 
book,  592-96;   cleaning  room  re- 


66S 


Tmlex 


porti  S97I  foundry  reports,  598- 
600;  monthly  expenditure  of 
supplies,  601-4;  montlily  com- 
parison of  accounts,  605-7;  -i"- 
nual  comparison,  60H-10;  chart 
of  transmission  of  orders,  611-12; 
foundry  costs  (B.  A.  Franklin), 
612—25;  successful  foundry  cost 
system  (J.  I'.  Golden),  625-32. 

Foundry  cost  system,  a  successful 
a.  p.  Golden),  625-32. 

Foundry  costs  (B.  .\.  Franklin),  612- 
25;  outline  of  scheme,  612-13. 

Foundry  pig  iron,  vr  Pig  iron. 

Foundrymen's  Association,  American, 
standard  specifications  for  found- 
ry pig  iron,  246-48;  table  of 
mixtures  for  various  castings, 
275-76;  report  of  committee  on 
test  bars,  294-306. 

Fractions,  products  of,  expressed  in 
decimals,  7. 

I-'racture,  of  pig  iron,  index  of  com- 
position, 273. 

Franklin,  B.  \.,  foundry  costs,  612- 
25;   outline  of  scheme,  612-13. 

Frick,  Louis  H.,  dimensions  of  stand- 
ard wrot  pipe,  167. 

Friction  clutches,  mixture  for,  280. 

Friction,   coefficient  of,   215,  342-43. 

Frustrum  of  a  cone,  23;  center  of 
gravity  of  a,  196. 

Frustrum  of  a  hexagonal  pyramid  of 
cast  iron,  formula  to  5nd  weight 
of,  574- 

Frustrum  of  a  pyramid,  30-31. 

Fuels,  foundry,  425-29:  .'\nthracite 
coal,  425;   coke,  425—29. 

Furnace  castings,  mixture  for,  2S0. 

Furnace  temperatures,  206. 

Fusibility,  or  melting  point,  332-34. 

Gagger  mould,  467. 

Gaggers,  524. 

Galvanized  sheet  iron,  weight  of,  141. 

Ganister,  composition  of,  435. 

Gas  engine  cylinders,  mixture  for,  280. 

Gases,  specific  gravity  of,  197. 

Gates,  tables  of  areas  of,  524-25;  top 

pouring,  526;  whirl,  527;  "cross" 

skim,  527;  horn,  527. 
Gears,  mixtures  for,  280-81. 


Geometry,  plane,  problems  in,  15-24. 

German  silver,  224. 

(iolden,  J.  P.,  a  successful  foundry 
cost  system,  625-32. 

Grain  structure  of  cast  iron,  329. 

Graphite,  shown  in  micrographs,  308- 
II,  346-48;  physical  character- 
istics of,  313;  per  cent  of,  315-17. 
330-31;  size  of  flakes  in  relation 
to  strength,  317-19;  per  cent  of, 
for  fusibility,  333-34;  for  resist- 
ance to  heat,  337-38;  low,  for 
friction,  342. 

Graphite  facing,  with  analyses,  488-91. 

Grate  bars,  mixture  for,  281. 

Gray  iron  castings,  speciBcations  for, 
296-97. 

Grinding  machinery,  mixture  for,  281. 

Grinding  wheel  speeds,  table  of,  231. 

Guldin's  theorems,  34. 

Gun  carriages,  mixture  for,  281. 

Gun  iron,  mixture  for,  281. 

Gun  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of  rupture 
of,  300. 

Gyration,  radius  of,  197. 

Hailstone,  G.,  sec  Cook,  F.  J. 

Hangers  for  shafting,  mixture  for, 
281. 

Hardness,  control  of,  324-28. 

Hardware,  light,  mixture  for,  281. 

Hatfield,  W.  H.,  experiment  on  de- 
flection with  six  bars,  384;  in 
breaking  bars,  387-8S. 

Heat,  measurement  of,  206-10;  radi- 
ation of,  208;  resistance  to,  335- 
38. 

Heat  unit  defined,  45. 

Heat-resisting  iron,  mixture  for.  281. 

Heating  and  ventilating,  579-86. 

Height  corresponding  to  acquired 
velocity,  193. 

Hemisphere,  hollow  iron,  formula  for 
finding  weight  of  a,  571. 

Hexagon,  relations  of  inscribed,  to 
circle.  20. 

Hoisting  rope,  pliable  wire,  179. 

Hollow  ware,  qualities  of  iron  for, 
275:   mixture  for,  282. 

Hooks,  slings  and  chains,  502-3. 

Hooper,  G.  K.,  on  continuous  melt- 
ing, 554-55- 


Index 


669 


.  Horse  power  defined,  45;    required  to 

compress  air,  217—18. 
Housings   for   rolling   mills,    mixture 

for,  282. 
Hydraulic    cylinders,     mixtures    for, 

282. 
Hydraulic     pressures,     formulas     for 

dimensions  of  cast  iron  pipe  to 

withstand,  232-33. 
Hydrofluoric  acid  used  for  pickling, 

568. 
H5rperbola,  the,  23-24. 

Inch,    one,    decimal    equivalents    of 

parts  of,  6. 
Inches  to  decimals  of  a  foot,  6. 
Inclined  plane,  194. 
Information,  useful,  234-39. 
Ingot  mould  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of 

rupture  of,  299. 
Ingot  moulds  and  stools,  mixture  for, 

282. 
Iron  and  carbon,    forms    of    combi- 
nation of,  313. 
Iron,    band    and    hoop,    weights   per 

lineal  foot,  121—22. 
Iron,  burnt,  of  no  use  except  for  sash 

weights,  293. 
Iron    castings,    formulas    for    finding 

weight  of,  570-75. 
Iron,  flat,  weight  of,  per  foot,  45. 
Iron,  flat  plates,  weight  of,  per  square 

foot,  45. 
Iron,  flat  rolled,  weights  of,  per  lineal 

foot,  123—28;   areas  of,  129. 
Iron,  mixing,  by  fracture,  273-74;  by 

analysis,    274-89;     mixtures    for 

various   classes   of   castings    (al- 
phabetical), 276-87. 
Iron  ores,  varieties  of,  240. 
Iron,  physical  properties  of,  241. 
Iron,  pig,  see  Pig  iron. 
Iron  roofing,  corrugated,  weight  of, 

141. 
Iron,  round,  weight  of,  per  foot,  45. 
Iron,   sheet,   gauges  used  by  U.   S. 

mills  in  rolling,  120;    weight  per 

foot,  141. 
Iron,  temperatures  of,  corresponding 

to  various  colors,  239. 
Iron  wire,  gauges  and  weights  of,  146; 

list  prices  of,  147. 


Iron,  wrought,  weight  and  areas  of 
square  and  round  bars,   136-39. 

Jigs,  by  S.  H.  Stupakoff,  540-46. 
Jobbing  castings,  general,  average  of 

five  meltings,  455. 
Jobbing  castings,  light,  average  of  four 

meltings,  455. 
Joule's  equivalent,  207. 

Keep,  W.  J.,  on  pig  iron  cast  in  iron 
moulds  and  in  sand,  249-50;  in- 
fluence of  silicon  on  cast  iron, 
259-60;  injurious  influence  of 
sulphur,  263;  effect  of  manga- 
nese, 266;  on  recovery  of  shot 
iron,  292;  shrinkage  of  test  bars, 
371-72;  shrinkage  chart,  372-74; 
strength  table,  375;  process  of 
making  coke,  426. 

Kent,  William,  altitudes  correspond- 
ing to  barometric  readings,  217; 
head  in  feet  of  water  corre- 
sponding to  pressure,  219;  pres- 
sure for  different  heads,  219. 

Kettles  to  stand  red  heat,  mixture 
for,  274. 

Ladles  and  table  of  capacities,  462-65. 

Lag  screws,  158. 

Land  measure,  table  of,  37. 

Le  Chatelier,  M.,  on  furnace  tem- 
peratures, 206. 

Lead  pipes,  sizes  and  weights  of.  171. 

Ledebur,  Prof.  A.,  influence  of  silicon 
on  annealing  temperature,  391. 

Lees,  Ernest  J.,  areas  and  weights  of 
fillets  of  steel,  cast  iron  and  brass, 
145- 

Lever,  the,  194. 

Lifting  beams,  503-5;  table  of  safe 
loads  for,  504. 

Lighting,  importance,  578-79. 

Lime  mortar,  tensile  strength  of,  215. 

Liquid  and  dry  measures,  British  Im- 
perial, weights  of,  39-40. 

Liquid  measure,  table  of  U.  S.,  38; 
weights  of  volumes  of  distilled 
water,  39-40. 

Liquid  pressure  on  moulds,  529—30. 

Locks  and  hinges,  see  Hardware,  light. 

Locomotive  castings,  mixtures  for,  282. 


670 


Index 


Locomotive  cylinders,  mixtures  for, 
273,  282;    specifications  for,  355. 

Long  measure,  table  of,  36;  miscel- 
laneous, 37. 

Liingmuir,  Percy,  on  the  sulphur  con- 
tent of  cast  iron,  261-62;  micro- 
structure  of  cast  iron,  345-49; 
on  silicon  in  malleable  castings, 
386;   on  steels,  394. 

Loudon,  A.  M.,  comparative  values 
of  core  binders,  481-86. 

Lumber,  weight  of,  per  icxx>  feet 
board  measure,  93. 

McGahey,  C.  B.,  tests  of  use  of  steel 
scrap  in  mixtures  of  cast  iron,  291. 

Machine-cast  pig  iron,  sec  Pig  iron, 
248-50. 

Machinery  castings,  heavy,  average 
of  four  meltings,  457. 

Machinery  castings,  light,  average  of 
six  meltings,  456. 

Machinery  castings,  qualities  of  iron 
for,  27s;   mixtures  for,  283. 

Machinery  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of 
rupture  of,  299,  300. 

McWilliams  &  Longmuir  on  malleable 
castings,  382;  on  annealing,  400- 
i;    on  moulding  machines,   548. 

Magnesite,  bricks  of,  436. 

Malleable  cast  iron,  382-93:  Black 
heart,  382-S5;  experiments  on 
varying  compositions  of,  383-8;; 
ordinary  or  Reaumur,  3S5-88; 
mixtures  in  .\merican  practice, 
389-91;  specifications  and  tests, 
391-93- 

Manganese,  per  cent,  308,  310,  315; 
high,  322;  for  elasticity,  323;  as 
hardening  agent,  324-25;  in 
chilled  iron,  328,  337;  effect  on 
grain  structure,  329;  increases 
shrinkage,  332;  little  effect  on 
melting  point,  334;  for  heat  re- 
sistance, 337;  low  for  permeabil- 
ity, 340;  for  acid  resistance,  341; 
for  resistance  to  wear,  342;  skin 
effects,  344;  in  micrographs,  346- 
48;   determination  of,  379. 

Manganese,  properties  of,  265;  in- 
fluence of,  as  constituent  of  cast 
iron,  265-66,  272. 


Mann,  \V.   I.,  lengths  of  chords  for, 

spacing  circle  whose  diameter  is 

I,  90. 
Martcnsite   "beta"  form  of  iron,  313. 
Mayer,  Dr.  A.  M.,  on  radiation  of 

heat,  208. 
Measures,     mi.sccllancous,    39;      and 

weights,  44. 
Measures  of  work,  power  and  duty, 

4S- 
Measures,  sec  Weights  and  measures; 

also   name  of    measure,    as  Dry 

measure.  Liquid  measure,  etc. 
Mechanical  analysis  of  cast  iron,  371— 

77;    Keep's  shrinkage  chart,  372— 

74;   strength  table,  375. 
Mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  207. 
Melting,  continuous,  551-55. 
Melting  losses  in  cupolas,  tables  of, 

4S4-6i- 
Melting  ratio,  461. 
Mensuration,  26—34. 
Metalloids,  influence  of  the  more  im- 
portant,   on    combined    carbon, 

272;    method   of   adding,  to  the 

iron,  465. 
Metals,    conductivity    of,    206,    209; 

weights  per  cubic  inch   of,   239. 
Metals,  sheet,  Birmingham  gauge  for, 

except     steel     and     iron,      120; 

weights  of,  per  square  foot,  142. 
Metric  measures  and  weights  in  U.  S. 

standard,  40-43. 
Micrographs  of  graphite,  308-11. 
Micro-structure   of   cast   iron   by    P. 

Longmuir,  345-49- 
Mixing  machines  in  core  room,  497. 
Modulus  of  elasticity,  iSi-83. 
Modulus    of    rupture,    185-86;     for- 
mula  for,    304;    in   pounds   per 

square  inch,  29S-303. 
Moldenkc,  Dr.  R.,  effects  of  titanium 

and  vanadium  in  cast  iron, 268-70; 

on  fusibility  of  cast  iron,  332—33; 

contents  of  malleable  cast  iron, 

389;    specifications  for   foundry 

coke,  42S-29. 
Molten  iron,   formulas  to  find  i)res- 

sure  of,  575. 
Moment  of  inertia,    187;   of  rotating 

body,  197. 
Moments,  location  of,  iSo. 


Index 


671 


Monomial,  10. 

Mortar,  lime  and  cement,  tensile 
strength  of,  215. 

Motor  frames,  see  Dynamo. 

Mould,  pressure  on,  by  molten  metal, 
formula  to  find,  575. 

Moulding,  dry  sand,  mixtures  for 
(West),  477-7S. 

Moulding  machines,  538-50:  Jigs  by 
S.  H.  Stupakoff,  540-46;  flasks, 
547-50;  diagram  of  moulding 
operations,  549. 

Moulding  operations,  diagram  of 
(StupakoiT),  549. 

Moulding  room  and  fixtures,  501-37: 
Cranes,  502;  hooks,  slings  and 
chains,  502-3;  lifting  beams, 
503-5;  binder  bars,  505 ;  clamps, 
506;  flasks,  506-19;  pins,  plates 
and  hinges,  519-21;  sweeps,  522- 
23;  anchors,  gaggers,  and  sol- 
diers, 523—24;  sprues,  risers  and 
gates,  524-27;  tables  of  areas  of 
gates,  525 ;  strainers  and  spindles, 
528;  weights,  528;  chaplets,  528- 
37;  liquid  pressure  on  moulds, 
529-30;    sprue  cutters,  537. 

Moulding  sand,  468-91:  Cohesion, 
468;  permeability  and  porosity, 
468-69;  refractoriness,  469;  du- 
rability, 469;  texture,  469,  471; 
grades  of  various,  470;  analysis, 
47 1 ;  sand  for  brass,  with  analysis, 
472;  test  bars  of  green  sand, 
473~76;  for  dry  sand  moulding, 
477-79;  skin  drying,  479;  core 
sand,  and  analyses,  479-80; 
core  mixtures,  480-86;  parting 
sand,  486;  facings,  486-87; 
graphite  facing,  488;  analyses, 
488-91. 

Moulds,  multiple,  555-58;  perma- 
nent, 558-61;  mixtures  for  per- 
manent, 283. 

Multiplication  in  algebra,  8-10. 

Nagle,  F.  A.,  on  erratic  results  of  in- 
vestigation of  test  bars,  298,  301- 
3- 

Nails,  common  wire,  148. 

Nails,  force  required  to  pull,  from 
various  woods,  238. 


Nickel,  properties  of,  267;  eflfect  of, 
in  cast  iron,  267;  imparts  most 
valuable  properties  to  steel,  267. 

Niter  pots,  see  Acid-resisting. 

Nitrogen,  properties  of,  271;  effect 
of,  on  cast  iron  and  steel,   271. 

Nonconductivity  of  materials,  209-10. 

Novelty  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of  rup- 
ture of,  300. 

Nuts  and  bolt  heads,  weights  of,  159. 

Nuts  and  washers,  number  of,  to  the 
pound,  152. 

Open-hearth  methods  for  steel  castings 
by  W.  M.  Carr,  411-16. 

Ordway,  Prof.,  on  non-conductivity, 
209. 

Ornamental  work,  mixture  for,   283. 

Outerbridge,  A.  E.,  tests  of  moulding 
sands,  473-75. 

Oxygen,  effect  of  dissolved  oxide  on 
cast  iron,  315,  318,  319,  320. 

Oxygen,  properties  of,  270;  cau.ses 
foundryman  much  trouble,  270- 
71;  effective  deoxidizers,  271. 

Parabola,  the,  22-23. 

Parallelogram,  area  of,  26. 

Parenthesis,  in  algebra,  10. 
•Parting  sand,  486. 

Pattern  lumber,  specific  gravity  and 
weight  per  cubic  foot  of,  569. 

Pattern  plates,  preparation  of,  540-46. 

Patterns  for  test  bars  of  cast  iron,  297. 

Pearlite,  a  mixture  of  fernite  and 
cementite,  241,  347. 

Pentagon,  to  construct  a,  20. 

Percentage,  5-7. 

Permeability  and  porosity  of  moulding 
sand,  468-69. 

Permeability,  importance  of,  339~40- 

Phosphorus,  properties  of,  263;  in- 
fluence of,  as  constituent  of  cast 
iron,  264,  272;  per  cent,  308,  320- 
21;  in  micrographs,  309-11;  low, 
for  strong  castings,  321;  and  for 
elasticity,  323;  slight  hardemng 
effect,  324;  slight  influence  on 
chill,  328;  decreases  shrinkage, 
332;  increases  fusibility,  332-33, 
336;  keep  high  for  fluidity,  334- 
35;   low  for  wear  resistance,  342; 


67a 


Index 


presence  in  microRraphs,  ,^46-49; 
determination  of,  ,?7S. 

I'hysic.-il  constants,  tables  of,  202-j. 

I'iano  plates,  mixture  for,  283. 

Pickling,   567-68. 

Pig  iron,  physical  properties  of,  241- 
42;  grading,  242—43;  foundry, 
244-48;  machine-cast,  248-50; 
charcoal  iron,  250;  grading  scrap 
iron,  250-51;  fracture  of,  index 
of  composition,  273. 

Pig  iron  directory,  633-59:  Coke  and 
anthracite  irons,  635-55;  char- 
coal irons,  655-59. 

Pillow  blocks,  mi.xture  for,  284. 

Pins,  plates  and  hinges,  519-21. 

Pipe  and  pipe  fittings,  mixtures  for, 
284. 

Pipe,  cast-iron,  specifications  for,  356- 
63;  tables  of  dimensions,  358; 
of  thicknesses  and  weights,  359; 
volume  and  weight,  364-65; 
pattern,  size  and  weight,  366-70. 

Pipes,  contents  of,  102-3. 

Piston  rings,  mixture  for,  284. 

Plane  figure,  irregular,  area  of  any,  27- 
28. 

Plane  figures,  properties  of,  24-26. 

Plane  surfaces,  mensuration  of,  26-29. 

Plow  points,  chilled,  mixture  for,  284. 

Polygon,  area  of  a,  27. 

Polyhedra,  31-32. 

Polynomials,  lo-ii. 

Porter,  Prof.  J.  J.,  effects  of  sulphur 
on  cast  iron,  262-63;  of  phos- 
phorus, 264;  influence  of  the 
metalloids  on  combined  carbon, 
272;  refwrt  on  mixtures  for 
various  classes  of  castings  (al- 
phabetical), 276-87;  on  proper- 
ties and  mixtures  of  cast  iron, 
312-14;  pig  iron  classification 
and  directory,  633-59. 

Pouring  temperature,  influence  of, 
318. 

Powers  of  quantities,  9-10. 

Prince,  \V.  F.,  process  for  melting 
borings,  293. 

Printing  presses,  see  Machinery  cast- 
ing. 

Prism,  the,  30. 

I'rismoid,  the,  31. 


I'robert,  Richard  H.,  analysts  of  iron 
for  jK'rmanent  moulds,  558-59. 

Projx'ller  wheels,  mixture  for,  284. 

ProiMjrtion,  1-2. 

Pulleys,  circumferential  speed  of,  229- 
30;  rules  for  speeds  and  diameters 
of,  231;  mixtures  for,  274,  284- 
85- 

Pumps,  hand,  mixture  for,  285. 

Pyr^nriid,  the,  30-31. 

Quadratic  cquation.s,  solution  of,  14- 
15- 

Quadrilateral,  area  of  any,  27. 

Quantities,  in  algebra,  7-10:  addition 
of  like  and  unlike,  S;  multi- 
plication of  simple  and  com- 
pound, 9. 

Radiation  of  heat,  208. 
Radiators,  mixture  for,  285. 
Railroad  castings,   mixture  for,   285; 

average  of   three   meltings,   459. 
Rake,  cupola,  467. 
Ratio,  1-2. 
Reaumur  malleable  cast  iron,  385-88: 

Remelting,    385-86;     annealing, 

386;  analyses,  387-88. 
Retorts,  See  Heat  resisting  castings. 
Richards,  horsepower  required  for  air 

compression  and  delivery,  217-18. 
Ries,  Prof.  H.,  analyses  of  moulding 

sands,  472-73. 
Rings,    cast    iron,    formulas   to   find 

weight  of,  574. 
Rivets,  iron,  round  head,  166. 
Rolling  mill  rolls,   mixture   for,    274. 
Rolls,  chilled,  mixtures  for,  274,  275, 

285. 
Roofing,  corrugated  iron,  weight  of, 

141. 
Roofing,  tin  and  other,  169-70. 
Root  Positive  Rotary  Blowers,  449. 
Roots  of  numbers,  3-5. 
Rossi,  G.  A.,  on  effect  of  titanium  in 

cast  iron,  268. 
Rupture,    modulus   of,    185-S6;     for- 
mula for,  304. 

Sand  blast,  the,  566. 

Sand  bottom  of  cupola,  441. 

Sand  conveyors  and  driers,  497,  498. 


Index 


673 


Sand,  rammed,  to  find  weight  of,  572. 

Sand  roll  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of 
rupture  of,  299. 

Sanitary  ware,  qualities  of  iron  for, 
27s;  average  of  eight  meltings, 
458. 

Sash  weight,   mixture  for,    274,   275. 

Sash  weight  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of 
rupture  of,  299. 

Scales,  mixture  for,  285. 

Scott,  W.  G.,  influence  of  the  chemi- 
cal constituents  of  cast  iron,  252. 

Scott,  W.  G.,  specifications  for  coke, 
426;  for  moulding  sand,  472; 
analyses  of  core  sands,  479-89;  an- 
alysis of  Yougheogheney  gas  coal, 
487;  analyses  of  graphite,  coke 
dust,  coal  and  charcoal,  488-91. 

Scott,  W.  G.,  specifications  for  graded 
pig  irons,  243. 

Scrap  iron,  grading,  250-51. 

Secant,  the,  108. 

Set  screws,  steel,  list  price  per  100,  160. 

Shafting,  See  Steel  shafting. 

Sheath,  Mr.,  on  continuous  melting, 

551-54- 
Sheet  brass  and  all  metals  except  steel 

and  iron,  Birmingham  gauge  for, 

120. 
Sheet  iron.  See  Iron,  sheet. 
Sheet  metals,  weights  of,  per  square 

foot,  142. 
Shot    iron,    recovering    and    melting, 

291-93. 
Shrinkage  chart,  by  W.  J.  Keep,  372- 

374- 

Shrinkage  of  castings  per  foot,  234. 

Shrinkage  or  contraction,  329—32. 

Signs  and  abbreviations,  v. 

Silica  brick,  analysis  of,  435. 

Silicon,  per  cent,  308,  310;  should  be 
low,  315,  321;  for  elasticity,  323; 
for  hardness,  325;  for  chill,  327; 
decreases  shrinkage,  332;  little 
effect  on  fusibility,  334;  aids 
fluidity,  334;  favors  growth  by 
repeated  heating,  337;  increases 
permeability,  340;  increases  acid 
resistance,  341;  decreases  resist- 
ance to  wear,  342;  unrecognizable 
in  micrographs,  346;  determina- 
tion of,  377-78. 


Silicon,  properties  of ,  256;  influence  of 
as  a  constituent  of  cast  iron,  256- 
60,  272. 

Sines,  natural,  tangents  and  secants, 
107-8;   tables  of,  110-14. 

Skin  drying  moulds,  479. 

Slag  car  castings,   mixture  for,    285. 

Slags,  comparison  of  analyses  of,  432- 
33- 

Smoke  stacks,  locomotive.  See  Loco- 
motive castings. 

Soil  pipe  and  fittings,  mixture  for, 
286. 

Soldiers,  524. 

Solids,  and  their  mensuration,  30-34. 

Solids,  center  of  gravity  of,  196-97; 
lineal  expansion  for,  205. 

Specific  gravity  of  various  substances, 
197-201. 

Specifications  for  steel  castings,  stand- 
ard, 409-11. 

Speeds,  grinding  wheel,  231. 

Speeds,  surface,  rules  for  obtaining, 
232. 

Sphere,  the,  33-34- 

Sphere,  hollow  iron,  formula  for  find- 
ing weight  of  a,  572;  of  a  solid 
iron,  571. 

Spheres,  table  of  surface  and  volumes 
of,  93-98- 

Spherical  segments,  cast  iron,  for- 
mulas to  find  weight  of,  573. 

Spill  bed,  466. 

Sprocket  wheels  for  ordinary  link 
chains,  176—78. 

Sprue  cutters,  steel,  537. 

Square  measure,  tables  of,  37-38. 

Square  of  a  whole  number  ending  with 
ciphers,  to  find,  56. 

Square  root,  3-4. 

Square  root  of  large  number  not  in 
table,  to  find,  62. 

Square  roots  of  numbers  from  1000  to 
10,000,  57-61. 

Squares  and  square  roots  of  numbers, 
of  from  .01  to  1000,  tables  of, 
46-56. 

Stead,  J.  E.,  on  relations  of  iron  and 
phosphorus,  348. 

Steam  chests,  See  Locomotive  and 
Machinery  castings. 

Steam  cylinders,  mixtures  for,  286. 


674 


Index 


Steel  castings  in  the  foundry,  .194-416: 
Content  of  carl>()n  in  varieties, 
.<94-<(.s;  mcch:iiiiial  |)rti|KTlies 
"Normal  steels,"  .nj6;  Bessemer 
process,  396;  liaby  converter 
(Robert),  397;  gases  in,  398; 
chemical  changes  in  Tropenas 
converter,  397-99;  annealing, 
with  micrographs,  400-1;  Trope- 
nas  process,  401-3;  chemistry  of 
the  process,  403-4;  converter 
linings,  404-5;  converter  practice, 
40G-9;  standard  specifications, 
409-1 1 ;  open-hearth  methods  by 
VV.  M.  Carr,  411-16. 

Steel,  comparative  cost  of,  made  by 
dilTercnt  processes  (B.Stoughton), 
417-24:  Acid  open  hearth,  417, 
419,  422;  basic  open  hearth,  418, 
419,  423;  converter,  420,  421; 
crucible  castings,  423;  electric 
furnace,  424. 

Steel,  fillets  of,  areas  and  weights  of, 
145- 

Steel,  flat  rolled,  weights  of,  per  lineal 
foot,  130-35- 

Steel  scrap,  use  of,  in  mixtures  of 
cast  iron,  290-gi;  points  to  be 
watched  in  melting,  316—17; 
closes  the  grain,  319;  per  cent  of, 
322. 

Steel  shafting,  cold  rolled,  weights  and 
areas  of,  140. 

Steels,  mechanical  properties  of  "nor- 
mal, "  396. 

Steels,  unsaturated  and  supersatu- 
rated, 241. 

Stoughton,  Bradley,  tables  of  com- 
parative cost  of  steel  made  by 
different  processes,  417-21. 

Stove  plate,  qualities  of  iron  for,  275; 
mi.xture  for,  286;  average  of 
three  meltings,  457. 

Stove-plate  iron  test  bars,  moduli  of 
rupture  of,  300. 

Straight  line,  problems  of  the,  15-17. 

Strainers  and  spindles,  52S. 

Straw  rope  for  core  bodies,  499. 

Strength  of  beams,  transverse,  for- 
mulas for,  188-90. 

Strength  of  cast  iron,  nine  factors 
which  influence,  315-22. 


Strength  of  materials,  185-86,  213-14. 

Strength  table  by  W.  J    Keep,  375. 

Strengths,  transverse,  table  of,  185-86 

StupakolT,  S.  11.  Chapter  on  jigs, 
540-46. 

Sturtevant  Steel  Pressure  Blower,  448. 

Subtraction  in  algebra,  8. 

Sulphur,  properties  of,  260;  deleteri- 
ous influence  of,  in  cast  iron,  261- 
63,  272;  per  cent,  308,  315,  321; 
low  for  elasticity,  323;  harden- 
ing effect  of,  325;  increa.ses  com- 
bined carbon,  327-28;  cflecl  on 
shrinkage,  332;  on  melting  point, 
334.  336;  low  for  heat  resistance, 
337;  and  for  corrosion  resistance, 
339-42;  increases  resistance  to 
wear,  342;  causes  dirty  castings, 
343;  in  micro-structure,  346-48; 
determination  of,  378. 

Sulphuric  acid,  use  of,  in  pickling, 
567-68. 

Sweeps,  522-23. 

Tacks,  length  and  number  of,  to 
pound,  148. 

Tangent,  107. 

Tanks,  rectangular,  capacity  of,  in 
U.S.  gallons,  99-100;  number  of 
barrels  in,  loo-i. 

Tapers  per  foot  and  corresponding 
angles,  table  of,  117-18. 

Tapping  bar,  463. 

Taylor  and  White,  temperatures  cor- 
responding to  various  colors  of 
heated  iron,  239. 

Temperatures,  equivalent.  Centigrade 
to  Fahrenheit,  211-12. 

Temperatures,  furnace,  206. 

Tensile  strength,  ratio  of,  to  breaking 
loads,  10  to  I,  302;  I).  K. 
Clarke's  formula  for,  304. 

Tensile  test,  size  of  bar  for,  295-97. 

Test  bars,  report  on  by  committee  of 
.Vmerican  Foundrymen's  Asso- 
ciation, 294-306:  Character  of 
the  heats,  294;  making  of  cou- 
pons, 295;  specifications  for  gray 
iron  castings,  296—97;  patterns 
for,  297;  moduli  of  rupture,  298^ 
300;  erratic  results,  298,  301-2; 
comparison    of,    302-3;     casting 


Index 


67; 


defects,  304;  circular,  304-6; 
microscopical  evidence  why  simi- 
lar irons  have  different  relative 
strengths,  306-12;  Prof.  Porter 
on  the  physical  properties  of  cast 
iron,  312-14. 

Thermit,  use  of,  in  the  foundry,  270. 

Thermometer  scales,  comparison  of, 
213. 

Threads,  U.  S.  standard,  149. 

Thumb  screws,  165. 

Tin  and  copper,  alloys  of,  222. 

Tin,  copper  and  zinc,  alloys  of,  224—25. 

Tin,  roofing,  169—70. 

Tin,  sheet,  sizes  and  weight  of,  142. 

Titanium,  properties  of,  267;  effect 
of,  in  cast  iron,  267-68. 

Tobin  bronze,  225. 

Tons,  gross,  in  pounds,  235. 

Transverse  strength,  See  Strength. 

Transverse  test,  size  of  bar  for,  295- 
98;   See  Test  bars. 

Trapezium,  area  of  a,  27. 

Trapezoid,  area  of  a,  27. 

Triangle,  area  of  a,  26. 

Triangle,  right-angled,  solution  of, 
109. 

Triangles,  oblique-angled,  solution  of, 
109. 

Tropenas  converter,  chemical  changes 
in  a,  397. 

Tropenas  process  of  steel  making, 
401-3;  chemistry  of  the  process, 
403-4- 

Troy  weight,  table  of,  36. 

Tubes,  brass  and  copper,  seamless, 
167-69. 

Tumblers  and  tumbling  mills,  563-66. 

Turn-buckles,  drop- forged,  162-63. 

Turner,  Prof.  T.,  on  varieties  of  pig 
iron,  253;  percentages  of  com- 
bined carbon,  256;  on  the  use 
of  silicon,  257-59;  phosphorus 
in  cast  iron,  264. 

Tuyeres,  construction  of,  in  cupola, 
439-40. 

Two-foot  rule,  measurement  of  angles 
with,  1 15-16. 

Unit  of  heat,  207. 

Units,  electrical  and  mechanical, 
equivalent  values  of,  220-21. 


Valves,  mixtures  for,  286. 

Vanadium,  properties  of,  268;  Mol- 
denke's  experiments  on  action  of, 
on  cast  iron,  269-70. 

Ventilating,  See  Heating  and  venti- 
lating. 

Walker,  F.  G.,  shrinkage  of  castings 
per  foot,  234;  weight  of  castings 
determined  from  weight  of  pat- 
terns, table,  570. 

Washer,  lock,  153;  positive  lock, 
154- 

Washers,  wrought  steel  plate,  153. 

Water,  distilled,  weights  of  volumes 
of,  39-40. 

Water  heaters,  mixtures  for,  286. 

Water,  pressure  of,  219. 

Water  supply,  577—78. 

Watts  in  terms  of  horse  power,  45. 

Wear,  resistance  to,  342. 

Weaving  machinery.  See  Machinery 
castings. 

Wedge,  the,  31,  195. 

Weight  of  castings  determined  from 
weight  of  patterns,  569-70;  for- 
mulas for  finding,  570-76. 

Weights,  528. 

Weights  and  measures,  35-45;  tables 
of  various,  46—106. 

Wells,  contents  of  linings  of,  104-6. 

West,  Thomas  D.,  on  power  of  cast 
iron  to  stretch,  332. 

Wheel  and  axle,  194. 

Wheels,  mixtures  for,  287. 

Whitehouse,  J.  S.,  on  side  blow  con- 
verters, 404-8. 

Willson,  E.  M.,  table  of  tapers  per 
foot  and  corresponding  angles, 
1 1 7-1 8. 

Wind  box  of  the  cupola,  445-46. 

Window  glass,  panes  of,  in  a  box, 
236. 

Wine  measure,  table  of,  38. 

Wire,  brass.  See  Brass. 

Wire,  copper.  See  Copper. 

Wire,  coppered  Bessemer  spring, 
147. 

Wire,  coppered  market,  147. 

Wire  gauges,  different  standards  for, 
119-20. 


676 


Index 


Win-,  iron,  gauRcs  and  weights  of,  t.\Ci; 
list  prices  of,  147. 

WlhkI  workinK  machinery,  See  Ma- 
chinery castings. 

W'rut  pi[H.-,  dimensions  of  standard, 
167-69. 


Wrought  Iron,  See  Iron,  wrought. 

Zinc  and  copper,  alloys  of,  223. 
Zinc,  copper  and  tin,  alloys  of,  224—25 
Zones  in  cupola,  437,  442-43. 


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