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Louis SHELDON NEWTON
ARCHITECT
HARTFORD VERMONT
Works of VICTOR T. WILSON
PUBLISHED BY
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
Free-Hand Perspective.
For Use in Manual Training Schools and Colleges.
By Victor T. Wilson. 8vo, xii + 257 pages, 139 figures.
Cloth, $2 50.
Free-Hand Lettering.
Being a Treatise on Plain Lettering from the Prac-
tical Standpoint for Use in Engineering Schools and
Colleges 8vo, 105 pages, 23 full-page plates. Cloth,
$,.oo.
FREE-HAND LETTERING.
A TREATISE ON PLAIN LETTERING FROM
THE PRACTICAL STANDPOINT FOR USE
IN ENGINEERING SCHOOLS
AND COLLEGES.
BY
VICTOR T. WILSON, M.E.,
Author of Free-Hand Perspective.
FIRST EDITION.
FOURTH THOUSAND.
NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITKD.
1905
Copyright, 1903,
BY
VICTOR T. WILSON.
ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRIKTKR, NEW YORK.
PREFACE. '
THE student who takes up the study of lettering, as
outlined in these pages, will not find it to consist of a
set of copies which if reproduced carefully will give
proficiency in the subject ; copy work seldom yields more
than a meaningless result, it does not lead to independent
and creative work. Erroneous conceptions have grown
out of the idea that letters are standard, that they are
rigidly fixed in their forms; the truth is there are no
really fixed forms. Variety will be found to some degree
in all lettering ; each line of it the draftsman makes is
creative work.
Nor should he who undertakes the study be en-
couraged to think that a few hours of labor will develop
proficiency. It is not an easy task, long and patient
labor rightly directed will alone give that certainty of
touch and judgment of values which are necessary.
The student is dealing with forms having a character
which can be spoiled, while apparently departing but
little from the fundamental type, and which, on the
other hand, can be treated with an almost infinite and
iii
iv PREFACE.
subtle variation without detracting from the result if
done in the right way.
Without a measurable knowledge of free-hand draw-
ing, wherein is derived accuracy of hand and eye and an
intelligent sense of proportion, it will be found impos-
sible, beyond the merely imitative, to do good work.
The author has endeavored to treat the subject with this
in view. Emphasis is laid upon attaining a proper
attitude, through the development of a letter, a word
or line of words by a sketch method, analogous to that
used in other free-hand drawing. It is the object to
cultivate the conception that all lettering is design,
that any mathematical or mechanical attempt at treat-
ment is entirely impracticable in ordinary work. Em-
phasis is also laid upon attaining facility in the free
single-stroke letter used on working drawings, by a
careful analysis of the stroking and by practical points
about the handling of the pen and a description and
an illustration of a variety of styles from which to choose.
The chapter upon the design of letters, which it
is hoped will afford matter of interest to the thoughtful
student, is not intended to form part of a regular course
of study, but is for occasional reference only. It is a
phase of the subject either overlooked or but slightly
touched upon in books on lettering.
Attention is called to the footnotes added to a number
of the plates, summarizing the chief points to be noted
about them, also to the references printed under each
plate, covering all the places in which each is discussed
PREFACE. V
in the text. It is hoped that this will be found a con-
venience in using the book for reference.
A number of authorities have been consulted in the
preparation of the work, among them Prof. Henry S.
Jacoby's book on " Plain Lettering," an excellent treatise ;
J. C. L. Fish's "Lettering of Working Drawings," con-
taining some good practical offhand styles; "A Practical
System of Offhand Lettering," by Chas. W. Reinhardt,
also notable in its treatment of offhand styles and in
the analysis of the stroking for the same ; Frank C.
Brown's "Letters and Lettering," probably the most
artistic treatment of letters which has appeared up to
the present time: from these the author has taken the
liberty occasionally to quote. His thanks are also due
to Messrs. Chas. Scribner & Sons for permission to copy
some styles from the recent treatise of Lewis F. Day,
"Alphabets, Old and New," and which constitutes the
matter on Plate XXI.
VICTOR T. WILSON.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE iii
CHAPTER I.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS.
1. Good Lettering is not Mechanical, but is Good Design i
2. Illustrative Example 4
3. Brief History of the Roman and Gothic Letters 7
4. The Roman Letter 9
5. Variations in the Different Letters n
6. The Roman Letter is not a Fixed Type 13
7. Further Analysis of the Roman Letters 14
8. Analysis of the Small Letters 18
9. The Roman Numerals 19
10. Proportions of the Roman Letters Vary 20
11. The Gothic Letter 22
12. Analysis of the Gothic Capitals 22
13. Analysis of the Small Letters and Numerals 23
14. Italicized Roman and Gothic Letters 24
15. Stump Writing 25
1 6. The Proper Ratio of Small Letters to Capitals 26
CHAPTER II.
SPACING.
17. Spacing is a Problem in Design 28
1 8. Spacing Depends upon Several Variables 28
19. Illustrative Example 29
vii
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
20. Development of Proper Space by Sketch Method 32
21. Sketching Preliminarily in Outline Gothic 34
22. Spacing of Words, Punctuation, etc 35
CHAPTER III.
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING.
23. Letters Should be Drawn Throughout, not Copied 37
24. The Kind of Pen to Use 38
25. The Kind of Ink to Use 40
26. The Kind of Paper to Use 40
27. How to Handle the Pen for Offhand Lettering 41
28. The Outline Gothic for Offhand Work 44
29. Other Offhand Styles 46
.30. Some Special Directions about the Use of the Pen 50
31. Proper Size for Offhand Lettering 52
CHAPTER IV.
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES.
32. The Single-line Title 54
33. The Choice of Style and Size 55
34. How to Lay Out the Line 57
35. Degree of Finish to Give a Title 58
36. The Design of Grouped Titles 59
37. Various Considerations to be Observed in Designing 60
38. Example of How to Lay Out and Execute the Design 62
39. A Title may be Variously Treated 64
CHAPTER V.
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES, INCLUDING PHOTO-
REPRODUCTION.
40. General Statement 66
41. Lettering on Maps 66
42. Architect's Lettering 68
43. Lettering on Working Drawings for Manufacturing 69
44. Lettering for Photo-reproduction 71
45. Lettering for Patent Office Drawing 74
46. Lettering for Advertising Purposes 75
TABLE Of- CONTENTS. ix
CHAPTER VI.
THE DESIGN OF LETTERING.
PAGE
47. General Statement 79
48. Single-stroke Gothic may be Taken as the Basis for all Design . 80
49. The Preservation of Type Style 81
50. The Old Roman Letter 83
5 1 . The Effect of Changing Proportions and Spacing 84
52. Other Considerations in Design 85
53. Open- and Closed-body Letters 87
54. The Limitations of Letters 88
CHAPTER VII.
MECHANICAL AIDS TO LETTERING.
55. General Statement 91
56. Practical Points about Executing a Ruled Letter 92
57. Drafting-room Practice in the Use of Stock Titles Reproduced
in Blue-prints, etc 93
58. Lettering Triangles 94
LIST OF FULL-PAGE PLATES.
I. Modern Roman Capitals Analyzed.
II. Modern Gothic Capitals Analyzed.
III. Modern Roman and Gothic Small Letters and Numerals
Analyzed.
IV. Roman and Gothic Capitals and Small Letters and Nu-
merals Italicized.
V. Stump Writing and Single-line Gothic.
VI. Illustrations of Roman and Gothic Letters Formed into
Words.
VII. Illustrations of Spacing.
VIII. Single-stroke Upright Gothic and its Variations for Working
Drawings.
IX. Various Offhand Styles for Working Drawings and Illustra-
tions Showing their Application.
X. A Working Drawing Title Shown in Various Stages of
Sketch Development.
XI. A Working-drawing Title Treated in a Variety of Ways.
XII. A Working Drawing Showing the Application of Offhand
Lettering and Dimension Figures.
XIII. Titles on Working Drawings Taken from Original Sources.
XIV. Titles on Working Drawings Taken from Original Sources.
XV. Letters Authorized by the U. S. Geological Survey.
XVI. Letters and Conventions Authorized by the U. S. Geological
Survey.
XVII. Alphabets Suitable for Architectural Drawings.
XVIII. Architectural Titles.
XIX. Illustrations of the Effects of Photo-reproduction.
XX. Illustrations of Advertising Lettering.
XXI. Various Designed Letters.
XXII. Modern Roman-Gothic Alphabet of Capitals and Small Letters
and Numerals.
XXIII. Old Roman Alphabet of Capitals and Small Letters.
FREE-HAND LETTERING.
CHAPTER I.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS.
i. Good Lettering is not Mechanical, but is Good Design.
The lettering which the draftsman in practice is
called upon most frequently to make consists of a rapidly
executed statement, upon a drawing, descriptive or
otherwise ; the style most suitable, therefore, is a simple
one which through practice he learns to do readily.
Now and then a design of a group of lettering is called
for, such as we find in the titles to working drawings,
but more frequently even this is very plain and executed
in some one style throughout.
The beginner is apt to approach the subject with the
misconception that lettering is a form of mechanical
drawing, that the use of the straight-edge is in order,
that the various letter forms and the spaces between
them can be figured out by measurement ; unfortunately
books on lettering have been apt to encourage this
misconception by containing large alphabets, very
2 FREE-H4ND LETTERING.
rigidly analyzed as to proportions, etc., with little ex-
planatory matter attached, so that the impression is
left that mathematical exactness is most important.
In this respect, ordinary printed lettering from type is
not an instance of good lettering, for the forms come
together as best they may and do not produce a uniform
result. This lack of harmony can easily be detected by
any one who has keen perceptions ; it is easy to discern,
for example, whether or not, in certain advertisements
that come under our notice daily, the Roman and Gothic
letters are set up in type or reproduced from an original
drawing.
Fundamentally good lettering will be good design.
Just as the designer of fabrics or wall-paper takes his
forms and distributes them over prearranged spaces in
a uniform and pleasing manner, so the letterer takes his
more rigid forms, his letters, and distributes them
uniformly in his prearranged spaces so as to give a
combination pleasing to the eye.
Good design in lettering requires first that we have
simplicity in style. There are no more striking instances
of good lettering than are to be found on the bill-board,
street-car and other advertising. If the student will
take the trouble to investigate, he will find that the
letters used most frequently are the simple Roman or
Gothic, more often the latter (see Plates I and II).
The second requisite in good lettering is uniformity
in the effect. This can be explained best by taking a
line of lettering as an illustration line 5, let us say, on
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 3
Plate VI . The separate letters should appear to be of
the same height, the same size, and the spaces should
also appear to be uniform, not to mention that each
letter must be of the same alphabet style. Both con-
siderations, simplicity of style and uniformity of treat-
ment, are accomplished through the aid of judgment and
taste, combined with accuracy of hand and eye in the
detection of small differences. To be sure letter forms
are somewhat, although not entirely, standard. No
rules can be followed which are practical and which will
invariably produce the same result with all forms in
various combinations, notwithstanding that books on
the subject strive to find rules to cover all cases. They
are largely unsuccessful because they lead to dependence
upon measurement instead of upon the unaided eye.
A knowledge of free-hand drawing is essential to facil-
ity in lettering because the eye is then trained to see
form and to judge of effects; moreover, lettering to be
skillfully done should be treated much as a free-hand
drawing is treated, that is, the more finished kind,
by a step-by-step process which deals first with the
broad simple effect and proceeds to the details gradually
in the order of their importance. To use a concrete
and extremely simple illustration: The development of
a letter should proceed in a method similar to that in
which we should draw a straight line between two
given points; the first thing to do is to get a sense of
direction between the points by passing the hand' to
and fro and indicating it by a few tentative strokes here
4 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
and there; these can be added to by others, connecting
them, the whole being not a line but a series of more
or less connected and overlapping marks giving general
direction ; this can be refined by repeating the process,
working in a more and more restricted area until the
line assumes as much exactness as desired or that the
draftsman is capable of attaining. The treatment of
the line is typical of the process in any free-hand draw-
ing no matter how complicated; the motive comes first
and the details afterwards. An isolated letter should be
drawn in this way; in the same way a word or line of
words, or a combination of lines and styles.
2. Illustrative Example.
Let it be required to draw a few large isolated letters of
the Gothic style shown on Plate II. Fig. i illustrates the
step-by-step process of developing the letters. They
are to be taken singly. The several stages, moreover,
from a to g must be considered as purely arbitrary;
whether the letters are carried through these or a greater
or less number of stages will depend upon the judgment
or the skill of the draftsman. The chief thing to note
is that the development in each case is so handled that
but one phase of it is treated at a time, the largest feature
first and the smallest details last. The first and most
important feature is proportion; this is indicated in
a; a suggestion only of the form is next given in b,
as well as a refinement of the proportions showing
more definitely the maximum spaces the letters occupy.
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 5
r -T
run.
i r -r
J_ _LL . I . . IJ_
1 T
r
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IT,
' l < (
r
L J i_.
d
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PuJ
in
M
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y
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CK
O FREE-HAND LETTERING.
A more complete shape to each letter is given at c\
after this at d a suggestion of the weight of body
is added. Uniform weight is insured by paying atten-
tion to scaling the thickness only in scattered places.
In e the letter shows further refinement of form
and weight, while we have the final careful outline
in/.
The line g is introduced to show incidentally how
the heavy body of the letter may be put in in ink, itself
shown in three stages. First a strong wall of ink is put
around the inside of the outline, then if the letter has a
very heavy body, intermediate strokes may be intro-
duced as in the B. This development is analogous to
the method used in any free-hand drawing.
If the Roman letter form were the subject of such an
exercise it would be perfectly feasible to carry it through
the first three stages a, b, and c, in the same treatment
as employed for the Gothic letter; a stage analogous
to d might begin to indicate the characteristic style
of the letter, and the remaining stages to the development
of it.
The advantage of this comprehensive treatment of
the drawing, as it may be called, is, as briefly stated
above, that the essential facts are treated first and as
each new feature is taken up it allows the draftsman
to see and correct his errors as they develop.
The only place for mechanical treatment in ordinary
lettering is in making the limiting lines; even the skill-
ful draftsman will do this except in very small work;
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 7
certainly the beginner should never fail to rule at least
two, if not more, limiting lines for all letters.
3. Brief History of the Roman and Gothic Letters.
The uninitiated are apt to think that type as we have
it now from the foundry in the simple pure Roman and
Gothic styles is a fixed letter having some authoritative
claim to being standard. It represents, however, only
a stage in the growth of forms more or less variable, and
some intelligent understanding of the reasons for this
will help the student in arriving at a proper attitude
towards lettering in general.
It is generally believed, although it cannot be proved,
that the alphabet is of hieroglyphic and Egyptain origin;
the oldest manuscripts left to us come from Egypt and
date back many centuries B.C. The hieroglyphic char-
acters express ideas, later such characters become sym-
bols of single sounds, and it is from these we get the
alphabet and letter forms.
In the earliest four or five centuries of the Christian
era there were two distinct hands visible in the manu-
scripts, one the majuscule, analogous to our capitals,
and the other the cursive or running hand. Throughout
the centuries these hands reacted upon one another,
each becoming modified through the influence of the
other, and later they formed the basis for type. Of
course the invention of printing soon put an end to the
systematic work of scribes, although such writing still
survived for a long time for choice works. The first
8 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
printed books appeared about 1450 A.D. and were made
in Germany; imitating as they did the hand of the
scribes of the fifteenth century in that country, they
naturally partook of the heavy black-faced letters then
prevalent. The early Roman types were in imitation
of the Caroline minuscule, prevalent about the ninth
to the eleventh century, and which from that on became
universal in Latin Christendom.
In the early Roman we also see distinct evidences, in
the thick and thin lines, of the imitation of the strokes
of the quill used by the early scribes the reed was not in
use in Western Europe later than the early part of the
sixth century, when it gave place to the quill. The
stiff -nibbed quill used by these early scribes was held
nearly perpendicularly to the paper, but inclined to
the line of the writing. The down strokes were made
heavy, including the inclined ones in the M, W, N, etc.
The letters are characteristically square, and although
the present letters vary somewhat from the original,
their skeleton is still based upon the square form. The
Gothic, unlike the Roman, never reached an authori-
tative form; every letter has a variety of shapes, any
one allowable so long as it expresses the characteristics of
the style, which is mainly that of a uniform body letter.
It is interesting to note, in this connection, that hand-
writing, although the parent of the first type forms, was
forsaken by its offspring, which grew independently and
steadily in the effort to arrive at a fixed legible form;
handwriting, on the other hand, shows varied phases of
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 9
growth and decay; forms were gradually developed and
a " universal hand of the day" was evolved ; then, through
various causes, decay took place, writing becoming
more illegible until, through a reform movement, type
forms are imitated. We can note this to-day in the
upright and round handwriting succeeding Spencerian.
Small letters were not in evidence in the early manu-
scripts ; they came in gradually and long after the capital
forms, becoming fixed, however, by the ninth century.
The broad capital letter, known as the Rustic, prevailed
in the manuscripts of the fourth and fifth centuries;
the miniscule only became general by the ninth. This
was developed in its most perfect form by the master
printers of Venice, and it is to this period of the Renais-
sance in Italy that we turn for the best examples of
these forms. The scholars and printers of this period
took as their models the pure Caroline forms of the old
manuscripts, and the Roman letters used by them have
not varied appreciably since.
Thus we see that letters have gone through stages
of evolution like other forms, and to-day we have letters
which, while more or less apparently rigid, are yet
capable of a certain variety under the fancy of the
designer, who is free to devise new forms as he was in
earlier days ; this is in fact being constantly done.
4. The Roman Letter.
The alphabet most familiar to-day is the Roman, but
for the draftsman, partly because it is so familiar to
10 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
every one and therefore calls for a higher degree of
accuracy, it is the most difficult to execute acceptably,
and hence is little used by any but the most expert;
were it not so difficult it would undoubtedly be used
more. The Gothic is much simpler and is used most
commonly by the rank and file of draftsmen ; however, '
it is essential to an adequate knowledge of lettering that
the Roman be understood, therefore we will investigate
it first.
Plate I shows the alphabet of capitals, called by the
printer upper case because these characters lie in the
upper and less accessible part of the type-case as it
stands inclined in front of him. Plate III shows the
small letters of this style and the numerals; the first are
called lower case because in type they lie nearest the
printer's hand in the lower part of the type-case, since
they are more frequently used. The small letters are
scaled to go with the capitals, but the numerals, for
convenience, are drawn to a different scale.
On Plate I the letters vary in size, both as to width
and in a few cases as to height, in order to convey an
impression of uniformity. The letter which may be
taken as a standard of reference, and called of normal size
for convenience, is the H; it occupies the full rectangle
of space allotted to it.
The proportion of the letters in these first two alpha-
bets is that in common use, and this, for want of a .better
distinguishing term, we will call standard. The height
of the letters is, for convenience, divided into six equal
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. n
parts, and the widths are scaled and designated by units
of the value of one of these divisions ; for example, the
H is five units wide and six units high. However, it
must be understood that the letters have no fixed propor-
tion ; this is to be particularly noticed in the artist's free
designed alphabets (see Plate XXI). The letters may
take an infinite variety of shapes, weight of body, etc.,
within certain not easily defined limits. The term stand-
ard proportions is purely an arbitrary term, chosen for
convenience, and is applied to our present type-letter.
Some style of letter should have careful analysis by the
student, and this is chosen for the purpose.
5. Variations in the Different Letters.
The letters will vary in width because those which
do not fill their rectangle of space, as the H does, would
look smaller in size than the H if made of the same
width; to preserve uniformity of effect they must be
made slightly wider than the normal letter. For ex-
ample, the letter A must be spread out at the base
because it only occupies half of the rectangle of space
allotted to it; likewise the B, C, D, etc., must be widened
somewhat, each to a different degree. The and Q
are widened most because they only touch by tangency
the rectangular limits.
The letters will vary in height, because where a letter
touches its upper and lower limits only by tangency it
would look shorter than the H if it actually were made
tangent to them; it must be made slightly taller, in
12 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
fact must exceed both upper and lower limiting lines;
among these we have the C, G, and 0. Letters such as
A and V, etc., would also have to exceed the limits if
their angles are made sharp ; to overcome this they are,
in the plate, shown somewhat blunted; this practice
is not universal, however.
The exceptions to the above are the L and the F,
which are made narrower than normal because of their
shape, having in each case a vertical stem and one hori-
zontal member. To make them really of normal width
in a line of lettering causes them to seem to be spread
out too much, so they are actually narrowed somewhat,
the L most, because it has no horizontal member in the
middle to help fill up the space as has the F.
The letters are further modified to produce an effect
of stability; that is, those letters which have distinct
upper and lower parts will appear more stable and of
good form if the lower section is made larger than the
upper; for example, the lower lobe of the B, the two
lower arms of the X, the lower leg of the K, the lower
horizontal stroke of the E and the Z; the lower curve
of the S also is larger across and higher than the upper.
If difficulty is experienced in feeling the force of these
variations, drawing out a few, in one case ignoring and
in another taking account of them, will doubtless serve
to make the defects apparent.
The letters vary in their several variations; that is,
when combined together to form words it will be found
that slight modifications in size can be introduced here
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 13
and there to advantage; for example, an L just pre-
ceding an A can be made narrower than if it were fol-
lowed by an H or were itself at the end of a line or a
word.
The amounts of the several variations of letters,
as they are recorded on the plate, should not be regarded
by the student as having any significance further than
to call attention to their existence relatively and to aid
in forming a correct perception of variations. They
should not be considered as measurable quantities;
different proportions of letters would call for variations
in the degree of these variations. In practice the eye
should be cultivated to estimate the amount of variation
necessary; indeed this will be found indispensable in
practice, where the small size of the lettering often done
will preclude any calculation and where time may also
be an important factor. To burden the mind with
figuring out variations will result in spoiling the spon-
taneity of design. In the very small lettering which is
quite common, say letters of a height of an eighth of an
inch up to three eighths, the variations, although necessary
in a small degree, are entirely incommensurable.
6. The Roman Letter is not a Fixed Type.
The Roman alphabet is not a fixed type in which
exact proportioning of parts is attainable. The ancestors
of this letter had a very different form from that which
we now find in the printer's type or in modern good
examples. They have been modified and changed by
14 FREE-H4ND LETTERING.
different authorities. We cannot point to any one illus-
tration of a perfectly correct Roman type, but to many,
varying slightly in some cases, quite radically in others.
Prof. Jacoby says:* "The modern form is the result of
modifications mainly introduced in the eighteenth cen-
tury by some English type-founders."
Variations are evident in the widths of letters, the
size and shape of the serifs, in the relation between the
light and heavy strokes, together with some changes
in particular letters, the length of the middle bar of the
E and F, the shape of the lower jaw of the G, the inclina-
tion of the legs of the K, sharpness of the points of the A,
V, M, etc. ; even such a radical change is attempted
as making the forms not true ellipses, but ovals with
the widest part slightly above the middle of the letter.
7. Further Analysis of the Roman Letters.
The heavy stems of the letters are made a normal
width of one unit. If the body varies in thickness, as
in the B, C, G, etc., the maximum width at the middle
is slightly greater than one unit ; if it were made exactly
one it would look narrower, because this width is not
maintained throughout the body, but only at one point.
The S and the U are exceptions, for in these the curved
bodies pass into straight portions for a distance great
enough to maintain the effect of uniform weight with
the rest of the letters.
*" Plain Lettering," by Prof. Henry S. Jacoby; pub. by the
Engineering News Pub. Co.
CONSTRUCTION OF ROM 'AN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 15
The serifs are made three-quarters of a unit wide and
of a thickness of the light stems ; they are joined to the
vertical stems by a tangent curve, the quadrant of a
circle of half a unit radius; where the serifs join oblique
stems these arcs become elongated, still however, being
tangent to the serif and to the stem. The serifs can be
varied, to a degree, in their width, and their relation to
the width of the heavy body also changed, to suit the
fancy of the designer.
It is interesting to note that if the form of the curve
connecting the serif to the stem is elongated vertically
to be tangent to the middle of the height of the stems,
we have a very different letter from the Roman, but one
which is quite a common form of ornamental letter
(see Fig. 9).
The serifs are here made of the same width at the top
and at the bottom, but in the case of large letters it will
conform to good design to make the upper serifs narrower,
by a very small amount, than the lower ones.
The large spurs on the E, F, L, T, and Z do not join
the body of the letter like the serifs, by tangent curves;
the uniting curves meet the horizontal strokes abruptly.
If the letters were to be very much widened, the spurs
would look better if made to approach them by tangency.
The mid-horizontal strokes of the B, E, F, H, and R
are put slightly above the center of the space; if they
were put at the exact center, the effect made upon the
observer would be that they were below. Try it with a
few letters constructed both ways. The P is an excep-
1 6 FREE HAND LETTERING.
tion to this, for otherwise its upper part would look
dwarfed.
To preserve an effect of stability, the lower part of
the B, E, K, and R extend slightly farther to the right
than the upper part ; for similar reasons the legs of the
X cross above the center of the space, and the lower
curve of the S is made larger than the upper. Turn
the plate upside down and note the amount of these
differences.
The inner and the outer edge of the curved part of
letters, as B, C, 0, P, and the upper part of the R, are
formed by arcs of regular closed curves with vertical
and horizontal axes; the inner ones approach the outer
tangentially. If the letters were proportioned very wide
they might meet them abruptly, but the form shown
on the plate is the one most common ; on the plate, also,
the vertical axes of the outer curves are slightly larger
than their horizontal ones except the U. Note that
in the case of the C, G, 0, Q, etc., the inner curves are
tangent to the outer slightly to the right and left of the
vertical axes of the latter.
The curved forms are apt to give the most trouble in
drawing, but much of the usual difficulty may be avoided
by following a sketch method, previously outlined, for
their development. A very brief indication of form
should receive first attention, with chief emphasis upon
symmetry and without necessarily a careful clean line;
next, a more complete suggestion of form may be given
by connecting up the sketch-strokes into a somewhat
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 17
continuous curve, and so by degrees, following the same
step-by-step process, filling in between the disconnected
strokes and refining the symmetry and balance of the
form, the careful clean line of the finished curve maybe
developed substantially as lines are developed in a free-
hand drawing.
The R and S need some especial comment. The
general tendency of the tail of the R should be outward
towards the foot of the letter as opposed to vertical;
perhaps a safe guide in drawing it, whatever the pro-
portions of letter adopted, would be to see first that a
tangent to the outer curve at its point of changing
curvature is very slightly inclined from the vertical, and
then to make the inner curve harmonize with the
outer.
The compound curve which comprises the S is apt to
give trouble, but this may be somewhat lessened by
using an of the same proportions as a basis in sketch-
ing; however the upper and lower parts of the curve
of the S are not duplicates of the corresponding parts
of the 0; they are flatter and the necessary modifica-
tions must be introduced in finishing. If a single-stroke
letter is needed as a basis, note that the point of chang-
ing curvature is in the center laterally, but slightly above
the center vertically. The inclination of a tangent which
might be drawn at this point would depend entirely
upon the proportions of the letter dealt with ; it would
approach a horizontal position as the letter is widened,
but it should not reach the horizontal in any case, or
1 8 FREEHAND LETTERING.
much less be inclined downward towards the left, a
common fault that may be frequently seen.
8. Analysis of the Small Letters.
On Plate III are the small letters drawn to harmonize
with the capitals. The small letters may be divided
into three classes: ascending, descending, and short
letters. The ascending, except the t, have a height
equal to the capitals, and the descending are the
same in total length. The height of the short letters
relative to the others is not fixed; authorities differ
as to the best proportions, but they usually vary between
about one-half and two-thirds the height of the capitals.
Prof. Jacoby recommends six-tenths, a quantity ap-
proximating the value obtained by using the 'golden
cut,' which he describes fully in his book on "Plain
Lettering." In large lettering the designer should let
proportion, weight of body, requisite prominence, etc.,
be the deciding factors in settling upon this ratio. Those
on the plate are made six-tenths of the height of the
capitals.
The width and height of the small letters are related
to each other in the same manner as the corresponding
dimensions of the capitals. The height of the short
letters is divided into six equal parts, and one of these
is used* as a unit both for width and weight of
body. A u, n, or lower part of the h is taken as a
standard letter, and the others are made to conform
to it. The same peculiarities as to variations which
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 19
occur in the capitals occur also in the small
letters.
Two forms of a are shown; the first may be con-
sidered the standard form.
The g is a letter which will probably afford consider-
able difficulty in construction; if treated in a manner
analogous to that suggested for the capital S, the
difficulty will be lessened; that is, construct the upper
and lower regular closed curves first and separately and
then connect them by the small curve which is tangent
to the lower but not to the upper oval.
The o, s, v, w, x, and z are miniatures of their
respective capitals in every respect.
9. The Roman Numerals.
The Roman numerals are shown at the bottom of
Plate III. They are made shorter and narrower, for
want of space, than they should be to harmonize with
the capitals on Plate I. Their width is lessened by taking
as a unit one-sixth of the height of the short letters
instead of one-sixth of the height of the capitals, which
would be the proper procedure in practice. General
custom seems to call for a numeral the height of the
capitals, but slightly narrower ; some consider that they
should be shorter than the capitals, let us say by about
one unit, where capitals and small letters are together
used. There is good ground for this contention, for by
contrast with the small letters the numerals are apt to
appear too large if they are made as tall as the capitals.
20 FREE-H4ND LETTERING.
Some lines of letters illustrating this point are shown
on Plate VI.
The numerals have the same peculiarities as to varia-
tions in width, height, and weight of body that the
letters do. It is well to draw the round forms by sketch-
ing an ellipse or as a basis the same as for the S.
An alternative form for the base of the 2 and one
for the top of the 5 are suggested below and above
the respective figures. Of the two forms of 3 shown, the
first is the standard, although it is more difficult of con-
struction.
The skeleton of the 3 consists of two regular ovals
tangent to each other a little above the middle of the
figure and having vertical and horizontal axes.
The 8 is also based on the same construction.
The 6 and 9 are duplicates of one another reversed in
position. The inside curve in each of the curved forms
is also, like the curves in the capitals, a regular oval of
different proportions from the outer one, but having the
same axes.
10. Proportions of the Roman Letters Vary.
Proportions of any letters, whether Roman or not,
can of course vary according to the lettering to be done
in any given space. The normal width of the letters on
the plate is 5 and the height 6 ; desirable proportions for
common use would lie between this ratio and the ratio
of 4 to 6.
With a variation of width, the weight of stem may
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 21
vary independently; the latter, for equal legibility, will
vary less than the former.
The lighter stems if increased up to a certain point
of thickness, relative to the heavy stems, change the
character of the letter, and omitting the serifs we have
what is known as a Roman-Gothic form (see Plate XXII).
H AB C K
HABCK
HABCK
HABCK
CK:
The effect of changing the widths of the Roman letters,
and also the weight of body, is shown in Fig. 2. All of
the letters are of the same height; line a, c, and e are
each of different widths of letter with a proportionate
increase of thickness of heavy stem; lines b, d, and f
show the same width of letters as the preceding lines
22 FREE-H4ND LETTERING.
respectively, but have a body one and one-half times as
heavy.
The letters in line c are like those shown on Plate I.
The limits either way of narrowing or widening are
simply those controlling legibility.
11. The Gothic Letter.
Plates I and III show the Gothic capitals and small
letters; they are much easier to make than the Roman
and are a very common form in practical lettering both
as a heavy body and as a single-stroke letter ; the student
should give the preference to it and study it carefully.
The proportions shown are the same as those in the
Roman letter except that the weight of the stem is
reduced to three-quarters of a unit on account of its
uniform thickness. It is to be observed that weight
of stem, as influencing variations in width, is here illus-
trated. The light stroke on the outside of some of the
Roman letters causes a different effect in the total
width of letters from what it would were it heavy. In
the Gothic alphabet, for this reason, the A, N, R, U, V,
W, X, and Y are made wider at the base than the corre-
sponding Roman letters.
12. Analysis of the Gothic Capitals.
This is an alphabet of uniform thickness of body.
The ends of the members of the letters, when heavy
bodies are used, are cut off perpendicularly. The C, J,
S, etc., are frequently ended by horizontal limits, but it
is not good standard construction.
CONSTRUCTION OF ROM/IN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 23
An alphabet similar to this one is often used, namely,
the block letter, consisting entirely of straight -lines; the
curved forms are turned into rectangles with the corners
cut at angles of 45. At best, however, it is an awkward
and mechanical letter, a poor substitute for the Gothic.
It were better to substitute a free offhand letter such
as is described in Chapter III for the Gothic, if the
latter in its curved forms is found to be too difficult.
The construction of the Gothic letters parallels the
Roman in all but a few particulars.
Note that the upper angles of the M and N are as
wide across as the body of the letter. The lower angle
of the N is also as wide as the stem, but that of the
M, V, and W is cut off, so as to make a sharp limit to
the forms, a broader base relatively than the Roman
letters have. The V is like the A reversed and has the
same sharpness of apex ; the upper vertex of the angle of
the W is slightly sharper than the two lower ones.
The tail of the R is different in curvature from that
of the Roman, coming as it does squarely to the limit-
ing line. Several different forms of this are also to be
found ; one curves tangent to the limiting line, ending in
a vertical edge at the point of tangency, or an inclined
edge slightly beyond it, and another form is straight at
the lower part, with only one short curve where it joins
the upper part.
13. Analysis of the Small Letters and Numerals.
The small letters and numerals are shown on Plate III.
24 FREE H /IN D LETTERING.
The same fraction of the width of the normal letter,
n or h, as in the capitals, is taken as the unit of
thickness of body; the proportions are otherwise scaled
as in the Roman small letters. No special comment on
the forms other than those given for the Roman are
necessary, except to note the following: In letters like
a, b, d, h, etc., where one part of the body meets another
part it will be by entire tangency of the one with the
other, so that the thickness where the two overlap is
equal to that of one stem.
The numerals have the same general form as the
Roman, and on the plate are not made to correspond
with the capitals for the same reason that the Roman
numerals were made smaller.
There is another form of 2 which is in common use
but is not standard ; in it the curved upper part joins the
lower by an inclined straight line instead of by a com-
pound curve.
14. Italicized Roman and Gothic Letters.
Plate IV shows the Roman and Gothic alphabets when
italicized. For the sake of variety the proportions of
the capitals are changed slightly, being narrowed;
those of the small letters remain the same. The numerals
are constructed according to the suggestion contained
in section 9, namely, somewhat shorter than the capitals.
Italicizing a letter is thought by some to render slight
faults less noticeable, and it is probably the truth to
some extent, because we are not as familiar with these
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 25
combinations of direction as we are with those in the
vertical letter.
The main slant of the letters may vary between certain
limits governed in part by legibility; that shown is a
fair average. The bisectors of the angles of letters
having inclined sides have the same slant as the main
stems of the other letters.
The slant of the axes of the curved forms differs from
this slightly; it may be conceived of as derived from
the vertical letter by pulling out at the opposite corners
the circumscribing rectangle until it becomes a rhombus
or a rhomboid ; the curved forms like and C will be
tangent to the middle of the sides of this parallelogram.
In sketching these letters free-hand, it is a very essen-
tial requisite that the slants should be uniform in all
stems. To facilitate this, the beginner is advised, if he
finds difficulty in estimating it, to rule light parallel
lines at random throughout the lines of letters to act as
guides for the eye in arriving at the proper slant.
If a Roman upright capital and italicized capital are
to be treated in the same line, then for equal weight
and proportion the italicized should be a trifle shorter
than the upright.
*
15. Stump Writing.
Stump writing, as shown on Plate V, is a form of free
inclined letter somewhat similar to the Roman small
letters ; it is well adapted to offhand lettering. Its chief
difference from the Roman small letter lies in the absence
26 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
of most of the spurs and serifs and the substitution of
curves for the horizontal serifs at the ends of letters;
in a line of lettering these do not form connection with
neighboring letters, however, but each is separated
from the others as in the Roman (see Plate VI). It
serves very well where a neat-appearing letter is desired
with a minimum of drawing. The proportions, it will
be noticed, are the same essentially as the Roman small
letters, the chief exception being where the finishing
curve is carried beyond the normal limit of the letter,
as in the a, d, h, 1, m, etc.
The capitals to go with this alphabet are the Roman
shown on Plate I. The numerals are of a free style
and can be used appropriately with these letters; the
regular Roman numerals can, of course, also be used.
16. The Proper Ratio of Small Letters to Capitals.
In section 8 mention was made of the customary
relation between the sizes of small letters to capitals.
That the force of the -different proportions may be
appreciated Plate VI is added. It shows the Roman
and Gothic letters formed into words, using these dif-
ferent relations. Line i illustrates the standard or one
to six-tenths, while line 2 is one to one-half. Line 3
illustrates probably a more practical ratio of two to
three.
The numerals in lin'e i are shown the standard of
height equal to the capitals, while in the remaining lines
they are shown in the more appropriate relation (where
CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN AND GOTHIC LETTERS. 27
small letters as well as capitals are used) , which is about
one unit shorter than the capitals. The student is left
to study the plate carefully and to feel the force of the
different treatments.
CHAPTER II.
SPACING.
17. Spacing is a Problem in Design.
Proper spacing is exceedingly important and, like
proportions of letters, is best obtained by the unaided
eye rather than by adherence to a system or mathe-
matical scale. Some authorities do give ratios for
proportioning letters and rules for spacing. These
only approximate to truth and good effect and cannot
really be depended upon in all cases.
18. Spacing Depends upon Several Variables.
It is a common fallacy to believe that the clear dis-
tance between letters is a constant; it varies. Proper
spacing of letters requires variation according to the
different combinations of letters, the weight of stems
of the different letters combined, and to some extent
upon the average space between them. To be specific,
it depends upon a due regard to the following:
(a) Equivalence of area in spaces bounded by the
imaginary upper and lower limiting lines and the sides of
adjoining letters; these areas should appear equivalent
in all cases.
SPACING. 29
(6) The clear distance between letters, which exercises
a modifying effect upon these space areas ; the fact, for
example, that the V, A, and W spread out at one part
more than another, not filling their full rectangle of space.
(c) The weight of the exterior lines of letters, which
also has a modifying effect upon these space areas. If
the exterior lines are light, as in some of the Roman letters,
for example the N, they will tend to magnify the space
between letters over what it seems to be with heavy
adjoining stems.
(d) The average space between letters, which makes
irregularities of spacing less apparent the larger it is.
On geographical maps where the space between is two
or three times the width of the normal letter, or even
greater, sufficient accuracy in spacing is attained by
making the distance between the centers of letters a
constant, except perhaps in the case of the M and W.
19. Illustrative Example.
Let the rectangle of space between an H and an N
be taken as a basis of comparison. If an A succeeds
the H or any letter which recedes from its rectangle of
clear distance, the space between them must be lessened
accordingly; the amount of lessening due to this is
governed by the way in which the letter recedes. The
L and T are exceptional forms, exposing as they do
different spaces between themselves and other letters
from those in any other combination. It is quite feasible,
therefore, to cut these down in width less even in some
3 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
cases than they are in the alphabets on Plates I and II,
where they precede letters whose form will suggest too
large an intervening space. This may be illustrated
by LT, LV, etc.
Fig. 3.
HNAHQH
_ J a ic J Aj. _ J & J .-(< -UI
DHJJHBjN
JiH Jirf. Jt^< a gfrl J^
""V jl ' J,L JjV^l
Fig. 3 shows a few lines of letters taken at random
to illustrate uniform and harmonious spacing. No rules
were applied in making up the figure, only the judgment
through the unaided eye, and it is therefore not to be
supposed that it cannot be improved upon. It shows
very nearly all the different combinations of letters
that can occur, sufficient at least to be representative.
The numerical values, scaled after the letters were
drawn, are in terms of the same unit used on Plates I
SPACING. 31
and II, namely, one-sixth of the height. They are
meant to call attention to differences only. Scaled in
millimeters, the space values are: line i, 6.4, 4.16, 4.16,
4.16, 4.16 mms. ; line 2, 4.16, 3.52, 3.52, 6.4, 5.12 mms. ;
line 3, 3.85, 3.83, 4.16, .64 mms.; line 4, 3.2, 3.51, 2.4,
3.2, 4.16 mms.
Let us look at the areas of the spaces between the
letters measured only approximately in square milli-
meters. We find those in line i to be 84, 105, 105, 75,
75 sq. mms. respectively; line 2, 75, 115, 115, 84, 86 sq.
mms. ; line 3, 77, 88, 75, 82, 91 sq. mms. ; line 4, 150, 108,
143, 113, 68 sq. mms. The average area is 96 sq. mms.,
very little in excess of the unit, or 84. The maximum
difference between any space and the normal unit is
66 sq. mms., or three-quarters of the space between
H and N. Excluding the L and T, where there is much
space left outside the letter form the maximum dif-
ference between the spaces and the normal unit is 21 sq.
mms., or a little over one-sixth of the area between the
H and N. The inference to be drawn from this is that it
substantiates the claim that when laid out with a view
to uniform effect the spaces are nearly uniform in area.
Of course the uniformity is less in evidence the nar-
rower the average spacing, because the spaces left un-
occupied by letters count for more in the space areas.
If the T and the L were put closer to their neighbors,
then, independent of the effect on the equivalence . of
area, they would be too close for uniformity in the line.
Notice that the V and A have zero clear distance
32 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
between them; in narrow spacing it is quite necessary
to make their limits even overlap. The same may be
said of the R and V. A theory as to a definite clear
distance should not be allowed to interfere with freedom
in design.
The uniform weight of the stems of all these letters
makes the problem of spacing easier than it is in the case
of a varied stem letter, such as the Roman ; in the latter
it would be found that the areas of spaces would be
less uniform because of the modifying effect of the
variations in the stems. It is not so easy to arrive at a
determination as to the proper value of such spaces.
Plate VII is given to show the application of these
principles of spacing to lines of lettering; the footnote
to the plate gives sufficient explanation of the meaning
of the treatment.
20. Development of Proper Space by Sketch Method.
The safest rule in careful lettering by which to get
space values is to use sketch methods and by correction
and adjustment to bring the lettering to such a finish as
appears well; until the eye is trained to appreciate
unaided the small differences the final result will not
be like.ly to be satisfactory.
Fig. 4 illustrates a way to do the sketching. This
figure shows, as nearly as it is possible to make it for
purposes of reproduction, the way in which the word
mechanism was built up, when the limits, beginning
and ending, of the word were not fixed. The first line,
SPACING.
33
assumed to be made in pencil, gives a brief indication
of space and width of letters, beginning at the left and
proceeding towards the right. The second line shows
how a more careful calculation has been made by giving
the letter spaces a treatment that suggests form. The
lines of the first stage are still preserved to indicate the
Fig. 4.
1 r ..... TT ...... r-t ...... p 7v T ..... rvnr
LI ...... U ....... !J ...... L.'. ..... .\j ...... Liu.
T-\- ------ r
J ....... L.
amount of the correction. The third line shows a
somewhat final determination of the values of letters
and spaces, still displaying underneath the first tentative
efforts at shaping. The corrected result is shown in
heavy stroke. The fourth line is freed of the elementary
efforts by erasure of the pencil, and shows how the letters
are both more carefully shaped and the thickness of
34 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
body suggested here and there. At this stage it is
quite possible with a skillful hand to begin to ink the
letters in their final form, but an additional line is shown
in which a more complete sketch in pencil is made. This
last line corresponds in finish to line e of Fig. i, the
remaining stages being completed in ink.
While no mechanical aids are necessary in laying out
lettering, yet it is quite in order, particularly for the
beginner, nor is it destructive of dependence upon the
eye, to have handy a mark of some sort, say the straight
edge of a piece of paper, marked with the width of the
normal letter, and also a normal space, i.e., which would
exist between two vertical stems, and as the sketch
progresses apply the scale now and then to check the
calculation and to see if the values are varying satis-
factorily.
21. Sketching Preliminarily in Outline Gothic.
In Fig. 4, the preliminary sketch-work was done in a
single-stroke letter. This is a good plan to follow in the
preliminary work of any design ; the simpler the elemen-
tary forms are made, the less is the designer hampered
in his layout of spacing and sizes of letters; the nicer
differences in spacing due to weight of body and so on
can be settled at a later stage of the work. In the
word mechanism the I is the only letter in which the
weight of body needs to be provided for in the earlier
stages of the layout.
When the Roman letters are the subject of the design,
SPACING. 35
the serifs must be allowed for by sufficient additional
space. The minimum space between any two letters
will be something slightly greater than twice the width
of a serif, for these should not touch one another in any
case.
22. Spacing of Words, Punctuation, etc.
The spaces used between words and also after punc-
tuation marks should be larger than the spaces between
the letters of a word; the former can vary according
to the space at the disposal of the draftsman, the limits
being governed by the proportions of the separate
letters. It must be remembered that increase of spacing
increases prominence of words; in the same manner
increase of spacing between words conduces to greater
legibility. To give an idea of the value of word spacing,
it may be stated, as a rough suggestion, that in ordinary
cases of continuous lettering the space can vary between
a double normal space and the width of one letter plus
two normal spaces.
After a comma, semicolon, or colon the spacing should
be greater than between words in the body of a sentence ;
the increase, however, should not be very great. If
the same space is allowed, measuring from the punctua-
tion mark, that would be allowed between two words
in the sentence, it will be sufficient in the case or the
comma and semicolon ; for the colon it should be slightly
greater.
The maximum spacing should occur after a period, and
3 6 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
should be greater by at least one normal space than that
following a comma, and may be anything above that
consistent with unity in the reading matter.
The question may arise, what constitutes a good
spacing between letters in a word? The minimum
of course is controlled by those two letters which will
come closest together, like two O's or two A's, and from
this it may increase to any value consistent with legi-
bility. It is probable that the draftsman will cultivate
a certain very limited range in relative value of space,
relative, that is, to the proportions of the letters chosen,
and it will always prevail in his work. It is very con-
venient to do this so that the minimum of attention
can be given to this part of the subject, the rest con-
centrated upon the letter forms and treatment. Good
practical spacing is illustrated on Plate VI.
CHAPTER III.
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING.
23. Letters Should be Drawn Throughout, Not Copied.
The draftsman should know how to handle his pen as
well as shape his letters. Most of the lettering done
will be finished in ink, although only the free commercial
letter is put in directly without any previous pencil
treatment such a letter as shown on Plates VIII and IX.
For the beginner it is desirable to make a careful render-
ing of the Roman and Gothic forms, first in pencil,
where change and correction can easily be made, then
later also carefully in ink, so as to become thoroughly
familiar with them in all their details. In rendering
these letters on a large scale in ink, careful penciling
should be the preliminary step, and this followed as far
as possible in the inking.
The faults of letters, however, are not obviated by
inking, rather are they emphasized, and in addition
many minor faults not apparent in the penciling, because
of the gray lines, stand out boldly and clearly in the
inked letters. Therefore, while the most complete
pencil letter is advised before inking, it must be recog-
nized that the drawing of a letter is really not complete
37
38 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
until the letter is all finished. Again, no matter how
carefully the penciling may be done, it is impossible
to copy it perfectly in ink. The drawing must proceed
from the beginning to the final touch ; at no stage can it be
taken for granted that the drawing has ceased and copy
work begun; slight adjustments will be found neces-
sary to the end of the work, even sometimes to the fill-
ing in of the heavy-bodied letters, in which one would
suppose, if anywhere, the process would be purely
mechanical.
24. The Kind of Pen to Use.
The best pen to use will depend somewhat upon the
kind of letter to be drawn, but aside from this the touch
of draftsmen differs, and what would respond to the
handling of one would be a poor tool for another. Some
find a stiff pen better than a soft one ; it depends upon
the ability to control the pressure upon the paper.
For fine work on a small scale, neater than ordinary
lettering upon working drawings, lettering suitable for
a small map, for example, up to three thirty-seconds of
an inch high, a crow-quill is a very good instrument;
it will make very clear and fine lines, and can also be
spread out to make a relatively broad sweep of black
line about one thirty-second of an inch broad.
For ordinary lettering a Gillott's No. 303 will be
found very satisfactory. Any pen will be less responsive
to the hand of the draftsman when either too new or
too old, its life at best being but a short one. A new
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING. 39
pen, which is apt to give a fine wiry line with abrupt
transition to the heavier strokes, can be worn down
by scratching upon some rough substance; when a
little old, on the other hand, the pen will refuse to make
the fine strokes and will have points of weakness render-
ing it uncertain, r=o that it had better be discarded. If
used on rough paper it must be coarser than if used 011
smooth paper, else it will catch and spatter the ink.
Bristol -board or tracing-cloth will, either of them, permit
the use of a fine pen.
There are two other grades of Gillott's pens for letter-
ing, the No. 192, a finer, and the No. 404, a coarser grade.
The commercial stub pen is a very good one to use for
some kinds of rough lettering, on a working drawing,
for example ; such styles as 2 and 4 on Plate VIII come
under this head.
For rather large, offhand lettering, with the small
letters about 5 mms. (.2 of an inch) or more high and
of the single-stroke Gothic style, a ball-pointed pen
may be found very convenient. For a similar style of
letter, less than 5 mms. high, the Gillott's No. 303 will
do very well.
It is best, perhaps, for the beginner to experiment
a little on pens, learning the proper kind of stroking,
the capacities of the different pens, and then suit his
final choice of pen to his handling. For the offhand
lettering shown at the bottom of Plate V and that on
Plate IX the pen used should be such a one as will,
without perceptible pressure, make the full weight of
4 FREE HAND LETTERING.
stroke desired, and should be held squarely with the
paper, the pen-handle, that is, being perpendicular to
the line of the lettering and immediately in front of the
person. A slight inclination towards the right is feasible
in making inclined letters, although this is not necessary.
25. The Kind of Ink to Use.
There was a time, not long ago, when the best ink
for drawing was that ground up from the imported
India-ink stick, but now the liquid drawing-inks are so
satisfactory in most respects that it does not pay to
grind what is needed. Higgins' Waterproof Drawing-
ink is the one in common use. It should not be left ex-
posed' with the cork out. After dipping the pen in
ach time, the bottle should be closed to keep out the
dust and prevent evaporation.
A draftsman may consider it more convenient to use
a fountain pen sometimes, filled with liquid ink; it is
not very satisfactory, however, as it does not flow freely
enough and clogs up the pen outlet, giving frequent
trouble. The ink will of course clog up an ordinary pen
rather rapidly, and the latter should therefore be wiped
frequently; it is a good plan to get into the habit of
doing it just before each filling.
26. The Kind of Paper to Use.
In the drafting-room of a manufacturing establish-
ment, architect's office, or any other commercial concern
the paper that is used is chosen for its fitness for mechan-
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING. 41
ical drawing, and in the main works equally as well
for free pen-work. Tracing-cloth takes the ink very
well except that, being relatively non-absorbent, the
ink tends to pile up on it in wet heaps. The most
suitable paper on which to do lettering is that which is
the smoothest, the Linen Record papers or Whatman's
Hot-pressed, but best of all the good Bristol-boards,
the Reynolds' or the Strathmore boards. The cheaper
cardboards deposit a chalk on the pen and are not at
all satisfactory. The possibilities of making a good
erasure should be taken into account also, some papers
working much better than others. The above recom-
mended ones are very satisfactory in this respect.
27. How to Handle the Pen for Offhand Lettering.
Although a ready familiarity with letter-forms is
essential to facility in offhand lettering, yet there are
reasons why the latter may to advantage be practiced
before careful lettering in ink on a large scale is done.
It is necessary to cultivate a steady and controlled
handling, which may be gained by a practice of the
different kinds of short strokes used in the offhand
styles. First rule light limiting lines in pencil as guides
for the height of the capitals and the small letters.
These should, at least in the case of the small letters,,
be invariably used even in practical work.
Referring, for a time, in what follows to the offhand
letter, such as on Plates VIII and IX, we see that vertical
and inclined straight strokes together with the elliptical
42 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
forms, whether made up of one continuous stroke or
several, should be possible with perfect control of the
hand. These separate forms should be practiced.
Keep a small piece of trial paper tacked to one side
of the drawing-board ; on this, after filling the pen,
a start of the line should be made, cleaning out the
pen with a rag and refilling if found not to work
satisfactorily.
Try the stroking as shown in Fig. 5, the straight lines
Fig. 5.
-^ffi&SE
slant of about 20?
first ; it is the simplest kind that can be used and is the
basis of the matter on Plate VIII. At first it will be
difficult to make the continuous straight strokes of
uniform width; to aid this, first hold the pen so that
the plane of the pen axis and the line to be made are
perpendicular to each other, then touch the paper, press-
ing the nibs of the pen apart to the proper width before
starting the stroke; after starting, continue the motion
uninterruptedly until the end, and lift the pen just an
THE USE OF THE PEN 4ND OFFHAND LETTERING. 43
instant after stopping motion, else the line will taper
out to a fine point.
If a lump tends to accumulate at either end of the
line it can generally be avoided by carrying less ink in
the pen, combined with a briefer hesitation at the begin-
ning and the ending. Whole-arm motion, too, may be
found helpful in preserving uniformity in the weight
and the direction of the lines.
If difficulty is experienced in preserving proper direc-
tion, whether for the vertical or the inclined strokes, rule
light pencil-lines at frequent intervals to serve as sights
for the eye to follow.
Next, try the curved strokes, preserving the direction
shown by arrow-heads, still keeping equal spacing and
uniform weight of strokes if possible. Practice making
the elliptical forms with one continuous stroke, as this
is the ideal way to treat the offhand letters. The weight
of the stroke is governed by a certain minimum pressure
of the pen on the paper; if the pressure is varied, a
sidewise motion of the pen will give a different weight of
stroke from that shown in the straight lines of the figure.
In these exercises the accurate spacing of strokes
should receive as much attention as any other feature,
for, although not important here, the practice is bene-
ficial as preparing for the almost equal spacing of the
strokes in the combined letters, for example the n and the
m, and the equal spacing of the letters from each other.
A useful form to give this practical work, and rather
more interesting than meaningless stroking, is that
44 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
demonstrated by the figure, which is to divide letters
into their component parts, practicing each part sep-
arately for a time and then combining them into the
letter; the significance of the different parts of the
letter is in this way better appreciated.
If at any time it is desired to make a simple form of
letter like these, but with a body heavier than can be
controlled with one stroke of the pen, it is best, if
possible, to use a fine outline with space between the
strokes to be filled in afterwards. The use of contiguous
strokes is very apt to result in irregularity, which must
afterwards be corrected by touching up; still this is
sometimes absolutely necessary. In such a case, it is
best to work the second stroke against a wet line, for,
if dry, black on black covers up defects in the free
running of the pen.
Considerable practice is necessary in order to gain
proficiency in offhand lettering, and a thorough pre-
liminary groundwork in exercises, such as in the figure
shown, are very profitable. The ideal of perfection in
an offhand letter is never reached, but an acceptable
result is obtained when there is an evident controlled
freedom and intelligent handling, the errors in handling
being uniformly distributed and not occurring strikingly
here and there.
28. The Outline Gothic for Offhand Work.
The outline Gothic in the figure just discussed, and as
also shown on Plate V, is a type of letter which can
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING. 45
hardly be improved upon for an offhand treatment,
both for ease in execution and legibility. An analysis
of all of the letters into strokes is shown at the top, but it
is only introduced as a suggestion of how to treat them.
Different ways for the sequence of the strokes is shown ;
in skillful hands a continuous stroke will suffice for many
of the letters, E, C, 0, S, but it is almost impossible to
make a vertical up-stroke as would be necessary for the
V, U, etc. The student is advised to practice the letters
singly, following this analysis and that of Fig. 5. A
good groundwork in proper stroking in these separated
letters is worth hours of subsequent practicing in prac-
tical application to drawings, for habits once formed will
persist. In beginning the subject, much less practice is
required than at first supposed, but being dry and
uninteresting, is not apt to attract the student; this
letter, too, may be practiced as an equally good ground-
work for any of the other styles shown on Plate IX.
On Plate VIII are certain well-known and common
variations upon the straight Gothic letter ; they indicate
sufficiently, in the few examples shown, how the rest of
the alphabet may be treated without the necessity of
having all the letters present on the plate. The student
is advised to use discretion in the distribution of these
variations in a line of lettering, because a too lavish
use of them may result in weakening the effect of the
whole.
The extended and compressed forms have their spheres
of usefulness, and the student will find that he can soon
46 FREE-H4ND LETTERING.
pass from the one to the other when occasion requires;
however, it is advisable to cultivate for general use one
proportion, and this one rather bordering on the extended
form. A very short letter can be used if it is only made
sufficiently wide. The legibility of a letter is increased
more by a slight increase in width than by one in height.
The extended form should in particular be used in the
dimension figures on a drawing.
The lower line of Fig. 5 shows an analysis of one of
the variations just mentioned; a certain angularity of
the curved forms is to be noted ; the ovals, too, are made
inclined and pear-shaped.
The inclined Gothic will have the same characteristics
as the inclined letters on Plate IV; there should be
sufficient inclination of stems to avoid the effect of a
vertical letter carelessly made. Otherwise the amount
of the inclination is governed by legibility; 20 degrees
from the vertical, however, gives a good general slant.
The remaining features of inclined letters were dis-
cussed in connection with this plate in sec. 14. The
footnotes to some of the other plates are in the upright
and inclined Gothic. Plate VII illustrates one of the
variations; Plate XIII, a back-hand form of the Gothic;
Plate XI, the inclined.
29. Other Offhand Styles.
On Plate IX are several other styles of letters for
offhand work. No. i is but slightly different from
the single-stroke Gothic just discussed, but in the small
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING. Al
letters the oval forms are simplified, and one who, after
practicing sufficiently, becomes convinced of his in-
aptitude to make clear round forms can resort to this
with promise of better success. The capitals can also
be treated in the same square construction.
Some may find the swelled-stroke letters of lines 2, 3,
4, 7, and 8 suit their hands better, but the uniform
strokes just described should be mastered in a measur-
able degree first, for use in larger uniform letters, in
titles, etc.
Nos. 3 and 4 go together, also 7 and 8. They are
shown, although nearly alike, because the difference
in direction of inclination involves a difference in the
swinging of the strokes.
In the swelled-stroke letters the position of the pen
relative to the line made should be the same as for
the other offhand styles discussed, but motion should
begin and end somewhat gradually after touching the
paper and cease gradually on leaving it. Keep a strong
pressure equally uniform, and cultivate a uniform way
of bearing down at the beginning and a lifting up of the
pen at the ending of strokes. It is true that in this
form of letter minor defects are less noticeable than
in the more rigid forms. A few useful exercises for
preparation in making this kind of letter are shown
in Fig. 6. The chief difference between the upper
group of two and the lower group is that the strokes in
the lower group are swelled uniformly, while those in the
upper emphasize the lower parts of the letters; this,
48
FREE-H/1ND LETTERING.
carried even farther in the matter of concentration of
weight, is illustrated in the footnote to Plate VI.
No. 5 is suitable for a heavy blunt pen that is apt to
spill the ink, or for a stiff pen which does not obey the
handling readily, or the ball-pointed pen.
No. 6 is quite a favorite with some who admire the
Fig. 6.
Analysis of the stroking on Plate VIH.
Style a. J
~ S ' ._.__
Style 3
Style 7.
Style 8.
Roman letter; it is distinguished from its parent by
having no fillets to connect the serifs with the stems.
The small letters may be of the stump form shown on
Plate V. It is made, of course, with the minimum of
handling, the heavy strokes with one sweep of the pen,
their imperfect ends afterwards trued up with the serifs.
It is undoubtedly one of the best appearing letters upon
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING. 49
a drawing, but it requires special aptitude in lettering
to do it rapidly enough to suit the requirements of
practice. Fig. 7 is introduced to show the kind of
Fig. 7
practice stroking for the style where the stump writing
for the small letters is used.
The numerals used in connection with the offhand
styles need not necessarily partake of the characteristics
of the latter. An important thing to observe in numerals
on a drawing is that they should be fairly legible and, as
before mentioned, this is effected more by increase of
width than of height. Therefore a figure that is broader
than its height is more common on working drawings;
examples 9 and 10 show figures applied to a drawing.
Consult Plate XII for a very broad figure.
Fig. 8 gives an analysis of the strokes used in making
the simple single-stroke figures on working drawings.
A more careful treatment by dividing up figures into
more parts can be used when desired on larger work.
On Plate XVII will be found other free styles of off-
hand letters, more used, however, by architects; they
50 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
are copies from the authorities whose names are printed
tinder each. In some such ornamental styles as these
the defects of unsteady handling are not so likely to be
offensive ; particularly is this true of style e. But lack
of facility which is thus disguised must be replaced by
Fig.8.
a rarer quality, judgment in the appropriateness of the
variations to the general make-up.
30. Some Special Directions about the Use of the Pen.
(a) Kind of penciling for inked letters. The penciling
which is used prior to the inking should be of the lightest
possible, and soft so that it can be easily erased, and the
eraser, too, one of the soft kind so that it will not injure
the ink or paper. For offhand lettering the only
penciling used should be for the guide-lines ; for careful
large lettering the penciling should be as complete as
if it were to remain in pencil except as regards the black-
ness of the lines. The paper should be kept as pure as
possible, even a minimum erasing of the pencil -lines,
THE USE OF THE PEN AMD OFFHAND LETTERING. 51
so that the ink will take freely. Ink will not flow freely
upon a dark pencil-line because the lead is more or less
greasy.
(6) Filling in the thick stems of letters. In filling
in the thick stems of letters the pen should be used
like a brush. A fine outline is first drawn ideally with
steady continuous strokes; this furnishes a wall to
retain the ink and should look like the H in Fig. i.
Continuous paint-brush-like strokes are next drawn
within the wall, the long way of each member,
touching each other if the letter is not too thick,
until the whole is filled. If for a very thick body,
a middle stroke may be taken, as in B of Fig. i
and allowed to dry before completing the rest. This
process is desirable because it does not disturb the
paper by tearing up the fibers. The scratching by
short strokes, usual with beginners, will do this, making
blots likely and leave its ear-marks generally throughout
the surface. In a broad and general way, use the pen
as a painter uses a striper in sign-painting.
(c) How to correct errors in inking. First wait for
the mistake to get thoroughly dry, then always use a sand
rubber, or in other words an ink-eraser (never a knife).
Rub lightly in all directions, and by slow degrees clear
the paper thoroughly in the immediate neighborhood
of the error, not being troubled because it cleans off
somewhat more than the mistake. Next clean off the
sand with a pencil-eraser, and finally burnish down with
the ivory end of a penknife or that of a regular knife
5 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
eraser. Pencil in as if for new work and then ink it
over, manipulating the pen with extra care over the
erased portion and also when filling in has to be done;
the ink is more liable to spread here than elsewhere,
overrunning its boundaries.
Erasing-shields can be purchased and are very handy
for small errors; they consist of a piece of thin sheet
brass having holes in it differing in shape and size. It
holds the paper down tight and prevents the cleaning
of a surface larger than necessary.
(d) Points about lettering on tracing-cloth. It is
convenient to slip a piece of fine cross-sectioned paper
underneath the cloth to furnish the guide-lines or to
rule the lines in pencil on white paper and slip this under.
The smooth side of cloth holds the ink wet on its surface
longer than paper, hence use less ink at any time in the
pen, and particularly in making additions to strokes and
in trimming up.
If a mistake is made, use, as before, the ink-eraser
very carefully; no burnishing upon the cloth will be
found necessary, in fact it is impossible. Not more
than two or three erasures over the same place can be
made at best on even the smooth side of the cloth
before it will give wav
31. Proper Size for Offhand Lettering.
The size suitable for offhand letters for working
drawings depends of course upon the proportions of the
letters. A narrow small letter can be one-eighth of an
THE USE OF THE PEN AND OFFHAND LETTERING. 53
inch high or even slightly higher, whereas, if a broad
letter is used, less than one-sixteenth of an inch will
suffice. Beginners are apt to err on the side of a letter
too large. Those on Plate VIII show a good size to use,
also those shown on the working drawing on Plate XII.
The footnotes to the various plates show suitable prac-
tical sizes.
CHAPTER IV.
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES.
32. The Single-line Title.
Consider now a kind of careful lettering which we
find instanced in a caption to a drawing, one line
of words to designate a subject. What constitutes an
appropriate letter for this purpose, and how is it best to
treat it? Titles of course involve, in a measure, design.
We will not speak now, however, of the designed letter
found so commonly in advertisements, where the best
lettering is to be seen to-day, but simply of those points
of design which involve the choice of some very simple
letters treated in an invariable way. There is a system
which can be followed and which will insure intelligent
treatment and appropriateness to the purpose intended.
Such a title we find, for example, across the top of
working drawings or that of the U. S. Geological Survey
maps so familiar to every one.
In designing a title, a student must keep in mind the
fundamental requisites of appropriateness. The ten-
dency in beginning always seems to be to make lettering
too prominent. Just what size and character of letter
to use is governed by the requirement that it should
54
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES. 55
keep its place, and that place, is one generally of lesser
prominence than the drawing. The lettering should
not be striking, but legible and neat.
33. The Choice of Style and Size.
Assume the styles to be chosen from among the very
few well-known ones illustrated on Plates I to VII and
applied to working drawings or maps. To-day the
marked characteristic of good lettering is simplicity.
The day of ornamental lettering is past, if it ever
really existed outside the covers of the imported books
of alphabets, also that of the letter drawn in perspective
as if it stood out from the paper and the place where it
properly belongs. The design of the letters themselves
appears in slight modifications and in adjustments to
one another in their places in words. No more fitting
letter for a single-line title can be found than the Gothic
illustrated so abundantly on Plate VII, and it must be
conceded that it is also the simplest.
The choice of style will depend somewhat upon the
character of the drawing. The U. S. Geological Survey
calls for Roman and Gothic letters together with italics
exclusively; the working drawing of the engineering
establishment usually includes these together with the
other simple styles which are slight variations upon
them. The display or show drawing may have slightly
more ambitious treatment, although it is not usual to
do more than make the letters heavier. The architec-
tural drawing will display a letter which is the product
56 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
of a more artistic hand than the foregoing. The
architect likes to be free in his treatment, and not
infrequently gives expression to rather weird forms
entirely out of the conventional, but characteristic of
his profession, a letter such as we see on Plate XVII
It is not always sure to be legible, and this is its chiei
fault, but because it is rather traditional in the profession
it is accepted with less criticism than it probably would
receive elsewhere.
Titles are generally put wholly in capitals. For a little
more compact treatment large and small capitals are
sometimes used, the relative height of the latter being
greater than if small letters were used in their place. We
very much less frequently see titles composed of capitals
and small letters. For much matter in small space,
however, this arrangement is very efficient, for it can
be easily read, probably more easily than if capitals of
equal proportion and treatment were employed.
It is difficult to give any directions as to size of let-
ter, for the effect depends largely upon treatment. Per-
haps it is safe to say that the limit in height of the letters
on a working drawing can be taken as one -half of an
inch, this when a light body and narrow letter is used,
of the proportions, for example, of the letters in i,
Plate XI ; and the limit for weight of body, if a Gothic
or Roman letter, one-sixteenth of an inch, in the case of
.a short broad letter.
It is probable that one will fall by habit into making
letters of a generally similar proportion and even with
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES. 57
a tendency towards the same kind of spacing, so that
choice reduces to a question of what length the line
of lettering is going to be or of the amount of wording
to go into the line.
34. How to Lay Out the Line.
Sometimes the space for a title is fixed in length;
as an exercise for practice work it should be. An idea
of about what size letter will do for a given space can be
determined by sketching roughly on a piece of trial
paper without limiting lines.
Next, the balance of the line can be ascertained by
counting the letters, finding the approximate middle
of the line, possibly even the quarter and three-quarter
points. This is accomplished by counting both words
and spaces, also by the position of the largest letters,
M and W, and the smallest, the I, in the line, and allow-
ing for them.
After this the method of developing the line should
be entirely analogous to the development of a word, as
discussed in sec. 19. The gradual sketch development
is preeminently the safest and most expeditious. The
first, last, and middle letter may be lightly drawn, then
those in between, as was the word mechanism. The
spaces between words can always be used as equalizing;
factors, being expanded or contracted to suit the length
of the line.
In the first rough layout the single-stroke Gothic
may be used whatever is to be the character of the letter
58 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
when finished. After allowing for any extraneous dif-
ferences, as in the addition of spurs to a Roman letter,
the I needs to be allowed for; the weight of its body
decides the space required by this letter, which it does
not in the case of the other letters.
35. Degree of Finish to Give a Title.
Titles are frequently made more or less offhand, that
is, rapidly and directly in ink. To do this well without
careful preliminary penciling requires considerable prac-
tice. The single-stroke Gothic letter, of capitals through-
out, is frequently used in such cases ; it should not re-
quire more than a few minutes to put in a line of it. Of
course the treatment looks offhand and does not have
the appearance of the titles on the U. S. Geological
Survey maps, but for the requirements of general office
work it is adequate.
A title put in to look as if engraved or printed from
type requires exquisite care in its handling ; such can-
not have too careful preliminary penciling. The degree
of finish to impart will depend also upon the character of
the drawing to which a title is attached. Neat exact
drawings for photographic reproduction require a neat
exact letter; this should be treated with the careful
penciling mentioned, copied carefully also with a very
fine pen, possibly a crow-quill, rendering in a fine con-
tour, with attention mainly to the outer edges of the
strokes. This contour can afterwards be filled in with
a coarser pen or brush.
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES. 59
General working drawings, for office and shop use
alone, permit only of a very free treatment. Broad,
sweeping, and continuous strokes are in order ; if possible
the full weight of the stems of the letters ; if not, then
it is necessary to add to them while wet until the strength
is attained that is demanded by the letter. Touching
up of lines is generally impracticable.
36. The Design of Grouped Titles.
A grouped title is such a one as we see on Plates X
and XI, where a certain amount of information is sepa-
rated into lines, generally grouped in the lower right-
hand corner of a working drawing, occasionally in the
upper middle part. Maps, the drawings of architects,
and the working drawings for shop use contain these.
To make a neat-appearing group of the subject-matter
requires considerable taste and practice. The division
of the subject-matter into lines may not require much
discretion if the title is not extended; the title of the
sheet, the firm name, address, and connectives generally
compose the material, each naturally requiring a separate
line.
After arranging the lining of the title, be assured
that the best all-around effect is obtained by simplicity
of treatment. It may be remarked, in passing, that the
generality of titles upon working drawings ignore this
one fundamental principle of all design; the first effort
seems to be directed to choosing a different style of letter
for each line and obtaining prominence of certain fea-
60 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
tures by elaborateness of alphabet. A single style of
letter can be used in the make-up of a title, and it can
be diversified with sufficient difference in effect to suit
the most fastidious. The fewer styles used in any case
the neater will be the design.
37. Various Considerations to be Observed in Designing.
There are a number of things to be observed in the
designing of a title to completely fill its purpose, which
will now be taken up severally and discussed.
(a) Simplicity of contour shape. Notice examples of
good lettering to be met with daily in our advertising
matter; we can see that the groups possess simple
shapes; tangents drawn to the extremities of the suc-
cessive and prominent lines enclose a simple geometrical
figure, rectangular, trapezoidal, or one of simple curves,
the figure sometimes actually lending a certain special
interest to the group. If, in grouping lines of letters,
they are spread apart and made more scattered, perhaps
by virtue of marked differences in lengths of line, these
tangents will not enclose a simple but a rather complex
uninteresting figure, disturbing the unity of the subject.
Notice the shapes of the titles shown on Plates X and
XI. It is probably a good rule in sketching the
layout of such titles as these to design the title
without regard to the connectives, putting them in
afterwards and suiting their treatment to the room
at their disposal. The shape should be given by the
principal lines.
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES. 6 1
(6) Proper relative prominence of lines. The chief
feature in the title should be brought out with sufficient
prominence to catch the eye at a glance but it should not
be so large or prominent as to entirely dwarf everything
else. Other lines will also require more or less promi-
nence. Each line should take its place in the general
scheme, none attracting more attention than its due.
In a short title of a few lines it is not difficult to decide
upon the relative prominence of the parts. In more
extensive titles, two or more lines may seem to require
about equal prominence, yet, from considerations of
design, should not be treated exactly alike or, even if
treated alike, being of quite different length, would vary
in their prominence. Such points as these should be
appreciated.
(c) Matters affecting prominence of words. Change in
the prominence of a group of words making up a line
of lettering can be effected in a variety of ways and by
combinations of these ways; for example: change in
proportions of letters, particularly in the width; change
in the spacing of letters and words ; change in the weight
and treatment of the body of letters; change in the
alphabet style or by slight variations or ornamentations,
and lastly, italicizing. This, it may be observed, within
a group of lines of upright letters, will be more prominent
than the rest, even though of the same kind of alphabet,
and treated the same.
Some of these features of course affect the appearance
of the words in a line more than others ; just how much,
62 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
relatively, is a matter to be settled by experiment.
Any one of them applied to a very slight degree will
effect a noticeable change, because what is done to one
letter is repeated in many letters of the line, and in the
aggregate becomes noticeable. Therefore it can be
readily seen that if several of these expedients are used
together each must be dwarfed over what it would re-
quire to be if used alone. The tendency of a beginner in
designing groups of lines is to give altogether too much
prominence to important features, hence the reason for
giving this caution.
(d) Uniformity of treatment. The whole title should
receive equal finish in treatment. To draw one part
very carefully and to make another part offhand with
the intention of lessening its prominence is a mistake
in design. The title should be treated either all carefully
or all offhand. Again, if all capitals are used in the
prominent features, all capitals should prevail elsewhere,
with the exception that some one line alone may be thus
varied. In a title mainly of capitals, capitals and
small letters may be used appropriately for the un-
important connectives "of the," "by the," "manu-
factured by," etc., unless perchance they appear fre-
quently in the title separating almost every line from
its neighbors, when if used this treatment would appear
to be broken up.
38. Example of How to Lay Out and Execute the Design.
The method of laying out a group title should be the
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES. 63
same as that used for the line or for the word, but it is
here described again so that its slight variations may
be thoroughly understood.
Plate X shows the way to proceed in the development
of a design. Before deciding upon the style of alphabet
or alphabets to be used, separate the matter of the
title into lines, giving the connectives each a separate
line; this is not invariable, however, as title 3, line c
on Plate XI, shows, or the same subject in b of title 4.
The arrangement is shown in the first line of s of the
plate, together with an approximate estimate of the
center of each of the lines.
With some conception now of the general make-up,
ske ch with very brief suggestive treatment, the whole title
in single- stroke motive, as the group number 2 on the
first line of the plate shows. To allow perfect freedom,
this may be done without limiting lines, these attached
afterwards, and then the letters trimmed to fit them.
The limiting lines shown on the plate are an attempt
to suggest this kind of treatment.
After trimming up and balancing, as was described
for the single-line title, the effect is that of number 3.
Here the proportions of the letters and the spacing
have been determined quite accurately.
Now since so many things determine the effect of
the lines, it is well to experiment on the treatment to be
adopted for the several lines as shown in number 4. The
two halves of the title on a vertical division-line shown
in number 3 might be treated differently and afterwards
64 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
a choice made of the one which, upon being worked
up to a finish, promises the best. This may be done
in pencil, in which of course each of these stages de-
scribed is supposed to be treated.
Finally, the complete title is shown at number 5,
arrived at by the method described for the single-line
title.
The above is a comprehensive method of designing,
permitting the designer complete freedom in the de-
velopment of his motive. No designer can exactly for-
tell his result so that he can begin and draw each line
or, further still, each letter carefully from the beginning
until all are done.
39. A Title may be Variously Treated.
The beginner is advised to practice upon the possi-
bilities of variations in a title by sketching a number
of layouts roughly, to the degree of finish of number 4,
and using several forms of titles, then to pick out the
best one or several upon which to impart a careful
finish.
What may be done in the way of slightly varying the
treatment of a title is shown on Plate XI. In i and
2 the respective lines are of the same height, and the
proportions of the letters also are the same except in
line c. The difference in effect and of the prom-
inence of the lines is accomplished by weight of body
alone. Note what a slight difference is really made.
In 3 the whole scheme of the title is different. A
DESIGN OF LINES AND OF TITLES. 65
change in size of letters is also shown on the same line
in c, yet, because of the difference in significance of
the words, it is appropriate. It is true that "of" in
the line "City of Ithaca" in i and 2 is made small, but
in 3 the smaller letters of line c occupy more space
and they also begin the line.
Number 4 shows an arrangement and treatment
suited for the working drawing for shop use when the
minimum of time is allowed; it is such a form as
may be put in directly in ink after gaining experience
in lettering. The difference in prominence of lines, it
will be noted, is effected mainly by differences in heights
of letters ; the weight is that of the single stroke of the
pen.
Number 5 shows also an offhand treatment where
a more ornamental letter than the single-stroke Gothic
is desired. The title shows visibly the ear-marks of the
offhand treatment. Note that in the first four of these
the same style and treatment of letter is used, yet there
is no lack of variety; only two styles of letter are used
in 5, one all capitals and the other capitals and small
letters uniformly.
Other facsimile reproductions of titles are shown on
Plates XIII and XIV. These are discussed in detail in
sec. 43-
CHAPTER V.
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES
INCLUDING PHOTO-REPRODUCTION.
40. General Statement.
All drawings for technical purposes, such as survey
maps, working drawings, and the like, require to be
lettered to some extent, sometimes carefully with very
great finish, in other cases as rapidly as possible con-
sistent with legibility, directions and data even being
written occasionally when the draftsman is hurried in
his work. The different purposes for which drawings
are made control the character of the lettering, the
different professions having their own characteristics
in this as well as in that of the treatment of the drawing.
In the large drafting -rooms of manufacturing establish-
ments, a certain style of letter is apt to be demanded
on all drawings, and this is as much a part of the rules
as those controlling the general make-up, conventions,
etc. The following summary of general suggestions may
furnish a fitting introduction to a few of these branches.
41. Lettering on Maps.
The survey maps made by civil engineers, of which
those made by the U. S. Coast and Geological Surveys
66
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES. 67
stand as the best patterns, contain lettering which,
although plain, is yet finely executed and are examples
of about as careful lettering as are to be found any-
where. Plates XV and XVI, giving the requirements
and conventions of the U. S. Geological Survey, will
serve to show what kind of work this is. The handling
required is of the best and demands very careful pre-
liminary penciling. When maps, such as these, stand
as permanent records and are to be consulted and fol-
lowed by many people in their original form or repro-
duced in an engraving (particularly this latter) , the extra
time required to do careful work is compensated for.
Prof. Jacoby in his book on " Plain Lettering" (pages
66 and 67) gives some very useful directions with regard
to map-drawing, and we cannot do better than to quote
him:
"The position of the various names should be so
chosen as not to leave any doubt as to where each be-
longs. Names of places are preferably put immediately
to the right of the convention which designates its
location, or as near to this as the preceding rule and the
position of the names and conventions will permit with-
out the appearance of crowding. They are all arranged
in lines parallel to the lower border of the drawing."
"The names of divisions, like districts, townships,
counties, and states, should have the letters spaced to
make the names cover the larger portion of the division,
the lines being graceful sweeping curves extending in
the direction of the greatest length and placed approx-
68 FREE-H4ND LETTERING.
imately along the middle of the width. The names
of communications, like roads or canals, and those of
rivers or creeks are placed by their sides, the spaces
between letters and words being considerably increased,
the latter proportionally more than the former. If
space is equally available on both sides, the letters are
placed with their bases towards the convention. . . .
A very long stream or line of communication may have
its name repeated, if desirable, at different portions of
its length. In all cases the lettering should be arranged
so as to be read by the least possible change in the
position of the observer when the map lies squarely
before him. The spacing of letters when separated
more than four or five units will be sufficiently precise
if their distances, center to center, are the same."
42. Architect's Lettering.
The lettering usual on architectural drawings is of a
very free and sometimes artistic sort, is quite likely also
to be of the careless rapidly executed styles spoken of
before. Very little time is spent upon the lettering of
the working drawings ; Plate XVII shows a few examples
of the more common letter forms used on these drawings,
taken from the authorities whose names are printed
under each. A certain freedom and uniqueness is
noticeable ; the architect is largely an artist, and because
of this abhors the rigidity of the common type form
of letter; letters, for him, must mould themselves to
suit his fancy, spreading out, exceeding their limiting
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES. 69
lines and changing shape, the same freedom that is
allowed in the use of other decorative forms.
A favorite with architects is a letter on the order of
the old Roman, shown on the above-mentioned plate,
treated in outline with an open body, the serifs freer
and wider than in the classic form. Another letter
much used is that illustrated in V on Plate XXI.
The requisites for a good practical architectural letter
like those in common use may be described as extreme
lightness of body, legibility, and an artistic freedom in
shape and proportion.
It was just said that very little time is generally spent
upon the lettering on the working drawings. These
receive much less care than the assembled elevations,
but this does not negative the fact that it is experience
which begets rapidity. The apparently careless letter
is apt to be the result of considerable experience and
facility with the pen. The nature of the lettering used
on architectural drawings does not differ in other respects
from that in other lines. In the titles to the assembled
elevations we note a very frequent irregularity in shape,
the information not being built upon a central line of
symmetry, but staggered (see Plate XVIII). Another
form very popular to-day is to make the lettering con-
tinuous in lines of equal length, as also shown on Plate
XVIII.
43. Lettering on Working Drawings for Manufacturing.
The character of the lettering used on working draw-
70 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
ings has been already described in sees. 28 and 29.
It only remains to call attention to examples and to
give a few additional practical points.
Plate XII shows a drawing with the usual descriptive
lettering attached, consisting mainly of dimension figures.
Clean steady strokes in this are essential to clearness.
Letters and figures should not be made so small as to
run together and blurr. If a small figure is necessary,
use a broad one. Where cramped for space, it is better
to place the figures entirely outside of that space and
refer them to it by a free-hand line having an arrow-head
on the end, as instanced in several places on the plate.
Treatment should be uniform throughout in the
following way: the same alphabet, style, size, and
proportion of letters and figures should prevail if possible
and unless cramped for room in occasional places. All
capitals in one place and capitals and small letters in
another should not be used unless the intention is to
make a certain feature more prominent. Capitals and
small letters probably look the best for descriptive
matter, although this is a question of taste.
If the usual symbols of one dash for feet and two for
inches are used, they should be large enough to be under-
stood clearly, should be large also at one extremity,
tapering to a fine point at the other. Separate some-
what the figures standing for feet also from those for
inches to avoid confusion. It is quite common to
dispense with the symbol for feet, replacing it by "Ft."
to further avoid any misunderstanding of the figures.
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES. 1*
Two limiting lines should always be put in in pencil
where as much as a word or more is to be spelled out ;
it improves the appearance where there is lettering
scattered over a drawing; separating the words quite
well also helps the appearance.
Plates XIII and XIV, taken from original sources,
show some titles treated in an offhand manner, much
as the lettering on Plates VIII and IX, and are what are
to be met with frequently on working drawings. They
are not, however, necessarily recommended as good
examples to follow in design. They are more fully
discussed in sec. 57.
44. Lettering for Photo-reproduction.
There is a technique of lettering for photo-reproduc-
tion which deserves some attention. In the first place
the paper used should be very smooth so that the edges
of all strokes are clear; if possible choose a stiff paper
which is either clear white or bluish white ; the yellow
tinted papers do not give as good results. Tracing-cloth
can be used also when necessary. Erasures have to be
made very carefully whether on the paper or on the
cloth, in order to avoid irregular lines, but there is one
aid possible which cannot be used in general drawing,
namely, Chinese white for cutting out or trimming up.
The water-proof black ink is the best for, if Chinese white
is used to trim with, the black will not be drawn into it,
giving blurred edges. The penciling should be very
light and easily erased, because, if left on the drawing,
72 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
it is apt to be reproduced together with the ink-lines
and has to be routed out by the engraver.
Theoretically, the greater the reduction, the clearer
and sharper will be the result, but in practice this is not
realized. If there are very fine lines present, these, on
great reduction, will break and appear ragged; also, if
lines are very closely spaced, they are apt to run together ;
it has become the general custom of draftsmen, there-
fore, to work for a one-half reduction, meaning that the
result is to be one-half the width or the height of the
original. Occasionally drawings are made for a one-
third reduction, meaning that the result is to be two-
thirds of the length of the original. This is a matter
optional with draftsmen, however.
There are two general processes for reproducing line
drawings, the photo-lithographic and the zinc etching.
The former is an imprint made upon and printed directly
from stone. The latter is made by photographing the
subject upon a sensitized zinc plate and subjecting it
to the action of weak acid which eats away the zinc
where the lines are, forming the matrix for a copper
deposit, which last becomes the plate when further
prepared. The photo-lithographic process will, by its
directness, give a clearer, finer result, but it is only
suitable for a relatively small number of impressions,
whereas the zinc process can be made to reproduce
almost indefinitely.
Plate XIX is intended to illustrate some of the pecu-
liarities of reproduction by the zinc process. Two lines
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES. 73
of lettering are reduced to two different sizes. The
letters R and E in the right-hand corner, one from
each of the above lines, are reproduced the exact size
of the original, showing, among other things, what a
large reduction was made. Both were made with
water-proof ink and a brush without any careful pre-
liminary penciling. For certain kinds of reproduction
this is an excellent plan to follow, because much freedom
of handling on a large scale can be indulged in without
sacrifice in the result. Slight irregularities in lines on
a large scale are lessened by great reduction.
For general work, however, the example at the left
hand of the sheet shows the difficulties encountered.
Letters should not be drawn for a reduction which is to
be less than one thirty-second of an inch high, for they
are apt to blur in parts, nor should lines which are
parallel be spaced so as to reduce to less than one sixty-
fourth of an inch apart, for similar reasons.
Where there are marked differences in weight of lines
on a drawing it will be noticed that the reproduction
does not preserve the relative thicknesses ; the finer lines
will be relatively coarser than the original. In drawing
then, for reproduction the draftsman should calculate
the effect which his work will have when reduced; a
certain coarseness of treatment should be observed
consistent with the scale of the reduction ; fine lines
should be made coarser than if they are to be repro-
duced the original size. Only practice can be depended
upon to give knowledge of the complete requirements.
74 FREE HAND LETTERING.
The plate shows very clearly the effects of reduction
upon certain faults of handling. Filled-in corners is one
of them and unevenness of lines is another. The plate
also shows how directions for reduction are specified to
the engraver. It is best to give a specific size to which a
drawing is to be reduced, and this in inches, because
the engraver can then measure the same upon the
ground-glass plate of his camera. Otherwise he would
have to figure out the size to make his negative, and
this gives an opportunity for error.
If a drawing is reproduced, it is often found conve-
nient not to do any lettering, but in its stead to have the
letters stamped on, or letters which are already printed
cut out and pasted on in the proper places. It is a
great saving of time in some cases.
45. Lettering for Patent Office Drawing.
Drawings accompanying applications for patents in
the U. S. Patent Office require to be lettered with
reference letters, occasionally with brief descriptive
matter. The rules governing the making of the draw-
ings are in some respects quite strict. The following
quotation from the " Rules of Practice " revised Jan. 2,
1903, covers the matter of lettering:
"Letters and figures of reference must be carefully
formed. They should, if possible, measure at least
one-eighth of an inch in height, so that they may bear
reduction to one twenty-fourth of an inch; and they
may be much larger when there is sufficient room. They
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES. 75
must be so placed in the close and complex parts of the
drawing as not to interfere with a thorough comprehen-
sion of the same, and therefore should rarely cross or
mingle with the lines. When necessarily grouped around
a certain part, they should be placed at a little distance
where there is available space, and connected by short
broken lines with the parts to which they refer. They
must never appear upon shaded surfaces, and when it
is difficult to avoid this, a blank space must be left in
the shading where the letter occurs, so that it shall appear
perfectly distinct and separate from the work."
The large reduction of drawings to a size appropriate
for the pages of the "Gazette," i.e., to about 3" wide,
demands a very bold legible letter. The style which is
used by the U. S. Patent Office draftsmen when they
prepare drawings for inventors is the stump form shown
on Plate V, with capitals like 6 on Plate IX. The stand-
ard set by these is followed largely in outside practice.
A bold-face letter stands the reduction better than the
single-stroke Gothic, and some form of graded stroke
letter is therefore more appropriate than this.
46. Lettering for Advertising Purposes.
This form of lettering calls for discussion briefly, and
chiefly to emphasize the fact that good lettering is very
plain and simple. Plate XX is introduced to illustrate
this concretely. It was stated in sec. i that the best
examples of lettering to-day are to be found among
advertisements. It is here that the problem is pre-
7 6 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
sented very forcibly to make a strong impression
upon the reader by catching his attention quickly and
saying much in little space. Notice what very plain
letters are used in most of the examples on this plate, yet
on the other hand what freedom and scope is allowed
in them.
Illustrations A, C, and F contain some of the very
simplest, plainest letters, yet in A notice how the
slight variation from the Gothic imparts a new in-
terest to the letters. In C the style is very similar to
the offhand style shown on Plate VIII; its prominence
consists in the proportions of small letters to capitals
and in the compactness of the line. It was drawn to
show how a large amount of matter might be put in a
small space, yet by italicizing it its prominence, in the
midst of other very prominent lettering, will permit it
to hold its own thoroughly and tell its story without
interference. The A by its black ground and bold
white face is striking and is well adapted to mag-
azines, where it has to compete with other claimants
for attention. The letter used in B is based on the
antique Roman shown on Plate XXIII. The antique
Roman, together with such variations of which this is an
example, are favorites with designers to-day. In D
will be recognized an old form of letter belonging to the
much ornamented class we used to see, and in fact do
yet, in the imported books of alphabets. As shown
here it is modernized, however, and several forms of
ornamental adjuncts are suggested as appropriate to
LETTERING FOR VARIOUS TECHNICAL PURPOSES. 77
go with it. These last are of more use when the letters
are to be reproduced in color by lithography.
The design feature in the first four illustrations con-
sists chiefly in arranging the matter in the allowed space
with the maximum of effect. But this is in itself no
mean task, and likewise it is not a mean one to make
appropriately the slight variations from the standard
forms used, which alter quite noticeably the effect of
the several lines from what they would be if straight let-
ters were employed. The Gothic letters, probably first,
and the Roman next form largely the basis for advertis-
ing lettering. The interested reader is asked to notice
this in the examples which come under his attention
daily; the slight variations found do not hide the
type form. The illustrations E and F are introduced
to show how the advertising lettering may take upon
itself the characteristics of ornamentation. As a general
rule, ornamental lettering has a very limited use in ad-
vertising ; E shows about the length to which the fanci-
ful may be carried, even this to no considerable extent,
for it is not highly legible. It ought to be explained
here that the illustration was purposely placed across
the page so that the neighboring lettering through bold-
ness would not detract from its legibility and interest.
In F we have also ornamentation, but mainly of the
surroundings of the letters rather than of the letters
themselves. It shows a kind of unique "layout" and
suitable for lithographic and newspaper work, where we
see it illustrated very frequently. In these last two
78 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
illustrations it is evident that the artist and designer is
necessary in order to do the work in hand; in no class
of lettering is there, in all of its phases taken together,
so much freedom allowed the draftsman, in scheming out
his effects, as in advertising ; the fact that the bulk of it
is composed of very plain letters is a testimonial to their
value, and the student should realize that design, in
lettering at least, does not consist in ornamentation, but
rather in a nice fitting of means to ends, the end always
containing legibility as one of its chief requisites.
CHAPTER VI.
THE DESIGN OF LETTERING.
47. General Statement.
Some of our best brush artists do not consider it
beneath their dignity to occasionally design groups of
lettering; they would not do this if they did not con-
sider it as a worthy field for the expression of their
fancy, or that letter forms were so rigidly fixed that
they had but to scale them and their spaces. Artists
have a keen sense of values and are strongly opposed to
mechanical treatment. An inspection of some of their
first-class work will show how the fancy has scope both
in proportioning and spacing even when rather simple
letter forms are used.* The beauty of the work is at
once apparent in its ensemble, the nicety of relation
between the letters and space areas making a piece of
lettering as much a unit as a piece of floral design can be.
Artistic sense and the ability to design is something
which cannot be easily taught, it must come inspiration-
ally from within; the teaching which can be done does
not lead to conformity to rules or rigid limitations;
* See Frank Chateau Brown's " Letters and Lettering," for
examples.
79
8o
FREE-HAND LETTERING.
only suggestions can be given for the apt to apply,
adding their own originality and initiative. It is pro-
posed, therefore, to collect here a few hints in the matter
of designing letters which may, perhaps, not only be
helpful to those who intend to design, but an inspiration
to those who will be more mechanical and rigid in their
treatment, showing them how helpful is the attitude of
the artist and how much latitude is allowed the designer.
Nothing more than suggestions are possible.
48. Single-stroke Gothic may be Taken as the Basis for
All Design.
In designing lettering to fill a given space, it is abso-
lutely necessary, as a fundamental requisite, to treat the
space in some such comprehensive manner as was out-
lined in the beginning of the book for a word or a line
of words. The proper proportioning of wording to
space available, so that the space areas may be uniformly
or appropriately distributed, is the very first considera-
tion, and may be outlined somewhat irrespective of the
style of letter to be adopted; indeed the requirements
of ratio of letter area to space area may be the determin-
ing factor as to what style of letter should be used.
The space must be taken as a unit and, considered as a
whole, that layout or distribution made which com-
prehends the final result in each stroke. In lieu of a
more definite conception, single-stroke Gothic letters
may be used with which to lay out this basis of the
design. It is a very simple, easily made form, and a
THE DESIGN OF LETTERING. 8 1
number of tentative layouts can be made with it,
choosing the best from among the number for finishing.
The style or type of letter may next be chosen which
will best fill out the skeleton form of the Gothic. The
lettering in the space may be conveniently divided
into masses also and each mass treated separately, but,
generally speaking, the method of design must be com-
prehensive ; the designing cannot begin with a complete
finish at the top, proceeding little by little in the same
manner to the bottom, for, if so treated, the result will
inevitably lack unity.
49. The Preservation of Type Style.
In designing letters, that is, in originating forms or in
modifying the existing well-known types, uniformity in
the style must be observed as a prime requisite. Those
who have studied carefully the earlier pages of the
book will understand what type style means, but a
few additional explanatory words may be appropriate.
The Gothic letter has a body of uniform thickness ; any
change in the way of proportion, thickness of the uniform
body, and so on, is in order, but as soon as different
parts of the letter body are made of different weights,
there is a characteristic change in the letter which must
be accompanied by a corresponding change in all the
letters of the set used in the design. The Roman-
Gothic letter on Plate XXII may be pointed out ,as
coming under this class ; it has the characteristics of
both of these styles. Now, were spurs to be added to a
82 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
T or an L in the last-mentioned alphabet, it would be
necessary to add the serifs complete in all the letters,
else an incongruity in the lettering would be at once
apparent to even the uninitiated ; it would be as striking
an incongruity as dotting a capital I or mixing in small
letters where capitals prevail. An embellishment or
modification in the stem of any letter must therefore be
accompanied by a like change in all the letters of the
set ; similarly a swelled body letter like S or G, as in the
Roman, requires all the curved forms to vary in weight
alike. With these points upon the type style, the
student may be assisted in supplying the letters variously
missing in the alphabets shown throughout the plates.
Frank Chateau Brown, in his book before referred to,
presents the matter of type style very clearly when he
says: "An important consideration in the design of an
alphabet ... is that the letters should be systematic-
ally treated. . . . There is no reason why we should not
cross the breed in lettering, if thereby we can improve
the stock. An alphabet, however, should not look
hybrid. The artist is free to do what he can, but the
test of success is that his creation should look as if it
must be so, and could not have been otherwise. . . .
Each and every letter of an alphabet, also, is susceptible
to such modification in shape as may make it best suit
the space left for it by its neighbors." Again, in the
matter of design in general: "Why, it is asked, should
the artist trouble himself about a hand-drawn letter,
when he has ready to his use type, which is so much
THE DESIGN OF LETTERING. 83
truer and more perfect ? Truer, perhaps, it may be, in the
sense of being more mathematically exact, but it is not
necessarily as truly uniform in effect ; for the unyielding
letters of the type-founder come together as best they
may, and if they come awkwardly he can't help it.
The designer can, and indeed he should."
50. The Old Roman Letter.
As affording suggestions for the beginner in designing,
attention is called to a careful comparison of the Roman
letter as shown on Plate I and the Old Roman, so called,
on Plate XXIII. If the student has access to various
authorities for this letter, he will be able to note quite
considerable variety in them. This form is, as has been
already mentioned, a very common and popular one
to-day and is a good starting-point for the designer.
Notice wherein the two alphabets differ. In the transi-
tion from the one to the other there may be an infinite
variety in the forms. Notice, too, what a smooth and
graceful letter the Old Roman is as compared with the
present-day type-letter. Note the reasons for this:
serifs are large; there is a lack of rigidity in the forms,
that is, there is a wide variation relatively in the widths
of the letters ; the free swash-tails of letters like R and Q
are prolonged into graceful curves, overstepping the
rectangular boundaries of the letters; the upper and
lower parts of B, K, R, S are quite dissimilar in size,
breaking up symmetry while not entirely destroying it.
From this letter it is a very easy step to the freer form
84 FREE-H4ND LETTERING.
of line 2 on Plate XXL One does not find the Old
Roman small letters illustrated as often as the capitals,
partly because the small letters came into use later.
The lowest line of the plate gives examples of different
forms of letters of this alphabet which are to be met
with, and by an observance of type style one is able to
see how the various modifications apply to the other
letters of the alphabet.
The Old Roman may be either heavy-faced or light-
faced, that is, the ratio between the heavy and the light
strokes may vary between wide limits. Lines 4 and 5
on Plate XXI show how they appear when light.
51. The Effect of Changing Proportions and Spacing.
A very decided total change may be imparted to a
given piece of lettering through simply a change in the
proportions of letters, weight of body, and spacing,
while keeping the same style throughout. This is
exemplified even in the more rigid titles of Plate XI.
Any desired contrast can be obtained between the
several lines. Often in advertisements may be seen one
word only, or one word followed by a line of but few
words of plain style, strong and vigorous in their effect,
the relation of body to space areas in the first case,
and the contrast in the size and proportions of letters
in the second, being the chief design features. As to the
influence of these features relative to each other no
principles of value can be given; there are so many
variables and differing conditions that experiment
THE DESIGN OF LETTERING. 85
alone can determine the effect desired. It would afford
an interesting exercise for the student to design a few
groups, using the same material and varying it after
such a manner, experimenting upon the differences in
effect obtainable.
52. Other Considerations in Design.
In taking one of the familiar type forms to modify or
act as a basis for design of letters, the chief object is to
add interest to the letters and increase the prominence.
Embellishment or ornamentation will do this, but only
up to a certain point. If it is carried too far, the interest
is destroyed because the letters become less legible.
This does not mean that shapes of letters cannot be
varied through quite wide limits; it is safe to do this as
long as the characteristics of the letters are preserved.
Additions to the outsides of letters, in the way of
scrolls, ornaments, shade-lines, lines to suggest a solid
letter standing in space, should be sparingly used;
they are of doubtful value as designs, particularly the last.
Chief interest resides in a letter which has a pleasing
shape in itself without extraneous ornamentation.
Shade-lines, however, are probably more common than
any other form of finish; rightly used they do add a
certain easily obtained prominence; notice the letter a
of Masters of Plate XX. As an example of what a
slight variation of a fundamental type form may do
in the way of adding interest, note line 7 of Plate XXI.
This is a very slight variation from the Gothic letter
86 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
shown on Plate II. Also note line 3 of Plate VII as a
similar variation of Gothic.
Ornamentation may take the shape of extraneous
features just mentioned, varying the contour shapes
and directions of stems of letters, or of embellishing
the body of stems, within the contour. The last is a
form of ornamentation but little used in this country to-
day, and is to be sharply distinguished from that illus-
trated in imported books of alphabets. On Plate XX
in the word Actor we see an example of how modern
ornamentation runs when it is used. The ornament
has very little characteristic interest of its own, but only
as it lends a variety to the body of the letters; in- other
words, it does not partake of the floral or scroll form.
Could any addition in the way of ornamentation improve
the word "Power" in the first example on the plate?
The answer is likely to be that its force would be de-
stroyed if it were ornamented.
In choosing an ornamental letter for a design the
artist's taste in fitting the letter to its purpose is the
only safe rule. Ornamentation makes interest, but
at the sacrifice, generally, of force. Design letter-
ing, it is true, may in itself consist of ornament, that
is, the piece of work when done may consist of orna-
ment in which the letters can properly be subservient and
not necessarily very legible ; they need to be unravelled
like other intricacies of the design. The discussion of
this highly artistic class of lettering, however, is not
properly within the scope of this work.
THE DESIGN OF LETTERING. 87
Between the extremely plain advertising lettering
and the ornamental lettering just spoken of there are
infinite grades, and each should be suited to its require-
ments.
As to varying the contour shapes and directions of
stems of letters also, there is almost no limit except that
set by the requirements of legibility and the preserva-
tion of type style, and this is the field in which the be-
ginner is encouraged to practice at first in assaying
design. As examples of a few of the more conservative
variations of this character, note the alphabets shown on
Plates XVII and XXI; these will afford suggestions for
him. These variations, further, in addition to pre-
serving type style, cannot be concerned alone with the
single isolated letter, but should lend unity to the effect
of whatever is comprehended in the line ; simply pro-
longing the free ends of letters, for example, the H, N,
etc., at random, does not constitute design.
53. Open- and Closed-body Letters.
A form of letter often used, particularly by beginners,
is an open-body letter like 4 on Plate XVIII or as the
word Actor on Plate XX would be without the varia-
tion within its contour. There seems to exist an im-
pression that it is easy to make. As a form to use
in design it is very useful if properly applied, but it is a
mistake to think that it is easily drawn when done
well; it is one of the ^ difficult forms, because both sides
of the contour line have to be considered in the drawing.
88 FREE-H4ND LETTERING.
It is not by any means as strong in effect, unless
color be used, as a solid-body letter of equal weight
would be; therefore in using it among this latter class
due account has to be taken of this fact. But if time
in execution is ample, most excellent combinations
with black-faced letters can be made, and a group of
such lettering possesses more interest than one with
either used alone.
54. The Limitations of Letters.
Letter forms are not standard and fixed, but they
have, on the other hand, certain more or less well defined
limits, governed by usage and public demands, as much
as anything else, which it is well for the designer to keep
clearly in mind and respect if he wishes to be success-
ful in his results.
The preservation of type style and legibility are two
of these limits. A violation of these is equally as of-
fensive as bad handling. It requires some knowledge,
however, of letter forms in general to be thoroughly con-
versant with the conditions governing type style. Slight
violations of this may not be noticed by the uninitiated
and classified as such, but it is quite likely to give to
him a general impression of weakness in the design.
Letters have a certain character too, each its own.
In all the variations which may be indulged in this must
be preserved. Let us be specific. Take a Gothic A to
start with. We find the top cut off a little ; we also find
it still further squared off, as the A in the word Mas-
THE DESIGN OF LETTERING. 89
ters of Plate XX or No. 7 on Plate XXI ; but if the top is
broadened too far, relative to the spread of the legs, the
character of the letter is destroyed, it ceases to appear
to be an A. Again, take C ; the curve may be flattened
and the ends cut off shorter and shorter, as the C in
the word essence of Plate XX, but it is still a C,
whereas if the round form is kept but the ends of the
curves be allowed to overlap each other, the character
is gone, it ceases to be a legible C. Consider the case
of enlarging the serifs on a Roman letter, before alluded
to. Fig. 9 shows how the whole character of the letter
Rg.9
ALTER
ALTER
is changed by making the serifs tangent to the stems
further down their length. It is shown in two stages of
evolution. The lower line is no longer the Roman
letter. Certain considerations, such as these, govern all
letters, and they even extend their influence into the
realm of ornamental design lettering.
There are certain limits, too, beyond which letters
will be weakened, a certain strength of character gone.
Strong contrasts between sizes or weights of body in
groups of letters will tend to weaken some of them,
whereas, if used alone, they might not be weak. Stability
9 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
in the shape of individual letters, before spoken of, has
its limits, and if exceeded conduces to weakness in the
effect; for example, the cross-bar of the H may be
elevated to any reasonable extent above the center,
but the moment it is lowered it becomes \veakened.
Again, take the B, by making the lower lobe the
smaller, a weaker letter is sure to result; its one limit
then lies in the fact that the lower lobe must be equal
to or greater than the upper.
The limit set in varying the proportions of letters,
together with weight of body and that set in spacing,
has been before stated to be that of legibility. The
author remembers an old form of puzzle consisting of
words elongated in height to many times their width
and printed over each other at right angles. If one
inclines the printed matter so that it is foreshortened,
then it can be read. Letters should be readable without
inclining the page. Spacing can be reduced to the width
of a fine line provided the letters do not touch each
other and thus destroy legibility, the exception to be
noted of course in the case of ornamental and designed
letters such as those on Plate XVIII.
CHAPTER VII.
MECHANICAL AIDS TO LETTERING.
55. General Statement.
While the correct way to letter satisfactorily is un-
doubtedly free-hand, yet mechanical treatment may
be sometimes necessary, or the draftsman, not having
experience enough or skill in free-hand work, finds him-
self compelled to resort to mechanical treatment.
Quite a good deal of effort has been expended in
devising handy means of laying out letters mechanically.
They are fairly successful for the purpose, it must be
confessed. The construction of certain alphabets in
Prof. Jacoby's book can be very easily followed, although
he himself advocates rendering them free-hand. The
trouble with these various methods is that they fail
signally when letters are to be made quite small, as they
generally are in practical work.
Aids mechanically may take several forms. The
letters may be laid out with the rule and compass in
pencil, copied in ink, or they may be sketched free-hand
in pencil and copied mechanically, or, still further, the
letters may be stamped from rubber stamp or printing'
press and worked over with ink free-hand.
91
92 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
56. Practical Points about Executing a Ruled Letter.
A method of lettering by mechanical treatment but
with least dependence upon the instruments is to lay
out the work free-hand in pencil, inking it with the ruling-
pen and compass; it is very common practice among
mechanical draftsmen. In this class of ruled letter
too much care cannot be expended upon the pencil lay-
out ; the better the draftsman, therefore, the better the
letter even if ruled.
When letters are thus laid out in pencil some consistent
plan should be followed in copying them in ink, that is,
a plan which will insure correct interpretation of the
pencil-lines. This is more essential in the case of ruled
letters than it is for free-hand treatment, because when
ruling is in progress it is very difficult to interpret
the letter shapes and to correct through the handling
any defects in the forms; one very naturally depends
upon the straight-edge and ruling-pen to do the work
correctly. In the curved forms, the bane of the in-
experienced, extreme care in the centering of the com-
pass is in order; in work of any size it is probably safest
to lay out the center in the penciling with straight
lines crossing one another and a small free-hand circle
to mark the intersection so that it can easily be found.
It is perhaps best to copy a free-hand curve with located
centers, in this way, than it is to lay out the curves
entirely by mechanical methods in pencil, because the
former permits of slight adjustments.
The same advice can also here be given that was given
for free-hand treatment in the matter of building up
MECHANICAL AIDS TO LETTERING. 93
the Gothic letter of moderately heavy body by fine
contour lines, in preference to adding to the first stroke
until it acquires the proper weight. If a contour line
is used, there is chance before filling in, by whatever
method, to inspect the forms and correct before too
much careful work has to be rubbed out. In filling
in such forms, a brush or the writing-pen is probably
more expeditious than the ruling-pen; there is also in
the former less likelihood of blotting.
It is an open question whether any person with ordi-
nary capacity may not make of himself, with well-directed
and persistent effort, an acceptable free-hand letterer.
It is quite probable that many fail because of a hastily
formed impression that they cannot do it and from
that time on depend entirely upon some mechanical
treatment. Dependence upon such gradually spoils
whatever latent capacity may exist. It is to be strongly
urged upon the .timid to try to acquire a facility with
the pencil and pen free-hand. This may be accom-
plished, if time for separate practice is not available,
by cutting away gradually from dependence upon
mechanical aids ; keep the mind continually alive to the
proper development of the letter forms; gradually use
more and more free-hand treatment ; it will be surpris-
ing how this sort of facility will come with practice.
57. Drafting-room Practice in the Use of Stock Titles
Reproduced in Blue-prints, etc.
Since careful lettering takes time and time is money,
94 FREE-HAND LETTERING.
it has become customary in many manufacturing and
engineering establishments to use a stock form for the
lettering which is to appear repeatedly upon the draw-
ings, the main title for example. The title is printed
upon a piece of tracing-cloth to be inserted beneath
the drawing when a blue-print is made, or it is printed
in good black ink on the tracing-cloth by means of a
regular printing-press, or still again, what is more com-
mon, the tracing is stamped with the required lettering,
using a rubber stamp for the purpose. The draftsman
goes over this afterwards with the pen, copying the
stamped letters; it is a matter occupying but a few
moments' time, because the ink from the stamp guides
and absorbs up to its limits the India ink from the pen,
rendering careful contouring unnecessary. To illustrate
these forms of reproducing lettering Plates XIII and
XIV are introduced. The first one, on Plate XIV,
shows a title printed from the printing-press directly
upon the cloth. It contains so much matter that a
considerable amount of time would be consumed in
laying it all out free-hand. Number i on Plate XIII is
also one of this class. Number 2 on the same plate
shows a mechanically drawn letter throughout. As a
time-saver the stamping process is thoroughly successful.
58. Lettering Triangles.
It may be thought by some that this survey would
not be complete without some mention of the lettering
triangles in common use. These, also, properly come
MECHANICAL AIDS TO LETTERING. 95
under the head of mechanical aids. They can be ob-
tained at the stores, and consist of a combination of
angles suited to the various inclinations in any given
alphabet, the A, K, N, etc. They are regarded by
some as quite useful. Their range is limited, however,
being suitable only for certain proportions of letters
near the standard; letters of very different proportions
grow awkward in their form if made with them. En-
couragement should not be given to these aids; the
usual 30 and 60 and the 45 triangles will be found to
give better service, the unaided eye being depended
upon to scale inclinations.
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AMERICAN BRIDGE CO.,
EDGEMOOR PLANT.
A. B. Co. Contr. No. ...... ----------- .In Charge of._^
Made by.jL^T.^ ___________ ..... Date. /2.fJoo_ Rev,...
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SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE
OF THE
PUBLICATIONS
OF
JOHN WILEY & SONS,
NEW YORK.
LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED.
ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS.
Descriptive circulars sent on application. Books marked with an asterisk are sold
at net prices only, a double asterisk (**) books sold under the rules of the American
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3
Rrdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.) 1 2mo, i 25
Fletcher's Practical Instructions in Quantitative Assaying with the Blowpipe
i2mo, morocco, i 50
Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses I2mo, 2 oo
Fresenius's Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.) 8vo, 5 oo
Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Parti. Descriptive. (Wells. ) 8vo, 3 oo
System of Instruction in Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Cohn.)
2 Tols 8vo, 12 50
Fuertes's Water and Public Health i2mo, i 50
Furman's Manual of Practical Assaying 8vo, 3 oo
Oetman's Exercises in Physical Chemistry i2mo,
Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers i2mo, i 25
Grotenfelt's Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. ( Woll.) I2mo. 2 oo
Hammarsten's Text-book of Physiological Chemistry. (MandeL) 8vo, 400
Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan.) i2mo, i 50
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) iGmo, morocco, 2 50
Hinds's Inorganic Chemistry 8vo. 3 oo
Laboratory Manual for Students i2mo, 75
Holleman's Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. (Cooper.) 8vo, 2 50
Text-book of Organic Chemistry. (Walker and Mott.) 8vo, 2 50
Laboratory Ma mini of Organic Chemistry. (Walker.) iamo, i oo
Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo, 3 oo
Jackson's Directions for Laboratory Work in Physiological Chemistry. .8vo, i 25
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50
Ladd' Manual of Quantitative Chemical Analysis 12010, i oo
Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 oo
Lassar-Cohn's Practical Urinary Analysis. (Lorenz.) 12010, i oo
Application of Some General Reactions to Investigations in Organic
Chemistry. (Tingle.) i2mo, i oo
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
Control 8vo, 7 50
LSb's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) I2mo, i oo
Lodge's Notes on Assaying and Metallurgical Laboratory Experiments. . . .8vo, 3 oo
Lunge's Techno-chemical Analysis. (Cohn.) I2mo, i oo
Mandel's Handbook for Bio-chemical Laboratory I2mo, i 50
Martin's Laboratory Guide to Qualitative Analysis with the Blowpipe . . 12 mo, 60
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.)
3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 4 oo>
Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) I2mo, 125
Matthews's The Textile Fibres 8vo, 3 50-
Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.). . i2mo, i oo
Miller's Manual of Assaying I2mo, i oo
Milter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry I2mo, i 50
Morgan's Outline of Theory of Solution and its Results I2mo, i oo
Elements of Physical Chemistry i2tno, 2 oo
Hone's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories i6mo, morocco, i 50
Mulliken's General Method for the Identification of Pure Organic Compounds.
VoL L Large 8vo, 5 oo
O'Brine's Laboratory Guide in Chemical Analysis 8vo, t oo
O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 oo
Ostwald's Conversations on Chemistry. Part One. (Ramsey.) (In prrsf.)
* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo. paper, 50
Pictefs The Alkaloids and their Chemical Constitution. (Biddle.) 8vo, 5 oo
Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry. (Austen.) I2mo, i 50
Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo. 3 oo
Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer-
ence to Sanitary Water Analysis lamo, i 25
4
* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing 8vo, 25 oo
Richards and Woodman's Air .Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint . 8vo, 2 oo
Richards's Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science I2mo i oo
Cost of Food a Study in Dietaries lamo, i oo
* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, i 50
Ricketts and Russell's Skeleton Notes upon Inorganic Chemistry. (Part I.
Hon-metallic Elements.) 8vo, morocco, 75
Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying 8vo, 3 oo
Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 50
Disinfection and the Preservation of Food. 8vo, 4 oo
Riggs's Elementary Manual for the Chemical Laboratory 8vo, i 25
Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) izmo, i oo
Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions. 8vo, 2 oo
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo
Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry. (Orndorff.). . ..8vo, 2 50
Schiinpfs Text-book of Volumetric Analysis I2mo, 2 50
Essentials of Volumetric Analysis i2mo, i. 25
Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. . i6mo, morocco, 2 oo
Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, 2 50
* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, i 50
Descriptive General Chemistry 8vo, 3 oo
TreadwelTs Qualitative Analysis. (HalL) .. 8vo, 3 oo
Quantitative Analysis. (HalL) 8vo, 4 oo
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 oo
Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.) i2mo, i 50
* Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 o
Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks 8vo, 2 oo
Wassermann's Immune Sera: Haemolysins, Cytotoxins, and Precipitins. (Bol-
duan.) 1 2mo, i oo
Wells's Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis 8vo, r 50
Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering
Students I2mo, i 50
Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50
Wiechmann's Sugar Analysis Small 8vo. 2 50
Wilson's Cyanide Processes zarno, i 50
Chlorination Process izmo, i 50
Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic Pharmaceutical and Medical Chem-
istry i2mo, 2 oo
CIVIL ENGINEERING.
BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Baker's Engineers' Surveying Instruments 12010, 3 oo
BUby's Graphical Computing Table Paper 19* X 24* inches. 25
** Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal (Postage,
27 cents additional.) 8vo, net, 3 50
Coinstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers 8vo, 2 50
Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables 8vo, i oo
Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage xamo, i 50
Practical Farm Drainage iamo, i oo
FolwelTs Sewerage. (Designing and Maintenance.) 8vo, 3 oo
Freitag's Architectural Engineering. 2d Edition Rewritten 8vo 3 50
French and Ives's Stereotomy 8vo, 2 50
Goodhue's Municipal Improvements izmo, i 75
Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse 8vo, 3 50
Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50
Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy 8vo, 3 oo
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50
5
Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth I2mo, i 25
Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice 01 Surveying Small 8vo, 4 oo
Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods 8vo, oo
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory. ) i amo, oo
Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.) Biro. oo
Descriptive Geometry gvo, 50
Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo. 50
Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, oo
Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors i6mo, morocco, co
Nugenfs Plane Surveying 8vo 50
Ogden's Sewer Design lamo. oo
Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering 8vo half leather, 50
Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, oo
Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 50
Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry 8vo, 50
Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 50
Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses. Beams, and
Arches ^Svo, 2 oo
Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on ConcretePlain and Reinforced. (In press.)
Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 oo
Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 oo
Sheep, 6 50
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
tecture 8vo, 5 oo
Sheep, 5 50
Law of Contracts. 8vo, 3 oo
Warren's Stereotomy Problems in Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50
Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments.
i6mo, morocco, i 25
Wheeler's Elementary Course of Civil Engineering 8vo, 4 oo
Wilson's Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50
BRIDGES AND ROOFS.
Boiler's Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges. . 8vo, 2 oo
Thames River Bridge 4to, paper, 5 oo
Burr's Course on the Stresses in Bridges and Roof Trusses, Arched Ribs, and
Suspension Bridges 8vo, 350
Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. VoL II Small 4to, 10 oo
Foster's Treatise on Wooden Trestle Bridges 4to, 5 oo
Fowler's Coffer-dam Process for Piers : 8vo, 2 50
Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50
Greene's Roof Trusses 8vo, i 25
Bridge Trusses 8vo, 2 50
Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone 8vo, 2 50
Howe's Treatise on Arches 8vo, 4 oo
Design of Simple Roof-trusses in Wood and Steel 8vo, 2 oo
JohnsonT&Bryan, and Turneaure's Theory and Practice in the Designing of
Modern Framed Structures Small 4to, 10 oo
Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and Bridges:
Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses 8vo, 2 50
Part II. Graphic Statics 8vo, 2 50
Part 111 Bridge Design. 4th Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 2 50
Part IV. Higher Structures 8vo, 2 50
Morison's Memphis Bridge 4to, 10 oo
Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. . . i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Specifications for Steel Bridges lamo, i 25
Wood's Treatise on the Theory of the Construction of Bridges and Roofs. 8vo, 2 oo
Wright's Designing of Draw-spans:
Part I. Plate-girder Draws 8vo/ 2 50
Part II. Riveted-truss and Pin-connected Long-span Draws 8vo, 2 50
Two parts in one volume 8vo, 3 50
6
HYDRAULICS.
Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein Issuing from an
Orifice. (Trautwine.) 8vo, 2 oo
Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 5 oo
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo
Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Water in Open Channels paper, i 50
Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Flatter's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power zsmo, 3 oo
Folwell's Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 oo
Frizell's Water-power 8vo, 5 oo
Fuertes's Water and Public Health umo, i 50
Water-filtration Works I2mo, 2 50
Ganguillet and Kutter's General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in
Rivers and Other Channels. (Bering and Trautwine.) 8vo 4 oo
Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supply 8vo, 3 oo
Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water-works 8vo, 2 50
Herschel's 115 Experiments on the Carrying Capacity of Large, Riveted, Metal
Conduits 8vo, 2 oo
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand-
point.) 3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 4 oo
Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics, oth Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 5 oo
* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo
Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation, Water-power, and Domestic Water-
supply Large 8vo, 5 oo
** Thomas and Watt's Improvement of Riyers. (Post, 44 c. additional), 410, 6 oo
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 06
Wegmann's Design and Construction of Dams 4to, 5 oo
Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895 4to, 10 oo
Weisbach's Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo
Wilson's Manual of Irrigation Engineering Small 8vo. 4 oo
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo
Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50
Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo
MATERIALS OP ENGINEERING.
Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction 8vo, 5 oo
Roads and Pavements. 8vo, 5 oo
Black's United States Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 oo
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 So
Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edi-
tion, Rewritten 8vo, 7 50
Byrne's Highway Construction . 8vo, 5 oo
Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction.
i6mo, 3 oo
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo , 6 oo
Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. VoL I Small 4to, 7 50
Johnson's Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 6 oo
Fowler's Ordinary Foundations 8vo, 3 50
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50
Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50
Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henniag.) 2 vols. 8vo, 7 50
Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 5 oo
Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 oo
Strength of Materials i2mo, i oo
Metcalf's SteeL A Manual for Steel-users izmo, 2 oo
Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 5 oo
Richey's Handbook for Building Superintendents of Construction. (In press.)
Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France izmo, i 25
7
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo
Snow's Principal Species of Wood 8vo, 3 50
Spalding's Hydraulic Cement I2mo, 2 oo
Text-book on Roads and Pavements i2mo, 2 oo
Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced. (In
press.)
Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts 8vo, 8 oo
Part 1. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy 8vo, 2 oo
Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents 8vo, 2 50
Thurston's Text-book of the Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 co
Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo, 4 oo
Waddell's De Pontibus. (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.) . . i6mo, mor., 3 oo
Specifications for Steel Bridges .' I2mo, i 25
Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials, and an Appendix on
the Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 oo
Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics . 8vo, 3 oo
Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings : Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and
Steel 8vo, 4 oo
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Andrews's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers 3x5 inches, morocco, i 25
Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads 4to, 5 oo
Brooks's Handbook of Street Railroad Location i6mo, morocco, i 50
.Butts's Civil Engineer's Field-book i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Crandall's Transition Curve i6mo, morocco, i 50
Railway and Other Earthwork Tables 8vo, i 50
Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. i6mo, morocco, 5 oo
Dredge's History of the Pennsylvania Railroad: (1879) Paper, 5 on
* Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills, 4to, half mor., 25 oo
Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard, 25
Godwin's Railroad Engineers' Field-book and Explorers' Guide. . . . i6mo, mor., 2 50
Howard's Transition Curve Field-book i6mo, morocco, i 50
Hudson's Tables for Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and Em-
bankments 8vo, i oo
Molitor and Beard's Manual for Resident Engineers i6mo, i oo
Nagle's Field Manual for Railroad Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Searles's Field Engineering i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Railroad Spiral i6mo, morocco, i 50
Taylor's Prismoidal Formulae aad Earthwork 8vo, i 50
* Traurwine's Method ot Calculating the Cubic Contents of Excavations and
Embankments by the Aid of Diagrams 8vo, 2 oo
The Field Practice of Laying Out Circular Curves for Railroads.
I2mo, morocco, 2 50
Cross-section Sheet Paper, 25
Webb's Railroad Construction. 2d Edition, Rewritten i6mo, morocco, 5 oo
Wellington's Economic Theory of the Location of Railways Small 8vo, 5 oo
DRAWING.
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50
* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 oo
* " Abridged Ed 8vo, i 50
Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, i oo
Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical Engi-
neers Oblong 4to. 2 50
Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo
8
Hill's Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective 8vo. 2 oo
Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing 3vo, 2 50
Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. Kinematics*of Machinery . 8vo, i 50
Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo
MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 3 oo
Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo
Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 oo
Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50
Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting 8vo, i 50
Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 8vo, 3 50
Moyer's Descriptive Geometry. (In press.)
Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching 4to, $ oo
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. .8vo, 3 oo
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.) 8vo, 2 50
Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. . i2mo, i oo
Drafting Instruments and Operations I2mo, i 25
Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing i2mo, i 50
Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and
Shadow 1 21110, i oo
Plane Problems in Elementary Geometry I2mo, i 25
Primary Geometry 121110, 75
Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective 8vo, 3 50
General Problems of Shades and Shadows 8vo 3 oo
Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50
Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry 8vo, 2 50
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Hermann and
Klein.) 8vo, 5 oo
Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter Engraving i2mo, 2 oo
Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying 8vo, 3 50
Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective 8vo, 2 50
Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering 8vo, i oo
Woolf ' s Elementary Course in Descriptive Geometry Large 8vo, 3 oo
ELECTRICITY AND PHYSICS.
Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) Small 8vo, 3 oo
Anthony's Lecture-notes on the Theory of Electrical Measurements I2mo, i oo
Benjamin's History of Electricity 8vo, 3 oo
Voltaic Cell 8vo, 3 oo
Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis. (Boltwood.).'.8vo, 3 oo
Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph 8vo, 3 oo
Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . i6mo, morocco, 5 oo
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery). (Von
Ende.) I2mo, 2 50
Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.) .8vo, 4 oo
Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power. I2mo, 3 oo
Gilbert's De Magnete. (Mottelay.) 8vo, 2 50
Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained 1 2mo, i oo
Hering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo, 2 oo
Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests Large 8vo, 75
JLandauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle.) 8vo, 3 oo
Le Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgessjizmo 3 oo
Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) ismo. i oo
9
Lyons's Treatise on Electromagnetic Phenomena. Vote. I. and IL Svo, each, 600
* Michie. Elements of Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light 8vo, oo
Niaudet's Elementary Treatise on Electric Batteries. (Fishoack. ) tamo, 50
Rosenberg's Electrical Engineering. (Haldane Gee Kinzbrunner.) 8vo, 50
Ryan, Norris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. VoL L 8vo, 50
Thureton's Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 50
* Tillman's Elementary Lessons in Heat 8vo, 50
Tory and Pitcher's Manual of Laboratory Physics Small 8vo, oo
Ulke'.s Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo
LAW.
* Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50
Treatise on the Military Law ot United States 8vo, 700
Sheep, 7 50
Manual for Courts-martial i6mo, morocco, i 50
Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 oo
Sheep, 6 50
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi-
tecture 8vo, 5 oo
Sheep, 5 5<>
Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 oo
Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law i2mo, 2 50
MANUFACTURES.
Bernadou's Smokeless Powder Nitro-cellulose and Theory of the Cellulose
Molecule izrno, 2 50
Holland's Iron Founder 12010, 2 50
" The Iron Founder," Supplement. ismo, 2 50
Encyclopedia of Founding and Dictionary of Foundry Terms Used in the
Practice of Moulding I2mo, 3 oo
Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo
Effront's Enzymes and their Applications. (Prescott. ) 8vo 3 oo
Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i8mo, i oo
Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, i oo
Hopkins's Oil-chemists' Handbook 8vo, 3 oo
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
Control. (In preparation.)
Matthews's The Textile Fibres 8vo, 3 50
Metcalf's SteeL A Manual for Steel-users xamo. 2 oo
Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures And the Administration of Workshops,
Public and Private 8vo, 5 oo
Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 oo
Morse's Calculations used in Cane-sugar Factories. 1 6mo, morocco, i 50
Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing 8vo, 25 oo
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Press- working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo
Spalding's Hydraulic Cement izmo, 2 oo
Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists.. . i6mo morocco, 2 oo
Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced. (In
press.)
Thunton's Manual of Steam-boilers, their Designs, Construction and Opera-
tion 8vo, 5 oo
* Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo
West's American Foundry Practice xamo, 2 50
Moulder's Text-book i2mo, 2 50
10
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 oo
Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills 8vo, 2 50
Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. . .8vo, 4 oo
MATHEMATICS.
Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, i 50
* Bass's Elements of Differential Calculus izmo, 4 oo
Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry izmo, oo
Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations izmo, 50
Da vis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo, 50
* Dickson's College Algebra Large i2mo, 50
* Answers to Dickson's College Algebra 8vo, paper, 25
* Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations Large i2mo, 25
Halsted's Elements of Geometry 8vo, 75
Elementary Synthetic Geometry.
90
Rational Geometry I2mo,
* Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket size, .paper, 15
100 copies for 5 oo
* Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8 X 10 inches, 25
10 copies for 2 oo
Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus. . .Small 8vo, 3 oo
Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus. .Small 8vo, i 50
Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates izmo, i oo
Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations.
Small 8vo, 3 50
Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares. . I2mo, i 50
* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics 12010, 3 oo
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) izmo, 2 oo
* Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other
Tables 8vo, 3 oo
Trigonometry and Tables published separately Each, 2 oo
* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables 8vo, i oo
Maurer's Technical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo
Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics 8vo, 5 oo
Merriman's Method of Least Squares 8vo, 2 oo
Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus. Sm., 8vo, 3 oo
Differential and Integral Calculus, a vols. in one Small 8vo, 2 50
Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry 8vo, 2 oo
Trigonometry : Analytical, Plane, and Spherical izmo, i oo
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Bacon's Forge Practice izmo, i 50
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings I2mo, 2 50
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50
* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 3 oo
* " M " Abridged Ed 8vo. i 50
Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes izmo, 2 oo
Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 oo
Heating and Ventilating Buildings 8vo, 4 oo
Gary's Smoke Suppression in Plants using Bituminous CoaL (In prep-
aration.)
Clerk's Gas and Oil Engine Small 8vo, 4 oo
Coolidge's Manual of Drawing 8vo, paper, i oo
Coolidge and Freeman's Elements of General Drafting for Mechanical En-
gineers Oblong 4to, 2 50
11
Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing . .
Treatise on Belts and Pulleys. . .
Durley's Kinematics of Machines
Father's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.
Rope Driving.
Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers.
Hall's Car Lubrication.. . ,
amo i 50
2mo, i 50
.8vo, 4 oo
2 mo, 3 oo
2mo, 2 oo
2mo, i 25
amo, i oo
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors) i6mo, morocco, 2 50
Button's The Gas Engine 8vo. 5 oo
Jamison's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 50
Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, , i 50
Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo
Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket-book i6mo, morocco, 5 oo
Ken's Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo
Leonard's Machine Shops, Tools, and Methods. (In press.)
MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism Svo, 5 oo
Mechanical Drawing 4to, 4 oo
Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 59
Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) Svo, 3 50
Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels 8vo, 3 oo
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo. 2 oo
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design . . 8vo. 3 oo
Richards's Compressed Air i2mo, i 50
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Press-working of Metals - 8vo, 3 oo
Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill
Work 8vo, 3 oo
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics. I2mo, I oo
Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8?o, 7 50
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. Herrmann-
Klein.) 8vo, 5 oo
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann Klein.). .8vo. 5 oo
Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo. 3 oo
Wood's Turbines 8vo, 2 50
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo v 7 50
Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering. 6th Edition
Reset 8vo. 7 50
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo
Johnson's Materials of Construction Large 8vo, 6 oo
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50
Lanza'i Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50
Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.) 8vo., 7 50
Herri man's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials 8vo. 4 oo
Strength of Materials 12 mo i oo
Metcalf's Steel A Manual for Steel-users I2mo 2 oo
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish 8vo, 3 oo
Smith's Materials of Machines 12010, i oo
Ihurston's Materials of Engineering 3 vols , Svo. 8 oo
Part II. Iron and Steel Svo. 3 50
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents. Svo 2 50
Text-book of the Materials of Construction 8vo, 5 oo
12
Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials and an Appendix on
the Preservation of Timber 8vo, 2 oo
Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo
Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel.
8vo, 4 oo
STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Caraot's Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat. (Thurrton.) 120:0. 150
Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. . i6mo, mcr., 5 oo
Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers i8mo, i oo
Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo. 2 co
Hemm way's Indicator Practice and Steam-engine Economy izmo 2 oo
Button'* Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 5 oo
Heat and Heat-engines 8vo, 5 co
Kent's Steam-bo'ler Economy 8vo, 4 oo
Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo, i 50
MacCord's Slide-valves 8vo, 2 oo
Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4 to. 10 oo
Peabody's Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator 12 mo, i 50
Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam and Other Vapors 8vo, i oo
Thermodynamics of the Steam-engine and Other Heat-engines 8vo, 5 oo
Valve-gears for Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50
Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers 8vo, 4 oo
Pray' Twenty Years with the Indicator Large 8vo, 2 50
Pupln's Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors.
(Osterberg.) lamo, i 25
Reagan's Locomotives : Simple, Compound, and Electric ramo, 2 50
Rontgen's Principles of Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo
Sinclair's Locomotive Engine Running and Management iamo, 2 oo
Smart's Handbook of Engineering Laboratory Practice lamo, 2 50
Snow's Steam-boiler Practice 8 vo , 3 oo
Spangler's Valve-gears 8vo, 2 50
Notes on Thermodynamics I2mo, i oo
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 oo
Thurston's Handy Tables .8vo, i 50
Manual of the Steam-engine 2 vote. 8vo, 10 oo
Part I. History, Structuce, and Theory 8vo, 6 oo
Part IE. Design, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 6 oo
Handbook of Engine and Boiler Trials, and the Use of the Indicator and
the Prony Brake 8vo, 5 oo
Stationary Steam-engines 8vo, 2 50
Steam-boiler Explosions in Theory and in Practice I2mo, i 50
Manual of Steam-boilers, Their Designs, Construction, and Operation 8vo, 5 oo
Weisbach's Heat, Steam, and Steam-engines. (Du Bois.) 8vo, 5 oo
Whitham's Steam-engine Design 8vo, 5 oo
Wilson's Treatise on Steam-boilers. (Flather.) i6mo, 2 50
Wood's Thermodynamics Heat Motors, and Refrigerating Machines. . . . 8vo, 4 oo
MECHANICS AND MACHINERY.
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, 2 50
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures 8vo, 7 50
Chase's The Art of Pattern-making I2mo, 2 50
ChordaL Extracts from Letters I2mo, 2 oc
Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 oo
13
Church's Notes and Examples in Mechanics STO, 2 oo
Compton's First Lessons in Metal-working lamo, i 50
Compton and De Groodt's The Speed Lathe lamo. i 50
Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing iimo, i 50
Treatise on Belts and Pulleys iimo, i 50
Dana's Text-book of Elementary Mechanics for the Use of Colleges and
Schools izmo, i 50
Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making I2mo. 2 oo
Dredge's Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building of the World's
Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to half morocco, 5 oo
Du Bois's Elementary Principles of Mechanics:
VoL I. Kinematics 8vo 3 50
Vol II. Statics 8vo, 4 oo
Vol. m. Kinetics 8vo. 3 50
Mechanics of Engineering. Vol I Small 4to, 7 50
VoL IL Small 410, 10 oo
Durley's Kinematics of Machines 8vo, 4 oo
Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist i6mo, i oo
Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power lamo, 3 oo
Rope Driving ami , 2 oo
Goss's Locomotive Sparks 8vo, 2 oo
Hall's Car Lubrication i zmo , i oo
Holly's Art of Saw Filing i8mo, 75
* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics i2mo, 3 oo
Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Graphic and Algebraic Methods 8vo, 2 oo
Jones's Machine Design:
Part L Kinematics of Machinery 8vo, i 50
Part IL Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts 8vo, 3 oo
Kerr*s Power and Power Transmission 8vo, 2 oo
Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 5<>
Leonard s Machine Shops, Tools, and Methods. (7n prat.)
MacCord's Kinematics ; or, Practical Mechanism 8vo, 5 oo
Velocity Diagrams 8vo, i 50
Maurer's Technical Mechanics. 8vo, 4 oo
Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Material* 8vo, 4 oo
* Michie's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 oo
Reagan's Locomotives: Simple, Compound, and Electric tamo, 2 50
Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 2 oo
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design . . 8vo , 3 oo
Richards's Compressed Air I2mo, i 50
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Ryan, Horris, and Hoxie's Electrical Machinery. Vol.1 8vo, 2 50
Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism 8vo, 3 oo
Sinclair's Locomotive-engine Running and Management i2mo, 2 oo
Smith's Press-working of Metals 8vo, 3 oo
Materials of Machines xamo, i oo
Spangler, Greene, and Marshall's Elements of Steam-engineering 8vo, 3 oo
Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill
Work 8vo, 3 oo
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics . 1 2mo, i oo
Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing 8vo, 7 50
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann
Klein.) 8vo, 5 oo
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann Klein.). 8vo, 5 oo
Wood's Elements of Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 3 oo
Principles of Elementary Mechanics 12010, i 23
Turbines 8vo, 2 50
The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 < 4to, i oo
14
METALLURGY.
Egleston's Metallurgy of Silver, Gold, and Mercury:
VoL I. Silver 8vo, 7 50
VoL II. Gold and Mercury 8vo, 7 50
** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage 9 cents additional.) xsmo, 2 50
Keep's Cast Iron 8vo, 2 50
Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, i 50
Lc Chatelier's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgess.) . 12010, 3 oo
Metcalf' s SteeL A Manual for Steel-users i2mo, 2 oo
Smith's Materials of Machines I2mo, i oo
Thurston's Materials Of Engineering. In Three Parts 8vo, 8 oo
Part II. Iron and Steel 8vo, 3 50
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents 8vo, 2 50
Hike's Modern Electrolytic Copper Refining 8vo, 3 oo
MINERALOGY.
Barringer's Description of Minerals of Commercial Value. Oblong, morocco, 2 50
Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo. 3 oo
Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 oo
Brush's Manual of Determinative Mineralogy. (Penfield.) 8vo, 4 oo
Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, paper, i oo
Cloth, i 25
Dictionary of the Names of Minerals 8vo, 3 50
Dana's System of Mineralogy. Large 8vo, half leather, 12 50
First Appendix to Dana's New "System of Mineralogy." Large 8 vo, i oo
Text-book of Mineralogy 8vo, 4 oo
Minerals and How to Study Them lamo, i 50
Catalogue of American Localities of Minerals Large 8vo, i oo
Manual of Mineralogy and Petrography i2mo, 2 oo
Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects I2mo, i oo
Eakle'a Mineral Table* 8vo. i 25
Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 2 50
Hussak's The Determination of Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.) -Small 8vo, 2 oo
Merrill's Non-metallic Minerals: Their Occurrence and Uses. 8vo, 4 oo
* Penfield's Notes on Determinative Mineralogy and Record of Mineral Tests.
8vo, paper, o 50
Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making Minerals.
(Iddings.) 8vo, 5 oo
* Tillman's Text-book of Important Minerals and Docks 8vo, 2 oo
Williams's Manual of Lithology 8vo, 3 oo
MINING.
Beard's Ventilation of Mines 12010, 2 50
Boyd's Resources of Southwest Virginia 8vo, 3 oo
Map of Southwest Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 oo
Douglas's Untechnical Addresses on Technical Subjects I2mo, i oo
* Drinker's Tunneling, Explosive Compounds, and Rock Drills.
4to, half morocco, 25 oo
Eissler's Modern High Explosives 8vo, 4 oo
Fowler's Sewage Works Analyses i2mo, 2 oo
Goodyear's Coal-mines of the Western Coast of the United States I2mo, 2 50
I hiseng's Manual of Mining 8vo, 4 oo
** Iles's Lead-smelting. (Postage gc. additional.) xarno, 2 50
Kunhardt's Practice of Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, i 50
O'Driscoll's Notes on the Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 2 oo
* Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 4 oo
Wilson's Cyanide Processes xamo, i 50
Chlorination Process lamo, I 50
15
Wilson's Hydraulic and Placer Mining lamo, a oo
Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation I2mo, i 25
SANITARY SCIENCE.
Folwell's Sewerage. (Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.) 8vo, 3 oo
Water-supply Engineering 8vo, 4 oo
Fuertes's Water and Public Health I2mo, i 50
Water-filtration Works I2mo, 2 50
Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection. , i6mo, i oo
Goodrich's Economical Disposal of Town's Refuse Demy 8vo, 3 50
Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies 8vo, 3 co
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
ControL 8vo, 7 50
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Stand-
point.) 3d Edition, Rewritten 8vo, 4 oo
Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.) i2mo, i 25
Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 2 oo
Ogden's Sewer Design i2mo, 2 oo
Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference
to Sanitary Water Analysis i2mo, i 25
* Price's Handbook on Sanitation 1 2010, i 50
Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries I2mo, i oo
Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science i2mo, i oo
Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand-
point 8vo, 2 oo
* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer 8vo, i 50
Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage 8vo, 3 50
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 oo
Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, i oo
Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50
Woodhull's Notes and Military Hygiene i6mo, i 50
MISCELLANEOUS.
Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the
International Congress of Geologists Large 8vo, i 50
Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds 8vo, 4 oo
Haines's American Railway Management I2mo 2 50
Mott's Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. Mounted chart, i 25
Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound i6mo, i oo
Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. Small 8vo, 3 oo
Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis. (Bolduan.) I2mo, i oo
Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament Large 8vo, 2 oo
Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 50
Totten's Important Question in Metrology 8vo, 2 50
The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 4to, i oc
Von Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis. (Bolduan.) i2mo, i oo
Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance,
and Suggestions for Hospital Architecture, with Plans for a Small
Hospital I2mo, i 25
HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS.
Greem's Grammar of the Hebrew Language 8vo, 3 oo
Elementar.y Hebrew Grammar I2mo. i 25
Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, 2 oo
Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures.
(Tregelles.) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 oo
Letteriste Hebrew Bible 8vo, 2 25
16
THE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Santa Barbara
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW.
